1. A Short History of Indian Materialism Sensatinalism & Hendonusm Dakshina Ranjan Shastri

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A Short History of indian Materialism, Sensationalism and Hedonism

BY DR. DAKSHINARANJAN SHASTRI

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PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

Oriental scholars are unanimous that the works on Materialism and Sensationalism i their relation to the Hindu system of Philosophy are very raie, and that this dearth of literature stands m the way of properly understanding Ilindu thoughts and ideas in regard to these subjects both mn this country and in the West. In the following pages I. have attempted to present before the public a bird's eye view of the origin and development of Materialism and Sensationalısm in India. I have been urged to make this humble effort not by the belief that my contributions to the knowledge on these subjects are likely to be of any considerable value, but by the hope that insignificant as they are they will seive to attract to the subject the attention of worthier scholars and call forth their energies This short treatise has been designed to prepare the ground for a systematic study of Indian Materialısm and I have spared no pains to make it as such. My labours will be amply rewarded if on the perusal of my humble work one single reader feels himself interested in the study of Indian Materialısm, Sensationalism and Hedonism I have much pleasure in acknowledging here my ındebtedness to Mahāmohopādhyāya Dr. Haraprasad Shastri, M.A., D.Litt., CIE, Mahāmohopādhyāya Dr. Bhāgabat Kumar Shastri, M.A., Ph.D., and Principal Gopinath Kavirāj, M.A., whose very interesting articles

iv

throw many new lights on the subject. I also express my gratitude to Dr. Mahendra Nath Sarkar, M.A., Ph.D., whose class room lectures on Psychology were of help to me. No less is my debt of gratitude to Professor Shyama Charan Mukherjee, M.A., and Srijut Ramsankar Dutt for their valuable help in seeing the book through the press. My thanks are also due to Srijut Upendra Kumar Bose, Librarian, Sanskrit College, and his assistant, who gave me every possible help I needed and to the authorities of the Book Company, Calcutta, for the interest they have taken in the publication of this little book. I take this opportunity to express my heart felt thanks to Dr. Adıtya Nath Mukherjee, M.A., P.R.S., Ph.D., I.E.S, Dars'ana- sagar, Principal Sanskrit College who induced me to take up this task, gave me many valuable suggestions.

SANSKRIT COLLEGE, The 31st March, 1930. DAKSHINARANJAN SHASTRI.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

It is well known to students of Indian philosophy that the ongmnal sūtra works of the materialists, sceptics and agnostics of India are now lost to us. To be compelled to rely exclusively for a certain doctrine or way of thought on its presentation by its avowed opponents are seldom found free from pre- judices and personal predilections. Pūrvapaksas or the opponent's views are almost invariably presented mn an madequate and unsympathetic manner, so that no sound judgment as their proper philosophical worth can be easily formed. If one notes how the doctrines of the Sarvastivadmn Buddhists, the Pas'upatas, and the Pañaratras have suffered at the hands of S'ankaracarya, it would be clear that the study of a certain system fiom its presentation by its opponents has to be undertaken with a proper appreciation of these difficulties. An attempt has been made here to collect from different sources fragments of actual statements by the founders and propounders of different schools of the materialists, sceptics and agno- stics of India]. [Kusumā ñjalı, Nyayamañjarı, Advaita-brahmasıddhı, Vivarana-prameya-san graha, and numerous other works by orthodox writers, Hindu and Jain, Sanskrit and Prakrit works, and Buddhist Palı works, all contam a good deal of useful information on these schools. But these are only fragments of the origmnal works of these schools now irrevocably lost to us. The purvapaksas or views of opponents,

V1

in which form they appear mn subsequent literature, have been studied in the light of and interpreted consistently in the spirit of, the fragmentary texts yet preserved of the earliest exponents of the systems. It is pointed out in this connection that the Oriental Institute of Baroda has published in the year 1940 "Tattvopaplavasimha" of Jayarası Bhațța which is an interesting work of the Lokayata school of philosophy. Attempts have been made in the present edition to utilise Jayaras'ı's work. The first edition of this short history published in 1930 has completely been exhaust- ed long ago Since then the book was almost lost to the interested readers who insisted on its re-publication from time to time. Inspite of the fact that I also felt some sort of responsibility to bring out its second edition, I failed to do so earlier due to my indisposition of health and other unavoidable short-comings. At length, the publication saw the light of the day being embodied with the results of my further study on the subject, the credit of which goes direct to my affectionate Sriman Banı- kantha Chakravarty B.Se., C.A. and to the authorities of the Bookland Private Ltd But for their juvenle enthusiasm the matter would have been delayed for unlimited time.

Calcutta, D. R. S.

The 31st March, 1957.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Dacca University Bulletin, No I Saraswatı Bhaban Studies, Vol II & III Tattva Sangiaha Gækwad Series Saddars'ana Samuchchaya Sarvadas'ana Sangraha The positive sciences of the Ancient Hmndus Nyayamanjail of Jayanta Chaitanya and his age Sammatı Taıkapıakaraļa History of Matenahsm-Lange An outhne of Philosophy-Russels Modern Matenalsm-Willam Dougall Maťerialısm Has it been Exploded > The Pangab Sansknt Series I Six Systems of Indian Plilosophy-Max Vıdwanmodatarangını Kusumânjalı Advaitabrahmasıddhı The vivaia napiameyasangıaha The Commentaly on Br hatsamhita-Bhottotpala. The Ramayana The Mahabharata Naishadhacharitam Prameyakamalamārtanda Buddhachantam by Asvaghosha Probodha Chandrodaya Natakam Angutharanıkâya Asvalāyana Sutta Mılmndapanha Indian Philosophy-Rādhākrıshnan The Epics-Hopkıns. Sarvamatasangraha The Problems of Hindu Philosophhy.

vizi

Pre-Buddhstic Philosophy Sarvasiddhantasangrah The Purva Mimamsa System The Vishnu Pura am The Pandma Pura n am Arthas'astia of Koutılya L de la Vallee Poussmn-Matenalism (Indian) A Sketch of Indian Matenalism-Tucci Nanapi abandha Fellowship Lectures-Mahamohopadhyaya Chandrakanta Taıka-lankai and Mahamohopadhyaya Durgacharan Sankhya Vedantatırtha Spread of Buddhism The Rigveda Charvaka Shashti, etc

Bharatıya Nastık Dars'aner Itibritta (Bangadars'an, Nava Paryaya Baishakh 1316) Tattvopaplava Sımha.

A Short History of Indian

Materialism, Sensationalism

and Hedonism

INTRODUCTION

Indian materialısm has passed through four logical stages of development In its first stage it was a mere tendency of opposi- tion. It called in question all kinds of knowledge, immediate as well as mediate and all evidence perception as well as inference. It demied the authority of even the Vedas. In that period, its name was Barhaspatya. In its second stage, Svabhavavāda, recognition of perception as a source of knowledge and the theory of the identification of body with the self, were incorporated into it. In that stage, it took the form of a system of philo- sophy. However low its position may be, in the rank of philosophical systems, it can by no means be denied that, at that remote period of Indian history, it was the only system of philosophy, worthy of its name. In that period flourished famous materialists like Ajita Kes'a- kambalin, Kambalās'vatara and Purāņa Kās'- yapa. In that stage it came to be known as Lokayata. In its third stage, an extreme form of ihedonism, which was due, perhaps, to the

4 INDIAN MALERIALISM.

corruption of freedom of thought-social, reli- gious and political, formed the most important feature of this school. Gross sensual pleasure superseded bliss or contemplative joy and licen- tiousness replaced liberty. Devils occupied the seats of angels. As a consequence of this impact of corruption and misunderstanding, charvakism originated. In that stage this school preached-'Eat, drink and be merry, for, to-morrow we may die.' The reaction to this extreme form of licentiousness was destructive to the very vitality of this school. Fiom that time this extreme form of materialistic school leaned towards spiritualism So long it had maintained that the body was the self In that period, being severely attacked by the spiritualists, it gave up the theory that there was no self apart from the body and tried, gradually, to identify the sense organs, breath, and the organ of thought with the self. Before that the materialists had affirmed that inference was not a means of knowledge. But in this stage they accepted at first Probabilty and then even Infeience, though in a restricted form, as a source of true knowledge Philo- sophers, like Purandara, were the advocates of this form of Indian materialism. In its fourth stage, it came to be at one with the Buddhists and the Jains in opposing the Vedicists and got the common designation Nastika. A Nastika is one who condemns the Vedas- Nāstiko Veda-nindakah. The texts, added in the appendix with evidences of their

INDIAN MATERIALISM

genuineness, record some of the views of these different stages in a blended form. As the literature of this school is now entirely lost, except what has reached us in fragments, we are quite unable to give here, verbatim, all the origmal Sutras of this school which represent its various aspects and phases. But there are passages both in Sutra and sloka form which embody in substance these different stages of the Lokayata school We can have a complete systematic work of the materialists of India if we gather them together in a sympathetic manner

Tiadition ascribes to Brhaspati the first treatise of this school and there is no reason for ejecting this view It is evident from the Sutras extant and quoted under Brhaspati's name that he was not a mythical figure He was an historcal personage But it is very difficult to ascertain who this Brhaspati was. It is probable that the conception of tls school first dawned on Bthaspati, the preceptor ol the gods, who is regarded by scholars hke Professor Belvalkar as the fist founder of this Barhas- patya system If we be authorised to give the credit of founding this system to more men than one then we should like to mention the names of Ajıta Kes'akambalın, Charvaka and Purandara as the second, third and fourth founders respectively of the Lokāyata, Chār- vaka and Nastıka systems. We know from the Mahābhāsya of Patanjalı that Bhaguri was one of the expounders of the Lokāyata dogmas. Not a single Sutra attributed to Bhaguri of the

INDIAN MAIERIALISM

Lokāyata school having been recovered we can- not give him any position in these stages of development of Indian Materialism and Sensa- tionalısm. We shall deal, now, in the following pages, with these four distinet steps of evolu- tion of Indian Materialism more elaborately.

