1. A Simple Study Of Indian Philosophy Balakrishna Pandit S

Barcode : 99999990316176 Title - A Simple Study Of Indian Philosophy Author - Pandit, Balkrishna S. Language - english Pages - 357 Publication Year - 1969 Barcode EAN.UCC-13

9 999999 031617"

A SIMPLE STUDY OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Dr. BALKRISHNA S. PANDIT M.A., Ph. D. Author of : A Simple Study of Western Phtlosophy (Metaphyaies) A Sunple Study of Induetive Logie A Simple Study of deductive Logte A Simplo Study of Elementary Statisties and Expenmental Psychology with Practical Exereises. A Simple Study of Ethics, A Simple Study of General Paychology.

1969

SURJEET BOOK DEPOT EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHERS DELHI - JULLUNDUR

All Riglts Resereed tedh the Publishera

Published by Harnam Singh Surjeet Book Depot Nai Sarak, DELHII Mev Hiran Gate, JULLUNDUR

COMPANION VOLUMES

1 A Simple Study of Western Philosophy (Metaphysics)

2 A Simple Study of Inductive Logic

3 A Simple Study of Dedactive Logic

4 A Simple Study of Elementary Statistics and

Experimental Psychology with Practical Exercises

5 A Simple Study of Ethics

6 A Simple Study of General Psychology

Printed at : Asratic Printers, Chandn Chowk, Dellu.

PREFACE

The Darsanas represent the foundations of (1) the Physical, (2) the Natural, and (3) the Biological Sciences not only of India but of the whole world. They deal with the origin of the Universe and its evolution and involution. I am very happy to have had this great opportunity of studying these sciences for the purpose of under- standing the basic foundation of the Darsanas. This book has been solely designed to meet the demand of the students of Indian Philosophy, preparing for their graduation, at the Indian and foreign Universities. I hope, it will be equally useful to students going in for higher studies and multitude of people who wish to study these ancient sciences which were responsible for our high civilisation. I am sure, that it will be of great value to the students of philosophy.

-AUTHOR

CONTENTS CHAPTER I-Introduction 1-2 Meaning of Darsanas 1 , Objects of studying them 1-2 CHAPTER II-Nyaaya Vaiseshika 3-36 Nyaaya System 3, Fıve Avayavas 3, Sıxteen Padara- thas 4 , Means of knowledge 4, Vaiseshika system , its categories 5 Scope 9 , Parmanuvada-Atomic theory 12, Navya Nyaaya, its synthesis 16, Nyy? view of Syllogism 18, Naiyaayika's contribution to Linguistic Problems 22, Naiyaayika's conceptinn of God 23 , Logical proof of God 28 Law of Karma 33 God an Eternal Living Force 34 Plurahty of God 34, Worshp of God 35 CHAPTER III-Sankhya Yoga 37-103 Evolution of world 37, Nature of Purusha (Self) 40, Panch Mahabhutas 41 Satkaryavada 43 , Proofs for cxistence of Prakntr 45, Gunas of Prakrit 45, Proof for existence of Purusha 46, Plurality of Self (Purusha) 47, Relation between Prakriti and Purusha 48, Critical Estimate of P urusha and Prakriti relattonslp 50, Saankhya Yoga 51 Ashtanga yoga of Patanjali 55, Vibhootis 59, Aim of yoga and its realisation 61, Mental Modifications 64, Forms and Nature of Sama- dhis 65, Obstacles to Samadhı 68, Yogangas 71, Yoga Psychology 78 Theory of Causation 79, Theory of Parallelism 81 , Neutral Pluralsm 82, Self determi- nation and other determinations 82, Time and space 84, Mental Construction or State (Vikalpa) 85, Material and Extraneous Causes 86 , Force as Beha viour 88, Structure of Atoms 89, Catalytic Agent a Co existent cause 90 , Inorganic organisation 91 Reaction to Envtronment 92 Spontaneous origin of Living Matter (Mechanistic view of Life) 95, Indepen- dent Sphere of Life 91, Independent Sphere of Mind 91 , Ultimate Nature of Mental Phenomena 98, Comparison of Mental Phenomena with Bio chemical phenomena 97, Consciousness 100 Modification of

krıtı 102 Trigunas 101 , Physical and Mental Concepts of Pra

CHAPTER IV-Purva and Uttara Mimamsa 104-155 (Classification of Darsanas 104 Poorva Mimamsa 105, Yajnas (sacrifices) 106, Division of Karmas 108, Nature and importance of Shabda Pramana (vahdity of knowledge) 109 Vedantic Schools mn Indian Philoso- phy 110 Relation betweea Jiva Iswara and Brahma

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110, Concept of Mava 112, Mind and Matter (subject and object) 115 . Adhyisa (Waking Experience) 116, Dream State 118, Dreamless sleep 122, Awareness characterising deep sleep 124, Goal of Vedanta 122. Visishtaadvarta (Distinction between Brahma and Iswara) 126, Stages of Sadhana Sadhana-Saptaka 128. Bandha (Bondage) 129 , Moksh1 (Liberation) 129, Karma yoga 129, Jnan yoga 129, Bhakti yoga 129, Dvait Sampradaaya its categories and ramifications 130, Means of attaining Moksha and correet know- ledge 132, Bheda (difference) between Supreme Being and Jiva 132 , Pervasiveness of the Supreme Betng 133, Jeevas 133, Samsara 133, Karma 133, Incarnation 133 , Mukt: 133, Vedanta and Modern Sciences , two lines of approach to Trutlt 134 Aim of science and Plulosophy 135, Vedanta the Science of Reality 136, Different views regarding nature of realty 137, Impact of Hindu Doctrine of one substance 138, Conclustons of Modern Science 142, Vivekananda's views on Vedanta 144, Brahman 145, Karma 146, Soul 146, Mukti 147, Knowledge 147, God 148, Ethies 148, East and West 150 Universal Toleration 151, Secret of greatness 153 , His Message to Indtan people 154 CHAPTER V-Doctrine of Moksha Sadhana 156-169 Introduction 156 , Moksh1, according to Vaiseshikas 157, Nyayas 157, Sankhya 161 , Purva mimamsa 162, Sankira 163, Ramanuja 155, Different Views on Moksha Sadhana 166 CHAPTER VI-Volition 170-182 Its importance 170, Distinction between volition and other forms of activity 170 , Prabhakara's Analysis thereof 171 , Comparison of Prabhakara s stand point with that of Kant 171 , Nyaya's views 171, Difference between Prabhakara's and Nyaya's standpomts 176, Various conceptions of relation of Karyata Jnana 178, Prabhakara's and Kumarila Bhatta's views on Scriptual Duties 179 , Upamishadic Ideal 180, Compirison of standpoints of Prabhakar with Kant 181, Scriptural Prohibition 182 CHAPTER VII-Spring of Action (Hindu Ethics) 183-207 Ramification of Vaiseshika 183 Vedanta 183, Nyaya 185, Moha 184 Patanjali 184, Vaiseshika classifica- tion 184 , Nyaya's classification 186, Patanjali's 187, Vedanta classification 187 , Characteristies of Indian Plulosophy of Motivition 187 Classification of Virtues Nyayı 188 Patanjalı 189, Budhists 190, Special function of psychological Hindu Ethics 191 Classification of Duties bv Manu 194, Prasastapadas

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194 , Maimamsaka school 195, Ramanuust 196, Special features of Hindu classification of duties 196, Analysis of Conscience 198 , Vidhi and its importance 199 , Moral imperative and its influence on Will 201 Prerina 203 , Rightness of Act 204, Relation between Moral right and Karmas 205 CHAPTER VIII-Saakta System of Philosophy 288-217 Sakta System of Phtlosophy 208, Tantra s classification of mankind 209 Seven Acharas 209, Qualitjes of Teacher and Disciple 210 Form of worship 214 , Con- ception of creation 212, Image worship 212 Five Tatvas (Panchamakara) 213, Four kinds of speech 215, Mantras 216 , Shatchakras 216, Siva ind Sakti 216 CHAPTER IX-Philosophy of Siddha 218-225 Philosophy and goal of Siddhas 218, Vartous schools of Siddhas 221 , Theology of siddhas 224 , Upanishads 224 CHAPTER X-Philosophy of Buddhism 236-269 Life of Buddha, his Meanings and functions of Buddh- ism 226, Goal and characteristics of Buddhism 228, Summum Bonum of Buddhism 231, Idol Worship 231 , Miracles 232, Toleration 233, Form of Prayer in Buddhism 234, Superiority and Missionary Spint of Buddhism 236, Place of Art and Sciences in Buddh ism 237 , Ten Precepts (Kauslas) of Buddha 238, Ethcal and Moral principles of Buddhism 240, Caste system and Status of woman in Buddhism 242, Four Noble Truths of Buddha 243, Asceticism of Buddha 245 Buddha's Theory of Middle Path 245, Demo- cracy in Sargha 247 Voting 248, Buddha s Eight- fold Path Preaching 248 , Ten Bhumis or Stages 253, Doctrine of Karma, 254 God in Buddhism 255, Extstence of Soul 259 , Doctrine of Re birth 263, Nature of Nirvana or Muktt in different svstems of Indian Philosophy 265 CHAPTER XI-Vedanta and Buddhism 270-283 Impertince of Vedas and Upanishads in Buddha s Philosophy 270 Notion of the Cause of Bondage 274 Vigvaapvaada 275, Samva Vaada 276, Vigyana Vada is Aatmi 277, Bodhis Supreme Knowledge 279. Bodhisattva 279 Buddha's standpoint on Nirvana 280 Fundamentals of Buddhistic Philosophy 282 CHAPTER XII-Philosophy of Jamism 284-310 Historical bickground of Jamism 284 Pice of Jama Darsanas among Indrin Darsanas 285 Siddha Para mesthan or Tirathankara 287, Status and function of

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Jain Acharyas, Upadhyayas and Sadhus 289 ; Moksha Marga (Path to Salvation) 290, Aatman 291, Jama Metaphysics 291 , Jaia Logic and Theory of know- ledge 301, Doctrine of Saptabhangi 303 , Jama Ethics -- Ratnatraya 304 , Five Vratas (Abstinences) 305, Stages of Spiritual Advancement 307 , Conclusion 310 CHAPTER XIII-Chaarvaaka Philosophy 311-327 Ongin of Chaarvaaka Theory and its place in Indian Philosophy 311 , Theory of Knowledge 312 , The vews on Theory of Re birth 315 The views on Existence of God 316, Freedom Movement's cffect on orthodox Brahmanism 317 Materialism in India 318, Aastika Darsanas Systematised 320, Brihaspatt on Rituals 322, Basic Idea of Chaarvaaka System 323, Main contri- bution of Chaarvaaka Epistemology to Indian Phtlo- sophy 325 Criticism of Chaarvaaka Ethics 326 CHAPTER XIV-Ethics of Gita 328-334 Essential Lesson of Gita 328, Freedom of Will in Gita 331 , Ought after God Realisatton 332 CHAPTER XV-Adhyasa or Superimposition 335-346 Meaning of Adhyasa and its metaphysical use 336, Defintion of Superimposition 338, Views of other schools of Indtan Philosophy on Superimposition 343, Six systems of Philosophy 343 CHAPTER XVI-Hindu Conception of the Mind and Matter 347 -- 357 Fundamental difference between Western and Eastern Conception of Mind 547, Mind, fundamentally a Mystery 351 , Concluston 350 CHAPTER XVII-Evolation Theory-Karma Vikaasa 358 -- 384 Ultimate Reality as Eternal as Etermty 358 , Nature of Mind and its transformation mn the Matter 362, Four Dimenstonal 367 Sapta Vyahrties 367, Different steps of transformation of Human Mind 368, Creation and life, an explanation regarding the existence of life in the Umiverses Structure of Atom 373, Sapta Vyaha- ritı 374 Anorantı Mahte Mahıyam 374 , Jivitama 376, Aatma 377 : Hindu conception of matter 378 Relatton ship between mind and matter 380, Evolutton Theory 380 , The origin of the Umverse according to Indian Phulosophy 380 -- 383

'CHAPTER ,I : 1

INTRODUCTION

Q. 1. Which systems of Indian Philosophy are Astika 'and which are Nastika ? Explain. (Agra 1960, 63) Or What is meant by Darsanas ? Discuss the object of its study. Ans. Darsanas are Saastras, where well reasoned attitude of the human being towards the world is explained according to the Hindus. They are mainty six, consisting of 3 groups. They are partly sciences and partly philosophies, according to our modern conception. (1) NYAAYA-VAISESHIKA These deal mainly with physics, chemistry and other material sciences and include reasoning or logic. Metaphysical studies or search for knowledge of God, however, formed the ultimate aim of the study of these saastras also. (2) SAANKHYA-YOGA Saankhya-Yoga deals mainly with the mental sciences, as will be explained below. The material aspects of study were not neglected even here. (3) POORVA AND UTTARA MEEMAMSAA These relate mainly to the exposition of the Brahman (Univer- sal Spirit). The object of Poorva Meemaamsaa is right action (Karma Kaanda) under the supreme authority of the Vedas. Uttara- meemaamsa or Vedanta is more directly based upon the Upanishads. Its main object is to explain that there is in reality only one Existence- Non-Dualism. THE OBJECT OF STUDYING DARSANAS. The object of all philosophical studies in India has been the acquisition of the knowledge of the eternal theme of Indian spiritual thought, namefy, to seek, know and reatise, "the One in the many". The word Darsana is derived from the root 'Darsa' which means "to see". Darsana means seeing, looking or sight. It also means the eye, the mirror and knowledge -- especially religious. Here Darsana means a Saastra-science, knowledge or philosophy. The Darsanas are primarily divided into 2 classes -- Aastika Darsanas, which accept the suthority of the Vedas, and Naastika Darsanas, which do not accept their authority. The Aastika Darsanas are generally counted as six and are called the Shat-Darsanas. They are (1) Nyaaya (2) Vaiseshika (3) Saankhya (4) Yoga (5) Meemaamsaa (6) Vedinta.

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The Nastika Darsanas are chiefly, (1) Chaarvaaka Darsana, (2) Baud- dha Darsana, (3) Jaina Darsana There are other Darsanas like Raseswara Darsana, Paasupata, Saiva and Saakta Raseswara Darsans, Paasupata Saiva and Saakta Darsanas were also the recognised systems of philosophy in India.

NYAAYA VAISESHIKA

CHAPTER II (1) Nyaaya, (2) Vaiseshika, (3) Navya Nyaaya. (I) NYAAYA SYSTEM Nyaaya System-The Scope of Nyasya-Five Avayavas-Sixteen Padaarthas, Pramaana 'Prameya-Jeeveatms-Parmaatmea Sareera-Orgens of Gense -- Mind-Moksha.) Q. 2. What, are the sources of valid knowledge (Pramaanas) admitted 'by the Nyaaya and the 'Meemamsa, Give examples of each. (Banaras 1964) Or Discuss the twin aspects of Nyaaya System-its Logical analysis and philosophical and metapbysical reasonings. Ans. Nyaaya system was formulated by Gautama (Not Gautama Buddha). This is also called Akshapaada Darsana. THE SCOPE OF NYAAYA The term Nyaaya means analysis. The Nyaaya system of teaching is devoted to the exposition of a system of logic and enuncia- tion of the methods whereby truth may be ascertained by the logical process of examination and analysis. Western scholars, therefore, generally accepted it as logic and ignored the philosophical and meta- physical aspects of the teachings of Nyaaya. The system has in fact a dual object being partly a school of logical analysis and partly also of philosophical and metaphysical reasonings. Many are inclined to the view that the Greek Schools of Philosophy were indebted to the early Hindu system. Together with the Vaiseshika, the Nyaaya adheres to the atomic theory of the untverse. But the most important part of Nyaaya is to classify and enumerate the various things in the. world. The subject matter of proof, finding out what the fundamental classes of things are under which .all the . substances in the world can be classified, as a result of the gradual evolution of things in the lower orders unto things in the higher orders, and finding out what their nature and qualities are, and how other things came into existence out of these things, and how all these things can be proved, and all .such other

Vol. 1. 7) .. questions are tincluded in Nyaayar philosophy. (Geeta Rahasya.

FIVE AVAYAVAS The Hindu Syllogism of Gautama consists of five parts or pro- positions eis. (1) Partijna-the premise, , (2) Hetu-the proof, (3) Udaabarna-the illustration, (4) Upanaya -- the application of the proof, (5) Nigamana-the conclusion. These are called the five

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Avayavis The western syllogism consists of only three parts of the proposition, namely the two premises and the conclusion SIXTEEN PADAARTHAS The Nyaaya School holds that the logical method of ascertam- ing truths was by the application of the sixteen categories or Padaar- thas-the topics for discussion These topics are I Pramaana-means of knowledge, 2 Prameya-objects of enquiry, 3 Samsaya-doubt, 4 Prayojana-purpose 5 Dristaanta-illustration, Sidhaanta- dogma or determinate truth, confutation, 9 Niraya -- ascertainment, 10 Vaada-discussion, 11 Jalpa-wrangling and harrspltting 12 Vitanda-cavilling or raising objections, 13 Hetvaabhaasa-fallacy, 14 Chhala-perversion or unfair ambiguity, 15 Jaatt -- futile objec- tions, 16 Nigraha sthaana-conclusion or the confounding of an adversary, The student is traied and drilled until he thoroughly under- stands the nature and use of these sixteen topics Of these, the first two are the chief, the others are only subsidiary and idicate the course which a discussion may take from the setting forth of a doubt to the final confutation of the doubt PRAMAANA (Means of Knowledge) The means of knowledge according to the Saastras, are four- I Pratyaksha-direct perception through the senses, 2 Anumaana- inference, 3 Upamaana-analogy, and 4 Aapta-Vaakya-reliable evidence This is also called Sabda which includes the testimony of the Vedas-the revealed knowledge or tradition ) - PRAMEYA The Prameya or objects of knowledge are -1 Atma-the Soul, 2 Sarcera-the body, 3 Indriya-the senses, 4 Artha-the oojective world 5 Buddhi-the intellect, 6 Manah -- the mind, 7 Pravritti- action, 8 Dosha-Error, 9 Pretyabhaava-disembodied states or transmigrations, 10 Phala-the fruit or retribution, 11 Dukha -- pain, 12 Apavarga -- freedom or emancipation of the Soul JEEVATMA According to the Nyaaya, the soul (Jeevantmaa) is mdividual m each person and separate from the body and senses It is the seat of knowledge and feeling It is eternal in duration (Nitya) Ichha- (desire), Dvesha-(aversion) Sukha -- (pleasure) Dukha-(pam), and Jnaana-(Knowledge) imply the existence of soul which is a substance It is the substratum in which these several qualittes reside The soul experiences the fruit (Phala) of good or bad deeds (Karma) (Dravya)

PARAMAATMAA The supreme soul (Paramaatmaa) is One It is the seat of cternal knowledge, the maker or former of all things

NYAAYA VAISESHIKA 5

SAREERA The body Sareera is the seat of efforts, t e , Parayatna and of the organs of senses. By assoctation with the body, the soul has the feeling of pleasure and pam , The body is Paanchabhautika ORGANS OF SENSE The five external organs are not modifications of conscrousness (Ahankaara) as the Saankhya philosophy teaches us, but are formed of Sthcola-Pancha-Mahabaabhootas-Prithvi, Aapa, Teja, Vaayu, Aakaash, corresponding to the senses of Ghraana, Rasa, Roopa, Sparsa and Sabda The sn padaarthaas of the Vaiseshika are thus placed under objects of senses

THE MIND There ts the sixth sense "Antarındnya" (Iternal organs) Manas -- Mind By umion with the external senses, the mind produces the knowledge of exterior objects Its office is to separate the sensa- tions and to present them singly to the soul Hence it is that the soul does not receive more than one sensation or rather perception at the same tnstant The Manas is minutely small as an atom (Anu), for otherwise it might come in contact with many things and cause many sensations at one time both-the soul and the body It is eternat (Nitya) and distinct from

MOKSHA Moksha is deliverance from Pain (Dukaadhwamsa) The soul attains deliverance by knowledge, by meditating on itself, bv not carning fresh mertts or demerits through action springing from desire and by becoming free from passion through knowledge of evl inherent in object For further information the student is referred to the onginal work Nyaaya Sootras by Gautama m Sanskrit, to Saradarsana Sangraha in Englsh II THE VAISESHIKA SYSTEM The Vamseshtka System-The ax categories -- Dravya-Atomie theory-+ Aarambha Vaada-Seswarovasda - Guna -- Manas -Gurutva-heals Dik -- harma-Saameanya-\isesha-Samavnaya -- Abhava-The Theory of Atomio Agglomeration-Peelu Paakavada-Pithbara Paakavaads-The Scope of Vaiseshike Darsana,

Q.3. What is the category in Vaiseshika Philosophy State and examine the categories of 'Dravyas', Visesha and and Samvaya (Lucknow 1958 , Poona 1959) Or What is category ? State and distinguish the various categories admitted in Vaiscshika ? (Agra 1953, Bombay 1958) Or

6 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

What is the Status of non ezistence in Vaiseshika Philo- sophy ? How is non-existence classified therein ? (Agra 1963) Ans The Vaiseshika system is supplementary to that of Gautama (Nyaaya), coiciding with at in the mai, but differing from it in allowing only two methods of proof (Pramaana)-1 Pratyak- sha (Perception) and 2. Anumaana (inference)-and in its arrangement of the objects of knowledge (Prameya) The Six Categories There are in thts system stx categories or Predicaments (Padaarthas) 1 Dravya-thing or substance 2 Guna -- quality, 3 Karma-action 4 Saamaaya-community or genus, 5 Visesha-Particularity, 6 Samavaaya-the co inherence or intimate connection of constituent parts A seventh namely abhaava-non existence or negation was added later (1) DRAVYA Dravya-The first category, mmely Dravya is sub-divided into rine divisions 1 Prithivi-earth 2 Aapa-water, 3 Teja-light, 4 Vaayu-aır, 5 Aakaasa-ether 6. Kaala-time, 7 Dik-space, 8 Aatma-soul 9 Mana-mind Of these Prithivi, Aapa, Teja, Vaayu and Mana are "Anu" (Atomic) the others are 'Vibhu' (ever- pervading) The atoms are round, extremely minute, icapable of division, invisible, eternal in themselves but not in aggregate forms .F They have individuality, a specific difference (Visesha) from which the name Vaiseshika has been derived Light, for example, is formed by the aggregation of luminous atoms And other subs- tances are also formed in a similar manner These atoms combine by two in an aggregate called 'Dvyanuka' They again combine and thus form aggregates called "Trasarenu", which comes within the range of our sight as a mote in sun beam They are mnumerable and are perpetually united and disintegrated and reunted and re-distinte- grated by a particular unseen force called Adrishta DIK Dik is inferred from the relation of Prionty or Sub-sequence other than that of time It is deduced from our notions of here and there It is marked by our association with the four directions of East, West, North and South-which agam depend on the relation of the Earth's movement round the Sun East is the direction which is towards sunrise-West towards Sunset-North and Soutn are towards North and South poles respectrvely We may count the directions as four or six if we take upper and lower as two directions But Dik or space is one, Vibhu, all pervading and cternal Praachyaadı Vyawahnara Heeturdik (Tarka Sangraha) Saa Chaikas Vibhvee Nityacka Dik or the position of atoms in space is also to be considered when thetr combinations and disintegrations take place For exam- ple-nearness of substances to each other makes a great difference in chemical combinations of different substances The relative impor- tance of the rosition of the atoms in space and the influence of

NYAAYA VAISESHIKA 7

direction (North or South pole etc.) on them have also to be taken into account in addition to heat and time. Thus 'Heat (Teja) Kaala (time) and Dik (Space) are therefore rightly included in Dravyas "(substances) because they possess certain Gunas (qualities). GURUTVA Gurutva, (gravity) is the peculiar cause of a body falling to the ground. It effects Bhoo and 'Aapa' Dravyaas. Lightness is not a distinct quality but only the negation of Gurutva. KAALA Kaala (time) is inferred from the relation of priority (Bhoota) and subsequence (Bhavishyat) other than that of place. This is marked by the association of the objects with the Sun's revolution and is measured by Kshana, Dina, Ritu, Samvtsara and so on. MANAS The Manas (mind) is considered to be extremely small as one atom (Anu) and thus only one sensation is conveyed to the soul at one time. It is eternal and distinct from both, soul and body, with which it is onty conjoined. (2) GUNA Gupa -- The second category, namely Guna, is translated as quality. The qualities are twenty-four. (1) Roopa-colour, 2. Rasa-Taste, 3. Gandha-Smell, 4. Sparsa-Touch, 5. Sankhya -- Number, 6. Parimaana -- Dimension, 7. Prithaktva-Individuality, 8, Samyoga-Conjunction. 9 Vibhaaga-Disjunction, 10. Paratva -- Priority, 11. Aparatva-Posterity, 12. Buddhi-Intellect, 13. Sukha-Pleasure, 14. Dukha-Pam, 15. Ichchha-Desire, 16. Dvesha -- Aversion, 17. Prayatna-Voltion, 18. Gurutvam-Gra- vity, 19. Dravatvam-Fluidity, 20. Sneha-Viscidity, 21. Sams- kaara-Self-reproduction (or restitution including motion, elasticity and memory) 22. Sabda-Sound, 23. Dharma-Merit and 24. Adharma-Demerit. Light and heat are considered as only different forms of the same substance, so also electricity and magnetism. The direct instru- ment of vision is a ray of light proceeding from the pupil of the eye to the object seen. This ray of light is not ordinarily visible, as the brightness of a torch is not seen when the Sun shines. This ray of tight which is not seen in the sunlight, may be seen at night in the eyes of a cat or other anmal watching for its prey. Aakaasa (Ether) is uncompounded, infinite and eternal. It is not atomic (Vibhu). It is known oniy by inference. it has the quality of conducting sound which is caused by means of portion of Ether (Aakaasa) confined in the hollow of the ear and endowed with an occult virtue. 3. KARMA Karma .- (Action) is the third category. In is divided into

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five kınds-(1) Utkshepanam-upward movement, (3) Aakuncha- nam-con traction (4) Prasaaranam-dilatation (5) Gamanagama- nam-motron in general 4 SAMAANYA Samaanya -- The fourth category Samaanya (Community) 1s source of our notion of genus It usually devotes qualities common to many objects This is also called Jaatt Samaanya is of two kinds, (1) the higher or genus (Para) and (2) lower or specres (Apara) 5 VISESHA Visesha -(Particularity) denotes single or simple objects devoid of community These are Soul, Time Place and Aakaasa, and also Atoms in their ultimate form This Visesha is the distingui- shing feature of the Vaiseshika philosophy Its theory and doctrine are that all substances are composed of countless mmnute mvisible atoms, from the combtnations of which all forms of substances phy- sical and mental arise and from the operation of which all phenomena take place These combinations of the ultimate atoms are merely temporary and are subject to change, destruction and alteration, so far as the comb nations are concerned' but the individual atoms, of course, can neither be destroyed nor changed nor altered in their nature These atoms of Kanaada are similar to the corpuscles, Ions or Electrons of the modern western science 6 SAMAVAAYA Samavaaya -- The sixth category or Padaartha of Vaiseshika is Samavaaya -- (Co inherence or inseparable connection) It denotes the connection of things that in their nature be connected as long as they exist, as the yarn and the cloth, of which it is made This inseparable union of Kanaada is rather of an abstract nature Examples of Samavaaya are the parts and the whole, the quality, action and the agent, atoms and substance, subject and object etc -- (Vaiseshka Sut Chap I II) In all these mstances there is an insepar- able connection between the members of each pair 7 ABHAAVA Abhaava-A seventh Padaartha called Abhaava (Negation or non existence) was added by later Vaiseshikas The six categories mentioned above are Bhaavas (existing ideas) and the seventh is the negation of all these six If you have no 'Abhaava, you cannot get the knowledge of that which is not a thing Example -the knowledge that there is no pot Abhaava is divided into two kinds - Samsargaabhaava and Anyonyaabhaava Samsargaabhaava is of three kinds .-

an end) (1) Praagabhaava-(Negation which has no beginning but has

NYAAYA VAISESHIKA 9

end) and (2) Pradhvamsaabhaava-(Negation with a beginning but no

(3) Atyantaabhaava-absolute negation. (1) Praagabhaava is the negation of a thing antecedent to origination (i.e.) before it existed. The negation of a pot before the pot is made. The negation ceases to exist as soon as the pot is made. It is therefore said to be without a beginning and with an end. (2) Pradhvamsaabhaava-The negation of a thing after the thing is destroyed. The absence of a pot when the pot is broken. The negation is represented by the pieces of the broken pot. Pradhvamsa- abhaava is negation subsequent to origination of a thing. It has a beginning but with no end. It begins as soon as the pot is broken and there is no end of this abhaava. (3) Atyantaabhaava -- (Absolute negation) means-negation always. Examples-The son of a barren woman, the horns of the hare. These things never existed and never shall exist. This is with- out a beginning and without an end. The above three Abhaavas are included in Samsargaabhaava. II. Anyonyaabhaava-(Negation of identity) is only of one kind. In two things that exist one of these things does not exist in the other. In pot (Ghata), there is no existence of cloth (pata) and vice versa.

Q. 4. State and examine the Conceptions of substance, Attribute and Inherence in the Vaiseshika Philosophy. Or Discuss the Scope of Vaiseshika Philosophy. Ans. The scope of the Vaiseshika Darsana is the acquisition of correct knowledge of the reality of pain and its removal; "Charma Dukha Dhwamsa Lakshano Mokshah Jaayati." Pain may be due to internal causes or external causes. Some kinds of pain may be removed by fear of death ; some can be removed only by correct knowledge of the Supreme Being. Whoever wishes to escape from the reality of pain and whoever wishes to know the means of such escape should learn that the know- ledge of the Supreme Being is the true means of such escape. We have the authority of the Vedas for this statement. Swetaaswatara Upa- nishad VI-20 says ;- "When men shall roll up the sky as a piece of leather." "Then shall there be an end of pain, without the knowledge of Sıva" (Deva). "Yadaa Charmavat Aakaasam Veshtayishyanti Maanavaah Tadaa Sivam (Devam) Avijnaaya dukkhasyaante bhavishayati." That means that without the knowiedge of God, destruction of

10 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

pain is not possible Knowledge of God is obtained by Sravans Manann, and Bhaavana-hearing, thought and reflection of God True Vaiscshika Siddhaanta is that Dukkha (pun) will be removed by correct knowledge of the six Padaarthaas (Categories) Thought (Manana) depends upon inference (Anumaana), infe- rence depends upon Vyanpti (Umversal proposition) and the know- ledge of Vyaapti depends upon the rght understanding of the six Padaarthas (Categories) Hence saint Kamada establishes the six categones in his ten fold treatise called Vaiseshika Sutras Kanaada is also called by another synonym 'Kanabhksha' -- which means one who feeds on Kanaas or atoms According to the Varseshika, all objective knowledge consists in the perception of things in three caiegomes ve, Dravya, Guna of Karma Of the three other categories Saamaanya abides in Dravya Guna and Karma Saamaanya is of two kinds 1 the Higher or Genus and 2 the Lower or Species Visesha abides in the nine eternal substances (Dravyas) The sixth category is coherence by which the parts of certain inseparable things are held together in their respective places, as quality and the object qualified (Guna Gum) Sanmaanya or community has been defined as the source of our notion of genus (Jaati) Saamanya usually denotes qualities common to many objects and in its luighest degree it expresses only existence (Satta), a property common to all Bhavaas Saamaanya enables different things to be denoted by one name "Sanmaanya meka tvakaram" (Cha. Sut 1-45) Saamaanya is alwrys responsible for inerease of the bhaavas concerned whereas Visesha is responsible for decrease of the same In case where Saamanya and Visesha bhivas (they may be Dravyas, Gunas or Karmas) come together in exactly equal proportons, there is nerther mcrense nor decrease This is called the restoration of Pravritu or equlibrium (Pravritti Rubhavasya Cha -1 44 Ibid) For example, when we see a number of cows, each individual cow is denoted by the word cow But when we are dealing with a number of cows and a number of other anmals having distinguishing proper- ties from the cows, we recognise the Gotwa (cowness) and speak of the class of cows as bovie Similarly when we see a number of horses, we recognise the Aswatwa (Horseness) t e the Dharma or properties common to all horses and classify them into the Equine class But when we have to group the cows and horses together, we denote the greater group by the Antmal class of Jantutwa and antmalness is their common dharma In this manner the grouping may go on by classify- ing all Bhaavas (Dravyas, Gunas, and Karmas) into larger or smaller groups or orders, genuses and species according to therr common dharmas (individual pecularities or factors) The larger grouping is denoted by Para Saamaanya and the smaller grouping by Apara Saamaanya The largest grouping of all Dravyas, Gunas and Karmas ends mn only one group denoted by the word Satta te existence

NYAAYA VAISESHIKA 11

Saamaanya is thus classified into two kinds viz. Para Saamaanya and Apara Saamaanya. Para signifies distant or greater groups and Apara nearer or smaller groups. Whereas Saamaanya is responsible for in- crease of the number of the constituents of each group, Visesha is responsible for decrease in the nomber of the constituent parts. "Saamaanyam Vriddhi Kaaranam, Hrasahetutur Viseshascha." -Pravritti Rubhayasyatu.

The above hypothesis of things increasing by addition of similar things and decreasing by the addition of dissimilar things and of the restoration of equilibrium by the union of similar and dissimilar things in exact proportions is one of the 'fundamental hypotheses on which the science of Ayurveda is based.

According to Vaiseshikas, Dravyaiwa (Substantiality) is eternal, although the Dravyas (substances) themselves are some of them eternal (like Aakaasa) and some of them are transitory (like lotus). Dravyatwa (aati) exists in intimate (Samavaaya) relation with the eter- nal Aakaasa, as well as with the transitory lotus but Dravyatwa does not exist in intimate relation with gandha (smell) because gandha is a guna (quality) and not a dravya. Dravya and guna have, however, Intimate (Samavaaya) relation between themseives as Guni-Guna. Again Gunatwa is the Saamaanya Dharma of Guna and Karmatwa is the Saamaanya Dharma of Karma, Satta (existence) is the Saamaanya Dharma of all the three namely, Dravya, Guna and Karma. But as the Karmas are all transitory, Karmatwa is only found in the Anitya (transitory) state. Dravyatwa and Gunatwa are Nitya. We have al- ready said that Saamaanya is of two kinds viz. Para is higher grouping and Apara, lower grouping. Para Saamaanya may be composed of Dravya and Guna or Guna and Kanmna or all together. Apara Saama- anya is composed of comparatively smaller groups. Grouping and re- grouping of Dravyas, Gunas and Karmas in higher or lower orders and species are all included in this Para and Apara classifications.

Visesha or particularity denotes single or simple objects devoid of community. These simple objects are 1. Soul, 2. Mind, 3. Time, 4. Space. 5. Aakaasa, and 6-9 the Atoms of the other four Bhootas- Prithvi, Aap, Teja and Vaayu in their ultimate forms. Viseshaas are Ananta (innumerable). They are indivisible be- cause they are countless and infinite. Viseshaas being single, they have no genus. Take the Soul, ether, time and space. They are Vibhu, (i.e.) infinite, Take the Atomic (anu) mind, or the atoms of the four remain- ing Dravyas, Prithvi, Aap. Tejas and Vaayu. They are also indivisible because they are supposed to be Ne-plus-ultra-there is nothing further. They have reached the utter most point and as they have no parts, they are what they are by their own indivisible nature. (Balian- tyne translated) Visesha as the ultimate difference.

12 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

The sixth category Samavaaya is co-mnherence, inseparable connection of things that mn their nature must be connected as long as they exist Samavaaya has no intimate relation (Samavaayatva) with itself ie it is not possible to group Samavaaya together into a group or commumty as we do with Dravyaas Gunaas or Karmas Samavaaya is different from Samyoga Samyoga or conjunction of things, being a guna has gunatwa Samavaaya belongs to the stxth category and Samyoga belongs to the second category, viz., Guna (see above) Samavaaya Sambandha abhaavat, Samvaaya na Jaatıh Both Samavaaya and Visesha are indivisible Samavaaya is always one and is therefore indivisible whereas Visesha is Ananta (Infinite) and is therefore indivistble One must be able to use off-hand the intricate knowledge of the six words (Padaarthas) anywhere and at any time These words are throughout Aayurveda used as the fundamental means of knowledge Whatever other descriptions are found anywhere without the use of these words, they are only elaborations of these six bastc

Q 5 Compare and contrast the Atomic theory of Nyaaya Vaiseshika with that of Greeks (Rajasthan, Gugral) Or Explain and discuss the Parmanuvada of Vaiseshika (Agra, Bombay, Gugrat, Baroda) Ans The followers of Kanaada are known as Kaanradas In their opimion the root cause of the word is atoms The defintion of atoms given by Kanaada as above, and the one given by the western scientists is almost the same When after dividing and sub-dividing things, you come to the stage when division is no more possible, you have reached the atom or Paramaanu (Parama Anu) 1 e , the ultimate entity As these atoms coalesce, they acquire a new quality as the result of the unton and new things are created There are also atoms of the mind and of the body and when these umte, life results AARAMBHA VAADA The fundamental atoms of Prithvi have four quabties namely -- Gandha, Rasa, Roopa and Sparsa Those of apa have the last three qualties : those of Tejas the last two those of Vaayu only the last one In this way the entire universe is from the very beginning filled with permanent and subtle atoms There is no other root cause of the world except the atots The commencement (Aarambha) of the mutual coalition or unton of the origmal and permanent atoms, results in all the percepts This is technically known as "Aarambha Vaada", Theory of Commencement Some followers of this school do not go beyond the atoms

NYAAYA VAISESHIKA 13

SESWARA VAADA There is a story, that when one of the Vaiseshikas was, at the moment of his death, asked to utter the name of God he uttered the words "Peelavath, Peelavath Peelavath"-"Atoms Atoms, Atoms". Nevertheless other followers of this school believed that Isvara (God) is responsible for bringing about the fusion or union of the atoms. They, in that way, complete the chain of the creation of the universe. They are called "Sesvara' . They say that the universe must have a maker, because it is an effect like a jar (ghata). It is implied that the creative mind must have been created by a power possessing like qualities, but of an infinitely higher kind. It will thus be seen that the atomic theory advanced by modern scientists (Dalton theory) is not at all modern. The theory of Dalton was exploded by the evolution theory of Darwin. In the same way, the Saankhya philosophy has put into the background, the theories of Kanaada. The Kanaada School could not satisfactorily explain, how activity was first imparted to atoms. They could not also explam how. the rising gradation of successive evolution of life in trees, animals and men came into existence, nor could they explain how man came into existence, nor could they explain how living matter was derived out of non-living matter. This was done in ancient India by the Saankhya theory of evolution.

THE THEORY OF ATOMIC AGGLOMERATION According to Vaiseshika Darsana the whole universe is consti- tuted of atoms. "Kaarana Guna Poorvakah Karya Guno Drishatah". The properties that exist in the causative factor are found in the resultant factor. Every atom has some special properties and a substance which is constituted of these atoms would develop the same properties as are contained in the atoms. In a big tank waves arise on its top by winds. These waves are not structurally different from the water below. compare a bit of the wave to the huge quality of water that is contain- When you

ed in the tank, it is like a very small particle. However small they may be, these particles are the same as the water contained in the tank. Similarly, the whole Brahmaanda or universe consists of minute particles, which make up the whole. There are two theories explaining how these particles combine with each other. One is called "Peelupaaka Vaada" chemical theory, and the other is called Pittharapaaka Vaada, physical theory. PEELUPAAKA VAADA (Chemical Theory) Peelu means an atom (Paramaanu). Two atoms combine together to form a "Dvyanuka". Three "Dvyanukaas" combine

14 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

together and form "Tryanuka" Four 'Tryanukaas' combine to form "Chaturanuka" Since the atoms are mathematcally the smallest entities, they have no sides When one atom joins the other, they become one again, and thus they enlarge, and become "Tryanukaas ' "Chaturanukaas," "Panchanukaas" etc The whole world consisting of buildings, trees, mountains, stars, and everything else, is formed by different combinations of these atomic bodies The differentiation m the colour and consistency, roughness or smoothness etc of different substances like pots and cloths is due to what is catled "Paakabheda" difference in chemical combination For example, according to the Vaiseshika system, when a pot is baked, changes take place in its constitution just as they take place when cooking food When these changes take place by the conjunction of fire, the substances which form the clay are reduced down to their Dvyanuka" stage Then the "Dvyanuka" stage is also destroyed The atoms constituting the "Dvyanuka" separate and recombine mnto a "Dvyanuka" possessing different properties such as colour, touch etc It takes nine moments for the consummation of the whole change In the first morient the "Dvyanuka" is destroyed In the second moment, the origmal black colour is destroyed In the third moment, the new red or other colour is generated by the contact with heat In the fourth moment, by virtue of some unknown force from the conjunction of a soul possessing merit (t e ) from a kind of intiative tendency in the atom for the production of a new substance, these atoms combme to form the production of a new substance is started In the fifth moment, the atom separates itself from its old status (ve) from its former place In the sixth moment, it cuts itself off In the seventh moment, it combines with another atom In the eighth moment, the two atoms combine and become "Dvyanuka again In the ninth moment, the properties, such as colour which exist in the atom appear in the new "Dvyanuka" Thus, in these nine moments the dark and unbaked clay pot is converted into the red and baked pot This transformation is caused by what is called "Peelupaaka"-chemical change in the atoms of the original substance This is according to Vaiseshika doctrine Thus the Vaseshikas hold that when a jar is baked, the old black jar is destroyed, its several compounds of two atoms, &c . beng destroyed , the acton of the fire then produces the red colour in the separate atoms, and joining these into new compounds, even- tually produces a new red jar The exceeding rapidity of the steps prevents the eye's detecting the change of the jars The followers of the Nyaaya maitain that the fire penetrates into the different compounds of two or more atoms, and produces its effects on these compounds, and thereby changes not the jar but its colour etc The jar is still the same jar, only it is red, but not black PITTHARAPAAKA (Physical Change) According to the Nyaaya system, it is considered that the trins- formation of one substance into another takes place by physt.al

NYAAYA VAISESHIKA 15

change in the molecules The pot when it is baked changes its colour and other qualities without giving up its molecular structure Pitthara means a pot Since it is considered that the changes take place in the pot itself and not in the atoms, this theory is called "Pitthara- paaka Vaada" The pot is the same as the one that is baked It did not lose its identity The different constituents or Pittharaas need not undergo destruction but they undergo a transformation A Pitthara (molecule) consists of two or more atoms There are numerous pittharaas (or molecules) in the pot Since everyone of the particles which constitute the pot is black, the pot appears to be black in the beginning These particles change their colour when baked into red And there are also other changes like roughness in their properties The Nyaaya system says that whatever changes are said to take place according to Vaiseshika theory take place in the molecule only and that there is no need for the destruction of the molecules in'o their Atomic construction Both in the first and the second arrangement, the atoms are the same but they have only changed their chemical or physical character Take hmestone, coral and pearl-all these three yield lime, (calcium oxide) when burnt But their medicmnal and biochemical properties on living bodies are different The pearl lime is known to be heating, caustic, and comparatively destructive to the living tissues Charcoal, graphite and diamond are all made up of carbon But they have different properties It was recently demonstrated that particles of charcoal when mixed with molten iron and suddenly cooled to a very low temperature become changed into particles of diamond by a change in their molecular structure It is said m the Vedaas that the whole universe is produced by the "Paaka ' (chemical change) caused by the rays of tre sun "Soorya mareecht maathatee Sarvasmaath bhuvana thathi, Tasyaah paaka Viseshena ' The purgative and other properties of croton on other drugs are of the atoms (peelus) contained in them This theory of the Nyaaya Vaiseshika of the causation of the universe is called the Theory of Atomic Agglomeration in contrast with Partnaama Vaada-the Theory of Evolution and Vivartha-

and Advalta) Vaada-the Theory of Illusion of the other Darsanaas (See Saankhya

INFLUENCE OF KAALA Kaala (time) is an entity that has to be taken ito consideration when dealing with chemical or physical changes Take for instance a It may be ripened into a fruit either slowly or quickly according to the rapidity of Paaka or Bio chemical changes that take raw manco

place during the transformation of the raw fruit into a ripe one You may envelop the fruit mn a heap of hay thereby giving 1 it the heat necessary for its ripening slowly and also to exclude to a certain extent the cold air, which retards the ripening

16 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

2 You may place the fruit in the hot sun till it gets ripened 3 You may keep the fruit in the hearth or a hot air chamber Although the fruit gets ripe, by all the three processes the taste, colour and the other qualities differ to a great extent This is due maily to the time that is allowed for the chemical changes under the three different conditions Enveloped m hay the fruit takes its own time and a good taste and colour develop mn it Expose it to hot sun the fruit ripens quicker but the qualities are different Expose it to the direct heat in the hearth, it may ripen very much quicker and has again different properties In all these three conditions the main factor affecting the Paaka -- chemtcal or Bio chemi cal change is time-Kaala Thus the Hindu scientists considered Kaala one of the most important factors in those changes

( III ) NAVYA NYAAYA Navya Nysaya-Syntheais of Nyaaya and Vewseshka-Survey of ita Epistemology-Hetvaabbassas- Anaikaantika- Viruddhe -- Amddha- Satpra- tipalshe -Baadhita- -Linguistie Problems Upamsaba- The place of God in the system of Philosophy-In the Vameshika Sutras-In the Nyaaya Butres- Vaatsyasyena -- Motive for Creation-God an intellectual principle -God the Supreme Ruler-Logical Proof of God-Body of God-Relation of Body to Peyehical Activities -- God An Indtaputable Logical necessity The Law of Karma-God an Eternal Unifying force-God is One The Worshtp of God

Q 6 Discuss critically the Vaiseshika and Nyaaya allied systems of pllosophy ? How are they allied? Do they differ in some ways ? If so, how ? (Agra)

Ans The system of Kanaada was later combined with the system of Nyaaya and became one system It is called Navya Nyaaya or Tarka Saastra Although in the earliest stages of their inception the schools of Nyaaya and Vaiseshika held independent positions both in epis- temology and metaphysics, it was recognized from the very begmning that the two schools had very much in common and that their differ- ences were of minor importance The later fusion of the Varseshika metaphysics with the Nyaaya epistemology was not an arbitrary or unnatural attempt at a rapproachment, but was dictated by an inner logical necessity of grving a complete philosophy of realism, with the deficiencies of each being made good in a well-rounded synthests Though the professed objective of both the systems is to provide a clear cut formula for the achievement of salvation and freedom from the limitattons of personal existence this ultimate problem of salvation is forgotten and shoved into the background, for the time being, in the zeal for phuosophical speculations

NYAAYA VAISCSHIKA 17

OFthe 16 Padaardhas of Nyaaya, only the first one, mmely Pramaana-the approved source or instruments of knowledge received the most elaborate considerarion at the hands of Gangesa in his 'Tatwa-Chintaamam, wlch forms the mun foundation of Navya Nayaaya Laterly, the interests of Navya Nyaaya in Nadia (Nava- dweepa) were accordingly of the nature of epistemological enqutries, and the mterests m metaphysics were purely of a subsrdrary character The main energies were directed to questions of practical importance such as proper guidance of philosophical debates SYNTHESIS OF NYAAYA AND VAISESHIKA In the course of developments, the Nyaaya and Varseshika schools were wedded into one system and produced a well rounded, compact and consistent philosophy The four Pramaanas of the Nyaaya system were accepted by the Vaisesiikas and the six

yıkas padaardhas of the Vaiseshika system were accepted by the Naiyaa-

The prestige and honour which Nyaaya philosopny enjoys in the present day are entirely due to this happy synthesis of Vaiseshika metaphysics and Nyaaya eptstemology, which made this branch of philosophy fuller, richer and more consistent The Vaiseshika phiosophy is poorer in ats epistemotogical interest and is pre eminently metaphysical, and contrarywise Nyaaya is pronouncedly lacking in its metaphysical interests and its strength les in its logical and epistemological contributions A combination of the two was a logical necessity A SURVEY OF ITS EPISTEMOLOGY Nyaaya philosophy grew m its strength and volume in conse quence of its fight with rival Buddhistic schools, Gautama's episte- mology and logic as developed by Vaatsyaayana in lus Bhanshya were mercilessly atticked by Dinmaga (Buddhist) and their prestige suffered a rude shock This gave the occasion to Uddyotakara to write hts Nyaaya Vaarttika Uddyotakara m course of his comments eriticized Vasubandhu and Dirnaaga and defended the Nyaaya position Dharamakeerti, Dharamottara and others took up the challenge and showed the weakness and madequacy of Uddyotakara's defence Next came -- Vaachaspati Misra who again gave replies to the animadver- stons of the Buddhist phtlosophers and the defence of the Nyaava school of thought was cirried forward by Jayantabhatta Sridhara and Udayana After Udayana we do not hear of any Buddltst philosopher who caused trouble to orthodox systems. Even a survey of the works of these writers will convince the reader how keen end acute was the fight that was carned on between the two rval schools of thought The result was precision of defimtions in which every word, and every particle, was duly measured and had to be defended Nyaaya an one sense came to be regarded as the scienre of defintions, the importance and necessity of which are now to be recognized in modern European philosophy on account of the attacks

18 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

of Neo-Realists of Europe and America Every concept has been accurately defined and there is no room for doubt or speculation as to the meaning and purpose of the philosophical arguments Clarty of thought and accuracy of expression have become the characteristic features of works on Nyaaya philosophy and of other schools as well owing to the prepondering influence of Nyaaya philosophy and of other schools as well owing to the preponderating influence of Nyaaya speculations on the course of philosophical thoughts of India It is not a matter of surprise therefore that the scholarship of a student of Indian philosophy, of whatever school it may be is looked upon with scepticism unless he can produce a proof of lus acquam- tance with the Navya Nyaaya speculations The greatest achievement of Gangesa consists of the marshalling of the arguments of all previous writers in his work with an accuracy and ingenuity which evoke spontaneous admiration In a short compass he has given us the best and solidest frutts of the labours of past masters and focusses the attention of the student on the most fundamental and characteristic contributions of the school Naturally this worl alone has come to monopolze the attention of later students and commentators Gangesa's mamn purpose is to treat the four Pramaanas- Pratyaksha (perception), Anumaana (inference) Upamaana (compari- son) and Sabda (verbal testimony) It is on the chapter of inference (anumiana) that Gangest and the later writers have shown their best ingenuity The eonditions of inference have been thoroughly analysed and explamed Inference is defined to be the judgment produced by the knowledge of the minor premise (Paksha-dhirmata) qualified by the knowledge of the universal proposttion (Vyaapti) the major premise, which stites the connection between two terms tn their universal reference This universal con- nection is termed Vyaapt apd a long discussion of the concept of Vyaapt and its diverse definition is undertaken This chief value of Nyaaya philosophy consists in its contri- button to method and termtnology, which have been immably adopted by all other schools of thought The consequence has been that whatever school of thought one may follow and whatever may be one's philosophicat derelctions and convictions, one must sperk in the language of Natyaayıkas HETWAABHAASA (Fallacies) Q. 7 State the Nyaya View of Syllogism and comparc it with the Western View Ans The Indian logician has furmshed the evidence of his penetrating insight and critical observation and his findings will be hailed as astonishing, original contributions, when dealing, with fallcies (Hetwrbhaasa) The study of fallacies in standard works on logie has been a favourite and useful pursmt since very old times both

NYAAYA VAISESHIA 19

in Europe and India Perheps the necessity of exposing fallactes mn the arguments of the opponent proceeded from the systematic and scientific study of logic as a separtte science and discipline. Many of the fallacies treated of in standard works on European logic are not fallacies of inference and they have been set apart in a different category by Indian logicians hasthaanas (grounds of defeat) are rightly belteved to form a The Nigra-

wider class which comprehends logical fallacies (hetvabhasas) in their scope as a particular variety ind were never confounded with purely łogical aberrations The fallacies which have been called fallacies in detion by Arstotle and whuch have their origin in ambiguity of language are not regarded as fallacies proper by Indian logician and they have been judiciously placed under the head of Chhalas (quibbles) Many of the fallacies of the dtctionem variety also are not regarded as fallacies of reason and they may be placed eithe under the head of quibbles or that of nigrahasthaanas which are sympathetic of other than logical delinquncy The fallacy of ignoratio elenchi, which consists in proving another conclusion than what is intended, will be subsumed under the head of arthnantara, a variety of mgrahnsthaana, which serves to show that the arguer has no cicar grasp of the issue. Hetvanbhansas or false reasons are precisely those fallacies in middle. terms which when discovered are found to lack any beanng on the conciusion sought to be drawn A study of fiflacies in a work on Logic is justified on the ground that it contributes to the discovery of truth or defeat of the opponent by creating 4 labit of mind to avoid or to discover the flaws in our reasoning. A hetvabhaasa is defined to be a false probans (middle term) the discovery of wluch works as a deterrent towards inference, m other words it is what makes infererce imposable and illegitimate A hetvaabhaasa may be regarded either as a false reason (hetu) or a defect vitiating the reason Whchever view may be taken of the nature of a hetvaabhaasa the undeniable fact remuns that the concept of hetvabhasa (fallacy) does not extend to any defect or shortcoming of a personal nature ind'strictly stands for those objective defects alone which obstruct the process of inference conviction of the concluston is an obsticle to inference and according Previous

to the definition it should be regarded as a case of fallacy But that IS not the case, Concept of fillacy does not include the cases which serve as ampediments to inference only under definite conditions and cense to function as deterrents when those conditions are removed A previous knowledge of the conclusion does not operate as a bar to inference when it is accompamcd by a destre for inferertial proof of

of a fallacy the otherwise known thesis and so it does not fall under the catecory The definition, however, covers the accredited cascs of T cognized fallacies which, according to the Nayaayika, are of ine different types cis (I) anukaantrka (the iconclusive probans (middl- term) lacking invariable concomitance with the probandum (mjrr term) , (2) Viruddha (the contradictory probans which is invarcbly Concomitant with the absence of the probandum , (3) asidha (unproven probans) , (4) sitpratipaksha (the counter balanced probans), ind

20 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

(5) baadhita (the contridicted probans) The inconclusive (anaikaan- tika) probans thwarts the process of inference by violating the unt- versal concomitance (vyaapti), wluch is one of the conditions of inferences The frustration of inference may be direct or indirect through the violation of the conditions on inference Now, the conditions of mference are (i) the universal concomitance of the probans with probandun , (u) the subsistence of such probans in the subject which is expressed in the minor premise The combined pro- duct of these two premises is the synthetic judgment (paraamansa) which immedntely leads to inference or the conclusion If by reason of any defect the synthetic judgment fails to materialize, the conclu- sian will not follow and a deadlock will be the result

ANAIKANTIKA

divisions, viz, (1) The first type of fallacy (anatkaantıka) admits of three sub- (a) the common (saadharana) , (n) the uncommon (asaadhaarana) , and lastly, (ua) the inconsequential (anupasamhaart) (t) The common inconclusive probans is one which is found to co cxist with the probandum (saadhya) and the absence of the proban "dum (saadhyaabhaava) alike It violates the condition of necessary universal concomitance which is fulfilled when the probans is found to be invariably concomitant with the probandum and to be absent in a locus where n the probandum is absent In other words, the concomitance must be attested both in agreement and difference The common mconclusive fallacy is illustrated in the following argument Word is imperishable, because it is a cognizable fact tance of cognizability with imperishabihty is not necessary and does The concomi-

not exclude the opposite possibility Even perishable things are cognzable So the probans cognizable is inconclusive, being common to perishable and imperishable things alike It is fallacious because it obstructs inference by violating the condition of necessary con- comitance (u1) The fallacy of uncommon inconclusive probans thwarts inference by thwarting the escertainment of the concomitance in agreement, which is a necessary condition of inferenee Word is imperishable, because it is a word' The hill is possessed of fire, because it is a hill ' These arguments are illustrations of the afore- said fallacy, because the concomitance between the fact of being a word' and 'being imperishable' is not capabte' of being ascertained ( u) The inconsequential inconelusive probans arises when the subject is the totality of existent things and the probans and the probandum are absolute universal con epts as for instance in the argument, 'All things are namable because they are cognizable' There is no case left over where the concomitance between the probans and probandum can be tested as all existents have been included in the denotation of the subject This sub-species of fallacy however has been a subjcat of heated controversy and Gangesa succeeds in vindicating this fallacy on the psychological ground of failure of a knowledge of umversal concomtance, the failure beig due to the absence of acere- dited example where the concomitance can be ascertained

NYAAYA VAISCSHIKA 21

VIRUDDHA (2) The contradictory probans (Viruddha) being invariably con comitant with the contradictory of the probandum contradicts the cognition of the necessary concomitance of the probans with the probandum and thus thwarts inferunce by removing one of its condi tions

ASIDDHA (3) Asıddha' (unproven) admits of several sub-divisions varying with the terms of the syllogism that may be unproven (1) The subject may be a fiction and this would involve the fallacy of the unproven subject (nasrayasiddha) The argument The golden hifl is possessed of fire because it is possessed of smoke is abortive inasmuch as no synthetic judgement cogmising the presence of smoke concomitant with fire in a fiction is possible (u) There may be a case of unproven prooans (svarupaa siddha) where the probans is known to be non extstence in the subject as in the irgument The lke is on fire because it is possessed of smol e The probans smoke does not exist in the subject lake and this affords an illustration of the fallacy of unproven probans (ui) There may be a case of unproven probandum (Sadhyasiddha) as in the argument The hill is possessed of golden fire because of smoke The fallacious character of the unproven probans and the unproven probandum is evidenced by the failure of the syn thetic judgement owing to the absence of the probandum in the latter The synthetic judgment has for its constituent terms the probans the probindum the concomitance between them and the subject as qualified by such probans and the absence of any one of these factors will make the judgment and through it the inference an impossibihty The same consequence arises when the probans is qualified by a fictitious or superfluous attribute Hence golden smoke has no pro bative value and even blue smoke is no proof of fire as concomitance with fire is understood in smoke in its simple character of beig a smone ind not is blue smoke The probanses under discussion are regarded as fallacious as they preclude the knowledge of concomi tance and through this failure the synthetic judement (paraamarsa) and inference (anumiti) are rendered impossible SATPRATIPAKSHA (4) The counter balanced probans (satpratipaksha) in one which is vitiated by a counter-reason advanced m a separate argument to prove the contradictory of the thesis sought to be proved by it To take a concrete instance, the argument word is imperishable because it is amorphous fike space is counterbalanced by the argument 'Word is perishable b-cause it is a product like a jar probans amorphous is contradicted by the second probans 'product ' The first

The result is a dendlock as one probans is offset by aother and con sequently no iference is possible The difference between the contr dictorv and the counter balanced probans is this that the opposite the is is proved by a second probans advanced in a supplementary

22 INDIAN PHILOSOPAY

argument in the fallacy of the counterbalanced probans, whereas in the former fallacy the self same probans proves the opposite thesrs and is further instrumental in proving the incompetence of the arguer mn employmg a probans to prove a thesis which proves the reverse of it BAADHITA (5) The fallacy called baadh ta (contradicted) arises when the ab- sence of the probandum in the subject is ascertaied by means of an other evidence Thus for example when a person would like to argue Fire is not hot it is a substance and all substinces such as water earth and atr are known to be not hot the probans employed will be a con tradicted probans Fire is known to be hot by direct perception and th directly contradicts the inference The general definition ef fallacy applies to this case a fortion as it thwirts inference directly In fact the contradicted probans and the counterbalanced probans ire ca cs of direct fallacy as they thwart mference proper and the other fallacies are indtrect as they frustrate inference onty by thwarting tte instrument (vyaaptijaana) or its operition in the shape of the synthetic judgment (parramarsi) This fallacy however is not admitted by the Buddlust and Jama irgicians is a fallacy of probans they would mather believe it to be a case of false probindum (pakshanbha isa) Others aeun have con tended that this is not an mndependent fallacy ind the failure of infe rence is due to the presence of other fllacies Thus for mstance if the probans is found to be non existent mn the subject te fallucy would be a case of unproven probins If it is existent in the subj ct it w ll be a cese of inconciusive probans is the concomitance of the probans with probandum will be found to be absent in nie subject itself by means of perception and the bke The Naiyaayiko meets these contention by appeal to psychology The sense cf con tradt tion is different from that of non concomit ince Agun when a person argues the presence of odour in the emthen jug at the very moment of its origmation A substaince remains divested of it attrt bute at the mom nt of its origin and corres to be vested vith it onl in ti e second moment The probandum odour is predicated of the enrthen jug at ti e mc ment of its on in ind this is contradicted by the hw of cquality-the jug beirg the cau e of edour connot synchronizc with the effect Considertt ns of space prevent us from enterirg into further controversy over the subject ard our purpose will be fuf filled if this brief discourse serves to st mulite the interest of tle reader in the speculations of the Nayaayikas

LINGUISTIC PROBLEMS Q 8 Evaluate the contribution made by Naiyanyiks to the Linguistic problems Ans The Naiyaayika made his own contributtons to the study of lingustic problems Language has bren studied m Indit both mn its phonetic and semanttc asp-cts In the reaim of semantics cof r as the lo ical value of imp rt of terms and proposit ons is ceacerned,

NYAAYA VAISESHIKA 23-

the Grammarians, the Meemaamsist and the Naiyaayika have each their own views, which are in sharp conflict with one another. There is a discussion of the expressive powers of words, of the objects denot- ed, of the meaning of the suffixes, the syntactical relations and the resultant verbal judgment. These linguistic enquiries have not only achieved results which throw light on the structure of the Sanskrit langnage, but have also led to the discovery of universal laws which will apply to all the languages of the world. UPAMAANA

Comparison (upamaana) is a special kind of pramaana and there is a difference of views between the Naiyaayika and Meemaamsist botl in regard to their nature and function. The Naiyaayika thinks it neces- sary to requisition the aid of this cogmtive instrument when a person has to affix verbal label to an unknown entity from analogy. To take an instance ; A person is told that there is a wild animal called gavaya which closely resembles a cow. It so happens that the person so in- formed goes into a forest and actually sees a gavaya and then recog- nizing its close resemblance to a cow he recollects the words of his informant and at once concludes that the animal is gavaya. The designation of the animal as gavaya is made possible only by means of upamaana, a separate source of knowledge, and neither by perception nor by the recollection of the informant's testimony. Whatever may be its logical value, which has been challenged by rival philosophers, it must be admitted that comparison as a proof has such a limited scope and its achievement is so meagre that it can be safely dispensed with in a scheme of epistemology. The centre of interest is found in the three other pramaanas, of which again anumaans and sabda have come to monopolize the entire attention of later students.

THE PLACE OF GOD IN THE SYSTEM OF PHILOSOPHY Q. 9. How is God conceived by Naiyikas ? What proofs have they offered for the existence of God. (Agra: Jaipur) Or Examine the concept of God in Nyaya-Vaiscshika. (Rajasthan) Ans. It will not be possible within the limits of this chapter to discuss all the metaphysical problems that have been broached in the Sootras and elaborately developed in the subsequent exegetical litera- ture. I propose to deat with the following fundamental problems : the position and nature of God and the relation of God to the indi- vidual souls and the world. The Nynaya-sootra like the cognate Vaiseshika-sootra postulates the ultimate reality of atoms as the material cause of the world and God is rather the organizer of the world-order. The world-process proceeds in cycles and so far as its eyclic existence is concerned it is without a beginning and is coeval with God. The individuat souls are external entities dating from a beginningless time and so have a parallel

24 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

existence with God and the world The Nyaaya Vaiseshika school is fn this matter of beginningless creation fully in agreement with other Indian philosophy In fact, the doctrine of beginningless existence of the individual souls together with the cyclic world process is a funda- mental postulate of most of the scliools of Indian philosophy Unless we accept position of unqualified scepticism or absolute illusionism, we have to admit the existence of a timeless entity, be it God or time or atoms or the individual souls It is generally accepted mn western philosophy that the soul is immortal, but its immortility is not clearly defined as existence through all time, but rather as exist- ence after death If the soul is demed pre existence and is beleved to come into being with the birth of the present body, it becomes difficult to belteve in its endless future exstence It is a truism that tluings that have a defintte origin are hable to destruction And so unless we are prepared to accord a timeless existence to the soul, it will not he in us to assert its immortalty categorically Agam, God is at any rate believed to be a timeless entity and if God ts by nature in active principle, His activity too will be co eternal with his beig and i must express itself in the process of creation or destruction, and what- ever may happen to be reasonable to predicate of God in the way of His activity, it must be supposed to exist through all time Then again, the individual selves, who are prima facie supposed to have a somewhat independent existence apart from God, cannot be supposed, without giving rise to absurdities, to have begun their career from z definite point of time If they are supposed to be created by God in time and as such to be destitute of a pre existenee no proof can be put forward to establish their immortality which is the accepted post- tion of most of the philosophers of Europe, barring of course the materialists and sceptics

IN THE VAISESHIKA SOOTRAS The Nyanya and Vaisesluka schools are zealous advocates of supreme authority of the Vedas in the matter of religion and though they do not believe either in the etermty of word-essence or the un creited character of the Veda hke the Meemaamsake there is no explicit statement of God as the author of Vedic revelation in the Sootra and tls seems to be currous, in as much as the authority of verbal testimony, not excepting the authority of the Veda, is derved from the vericity and infallibilty of the speaker or writer In the Bhaashya of Vatsvaayana too there is no clear reference to the divine authorship of the Vedas, although Vaatsyaayan is a staunch beltever in the existence of God In the Vaiseshika Sootra (II, 1 18) the author- ship of the Vedas is attributed to persons of superior wisdom, who are snid to be possessed of the power of direct intuition of supersensu- ous things spoken of in the scripture In the aforesaid work agamn (VI. v 1-4) the Vedic sentences are sud to be the produet of intelli- gent persons who had first haind experience of the facts Now there is no decisive evidence, so far as the wordine of the sootras is concern- ed, whtch can enible us to conclude that the Vaiseshtla Sootra

NYAAYA VAISCSHIKA 25

detinitely ind clearly assigns a place to God in the scheme of meta physics IN THE NYAAYA SOOTRAS The evidence of the Nayaaya sootra too, is not very definite ind there is room for speculation that these systems were, at any rate in their period of incepuion without defimte predthction or commit ments in favour of God The sootras 19 21 of chap IV sec 1 in the Nyaaya sootra are the only textual passages which allude to God as the creator of the world But the hurst sootra which speaks of the inadequacy of the individual s karma (moral actions) as the causal principle and makes God the creator of the world, is treated of as the prima facie view which is rejected in the next sootra The third sootrz in the present context is interpreted by Vantsyaayana as esta bhshing the necessity of God s agency The whole discourse can be summed up in the following words The actions (karma) of men are not the selfsufficient cause of the world and so for the creation of the world we must postulate the agency of God The answer to this contention is that this position cannot be maintained If the actions of men were immaiterial and God alone was the sufficient cause of the world order there would be no raison d etre for moral activity But we cannot conceive that results can take place without previous deeds The third sootra ' tatkaaritatvaada hetuh has been inter preted by Vaatsyaayana m the following way The actions of men are by themselves incapable of producing their fruit, but these are made fruitful directly by the agency of God ' So the previous argu ment is sconsequentrl The results of this discourse, as interpreted by the scholast seem to establish the fact that for the creation of the world God s agency is indispensable as it is God alone who can dis pense the rewards and punishments proper to men s actions mn previous lives But men s actions are not sufficient to produce their results which are realized in the creation of the world only because there is an omniscient and omnipotent Being behind them as the judge and ordainer of the fruits So actiors too are contributory factors to cre ition, but the direct agency is in the hands of God

But this is not the only possible interpretation The Vrittiknara has given an alternative explanation which entirely dispenses with God s agency and seeks to explam the falure of men s actions as due to the absence of previous merit (adrisht) The divergence of inter pretation which is made possible bv the cryptic language of the sootras leaves room for honest doubt whether the admission of God into the architectonic plan of Nyaaya Vaiseshika metaphysics is strictly demanded by a loeical necessity Moreover, the introduction of this question of God s aeency into the discussion of origin of tle world is made by way of mncidental reference in the Nyaaya sootra and cannot be regarded as clinching the entire dispute The purport of the sootra seems to be to wage a crusade against those theorics which demied the efficacy of kirma and hence the moral feundation of the world order

26 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

In the later Nyaaya Vaiseshika literature But m spite of the fact that the sootra literature is obscure and non committal on this vital issue, the later Nyaava-Vaiseshikn litera- ture begmning with Vantsyaayana and Prasistmadt ind down to the latest developments in the Nadr school is noted for its staunch defence of God's existence against the attacks of itheistie schyols and the Nyaava Vuseshika school has rightly come to be respeeted as the masterful chimpion of theism

VAATSYAAYANA

Vaatsyaayana holds that God is a soul primus inter pares although distinguished from ordin try souls by renson of the absence of impiety, error aud inadvertence and the eternal presence of super- abundant righteousness pure knowledge and super-moral powers by virtue of which he is capable of crenting the world by a mere fiat of the will He is the shelter of all e catures and protects all beings like an affuctionate father He is possessed of eternal knowledge of all things God is not a simple existent without any characteristic as an uncharicterized entity is only a conceptual fiction VAACHASPATI MISRA Vaachispatr Misri gives voice to a possible objection to the posvession of superabundant mercy by God on the score of the presence of undisputed suffering and pain in the created worid The usu il explanation of the mnequalittes in the world o rder by reference to the uncqual values of the past actions of individual souls is but a poor defence, innsmuch as these actions are not self productive of their results and if God abstuns from dealing out the fruits of actions, the world-order would be destitute of the imperfections and limitations that are unfortunately ruling rampant Vanchaspat! anwers the objection with his usual boldness Although God is ail- powerful and there is no limit to His mercy He cannot subvert the mo al lwws, which are by their u iture imnmutable God s omnipotence is subject to the supremacy of the moral law and the moral law is rather the law of His own being and also of the being of individual selves There can be no escape from the consequences of moril acttons except by enjoyment thercof Man remains unfree so long as he is not absoived from the bonds of actions, rood or bad, and the creatton of the world is solely motivated by the supreme desire of God to ere tte opportunities for the individual selves to work off the bad of their actions Suffering is not an unmitigated evil It serves to make men feel disinclined to the things of the world and helps them to re ifise the vanity of the worldly pleasures This detatehment and dranchouon is the condihon preecdent for all spiritual progressin. as it includes man to contemplate the means of escape from the worries of trinsmigration and he fids the micans in the p'ulosophie re ilisation of the true nature of the self and the worlt and their mutual relationship So suffering is a blessing in diguise Umtliyed ph isure on the other hnd would make a man forzet the htghest

NYAAYA VAISESHIKA 27

interest of life and its true mission and degrade lum to the rank of the lowest brute Suffering is thus a propaedeutic discipline and a necessary prepration for the achievement of the highest gol, vie, unfettered freedom, the summum honum of life MOTIVE FOR CREATION Another difficulty is ratsed Why should there be a will to creation at all ? All activity is normally motivated by some ulterior purpose of satisfying a need either in the way of acquisition of an advantage or avoidance of evil In the case of God no such motive can be supposed to set free an activity, as He is exhypothesi free from alf disadvantages and is self sufficient and self satisfied an unsatisfied want will be a contraoiction in terms A God with It has been mamtaied that the God engages in creative ictivity in a sportive mood Crestion is but a game and pastime with Him and no question of motive, therefore, can be irgued as recessary But Uddyotak ira refuses to be convinced by tlus argument as even a play is not a motiveless activity It is resorted to only with a view to enjoyment of pleasure which is derived from it and also because abstention from play causes uneasmess to those who are lovers of sports contingency cinnot be concen ed to be possible with refererce to Gcd, But such a

because He is absolutely free from all shndes of uneasiness and worry. The theory of playful activity, therefore cannot be regarded as a satisfictory explamition of God's creative impulse The sucord theory that God s creatne activity is ispired by a desire for demon- striting His powers and glory in and through the inconceivable virieties and complexities of the created world does not seem to stand a better chance of success The question arses why should He be eager to gne a demonstratien of His glory ? Certatnly God does not gain any advintage from His adventure, nor do we concene of any possible loss on His part if He ceases from this er terprise If any advantage could acc-ue, God would be a lesser God-in other words, would cease to be God What then is the explan ition 7 No expla- nation can be offered beyend pesiting that it is God's reture to do so Cosmic actrvities are an escential part of His being and Gedhoed minus cosmic functions is an intell g tie fiction It may be interesting to observe in this connectien that Gaud-paada too in his Maan dookva Kaarikaa has summed up these vews in a couplet ind draws the same conclusion with Uddvetekara that it is the es ential nature of God to engage in creative actrit es, and no motre can be alleged with reference to one who has no unsetrsfied want There can be ro questioning again with regard to ultimate facts and corsutution of things It is absurd to mterrogate abcut the mature of even materis) objects as to why they should bebave in the pecult r way they do and not otherwise God is a dynamic principle and His dynamism is mant- fested m His cosmic activities and it dces not leave anv room for spcculation as to why God should be dynamc and not be quiescent and incthe The ultimate nature of tl ines can be urderstoed enlv from observition of their behaviour ind not priorL So no question of motiv tion is either legitimate or profitable

28 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

GOD -- AN INTELLIGENT PRINCIPLE But the opponent raises another objection Granted that God is dynamic by His very constttution and nature but this would make His activity a perpetual necessity, since one cannot resist one's nature and perpetual cosm c activity would make the periodic dissolution of the world process an impossibility Moreover there would be simul taneous creation of all objects, but this is opposed to our experience Things are produced on a graduated scale and the process of creation and dissolutton of distribution and redistribution of causal energies is attested to be the ruling order by scientific researches and popular experience as well Uddyotakara in reply observes thut this objection would be insurmountable if the ulttmate principle were concerved to be a blnd force without mtellgence and provision But God is an intelligent principle and creates those things for which He thinks that there is an cccasion and necessity and His cosmic activities although not compelled by an external necessity, and conducted and gutded by a moral self urge which takes the direction best calculated to briny about the deserts of actions accumtlated by individual souls, in pursuince of intrinsic spiritual laws wluch have their seat in the fundamental morality and the spirttual nature of God and the souls, and are unfolded in the spatio temporal order of the universe So no such consequences are possible GOD-THE SUPREME RULER God again is the supreme ruler of the universe and this supre- macy is co eternal with His being His powers are infinite and un ltmited Ordinarily power is acquired by moral excellence which again is achieved by moral exertion and setivities If God's powers were co eternal with His own being and as such not acquired by religious merits or moral activities than the tmiversalty of the moral law would be untenable as God would be placed above its juris- diction But this should not cause a difficulty If the moral law is to be an eternal ruling principle it must be found to exist in its perfection ne plus ultra samewhere and it is found in God The moral law is supreme because God is supreme and the law is but the mamfestation of His being In the case of moral and spirtual exce'lence, which too is actually acqutred no doubt But tluis acheve ment is made possible by the eternal moral perfection that is in God and if the supremacy of God were the product of acquired moral excellence, the unobstructed supremacy of the laws of morality would be an impossibilty and a chimera a consumption that might be piously hoped for but never possible of realisation Moreover, the lypothesis of acquired supremacy in God would be tantamount to a dennl of God and the eternity of divine justice and the result would be a negition of the moral foundation of the world order LOGICAL PROOF OF GOD Q 10 Explain carefully the arguments for God's exis tence given by Nyaaya How far do you regard these argu ments as satisfactory ? (Agra 1967) Or

NYAAYA VAISESHIKA 29

Discuss the logical proof of the existence of God, Ans. The previous arguments have served to make it clear that God may be a plausible existent, but no proof has been added to establish the existence of God ? Is it absolutely necessary that we must admit His existence and that the world-order cannot be explained except on this hypothesis ? We propose to consider the logical proofs that have been advanced by the philosophers of this school. Now we are familiar with three different classes of existents. In the first place, there are objects which are obviously known to be products of intelligent and thoughtful agents such for instance as palaces, gates, walis, pens, chairs and tables. In the second place, there are existents which are admitted by a general consensus of opinion to be destitute of any author and as such to be eternal existents, such for instance as atoms and space.

In the third place, we meet with existent facts which are sus- ceptible of being suspected as made by some intelligent agent, viz. the body, the mountain, the sea, the tree and other such objects. The suspicion of intelligent authorship legitimately arises with regard to the last mentioned category of objects on account of their striking similarity with objects of the first class and also on account of the divergence of views among philosophers of rival schools. There is no categorical evidence for the absence of intelligent authorship either. It is certainly true that no man has seen them to have been produced by an intelligent author, but absence of perceptual evidence is no proof of the absence of an intelligent author, as such an author may legitimately be supposed to be invisible like atoms etc. Absence of perceptual evidence can be regarded as proof of absence of the object only when the latter is amenable to perception and not other- wise In the case of the body, the tree, the mountain etc. they are known to have a definite origination in time and to be non-existent before their origination. Who has brought them into existence ? It can be legitimately inferred that they have been brought into existence by an intelligent maker who had knowledge of the material causes and the process of production, just as palaces and roads are built by a knowing person. But these sets of phenomana are seen to come into existence at a definite point of time and they evince the same intellt- gent plan and teleology. Why should then oneset of phenomena be supposed to come into existence independently of a maker and not the other set, although we find very little difference between them so far as the teleological plan of their construction and their definite origina- tion in time are concerned ? But it may be objected that the origination of the grand phenomena of nature-the mountain, the sea, the forest the river and so on-is not defintely perceived by any man whose testimony may be accepted as proof. In the circumstane:s how can an original be predicated of these doubtful ubjects, even if it is allowed that origination is proof of an intelligent agent ? The answer is that objects which are capable of being divided into parts cannot

30 INDIAN PIHLOSOPIY

be supposed to be ultimate existents and as the process of division and analysis show the constituent fictors, they must be supposed to have come into existence by means of a previous integration and combina tion of the component factors And none but an mtelligent being could bring about such a combintion with a view to the result This is certainly the case with regard to productions of arts and crafts Why should there be a difference in the case of natural objects though the some intelligent planning of means to ends is observable in them also ? It should be admitted then that objects which are scen to be possessed of parts arranged according to a purposive plan must have been made by some intelligent maker BODY OF GOD It has however, becn contended that this telcological argument is futile as it leads to self contradiction Even if it be granted that the world has an agent who is possessed of intelligence and fore- thought, there is no escape from antimonies (Conflict paradox) The reason is that all knowledge is produced by an impact on our organtc sensibilities ind if the ultimate author of the unnerse be possessed of a psycho physical orginism all his cognitions would be continsent events and so he could not be regirded as omniscient Moreover, all his cognitive activites would be subject to the limitation of sense façulties, and he would not be able to envisage the super subtle causes of the world ind so would not be the creator If it is supposed that God is independent of a physical organism it will be extremely difficult to tmagine how He can have knowledge at all and still further how He can operate upon the ntoms the ultimate constituents of the material world If you deny a bodily organism to God you will have to deny all intelligence and purposive activity on His part and to think that He will have an eternal body is as impossible as in eternal world And if He is possessed of a body of limited dimension it will be Imble to origin and destruction and furthermore He will not be in touch with all matters lying outside the body If cense organs are added to the organism, all the cogmitions and volitionl activities will be as transitorv as ours The result will be that untlnking and unintell gent God will have to be posited ind this will be an absurdity Nor can we suppose that God is entirely unassociated with a physichl organism and is possessed of eternal intellieence, eternal desire and eternal will becuse there is absolutely no warrant for this supposition as all knowledge and volttional activities are seen from experience to be contigent on the possescion of a nervous system and cerebal functions which are sought to be denied to God God thus becomes a chimera and a fiction of the imagmnation whether we affirm a physical orginism with a cerebral system and nervous organtsation of we deny the same of him It is better therefore if we desist from the supposition that the world order has an intelligent author 1 RELATION OF THE BODY TO PSYCHICAL ACTIVITIES In reply to these charges the philosophers of this school have pointed out that the opponents have failed to apprarse the relation of

NYAAYA YAISESHIKA 31

the body to the psychical activities at their proper worth and to observe that voluntary activities are not in any way contigent on the possession of a foreign orgaism although from a surface view of things this may seem to be the necessary condition What is the condition of voluntary activity-the association of the physical organism or the influence exerted by an active principle possessed of relevant causal efficiency ? The mere assoctation of the physical organism is irrelevant to volitional activity, as we do not find any such activity when a person is indifferent or in deep sleep in spite of the fact that the physieal organism is present intact So we must set down voluntary activity to the exertion of an active agent possessed of causal efficiency irrespective of its association with a physical orgamism, which has been found to have no bearing upon it If the possession of a physical organism be a neeessary condttion for the exercise of voluntary activity we cannot explain how the agent can control his own body, as the help of iother bodily organism cannot be avatlable for the purpose It can be contended that even m the controlling of the body the presence of the body is an essential condition Yes, but the body is not present as the condition, rather it is the object of the controlling activity and in the case of God's activity the object to be opernted upon is present in the shape of the atoms which are the constitutive prin iple of the material word But it has been fu ther urged that the controlline activity that is exercised upon one's own bodily organism is made possible by dint of a desire and voltional urge and this desire and the volitional urge are seen to occur only in assoeration with a bodily organtsm and not in its absence So the presence of the bodily organism must be admitted to be the condition of these psychical activities which are admittedly the internal springs of the physical control and thus the bodily organism will be the indirect condition of all physical controlling movements The presence of the physical organ sm is thus to be set down as the necessary condition of all voluntary activity and if God is exhypo- thesi (by virtue of hypothesis or supposition) destitute of any such organism, the exercise of voluntary controlling activity will be imposst But this argument too is not convincing Even if it is admitted tht the medium of the physical orginism is a necessary condition for ble

the emergence of physical activities for which there is no proof beyond the mitter of fact evidence that we have no experence of a psychical activity except in association with a body which may be a mere accident, still it may be legitimately mantained that the causal efficiency of the phvstcal organism with recard to bodily movements is not proved although its bearing on such psychical activities as desire and voltionl urge may be luft a moot question The controlling ol the bodily organism and its movements and actitr s are urged by a purely psychical force without any assistance from the bodily organism, barring the fact that it is present is the object and actnite an inanimate object simply by dint of a destre and voluntary exertion wthout any assistance from any bodily org mism, should clinch the proposition that all effects are the products of an intelligent agent But it may be contended that the emergence of desire and volition as

32 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

contigent upon a bodily organism and for the emergence of thes» psychical activities at any rate God will stand in need of a phys cal organism Yes the contention may have some plausibility with regard to these psyclucal activities which are events in time but with reference to eternal psychical fact it has absolutely no force and no berring Nor is their any logical mcompatibility in the supposit on that Gods cognttion desire and volition are eternal verities uncaused and unproduced Of course these psyclncat phenomena are uwrys observed to be transttory events in our experience in any substratum Such qualities as colour and taste are ordinarily perceived to be transitery but they are admitted to be eternal verities in atoms The transitor ness or permanence of qualities is relative to the substrata in whch they are found So psychical attributes too may be permanent fixtures just like the physical attributes of colour ete and there is no inherent logical absurdity in this suppositton

GOD-AN INDISPUTABLE LOGICAL NECESSITY The permanent existence of these necessary psychical activities in God has been shown to be plausible and we think it possible to prove it by a reducho ad absurdum The arguments of the oppo nents have fuled to shake the foundational umversal proposition that whatever is possessed of an origin has for its uthor an intelligent agent and once the originntion of the world process is admitted the inference of in intelligent author becomes irresistible intelligent author of the universe is established as a matter of logical And if an

necesstty the nature of lus intelligence or volitional activity will be determined to be of such 1 chracter as not to be in conflict with lus cosmic ctivities The cosmic activities presuppose an intelugent agent who has a direct knowledge of the matenals and the modus operandt necessary to bring about the universe Certamly this know ledge of all existent facts extending over all divisions of time cannot be a contigent event as in that case God will have to be assumed to be ignorant of whatever has happened in the past and so will have no agency in that regard If his knowledge is as transitory as ours it will have no application to the future and so God will not be the controller of the future course of events If however it is supposed that God has an infinite series of cognitions volitions and desires produced in regular succession and all these have reference to all things possible or actual st Il we shall have to admit a number of psychical acts whch are absolutely without iny similarity to our psychical activities It will be simpler and more convenient to suppose that God s cogmitne activity is one and eternal and so also the other psychical activities The admisston of God as an author of the universe will necessttate the postulation of eternal psychical activities which are necessary for the creation superintendence and control of the untverse These attributes are consequenttal to God s cosmie func tions and to seek to refute the existence of God on the ground of impossibiltyor improbability of these attributes will be a round about procedure without any logical validity If you expect to deny God with my show of plausibihity you will have to prove either that the

NYAAYA VAISESHIKA 33

universe does not presuppose in intelligent maker or that is existing as a finished product for all eternity which is the position of the Jainas and the Mimamsakas. If, however, the position adumbrated cannot be maintained with any semblance of logic, the admission of God and of his consequential attributes and powers will follow as a matter of indisputable logic necessity. The opponent, who builds his destructive logic on the apparent absurdity of the consequential attributes of God, has only to be reminded that his generalization that psychical attri- butes cannot be eternal is based upon purely empirical data and does not bar out the contrary possibility by a reductio ad absurdum. We have, however, seen that the eternal existence ef relevant psychical activities in God follows as a corollary from the nature of the universe, which becomes unintelligible unless an ominiscient and omnipotent creator and ruler is postulated.

THE LAW OF KARMA Q. 11. Write short notes on (a) Law of Karma (b) God an eternal force (c) Polytheism or Purality of Gods (d) Worship of God.

Ans. (a) We now propose to discuss certain other conse- quential problems before bringing this dissertation to a close. The main ground of the proof of God has been shown to be teleological and this teleological argument, again is ultimately based upon the argument of the moral law-the faw of Karma. The raison d'etre of creation is found in the moral necessity of providing the rewards of actions done by individual souls in their previous lives and so in the phitosophy of the Nyaaya-Vaiseshika schoof or of aff schools of Indian thought which believe in creation, the individual self holds a prerogative position of honour, since the entire creation is belicved to centre round him and to provide only the stage on which the drama of his destiny will be played. God has no destiny and no personal mission. He is only the judge and ordainer of the moral deserts ; in other words he has onty a judicial and executive duty which he discharges out of an irresistible sense of justice to uphold the supremacy of moral laws, and we have seen how God's justice is temnered with mercy. But a question of togical difticulty ratses itself in this connection, vis., the relation of God with individual selves whose destmy is guided by Him. The merits of individuals inhere in the individual souls and if God is to operate upon these merits, it has to be shown how God comes into relation with these. The · individual selves are held to be ubiquitous substances and so also is God. It has been held by some thinkers that two ubiquitous subst- ances may be related by way of uncaused conjunction and if this relation is accepted we can explain the refation of God with individuaf souls for all etemity and through this with their merits. But this relation of uncaused conjunction is not universally admitted and so another relation acceptable to all has been propounded by Vaachas- pati Misra. The individual selves are connected with the atoms as

34 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

they also are eternal entities, and these atoms are connected with God So God and the individual selves are connected through the medium of atoms Even indirect relation is of service for causal operations Here also the relation of God to individuals may be explained either through atoms or through the mind, both of which are efernal exis tents and are eternally conjoied with God So we see that relation of God and indrvduals is not logically inconceivable, although it is not possible to give any definite judgement as to the peculiar extenston of the relation whether it is of unlimited extension or of limited extension The question is ispired by idle curiosity and does not have any metaphysical importance It is sufficient that a relation is logically eonceivable and the question of extension and the hike appears to be based upon irrelevant analogy of spatial relations of material bodies, which cannot be pushed too far GOD AN ENTERNAL LIVING FORCE Another question may be raised Granted that God is the creator of the universe, but then He may take a holiday and retire from the cosmic functions which may take their destined course under their own laws What argument makes you suppose that God will be the eternal collector and guide of every detail of the world process ? The answer is that the same necessity which makes God s activity inevitable in the past is present throughout the world process The bhnd forces of nature cannot be self guided and for their control and guidance the supervision of in intelligent being is necessary The movements of natural forces, the elements, the elections and so on are perpetually going on and they are mean to serve some purpose , and who makes their movements fruitful and who agam imparts activity to them but God ? So God is an eternal living force and the eternal judge and ordamer of the moral order, but for whose interventon and guidence the world would fall to pieces like a rotten cloth GOD IS ONE

(c) A question arises -- is a pluralty of Gods possible ? No, there is but one God and one God alone Why should a plurality of Gods be postulated at all ? If one God is impotent to bring about the world order or to mamtain disciplme, a number of Gods with different functions allotted to them may be necessary and we shal have a repubhe of Gods and not absolute monarchy But are these Gods omniscient ? If they are not omniscient and omnipotent, they will be as impotent and helpless as we mortals are and so they will rot be equal to the task of creation and control of the world, which requires just these attributes The result will be a failure to explai the world- order If they are ominscient and ommpotent one and all, it Is logically simpler and more economic to postulate the existence of one such God, for He will be able to discharge the cosmic functions alone and unaided Apart from considerations of simplicity and logical economy, the postulation of a number of equally omniscient and ommipotent Gods will lead to msoluble complications There is no certitude that they will act in unison and accord for all time and there

NYAAYA VAISESHIKA 35

may arise occasions when they may differ. The result will be an un- `reileved anarchy and confusion. If, however, it is supposed that these Gods will be guided by the counsels of one among them who will be the President, a primus inter pares just as we see in the systems of democratic government, then again the President will be the virtual God and the supreme ruler, if his mandate is obeyed by all. If it is supposed that these omniscient Gods will never have occasion for dispute, since they will be all persuaded of the wisdom of a particular line of action and will, theretore, act in complete agreement, then of course none will be the ruler of the universe and so none be God. But why should we at all believe in such a republic of Gods -- what logical necessity is there which will make us bless the theory 7 Absolutely no case can be made out for this hypothesis and so we reject it without hesitation or scruple. Polytheism as a philosophical doctrine is absolutely an illogical and superfluous hypotnesis and it should be clearly recognised that India never favoured this doctrine either in theory or in practice, though unsympathetic critics owing to their ignorance of the inwardness of Indian religious practices, have maligned the people of India and their religion on this ground. It is lugh time that critics should approach Indian philosophy and religion with scientific detachment and unbiased attitude and if they care to know the truth, they will be disabused of their prejudices and , religious animosity will be a thing of the past. THE WORSHIP OF GOD (d) It is truism that the Nyaaya-Vaiseshika school staunchly believes in the infallibility of Vedic religion and its allegiance is not confined to the ritualistic portion of the Veda alone, but equally accepts the supreme authority of the Upanishads also, although this follows its own interpretation. The Nyaaya-Vaiseshika school does not believe in monism and its philosophy can be characterized as uncompromising pluralism, The relation of individual souls to God is neither one of pure identity nor one of the identity in difference, but one of absolute and unqualified otherness. The relation of God to the individual selves is not internal but strictly and purely external. God is alluded to as being in the position of a father to the suffering soul and His cosmic activity has been spoken of as inspired by const- derations of justice and mercy alike. The supreme solicitude of God for the deliverance of suffering creatures from the meslies of transmi- gration is also alluded to in clear and unambiguous language in the Bhaashya of Vaatsyaayana. But man's relation to God is not clearly emphasized in the ancient literature. It is only in the works of Udayana that we find this topic broached, Udayana begins his Nyaaya -kusumaanjalı with an impassioned salutation to God and in the course of his writing he speaks of worship of God to be instrumental in the achievement of salvation and enjoyment of heavenly blss, whichever may be cared for by His devotees. He goes further to state that philosophical speculation is a kind of worship of the Deity and hns its supreme justification and fulfilment only m so far as it teads the enquiring soul to surrender bimself to God's protection and

36 IDIAN PHILOSOPIIY

mercy. We are tempted to belreve that the predommance of the devotional attitude in subsequent Nyaaya literature is entirely due to the tafluence of Udayanaachaarya It is remarkable that Vardhamaana took great pais to reconcile this statement of Udayana with the orthodex Nyaaya position that salvation is achieved by an unerring realization of the true nature of the self and this supreme solving Anowledge is effected by proper understanding of the sixteen topics only. There is no room for love of God or worship of God or know- ledge of God as instrument of salvation Vardhamana, therefore, was at great pains to bring it into line with the central posttion of the Nyaaya philosophy and he succeeds by making knowledge of God contributory to self-realisation But Udayana is the concluding passages of the Nyaaya Kusumaanjalt emphatically mamtained that worship of God is essential for salvation and his pleadings and advoc- acy of the necessity and logical possibility of self-surrender and meditation of God are unsurpassable for their devotional ardour, impassioned enthusiasm and moral favour A better and more successful advocacy of theism is difficult to concere The Nyaaya- kusumaanjal: will remam, we may be permitted to remark without exaggeration or partisan spint, one of the best works on thesim mn the whole of the world literature, noted alike for its spiritual earnestness and logical consistency. The philosophical literature of India, not only of the Nyaaya-Vaiseshika school, would have been pro tunto poorer and weaker if Udayana had not been born to enrich it by his masterly contributions.

GHAPTER III SAANKHYA-YOGA Saankhya-Yoga is divided into four sections (I) Saankhya (II) Yogs (III) Yoga Paychology and (IV) Yoga Paychology and Modern Sciences, The twin systems of Saankhya Yoga combined in themselves, form a great system of Hindu philosophy which is of utmost import- ance in the history of Indian thought. The terminology and the ideas of Indtan thought. The terminology and the ideas derived from these Systems are common in the religious and philosophical titerature of India. They pervade the Puranas and the Epics. (I) SAANKHYA (Saankya, Prakriti, Mula Prakriti, Pralaya Purusha. Prakriti, Vikriti-Buddhi -- Ahankara -- Eleven Indriyas-Manas-Five Bhutas -- Linga Sareera). Q. 12. Expound clearly the Saankhya Conception of Prakriti and its evolution. Critically Examine the theory. (Banaras)

State and Examine Saankhya theory of evolution of the Or

world and give a systematic account of twenty five factors involved in the evolution. (Rajasthan) Or

Saankhya. Describe the evolution of the world according te (Agra, Bombay)

Explain the Saankhya theory of evolution, What are the Or

different steps in the evolution of the world out of Prakriti. (Agra) Ans. Saankhya is ascribed to Kapila whose date cannot be Jater than 200 B C., but the philosophy itself is as old as the Upani- shads. The term Saanklya means correct enumeration or perfect classification. The Saankhya is frankly dualistic. It recognises two ultimate entitres 'Prakritt and 'Purush'. Saankhya lays down a fourfold division of categories :- 1. Prakriti or Mula Prakriti. Productive but not pro- . duced. 2. Prakriti Vikriti Produced and Productive.

37

38 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

3 Vikriti Produced 4 Purushas Neither productive nor produced This classification includes twenty-five principles called Tatvaas, V to be studied here after PRAKRITI All the things in this world are explamed as generated by putting together two or more Atoms in the Nyaya -- Varseshika philosophy (Anrambhavad,-the Theory of Creanon) But according to the Saankhya theory all the things in the world that we see are looked upon as the result of transformation within one primal substance the Prakritt This is called Parmamavada or the Theory of Evolution The primal substance, Prakriti, cannot be directly percened and its existence like that of the Atoms, has only to be mnferred This inference is based upon reflection and rationahstic explinations (Anu mann) rather than authority (Sabda) MOOLA PRAKRITI The Mula Prakritt is the first cause of the Umiverse It is con- stituted of three factors, each of which is described as a Guna But, Guna here should not be understood as meaning a 'Quality' The term Guna means here 'a component factor' or a constituent of Pra- kritt The three Gunas are named Satva roughly signified by whatever is pure and fine, Rajas -- by whatever is active , and Tams -- by what- ever is passive and offers resistance From the standpoint of the experiencing mind, Satva is described as pleasure (Sukha) Rajas as Pam (Dukkha) and Tamas as bewilder- ment (Moha) , for, they respectively give rise to these feelings The Gunas are called Reals The Gunas, therefore are not merely distinet from each other but are also in some measure antagomistic in their nature But the antagonism is not suc as to preclude these acting together This is illustrated by the example of a lamp flame The three substances, namely, oil, wiek and flame, although mutully contradictory, co- operate towards a single end, when they help each other and produce a light In the same minner, although the Gunas are mutually counteracting, yet when they combme, they produce the whole Uni verse as an orderly whole, whtch has its own laws to obcy The whole Universe would be an unceasing round of activity if the only operating force were the Rajas In order to provide against ths, Praknt (Nature) provides herself with a restraiing agenev in the shape of Tamoguna which by its nature is dull and pissne The properties of the different objerts of the Universe are assertamed and described in accordance with the excess of one or other of these three Gunas Everythng that emerges from Prakritt must therefore be recog+ nised as constituted of these three Gunas, ultimate Reals The effects

SAANKIIYA -- YOGA 39

are essentially identical with their material cause. These constituents of Prakriti are said to be at first in a' state of equilibrium until Pra- kriti begins to differentiate itself. When the occasion presents itself, that is, in the presence of Purusha, the equilibrium is disturbed and it is this disturbance that gives rise to various created objects is attri- buted to the predominance of one or the other of the three Gunas -- predominance of Satva giving rise to Satvika objects, of Rajas to Rajasika objects, and of Tamas to Tamasika objects. It is just as in a game of dice ; they are ever the same dice, but as they fall invarious ways, they mean to us duferent things. Though only three in number, the Gunas this really stand for a manifold of distinctions.

Prakriti is thus not only complex ; it is all pervasive (Vibhu) ; it is also undergoing change perpetually. The paper on which these lines are printed may appear to be static (not changing), but is really changing every instant by deteriorating, though at the same time it maintains its identity as long as it lasts. A plant may grow or wither where it is. An animal may shift itself from one place to another. There may be a change of form, from, birth to old age, but all these changes are included in this Patinama or evolution. Prakriti is also called Pradhan-the rootless root of the Universe, Avyakta-impossible to be perceived by the senses, Guna Kshobhini- that which by disturbance of Gunas causes the Universe, Prasavadhar- mini-that wluich has a property of creating, Bahu Dhanaka-that which creates may substances.

It will thus be seen that the whole of the Universe emanates from Prakriti. It is the ultimate, independent and natural cause of all things in the world. Prakritt is translated, though not accurately by the English word "Nature". PRALAYA OR DISSOLUTION The evolution Theory of the Western Scientist does not presup- pose any dissolution or Pralaya, According to Saankhya, every period of evolution or Srishti is followed by a period of dissolution or Prafaya, when the whole diversity of the Universe becomes latent. Prakriti however does not cease to be dynamic even at Pralaya, only its component parts, the Gunas are again in a state of equilibruum, instead of acting upon one another and giving rise to heterogencous transformation ; but the Gunas constantly reproduce themsclves,

PURUSHA Q. 13. What is (self) Purnsha according to Saankhya ? Give proofs for its existence. (Bihar) Or What arguments are put forward by the Saankhya for

40 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

the existence of the (self) Purusha ? Explam the nature of the Purusha (Agra Rajasthan Boubay) Or

khya Discuss the nature of Purusha (self) arcording to Saan What part does it play in the evolution of Prakriti (Rajasthan Agra) Ans Saankhya recognises the exrstence of another mdependent reality called Purusha It is the very element by virtue of which we become aware of the existence of the physical world In other words Purusha (Spirit) is the principle for the sake of which Prakritr (Nature) cvolves It is Purusha or Purushas because they are many that give activity to Prakriti Purusha is pictured as a lame man possessed or eye sight and Prakriti as a man devoid of the sense of sight but who is possessed of a good pair of legs According to the fable lame man Purus a mounts upon the shoulder of the blind man Prakriti and together they more along intelhgently whereas seprately both are unable to make any pro ress (Pangvandha Nyaya) Purusha is manifold in contrast to Prakritr and for that reason Saankhya is described as a pluralism Purusha is Nirguna (not complex) it is not dynamic it has neither change of place nor change of form It is passive while Pra kriti is ever active In itself Purusha is a mere witness (Sakshi) lke Prakritı however Purusha is Nityn (ommipresent) Prakriti and Purusha virtually act as one Prakriti represents the body and Purusha the There is no spirit without i body nor a body which functions as a living organism without a spirit spirit The coming together of Prakriti and Purusha is a necessary presupposition of all experience The con tact of the two simulates the act of putting on the switch in an electric installation The I ghts burn and the movement of the whole machi nery starts Purusha mistakes the activities of Trigunas to be lis own and this becomes affected by pleasure and pain ete which in reahty do not affect him The salvation of Purusha according to Sainkhya is attam ed by wisdom (Viveka) that would help him to discriminate between Himself and the fluctuations of the Trigunas He will then see that the pleasure and pain are caused only by these and will no longer be affected by them The next question is how does Purusha attam this wisdom ? Saankhya philosophy says that by the constant study of this phito sophy the attr bute of Satya becomes paramount in h s constitution and the other two Gunas almost cese to exist The Purusha then sees the Prakriti and its constituents in their true light fnds out his mistake and becomes free from the imposed bonds of Buddhi and attains final beattitude-heavenly joy (Moksha or Karvalya)

SAANKHYA-YOGA 41

PRAKRITI-VIKRITI Q. 14. Write note on Panch Mahabhutas. (Bihar) Ans. It has already been said that Prakriti is the rootless root of the Universe. From this Prakriti emanates Buddhi also termed 'Mahat' the great principle. From Buddhi proceeds Ahankara-the principle of Egoism, and Panch Tanmatras or the five Subtle Elements. These seven are called Prakriti Vikritis. They are Vikritis (transfor- mations) of Prakriti and Prakriti-source)-of the succeeding Vikritis or evolutes and therefore they are intermediate. BUDDHI (MAHAT) The function of Buddhi is called 'Adhyavasaya' which means ascertainment. It corresponds to will and intellect of western psycho- Jogists. Intellect contemplates the circumstances calling for action and provides the rule of conduct. Will controls the disposition in harmony with the dictates of intelligence. The Saankhya attributes both these functions to Buddhi. The properties of Buddhi are Dharma-Virtue, Jnana-Wisdom, Vairagya-dispassion, and Adhikar- Power. AHANKAARA-EGOISM This is the principle to which all notions of the 'l' are due. From egoism are derived the eleven sense organs and the five Subtle Bhutaas, Ahankara is of three kinds, one is predominantly Satvika and is called Vaikarika. Second is predominantly Rajasika and is called Taijasa Ahankara and the third is predominantly Tamasika and is called Bhutadi. ELEVEN INDRIYAAS By a combination of Sativika Ahankara with Rajasa Ahankara, we get the eleven Indriyas, namely, the five Jnanedriyas, five Rarmen- driyas and Manas. Eye, Ear: Nose, Tongue, and Skin are the seats (Aasrayas) of the five Jnanendriyas, These five respectively receive the Vishayas or objects of Roopa, Sabha, Gandha, Rasa, and Sparsa, These are also called 'Budhindriyas'. Vak (Speech), Pani (Hand), Pada (leg), Payu (excretory organs). Upastha (generative organs); these five are Karmendriyas. They respectively perform the function of speech, receiving, moving, ex- creting and sex enjoyment. MANAS (THE MIND) The eleventh Indriya in the Manas (the mind) It is called Ubhayatmaka (double functioning) because it is helpful in doing the function of both reception and transmission. THE FIVE BHOOTAS Tamasa Ahankara in combination with Rajasa Ahankara

42 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

produces pancha Tanmatras (Subtle Elements) and the pancha (five) Mhabhutas (Gross Elements) are evolved from the five Tanmantras Thus according to the Saankhya system the Pancha mahabhutas are evolved from Ahankara, whereas in Aayurveda the Pancha Mahabhutas are constdered as derived from Aatma "Aatmnah Aakasassambhutah Aakasad Vaayuh Vaayoragmıh Agnerapah, Apbhyah Prithvi, Prithvynh Oshadhayah, Oshadhibhyo Annam Annat Purushah' (Taittiriyopamshad) Aayurveda has accepted the Vedic evolution of the Pancha Mahabhutis from Paramaatma and also the Triguna Tatva of Prakriti but they did not accept that Prakritı evolves on its own accord into this world They have hypo- tlucated the mfluence of Svabhava Isvarah Kal Yadriccha Niytı, Parinama ind Prakriti all as causes of the evolution of the Untverse Svabhavimtsvaram Kalain Yadrıcha Niyatım Tatha Parinamamcha Manyıntı Prakritam Prithu Darsanth Su Sa A I and Charaka Sootra II The Saankhya constders the Indriyas as derived from Ahankara, whereas < ccording to Aayurveda, the Indriyas are Pancha Bhautika- 'Charak-Saareera Ch V

LINGA SAREERA Buddhi, Ahankara, Manas, Dasendriyas and Panchatanmaatras tlese 18, together constitute the Linga Sarira or the subtle body The Linga Sarira is Nitya (eternal) It does not leave the Purusha during its transmigration from birth to birth When Purusha attais Moksha the Linga Sarira becomes one with the Avyakta (Prakriti) Just as a painting cannot exist without convas or a shadow cannot exist without a pillar, so all Linga Sarira cannot exist without a gross Ahankara and other tatwas it carries with it as Vasanas the effects of the world of the previous life to another life to another life successively The Vedantists call these Vasanas as individual Karma If the Vasanas are Satvapradhan the individual Purusha acquires Vynana and evolves upwards If they are Raajasa Pradhana, there will be less wisdom and he may be born as a human being or in any lower grade But, if the Vasanas are Tamasapradhana, this individual may be born as a tree or a rock along with the Lings Sarira The same Vasanas are responsible for the Satvika Rajasıka and Tamastka Prakritıs of mdividoal men and antmals When the Purusha gets Vivekajnana and so soon as this whole truth about the world dawn upon one s mind one sees through the Prakriti and realises its absolute distinctness from Purusha Thus, he attains release casting off the Lingasarira to be absorbed in the Prakrıtı Such knowledge may be obtamable in the present life or may take many generations It is the attainment of that knowledge, that s the aim of life according to the Sankhya

SAANKHYA-YOGA 43

Explain fully Q 15 How docs Sankhys establish Satkaryavada ? (Patna U Bombay U ) Ans Sankhya Islvara Krana s Sankhya-Karitka (5th A D), the earliest and the most popular work of this system, is the representtive of the classical Sankhya which had divorced itself from the Upanishads under the mfluence of Jamism and Buddhism, yet the Vedantie teaching of Monism with which the original Sankhya was associated asserts, ttself mplicitly m Ishvirakrsna The word Sankhya is derived from the word 'Sankhya', which means right knowledge as well as number According to Gita Sankhy means the Philosophy of right knowledge (Samyak Khyati or Jnina) Tlns system is predominently intellectual and theoritical Right knowledge is the knowledge of the separation of the Purusa from the Prakritı

Sankhya maintains a clear cut dualism between Pursua and Prakritı and further mamtais the plurahty of the Purusa and 's silent on God It is a pluralistic spiritualism and in athesistic reahsm and an un compromising dualism Sankhya theory of Causation-On it Sankhya's doctrine of Prakriti is based-The basic question involved mn any theory of Causation is Does the effect pre exist in its material cause ?- Those who answer this question in negative are called Asat Karyavadıns, while those who answer it in the affirmative are called Sat Karyavadın According to former, the effect is new creation, a real beginning The effect (karya) does not pre exist (nsat) in its materil cause Otherwise, there would be no sense in saying that it is produced or caused If the pot already exists in the clay, then why should the potter exert humself in producing the pot of the clay Moreover its production would be its repeated birth which is nonesense Nyaya Vaishesika, Hinavana Buddhism material and some followers of Mimamisa believe in it which is also known as Arambhavada ve, the review that production is a new beyinning The Sat Karyavadmn cn the other hand believe that the cffect is not a new creation but only an explicit manifesition of that which w is imphcitly contamed in its material cause Here, mother important question irises -Is the effect a real transformation or in unreal appenrance of its cause ? Then who believe that the effect is a real trinsformation of its cause are called Parinamavadins (Parinama real modification) while those who believe that it is an unreal appearance are called Vivartavadıns (Vivarta- unreal appreince) Sankaya yoga and Ramamya believe in Parnamavadin The view of Sankhya-Yoga is called Prakrits Parmama-Vada whtle the view of Raminiva is cilled Brahana -- Parmnma vada Shunyavada vijnanvada ind Shankara beheve in Vivartavda Shankira vew is called Brahma-Viverta Vida. The view of Jaiism ind of Kumardla mav be called Sad asat Kary because according to ti em the effect is both reat as well as un real,

44 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

before its Production-read as identical with the cause and unreal as a model change thereof, though ultimately both incline towards Parınamavada Sankhya believes in Sat Karyavad All material effects are the modification (Pirmama) of Prakriti They pre exist in the eternal bosom of Prakrin and simply come out of it at the time of creation and return to it at time of dissolution Production means develoment or manifestation (avirbhava) destruction means envolvement of dissolution (tiro bhava) Production is evolution , destruction is dissolution Saankhya gives fine argument in support of Sat Karya Vada

(+) If the eflect does not pre exist in its cause it becomes a mere non entity (reality) like the hare s horn or the sky-flower and can never be produced (t) The effect is only a manifestation of its material cause, because it is mvarably connected with it (ntt) Everything cannot be produced out of everything This suggests that the effect, before its manifestation, is implicit in its material cause (tt) Only an efficient cause can produce that for which it is potent (efficient) This again means that the effect, before its mamfes tation, is potentially contamed in its matenal cause Production is only actualzation of the potential, were it not so then curd should be produced out of water, cloth out of reeds, and of out of sand parucles (v) The effect is the essence of its material cause and as such identical with it When the obstructions in the way of manifestation are removed, the effect usually follows out of its cause The cause * and the effect are the implicit and the explicit stages of the sime process The oil is contaied in the oil seeds, the curd in the milk $ e it is the capacity of milk to name curd, in itself But it is not so in the case of water The effect pre exist in its material cause The theory that cavsation means a real transformation of the materal cause lead to the concept of Prakriti as the root cause of the t world of objects All the worldly effects are latent in this uncaused cause because ifinite regress has to be avoided It is the potentia lity of nature, receptacle and nurse of all generation" As the uncaused root cause, it is called Praknti The products are caused dependent, relative, many a temporary as they are subject of birth and death or to production and destiation , But Prakriti is uncaused independed absolute, one and eternal, being beyond production and destruction The extreme subtleness of Prakriti makes it unmantfest and imperceptible We infer its existence through its products As the source of inanimate world it is unconscious The enttre world of objects is implicit in the bosom of Prakritt Sankhya believes that consciousness cannot be regarded as the source of the inanimates as

SAANKHYA-YOGA 45

Vedanta and mahayanısm believe, becanse an intelligent principle cannot transform itself into the unintelligent world On the other hand, the material atoms of the Physical elements too cannot be regarded as the cause of this world, as Charakas, Nyaya and Vaisshesika, Jamism and Hinayana Buddhism and mimansa wrongly believe, because they cannot explain the subtle Products of matter like, mtellect, mind and age, (there are difference from pure consciousness whieh belongs to purusa alone, and are regarded here as internal organs) and further because the unity of universe points to a single cause while the atoms are scattered and many Un intelligent, un- manifest, uncaused, ever active, imperceptible, eternal and one Prakritt alone is the final source of the world of objects which is implicitely and potnetially contaied in its bosom

Q 16 Write a short note on the five proofs for the exis- tence of Prakriti Ans Saakhya's five Proofs for the existence of Praknti, () All individual things m this world are, lumited dependent, condittonal, finite The finite cannot be the cause of universe Logt- cally we have to proceed from the finite to the inflnite, from the limited to the anlimited from the peros to the aperos, from the tempo- rary to the permanent, from the many to the one And it is this, infinite, unlimited eternal, all pervading Prakriti which is the source of this universe (u) Afl worldly things possess certam common characteristics by which they are capable of producing pleasure pain and indifference Hence there must be a common source composed of three gunas, from which all worldly things arise (m) All effects arise from the activity of the potent cause Evolution means the manifestation of the either to before implicit as the explicit The activity which generates evolution must be inherent in the world cause And this cause is Prakntt (w) The effect differs from the cause and hence the limited affect cannot be regarded as its own cause The effect is explicit and the cause the implictt state of the same process The effects, therefore, point to a world cause where they are potentially contaied (v) The unity of the universe points to a single cause And this cause is Prakritt

Q 17 Write a brief note on the three Gunas of Prakriti

Prakriti is said to be the unity of the three Gunas held in Or

equilibrium Discuss Ans Prakriti is said to be the unty of the three Gunas held in cquilibrium They are Sattya, Rajas, Ramas They are the constituents of Prakriti and through it of the worldly objects Being

46 INDIAN PILILOSOPHY subtle and imperceptible, their existsnee is inferred from their effects- pleasures. pain, and in difference respectively. They are not qualities or attributes, like the Nyaya-Vaishesika Gunas. They themselves possess qualities like lightness, activity, heaviness ete. They are extremely fine and ever changing clements. They make up Prakriti, which is nothing apart from them. They are not the qualities which the Prakritt ; the substence possesses, on the other hand, they them- selves constitute Prakriti. They are called Gunas beeause they are the elements of Prakriti which alone is called substantive, or because they are sub-servient to the end of Purusa, or because they are intertwined, like three strands, to make up the rope of Prakriti which binds the Purusa (Guna means) quality, secondary and strand of a rope. Satava means-real, existent and is responsible or the mani- festation of objects in consciousness. It is called good men and produces pleasure. Its colour is white. Rajas, literally means foulness, is the principle of motion. Its colour is red .- It produces pains, restless activity. It is mobile (Chala) and stimulating (astambhaka). Tamas, darkness, is the princi- ple of interia. It produces, apathy, indifference. Ignorance, sioth, confusion, bewilderment, negativity, passivity are its results. Its colour is dark. It is opposed to Satava and Rajas. These three never seperate. They conflict, and yet co-operate with one another and are always found inter-mingled. Compared to the oil, the wick and the flame of the lamp, which, though, opposed yet co-operate to produce the light of a lamp. Differences in things are due to the different combinations of their gunas. The nature of a thing is deter- mined by the preponderance of a particular guna. When they are held in a state of equilibrium that state is called Prakriti. Evoluttion of worldly objects does not take place at this state. These Gunas are said to be ever changing. Change is said to be of two kinds-homo- geneous or Sarupa-Parinama and Heterogeneous of Virupi-Pari- nama. During the state of dissolution (Parlaya) of the world, the gunas change homogenously, i e., Satava changes into Satava, Rajas into Rajas and Tamas into Tama. This change does not disturb the equilibrium of the Gunas and unless the equilibrium is disturbed and one predominates over the other two, evolution cannot take place. Evolution takes place when there is heterogeneous change in the Gunas and one predominates over the other two and brings about terrific comotion over the other two and brings about terrific comotion in the bosom of Prakriti.

Q. 18. Consider the nature and proofs for the existence of Purusha. (Agra) Write a short note on the five proofs for the existence of Purusa. Ans. The other of the two co-present and co-eternal realities of Saankhya is the Purusa, the p'inciple of Pure consciousness It is

SAANKHYA-YOGA 47

the Soul, knower, spirt. It is not the substance which possesses the quality of consciousness. Consciousness is its essence. It is itself Pure and transcendental consciousness. It is the ultimate knower which is the foundation of all knowledge and as such can never become an" object of knowledge. It is the silent witness, the emancipated alone, the neutral seer ; the peaceful eternal. It is beyond tme and space, beyond change and activity. It is self-luminous and self-proved. It is uncaused, eternal and all-pervading. It is the indubitable real for being the Postulate of knowledge, all doubts and denials pre- suppose its existence. FIVE PROOFS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF PURUSA (1) All compound objects exist for the sake of Purusa. The body, the senses, the mind, and the intellect are all means to realize the end of Purusa. The three gunas, the Prakriti, the subtle body- all are said to serve the purpose of the self. Evolution is teleological or purposive. Prakriti evolves itself in order to serve the Purusa's end. This proof is teleological. (2) All objects are composed of three gunas and therefore Iogi- cally presuppose the existence of the Purusa who is the witness of these gunas and is himself beyond them. The three gunas imples the concep- tion of a nistraigunya-that which is beyond them. This proof is logical. (3) There must be a transcendental synthetic unity of pure con- sciousness to co-ordinate all experiences. All knowledge necessarily presupposes the existence of the self. The self is the foundation (adhisthana), the fundamental postulate of all empirical knowledge. All affirmations and negations equally pre-suppose it. Without it, experience would not become experience. This proof is ontelogical. (4) Non-intelligent Prakriti can't experience its products. So, there must be an intelligent principle to experience the worldly pro- ducts of Prakriti. Prakriti is enjoyed (Bhogya) and so there must be an enjoyer (Bhokta). All objects move the characteristics of produc- ing, pleasure, pain and bewilderment. But these have meaning only when there is conscious principle to experience them. Hence Purusa must exist. Ethical proof. (5) There are persons who try to obtain release from the suffer- ings of the world. The desire for liberation implies the existenee of a person, who can try for and obtain liberation. Aspiration pre- suppose aspirant. This proof is mystical or religious.

Q. 19. Write a short note on-Purality of Self (Plurusa) according to Saankhya. Ans. Saankhya beheves in the plurality of the purusa. Saankhya maintains qualitative monism and qualitative pluralism of the selves. The selves are all essentially alike, only numerically are they different.

48 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Their essence ts consciousness and so different from consciousness Bliss is the product of Sativaguna

Arguments for proving the plurality of the Purusa (self) () The souls have different sensory and motor organs and undergo separate deaths and births Had there been one Purusa the birth or death of one should have meant the birth and death of all and any particular experience of pleasures, pam or indifference by

be many one should have been cqually shared by all Hence the souls must

(w) If the soul were one then knowiedge of one meant the knowledge of all -- liberation of one-the liberation of all The acti vity of one should have made all persons active and the rest of one should have lulled into sleep all others (tu) Though the emantcipated souls are all altke and differ only in numbers as they are all beyond the three gunas, yet the bound souls relatively differ in qualities also, since in some satava pre dominates, while in others rajas and in still others tamas

Q 20 Discuss critically the relation between Purusa as expounded in Saankhya Philosophy (Agra) Ans Prakritt is regarded as essentrally dynamic If motion were not internal in Prakritt it could not be given to it by any outside agency , and if motion ceased in Prakrit it could not reappear Hence Prakriti is always changing In Heterogencous change rajas vibrates and makes Satava and Tamas vibrate and the equilibnum is disturbed and evolution takes place Satava, the principle of mant- festation and rajas the principle of activity were formerly held in check by Tamas, the prmaple of non manfestation and non activity Creation is not a new creation but the mantfestation of worldly objects It is only making explicit of that which was formerly implicity Evolution is regarded as cyche and not linear There is no continuous progress in one direction, but alternate periods of evolution (Sarga) and dssolution (Pralya) in a cyclic order Evolution is again said to be teleological and not mechansed or blind Evolution takes place for serving the Purusa The end of Purusa, either woridly experience (Bhoga) or bberation (apavarga) Purusa needs Prakriti for enjoyment as well as for liberation for Samsavaya as well as for Kaivalya Evolution supphes objects to be enjoyed to the Purusa and also works for lus liberation by enabling him to discriminate between himself and Prakritı How does evolution takes place -- Saankhya's answer that when Heterogeneous motion arises and rajas disturbs the equilibrium of the gunas then the evolution takes place But how is the equilbrium disturbed Sankhya fails to answer this question satisfactorly The fundamental blunder of Saankhyn has been to separate Prakritt and

SAANKHYA-YOGA 49

Purusa as absolute and mdependent entities But as a matter of fact, the subject and the object are the two aspects of the same reality which holds them together and yet transcends them If Prakriti and. Purusa are absolutely separate and independent entsties, then they can never unite them And if they cannot, evolution cannot take place. Disturbance of the equilbrium of the gunas which starts evolution is made possible by the contact of Purusa and Prakriti Purusa without Prakriti is lame and Prakntt without Parusa is blind Prakrit needs Purusa m order to be known, to be seen, to be enjoyed. And Purusa needs Prakriti in order to enjoy and also in order to detail liberation, in order to discrimmate between htmself and Prikriti and thereby obtain emancipation If Prakriti and Purusa remain separate, there is dissolution. For creation they must unite (lame man and blind man) Similtrly inactive purusa and non-intelligent Prakrit cooperate to serve the end, and this umion disturbs the equilibrium of the gunas and leads to evolution. But how can the two opposed and independent entities really come into contict ? Saankhya realizes this difficulty and in order to avoid it says that there is no soul contact between Purusa and Prakriti and that only the near- ness of Purusa to Prakriti is sufficient to disturb the equilibnum of the gunas and thus laed to evolution But Saankhya falls into another diffi- culty here The Purusa being always near to Prakritt (for the inactive Purusa cannot move), evolution should never stop and dissolution would become impossible evolution, then is beginningless and the very conception of Prakriti is the state of equilibrium of the three Gunas would be impossible Sankhya finds itself between these two horns of dilema either o contact and hence no evolution or else no equilbrium and hence no Prakritt and no dissolution In order to avoid these difficulties, Sankhya points the theory of the semblance of contact (Samyogabhasa). There is semblance of contact between Purusa and Prakritt and this semblance leads to evolution The Purnss as reflected in the Intellect (Budhi) and wrongly identifies himself with hus own reflection in the Budln It is this reflection of the Purusa which comes into cantact with Prakrit and not the Purusa Inmself But Budtt or mahat is regarded as the first evolutes of Prakriti and how can it arise before evolution to receive the reflection of the Purusa ? To avoid this difficulty it is said that the Purusa ts refiec- ted in the Prakriti ttself If so then liberatton and dissolution would become impossible because Prakritt being always there and at being the essential nature of Purusa to identify himself with his reflection in the Prakriti, he would never get liberation and the very purpose for which evoluton starts would get defented Moreover, the reflection being always there, there would be no dissolution and no equilibrium of the gunas and hence no Prakriti Again, if semblence of a contact is sufficient to disturb the evolutton ttself becomes a semblence of evolu- tion, an appearance only (Vivarta) and no real transformation of Prakriti Thus in crder to defend the imtial blunder of regarding Purusa and Prakritt as absolute and independent entities, Sankhva commits blunders after blunders

50 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

CRITICAL ESTIMATE Q.21 Give a critical estimate of Purusa and Prakriti relationship The logic of the Sankhya system impells it to embrace idealistic momsm, but it clings, like Jainism, to spiritualist pluralism Ans

and dualisttc realism Fundamental blunder of Sankhya is to treat Purusa and Prakritr as absolutely separate and independent realities So these become mere abstractions torn away from the context of concrete experience The object and subject are relative and not independent and absolute Like the two sides of the same coin, they are two aspects of the same reahty To dig a chasm between them is to undermine them both And that it is what Sankhya has done The logic of Sankhya requtres, it to maintain the ultimate reality of the transcendented Purusa alone and to regard Prakriti as its in- separable power when this Purusa is reflected in its own power Prakritı, it become the empirical ego, the Jiv, the phenomenal Plura lity belongs to this Jiva not to the transcendental Purusa The subject and object, the Jiva and Prakntr are the two aspects of the Purusa which is then transcendental background It is the Purusa which sustams the empirical duahsm between Prakrit and Jiva ind which finally transcends it Every Jiva is the potential Purusa and liberation consists m the actualization of this potentialty This is the phiosophy which is implicit in Saankhya throughout , but which is explicitly rejected by Saankhya With the result that Saanklıya has reduced itself to a bundles of contradiction Prakritt and Purusa are absolute and independent they can never come into contact and hence there can be no evolution at all Prakriti being unmntelhgent and Purusa being indifferent and there being no third principle, no tertium quid, there can be no connection of the two Neither real contact nor semblance of contact (samyoga- bhass) not mere presence of Purusa, can explain evolution (Samıdhy matra) The original state of Prakriti is not a harmony but only a ten- sion of the three Gunas Two guns point to a state beyond them It is this state winch gies hrmony to these gunas and transcends them Prakriti does not do that Hence it is not real Reality is the Purusa atone Again Praktiti is unconscious and un intelligent How can it explain the teleology which is immenent in creation ? If Prakritr is unconscious evolution must be mechanteal and blind and there can be no freedom of the will And if Prakriti and all its evolution from Mahat to Maha Bhutas tend to serve the purpose of the Purusn, it can be nenther unconscious nor independent If Prakrit is non intellgent, it cannot evolve this world wluch is full of harmony, order and design and purpose Moreover, activity is said to belong to Prakriti and enjoyment to Purusa Prakritı performs action and Purusa has to reap therr fruits, good or bad And Prakriti Knows to make delicious dishes, but not to enjoy them

SAANEHYA-YOGA S1

Though Prakriti is called absolute and independent yet there is a note of relitism in the conception of Prakritr As a ttrade of the Gunas it points towards the nis traigunas Purusa ts the transcendental rea- It s dependent as it cannot evolve this world by itself without being influenced by the Purusa If it is absolute why should it care to Ity

serve the purpose of the Purusa It makes subservient to Purusa. And of its un-conscious and blind how can it serve this purpose. Though Sankhya calls Praknt impersonal, yet its descriptions of Pra- kritı are full of personal notes Prakrit is said to vanish for that Purusa who has seen' her though she continues to exist for others This makes Prakritı relative If she vanshes then how can she be abso- lute and eternal Sankhya throughout makes a confusion between the Purusa the transcendental subject and the Jiva He forgets its own position and reduces the ultimate Purusa to the level of the phenomenal ego Some of the proofs advanced mn support of the existence of Purusa, are proofs only for the Jiva Purusa is called the enjoyer and Prakriti enjoyed. If Purusa is the transcedental subject, passive, mactive how can it be an enjoyer. Then transcendental reality cinnot be split in- to the many reals How can there be a plurality of the transcendental subjects Of course no one denies the plurality of Jiva, phenomenal cgo Manyness of egos does not lead to manyness of transcendental Purusas Arguments to prove the Plutalty of Purus turn out to be arguments to prove the pluralty of Jiva, which none has denied If Saankhya can reduce ati the objects to one Prakriti, why can it not reduce all empircal souls to one Purusa by the sume logic And why cin Prakriti and the empirical Purusa be not reduced to the absolute Purusa by the same logic Agam, if the essence of all the Purusas is pure consciousness, how can they be really many ? Differences and distinction constitute individuality, so numerical pluralism is sheer non sense

(1) SAANKHYA YOGA Q. 22 Gıve a critical estımate of Saankhya Yoga, Ans It admits a plurality of selves, called Purusas and is lıkewise realistic since it regards objects as existing independently of the mind that recognizes them It derives the physical umverse from a single one source tiz , Prifnt So, it recognises only two ultimate

dualistic. entities, te, Prakritt and Purusa or nature and spirit So it 1s

Prakriti This is the first cause of the untverse -- of everything excepting only spirit which is uncaused and accounts for whatever is pltysical and both matter and force Given time and spice are repre sented as aspects of Prakniti and do not, therefore, exist apart from it as independent entities The nature of Prakritt is deduced from the nature of the common

50 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

CRITICAL ESTIMATE

relationship Q.21. Give a critical estimate of Parusa and Prakriti

Ans The logic of the Sankhya system impells it to embrace idealistic monism, but it clings, like Jamism, to spiritualist pluralism and dualistic realism Fundamental blunder of Sankhya is to treat Purusn and Prakriti as absolutelv separate and independent realities So these become mere abstrachons torn away from the context of concrete experence The object and subject are relative and not independent and absolute Like the two sides of the same coin, they are two aspects of the same realty To dig a chasm between them is to undermine them both And that it is what Sankhya has done The logic of Sankhya requires, it to maintamn the ultimate reality of the transcendented Purusa alone and to regard Prakritt as its in- separable power, when this Purusa is reflected in its own power Prakriti, it become the empirical ego, the Jiv, the phenomenal Plura- Jity belongs to this Jiva, not to the transcendental Purusa. The subject and object, the Jiva and Prakritt are the two aspects of the Purusa which is then transcendental background It is the Purusa which sustais the empirical dualsm between Prakriti and Jiva and which finally transcends it Every Jiva is the potential Purusa and liberation conststs mn the actualization of this potentiality. This is the philosophy which is implicit in Saankhya throughout , but which is explcitly rejected by Saankhya With the result that Saankhya has reduced itself to a bundles of contradiction Prakmtı and Puruss are absolute and independent, they can never come into contact and hence there can be no evolution at all Prakritı being unintelligent and Purusa being indifferent and there being no third principle, no tertium quid, there can be no connection of the two Neither real contact nor semblance of contact (samyoga- bhass) not mere presence of Purusa, can explam evolution (Samıdhya matra) The orsginal state of Prakriti is not a harmony, but only a ten- sion of the three Gunas Two gunas pomt to a state beyond them It is this state wluch gres hrmony to these gunas and transcends them Prakriti does not do that Hence it is not real Realtty is the Purusa alone Agam Prakriti is unconscious and un intelligent How can it explain the teleology which is immenent in crention ? if Prakriti 1s unconscious evolution must be mechantcal and blind and there can be no freedom of the will And if Prakritt and all its evolution from Mahat to Maln Bhutas tend to serve the purpose of the Purusa, it can be netther unconscious nor independent If Prakriti is non intelligent, it cannot evolve this world which is full of harmony, order and design and purpose Moreover, activity is said to belong to Prakriti and enjoyment to Purusa Prakriti performs action and Purusa has to reap ther fruits, good or bad And Prakriti knows to make delicious dishes, but not to enjov them

SAANKHYA -- YOGA S1

Though Prakriti is called absolute and independent yet there is a note of relatism in the conception of Prakriti, As a tirade of the Gunas it points towards the nis-traigunas. Purusa is the transcendental rea- lity. It is dependent as it cannot evolve this world by itself without being influenced by the Purusa. If it is absolute why should it care to serve the purpose of the Purusa. It makes subservient to Purusa. And of its un-conscious and blind how can it serve this purpose. Though Sankhya calls Prakriti impersonal, yet its descriptions of Pra- kriti are fall of personal notes. Prakriti is said to vanish for that Purusa who has `seen' her though she continues to exist for others. This makes Prakriti relative. If she vanishes then how can she be abso- ute and eternal.

Sankhya throughout makes a confusion between the Purusa, the transcendental subject and the Jiva. He forgets its own position and reduces the ultimate Purusa to the level of the phenomenal ego. Some of the proofs advanced in support of the exrstence of Purusa, are proofs only for the Jiva. Purusa is called the enjoyer and Prakriti enjoyed. If Purusa is the transcedental subject, passive, inactive, how can it be an enjoyer. Then transcendental realty cannot be split in- to the many reals. How can there be a plurality of the transcendental subjects. Of course no one denies the plurality of Jiva, phenomenal ego. Manyness of egos does not lead to manyness of transcendental Purusas. Arguments to prove the Plurality of Purusa turn out to be arguments to prove the plurality of Jiva, which none has denied. If Saankhya can reduce all the objects to one Prakriti, why can it not reduce all emprrical souls to one Purusa by the same logic. And why can Pranti and the empirical Purusa be not reduced to the absolute Purusa by the same logic. Again, if the essence of all the Purusas is pure consciousness, how can they be really many ? Differences and distinction constitute individualty, so numerical pluralism is sheer non sensc.

(1) SAANKHYA-YOGA Q. 22. Give a critical estimate of Saankhya Yoga, Ans. It admits a plurality of selves, called Purusas and is likewise realstie since at regards objects as existing independently of the mind that recognires them. It derives the physical universe from a single one source, miz., Prakriti. So, it recognises only two ultimate entities, fe., Prakritt and Purusa or nature and spirit. So it is dualstic. Prakriti. This is the first cause of the universe -- of every thing excepting only spint which is uncaused, and accounts for whatever is phystcal and both matter and force. Given time and space are repre- sented as aspects of Prakriti and do not, therefore, exist apart from it as independent entities. The nature of Prakriti is deduced from the nature of the common

52 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

things of experience by the aid of reason alone. As the material caus of these things, it should consist of what is common to all of them for the effect, according to a fundamental postulate of system, must b essentially the same as the materral cause By the process of analys it is known that the Prakriti is constituted of the three essential chara cteristics, namely, Satva, Raja and Tamas It is thus complex mn 1 nature, though single. These three Gunas are not qualities of Prakrit But they are pure abstraction They are to be understood as th components of Prakritt They are still termed Gunas because it 1 sard, they by inter-twining make a rope of forge, a chain for bindin the self This explanation is somewhat inconsistent with the spirit o the Saankhya Yoga teaching, for Prakriti not only binds but als liberates the self from bondage ultimate purpose for which it evolves Indeed Purusa's liberation is th

From the above descriptnon it is clear that the conception i arrived at as a hypothesis in accouning for the diversity of the work in its material as well as its mechancal aspects Their triple characte merely signifies that there is minimum number of elements necessar; for such an explamtion If only one Guna is postulated it would no explain variety at all, if two, they would either cancel each other effect, thus leading to no transformation whatever, or one would domi nate over the other always, thus leading to monotonous movement it a single direction In later Saankhya is found the important deve lopment that each of the three Gunas is manifold and that the infinit Prakritı is due to their mn-definite number. In this case the triph division would be the result of grouping together hke gunas Such : vew undoutedly explains better the discord and diversity of the work of experience The Gunas from the substratum of change which as in Buddh ism is taken to be perpetual But change is not total here and th Gunas persist while only their modes appear and disappear Thi solution of the problem of change leads to the postulating of a two fold condition for all things-one, latent or potential and the other potent of actual when all the modes of Prakriti are latent, we havt the state of dissolution, at other times, evolution . Even in the statt of dissolution, Prakriti is supposed to maintain its dynamic character only then, instead of producing unlike forms, it reproduces itself sc that perpetual motion is a fundamental postulate of the system, so far as the physical world is concerned The ground for the conclusion that there is perpetual movement in Prakriti is to be found in the conviction that if it ceased to be dynamic at and stage, it would be impossible to account for a re appearince of motion in it again Here we see a realization of the truth of Newton's first Law of Motion that a bodv in motion or at rest continues to be so unless it is disturb- ed from outside There is no such external agency recognized in the doctrine to interfere with its movements No doubt the change from the state of dissolution to that of evolution is accounted for by intro- ducing an outside influence, uiz, the presence of spirit But the expla natron is one of the unsatisfactory features of the system.

SAANKHYA-YOGA 53

SPECIAL FEATURES OF EVOLUTION (1) It is based on the belief in the tndestructibility of matter and he persistence of force Something cannot come out of nothing . ind whatever is, has always been Production is only the manifestatron of what is already in a latent form and is not a new creatton The so called beginning of an object is only an event in its history Destruction means only change of form, for there can be nothing like ibsolute anmhilation

(2) Evolution is conceived as cyclic or periodical That is there are penods of evotution and dissolutton alternating so that tt is iot a process of continuous progress in one direction only It would ilso seem that dissolution is the normal state, for there is a persistent tendency in Prakritt when in evolution, to revert to that state (3) Evolution is here regarded as teleologieul; what is meant is that the whole process reserves a purpose, though it cannot be discribed as consciously pursued (4) Lastly evolution, so far as it is teleological at all, has refer- ence to the individunl and not to the species Its object is not the clevation or improvement of that the later, even at the expense of the former, but recurring world experience (bhoga) for the indtvidual or bringing about his hberation (apivanga) from the ties of Samsara This is the double aim involved in the evolution of Prakrti ? (What does this mean) In the state of dissolution, the three Gunas of Prakrit though perpetually active, are in perfect equilibrium At the beginning of a period of evolution this state ceases and is followed by one in which satva predominates It marks the starting point of heterogeneous evolution and is called Mahat or buddbi The inttial stimulus for this alteration is ascnbed to the 'mere presence' of the Purusa , and the possibility of its influeneing Prakritt though continuing to be passive is illustrated by a magnet attracting iron which is far from satisfactory This is a poit In the first place the Purusa is eternal and omnipresent fike Prakritt so that the condition determining the evolution of the lalter ts over fulfilled whtle its course is supposed to be interrupted at intervals by dissolutions To explain the break mn the course of evolution by the Past Karma of beings will not do, for the Purusa, being really untouched by good or evil, Karma and its effects should be taken to characterize the buddhi and therefore, as Internal to Prakrits There is the difficulty due to the admission of many selves mn understanding what exactly is meant by the presence of Purusa-Whether it is of one or of all To assume, as Vinana Bhiksu does that it refers to the influence of a chief Purusa in cach Kilpa or cycle of ereation would initially be to abandon the atheistrc position and side with the Yoga Deduction of the being of Prakriti, not merely its nature with the aid of reason The deduction depends upon two prmneiples which the system

54 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY takes as its postulates The first of them is described as the Sat Kar Vada According to it, nothing new can come into being The t lity of what exists now is given from the very beginmag But what may be implicit or explicit-the two forms berng respectively tern 'Cause' and 'Effect' The Jar is ever there and is so really eterpal, it is not percervable when in a subtle or latent form In other nor a thing always is mn itself though it may not be for us It subs always although it may exrst onty for a while, and existence necessai sigmfies subsistence So the physical world which is now explicit m once have been implicit , and it is just that implicit state which Prakritı That is indeed the literal meaning of the terms Pradha (what is put before or presupposed) The second postulate is that the finite always implres the mfini which remmds one of the dictum of Hegel that the mfinte transcen itself As in Saankhya things are not understood to be limnted 1 time and space for neither of them is recognised as a separate entit so the word 'finite' is taken to mean 'not self sustaining' or, as it otherwise expressed, 'not Pervasrve' (avyaptr), akara is finite in th sense because while it sustams all that is derived from it in the proce of evolution, itself is sustained by its cause, mz Sadha tanmatra Th Tanmatra agan reveals another element more fundamental by whic it is sustamed, and so for the backwards urtil we reach an entit which is all pervasive and self sustaming That is Prakrit In Prakrt itself or what amounts to the same, in the three Gunas, we may thin that there is mutual exclusion none berng caused by the others n that they are all therefore finite But the theory is that, thougn no cisually related, they are absolutely dependent upon one mother, ant that none of them is self sustaiing In other words Prakriti is not : mere unty of aggression, but a systemtic unity of parts each of whtcl has its special place and function in rhe whole It is, therefore, re garded as Parimavyaktt, "the fini Unmanifest" or the first cause whose being is unconditioned and necessary The reasoning is based upon the ovservation of common thing emerging from their respective materml causes and disappearing into them again This process of reasoning is only extended beyond the visible materril world to arme at Prakriti , or the state the same difftrently, primary evolution is postulited on the analogy of the secondary But what warrant there is for assuring the very principles-maht aham-Kara and Tan- matras-and only so many, to account for the Bhutas which alone are given in experience . and it is significant that the basis for this pr t of the Doctrine is stated to be not inference but verbal testimony of the Saıkhya yopa teachers

(iI) YOGA (İswara Pranıdhana-Savıtarka Savitarka Samadhı-Savchari Samadlu-Sananda Samadhi -- Sasmita Samadhı -- Sampragnath Sama- dht-As-mp-ignatha Samadhi-Different systems of Yoga-Mantra

SAANKIIYA-YOGA 55

Yogı-Laya Yoga -- Karma Yoga-Bhaktı Yoga-Vibhutts (Miracl- es)-Concluston ) Q 23 Describe the Ashtanga Yoga of Patanjalı clearly Discuss the Psychelogical value of the process (Goralhpur) 0r Explain the eight fold disciplmne of the Yoga Philosophy (Rajasthau) Ans The Yoga view of the goal of hfe means a long course of discipline to attain that knowledge which gives liberation The disci pline is only briefly referred to in the Saankbya system but it is fully described in the sister system of Yogr and it forms as the eight Angaas of Yoga They are -- 1 Yama-self restraint, 2 Niyama-observation of certam rules of conduct 3 Aas ina-posture, 4 Pranayama- Regulation of Breath-Steadying the mind, 7 Dhyana-Contem- plation, $ Samaadh-Super-conscious state of concentration in the Aatma or becoming one with Antma As one has to recognise the different levels of fitness of his dis- ciples, a regulated traming is found necessary Of the eight Angas, the first two are mntended to overcome the egoistic impulses mn the dis ciple by a preliminary purification of the natural impulses These lead to detachment (Varragya) And by constant practice (Abhyaasa) a disciple may rise to the next stage of discipline for the spectfic culti vation of the power of mental concentration Aasana, Pranaayama and Prityahara, neht and steady posture regulation of breath and withdrawal of the senses from their resp ctive objects-are devised to secure control of the physical frame with a view to facilitate the con trol of the mind Dirina and Dhyana the next two states of disc pline assist in getting i gradual mastery over the fitful mind In this stige the object chosen for meditating upon may be Saguna, ve hav ing defimte qualities

In the Saankhyt system there is no reference to God or Isvara The meditition is upon the eternal truth of the essential Purusha being dutrent from the Prakrittve Viveka When success in the fin suage is aclueved all operations of the internal organ (Antalikarana) are suspended and the Purusha returns to itself the disciple then becomes 4 Jibanmukta This is the sime stage as that of Sthitjprajnaa or Yog yukta deseribed m Blrgvatgita He remats free from passion and all feeling of pain and plensure may thereafter continue to Iie upon the enrth virtually divorced from Prakriti So far is the Saankhya Vew Pitanjah holds a different view He postulates the existence of God or Isvara over ind above that of the Purushas God is perfect Purnshn ind serves as a pattern for worship He resembles a Guru, of lus abundant mercy sympathises with suffering men and helps them tn itamine spiritual freedom if they only trust hum and meditate

56 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

upon hmm Thus Patanjal recognises mn addition to the strict Yoga disciplmne an alternatne Sukaropaya easier method called Bhakh devoton to Ishvara ISWARA PRANIDHANA By Isvara-Prandhaana-Surrender to God and communion with him a disciple may qualify himself to Samadht without all the elabo rate preparation and disciplme detailed above Patamalı Yoga sutra describes Yoga as Chitmvritinirodha ve, control of the functions of the mind This Nirodha or control may be effected in different stages by concentration SAVITARKA SAMADHI 1 Savitarka-where the object meditated upon is of the gross Mahabhoota having certain qualities for example an idol or a picture SAVICHAARA SAMAADHI 2 Savichara-Where the meditation is on a subtler level sucht as meditation of Ankasa which is invisible SAANADA SAMAADHI 3 Sananda-Where the Satvika element in the Buddht is more predominant SAASMITA SAMAADHI 4 Sasmita-where Satva alone occupies the attention These four stages are described m the Samadh which is called Samprajnata or Sabeeja Samadhı SAMPRAJNAATA SAMAADHI In Samprajnaata Samadhu the object meditated upon has a form end is therefore called Saguna or Sabeeja Samaadht ASAMPRAJNAATA SAMAADHI

The next hieher stage is called Asamprajata Samandht-medt tation without form Absolutely Vairagys is the sole means of it Like the fuel in the fire the mind gets gridually extingushed through the practice of the Asamprajnaata Samaadhi At an advanced stace in this the disciple attams cer ain Vibhutis such as Ommpotency But those who do not care even for those and persist in the Samaadht attain the renlsation of the highest self This is called Kamlya Absoluteness which is the goal of the Yoga philosophy according to Patanjab Attamment of Yoga by this method of Simaadht is generally called Rajayoga or Paatanjala Yoga For further mforma tion read Patanjalt Yoga Sutra Transhtions are watlable m almost all languages Refer also to Daseupta s the study of Patanjah Yoga and Philosophy and Relgion Radhaknshnan s Induin phiosophy

SAANKHYA-YOGA 57

DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF YOGA

The Paatanjalı Yoga System is the bed rock of many other Yougika practiees, that are pievailing in this country In the duly Sandhyavandan? (Morning-Midday-Evenmg prayers) Assana, Praanaayaama Anganyaasa, Karanyaasa touching particular parts of the body associating them with different deitres-and Dhyaana-medt tation along with tpe recitation of the mantraas, are derived from the Yoga Sampraadaya

RAAJA YOGA Rajayoga which depend- upon enquiry (Vichara) and diserimt- nation (Viveka) is not within the reach of ordinary people Mandaadhiknar ve, those who do not have sufficient intellectunl

under Yoga capacity have recourse to the other methods which are also classed

Thus Yogasastra branches off into Hatha Yoga Mantra Yoga, Laya Yoga, Karma Yoga ind Bhikti Yor iccord ng to the tempera ments, capacity ind the tastes of the disciples

HATHA YOGA Hatha Yoga has for its background the Ansnaas and Praanaa- yama Two Naadis Ida Pingalaa run along the left and right side of the spinal colnmn respectively from their base called Moolaadhaara in the sacral region ^Ha' is Pingala and is also called Suryanaadt, 'Tha' is Ida and is rlso called Chandra Naadı 'Hatha' is a proper control of these two Naadis by regulating inspiration and expiration in a suitable manner and by concentrating the mind on the inncr Self Samnadhi Siddhi is thus obtamed This is the ideat of Hatha Yoga Hatha Yoga is a step for attaiment of Raaja Yoga (Refer Sir John Woodrooff s Sepent Power and his other books) A very subtle channel extends along the centre of the spinal column to the head with an aperture in it called Brahma Randhra' In the Mooladhara there is a pent up energy called the Kundalın (Literally coiled up) This energy is set free by Pranayama It rises step by step though the Sushumna and the Chakraas and Granthis (knots) up to the Brahmrandhra When this happens, the Yogt attains illummation

Six chakras or centres are described Mooldhara-in the sacral region 2 Svaadhistan-1 little above in the lumbar region 3 Mampoora-to the navel 4 Anahata-near the heart 5 Visudha-in the throat and 6 Aajna oppostte to the janction of the eyebows.