EVOLUTION OF MATERIALISM AND SENSATIONALISM IN INDIA

In ancient India, the necessares of life being abundantly provided for by nature, the struggle for existence was not very keen. The people's tastes were not nice. In order to escape from the heat of the tropical sun, they took up their abode in the shady groves or in the caves of mountain valleys. Their peace of mind was not disturbed by political strife. In the absence of the art of writing the people were a stranger to literary ambition, nor were their energies called forth by art or science. There was no hterature except what could be ietained in memoiy The metaphysical and religious problems formed almost the only subjects of speculation. They meditated on how and why the world was in which they lived. What were they Whence came they Whither went they ? What had they to do They made an endeavour to answer these questions in their own way, and thus laid the foundation of philosophical enquiries in India .. These queries are recorded in the Vedas, the oldest literature of mankind still extant. These earliest attempts cannot properly be called philosophical systems, rigidly consistent and calmly reasoned. They are mere tenden- cies scattered and unsystematic like landmarks in an ocean. After a long course of develop- ment, from the first hesitating and imperfect stage of tendencies, they became perfect. Amongst these re-arranged, systematic, consis- tent calmly reasoned, perfect systems of Indian

.6 INDIAN MAI RIALLM

phlosophy materialsm can be counted as very old. Some go so far as to count it as the oldest and adduce, among others, the following reasons in support of their opinion. It is a fact that all other schools, mn their respective systems, try to refute the truths established by this school, thus admitting its priority.It is also a fact that the word Dars'ana mn its primary sense means perception. In its secondary sense it means the S'astra which is as good an authority as perception. This emphasis on perception reminds us of the materalists and there are scholars who maintain that the word was first origmated by the followes of Brhaspati. It was from them that the word was borrowed by other schools. This fact induces them to establish the priority of this Dars'ana to all other Dars'anas. Scholars are, also, bold enough to declare that the materia- listic school is the only onginal school of philosophy All other schools were origmated, sımply, foi the sake of refuting and destroying this school whose teachings according to them were detrimental to the best mnterests of man- kind. Others, again, do not go so far. It may be, say they, as old as other schools of philo- sophy, but not older Materialism is preached nowhere as a doctrine of philosophy, except as a re-action against some perverted ideas or practices. The materialists of India, namely, Brhaspati and his followers, do not pretend to lay down a constructive system of philosophy of their own. They try to refute foolish orthodoxy of other schools. This, in their

INDIAN MATERIALISM 7

ropinion, proves that the system of Brhaspati cannot be the first system. It is rather the last. It raises objections against the views of all other systems and pre-supposes the exis- tence of all other schools, thereby

But all systems of philosophy are the growth of years, nay, of centuries. The systems which we possess of the different schools of philosophy, each distinct from the other, are rather the last summing up of what had been growing up among many generations of isolated thikers and cannot claim to represent the very fist attempts at a systematic treatment. A large mass of philosophical thought must have existed m India long before there was any attempt at dividing it into well defined departments of systematic philosophy o1 iedueig it to writing. But such a growth must have iequired a geat length of time. So it is probable that during that long period the views of one system were discussed in another. During that long period anything could be added and anything left out. Subsequently each system reached the form in which we possess it It is not improbable that the Lokayata school of philosophy, being developed as the first system of philosophy, raised objections agamst the views of other schools which were even then mere tendencies and which took shape as systems later on. Thus, although, as mere tendencies almost all philo- sophical thoughts are contemporaneous, as systems they belong to different ages. The school of Brhasnati is regarded as the weakest

8 INDIAN MATERIALISM

school of pluilosophy in comparison with other schools. The law of evolution or gradual development proves that the eailiest school is the weakest and the latest the strongest If the Materialistic school be the weakest, it is probable that it is the eailiest also The First Stage. Onginally, this school of Brhaspati meant Vitanda or casuistry and nothing else. In it Vitanda was essential With its impatience of Vıtaņdā. all authonty, it tred to icfute the views of other schools It was, in its ongmal stage, without any constructive element and without any positive theory to propound It was negative and destructive. The record of this period is kept by Jayaras'i Bhatta, author of Tattvopaplava, Sim ha. This negative aspect of this doctrine finds expression mn the Vedas themselves Fiom the earliest Vedie times, there were people who denied the existence of even the Vedie deities The Vedic hymns pointedly iefer to scoffers and unbelievers. Those hymns, which are traditionally ascnibed to Brhaspati, son of Loka, contai the first germs of protest agamst a mere verbal study of the Veda and emphatically declare that a man, who tries to understand the Veda, is far superior to a mere sacerdotal priest The Manduka hymn is a panegyue of frogs who are described as raising their voices together at the commencement of the ramns like Brahmin pupils repeating the lessons of their teachers and this celebrated hymn on frogs is a satire, says Professor Maxmuller, upon the Vedic priesthood, or better upon the system of hymn

INDIAN MAI RIALISM

chanting. Yaska clearly tells us that those who merely memorise the texts, without knowing the meaning, do not see the real form of the Veda and that such people are deluded, in as much as the way to attain the summum bonum is not revealed to them In various Brahmanas mere knowledge of a performance has been mentioned as havig the same effect as the performance itself. In the Chhandogya Upamsad it is stated that a performance accompaned by knowledge, produces a better result than a performance without knowledge. Jaimmni, in hıs Pūrva mīmānsa system, recording this opposition devotes an entire chapter to drawing the conclusion that study consists not only in learning by heart the letter of the Veda but also in clearly understanding its spirit. Traces of an opposi- tion to the religion of the Vedas appear in the Vedas and in later works. In Aitareya Aranyaka we find-'Why should we repeat the Veda or offer this kind of sacrifice !' Later on the very authoritativeness of the Vedas was questioned by Kautsya Opposition was the only duty of the followers of Brhaspati and they did it from the very beginning of their career. They opposed the Vedas and the practice of repeating them without understand- ing their meaning. But all these represent only the opposing, destructive or negative aspect of the Barhaspatya system. And it is well-known that a system ceases to have any great interest and even value without a cons- tructive element, without a positive theory to

10 INDIAN MATERIALISM

propound So the doctrme of the followers of Brhaspati appeared to be mncomplete without any positive element in it It felt the necessity of a positive element Evervbody knows that necessity is the mother of mvention Barhas- patya in its very early stage found out the means of being complete So long under the Bārhas- designation Barhaspatva it admitted no autho- patya rity other than its own Now, mn its second stage, in explanation of the whv of an event or product it aceepted the doctrine of Svabhāva This doctrine of Svabhava main- tains that 'the effects are self existent and are produced neither by different things as causes nor hy themselves masmch as no cause can be found for the filament of the lotus or the eve- like maiks on the peacock's tail If it cannot be found it certamly does not exist Such is the case with this diversified universe Simi- larly, feelings like pleasure, pain, ete, have no causes, because they appear only at times'. This doctrme of Svabhava had been in vogue in independent forms In course of centuries this doctrme, like many other doctrines, lost its independence altogether and came to be affilia- ted to the Barhaspatya system The conse- quence of this gradual assimlation has been a "blending of thoughts. The followers of Brhas- pati became at one with, and the earliest representatives of, the extreme form of Svabhava vada. From this time, the rejection of causal priciple, the rejection of good and evil consequences of actions, formed its most important feature. The

INDIAN MATERIALISM 11

product comes into existence without any cause. This materialistic view was emphasised by Brhaspati in Vedic times 'In the first age of the gods the existent was born of the non- existent-Asatah Sadajāyata. The S'vetas'- vatara Upansad contams a nominal enuncia- tion of some of the most popular theories current in its times in explanation of the origin of the universe and Naturalism forms one of this number-Kalah Svabhāvo Nıyatırya- drchha, etc Up till then it was an indepen- dent doctrine and the Barhaspatyas were meiely the oppositionists Brhaspati, with a lofty enthusiasm, flung away the fetters of religion that he might be uighteous and noble. Some of the verses of the Vedic hymns ascribed to Brhaspati are very noble in thought. Whatever may be said of his followers, his own teachings were of an elevated character. Brhaspati had many followers and all of them were independent thinkers raising objections agamst the current superstitions. It is perhaps for his freedom of thought that he was regarded as the priest-the adviser,-the coun- sellor of India, the king of the gods.

But this state of things changed very soon. A re-action against the school of Brhaspati appeaied on the stage Perhaps the negative or destructive element of the doctrine was responsible for this reaction. The Vedic litera- ture, posterior to the Mantras is disfigured by filthy story and anecdotes in which the pious sages poured out vials of their wrath on the devoted heads of those early oppositionists,

12 INDIAN MATERIALISM

a.e., Brhaspati and his followers. The Tait- tiriva Brahmana relates an interesting anecdote which runs as follows. 'Once upon a time Brhaspati struck the goddess Gayatri on the head. The head smashed into pieces and the brain split. But Gayatri is immortal. She did not die. Every bit of her brain was alıve' Some scholars have found a very valuable truth behind this anecdote. They find an allegorical meaning here. Gāyatri is the symbol of Hinduism Brhaspati tried to destroy it by imntroducing opposition But Imduism is eternal It was not destroyed In Maitra- yana Upanisad we find another anecdote- Brhaspati having assumed the shape of S'ukra brings forth false knowledge for the safety of Indra and for the destruction of the Asuras By it the Asuras show that good is evil and evil is good ; and they say that this new law, which upsets the Vedas, should be studied. Here Brhaspati is pamted as a deceiver-a hypocrite. The Mahabharata records a story of this period relating how Brhaspati the sceptic had a long discussion with Manu, one of the founders of the sacrificial cult and was in the end converted to the latter's view point Another anecdote records-'The reason why I was born a jackal' says a character 's that I was a blamer of the Vedas, a reviler and' opposer of priests, an unbeliever and a doubter of all things'. In another place it records -- 'The ignorant and unbelieving man who has a soul of doubt is destroyed ; neither this world nor the next exists, nor happiness for him who.

INDIAN MATERIALISM 13

has a soul of doubt' In another place of the Mahabharata which records past events, an unbeliever is threatened with a sudden en- lightenment hereatter-'the devil m hell will soon change your ideas on that subject.' The worst, that is said of Brhaspati's teaching, is that it is dawn from a study of the female intellect which is full of subtilty and decert. The Visnupmana iecords-that a number of Daityas one day, mn ancient times, began to practise severe penances following the injunctions of the Vedas This caused great apprehension to Indra At his prayer Mayamoha was created who preached to the demons the pernicious doctrines of Briaspati not for their benefit but for their destruction. They having been gradually overpowered by that folly, became enemies to Brahmanas, gave up their duties and were averse to the study of the Vedas Then, as they had strayed from religious observances, Indra killed them. Almost similar is the account recorded in the Padmapurana All human institutions prosper through opposition As a ie-action against the opposition of Brhaspati and his followers, the Vedie schools were then more extensively engaged in popularising the Vedic creed of life by means of the most elaborate and thorough- going presentations and expositions of their Vedie doctrines. The result was the produc- tion of the six Vedangas, the Smritis, the Epics The and such other helping works. Never has Vedangas religion flourished with such luxuriance and in such wide variety, from the purest to the

14 INDIAN MAILRIALISM

most abommahle shapes, as mn this period of Indian cultural history. A dark shadow fell upon the oppositiomsts-the independent thinkers. All independent lme of thinking became for hundreds of years to come an impossibihty through the powerful mfluenee of various schools of the Vedicists

The Second Stage. The state of things turned, however, through the influence of Naturalism Opposed by the strong advocates of the orthodox

Naturalısm commumty the Lokayatıkas returned with the and affihation of naturalism or Svabhāvavāda Perception Neither of these two doetrmes Lokayata and Svabhāvavāda accepted the good or evil conse- quences of actions. The Lokāyata school, which was so long a mere tendency, with the ncorporation of naturalism, formed a philoso-

Lokāyata phical system Thus ongmated the first Dars'ana or the Lokayata Dargana Percep- tion was emphasised in the very name of this newly built-up system, ie , Dars'ana So long the Barhaspatyas did not admit any authouty whatsoever. Now, mn its new shape, the school accepted the authonty of perception Percep- tion became the only criterion of existence Whatever was not perceived was held to have no existence at all. The causal principle was rejected, because, sensuous perception is not an evidence in support of its existence. For mere perception of two events, which stand isolated and self-contamed, is not sufficient to establish between them a causal relation. 'To ascertain whether a given antecedent condition hes the

INDIAN MATERIALISM 15,

character of a true cause it is really neressary to find out with certainty the elements of mvanabilty and of relevancy involved in such a notion. But this ceititude can never be arrived at' The umversal piopositions can- not be established by our limited perceptions. Perception presupposes actual contact of the object with the perceiving organ and is thus necessarly confined to the present It is a case of here and now. It does not extend to the past or the future and is thus unable to estab- lish universal connection of things In other words, sense perception can give us only particulai truths But knowledge of particular facts cannot give us knowledge which is unversally true Therefore perception cannot give us universal relation Nor can unversal ielation be established by Interence alone For, the inference, which yields a universal relation as its conclusion, cannot woik unless it pre- supposes another universal connection as a necessary pre-condition of its possibility and that agamn another and so on In other words, the process of reaching a universal conclusion is always like aiguing in a cucle. Vyaptr 1s derived fiom Anumana and Anumana again fiom Vyapti Thus even mference in itself is not sufficient to produce a universal proposi- tion. Nor is the umversal relation supplied by testimony. For, testimony involves in- ference. Comparison is equally unable to, establish a universal relation. Comparison only establishes the relation of a name to some- thing that bears that name. Now, such

16 INDIAN MAIEKIALISM

relation of the name and of the named is a paiticular relation, whilst we are in seaich of an unconditional universal relation Thus, the universal relation, which is indispensable to all inference, is not given by any of the so- ealled sources of knowledge Therefore, uni- versal relation cannot, by any means, be established. As inference is not possible without universal connection and universal connection is unattamnable the Lokāyata as a system discarded, in its earlier stages, inference as a source of knowledge

It rejected ether as an element, because, ether cannot be known by perception and it maintamed that the four elements of carth, air, fire and water are the origmal principles of all things The four elements, mn their atomie condition,* when mixed together in a certain

• The theory that matler consists of "atoms", t e of little bits that cannot be drvided, is very old But in its old shape it was only a speculation The evidence for what is called the atomic theory was denved from chemistry, and the theory Itself, mn its nineteenth- century form, was mamnly due to Dalton mn Europe It was found that there were a number of 'elements' and that other substances were compounds of these elements Compound substances were found to be composed of molecules, each molecule being composed of 'atoms' of one substance combined with atoms of another or of the same A molecule of water consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen, they can be separated by electrolysis It was supposed, until radio-activity was discovered, that atoms were mndes- tructible and unchangeable Substances which were not compounds were called elements The discovery of radio-activity led to the conclusion that what had been called 'atoms' were really complex structures, which could change into atoms of a different sort by losing a part After various attempts at imagining the

INDIAN MATERIALISM 17

proportion and accordmg to a certam order, become transformed into an organism Consciousness is a function of the body. Evolution For the mamfestation of consciousness, body of consi- is an mdispensable factor. Consciousness does ousness not mhere m paiticles of matter When these particles come to he arranged mto a specific form, mn a manner not yet scientifically expli- cable, they are found to show signs of life. Life and consciousness are indentical. Our thinking power is destroyed with the dissolu- tion of the elements fiom whose combination it

stiucture of an atom, physicists were led to accept the view of Sn Einest Rutherford, which was further developed by Niels Bohi In this theory, all mattel 1s composed ot two sorts of units, clectrons and protons. All clections aie exactly alike, and all protons are Cacthy alike All piotons cary a certam amount of posit'e electnicty, and all electrons carry an equal amount of negatne ele.lncity Protons iepel each other and elections iepel each other, but an electron and a pioton altiact each other Every alom is a structure consisting of elections and Piotons The hydiogen atom, which is the simplest, consists of one pioton with one election going iound it as a planet goes iound the sun The eleclion may be lost, and the polon left alone , the atom is then positively electnfied The great meut of Boln's theory was that it explamed why elements have the Spectia they do have, which had, befoie, been a complete mystery According to this theory of atomic stiuclure 'an atom' with its clections is a svstem charactersed by certam integers all small, and all capable of changing mdependenily The newer theory has been put forward mn 1925, mamly by two German physicists, Heisenbeig and Schrodinger, owing to them, the last vestiges of the old sold atom have melted away, and matter has become as ghostly as any- thing mn a spiritualst seance Broadly speakmg, it descubes the atom by means of the radiations that come out of it This newer theory confines itself to what is empncally verifiable namely radiations , as to what there is wheie the radiations come from we cannot tell,

18 INDIAN MATERIALISM

is evolved. Consciousness is produced from the body which is endowed with life and vital alr Without sensation no consciousness is possible. When the body perishes no consci- ousness can remam It must perish also So there is nothing to tiansmigiate The body, consciousness and sense organs are momentary. Mind is merely the product of a combination of elements, just as, some acid eructations or wines are results of chemical combinations. The four elements when combmned produce or manifest the mind. There is no other ieality than the four Bhutas The instictive move- ments and expiessions of new-born babes are due to 'external stimuli as much as the opening and closing of the lotus and other flowers at difterent hours of the day or mght, or the movement of non under the influence of load stone In the same way the spontancous generation of living orgamsms is fiequently observed, e.g., the case of ammaleules which develop in moisture or mnfusions, especially under the influence of gentle warmth or of the maggots or other worms which in the ramny season by reason of the atmospheric moisture, are developed in the constituent particles of curds and the like, which begin to live and move in so short a time' It is an indisputable fact that sensations and perceptions can anse

and it is scientifically unnecessary to speculate The mampoint for the philosopher in the modern theory is the disappearance of matter as a "thing" It has been replaced by emanations from a locality-the soit of influences that characterise haunted rooms mn ghost. stories -R sell

INDIAN MATERIALISM 19

only in so far as they are conditioned by a bodily mechanism But, it would not be so were not the body the receptacle of conscious- ness The properties of particular prepara- tions of food and drink, conducive to the development of the intellectual powers, afford another proof in favour of the fact that consciousness is a function of the body. Pomts and evidences of corespondence between mind and body-correspondence between the Psy- chical and Nervous processes-and eorrespon- dence between mind and bramn, the seat of mind, ave not rare The most defimte aspects ot this correspondence are correspondence in quantity-the correspondence m change, corres- pondence m growth and development, corres- pondence in inhertance and correspondence mn qualty. When communication is cut off between the bram and any other part of the body owing to the nerves of that part bemg diffused, there is no longer any feeling or sensation connected with that part Psycholo- gieal experments prove measurable interval ot time between the application of stimulus and the corresponding sensation Prolonged thought and intense emotion produce the sensation of fatigue and exhaustion in the biam and if carried further produce pam and disorder Increase of mental work is accom- panied by an increase of brainwork. Intense mental activity is followed by a casting off of a kınd of brain substance known as phosphorus. Comparison of the brams of different creatures and different races of men and of different

20 INDIAN MATERIALISM

individuals shows that there is a connection between intelligence and the size, weight and complexity of the bram Geneially speaking the laiger the bram, mn relation to the rest of the body, the more the intelligence. So the The Lokayatas say that Mind is only a foim or ultimate realıty product of the body. The ultimate reahty is

in matter matter Consciousness is a function of the body. As contraction is the function of muscles, as the kidneys secrets urine, so and in the same way does the brain generate thoughts, movements and feelings. Mind, therefore, has no substantial reality of its own, but, springs out of the vibrations of the mole- cules of the brain When the moleculal activity of the brain smnks below a certam level generally known as the threshold of conscious- ness, consciousness disappears, mind ceases to exist as mn sleep When, agam, it uses above a certain degree consciousness ie-appears Conscious life is not a life of continuity It is coming out of and again gomg mto nothing The hypothesis of a contmuous stream of con- sciousness is a myth of the Divines and the Theologians This theory is some times known as the Theory of automatism-mind is merely Epiphenomenon or by-produet But there is a difficulty in establishing this theory The spiritualısts raised an objection against the newly built-up materialistic system. The objection is this. As the body is declared to be the agent of all actions it should be held responsible for their natural consequences. But this is impossible. The particles which form

INDIAN MATERIALISM 21

the body are always in a state of flux and the body which performs an action at one moment does not persist at the next to feel its re-action. It is on the other hand undemable that the body suffers change Otherwise they could not have different sizes To this, the reply of the Lokāyatıkas is this The Lokayata system does not admit the existence of Karmaphala o1 the consequence ot good or evil actions The experence of pleasme and pam comes by chance Natuie is all powerful Moreover, re- cogntion pioves the identity of the body through all its changing states There is another difhculty The spirituahsts advance another objection agaist the matenalists. The objection 14 put m the followig manner. The theory of matter is unable to account for the facts of memory and recogmtion Necessity of thought demands that memory and ongmal expenence which gives nse to it should be refered to one and the same conscious subjeet. But this identity of reference would be possible ouly when the subject is fundamentally an unchangeable unity This difficulty is removed by the Lokayatıkas m the following manner. The traces left by pievious expenences are capable of being tiansmitted from the material cause down to its dneet produet, an analogous instance bemg the transference of the odour of musk to the cloth mn contact with it But the general answer, of this school to every why is the doctrine of Svabhava. Everything happens through the mfluence of Svabhāva which is all-powerful It 1s Svabhava or law

22 INDIAN MAI IALLM

of nature that the consciousness is a function of the body and the body is the self The Lokāyatıkas refuted the theory of Paraloka -- or previous and future bnths as there was no reality existing before birth or after death The four 'bhutas' or atoms of primary elements are the only realities Mind is the production of these elements So it cannot be maintained that the mind at death passes on to another body. Mind in different bodies must be different The consciousness of a body which has alieady perished cannot be related to the body wluch comes into being One mind can- not pioduce another mind atter total annihila- tion. The theory that the foetus is endowed with consciousness cannot be asserted With- out sensation no consciousness is possible All knowledge is derived from sense experience alone All knowledge is posteniol to and derived tiom experience The sense organs cannot ievive sensations when they are not in existence Therefore the foetus cannot be endowed with consciousness. No power is pos- sible without a recipient. When the body perishes consciousness cannot remain as there is no iecipient of conseiousness With the destruction of the body consciousness, also, must pensh If you hold that the previous, present and future births are nothing but parti- cular conditions of the stream of consciousness which according to you is eternal the Lokāya- tikas would say that the chain of consciousness is not an entity and a conditon that can be predicated only in respect of an entity cannot