58 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

The Sahasraara or the thousand petal centre (Chakra) is situated \ inside the skull and Brahmarandhra is situated within the Sahasrara / and is connected with Sushumna Throueh the process of meditation, the disciple transcends the mind and attains enlightenment

MANTRA YOGA Mantr Yoga deals with the attainment of Samadhi by the rect- tation of certam Mantras (Sacred formulas involving Ishtadevitas (Special deties such as Sıvi Naraayaana etc, In invoking deittes the the diserples perform certain ceremonies and use certain Yantras and Diagrams in which certai letters are iscribed Sakt or etermal energy is invoked into these letters The power which lies in the letters and thenr combinations in illustrated by a simple example The three lettars Ve Dha and Va by themselves mean nothing but when they are put together the word becomes a curse Vedhava means a widow The utterance of tlus word by way of addressing a man makes him very angry On the othet hand the letter Om is specmlly sacred and it is symbolieal of Brahman-the Great it repre ents the whole Universe Similarly the symbol Swastika is symbolcal of Puace Mantra Sastra is full of symols into which power is invoked by the Sadhak This is a great science which has to be learnt through a Guru i whom the disciple has absolute futh (Sraddha) Many treattses are now available which give in grent detail the description of Mantras and Mudras and so forth They claim supernatural powers of Siddhs and a path to Salvation through this method is called Mantra Yoga These Mantras and Tantras, and Aagamas, thrived during certam periods of Indian History By these practices the Yogis are said to be able to ward off certain diseases of the body and also to obtun various supernatural powers But in course of time, these powers were used by undeserving persons for gross material ends It has therefore ted them into disruption But these are due to fundamental misconceptions of the scrence

LAYA YOGA Laya Yoga auns at the merging of the mind in the object medi tated upon By stopping all the outlets of the mind and by concen trating on the sound audible within one's ownself, the Sadhaka would hear a series of sounds resembling the Flute Veena, the Venur, the Venu, Dundubhi etc Concentratton on these sounds facdlttates fixity of the mnd, which in turn enables one to attuin Samadht Siddhi This Layt Yoga is based upon the Siddhanta that the ultimate oniemn

Pradıpika of the Universe starts with Sabda and Brahman) See Hatha Yogi

KARMA YOGA Karma Yoga teaches us that if one does his duties selflessly and

SAANKHYA-YOGA 59

properly without expectation of any fruit, he is relieved of all anxieties and thereby gets freedom from pain or want Tlus is the teaching of Bhagavad Gita and will be considered seprately (See Geeta Rahasya by Balagangadhara Tilak) BHAKTI YOGA This has been referred to mn Paatanjal Yoga under Ishvara Prantdhana Bhakti means absolute faith in God and unbounded love. "Sarvodharmaan Parıtyajya maa me kam saranam vraja, Ahom twa sarva papebhyo moksha ishyaami Maa Suchah " (Bh Gita Ch 18). If a Saadhaka has absolute faith in God and surrenders lumself whole-heartedly to Him, he will be absolutely free from all sins and will attai Salvation This is the basis ef Bhakti Yoga This Path to salvation is said to be the casiest and is most suitable for Manda- dhikarast e , tlose who cannot reach the higher intellectual paths of Riaja Yoga

VIBHOOTIES Q. 24 Write a short illustrative note on Vibhooties Ans Superhuman powers are aquired by the disciple in the Samidhi stite They are called Siddlues or Vibhooties A Siddha- te, a Yogi who acquires these powers may control the forces of nature or miy even transgress its laws Some of the miracles attri- buted to Buddha, Jesus Chstst and other saints are duc to their yogic To them, they are no wonders They themselves do not care to perform these magical feats to win disciples and Buddha powers

prohibited the performince of such miracles A Yogi who is in quest of these magical powers will be tempted to deviate from the mun purpose of attaming Moksha Some Hathayogis mistake the acquisi- tion of these powers as the end and aim of yoga and are thus degraded for ever The Yoga sutras warn the disciple to beware of the pitfalls and to gorge ahead without being distraced by these Vibhootics In the third chapter, Vibhooti Pada is mentioned a list of Vibhooties that my be performed by a Yogi by the control application of his mind These are not to be compared to the magical fents performed by certain Fakirs for amusement and entertamment of the people These Yogis belong to a lower phane and really do not possess any higher powers But, those who really possess control over Prana or Vital force can, by a concentrated mind defy the laws of gravitition and can rise above ground so as to float in the atr (levitation) Telepathy-seeing things at a distance (Duradarsanam). Telephony (Durasravan) are all the results of concentrated mind. I live known a cise of a Yogi transforming a prece of copper wire into pure gold and another Yog transforming a globule of mercury

60 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

into pure gold There was no cheating in those two cases was tested mn one case and analysed chemically and found to be very The gold

pure gold Those who perform such feats do not accept any remuneration They are absolutely free from Raga and Dvesha There is nothing that they want in this world They can transform Pnithvi Bhoota ito Aakasa They can recast theatomic structure of substances so that a metal is reduced to its ulttmate components (parts) and by reunion of these parts a new substance is re constructed One Yogi who is now living it Ellore and who for all appearances looks quite like an all ordmnarv poor man exhibited at the Ayurvedic Conference held an the 30th March, 1943 certain feats of Yoga, which modern Science cannot explain (1) His chest normally measured about 30 inches By mnhal1 tion (Puraka) he increased the chest to 44 inches and by exhalation (Rechaka) he decreased it from 30 to 16 mches The total variation n his chest measurement was 28 mches (2) He could stop his pulse absolutely and breath also for some minutes He brought all his Vital force into his fists and challinged anybody to open them None of us could open them yet he did not look very strong His spiritual powers have no comparson with the strength of the material body It is Yogabal Woodroffe's ' Word as Mind Mind as Power Read Sir John

(3) All on a sudden he asked the audience "What smell is that ? Are you getting any smell of chandan ? Instantly the fragrance of chandan began to pour forth from his body People at a distance of twenty yards around htm could recogntse and exclaim that the smell of chandan was pervading the whole atmosphere It was there for nearly five minutes and disappeared at his will (4) A Yogt, quite a young man aged about 28 performed Vajrolı in the immedrate presence of the President of the All India Aayurvedic Conference, Lahore, He sucked through the urethra into the blad der 40 tolas of mercury without any cathetor or tube He sounded a bugle by sucking air into his bladder just one does through the

of the hall mouth or a nostnl, the sound of the bugle was heard at the end

There wilf be no end if I begm to diserbe te Siddhs of Yogis They can stop wild animals by a mere look According to the Yoga Sastras one may disappear badily or enter into another body Refer Patanjah Yoga Sutra 3, 39 Whle the Yoga Sutras teach that powers that are indirectly acquired by the Yogi should be neglected the ordinary man values them grently ind for that reason also he hardly succeeds in acquiring these powers CONCLUSION The fundmental facts necessary for ichieving success in spiri- tual culture are --

SAANKHYA-YOGA 61

(1) Sardda-faith in the efficacy of Concentration.

of that belief. (2) Veerya-progressively increased effort or energy arising out

(3) Smirili-capacity to call up the desired object before the mind repeatedly by the use of that energy, (4) Samadhi-Concentration of the mind on a single object with a view to stopping all dispersiveness and lastly,

Sutra 1.20. (5) Prajna -- Insight into the nature of things by concentration.

To these five, we must add (Adhyasa practice) and Vairagya (Dispassion or detachment). Aayurveda recognises the value of this great science of Yoga and expects the physician to use these spiritual powers, in the diag- nosis and treatment of diseases. Refer, Charaka sarira Cha. I. V. 136-142. Ashtaiswaryas or the 8 supernormal powers are described here. The relation of mind to pain was discussed. "Jnana buddhi pradıpena yo navisati tatvavit Aaturasyaantaraatraaatmanam na sa rogaansehikitsati" (Cha. Vi-IV) t e., A learned physician who fails to enter the inner soul of the patient with the aid of the brilliant lamp of knowledge and under- standing can never (really) treat diseases.

(III) YOGA PSYCHOLOGY YOGA Psychology-Triple barricade of matter-chittavruthi (Fluctuations of minds)-Vasanas (impresions of previous lives)- Modifications of mind classified-Vairagya (detachment) and Abhyasa (Practice)-Savitarka Samadhi (Reflective Meditation)-Saananda Samadhi-Saasmita Samadhi -- Asan-Pragdnnatha Samadhi-Antha- rayas (Obstacles to Samadhi)-Yama, Nıyama-Aasana -- Praanayaama-Fundamental Traits.) Q:25. The Yoga System is the natural complement of practical discipline to achieve the Saankhya ideal of Kaivalya" comment. Bombay 1959, Karnatal 1965) Or Bring out the nature of the various levels of mental life as expounded by Yoga Philosophy. (Raj 1955) Or What is the aim of Yoga and how this aim is realised ? (B.A. 1960, Lucknoto) Ans. The Yoga system professes to free the soul from the

62 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

material bondage by laying down a progressive scheme of self- realization The mai objective of Yogt Psychology is to lay bare the process of thinking in its ethical aspect of progress towards or away from that self-illumination which is identical with slvation; incidentally, it has to dscuss the difflculties and dangers that beset the path of the aspirant after liberation at different stages of progress The means n suggests to achieve this summum bonum -- Moksha of the spirit is to turn the materiat impediments themselves into weapons of attack so that Nature ultimately retires from the field of battle By concentration on Nature's objects, they are subdued and seen through TRIPLE BARRICADE OF MATTER The spirst is enclosed withn a triple barricade of matter and untl all the barriers fall off the soul would remian in bondage to matter 1 The physical body supphes the gross vestment of spirit, and material conforts often pass for sptritual blessings This was the basts of the Charvaka phtlosophy where the soul and the body were identi+ fied and the existence of a disembodied soul (or even a purely spirtual soul) was denied 2 Then there is the belt of the external sense organs As contrasted with the organic sensations medrated by the gross body, these bring reports of external objects and fascinate the soul by the bcauties of diversified Nature The reaction to sensory knowledge is effected by means of the organs of action, and this brings in more knowledge of the external world and more material pleasures 3 Then there is the group of internal principles (antahkarana)- mind (manas), ego (ahamkara) and intelligence (buddhi)-which forms the last and the most insidious chain of bondtge round the soul

Thus the Yoga philosophy retterates the mam Upanishadtc conclusion that the soul must not be identified either with the body or with the senses or with the mind or even with the ego and the mtelli- gence principle, (Buddhi) and that one must penetrate into the inner spintual core after ripping open the "Sheaths" (kosas) of matenahty. CHITTAVRITHI-(FLUCTUATIONS OF MIND) The startig point of the enquiry is constituted by an mvestt- gation into the nature of phenomenal consciousness, which is an unceasing flow of cognitive states, using the word, cogmtion' in its most extended sense to include all types of awareness, impulse and affection Thts is called chittavritti, mental modifications or fluctut- tions of the mindstuff, the word chttta beng a comprehensive designation of the collocation of the five vital srs, (Pranas) the eleven organs (Indriyas-including the mind proper) and the other conditions of knowledge like egoism (ahamkara) and intelhgence (buddlu), It roughly corresponds to the western conception of consct-

SAANKIYA -- YOGA 63

ousness as a stream in which there are both apprehension of objects and appropriation by the self of the states of awareness as its own ' It must be remembered that all types of beings are not capable of the same type of experience nor do two individuals of the same species agree about their mental contents The reason for this is to be sought in the law of karmi which determines what type of embodiment and cxperience is to be expected of any particular soul, when unaided by Yogic proficieny

VASANAS (IMPRESSIONS OF PREVIOUS LIVES) The chitta is not a perfectly uniform plable stuff-it differs from individual, maling the task of one easier than that of another Past karma has set limits to its capacities, so much so that certain types of embodiment are only expiatory in character without the nght and the capacity to improve one s lot by personal endeavour, just as probably other embodiments are only meant for enjoying the fruits of past karmas and are equally devoid of the capacity of improve- ment All indivduals do not have to begin at the same point on the onward path and the same disciplines are not necessary for all to bring about spiritual insight The chitta agam is differently equipped with instinctive cravings in different kinds of beings in accordance with the types of their embodiment As beings have been coming and goin g during the whole period of their eternal life, they must have many shapes in course of transmigration and a deposit of impressions of those different Inves is left in the chuitta as vasanas These vasanas become actie according to embodiment, so that a human body is never prompted by bovine instincts nor a cow by human impulses These vasnas are eterral in the sense that they are not habits memories and dispositions acquired during the lifetime of the indivi- "dual nor do they disappeat, like these with the cessation of the body The Yogin has to fight not only against visible cnemies but also agamst indrvidual fees, for in addition to the conscious contents of his mind, tlere are also native tedencies like r atural introversion and extro- version, mnate propensities pecuber to deposits (samaskara) of past activities of this life It is not enoush, therefore, to stop tl e flow of conscious states alone, for latent tendencies of different kinds sprout up into overt theuehts ard activities so long as they are not totally burnt up by the fue of discriminating knowledge (viveka) When, therefore yoga is defined as cluittarrittmmirodha (suppression of the modifications of the mind stuff) it must be understood not only as the stoppage of presertitions but also as the eradication of those potencies or latent tedencies that generate new streams of thought and new lines of ichon Much of sogic direction is therefore, aimed at the up- rooting of potencies that make for fresh bondage through lapse in inhibition Hence the yogin (in Brahmamsm, Buddhism ard Jamsm) ts enjoined ro consolidate conquests as well as to attack new outposts if he wishes to attarn the condition of a kevalin of an arhat, the different samadhis blumsis or gunasthanaks mark the line of advance in spintualitv ind woe unto him who forgets that posttions attarned

62 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

material bondage by laying down a progressive scheme of self- reatization The mamn objective of Yoga Psychology is to lay bare the process of thinking in its ethical aspect of progress towards or away from that self-mumination which is identical with sivation, incidentally, it has to discuss the difflculties and dangers that beset the path of the aspirant after lberation at different stages of progress The means n suggests to achieve tius summum bonum-Moksha of the spirit is to turn the material impediments themselves mnto weapons of attack so that Nature ultimately retires from the field of battle

through By concentration on Nature's objects, they are subdued and seen

TRIPLE BARRICADE OF MATTER The spirit is enclosed within a triple barricade of matter and until all the barriers fall off the soul would remian mn bondage to matter 1 The physical body supplies the gross vestment of spirit, and material conforts often pass for spiritual blessings' This was the basis of the Charvaka philosophy where the soul and the body were identi- fied and the existence of a disembodied soul (or even a purely spirituat soul) was denied, Then there is the belt of the external sense organs As contrasted with the organic sensations mediated by the gross body, 2

these bring reports of external objects and fascinate the soul by the beauties of diversified Nature The reaction to sensory knowledge is effected by means of the organs of action, and this brings in more knowledge of the external world and more material pleasures 3 Then there is the group of internal principles (antahkarana) -- mind (manas), ego (ahamkara) and intelligence (buddht)-which forms the last aud the ntost instdious cham of bondage round the soul Thus the Yoga plulosophy reiterates the mai Upanishadic conclusion that the soul must not be identified either with the body or witl the senses or with the mind or even with the ego and the intellt- gence principle, (Buddlu) and that one must penetrate into the inner spiritual core after ripping open the "Sheaths" (kosas) of materialty. CHITTAVRITHI-(FLUCTUATIONS OF MIND) The starting point of the enquiry is constituted by an investi- gation into the nature of phenomenal consciousness, winch is an unceasing flow of cognitive states, using the word, cognition' in its most extended sense to mclude all types of awareness, impulse and affection Thts is called chittavritti, mental modifications or fluctua- tions of the mindstuff, the word chitta beng a comprehensive designation of the collocation of the five vital airs, (Pranas) the eleven organs (Indriyas-including the mind proper) and the other conditions of knowledge hke egoism (ahamkara) and intelligence (buddhi), It roughty corresponds to the western conception of consci-

SAANKIIYA-YOGA 63

ousness as a stream in which there are both apprehension of objects and appropriation by the self of the states of awareness as its own It must be remembered that all types of beings are not capable of the same type of expenence nor do two individuals of the same species agree about their mental contents The reason for this is to be sought in the law of karmt which determines what type of embodiment and experience is to be expected of any particular soul, when unaided by Yogic proficieny

VASANAS (IMPRESSIONS OF PREVIOUS LIVES) The chitta is not a perfectly untform pliable stuff-it differs from individual, making the task of one easier than that of another Past karma has set himits to its capacities, so much so that certain types of embodiment are only expiatory in character without the nght and the capacity to improve one's lot by personal endeavour, just as probably other embodiments are only meant for enjoying the fruits of past karmas and are equally devord of the capacity of improve- ment All indrviduals do not have to begin at the same point on the onward path and the same disciplmes are not necessary for all to bring about spiritual insight The chitta, again is differently equipped with instmetive cravings in different kinds of beings in accordance with the types of their embodiment As beings have been coming and gom g during the whole penod of their eternal life, they must have many shapes mn course of transmigration and a deposit of impressions of those different lives is left in the chitta as vasanas These vasanas become active according to embodiment, so that a human body is never prompted by bovine instincts nor a cow by human impulses These vasanas are eternal in the sense that they are not liabits memories and dispositions acquired during the lifetime of the indiv- `dual, nor do they disappear, like these with the cessation of the body The Yogin has to fight not only against visible enemies but also against indivdual fees , for in addition to the conscious contents of hs mind, there are also native tedencies like r atural introversion and extro- version, innate propensities pecuher to deposits (samaskara) of past activities of this life It is not enough, therefore, to stop tl e flow of conscious states alone, for latent tendencies of different kinds sprout up into overt theuchts ard activties so long as they are not totally burnt up by the fnre of discriminating knowiedge (vneka) When, therefore, yoga is defined as chittarrittimirodha (suppression of the modifications of the mind stuff), it must be understood not only as the stoppage of presentitions but also as the eradication of those potencies or latent tedencies that generate new streams of thought and new lines of action Much of yosc direction is, therefore, aimed at the up- rooting of potencies that make for fresh bondage through lapse in ibibition Hence the yogin (in Brahmanism, Buddhism and Jaimsm) is enjoied ro consolidate conquests as well as to attack new outposts if he wishes to attain the condttion of a kevalin of an arhat , the different samadhis, blumsis or gunasthanaks mark the line of advance in spintultty and woe unto him who forgets that posttions attamed

64 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY with arduousness can be retaied only by vigilance and effort and that to make no effort to advance is the surest way to court retreat

MODIFICATIONS OF MIND Q. 26. Write short notes on five kinds of mental modi- fcations (Agra 1950) Ans. Modifications of mind are classified Now this chitta whose modifications are to be suppressed in order to obtain insrght is . not homogeneous mn character There are distracted nature (kslupta), unsteady minds (vikshipta), passionate and stupid egos (mudha), attentive disposttions (ekagra) and intuitive tempers (mrudha) The perpetually restless, the occasionally steady, the mfatuated, the mono- ideistic and the restricted exhaust the different types of minds and they are faced with difficulties of different types of minds in realising their true selves All avenues of empirical or phenomenal knowledge must be closed before transcendental cognition can arise VAIRAAGYA (DETACHMENT), ABHYASA (PRACTICE) The indispensible condition of all spiritual advance is the culti- vation of detachment (Vairagya)-not in a sparmodic fashion but by practice in a systematic way (abhyasa) "The Yoga system advises a control of the affections as the indispensible condition of the dis- appearance of the phenomenal world So long as we retain interest in any object, we are bound to notice its presence and feel the effects of that knowledge, even subliminal cravings are to be checked by suitable means to ensure perfect freedom The process starts with a desire that the senses should not stray into the fields of their normal activity ; this is the condition of the striving (yatamana) The next stage is represented by the knowledge that interest in certain objects bas ceased but not in others , this is the condition of differentration (vyatıreka) The third stage is attamed when interest in sense object has completely ceased, but there still lingers a residual anxiety in the mind (whence it is called one-organed, (ekendriya) abnormal psychology will readily remember cases of anxietyneurosis Students of (and anxiety hysteria) where the knowledge of the originating cause has disappeared from conscious memory and yet the effect appears in the form of anxiety It is only when this stage is crossed and the state of detachment from seen and unseen delectition artses that the condition known as control (vasikara), which ts the highest form of lower detachment (aparavairagya), may be said to have been attuned Beyond this stage is paravairagya, highest detachment, in which com- plete indifference even to the elements of nature (gunas) is reached because of self knowledge, and this discriminative knowledge becomes the cause of salvation only when it is never disturoed or broken (aviplatva) by a return of the consciousness of the subject object relation Side by side with the control of the emotional aspect of mental life there goes on a transcendence of crude cogmitions on a progresslve

SAANKHYA-YOGA 65

fashon Every phenomenal cognttion implies three factors, namely the knower (grehitri), the process of knowledge (grahana) and the object to be knovn (grahya)-a trinity which noumenal knowledge wholly transcends The chitta or mind stuff has a tendency to identify itself with the object which it cognises when its fluctuations are weakened ; if its activities were absolute in character, then there would be no possibility either of improvement or of final liberation the importance of fixing the mind stuff upon the right object, for, Hence

what a mind thinks it tends to become

SAVITARKA SAMADHI (CONTEMPLATIVE MEDITATION) Q 27 Describe the nature and forms of Samadhi and the necessary discipline for attaining it, according to Yoga, (Poona 1959)

Write short notes on forms of Samadhis. Ans It has already been remarked that the path to liberation hes through the felds of nature herself -- that soul uses the phenomena of Nature themselves to conquer hier finally The process of conquest consists in the different kinds of knowledge in the chitta corresponding to the different kinds of Nature's manifestations Thus the ordiary mind is filled with contemplations of the grosser aspects of Nature- the products of the mahabhutas which Prakniti evolves last Using a word which is common with Buddhism but not entering into such niceties of distinction as Buddhism does regarding the different kinds of intellection (kano, chitta, vedna, vynana, samjn, etc ), the Yoga calls this stage of knowledge savitarka, samadhi-here the mind synthesizes its impressions and ideas into the percept of a gross object like a cow or a jar and keeps itself fixed thereon ' In tlis stage all the elements of perceptual knowledge, namely the sound (Sabda) or the name (the meantng) (artha) conveyed to the mind and the actual object (vastu) are all rolled up together so that the expenence is as much as a physical fact The dualty of subject and objeet is, tn its full significanee, present in this cognition and the mind does not rise here above the relativity which all concrete knowledge imples, the knowledge of one object being dependent upon a contrast with that of

of the objective content or that of the elements tovolved Thus when others Now this gross cognition can be superseded either in respect

the three elements of sound (in the case of auditory cognition), mean- ing and object intended are reduced to the last, te, when the mind understands the nature of objects in drect fashion wthout the help of words or psychical doubles, we reach the stage of mrvitarka (indeter- minate Samadln) Words often tend to conceal the real nature of an object and also to produce the illusion of a sensible contest (as in the case of negatie word)' when the mentil state called vikalpa follows It is necessary to raise above the complication of knowledge by verbal and meaning fictors and to get a direct unverbalized know- ledge of things, such as is profsessed by babes and deaf mutes, when

66 INDIAN PIILOSOPHY

this is accomplshed the savitarka stage is superseded by the mrvitarka stage and knowiedge about things is transcended in a direct acquain tance with them But the yogin must go beyond the stage of gross contact altogether and try to grasp the subtle elements of Nature (tanmatras) in their true essence SAVICHARA SAMADHI (REFLECTIVE MEDITATION) The two stages here are respectively called Savichara and Nirvi chara, reflective and super reflective in contrast with Savitarka and mrvitarka contemplative (or deliberative) and super contemplative, because while the latter types deal with objects whose existence is a matter of ordmary experience the former type deals with objects whose existence can only be indirectly proved so far as ordinary minds are concerned It is claimed however that the yogins are liable to know even these subtle things directly after they have acquired certam powers by the practice of meditation In savichira samadht the yogin acquires the power of knowiog such subtle things as atoms, space, time, air pranamanas by direct experience The obstacles that prevent the grasp of subtle and supersensible things in the case of ordinary men do not operate in the case of the yogins To a yogin both the gross and subtle are matters of direct know ledge, although to the ordinary individual the one is sensed and the other mferred In the mirvichara stage the yogin gains a direct non conceptual non verbalized knowledge of these subtle things SAANANDA SAMAADHI But even this stage is trinscended when the yogmn passes on to the saananda stage In saananda samadhi as Vachaspati Misra holds there is an identification with the grahana or means of knowledge just as in savitarka and savichara samdhi there is an identification with the grahya or objects of knowledge

SAASMITA SAMAADHY But the yogin can go further He may transcend both the object and the process of thought ind fix his attention on the con sciousness of self itself We have already seen that this self conscious ness is only phenomenal for here there is a reflecnon of the Purusha in the Janus-like buddhi whercby an illusory self sense is generated in the first evolute of Prakriti pamely, buddh or mahat so transparent in buddhi, owirg to the preponderance of the element Nature is

of sattva tht the self has great difficulty in dissociating itself from the consciousness of self the I from the 'me The transcendental self from the phenomenal ego Budd'1 and ahamkara are the two principles which closely operate together in producing idividual

SAANKHYA-YOGA 67

centres of cognition, affection and conation and although they require the help of the sense-organs to come into contact with the external "world, they are sufficient by themselves to generate, or at least to con- serve, a sense of private ownership of ideas and actions. Buddhi, like the nous in Plotinus supplies the principle of intelligibility to Prakriti which, like the One or Being of Plotinus, would remain unmanifested 'avyakta) without its aid. But intelligibility in general becomes parti- :ularized through ahamkara or ego-making principle, which canalizes ntelligibility into individual channels and lays the foundation of perso- al ownership.

In the samadhi the self concentrates on the sense of personal cognition and effort, to transcend that stage also. 1. It discovers that the sense of personal identity is also phenomenal and depends upon he comprehence of Prakriti and Purusha-the former supplying buddhi ind chamatkara that medium in which alone Purusha could produce an image of itself and a sense of personal identity. But this is the stage hardest to overcome, for here, the identity with the real self is so close that most people stop here, thinking that the final stage has been attained. As a matter of fact, the Yogasutra refers to two classes of beings the videhalinas and the prakrititinas-both belonging to the bhava- pratyaya class or the class of beings who are born without organic encumbrances like our owh, (gods etc.) and possessing a natural capa- city to know themselves if they would shake off the little ignorance that keeps them from salvation. 2. The yogin is an upayapratyaya or one who has acquired his discriminative knowledge by adopting proper means ; 3. but he is not in any way inferior to the above two classes of beings, for he can win his salvation by going beyond the

held fast. stages of saananda and saasmita samadhis in which these classes are

It is not enough to renounce the world or practise austerities -- the yogin must gain complete insight into the distinction betwecn his self and the phenomena of the physical world and thereby win his freedom. ASAMPRAJNATA SAMAADHI (Meditation without Form) We now pass on to Asamprajnata Samadli or concentration where the object has become reduced to mere disposition (samskara) and where, therefore, knowledge involving the duality of subject and object has ceased. A DEAD MAN AND A YOGI COMPARED The distinction between a dead man and a man who has entered in samadhi, on the cessation of perception, and sensation, is that in the latter bodily karma, vocal karma and mental karma cease and be- come quieted, but vitality does not depart. The natural heat does not

63 INDIAN PINLOSOPHY

subside and the senses do notbreak up in the former casc (The Yogi's power of adaptation (e ,) the continuous adjust- ment of internal relations to external relations, is extra ordinary There is a greater conservation of energy in the Yogi This is the result, not of unconsciousness, but tt is due to hts super consciousness, rather to an extra care taken by the Yogi in his Samadhi state The Yogi is in fact a higher being Ordinary man is compara tively more primitive, just as a quadruped is more primitie when compared to man and the Amoeba is more primitive than the qua druped The development of heat-regulating and other mechanisms is superhuman in the Yogi The body temperture and other adjustments to environment are maintained at his will He can bring back his con sciousness at a definite time (Samkalpa Mitra), which shows that there is some sort of consciousness throughout

OBSTACLES TO SAMADHI

in Yogasutras Q 28 Write short notes on mental distractions given

Ans The obstacles to concentration were classified under different heads -- (1) Vyadht-Sickness It was laid down that all the consttuents of the body, the secre tions and the sense organs were to be kept in proper order before yoga could be satisfactorily practised In later Yoga works, like the Hatha yogapradipika, it was mentioned in fact that yoga stself kept the body in a hoalthy condition Various indications about the progress of the mind towards yoga were found in the proper functioning of the different systems of the body In the Hathayoga minute prescriptions about ridding the body of all impurities were laid down, and the results attained v ere heightened sensibility, increased control over the activities of the body (including leviation, immersion in solids, walking over fluids, ete ) and even the power of voluntary death Contt nence and restraint of various kinds were as much in the interest of the body as of the mind and were accordingty prescribed Ofer indulgence and improper diet were tabooed for the same reason and fasting and austerities, in so far as they did not endanger life, were recommended' When yoga is established the powers of clairvoyance, clairaudience, etc are obtamed, and also the knowledge of past, distant and future things In one word the absence of bodily infirmity would include the disappearance of all those impediments that limit the operations of the mind in time and space on account of bodily defects, diseases and decays Concentration cannot thrive when the body refuses to act as a phant tool mn the hands of the yogin's mind and sets up organic disturbances How, for instance Is a yogin to assume a fixed seat or posture when he is in a delinous condition ?

SAANKHYA - YOGA 69

(2) Aalsaya :- Listlessness. idleness, or lassitude ; (3) Styana- Langour. Closely related to infirmity is the heaviness of the body due to he preponderance of phlegm, or of the mind-stuff on account of the f reponderance of the tamas element. When the mind is unwilling to t tir, then it is a case of idleness ; but when it is unable to stir, then it s a case of langour (styana). 3. So it is not enough to possess the apacity of concentration-one must actually will to exercise that apasity. A yogin may fail for lack of drive just as he may fail for ack of energy.

(4) Samsaya-Doubt ; (5) Pramada- heedlessness. It is not enough to possess the will and the energy to achieve oncentration ; one must also hold fast to a single object and perse- 'er in the attempt to grasp it completely. The lack of definiteness ives us doubt (samsya), where the mind is assailed with alternative houghts and the necessary faith in the sole efficacy of the ideal is ibsent.

Headlessness (pramada) is lack of reflection upon the means of attaining concentration ; here there is no doubt about the object of knowledge, but steps are not taken to bring about the concentra- ion by the adoption of appropriate means.

FAILURE AND INSTABILITY IN ATTENTION It was found, however, that in spite of their willingness and application some could not attain a particular level of concentration. These could not make any progress in their spiritual quest. It is possibly due to congenital impediments or subconscious opposition. In its comprehensive scheme the Yoga system repeatedly draws attention to the necessity of taking the residues of our past thoughts and actions in to consideration and we may very well suppose that the past takes its vengance on the present by obstructing progress.

It may so happen, however, that a position is won with effort, but very soon it is lost again. It is not enough to secure an advance -- it is necessary to retain it also. In spiritual matters, not to advance is to recede ; and so effort is necessary to go beyond them. The tendency to slide back to an inferior position, which does not require much effort to retain it, is a danger which always besets the path of the spiritual aspirant. Hence continual effort is needed to keep up one's attainments in the spiritual domain. A yogin should never be satisfied with anything less than total suppression of the modifications of the mindstuff, or even the intermediate stages attained would slip out of his grasp. (6) Avirati-Worldiness, (7) Bhranti Darsana-Erroneous per- ception. One of the gravest impediments is moral defect in the shape of

68 INDIAN PHILOSOPIY

subside and the senses do notbreak up in the former case (The Yogt's power of adaptation (ve,) the contiuous adj -.. ment of internal relations to external relations, is extra ordmary There is a grenter conservation of energy in the Yog This is the result, not of unconsciousness but it is due to his super consciousness rather to an extra care taken by the Yogt in his Samadhi state The Yogt is in fact a higher being Ordinary man is compara tively more primitive, just as a quadruped is more primitive when compared to man and the Amoeba is more primitive than the qua druped The development of heat-regulating and other mechanisms is superhuman in the Yogi The body temperture and other adjustments to environment are maintuned at his will He can bring back his con sciousness at a definte time (Samkalpa Mitra), which shows that there is some sort of consciousness throughout

OBSTACLES TO SAMADHI

in Yogasutras Q 28 Write short notes on mental distractions given

Ans The obstarles to concentration were classified under different heads -- (1) Vyadhı-Sickness It was laid down that all the constituents of the body, the secre- tions and the sense organs were to be kept in proper order before yoga could be satisfactorily practised In later Yoga works, like the Hatha yogapradipika, it was mentioned in fact that yoga itself kept the body in a haalthy condition Various indications about the progress of the mind towards yoga were found in the proper functioning of the different systems of the body In the Hathayoga minute prescriptions about ridding the body of all impurities were laid down, and the results attained v ere heightened sensibility, increased control over the activities of the body (including leviation, immersion in solids, walking over fluids, etc ) and even the power of voluntary death Conti nence and restraint of various kinds were as much in the interest of the body as of the mind and were accordingly prescribed Over indulgence and improper diet were tabooed for the same reason and fasting and austerities, in so far as they did not endanger life, were recommended' When yoga is established the powers of clairvoyance, clarraudienee, etc are obtained, and also the knowledge of past distant and future things In one word the absence of bodily infirmity would include the disappearance of all those impediments that limit the operations of the mind in time and space on account of bodily defects, diseases and decays Concentration cannot thrive when the body refuses to act as a plnnt tool in the hands of the yogin's mind and sets up organic disturbances How, for instance t

condition ? a yogin to assume a fixed seat or posture when he is in a deliriou:

SAANKIIYA - YOGA 69

(2) Aalsaya :- Listlessness. idleness, or lassitude ; (3) Styana- Langour. Closely related to infirmity is the heaviness of the body due to the preponderance of phlegm, or of the mind-stuff on account of the f preponderance of the tamas element. When the mind is unwilling to t stir, then it is a case of idleness ; but when it is unable to stir, then it is a case of langour (styana). 3. So it is not enough to possess the capacity of concentration- one must actually will to exercise that capacity. A yogin may fail for lack of drive just as he may fail for lack of energy.

(4) Samsaya-Doubt ; (5) Pramada- heedlessness. It is not enough to possess the will and the energy to achieve concentration ; one must also hold fast to a single object and perse- ver in the attempt to grasp it completely. The lack of definiteness gives us doubt (samsya), where the mind is assailed with alternative thoughts and the necessary faith in the sole efficacy of the ideal is absent.

Headlessness (pramada) is lack of reflection upon the means of attaining concentration ; here there is no doubt about the object f knowledge, but steps are not taken to bring about the concentra- ion by the adoption of appropriate means.

FAILURE AND INSTABILITY IN ATTENTION It was found, however, that in spite of their willingness and appheation some could not attain a particular level of concentration. Tnese could not make any progress in their spiritual quest. It Is possibly due to congenital impediments or subconscious opposition. In its comprehensive scheme the Yoga system repeatedly draws attention to the necessity of taking the residues of our past thoughts and actions in to consideration and we may very well suppose that the past takes its vengance on the present by obstructing progress.

It may so happen, however, that a position is won with effort, but very soon it is lost again. It is not enough to secure an advance- it is necessary to retain it also. In spiritual matters, not to advance is to recede ; and so effort is necessary to go beyond them. The tendency to stide back to an inferior position, which does not require much effort to retam it, is a danger which atways besets the path of the spiritual aspirant. Hence continual effort is needed to keep up one's attainments in the spintual domam. A yogin should never be satisfied with anything less than total suppression of the modifications of the mindstuff, or even the intermediate stages attained would slip out of hus grasp.

ception. (6) Avirati-Worldiness, (7) Bhranti Darsans-Erroneous per-

One of the gravest impediments is moral defect in the shape o:

70 INDIAN PITILOSOPHY

greed or addiction to objects of sense If the purpose of yoga is to draw the mind away from thoughts and impulses leading to the recog. nition of the material world in the interest of the spirit, it is obvious that excessive fondness for the world of sensibility would obstruct the effort to detach one-self from empirical thinking The yogin must therefore cultivate not only a habit of thought but also a habit ol action cor ducive to the attainment of the maximum spirtual height He must control his feelings as well as his thoughts and actions Sc long as the desire to enjoy persists, no amount of intellectual effort to fix the mind on higher things would succeed , and as varragya of dispassion will not thrive under such a condition of worldly attach

about ment, the suppression of the mental states would not be brough!

(8) Alabdha Bhumikatwam- Failure to attain concentration (9) Anavastitatwam-Inabilty to keep it when attaied Hence the root-cause of all distraction must be eradicated by cultivating true knowledge and abohshing all false or illusory know- fedge Without an adequate knowledge of the principle of reauty and the distinction between self and not-self all effort to get nd of menta! ffuctuations would be futile. Hence we come back to the old position that at the root of all distraction stands man's imperfect knowledge and so the removal of distraction and the removal of ignorance are one and the same problem Many have failed to obtain salvation becatse they mistcok the acquisition of certam powers or the appear- ance of certain mental conditions as the attainment of samadhi Many have also been tempted to deviate from the main purpose of attaining isolauon by their quest of magical powers (vibhooties) , and many have transferred their ittention from the end to the means, as when they perfected the technque of bodily control, eg hathayogins of later uimes, but desisted from the attempt to know themselves The Yoga Sutra warns the learner to beware of these pitfalls and to forge shead with the proper objectie without being distracted by irrelevant considerations In addition to the nine distractions mentioned above namely, (1) Vyadhi-stckness, (2) Aalasya-listlessness, (3) Styana-lingour, (4) Samsaya-doubt, (5) Pramad-heedlessness, (6) Avirati-worldli- ness, (7) Bhranti Darasana-erroneous perception, (8) Alabdha Bhums katwam-failure to attun a particular stige of concentration and (9) Anavastitatwam -- inability to keep it when attamed, the Yogasutra refers to certai other obstacles to concentration These are (e) pam procceding from the mind itself, from the external world and from the gods, (4) despondency owing to the non fulfilment of desires (the passions being included withm patn), (c) unsteadiness of the body, and (d) breathing (ispiration and expiration) They accompany the dis rictiens proper and disappear when the mind-stuff is concentrated. Now cach kind of distriction is to be met with an antrdote of tts own If bodily infirmitv, unsteadmess of the limbs and brenthing

SAANKHY1-YOGA 71

upset the mind and render concentration difficult or impossible, these must be controlled and eradicated, For instance, cleanliness (Saucha) of the body, as of the mind, is necessary for concentration

YOGANGAS (Helps to Yoga) Q 29 Write short notes on Yogangas Or Write a critical note on the eight fold path of Yoga as a method of liberation (Bombay 1961, 1959, Ra 195S, 1955 Mysore 1962, Baroda 1963, Gujrat 1964, Karnatal. 1964, 1965 Goralhpur 1962 , Jodhpur 1965) Ans There are eight methods of discipline which help the Yogt in his practice They are called Yogangas They are yama or 'self restramt , 'myama' or 'observance', asana or 'posture', 'pranayama' or 'regulation of breath', 'pratya hara or 'withdrawl' of the senses, dharana or steadying the mind, dhyina or contemplation and samdhi or meditatre trance The aim of this discipline is to assist man in the ascent from the narrow view conge- mtal to him to the larger viston which brings freedom with it A characteristic fenture of it is the gradation in the training which it prescribes It recognises different levels of fitness in the disciples and regulates the traming accordingly It does not aim at extirpating evil propensities all at once Another noteworthy feature of the same is that it is based upon the psychologiclly sound principle that vice is not overcome by attempting to repress it directly, but by sedulously prictising the contriry virtue which will eventually supplant it This eight fold disciplmne may be drvided into two stages YAMA (t) The first concerned with the reht direction of the will and represents the attamment of the good as distinguished from the true The need for chirity ind humilty in our dealings with others is emphasized The disciplme in the present stage is devised to develop this unselfish side mn men's character More particularly, it relates to the acquirement of virtues comprised in the first two angas of yogic discipline, namely yama and mıyama The former is negative and consists of non injury (ahimsa). truth-speaking (satya) abstention. from stealing or misappropriation of other's property (asteva) celibacy (brahmacharya) and disowning of possession (apargraha) NIYAMA The latter is positive and mcludes purity (saucha), contentment (santosha) right aspiration (tipas) study (svadhvaya) and devotion to Ged (Iswarapramdhna) These together may be described as the ten commandments of

72 INDIAN PIILOSOPHY

the Saankhya-Yoga It is on this pre eminently moral foundation that any spiritual traiing shouldrest, if it is to be fruitful and not on the mere cultivation of the intellect Without such a foundation, there is no possibility of salvation , and he who lays that foundation firmly even though he may stop short at that, may be taken to have achieved much The keyword to this discipline however is impersonality (Vairagya) Thoughts of ijury, deceit, unlawful gain sex and greed lose the soul from object to object and keep up the stream of thought and activity It is very necessary for the yogin to control these wild propensities of the mind by cultivating the above mentioned habits of non injury (ahimsa) truthfulness (satya) non stealing (asteya) continence (brahmacharya) and non-acceptance of gift (aparigraha) ard ako contentment (Santosh ) So long as ment.1 control does not include these in their widest denotation, the mind is sure to go after things of the world and to pile up the fruits of unholy action Hence the sage must cultivate the habit of putting himself in the position of his intended victims and mn this way get rid of unsocial, perverse and immoral thouglits As an example we are told to rejoice at the happmess of others, maitri, to pity those in distress (karuna), to take delight at the virtuous deeds of

material and sp ntual advancement of others* hatred and anger towards (upeksha) our fellowmen (mudita) and to practise indifference towards the vicious it is only thus that one can get rid of jealousy at the

sinners and indifference towards the poor The main object of all men- tal discipline is to uproot all dispositions that have a tendency to sprout into overt thoughts and aspirations If we could establish a sufficient amount of disposition towards restriction of mental states the mass of disposition towards emergence of states tends to dissolve and the mental states become gradually sestrained with the development of the power But the Yogasutra takes care to poit out that a good disposition is as bad as a bad disposition in so far as the ultimate of restriction

object of Yoga is concerned , for dispositions form a kind of residual mental existence altogether When presentations and drspesitions lose their difference, when the past, the present and the future are not distinguished, when the intensity of mental states does not vary and qualitative changes dis ippear altogether from consciousness, then and then only can the Yogm be said to have almost attamed his object Singleness of intent (ekagrata) is the nearest approximation to this condition and so the cultivation of a disposition of monsidersm is essential for the destruction of that tendency towards dispersieness whuch makes for mental flow and spiritual bondage

ASSANAS

Then ag-in the yogmn must learn to control lus limbs-he must try to sit strught like the trunk of a tree (sthana) with the spine, the neck and the head in one fine, ind assume certai postures (asanas) that are favourable to concentration For the same reason it could

SAANKHYA-YOGA 73

not recommend the practice of the eighty-four asans of Hathayoga, for many of these would have contravened the Yoga ideals of asanas as steady and easy in character, Nevertheless the Vyasabhashya mentions a few, showing that many of the forms were well known and modelled on the postures of different types of ammals

MUDRAS AND NYASA

The Yoga Sutra knows nothing of the later prescriptions about mudra (pose of fingers, hands or body) and nyasa (touching the various parts of the body) which came in rhe wake of Tantrikism and theism The nyasa in which the different muscles of the body are brought into exercise by rotation looks almost like a physical drill ; but the idea that the whole body becomes suffused with divine energy and the devotee becomes one with huis god saves it from degeneration into a mere physical exercise and invests it with a deep spintual signifi cance The mudras, however cannot be so easily spiritualized and were probably magical symbols in their original form and were later on invested with esoteric meaning The Yoga Sutra which believed in immobility could not consstently advocate the use of these modes of moving the body lest they should disturb the attention

PRANAYAMA

The Yoga Sutra, however recommends the practice of controlled breathing (pranayami) with the ultimate object of suspending it for as long a period as possible The breathing both in and out, should be over as small an area as possible, its number should be dimiished, and its duration should be expanded In this way the body will breathe as few a number of times as possible and in a gradually shallow manner till it is able to hold the breath for a farrly long period with any risk of asphyxiation That the autonomic system could be controlled through the slender connection with the nervous system was a great discovery of the Yoga system and it still retams its title to the sole possession of the techinque to bring that about The Tantrika system developed at the same time a method of controll- ing the different plexuses (shatchakra) and indulged in physiological speculations suited to the purpose , but the Yogasutra limited itself almost entirely to the practice of breathing and laid down the suspen- sion of breath as the objective of all spiritual aspirants The idea that controlled breathing cleanses the system and that the elements of the body are thereby nd of all impurities (bhutasuddhi) came later . originally breath was controlled because it disturbed the attention and because the control of breath not only made the mind attentive but also scoured away the karma that veiled discriminative knowledge Still even m the Yogasutra an exaggerated importance given to breath control for purposes of concentration and ultimate salvation is notice- able This may be remmiscent of the Upamshadic view that man is continually offering sacrifices to the gods through breathing (called Pratardana sacrifices after King Pratardina who tught this doctrine)

72 INDIAN PHILOSOPIY

the Saankhya-Yoga. It is on this pre eminently moral foundation that any spintuai traming shouldrest, if it is to be fruitful and not on the mere cultivation of the intellect Without such a foundation, there is no possibility of salvation , and he who lays that foundation firmly even though he may stop short at that, may be taken to have achueved much The keyword to this discipline however is impersonalty (Vairagya) Thoughts of injury, deceit, unlawful gam, sex and greed lose the soul from object to object and keep up the stream of thought and activity It is very necessary for the yogin to control these wild propensities of the mind by cultivating the above mentioned habits of non-injury (ahimsa) truthfulness (satya) non-stealing (asteya) continence (brahmacharya) and non-acceptance of gift (aparigraha) ard also contentment (Santosh.) So long as mental control does not include these in their widest denotation, the mind is sure to go after things of the world and to pile up the fruits of unholy action Hence the sage must cultivate the habit of putting himself in the position of his intended victims and in this way get rid of unsocrl, perverse and immoral thoughts As an example. we are told to rejoice at the hppiness of others, maitri, 1D pity those in distress (karuna), to take delight at the virtuous deeds of our fellowmen (mudita) and to practise indifference tow ards the vicious (upeksha) it is only thus that one can get rid of jealousy at the material and spiritual advancement of others: hatred and anger towards sinners and indifference towards the poor The main object of all men- tal disciphne is to uproot all dispositions that have a tendency to sprout into overt thoughts and aspirations If we could establish a sufficient amount of dispostion towards restriction of mental states the mass of disposition towards emergence of states tends to dissolve and the mental states become gradually restraied with the development of the power of restriction But the Yogasutra takes care to pomt out that a good disposition is as bad as a bad disposition in so far as the ultimate object of Yoga is concerned , for dispositions form a kind of residuaf mental existence altogether When presentations and dispesittons lose their difference, when the past, the present and the future are not distinguished, when the intensity of mental states does not vary and quabtative changes disappear altogether from consciousness, then and then onty can the Yogin be said to have almost attained his object Sinleness of intent (ekagrata) is the nearest approximation to this condition and so the cultivation of a disposition of monsideism is essential for the destruction of that tendency towards dispersiveness which mikes for mental flow and sptritual bondage

ASSANAS Then agcmn the yogin must learn to control his himbs-he must try to stt straight like the trunk of a tree (sthana) with the spme, the neck and the head in one line, and assume certam postures (asanas) that are favourable to concentration For the same reason it could

SAANKHYA-YOGA 73

not recommend the practice of the eighty-four asans of Hathayoga, for many of these would have contravened the Yoga ideals of asanas as steady and easy in character, Nevertheless the Vyasabhashya mentions a few, showing that many of the forms were well known and modelled on the postures of different types of animals

MUDRAS AND NYASA

The Yoga Sutra knows nothing of the later prescriptions about mudra (pose of fingers, hands or body) and nyasa (touching the

theism various parts of the body) which came in rhe wake of Tantrikism and The nyasa in which the different muscles of the body are brought into exercise by rotation looks almost like a physical drill, but the idea that the whole body becomes suffused with divine energy and the devotee becomes one with his god saves it from degeneration into a mere physical exercise and invests it with a deep spiritual signifi cance The mudras, however cannot be so easily spiritualized and were probably magical symbols in their onginal form and were later on invested with esoteric meaning The Yoga Sutra which believed in Immobility could not consistently advocate the use of these modes of moving the body lest they should disturb the attention.

PRANAYAMA

The Yoga Sutra, however recommends the practice of controlled breathing (pranayamt) with the ultimate object of suspending it for as long a period as possible The breathing both in and out, should be over as small an are? as possible, its pumber should be dimmished, and its duration should be expanded In this way the body will breathe as few a number of times as possible and in a gradually shallow manner till it is able to hold the breath for a fairly long period with any risk of asphyxiation That the autonomic system could be controlled through the slender connection with the nervous system was a great discovery of the Yoga system and it still retams its title to the sole possession of the techinque to bring that about The Tantrika system developed at the same time a method of controll- ing the different plexuses (shatchakra) and indulged in phystological speculations sited to the purpose , but the Yogasutra limted stself almost entirely to the practice of breathing and laid down the suspen- sion of breath as the objective of all spirttual aspirants controlled breathing cleanses the system and that the elements of the The idea that

body are thereby rid of all impurities (bhutasuddhi) came later. orginally brenth was controlled because it disturbed the attention and because the control of breath not only made the mind attentne but also scoured away the karma that veiled discriminative knowledge Still even m the Yogasutra an exaggerated importance given to breath control for purposes of concentration ind ultimate salvation is notice- able This may be remimiscent of the Upanishadic view that man is continually offerine sacrifices to the gods throuch breathing (called Pratardana sacrifices after King Pratardana who trught this doctrine)

74 INDIAN PHILOSOPIY

3 and that all the scriptures were breathed out by the Absolute Being In fact, in later literature we are told that when inhaling a man takes the sound sah and when exhaling he emits the sound ham and in this way he is unwittingly repeating the formul1 (ajapa japa), that the jivatman is identical with the Parimatman (so ham He, 1 am) without intermission That the regultion of breath had a thera- peutic effect on the bodily system ind increased the beauty and longevity of the persons practising it was not the primary motive of pranayama in the Yogasutra ilthough perfection of body (kiyasam- pad), including beauty, grace power and compactness of the thuderbolt) was regarded there also, as a supernormal power (vibhuti) acquired by the yogin in the course of lis progress towards concen- trtien It is snteresting to note that austenbes (tapas) play a very small part in the Yogasutra, although they are regarded as a form of Yoga (kriyayoga) and form one of the five observances (nıyama) This is an index of the attitude towards modification of the flesh practised much more widely at an earhier time, Similarly, the Vedic sacrifice (yajna) practically disappears as a mode of spiritual progress, although the Bhagvad Gita admitted its utility even when it depreciated its value It is likely that the Yoga shared with the Sankhys an abhorrence of sacrificial crucity and readily adopted the Buddhistic ind Jaina prescription of non injury (thimaa) as the cardinal tenet of spintual emancipation Besides after castigating bodily move- ment as an impediment to concentration, it could not logically back the Vedic mode of attaiing liberation, for, sacrifices involved a lot of manipulation and movement On the other hand, the Upanishadic formula of 'om" as the mystic syllable par excellence proved attractive because its monotonous repetition had the effect of bring ng about concentration if not stoppage, of thought so it was made the subject of meditation ind was also regarded as the most natural expression for the Isvar The Yogasutra discovered that the most intimate nature of the attentive process was the control of the body ind that attention was more a function than 1 producer of bodily adjustment PRATYAHARA But mere bodily control is 'not enough to bring about the cessatton of the mental process The senses are assailing the soul through the operations of the buddiu, and untess the mind withdraws from the senses or unless the senses are otherwise rendered inoperative the disturbance to the soul will continue Hence the practice of withdrawal (pratyahara) of the senses must be resorted to The Yoga system does not recommend the plucking out of any sense if that were possible, nor does it advise mutilation of any organ or action , for unless the thoughts are controlled, the mere dis appearance of any sense organ will not smooth the path to salvation When the organs of sense cease to connect themselves with ther proper objects they imitate the mind stuff its-lf which is not in direct

SAANKHYA-YOGA 75

eontact with the objects and is natuarally undifferentiated in respect of its contents. There was some difference of opinion, it seems about the exact meaning of the term 'mastery of the organs' but all agreed that complete mastery was synonymous with singleness of intent followed by loss of interest in objects of sense, whether this itself was or was not followed by the disappearance of the panorama of the external world. In fact, insight and detachment are synonymous so far as objects of sense are concerned, and the whole yogic prescription can be put in the formula 'Contemplate, concentrate and conquer.' In the second and third books of the Yogasutra we are told of the various powers (vibhutis) that are acquired by concentrating on this or that object. While to the novice these powers prove intoxicating and he revels in their practice, the adept is advised to treat them as mere signs of the development of the spirit and to pass on to the stage of conquest of the organs of sense. It is not enough to know the things of the world in all space and time or to acquire various perfections (siddhis) that enable one to dominate the objects as one pleases. It is necessary to transcend that stage altogether and to realize the essential non-spiritual character of the world of matter. This is achieved by loss of interest in worldly things consequent on the mastery of the senses. The mutability of mind is most dependent on the presentation, and restriction of these is the first step towards realizing the cessation of mental states. Representations depend on presentations and presentations depend upon the interests of life. Ultimately, therefore, knowledge becomes amoral problem, for people, know, in order to act in the world, for purposes of self-aggrandizement and enjoyment.

VAIRAGYA

How then is interest in the world to be abated ? It is by concentrating on the abominable aspect of the attractive thing of the world. Here, for instance, is the specimen from Buddhism about the type of thought that one ought to indulge in if one wishes to avoid being attracted by physical beauty :

"For, as the body when dead is repulsive, so is it also when alive ; but on account of the concealment afforded by an adventitious adornment its repulsiveness escapes notice. The body is in a collection of over three hundred bones, and is framed into a whole by means of one hundred and eighty joints. It is held together by nine hundred tendons, and over-laid by nine hundred muscles, and has an outside envelope of moist cuticle covered by an epidermis full of pores, through which there is an incessant oozing and trickling, as if from a kettle of fat. It is a prey to vermin, the seat of disease, and subject to all manner of miseries. Through its nine apertures it is always discharging matter like a ripe boil. Matter is secreted from the two eyes, wax from the cars, snot from the nostrls. and from the mouth issue food, phlegm, and from the two lower orifices of the body faeces and urine, while from the ninety nine thousand pores of

76 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

the skin an unclen swent eudes, attracting black flies and other insects

"Accordingly, it is on account of the concealment afforded by tis adventitious adornment that people fail to recognize the essenttal repulsiveness of their bodies and that men find pleasure in woman, and women in men In reahty, however there is not the smallest just reason for beig pleased A proof of this is the fact that when any part of the body becomes detached as for instance the hair of the body, nails, teeth phlegm snot, faeces or urine people are unwilling so much as to touch it, and are distressed at, ashamed of and loathe it, But in respect of what remains though that is likewise repulsive, yet men are so wrapped in blindness and infatuated by a paswonate fond- ness for their own selves that they blieve it to be something desirable, lovely, lasting, pleasant and an ego " Here is the same theme treated in earher literature Just as if, O priests, there were a double mouthed vessel full of various sorts of grain to wit, sali rice, common paddy, beans, pulse, sesme and husked rice and some intelligent man were to open it and consider its contents saying 'This is sali rice, this is common paddy, these are beans, this is sesame, this in husked rice' in exactly the same way, O priests a priest considers ths body upwards from the soles of the feet and downwards from the crown of the head, enclosed by skin and full of manner of uncleanliness, saying "There is in this body hair of the head, hair of the body, nais, teeth, skin, flesh, stnew, bone marrow of the bones, heart, liver, pleura, spleen, intestines, mesen tery stomach, faeces, bile, phlegm pus, blood, sweat, fat, tears, lymph, saliva snot, syncvil fluid and urine, Let us continue the theme a bit more in order to show the final attitude towards the things of sense "Just as 1 man might have a wife beloved, delightful, and chirming from whom he could not bear to be separated for a moment and on whom he exessively do ed If he then ware to see that woman stinding or sittrng in company with another min, talking ind joking with him, he would be angry and displeased and experience bttter grief But if subsequently he were to discover that she had been guilty of a fiult, he would lose alt desire for her and let her go, and no longer look on her as 'mine' From that time on, whenever he might see her engaged with anv one else, he would not be angry or grieved but simply indifferent and neutral In exactly the same way the iscetic by grasping the constituents of being with the reflective insight becomes desirous of being released from them and perceiving 'none of them worthy of being deemed 'I or 'mine' he abandons all fear and joy mn regard to them and becomes indifferent and neutral When he has learnt and perceived this, lus mind draw, in contricts, and shrinks away from the three modes of existence, the four species of being, the five destinies in rebirth, the seven stages of consciousness, the nine grades of being and does not spread out, and only indiffer- ence or disgust abides

78 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Once it is recognised that the soul is different from matter in all its forms, unconscious and pseudo psychical, there will be no mdication to attend to the objects of Nature or indulge in any kind of thinking, feeling or action The soui is above all opposite modes of awareness (dvandatita) and relativity of subject and object (aprinamın) and in it thinking and being coincide It is non modifiable

TUNDAMENTAL TRAITS The objeet of Yoga Psychology is to teach the way to self know- fedge and to this everything else-including devotion to God-15 subsidiary The Yoga system of achieving salvation is a bold man's creed , and although there is the strict reference in this system, the ultimate effect of all process of thinking does not differ very much from that in Buddhism and Jaiism where the theistic implication is absent The gods figure as colourless in tlus system as in the heterodox schools and they are inferior to the sage in all these schools of thought The Yoga system fike Buddhism insists on certain fundamental traits for achieving success in spiritual culture These are sraddha faith in the efficacy of concentration, virya mcreased effort of energy arising out of that beltef, smritr mindfulness or capacity to call up the desir- ed object before the mind repeatedly by that energy smadhi, con centration of the mind on a single object with a view to stopping all dispersiveness, and lastly, pryna, insight into the nature of things by concentration They are not processes, but faculties which the individual must possess in order to obtain discriminative knowledge Within the Saankhya, framework' the Yoga introduced the theism of orthodoxy on the one hand and the psychological malysis of the heterodox systems, specially Buddhism, on the other

(I V) YOGA PSYCHOLOGY (Modern Science) (Yoga psychology and modern sciences-The Theory of Causa- tion-The Trigunas (The Ultimate Reals)-Theory of Parallelism -- Theory of Neutral Pluralism-Self Determination and other Deter- minations-Space ind Time-Mental constitution (Vikalpa)-Materal and Cxtraneous Causes-Nine kinds of Causes, Force a Behaviour -- Structure of Atoms-Catalytic Agent, a Co existent cause, Inorganto Organizations-The Living and the non living-Reaction to Environ ment-Biological and Physico Chemical Events -- Spontancous Orgin of Living matter-Individuality (Ahankara)-Whole Expression-In dependent Sphere of Life-Independent Sphere of mind -- Ultimate Nature of Mental Phenomena -- Mental and Bio chemical Phenomena -- Consciousness-Result of Modification of Trigunas-Concept of Prakritr both Physical and Mental)

SAANKHYA-YOGA 79

Q. 30 Write a short note on the theory of Causation ? Or Discuss fully the Saankhya theory of Causation (Agra 1962)

Ans. Patanjalt defined yoga as the partial and complete or temporary and permanent arrest or cessation of mental states The theory that mental states can be arrested by our efforts is an extremely onginal one and uptit now we know of no country other than India, where such a possibiltty was ever conceived Dr. Sigmund Freud has expressed great surprise, that such a thing should be concerved possible but he admits that this experiment had always been made and that therefore it would be hazardous to deny its possibility. In India the yoga has always been practised from the earlest dawn of her civiliza- tion and carries with it the testimony of many decades and centuries.

Underlyig the possibility of the fact of yoga, there is a concept of mind and a theory of psychology In spite of many differences in the attempts at the exposition of this psychology among the different thinkers of the school of Patanjali, there is a general agreement re- garding the main position of the Yoga psychology.

THE THEORY OF CAUSATION

This theory is based upon a metaphysical Theory of Causation namely, that like causes produce like effects A cause is regarded as a potential effect Even before the causal operation, the effects exist in identity with the cause The function of the causal operation is not to produce anything new, but to actualize the cause as the effect or to exInbit mamfestly in the effect what was already contained in the cause There can thus be no interaction between unlikes, for in that casc the interaction would have to be supposed to bring into being effects which were not contamed in either of the two causal elements or in the interaction itself Agam, if interaction is supposed to be an extraneous relation, then being a relation it would be outside the causal entities and whatever is outside the cau al entihes would be in- capable of entering into them , so the relations will have to be con- ceived as having no relation at their two ends and this would baffle the very nature of felations Thus relations cannot, have any separate existence from the related It is the different aspects and manifesta- tions of the related that are interpreted as relation Relations are thus certam constructions that are made by us by which the related are held apart and connected in a certun manner which is called relation. Tlus analytico sythetic function of the mind which manifests the mere related, and all relattons states of the mind are techncally vikalpa Since the concept of relations is abolished the problem of the relation of substance (Dravya), attributes (Gunas) and motion (Karma) does not also arise

80 INDIAN PIILOSOPHY

Attributes (the Gunas) are but modes of the substance and subs- tance is also a mode of the attributes

THE TRIGUNAS Q 31 Describe the nature and functions of the three guoas in the Saankhya Philosophy (Bombay 1958, Barauda 1959, Bihar 1965) Or Write a short note on Trigunas Ans The distinction of substances and attributes (Guns) and their mutual relation of inherence are due to the constructive function of the mind, the vikalpa They are one and the same difference is only due to the different types of construetive emphasis of The apparent

the mind Now the whole universe, physical or mental, is a field of iteractional relattons But if there are no extraneous interactions and no extrancous relations, it must be composed of a Neutral Stuff whtch is neither material nor mental. This Neutral Stuff cannot obviously be of a homogeneous nature, for in that case the diverstty of the phenomenal effects cannot be explamed It is therefore supposed that thus Neutral stuff is composed of an mfinite number they may be broadly subdivided into three classes as sattva, rajas and tamas Onty some typical class characters of these Reals (Gunas) can be mentioned and these inumerable characteristics exist only from the poit of view of our phenomenal conscionsness. As they hold within themselves the whole universe and all its characteristics in a potential form, it is impossible to determine the noumenal nature of these Reals (Gunas) It is also wrong to call them either substantive entities or qualities ot characters, for, these distinctions are unreal They have their value only to the constructive functions of a phenomenal mind The only safe course, therefore, is to call tlus Ultimate Stuff Neutral Entities or Neutral Reals, whatever this may sigmfy It is sud that the noumenal character ot nature of these original entities called gunas is upspeak- able and indefinable What appears as their characteristics in the phenomenal mind and the phenomenal conditions, it is from these Neutral Reals that the mental and physical spheres have diverse kinds of aggregation and directed by a tendency, inherent in them, whch we may regard as teleological in the sense that it operates in such 1 manner that the universe is evolutions, and consequently towards the evolution of man and the shping of his ultimate physical intellectual, moral and spiritual destintes That there is such a teleology (the science of cause) is not a matter of apriort beltef or any deduction from any such belief, but is an inductive truth based on observation, experience and the testimony of the wise men of the past

SAANKHYA~YOGA '81

THE THEORY OF PARALLELISM Q. 32. Write a short note on the theory of parallelism

Ans It is obvious that a psychology based upon such meta- physical data cannot hold that mind and body or mird and matter are two distinct entities which act and react upon each other The psycho- logical view of interactionism that the mental phenomena are the results of nervous changes in the cortex or that the muscular changes are determined by mental changes of thought emotion and volition, would naturally be quite inconsistent with its metaphysical back- ground The theory of parallelism with a metaphystcal background of pan psychism though somewhat nearer to its metaphysicl position cinnot nlso be admitted by it The theory of parallelism holds that neither the mind influences the body nor the body mfluences the mind , but though neither determines the other, the mentil phenomena run parallel to the bodily phenomena.