INDIAN MATERIALISM 23

therefore be pioved A futue existence of an entity whch is non-existent canot be predi- cated With this line of argumentation the Lokayatıkas of that penod rejected the exist- ence of future or previous births. The Lokāyatıkas of that stage also maitained that there was no soul apart from the body. If there be any soul it is only the living principle of all orgamsms It exists so long as our body exists and ceases to exist when the body ceases io exist It is the body that feels, sees, hcars, remembers and thinks In sayings like 'I am fat,' 'I am lean,' 'I am daik', by 'I' we evidently mean the body Fatness, leanness or daikness reside only in the body Snch phrases as 'my body' are metaphoncally used. Just as a knave might mduce an innoeent peison to accept glass and such other worthless materials in exchange for precions stones so has the S'ruti misled the innocent devotee by making him believe that the soul is distmet from the body, displacing his mborn, and therefore the nght belief that the body and the soul are identical As nothing like soul exists after death to go to the next The woild there is no necessity of admitting the of Fate existence existence of such a place With the demial of denied Karmaphala this school demed the existence of the universal mvsterious agency called Fate or Adrsta or Daiva It demed the existence of merits or demerits acquired in our previous existence In answer to the objections that fate must be admitted as the cause of the differences and determinations of the phenomenal world Brhaspati's followers bring forward the doc-

24 INDIAN MATERIALISM

trine of Svabhava o1 spontaneous generatio' of things according to then iespective natures So theie is no use practising vntue and avoid- ing sins Religion is as haimful as opium intoxication Piayer is the hope of men who are weak, without will power to do anything, worship is an msincere egoism to save one self from the tortures ot hell, piophets are the gieatest hais among men The Vedas are no authority There are mantras m the Vedas which do not convey any meaning whatsoever , some mantras are ambiguous ; some are absurd , some aie contradictory ; some iepeat what is already known. As iegards the other portions of the Vedas we always fmd discrepancies and contiadictions among them. Cases are not rare where a lme of action piesenbed by one text is condemned by another Agam, they speak of iesults that aie never tealised Some The Vedas attacked sportions are rejected by the Vedicists them- selves as interpolations There are pioper names and epithets as well as foolish state- ments like the lavings of a mad man Hence the Vedas are not only human compositions but even worse The buffoon, the knave, and the demon-these aie the thiee authors of the Vedas All the obscene ntes commended lor the queen m the hoise sacufice have been invented by knaves. So also the custom of giving presents to priests and that of eating flesh have been commended by might-prowling demons If it were possible for the sacrifices to make one reach heaven after the perform- ances have ceased, the performers themselves

INDIAN MATERIALISM 25,

have perished and the requisites have been used up, then the trees of a forest burnt down. by fire might produce abundant fiuit The exercises of ieligion and the piactices of ascetieism are merely a means of livelihood for men devoid ol intellect and manlmness There- tore the so-called sacred books, the three Vedas, have been composed by rogues and can com- mand no authouty A Putresti sacrifice per -- loimed for the buth of a child may yield either of the two results-positive and negative which is doubttul When a child is born the knaves say that it is due to the power of then mcanta- tions uttered in peifoiming the uites When a child is not boin they explam the event as being due to the ntes being mcomplete in some way oi other The puiests say that a beast slam m a sacrifice will itsell go to heaven How is it that they do not kill then own old fathers m a saciifice in order to send them dueetly to, heaven ' It the offerings in a funeral ceremony may produce giatifcation to beigs who are dead, then in the case of travelleis, when they start it is needless to give provisions for the- jorney All these ceremomes were ordered by the Biahmmns as a means of their livelihood. They are worth no better than that Hence, our religious ceremomes our endeavour to propitiate the gods, to satisfy them by piayers and offerings are vain and illusive Religion is the mvention of individuals desirous of deceiving their fellow men morder to further their own selfish and ambitions motives. So let us eat, drink, be merry, for to-morrow we-

*26 INDIAN MAILKIALISM

die. As the consequence of this kind of think- ing, Kama or fulfilment of desire, became the summum bonum of human life They were mn seaich of the supreme bliss or contemplative joy, which was available in freedom only. They maintained that there is no particular place named heaven Even the Vedas themselves doubt the existence of a world beyond If a man may go to another world after death why may he not come back agam perturbed by the love of his friends and relatives When once the body is reduced to ashes how can it ever .go to another world When we die, everything ends there. We do not enter into a region of pain or of darkness umeheved by a single ray of light. That God is the judge, does not stand to reason, because, m that case partiality and cruelty on the part of God will be indispensable If God visits us with the evil consequences of our smns He becomes our enemy for nothing Therefore it is better not to have a God than to have a cruel and partial God So there 1s not even such a thing as God, the Supreme author and governor of the world, an omniscient spirit. The senses cannot reach Him, Adrsta, principle of causality, and inference itself have been denied. The Vedas reveal no signs of mfallibilıty. How can we ascertain that an all- knowing, all-pervading and all-powerful spmit exists Nature and not God, is the watch word of our School.

With this enlightened credo the Lokaya- tikas laid asıde the traditional life of religion and settled down to stram every fibre of their

INDIAN MATERIALISM 21

being, so long frittered away for heaven's sake, for working out then immediate earthly wel- fare. The result of this movement was an aspiration for freedom By freedom they meant all-round freedom-freedom for the individual as well as for society, freedom for man as well as for woman, freedom for the rich as well as for the poo , freedom for all mndividuals and for all classes They exhorted all to cast off all the shackles which had bound them for ages and to march shoulder to shoulder towards treedom The wonderful consequence of this struggle for fieedom was the rise of Buddhistic culture Buddha's views against the vedic sacuifices, the memorising of the vedic mantras and frutless jepetition to retain them in memoiv, the caste svstem, the authority of the Vedas and the worship of the deities, the magie piactices and the mortifications and other ascetic practices-have then counterpart mn the views of Lokavata It is perhaps for the leason that Buddhism was gieatly influenced hy the Lokayata School that we find in later accounts of Lokavata the doctrines of Buddha and Charvaka almost amalgamated and the name Charvaka sometimes applied to Buddha India had been seething with free thinking and Buddha was the product of this freedom No man ever lived so godless yet so god-lıke a life. But the people were not satis- fied merely with social and religious freedom. Their aspiration was for political freedom also. This aspiration was realised in the rise of Politics. Chandra Gupta and his grand-son Asoka who

28 INDIAN MATERIALISM

bionght the jarning states of India under one rule and set up the Mouryya Empire. Polities became incorporated with the Lokayata School, which ignored Anviksiki and Trayi, the sciences dealing with the supersensuous, and appreciated Dandanite and Varta Coercion and Economics, as the only bianches of knowledge deserving special cultivation. The earthly king became the only god. So long, Kāma or pleasure was considered to be the only good of human life Now Artha or material advantage, was added to it As the Lokāyatıkas captured the hearts of the cultured and the common people, they became earnest m working out their immediate earthly welfare The iesult Fine arts of this movement was the generation and plo- pagation of diffeient aits and sciences Vātsyayana keeps records of some sixty-toul names of Indian fine aits which flourished probably in this penod ol Indian materalısm Kambalās'vatara, Ajıtakes'akam- balın and many other matenalists flourished and wiote then woiks on Indian materalism in this period The Sāmāma phalasūtta keeps the following recoids of Ajita's view There is no such duty as the givig of alms or sacnifice or offering There is neither fruit nor result of good and evil deeds There is no such thing as this world or the next There is neither father nor mother nor beings springing into life without them There are, in the world, no recluses or Brahmans who having under- stood, and realised by themselves alone both this world and the next make their wisdom

INDIAN MATERIALISM 29

known to others A human being is built up of four elements When he dies the eaithy in him ieturns and ielapses to the earth, the fluid to the water, the heat to the fire and the Ajita's windy to the an The four bearers take his view dead body away, till they reach the buining ground men utter forth eulogies but there his . bones are bleached and his offerings end in ashes It is a doctuine of fools, the talk of gifts It is an empty lie, mere idle talk when men say there is piophet therem Fools and the wise, alike, on the dissolution of the body are cut off, annihilated and after death they are not. This Ajita flourished during the life-time of Buddha. Up to that time Pohties was not incorporated with the Lokayatika So theie is no trace of polities noticeable m the teachings of Ajita In later accounts, specially m the record pre- served by Kiisna Mis'ia, it is mentioned very distmnetly Kiisna Mis'ia gives almost a peifect account oi the doctimes of the Lokayata School, formed m that penod. His account contamns almost all the elements belonging to the teachings of this School "Lokayata is alwavs the only s'astia In it, only perceptual evidence is authonty The elements are earth, water, fie and an Wealth and enjoyment are the objects of human existence Matter can think There is no other world. Death is the end of all."

*लोकायनमेव शास्त्रम्। प्रत्यक्षमेत्र प्रमाणं। पृथिव्यप्तेजो वायव स्तत्वानि। अर्थकामौ पुरुषार्थौं। भूतान्येव चेनयन्ते। नास्तिपरलोक दण्डनीतिरेव बिद्या। अत्रव वार्तान्नभवति। घूर्त प्रलाप स्त्रयी।

30 INDIAN MATERIALISM

The Third Stage. This prospenty and success of the Lokāyata. system ended in coruption and misunderstand- ing Extreme form of freedom gave birth to licentiousness. Supreme bliss was transformed into sensual pleasure Enjoyment of pleasme -gross sensual pleasure-became the only end of human hfe. Licentiousness became predomi- nant in the country India lost its previous supremacy-freedom of society, hreedom of religion and freedom of pohty People became slaves of their senses Elevated teachings of Brhaspatı became absoibed into the eroticism of his wicked followers Giatification of the senses became the only good of this School.

Pleasure, Let us enjoy pleasuie and pleasmre alone. the only Pleasure is the only thing which is true and good. good. The only ieasonable end of man is enjoyment. We know pleasure is never pure, never free from pamn. How then can pleasure be the highest end of life ? But because there is pain and because pleasure is mixed with pain should we therefore reject our life ? Should we fling away sheaves of paddy rich with the finest white giams because they are covered with husk and dust ? Should we refiam from pluckig lotuses as there are thorns m them $ Shall we not take fish because there are bones and scales ? Should we exclude rice from our meal only for the trouble it will give in hus- king ° Who will not soothe his mind and body in ambrosial moonlight though there are spots in the moon ? Shall we not enjoy the pleasant breeze of summer, because, there is slight dust

INDIAN MATERIALISM 3

in it Shall we abstam fiom sowing mn a. ploughed land watered by rain, lest the water on its surface should beeome muddy > Should we not prepare lood for lear of beggars ? Unmixed happiness is not available in this world ; yet we cannot overlook the least bit of it. In wordly life we smile on the weal of omr dear ones and weep m then woes. If the laughing face of a son or the lustre of a delight- tul daughter can ipait to us celestial happi- ness why will not then death oi then attack with some fatal disease fmd us overwhelmed with grief It the piesence of a beloved wife makes a heaven of this earth, her departure will surely leave us m eteral darkness Thus what gives you pleasure now will cause your pam another tue We cannot totally get rid of troubles even when we have no tie of affec- tion in ths wide woild The heart of a man who has none to call his own mn this populous woild, is but depressed, full of misery and dry as a deseit Ile must not be a common man, who even in such conditions can maintam peace ot mind But even a man who is quite aloof fiom all social ties cannot escape occasional nushaps, uiz., disease and accidents The sudden attack of an ailment can make a total change in ou happy state of affairs. And, when health goes, it takes away pleasure with it. The loveliness of a moonlt night, the cool breeze at day break, the beauty and scent of flowers, the melodious songs of sweet birds- none of these can please a man when he is not In health. You may remain jolly even without

-32 INDIAN MATERIALISM

a friend But bodily pain is sure to iender you feeble and restless Besides, we are m terrible distiess by occasional appearance of cyclone and thunderstoim, sudden attack of a ferocious animal, or, the undesnable occurrenee of famme, drought or deluge Still we must -say that this world of ours is not full of troubles True, there is sorrow everywhere , mn kigs' palaces and beggars' huts, m the high souls of the leaned and the superstitious minds of the illiterate, in the beautiful mansions of the luxurious and the dark caves of the sages Sleep in your house or walk outside, ente the temple o1 hide in the torest, run to the bunial place or wherever you like,-no where can you escape misery and pain Still we must say that the amount of pleasure in this woild is greatel than that of pam If such be not the case, why do people so earnestly desne to live and become frightened at the name of death Tell them to renounce this world, and they will at once exhibit utter reluctance For, how is it possible to bid adieu to this pleasant world which is the abode of joys and luxunies ? How delicate are the green leaves of the spring, and how lovely is the rose ! Is not the sunshine a glorious thing %

If sorrows were moie frequent than delight, men would have escaped misery by suicide. Most men are unwilling to die ; and hence it is evident that in human affairs pleasure has a larger sphere of influence than pain. It is also to be remembered that happiness is at its best only when experienced by contrast with misery ;

INDIAN MATERIALISM 33

and hence, it may be said that existence of troubles mn the woild has a certam necessity. Blessings of iest can be fully enjoyed only after hard laboul The ever healthy man cannot compiehend the ease and comfort of havig a sound body and a sound mind. If you are to ieceive full satisfaction mn your diet, suffer from hunger fiist The moie you sustamn the agony ot thst, the gieater will be your delight mn diinkig cool water You fear a dreadful mght with heavy ramfall and terrific thunder- storm when daik and dense clouds have covered the whole sky, and all the tiees and houses have been blown away by the turious wind. But atter such tedious hours, when the sun with celestial beautv appears for the first time on the eastein horizon of the bright sky dispersing the lingering daikness and unfolding all the lotuses of the earth will vou not look more pleasant than evei ? The same thing happens when two lovers meet alter long separation. Thev have long been tormented bv the heart- iendmg affhetion, and they have shed constant tears and bieathed out many a long sigh Now, their ie-umon will produce a heavenly bliss which an ever-happy couple cannot have any idea of Perpetual happmess may be desirable, but it is piactically unbearable What pleases you now, will be disgusting atter constant use Even a palatable dish cannot but bring satiety if we are to take it daily. Variety of taste is needed, pungent, astringent, and bitter flavours should be interchanged with sweets So, it 1s foohshness, no doubt, to overlook pleasure only

34 INDIAN MATERIALISM

on the giound that it is not constant owing; to the intervention of pam Therefore, a man should do that which yields pleasure in the end. Even sages like Vyasa tell you that one should tulfil the desue of a woman who is overcome with passion The moon-god, the lord of the twice-born, enjoyed very eagerly the wife of his preceptor Brhaspati, the tounder of our School. Everybody knows the story of Indra, the god of gods, and Ahalya the wife of Gotama. Hence, there is no need of iestraming sexual appetite. Enjoy all sorts of pleasure, according to your own desne Where is unanimity among the great men in accepting the mterpretations of the S'ruti and the Smi tis " An mntelligent inteipietation should not be iejected if it favours the enjoyment of pleasme The sage Panin who says in ' Trtiya apavarge,' that the third sex will be engaged in fmding out means of salvation is necessanly of opimon that the other two sexes should enjoy sensual pleasures. Carry out the commands of Kāma which even gods like Brahma could not trans- giess The Vedas, too, are nothing but the commands of the gods. Then why do you show more respect to the latter ? Forbear from all dsparaging and contemptuous remarks about women in order that you may hope to have the company of the most excellent of the deer-eyed beauties in heaven. Exert yourself for pleasing your beloved and mndulge your own mnclina- tions These are the only roots of the tree of happiness 'Pleasure is the good'-is the cry of nature The animals know no other principle

INDIAN MATERIALISM 35

of action than pleasure Children are sensitive to pleasure only. The grown up man, the apparently grave and sober, all seek and pursue pleasure ; the virtuous man enjoys pleasure in the cultivation of virtue and even those who refute the statement that pleasure is the object of desire, find pleasure m such refutation. "Whatever the motive, pleasure is the mark ; For her the black assassin draws his sword ; For hei dark statesmen trim their midnight lamps ; For her the saint abstains, the miser starves ; The stoie proud for pleasure, pleasure scoins ; For her affliction's daughter grief indulge ; And fid, or, hope, a luxury mn tears ; For hei, guilt, shame, toil, danger we defy ;" Therefore, pleasuie is the highest good of human life The only good of life is the human hfe The only good of life is the individual's own pleasure We should fully enjoy the present To sacrifice the present to the future, is unwairanted and perilous. The present is ours The past is dead and gone. The future is doubtful The piesent is all that we have Let us make the most of it With ths credo the Lokayatıkas of that remote period of Indian history preached and practised the theory of the extreme form of hedomsm, according to which sensual pleasure is the only end of human life. Here, in this stage of Indian Charvaka. Materialism, the School of the Lokayatıkas in addition to its old names Barhaspatya and Lokāyata got the designation Chārvāka. The word means entertaining speech It is derived

36 INDIAN MAILRIALISM

from char va, chewing, gumnding with the teeth, eating, swallowing virtue and vice "While you live duink, for once dead you never shall return " "As long as he lives let a man live happily , after borrowing money, let him drink ghee" The propagation of this eroticism was the first step towards downfall oi the elevated system ot Lokayata which was considered so The long as the only system of Philosophy mn India. Buddhists In this stage of Indian Materialism the and the Jains Buddhists and the Jainas came to the field of philosophy to preach spiritualism. In their first appearance they pretended to be the successors of the old heretics, t.e, the followers of Brhaspati, by directing their attacks mainly against the doctrines of sacrifice as actually preached and practised m the Vedic School They became, lıke the Lokayatıkas, very popular for the tumne being, as the minds of the people were still then captured by Materialistic doctrmes But as time went on the state of things began to change The Charvākas came to know what these new comers really were They led their oppostion agamst the orthodox Buddhists and Jains as they previously did against the Vedicists The result of this oppo- sition was that the Lokāyatıkas met with opposition from the side of the Vedicists as well as fiom the side of the Buddhists and the Jains. By this simultaneous attack from various sides they were for the first time pushed to the corner. The philosophers of the Vedic Schools now became very strong being aided by the spiritnalistic doctrines of the new hereties-

INDIAN MATERIALISM 31

the Buddhists and the Jains, and took the field as successors of the sages of old and repelled the attacks on the permanent principles of spiituality As time passed, these Vedicsts appeared on the field one after another in order to oppose the heretics in general-both old and new-the Lokayatikas, the Buddhists and the Jamas They opposed the materialistic The sx views of the old heretics and the ant-vedie orthodox doctuines of the new heretics The pioneer of schools these advocates of the orthodox Vedic Schools was perhaps the sage Gotama, who adduced very strong aiguments agamst the theory of Dehatma vada or the theory, which preaches that the body is the Self, of the old heretics and established the theory that the body is different fiom the soul Then came Kanada who made an endeavour to refute the theory of Svabhava- vāda or Natuialism of the old heretics and propagated the theory that the diversity of creation is not possible for svabhava which is unconscious The diversity, according to Kanāda is produced from the atoms, which are unconscious, through the will of God m agree- ment with the doigs of the previous births. After him Kapila, who is regarded by some as representing the oldest tendency of philosophy, came to the field and formulated his arguments in favour of Dualism for which the field had already been prepared by his predecessors. Then came Patanjalı who propagated the theory of Yoga and tried to establish the theory of the existence of God. When, through the influence of these teochers the mnee mind was almost

38 INDIAN MAI KIALISM

inelined towards sipiritualism and belief in the transmigiation and spiritual nature of soul took almost complete possession of the mass mind of India, Jaimim apppeared and made an attempt to establish by argumentative dscussions that the Vedas are infallible and authoritative, that Karma or action is more powerful than even God, if there be any, that for the sake of the purification of mind the performance of Karma is indispensable When through the influence of Jaimmı, the minds of the people became pre- pared, by performing duties, sanctioned by the Vedas, for coneeiving the spmtualistie soul, and the influence of anti-Vedic doctrines and tendencies was, for the time hemg, almost removed from the mass mind, Vyāsa came to the field and preached Spmtualistie or idealistic

Lokāyata philosophy Lokayata, bemg thus opposed by leaned these strong enemies, grew impatient and leaned towards towards spiritualism This stage may be called spiri- tualısm the second or the middle stage of its downfall In this stage it admits, giadually, the ident- fication of self with the sense-oigans, the principle of life and with mind shaking off its old doctrme of Dehātmavāda or the doctrine of the identification of Self with the body The fist view or the doctrme of the identification of Self with the sense oigans, is based on the facts that consciousness and bodily movements, follow from the initiation of the senses and that the judgments expressed in 'I am blind' showing the identity of the self with the sense-organs are umversally accepted as valid. Still opposed by the spiritualists it mamtains that the vital