The pan psychical prallelist would hold that the mental and bodily changes are the elfects of some common elements present in the mnind ind the body But we know that the introduction of certam drugs in the system almost immediately produced mental changes. Afcohof is a chemical cempound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen When introduced into the body it is absorbed directly from the gastro intestinal tract maily into the portal blood and partly by the łymphatis and withtn a short period of its introduction into the system it produces a sense of mental exhilaration Now if interactionsm is discarded how are we to account for the mental chringe through the metabolic chances produced in the body by alcohol? The one explanation according to the pan psychic theory would be that alcohol should not be regarded merely ais i compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but that in itself it liberates a plystcal energy which directly affects the mind If the body which is a conglomeration of material elements can have a mental counterpart, then even a com- pound like alcohol may have its own psychical counterpart which directly affects the mind Such a view implies the metaphysical theory of ultimate entities which are double faced , on the one hand they behave in a physical manner and on the other they behave psyclucally also But when we speak of psyclucal energy we miss the ers-ntial connotation of psvchical If what we call psychical is merely a form of energy, then it may well be regarded as a product of nervous change Physico-chemical chanees are being always produced in the body and we should always hive a corresponding influx of plysical cnergy all the time The iction of alcohol in the body is partly chemical ird partly physiological If the liberated psychical energs is to act on the mind what would be the modus operindi ? Whit would acain be the relation between the psychical and the maternit cnergy as eustirg in an object? These and many other reluvint criticisms ire ilmost unanswerable in the above theory

82 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

THEORY OF NEUTRAL PLURALISM Q.33 ' The metaphysical theory of Yoga is a theory of neutral pluralism and not of pan psychism" Discuss Or Write a short note on the theory of neutral pluralism Ans The metaphysical theory of yoga is a theory of neutral pluralism and not of pan psychism, for, both matter and mind and all their effects are nothing but diverse kinds of aggregates of the Ulttmate Reals, the Gunas The nervous changes that accompany the psychical states occur in the sphere of the body in which they occur and mn relatton to the physieal environment in which that body is located In a remote manner each body system is issociated with the parents from whch it was produced, the nourishment that it had the clmate, temperature, envronment and the associated physiological functions that are being discharged in the system The psychical sphere or the mind also has its own lustory and is a universe in itself What appears on the surfice at any given time as a state of awareness is only a temporary phenomenon But its conservation, repression, reappearance, its contribution towards the inner history of the mind and towards the determination of future psychical occurrences are associated with a peculiar definite lustory of its nwn system develops in relation to mind and in relation to its external As the body

environment, but is always internlly determined by its constitution and history, so though the mind develops in relation to the body and the external environment, it is always internilly determmed by its own history and constitution The physical, biological or physiolo gical and the psychical are essentially of the same stuff of Neutral reals (Gunas) But each sphere is internally determined by its own laws of emergence, evolution, order and correlation in consonance with the mter-relation of the other two spheres The contribution of the material to the brological is possible only because the two have the same essence Such contribution simply means the participation of one in the history of the other The biological however, means only the stage where the material has come but partially within the history of the psychieal What we call biological force or life functioning 15 nothing but the intermediate sphere where the psychical is partially adopting the material elements within its lustory Such an adaptation is possible only because of the fact that there is inherent tendency or teleology in the reals themselves to pass into the history of their others and thus to help the due functioning of the lustory of each of the different spheres It is for this reason that the development of the psychical is in direct relation to the physiological organs, functions and structures in all animals

SELF DETERMINATION AND OTHER DETERMINATIONS Q 34 Wrte short notes on self determination and other determinations Ans The manner in which the neutral reals may combine

SAANKHYA-YOGA 83

dmong themselves has a botation grounded in the very nature of tle reals themselves as also of the particular combination as the reals themselves have thetr own tnherent natures or qualtties so cach of their combinations has special characters or qualties and the manner in which these combinations may enter into the lustory of other combinations is limited by the structural qualtty, character or niture of cuch combinations In the spheres of theoretical science we try to discover the nature of such limttations through induction as is asso- ciated with it, and try to formulate what are called the laws of nature The uncertainty associated with all inductive propositions and laws relating to cause and effect and even to the uniformity of mture is grounded in the fact of our ignorance of the ultimate limitation of the noumenal reals and of their combinations in relation to one another. From the potnt of vicw of pure theoretic science or metaphysics it would be possible to overcome the limitations of any combination of reals and to transform one combination into another, provided we had the exact knowledge of the nature of the limitations of each combi- nations and had the apparatus by which we could relate any combt- nation with those other combinations in the presence of which each combination would change its history A practical chemist not only studies the properties of elements and compounds but also tries to determine in the presence of which compound other particular com- rounds chinge their internat history We Anow that a caalytic agent cither in the outside world or in the animal body in the form of enzymes, produces chemical changes in other compounds without itself undergoing any change A pricttcal physicist not only studies the ultimate electronte structure of elements but also tries to discover the possib hty of effecting such structurl chances in the constitution of an atom of an element by the forces of heat, electricity or pressure thit the atom may change its listory is one element into that of another Thus in the material world we find that in the presence of forces, clectrical, thermal, chemical or doubtfully chemical (eg in the case of a catalytic agent) chemical compounds or elements change thetr tndividual or mutual history By history I mean properties or bchaviours of an entity tn the presence of other entities in determining or effectine change in itself or in those entittes whtch form its environ- ment or which ire copresent with it History thus is self deter- mination and other determination in the copresence of other entities The nature of this determnation must be different in the physicat, brolocical, chemical, psychologiet and the mental world But history means the mantfestanon by a real of new qualmies as actuahzation of the potential in copresence with others participation in the history of others as their constituents of change of ets own history in copresence with others No case of causation is a case of externt deterrunanon, bt the clements that seerr to determine a causal change or effect a causal operation are but the conditions under which a comaposite unty determines or changes its own history The so ealled other determination mentiored above is also to be regarded as self determimton from the point of view of the composite unity tbat undergoes the change The nature and ground of ti suIf

84 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

determintion are to be sought in the mherent tendency of the neutral reals forming the structure of any composite unty to change its htstory in copresence with other composite umities in consonance with the mode in which alone entire evolutionary process from the morganic to the organic and from the organc to the highest development of man and his spintual powers, has proceeded The lmitations in the behaviour of any composite unity are in consonance with this universal tendency with regard to the entire whole which has to emerge of evole as an actualization of ats potential career Every indivdual history, be it of an atom, or molecule or compound, of the physical, clectrical or thermal behavour or morgante substances, of living units, of mind, or of societies or nations is onl a part (abstracted mentally) of the universal history which is in a process of unfolding Every individual history is at once its own self determiation as well as its determinaton by the universal history it is an epitome of the univer- sal history The concept ef causation is not one of the production of change by an extrancous entity, nor one of assemblage of conditions or transformation of energy or of parallel changes in the causal conditions and the effect, but the self evolution of an entity in co- presence with its conditions from the proximate to the remotest Such a self-evolution may mean either the unfolding of the nature of an entity, ats contribution to the unfolding of the nature entities or its participation in the history of the unfolding of other entities The tendency that guides the modes of self-evolution of any entny is on the one hand the actualization of its potentralty and on the other its sub- ordination to the history of development of other composits entitles m the interest of the total cosmic development of which every individual development is a part and towards which it has a tendency

TIME AND SPACE Q 35 Write a short note on time and space Ans It may be remembered that in accordance with the fundamental metaphysical position of this system, space and time have no separate existence they are not the general condition of all occurrences, hut are onty tle modifications or combinations of the ultimate neutral reals and are thus continuous with objects Space is not like a box in which all things exist, but it is continuous with all objects All matter has evolved out of space and time has its first phystcal manifestation as a mode of space in the evolution of the neutral reals is space The first plysical category Time is nothing but the constitutional or structural movement in space and in all space- products Thus it may be regarded as a determining or structural mode of matter or space In some older schools of Saankhya Yoga theory time is regarded as an original dyr amic existing prior to space and determining the evolution or emergence of space, and also of the neutrel reals in their active capacity, from an ongmal hypothetical state of equilibrium in which their functions were inoperative It is

SAANKIIYA-YOGA 85

seen that time is not a separate entity, but is an original function inherent in the neutral reals, space, the psychical spheres, and all products of space as matter When it is sard that time is the first physical manifestation of space, wiat is meant ts that since ttme m the phenomenal world means the structural movement of the ultimate reals it exists even in the psychical sphere, as is realized in the appreciption of time in the mind Time exsts as a structure of the mind or the psychical sphere as 1 pre condition of its appreciation wluch is a result of a process that may be either mental or physico- Space is the first category that emerges in the physical plane as a result of the combination of the neutral reals But since time mental

is the dynamic in the structural changes of the reals, ume may be regirded as manifesting first in the physical of structural space, But as the ground of the emergence of all other phvsical categories from spice has the structural movement of the reals time extsts in all the products of space in the material and the biological world There is a difference between our appreciation of time as measurble moments of the phenomena time and the noumenal time represented in the very nature of the structural changes of the gunas The phenomenal time or time as apprehended in consciousness lias a measurable form We may look forth for the finest the smallest measure of such time and the limtt of such smallness may be fived in an imaginary fashion as the movement of an atom in the space of its own dimension Buteven then such 1 unt of time or any time concerved by the addition of such units would not represent the real ttme either is the mode of spice or as the structural charees of the neutrat reals Time as apprehended by us is thus false not only in its measure as a umt but also in its functional aspect , it is conceived as a flowing stream and as associa ted with the changes of matter and our experience of it It will be reatized that such a conception of time is false is it does not show cither the structuril or the model function of time The apprehended time therefore is false both in its aspect as measurable and in tts function as the locus of all experimental ind material changes It ts therefore held that the apprehended time is a mental construction (buddhınırmana)

MENTAL CONSTRUCTION OR STATE (VIKALPA) Q 36 Write a short note on mental construction or state (Vikalpa) Ans Returning to the problem of causation and reerding the rel ition among the assemblace of conditions that effect a causal chance we find that these factors of the cusal operation, apprently existing in different points of spare and s-parated by the time element involved in the process are no. in reality discontinuous from one another The so called primarv cause and the conditions are to be regarded as formine plain in one organized whole theoretically s0ct7 ted together with the entire orcantzation of the univere Indivdual orgimzattons when looked at from the standpoint of their separate or separable euisterce are but the results of our mental construction

86 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

(vikalpa) generally from the point of view of our practical needs and interests When the potter makes a jar out of a mass of clay we may say that the clay evolves itself in to the jug by its self evolving process through the contributions of its conditions the energy of the potter, the wheel and the like But the proper scientific view of causation would be to regard the clay the potter the wheel the associated space and the associated time as one organized whole evol ving forward in its self evolving process In this self evolving process each element of the organized whole undergoes a change peculiar to its own niture but none of these elements can be conterved as having an existence by itself independent of other elements elements are in reality separable None of the They can all be taken together mn relition to the orgamzed whole as discharging a function with refe rence to the whole and also with reference to each and every constituent of the whole The ordinary definition of cause as invariable unconditional antecedent is no true definition and has only a methodological value It only serves to separate a certai entity in which we are directly interested from others in which our interest is more remote In the Yoga view of the sttuation the difierence between cause and condt ions also ceases to have any real significance and has only methodological value The condition as the spatio temporal elements of the mentilly separated causal whole are cotermmnous with the < rganization of the effect-whole constituting its own spatto temporal and material elements The differentiation of the effect whole from the causal whole is also the result of a mental construc tion The efTect whole exists in the causal whole as ivolved in its self evolving process as its moments of self expression

MATERIAL AND EXTRANEOUS CAUSES Q 37 Write a short note on material and extraneous causes Ans The ordinary objection against the Yogr view of ctusation that since the effect exists in the cause tle apparatus of the causal operation and its movement is mexplicble arises from a misarpre hension of the whole situntion It is not the so called matenial eause that evolves by itself independently of everything else but it ts self evolution of the entire organizcd whole of the so called materil cause and all its conditions mcluding the spatial ard the temporal elements When it is said that the oil ext ts mn the cesamum it does not mean that such an existence is a ground for its self evolution The or exists m the sesamum as much as the plant of sesamum exists in it As a matter of fact the whole universe may exist in the sesamum for it has for its constituents the neutral elements which are the constituents of the universe The Yog theory of cuusation is not interested merely in the barten assertion of the existence of the effect in the matersal cause The true effectuating evistence of the effect in the cause is with refe rence to the organized whole and it is this alone that can be called the true material cause In the yoga theory of crusation there cannot be

88 INDIAN PHILOSOPAS

growth of animals and plants Thus the true cause is the orgamzed whole and it is from purely methodological poit of view that the separative intellect may introduce different concepts of causation whr h may scem to be conflicting with one another when the true point of view is rot held before the mind

NINE KINDS OF CAUSES Thos in the Vyasabhasya (11, 21) we hear of mine kinds of causes tt7 cause as production or transformation by which the infinite makes itself definite causes as integral matntenance of the whole through inner teleologv cause as manifestation to consciousness of what 1s already existent cause as determined in change of direcnons in a process cause as determined in mental movement of syllogisue nature by deduction or induction cause as attamment of a true state of consciousness negating the false one cause as negiting the false state, cause as extraneous agent determining the transformation and cause as a sustaining agent It will be seen that at least four or five of the above concepts apply in the mental field and the rest are of universal application But it can be shown from the application of the funda mental prmnciple of causality as applied in different spheres or as fooked at from different points of view As such they are not in iny sense exhaustive and have onty a methodolog cal vilue

FORCE-A BEHAVIOUR Q 38 Write a short note on Force-as Behaviour Ans We have seen so far that causation means self determi- nation of an organized whole, each organized whole holds within it further orgin zed systems and in tracing the subtle history of these related orgihizations and sub organizations we may bring ourseles up to the limit of the assumption of structuril d terminations in space of almost an incomprehensible nature The reference of these determt nations to the ultimate natural reals comes to the domain of metaphy sical hyp thesis Each organization works in general harmony with all other possible organizations and in specifie harmony with certai other organ zations with which it may be more directly or proximately related What is generally called force is an tilusory abstraction and as such the enquiry into the association of force with a substarce in which it is supposed to in here is also an illusory attempt The manifestation of the so-called force is but the behaviour of any organi zation or sub organization or element with reference to its own self- expression or the self expression of any other organized whole or wholes with which it is related Electricity is regarded as a force but in reahty it is nothing but a behaviour Thus Russull says city is not a thing like St Paul s Cathedral tt is i way in whtch Electri

tlungs behave The so-called force is a self relationing proces

SAANKHYA-YCGA $9

involved in all specific self-expressions which again cannot be distin- guished from the very nature of any organization.

STRUCTURE OF ATOMS Q. 39. Write a illustrative note on the structure of Atoms. Ans. There are no instances of simple entities in the universe may require a few words of explanation. If we start with a lump of matter, we find that it is divisible into molecules existing together in different degrees of cohesion and dispersion which determine the existence of solids, liquids and gases. These further determine along with other conditions the state of its existence as a solution, mixture, emulsion or colloid. The molecular structure of an object not only determines its ordinary physical conditions but is associated also with various physical properties of colour, texture, taste and the like and also with certain kinds of physiological characters. The molecule itself has in it a molecular structure of atoms of the same element or of diverse elements. Even when the atoms are of the same element, the molecular structure effects a great change in physical characters and possibly also in chemical characters. Diamond and charcoal may be cited as an instance. In the case of an intermolecular structure of atoms of diverse elements, even when we have the same number of atoms of the diverse elements, the mere difference in their structure makes an enormous difference in the physical and chemical characteristics of the two molecules. Both organic and inorganic chemistry abounds in instances of the formation of new compounds by such intermolecular rearrangement. If we descend to the atoms, we find that they have a definite system of structure of protono-electrons arrangement. The exact nature of this arrangement is not definitely known, though it has been supposed with a fair amount of assurance that it consists of concentric ellipses or circles, the complexity of which increases as we ascend from one group of elements to another in accordance with the Periodic Classification of Mendeleeff and Lothar Meyer. We know that the simple addition of one or two electrons in the outer ring of the atom of an element may result in the production of such intensely different chemical substances as carbon and oxygen. We know also that at least in some instances it has been possible to degenerate one element mnto another merely by the repulsion of one or two electrons from the outer ring of electrons. Electron itself is identified with an electric charge, though it has a definite volume and a definite weight. Light is regarded as electronic and as predicted by Einstein it has been found to suffer from influence of gravitation. Since electrons have weight it may be supposed that they also have a structure and an internal organization, and we are on the threshold of new discoveries and theories in which they are regarded as crossing points of millions of sub-ether waves. The nature of these sub-ether waves is not definitely known and it is possible that they represent some indefinitely known structure of space. That space has a strueture is one of the fundamental assump-

90 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

tions of Linsterian Theory of Relativity From where comes the structure of space may be left to the guess work of metaphysical speculation Coming to the domain of life we find that even the microscopic and the ultramicroscopic bacteria reveal> in them the presence of chrom itm granules which may be regarded as homologous tn ntture to the nucteus of htgher organisms It has been found that bactllary bodies contain within them deeply staining structures These structures show a preponderance of slender rods which are cylindrical with rounded ends The development of a bacteral hfe shows sepa- mtion rearrangement and growth of the internal structures in a manner homologous with the growth on the cell bodies of higher tnimals The fact that the cellufar bodies of higher antmals contain an internal specialised structure ind different kinds of internal appa ratus is too well known to need any elaboration here the funetion of the chromauns and the chromosomes I may refer Apart from

here only to the Golgi apparntus The Golgr apparatus is a centre of synthetic processes It is engaged primarily in the production of secretory granules which are excretory m nature These products are of lipoid granules, yolk, acrosomes Nissl s granules etc The apparatus undergoes hypertrophy during the process and is not trinsformed into the virious products We need not enter mto further details but it will be evident from what has been satd above that even in the crudest begmmng of life we have defimte proof of complex structures associated with complex functions It can also be proved that the process gng on inside the cell life consists not only of localized actions at particular points but of a totalized action of the entire structurat area, which is much more than merely additive It is thus evident that both in the morganic and in the organtc sphere of plant and animal life we have to deal with structurat orgamzations and sub orgamzations which are constantly in an evolving process both in their specific interests and in the interest of other orpaniza tions Their actions are both of a localized nature and also of the nature of toralized whole transcending the hmits of a locahzed action The localized actions are ictions of sub organizations which may be taken successtvely to any of its minus powers The action as a whole is the action of the sub organizations towards the self expression of the successive orginizations of which the successive sub organizations are constituents

CATALYTIC AGENT, A CO EXISTENT CAUSE Q 40 Discuss Catalytic Agent as a Co existent Cause Ans Causal operation cannot always be interpreted as involv- ing definite functioning of each of the constituent elements whic . may be interpreted as the extertion of force or as offering posttive contribu tions in the parallel plane with the contributions of the other consti tuent elements Thus in the case of a catalyst we find that a catalytic igent may in most cases excite chemical action in other compounds simply by its verv presence mn a measure quite incommensurible with

92 INDIAN PHILOSOPHTY

a crystal supports the formation of other crystals, these crystals are not produced from a disintegration of one crystal through the opera- tion of the materials absorbed within it The contribution of a crystal towards the formation of its sister-crystals is through the adhesive and formative forces exerted in the peripheral regions of the crystal As such it is entirely different from the process of cell division wluch secures the history of production and growth in the living world LIVING AND THE NON LIVING The chief characteristies in which the living differs from the non- living may briefty be summarised as follows , I Persistence of a complex specific metabolism (comprising metaboltsm of protein individualty of merbolism and persistence in spite of change) and the corresponding specific orgamzation II Capacity of growth reproduction and development

ability. III Effective behaviour, registration of experience ind viri-

THE REACTION TO ENVIRONMENT Q 42 State the reaction of an organism, physical or chemical to environment Ans It was sometimes held, particularly in association with the theory of vitalism, that the environment of an organism, physical or chemical, must be regarded as existing outside of it, that it may be explamed independently according to the well-known physical and chemical principles that even within the organsm the sime physical and chemical conceptions may be appled except in so far as there is interference by 1 peculir influence within the organism by wluch the self matntenance of the organism as a specific whole could be ex- plamed We now know that the conception of life embraces the en- vironment of an organism as well as what is within its body The conception of life implies that the relations of the parts and the en- vironment of an organism are such that a normal and specific structure is actively maintamed Thus the famous biologist, Dr Haldane says ' The environment is expressed in the structure of each part of the organism and conversely When, moreover, we examine what appears to us as organic structure and the structure of organic environment closely, we find that it is the expression of continuous activity so co- ordinated thit the structure is maintamed We cannot separate or- gante from environment structure, any more than we can separate the action of the environment from the reaction of the organism More- over, the specral relations of the parts do not imply their separate existence from one another, since we cannot define them as existing separately when their very existence expresses co ordmation with one The co ordination extends over surrounding environment, and the spatial relations of parts and environment express unity, not another

separation They also cannot be described as existing within space,

SAANKHYA-YOGA 93

for the co-ordination embodied in them is not limited to a certain posi- tion in space, but extends indefinitely beyond any spatial position which we might attempt to assign to it."

BIOLOGIGAL AND PHYSICO.CHEMICAL EVENTS

Even the Darwinian theory of hereditary transmission implies the fact that life is a unity and it constantly maintains and reproduces itself. Such a self-maintenance is consonant with variation involving adaptation of an organism as regards structure and activities to new circumstances. Structure expresses the maintenanee of function and function expresses the maintenance of structure, and a physico- chemical environment cannot be separated from the living organism, as if the former was the content and the latter the container. The environment and the living whole together form one whole, one organisation. Morphology cannot be separated from physiology and no physico-chemical theories can explain the self-maintaining and reproductive nature of life. The science of life is an exact science, the concepts of which are original and are not in any applications of or deductions from physico-chemical concepts. The time it was thought that physico-chemical concepts could explain the concept of life is far away and we have indication of an era when explanation of physical concepts will be attempted on the analogy of biology. Thus a hard-boiled scientist like Whitehead says that science is taking on a new aspect which is neither purely physical nor purely biological. It is becoming the study of organisms. Biology is the study of larger organism whereas physics is the study of the smaller organisms. According to him an event may be taken as the ultimate of natural occurrence and it contains within it two aspects, an aspect of self- maintenance and an aspect in which it holds itself in unison with the self-maintenance of other events. An event corresponds to two patterns, namely, tbe pattern of aspects of other events which it grasps into its own unity and the own aspects which other events severally grasp into their unities. There is thus an intrinsie and an extrinsic reality of an event, namely, the event in its own prehension and the event as in the prehension of other events. The ordinary scientific ideas of transmission and continuity are details concerning the empirically observed characters from these points of view, the biological and the physico-chemical events are in one sense alike and on that account we get a peculiar insight into the nature of physico-chemical events when we look at them frem the point of view of biology. The idea of self-expression in the interest of other expressions is most prominent in biclegical studits. The idea of the universe as an interrelated organisation in the interests of one another receives an important justification from a biological outlook. We have seen so far that biological organisations belong to an order different from physicc- chemical organisations. Yet they are co-terminous with the physico- chemical organisations which form their environment. Plants seize the radiant energy of the sun and utilize it in building the compounds they use. Animals digest them to build their own. The complex

94 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

activities of the animals have three powerful groups of governors, the ferments, the endoctine secreticns and the vitamins, all chemical compounds and all acting chemically All the processes of life are governed by the same quantitative laws that have been proved to hold for non-living matter. Life can neither create energy or matter nor cause their disappearance The two great laws of physics and chemistry are conservation of matter and conservation of energy and all living processes conform rigidly to these laws An organism carrying on an active metabolism accounts for all matter taken within atself during a measured period of time, so that the difference in weight between the matter ingested and that exereted is exactly balanced by a gain (or loss) of weight by the organism itself So the total intake of energy from the potential energy of the food ingested and the actual energy acquired from food hotter than the organism is equal to the total energy output consisting of (a) radiation, and (b) actual and potential heat lost with the excreta and the work done by the organism Many of the chemical compounds and elements are directly produced and stored up by the endocrine glands Thus the thyroid stores up iodine and forms definite iodtne compounds The para throid glands secrete compounds which assist in the control of calcium metabolism The pancreas seeretes compounds which help the metabolism of glucose and so on. Many other acids and salts are prepared m the body by a mechamsm enhrely different from that in which they may be prepared outside the body Many of the compounds prepared in the body are such that we have no indication as to how they are produced inside the body by the chemical processes that are known to us Some of the compounds which may be produced outside the body by the application of consi- derable heat and various chemical reagents are produced mn the body in a very simple manner under entirely different condttions It will thus be seen that though ultimately the constituents of our body are homogeneous with the radiant energy of the sun or the electrical conditions of space indicated thereby, our organism is an organtsation of an entirely different nature from all other non organc organisatrons. It uses non organic methods and assimilates and transforms non- organic matter and energy for its own interest in its own peculiar way Whatever is taken inside the body is made to enter into the specific processes of the organtsm and to obey the laws of the organism which are different and yet consonant with the loss of non-organic nature When an organism fails to do so in any respect we have diseases Thus the larger procem-molecules do not under norml conditions reach the circulation, but when by any change they do reach the circulation they act toxically producing certam reactions which may reveal themselves by definite symptoms The cells of the organism then form and excrete compounds which can unite with them and detoxicate them and tlese are called anti bodies or anti-gens.

SAANKHYA-YOGA 95

SPONTANEOUS ORIGIN OF LIVING MATTER Q 43 State and criticise the mechanistic view of life Ans The mechanistic view of life implies that if at any instance of time we were to know the precise distribution of the matter and energy which are present in an organism, we should have a complete understanding of all its properties In other words, the behaviour of living systems can be completely defined in terms of laws that are fundamentally similar to those which describe the behaviour of inanı- mate systems But the theory of the spontaneous evolution of the animate from the mnanimate, though it may give us a comfortable feeling of continuity of thought, is on the whole untenable It 1s just as probable for a stone to leap spontaneously from the surface of the earth as for a living organism to evolve spontaneously from manmate matter The probability of simult ineous co-ordinative movement such as we find in living organism is extremely small on the assumption of a purely phystco chemical arrangement The orgamsation of the simplest living organism is clearh more complex than that of a stone or of a motor car and it carries out processes that are infinttely more complex than what can be explained as chance coicides No chemist can seriously think that the proteins can spontaneously origmnate from carbon dioxide water and simple salt, any more than a physicist can admit the spontneous origin of a motor car Biology itself provides not one shred of observational evidence to support the spontaneous origin of living matter There are a few biologists, however, who postulate the spontaneous orein of the intermediate stages between the living and the non living world But the physical events that have to be assumed in such a theory are such that our present concept of phystcal "law" can hardly be applied there It may be said that in past ages events which are now very improbable were, in fact, of common occurrence But no man of science can gre any credence to such a supposition unless he had some assurance as to the nature of those events and conditions whuich made the origin of life mnevitable or even probable The distribution of energy and of matter in past epochs may have been different but if there were conditions prevalent at the time which could produce the living orgamsms through the spontaneous co ordination of matter and material energy, it would be extremely strange that every attempt to reproduce them in the labora- tory should fail so completely If the spontaneous ortgn of the animate from the inanimate cannot be held as a plausible theory, there is no ground for hoping that we shall ever be able to express all the proper- ties of an organism in terms of physical laws Under the circum- stances it would be more logical to accept the existence of matter in two states, the ammate and the manimate as a fundamental mttial assumption Some properties are maturally common to matter in either state and it is therefore legitimate to study the so calied physical properties of living matter But just as the fundamental concepts of physics must be based on observed facts, so the fundamental concept of biology must also be based upon observation in that specihc sphere

S6 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

INDIVIDUALITY (AHAN-KAARAM) From one point of view a mass of protoplasm may be regarded as a very fine colloidal emulsion the fundamental unts of which are extremely small The properties of the whole may thus in some sense be regarded as being essentially those of each individual There is some evidence to show that even a single differentiated cell represents an aggregate of very small hving units Even a single spermatozon shows the growth and decline of its mechantcal and respiratory activities in such a manner as if it represented the joint behaviour of a large population of much smaller units of activity Yet when we try to think of the mechanism whereby the cell differentiates itself as a whole, we have to postulate some form of co ordtnated relationship which is more than additive and which cannot be explained as an organized behaviour of a total individual agent If so, long physical concepts were fruitlessly applied for the explanatien of brological facts the time has come when biological concepts are being employed to explain physical behaviour M Poicare and others really define physical phenomena in terms of biological conceptions when they say that ' modern physics is presenting us with apparent examples of spontaneity and foresight " When the dividing cells of molluscan egg rotate in order to reduce their centripetal pressure, the rotation in the clockwise direction would be as effective as in the counter clockwise direction But in every case it takes one direction rather than the other, though no mechantcal difference of the inside force arrangement can be served The cells of a molluscan egg turn one way or another for intrinsic reasons quite independent of any external influence This and many other considerations of a similar nature show that the cell has an individuality of its own which is free from limitations of the statistical laws of physics Probably this may be extended to the minutest living components of the living cell We are now mn a position to assert that a living organism-or even the minutest parts of it-behaves as an individual and determines itself in consonance witlt both its own nature and its immediately associated ltfe entities and probably also with its external environment Every case of its self determination is also a case of other determination The variabilty of Darwin s law is the function of this self determination The concept of self determtnation does not imply the exclusion of the need of others but it involves within it both its own self expression of others Its individuality is not negative aud abstract, but is positive and concrete in the sense that its very consideration for itself is also 4 consideration for others with which it is associated WHOLE EXPRESSION Coming back to the problem of causation, we find that thought from the ultimate point of view the determination of all causal opera- tion is based upon the fundamental nature of the neutral reats (Gunas) yet each individual organization, be it material or organic, may be regarded as different indiwdual organizations each of which involves the relevant other of it v ithin itself This also has its ground

SAANKHYA-YOGA 97

in the very nature of the different reals which co-operate together for self expression, other-expression and whole-expression. Thus the state- ment that like co-operates with like or like is produced from like is as true as that like co-operates with unlike. All dialectieal discussions on the subject prove to be barren simply because of the fact that the concrete nature of the process is ignored and emphasis is put upon abstract generalities which exist nowhere except in the brains of the quarrelling metaphysicians.

INDEPENDENT SPHERE OF LIFE Q.44. Write a brief note on Independent Sphere of Life. Ans. From the above consideration we come to the important conclusion that the sphere of the living is in a very relevant sense an independent spkere which has its own concept and own laws tlat may be known by observations and experiments, just as the laws of the inorganic world may be known. We know that all the higher forms of life contain within them as integrated in their history the dominant potential tendencies and functions of the lower forms of life, just as even the most complex inorganic compounds contain within their history the tendencies and functions of electronic matter. The behaviour of any higher form of life can be revealed in its historical aspect only as involving within it all the lower forms as also a tendency towards further history in its further higher forms. Each form below the highest represents within it a process of events which can be interpreted only by a backward and forward oscillation of the mind in search of an integrated meaning.

INDEPENDENT SPHERE OF MIND Q. 45. Write a critical note on Independent sphere of mind. Ans. (1) Just as in the case of life, it has been shown that it is a definite and independent world by itself having its own growth, function, structure and reactions to environment determined by itself, so in the case of mind also, we have to assume its existence as an independent world having its own inner history integrated within it which regulates its growth, function, structure and reactions to en- vironment determined by its own specific laws There is a difficulty, however, in making any definite assertions about the nature of 'mind' and its deflnite conception. In the case of hving units, therr processes consisting of physico-chemical changes were direetly observable. The inference in their case was wtth reference to their specific inner urge that regulated their co-ordinating movements. But in the case of mind we have no sensual evidence of any organized whole. The phenomena of mind as thoughts, emotions and volitions can be observed by introspection or can be inferred from the manner in which they induce physiological changes in the movement of the organism in consonance with changes in the environment. These may be studied to some

98 INDIAN PHILOSOPIY

extent, using the methods of exact science which involves definite measurements made under standard conditions These experiments may be performed by oneself or by two persons, the observer who makes the introspection and the experimenter who handles the mnstru- ments and makes the record But even in these there are obvious difficulties in carrying out the introspective work There is always a chance of its being unduly affected by the temperamental characteris- tics of the observer and the association of sdeas and feelings on the part of the observer at the time of the experiment (2) Then aeam, what we may observe is almost always the phenomenal behaviour of mind, an idea, an emotion, and image or the like (3) There have been philosophers and religious teachers who have demied the existence of any organized whole as 'mind' Thus the Buddha said that there were the petals, the pollens, the corolla, the stalk, and the like but there was no lotus , similarly there is this or that passing idea, passing emotion, images and their momentary aggregate but there is no orgamzed whole behind them that can be called the mind or the ego or the self (4) Again there have been philosophers on the other side, judging from the fact that all our assertions regarding extra mental objects are dependent upon our various modes of awareness as sensa- tions, ideas, emotions and relations denied the existence of the extra mental entitites and regarded them either as modes of our thought It has been supposed by many of them that all our know- ledge of the objective world is of a relational nature enunciated in an ideational form and regulated by the fundamental laws of thought of identity and contradiction Sensations, images, ideas and relations are mental and as such it is only the mind that exists (5) There are others who think that relations have both an external and an internal reality and the mind is like a window The perceptron of an event is the occurrence of a retional event both inside and outside the mind The presence of the occurrence in the mind does not in any way m volve any change in the nature of the occurrence and it leads only to the phenomenon we call awareness (6) There are others who are prepared to regardmind as a combined totalized concept of the various physiological functions which express themselves in the behaviour of the organism

ULTIMATE NATURE OF MENTAL PHENOMENA

Phenomena Q 46 Briefiy discuss the Ultimate Nature of Mental

Ans These divergences of opinion are due to a fundamental advantage and disadvantage of the mind situation On the one hand the mind has this great preroganve that all assertions regarding mentf or extra mental existence can only be made by the peculiar phenomena of awareness which we call mental From this point of view there is nothing which is outside the mind Though intimately associated with a physiological organism the processes of which take place mn a definite spatio temporal sttuatien the mind apparently has no such limitation The mode of its working the lass of its relationing, retaming

100 INDIAN PIILOSOPHY

avadl As regards the presence of mind in human beings other than ourselves we have also no direct evidence, but we have to accept their testimony as supported by corroborative behnviour and observa- ble behaviour, physial and physiologienl changes Ifwe have to observe the objective existence of mind in other fellow beings or in animals, it can only be done by the jomt application of the deductne and the mductive methods The objective test of volition is attana- ble from a compirson of the universal nutrstive and sexunl impulses It is only as a result of sensory excitations that the animal changes its behaviour, which imphes voluntiry acttons We have to call these actions voluntary, because they do not appear in mechanical regularity in response to external stimuln, but are varrble in accordince with the iner conditiens of the living being Judgements in indivdual cases may remain doubtful, for most biological processes are largely automatic and unconscious, and are selective towards the adoption of means with reference to particular means But a close observation of the nature of living beings may enable us to decide between the two atternitives, that is, whether the determination is primarily biological or mental

CONSCIOUSNESS Q 48 Is consciousness a universal possession of living organism from man down to the Protozoa 7 Discuss Ans The observation of experts on the subject leads almost unanimously to the view that consciousness is a universal possession of living organism from man down to the protozoa. In the lowest stages the processes of consciousness are restricted to very narrow Immits and the will is determined by the untersal organic impulses m the very simplest manner, yct the manifestations of the fife even among the protozoa are expheable only upon the hypothests that they possess a mind The amoeba, which morphologically is only the single cell wih a nuclear protoplasmic body, will return after a short time to the starch particles that it accidentally came upon and will take in a new portion of it for the nutrition of its body The infusoria pursue others which they kill and devour This shows that the choice of means for the furtherance of their biologieal satisfaction is determined inward- ly by some kind of mental process as it cannot be explamed as a result of any mechanical or chemical influence We cannot however say anything defimtely as to whether mind emerges only at the stage of protozoic life or whether it can be supposed to extend to still lower stages, that is, whether mind can be affirmed of every lıving organism There are some grounds for asserting the fact that whatever living pro- toplasms occur there are certain phenomena which are akin to mental, which possess a determining activity not explamable by physico chemi- cal influences It is evident that mental characteristics other than voluntary cannot be demonstrated in these lower forms of life where there are no means of communication Thus Wundt says that from the stand point of observation we must regard it as a huigl ly probable hy potl esis, that the begmnnings of the mental life date from as far back,

102 INDIAN PHILOSOPAY

consciousness and emotion but that these constitute together an inte grated whole which has its own laws of behviour and operation I consonance with the operation of its internal Jaws and constituents ind with its intimtte phystologictt biochemical and physto chemtcal environments Mental efforts determine metabolic changes invole expenditure of energy ind expenditure of energy is dependent upon the mtake of energy through the ass mtlation of physical food Thus mind determines not only physiological conditions but also phys cal conditions On the other hand metabolic changes may induce var ous types of mental states The consumption of alcohol may produce ex hilaration ind the smelling of chioroform may mduce a semi conscious or unconsc ous state From the superficial poit of view one system of organization may seem to be determmning the other and be deter mined by it but a keener appraisal of the entire situation shows that each system works independently by itself according to its own consti tutional laws only under the co operative conditions of otlier systems of organtsation

CONCEPT OF PRAKRITI-BOTH PHYSICAL AND MENTAL Q 50 State the Saankhyn conception of Prakriti Show how Prakriti is related to Purusha Ans According to the Sainkhya we have the concept of the Prakriti which on the one hand covers all that is physical and on the other all that is mental The mental events and the physieal ones are both abstractions if they are taken is entirely separate and d stinct from eich other for they are both the manifestations of the same u t mate reals behaving towards one another according to their own specific laws The ment il and the physical are not two distinet worlds, as it is ordmarily supposed but they are two co operiting wholes withtn one whole the Prtkriti The ordmnary difficulty as to how two entirely dissimifar wholes can come in contact with each other vanishes when we look at the point from the Saankhya Yogn pers pective From what we have alreidy s id it will appear thit the relation between the mind and the body or the physical world is not one of mnteraction or parallelism but one of co operation As it is a cise of wholes with a whole the operations in each whole follow certain universal laws in such a manner that the ore ation in other wholes follow a course of correspondence in co operations so that from a methodok gical poit of view one may regard the operations in one whole is determintng and condttioning in t large measure the operations of the other In every sphere operations are self detef- mining and vet other determining That the operations mn any sphere by being self determining caan also be other determining satisfies for us the concept of co operation or teleology or mutual determmnism When through the operitian of the physical phenc menon of light the mental functions so determire the organ of the eye as to faciltate its co operation with them or when through the operation of light change is produced in the operative functions of the eye so as to secure the co operation of the mental functions we have the percentton of an object which is reearded is a mental fact But this mental fict is on the one

CHAPTER IV PURVA AND UTTARA MIMAMSA Purva and Uttara Mimamsa-Classifeation rf Darganaas (1) Purra Mrmaman-(2) Uttara Mimamss or Vedanta-(3) \edenta and Modern Science- (1) Vivolananda'e Lecture on Yedanta CLASSIFICATION OF DARSANAAS Q 51 Discuss the place of Purva and Uttara Meemamsa in Indian Philosophy Ans These two Darsanns are based directly on the Vedas and they discuss the mennine of Vedic expressions and are therefore called Mimamsas The Purva Mimamsa takes its stand upon such portions of the Veda as relate to Karmn Kand1 (Rrtual) The Uttara

Upanishads Mimamsa or Vedanta relates more to Jaana Kanda contaied in the

The Darsanas or the scrences in India are divided first into two classes (l) Aastluka Darsanas ie, those sciences wluich accept the authority of the Vedas (2) Nasthika Darsanas ie those whuich do not accept therr authority The frst division includes Nyava Vaiseshika, Saankhya, Yoga Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa The Na thika Darsanas are chiefly Charvaka Biudha and Jama Darsanas

Material sciences Of the first group the Nyaya ind Vaiseshika relate more to the These include Physies Chemistry etc Saankhya and Yoga relate to Biological sciences ind deal mamly The

with fife in its relation with material creation The Purva and Uttara Mimamsa mainly deal with Spiritual matters They mclude knowledge both of the known and the unknown Thus there is in the study of the six systems of philosophy in India a cradual evolution of thought from the known material world to unknown spiritual worlds Each taught its own way to salvation and they all believe in the exstence of God, whereas the Nasthikas do not believe in the existence of God nor do they accept the authority of the Vedas Vedanta represents the highest goal of philosophy and it may be said to be in advince of all the other systems both Aasthika and well as Nastika Although there are extreme differences of opimon between the Nasthikas and the Aasthikas there was a great toleration amongst the scholars and everyone had the freedom to think in luts own way All tried to establish unity in diversity

104

PLRVA AND UTTARA MIMAMSA 105

Thus mn Sanatana (Hindu) Dharma, the descriptions of the Supreme (God) are many sided and comprehensive Being a Catholtc religion, in-luding all Panthas (ways of thinking), it expresses itself in a variety of forms and comprehends all the relations wluch exist between man and God Different creeds are but different Paths (Panthas) to reach the Almighty just as same sugar is moulded into various fioures one God is worshipped in different forms and names, Real contradictions are left only in inferior minds Rishı bhtrbahudhaa gitam Chhandobhir Vividhail Prithak, Brahma sutra Padachaiva Hetumadbhir Vinischitaih * (Bh Gita 13 4) The words Vivdha and Prithak whch appear in the above verse have been used with reference to the diverse nature of the teachings m the Upanishads In severl places they may look contridictory Badarayana or Vyasa made a great attempt to remove these contra- dictions and these sutras form upto this day an authortative expost tion of the Vedanta Jaimint, the author of Mimamsa sutras explamed the meaning of the Vedas in his own way and established the Karma Kanda Jatminı's exposition is called Purva Mimamsa or Karma Kanda wherens Vyasa's exposition is called Uttara Mimamsa or Jnana Kanda or Vedanta Sabara Swami was a famous commentator of Jaimin's Mimamsa Sutra and Kumarila Bhatta wrote an explanatory treatise on hts commentary called Slokavarthika.

(I) POORVA MIMAMSA (Purva Mimamsa-Summary of contents-Yaonas (Sacrifices) -Division of Karmas -- Conclusion) Q.52 Discuss the subject-matter of Poorva-Mimamsa Ans The Vedic religion is divided into two well-Anown diu Stons (1) Karma Kanda and (2) Jnana Kanda The original intention of the Karma Kanda is worship of the Sun Fire Indra, Varuna Rudra and other Vedic deities at sacrificial rituals for obtaining children, cows and other wealth in this life and a happy state of deatli by the grace of these deities They worshipped these deities not only for personal benefit, but also for the benefit of the community The rituals prescribed for the various sacrifices (Yajnas) were different m different parts of the Vedas, and doubts arose as to which was correct Jaimini in his Mimamsa Sutra harmonized all seemingly difficult Panthas of Yajnikas, and proclatmed one God, one Yajn and one Veda SUMMARY OF CONTENTS OF POORVA MIMAMSA

first chapter Purva Mimamsa contains twelve Adhyayas The first part of the

Dharma 'Adhyava' deals with the means of knowing The ltter part deals with the question as to what bearing

106 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

the declamatory texts of the Vedas have upon the means of Dharma The second chapter deals with what are the Karmas that constitute Dharma-what Karmas are different and what are non-different- After having established the difference among Karmas, the third chaipter discusses about the character of Karmas-whether they are subservient or auxilary and also about substances and their properties The subject matter of the fourth chapter is motive'-the motive that provides the occasion for a certam Karma or the end for the accom- plishment of whtch the Karma is to be performed The fifth chapter deals with the order of sequence of Karmas In the stxth chipter the question of qualifications of the performers of sacrifices has been dealt with The seventh and cighth chapters contain the detailed dis cussion of transference of details of sacrifices by indirect implication from one sacrifice to another The above transference of details leads to the question of modification wherein the transferred details do not fit in with the bondage and that heaven is obtained only by other details of sacrifice to which they have been transferred Hence the necessity for the madification of the transferred details to suit the exigencies of the sacrifice and this is described in the ninth chapter The tenth chapter deats with exclusion of some details when they are transferred from one sacrifice to another if there be no need In the eleventh chapter, we have got the description of centralisation and decentralisation of subsidiary details The last chapter deals with Prasanga-extended application of the subsidiary detarls to help another primary Read the monumental work "Purva Mimamsa in its sources" by Mahamahopadhyaya Dr Sir Ganganatha Jha The study of Mimamsa is, in fact, mdispensable for the study of any branch of Darsana We accordingly find that almost all writers of great works right up to the seventeenth century were well versed in Mimamsa and this is clearly seen from their works themselves The study of Mimamsa has fately fallen in popular estimation Not only Sanskrit scholars but also most of Western Orientalists have neglected it It is all the more gratifying that Dr Jha has gone very deep into this difficult Mimamsa Sastra and explained with claritv the avowed conclusions of all the Adhyayas whereas even the great Sanskrit scholars well versed in other Sastras generally deal with the part contaiing Pramana (principles of cognition) leaving aside the Prameya part (the subjeet proper) Panditji has taken pains to explain the most intricate topics of the Prameya part The performance of elaborate sacrifices has fallen into desuetude for many centuries espectally in North India and hence there is the lack of practicl knowledge of these sacrifices YAJNAS (Sacrifices) Q 53 Write a brief note on Pancha Maha-Yajnas,' enjoined by Manu and other Smritikaras Ans The Mimamsikas or the followers of the Karma Kand,

PURVA AND UTTARA MIMAMSA 107

say that according to the Vedas he alone will acquire Moksha who performs Karma because they say that by pleasing the deities, the derties in return produce rain and other tlings needed by men The sacrificial ritual has been going on from time immemorial becnuse it was created at the same time as the Universe (Karma is Anadı) The neoronsness of the Yajnas gradually waned and the Sansknt writers started other rituals known as the Pancha Mah Yajnis-the five principl sacrifices whtch did not entatl the slaughter of animals Manu and other Smriti writers enjomed that the following five saeri- ficial rites should be performed at home by every Gribast-(Manu 2-68-123) (I) Biahma Yajna consists of the study of the Ved is (2) Pitn Taya-consists of oblations to the ancestors (3) Dera Yajna-consists of oblations to the Devas throuch fire (4) Bhuta Yajna-consists of offering of food as Bah in the name of Bhutas (God's creation) (5) Mannshya Yama-consists of entertaiing uninvited guests (Atıtlus) A householder should take his food only after he has in tlis way satisfied respectively the Rishis, the spirits of the depurted ancestors, the desties, other living creatures and uninvited guests In the Bhagvat Gita, it is stated that if a person eats food only by lumself he ents Agha or Sin (Gita 3 30) Taittiry Samhita says that a Brahmin comes to birth with three kinds of indebtedness (Rinathraya) namely -- thit of Rishurs, that of deities and that of Pitris-ancestors Of these indebtedness of the Rishis must be repaid by the study and teaching of the Vedis, the indebtedness to tle deities by sacrifice (Yajna) and the indebtedness to the ancestors by procreation of children, otherwise there is no Moksha to a householder (Tar Sam 3, 6, 10, 5) This Karma or sacrifice is to be performed not only by Bralmins but by every one of the four castes For example, prayers by Brahmanas, protection of the society by Kshatriyas, producing form and muntenance of the prosperity of the communty by trade by the Vaishyas and service to the community by the Sudras The word Yajna was used in a comprehensive meaning of 'Every one doing his oun duty " "Aarambha Yajnah Kshatrascha Haviryajna Visah smritah Parichara yojnah Sudrascha Japa Yynah Dvyatayah". (Ma Bha Sam 237-12) If all these duties are not kept going by everybody according to lus own status, the entire community has to suffer It therefore follows that Yajnas in this comprehensive meaning tre stated in the Vedas themselves, that no Karma performed for the sake of Yajna

108 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

creates bondage, and that heaven is obtained only by the performance of Yajnas Yajnas are Karmas (actions) Even the sun performs his Karma (Yajna) in giving light and sun shine and in causing rain Rain causes food and food causes living beings (Gita 3-14) The creation Itself is the first Yyna or Karma (Yynah Karma Samudbhavah) If the Karma mn the shape of the e is given up the whole of the world will come to a stop , nobody will have anything to eat

DIVISION OF KARMAS Q 54 Write a short note on the division of Karmas Ans The Puranas tntroduced other Karmas such as fasting, austerities and numerous Vratas All the Karmas are subdivided into Nitya (every day), Numittika (occasional), Kamya (desire promoted), and Nishidda (objectionable) karma If we have to decide whether a Karma is right or wrong we have to find out whether that Karma is Yajnartha (for a sacrifice) or Purushartha (for personal benefit). Nitya (for everyday use such as Snana, Sandhya-baths and prayers) or Naimttthika (such as pacification of the inauspicious stars), Kamya (such as promoted by a desire for a son), Nistuddha (such as man slaughter) On the other hand, we see clearly stated in the Jnana Kanda, ie, in the Upanishads, that unless Karma is destroyed by Jnana and renunciation, there can be no Moksha In order to harmontse both these propositions they came to the conclusion that all Karma must be performed but the desire for the frutt thereof should be renounced and not Karma itself If the Karma is performed with this frame of mind, one will undoubtedly reach Swarga, otherwise, when the fruit of even me-itorious action in the shape of sacrifice etc, performed in this ltfe is exhnusted by enjoyment in Swarga, the performer of the Yajna has to come back once more from Swarga (Br 4 4 6 Git1 2 43) Such persons have to move backwards and forwards between Swarga and Mratyaloka

The most important element in Yajna therefore is the giving up of the idea of 'mineness' (Mamntva) with reference to the object thrown into the sacrificial fire not merely uttering the words "Devata- yair Na mama"- 'This is for such and such a diety and not for me". It is not only mere uttering mantras by mouth but it should be accom- panied by purity of thought In short, doing any act desirelessly with a pure frame of mind is the highest Yajna tn itself The words Homa, Dana and Tyaga also mean not the renuncjation of action, but the renuneration of the reward of action, (Gita 18 -- 9) Mimamsakas are known as strong supporters of the doctrine of Karm. but ordmnarily the full significance of it is not properly reccgni ed

PURVA AND UTTARA MIMAMSA 109

CONCLUSION Q. 55. How does Poorva Mimamsa try to establish the authority of the Vedas ? How far do you consider the proofs given by the Mimamsakas to be satisfactory. Or What is meant by validity of knowledge ? Distinguish and discuss the position of Mimamsa and Nyaya in this regard

Explain, with your comment the nature and importance Or

of Shabda Pramana in the system of Nyaya and Mimamsa. (For ansuer see chapter on Nyaya) Ans. Purva Mimamsa considered Sabda Pramana as more reli- able than Pratyaksha and Anumana. The word Mimamsa means the method of reasoning which has to be adopted in order to understand the meaning of a word or a sentence, The epithet Purva is added because this Mimamsa deals primarify and exhaustvely with the method of reasoning regarding the sacrificial rites which form the Purva or earlier portion of the Vedas. Since the Vedas consist of words which have come down from time immemorial and since there is no author of the Vedas they are "Apauruasheya t.e, authorless. But the mimamsakas have not accep- ted the divine ongin of the Vedas, whereas the Vedantists say that the Vedas have been naturally revealed from the eternal, pure, wise and ever free God and are therefore self-evident authorities. Although some considered that early Mimamsakas were atheists or at least did not mention about the existence of God, the later 1imamsakas declar- ed unhesitatingly that it is not the object of this philosophy to deny the existence of God.

The Mimamsakas, like the Nyaya-Vaiseshikas are dualists and believe in ths separateness of the self (Jivatma) from the body, senses and mind. They look upon the special properties like Intellect, will and Effort as the natural attributes of the Self, namely Jnana, Ichha and Kriya, respectively. Swarga is Parama Purushartha or Summun Bonum of homan iife. It is that happiness which is not mixed with SOTTOW or eclipsed by any other mental state, which has no cessation and which is available by the mere wish which is called Swarga. This Swarga cannot be enjoyed on this earth and to attain it, one must leave the body belund. Mimamsakas do not believe in the absolute dissolution (Maha- pralaya). They say that the Universe exists as it is from enternity and will continue like that eternally. UTTARA MIMAMSA OR VEDANTA Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta (1) Adwaita Sampradaya Maya- Relative Reality-Vivartavada-Conclusions-(2) Visishtadvaita- Bandha (Bondage)-Moksha (Liberation)-Karma Yoga-Jnana

110 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Yoga-Bhaktı Yoga-(3) Dvaita Sampradaya-Bhaktı Pramanas- Bheda (Difference) -- Pervasiveness of the Supreme Beig -- The Different Jivas -- Samsara-Karma-Incarnation-Mukti-Subject and Object- The whole hife or experienee-Walking Experience-Dream State- Dreamless sleep-Pure consciousness-Goal of Vedanta-Why is Philosophy considsred so difficult

Q 56 Write a short note on the Vedantic Schools in Indian Philosophy Ans The propounder of Vedanta was Shrı Vyasa Maharsl He is also called Badarayana His name is mentioned with respect by Jaimint in the Mimamsa Sutra There are three schools in Vedanta- (1) Advaita-absolute monism or non-dualism preached by Shree Sankaracharya (2) Vistshtadvanta (qualified monism) preached by Ramanujacharya and (3) Dvaita -- Dualism-preached by Madliva- charya, otherwise called Purna Prajnacharya To all these three schools Brahman-God-The Ulttmate Realty-is one and common The Vedantrsts proclaim God to be the Cause of all causes and the mantfold world of human expertences as the elaborated mode of that one external entity. Creation is but a process of evolution and mn- volution The subtle or finer state is the cause and the gross stite is the effect. Just as the ramdrop, which is but vapour drawn from the ocean ultimately comes down to the ocean only to be transformed to vapout agam, all things that are destroyed onty go back to their final forms Similar is the case with the Universe as a whole After each cycle, all gross mantfestations return to their final state -- the primil substances of whtch all things of the Untverse are but various modt- fications It is the one principle that pervades afl forms of Matter and Energy and apart from all nothing has reahty of its own The Realty is one and is beyond time, space and causation only when tt is vicwed through the prism of Name and Form It appears as many

In all the three Sampradavas, the Brahmasutras, the Bhagwat Gitr and the Upanishads are taken as the three authortes These thtee Granthas are called Pristhantraya The propounders of the three Sampradayas wrote their own commentaries to sutt their owd ideas.

(I) ADVAITA SAMPRADAAYA Q. 57. Explain clearly the advaita view of the relation between Jiva, Iswara and Brahma

What is the nature of Brahman according to Samkara ? Why is his philosophy negatively called as Advaita " (Hombay 1951, Banaras 1963, Baroda 1963) Ans The cluef propounder of Advuta Sampradiya was Sankaracharyt Sankara combined in him profoundness of thought

112 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

(that) whose existenre can only be inferred by one s reason though it ts invisibl- to the cyes or unsmellable by the nose or untouchable by the hand is the fundamental real in the world Vedinta is not to be blamed because some foreign philosonhers ridicule Vedinta by saying that the worid which we ictually see with our own eyes is called Mith y1-ilusionary by the Vedintists ' Now, what is to be done ? ' A pillar is not to be blamed bectuse a blind man does not see it (Yiska) Names and forms are not renl He who wishes to see the real elements must extend his vision beyond Names and forms That which existed in the commencement of the world was without Name and Form that is it was qualityless and impercepuble and the same thing later on became qualityful as a result of acquiring Names and Forms (Br 147 and Chah (6 1 23) The mutable and the perishable Name and Form is given the name of Maya and the visible or quality ful world is said to be the dllusionary Mayic Drama or Leela of Ishwara

MAAYA Q 58 Show how Sankara uses the concept of Mays (Bom'ay 1956) Or What is Maya according to Sankara ? Determine its significance in his Philosophy (Poona 1960 Karnatal 196>) Or Fully expound the Advaita concept of Maya (Madras 1962 Mysore 1062, Gujral 1904, Jodhpur 1965)

Sankara ? Is Maya a necessary principle in the Vedanta of (1962 P C S )

Define Mays as conceived mn Sankara Vedata Compare and contrast it with Samkhya Prakritis (1965 PC S)

Explam the doctrine of Maya according to Sankara Or

How does Ramanuja criticize the theory ? (1960 P C S ) Ans From this point of view the Samkhya Prakriti is nothing but Maya composed of the Sattva Rajas and Tamas constituents thit is to say Maya possessing Name and Form though tt might be imperciptible , and the creation or extension of the perceptive universe is also the evolution of that Maya embodied in qualityful Names ind Forms because whatever quahty may be taken it is bound to be vistble to the orgins that is to say to be embodied in Name ind Form Maya All the Material sciences fall in this way into the category of Take History Geology Electrcity Chemistry Physics or any other scienee, all the exposition to be found in it is only of Names and Forms that is to say only of how a particular subsiance loses

PLRVA AND UTTAR\ MIIAMSA 113

one Name and Form and acquires another Name and Form For instance, these sciences only consider how and when that wiuich is %nown as 'water' acquires the name of 'steam', or how vinous analine dyes, havmg the red, green, blue, or vartous other colours, which ire only differences of Name ind Form, are formed from one black substance cafled coal tar, etc Therefore by studying these sciences which are enerossed in Names ind Forms one cannot acquire the Anowledge of the Real Substance, which is beyond Names and Forms , and tt as clear that he who wishes to find the form of the Real Brah- man must extend hts viston beyond these materrl sciences, thit is to say, beyond these sciences whtch deal only with Names and Forms And the same meaning is comeyed by the story at the commencement of the seventh chapter of the Chhandogypamshad In the beginning of the story, Narada went to Santkumar, that is, to Shanda, and said "Give me knowledge of the Aatman" In reply, Sntkumr said to hım "Tell me what you have learnt, so that I will tell you what comes next" Narada sad "I learnt all the Vedas, as also History and Puranas and also Grammar, Mathematics, Fine Arts, Ethics, subsidiary parts of the Vedas (Vedanga), Morality Magic (Indrajala). Warfare (Kshatravidya), Astrology, the Science of Serpents, Deities etc , but Thave not thereby acquired the knowledge of the Aatmin, and I have, therefore, come to you " In reply to that, Santkumar said "All that you have fearnt deals only with Names and Forms and the true Brahmin is fir beyond this Nama Brahma (the Brahm in qualtfied by Names) ', and he hts afterwards gradually described to Narada the immortal Elements in the form of the Absolute Spirit wluch is beyond Names ind Forms, that is to say, beyond the Samkhya imperceptible Prakniti, as also beyond Speech, Hope, Project, Mind, Reason, (nana) and Life (Prana) and is superior to all of them" -

Maya is the principle that makes one thing appear as what it is not You take a rope to be a snake, you get frigltened, this is, Adhyasa Similarly, you take Brahman to be the world This too is Adhyasa dlusion in realtty there is no Snake, no world ind no allusion aiso Yet it is the tnherent nature of a man to identify truth with falsehood This principle of Adhyasa has no reason to euist but it is there although it is andetinable The dlusion is due to Ajnana (want of correct knowledge) Sankar says that it is Brahman that appers as a Jiva through ignorance or Adhyasa The rope doe not lose its ropeness even when it is mistiken for a snake, so also Brahman cannot be satd to be transformed into this world. It onls appears as the world because of Adlyisa (ignorance) The world therefore is a figment of Maya, 1 mere appeartnce. This Adhynsa should not be confused with Abhava It is a Bhava- roopa a posttive chuity Saankhya holds ihnt this world is an evolution or Parinama of Prakriti which is a seif-existing independent principle but Jada (inert). Maya on the other hand is an entirely dependent principle, Brahman

114 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

being the only Reality , nothing can be conceived without being related to it The upadlu or the condition that makes Braliman as the cruse of the world is Maya but Maya itself cannot be the cause of the world

Maya strictly spenking is a mystery It is the mdefinable power by whtch God (Brahman) while remaiing himself changeless appears as a changing universe And Avidya is the natural disability of the Jivatma which prevents it from understanding God (Bralman) as He really is Man as man can never know God He should transcerd hs Upidhis-his limitation or mental condition-and become divine to know the Divine being i e , he should become 1 Yogi RELATIVE REALITY Although the world has no absolute realty-Paararraarthikt Satyatva-it has an apparent and relatrve reality-Vyavaharıka Satyatva-that reahty as far as it is necessary for all practical purposes The objects of a dreim although known as false on nwakening are real within the limits of the dream Simlarly the world is also relatively real and is sard to be false Mithya, only when knowledge

non existent (Abhava) like the son of a barren woman (Vandhya is advanced Although the world is false, yet it is not altogether

Putr) Sankara is even prepared to grant some realty to the Rajju Sarpa (the snake mn the rope) wlch he calls Praatibhashika Satyatva - seeming reality VIVARTA VAADA Sankaras's theory of creation is called "Vivartavada" This is a theory of appearance and reality, because the produce is the effect without undergoing any change in itself What is really God appears to our limtted intelligence as the umverse just as a piece of rope appears in the twilight as a snake We come to realse God when Avidya or the veil of misapprehension is removed by Vidya or Divine knowledge This is matter of spiritual experienee We are not in the present state of own knowledge able to see how exactly the realty is connected with the appearance be "Anırvachamıya -indefinable The relation is therefore said to God by lus Maya brings about this wonderful phenomenon of creation CONCLUSIONS 1 Knowledge or consciousness of the Absolute as the Reality, that is Brahman 2 Jiva is essentially the same as Brahmin and is therefore self illumined, Swayamprakas, unlmited-Vibhu and free Hts limitedness is due to Upadhis or conditions of embodiment, wluch again are due to Avidya, and are as such unreal 3 Brahman hood is realised by the knowledge of the Abso lute identity of the Jivt and Brahman Mukti -- liberation -- is nothing but the realsation of this identity This is quite possible even in tlus body (jıvanmukti)

PURVA AAD UITARA MIMAMSA 115

4 Mokslma can never be obtained as a result of Karma It is directly attamable by knowledge (Jnana) but till Jnana is attuned all Vihita Karmas must scrupulously be performed as these help reahsa- tion of Jnana

SUBJECT AND ODJECT Q.59. Discuss Vedantists view of mind and matter {Subject and Object) How far does it correspond with the Western view ? Ans Vedanta studres all experience by first analyzing it, as is most commonly done, into two factors, the knowing agency (kshet- ranga) and the known or knowable world (kshetra), of European thought The correspondence however, is but a rough onc. For, in the West phtlosophers do not seem to have as yet analysed *mind and matter,' or 'subject' and 'object' so completely as the Vadantsts have done The 'mind' such as thoughts, feclings, ideas, are treated as the 'known' or the object in India, and are put into the same category as percepts Vedanta recognizes two classes of object, mental and physical e e, internal and external The wtness ee, the entire panorma of the physical and mental worlds The reason for such an analysis is that the two factors, belong to distinct categories. The seen or known is inconstant, wherens the wtness only sees the changes and is as such non varying THE PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS DIVISION Such men are struck by the tmpermanences of the objective world, and particularly of tlus physical body seek the comfort and support of religion, theology, mysticism or the like Suck others as cling to the objectie world, beleving it or at least the changes to be teal, because of the pleasute they yield, are realists, most of whom are scientists also They do not ignore the 'objects' known as mental Only they rely most upon the 'seen' or Lnown, internily or externally. Those few, on the other hand, that investigate both mind and matter, ee, the 'witness' and the 'witnessed,' the subject (knower) and object (known) and seek the absolutely real, are philosophers, They do not fall back upon mere intuttion or tmagination, as do the first group of men, nor do they ignore any part of the mental factor, as do the second group or take the knoun world to be reat because it is a source of pleasure to them What the philosopher according to Vedanta, seeks is not comfort or joy, but truth He vho knows the truth of alt existence is said to attain Supreme Knowledge, which is seea to com- prchend the universal good THE WHOLE OF LIFE OR EXPERIENCE This is an fact the cemtral problem of philosophy of Vedanta Curopean and American philosophy is bised upon the data of the waling state, in other words, of a fraction of esperience, wluile Vedanta takes all the three states of wakmne, dream and deep sleep of

116 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

the whole of experience, into consideration Western philosophy, agam, takes the waking data as the standard of Reality, and with this standard it evnluates the experiences of dream and deep sleep, whereas Vedanta places ill three states on the same level and enquires into their worth as 'realty' The plulcsophic conclusions of the West cannot, therefore, attain a view of the whole truth, Vedanta is the only road leading to it, for it considers the whole of experience Without going into details, it will suffice here to say that the study of the three states leads one, first, to the fact that entrre world of the waking state is as much a creation of the nund as the world of dreams, and as both the worlds disappear in deep sleep into the mind, the entire objective world of the wiking and dream states is onreal or illusory They appear to be real for the time being Vedanta is neither reahsm nor idealism but unreali m so far as the object world goes, and Atmanism so far as the substance in itself is concerned ; for the whole world of mental creation emanates from and returns to the mind substance The knowledge that everything is Atman cannot be attamed unless one rises above the thought or concept of Atman, te, lives or has hs being mdentified with everything the all

WAKING EXPERIENCE Q 60 What is Adhyasa ? How does Sankaracharya put this concept to metaphysical use ? (For detailed answer see Chapter on Brahma Sutra) (Karnatal 1960) Ans Sankara the greatest expondent of the Advaita Philosophy has systematized the teaehings of the Upamishads in his comments on the Brahma Sutras which have condensed them under various topical In his comments on the Sutras, the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita we find a rational, consistent and exhaustive treatment headings

of all the problems of Truth and Realty as they arise in the course of his exposition of Vedic Monism In his introduction to the Sutras, Sankara, imbued with a truly scientifc spint, discusses the foundation of empirical life We can discover in him no traces of a theological or scholastic learning ' Subject and Object-the Self and the non Self (Aatma and Anatma) are so radically opposed to each other in the notion and in practical life that it is impossible to mistake the one for the other " After this grand beginning Sankara adds, ' Yet we find that the mistake is universal and we can never trace it to its source for our common life cannot do without this imtial error (avid, a) " Without identifying the Self (Subject) with the non Self, tiz the tody, the senses and the mind we could not describe ourselves in terms strictly applicable to the latter We could not say, "I am lean or stout ', "I am walking or sitting " "I am blind er deaf ' 'I feel I perceive or act " Hence we unconsciously confound the pure subject or the witnessing conscious- ness with its own objects and conversely, we confound the ego with witness, whereby the real unattached character of the pure conscious- ness is lost sight of altogether Admittedly this is due to a furd - mental illusion on which all our wiking actrvities tre based ird to

PLRVA AND UTTARA MIMAMSA 117

attain the Truth and Reality we must, realizing this illusion rise above it by means of a rational enquiry. Reason which points out the illusion must also be competent to release us from its hold Sankara is not alone in drawing our attention to the illusory nature of empirical life, Plato, Kant and Heg.1 adopt the same strai, and in recent times, Berg- son, equipped with all the knowiedge of modern science, arrives at the same conclusion. The intellect, he says, disguises Reality, misrepresents it and presents to us a static world, while the Realty is pure movement, change or the wider consciousness. According to both Sankara and Bergson the illusion is necessary to practical life, though none the less it is an illusion Sankara does not favour the reality of the idea as against that of the object. The testimony of consiousness itself establishes their distinctness. While the one, ciz. the idea, is admitted to be real, this reality can be maintained only by contra-distinguishing it from that of the object. Still the reality of the idea and the object cannot be held to transcend the state in which both are experienced. In other words, their claim to reality is valid within the state, not beyond. This is a philosophical view that disposes of the dream- experience also. If we are true to consciousness, if consciousness is true to us, the objects and notions of dream are presented as indisput- ably real at the time, and discovered to be illusions only after dream gives place to waking We cannot suppose that waking experience can survive waking, any more than dream-experience, dream. For that would be self-contradictory. Waking life thus seems to be reduced to a long dream ; but, as Locks would say, "Even then the thinker and the critic being equally involved in the dream, their mutual relations remam the same as if the condition was one of waking." Hence the external world with its multiplcity of other minds and objects, together with the internal world of judgments. feelings and volitions, like the ego cognizing them and engaged in action and enjoyment, is all on one level of reality which correlates them. It is wrong, therefore, to imagine that Vedanta is solpsistic, that while it concedes reality to the ego, it denies it to non-ego. Waking or dream is not a state in the strict sense of the term. A state implies change occurring in the soul or its object. When we compare waking with dream, the soul assumes the position ofa witness of the two, and no change can be allowed in the vitness. The two states seem to offer themselves successively for trial, but as they are not events in one time-series, their sequence is an illusion,. Neither can we suppose a change in the objective order which would demand a continuity of the same time-series Moreover, we labour under the disadvantage of having to judge from memory of dream which cannot be called upto confront us as a present experience, and this memory is itself of a strange character. Memory ordinarily refers to the past-a past time moving backwards infinitely from the present movement at which it terminates, that is to say, to a continuous time- flow related to the present realm experience. However it does not belong to this uime-series, and cannot be included in its past. Again, just as we cannot know when waking begins, so we cannot know when dream begins for both seem to be uncaused. A cause connects one

118 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

event with another of the same time order and the cause of a state would have to be inside the state, so that to transcend the state in order to discover its cause would be not merely illogical but impossr- ble Further, the soul as the witness of the two states intuits both and that is how we know both Hence the witnessing character of the soul claims special consideration It hehaves as an entity free from attachment to the bodies the minds the sense groups ind the percepts of the contrasted states and becomes 1 metaphysical element which can be realised only as the I but with the I divested of the egoity of waking or dream While it is difficult and impracticable for us to eliminate, in waking, this Witness from the ego complex and the Witness might seem to be i mere abstraction our ability to remember dream and appropriate it to ourselves proves that nature does for us the analysis which we are unable to do for ourselves She does this in virtue of the undeniable faut that the Witness is the Reality the essence of our being In discussing sleep we shall come upon an other feature of the witness which then passes off into Pure Conscious ness

DREAM STATE Q 61 From ths waling poit of view dream is a case of typical illusion, or rather hallvernation ' Discuss Ans Without admittedly any external ground a whole world rises into view and no suspicion is aroused that we are bamboozled Scene after Scene follows oriemating feelings and acts with the stimps of genumeness We are actors in tie dramn phyme fantastical parts enjoying and suffering we know not how or why There is no limit to the grotesqueness of the pageantry over leaping the bounds of waking possibility Yet at the tume there is no surprise, every thing looks natural We tal e thines it their face valute All the elements of waking are reproduced time space change In the very midst of the drama we might jerk into waking and b hold it was all a dream ! The usual explination offered is tht the impressions formed on the waking mind remam latent in the background of the unconscious and suddenly gamn scope for activity manifesting themselves in the shape of dream experience Sieep is the region of unconscious and we are then admitted beliind the scenes to the right of how the impressions in their various degrees ind strength ict and react upon one another in dceps of our nature No impressien apparently ever dies and when it is denied adequite scope in waking obtains in dream which is a realm of life for the latent impressions The space and time are crea tions of the mind and the relation of cause and effect is improvised The intellect suspends its censorship and our eritical faculties are laid But thts theory of Impression loses sight of the fact that if the theory be right an impres to sleep Such is the dictum of waking rea on

sion has to be endowed with the power to create a world of realities it the mement s notice rather without ary notice at all If the mind by a feat can create actualities where is the need or place for matter which is the object of absorbmg study for a scientist > How can tlus

PURVA AND UTTARA MIMAMSA 119

indispensable factor of life be brushed aside so lightly ? What is sause for the goose must be sauce for for the gander. If the reality of matter in waking life depends on our belief in our close observation and ex- perimentation, how is our involuntary belief in the reality of our dream occurrences to be accounted for ? How can we take two con- tradictory attitudes towards life, the one stoipsistie and the other. realistic? This explanation is therefore suicidal and demolishes the very foundation of science. We can, besides, never notice the beginning or the origin of a dream. All our notions of propriety are outraged, without still engendering any surprise in us. Our consciousness which guides our judgment suddeuly turns capricious, and one that lies down in Calcutta might find himself in a moment, as it were, in London. A single moment might expand into days and years. The dreamer might be transformed into a bull, a goat or an insect. And the learned ex- planation is belated. It comes after the illusion is over, for there are no certain marks or characteristics by which we can identify a dream as such at the time. In truth, dream cannot be defind. Otherwise we could not fail to detect trickery when it repeated a second time ; but a man's, even a philosopher's life must include dreams to his dying days, and nature's power to delude is irresistible, supreme. A dream can indeed mimic all the features of waking, but enactment remains trium- phant and beyond its utmost power to mimic, and that is conscious- ness. All the rest is plastic in the omnipotent hands of dream, and can be moulded into any shape it pleases. Time, space and causation are its avowed slaves, and obey its autocratic. bidding consciousness alone defies its tactics and remains an unruffled witness of its whims. We have hitherto viewed dream as an object of the waking mind, an external object. We shall now examine it from within, by placing ourselves sympathetically in its midst. This is to properly judge dream as dream, without the waking bias. Dream now appears to be a per- fect replica of waking. A world is unrolled before us ; we never notice its suddennes nor its incongruity with waking : on the contrary it comes with all the impress of waking. Time, space and change are inevitable present. No clement of life is missed-other minds, natural senses, familiar faces and objects, the earth below and the star-studded sky above. We think, feel and act, we refer happening to the past, and foreeast them for the future. We remember dreams and relate them to friends. There is no suspicion of the state being a break, a discon- tinuity from waking no fear that it may be sublated in the future. Miracles are common occurrences which do not strike us as anything extraordinary. We acquiesce in all, we appropriate all. Memories and emotions stream in, giving birth to strange conations. We con- verse with gods and ghosts. Sometimes the future is foreshadowed. We acquire new powers, occupy new positions ; nothing is impossible. We fly without wings and fall from hill-tops down, down through end- less space. Nevertheless, we believe that all is real and nothing shocks us. After waking we condemn dream as an irrational, self-contradic- tory and unreal itfusion, and resolve to be no more fooled. But in

320 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

the nevt dream there is the same masque enacted and the same help- lessness on our part to detect it, and this rs repeated without end to our eternal chagrin through all our living days It will not do to brush aside this aspect of life as a mere phantasy "There are few subjeets," writes Dr FCS Schiller, * which philogophers have more persistently forborne to work out, not to say neglected than the philosophic import of dreams " To regard that dream experience is unreal is to subordmate it to waking, and to accept the biassed decree of the latter against a sister state And on what is the claim of waking to reahty based ? Evidently on ns own pronouncement If so is not dream entitled to equal realsty according to its own pretensions ? If it is objected to that waking is never stulti fied whereas a dream is the answer is how can a state iccompanied with a sense of waking stultify itself while it continues ? A state which is believed to be waking can never be conceived as hrable to stultificntion while it lasts, and every present state clums to be wakins, flinging to its rear a stultified dream Compare the istance of a dream within a dream No state can be disloyal to itself A dream proper is never known to be such at the time A stulified state appears as a past dream and the present is never waking No stite is self identicl Thus a sympathetic examination of dream leads to the conclu- sion thet it is a rival stite as real as wking, and owing to the indeterminable discrepency between the two in the time flow, added to the unconscious and t meless interval between them they must be adjudged with equal sndependence, as different realms of Reality of which they are expressions The word 'interval* used above is owing to a defect of language meant to denote what is timeless For if a time interval were imagined it would connect waking and dream and make them a single contiuous state which would miltate against all exper ence Waking time rules waking and stops with it and dream time is coeval with a dreim The interval is metaphysical It is pure Con cciousnss We are now free to consider the results obtained at this state of our enquiry The examination of dream, was made possible only by our individuality being set aside The mind and the body constitute our connection with them These two factors can hardly be supposed to be identical in both waking and dream, as our experience is to the contrary So are the two worlds distinet In setting the states srde by side in our study, we have mentally disentangled ourselves from both and have attained to an attitude in which, free from the trammels of mdriduality, we comprehend the two mamfestations of Reality as unstinted wholes-an attitude quite different from that in which we think of the waking world In the latter case the world is not seizcd as a wholc, since as our object of attention, it is separated from our- selves and placed right agunst us in thought We conduct our exam! nation of dream, not as one ego contemplating the other, but is the soul divested of its egoity altogether The simple etperience denoted by the words, "I dreamt", raises us to the level of the witness and above that of the ego The soul is thus proved to be an entrty it the back of the mind, tiking tts stand is the metaphvsical basis of life.

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The monobasic view, confined to waking of theology throws it at the mercy of the seriptures or revelations to establish the soul or God They are matters of faith But Vedantic analysis makes them mndispu- table elements of life and identifies them The world is a correlate of the mind concomitant with it The question of other minds is limited to the fugitive states and is devoid of meaning with reference to the soul as their Witness The soul thus sheds its individualty and becomes Universl Spint, beyond the region of meum and tuum The mind percerves the world, while the soul or spirit intuits both waking and dream projects both and absorbs botl The difhculty that per plexes the inquirer, tiz, "When I am sleeping, is there not a world outside in which simultineously there are other minds awake and active whom I rejoi when I nwake ? How does my sleep affect the retl iffairs of the world which go on uninterrupted for all my changes of state ' ?- this difficulty now vanishes For the individuation imphed m my sleep and the waking of others ceases when the comparative view of the states is taken This is possible only with the individuahty dropped Moreover, the waking world composed of other minds and matter, with which waking connects me and from which sleep releases me i strictly bound up with waking and to aver that my waking or my waking world persists when I am sleeping is not only illogical but inconceivable The world has no status outside of my waking The physical organism together with its brain nerves and breath is limited to wiking To carry it over to another state, where another set obtuns free play is unwarranted Similarly, birth and death, the evolution of the world, are integral parts of waking and beyond it, meaningless Sclipsism or Subjectivism is easily transcended for the Witness is no ego and Reality attiches to the former alone Thus we have arrived at an entity which is the uniersal basts of life which ts All Life, beyond time change and individualty Why then should we examine sleep, ? For the simple reason that it is the primary state without which waking and dream would be impossible We dream in sleep and wake from sleep Meanwhle we shall advert to some philosoplucal problems wluch recerve their solution from our enquiry so far The question of perception dissolves itself The spirit manifests itself as matter ind mnd, which appear as the correlated elements of experience in each state Their metaphysieh basis is one and this affimty in their source accounts for their mutual adoptreness The Spirit as mind perceives Spirit is matter The puzzles of Realism and Idealism evaporate For the principle on which we explain waking perception must apply equal y to dream perception If in the one cise our knowledge is real, so must it be in the other No purpose is served by affirming or denying the realnty in either Pragmatism ts right in regarding judgements as onty truth claims with a tentative value Every mantfestation of life or Spint must necessarily promote life purpose Fer life is supreme and its appirent frustration by deith is but a delusion Death itself is a minifestation of life which transeendine the states is immortal

122 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY DREAMLESS SLEEP Q 62 It is commonly believed that decp sleep is a it ? state of absolute consciousness It so, what can we know of Ans In answering this question, we must bear in mind that waking, dream and deep sleep are states that we intuit and that cannot create any conceivable break in life They are known is immediacies and are not observed externlly Hence our knowledge of them is more intimate and perfect, less lable to error or misunderstanding than that of objects I see a chair, and my notion of it agrees with that of several other minds, and practical life is pivoted on such agree- ment But as to what a chair is in itself apart from my perception, generates a problem which hs endlessly exercised the intellect of scien- tists and plulosophers Our knowledge of objects must be infinitely progressive, because of the disability with which we start, because we cannot know them as we know or realize our own feeling and sensa- tions The very structure of the mtellect precludes the contrary But this habit has so grown upon us that we forget the limitations of our power to know, and instinctively belteve that knowledge alone is true which we acquire by observation and experiment We cill it scienti+ fic The states which cannot be handled we are prone to ignore, as not allowing of the scientific method of approach Now there must be something fundamentally wrong in this attitude, since the states are the sine qua non of life, the elements of which it is made up The world which is the theatre of our activities enjoyments, and ambitions, with its comic and tragic stdes is unfolded to us in only one of them In the other there is a mimicry of it and in the third it is conspicuous by its nbsence Experimental Psychology, w'uch presumes that the nature and the cipacity of mind can be accurately known and measured by "behaviour" cannot go to the root of the matter It takes its stand on the outside and forms its views from what it obser- ves This is opposed to the very mture of mind, w>, to concerve it as an ahen when all the while we have the privilege of knowing it immediately by reference to our own feelings and sensations scientific deseription of sicep from our observation of the condition of The the slueper's body is, in the words of the Upanshads, to beat the ant- hill and imagmne the snake inside to be killed With whatever care we pursue our method of eternal observation, we shall never reatise the nature of sleep or dream less As to waking, we are still more help- We cannot observe before we wake , and as all our acts are circumseribed by waking and involve it, we can never arrive at an objective notion of its nature For it ts as much an intuition as the other two The only reliable source of knowledge about them is our intuition and a study of the latter gives us a more, not less, scientife view of them than we have of eternal objects We hive found that the entity that connects wiking and dream is not the ego of either state, but the witness or the Spirt which is free from individuahty We hive now to ascertain the principle which

PURVA AND UTTARA MIMAMSA 123

pieces together all the three We have first to tackie deep sleep This is produced in three or four ways First in the natural manner, secondly, by means of drugs like chloroform tlurdly, by the practice of mental concentration known as yoga , or fourthly through devout meditation The nature of the experience however, does not vary, for in each instance the mind that alone can detect difference ceases to operate As the sleep which comes to us naturally every day is the only form familtar to us umversally, and even the yogins cannot help sleaping, a close study of sleep is rendered possible to all, and obviates the necessity of that of the other forms Though fanci'd to be a mere blank, a state of unconsciousness, we shall presently realise that it is the home of realty, the temple of God, and the true nebula giving birth to both mind and matter It is the trensure house of all truths , and in spite of our prepossessions we shall know it is the rock basis of life

To begin with, we have to dispose of the common notion that sleep is unconsciousness This evidently is a serious misapprehension For conscious beings as we are, though we may have a notion of un- consciousness, the notion when examined will be found to have no content A notion is formed mn consciousness and the latter cannot conceive its own absence while it is there to testify to itself Uncons- ciousness cannot be a link in the chai of life, and we could never speak of sleep if it did not constitute an integral element of conscious Jife So it is not a mere idea A person complaining of s leeplessness does not suffer from any mability to form the idea As Wilbon Carr observes, "when we say that a man is unconscious in his slecp, we do not mean by unconsciousness a complete absence of consciousness, as when we say that a stone is unconscious We mean that the conscious- ness which is present is blocked or hindered from being effectie Rouse a man from his sleep and consciousness returns " Besides the statement, ' I was unconscious during my sleep," contradicts itself For how can you say that you were unconscious unless you were conscious of your unconsciousness ? If one retorts, ' I know now that I was un- conscious " his position has not improved How can you now refer to or describe 1 past occurrence unless it was part of your experience ? And an experience of a conscious being presupposes consciousness at the time of recollection Further, the memory of sleep pomts to it as a period of felicity or blss essential to life It is thus futile to argue that sleep is a period of absolute unconsciousness We can never be aware of such a state We cannot own it or describe it as thus and thus

124 INDIAN PH'LOSOPHY

the ego Just as the presence of the one necessarily demands and depends on the presence of the other, the absence of the one must spell the absence of the other In waking we perceive the world be cause there is the ego to perceive tt in sleep we are aware of neither, because neither is present To suppese an outside world flourshing all the same by the side of the sleeper is not to the point It is tllogj- cal The persisting is obviously the waking world connected with the individual siceper, which ts cognized by the waking critic, but sleeper las shed his individuality when he has passed into Pure Spirtt and no world can attach itself to spirit For the world is seen to be concomi- tant with the individual ego, and it is the mind, the senses and the body that indiiduate Spirit _Then, still to hold that the world exists in relation to Spirit is neither rational nor consonant to experience The world comes and goes when I move into the next state switch off the world, which is my cumber in waking, along with the ego, its counterpart The recognition of this truth requires some clear think ing as the mind and the present ego act as clogs impending the higher view revealed by intuition

TRANSCENDENTAL OR PURE CONSCIOUSNESS Q 63 Discuss the awareness characterising deep sleep ? Ans It is not one craving an object and an ego It is not of the subject object variety that we are familiar with in waking and dream It is what Vedanta calls the Transcendental or Pure Cons We shall call the other empirical consciousness, and the life predommnated by it the empirical life We shall now more closely ciousness

examine sleep as Pure Consciousness In the first plice, it is a state of absolute unity In the absence of time and space there is no room for change or plurahty Ramanuj indeed beheves in the persistence of the ego, and some other thinkers in that of the non ego also, then in a latent condition But evidently they are wrong For we have seen how the entity which hnks up waking and dream as the Witness, is already dvested of egoity, and our present examination of sleep is rendered possible only by the presistence of the Witness mn steep also, that is to say, of the Witness divested of the psychic set (mind and sense) and the physical body, which are the mvidividualizing elements Time ceases to operate outside of the state and is absent from sleep Hence the ideas of latency or patency which are confined to the sphere of a time order are inapplicable to the contents of sleep over to sleep our waking bias when we concerve multiplicity in a poten- We carry

tal condition in it, and we forget that it is an independent state to be judged and understood by itself and not to be translated into the terms of the others whereby we should forfeit the advantage of a new ev- There is neither a potential world in sleep nor an acturl world beside the sleeper, the Scylla and Chrybdis to be avoided in penience

Vedantie sailng In the next place, it is not a state in which Pure Consciousness abtdes, but is itself Pure Consciousness. The popular view that it is a

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state is due to a misapprehension of its true nature which a careful analysis alone can reveal. For it is timeless and changeless and to call it a state under the circumstances is a misnomer. The Witness has transformed itself into Pure Consciousness, for without it we could have no knowledge of sleep. But its report of the non-existence of the ego and then the non-ego shows that it has assumed the role of Pure Consciousness. It is clear that the Witness of the ego and the non-ego in the other states is also the Witness of their absence, and that the Witness and Pure Consciousness are identical. A mirror re- flects objects presented to it, but in the absence of objects it ceases to be a reflector, though the power to reflect is ever inherent in it. In the third place, the states are independent expressions of Reality, so many wholes in which Reality manifests itself for being free from time and space, it is indvistble. For the same reason, not only waking and dream are each a whole but every one of their consti- tuents is such. The plurality perceived within a state stands as an obstacle to our recognition of the indivisibility of Reality. "Standing undivided amidst bemgs, yet appearing as divided" (Gita XIII. 17). But in sleep we have Pure Conscrousness, presented as the whole which is the master-key with which we have to unlock the doors of the other states. The metaphysical nature of the latter is thus revealed as Pure Consciousness which determines the value and the nature of the rest. We thus arrive at the equation Waking-Dream-Pure Consciousness

THE GOAL OF VEDANTA Q. 64. Does Vedanta explain the whole of life, and at the same time help realisation of universal good, in actual life ?

What is the goal of Vedanta ? Discuss. Or

Ans. The goal of Vedanta is thus described . It is that which being Anown, everything becomes known, and which being attained, nothing else remains to be attained. The urge or impulse to attam this goal manifests itself in the earliest stages as efforts to satisfy one's cravings or wants and to overcome fears, satisfy all intellectual as well as spintual wants and overcome fears of all kinds. To attain the for- mer, men make use of religion and science, and to attam the latter they pursue philosophy. especially Vedanta. Vedanta, therefore, does not despise religion or science but seeks their co-ordination. All disciplines from religion upwards tend to 'purity', 'sharpen' or make 'one-point- ed' the buddhi or reason-not the itellect as so many writers on Vedanta say. But it should not be understood that one can straig'it- way start the study of philosophy before this capacity to 'depersona- lize' (effacement of the ego) is attained. The true test of the worth of Vedanta lies in its bearing of life now and here, not in any speculative hypothesis or any intellectually

126 INDIAN PINLOSOPHY

constructed system These are not two separate questions but are the obverse and the reverse, so to say, of the same question Generally men view the fughest good and one s own supreme bliss in this or in some future life, taling the individual standpoint, and rest satisfied with it This is rehgion or mysticism Though, a religion, Vedanta starts with the welfare of the indi vdual, yet it does not stop till the whole of mankmd, nay the whole of the world of life, is embraced in its conception of the huighest good, Man is not happy unless he has the satisfaction of possessing as much as possible of what is outside of him At first he seeks wealth and all the means of happiness which are outside of him He wants wife, friends and neighbours, or society, and he feels that their joy or sorrow is his joy or sorrow In a word, he feels that their well being constitutes hs well beig He next learns that the good of the other creatures and man's good are inter dependent Vedinta goes a step further and says that the good of even the plant world involves the good of man In fact, Vedanta pomts out that what constitutes the body of man also constitutes in different combinations the material world What constitutes the human body a minute aco is now part of the body of entities outside and tice tersa His bodv is food for others, as other objects are food for hum In fact, tht, exchange is so continuous that it is impossible to say whether there is anything that can be called one s own at any time It is a vain belief or delusion to think that there permanently exist anythine separate as one's own body Similarly, the individual mind is made up of the thoughts or ideas, of lus parents, neighbours and ancestors, nay, of the world known to him Nowhere in the mental world of the individual can a Itne be drawn to indicate what is exclusively his own His passions and feelings and cravings came to him with hts body from luis parents t e, inherited from his ancestors Next, as regards what is called the self Everyone refers to his sell as "I" What is the characteristic of this ' I" ? What is the general mark ? It must be the common factor or feature of all the ' Is' with all their differences Eliminating the latter, which changes with every man and every movement, the common fenture ' I" is the only permanent factor known individuality cannot be defincd as a permanent feature Whatever In a word

extsts permanently is the universal onty * The one remains, the many change " Indnidunlity is a notion which, when enquired into tands us in the universal, the all The firm conviction that the one is the all attained by constant and deep enquiry into the meaning of life in all its aspects, is the goal of Vedanta This attainment is impossible

the all unless ore constantly looks into one s own life and naturally sces in it

VISISHTAADVAITA Q 65 What is the distinction between Sankar s Advaista Vedanta and Ramanuja's Visishtaadvaita Vedanta regarding the nature of Brahman Explain (Agra 1960 ; Poona 1000) Or

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Distinguish carefully between the concepts of Brahman according to Sankara and Ramanuja (Agra 1963 Jodhpur 1965) Or How does Sankara digtinguish between Brahma and Iswara ? What is the nature of Brahman according to Rama- nuja ? (Agra 1955) Ans In expounding the nature of the Reality according to Visishtaadvaita, Ramanuja harmontzes, the claims of revelation, intuition, personal experience and reason He accepts the authorty as vald of Pratyaksha (Perception), Anumana (inference) and Sabda (revelation) Not only the Vedas but even the Pancharatras and the utterances of the Pancharatra and the utterances of the Awataras (Saints) are equally authortative to him The real proof of the being of God is the being in God Brahman is absolutely true, good and blissful The true insight of this philosophy is afforded by the Upanishadic texts-"Brahma Vidapnoti Param-the knower of the Brahman attais the highest (Taittiriya Upamshad 2 1) The Upanishads declare Brahman to be Real-Satya, self-conscious-Jnana, infinite -- Anantha, Smniess-Apahatapapman and blissful-Aananda This conception of Brahman as Real ete, brings out the truth of Vistshtha- advaita that Brahman is and has reahty. Though Brahman is the ground of all changes, in itself it does not change while the intelligence of the souls (Jivatmas) is subject to contractions and expansions on account of therr Karma, Brahman is entirely free from all these alter- ation and alternations Hence Brahman is defined as "The Real of reals". "Satyasya Satyam"-Brahman is not only Real, it is also mtelli- gent (Jnana) It is the Self underlying all the ultimate subject of experience While tt abides within the sensient (Ajada) and Non- sensient (Jada), it is not touched or tainted by their imperfections) The umverse of the living and non living is an eternal cyctic process with Pralaya-dissoluuon-and srishti-creation-alternating cach other God reveals Himself in creations God not only is the ground (Aadhara) of the universe , He is also the controller (Niyanta) and Purushottama-possessing an infinity of moral perfections The meemimsikas insist on the meticulous performance of the rights prescribed in the Vedas The Vedanta on the other hand regards the knowledge of Brahman as more important than the performance of Karma The good resulting from karma according to the Vedas, is attaining the Vedanta, is evaniscent and has no intrinsic value The supreme good of Brahman cannot be bartered away Isvara is righteous and absolutely good There is no caprice and cruelty in his Divine nature While being immanent in the unt- verse God also transcends it The Lord is the righteous ruler of the

128 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

world dispensing justice according to the deserts of each Jivi te, his Karma The finite self or (Jivatma) has the freedom either to grow into the goodness of God or lapse mnto wickedness ind vice according to his Karma which is in his own hand Justice conststs in the equitable apportionment of the nature of the Karma of each Jiva God can alter the course of moral law Avidya (nescience) and Karma form an endless cycle ind their effect cannot be removed by death and retribution Muktt or libera tion would be impossible if Divine Justice functions through the mathematical law of Karma But Kripa or the Grace of God trins figures the rigorous law of Karma and becomes the ruling principle of religion The hope of salvation lies in the saving grace of God, the Rakshaka-Saviour Karma then becomes an attitude of self- surrender Overpowered by mercy and tenderness God realses his Godliness by saving the sinner When the universe is steeped in insecurity and sin, the Lord in hs infinite mercy appears mn the form of divine mearnation (Avatara) The Lord of Splendour takes delight m sportig with finite self (Jiva) with a view to transmuting tt into its own nature The world is really beauuful but it is mistaken to be ugly by the Jivatma owing to its feeling that it is identical with the body The relation of Sarira and Saririn the body and the soul formulated by Visishtaadvaita brings out the synthettc combinatton of the ultimate values The Jivatma (Saririn) is distinct from the body It makes the body live, it controls and co ordinates its functions and uses the body as an instrument for its own satisfaction Similarly Brahman or Paramatma is the Saririn or Soul of the Universe because, Brahman is the source and sustenance of all beings in the world The

Leela functioning of the world is an expression for its satisfaction or There is a triple relation between the soul and the body, namely , (1) Aadhara and Aadheya (support and the things supported) (2) Niyanta and Niymaya (the controller and the controlled) (3) Sashmn and Sesha (the Lord and the servant) That God (Paramatma) is the life of all life (Antaryami) is the central idea of Visishtaadvaitr In its practical aspect, it insists on the idea of God as redemptive love and lays down the path of Bhakti (Devotion) and Prapatthi (self surrender) as a means to attainment of eternal bliss He who desires release (Mumukshu) specialses m spiritual quest by Karma Yoga, Jnana Yoga and Bhaktı Yoga

SEVEN STAGES OF SADHANA Q 66 Write short notes on (a) Sadhana Saptaka pres- cribed by Ramanuja for Bhakti, (6) Bandha (Bondage), (c) Moksha, (d) Karma Yoga, (e) Jnana Yoga, (f) Bhaktı Yoga Ans (a) As a preparatory discipline to Bhikti Ramanuja prescribes seven stages or steps-Sidhana Saptaka

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(I) Viveka-physical and mental purity by avoiding certain foodstuffs like onions, contamination of untouchables and Kesha, Kitadi (Hair and microbes). (2) Vimoka-giving up desires. (3) Abhyasa-practising to keep Isvara Swaroopa constantly in the mind or meditation of God. (4) Kriya-performance of the duty (Karma) relating to one's own status of life. (5) Kalyana-observance of Satya (truth) Aarjava (sincerity),

Kalyana. Daya (kindness), Dana (charity). These qualities are known as

(6) Avasada-freedom from depression. (7) Anuddharsha-freedom from elation. By these seven Sadhanas, Bhakti will be generated and this Bhakti wal secure love of God and by the Grace of God, Moksha is secured. BANDHA (BONDAGE) (b) The Jivatma owing to its feeling that it is identical with the body seeks the pleasure of the senses in this world and in Swarga. It is thus caught up in the endless cycle of births and deaths in the sub-human, and the celestial worlds. This is bondage or Bandha. MOKSHA (LIBERATION) (c) Moksha, the attainment of freedom from the cycles of samsara by seeking the redeeming love of God. KARMA YOGA (d) The first step in the building up of Bhakti is the practice of Nishkama Karma (desireless duty). The jivatma is then no longer bound by the attraction of the pleasures of the senses. It realises its own nature of Atman as different from Prakriti (Matter). The real spiritual Self is realised. This is Karma Yoga. JNANA YOGA (e) Karma Yoga leads to Jnana Yoga or the method of Self- Realisation. But Jnana Yoga is only a half-way house to devotion. In Self-Realisation (Jnana Yoga) the Jivatma is starnded in sold singleness (Kaivalya). It is self-centred and not God-centred. BHAKTI YOGA (f) Bhakti Yoga recognises the need fer shifting the centre from self-consciousness to God-consciousness. The Santi (Serenity) which arises from the state of the single soul (Kaivalva) should be replaced by the religious consciousness that God is the source and centre of all finite life and that all Jivatmas gravitate towards God. This knowledge enables the Jiva to renounce Ahamkara and to resign itself absolutely to the will of God. Thus by various stages. there is

130 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

a gradual transformation from Nishkama Karma to the service of God At this stage all Karma is converted into Kainkarya-consec rated service to God and humanity Every kind of work is thus transformed into the worship of God When the spintual sense is awakened, it thirsts for God and the agony of separation experienced by a Bhakta at this stage is recorded in such outpourings of the religious hieart as Gopi Geeta-the famous Asthapadi by Jayadeva This spiritual hunger can be satisfied only by the reahsation of God The intensity of the yearning is accompanied by the sleeplessness suspension of physical activities bodily deterto- ration resulting in spiritual inanity and blankness The Lord resulting in spiritual manity and blankness The Lord of Love (God) is like wise seized by soul hunger and scorning His heavenly aloofness and infinte Glory He invades the Bhakta s soul and longs for union with him The soul is then released out of its fleshy feeling and is followed up in the Ocean of Bliss that is Brahman The freedSoul ascends to its home in the Absolute The whole process of the evolution of Prakriti (Nature) is designed for the spiritual progress ot the Atman The realisation of Brahman by all beings is the one inceasing purpose running through the ages Partha Sarvasah -Geeta Mama Vartamana Vartante Manuslıyah

Visishtaadvaita guarantees God to all finte beings human sub- human ind celestial at some time or other It is therefore a religion of harmony and hospitalty It does not stop with affirming the tather hood of God and brotherhood of man It goes further and asserts that God is the inner life and soul of ali beings

(3) DVAITA SAMPRADAAYA Q 67 Discuss the main Categories of Draita Sampradaya and give a table of Categories with therr varrous ramifi cations Ans In the twelfth century, there lived a very pious Brahmin boy called Yashdev who became a Sanyası at a very early age and received the name of Purna Prajna He was blessed with cxtra ordinary intellect and wrote a commentary on Bhagvat Geeta Brahmasutras and Upamshads According to him the whole Umverse is divided into two main categories (1) The independent or Swatantra being and (2) dependent or Asvatantra cxistence The mdependent or Swatantra Beig is but one and is absolutely perfect of mfinite power and excellence and externally and infimtely blessed in every respect He is the one Omnipotent Omnipresent Ommscient Being and all these ideas of Supreme Being form the connation of the term Brahman and contemplated as Brahman therefore He is fit to be known He is without a second, non equal to

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him, and without another as superior to him. It is this Supreme Being, that is also spoken of as Visunu.

TABLE OF CATEGGRIES A table of categories with their various ramifications is subjoined below for a clear understanding of the realistic philosophy of Sri Madhavacharya the founder of Dvaita Sampradaya. Reality

ndependent The one Omniscient Vishnu Dependent

Bhava (That which exists ; positire) Abhava (Non-existence : negative)

Chetana (ego) Achetana Antecedent Subsequent 7 Absolute (non-ego)

Chetana (ego)

Those assailed by misery Eternally free from misers (Lakshmi)

The reicased Those in Samsara (in heaven) (the embodied existence)

Eligible for release (in heaven)

Devas Rishis Pitris Nripas Naras (gods) (sages) (fathers) (emperors) (men)

Ineligible for heavenly bliss

Those who are Those who are eternally 7

fit for tamas in samsara

Those that have Those yet in the embodied fallen into tamas existence

132 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Achetana (non ego)

Nıtya Nıtyanıtya Anıtya (Eternally unchanged (External principles (Destructible the Vedas) with modified or (1 e knowledge) changing aspects)

Puranas, etc Tıme (Prakrmı matter)

Asammsrıshta Sammsrishta (subject to mintmum (wholly modified modification) Brahmanda, the gross universe and all the things m it Buddlu Manas Ten organs Five objects Five bhutas of senses (gross-elements)

BHAKTI Q 68 Write short notes on (a) means of attaining Moksha, (b) means of correct knowledge, admitted by Madhvacharya Ans (a) In Dvaita also Bhakti is the foremost of all means of attaining Moksha The intense love which proceeds from a know ledge of his greatness becomes the tre between the Lord and the Soul . and that indeed is the chief instrument of the Supreme ruler All duties performed must be the outcome of that natural Bhaktt and it should be developed till the Jiva is finally reheved PRAMAANAAS (b) The means of correct knowledge, Pramanas -- admitted by Madhvacharya are Pratyaksha, Anumana and Sabda Things which are real cannot be made unreal by any changes in time The know ledge which refers to things existing while they do not at all exist of which refers to a thing actually existing as not existing is fake knowledge and the things so referred to are unreal Hence the objective world according to this system is real in so far as they are referred to by correct knowledge

BHEDA (DIFFERENCE) Q 69 Write brief notes on (a) Bheda (difference), bet ween the Supreme Being and Jiva recognised by Dvaita System, (b) Pervasiveness of the Supreme Being, (c) the different

PURVA AND UTTARA MIMAMSA 133

Jeevas, (d) Samsara, (e) Karma, (/) Incarnation, (g) Mukti, as expounded by Madhvacharya Ans (a) The Dvaita System recognises the Bheda or difference b-tween the one Supreme Intelligent Being and the little and yet eternal and immortal Spiritual being called Jiva, absolutely subject to his rulcs The difference is realised in five ways The Lord is distinet from hmited intellgence 2 He is distinct from unintelligent matter 3 One Jiva is distinct from another 4 Jivas are distinet from matter 5 When matter is divided, the pieces are distinct from one another According to them, time and space are not continuous parts but are drvisible PERVASIVENESS OF THE SUPREME BEING (b) The Supreme Being is Ommpresent that is, He is not limited by time and space and is present in every atom of other substances as well as outside, but this characteristte of Omnipresence does not make the Supteme Being a formless mass of substance fike a heap of clay THE DIFFERENT JEEVAS (c) Though all the Jivas are said to be atomic, there is a gradu- ation among them according as they are endowed with higher or lower capacities SAMSARA (d) The Jivas have to work ind develop towards their destinv For this purpose, the physical body and organs are created for their work- ing This state is called Samsara Through the Samsara the Jiva has to work hard for many lives till he attains a development whuich entities him to reattse hts essential nature, a state whtch ts called Muktt or final release KARMA () According to this system Prakriti kas no self directed act- vity It really belongs only to the Jiva (Purusha) though under the control of the Supreme Latelligeace The lvas have therefote to work finally for attaining knowledge INCARNATION () The appearance of the Supreme Being in the World is only a revelatton out of his own gracious will and it is an error on our part to think that His personality so reveated is tnvested with physical conditions and is limited hke ours MUKTI () There are various classes and grades among the relcased souls in the world of bliss but they are not at vanance with (Jealous of) each other because ill have attamed to this direct knowledge of Brahmin and are free from faults Master and Puptl Their relation is like that of a

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kinship, sympathy, had their distinctive lines of growth and expanston. The ancient Hindus by the very nature of their posttion and environ ment developed an introspective mentality and started in search of the ultimate verity of life by analysing the internal world, whereas the ancient Greeks and their faithful followers, the people of the West, pro eeded in pursuit of the same through a scientific analysis of the ext'rnal phenomena and it ts indeed curious to note that the vibrations of both the minds ultimately tended to produce simlar echoes from the goal beyond But unfortunately both the East and the West till recent years failed to co ordinate their respective findings and thereby kept unbridged the wide gulf existing in vewpoints of life and its destiny

WHAT SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY AIM AT ?

It is interesting to note that in India there has never been any such clash between the findings of science and thoss of the philosophy of Vedanta The reason is not far to seek In India the ultimate motive of investigation into truth and the mode of application of the scientific achievement were attuned to the same spiritual end, and the results of scientific enquiries found their echoes in the spiritual realiza- tions of the master minds of the land But in the West the casc has been just the opposite The scientific achievements of Occidental gentuses on a-count of their materiahstic outlook, have serged mamly to pander to the baser instinets of man by relensing his passions, and have oftener than not ranged themselves as a mighty force to anta- gonize the sacred aims and purposes of the spiritual lfe But today it is really refreshung to find that according to the best minds of the West 'plulosophy and science are not regarded as watertight compart- ments, but are permitted to influence each other as parts of one organic whole of knowledge,' ind the lines of demarcation between Realism and Idealism at the present day have become very indistmnet For science has b-en taking tts legittmate share in the problems of phulo- sophy and has arrived at almost the sme end Sir Oliver Lodge m an iluminating arucle entrtled "Science and God", has beautifully summed up the enttre process of research in the domat of Reality. ' The revelation of Science," he says, "Is that which occurs here in the physict universe, occurs everywhere, that the laws are the same throaghout In other words, the universe is really one and there is no conflicting or opposition power So that if there be a God who under- stands and is responsible for anything He must be responsible for every thing, that the God of this earth is the God of the whole heavens and that there is none other , that His power and infuence extend to the remotest confines of space from etermty to eternity, and that in that majestic and one Reahty however little we as yet apprehend in nature we ind every part of the material and of mental and spirttual universe too, live and move and have our being " Thus what with the unfoldment of knowledge and what with the indefabieible labours of the modern scientists of the East and the West, the boundaries of distinction have almost vaushed ind a mappronchment between the two schools of thought as well as between the East ind the West has been

136 INDIAN PRILOSOPHY

greatly facrhtated The one ontstanding feature in the gradual toning down of the spirit of antagonism between the two branches of human knowledge is the unconscious onentation of Occidental thinking to the Indian conception of the highest truth of life What at one time was twitted by the West as preposterous in the Hindu philosophy has now been acknowledged as the finthty of human asprration by the lesdmg Western scientific thinkers and the 'supermen' of Arthur E Christy have already joied hands in love and admiration for the consumma- tion of a cuiltural synthesis between the East and the West It is need- less to point out that the output of those secular institutions where Bunsen burners and Bessemer crucibles are in use, cannot but harmo- mse with the mystic experiences of the Upanishadie seers so as to wed the life of the West to that of the East mdissolublv

VEDANTA THE SCIENCE OF REALITY Q.71 ' Vedanta is a science of reality" How far do you agree with this view Discuss

Distinguish carefully between the views of the two Or

systems of Vedanta about the nature of ultimate realty? Which do you prefer ? Justify your preference (Agra IDal) Ans It should be born in mind that the abovementioned conflict between these two departments of knowledge has hitherto centred round the determination of the exact nature of the ultimate Reality It is the glory of Vedanta that it sounded long ago a death- knell to all the apparent confhets and contradictions and proved itsetf to be the 'Science of Reality' which has been competent to solve for mankind the eternal problems about God, soul and the universe The Vedantits prociaim God to be the Cayse of all cause,, and the mant- fold world of human experiences as the elaborated mode of the one eternal Entity Besides what ts called 'creation' is, according to them, but a process of evolubon The finer state is the cause and the grosser state the effect -- a fact which is an everyday expertence of man in this world of phenomena The raindrop that sparkies in the sunbeam is nothing but vapour drawn from the ocean, but this vaponr ultimately comes down in the shape of ramdrops only to be transformed into vapour agam Thus the things that are destroyed only go back to their finer forms Similar is the case with the universe as a whole After each cycle all gross manifestations return to their final state-the pmal substance, of whuch all the things of the universe in the form of motion vibration thought, resistance, object, etc. are but varions modtfications The Prakriti of the Sammkhyas is the same as what we understand by Nature or Matter, and the Pralaya (dissolution) is only a state of equilibrium of the three forces tamas (mertia) rajas (activity) and sattva (the balance of the two) When the equiibrium is distubed and one of the three forces gets the better of the other two. motion sets in and 'creation' begins The Sruti considers ths pro- duction and dissolution of the universe as the out breathing and

138 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY Universal Self This avidya, the Chitsuktt holds, is beginningles, and is of the nature of a bhava (a positive entity), but is removable by knowledee (jnana) It has two aspects, the avarant sakti (verling power) wlnch ludes the real nature of Brahman, and the vikshepa sakti (projecting power) which projects the relative reality of the universe It is neither extent nor non extstent, but something th* exact nature of which is indefinable (antrachannitya) It is this avidya says Sankara in his Brihadaranyakabhashyn, that p esents thrigs as separate from the Aatman-the Brahman of the 'Upamtshads for it is the nature of avidya to cause differentiatron in what would other- wise be a unitary experience But from the ab,olute (paramarthika) stand point there is nothmg but the Aatman-the one transcendental Reahty which is chingeless and eternal The rigo ous monism of Sanakara would never adm t the co-existence of two absolute realities such as the Noumenon and phenomenon It is only the Noumenon that exists and the phenomenon has only an empirical reality Thus it is clear that the Reality is one, and beyond time, space and causation, It appears as many only when it is viewed through the prism of name and form The Advartists generalize the whole universe into one entity which appears as mamifold only through our ignorance They call this theory of their vivartavada (apparent mani- festation), and substantiate their position through the well known illustration of the rope and the snake where the rope appears .o be snake, but is not really so Thus they hold that the whole untverse is identical with that being It is unchanged, and all the change, that we see in it are only apparent and are caused by desa, kala and nimitta (space, time and causation), or according to a lugher psycho- logical generalization by nama and rupr (name and form) It 13 name and form that differentiate one thing from another In reahty tbey are one and the same; for from the Absolute standpomt the Atman alone and nothing else exrsts Thus it is the Advaita Vedanta that for the first time in the history of the world struck this sublime note of unity in the domam of spint and matter

THE GOAL OF SCIENCE Q 79 What impact has 'Hindu dectrine of one sub+ stance' made on Western Scientists ? Discuss Ans. The modern scientists have almost come to the very same conclusion though in a different way The present tendency of science is toward the recognition of the ancient Hindu doctrine of one subs- tance Rightly has Sir John Woodroffe remarked in hts Universe as Power-Reality 'When the Western science attributes unity, conser- vation and continuity to matter, cnergy and motton in a unrverse of obvious plurality and discontinuitv, what it is m fact doing is to show that none of its conceptions have any meaning except on the assump tion of the unity and unmoving contiuity of consciousness in the sense of the Vedantic Chit Matter is reilly indestructible and the glory of the modern sceitific ac'uevments ftes in the fact that it his

PURVA AND UTTARA MIMAMSA 139

dematerialized matter and has made the way for Vedantic conception of maya and has further recogmized that from its matena prima all forms have evolved , that there is life in all things ind there are no breaks in nature There is no such thinp as dead matter' The well known experiments of Dr J C Bose establish response to stimul in morganic matter What is this response but the indication of the extstence of that sattva guna which Vedanta and Saankhya affirm to exist in all thngs orgamc or inorgamc ? It is the play of Chit m this sattva, so muffled in tamas as not to be recognizable Conscious- ness is throughout the same What vires is its wr ippings There is thus a progressive release of consciousness from gross matter through plants and amimals to man " He further says, My own conviction is that an examination of Indtin Vedantie doctrines shows that it ts in most important respects in conformity with the most advanced scientific and philosophe thought of the West, and that where this is not so it is science which will go to Vedints and not the reverse " In short, practical science is charged with the mission of finding out the unity of things and already the scientific inventions have helped in no small degree to establish the idea of the unty of mankind to diminish particularization and to foster a wide view of the universe and its meaning For science is nothing but the finding of unity When it will reach perfect unty, it will stop from progres- sing further Thus Chemistry will cease to advance when it discovers one element out of which all others can be evolved Similar will be the case with Phystes when it is able to find out one energy of which all the others ire but mamfestations Thus to attain unity through multiphcity is the goal of science , and all branches of it are bound ultimately to arrne at this conclusion It is not surprising to find that mamfestation and not creation is the watch word of science today In fact what the Hindu has been cherishing mn hts bosom for ages ts

140 INDIAN PIILOSOPIY become typical of modern science It is admitted on all hands that Physies, by virtue of tts being concerned with positive data and having greater scope for experiment and observation than other branches, is the vinguard of the material sciences and that it is the physicists who by their pitient study and research have brought about a comp lete revolution in our old notions regarding the elements out of wluch the physical universe is built up Tor our present purpose, the age of Galileo (1564 1642) may be taken as a great landmark in the history of scientific researches ind discoveries The greatest contri bucion of Galileo to the scientific world is his analysis of the concep- tion of motion In his opinion the really important properties of the world are those tht can be mathematically defined The entire cosmos, he says is built ort of atoms possessed of four properties t17 size shape werght and motion ind these atoms icted on by forces produce by their combination the whole materil universe In other words the object of the science of Physics according to him is to prove that every phenomenon is explatned in terms of motions of little particles Thus the real world around us is concerved by Galilco to be quantitative This theory received a systematic treatment later at the hands of Dalton who removed much of the vagueness attaching to Galtleo's theory ind placed the system on a more logieal and scientifir basis In his opinton every substance of the physical universe is the product of a combination of two or more of the ninety chemical elements existing in the world And to explun the three different states of matter, tiz solid liquid and gaseous which ire observed in nature, he evolved the theory of heat which, he held, produced changes in matter from solid to fiquid and from liquid to gaseous, and increased the atomic and molecular motions of bodies as well This hypothesis no doubt covered a large ground and explained a wide range of phenomena, but not all of them In spite of his explanation the notion of atoms remuned as vague as before Consequently this conception of atoms as ultimate particles of matter had to give way to newer scientific revelatrons A series of experments made towards the close of the mneteenth century brought it clearly home to the minds of the scientists that the atom was not a Sir JH Thomson the celebrated English scientist, by a careful adjustment of two plates (te, positive and negative simple entity electtodes) inside the two ends of a glass tube emptied of atr and connecting them to a source of electricity, produced a strange pheno from the negative electrode in ward the theory that these rays conststed menon A stream of what is called cathode rays was found to issue of electrically charged particles which were found to be nearly two thousand times smaller than the hydrogen atom, the lightest known atom in the world These particles came to be called electrons and were recognized as the real basrs of the material world Thus the scentists practically bade adieu to gross matter and soared into the realm of Energy In fact, his theory seemed to make the whole world of matter completely unsubstantial

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But even this failed to meet the various complications that arose , for elcctrons by themselves are not sufficient to build up atoms of matter, which are electrically neutral, whereas electrons being negatively electrified are mutually repellant and as such useless for constructive purposes The finding of a positive electric charge was a dire necessity to ensure stabilty to an assemblage of such electrons Tlus difficulty was soon overcome by Str Ernest Rutherford who is credited with the famous theory according to which an atom resembled 'a miniature solar system ' The positie charge was supposed 1o be located at the centre of the atom and the negatively charged clectrons, like so many planets spun round it hke a mimature solar system Thus the centril positive charge was held to be just sufficient to counter balance, electrically, the sum of the electrons moving round tt But even this theory failed to satisfy completely the critical spirt of later scientific minds Max Planck < Wave Theory of Radiation and the Quantum Theory of the celebrited Damsh Physicist Niels Bohr, though grand and valuable in themselves, were also insufficient to tackle the intricate problem of the phystcal universe Ail the above theories about an atom had to yield to the purely mathematical theory which gradually gamed the upper band According to it the electron is no longer conceived as a particle, but as a system of ways and the fundamental entities are no longer

to give way to an abstract notion-a collection of mathematical 'picturble Thus the old conception of a permanent substance had

symbols For as Mr Splliysn bas put it "these waves are located within what is called a configuration space ' This configuration space is certainly not ordinary physical space, for the reason that each electron requires a three dimenstonal configuration space to itself Thus two electrons require a space of six dimensions in which to exist three electrons require a nine dimensional space and so on It is evident therefore that the configuration space is not real space, and in this sense the wave system that represents an electron is a mere methematical device ind not a description of a physical reality* Mr Minkowskrs conception that the universe in whtch events exist is of four dimensions and that it is our minds that spht up this universe into three dimensions of space and one dimension of time, serves only to support the above conclusion So it can no longer be asserted with positive certainty that a given set of data can determine the behaviour of the next set of affairs-the causal lik in the strictest sense being hardly ascertainable to explam the happenings of thines in nature Thus strict determinism cannot be assumed to play any substantial part in the behaviour of the ulbmate elements of the physical world and euriously enough this gradual elimination of determinism from fi^ld of suientific study and research is in Leeping with the spinit of the Iatest findines of modern science Einster s Restricted Principle of Relativity pubhshed in 1905 as well as the Guncralised Principle of Relativity published ten years later tended only to confirm the modern behef in the validity of mathe- matical theory For whatever words science may use for its concep s,

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light quantum, distance, mass four dimensioni continuum, electron, ot whatever they be, we find in each case that each of these words stands for a body of mathematical relations,' and consequently 'science does not tell us anything about the substance of the elements out of wluch we liave budt up the perception world It tells us merely mathemati- cal specifications of those elements' From the above it becomes clear that the material universe is much more subjective than the ancient scientists supposed, and 'the modern scientific man is sufficiently conscious that he is only talking about certain mathematical relations when he talks about the entities out of which he mtends to construct the universe

CONCLUSIONS OF MODERN SCIENCE Q 74 Is the antagonism between Science and Philo sophy vanishing with the progress of scientific knowledge ? Develop your answer Aus From the foregoing retrospect it is now easy to follow how this process of abstraction becomes the characteristic feature of modern science With the passage of time and the rapid march of events scienee has explored many an unkown region of Nature, and its startling pronouncements are found to echo in no small measure the metaphysical findings of hoary antiquity To crown all, modern science exhibrts a persistent tendency to eliminate altogether the hitherto sup- posed distinction between mind and matter a phenomenon which is epoch-making in its character, for the scientists by dematerialtzing matter have practically cpened the deor for the Vedantic conception of Maya It is ancient Indian doctrine that both mind and matter are modes of one and the same substance and as such they are akin to each other This fact has been accentuated by some of the distinguished scientists of the modern age Dr. A S. Eddington says in the Nature of the Phystcal World , "The frank realizatton that physrcal science is cor- cerned wtth a world of shadow is one of the most significant advances In the world of physics we watch a shadowgraph performance of the drama of familiar life The shadow of my elbow rests on the shadow table as the shadow ink flows over the shadow paper It is all symbol the physicist leaves it Then comes the Alchemist mind who transmutes the symbols In the transmuted world new sigmficances arise which are scarcely to be traced in the world of symbols so that it becomes a world of beauty aud purpose -- and, alas [ suffering and evil " "To put the conclusion crudely, the stuff of the world is mind- stuff The realistic matter and fields of force of former physical theory are altogether irrelevant except in so far as the mind stuff has itself spun these imaginings " "The external world has thus become a world of shadows In removing our illusions we have removed the substance, for indeed we have seen that substance is one of the greatest of our illusions " Thus we find that Vedantist in regard to the conception of mind matter, and has indirectly mtroduced mn the realm of matter the inevitable doctrine of maya which the Vedantist

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that brings about a dichotomy in what is but one undifTerentiated mass of pure Consciousness (Sat Chit Ananda) It is now evident from the above observations that the anta- gonism between science and phtlosophy is varushing with the progress of scentific knowledge , for the findings of science are strenethening and not undermining the foundations of philosophy The two meet at a poit where humanity stands as one indivisible entity, andjit is this basic unity which both science and phlosophy seek to find out There- fore science would fail in its noble task of promoting human brother- hood if it caters only to the animal instincts of man and be an instru- ment of destruction in the hands of politictans Likewise, if philo- sophy does not foster a sptrit of fraternity among mankind on the basis of its spiritual oneness it too would stultify its sacred misston We doubt not that if the savants of both departments of human knowledge reahze their responsibilty and proceed to their common task of betterment of human life and society, the world would be a playground of mankind instead of a battlefield In concluston, it must be said to the credit of science that with the advance of knowledge the outlook of the sctentific world has undergone a great revolution , the old dog- matism has almost vamished, and the door has been kept open for a co-ordinatton and synthesis of the newer revelations gathered from the unfathomable womb of Nature Says Professor Eddington "If the scheme of philosophy which we now rear on the scientific advances of Eistein, Borh, Rutherford and others is doomed to fall in the next thirty years, tt is not to be laid to their charge that we have gone astray Like the systems of Eucld, of Newton, which have served their turn the systems of Einstein and Heisenburg may give way to some fuller realization of the world But in each revolution of scientific thought new words are set to the old music, and that which has gone before us not destroyed but refocussed

VIVEKANANDA ON VEDANTA Swamı Vivekananda on Vedanta-Brahman-Karma-Soul- Muktt (Freedom) Knowledge-God-Ethics -- The East and the West-Universal Toleration -- Spiritual Oneness of the Universe-What our Country Wants-Have Faith mn yourselves-Go Forward-Carry Vedanta to Every Door Q 75 What are the vicws of Vivekananda on Vedanta ? Discuss Ans The spiritual portion of our religion is in the second part, the Jnana Kanda, the Vedanta, the end of the Vedas, the gist, the Goal of the Vedas The essence of the knowledge of the Vedas was called by the name of Vedanta, which comprises the Upanishads, and all the sects of India whether Dualists, Monists or the Shatvites, Vaish navites Saktas, Squras Ganapatyas If there is any sect in India which dares to come within the fold of Hinduism, it must acknowledge the Upinishads of the Vedas They can have their own way, but they must obey the authority

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All the philosophers of India who are orthodox have to ackow- ledge the authority of Vedanta and all our present-day religions, how- ever crude some of them may appear to be. however inexplicable some of their purposes may seem, one who understands them, and studics them, can trace them back to the ideas of the Upanishads. Great spintual and philosophical ideas in the Upanishads are j today with us, converted into houschold worship in the form of symbols. Thus the various symbols now used by us, all come from the Vedanta, because in the Vedanta they are used as figures, and these ideas have spread among the nation and permeated it throughout, until they become part of their everyday life, as symbols. The principles of religion that are in the Vedanta are unchange- able. Why ? Because they are all built upon the ctemal principles that are in man and nature ; they never change. Ideas about the soul, going to heaven, and so on can never change, they were the same thousands of years ago, they are the same today, they wift be the same millions of years to come. If in modern times our society requires changes to be made, they must be met, and sages wilt come and show us the way how to meet them ; but not one jot of the principles of our relation will be changed ; they will remain intact. BRAHMAN Q. 76. Write short notes on (a) Brahman, (b) Karma, (c) Soul, (d) Mukti, (e) Knowledge, (f) God as expounded by Vivekananda, Ans. (a) Brahman is the general cause of all these manifesta- tions. What is this Brahman ? He is eternal, eternally pure, eternal- ly auake, the almighty, the all-knowing, the all-marciful, the omni- present, the formless, the partless, He creates this universe. If He is always ereating and holding up this universe, two difficulties arise. We see that there is partiality in the universe. One person is born happy, and another unhappy ; one is rich and another is poor ; this shows partiality. Then there is cruelty also, for here the very con- dition of life is death. One animat tears another to pieces, and every man tries to get the better of his own brother. This competition, cruelty, horror, and heart rending sights day and night, is the state of things in this world of ours. If this be the creation of a God, that God is worse than any devil that men ever imagined. Ay : says the Vedanta, it is not the fault of God that this partiality exists, that this competition exists. Who makes it ? We ourseles," There is a cloud shedding its rain on all fields ahke. But it is only the field that ws well-cultvated, which gets the advantage of the shower ; another field. which has not been tdled or taken care of, cannot get that advantage. It is not the fault of the cloud. The mercy of God ts cternal and un- changeable ; it is we that make the dufferenttation. But hou can this difterence of sem: beine bor happy and some unhapny be explained 7 They do nothing to make that difference : Not in this life, but they did in their last birth, and this difference is explained by the action ta the previous life.

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KARMA (b) We now come to the second prmciple on which we all aeree that life is cternal It is not that it has sprung out of nothtng for that cannot be You know it already, that each one of us is the effect of the infinite past For good or evil lie comes to work out of his owg past deeds That makes the differentiation Tlus is the law of Karma Each one of us is the maker of his own fate This law Anocks on the head at once all doctriness of predestiation and fate and gives us the only means of reconcilation between God and mes We, and none else, are responsible for what we suffer We are the effects and we are the cause We are free therefore If I am unhappy, st has been of my own making and that very thing shows that I can be happy of I will If I am impure that is also of my ows making and that very thing shows that i ean be pure if I will The human will stands beyond all circumstance Before it the strong gigantic, mnfimte will and freedom in man all the powers even of nature, must bow down succumb, and become its servants This is the result of the law of Karma

SOUL (c) The next question of course naturally would be what is soul ? We cannot understand God in our seriptures without knowing soul There have been attempts in India and outside of India too to catch a glimpse of the beyond by studying external nature and we all know what an awful failure has been the result Instead of giving us a glimpse of the beyond, the more we study the material world the more we tend to become materialised, The more we handle the material worid, even the little spiritualuy which we possessed before, vanıshes Therefore that is not the way to spiritualtty to knowledge of the Highest , but it must come through the heart the human soul The external workings do not teach us anything about the beyond about the Inflnte it is only the internal that cin do so Through soul therefore the analysts of the human soul alone can we under stand God There are differences of opinion as to the nature of human soul among the various sects m India but there are certain potnts of agreement We all agree that souls are without begintung and with out end immottal by their very nature , also that all powers blessing purity, ommpresence omniscience ate burted in each soul That Is a grand idea we ought to remember mal however weak or wicked great or <mall In every man and in every anı resides the same omnipresent omniscient soul The difference is not in the soul but mn the manfestation Between me and the smallest antmil the diffe rence is only in manifestation but as a priciple he is as small as I am he is my brother he has the same soul as I have This ts the greatest principle that India has preached The talk of the brother hood of man becomes in India the brotl erhood of universal life of animal and of all life down to the little ants all these are our bodies Even as our Scripture says -- Thus the sage knowing that the samc Lord inhabits ll bodtes will worship every body as such why m India there have been such merciful ideas about the poor, That IS

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about animals, about everybody and everything Tlis is one of the common grounds about our ideas of the soul One thing more about the soul, Those who study the English language are often deluded by the words, soul and mind Our Aatman and soul are entirely different things What we call Menas, the mind, the Western people call soul The West never had the idea of soul until they had gone through Sanskrit Philosophy, some twenty years ago The body is here, beyond that the mind, yet the mind is not the Aatman, it is the fine body, the Sukshma Sarrra -- made of fine particles, which goes from birh to death an so on , but behind the mind is the Aatma, the soul, the self of man, It cannot be translated by the word Soul and Mind, so we have to use the word Aatman, or as Western philosopheres have designated by the word, Self Whatever word you use you must keep it clear in your mind, that the Aatman is separated from the mind, as well as from the body, and that this Aatman goes through birth and denth, iccompanied by the mind-the Sukshma Sharira And when the time comes that it has attared to all knowledge and manifested itself to perfection, then this going from birth to death ceases for it, Then it is all liberty either to keep that mind, or the Sukshma Sharira, or to let it go for ever and remain independent and free throughout all eternity. The goal of the soul is freedom MUKTI (FREEDOM) (d) Even in the highest of heaven, says our Senptore, you are a slave what matters it ef you are a ktng for twenty thousand years ? So long as you have a body, so long as you are a slave to happiness, so long as time works on you, you are a shive The idea, therefore, is to be free of external and internal nature Nature must fall at yoar

beyond feet, and you must trample on it, and be free ard glorious, by goig No more is there life, therefore, no more is there death, no no more eroyment, therefore, no more misery, It is bliss unspeakable. indestructible, beyond everything What wecll happiness ind good here are but particles of that eternal Bliss And this eternal Bliss, 1s our goat KNOWLEDGE (e) The soul is also sexless, we cannot say of the Aatman that at is a man or a woman Sex bolongs to the body alone All such adeas, therefore, as a man or woman, are a delusion when spoken with regard to the Self, and are only proper when spoken of the body So are the edeas of age ft never ages ; The ancient One is alw ys, The same How did it come down to earth ? There is but one answer to that in our Scriptures. Ignorance is the cause of all this bondare It is through ignorance that we have become bound ; knowledge will cure it, bv taking us to the other side How will that knowledee come ? Through love, Bhaktt By the worship of God, by loving all bcings as the temples of God , He resides withmn them Thus, with that intense love will come knowledee, and ignorance will disopreir, the bonds will break, and the soul will be free

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GOD

(f) There are two ideas of God in our Scriptures one the personal (Saguna) and the other, the impersonal (Nirguna) The idea of the personal God is, that He is the ommpresent creator, preserver, and destroyer of everything, the eternal Father and Mother of the universe, but Onc who is eternally separate from us and from all souls, and liberition consists in coming near to Him and Jiving in Him Then there ts the other idea of the Impersonal where all those adjectives are taken away as superflous, as tilogical and there remains an impersonal, omnipresent Being who cannot be called a knowing being, because knowledge only belongs to the human mind He cannot be called a tlunking being a rensoning being because reason ing is a sign of weakness He cannot be called a creating being because none crentes except in bondaee What bondage has He? None works except it is to supply some wants what wants has He ? In the Vedas it is not the ' He' that is used but It for He would make an invidtous distinction is if he were a man It the imper sonal is used and this impersonal . It', is preached This system is called the Advaita

ETHICS Q 77 Diseuss the views expressed by Vivekanand on Ethics Ans And what are our relations with tius Impersonaf Being ? That we are He We and He are one Every one is but a manifes tation of that Impersonal the basis of all being and misery consists in thinking of ourselves is different from this Infimte Impersonal Beig , and liberatton consists in knowing our unity with this wonder- ful Impersonalty These in short are the two ideas of God that we find in our Scriptures Some remarks ought to be made here It is only through the idea of the Impersonal God that you can have any sy stem of ethics In every nation the truth has been preached from the most ancient times love human beings as yourselves it has been preached, love all beings as yourselves , we make no In lndm,

distinction between man and animal But no reason was fortheoming no one knew why it would be good to love other beings as ourselves And the reason why is there, in the idea of the Impersonal God , you understand it when you learn that the whole world is one of the oneness of the universe-the solidarity of all life-that in hurting any one I am hurting myself in loving any one I am loving myself Hence we understand why it is that we ought not to hurt others The reason for etlucs therefore can be had from this ieal of the Impersonal God Then there is the question of ti e position of the Personal God in it, I understand the wonderful flow of love that comes from the idea of a Personal God I thoroughly appreciate the power and potency of Bhakti on men to suit the needs of different times What we now want in our country however is not so mucl of weepine

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but a little strength. What a mine of strength is there in this Imperso- nal God, when all superstitions have been thrown over-board, and man stands on his feet with the knowledge that I am the Impersonal Being of the world ? What can make me afraid ? I care not even for nature's laws. Death is a joke to me. Man stands on the glory of his own soul, the Infinite, the Eternal the Deathless -- that soul which no instruments can pierce, which no heat can dry, nor fire burn, no water melt, the Infinite, the Deathless, without beginning and without end before whose magnitude the suns and moons and all their systems appear like drops in the ocean, before whose glory space melts away into nothingness, and time vanishes into non- existence. This glorious Soul, we must believe in. Out of that will come power. Whatever you think, that you will be. If you think yourselves weak, weak you will be; if you think yourselves strong, strong you will be ; if you think yourselves impure. impure you will be ; if you think ourselvesnot as weak, but as strong, omnipotent, omniscient. No matter that I have not expressed it yet ; it is in me. Atl knowledge is in me, all power, all purity, and all freedom. Why cannot I express this Knowledge ? Because I do not believe it. Let me believe in it and it must and will come out. This is what the idea of the Impersonal teaches. Make your children strong from their very childhood, teach them not weakness, nor forms, but make them strong, let them stand on their feet, bold, all conquering, all suffering and first of all let them learn of the glory of the Soul, That, you get alone in the Vedanta,-and there alone. It has ideas of love and worship and other things which we have in other religions, and more besides ; but this idea of the Soul is the life-giving thought, the most wonderful. There and there alone, is the great thought that is going to revolutionise the world and reconcile the knowledge of the material world with religion. Mind you, we have no quarrel with any religion in the world. We have each our Istham, (option), pleasure. But when we see men coming and saying, "this is the only way," and trying to force it on us in Icdia, we have a word to say ; we laugh at them. For such people who want to destroy their brothers because they seem to follow a different path towards God, for them to talk of love is absurd. Their love does not count for much. How can they preach of fove who cannot bear another man to follow a different path from their own ? If that is love, what is hatred ? We have no quarrel with any religion in the world, whether it teaches men to worship Christ, Buddha or Mohammad or any other prophet. "Welcome, my brother," the Hindu says, "I am going to help you ; but you must allow me to follow my way too. That is my Istham. Your way is very good, no doubt, but it may be dangerous for me. My own experience tells me what is good for me, and no army of doctors can tell me that. So I know from my own experience what path is the best for me." That is the goal, the Istham and therefore we say that if a temple, or a symbol, or an image, helps you to realise the Divinity within, you are welcome to it. Have two hundred images if you like. If certain forms and formulas help you to realise the Divine, God speed

150 INDIAN PII OSOPHY yeu : hwve, by all means, whatever forms, and whatever temples, ani whatever cereronies bring you nearer to God. But do not quarre about them ; the moment you quarrel you are not going Godward you ere poirg backward, towards the brutes. The idea is one ol latelusion of every one in exclusion of none. The highest and greatest hetp thet is given in the dissemination of spiritual Inowledge. The ene vitil duty incumbent on you if you really love your religion, if you really tove your country, is that you must struggle hard to be up and doing, with this one gre it idea of bringing out the treasures from sour closed books, and delivering them over to their rightful heirs. And above all, one thing is neccssary. Every one wants to command and no one wants to obcy : and this is owing to the absence of that nonderful Brabmacharya of yore. Tirst, lcarn to obey. The command tuill come by ifself. Always first learn to be a servant, and then you will be fit to be a master.

THE EAST AND THE WEST Q. 78. Analyse the Views of Vivekanand on the Last and the West. Ans, In the West. they are trying to solve the problem how much a man can possess, and we are tryig here to solve the problem on how little a man can live. This struggle and this difference will still go on for some centuries. But if history has any truth mn it, and if prognostications ever prove true, it must be that those who tram themselves well, will in the end gain the battle, and that those who run after enjoyment and fuxury, however, vigorous they may seem for the moment, will bave to die and become annihilated. All their theories, their tenchings, their doctrines, and ther ethics are built round the life of a personal founder, from whom they get their sanction, their authority, and their power; and strangely enough, upon the historicity of the founder's life is built, as st were all the fabric of such religions. Everyone of the great religions in the world excepting our own, is built upon such historical characters ; but ours rests upon principles. There is no man or woman who can claim to have created the Vedas. They are the embodiment of eternal principles ; sages discovered them ; and now and then the names of thesc sages are mentioned, just their names ; we do not even Anow who or what they were. In many cases, we do not know who their father were, and almost m every case we do not know when and where they were born But what cared they, these sages, for their names ? They were the preachers of principles and they themselves, so far as they went, tried to become illustrations of the principle they preached. Tls lnttle earthly horizon of a few feet is not that which bounds the view of our religion. Ours is away beyond, and still beyond ; beyond the senses, beyond space and beyond time, away, away beyond till nothing of this world is left and the universe itself becomes like @ drop in the transcendent occan of the glory of the Soul Ours is the

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true religion, because it teaches that God alone is true, that this world ts false and fleeting, that all our gold is but as dust, that all your power is finite, and that life itself is oftentimes an evil ; therefore it is, that ours is the true religion. It is in vain to try to gather alt the people of the world around a single personality. It is difficult to make them gather together even round eternal and universal principles. If it ever becomes possible to bring the largest portion of humanity to one's way of thinking in regard to religion, mark you, it must be always through principles and not through persons. You may take up any one of the prophets or teachers your guide and the object of your special adoration ; you are even allowed to think that he whom you have chosen is the greatest of the prophets, greatest of all the avataaras ; there is no harm in that, but you must keep to a firm background of eternally true principles. The strange fact here is, that the power of our Incarnatio.is has been holding good with us only so far as they are illustrations of the principles in the Vedas. The glory of the Krishna ts that he has been the best preacher of our eternal religion of princi- ples and the best commentator on the Vedanta that ever lived in India.

UNIVERSAL TOLERATION Q.79. The conclusions of modern science are the very conclusions the Vedanata reached ages ago.' Discuss after Vivekanand. Or 'Write a note on Universal Toleration' envisaged in Vivekanand's Philosophy. Ans. The conclusions of modern science are the very conclu- sions the Vedanta reached ages ago : only, in modern science, they are written in the language of matter. I have mysetf been told by some of the best Western scientific minds of the day, how wonderfully. rational the conclusions of the Vedanta were. I know one of them personally, who scarcely has time to eat his meals, or go out of his laboratory, but who yet would stand by the hour to attend my lectures on the Vedanta ; for, as he expresses tt, they are so scientific, so exactly harmonious with the aspirations of the age and with the conclusions to which modern science is coming at the present time. India was alone to be the land of all lands of toleration and of spirituality. In that distinet time, the sage arose, and declared, "Ekam Satvipra babudhaa vadanti" .- He who exists is one ; the sages call Him variously. This is one of the most memorable sentences that was ever uttered, one of the grandest truths that was ever discovered. And for us Hindus this truth has been the verv backbone of our national existence. For throughout the vistas of the centuries of the national life, this one idea, "Ekam sat vipraa bahudhaa vadanti," comes down, gaining in volume and in fulness till it has permeated the whole of our national

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existence, till tt has mingled in our blood, and has become one with Us We love that grand truth in every vein, and our country has become the glorious land of glorious toleration It is here and here atone that they build temples and churches for the religions whtch have come with the objeet of condemning our own religion This is one very grent principle that the world is watting to learn from us

Therefore the world is waiting for this grand rdea of untversal It will be a great acquisition to civlisation Nay no civilisation can long exist unless this idea enters into it No civilszation toleration

can grow unless finaticism bloodshed and brutality stop No civift zation can begin to lift up tts head until we look chirtably upon one another and the first step towards that much needed charity is to look charitably ind kindly upon the religious convictions of others Nay more to understand that not only should we he charitable but posttively helpful to cach other however diffe rent our religious ideas and convictions may be And that is exactly what we do in India is I have just related to you It is here in Indaa that Hindus have built and are still building churches for Christians, and mosques for Muhammedins That is the thing to do In spite of their hatred, in sptte of their brutality, in spite of their cruelty, in spite of their tyranny, and in spite of the vile language they are given to uttering we will and must go on building churches for the Chris tians and mosques for the Muhammedans until we conquer through love, until we have demonstrated to the world that love alone is the fittest tl ing to survive and no hatred that it is gentleness that has the streneth to live on to fructify, and not mere brutality and physical force

The other great idea that the world wants from us today -- the thinking part of Europe nay the whole world-is that eternal grand ider of the spirttual oneness of tle whole umiverse 1 need not tell you today men from the Madras Unnersity how the modern researches of the West have demonstrated through physical means, the cneness and the sohdanty of the whole universe how physically spenking you and I the Sun Moon and stars, are but little waves or wavelets in the midst of an infinite ocean of matter , how, Indian psychology demonstrated ages ago that, simifarl, both body and mind are but mere names or little wivelets in the ocean of matter, the samashtt and how going one step further, it is also shown in the Vedanta that behind that ide of the unity of the whole show, the real Soul is one There is but one Soul throughout the universe all is but One Existence None can regenerate this land of ours without the practical application and effective operation of this idea of the one ness of thungs The finite oneness of the Soul is the eternal sanction of all morahity that you and I are not only brothers but that you and I are really one This is the dictate of the Indian Philosophy Thus oneness is the rationale of all ethics and all spirituahty, Europe wants it today just as mtch as our down trodden masses do

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WHAT OUR COUNTRY NOW WANTS ? What our country now wants, are muscles of iron and nerves of steel, gigantic will which nothing can resist, which can penetrate into the secrets of the universe and will accomplish their purpose in any fashion, even if it meant going down to the bottom of the ocean and meetine death face to face That is what we want, and that can only be created, established and strengthened, by understanding and realising the ideal of the Advaita, that ideal of the oneness of all HATE FAITH IN YOURSELVES Q 80 What according to Vivekanand is the secret of greatness ? Elaborate Ans Faith, Faith, faith in ourselves, faith, faith in God-this is the secret of greatness If you have faith in all three hundred and thirty million of your mythological gods, and in all the gods which foreigners have now and again introduced into your midst, and still have no faith in yourselves, there is no silvation for you Have faith in yourselves, and stand up on that faith and be strong , that is what we need Why is it that we, three hundred thirty millions of people, have been ruled for the last one thousand years by any and every handful of foreigners who chose to walk over our prostrate bodies ? Because they had faith in themselves and we had not What did I learn in the West, and what did I see behind those frothy sayings of the Christian sects repeating that man was a fallen and hopelessly fallen stnner ? There, I saw that inside the national hearts of both Europe and America, resides the tremendous power of the man's faith in him- self An English boy will tell you I am an Englishman, and I can do anything " The American boy will tell you the same thing, and so will any European boy Can our boys say the same thing here ? No, not even the boy's fathers We have lost faith in ourselves There- fore to preach the Advaita aspect of the Vedanta it is necessary to rouse up the hearts of men, to show them the glory of their souls It is therefore I preach this Advaita, and I do so not as a sectarian, but upon universal and widely acceptable grounds If the Brahman has more aptitude for learning on the ground of heredity than the Pariah, spend no more money on the Brahman's education, but spend all on the Parmh Give to the weak, for there all the gift is needed self without help If the Brahman is born clever he can educate him- If the others are not born clever, let them have all the teaching and the teachers they want This is justice and reason as I understand it Our poor people, these down trodden masses of India, therefore, require to hear and to know what they really are Aye, let every man and woman and child, without respect of caste or birth, weakness or strength, hear and learn that behind strong and the weak, behind the high and the low, belund every one, there is that Infinite Soul, assuring the Infinite possibility and the infimte capacity of all to become great and good

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GO FORWARD Q 81 Sum up Vavekanand's message to the people of India

Ans Let us proclaim to every soul-' Arise, awake and stop not till the goal is reached, Arise Awake, Awake " from this hypno tism of weakness My ideal is growth expinsion, development on nationat hnes As I look back upon the lustory of my country I don t find in the whole world another country which had done quite so much for the improvement of the human mind _Great things have been done in the pist in this land and there is both time and room for greater things to be done yet I am sure you know that we cannot stand still if we stand still we dte W have either to progress or to degenerate Our ancestors did great things in the pist but we have to grow into a fuller lfe and march beyond even their grea* achievements How can we now go back and degenerate ourselves ? That cannot be, that must not be, going back will lend to national decay and death Therefore let us go forward and do yet greater things, that is what I have to tell you I only ask you to work, to work to realise more and more the Vedantic ideal of the solidarity of man and hts inborn divine nature The ideal man of our ancestors was the Brahman books stands out prominently this ideal of the Brahman In India In all our

the greatest pinces seek to trace their descent to some ancient sage, who, dressed in a lom cloth, lived in a forest eating roots, and studying the Vedas It is there that the Indian prince goes to trace your an- cestry You are on the high caste when you can trace your ancestry to a Rishi and not otherwise Our ideal of high birth therefore is different from thit of others Our ideal is the Brihman ideal What do I mean ? I mean the ideal Brahman ness in which worldhness is altogether absent and true wisdom is abundantly present That is the ideal of the Hindu race Have you not heard how it is declared that be, the Brahman is not amenble to law, that he has no law, that he is not governed by kings and that his body cannot be hurt ? That is perfectly true Do not understand it in the light thrown upon it by interested and ignorant fools, but understand it in the light of the true and original Vedantic conception If the Brahman is he who has kill ed all selfishness and who hves and works to acquire and propagate wisdom and the power of love if a country is altogether mnhabited by the Brahmans by men and women who are sptrtual and moral and good is it strange to think of that country as being above and beyond ill law ? What police wiat military are necessary to govern them ? Why should any one govern them at all ? Why should they live under 1 government ? They are good and noble, and they are the men of God , these are our ideal Brahmans and we read that in the Satya Yuga there was only one caste and that was the Brahman We read in the Mahabharat that the whole world was in the begining peopled with Brahmans ind tht as they began to degenerate they be came divided into different castes and that when the cycle turns round

CHAPTER V DOCTRINE OF MOKSHA SADHNA Q.82. Write an introductory note on the doctrine of Moksha Ans Introduction Man in his original nature is divine free from suffering and sin, birth and death He is the unborn and undying spirit, the immortal and blissful self If, still, he sins and suffers in consequence, and becomes unhappy and miserable, that is because in his ignorance, he forgets his divine nature, separates htmself from God and lives an isolated life The root cause of the ills and the evils to which we are subject in life in this world is ignorance of reality ie wrong knowledge about our self and the world While the idividual soul is really different and distinct from the body, the mind ,the senses, we in our ignorance confuse our self with the body and become apparently identified with the mind body organism With this, we become subject to all the limitations and vicissitudes of the body We are swayed by the passions and impulses of our organic life and become attached to the objects of the world, which satisfy them Out of such attachment for things pleasureable or aversion for things painful, there arises in us all sort of activities for obtaining or avoiding them Now to reap the consequences of the actions of one life, under the law of Karma, we are born again and again until all our karmas are exhausted and we become free from birth and death By 'bondage' is commonly meant the process of birth and rebirth and the consequent miseries to which an idividual is subject Liberation (Mukti or Moksha) means therefore, the stoppage of this process Although liberation commonly means the cessation of the process of birth and rebirth and of consequent suffering for an individual, yet there is a difference of opinion among the schools of Indian philosophy and relgion with regard to the exact nature of the state of liberation and the time when it is actually attaied The specific questions which anse here are these - () Is it conscious or unconscious state of existence (t) Is it a state free from pam (itt) Is it a state of pleasure (:) Is it a state of individuat self existence (ø) Is at possible here or hereafter (11) Is moksha negation of empirical life All the views suggested by these questions have been held and supported by different svstems of Indin pluilosophy and religion

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Q.83. State Vaisheshika school's view on Moksha. Ans. (1) According to Vaisheshikas, there are nine specific qualities of the empirical self riz. Intelligence (Buddhi), Pleasure (Sukha), Pain (Duhkha), Desire (Iccha), Aversion (Dvesa), Conation (Prayatha) Righteousness (Dharma), Unrighteousness (Adharma), and predisposition due to past experience (Sanskara) ; and they are all negated in the state of Moksha. With their destruction no conscious- ness remains. Criticism. How can a state of unconsciousness be different from state of a stone or stick. (2) No pain' remains in state of Moksha. (3) However Vaishesikas hold that there is felicity in the state of Moksha. Since according to Vaisheshikas, happiness is always felt happiness, it is contradiction to suppose that there is natural felt- city in the self even in the absence of consciousness. (4) Moksha is a state of individual self-existence. Each Atman, in a state of Moksha, is gathered into itselt in self-centered repose. (5) Moksha cannot be attamed by an individual so long as it is in a body and somehow connected with it. The body and the senses being there, we cannot possibly prevent their contact with unpleasant objects and so one must submit to the inevitable experience of painful feelings. Moksha is, therefore, attainable after death. (6) Moksha implies complete negation of empirical life. So long there is trace of empirical life, there is no moksha. Moksha is the absolute destruction of nine specific qualities of the self.