INDIAN MATERIALISM 39

principle itself is really the source of intelli- gence as the senses depend for existence and operation on it When this view too was attacked its sponsois came to maintain that consciousness is a quality of the mind The other organs are only the means of indetermi- nate sense-knowledge It is mind alone that introduces the element of determinateness. More over, mind controls by its power of voli- tion the outer-organs and may persist and function singly even when the latter happen to be absent Thereloie the mind is the true self. All these have been recorded by Sadānanda m hıs Advaita Brahma Sıddhı 'Sadananda speaks of four different matenalistic Schools The chiel pomt of dispute is about the conception of the soul One School iegards the soul as identical with the gioss body, another of the senses, a thnd with breath, and the fourth with the organ of thought' On the other hand, the Lokavatikas had so long mamtamed that per- ception is the only source of knowledge. Now being severelv attacked by its opponents, who mamtamed the authorty of mterence, it showed for the fist time its leaning towards admtting inference as a source of knowledge In the first step it said that for practical purposes probability was sufficient At the sight of smoke rising from a certam place there arises in the mind a sense of the probability of fire and not of its certamty This is enough for all practical purposes. For this end there is no need to assume the existence of a distinct kind of evidence, called Inference. When further

40 INDIAN MAILRIALISM

pushed to the corner this school said that the followeis of this school were prepared to accept inference as a means of right knowldege as it was useful in ou daily life. But the mechamical form of mference as proposed by the Buddhists and otheis can by no means be considered a medium of right knowledge as it is thoroughly impiacticable for daily use. In other words, theie are two classes of In- ference-one class infering something restored mn futuie and the other class inferring what has alreadv taken place The mference about what is past is accepted and the inference about what has not been perceived such as Paraloka, God, Soul is rejected Purandara flourshed, in this peniod, as an advocate of the Chaivaka school S'ankara Kamalas'ila, Abhayadeva, Javanta and the unknown author of Sarvamata Sangiaha record his views Being pushed, furthet, to the coiner, this school accepted, in this stage, even ether as an element. Gu aratna keeps its record

Fourth Stage But every action has its reaction The opposition of the Vedicists agamst the Materalists was not without its re-action As they were supported by the Buddhists and the Jams in their attack on the Vedie sacrifices, the old heretic oppositionsts became very powerful They got their general name Nāsuko Nastika, mn this period. Vedic rites proper were giadually more o less pushed to the back- giound New scriptures were then in course of pieparation, fully adapted to the needs,

INDIAN MATERIALISM 41

tastes and tendencies of the changing times but not entirely divorced from all connection with the Vedas Volumimous Tantric and Paurin i works grew up in this penod and The satisfied the needs of the times As these antras Schools were ongmated for satisfying the Pman as e and the

needs of the people of difterent mentalities elements of diffeient nature were expressly visıble m them As repiesentatives ot the old heretie School, whose ifluence was still then piedommant m the countrv, they meluded and adopted the popular doctrines regarding indulgence of the senses, and as successors of the spiritualistic schools, they gave them an esoterie purpose and thus modified them to some extent Since then, the perod of the great Hudu revival after the fall of Buddhism, India has been populaily Vedic a.e. Pauraņic and Tantric in her broad outlook. For this reason, peihaps, m the centunies after Christ we meet with very few names of Lokāyata Philosophers, though the system must have been m existence even so late as the time of Harıbhadra; Guņaratna, S'āntaraksıta; Kama- las'ila; Siddhasena; Abhavadeva; Krisņamıs'ıa; Srıharsa; Jayanta; Sadānanda; Mādhavā- charyya ete who have iecorded and criti- cised its theories in their works It was S'ankara and his school who did not even consider the Charvaka school as a system of philosophy, although, m Sarva Siddhanta Sangraha he mamtams that by adopting only those means which are seen such as agricul- ture, the tendmg of cattle, trade, polities and

42 INDIAN MAILRIALISM

administration etc a wise man should always endeavour to enjoy pleasures, here, mn this world It was with S'ankaia and his school, that the great reaction pioceeded against Indian Materalism which m Madhavacharyya, who considered the Lokayata system as the lowest system of philosophy. secmed the most decided victory

Conclusion. Just as Plato, one of the spiritualistic thinkers of the west, in his fanatical zeal would have hked to buy up and burn all the works of Demokritos the father of western matenal- ism, so it is probable that these advocates of the vedic orthodoxy, in their fanatical zeal collected and destroyed the ongmal works of Brhaspati School of Philosphy, the extreme materialistie system of India. As the Buddhistic and the Jama Schools were spiritualistic mn essence they did not meet with total annhila- tion Or, it may be, that for a considerable time, the views of this school became feeble and unpopular after which they lost their indepen- dent existence and became absorbed into other schools of spiritualistic philosophy. Although the works of Brhaspati were destroyed, the con- timnty of the mnfluence of his school was at no period completely broken. We have already seen that the Lokāyatıkas got the designation Nastika as they became at one with the Buddhists Some of the sects of the degenerated Buddhists, in which laxity mn sexual morals was one of the features, became gradually affhated to the Lokayata school One

INDIAN MATERIALISM 43

of these sects was the Kapalika sect. The Kāpālikas are a very ancient sect. They drink wine, offer human sacrifices and enjoy women They strve to attam then religious goal with the help of human corpses, wine and women They are dieaded by all lor mhuman crnelties. Bhavabhūtı, Krısņa Mıs'a and Kavıkarņapūra iefer to such Kapalkas in their respective works the Malatimadhavam, the Probodha- chandrodayam and the Chaitanyachandro- dayam Brhaspatı of Arthas'astra fame says that the Kapalka is alone to be lollowed for the punpose of attammng pleasure Formerly, this Kapalika sect flourished m The an independent form In course of time it Kāpālıkas.

hecame weak and lost its independence Probably the mhuman eruelties or the dreadful- ness of the sect brought about its ruin. As Kama o1 the enjoyment of sensual pleasure was the goal of this sect it came gradually to be affiliated to the Nastika form of the Lokāyata school according to which the summumbonum of human life is, as shown before, the enjoyment ol gross sensual pleasuie Thus the Kāpālıkas, bke the Assassins, became the soltary historical example of a combmnation of materialistic philosophy with cruelty, lust of supernatural power and systematic crime Or, it may be that the followers of orthodox schools, through bitter contempt, identified the Lokāyatıkas with the fierce Kāpālıkas, as m previous cases the Vedicists used freely the terms of abuse like 'Bastard' 'incest' and 'monster' with regard to the Lokayatıkas At the time of Banaspatı, the

44 INDIAN MATERIALISM

author of Arthas'astia, these Kāpalikas were a distinet sect In GuLaratna's time we find them identified with the Lokayatika school which had aleady become a hated name in the countiy

The Lokāyatıkas were a creed of joy, all sunny Thiough then mfluence, at that period of Indian history, the temple and the court, poetry and art, delighted in sensuousness. Eroticism prevailed all over the country The Brahmmn and the Chandala, the king and the beggai, took pait with equal enthusiasm mn Madanotsava, in which Madana or Kāma was worshipped References to this festival are not rare in works of poets lıke Kaldasa, Bis'akha Datta and Sieehai sa 'Dance and song, flower and the red powder fag, swinging and playing, all these created an atmosphere of light amuse- ments from which all sterner laws of sexual ethies were dismissed for the time being and men and women mixed indiscriminately, the green trees wearing red apparel, as it were, owing to piofuse fag that filled the whole atmosphere over which the Apul sun threw its gaudy purple rays' They assimilated the element of sexual romance from the Kapalikas The essential feature of this iomance is -- love for one, with whom one is not bound in wedlock. As a reaction against this practice of sexual romance, Vaisnavism made its appearance and the Madanotsava, the doctrine relatmg to sense- indulgence must have been favourably received by a large number of people. To counteract ths evil, the orthodox school of the Vaignavas

INDIAN MATERIALISM 45

included and adopted the popular doctrines regarding mndulgence, but gave them an esoterie purpose and thus modified them to some extent For this reason we find that the Dolotsava has retained the light pleasures and gay amuse- ments of Madonotsava in many respects, and the Vaisnavas have given these festivals a far more sober character in respect of sexual freedom

But the ever flowig cuirent of the Lokāyatıkas did never remam suspended for a considerable penod of time m Indian cultural history. It made its way m the teeth of all obstacles. Atter the great Brahmamc renais- sance the Lokayata sect took shelter under different foims in different parts of India. In Bengal, an old sect of the Buddhist Mahayana school chiefly concerned with sexual romance gave up its mdependent existence and like the Svabhavavadıns and the Kāpālikas became at one with the Nastıka Lokayatıkas and the Lokāyatıkas on then part incorporated them- selves with that commumty The old element of sensualism of the iestival Madonotsava of the Nastikas, a sanction fo1 the gratification of grossei pleasures, is still found to linger in this sect The name of this sect is the Sahajia sect. The very name Sahajia ieminds us of the doctrine of Svabhava of the old heretics. The three chief physical appetites of man are eating and drinking where by his body is sustamned and sexual intercourse whereby human life is propagated. Considered mn themselves they are natural and harmless. So the Sahajias say

46 INDIAN MATERIALISM

'there is no wrong in the eating of meat and drınking of wine nor m sexual intercourse for these are natural inclinations of men '

The In the meetings of the Sahajias men and Sahajıās women take their seats indiscriminately with- out any scruple and with full freedom. The Chandala cooks the food and the Brahmmns take it without hesitation Unless hunger is appeased the Sahajias can not pray. Large plates full of eatables are biought on the bed spread before the members Men and women st there and eat them freely In their joy women put food into the mouth of men and the latter are not slow in returning the attention, and the house rings with mery laughter They consider the Vedas and other holy senptures to have been manufactured by worldly men for their own selfish ends They have no regard for the Brahmms They entertam no respeet for either the priestly class or for their elders Women caie nothing for their husbands They revolt openly against the Brahmins, the Vedas and the Iindu society Most of the songs of the Sahajias are about boats, trades, mortgages, farming and a hundred other topies of rustic interest of Lokayatia They set forth cannons and theories with a boldness which is really amazing. Caste, rank mn society or orthodoxy of views are out of the question in their society. They entertain the utmost freedom in thought, mn religious and social matters. They are absolutely beyond the prejudices and conven- tions of the ordinary people. The Sahajias allow the indiscriminate mixing of men and