Q.84. Compare the viewpoint of Vaisheshikas and Nynya on Moksha, Ans. (I) Naiyayıkas agree with Vaisheshikas that moksha is a state of unconsciousness.

from all pains. (2) They also agree with Vaisheshikas that moksha is a state free

(3) Both also hold that moksha is possible after there is negation of all empirical experience. According to Nyaya bondage is a cendition of the Atman or self, the condition of ns being subect to experiences including feelings of attraction, aversion, etc., which lead to unhappiness. It is a con- dition of all self which comes about through its connection with the mind which is its organ or instrument of experience. The effect of such connection is not merely specific experiences in the self, but also certain tendencies of dispositions (Sanskaras) in the self as a conse- quence of its experiences. The self's true freedom therefore consists not merely in the cessation of its experiences but also in the destruc- tion of these latest tendencies which mature into future experiences

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that there is no happiness in the state of freedom. The Naıyayıka however points out that what is really meant by happiness in such scriptural texts is mere relief from suffering As a matter of fact the use of term happiness to indicate mere negative relef is very common among men (Dukhabhava' pi sukh- shabda proyagah loke, eg, we deseribe the state of freedom from illness as a state of being well Criticism Mallisena offers the following criticism agamst Nyaya view in the "Syadvadamanjar" ,- (1) The contention that the prompting of pathological pleasure would be inconsistent with the Self's iutonomy and freedom in the Moksha state is based on a misconception Whtle the attraction of earthly objects is heteronomons, there is higher pleasure which is not inconsistent with the Self's autonomy It is based on a pure desire (Sprhamatra) which does not bind for the simple reason that it does not poit beyond itself to anything that is external It makes its appearance when one has ascended the penultimate stage and at last disappears in the ultimate perfection of the Moksha state There is therefore at least one desire wluch is pure and not pathological- it is the desire which seeks perfection of the Moksha state and is not directed to any thing external Because it seeks nothing that is external, it cannot bind the individual, and it ceases of itself when the object, ttz , perfection of the individual in the moksha state, has been attained or realtsed (2) It is not true that we cannot experience pure happiness The pure happiness which results from self-restrait and from indifference to things that are temporal is not only worthy of a spiritual beig but also capable of being realised even m this life as is proved by the testimony of experienced men It is an exquisite happiness, thts satisfactien (nivrttaja sukha) which results from self restramt, a pure pleasure as distinguished from ordinary pleasures which are mixed with suffering It is known to those who practise self restraint and it has to be accepted on the testimony of such spiritual experts or judges (3) If pleasure be a good and pain be an evil in this hfe, they must be so in every other life Contrary wise the absence of pleasure is an evil and the absence of pain a good in all conditions If the moksha state were to consst in the absence of pleasure or happiness it would be an evil and an undesireable con summation instead of being a desirable condition of the Self (4) If tn the Moksha state the Atman were to be reduced to a condition in which it is indistinguishable from material objects such as pebbles, ete , what is the use of striving after such a state ? For better is this phenomenal hife (Samsaravastha) in which happmess comes to us at least at intervals tainted by suffering though it be A state of absolute indifference in which there is neither pleasure nor pain, a dead level of emotional uniformity, is the negation of spirtual life

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of the self as brought about by the intuition of Self as distinct from not self, and not the freedom of self annulment in Brahman through the intuition of the absolute as the negatton of all difference

Q 86 What is Purvamimamsa doctrine of Moksha ? Ans In the early Mimamsa philosophy are religion, the Ighest goal of human hfe appears to have been heaven (swarga) which is a state of unalloyed bliss that can be attamed hereafter by performing here the Vedic rites But the later Mimamsakas agree with the other Indian thinkers in accepting moksha or hberation from bondage to the body as the highest good (Nihsreyasa) The Purvamimamsa doctrine of Moksha as represented by Kumanln Bhatta, furmishes a contrast to this negative concephion of Moksha of Sankhya and Nyayt According to the Puramuimamsa view the Self which is different in each body and ubquitous, is both spirtual and not spiritual In respect of its spintoal part it is the seer, the witnessing subject of experience and is the object of the recogninon "I am He" In respect of its non spirtual part, it is subject to transformation in the forms of cognitions, pleasures, pams ete This self is revealed only in self consciousness In the Purvamimmsa view therefore, pleasure, pains etc are not transformations of the mind (manas) or internal organ antahkarana) as m the Sankhyn and Vedanta view, but are transformabons of the non spiritual part of the Self The Purvamimamsa also differs from the Nyaya According to the latter the self is a spintual substance without any non spintual part, and pleasures and puns are specific qualities (visesagunas) of the self as a spintual substance According to Purvamimamsa however the Self has both a spiritual part, and pleasures and other states are transformations (not qualities) of the non spiritual part of the self The Self as experiencer (bhokta) is thus subject to transformation, and this transformation of the Self through its non spiritual part is beginningless (anadi) and eternal (Nitya) mn this sense Hence as the world (jagat) is eternal, the bonds of experience are also without beginning in time (anadi) The self s freedom (Moksha) is not, thus, a nivrtti or cessution from activities, but the realization of eternal happiness (mtyasukhabhtvyktr) with pravritti of active participation in the duties Smnce in the freedom of absolute cessation from activity there is no activity of the indriyas or senstbilt tes, there is also no possibibty of knowledge which presupposes sense activity, Hence the self real sation (Atma prapti) which is ascribed to this state is only lapse into the unconsciousness of pure materialty It thus cannot be an end worthy of beig aimed at -- this negation of the Self s spintuahty into bhnd, unconscious matenality, and therefore the better course is the course of active participation in life whch leads to eterna happiness and not mere cessation which leads to self negatton

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The Moksha is dissolution of the individual's connection with an empirical world. It thus differs from Sankara's moksha which in its negative aspect involves not the mere cancellation of our connection with the world itself, not prapancasambandhavilaya merely, but prapancavilaya. Prapanca, the world of experience, is an iffusory stuff according to Sankara, such stuff as our dreams are made of. With the intuition of the Absolute into the principle of illusion being concel- led, the world which is its construction becomes cancelled of itself. There is thus a pseudoreality attaching to the world according to Sankara which thus necessarily dissolves in the light of the intnition of Absolute Reality. According to Kumarda, however, the world does not dissolve, but only the bonds that attach the individual to the world and thereby cause experience of pleasure, pains etc. The world is not unreal, nor a mere dream reality which can be cancelled by knowledge. It is a real world that binds us and the moksha which man can aspire to attam is only the freedom of detach- ment from the world. Our attachment to the world is threefold being due to our connection with (1) a body as the abode of experience, (2) sensibilities the instruments of experiences and (3) objects (Sound and the hke) as the objects that are experienced. Freedom is the cessation of this connection and thereby the cessation of pleasures, pains etc. Whether the cessation of the fatter imphes the absolute negation of experience is a point in respect of wluch interpreters are not agreed. In fact there are two interpreta- tions of Kumarda's positton as regards this question. (1) According to one view, in the state of Moksha merit (dharm) is completely exhausted and there is no fresh acquisition of merit and thus there is also no happiness as the effect of religious merit. Since such happiness has a beginning in time it must also perish in course of time. But there is another kind of happiness which is not an effect in time. This is the natural happiness of the self (svabhavika atmananda) which remains over-powered (abhibhuta) in the empirical life but will come to mamfestation in the state of metempirical free- dom. This natural happiness of the Self is experienced through the organ of the mind alone without the aid of external seases. la thus state of transcendental freedom the mind persists though all the external senses (bahyendriya) cease. Consequently consciousness or intelligence also persists in this state. (2) Others among the Bhattas hold that there is no experience of happiness because there is no organ of the mind in the Moksha state ; neither is there any intelligence (jnana), but there is only sakti, capacity for intelligence, which is natural to Self.

Q.87. State Sankara's view of Moksha. Ans. The position of Sankara and Moksha is very clearly explained in the "Vedanta-paribhasha." In the last chapter thercof

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the author defines an end', proyojana or purusartha Ends are of two kinds - (1) direct and proximate (mukhya), and (2) indirect and remote (gauna) The direct ends are either happmness or absence af suffering, while indrrect ends are those which are conducive to the direct ends Happiness again is of two kinds (1) Empirical happiness which is limited and relatre and which arises from connection with externat objects, and (2) Transcendental happiness which is the Unexcelled Bliss that constitutes the essence of tle Absolute Empirical happiness is a partial mnifestation of the latter through the mould of a mental function or psychosis Trascendental Happiness is the essence of Brahmin, the realsation of which ends the miseries of life by cancel- ling the iluston which is their cause Moksha is the renhsation of this highest satisfaction and it imphes in its negative aspect the cessation of all suffering With reference to the objection that since this transcendental Satisfaction as being essence of the Absolute is an eternally accomph shed fact and therefore cannot be accomplished over agum by human cffort, the Vedanta paribhasha points out that this is not imposstble As a matter of fact fruition (Siddhi) may be either of two kinds (1) fruition consisting in the realisation of the unrealised (apraptaprapti) and the rejection of the unrejected (aparihrtarihara) and (2) fruition consisting in realisation of the realsed (praptaprapt) and the rejec- tion of the rejected (parihrtaparihara) In the latter case there is only either a re realisation or a simple cancellation of an illusion Consider for example the case of the person who m an excited state misses the necklace which is on hts neck What is his feeling when he learns the truth ? There is only a sense of re renhsation, of renhsation of the realised, or possession of that which was never lost possession of Consider agai the case of the man who mistakes a gariand of flowers for a snake What is his feeling when he recovers from the illusion ? There is only a sense of rejection, of rejection of the already rejected, of cancellation of the cancelled of negation of what is not So it 1s also in the case of Moksha which consists in the realisation of the Absolute The absolute is self accomplished from all eternity, and the desire to realise the absolnte is prompted only by a temporary illusion that it is unrealised So too is it with regard to the cancella- tion of the empincal world The world as mere illusory stuff is cancelled of itself, and the cancellation of it in Moksha is the cancellation of the cancelled, the rejection of what is rejected already Thus, according to Sankara, Moksha requres not merely the Self's deta/hment from the world but the cancellation of the world ıtself This dıstinguishes Sankara's Moksha from the Sankhya, Nyaya as well as the Mimamsaka conception thereof

DOCTRINE OF MOKSHA SADHNA 165

Further according to Sankara the freedom of the Moksha state is not the realsation of the Self as a distinctive reality, but the realisation of it as nondistinct, from, or identical with the Absolute. Here also Sankara differs from the Saankhya and the Nyaya-Vaiseshika philosophers. Lastly, the realisation of our identity with the Absolute implies according to Sankara, not merely the realisation of our essence as accomplished consciousness or intelligence as the Sankhya supposes, but also the realisation of the Ananda or Bliss, which constitutes the essence of an accomplisned realty. The Moksha is thus one in which individual becomes merged in the Absolute essence as accomplished Consciousness and Bliss-state therefore of essential felicity as dis- tinguished from the mere absence of suffering and misery as the Saankhya supposes.

Sankara's ? Q.88 How does Ramanuja's view differ from

Ans. Ramanuja rejects Sankara's conception of Moksha as self annihilation in the Absolute in the sense of merging of the mndi- viduality of the individual. Secondly he differs from Sankara as regards the conception of the Self as Impersonal Consciousness and Bliss holding, as against him, that the Self is not intelltgence itself but only an intelligent substance, a substance with intelligence as one of its many auspicious qualities. Intelligence is however not an advanti- tious quality of the Self which it may be with or without as the Nyaya thinks, but an essential quality (though a quality only) and therefore inseparable from the Self and necessary attributes of it. The state of Moksha as the realsation of the Absolute is the sense of a restoration of our harmony with it as factor occupying subordinate places in its life alongwith other factors of co-ordinate rank and subordinate to the whole. It is therefore not a state of self-annulment mn the Absolute but only of self-surrender and renunciation with a view to the realisa- tion of our true individuality as factors in the Absolute life. The Self, Ramanuja points out is the thinking subject, the "I" that thinks, and not pure consciousness or thought as Sankara holds. Sankara thinks the self to be nothing but pure, impersonal essence of Consciousness, the thinking subject (jnate) and the object thought (jneya) being illusory superimpositions on Pure, Impersonal Conscious- ness which is the Self's true nature, as identical with Brahman. Ramanuja contends that this is an inversion of the true facts. The thinking subject is not an attribute of the self as pure consciousness, an illusory superimposition on its essence It is the "I" or thinking subject that constitutes the Self and consciousness is only an attribute of it. We cannot suppose the Self to exist in its own nature even if the "I" or thinking subect' were not. It is therefore a mistake to suppose that the Self ceases to be the thinking subject and disappears life would mean to extinction of the Self itself. According to Ramanujists therefore the Self is not pure essence

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of censciousness but a thinking subject with consciousness as with the Abcolute life having a distinctive reality. Thirdly, Moksha is neither the realisation of the Self as an iso- lated being nor the merging of the Self in Brahman but the realisation of its true essence as a distinet but subordinate factor in the Absolute life. It is thus a restortion of harmony by the renunciation of self- will in favour of the will of the Lord. Lastly, this Moksha is essentially a state of felicity which follons as a consequence of the enlightenment of consciousness without any taint of error or illusion. The nature of such enlightenment is felicity since it reveals objects in their true nature as having their being in God and therefore as favourable to or conducive to the good of the Self. In this point he agrees with Sankara.

THE DOCTRINE OF MOKSHA SADHANA Q. 89. Discuss the Moksha Sadhana of various schools. Ans. The question of the Sadhana or right means of reali- sing moksha or Spiritual freedom is also very fully treated in Hindu Philosophy as being of direct practical import as distinguished from the purely theoretical question of the nature and essence of this free- dom. The controversy here centres round the question of the relative - importance and efficiency of the works, knowledge and faith as means to the realisation of the Absolute life. The main issue in this contro- versy is as to whether one of these courses can be held sufficient for the spiritual life or whether an organisation of differen courses is necessary Here are the views of the main schools of Hindu Phitosophy. 1. Saankhya View. The Saankhya insists on the course of mere knowledge as the proper means of Moksha. It Is vivekakhyat or the discriminative knowledge of Purusha and Prakriti that leads to frcedom of the Self by destroying Purusha's attachment to Prakriti. Works are of no avail, neither secular works nor scriptural works. Both are perishable and both involve the impurities of destruction of life and the like (drstavatanusravika sah hi ksayatisayayuktah-Vijna- nabhiksu). They therefore cannot lead to any lasting fruition, nor to any satisfaction which is pure and unmixed. This holds good also of the conditional (Komya) as well as the (akamya) scriptural duties. The Patanjala Saankhya however recognises some other forms of works as necessary for purification and for destruction of the subtle tendencies and dispositions which disturb the practice of meditation. These are the works of self-restraint (yamas) and of self-regulation (niyamas). Certain physical aids such as postures (Asanas) are also useful for meditation. Besides these, meditation on the Lord's glory and perfection is also an aid to dispassion (Vairaga) which is necessary for the proper discrimination of Purusa's essence. These are the pure works which lead to the knowledge through which freedom is realised.

DOCTRINE OF MOKSHA SADHNA 167

According to Patanjalt therefore works are not to be adjured alto- gether but the Sattvika works conducive to true knowledge must be performed duly till knowledge is attained (2) Sackara's View Sankra holds that Moksha Sadhana need not be through Karma-Yoga For Sankara works are not necessary mn every case In some cases they may be conducive to knowledge by producing purification of the spirit but the latter, howsoever attamed, is the cause of Moksha through the knowledge of renlty Hence according to Sankara though works may be serviceable in some cases, they are not always required Agam, works must cease with the apperance of knowiedge There is no Karma for the man of true insight : e no ceremonial duties, not even the unconditional duties This is the doctrine of Naiskarma or cessation of duties after knowledge Of course, the fourfold discipline (Sadhanacatustya) and the ethical virtues impled therei which have been acquired, continue, but they become natural and spontineous, and consequently no merit is acquired thereby Hence there is no bondage as a consequence Thus in the Sankara- Vedanta there is no obligation, no code of mjunctions and prohibitions, no duties after knowledge (3) Bhatta's View The individual is free to choose not merely the course but also his summum bonum which is either Svarga, happiness in heaven, or Moksha, freedom from experience The means for svarga, is works as principal with knowledge as auxiliary in respect of svarga The means for Moksha is knowledge as principal with works as subsidiary, in case of Moksha or the realsation of freedom. Thus both knowledge and works are required in either case, but for happiness in heaven works are primarily necessary and self knowledge is only an ard to the proper accomplishment of the works In the pursuit of Moksha, however, self knowledge is primarily necessary and the discharge of the uncondittonal duties is only an auxiliary aid to self-knowledge Such self knowledge with the aid of ethical disinteres- tedness as produced by the discharge of the unconditional duties leads to freedom in the sense of severence of connection with the world (4) Nyaya Vaiseshika view Just as the cause of bondage is error of judgment, so also the means of release is itellectual insight, the knowledge of the true nature of things But this is not all After attaining such knowledge the individual must meditate thereon This is Bhavana or meditation When this meditation reaches its culmination point through a process of Dhyana or continued, uninterrupted and arduous concentration thereon, there is not merely a bare cognition of things in their true nature but a realisation of this cognition in the form of presentation or intution The bare thought or intellectual apprehension thus becomes transformed into a perception or intuition, and the process by means of which this is accomplished is a heightening of thought power by continued meditation and concentration of mind-energy Tls is

168 INDIAN PIILOSOPHY

how conceptual knowledge is raised to the inturtive plane, and till this is ac.omplished there is no cessation of error nor the extinction of the

true nature of things which cincels illusion which is also a positne passions *Hence according to Nyaya it is a positive intuition of the

judgment The cancellation of the illusion means not the cancellation of things or objects but only their transvaluation, :e, the realisation of their real value in place of their face value This is Visayadosadarsana or realisation of the worthlessness of things and not Prapancavilaya or cancellation of things as mere illusory stuff There is only cancellation of the face values and not cancellation of the things the cancellation of the significance attached to them in the empincal state by the realsation of their true significnce from the transcen dental stand point Hence according to Nynya meditation on the nture of things is the cause of Moksha Through this meditation there is extinction of the passions and release from the miseries Since the passions are auxiliary conditions of our past deeds maturine into effects and also of future possible deeds, the extinction of the passions leads also to cessation of Karma, :e, the knowledge of true nature of things destroys the passions However, according to Nyayn-Vaiseshika the unconditional scriptural works are to be duly accomplished even when knowledge has arisen They supplement knowledge by training the individuil to disinterestedness and dispissions Such dispassion with the know- ledge of the vanity of thines temporil quenches the will-to live according to the Nyaya-Vaisesmkas and thereby leads to freedom of self. (5) Ramanujists' view According to Ramanujists, the following are the steps in the realtsation of Mcksha - () The adjuration of jnnotpattivrodhikarma, se, of actions which are obstacles to divine knowledge These are the unrighteous actions (Papa) as well as the prudential actions (Kamya karma) promptcd by desire Through the preponderance of the factors of inertia (tamas) and of energy (rajas) they are obstacles to that mental

to be adjured equanimity which is a condition of true knowledge, and are therefore

(u) The proper accomplishment of the unconditional duties without desire for the consequence These duties are the auxthary of divine knowledge These tuxilarres of absolute knowledge (brahmavidyn) and faith (bhakti) which is the transfiguration of such knowledge are purification, dispassion, etc Hence Karms are binding in all stages of life (sarvasramakarmapeksa), only for Moksha they must be done without desire for the consequence (ut) Knowledge (jana) which ts Brahmamnana or knowledge of Absolute N B Lokacaryya holds that this is Tattvatrayynana, i€,

VOLITION 171

exclude from volition proper not only organic and automatic activi- ties but also impulsive activities.

Q. 92. Discuss Prabhakara's analysis of volition.

of cause, volition ; Ans. Prabhakara analyses voltion into five steps distruction

5. Kriya. 1. Karyati-jnana, 2. Cikirsa, 3. Pravrtti, 4. Cesta and

Karyati-Jnana. (consciousness of something to be donc). Karyatı-jnana is analysed mto distinct aspects implied in it : (a) The representation of something svavi visesana identifica- tion with the act as specifying the self. (b) Cognition that it must be the consciousness of something to be done (Karyati-jnana) together with the desire for it (Cikirsa) as the auxiliary condition (Sahakan) causes voltion. (Pravrtti Kirti) the volition produces organic reaction which produces Kriya of the act sequired objective.

Q. 93. Compare Prabhakara's stand point with Kant. Ans. Prabhakara's theory of volition accommodates ethical regiorism Kant held to a Headonistic psychology of motivations and found unable to account moral action. He admitted inconsistently one feeling i.e, reverence for Moral Law to etplain moral action. This admittance expressed par Ethical Rationalism. But Prabhakara's volition theory can provide for ethical relationalism. In volttion the clement of self-reference is the only essential part of an act of will and the desire for an extrancous and appeals only as identified with the self and appropriated by it for the time being. The consciousness of end is accidental and not intrinsic to volitional action. Hence it is possible to account for rational moral action independently of feeling and the consciousness of good. Secondly Kant deduces Freedon from Moral Law. "Ought" implies can. With the Prabhakara's consciousness of power is a psychological implicate in every action of will and therefore also in the desire for duty. Besides psychological basis of freedom, Prabhakara also employs the ethical proof in connection with Vedic impositions. These Vedic impositions are of impelling character and this establishes the power, the freedom in the morat agent to accomplish it.

Q. 94. Discuss Nyaya view of volition. Ans. Nyaya view of volition is accepted by the Bhatras and the Sankara Vedantists. According to Nyaya volition consists of the following steps

172 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

1. Krtisadhyatajnana. The consciousness of a thing as capable of being done by me. 2. Istasadhanatajnana. The cognition that this thing is my istasadhanas or conducive to my good. 3. The consciousness of this good being unaccompanied by a stronger evil. 1. Krisadhyatajnana. Some in the Nyaya school, like Visvanatha hold that confidence in one's power is one of the impor- tant conditions of volitton The new Naiyayakas hold that it is not so, For how can there be original consciousnees of competency in regard to future acts which have never been willed before. 'The truth is that these acts are in the first instance imitation of what has been observed to be done by other persons. Hence it is only in the later and more developed stage of self-conscious willing that the consciousness of power can enter as a determining factor of the volition process. The old Naiyayakas, however, argue : there is no question of imitation m such acts. As a matter of fact there is imitation nesther in new construction (promoted by constructive imagination) nor in the spontaneous unfolding of the life of mnstinct such as gratification. 2. Istasadhayatajnana. The second condition of volitton in the thing cognised is the subject 'good'. This raises the question of how we will to do moral wrong like suicide, for moral evil consists in the conscious choice of the evil course in preference to the good. As a matter of act we find persons indulging in crimes even though know- ing their penalties. The answer is that under the influence of strong passion. (a) There is the distinction between appropriated and unappro- priated ideas. The idea of an act does not itself stimulate the will The bare idea is incapable of inciting to a desion. But when the self has ideally appropriated or identified itself with the as-yet-unrealised objective content represented by the act, then there is desire and choice. As Green has pointed out, the motive is not the strongest desire but the desire which the self has identified with itself. Prabha- kara holds that even in Kamya Karma the real motive is not the sensuous inclination or desire for the external pleasure but the self itself as qualified by or identified with this desire or inclination. In all motives there is this self-reference. In this analysis we may note two points of importance :- 1. The cognition which constitues the conscious antecedent of a volitional process is distinguished from the simple cognition of a fact. It is the cogmition of an act and not of a given matter of fact, the consciousness of something to be done and not of something which already is. 2. Within this active consciousness of an act the distinction is recognised between the bare consciousness of its practicableness and the more active consciousness of self-determination with reference to it, i e. the consciousness that it is to be accomplished by me.

174 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

thing ? According to Nyaya this is not a question of the sheer inten- sity of the pain involved For sometimes great pain is ineffective and sometimes comparatively feeble pain is very effective So mere quality of pam does not constitute a deterrent The pam must have specific quality Thts specific quality is the order in which pain occurs The pain which excited by the act either as an accompaniment or as a consequence, may not deter The pam however, which comes after fruition is always a deterrent, the idea being that the presence of patn at this stage is negation of the fruition which is the real incentive to the act This elements of order in time is not perceived by the Westero Headontsts (b) Since presence of a deterrent stands in the way of the volition, how ts the absence of the deterrent to be concerved in order to be regarded as a condition of volition ? Dinakara discusses five different alternatives - A (1) Visvanatha holds that consciousness of the preponderting evit being the deterrent, the absence of such consciousness is the condition of volition Volition is psychologically possible even without a posttive cognition of the absence of a deterrent in many cses Hence positive condition is not a real determining factor even where it may be felt to be present (tt) Others hold a different view To say that it is the mere absence of the consciousness of evil is to make it psychologically deterrent can be psychologically unintelligible as a condition of willing The absence of the deterrent can be psychologically apparent only as the positive consciousness of absence The two alternatives are not exclusive In many cases there is no positive consciousness of absence, though there is volition If absence of consciousness of deterrent is as intelligible as a psychologi cal condition, an indefinite sub conscious sense of the absence suffice for volition, though also in socml cases it may sufficed for volition, though also in special cases it may become a positive consciousness of the absence The two alternatives are not exclusive In many cses there i> no positive consciousness of absence, though there is volition If absence of consciousness of deterrent is unintelligible as 1 psycholigi- cally condition, an indefinite sub-conscious sense of the absence suffices for volition, though also in special cases it may become a positive consciousness of the absence B 3 In the above two alternatives we have considered the presence of the absence of consciousness Now we constder the nature of this consciousness Is it mere cognition of evil consequences that deter of is it the fecling which this cognition evokes that constitutes the deterrent ?

VOLITION 175

Some hold that the deterrent is a compound made up of the two components of feeling of aversion and the cognition of the evil Hence mere cognition is meffective just as mere aversion is ineffective (t) suppose there is aversion without any jnana or cognition of evil Such aversion is rowerless Mere feeling must give way to knowledge Mere race prejudice and race habit yield gradually to enfightenment and higher moral outlook (tt) Suppose the cognition of feeling exists without the feeling of aversion Such cognition is ineffective We know how intellectualism is so meffectne in feeling and willing (t1) When we have both cognition of evil and aversion for it, we have a deterrent which makes volition impossible (w) Supposes cognition and feeling are both absent Here the factor of deterrent bemg absent, the negative conditions are fulfilled 4 The deterrent may be thought to be feeling of aversion, a fecling however, inducedly the cognitton of the evil consequence on the agent that may be entailed by the action contemplated Here causal relation is assumed between the cognition and the feeling the latter being regarded as an effect of the former It is not clear if the cognt- tion element continues the effect If so, it is the (11I) alternative of (3) If not, it is fourth alternative This view gives primacy to the cognition factor as causation of feeling, choice and will This shows the intellectualist stand point However, cognition is also ineffective though it may have primacy as a causally determing factor and f therefore priority over other factors of the mind

5 Dinkara's own stand point is that the deterrent is naither the mere cogmtion of evil nor the simple feeling of aversion but is either of these according to specific circumstances However in some cises the cognition is sufficient and in some agam the fteling of aver- sian is required But as primacy belongs to cogmtion as the causally determining factor, the absence of the deterrent as the negatne con- dition of volition does not mean the mere absence of the effective factor of aversion but also the absence of the cause of the aversion, tiz the cognition of evil Hence the negative condition of volition is always the cogmtion of the absence of evil consequences and not the mere absence of averston It follows therefrom that the absence of aversion without cognition of the absence of aversion will not suffice to cause volttion even when other conditions remain

What does act as a deterrent -- object of aversion or the feel- ing of aversion in the subject ? Dinkara observes that it is not the C

object of averston that is the deterrent It is the feeling of aversion whose strength depends on the persen, the time and other circum- stances Suffering of hell may be a deterrent of a Xton but not to the atheist

D In what other ways can volition be unproduced or overcome. When the same action is capable of producing intense pleasure ond intense pain and two are balanced, there is either no volttion produced or ore side gets the b'tter of the other

176 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

To sum up The following pomnts about deterrent be noted- (1) Deterrent is always a feeling of aversion arsing from the conscious apprehension of evil and not the simple cognition of an object of aversion (2) The evil apprehended is some painful experience which is cognised as marring the fruition aimed at by the act of volition either through theological penalty or mental suffering after fruition and thus negating the fruition (3) The force of the deterrent is relative to the person, the time and the circumstances so that what is sufficient to deter one person may not deter another under one kind of circumstances or in a different set of conditions (4) The deterrent implies some degree of certainty about the evil consequences on the agent When the possibility of evil isa matter of speculation the deterrent is not necessarily effectual (5) The deterrent may also fail either by being simply unpro duced as when the feeling of aversion is neutrahsed by an equally strong feeling of attraction the result being the complete suppresstng of conation, or by the attraction of pleasure at least overcoming the aversion and resolving itself into action after a temporary state of oscillation

Q 95 What are the points of difference between Pra bhakar and Nyaya standpoints on Volition ? Ans In Nyaya School Dinkara draws the distinction between simple volition as implying nothing more than the effort to realize a future good aimed at and self consciousness working implying not merely the conscious destre for a future good but also a consciousness of this desire or of the self as so desiring For Prabhakara all desires must specify the self in order to move the will self consciousness in all cases Volition is necessarily

2 According to Nyaya the consciousness of good with its nega tive implicate is necessarily invelved in all volition What is essential to volitional process in ista-sadhanta jnana or consciousness of the abject desired as being conducive to my good, and there need not be any representation of this as specifying the self According to Prabhakara the self reference constitutes the essen tal part of the motive while consciousness of good may or may not be present As a matter of fact since consciousness of Ista is found in Kamya Karma In Nitya Karma there is no appeal to consciousness of ista s good and the act moves the will as purely determining the self t e in so far as the self identifies itself with it Since consciousness of good is present in some cases and absent in some other cases it cannot constitute the true essence of volition Self referenee is present in Nitya Karma Prabhakara poits out that even in Kamya Karma, the consciousness of good is a motre

VOLITION 177

only when the good is approprited by the self Hence self reference is the true cause of volition, and in empincal action it further presents itself as conducive to the well being of the agent. However, the difference is not so great as it appears at first signt. With the Naiyayakas also nothing is ista desirable or good except in relation to a subject It is the subject of volition that determines his own values and hence there is sell determination Naiyayakas differ much less from Pribhakar than do the Charva- Kas who believe only in mechanical attraction and repulsion of pleasure and pain The Chavaka's view is Mechamcal Hedonism in contrast to self determtnistic Eudaemonism of Nyaya whtch ascrtbes valuatton to subective freedom The only important diference between the Prabhakaras and Narayakas relate to the fact that while the latter conceives this subjec- tive determination as a consciousness of good, the former does not admit that this is always the case , Volition beig possible according to them without the act of self determination taking the form of a speciflc consctousness of good 3 To the Nyaya the distinction of ista and Balavad good will or evil will is all iportant For Prabhakaras with their doctrine of the 4 pure will and self reference the consciousness of good or evil is of no consequence and therefore the distinction between the two kinds of will is immaterial 4 The most important difference rs m connection with the relation between the cognition of good and cognition of duty as between the self reference of the act and the consciousness of the duty with reference to it For the Naiyayakas the two cogntions, viz, the cogmtion of good and the cognition of duty are held together, in a complex, the subject of the two being the same That which Is cognised as ista sadhanta or good done, so that the link between the two steps, viz , the purely cognition (consciousness of ista or good) and the cognitie conetive (the comition of duty with reference to it) is the simple one of communty of Visaya or object, that which is the object of the value being also the object of duty An analysis reveals a distinction of aspects of a simple psychosts Prabhakaras hold that the representition of the act as a Vesesana or specific determinant of the self is the cause wlch produ- ces or generates the Karyata or jnana, te., the consciousness that it is to be done There are two psychosis that of establisher and the established The link between them being

and grounded or promise and conclusion The relation is that of ground Promises I am qualified or specified by the Kamya Karma or Nitya Karma Conclusion Therefore, I am now to do my Kamya Karma or Nıtya Karma The subjective appropriation of the act or work as the ground or reason of the subjective cognition that it is to be done The cognition of duty is a distinct psychosis wluch is established bv the reprensenta tion of the act as specifying the self

178 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Q 96 What are the various conceptions of the relat on of Karyata Jnana or cogmition of duty to other condition of Voltion ? Ans 1 Aceording to the Nyaya, the cognttion of duty is a component in a psychological compound involving the cogmition of good as its other constituent 2 According to the Pribhakara the cognition of duty is a distinct psychosis which is established or produced by the representa tion of the act is specifying the s-lf Hence there is an inference in volved in the process of arriving at the cognition of duty Tls cognition following as a consequence from the presentation of the act as self appropriated 3 According to others, however, there is neither a psycholog cal compound nor any inference involved The cogmtion of duty 1s simply the cognition thit it is to be iccomplished by my will as depending on my (Iccha) or Frecdom This is indetermintsm the wilt through whuch the act is cognised to be ccomplished berng also cogmsed as undermined or as depending purely on the agents freedom 4 Both Nyaya and Prabhakara Schools reject [this stand point According to them there must be either cognition of self reference or cognition of good in the motive An action which Is either cognised as good or advantageous or represented as a self quahfication can have no impelling force In fact the above process is a mediition here too My will as purely dependent on my wish or pleasure contams Iccha Wish as an element There is thus my İccha wish or will in the hetu or ground How is the Iccha or wish to be understood ? It may be desire for pleasure or desire implying nothing but self reference 5 Some held that freedom is medrated through nenther by self reference nor by consciousness of good The act to be done is asat unreal or non existent but possible and the step here is from possibilty to actualsation the formation being accompained by the will as dependent on the agents frecdom There is no self appropria tion of the act either through any hedomstic calculation of idvantage or through pure representation of it as a self qualification There is no cognition involved But the wish bas m object than itself ve must be defined by being limited to something objective and external to itself 6 Here the relation duty cognition and value cogmtion is not merely that of cemmumty of Visaya as Nyaya hold besides it there is relation of dependence or subordination-a relation whtch makes the cogn tion of duty dependent on or subject to the cognition of the value This view is a comprom se between the Prabhakara and Nyaya views recognising as it does a relation of dependence with it admitting any inferentril process or any absolute independence or distinction of psychosis Cognition of duty is conceived voltion by being subject to cogmtion of good to produce pravritti

VOLITION 179

Q. 97. Diseuss the views of Prabbakara and Kumarila Bhatta towards Scriptural daties. Ans. Scriptural duties are Kamya Karmas and Nitya Karmes. 1. Prabhakara holds that kamya karmas are not strictly moral imperatives. Kamya Imperative lacks Moral Imperativeness. Take the Kamya, Imperative, e.g., Swarga Kama Yajeta. It is conditional imperative. He who desires happiness in heaven must perform this particular Yajeta or sacrilice. It means that Yajeta's bhavartha or object of the imperative is a means to Swarga. If it were not, Swarga' Kama would be meaningless. Hence act of sacrifice is a means (Sadhana) and Swargn the end (Sadhya) and there is the Sadhya- Sadhana Bhava. Hence this sadhya-sadhana pratiti or sense of means-and-end relation is logically implied in the prompting of the imperative. This is Kamya imperative the only function of the imperative is to produce the Sadhya-Sadhana pratiti or consciousness of the act as a means to the desired end and to indicate the manner of accompli- shing the act and thereby the end. Thus such imperative are deprived the character of moral impulsion. The Nitya imperative are the moral Imperative for such imperative doesn't refer to the desire of the agent. It has moral claim without reference to the Kamya of the subject. 2. Some of the Sastrika imperative involves hinsa. Are they to be considered morally justified ? Prabhakara holds that such injunctions are to be judged in terms of the manner in which Hinsa is involved. Take Syena -- it is a sacrifice for the death of the enemy. Agni-somiya Hinsa is animal sacrifice, According to Prabhakara the former is morally wrong and the latter is morally right. How ? In Syena, the destruction of the enemy is the end, it is not part of Syena ceremony. Hence it cannot be covered by the moral function of the imperative. Since this end violates Samanya vidhi or general imperative. Thou shall not kitl-it is adharmic or morally evil. But Agne-Somiya-Hinsa is dharmie as the animal slaughter is part of the ceremony and hence the general Imperative is restricted by Visesha Vidhi or Special Imperative which prescribes animal sacri- fice. Hence for Prabhakara some of the Vedic Imperatives are immoral or Adharmic. Criticism. In this sense a robber has his specific duties. He must conform to the rutes, their special codes failing wherein they will be failing in their duty. This instance shows difference attitude to sacriptural imperatives. For Prabhakara an Imperative is Dharmic or moral tu) if it is enjoined by seriptures (b) it does not produce exeess of pain over pleasure. So all seripturat Imperatives are not mom! Imperatives. For Bhatta all seriptural Imperatives are moral Imperatives, there can be no Anarthz or evil Imperatie.

180 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY Kumarla has a different stand point on Hinsic acts According to him a moral imperatne has three parts (a) Sadhyansa or part prescribing an end (6) Sadhanamsa or part indicating the means (e) Itikartyavat Kartyivatamsa or part showing the manner of accomplsh ing the fact indicated as means According to Prabhakara the end or consequence beine not implied by the moral funetion of the imperative, Syena which ivoles prohibited Hinsa cannot be morally justified Kumarila holds that moral function of the imperative covers all the three parts of end means and manner of ac omplishment, but unequally, tiz , primarily the means or acts (the act of sacrifice) and the manner or mode of accomplishment and only by implication the end Hence the end p secondarily part of the Imperative Thus there is a duty even with reference to the accomplishment of an end which is morally wrong one may seek it in proper manner or one may be remiss even m this The duty therefore is with reference to the mode of accomplshing the end and one may acquire merit or demerit by conforming to the rules or not conforming thereto The end is thus onty indirectly implicated in such a duty and though the evil of the end will bring its own punishment Yet this is other than the demerit or evil which may accrue to him on account of his not properly accomplishing his duty with reference to the end Kumarila differs from Prabhakaras mn its view on Upamshdic texts According to him there is no rule that validity of the Vedas constitutes exclusively in the obligatoriness or authorty or specific acts or duties With regard to the Upanishdic texts at least it must not be denied that the validity accrues from some thing other than an act or duty, te, from the intrinsic values or excellence of the self in its true nature as an accomplished reality as distinguished from an act to be accomplished It cannot be supposed that selt is a duty to be accomplshed by the will It follows, therefore, that Shabda or verbal testimony, is not necessarily and invariably mn reference to some duty to be accomplished, v e, it is not invariably a command but may also be a simply declaration of truth

Q 98 What is Prabhakara's attitude towards Upamt shadic Ideal ? Ans Prabhakara holds that the validity or authority of an Imperative is independent of extraneous ends (Conditional duties are truly morally authoritative) It follows from this that all Vedtc prescriptions are validated through the duties enjoied ard that prescriptions which lay down ends in themselves inderendently of specific acts or duties are apramana or unauthoritative Hence the Upanishadie Texts which declare reahztion of Self s True Nature as the highest end are unauthortative Such declaration enjotns a static fruition for the moral agent the fruition of rest in the Self true nature as distingushed from an act of duty to be done, an end, there fore, which is other thin any specific act to be accomphshed Hence they can't be valid or authoritative

VOLITION 181

..-. The Vedic or moral imperative is not the eternally self-accomp- lished fruition of the Absolute as realized consciousness or experience : presenting itself as an end to be realized. It is the act. of duty itself in its pure essence the act as having self-evidencing. Self validating authority, the act as an impersonal verity of the moral order as dis- tinguished from the fact given in experience. Moral imperative is a seif-posting and self-posted duty which is different from the being of a given fact as it is from becoming. Kumarila's View. Kumarila holds that moral imperative have for their object some ends, though these ends do not give impera- tive moral authority or validity. The moral authority and validity of an imperative is independent of the end logically or psychologically and implied in it. So no distinction between Kamya Karma and Nitya Karma can be drawn on the basis that the former involves an end and the latter is end in itself which Prabhakara doer. Prabhakara rejects Kamya Karma as strictly moral Imperative but Kumarila does not do so. However Kumarila does not draw distinction on the basis of the ends involved in Kamya Karma and Nitya Karma. Kamya Karma leads to unmived happiness (like Swarga) but it is exhausted through fruita- tion and leads to rebirth. Nitya Karma leads to enternal happiness and self-knowledge. So life of Kamya Karma is lower and life of Nitya Karma is higher.

Q. 99. Compare Prabhakara's standpoint with Kant ? Ans. Prabhakara's Theory of Volition accommodates ethical Vigorism. Kant hotd to a Hedonistic Psychology of motivations and found unable to account for moral action. He admitted inconsistently onc feeling, i.e., reference for moral law to explain moral actions. This admittance exposed pure ethical rationalism. But Prabhakara's volitio- nal theory can provide for ethical rationalism. In volition the element of self-reference is the only essential part of an act of will and the desire for an extraneous and appeals only as identified with the self and appropriated by it for the time being. The consciousness of an end is accidental and not intrinsic to volitional action. Hence it is possible to accept rational moral action independently of feeling and the consciousness of good. Secondly Kant deduces Freedom from moral Law. 'Ought' implies 'Can'. With Prabhakara's consciousness of force is a psycho- logical implicate in every act of will and therefore also in the desire for duty. Besides psychological basis of freedom Prabhakara also employs the ethical proof in connection with Vedie imperatives. These Vedic imperatives are of impelting character and this establishes the power, the freedom in the moral agent to accomplish it.

I84 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

NYAYA Error or Moh1, Delusion (Vatsayana)

Destre Nayaya Aversior

(Jayantı) Moha (Delusion)

Delusion (1) Mithyn jana (erroneous cognition) (ti) Vicikitst (perplexity, scepticism), (in) Mana (vansty) (tv) Prmad (Inadvertance) MOHA

Desire Aversion Kam1 Matsara (Unwilling to part even with that wluch is not dimmished by sharing (11) Sprha (woridliness) (mn) Trsna (will to live) (Iv) Lobha (Greed) 7 Krodha Irsya Asuya Droha Amırsz (Anger) (Envy) (Jealousy) (Melvolence) (Malice)

PATANJALI

Greed (Lobha) Anger (Krodha) Delusion (Moha) 7

Cruelty Mendacity Sexual indulgence

Q 101 Describe Vaisesika classification of Springs of action Ans 1 1 rom feelings of pleasure and pain arse two kinds of the will-tiz, Desire (Iccha) and Aversion (dvesa) 2 Pleasures are of two kinds (a) Empirical pleasure These include pleasures which arise from titillation of the flesh, of remint scense, and choice They arise from attraction towards the object and consists in feeling of restlessness (b) Transcendental pleasures mn self centred repose and calm and therefore free from mental unrest

SPRING OF ACTION (HINDU ETHICS) 185

3 Empincal pleasures are characterised by consciousness of qualifications or sense of favourableness and its specific effects are (1) tlus sense of favourableness (2) feeling of attraction towards the pleasurable objects and (3) certain bodily expressions like brightness of face

The effect of favourableness is anlysed thus Pleasure produces the consciousness of itself as fivourable to the self and this constitutes the self s approval of the pleasure This mterpretation excludes unfelt or unrecognised pleasures, a conclusion agamst Vedantists who cite such familar state as the unconscious happiness of dreamless sleep etc 4 The following conditions mnduce pleasures (a) proximity to the desired object (b) consciousness of some good to be attained (c) stimulation of the sensibibpes by tbe objeet (d) organic equilibrium (e) merit Dharma refers to pleasure due to rghteousness -- a non mental condition of pleasure (b) Pleasure also arses from remimscence (smrti jnana) and pleasure of choice and resolution (Sankalap jnana) (c) The transcendental pleasure results from ([) self knowledge (Atma jnana) (2) Self collectedness (Sma), (3) Contentment (Santosh), (4) The consummation of righteousness Hence there is neither object (visapa) nor desire (Iccha), nor reminiscence, nor anticipation (5) Pleasure gives rise to desire and for the test of desire is as follows (see list) (6) The conditions of desire are (1) connection of soul within the mind (a) Experience of pleasure (u) recollection of pleasure leading to the expectation of similar pleasures mn nature (7) The following pecularity of the list be noted (a) The list notices the individualistic appetites (2) and non- indidualistic (b) It recopmses the difference between a desire as such and the more enduring and persistent form of it which we call passion (c) A distinction is drawn between desire for enjoyment and desire for action Passion is a bhog iccha, a desire for enjoyment while resolution is a Karma iccha, a desire for action (d) Dispassion is regarded as a form of desire and not as a form of aversion The reason is that aversion or hate in any form is believed to be inconsis- tent with the mental equanimity of Moksha to which dispassion is recognised to be a necessary meins This is also the underlying purpose tn the incluston of compassion among the forms of desire rather than of aversion order to dispassion However, compassion is a virtue of lower

Pain Pam is characterised by (a) unfavourableness (b) averston towards objects causing pain (c) paleness (2) Pains are always empirical There is no transcendental suffering corresponding to transcendental pleasures (3) The conditions which produce pain are

186 INDIAN PHILOSOPIY (A) (i) Proximity towards an objeet of aversion. (fi) Apprehen- sion of evil. (ifi) Stimulation of sense organs by the object. (it) Ab- senee of organic cquilibrium. (v) Demerit. (B) There are pains of reminiscense and anticipation. (C) There is no transcendental pain. (4) Pain gives rise to aversion and this is the test (see list). (5) The conditions of aversion are (i) The contact of the soul with the mind (ii) experience of suffering and (fif) recollection of suffering lead'ng to the apprehnnsion of it in future.

Q. 102. Discuss Nyaya's classification of the springs of action. Ans. 1. According to Varsesikas there are two roots of the will, Desire and Aversion. The Naiyaytkas resolve these into some- thing more ultimate namely, Error, Delusion, Moha. From delusion arise attraction towards favourable objects and repulsion towards the unfavourable object. Nyaya school holds disorders of the reason to be the ultimate source of passion. This intellectualistic contempt of the passions is a characteristic of the stoics. However, there is one difference. For the stoics, the impulses in themselves are not passions. They are transformed into passions only when under the influence of error they are carried beyond their proper limits. Vatsyayana (Com- mentator on Nyaya) makes no distinction between the natural impul- ses and the passions. According to him all impulses ate to be traced to disordered reason and therefore are to be regularised as subversion of the tranquility of the soul. This applies to the righteous as well as the unrighteous impulses which are like bonds that bind the soui to the life of samsara. Hence the non-phenomenal transcendental life is a life of absolnte freedom not only from the natural bonds but also from the obligation of the moral life. The released individual is one who has refused to participate in the phenomenal life, has annulled his will-to-live (Trsna) by withdrawing assent to samsara or empirical life and all that comes with it. Jayanta's classification is fuller than that of Vatsyayana. (See list). The following points be noted of this classification : (a) Jayanta considers the cnumeration under delusion to be independent motive to will besides causing desire and aversion with their own lists (b) By in- cluding erronous judgement, perplexity etc. under springs of action, it emphasized the pragmatic aspects of cognition. On this it is a mis- take to consider cognition apart from conetion. An act of knowledge is at the same time a conetive attitude implying a reaction of the will and a preparedness to respond in a specifle way. The conetive aspact of cognition comes out in vanity and inadvertance -- the first consists in the over-estimation of the subjective factor in all action and the second is the under-estimation of the objective factor. The folly of the vain person is illusion about his 'self' While that of the careless person is an illusion about objective conditions. (c) Certain forms of passion are

SPPING OF ACTION (HINDU ETHICS) 187

noticed that are not observed by western thinkers lke Harttman Amarsa (Malice), Matsar(unwillingness to part with that which is not diminished by sharing) Irsya Sp ha Trsana mithya jnana (Jealousy, worldlmess, will to live erroneous cognition) vi ikitsa (perplexity) Man (Vinity) Pramad (indvertance) are evimples of passions not enumerated in the western lists (d) Jayanta s list of desire does not in clude dispassion wnile Prisastapada does The reason is this Desire is caused by Delusion and hence the dispission cannot ba form of desire for dspassion is a means to truth Prisastapnda does not trice desire to non ultimate cause So there is room for including dispassion

Q 103 Discuss Patanjal's classiflcation of springs of action Ans The following characteristies of Pitanjah may be noted (1) Greed (Lobha) Anger (Krodha) Dulusion (Moha) are responsible for the passions of cruelty, mendacity and sexual indulgence to animal in the form of slaughter may orginate mn greed or the desire Cruelty

for the pleasure of eating or anger produced by an injury received from the mimal, belief that animal sacrifice is 4 rehgious duty (2) These passions may determine the moral agent mn various wivs Some may mndulge their passions bv overt acts Some ngun may persuade others to acts that will gratify themselves wlule some may merely approve of such acts mn others This shows that mental assent is also regarded an evil to be conquered Tluis poit does not receive serious notice in Western Ethics (3) Patinjal also recognises the degrees of intensity of passions This recognition is important from control stand poit Some passions are mild and comprtnely harm less some are of mean (Madhyn) intensity and therefore not to be neelected and some voilent urgently requiring control

Q 104 Diseuss Vedanta classification Ans We mav find the following pecularit es of the Inst (1) One modern Ethical Treatise recognises only the non obvious ind potent forces of the passtons and impulses that is those whien cither pass into the moral agent This classification recognises also the passing wishes and unapproprated desires is ethcally sigmficent (b) The inclusion of compassion and sympathy shows the influence of Buddhism (c) Maitrr corresponds to goodwill and Muditi (rejoieme at the good of sentient creature) to peace with all senttent creatures of Christnty

Q 105 What are the characteristics of Indian philo sophy of motivation ? Ans 1 It gives 1 fairly accurate and eveet mlysis of the phystological expression and effects 2 Complete emotions ind pas sions tre thought of as compounded of elementarv states 3 It re copnises the ethtcal importance of residunl instinctual and the sub- liminal in our psychological make up 4 It att mpts 1 nor empin al

188 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY explanation of the passions aind a criticism of the values based there on Thus the passions are judged and appreciated and not so much by reference to the standard of the empirical order and its mainte nance and progress as by reference to their conduciveness to the 1fe transcendental ind absolute It is this transcendental stand point that underlies the doctrine of error as the ultimate cause of the passios which bind the mdividual to the phenomenal life of samsara 5 Th s transcendantalism and intellectualism is counter balanced by a corres- ponding pracmatism in their empiriril investigation where cognition is always viewed in its pragmatic aspect as intellection in the service of life and therefore closely connected with the life of will or volition 6 There is an attempt to overcome the dualism of the transcendental and empir il worlds by the occupation of some kind of transcen dental impulse even in the emperical life a pure aspiration as distin guished from the pathological yearning or natural life

CLASSIFICATION OF VIRTUE Q 106 Discuss Nyaya or Vatsyayana s classification of the virtues ? Ans The Virtues and Vices as classified under three heads I Virtues and Vices of Sarira (Body) Tices Fartues Cruelty Corresponds to Paritrana (Helping the distressed 2 Theft 3 Forbidden sexual Charity Bounteousness indulgences Paricarana (Social Service) II Virtues ind Vices of tongue or (Vak) 1 Mendacity (Mıthya) Caustity Asperity Coreesponds to Veracity (Satya) 2 (paurusa kutukti) Gentleness and agree ableness of speech 3 Calummation (Priya Vachan) Insinuation Hita vacana in speak ing always for the 4 Gossıp good of mankind Veda pathadı and Svadhyaya III Virtues and Vices of mind 1 Malevolence (Para droha) (Hostility Benevolence Kindness Ilf will * towards Tenderness others) 2 Covetousness in respect of what belongs to Unworldliness Ind ffer others ence to material dis advantage

SPRING OF ACTION (HINDU ETHICS) 189

3. Irreverence, Impiety Reverence, Piety. want of faith in scrip- ture (Nastikya) (Shradha)

The following are worth noticing in this list. (1) The list of virtues and vices under first head and last differs in one important aspect. The virtues and vices of mind are subjective dispositions or modification of the personal life than active tendencies manifesting themselves in overt act. The virtue .of kindness or male- volance may not lead to specific acts but this can hardly be said of veracity, social service or theft. Mendacity which are nothing at all without overt acts on which they depend. (2) The virtues and vices relating to speach constitute one of the specific Hindu contributions to the ethical concepts of the world, the only virtue or vice which bas received any special notice being veracity or mendacity. That vera- city is only one of the virtues of speech which may under special circumstances be required to be subordinated to other and higher consideration, was really recognised by the Hindns. It is assumed that the ultimate purpose of speech was, the good of mankind and if strict adherence to truth was likely to do more harm than good, the evil should be avoided by a lie. Similarly truth must be told in agree- able language. (3) Unworldliness is a cliaracteristic virtue indicating as it does the Hindu conception of the highest spiritual ideal.

Q. 107. State Patanjeli's classification of virtues ? Ans. The virtues according to Patanjali are the Yamas, the restraints that purify the mind of the evil passions, and thus clear the ground for Yoga. They thus form a subordinate class within the wider Nyaya classification of virtues, a class of virtues suitable only for Yoga. These virtues are- I. Alimsa (i) negatively it implies abstention from Himsa or injury to living beings (ii) Positively it implies good will and amity with all creatures. (iff) The exercise of this virtue implies (a) Self- restraint and specific in so far as some of the acts of cruelty are prompted by greediness or inordinate hankering. (b) It implies sub- jugation of the feefing of aversion or hate. (c) It implies the overcom- ing of intellectual indolences which is itself the cause of greediness and aversion and is independent cause of specific forms of cruelty- such as scriptural sacrifices. (d) It implies abstention from harsh words as well as acts of intimidation. II. (a) Salya : Veracity implies two things (6) That the object as ascertained by valid evidence is to be correctly apprehended by the speaker's mind i.e. there should be no error or Bhranti (fi) It is no excuse for a person practising veracity to plead ignorance, it being the duty of the truthful man to refrain from utterance, till he has acquired all the knowledge possible under the circumstances. (d) It is no excuse for him to plead accidental stips or unintentional represen- tation, it being his duty to be careful, economical and precise in the

SPRING OF ACTION (HINDL LTHICS) 191

(b) Unrighteous tendencies and dis- posibons that go on accumulating to (b) I may mitrate an

the fisherman from after the moment action in the direction of

the fisherman completes the weaving of benevolence There Is

net which will be an instrument or sub-conscious determina-

means of killing fish tion of virtue

(3) Panbhaganıayam Karma Institutional through the right or wrong acts of the commumty responsibility Take animal sacrifice as a part of relierous institution evil lies with the author of the institution The responsibility for this Similarly the accumulation of righteousness for good acts of institution goes to the author (4) Citta bhsamslar a anaskarma-Righteousness and unrighte- ousness arising from subjective determination as revealed in the conscious effort of the mind It implies conscious determinttion of the self as distinguished from the self conscious modifications of the self (2) as well as overt acts of mind There are three forms of the conscious self determination (a) The consious resolve of self restrait (b) The conscious resolve of benevolence (c) The conscious resolve of amity and peace, with all creatures or opposites

Ettrcs Buddhist analysis is suegestion of unique and original Norms m

I Buddhists recognise sub-conscious and unconscious morality Ordinarily morality is limited to voluntary actrons But Buddhists hold that even outstanding resolution outstanding arrangements, have morl effect because they influence the sub conscious or sub personal strata 2 The conception of communal and posthumous ethical respon- sibilty stands in contrast to Hindu Ideal of Ethical self autonomy and self determination as implied in their doctrine of Karma

Hindu Ethics ? Q 109 What are the special functions of Psychological

Ans The psychological Hindu ethics deals with Volition, con- scicnce, spring of action and virtue (A) Let us take voltion First The folloig points are specific to Indian anlysis of vohtion (1) The distinction between the cognition of an act is distingui- shed from passive cognition of fact (t) In volition there is not merely the idea of a thing to be done simply m the form of consciousness that it lies in my power to accomplish it if I choose This consciousness is consciousness of inherent practicableness of the act in question and is thus not determi-

190 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

usc of words. (d) The speaker should faithfully describe in unambigu- ous language what he understands. Hence half-truths, evasions, subterfuges are to be treated as lies, for though they may agree with some real objective state, condition or circumstances, they do not convey what the speaker has in mind or means to convey. (c) Precise utterance will fall short of veracity if it is not directed towards good of creatures. Thus even the most truthful speech which hurts or injures creatures is not virtuous. Hence it is smn to recount even another's real faults when such recounting will serve no good purpose. III. Asteya ; It is freedom from unlawful greed or wish for appropriation of what belongs to another. Some hold that misappro- priation extends even to sense of ownerslup. We must rise above pride of possession or sense of ownership. IV. Biahamacharya : It implies restraint of every organ includ- ing genitals in regard to the matter of sexual enjoyment. VI. Aparigraha : The attitude of indifference to material pro- perty through the perception of its being taited by cruelty and other faults. This indifferenee is different from that of Asteya which is grounded in the perception of the evil of pride of possession and attachment.