INDIAN MATERIALISM 4/

women. The motto of a Sahajia woman is- 'he who will capture our heart, we will belong to him' If the man of her love wants her body she must give it She must give her all with- out reserve The Sahajias do not believe in the established ideals of womanhood represented by Sita, Savitrī and the Suttees who burnt themselves with their dead husband m days gone by, as living examples of absolute devo- tion. These wives of Hindu scriptures and epics were actuated by hopes of getting rewards in the next life and praises from society in this for their chaste life To the Sahajias love 1s 1eligion They believe that Deha or material human body is all that should be cared for and their relgious practices are concerned with the umion of men and women The famous Bengalı poet Chandidas was a follower of this eult But Chaitanva apprehending its corruption and msuse deelared himself m elear language agamst all sexual iomance The Sahajas did not believe mn human soul and in anything beyond the pleasures of the present moment. They believed in Deha and in nothing else. On one occasion some Brahmins of the orthodox communty weie performing tarpana in the river Ganges. This was the custom of taking handfuls of water fiom the nver and throwing them down, by which acts they believed the thirst of their departed ancestors would be allayed One of the founders of the Sahajia cult saw this and taking handfuls of water like them threw them on the bank. This act attracted the attention of the Brahmins who

-4c INDIAN MAI IALISM

asked him the ieason for doing so. The Sahajia replied-'If your water will go to your departed forefathers who aie fai away mmne ought to go to my vegetable garden which is only a mile from here and certainly not so remote as the land of the dead' This sect raised objec- tions agamst the superstitions and conventions of the orthodox schools Extreme lawlessness -characterised this sect

All these views of the Sahajia Lokāyatıkas remind us of the old heretics Most of the views of the Nāstıka Chārvāka or Lokāyatıka of this form are recorded by Chiranjb Bhattacharyya of Bengal mn his famous work Vidwanmodatarangini In his account of the Nastika school we find a blending of several independent doctrines lıke Bārhaspatya, Svabhava, Bauddha, Jama and Kāpālıka The orthodox communty amongst the Buddhists the Jams and the Hmdus were bitterly hostile to the supporters of these views of the Sahajia Lokāyatıkas mn every stage of their develop- ment This is perhaps why its followers tried by all means to hide then societies from the public view For this ieason perhaps the Sahajias hold their meetings in secret All their old books bemg destroyed by then opponents, the orthodox schools, they now have a particular language mn circulation -amongst themselves named the Sandhyabhāsa, a language which is not understood by people outside the pale of their own society. But thus hidden like owls at daylıght, the Lokāyatıkas

INDIAN MATERIALISM 49

of the Sahajia sect of Bengal could not fight long with the orthodox communities. After the Brahmame revival, in the age of Chaitanya they were seeking shelter, and, in Bengal, Birabhadra, son of Nıtyānanda gave them a shelter and converted them to Vals- nava faith. This conversion, however, does not mean much. They merely cried aloud the names of Chaitanya and Nıtyananda and there ended all their connection with Vaisnavism. They adopted the Valsnava creed merely for expediency's sake, mn order to have some status m the society which had rejected them altogether. Although, with the revival of the Brahmanc form of Vaisnavism, Vaishna- the Loyāyatıkas became very weak and identr- vism. fied themselves with the Vaispavas, yet the school of free-thinking did not die out in India. It lives not amongst a few but amongst thousands to-day. They are not guided by the spirit of Hindu Renaissance They have now included the Bible, the Koran and even the Grantha Saheb of Guru Nanak A movement of absolute freedom is visıble mn every depart- ment of Indian life-social, political and religious. The advocates of free-thinking of this age are no doubt the successors of the old heretics-the Barhaspatyas. They have now taken complete possession of the mass mind of India They constitute the bulk of the cultured

APPENDIX.

Some relevant notes :

Nāstika

(1) The word is as old as the Maitri Upanısad III 5 Nāstıkyam VII 10 (2) Paņın gives its derivative meaning Paņını IV. 4. 6. According to Panmm a Nastika is one who maintains the view that there is no other woild. (3) Accordmg to Manu a Nāstika is one who condemns the veda II 11. It is mamly the veda which establishes 'next woild.' If the authority of the veda is rejected 'next world' cannot stand So, one who condemns the veda discards also the 'next world'. (4) The word has been used in the Mahā- bharata in the same sense as suggested by Manu.

(5) According to Gita the Nāstikas are Godless people XVI. 8. Kumārıla mn his sloka Vārtika maintains the same view. (Pratijnā- Sūtra, tenth verse) (6) In the later works, the word has been used for vilification The Madhvas vilify the S'aivas and vice versa by using this term. Lokāyata (1) Old as Ramayana The word means 'dry arguments' or 'vitan da' or 'causistry' (2) It is often used in old Pali text in the same sense.

INDIAN MATERIALISM 51

(3) The word is available in Patanjali's Mahābhā sya Mahābhāsya VII. 3 45. (4) The name Lokayata oceurs mPan im's ukthadıgana. Paņmı Ahstādhyāyı Sūtra IV. 2 60 (5) Lokāyata has been recognised by kautılya as Dars'ana Kautılya Artha S'āstra 1 1.

Chārvāka Charvaka is met with in the Mahabharata. Later on, this is the only term by which Indian materialism is designated. The word charvaka is often taken as charu (beautiful) and baka (speech). And it is interestmg to find that charu is also a synonym for Brhaspati Thus it may be suggested that charvaka stands for 'the word of Brhaspati'. Pasanda is also a term which is used in the same sense.

Materialists, Sceptics and Agnostics Vis'vakarman speaks of a class of thinkers who are enwrapt in misty cloud (niharena pravrtah) and with lips that stammer (jalpya). The subsequent thinkers speak of avidya or ignorance and vicıkitsā or perplexity Sams'aya or doubt is another term which is met with in this connection in subsequent literature.1 The Muņdakas and the vājasaneyas use the term avidya in the sense of anything which is not transcendental knowledge (parā vıdya) or the

1 Mu Upamısad II 2-8

52 INDIAN MAL KIALISM

knowledge of Brahman (Brahma vidya) and anything which is not conducive to ideal self- realization The word vicikitsa, according to Asuil, means a mental state2 In the katha Upamsad (1 20) the word has been used in the sense of philosophic doubt as to man's exist- ence after death 'some say he exists ; others, he does not' These latter are no doubt the sceptics and agnosties of ancient India. Vis'vakarman had evidently m mind (1) those hymnchanters who doubted the existences of India3 (2) Paramesthin, who saw no possi- bility of knowing any cause or reality beyond the original matter* and (3) Dighatamas, who was ignorant of the nature of a first cause" In subsequent literature we find that the keīyas were of opmnion that the know-all does not know at all, while the know-nothing knows every- thing 6 And as stated above, some sages according to the katha upanisad, doubt the existence of man after death (1 20.) Scepticism and agonisticism are the expressions of a free mind that refuses to accept traditional wisdom with- out thorough criticism. In this respect the materialists of ancient India are very closely related to the present-day sceptics and agonstics However minor their position may be in the field of philosophy, they are, no doubt,

2 Br Upanisad I. 5 3. 3RV, VIII 89 3 4RV, X 129. 6-7. 5RV, I 164 6 6 Ke Upans ad II. 3.

INDIAN MATERIALISM 53

the fathers of free and independent thinking in India. Brhaspatı Laukya or Brahmanaspatı, who may be termed the founder of Indian materialism, fist embodied his views about the origin of the world in the hypothesis that in the beginning being came out of non-being-astalı Sadajāyata, that matter is the ultimate reality. Paramesthin treated matter as the ultimate ieality as Brhaspati did, but disavowed all possibility of knowledge of the ultia-material substratum, if there were any He refused to extent his meta- physical inqwiry beyond matter. Brhaspati was a materialist Paramesthin was a sceptic. But they were inter-related. Subsequently Mahāvīra speaks of the Anņīniyas, who pre- tend to be intelligent but are mnfact unfamiliar with truth and have got rid of perplexty or puzzlement These Annaviyas are ignorant teachers who teach ignorant pupils and speak untruth without proper investigation of know- ledge (Sutrakrtanga, 1. 12 2). These ignorant teachers seem to be the agnostics of ancient India. Subsequently Brhaspati of the Char- vāka School is pietured as an agnostic of this type. The close relation between the agnostics of the Sutrakrtanga and the materialists of the Puranas cannot be ignored. In the Buddhist records7 Sañjaya, who maintains a sort of indifferent or neutral atti- tude towards such problems of metaphysical

7 Mahavagga, I 23 24

54 INDIAN MATERIALISM

speculation as those which are concerned with the first cause, the final cause, future life, retribution, and so forth is best known as a sceptic. According to Sañjaya, the same philosopher tends to be an agnostic and a sceptic When he freely confesses his mability to know the ultimate beginning and end of things, which is virtually the same as admitting that these are unknown and unknowable, he 1s an agnostic. When he doubts or hesitates to admit the correctness of all bold assertions about matters beyond human cogmtion, he is a sceptic. What we find in the teachings of Dirghatamas, Paramesthin, the keniyas and the kathas is represented by the agnostics and sceptics.

Jayaras'i and Tattvopaplava simha The work of Jayaras'i is an important new chapter in the history of Indian philosophv No woik of the charvaka school itself was known before. Jayaras'i's treatment is clear from the very tittle of the book 'tattvopaplava' means 'upsetting of all principles.' There were different classes of Charvakas. A particular division of school engaged themselves in rejecting all sorts of piamanas, Jayaras'ı belonged to that group This 1s in adition of what has been discussed in ths book regarding the first stage of Indian materialism. Jayarās'i has accepted Brhaspati as his Guru and with his permission demolishes the doctrines of other schools

INDIAN MATERIALISM 55

The method adopted by him may well be called as cutical To him there are no valid means of knowledge and to establish his thesis he with the help of surgical instruments has examined different schools of Indian philo- sophy

The probable date of Jayaras'ı Bhatta is the fnst halt of Seventh Century A.D

Some of the genuine Lokayata Sutras rescued from obscurity. The followig Sutias are attributed to Brhaspati, the founder of the Lokayata School, and in them we find the statements of the Chāivākas quoted verbatım.

(१) पृथिव्यप्तेजोवायुरिति तत््वानि (२) तत्समुदाये शरीरेन्द्रिय-विषय संज्ञा (३) तेभ्यश्चतन्यम् (४) किण्वादिभ्योमदशक्तिवत् (५) काम एवैक: पुरुषार्थ:

(६) अनुमानमप्रमाणम् (७) चैतन्य विशिष्टः कायः पुरुषः

(८) मरणमेवापवर्गः

Of these eight Sutras the first four are quoted by Bhāskarāchāryya as the Sūtras of Brhaspatı of the Lokayata school of philoso- phy. The first three are also quoted by Kamalas'ıla in hıs Commentary on the Tattva- sangraha and also by Guņaratna in his

56 INDIAN MATERIALISM

Tarkarahasyadıpıka .* The third and second part of the fourth and the seventh are quoted by S'ankaia in his commentary on the Vedanta Sutra The fifth, seventh and eighth are quoted by Sadananda in the Advaita Brahma- siddhi as the sutras of Brhaspati."

The fifth Sutra is quoted by Nilakantha (in his Commentary on the Gita) as belonging to Brhaspati of the Lokayata school .* The sixth Sutra is collected from the Commentary on the Sammatı Tarkaprakarana named Tattva- bodhavıdhayınī of Abhayadevasuri. The seventh aphorism is quoted (in the Commentary on the Gita) by S'ridhara as belonging to Brhaspati of the Lokayata school.$

We know from the Panjıka of Kamalas'ila on S'loka 1864 of the Tattvasangraha' and from other similar sources that a S'loka some- times came to be called a Sutra. We also

• Vıde Brahma Sutra Bhashyas of Bhaskar âchâr yya and S'ankara (III 3 53-तथाच बाहस्पत्यानि सूत्राणि) and the Panjika of Kamalas'ila (Gaekwad's Oriental Series, p 520 तथाच तेषां सूत्रम् Fiom the context it is clear that the pronoun aaf iefers to the Lokāyatıkas ) Vide also the commentary of Guņ alatna (on Sloka 84) of Saddas'ana Samuchchaya * तथाच बाहस्पत्यानि सुत्राणि * Vide XVI II .- तथाच बाहस्पत्यम् सूत्रम् t Vide Gujrat Puratattva series Vol I, p 70 -- तथाहि बृहस्पति सूत्रम् Vide XVI II - तथाच बाहस्पत्य सूत्रम् S तथाच सूत्र कायादेवेति।

INDIAN MATERIALISM 57

know that works in a mixed style of Sutras and verses are not rare in the field of Sanskrit Interature The existing editions of Vatsya- yana's Kamasūtia and Kautilya's Artha S'astiā mav be mentioned as mstances to the pomt They are written in a mixed style of Sutias and Slokas, the substance of the Sutias being some- times summansed m the Slokas Madhava- charyva m his Sarvadars'anasangiaha follows this mixed style of piose and verse when giving the Charvaka view In view of the facts, cited above, it will not be far from the truth to say that Brhaspati of the Lokāvata school also wiote his 'sutia-work' in a mixed style of Sutias and verses and that the verses quoted by Madhava as belonging to Brhaspatı are genume ie they belong to the lost Sūtra- woik of Brhaspati These veises aie quoted below

बृहस्पतिनाप्युक्तम्- न स्वर्गो नापवर्गोवा नैवात्मा पारलौकिकः नैव वर्णाश्रमादीनां क्रियाश्च फलदायिकाः ॥१॥ अग्निहोत्रं त्रयोवेदाख्तिदण्ड भस्मगुण्ठनं। बुद्धिपौरुषहीनानां जीविका धातनिम्मिता ॥२॥ पशूश्चेन्निहृत. स्वर्ग ज्योतिष्टोमे गमिष्यत। म्वपिता यजमानेन तत्र कस्मान्नहिस्यते॥ ३॥ मृतानामपि जन्तूनां श्राद्ध चेत् तृप्निकारणं। निर्व्वाणस्य प्रदोपस्य स्रहः संवद्ध येच्छििखाम्॥४॥ गच्छतामिह जन्तूनां व्यर्थ पाथेय कल्पनम्। • गेहस्य-कृत-श्राद्धन पथि वृप्तिरवारिता ॥ ५।।

58 INDIAN MATERIALISM

स्वगस्थिता यदावृप्ति गच्छेयुस्तत्रदानतः। प्रासादस्योपरिस्थानामत्र कस्मान्नदोयते । ६॥ यावज्जोवेत सुखं जोवद् ऋणं कृत्वा घृत पिवेत। भस्मीभूतस्य देहस्य पुनरागमनं कुत ।।७ ॥ यदि गच्छेत परं लोकं देहादेष विनिगंतः। कस्माद्भूयो नचायाति बन्धुस् हसमाकुलः ॥८॥ ततश्चजीवनोपायो ब्राह्मणैविहितसत्विह। मृतानां प्रतकार्य्याणि नत्वन्यद्विद्यते क्वचित्॥ ६।। त्रयो वेदस्य कर्त्तारो भण्ड-धूत निशाचराः। जभँरी तुफेरोत्यादि पण्डितानां वच: स्मृतं ॥ १०॥ अश्वस्यात्रहि शिश्नन्तु पत्नोग्राह्य प्रकीर्ततितम्। भण्डेस्तद्वत् परं चैव ग्राह्य जातं प्रकोर्त्तितम्। मांसानां स्वादनं तद्वन्निशाचरसमीरितम्॥ ११॥ इति Mention may also be made here of some sutras, ascubed to the Lokayata school They are not directly attributed to Brhaspati. On the other hand, there is no strong reason to prove that they do not belong to the woik of Brhaspati. There aie Sutras quoted in some places as belonging sımply to the Lokāyata ol Charvaka school, while in other places the same sūtras are attributed to Brhaspati Again, there is no ground for supposing that all these sūtras belong to Brhaspati ; for we know the names of other sūtrakaras of the Lokāyata school, namely Chārvāka, Purandara, Kambalāsvatara and Bhāguri In any case, there is no reason to believe that they are not the Lokāyata-sūtras They

INDIAN MATERIALISM 59

may safely be collected as being the genuine Sūtras of the Lokāyata school

The said Sutras are the following - (१) न धम्मांश्चरेत्। (२) एष्यत्फलत्वात् (३) सांशयिकत्वाच्च (४) कोहबालिशो हस्तगतं परगतं कुर्य्यात् (५) वरमद्य कपोत श्वो-मयूरात् (६) वरं साशयिकान्निष्कादसाशयिकः कार्षापण (७) शरोरेन्द्रिय संधात एव चेतन क्षेत्रज्ञ. (c) काम एव प्राणिनां कारणम् (ह) परलोकिनोऽभावात् परलोकाभाव (१०) इहलोक परलोक शरोरयोभिन्नत्वात् तदतयोरपि चित्तयोनेक: सन्तान (११) एतावानेव पुरुषो यावानिन्द्रियगोचर (१२) प्रत्यक्षमेवेक प्रमाणं

The fiist sIx Sutias are ascubed by Vātsāyana in his Kāmasūtra to the Lokāyata school .* The seventh Sutia is a quotation by Madhusudana mn his Commentary on the Gita, and it is stated to belong to the Lokāyata school + The eighth Sūtra is found as a quota- tion by S'ankaracharyya m his Commentary on the Gita. There it is referred to as an extract from the work of the Lokayata school $ The ninth Sutra is quoted in the Commentary on

• Vıde Kāmāsūtra I, 2 25-30 + इति लौकायतिका: 0

60 INDIAN MAI RIALISM

the Tattvasangraha as belongig to the Lokayata school § This Sūtra is also quoted in the Commentary on the Sammatı Tarkapia- karapa in the same form and as belonging to the same Lokavata school f The next two Sutias are tound quoted in the Commentary on the Tattvasangraha as an extract fiom the woik ol the Lokayata school The last Sūtia Ntated above is quoted m the Commentary on the Sammatı Tarkaprakarana as belonging to the work of the Chaivaka schoold We are tempted to add here another Sutia in S'loka torm of the Svabhavavadms who are later on identifed with the Lokavatikas and the Chaivakas. This verse ongmally belonged to the standard work ot the Lokayata school The verse is this - क कण्टकानां प्रकरोति तंक्षण® विचित्रभावं मृगपक्षिणाश्च। माधुय्य मिक्षो कटुतांच निम्बे स्वभावतः सव्वेमिदं प्रवृत्तम्।। In addition to the above, we find some other Sutras of the Lokayata school which are directly attributed to peisons other than Brhaspati This proves that Bihaspati was not the only worker of this school After him there must have been many workers m the

8 तथाहि तस्यतत् सूत्रम From the context it 1s evident that the pronoun aRI refers to the Lokayata school 1i Gujrat Puraiattva senes, p 71 * Gaekwad's Oriental series, p 523 t Gujrat Puiatattva senes, p 73

INDIAN MATERIALISM 61

field. There 1s, therefore, no strong evidence for the supposition that these Sutras are not equally genuine These Sūtras are- (१) प्रमाणस्यागोणत्वादनुमानादर्थनिश्चयोदुलभः (२) कायादेव ततोज्ञानं प्राणापानाद्यधिष्ठिताद्युक्त जायते (३) सव्वत्र पर्य्यनुयोग पराण्येव सुत्राणि बृहस्पते Of these three Sutras the first is quoted in the Commentary on the Sammatı Tarkapra- karana as belonging to a work ol the Lokāyata sheool and is attributed to a philosopher of the name of Purandara § Perhaps, this Purandara was the author of a later sutia work of the Lokavata sehool i which the views of Brhas- pati were expounded The next sūtra is quoted in the Tattvasangraha-as helonging to Kam- balasvatara, one of the eailiest wiiters of the Lokāyata system Perhaps, this Kambalas'- vataia was another expounder of the system like Puiandaia The last sutia is quoted mn

t Bhattotpala's commentary on Br hatsamhitā, Saddars'ana Samuchchaya Vutti of Gunaratna, Dalla- na's commentary on Sus'iuta, Chapt I § Vide The Sammatı Taikapiakarana of the Gupiat Puratattva senies Vol I, p 70-एतच्च पौरन्दरं सूत्रम् Most probably this Purandara is identical with Puran- daia mentioned in the Commentary of Kamalas'ila and referred to in the Tattvasangraha of Santarakshita From the foot note of the page we know that this Purandara is mentioned also in the Syâdbhâdaratnâkara * Vide p 521-तथाच सूत्र-कायादेवेति कम्बलाश्नरोदित मिति।

62 INDIAN MATERIALISM

the Commentary m the Sammatı Tarkapra- karana-as a saying of the Charvakas.+ Jayaras'ı in his Tattvopaplava sim ha has quoted the followig Sūtras (१) अथात स्तत्त्वं व्याख्यास्याम (२) पथिव्यपूतेजो वायुरिति तत्त्वानि। ततसमुदाये शरीरेन्द्रिय विषय संज्ञा। (३) लौकिको मार्गोऽनुसर्त्त व्य. (४) नम्न श्रमणक दुर्बुद्ध कायक्कुश परायण। जीविकार्थेडपि चारम्भे केन त्वर्मास शिक्षित ॥ Krishna-mis'ra the author of Probodha chandrodaya nātaka and the unknown author of Sarva-mata Samgraha quoted the following verse . प्रत्यक्षादि प्रमासिद्ध विरुद्धार्थाभिधायिनः। वेदान्ता यदि शास्त्राणि बौद्धः किमपराध्यते।। From what has been said above, we may leasonably believe that all these passages are the statements of the Chāvākas quoted verba- tim and they are equally genume although compared with the vast ocean of Bārhaspatya sutras now lost, they are but a few drops.

Vol I, p 69-इति चा्व्वार मिहितम