SPRING OT ACTION (HINDL ETHICS) 191

(b) Unnghteous tendencies and dis- (b) I may initrte an positions that go on accumulating to the fisherman from after the moment action in the direction of

the fisherman completes the weaving of benevolence There is

net whtch will be in mstrument or sub conscious determina-

means of killing fish tion of virtue

(3) Parıbhagantayam Karma through the right or wrong acts of the community Institutional 'responsibility Take anımal sicrifice as a part of religious institution evil lies with the author of the institution The responsibility for this Similarly the accumulation of righteousness for good acts of mstitution goes to the author (4) Citta bhisamslar a anaskarma-Righteousness and unrighte- ousness arising from subjective determination as revenled in the conscious effort of the mind It implies conscious determination of the self as distinguished from the self conscious modifications of the self (2) as well as overt acts of mind There are three forms of the conscious self determination (a) The consious recolve of self restramt (b) The conscious resolve of benevolence (c) The conscious resolve of amity and pence, with all creatures or opposites Buddhist analysis is suggestion of unique and original Norms m Ethics 1 Buddlusts recognise sub conscious and unconscious morality Ordinarily morality is limited to voluntary actions But Buddhists hold that even outstanding resolution outstanding irringements, have moral effect because they influence the sub conscious or sub personal strata 2 The conception of commt nl and posthumous ethical respon- sibility stands in contrast to Hindu Ideal of Ethical self autonomy and self determination as implied in their doctrine of Karma

Q 109 What are the special fanctions of Psychological Hmndu Ethics ? Ans The psychologieal Hindu ethics deals with Volition, con- science, spring of action and virtue (A) Let us take voltion First The folloing points are specific to Indian analysis of volition (t) The distinction between the cogntion of an act is distingui- shed from pissive cognition of fact (u) In vohtion there is not merely the idea of a thing to be done simply in the form of consciousness thit it lies in my power to accomplish it if I choose This consciouspess is consciousness of inherent practicableness of the act in question and is thus not determi-

192 INDIAN PHILOSOPIY

nent of voltion Volition involved the consciousness that ' I must do it' Thus the cognition which consciousness antecedent of a volitto nal process is distingmshed from the simple cognition of a fact (et) There is difference between Kamya Karma and Nitsa Karma in their Psychological aspect All volition is not motivated by the desire of good Only Kimya Karmas are so motivated (Sec under Prabhakar and Kant) (3) Volition is both negative and posttive (Dvesa and Pravritti) (4) The Order, as distmgurshed from conditions of volition is pecuhar to Indian Psychology The steps in volttion according to Prabhakara and Nyaya are as follow -Sec page self determi nısm (5) The forms of determinism and indeterminism with reference to the relation between the act and the will is subtle and profound (6) The analysis of the deterent and of the suspenston of the deterent is another special feature of Indian analysis of volition (7) The Nyaya conception of specific order in pais and pleasure as an operative factor in choice is an addition to the Bentha mite calculus (8) The relativistic conception of willing as dependent on the agent's condition and capacity is relative to the time and the cir- cumstances of the willing Let us study the peculiarities of Indian analysts of conscience- (1) Morality is regarded only as relative and empirical validity in all Hindu systems except Mimamsaka for according to the Samkhya, the Vedant as well as the Nayaya varsesikas righteousness wluch accrues to the agent through the accomplishment of the duties being an event in time cannot be mtural or essential accomplishment of the self in its true nature This holds good of Ramanujists who recogmse an essential differencc between the natural unmediated morality of the empirical self and the morality of the transcendental life which is transfigured by mediation through the act of the self surrender to the Absolute In the later stage morality is divested of its subjective character as seeking of the subjective end and becomes the realisation of the absolute in self so that self love becomes trans formed into the love of God However, Prabhakaras regard morality of transcendental sıgnifi cance, conceiving the highest end of the spirit to be Nıyogi Sıddln or realisation of Moral Imperatve (2) The doctrine of conscience is elaborated in connection with the interpretation of the scriptural code of duties laid down by the Vedas The Sankhya rejection of seriptural code, the Nyaya and the Ramanujists attempt at a rational ethicsl mterpretation thereof and the Sankara Vedanta differentiation of the two paths in which externalism is merged at least into the higher ethics of the noetic duties are verious devices to transcend the purely ceremonial stand poit They are indicative not only of a frank recogmition of the indequacy

SPRING OF ACTION (HINDU LTHICS) 193

of ethical externalism but also of the need of rationl justification thereof from the internaltstc stand point of self purification (3) The recognition of Kamya Karma and Nitya Karma is nn attempt at synthesis Even the Naiyayikas recognise disinterested mor- ality from his utiltartan consequentril stand point by admitting a non- pathotogical motive which is neither attraction nor aversion for the lughest end through the unconditiont duties of absolute free It works

dom from suffering Hence there is disinterested morality even for the Naiyayikas who accepts ethical as well as psychological coesequen- tialism Contrary wise even the Prabhakara recogmses an interested morality which they reconcile with their ethical purism by divesting at of strictly moral charicter The Kamya Karmas are not devoid of authority, but as this authority is of a logical order, as distinguished from moral authority of duty it does not impair the drsinterestedness of morlity proper The conditional duties are to be accepted along- with unconditional duties but while the latter are to be accomplished as moral duties the former lrive to be recognised as the bars of action So this is how Prabhakaras provide for interested morality in its scheme of Ethical rigorism The Prabhakar synthesis is the counter- part of the Nyaya synthesis of moral disinterestedness with psychological and ethical consequentialism 4 It shows comprehenstve sublity and depth of analysis when moral obligation is considered with reference to the moment of subjective impulsion and objective duty but also with reference to the motive of the operation process which it mvolves The Prabhakara's contention that the operation process of command on psychological motivation is not causal but umque is one of the most viluable contri- bution to the tleory of conscience (C) Let us take up springs of action and classification of virtue The passtons and impulses are considered in view of non- empirical end of the spirit and even the social virtues are recognised only is condu^tive to self autonomy and spiritual freedom The highest virtue is thus unworldliness just as the purest impulse is dispassion and these are the steps or the stuffing stores as it were on which the indni dual ascends to his non-empirical ideal from the plane of the pathological impulses of his phenomenal tife (D) Let us consider the scheme of psychological Ethics It is scheme of practical Ethics which has the annulment of the practical life for ns objeet It is a scheme of iscending steps of realization through the secular, the seriptural-conditional and the scriptural- unconditional duties merging at last into the neetic duties proper which are essential to Absolute knowledge and Fre+dom It is thus reeulative as well as empincal, noette as well as practiest a synthetic plan of progress in approvimation to the non-empincal seriptural end through 1 graded scheme of dutie, defined with reference to their positive psychological basis and conditions This scheme of gridation from empinical to non-empincal ts

194 INDIAN PH'LOSOPHY

not metaphysically deduced or merely assumed as a First principle, but is also expounded on a positive basis The unconditional and noetic duties are conceived not merely in view of the non empirical transcendental ideal of freedom but also with reeference to the positive conditions of their attamment through the non pathological or Sattvika impulses and emotions It ts these which constitute the link as it were between the empirical life of the individual and the non- empirical goal whuch he ts to reach

Q 110 What are the characteristic features of Mana's classification of duties ?

fic or Visesa Ans Minu divides duties into common or Sadharna and speer

Under the class of Sadharna Dharma he enumerates the follow- ing ten -+ 1 Steadfastness (Dhrt)) 2 Forgneness (Ksama) 3 Application (Dima) 4 Non appropniation e, Avoidance of theft (Caurya Cleantiness (Sauca) 6 Repression of the sensibilities and sensuous appetites (Indriya mgraha) 7 Wisdom (Dhi) $ bhava) 5

Learning (vidya) (Akrodha) 9 Veracity (Satya) 10 Restraint of Anger

(a) It is clear from the list that all duttes have reference to the attamment of the individual s own perfection There is no recogmmon of social duties proper Forgiveness and non stealmg are negative social duties at best They imply no positive social service Even veracity does not mply positive social service It may be practised purely as a virtue of self culture t e as an absolute self dedication to truth It is this primarily self autonomy of the individual that explans the purpose of steadfastness, applcation, repression and self restraint () Agam the list lays emphasis on dianoetio virtues of wisdom and learning and truth This shows the intellectualistic approach to morality

Q 110 Give Prasastapada's classification of duties

and (b) Visesa Ans Like Manu, Prasastrapada divides duties into (a) Samanya

The Samanya duties are 1 Moral Earnestness or Regard for the Spritual (Dharme Sraddha, Dharme Manahprasadha), 2 Refratning from injury to living beings (Ahimsa) 3 Seeling the good of creatures (Bhutalntatva) 4 Speaking the truth (Satyavncana) 5 Refraining from theft (Asteya) 6 Sexual continence (Bramcarya) 7 Sincerity Purity of Motive (Anupadha) Renouncing or restraining anger (Krodha varjana)

196 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Q 113 How does the Ramanujist school arrive at its Jist of duties ? Ans According to this school the list of duties is to be deduced from the perfections of God which must be aseribed to God as the moral Ideal Now God as Bhagavan is concerved as actively cancelling or removing all imperfections of fimte beings even as light cancels darkness This absolute knowledge in God means the actne enlghtening of His creatures who are ignorant of ther good and evil Simdlarly might in the Almighty consists in enabling creatures in then weakness to eschew evil and attam the good So human Anowledge can have no other goal than the enlightenment of ignorance of fellow human bemgs So human power can have no other meaning or justification than putting the weak in the way of achieving therr own good Forgiveness in the Lord is for a person guilty of lapse who has since repented and seen the error of his ways Clemency is therefore the proper attitude towards the morally guilty Compassion in the Lord is hkewise for stffering creatures, straight forwardness is for crooked, gentleness is for the shy and the tımıd The duties for us is to show tenderness towards the imperfect and deficient and straightforwardness towards the crooked Thus the duties of man are to realse divine perfection in Him Man is the image of God and hence his highest destmny is to realse his true being as an tmage of God and as an essential factor in God s According to Ramanujist's view the success of finite crentures conduces to the success of God's purpose and of God personal life

Himself

Q. 114 Manu's classification of daties is socio ethical, that of Maimamsaka ethico psychological and that of Rama- bujist ethical theological Discuss Ans See Question Nos 110, 111, 112 and 113

Q 115 What are the peculiar or special features of Hindu classification of duties ? Ans The Hindu classification of duties is trr dimensional It divides the duties into (a) Varnasrama or Vishesha Dharma These are the duties which ire relative to one's stage of hfe and the profession in hfe (b) Samanya Dharma These are duties common to al asrams or stages of hife and all varnas or social or professiona) classes They are duties of man to man as such 1 This classification is fuller and richer than Platonic classifi- cation of virtues In it we miss a uist of Samanya Dharma or common duties There is a common virtue even according to

SPRING OF AETION (HINDU ETIICS) 197 - Plato tis, the virtue of Justice But it is not an independent Evirtue which is to be realised in itself but is only a function of the proper discharge of its specific duties by each particular social class Thus the soldier realses justice by protecting the state while the legislator realises it by wise legislation and administration, ie, each realises it in specific forms through the discharge of its specific duties Hence justice ts a common duty only in the sense of being common in the specific But the Samanaya Dharma are common in a different sense They are common as being independent duttes of all social or professional class alike And those common duties cannot be trans- gressed in the discharge of the specific duties, the idea being that there are certain general relations between man and man which cannot be discarded in the interest of particular communal duties The common duties are thus the precondition of the specific duties, they are not the common in the specific such as Plato's justice but the common as-the prius of-the specific 2 In this sense the Samanya Dharma provide a safeguard against communl egoism and intolerance They provide, through the code of Universal duties, a basis for a much more humanttarian treatment of the Sudra than the Platomc scheme would permit in respect of the barbarmn and the harlot who lick civic status For Plato the barbarian is without any moral standmg There are not only no duties to be fuifilled by him but also no duties to be fulfilled in respect of him The Hindu, however, inspite of the social degra- dation of the Sudras does not exclude him altogether from moral protection but shelters him from persecution through a code of Umversal duties which are obligatory on man as man These duties are to be observed by all alike being the duties oblgatory on everv bodv in his dealings with every bodv else

198 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

thought of as genetic in character, realisable through varions stages of grow th 6 The Hindu classification of duties is seriptural and secular also This classification recognises that some Dharma arse from soual exp rience However, problematic and relatre authonty attaches to those Dharma It is assumed that Dharmr must also hav indubitable authoritv and therefore must have a non empirical source It shows a spirit of synthesis that recognises all facts of moral hife 7 The Hindu classification draws distinction between condr nonal duties, ve Kamya Karma and unconditional dharma, ve Nitya Karma It combines the ethical consequentalism with ethica disinterestedness It recognises the lugher status of unconditiona duties But it provides moral significance to conditional duties, ve interested actions which lead to fruition without entailing any evil It thus embodtes in one synthetic scheme the admi sibility ol non moral motivation along side of the need of dismnterestedness 8 The Hindu classification is founded on the rdeal of mdrvidual own perfection It is this ideal which dominates the Hindu Doctrin of the law of Karma-the law which apportions to each indivdua what he has himself earned by his own deeds or Karma According to the Hindu idea there can be not only no vicarious sin and punish ment but also no vicarous redemption No one can help another in the attaiment of his end Just as he cannot reap what another has sown, so also he cannot help another to his frinton A free spint is law unto hmself and is arbiter not onty of hs naturil lo but also of higher end or destiny as soiit There are thus no dutie: which are not strictly speaking, duties to self and dutv in the sense o positive moral aid to others is self contradictory in its very con ception Hence even communal duties fike Bhutalutatvr or Ahims lrive in fact the end of self autonomy in vie as they are debts to tl community by the discharge of which the indn idual graduatly qualfie for freedom and self-sufficiencv

Q 116 Examine the Hindu analysis of Conscience ? Ans Conscience or the consciousness of duty resoles usel into the consciousness of the authority wlich attiches to ar imperatie It is a question of the relation of the psychological motnc to the moral imperative The determmation of the relation will depend on how psych logical motive is interpreted and how moral iperatie is mter p-eted We mav hold that all motives are mouves for some ista and ths istr is pleasure or happiness or it is some form of satisficton other t an plensure or satisfacton Or we may hold that reason can be motive and act can be done for its own sake rather than as for sonic ista Similarly mordl Imper itne or Vidh may be thought of as conditioned to some erd or er d in themselves

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It is obvious that different interpretation of motive and Impera- tive lead to different analysis of conscience Let us consider the analysis of the Conscience under four heads

Q 117 Whence does Vidhi derive its prerakatva or obligatory force on the moral agent ? What is it that deter- mines the authority of the imperative in the consciousness of the individual ? Is the Imperative or Vidhi cognised as anthoritative because of its conduciveness to good ? Or is it cognised as authoritative in itself ? Ans The answer to this problem depends on our conception of psychological motivation If motive ts always the consciousness of some good or ista, the moral Imperative must also ippear through the consciousness of good If the motive however imples no sucht consciousness, the Imperative will be obligatory independently of all considerations of utility Here are answers to this question by different Indian Schools of thought in terms of their interpretation of motivation (1) The Charvakas are Hedonst and deterministic in their interpretition of human motives determination is mechanical Motive is alwrys pleasure and the

when there is balance of pleasure over pain Hence volition follows mechanically

Morf obligation is thus the caused operation of the psychologi- cal motive in moral action and is thus only the nttrction of the possible pleasure to be derived therefrom (2) Nuyayikas differ from Charvakas in the mterpretation of motive in two aspects (a) For the Natyayikas the motive is some ista or good, but tt is not necessarily plensure Besides the pathological motivation of attriction (rga) of pleasure and aversion (dvesa) for pai there is the dispassion or Virakti for Trinscendental Freedom from all suffering () Again motive is not mechanical attraction Nothing is ista or good except in relation to a subject It is the subject of volitton that determines its own vilues ind there is no question of mere machanical ittrction and repulsion of plensure and pain The Naty iyıkas hold to self determination However, motives being the consciousness of ista or good, the imperatie derives its force from a sanction viz Ista sadhainta or conducn enss to good The obligatoriness of the Imperttve is thus the worth of excellence of its end appealing to the consciousness of the neent But is this worth or excellence itself depends on the agent's Kam ina or desire for the good and therefore on subjective viluntion or subjectne preference, obleatoriness also depends on the subjectie Kamina or force of the agent s craving for the end or good A distinction must be made between the subjectie and the

200 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

objective ispects of the good as worthy or excellent The fact thit the good ncquires subjective value or worth through subjective prefe rence or self determmation does not imply that it is objectively neutral On the contrary it has objective intrinsic worth or excellence though this is presented to the subject only through subjectne preference

There is thus an intrinsic worth wluch ought to determine choice and this is their objective authorty which dependent of our actually choosing them When they are actually chosen they acquire subjective m addition to their objective authority and this is thei obligatoriness Obligatoriness is a compound of the objectne authonty of the end and the force of subjective desire or craving

3 According to Kumarla Bhatta ista or conduciveness to good is metaphysical impheate of the Imperative or the Vidhs The imperat ve would not have existed for the arthe or end to be realized by the act (But this arthe or end does not confer authoritativeness on the act) Again ista is psychological impl cate of the moral action an end as motive being necessary for moral as for ill actions With out it the imperative cannot get actualised in concrete willing However this metaphysical and psychological imphcates of moral action do not determine the obligatoriness of the Imperatne The moral authority of the Imperative is independent of the end 4 Prabhakara s theory of motivation is different from Charviks and Natyayıkas Motive is not isti sadhanta jnana or conscrousness of good but cognition of something to be done as produced by the representation of it as specifying the self It is the act to be done ag self appropriated or self referred wl ih the real momve and ths need not present itself as good mn order to mov the will This theory of motivation holds that the imperative is its own end its own authonty or sinction morl nuthonty to the human consciousness it is itself the motre ind the It is the independent intrinsic authorty of the commind which determines the motne ind choice Prabhakaras criticise Nyaya pomt of view on these scores (a) It is wrong psychology to I old that psychological motne is necessarily the consciousness of some ista or good Such conscious rless evist in relation to Kamya Karma It is not true of Nitya Karma Even in relation to Kamya Karma the consciousness of good is a motive only as purusa visesana ve as being referred to and appropriated by the self (b) Imperative is its own end and dees not imply an cutr neous end as motne Extraneous end will imply another end to mfntte regress and this fuils to explain authority of the imperitne If an extraneous end were to establish tle authority of the imperaine in consciousness it must also itself be established hkewise throueh in

SPRING OF ACTION (HINDU ETINICS) 201

other, and if an end itself is to be conceived, it 1s superfluous to assume any extrancous end of moral authority (c) The Nawvayikas fail to draw distinction between moral and prudential imperative A prudential Imperative has only derved and relative authority, it is heteronomous A moral Imperative has absolute and independent authorty It is ultimate, irreducible and absolute Thus according to Prabhakaras, Imperative implies two con- ditions Niyojyrt e an agent or person commanded and a Visaya or act commanded The command imphes simply by revealing the act as obligatory When the agent is impelled by lipsa or desire for the conscquences as in Kamya Karma, the imperative becomes Udastne or indifferent Thus Nitya Karma are in the true and strict sense moral duties To sum up According to Clarvakas the oblgatoriness of duty is only the mechanical attraction of pleasure wiule according to the Naryayikas tt is only its ista sadhanta or conduciveness of an end appealing through the agent's desire For the Bhatta and Pribhakar on the contrary it is independent of extraneous end, an end constitutes the psychological motive and not the moral authority of the duty according to the Bhattas, and never consciously present, according to Prabhakar

118 How does the moral Imperative influence agents' will ? Does it act mechanically just as one physical Q

object acts on another ? Or does it act in some other manner which differs altogether from mechanical action and consti- tutes a category by itself ? Ans The different views of the nature of moral authonty or obligatoriness imply correspondingly different views of the nature of the operations of the imperative on the agent's consciousness (1) For carvakas the obligatoriness of the Imperative is only the mechanic il attraction of pleasure Hence the operation of Imperative on the agent will be only the mechanteal attraction of the anticrpated happiness (2) According to Nyaya the Imperatie being obligatory through Ista sadhanta or conducivenoss to an end, the operation of the impe- ratre in consciousness is the operation of the desired end The operation of the Imperative thus consists in awakening the dorment desire by presenting adequate means for satisfying it It the agent's desire is awakened thereby, the duty acts on the agent's will as being conducive to the desired end (3) Kumarila Bhatta explains the operation thus When one hears Imperanve, one is conscious of two bhavanas or operatne pro- cesses One is a vyapira or operative process of the Sabda Moml Imperatie or Sabda is changed with a peculiar prompting force which

202 INDIAN PILOSOPHY

is of tl e nature of causation It is Sabda bhavana, the causal agency of the categorient Imperative whtch calls forth Purusa pravriti or Volition of the moral agent The other is a Vyapara or operative process in the purusa i e in the individual himself, It is artha bhavana or operative ao ncy of the individual s will which brings about the act The one is the process outside the individunl the other a process with sn him The Sabda Vyapar the causal operation of the Imparative induces puru a vvapira the process of volition in the individual and this latter realises the act which is to be done How ae the two bhavinas related ? There is difference of opinion amo ig the Bhattas Kumarila holds that there is no pnonty or posteriority between them either logical or chronolo ical Sabdi- bhavana the operition of the Imperative suppses three things (#) Sidhy or som thing to be realised (u) Sadhant or means (tu) Itt karttavyta or minner of renlizing this something by the proper meins Now the object to be renlsed by the Sabhn is the inducement of purusa pravrtti the voltion of the agent The inducement of the ngent s will leads necess irily to the realization of the empineal action which is the artha bhavin1 Hence artha bhavana is a necessary imphcate of saba bhavana Some hold that a sabda bhavana induces or leads to the artha bhavana the former is primary and the hitter is auxiiary Others hold that as it ts the artha the object whtch is realised that deter- mines the operation of the imperative the artha bhavana is the principal eperation the sabda bhavana being only nuxihary or subservient (4) Prabbakaras do not hold to causal relation between the moral Impertive and agent s will The moral Imperatie is prerana or authoritative sugsestion to the will This suggestion is only the revelation of the law as Imperatne and is distinet from physical or psychological compulsion or determination In prerna or moral promptings there is unique relation-the relation of a command to the igent commanded-which differs radically from the relation of the act to the agent who wilts it We have two aspects to be distinguished mn moral willig (2 emparn al proccss in the agent which is derivative and secondary and Is of the nature of blavana er crusation (t) the ground or reason of it which is pre ia or moral imperative is mere revelation of the law as distinguished from compulsion mechanical determination of causation It may be objected that prerana or moral prompting is itself a form of action or Knya ind thus the two aspects or steps are the same in esse ice But tlus misses the fundamental character of moral obhsation wht h is only knawtedge ud cing and not action making The rational motive is no subtle force and hence jan-paka what reveals and Karka what comp ils beig fundamentally distinet The moril Imperative is sugeestion by enlightenment but does not amount to a compulsion of th- will Tie funstion of enlghtenment ends with

204 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Imperative thus implies the agent s subjective freedom psycholocically logically as well as normilly (b) According to the Charvakas the Imperative is only the command of the carthly king Worldly pleasures are the only possible pleasure and the law of the king as the aperser of the earthly ltappi ness is therefore the true moral law 2 Tor the Jains and the Buddhists law is the declaration of Aptas or the Seers who by acquiring personl experience of matters of spiritual sienificance are the competent judges of what is right or wrong 3 The Nyrya Vuseskas ind the R uminujsts hold that Iswara or Lord is the preseriber of moral law in eternally perfect beine According to Ramanujists the command represents the intellicence of the Lord i e his knowledge of what is truly right and what is wrong According to Nynya Vaisesikas thev represent only the will of the Lord se his mere plensure of fiat 4 Purvamimamsaka do away altogether with the conception of a personal source -- Imperative is an impersonal verstty of the moral order-a law which has intrinsic vahdity without being a personal command The Imperatives are self evident self validating and self authortative

Q 120 In what does the 'rightness' of an act consist ?

Ans Here are the views of different Indian Schools (a) Nyaya-Vaisesikas school Moral rghtness has only a subjective stgnificance However intention or Abhisandhi is impor tant If intention is pure (visudha) that is moral right There is no moral right or righteousness even in good acts if they are prempted by impure intentions Similarly in the itentional acts there is neither merit nor demerit though the consequences may be good or evil There is no unntentional wrong the intention being absolutely essen tal to constitute moral right However if the unintentional acts are the result of carelessness on the part of the agent then they have moral significance Tor Nyaya Vaiscsikas moral nght pertains to Atma for the empirical life is part of the itfe of the Atma Atma is implicated in the empincal life and hence righteousness is part of it However it is po sible for Atma to free itself from tts empirical implication by spiritual diseipline and hence rise above the moral plane (b) Saankhya also hold that righteousness or moral right is sub- jective but it holds that it is purely empirical It does not touch Purusa and hence Purusa is not implicated in morality The indivi dual in his transcendental nature is no more touched by nghteonsness than the crystal is touched by the colour that stands near it

SPRING OF ACTION (HINDU ETGICS) 205

(c) Buddhists hold that moral right is subjective disposition of the mental continum. For Saankliya righteousness is a fleeting and momentary state, For Buddhists every such momentary function implies an enduring modification, a specific impetus or disposition of the mental life.

(d) Mimamsakas hold to a opposite view. Moral right is not a question of intention. It pertains to nets, Moral righteousness is of the nature of an artha or good i.e., prompting, objective and not a subjective trait or state-a thing worthy to be aimed at or desired rather than a subjective quality or disposition to be aquired or culti- vated. ff morat right is good, what constitutes goodness or Artha 7 Good is pleasure. Moral good is the good or pleasure sanctioned by scriptural preseription. We have seriptural artha and anartha. The former are adrsta i.c. of non-sensuous or non-empirical import and the latter are drsta i.e. empirical. It is not clear from the above as to what in particular constitutes a scriptural good. Is it the act enjoined by scriptures that constitutes 'moral righteousness or is it some effect or consequence of the act, which results from or is reveal- ed by it ? The Mimamsakas are divided. (i) Moral righteousness or Dharma is neither a subjective category nor it is to be identified with the kriya or act enjoined by seripture. It is revealed in Prerana i.e., by the anthoritative sugges- tion to the will implied in such a command. Prerana is a kind of atmakuta i.e. wave, excitement or impulsion in the atma. Dharma is thus objective category but is non-empirical or supersensuous in nature being revealed by the authoritative suggestion involved in the moral Imperative. Dharma is not the act itself, but the Apurva or supersensuous verity which it generates or involves and which is revealed by the prerana or impulsion in the Atma produced by the scriptural Imperative. (ii) The ceremonial and sacrificial acts in themselves constitute Dharma or moral good. Dharma is, thus, the non-empirical category, with no supersensuous potency (Apurva) with which Vedic Impera- tives are charged but the prescribed acts themselves. Dharma is Sreyaskara de., conducive to the good of the agent. These ceremontal acts are conducive to good and therefore are Dharma.

Q. 121. What is the relation of moral right to scrip- tural acts or karmas ? Ans. (i) For Buddha there is no intrinsic moral worth in Karma but only in its conduciveness to the purification of the mind. In so far as the sastric and ceremonial acts fail to be conducive to the life of Spirit, they are devoid of moral value, and cannot be morally obligatory. There is no good making a fetish of vedie preseriptions and the exercise of proper discrimination is necessary in this ascer- tainment of true moral duty.

206 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

(2) Sannkhyas agree with the Buddha in their ethical vien of Karma with a difference for Buddhists there is no specral siemifi cance of vedie karmas for Saankhyas they have potency a power in them to produce specific effeets e e of feading to Swarga But Swarga is temporal in charcter and its bhog comes to an end Hence vedic Karma does not lend to anything really cood Again in so far as they are thmnted by the impurity of himsa or injury to sentient beings they are bound to bring suffering to the agent according to law of Karma or moral order Therefore there is no spiritual good as such in vedic karma or non vedic karmas for since the object is desire for pleasure they are bised on Avidyr This non discrimination anses from the preponderance of the constituents of Timas or Inertia and Rajis or Energy in the cite or empiriel self When the Tamas and Rajas give way to the constituent of Sattwa or intelhgence stuff so that there will emerge in the empirical self a preponderance of Sattwa over the two constituents which will lead to Moksha It is the Sattwik karma thit have rel spiritual value and not the vedic actions or empirical right actions (3) The Nyaya Varsesilis do attach spiritual signtficance to vedic karmas Righteousness as a subjective quality is acquited througli the proper discharge of objective code of duties-both sa dharena dharma and virna ashrima dharma-the former constitute cthical duties and the latter constitute ceremonial acttons Hence ceremonial actions have a plice in moril life These ceremonnl actions are essentrti to moral culture not in the sense of being charged with iny natural magicl potency but in the sense of being conducive to moral perfection Even Vaidha Himsa is justified as moral on the ground of being obligatory in accordance with our station in life (4) Purva Mimamsaka is opposed to all the schools dealt so

cthical ground the Purva Mimamsakas resolve even the ethical with far While Nyaya Vaisesikas defend ceremomalism on rational and

the ceremomial and derive their vilidity from vedie nuthority Vedic karmas are moral because they are prescribed by sastric ijunction According to Bhatta since the vedic karmas are prescrib d by the Vedas they must be conducive to agent s good and as thus condu cive to good According to Pribhakara the moral authority of Vedic karma Is not due to its conduciveness in view of being so presenbed but from the fact of their intrinsic vilidity as self positing duty or viriety of the moral order Tlus constitutes their Apurv intrinsic vilidity s impersonal ontelogicit varieties of the moral order

1

TT

SFRING OF ACTION (HINDU ETHICS) 207

highest morality Ensuring man in the toils of the empirical life (samsara) they ensure only a relative satisfacton and not the lughest satisfaction of freedom from all limtations Nivrittr-marg is a life of absolute cessation from desire and therefore from duties prompted by desire ie, of the disinterested virtues practised without reference to any extrineous, empirical end It is the sphere of the fourfold practice of the four disciplines which lead to self krowledge and through self- I nowledge to jivanmukti Hence the highest duties are neetic rather than ethicl and ethical duties have moral sigmficance as leading up to neetic duties of four disciplines t e, jnanangas, constituent member or moments in the reabzation of knowledge Ramanuja differs from Sankara The highest state of spirit is not Karma Sanyasa as Sankarn supposes but one of moral obligations to be discharged disinterestedly without any desire for the conse- quence But these duties have spiritual significance, not in themselves but in so far as they are conducive to knowledge Karmas are not to be given up as such But all karmas which are obstacle to divine knowledge are to be given up Thus papa karma must be given up So must such of the punya karmas which are accompanied by interest- ed motieste, for reward or happ ness But disinterested actions increase our power of enlightenment, and are obligatory throughout hfe including the stite of divme knowledge (ut) Venkatesa of Ramanujist school finds place for Kamya karma sn highest moranty Ramanuja admitted onty disinterested actions for seif-knowiedge Venkatesa s viewpoint is that for the de- voted to realize the highest good of Moksha it is necessary to preserve body ind health of the body For such preservation not only himsa or destruction of the enemy but kamya karma concerning the relative ends like rainfall or ensuring a good harvest are necessary Thus works from desire are not to be condemned altogether because they are means to meditations and devotion which lead to spiritual free dom However, Kamya karma scripturally sanctioned are superior because the sastrike means accomplish both natril and non natural ends ind hence the empirical secular works must always be resorted to, subsertiently to the non emprricat works

CHAPTER VIII THE SAAKTA SYSTEM OF PHILOSOPHY Contents The Sakta system of Philosoply-Tantras corres- pond to Upasanakanda-The three dispositions of Temperaments The Seven Aacharas-Qualities of Teacher and Disciple-Form of Worship-Conception of Creatton-Image Worshp-The Five Tattvas or Principles- The four kinds of speech-The Mantras-The Shatcharas ) TANTRAS CORRESPOND TO UPASANAKANDA Q 122 State and examine the various schools of Sakta System of Philosophy and discuss how the tantras correspond to Upasanakanda Ans Nigama is Veda Aagama is Tantra Both these are essential for a Hindu The Saakta system is one of the systems of worship (Sadhana) mcluded in the Tantras The Tantras lay down different forms of practice for the attainment of the highest aim of human existence by one living the ordtnary life of a house-holder La this respect they correspond to the upasanakanda of the Sruti, The Tantras fall under five heads, tiz Saiva, Sakta, Vaishnava, Soura, and Ganapatya These five classes of worshippers are collectively called panchopasaka, Each of these classes of worsluppers has got its own Tantras According to the Maha-Siddhasar Tantra, Bhartavarsha is divided into three Kranthas or divisions vz Vishnu Krantas, it is said, has sixtyfour Tantras The Saktı managala Tantra says that the land east of the Vindhya Hills extending right upto Java is Vishnu Kranta The country north of the Vindhya Hills including Maha China is Ratha-Kranta The rest of the country west ward is Assva- Kranta It will thus be seen that by Bharatavarsha is not to be understood what British India represents nowadays The inhabitants of the islands of Bal are "Hindus" and they follow the same form of worship as their brothers in India _In Java there are ruins of Buddht- stic temples and in far-off Cambodia there exist to the present day some temples and priests who worship according to "Hindu" rttuals The image of Dakshna Kah and Tara and some forms of Rudra are to be found in China The Shat Sambhava-Rahasya says that m Bharata there are four sampradayas (schools), tiz Guda in the East, Kerala in the middle and Kashmiram the West , the the fourth, called Vilasa, is a sort of electric school which is not confined to any region but spread all over

208

THE SAAKTA SYSTEV OT PHILOSOPHY 209

THE THREE DISPOSITIONS OR TEMPERAMENTS Q 123 Write a short note on the three dispositions (temperaments) of mankind according to Tantra,

Diseuss the tantras classification of mankind Ans The Tantra classifies mankind primarily under three heads, tiz , the men with a divya or divine disposition, the men with a vira or heroie disposition and the men with a pasu or ammal disposi- ton. On this depends the competency of the aspirant for any prticu- lar form of worship Padmapdachary1, the favourite disciple of Sinkaracharya, in lus commentary on the prapanchasara says that there are five different ways in which the teachings of the Sastra have got to be considered These five ways are (1) Stula (gross), (2) Sukshma (subtle), (3) Karan (ciusal), (4) Samanya (cosmic), and (5) Sakshi (witness like) Now every one is not competent to view things from these different points The pistt man can hardly be expected to see beyond the stihula or material aspect of things, in the wra man there is an urge to reach the phine beyond matter and the true vra is he who is fighting the six enemies, the passions which obstruct the path of spiritutl advancement The min of drvya disposition 15, as a result of his practice in previous births is endowed with qualities which make him almost divine The Kamikhya Tantra says that the man of divya dispostson is the beloved of all and 15 sparing in his speech, qmiet, steady, sagacious and attentive to all Ie is atways contented and devoted to the feet of lus guru (teacher) He fears no one and is consistent in whnt he says and is expertenced in all matters Hle never swerves from the path of truth and avords all that is evil _He is good in every way, and ts Siva's very self The vira is a man of feurless disposition and msprres fear in the min of pasu dispos tion and is pure in his motive He is gentle in lus speech and is alwavs mindful of the five tattvas (principles) He is physically strong couragcous, mtelltent and enterprising He is humble in his ways and is ever rendy to cherish the good The pasu is a man whose inclin itions are like those of an ammal He is a slie to lus six enemies-lust eager, greed, pride, itusion and envy

THE SEVEN AACHARAS Q 124 Discuss the seven Acharas (rales of conduct) given in the Kularnava tantra and stite how for do they correspond to Seven Bhumikas (knowledge planes) described in Yoga-Vasishtha Ans Closcly sonnected with the three bhaves are the seven acharts, rules of conduct whi h are enen in the Kulamava Tantra (Chap ID) as follows Veda, Varhnava, siva, dakshina, vama, siddhanta and Ltula The asprant rises step up by step through thesc different acharts till he reaches tic seuenth and lughest staye. wh n Brahman beenmes an experiential reality to hiri lo the h st vige

210 INDIAN PHILOSOPIIY

cleanlmness of the body and mind is cultivatad The second stage is that of devoutness (bhakti) The third is that of Jnana (knowledge) Dakshina, which is the fourth stage, is that in which the gais acquired in the preceding three stages are consolidated This is followed by vama which is the stage of renunciation This does not mean, as has been said by the detractors of the Tantra, the practice of rites with a woman (Vama) By vamachara is meant the stage of sadhana which the seeker of liberation follows for his own purposes, it has nothing to do with a woman, vama is the reverse of dakshina , it means the path of renunciation If a woman is at all assocrated in this prachce, she is there to help mn the path of renunciation and not for anımal grati A woman is such an object of great veneration to all schools of Tantrika Sadhakas (seekers) She is considered to be the embodi- fication

ment on this earth of this supreme sakt who pervades the universe She should therefore be revered as such and even tf guilty of a hundred wrongs, she is not to be hurt even with a flower It is a smn to spcak disparagingly of any woman The sixth stage, mz, siddhanta is that in which the aspirant comes to a conclusion after deliberate consi deration as to the relative merits of the path of enjoyment and that of renunciation By the latter path he reaches the final stage, that of kaula This is the stage mn which kaula of Brahmana becomes a reality to hm The first three of these seven stages, tiz veda, vaish- nava and saiva belong to the pasu bhava, dakshina and vama belong to vira bhava and the last two belong lo some the last alone is divya bhava The seven stages are also compared by way of illustration to seven stages of intoxication It may be noted that the seven acharas correspond, with very slight difference to the seven jnana bhumikas (knowledge planes) described in the Yoga vasistha, which are vividisha or subhechchha, vicharana, tanumanasa, sattvapatti, asamsakt, padarthabhavant and turivya The difference between the acharas of the Tantra and the Jnanabhumikas of the Yogavasistha is that in the former the aspirant reaches Jnana through the path of bhakti (vaishnava achara) whereas mn the latter the stage of tamunanasa (bhakti) comes to the man of learning who is confronted with insurmountable difficulties in the path of barren ratiocination and finds that without bhakti he can make no further progress

QUALITIES OF TEACHER AND DISCIPLE Q. 125 Discuss the qualities of a teacher and a disciple according to Tantras Ans Like the Sruti, the Tantra lays great emphast on the necessity of istiation It also emphasizes the necesstty of the teacher and the disciple being fully qualified A good teacher is defined to be a man of pure birth and pure disposition, who has his senses under control He should I now the true meaning of the Agamas (Tantras) and all satras (scriptures), and be always doing good to others, and engaged in repetition of God's name, worship, meditation and offering

THC SAAKTA SYSTEM OF PHILOSOPHY 211

oblations in the fire He should have a peaceful mind and must pos+ sess the power of granting favours He should know the Vedic teach ings, be competent in Yoga and be charming like a god He should be of good parentage of a gutleless disposition, and be a seeker of the Vedas ind be intelligent He should have his anrmal destres com pletely controlled be always kmnd towards all anmals and bave faitlı in the next world He should not associate with non believers (Nas- tikas) be assiduous in hts duties alert in the discharge of his dutits towards his parents and free from the pride of birth wealth and learn mngin the presence of his tearher He should always be willing to sacrifice his own interests in the discharge of his duties to the teacher, and be ever ready to serve hum mn all humtlity The disciple should always bear in mind that the teacher is mm Tls does not mean that the human teacher is so , he is the channel through whtch the spirt of God descends The true teacher mortal

is the Supreme Brahman, or Siva, or as soms says primordial Saktr The position of the human teacher is one of very great respon sibility, which does not end with initration He has to look ifter hts disciple s welfare in every respect and guide him He is called the physt can of the soul and a healthy soul can abide only mn a liealthy body He has to see that even in matters of health the discipte goes the ncht way The teacher who is conscious of his responsibility does not ubate in a burry, and sastra enjoins that the disciple should pot aecept a teacher to whom he is not attracted The mode of intiation is not in every case the same and vartes according to the disposition ind the competency of the disciple The ordinary mode of initiation is called Arrya dikshr This may be an elaborate process and consists of miny rtuals Men of higher competency are initiated by other methods The mitiation which is the quickest and most is cafled Vedha Diksha There are very few who possess the competency for this A person inttiated according to this method realizes it once the oneness of his own self with that of the teacher the mintra (sacred formula) and the deity b-comes as the Tantra says the very self of Siva The disciple who is mitrted according to other forms of diksha arrives it his realization by stow degrers each iccording to his com- petency The object of inttiation is to lead the disciple to this A5 the Tantraraja (Chap XXXV) beautifully puts it Ones own atman is the charming deity of one s worslup The universe is but its form

FORM OF WORSHIP Q 126 Write short notes on (a) Form of worshuip, (6) Conception of creation, (c) Image worstup Ans (a) The different Tantras describe different processes It should be noted that the worship is not always in a tangible image nor are the articles of offering gross articles The worshipper who is comp-tent to wordup in the image mentally cvotved out of luts mantra and the articles are also mental The flowers, for inst in are kindness, forgreness, and so forth This is described m A d w

212 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Avalon's-Great Liberation (V 141, F F) There are among others two well known books, one by Sankaracharya called the Prapancha- sara, and another the Saradatilaka by Lakshmana Desikendra which give short accounts of almost all the different forms of worship No one can dispute the authority of Sankara to speak on this subject Lakshmana's knowledge of the Tantra is also unsurpassed And in both these books are given accounts of all the five methods of worship and their subdivisions There is another book called Tantrasara which gives the rituals This is also recognised as authoritative The highest end, as thought in the Brahmanic scripture is not heaven, as is taught in other forms of fasth, but is absorption into the Divine Light out of which we came and in which we always abide but the vision of which we are deprived of by our passions and prejudices and by our pre- occupation with worldly things CONCEPTION OF CREATION (b) The Tantra has its own conception regarding creation According to it, creation begins with sound Siva or Brahman has two aspects, nirguna (attributeless) and saguna (with attributes) He As the former, he is transcendent and therefore dissoctated from Prakritr or Sakti, and as the latter, he is associated with Sakti ever is

It is out of this Sakti emanates, from that nada (sound), and out of nada, bindu This conception is put in another way At the time of pralaya or final dissolutton everything is withdrawn into the supreme Saktt Thereafter when Saktt which is the tattva (substance) approa ches the light which is Chit of knowledge, there arises m the former the desire to create (viclukirsha) and the bindu is formed This bursts and divides itself, and out of that division there arises bindu, nada and byja Bindu partakes of the nature of Siva or jnana, bija is sakti and nada is the relation between the two as stimulator and stimulated (Kshobhya) When the bindu bursts there arises an mnchoate volume of sound This sound is called Sabda-brahman which is the chartanya (stress towards manifestation in all beings) pervading all creation, and is the source of letters of the alphabet and of the words and other sounds by which thoughts are exchanged All sounds (sabda) have meaning , sound and meaning are inseparable IMAGE WORSHIP (c) From Sabda there arises the eternal region, from touch air, from colour fire, from taste water and from smell earth It will be seen that the gross comes out of the subtle in the process of unfolding, and when it is reversed the gross disappears in the subtle In this way the aspirant begins with a gross material accessory which is the image, and arises step by step to that which is beyond words and speech It is commonly though erroneously, said that the religous books of the ' Hindus" teach idolatry of the grossest type and that the Hindus are polytheists in its worst form Both these statements are mcorrect and spring sometimes from ignorance but more often from interested It is utterly untrue that the image is worshipped The image that is used in worshuip is the form of the mantra that is chosen motives

THE SAAKTA SYSTEM OF PHILOSOFHY 213

for the worshipper by his guru, and that after ascertaining his compc-

cinnot be worslupped The image the sadhaka uses represents his tency It is a necessity The formless and attributeless Brahman

conception of Brahman (svakıya brahma murti) Brahman is not to be understood as what ts signified by the English word 'God'. The word deva (deity) also does not mean 'God'. My deva is the form of Brahman evolvedout of my mantra, and it is helpful to me and others who practise with that mantra It has already been said that the teach- ing of thesastras is that one's own atman is the devata The individuaf self is a spark of the infinte Light and the aim of the worshipper is that this individual self should be freed of all that separates it from the Cosmic self and then be merged therei The Tantra claims that a man who worships his ishta devata (chosen diety), which is another name for lus image of Brahman, in the prescribed manner, lives a happy and contented life, enjoys the objects of huis desire and at the same time uplfts himself in the path of spirtualtv If he is faithful to the directions of the sastra, he cannot do any thing that may lead to a fall His adherence to its injuctions will do him the same good, even when he is hiving the life of a householder as penances and austerities The sastra says that it is only a deva who can worship a deva The man who is not a devi is not competent to worship the deva This is but another way of saying that the worship of the deva of one s adoption means the uplifting of the worshipper to the level of that deva and when he is raised to this level, he arrives at a stage when he becomes competent to apprehend the supreme deva, Brahman

THE FIVE TATWAS (PANCHAMAKARA) Q 127 Discuss the significance of the use in worship of five Tatwas (Panchamkaras) in Tantra Ans It is a favourite pastime of some uninformed minds to indulge in ivectives agamst the Tantra for the use in worshsp of the five tattvas (principles) commonly called the five M's (panchamakara) By these are meant (1) wine, (2) meat, (3) fish, (4) cereals and (5) sexual union These five articles have different meanings for different classes of worsluppers It is to be noted that what one is required to offer is the tattva (principle, essence) and not the article itself The tattwa of wine is bliss and the quickening of the inner organs The Guru teaches his disciple how this bliss and the quicke- ned inner senses have to be utilized for the uplift of the mind from the material plane Sexual union aiso as understood on the materni plane is to be used for the same purpose The Guru shows how these two acts, viz, drinking and cohabiting, which lead to a man's fall - ought to be used not as antmals do for the mere gratification of the senses but for a fngher purpose With reference to the fifth tattvi the disciple is taught that this is something very sacred and as st leads to the creation of n new life, the greatest care should be bestowed upon the act It is absolutely erroneous to say that the Tantra en courages or even countenances sexual excess or irregularity To break

214 INDIAN PIHLOSOPHY

chastity, it says, is to lose or shorten life, it is by the preser. vation tl ereof that life is preserved Aman offers to lus divnity only that which is pure and sanctified The object of usm these five tattvas in worship is that by the repeated practict of the ntualistic observance he acquires a nature whereby everything he does in his ordinary life becomes an act of worstup Sankaracharya in bis magnificent hymn to the primordial Saktt con cludes by saying, 'O Lady Supreme, may all the functions of my minc by Thy remembrance unto Thee" It is to induce a state of mind ltk this that these articles are used in worslip A true aspirant ceases tr look upon them as means of material gratification aspirant who is competent to use the five tattvas for the purposes o It is not ever!

himself from the bond of dualty that may drink wine, so that by th Sadhana The Sastra enjoms that it is only that man who has freet

uttering of the mantra, the truth thereof may become patent to lum am his mind steadied it is debasing to drink wine for mere anima gratification The aspirant who partakes of the five tattvas to please the deit; within him mncurs no demerit Such a man looks upon wine ant meat as Saktr and Siva, and is fully alive to the fact that the wine o which he is about to partake will make mamfest that bliss which is the Brahman within him He proceeds to purify the wine, he does no take any wine that has not been purified in the manner his Sastr' enjoins Every cup of wine is drunk with appropriate rites and the recitation of an apptopriate mantra Before drinking the first cup he says, "I adore this, the first eup of nectar held in my hand It # suffused with the nectar of the moon shining in the forehead of hol! Bhairava All the gods goddesses and holy men adore it. It is th ocean of bliss It uplifts the atman" These words are not to b repeated parrotlike, but with a consciousness of the truth of the word used, and the way this verse is worded in Sanskrit carries conviction ti the mind of the believer The uqal rule is that one may drink si long as one's vision is not affected and one's mind does not lose it steadiness An aspirant wi o is allowed to have ten cups meditates while drinking, en bis guru in the Sahasrara, the thousand petaller lotus in the head, and en the goddess in the heart, has his istha mantra at the tip of his tongue, and thinks of his oneness with Sia The rran who drinks the eleventh cup repeats the following mantra " am not the doer, nor do I make any one else do, nor am I the tlumg done I am not the enjoyer, nor do I make any one else enjoy, noi am I the object of enjoyment 1 am He (so'ham) Iam chit I an atman* These mantras have a thrce fold meaning The gross onei actual drinking of wine the subtle one is the drinking of the necta which flows from the union of the kundalimt (the coiled up power with siva in the Sahasrara , the third or transcendent one is the necta of happiness arising from the realisation of the urion of the Supremt Siva and the Supreme Saktr The Kularnava Tantra says that the wine which gladdens is the nectar which flows from the union of the Kundalm Sakti with Siva a' Sth srara in the head And he who drinks tlis drinks nectar and

216 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

THE MANTRA () MM HP Shastri in lus catalogue of Nepal MSP (Vol !) says, ' The mantras are generally given in mystic sentences, cach word of which represents some letter in the mantra This is the most mysterious and difficult, but one cannot help asking where the stupidity is THE SHAT CHAKRAS (c) This leads us to the six centres, which are 1 muladhara, which is the region of earth, 2 svadhishthana, which is just above the previous one and is the region of water, 3 mampura (fire) at the navel, 4 anahatt (an) 5 vishuddha (ether) at the base of the throat, 6 ajnna (psycluc) between the cybrows There are other centres beyond the ainna Opinion is divided as to the number of these chakras, some say that there are sixteen and others that there are The piercing (bheda) of the six chakras is a process whereby the elements of whch the body is composed are purified many

It is laid down that the attempt to pierce the chakras should be made under the immedmte guidance of the teacher for the least mistake may lead to disastrous results By this process the six paths (adhvans) that lead to a realisation of the Supreme are mastered They are kala (attribute) tattva (category) bhuvana (region) varna (letters), pada (words) and mantra The kalas are mvriti, pratishtha, vidya, santi and santyanta The tattvas aucording to the Saivas are thirty stx and according to the Vatshnavas thirty two The Samklıyas recogmze twenty four tattvas The tattvas of Prakritı are ten and those of Tripuri are seven The bhuvans according to some are the ethereal the aenal, the igncous, the witery and the earth region The Viyaviya Samluta, however, says thit the Jowest of these bhuvanas is muladhara and the huighe t unmanr It will be seen that whichever view be accepted the different bhuvanas are the different stages of the mind of the aspirint The virnas are the letters of the alphibet with the nasal bindu superposed, and the pidas are the words formed by the combination of letters The way of mantras means the wholc mass of mantras with their secret At the time of iitiation these paths are purified or mn other words, made clear by the teacher By this is meant that he shows how every letter of the alphabet, every word that is spoken every mantra that was discovered by any sage, mn fact every thing in existence points towards Brahman By reason of our own limitations we are unable to see Him although He is in and around us and is our very being SIVA AND SAKTI (d) The Tantra says that it is Saktr which is the matn factor in all forms of activity It is said that Siva withont Sakt is a lifeless corpse because wisdom cannot move without power He cannot even pulsate Though Saktt is gren this positien, it is at the <me time said that the relation between Siva who is the possessor of Siktt ind Saktı herself is one of idennty , the one cannot be without the other One cannot think of fire without the heat nor can one think of the moon without its beams The attempt to identify Saktr with womin is an error Siva is commonly said to be the male principle and

THE SAAKTA SYSTEM OF PHILOSOPHY 217

Saktı the female principle As a matter of fact they are reither male nor female nor neuter The man who worships the wisdom aspect of Reality, commonly called the male principle, is a Siva and he who worships the power aspect, or the female principle, is called a Sakti The worshippers of Siva worship him as the benign ruler of the unverse When we speak of his carrier (vahana), we say it is the vrisha The word in common parlance means a bull , but its primary significance is dhatma, the right path Siva as the ruler of the umverse rules according to dhatma To the common mind a formless, attributeless ruler is n comprehensible For the satisfaction of such a mind Siva is given a form and the bull is presented as his carrier The same man, under the guidance of a wise teacher, comes to know in time the true nature of Siva When siva is worshipped, his consort is also worshipped Siva is also worshipped Similarly, the wor- shtpper of Vishnu worships his consort Maha-Lakshmi when he wor- ships Vishnu Vishnu, is not different from Sıva The derivative mean- ing to the word 'Vishnu is that which pervades that all is To some minds the Vishnu aspect of Reality appeals as the proper way to realize the Supreme Brahman Varshnava worship differ Only the rituals in Satva and

The rttuals also differ in different parts of the country and, in fact, to sorre extent m different families in the same part of the country Visva-Durga, Siddu Durga and Agm Durga are mentioned in the Rig Veda Kal is another aspect of Sakti which has a very large folldwing There is a Tantra called the Mahakala Samhta consisting of about 1,25,000 verses This book, which has not yet teen printed, contains tformation concerning almost all forms of worship and is the most authortatne book for sages who are known as Kalikula sadhakas The Tantraraja is in the same way an authority for those who belong to the Sri kulla among the Saktas The man who has realzed that truth has no necessity to know any scriptures, like the man who having tested nectar to his heart's content has no necessity for food For the attamment of this the aspirant should carefully distinguish between two paths, one that of mineness (mamatva) and the other the opposite of that The first leads to bondage, the second to liberation The senses should be controlled and the mind freed from all attachment and concentrated on the Truth if liberation is to be attained This is effected by the certain knowledge that all our actions spring from the Supreme Being who is the cause of the universe and the abode of eternal bliss What- ever be the image we may use for the purpose of sadhana be it made of metal or clay, or formed in the mind, the alumate Reality is He alone

CHAPTER IX PHILOSOPHY OF SIDDHAS (Philysophy of the Siddhas-Goal of a Siddha -- Natha Siddhas and Raseswira Siddhas-Navikoti Siddhas -- Mular -- Bhoga -- Agastya Siddhas-Saivagimc and S iktagamic Siddhas- Theology of Siddhas- Tiurtytwo Upinishads) Q 129 Discuss the philosophy of Siddhas and state clearly the goal of a Siddha Ans A contemplation of the pai and desolation inseparable from death, and of the sudden standstill it occasions in the flow of life, brings with it the imperious question, Can this ugly death be dodged, if not wiped out" ano there is only the Siddha reassurngly to answer the question in the affirmative, since he says that death may either be put off ad libitum by a special cuuse of re strengthening ind revitalzing the body so is to put it permanently en rapport with the world of sense, (the view of the Rasesvara-Siddha and the Nitha Siddhi) or be ended definitely by dematerializing tnd spiritualzing the body, according to preseription, so that it disappears in time in a celestial form from the world of senses, and finds its permanent abode in the transcendental glory of God, (the view of the Maheswara Siddha) though of these two modes of deathlessness he would for obvious reasons, set the latter afore the former, unless he intended to keep in indefinitely long touch with the land of the living to serve a purpose of his own GOAL OF A SIDDHA A Siddhn par ercellence is one who has attaindd the power of pissing to the unseen, when his hour is struck, not by the portal of corporni death, but by an open vamshing from sight into space ; for, lus is a transmuted body, so immaculately ethereal in composition that death cannot touch it Indeed his body and soul have become an iseparable, homogencous whole, a veritable Leibntzian monad, for all ttme to come This Siddh (perfection) is true muktt (release) te , release from turning a corpse This is the goal of every Siddh1 the Siddhanta It is 1 secret, a mystery (rahasya) and is called the goal of the Aagamas, as the Pauramkas of the Suddhamnaya aver The selfsame Pauranikas also proclaim that Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanantana and Sanatkumara were the earhest sages to be initrated into the suddha marga of the Siddhas by God in human guise The Siddhas of the suddha marga, who therefore form the lineal sptritual descendants of those earliest God taught sages, constitute in reality the spiritual vanguard of the Aagamics and the Upinishadics The non Siddhn says that in order to cense to come to being

(218)

I HILOSOPHY OF SIDDIAS 219

the only course op.n is to attain spintual freedom in life and crown that hfe with bodity death, the Siddh fis down for reaching the same result that one must get over bodily death in hife itself according to prescription and live for ever The contention of the non Siddhi that a min in the flosh ceises to be further habited in the flesh by turning a corpse is regarded by them as fictitious ind idle A Siddha is untouched by the liws of animal economy by the very nature of his constitution is the substince thereof depends not on them He has towards the end of his transmigratory journey received at the hands of lns spiritual techer the necessary saving inittation into the mystery of converting his perishable body into i bocy untouched by the lats of ammal economy for the annulment of desth from his body He hs a preter naturaf ethereal body during the brief period of his stay in this world pending his final disapp-ar ance in spice hts ineffable spintuil body The man who fills down a corpse is no mukta whatever else he may be in the estimation of the world A true mukta is always a true Siddha and he openly overrides death as the result of his having arrived at the true end of his transmigratory journey , and onty when so overriding death cin ke be said to have left once for all the transmigratory circuit clein behind him and attumed the pleroms of salvition known to spiritual experience The Siddha is emphatic that when a man dies he is already habited in a new body, for the old body can fall off only in the presence of a new one the subtle body, of wluch the gross is the natural product and appointed protechve covering will not keep from mstinctively habiting itself in a fresl gross body when the cxisting one tends to give out from transmigritionat stress The triune natural body of man formed of impure matter (suddha maya) is divistble

subtle one into three inter connected vestures a gross, a subtle and a super The gross vesture (Sthula Sareera) is the outgrowth of the subtle (Sukshima Sareera) and the subtfe that of the super subtle (Karma Sareera) The trinsmigrational circuit when thorough, cleanses the substance of the triune body of its gross of impurity, and also unitizes she body by a process of regular reduction and telescope ment of the less subtle into the more subtle vesture The body meorruptible ts mmed 1 pranava tanu (body consist ing of Aum) as it draws its censeless nourishment from sources ambrosial which keeps it in excellent fitness for the purposes for which it is appoited to be used The man with the pravina tinu is known as a jivan mukta being in touch with both the world of impure matter ind the realm of pure spirit But his touch with the world of impure matter is bound to be only of short duration, as he is on his way to permanent spiritual freedom (para muktt) a state in which he will find himself sn the realm of pure spmrit in a transfeured body of glory and power nd of every point of contact with the world of matter pure and impure This transfiguration of the jivanmukti s body of suddha maya into the paramuktr s body of mht maya that is to say into the body of glory and power called the jnann tanu or

220 INDIAN PIIILOSOPHY

'spiritual body of the finally redeemed occurs when it the end of his stay in tls world mn his pranava tanu fos the sole purpose of guiding the spintuilly quabfied the jo inmukt permanently takes leave of the realm of matter sensible and insensible pure and impure and suddenly disappears with his body into spice in broad day I'eht Consequently the human bedy according to the teachings of the Siddha must in any event be purified and transmuted and transfieur- ed and made eternally into one with hft in the most uncompromising sense if denath which is only another name for the separtion of life from the body, and therefore metapsychosis is to be prevented for to speak as the non Siddha does of post moortem cendition as death less sounds hke a stuluifying if not mockine paradox where by huis own showing life has no co existent body to sive from or lose by death where in other words the sole objectie of the eru ade agamst transmgraton is wholly mssed by reason of the rddance of that very body through death and whiere nagun by his own showine it will be meaningless to think of hife siice hfe yer se is nlways deathless The great work therefore that hes before man the Siddha would aver is so to punfy lus bedy and sanctify his lift and integrate the two into an eternal monad tht body and I fe become one and identt cal that is to say absolutely proof against any ltability to ter mutual surrenderance known as death

The modus of the trinsmutation of the corruptible into an in corruptible body is in its essence preternl and mystic The transmu tation when complete does not outwardly interfere with the relatne disposttion to the bodily parts only vitality is mantfestly mamtained on a censeless supply of unseen extra physical nature with the result that the body as a whole suffers an ethereal change in composition though it seemingly wears itact its usual complexion features and form and presents no deviton from its wonted contour and that the unseen source of its nourishment is shifted by degrees to subtler and subtter planes of nature in direct touch with it within and without Though seemingly opaque the transubstuated body neither casts a shadow nor leaves a footprint A slashing sword plunging through it can no more make an impression upon it than upon the air It can not be feit by touch or handi ng Indeed its peculiarities may not be apprecmble or distmchve to a stranger who looks at it casually and does not have an opportunity to come into any close relat on with it The effect of the transmutation of the body into the mantra tanu (body consist ng of the sacred formula) is in sum very far reaching for it empties the refined body made up of impure maya of the rem nants of its ponderous corruptible letiferous fifelong matertal and charges it instead with imponderable incorruptible deathless ethereal substance ind thus makes of it a fitt ng tab-rnacle of purity and in corruption for the indwelling life which through all the period of the transmigrational catharsis and the transubstantiative transformition of the body has been rising from glory to glory i1 increase of cons ciousness in depth of holiness ind in r chness of grace But i the final consummation of the processes which are at the back of this

222 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

the Doab or Antarvedt , an order of spagyrists who ichieve the samc result by reverberating clenning and 'projecting' the body with the help of a special elixir vitne prepired out of the blended ends of mica and ends of mercury According to a Viramahesvara chssic in Sansknt Goraksha the said Natha Siddha lived even about the middle of the twelfth century A D in the hilly Srisdam woods south of the Tungabhadra when he hid the good fortune to come in contact with a remarkable Mahesvra Siddha of the suddha marga habited in the preternatural ethereal body of a jivinmukta, and to recene from hm saving mitiation into the lughest mysteries of genuine jivanmukti and prramukti NAVAKOTI SIDDHAS (b) Each of the nine Natha Siddhas is generally held to stand at the head of a supra longeval community of ten million expert alche mists past masters in the preparation of unfailing antidotes against old agc, discases ind poisons There are thus nine communities, minety million strong in toto, corresponding to the nine Natha Siddhas, and these ninety milhon atidotal atchemists bear the collective name "Navakott Siddhas" In the view of some, however, these Navakoti Siddhas bear corelation to the Navaoatha Siddhas, but merely constt- tute a most numerous fraternity of nine distinct orders each of them more or less nkin m its outlook and tradition, to a definite disciplinary phase or experimental rule of the Rasesvara Siddhas A third Vew which is perbaps the most popular, holds these same ninety million Siddhas to be a band of death defying theriacal and the rapeutic al chemists indebted in all respects to Bhoga, as per Christian Taoist im migrant from Chma, who in hts methods of keying up the body of impure matter through 'reverberation and projecuon to the pitch of prictically cancellng demise merely sought to promulgate the lesser athanasic precepts of Lao tse, since the vital objective of the Tao Tel King is the trasfiguration of the immortalized ethereal body into a permanent girment of celestial virtue, in order to fit it to associate to eternity with To There is again, a further tradition that a Chinese Taoist Bhoga taught the suddha marga of the Siddhas to both Saiva gamics and Saktagamics in South India, mnety million in number, and was for that reason responsible for the founding of two suddha marga orders of Aagamic Siddhas, tinctured with the lugher esoteric of Taoism ASHTADASA SIDDHAS (c) The time honoured assemblage destgnated the Ashtadisa- Siddhas comprising eighteen Maheswara Siddhas of the suddha- marga is made up for the most part of people of South Indian origin, though it his also been customary to loosely envisage under the same designation any eighteen individuals as suits one s fancy or interest, from out of a mixed congeries of about sixty influential Siddhas of diverse vogue discipline and domicile The four classical Southern apostles of Aagamic Saivism, forming a class by themselves by reason of their outstanding spirtual powers and graces, to wit, Manivachaka,

224 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

South India from the trans-Himlayin North on a self imposed muission The wide mfluence which Bhoga wielded as the protagonist of soul-culture on the lines of the suddha margi, which replaces corporal death by transmigration and translation, is obvious from the sigmificant traction, which still holds in many parts of South India SAIVAGAMIC AND SAKTAGAMIC SIDDHAS () Among the Saivagamic disciples, Malikadeva, who founded a monastic order of hts own, was the foremost, and among those of Saktacamic persuasion the celebrated Garbhapurisha (also noticed atready under the Tamil form of hts name Karuvirar) became mn tur the head of a mendicint school of athanasic spirtual disciplme worked dierse miricles including those of raising men women and animals from the dead, and finally disppeared in the sight of all

THEOLOGY OF THE SIDDHAS Q 131 State and examine the sources of the theology of Siddhas Ans The whole of the disciphnal scaramental, mystical and dogmatic sections of the theology, developed in the Kaladahana Tantra of the Kamikagama and the Mrityunsaka Tantra of the Vyayagama Is sard to be taken up with a full dress exposition of the diverse suddht marga disciplines for the attainment of the Siddht of siddhis tz 'the spiritul liberition of man by his monndic transfiguration and translation of broad day light A multum in parvo resume of the suddha margı doctrine is avaiable in Kumaradeva's suddha sadhaka to which perhaps may be linked, as a useful supplement Ravana radhya's Sivajnanadipa, the former treatise indicating, however, in the most summary and general way, the Aagamic and the Uptnishadic sources for the doctrine The best modern expounder of the doctrine for the cultured Tamil reader is Pandıt S Kandayya Pillai of Tenkovai (Jaffna), who in the philosonjucal Weekly named Vittugam, published from Pondicherry and addressed to the suddha marga of the Siddhas has been providing the interest public with a ceseless supply of informative discourses on the several aspects of the subject dlustrating them with numerous annotated quotations from relevant sources mn Tamil An earher promulgator of the suddha marga teaching of the Siddhas was the late Pandit T Velayudha Mudalyr (1832 1889) of the Madras Presidency College, an ardent votiry of the great poct- Chidambaram Ramalmgaswamı (1823 1874) who according to a memoir preficed to a collected edition of his works, departed this life without leiving a cadaver belmnd

UPANISHADS Q 132 "The objective of the Agamas is, in the belief of the Siddha of Suddh amarga not different from the most sac red and spiritual parts of the Upanshad ' Discuss Ans In the opinion of the students of the suddha marga, there

CHAPTER X THE PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDHISM The Phllosophy of Buddlusm-The Historic Buddha 2. The Goal of Buddhusm -- Reason and Faith-Tripitaks-Summon- Bonum-Idol Worslup-Prayer-Miracles-Toleration-Missionary Spirit-Arts and Sciences-Superiority of Buddhusm 3 Moralnty- The Ten Impediments (Kusalas)-4. Caste System 5 Status of Women tn Buddism-6 The Four Great Truths-7 Asceticism- The Middle Path-8 The Democracy in Sangha 9 The Noble Eight Fold Path-Ten Impediments-10 Karma-11 The Absolute -* 12 Personlity 13 Death and After 14 Nırvanı-Dharmakaya ) THE HISTORIC BUDDHA Q.133 Give a brief account of the life of Buddha, the preacher and founder of Buddhism, Ans Buddhism is now the religion of nearly one fourth of the world's population. It fourished in Hindustan for over a thousand years It has left a lasting influence on Hinduism and the customs and manners of Hindu It is therefore necessary that the student of philosophy should be well acquainted with the philosophy of Bud- dhism. Buddhism, or, as it ts known among its followers, the Dharma, is the religion preached by the Buddha A Buddha is one who has attained Bodhu By Bodhi is meant an ideal state of intellectual ethical perfection, which can be attamed by man by purely human means Of the many that have attamed Bodhi, the one best known to huistory is Gautama Sakyamunı. The Buddha nowhere claims to be anything more than a haman being No doubt we find him a full and perfect man All the same he is a man among men He does not proclaim himself a saviour who will take upon himself the sins of tnose that follow him He professes no more than to teach men the way by which they can liberate them- selves as he has liberated himself. He distinctly tells us thit every one must bear the burden of his own salvation, that not even a God can do for man what self-help in the form of self emancipation can accomplish The Buddha says to Aananda, one of his beloved disciples "Hold fast to the Dharma as a lamp Hold fast to the Dharma as a refuge. Look not for refuge to any one besides yourselves The personality that dominates Buddhism is not Sakyamunt but the Buddha Yet the personality of the great Teacher is not without value In so far as that personalty is the practical embodiment of (226)

TIIC PIILOSOPHY OF BUDDHISW 227

his teachings, it serves as a model for the disciple to imitate and follow The Buddh's mind in hls absolutely great compassion for all beings.

Gautam Sakyamun's dignified bearing, hugh intellectual endowments, hs penetrating glance, his oratorical power, the firmness of his convictions, hts gentleness, kindness and ltberality, and the attractiveness of his character all testify to his greatness In him were umted the truest princily qualties with the intelligence of a sage and the passtonate devotion of a martyr Though born of an aristo- Cratic and ruling class Gautam Buddha lived the ide of an ordinary man discarding the parrow distinction of caste, rank and wealth He Anew the world He was son, husband, father, and devoted friend He was not only a man, but never professed to be anything more than a man He gave a trial to the creeds of lus ancestors, but ultimately made for himself a nobler fatth His teaching was perfect but never pretended to be a supernatural revelation He did not doubt the capacity of man to understand the truth, and never had recourse to the art of exorcism He based all his reasoning on the fact of man's exstence, and developed his practical philosophy by the observation and minute study of human nature In an age mnocent of science he found for the problems of the Whence, the Whither and the Why solutions worthy of a scientific age. His aim was to rescue mankind from the fetters of passion and to convinco them of an ideal higher than mere worldly good He preached the gospel of renunciation attainble a seunsciation which did not lead one to the dreamy quietism of panthetic or nihslstic and ethical enlightenment so as to bring one to the love of afl beigs by faith in an cternal Dharmalaya.

228 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

all forms of antmal life In both these forms the personal god Siv and the incarnated Vishnu are his counterparts and have ultimatel superseded lum Siva is the Buddhr in his character of a jog Vishnu is the Buddha in his character of a beneficent and unselfis friend of the human race Siva and Vishnu stowly replaced Agr and Indra, the favourite derties of the Vedic pantheon No teacher was so godless as Lord Buddha yet none so godlik Though the master of all he was the universal brother of eact Though exalted and adored he never arrogated to himself divinity

THE GOAL OF BUDDHISM Q 134 Is Buddhism a system of Philosophy an practical ethics, or a religion ? Discuss

Discuss the important characteristics of Buddha s phik sophy Ans The answer to this question will depend upon th definition of the term religion If by religion is meant somethmn wluch inspires man with enthusmsm and fervour, which imples him t seek that which is regarded as the best , which places before hm th lughest idea of perfection and lifts him above the level of ordmar goodness and produce a yearning after a higher and better life , whic' springing up as an aspieation in the humin mind, blossoms int forgetfulness of self and service of fellow beings than Buddhim 1 certainly a religion, as a it has given enthusiasm for virtue and spiritut joy for nearly five hundred millions of the world's population and ha served to carry men through material pains ind evils ind make ther good, kind generous pure and loving Buddhism rejects all deper dence on the supernatural and requires man to depend upon bimsel for salvation from the miseries of life The most striking feature o Buddhism is that it eschews all hypotheses regarding the unknown and concerns itself wholly with the facts of life in the present work a day world The starting point ftom Buddhism is not dogma or belief in th supernatural, but the fact of the extstence of sorrow and suffering no merely the sorrow ind suffering of the poor and the wretched but alsi of those that live in the lap of luxury Its goal is not heaven or i union with God or Brahman but to find a refuse for man from th miseries of the world in the safe heaven of an intellectual and ethica life through selfconquest and self culture The Buddhist 1 not concerned so much with the nature of the world as with it practical interpretation In so for as he beleves that 1 certan correlation of moral forces determines the propriety and effectivenes of a certam type of living he is indeed religious If he does no belteve in an independent, objectivelv existent supernatural personalty he beleves in Dharmakaya a reality practically recogmsed in respec to its ultimate attitude to his ideals and this behalf serves as much t conserve as the belief in in actual personal God

230 INDIAN PHILOSOPIY REASON AND FAITH Though the Dharma does not ask you to believe blindly st II lays great stress upon the cultivation of faith (sraddha) enables man to arrnge ind systematise knywledge so as to constrt White reas fatth gives him dutermination to be true to his convictions and ide. But reason without faith would turn a man into a machine witl o enthusiasm for his ideals Renson seeks dismnterestedly to real: richt order where it is not but faith gives character and strengtht will to break through the five hindrances of mental sloth lust mabe spirtunl pride and pyrrhonism While reason rejoices in the trutt it has already found faith gives confidence and helps it onwardt further conquests to aspire after the attunment of what has not y been attamed to work strenuously forthe realsation of what has nc yet been realised It is fuith alone that can transform cold abstrac rationalism into 1 rel gion of fervent hope and love Not only 1 there nothing m Buddlusm which is opposed to futh whose rssen ei of the nature of trust but it was also in Buddhist circles that bhakt 1 loving devotion or futh first grew up from the loving devotion t the great Master who was t rel personahty It is through faith in the Buddhr that the Japanese Buddis relies upon Amita Buddha with lns whole heart for his salvation in tle future ind rejects all ritual and observinces and keeps the Jaws laid down for his duty Faith concerved as confidence or trust is the mother of all activities towards the reahzation of an ideal

TRIPITAKA Q 135 Write a short note on Tripitaka Ans The Buddhists all over the world possess books called the Triphitaka which are divided in to Sutri Vinayr ind Ablu dharma the first containing the conversations of the Buddha with some one of his audien e the second the discipline establ sl ed by huim for his ordlined disciples and the Ist that the discussion by fnown uthors on philosop ueal subjects But eversinc. the earhest times the Buddhist brotherhood has been divided mto many schools and sects ; There have been four mkyns and eigliteen sects In each cect again there have been Sautrantıkas Vainayikas and Anbhıdharmıkas The Sautrantikas and the Aabhidharmikis of one and the same sect have never ag eed with erch other and the Sautran tikas of one have been opposed by those of a rival sect Even at the present dry the Buddhists may be clissifi d into three groups the southern who tbide in Ceylon Burma Srm and Anm tl e Northern Manchuria Mingolia ind Siberm and the eastern who are found in Japan and Formosa The Southern Buddhists follow th Hinayana or the Lesser Vehuele the northerns are Lamaistie and lu, ty nturh stic and the eastern are followers of the Mahnyana or the Greiter Vehcle Now the Trip takt of the Hinayamkas is not the same 15 that of the Mahyirikas In this maze what shall be our guide ?

232 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Though the Grent Teicher has entered Nirvana, yet image exists, and we should reverse it with zeal as though in his very presence Thosc who constantly offer incense and flowers to it are enabled to purfy their thoughts and those who frequently bithe this image ire enabled to overcome therr sins that involve them mn darkness strai sud the regent of Tibet to Col Younghus band , When Buddh In the same

sts look upon an image of the Buddha they put astde thought of strife and think only of peac. ' If the life of the Blessed One gives to the simple ind weak more than philosophy gives to the wise, why should they not revere his image ? The image of the Buddha combines in its appearance wisdom be devolence and victory-the wisdom of a phlosopher tl e benevolence of a redeemer and the triumph of a hero All perfections are collected in the holy tmage-perfect power, perfect virtue, infinte compassion mfinte boldness mfmte knowledge It is not the image or relic that is adored but the Dharmakay which for human frulty is represented by the imnge or relic But the reverence paid to the imnages or the relics of the Blessed One there is no mpht cation of grace of Providence of recompense effected by n God or of succour furnished by a saviour is categoricaily discarded by the Buddhtsts On the other hand such a notion As the commentator on the Bodhicharyavıtırı says 'Sukhasya dhukasya no kopi data parodadatitt kubaddhiresha * It is a foolish iden to suppose that another can cause us happiness or misery The result of devotion is independent of the object worshiped and is entircly subjective Says Nagasena in Millndapanha . 'Men by offering reverence to the relics of the jewel treasure of the wisdom of the Tathagatta though he has died away and accepted tt not cause goodness to arise within them ind by that assuage and allay the torment of the threefold fire What one may adore what one may worship matters httle, what matters is the heart ind devotion with which one worships Devotion is beneficial and salutary, because it favours humility and destrovs the thought of self DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DEVOTION AND WORSHIP The difference between the devotion and worship of the Buddf st and the Hindu is seen in the contrast between a Burmese and a Hindu temple. The one has its image of the Buddha serene and placid reflecting on the tlusions of tlus life and crying from myraid shrines 'Heal your wounds ye wounded and eat your fill you hungry Rest ye wery, and ye who are thirsty, quench your thirst Look up to the light ye that sit in darkness Be of good cheer ye that are forlorn yourselves The Blessed One never isisted on the sinfuiness and weakness of man but always mspired Ins foltowers with conft dence in therr mnnte goodness and strength Hence the Buddhist looks for salvation not through the redemption of a supernatural being but by self exertion and self illumintion MIRACLES (c) The posuibility of icquiring wonderfut powers by wholly natural means is not denied The Buddha is described in the fegend as

THE PHILOSOPINY OF OF BUDDISM 233

acquiring the sn abhynas with the attainment of perfect enlighten- ment Further, the legend speaks of the concurrence of wonderful natural phenomena, such as earthquakes and thunderstorms, with events of extraordinary ethical significance Still the disciples of the Buddha are not permitted under any circumstances to work wonders or boist of supernatural powers to rarse themselves in the esteem of others The legend says that Pindola, being challenged by hieretics to work a miracle, flew up into air, and brought down an alms bowl wich had been fixed on a pole, The Buddha reproved hum for this and forbade his disciples to work miracles for display On one occasion some of his adherents entreated the Buddha to permit lus missionaries to work wonders, as that Buddha to permit hus missiona- res to work wonders, is that would elevate them in the eye of others The Buddha replied as follow, (Kevada Sutta) There are three kinds of miracles The flrst is the miracle of power, in which extraordinary power is manifested, as in walking on water, exercising devils, raising the dead and so forth When the believer sees such things his faith may besome deepened, but it would not convince the unbeliever, who might think that thesc things arc done by the aid of magic I, therefore see danger in such miracles, and I regard them as shameful and repulsive The second is the miracle of prophecy such as thought rending, sooth saying fortune telling etc Here also there would be disappoitment, for these too in the eyes of the unbeliever would be no better than extraordinary magic of instrucation The last is the miricle When any of my disciples brines round a man by instruction to rightly employ his intelle tual and ethical powers, that is the true miracle' Conversion by miracle, by oratory, through sorrow or emotional exhaustion, cannot be permanent, and is there fore equnalent to no comersion to all Hence, the Blessed One, without denying the possibility of conversion by fortuttous accidents (samvega), forbids the making of converts by all other means than argument and instruction TOLERATION

all fanaticism (D) Of Buddlusm alone can it be affirmed that it is free from Its aim being to produce in every man a th yrough internal trinsformtion by self-culture and self conquest how can it have recourse to micht or money or even persuation for effecting conversion The Buddhist kings of the world have been the most tolerant and benian Emperor Asoka, though an ardent Buddhist himself showered his gifts on the Brahmans, the Jains the Aajivakis as well s the Buddhists In hts twelfth rock edict Asoka says , * Whosoever ratses his own sect to the skies and disparages all other sects from special attachment to his own with a view to encourage it, does there bv murh harm to his own sect A century after Kamshka, Vikrama- ditva king of Sravashtr became a persecutor of the Buddhists. According to the Sankaravysya king Sudhanvan issued the followine munstion to his pcopte ' From the bridee (of Rami m Cevlon) to the Himalavas who does not slay the Boddhists both old and young shall be slun." The mere fact of entering a Baddhtst

236 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

logic by their books on Praman Vararuchi, Jayadıtya, Vamanı, Chandta wrote on grammar Vyadı and Amarsimha produced lext cons All sciences and arts were studied in the clief centres of Buddhist civilization, such as the great Buddhist uniersity of Nalanda

When Buddhism took root m China, it started a new develop ment and gave such a great impetus to Confucianism as to produce in it some deep thinkers like Lnh Stang San, Chu Tze and Wan Yang Ming Wherever Buddhim entered into the hife of a people, it always gave them refinement ind embellishment All the refinements of the Japnese life were of Buddist introdue- tion and at least a majority of its diversions and pleasures There is even to day scarcaly one interesttnz or beautiful thing produced in the country, for wluch the mation is not in some sort indebted to Buddhism

SUPERIORITY OF BUDDHISM Q 137 State and Criticise the Superiority of Buddhism and discuss its missionary spirit Ans The tree is known by its frutts, Buddhism put reason in the place of authority , it discarded metaphysieal speculation to mike room for the practical realties of life , it roised the self perfected sae to the position of the gods of theolegy , it set up a spirituil brotherhood in place of hereditary preisthood, it replaced scholts ticism by a popular doctrine of righteousness, it introduced 1 communal life in the place of isolated anchoret life, it infused a cosmopolitan spint agunst nationl exclusiveness It msists faith stripped of dogmatism , it inspires enthustasm freed from fanaticism, it gives strength bereft of violence , it rouses idealism uncoupled with visionariness , it evokes naturalness eschewing matermlism , it allows liberty avoiding lcense , it demands self-sncrifice rejecting asceticism . it inculeates purito discarding austeries, it creates saitliness devord of morbidtty Dogma and miracle and wisdom to the Christians , kismet and fanaticism are wisdom to the Moslem caste ind cere- monnbsm are wisdom to the Brabmn , ascehieism and mkedness are wisdom to the Jai , Mysticism and magic are wisdom to the Taoist formalism and outward piety tre wisdom to the Confucian , ancestor- worship and loyalty to the Mikado are wisdom to the Shintois , but fove and purity are the first wisdom to the Buddhist To work of the Japanese Shuntorsts Islam was perpetuated by persecusion and blood shed Christmnity has cost two thousand years of war, p*r- secution, millons of money and theusands of humin lives But Buddhism, even where it wis persecuted, has never persecuted in

Blessed One in the Sadharmipundriki Sutra return Compare with these words the following admonition of the is my robe ; and voidness (self lessness) is my seat ; let (the preacher) take his stand on this and preach When clods, sticks, prkes or ubsusive words, or

THE PHILOSOPHY OF BUQDHISM 237

threats fall to the lot of the preacher, let hum be patient thinking of me " The model placed before the Buddhist preacher is Purna, an emancipated slave, who, after becoming a rich merchant, renounced everything and became a blukshu When he was informed of the perils of his enterprise to preach the Dharma to a wild tribe, he replied , "When I am reproacbed, I shall think withln myself that these are certamly good people, since they do not beat me If they begin to beat me with fist, I shall think they are mild and good, because they do not beat me with clubs If they proceed to this, I shall think that they are excellent, for they do not strike me dead If they kill me, I shall die saying 'How good they are in freeing me from this miserable body ' Of this Universal forgiveness, the practical result is tolerance MISSIONARY SPIRIT The missionary impulse of Buddlusm is a product sui generis The psychology of Buddhism leads to those untversal relations between man and man, which are summed up in the idea of brother- hood And it is this universal idea which produces the universal feeling termed the missionry motive Of all the gifts the gift of the Dharma is the greatest 'Go ye O bhukshu for the benefit of the many, for the welfare of mankind, out of compassion for the world Preach the doctrine which is glorous in the beginning, glorious in the latter," and glorious mn the end in the spirit as in the middle Pro- clum to them a life of holiness Such were the loving words addressed by the Exalted One to lus disciples In strict accordance with this mandate, the disciples of the Great Teacher have also considered others first and themselves ifterwards Forgetful of home, ready to meet death, indifferent to renown or failure, they have laboured to open the eyes of the crowds deceied by false tenching To spread the holy doctrine they travelled Over lands ind seas, crossed through snowy mountuns and sandy deserts, braved all toils and dangers The name of Kumarajıya Fa Hian, Yuan Chuang, HuiShen Dipankara Srignana are sufficient evidence of the strength and enthusiasm which the Dharmi ean mspirc mnto the minds of its adherents Not to adventitious state influence but to its spintual potency and superior faculty of transmission is due the rapid spread of the Dharma in the lands to which it has been carried Witnout the aid of the sword, of Maxim guns or howitzers, Duddhusm carried its message of peace and goodwill to the barbarous hordes of the most populous parts of Asta and civilized them It was tts bengin tolerance that enabled Buddhism to accommodate stself to the minds and wiys of animistic and incestor-worshipping races and vastly elevate them in the scale of crvlization

ARTS AND SCIENCES

in Buddhism Q 138 Discuss briefly the place of Arts and Sciences

Ans A tingible way m which a religion manifests its actual

238 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

mfluence upon civilization is art The great glory of Buddhism is that it has always miistered to the satisfaction of aesthetic aspira Wherever Buddhism has prevailed artistic pagodas vast vibaras beautiful stupas have come into existence Some of the tions

Buddlust carvings are the finest that India has yet produced and are masterpreces in point of style and technique unsnrpassed by any of their kind in the ancient world The finest buildmes in Chuina and Japan are the Buddhist temples The beauty and charm of the frescos of Ajanta painted by artists whom Mr J Griffiths regards out his slvation the Buddhist must renounce all selfish desires and hve to build up a character of which the outward signs are purity of heart compasston for all courage and house mates in possessing their behefs n peace Of Buddlusm alone can it be said that it has discared all ammsm all dogmatism all sensualty all ceremonihsm that it conststs in chrity and benevolence self den al and self consercration It alone teaches that there is hope for man only in man and that that love is false which clings to love for selfish sweets of love

MORALITY Q 139 What are the ten transgressions required to be avoided for good conduct according to Buddhism

Discuss the ten precepts (Kauslas) taught by Buddha to Or

his followers for salvation Ans The goal of Buddhism is the freedom from sorrow and suffering This cannot be attained except by the destruction of all selfish cravings The self as such manifests its activity in trishna or grasping desire If the self is to be anmhilated trishna must be suppressed All acts of human beings become evil by ten transgressions and by the avoidance of these their conduct becomes good These ten transgressions are the three sins of the body the four s ns of the speech and the three sins of mind The three sins of the body are murder theft and adultery The four sins of speech are lying slander abuse and idle talk The three smns of the mind are covetousness hatred and error If a man having such faults ? says the Blessed Onc does not repent but allows nis heart to remain at rest sins will rush upon him like water to the sea When vice has thus become morc powerful it is still harder than before to nbandon it If t bad man becoming sensible of his faults abindons them and acts virtu ously, lus sins will by and by diminish and be destroyed till he obta hs full enlightenment Accordingly the Enlightened One tauglit ten precepts for tl e guidance and salveation of his followers The Ten Preccpts (Kusalas) are as follows I From the meanest worm up to man you shall kill no anumat whatsoever but shall have regard for all life

240 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

sexual love, which is regarded as a hndrance (samyojana) to spiritual progress The latter represents the natural affection and friendhness such as exists between parents and children, or brothers and sisters But, as this is not completely free from the taint of selfishness it is not considered the highest ideal Maitri represents the perfection of loving kindness, as it "does not cling to love for selfish sweets of love ' From maitri ortginate karuna (compassion) and mudita (good will), and therefore it is higher than both of these all gifts, are nothing compared to a loving heart All pious deeds

X You shall free your mind of ignorance and be anxious to learn the truth, lest you fall a prey to doubt which will make you in- different or to errors which will lead you astray from the noble path that leads to blessedness and peace

Q 140 Sum up in brief the ethical and moral principles of Buddhism Ans Buddhusm does not insist upon the acceptance of a revealed truth for the sake of eternal salvation Intellectual convic- tion is the corner stone of Buddhism Hence there is in Buddhism nothing uncongemiil to the modern spirit of scientific search, the patient and impartial search after lidden truth, not so much from a craving for knowledge as for promoting human welfare Though there are neither rewards nor punishments in a future world yet there is the law of cause and effect, whose sway in the domain of ethics is as powerful as in the domain of consequences of karma and vipaka, of seeing in every phenomenon a 'reaping of some prevtous sowing The tiger will necessartly be hunted down, and the criminal will necessarily be puhished Whosoever is punished for his misdeeds suffers his injury, not through the ilf wilf of others, but through his own evil doing Even undetected criminal does not escape the effect of his decds If he is not one of those pitiable pithologica cases, if his longings, impulsec, and ideals are those which inspire the average man, he cannot escape the misery flowing from his misdeeds As the Milindaprasna says 'Even could one have kept it secret from

could not have escaped oneself from the knowledge of one's sin On men could one have kept it secret from the gods yet one

doing evil a man becomes filled with remorse and the heart of him who feels remorse cannot get away from the thought of the evil he has done and obtains to pence miserable, burning abandoned of hope he wastes away, and giving no relief from depression he is as it were, possessed with his woe" Jean vat Jean may become Father Midelaie,, but hie cannot escape the pangs ef memory Nor can it be doubted that the criminal, though he may get on well for some time, will in the long run be eliminated from off the face of the earth as surely as the tiger is being eliminated now Such elimination is but a part of the eternal inevitable scquence that leads man in the end to wisdom and peace

TAE PHILOSOPAY OF BUDDHISMI 241

Man desires to get rid of the sorrows and sufferings of this life he desires to enoy endless bliss How can he attam this ? First of all, as the Bodhicharyavatara argues, punyam makes the body happy If a man is compassionate and servceable to others, they will not prove a source of trouble to him No man can realise all his desires without the help of others. Hence if he desires without the help of others Fe must have sympathy and compasston for them As they also desire happtness, I e must endeavour to get rid of their sufferings

same way as the suffering of one's foot affects one's hand Though and sorrows Hon can the suffering of one affect another 7 In the

the body consists of different parts, we treat it as one and protect it Similarly there may be different beings in this world, still they should all be treated as one for all are endeavouring to avoid suffering and attam happmess One's body is the product of the combmation of the sperm and the germ of others, but by custom one speaks of one s

where is the difficulty of regarding the bodies of others as one's own ? own If what is the product of others can be regarded as one's self,

That one is afways the some person is not true ; yet one magmnes him- self to be the same person Is it more diffcult to imagine one's one- ness with others 9 If there as no atman all beigs are cqually void Is not then the fundamental oneness of all beings obvious (paratma samata) 7 Such is the manner in which the Buddhist argues For the ordinary Buddhist the doctnxe of Karma mny serve as the all-impor- tant motive force for the moral life But for the wise man the mam- stay of morahty is the internal perception of nairatmya, the realization of the selfiessness (sunyntal of all beings and the consequent funda- mental equafity of all beings with one another It is this realization which forms the well sprring of the cheerfulness (mudita), compassion (karuna), and benevolence (mattri), which are the bases of all good deeds As the generations before him have contributed to his being, so can he also contribute to the well being of future generattons If the individual desires perpetual life he can secure it onty by living in the whole and for the whole Hence what is good for all mankind, what creates better copditions for r's extstence and rts petfection, is also good for the indrvdual What jeopardises the life of humanity or degrades it is also bad for him A perfect humanty is his keaven a decaying humanity is his hell To preserve and enhance the worth of human afe as urtue , to degrade luman'y and lead it to perdichon ts ViCC If a man desires to hasten his delirerance from sorrow and suffering, he must necessarly follow the laws of the good. This motive is indeed individualistic, but it alone can werk with dynamic A man will necessardy destst from muring others, if he sees clearly that huis interests are bound up with thens. He will even precision

forego some of his own good for he sake of others, if the is sure that his sacrifices redound to lus own advantage A man will not hate luts enemy, if he knons that the love of hus enemy will carry him forward to bodhı No man loves others merelv from his love for them. On

44Z INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

the other hand he Joves others because for some reason they please Ium In the Bribadaranyaka Upamshad Yagnavalkya says rightly to his wife Maitreyi, 'Not out of love for the husband is a husband loved but the husband is loved but for love of self Children are loved, not out of love for childred, but for love of self Wealth rs loved, not out of love for wealth, but for love of self The preistly order is loved, not out of love for that order, but for love of self The order of the warnor is loved, not out of Jove for that order, but for love of self but for love of self The state are loved, not out of love for the states The gods are loved, not out of Jove for the gods, but for love of self Existence is loved not out of love for existence but for love of self Not out of love is any loved, but for love of sell are all loved ' In Buddhism morality rightly rests on individualism, and altruism becomes applied individualism No more solid basis can be found in this world for the love of one s neighbour than the love of one's self The end and aim of man cannot be the acquisition of wealth or the satisfaction of natural inchnations But, as the Dharma teaches, it is the attamment of that perfection which consists in 1 perfect beauty, 2 perfect wisdom, 3 perfect goodness, and 4 perfeci freedom Can this faith in the future perfection of mankind inspire man with enthusiasm ? Yes it has acted in the past as an impelling force leading mankind upward Nay more, lustory proves how men have sacrificed therr blood, and their every thing for idealsm

CASTE SYSTEM 141 Write a short notes on (a) Caste system, and, (b) Status of woman in Buddhism Ans (a) The Buddha broke down the barriers of caste and preached the equality of all mankind He proclaimed * My dharm1 is a dharma of mercy of all Proclaim it freely to all men tt will cleanse the good and evil, the rich and poor alike , it is as vast as the spaces of heaven that excludes none Whoever is compassionate will feel the longing to save not only humself but all others He will cay When others are following the Dharma I shall rejoice at it, as if it were myself When others are without it, I shall mourr to himself

the loss as my own We shall do much, if we delver many , bul more if we cause them to deliver others and so on without end' So shall the healing word embrace the world, and all who are sunk in the ocean of misery be saved " Working in this spirit the Dharma becomes a religton for all and has spread over vast tracts in Asta, India, Burma, Ceylon, Tibet, China, and Japan, and is slowly leavemng the thought and life of Europe and America May we not hope for the day when its humanising mnfluence will be so far reachine and deep that the prejudices of class and colour which still persist in various quarters will be forced into the limbo of forgotten thing

THE PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDHISM 243

() STATUS OF WOMAN IN BUDDHISM Speaking of the influence of Buddhism on the Burmese, Talboys Whecler says : "Their wives and daughters are not shut pp as orisoners in the inner apartments, but are free as air to take their pleasure on all occasions of merry-making and festivals. Courting time is an institution of the country. On any evening hat a damsel is desirous of receiving company she places her lamps n her window, and puts fresh flowers in her hair, and takes her seat Ipon a mat. Meantime the young men of the village array themselves n their best. and ray a round of visits to the houses where they see hat a lamp is burning. In this manner attachments are formed; ind instead of arbitrary unions between boys and girls, there are narriages of allection between young women and young men, in which neither parents nor priests have voice or concern."

THE FOUR GREAT TRUTHS

ìhism. Q. 142. Set out briefly the "Four Noble Truths" of Bud- (Gujarat 1962, Karnatak: 1965)

State and explain the four noble truths as propounded by Buddha. (Poona 1963, Jodhpur 1965, Mysore 1962)

Explain the four noble truths taught byBuddha and Or

point out their significance. (Madras 1962)

What are the four noble truths of Buddhism ? How were Or

hey arrived at and what is their significance ? (Osmania 1902) Ans. The main teachings of the Dharma have been summarised by the Blessed One in four propositions, which are generally known is the Four Great Truths er affirmations (Chatvari aryasatyant). They contain en a nutshell the philosophy and the moralty of Bud- dhism. They are as follow : 1. The first great truth is that misery, that is to say, pain and suffering (dukkham), is associated with all stages and conditions of conscious life. Birth is suffering * age is suffering; illness is suffering ; death is suffering. Painful, it is not to obtain what we desire. Painful again it is to be joined with that which we do not like. More painfut stifl is the separatton from that which we love. H1. The second great truth is that the canse of misery (dukha 1 samudayo) is Trishna, the grasping desire to live for selfish enjoyment. Sensations (vedana), begotten by the surrounding world, create the illusion of a separate self. This illusory self manifests its activity in a cleaving to things for selfish enjoyment which entangles man in pain and suffering. Pleasure is the deceitful siren which lures man to pain

244 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

III The third great truth is that emancipation from misery (duhkha nirodho) is possible by abandoning selfish crivings (upadanas) When all selfish cravings are destroyed there is necessarily an end of suffering All selfish craving arises from want and so long as it is not satisfied it leads to pam Even when it is satisfied this satis faction is not lasting for this very satisfaction gives rise to new needs and therefore to new sorrows The entire essence of man seems to be an unquenchable thirst for a thousand wants How else could he get rid of sorrow but by abandoning this thirst 7 IV The fourth great truth ts that the Noble Eightfold Path (arya ashtanga margam) is the means by which man can get nd of all selfish cravings and attam perfect freedom from suffering He who has fathomed the Dharma will necessarily walk in the right path, and to him salvation is assured The e four great truths form what may be called the articles of the Buddhist creed Buddha taught that misery and suffering were not the result of the wrath of gods, but that they were the consequence of man s ignorance of huis own nature and his surroundings Just before his death the Buddha said Everything that lives whatever it be, Is subject to the law of destruction , the law of things 'combined is to 'seprrate Evolution takes place through all forms from the minerals through plants and all kinds of animal forms until perfection is reached into Buddha * All trees and grass, these shall also become Lord Buddha", says a Japanese proverb All beings are what they are by therr previous and present karma The germ of enlightenment (nirvanadhann) first manifests itself as sentient reflex activity, but gradually develops through the pith of conscious concurrence into self conscious rational reactton Reason and love claim the right to control the appetites and passions Gradually the notion of duty takes root in the heart of man, and it becomes a cheek to the free play of his passions As he makes constant effor s to arrest his passions lus moral sense, the keen preception for improvement becomes more ind more active He finds it necessary to wipe off the effects of his bad tendencies and he resolves to suppress them in future He thus gets a glimpse of the Noble Path that leads to perfection He suppresses more and more his egoistic inclnations and works for the good of all beings When he has obtained a complete self possession and mastery of mind andhas tramed himself to feel hts oneness with all that lives, with the generntions past and the generations to come, not only with his fellow beings but with the whole world with every creature that walks on eartl his progress is comnleted and he has reached the blissful heaven where there is no more struggle no more pain but unutterable peace By breaking the chais wlich bind him to the world of irdivduahtv and erowing to

246 INDIAN PHILOSOPIY

"But to satisfy the necessities of life is not evil To shelter the body from the weather, to cover it decently and comfortably, to protect it against the numerous external causes of pain, to save it as far as possible from fatigue, to clminate sensations that are dis agrecable, in short, to keep the body m good health, is a duty, for otherwise we shall not be able to trim the Jamp of wisdom and Leep our minds strong and clear "

both extremes " "This is the Middle Path, O Bhikshus, that Leeps aloof from

No wonder that among theic rals the Buddlusts had the repu tation of being "preachers of ease" (satavadin) who favoured the "way of comfort" (pushti marga) Starting as it does from the first truth that sorrow and suffering are concomitants of every concervable form of egorsm the Dharma does not consign man to the sensualitrst's (charvaka) 'fet us eat and drink for to morrow we die' The Dharma spurns not onh ascet- cism, but also all lutury It is not that the vow of poverty or any other vow is absolutely necessary for attuning the Supreme Good Laymen, hving at home and enjoying the pleasures of senses, can realise in themselves the Peace of Nirvana

Even in married life it may not be impossible to accomphsh a good deal in the direction of the perfeet hfc Snll evolution would seem to indicate a necessary connechon between cebbacy and the higher life Evolution points to a natural antagonism between mdt- vidual perfection and race multiplication While mn the lower stages of animal life, the race is everything and the mdividual nothing, m the higher types the reproduetre function becomes subordinated, and the individual rises in importance In the bacilus or the fish we sec a prodigal fecundity, but the major portion of mankind has arrived at the stage of 'one at a birth' The highest stage would, therefore, be that in which the mnivdual is all to htmself concerned no longer with the propagation of the race but only with the full and free expan- sion of himself Hence the perfect indiv duahty and the highest altruism demanded of the seeker after bodhs would seem to be impos sible except at the cost of fitness for the mufupfication of the species The Blessed One sard, 'He is a righteous min who is always anxious and desirous to learn, who walks uprightly, who ponders on and considers the character of precious wisdom He is a learned man who depends not on any fine distinction of words, who is free from any apprehension, who stands by what is right The reverend man is not he who has become a sexagenertan with form bent, with hatr white, for with all that he may be a fool, but he who ponders and inquires into the Dharma, who regulates and restrams his conduct. who is full of virtue and love, who is able to penetrate, into htdden secrets and is pure The graceful and perfect man is not he who possess-

THE PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDHISM 247

es beauty of form like the flowers that charm us ; not he who covets and longs for the empty vanities of personal adornment; not he whose words and conduct are opposed to one another ; but he who is able to give up every vicious course, who lias got rid of evil from the very root, who is enlightened without a remnant of hatred. The sramana is not he who is shaven perforce, who speaks untruth, and covets possession, or who is a slave of desires like the rest of men ; but he who is able to put an end to every wicked desire, to silence every personal preference to quiet his mind and put an end to selfish trought. The bhikshu is not he who at stated times begs his food, not he who, walking unrighteously desires to be taken as a disciple with a view to pass for a man of character ; but he who hias gtven up every source of sin, who by wisdom is able to crush every evil inch- nation, and who lives continently and purely. The truly enlightened man is not he who is simply mute whilst the busy work of his mind is impure merely accommodating to outward rules; but he whose heart is free from hankering, whose iward life is pure and spirtual and spiritual and perfectly unmoved by this or that. The man of Bodhi is not he who merely saves the life of all beings, but he who is filled with universal fove and benevolence, who has no malice in his heart. And the man who observes the Dharma is not he who talks much, but he who keeps himself in subjection to the Dharma, although he be an untaught man always gaurding the way with increasing watch- fulness. 'Restrained of hand, restrained of foot, restrained in speech, the best of the self-controlled, reflective, calm, content, alone, it is he that is a true blukshu' ; says the Dharmapada.

DEMOCRACY IN SAMGHA Q. 145 Write a short notes on : (a) Democracy in Samgha ; (b) Voting Ans. (a) The ideal underlying the Samgha is self government, the government of all, for all, by all At the various Samitis (councils) disputes were settled, by ballot and not by authority whie in Hindu monasteries the dung abbot nominates his successor, m Bnrma the head of the Samgha, the Tathanabarng, is elected by all the members of the Samgha. The Buddha called together the bhikshus and spoke to them on the conditions of the welfare of a community. So long, O bhikshus, as the brethren hold full and frequent assemblies, mecting in concord, rising in concord, and attending in concord to the affairs of the Samgha ; so long as they, O brethren do not abrogate that which experience has proved to be good, and introduce nothing except such things as have been carefully tested ; so long as their elders practise justice ; so long as the brethern estcem, revere, and support their elders, and hearken influence of craving, but delight in the blessings of religion, so that good and holy men shall come to them and dwell among them in quiet ; so long as the brethern shall not be ad dicted to stoth and idleness ; so long as the brethern shall exercise

248 INDIAN PRILOSOPHY themselves in the sevenfold higher wisdom of (I) mental activnty, (2) search after truth (3) joy, (4) modesty, (5) self-control, (6) earnest contemplation, and (7) equanrmity of mind , so long the Samgha may be expected not to decline but to prosper Therefore, O bhikshus be fult of futh, modest mn henrt, afrard of sin, anxious to learn, strong in energy, active m mind and full of wisdom " VOTING (0) When the selected monks farled to settle a dispute, the matter was referred back to the Samgha, wluch then proceed to appoint one of the members possessing requisite qualfications (as detailed in Vmaya II p 84) as salakagahapaka The votes were then taken by meins of salaka and the will of the mjority was accepted as the just As great responsibility rested on the salakagalpaka many rules had to be framed to guard the misuse of power by hum Such oc asions were rare in the samgha , hence the question of majo- rity or voting is not a subject that has been discussed at length in the Vınaya Pıtaka Thus we see that the constituti on of the Samgha was clearly democratte in principte but differed in many vital points from a democratic institution of the present day. Though there are the systems of election of President, the moving of a resolution, use of ballot voting by salakas, strict constitution of a Buddhist Samgha differed in many respects from that of a political institution Tins discipline in working was strictly enforced and this was the secret of the great power wluch the Samgha developed and by which it spread itself all over Asia It was in and through an organtsation like this that scholars like Nagarjuna and Asanga, Vasubhandu and Aaryı deva, missionaries like Bodludharma and Atsa, disputants like Dharmakirti and Dinnaga, writers like Vimukhasena and Kamalasıla, expositors like Subhutr and Kachchayana, translators lke Kumarajıva and Jaimitra radrated rays of light that dazed the whole world

THE NOBLE EIGHT-FOLD PATH Q 146 Discuss and elaborate the Light fold path prea ched by Buddha Ans 'Two extremes, there are,' said the Biessed One tn hr first sermon at Benares, 'which he who strives after holmess mus avoid Whtch two ?- A life addicted to pleasure, for it is enervating vulgar, mean and worthless and a life given to self mortification, for it is painful, vain and profitless By avoiding both these extremes has the Tathagata arrived at the Middle Path (Madhyama Pratipada), which leads to insight, to wisdom, to knowledge, to perce, to Nirvana But which is this Middle Path 7-It is the Noble Eight fold Path ' (1) The torch of right behef (samayag drishti) must light his way.

THE PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDHISW 249

(2) Right aspiration (samyag samkalpa) must be his guide. (3) Right specch (samyag vak) must form bis dwelling place on the road. (4) Right action (Samyag karma) must be his erect gait. (5) Right living (samyag ajiva) must form his refreshments on the road. (6) Right effort (samyag vyayama) must be his steps. (7) Right thought (samyag smriti) his breath, and (8) Right tranquilhty (samyag samadhi), his sleeping couch. I. It is the possession of the right belief that differentiates the educated from the uneducated, the thoughtful from the unreflecting. It is one of the glories of Buddhism that it appeals to reason and science, and not to blind faith and authority. IL. What then, O friend, is right aspiration ? says the Sacchavi- bhanga. It is the longing for renunciation ; the hope to live in love with all ; the aspiration after true humanity.' III. To abstain from falschood, to abstain from back-biting, to abstain from harsh fanguage, and to abstain from frivotous talk is called right specch.' IV. The aim of right action is not one's own happiness which ' may result from it. Right action consists in the avoidance of all that is subversive of the higher life and in the doing of all that is good and noble. Progress in the higher life cannot be effected by means of rituals, sacrifices, prayers and icantations, and these are therefore forbidden. V. The logical outcome of right action is right living. Every one must take upon himself some duties that will exercise his abilities and make him useful to his fellow men. But the oceupation followed should bring no hurt or danger to any hnving being. VI. Right effort consists in practising what are called the samyakprahanas (Sammappadana in Pal), that is to say, in heroically mastering the passions so as to prevent bad qualities from arising ; in suppressing sinful thoughts so as so put away bad qualities that hive arisen ; in producing goodness not previously evisting and in increas- ing the goodness which already exists by fixed attention and applica- tion. The ehief aim of nght effort is to cultivate a highly developed will as such, namely. the capacity of control. Thus the Blessed Onc recommends the notice who is obsessed by some haunting idea of an undesirable character to try five methods in succession for expelling it. 1. Attend to some good idea : 2, face the danger of the consequences of letting the bad idea develop into action ; 3. become inattentive to the bad idea ; 4. analyse its antecedents, and so paralyse the sequent impulse ; 5. coerce the mind with the aid of bodily tension.' VII. Man must always practise right thought. He must Lnow what ought to be avoided and what ought to be done. The exercise of right thought can be possible only when one possesses intellectual insight and wisdom (paraena). By insight is meant the power to grasp the central realties of all that are most valuable to man. By knowledge is meant an adequate understsuding of the law of cause

THE PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDHISM 251

external acts of daily life, whereby the lower reflexes are gradually eliminated and the higher ones developed whereas dhyana, though it implies the practice of dana and sita mnvolves the direct action of thought and volition on the character It is thus a self possessed purposive eradication of egoism with a view to mvestigating all things dispassionately It is a strenuous endervour to bring the mind into perfect harmony with all that exists, to see the place of everything mn nature and adjust one's actions righteously towards them, Dhyana has nothing in common with ecstasy or trance which is found so largely associted with religious mysticism and is claimed to afford super- natural powers and insight into the divine 'No member of our

250 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

and effect , of the real nature of body (Kaya) and mind (chitta), o pleasure and pain (vedana) , and of the true relations (yathablwtam of all things (dharm t) in the universe (kaya, chitta, vedana, anc dharma are called the smrity upasthanas) Wisdom will lead th bhodhisattva to perceive that all things come into existence by a com bination of various circumstances (hetupratyava) that all things an subject to cha ige (anitya) , that there is neither a personal ego, sou (atman), nor an unconditioned unknowable substrate in things (din on sick brahman or paramatman) , and that through their ignorand of the true nature of things (avidya) all beings are experiencing menta and phyqcal sufferings in numberless ways This knowledge wil awaken in the bodhisattva the deepest compasston for all suffering beings and impel him to work with dauntless energy for ther salvation It is a glory of Buddhism that it makes tntellectuat enlghten ment an essential condition of salvation In Buddlusm morality anc intellectual enlightenment are inseparable from one another In the respect Buddhism differs from all other religions All monotheistw religions start with certain assumptions, and when these assumption! are contradicted by the growth of knowledge, they bewadl that he tha' increaseth knowledge mcreaseth sorrow But Buddlusm starts with nc assumptions It stands on the firm rock of facts, and can therefort never shun the dry light of knowledge Some have attempted tc place the advaita form of Vedanta on the same level with the Dharma as in the advaita religion the chief means of salvation is what is calleć gnanam But the gnanam of the Vedantin ts entirely different from what the Buddhist understands by pragna Pragni means ratiocina tion based on the observation and experience, and as such has nothin! to do with intiution or what is called super consciousness VIII Side by side with pragna, the aspirant for bodhi mus also practise dhyan to attain tranquility, a state of mind full of rest fulness and moral insight Right peace (samadhi, Samta) alone wil bring to a standstill and mental states which produce frivolous sophts tries, Dhyan as understood in Buddhusm, is the contemplation of th: facts of hife from the highest pomt of view, and as such plays ar important part Ths Dharma discards prayer as a meins of attaiing salvation Dhyana comprises four stages, a stage of gladness and joy born of seclusion accompanicd by investigation and reflection, ! stage of elation and internat calm without reasoning, consequent of ivestigation and reflection , the total absence of all passion ant prejudice , and lastly, a state of seif possession and complete tranqui lity Dhyana is a discipline of the mind which leads finally to a state in which the mind is flooded by an illumination which reveals th universe in a new aspect absolutely free from all traces of interest affuction or passion Dhyana, as practised by Buddhist, is not losing consciousness It is, on the other hand, the subjectie way of developing the habitua mode of one's consciousness, known as character The practice of dana and sita, that is, the doing of good actions, consists in certan

THE PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDINSM 251

external acts of duly life, whereby the lower reflexes are gradually chminated and the higher ones developed whereas dhyana, though it imples the practice of dana and sita involves the direct action of thought and voltion on the character It is thus a self-possessed purposive eradication of egoism with a view to investigating all things dispassionately It is a strenuous endeavour to bring the mind into perfect harmony with all that exists, to see the place of everything in nature and adjust one's actions righteously towards them, Dhyana has nothing in common with ecstasy or trance, which is found so largely assocrated with religious mysticism and is claimed to afford super- natural powers and insight into the divine 'No member of our community', says the Blessed Ore, 'may ever arrogate to himself extraordinary gifts or supernatural perfection, through vain glory give himself out to be a holy man , such, for instance, as to withdraw into solitary places on pretence of enjoying ecstasies and afterwards presume to teach others the way to uncommon spiritual attunments Sooner may the lofty palm tree that has been cut down bccome green again, than an elect guilty of such pride be restored to his holy station Take care for yourself that you do not give way to such an excess' Dreams and eestasies, visions, and trances which are the very proof of holiness in other rebgions, are vun and foolish imagin- ings to the Buddhist The Buddhist dlyana sometimes called anuttarayoga, should not be confounded with the Brahminical yoga physical and hygienic side The former also has its

fully observe all hygienic conditions He who would seck perfection must care- The rules of diet, the habit of deep breathing, and fresh air at all times, the wearing of proper clothing that does not impede the free passage of air over the body. the habit of frequent bathing, regular rest, and a sufficient amount of exercise-all are essentril, Though dhyana may have its physical and hygienic side, st is predominantly intellectual and ethical, its chief purpose being to understand the true nature of consciousness and therefore of min The yogin par excellence in Buddlusm is the generous bodhisattva who practises the sit paramitas White the Brahman yogt endeavours to become absorbed in the universal Brahman, the bodhisattva attempts to realse by contemplation the self devoid character of all things (sirvadharma anupalambhi sunyata), Sunyata karunayor abhinnam bodhichtttam The mentality corresponding to bodh is inseparable from universal compassion and the negation of a self In his Mahayan Sroddhotpada Sutra Asvaghosha specially warns the aspirant for bodhs against confound- ing the samndhi of the Buddhists with that of the tirthakat, the heretics The practise of dhyana, uncoupled with pragna, cannot be productne of any good, but when the two go hand in hand the mind is freed not only from disquietude by removal of all inconsistencics, but also from atmamoha, the lust of self, which is the mother of all cgoism

252 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

TEN IMPEDIMENTS Q 147 What are the impediments to be overcome by an aspirant in traversing the noble path ? Discuss Ans 1 In the way of those who traverse the Noble Path he the impediments (samyojana) which must be overcome, indtvidualsed self (satkayadrıshti) This delusion takes many forms Sometimes the self is identified with the body, sometimes it is regarded as a thing that flies away from the body at death , sometimes it manifests itself in a sentimental or metaphysical clinging to individuality All the same to one who considers himself a permanent immutable being and does not realise that he is only a unity origmating from an aggregation of skindhas, whose condition has been determined by causes working in the past and whose future will be determined by causes at work in the present any progress in the direction of emant cipation and enlightenment is possible But wnen once a man has realised that there is no perminent ego (atman) which can gain an eternal paradise beyond the grave, the temptation is not far to run to the sensualist's extreme of 'let us eat and drink for tomorrow we die Hence it is necessary to have faith in the possibility of attaming perfection 2 Pyrrhonism (vichikichcha) is therefore the next obstacle in the path of the neophyte With its shibboleths of ignorabimus and Unknowable, pyrrhonism denies all possibility of solving the problem > of existence, and thus becomes a mental and moral malady which can only stultify all endeavour towards progress Seepticism is often nothing more than a cloak in which ignorance m isquerades Sceptt cism is not an attitude of mind, but a maladjustment denoting psychic instability Scepticism cannot regard men , it can only kill but not give life Only faith in a new ideal will impel men to move forward in search of a new life To see to what goal the Noble path will lead one must enter the path No doubt, reasons ean be urged for entering the Path But one must trust oneself to the Path and follow it to derive the enlightenment the Path alone ean furnish 3The third obstacle is the belief in the efficacy of purificatory ceremonies and rites (silavrata paramarsha) The Vedic religion was purely ritualistic As the teachings of the Blessed One do not rest on any behef m gods, there is no place in the Dharma for a ntuat Rites and outward observances arc mere sham supports, and can afford no emancipation from misery, even when there is the right spirit within The man who has overcome the delusion of self, doubt and rittalsm has to a larger extent rectified himself, but not till he has . broken the next two fetters of (4) sensualty (kama) and (5) malevo lence (partigha) are his chances of falling back reduced to a minimum He has to destroy all, (6) and (7) craving (raga) for material (arupa) pleasures in this world or another world ; he must overcome (8) pride (mana), (9) self righteousness (ouddatya) and (10) the ignorance of

THE PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDHISM 253

} the true nature of things (avidya) Having traversed the path he reaches the goal ; be becomes perfect an arhat, and attains the blessed- hess of Nirvana.

TEN BHUMIS OR STAGES Q 148 Explain the ten Bumis or Stages celebrated by leading Buddhist thinkers, Ans The career of an aspirant to Buddhabood, which is represented by the Noble Eightfold Path has been elaborated by some lending Bhuddhist thinkers into ten Bhumis or stages When one's intentions and aspirations have become purified by the inception of the thought of bodhi (chittotpada) and they find living expression in compassion and charity, he cannot but be joyful This is the first stage, known as the joyful stage (pramudita), it represents the happy state of the newly converted. The recognition of sunyata and the explanation of the world to which it leads purifies and enlarges the aspirant's compassionate disposition This is the second or immacu- Iate (vimala) stage, which is essentially the domain of morality The practice of morality must be coupled with reflexion (adhichitta) hence the bodhisattva muse engage himself in the various bhavanas so as to anmhilate desire, anger, hatred and error, and fortify oneself in faith, compassion, goodwill, generosity and disinterestedness, This is the third of shining (prabhakari) stage, in which the seeker after Buddha- hood 'shines' by patience and forbearance In order to completely surrender the idea of mine, the bodhisattva must perfect himself in good works, intellectual and moral, and especially apply himself to the cultivation of the severaf virtues connected with bodht (bhodhipaksha- dharma) This is the fourth or radiant (archishmati) stage, and is the domain of energy (virya), by the putting forth of which alone good works can be perfected Now the bodhisattva, being safe from bad thoughts, puts himself to a coutse of study and meditation in order to understand the Four Noble Truths in their true light This is the fifth of tnvincible (sudurjava) stage, in which dhyana and samadht predominate The practice of charity, morality, patience, etc prepares the mind for the thorough mastery of the profound principles of dependent orgination (Pratityasamutpada) and of the substrate- lessness of all things (sunyata), which are the principles to give meaning to all other teaching The mind of the asptrant is now turned towards these principles which constitute the very essence of Buddhahood This stage is therefore called 'turned towards' (abht- mukti) stage, and is the domain in which pragna reigns Though the bodhisattva abides in the principles of pratityasamutpada, nairatmya and sunyata yet he cannot be said to have escaped completely from the doman of passion He is not subject to passion in the sense that any passion whatever would work in him, but he is not completely free from passion, as he has still the intense desire of becoming a Buddha and his itensions for the salvation of all mankind are not fulfilled He therefore devotes himself to the attainment of that knowledge wluch would enable him to produce various means of

254 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

expedients suitable for unnersal salvation Ths is the seventh stage, called far going (duramgama), which sums up the six preceding stages and tncludes especially the frutts of the sixth, full development of the intelligence of the bodhtsattva, the complete absence of regard for the particular, and the constant cherishing of the thought of annihilation (mirodhasamapatti) of individuality When the bodhisattva has freed bimself from eager destre for all particulars (nimittagrahana) and does not direct his thought on special objects (abhoga), he becomes im- movable (achala), This is the eighth stage, whose special feature is the domineering presence of that supreme virtue, known as the anupattika dharmakshakshu, of seeing that all things are such as they are and have not been created for any special purpose The acttons of the bodhisattva whether of body or of voice, or of mind, are all compassionate and beneficent but they are in no way tainted by the idea of self, all idea of duality, of mine and tluine, having vanished Though all thought of self has been anmhilated, the bodhisattva is not content with tranquil delverance, but becomes enthustastic mn hs devotion to the teaching of the dharma to others with a view to ripen s This is the minth stage, the stage of the good ones (sadhumati), The bodlusattva has now become worthy of the royalty their merits

of the Dharma, he himself becomes a cloud of the Dharma (dharma megha), and in this final tenth stage, the bodhisattva has become a Tathagata, and continues to shed upon creatures the good rain which lays the dust of passions and causes the growth of the harvest of merits

KARMA Q 149 Write a shirt note on Buddhist doctrine of karma Ans 'Karmajam loka vaichitryam' All things are born of activity (Karma) Every thing is in a stage of contmual transforma- tion Vicharena nasti kim chid ahetutah' yet nothing happens wth- out cause and reason 'Svatantram na vidyate Even Paravasam sarvam yadvasant soptsavasae Nothing exists wiuch is autono- mous Everything depends upon another, and this other thing on which it depends is itself dependent Every change is determined by a number of conditions The most striking of these conditions is ordinarily called its cause, and the change itself is said to be tl e effect of that cause Strictly speaking the cause (pratyaya) of any change is the totality of all the conditions needed for its occurrence That in the cause which makes the effect possible is spoken of as the reason (hetu) of the change When a seed changes into a plant, that in the seed which makes it become a plant of a particular kind is the reason of the change, while the totality of conditions, such as the soil, water, light atr, spice, needed for its germination and growth, constitutes the cause Similarly sentiency, the germ of consciousness (vignana byjam), is the reason for the development of indivdualny (namn rupa), while the umon of prents,

256 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Buddha charita) 'If, as theists say, God is too great for man to be able to comprehend him, then it follows that his quatties also surpass our range of thought, and that we can neither know hm nor attribute to him the quality of a creator' (Bodhicharytvarasa) Is not the world in which we live, it is asked, an orderly world where everything is governed by law ? Do not laws imply a law- giver ? 'Who sharpened the thorn ? Who gave their varied forms, colours, and habits to the deer kinds and to the birds ? Svabhava It is not according to the will (ichcha) of any, and if there be no desire or intention, there can be no intender or designer (Buddha charita) No natural law is the cause of the observed sequence in nature Every natural law merely describes the conditions on which a partt- cular change is dependent A body falls to the ground not tn conse quence of the law of gravitation but the law of gravitation is the precise statement of what happens when a body is left unsupported A law of nature does not command that something shall take place, but it merely states how sometlung happens Every natural law represents a limitation of our thoughts, or our expectations All attempts to go far beyond the region of experience, whether it be in time or in space, must be affected' with the greatest insecurity, because the probabrlity of the results is nil That man should be truthful, just, merciful, loving and kind to his neighbours, that he should avoid vice and practise virtue, are injunctions that obtain therr valdily, not because there is Isvara but because human society would become impossible if they were set at nought Virtue possesses a self propagating power Vice and wrong are ever destroying themselves, In seeking to mcrease hfe, makmg it richer and more happy, egoism really dimimshes, impoverishes and annihilates it Sympathy and love are rooted in the same natural bonds which have conditioned the very continuance of the race on the farthful discharge of their duties to others besides themselves Man ts man only by living in and sharing the life of a society of his fellows A human being in isolation would be no hu man being at all All achievements of man have been brought about by social solidarity Only as a member of society and by the observance of ethical laws can men enjoy the highest and most durable bliss Instead of saying that Isvara is the creator of the world, we ought to say that man has created his tdea of Isvara including all its moral elements, As Xenophanes said, if ltons could picture a god, they would picture him in the form of a lion , the horse like a horse , the oxen like an ox In some quarters attempts have been made to find a psycholo gical basis for the behef in Isvara The existence of such a being is not a matter of direct experience, but a matter of inference, about which the person undergoing the experience can himself or herself be in doubt The psychology of religious experience proves beyond

THE PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDHISM 257

doubt how the experience vanes with the character of the intellectust theory connected with it To ascertain the truth of a belief reason is the only means and by reasoning, even the most elaborate, the existence of an isvara cannot be substantiated. In recent years some thinkers have attempted to prop up the belief in Isvara from the point of view of pragmatism. According to pragmatism the truth of an idea or a proposition does not consist in its agreement with any existing realty, in the possibility of verifi- cation, that fs to say, in its usefulness for practical life In one of these, which may be called dtrect truths, the process of verification is going on daily. The North Pole is completely capped with ice is a truth he accepts, but he has absolutely no means of venfication. To the acceptance of this truth he comes by a number of intermediate stages or propositions, which have no special practical value in life. Truths of this class may be said to be indirect, The pragmatic method of proof cannot be regarded as valid for all convictions but only for direct truth. Religious convictions, such as the belief mn God, soul, heaven, hell, predestination, are most indirect THE ABSOLUTE BRAHMAN If the world has not been created by Isvara, may not all evis- tence be a manifestation of the Absolute, the Unconditioned, the Unknowable behind all appearance 7 Said the Blessed One to Anathapindika . 'If by the Absolute is meant sometlnng but of rela- tion to all known things, its (hetuvidyasastra) How can we know that anything unrelated to other things euists at all ? The whole universe, as we know it, is a system of relations ; we know nothing that is, or can be, unrelated. How can that which depends on nothing and is related to nothing, produce things which are related to one another and depend for their existence upon another ? Again, the Absolute may be one or many If it be only one, how can it be the cause of the different things wluch orginate as we Anow, from differ- ent causes ? If there be things how cin the latter be Frelated to one another 7 If the Absolute pervades all things and fills all space then it cannot afso make them, for there is nothing to make Further, if the Absolute is devoid of all qualities (mrguna), all things arising from nt ought likewise to be devord of qualities But in reality all things in the world are circumserbed throughout by qualties Hence the Absolute cannot be their cause ; if the Absolute be considered to be different from qualities, how docs it continually create the things possessing such qualities and manifest itself in them ? 'Again, if the Absolute be unchangeable, all things too, for the effect cannot differ in nature . .. from the cause But all things in the world undergo change and decay. How then ean the Absolute be unchangeable ? More- over, if the Absolute which pervades all is the cause of everything, why should we scek bberation ? For we ourselves possess this Absolute and must patiently endure every suffering and sorrow inces- santly created by the Absolute (Asvaghosha's Buddhacharta) The Buddhist denies the existence of all Absolutes, but he does

258 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

not deny the existence of the internal or external world. For him the world is an aggregate of conditions or relations, which are them- selves not self-existent, but inter-dependent. Only when conceived in its totality has tte world any meaning. If the world is neither the creation of Isvara nor the manifesta- tion of the Absolute (brahman), may it not be a produet of the individual self ? Without entering on the question of the reality of self, the Blessed One has shown the absurdity of regarding the self as the maker of the world as follows : 'If you say that the self is the maker, then the self should make all things, pleasant. But there are many things in this world not pleasing to one's self ; how then could it be asserted that the self is the maker ? If it be said that the self does not wish to make things pleasant, than he who wishes for things pleasant is opposed to his self, the maker. Sorrow and joy are not self-existing. How could it be said that they are made by the self ? If we admit that the self is the maker, there should, at least, be po evil karma, but as, is well known, our deeds produce good and evil results. Hence the self cannot be the maker. Perhaps it might be said that the self is the maker according to the occasion, but then the occasion ought to be for good alone. Still as good and evil both result from cause, it cannot be that the self has made it so.' (Asva- ghosha's Buddhacharita). It is indeed true that the Buddha has propoonded no hypothesis concerning the origin and end of things ; nor has he given a systematic shape to his views. But from what we find in the Sutrapitaka and the Abhidharmapitaka, it is not difficult to see clearly his exaet posi- tion. The Blessed One always spoke in a manner suited to the capa- cities of his hearers. In his discourses to the ordinary man he naturally appears to be a realist (sarvastivadin). On the basis of such discourses the Vaibhashikas and the Sautranikas have erected a materialistic system of their own, and are adherents of some form of the atomic theory. It is not unlikely that, as Dr. Handt mamtains in his Die Atomistic Grundlayse der Vaiseshika philosophic, the Buddlists were the originators of the atomic theory. Starting from the fundamental view common to all shades of Buddhism that samsara is a continual springing into existence and perishing, no wonder that some Buddhists regard the whole world as an aggregate of non-eternal atoms, just as the spiritual one is produced by the aggregare of the five skandas namely, Rapa, Vedana, Vignana, Samgna and Samshara (see bellow). Botli the Vaisheshikas and the Sautranitikas accept the existence of an extra-psychic outside world ; the former maintaining that external things are direetly perceived, and the latter that our perceptions are only reflections in the mind of the things outside and therefore the outside world can only be inferred.

On the other band, the Yogacharas, the followers of Asanga, form a class of subjective idealists (vijnanastimatravadin), denying altogether the reality of the external world and regarding it as the creation of a-self-subsisting consciousness (alayavignana).

THE PHILOSOPHY OF DUDDHSM 259

The Blessed One might indeed have given some room for the development of these schools of thought, but he humself never pro- pounded these vews. He was neither a matenalist who tred to evolve consciousness out of the motions of self existing phy sical atoms, nor was he a solipsist who regarded the world as the product of the activity of self-subsisting spirits He was a madhyamika an thought as well as in life He steered a middle course He denied the realty neither of the mind nor of the external world But he denied the existence of all transcendental substrata, all things in themselves, both jivatma and parmatma He was therefore generally called a sunya- vadın But he never denied the phenomenal world (prapancha) nor the empirical ego (namarupa) He taught a consistent incontrover- tible phenomenalsm (advayavada) so mnch so that the title of advaya- vadı has been specially given to him

PERSONALITY OR SELF

Soul (Atman) Q. 151 Discuss the Buddhist denial of the existence of (Bantaras 1957, Karratal 1964, 1965) Ans Vanons kave been the wews propoended concerning human personality, its nature and destinv The savage thinks that there ts inside an animal or a man that lives and moves a fittle an mal Or man ; the ammal inside tke inimal, the man inside the man is the soul This animistic view in one form ot other is accepted by Brah- tinism Jainism, Christiamty and Islam These rehgions teach that a man's personality or self is his soul (atman, pudgala pneuma, psyche) which enters the body at birth and quits it at death The soul it s sart, forms the tvisible, tmmaterial ago, whtch, kaowing ttself as I', rematns the same amidst all that is changeable It is the recipient of knowledge through the five gateways of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch It is the agent that is active in the movements of the various mator organs. It is the lord not only of the body but aiso of the mind Though it may not be seen by the eye nor reached by speech nor apprehended by the mind its exrstence has to be per- ceived by faith 'Not by speech, not by thought,' savs the Kathak Upantshnd, 'not by stght is he apprehended : 'he is', by this word, alonc and in no other way is he comprehended Only by him whom te chooses is he comprekended ; to him the atman reveals his nature ' Without a soul there could be no mmortality, and without immorta- lity tife would not be vorth lnving The exstence of a soul alone ceuld ensure to each individual the fruit of his actions ; without a soul there could be no renards an heaven nor punishments m hell With- out a soul there could be no recompense fer one's deeds by metapsy- chosis; and without transmigration how would it be possible to accout for the differences between man and man in endowments, characters, position and fate ? The Dharma of the Blessed One teaches that this anımistic view, tlus beltef in permanent self or soul, is the most pernicious of errors, the most deceitful of illusions, which will arretrievably mislead its

260 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

victms into the deepest pit of sorrow and suffering Satkayadnısht the belief in a transcendental self, is the very first fetter which one has to cast off before he can set his foot on the threshold of the Noble Eightfold Path The belief in a permanent self must naturally produce attachment to it, aud attachment to it must necessartly breed egotism and craving for pleasure here on earth and then beyond in heaven Therefore the discernment of a permanent self cannot be the condition of emancipation from sorrow The very search for atman is wrong and lke every other wrong start it must lead in a false direction As Asvagosha says in his Sraddhotpada Sutra all false doctrines mvari ably arise out of the atman conception If we were liberated from nt the existence of false doctrines would be impossible ' Sard the Dlessed One to King Bimbasara' He who knows the nature of his self and understands how his senses act finds no room for the 'I' nor even any ground for its supposition The world holds to the idea of 'I and from this arises false apprehension Some say that the 'I' endures after death others say it perishes Both have fallen in to i grievous error For if the 'I' be perishable, the fruit people strive for will perish too, and then deliverance will be without merit If, as others say, the 'I' does not perish it must be always identical and unchanging Then moral aims and salvation would be unnecessary, for there would be no use in attempting to change the unchangesble But as there are

tant being ?' marks of joy and sorrow everywhere, how can we speak of any cons+

The false belief in a permanent self, which is so widespread has its origin in a wrong conception of the unity of compound things A thing (guni) can be separated from its qualities (guna) only if a thing be actually removed and the thing still feft intact ? If heat be removed from fire, would there be any such thing as fire ? No doubt we can separate heat from fire in thought and argue about it, but can we actually do so ? Suppose the walls, roof and foundation stones of a

belnnd ? house were removed, would there be any self or soul of the house left

'Just as the word chariot, says Buddhagosha in his Visuddln magga, 'is but a mode of expression for axle, wheels, pole and other constituent parts, placed in a certain relation to each other, but when we come to examine the members one by one, we discover in the absolute sense there is no chariot -- in exactly the same way the words 'Living entity' and 'l' are but a mode of expression for the five attach ments (skandhas), but when we come to examme the elements of being, one by one, we discover in the absolute sense there is no living being there to form a basis for such figments as 'I am' or 'I in other words, in the absolute cense, there is only name (nama) and form (rupa)' In another place the same author writes, They say tt is a living entity that walks, it is a living entity that stands but is there any living entity to walk or to stand? Thereis not But even as people speak of a cart's going, though there is nothing corresponding to the word cart to go or to stand, yet when the driver has yoked up four oxen and drives them we then, by a mere conventton of speech,

THE PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDIISM 261

talk of the cart's going or of the cart's stinding : mn evactly the same way the body on account of its lack of in elligence, resembles the cart, the impulsions of the thoughts resembles the oxen, the thought resem- bles the driver, and when the thought of walking or of standing arises, the windy element (Vata-nervous impulse) arises and shows itself in the actions, and walking etc , are brought about by this action of the mind and permeation by the windy element Accordingly, to say, It is a living entity that walks, it is a living entity that stinds , I walk, I stand,' is but a mere convention of speech . Similarlv says Nagasena in the Milindapanha, Just as it is by the condition precedent of the co existence of its various parts that the word 'chariot, is used, just so is it that where the Skandhas are there we talk of being' In relation to the eye and form arises visual consciousness, and simultaneously wth it contact (sparsa), emotion (vedana), idea, thought, subsumption of reality and attention these processes (dharma) arise in dependerce on one another, but there is perccived no cognising subject " As Buddhism resolves the whole phenomenil universe (pra- panchn), outside which nothine exists, into pure psychic processes (dharma), it is but natural that it should categorically reject the exis- tence of an atman, a transcendental subject outside consciousness But it does not deny the existence of a personlity, an empirical ego, an 'I' built up out of the elements of experience and reacting on the elements themselves 'Personality, personality thev say , what has the Blessed One sard that this personality is ? * So asks a bhikshu of the bhikshunt Dhammadtnna And she answers The Blessed One has said that personality consists of the five elements of life impulse ' Min is an organism built up of the five skandhas, namelv, rupa, vedana vignana,

cal processes samna and smiskart Each of these skandhas is a group of psychi- Rupa represents the totality of sensations and ideas pertaining to one s body , vedana the momentary emotionl states . vignina the thoughts , samjna the conceptions and abstractions . and samskar the dispositions inclinations and volitions *Whatever is gross, that is form (rupa) ," says the Milindapanha, 'whatever is subtle, mental, that is name (nama) Nama and form are connected one with the other, and spring into being together This is their nature through time immemoml' Tluis view is mutatis mutandis precisely the same as that of modern psychology, wluch also regards the 'l' as nothing more than the complet collective idea of one's body (rupa) and one's momentary dispositions ( tions ( samskara) and percep- vedina samjna, vignana) 'We should say today' says Prof Titchener in his Outlines of Psyshology, 'that life is the general name for a number of complicated physicat and chemical processes , not an added prineiple, a mysterious something over and above them Similarly, we no loncer think of mind as something apart from mental processes, and of intellect (Jnana Sakti) feeling (lech Sakti) and will (Kryy Saktı) as facultics with which this som-thin- is endowed Mind is the sum of mental processes and intelleet, feeling and we are con- thined in the sum " All that we knon consists of colours sounds spaces, pressures, temperatures and so forth bound up together in

262 JNDIAN PHILOSOPHY

manifold ways, and with these are also found associated ideas, emo- tions, desires, memones and so forth Out of this complex texture rises into prominence that which is relatively more fixed and perma nent and imposes itself on the memory, and finds expression in language Certam of these complexes of relatrvely greater permanency are called things But none of these complexes is absolutely perma- nent A tlung is regarded as one and unchangeable, only so long as there is no necessity to consider details Thus we speak of the earth as a sphere when great precision is not necessary But if we are engaged in an orographical investigation, we cannot overlook the earth's deviation from the spherical form and can no longer treat it as a sphere Similarly the personalty of a man is complex of certam sensauons (rupa) and certam ideas, emotions volitions, and (nama) As Prof Charles Richet says, human personalny 'anses first and principally from the memory of our past existence, then it emanates from all the sensations which come to us, sensauons of our internal organs sensations of outside world consciousness of effort and of mus cular movement ' The personality of a man is as httle absolutely per- manent as are other things Its apparent permanence consists in the slowness of its changes and in the fact of its continuity

Buddhaghosa in his Vishddhimagga Strictly speaking the duration of the life of a conscrous being is exceedingly brief (kshanika) lasting only while a thought lasts Just as a chariot wheel-rolls only at one point of the tyre and in resting rests only at one point , in exactly the same way, the life of a living being lasts only for the period of one thought As soon as the thought has ceased, the bemg is said to have ceased As it has been said -The being of a past moment of thought has lved but does not live, nor will it live The being of a future moment of thought will live, but has not hved nor does it live The being of present moment of thought does Ine, but has not hved nor will it hve

That which is called the ego which says 'I am', is merely an aggregate of skandhas a complex of sensations ideas thoughts. emotions and violations It is not an eternal immutable entity behind these The word 'I remains the same, but its sgmficanee continually changes It originates in the child with the development of self- consciousness (svasamvedanam) and denotes first a boy, then a youth. after that a man, and finally a dotard There is an identitv in a certain sense only As the Blessed One says in the Kutadantha Sutra the sameness is constituted by continuity just as we speak of the identity, of a river or a fountam, though the water is continually charging , or the identity between the flime of a lamp at one moment and that at another moment, although different particles of the wik and oil are consumed in succession, and the flame itself might hive been put out for some time in the interim What characternses the apparent sameness of the 'I' is the cohesron ind, co ordination of a certam number of very frequently recurring sensations and sdeas which therefore come to be regarded as a permanent stock These arc

264 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

freed from suffering, this is the way that leads to purity All existing things are anatman he who knows and comprehends this becomes freed from suffering this is the path that leads to purity Therefore, let every one, after hearing the words of the Holy One restrain his tears , let him, on seeing that one has passed away and is dead, conclude 'Never more will he be found by me "

Though death is the dissolution of body and mind, yet it does not end all The Blessed One has declared that he is neither a sasvatavadın like the Brahmans, nor an ucchedavadin like the Charvakas and the Lokayata While the Dharma discards the existence of a permanent self, an atman which transmigrates from birth to birth, it at the same time upholds the persistence of krma Man is nothing more than the temporary union of the five skandhas the beginning of this umion is birth and its end is death But as long as the umion lasts, the ego manifests itself at every moment as an active pain avotding, pleasure seeking will, having relations to other individuals From this pomt of view each mdividual existence is spoken of as a complex of karmas So long as the karmas remain nearly the same, we recognise the person as the same for all practical purposes But these karmas, which form the content of one's ego, consist of relations between the person and other mndividuals and are therefore never confined wholly to oneself , it passes on to others and remuns preserved in them even after one's death So man dies, but one s karma is reborn in other individuals Just as when a man has written I a ¡letter, the writing has ceased, but the letter remains, so when skandhas dissolve, the deeds remain to bear fruit in the future When a lamp is lit at a burming lamp , there is a kindling of the wick, but no transmigration of the flame The mango that is planted rots in the ground, but it is reborn in the mangoes of the tree that grows its seed From the seed to the fruit there is no transmigration of a mango soul, but there is a reconstruction of its form and the type m all its indi vidual features is preserved in the new mangoes Thus man reincar- nates, though there is no transmigration, One man dies, and it is another that 's reborn "What is reborn', says the Millindapanha, 'Is name and form ' But it is not the same name and form

"Just as the words of teacher do not pass into the mouth of the pupil, who nevertheless repeats them and just as the features of the face do not pass to the refiection in mirrors and the like, and neverthe less in dependence on them does the image appear and just as the flame does not pass over from the wick of one lamp to that of an- other, and nevertheless on that of the former , mn exactly the same way not a single element of being passes over from a previous existence tnto the present existence, nor hence into the next existence ; and yet in dependence on the groups, organs of sense, objects of sense, and sense consciousness of the last existence were born those of this one. and from the present groups, organs of sense, objects of sense, and self, consciousness will be born the groups, organ of sense, objects of sense, and self consciousness of the next existence *.

THE PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDHISM 265

Even the infant that dies soon after its birth, leaves an impres- Sion on its mother which in some way produces a change in the mother Every deed, every word, every thought is a part of our psychic life and our psychic lfe remains unbroken, like an extinct flame that has kindled another Do we then hve after death ? asks a well known living writer, and answers as follows Of course we do, we live Our bodies dissolve, but our lives continue The organism, man and women, is mortal truly , but the orga- nism, humanty is mortal We know of nothing that can destroy it within the conditions of our solar sphere The Buddhist doctrmne of (Karma) is very wide in sts scope, Karma operates not only mn the sphere of sentient life but extends over the whole of phenomenal existence (Prapancha). The Buddhstic doctrine of-Karma differs totally from the Brahmanic theory of transmigration Brahminism teaches the trans- migration of a real soul, an (atman), but the Buddhist Dharma inculcates a mere succession of karma

NIRVANA Q 153. Explain the nature of Nirvana or Mukti in different systems of Indian Philosophy.

Compare and contrast the Baddhist conception of Or

Nirvana with the Advaitic conception of Mukti (PCS 196#) (For detailed ans, see chapter on Molsha-Sadhan) Ans Anitya, anatman and mirvana have been rightly called the three corner stones of Buddhism Antya means impermanence It signifies that 'all the consti- tuents of being are transitory, that all things are m a perpetual flux. Nothing is permanent in the umverse but change Mutability is the very characteristic of all existence (usvam Åshanabhanguram) The essential feature of all matter, whether living or dead, is its instability. Even energy has a tendency to diffusion and dissipation Only non- existence, (sunyata), can claim to be immutable Permanent un- changing substances exist in our thought, but not mn reality. What- soever exists is made up of colours, sound, temperatures, spaces, times. pressures, ideas, emotions, volitions, and so forth, connected with one another in manifold ways And these are continually changing Everything is therefore momentary (kshanika) Some things may be relatively more permanent than others, but nothing is absolutely permanent Modern science can discover nothing fixed in the untverse It is the mistaking of what is impermanent for something permanent that makes (anitya) the source of sorrow (dukkha)

266 INDIAN PHILOSOPITY

What is anitya is not necessarily mithya or illusory, as some have supposed The characters that suggest the sheet of water m a mirage are really present, but the deception arises from the fature to take into account all the ficts Simtlarly, when a man mistakes a rope for a snake, it is not the deliverance of conscioussness that is at fault The characters that suggest the snake are really there in the rope, but the fulure to interrogate conscioustiess exhaustively gives rise to the deception The fact that we are able to distinguish between deception and truth shows that all expenence is not illusory The logical consequence of the doctrine of antya is the principle of mnatmata This principle lays down that nowhere in the universe, neither in the macrocosm nor in the microcosm, there is an un- conditioned ibsolute, transcendent entity or substratum knrw consists of a flux of sensations, ideas, emotions, vohtions, and All that we

so forth associated with one another in various ways As the Bodhıchıryavatara says atmanam apparıtyajya dukham tyaktum na sukyate' Without renouncing the (atman) we cannot get rid of sorrow Only when the craving for individual immortality is destroyed, will one be able to arrive at a freer and more enlightened view of life which will not permit of the over estimation of one's own ego in utter disregard of other egos

Some think that Nirvana is a state in which the individual soul is completely absorbed m the universal soul, just in the same way as the Vedanta plulosophy of the Brahmans understands it By others it is regarded as the anmhilation of all activities (cluittavnth mrodha mchtergendetwasheit), mn which love, life and everything becomes existinct As regards the first view we need only say that it is radically different from the true conception of Nirvana Buddhism demies a soul as well as an Absolute How could it teach communion with or absorption in such a mysterious being as Brahman The follower of Vedinta says that the Blessed One, is like the monkey at the lake which tries to catch the moon in the water mistaking the reflectton for the realtty Though references to Nirvana my not be wanting in Brahmanictl works, the technical sense mn which the term is employed is undoubted ly due to the Buddha and his followers In the Upanishads and the phitiosophcal works of the Brahmans we come across such terms as amrıta, moksht, muktt, nıhsreyasekarvalya, aparvargi as Sans krit egiuavalents for salvation, but it is only in the ancient Palt and Sanskrit works on Buddhism that the word Nirvana is frequently employed to mean salvation The meaning of Nirvana as employed by the Buddha would seem to be connected wih the state of a flime that has been blown out 'When the fire of lust is gone out, peace (mbbuta) is gained , when the fires of hatred and ignorince are gone out, then peace is garned , when the troubles of mind arssing from pride, credulity ind all other sins have ceased, then peace is gamed On the extinction of

THE PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDHISM 267

these three fires there results the perfect sinless peace, unalloyed bhss arsing from purity, goodwill, and wisdom The man who has attatned Nirvana represents the embodiment of a perfect happy life. resulting from the possession of the most comprehensive knowledge and power of reflection and the realization of a moral and virtuous İıfe Though Nirvana is the annihilation of all egoism, the abandon- ment of the struggle for private happiness, the expulsion of all eagerness of temporary desire, it does not imply the annihilation of personalty Annihihtion of personality can occur in hfe only with cessation of all consciousness as in a swoon of m dreamless sleep Badhi, which is but another name for Nirvana is characterised by the seven qualities of zeal, wisdom, reflection, investigation, joy, peace and serenity The holy man who has attained Nirvana lives and works, not for himself, but for others While Nirvana is the annihtlation of all thought of self, it is at the same time the complete attanment of perfect love and nghteousness In short, it is the realisation in the thought and life of those necessary conditions which constitute perfect humanity DHARMAKAYA The Buddhist's goal is Buddhahood, and the essence of Buddha- hood is Dharmakaya, the totalty of all those laws which pervade the facts of life, and whose livng recognition constitutes entghtenment. Dharmakaya is the most comprehensive name with which the Buddlust sums up his understanding and uso his feeling about the universe "Dharmakaya is the norm (a rule) of all existence, the stindard of truth, the measure of righteousness, the good law , it is that in the constitution of things, which makes certain modes of conduct bene- ficial and certain other modes detrimental hike a cloud shedding its waters without distinction light of comprehension ' Dharmakaya encompasses all with the

As the rational sdeal towards which every mind ars, Dharma-

but by light kavi governs men, not by authorts, but by reason , not by power,

In hıs formula of adyatmika practiya samutpada the Blessed One has succincly expounded the vanous links (mdanas) in the cham of causations that lead to the full development of life as mamfested in human beings In the beginning there is unconscious potentiality (avdya) and in this nebulisity of undefined life the formative and organtsing propensities (samskaras) shape crude, formless aggregates From the materals thus produced originates an organism possessing awareness, sensibility and irrtability (vignana) From these develops self consciousness, the unity which differentiates self from not seif. and makes organisms Iive as individual beings (nama rupa) With self consciousness begins the six fields of exploration (shadayatanas) belonging to the five senses and the mmd The exploration of the six fields brings about the contact (sparsa) with the external world The perception of the externat world, and the exercise of the senses

268 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

and the mind thereon lead to the experience of different kinds of pleasure and patn (vedana) The experience of pleasure and pamn generates in the individualised being, though not knowing its own nature, a grasping desire (trishna) for tts own individual satisfaction The thrst for obtaiing egoistic satisfacton induces a cleaving (upadana) to worldly pleasures The indulgence in worldly pleasures produces the growth and continuation of self hood (bhavi) Self assertion manifests itself in mcessant change or births (jatn, and these incessant changes, looked at selfishly, become the sources of sorrow connected with sickness old age and death (jaramarana) These give birth to lamentation, anxiety and despair

Thus the cause of all sorrow hes at the very source it hies in the unconscious blind impulses with which life starts blind impulses are checked and controlled the wrong appetences bomn When these

of them will no longer have sway , with the removal of these wrong appetences the wrong perception begotten by them will be wiped out When the wrong understanding of the world is wiped out the egoistic errors pecular to individualsation will cease, and with the cessation of these illusions of the six fields wil) disappear If the ilustons of six fields disappear, sense experience will no longer produce mis conceptions when no misconceptions arise in the mind all grasping desires will cease and with the disappearance of these will arise freedom from cleaving and indulgence When morbid cleaving and indulgence do not exist, the selfishness of selfhood disappears When this selfishness is annihtlated there will be Nirvana the complete escape from all sorrow arising from birth, disease old age, and death and ignorance and evil desires

He who has attamed Nirvani cannot live a life of selfhood confined to the attamment of individual satisfaction He lives not for his own exaltation or for being the centre of devotion to others but to be the inspiratton and active member of samgha i which all alke strive to attain the perfection that is possible for every man He may have no desires for humself but he works for the good of afl He identifies himself with all that is good and noble He extends kindness to all beings His sympathies are universal His com passion is so far reaching that tt excludes none, not even those who hate and despise hm Just as a mother, at the rsk of her own hfe protects her only child, so does he who has attained Nirvana cultivate goodwill beyond measure among all beings, towards the whele world unstinted and unmixed with any feeling of making distinctions of showing preferences The removal of the mfinte pam of the world is his hghest felicity He remains steadfastly in thts state of mind the best in the world, as the Metta Sutta says, all the while lie is awake, whether he be standing, walking or lying down When the Arahat dies, the skandhas which constitute hts indt viduality dissolve, but he still lives In the Nirvana of life (upadhi seshanirvana), the Arahat may not be free from the ills naturally

THE PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDHISM 269

concomitant' to a bodily life, but mn (Parinirvana), the Nirvana of death (anupadhi seshanirvana), he has gone to a realm free from such ills We may not look for him in any material form, or seek hım in any audible sound But whosoever sees the Dharma sees the Buddha He is ever in the Dharmakaya, the womb of all Tathagatas, that divine spint of universal compassion and wisdom which carnes humanity mn its orward and upward march to truth and moral loveliness.

CHAPTER XI VEDAANTA AND BUDDHISM (Vedanta and Buddhism-The Notion of the cause of Bondage- Vignana Vada-Sunya Vada-Vignana is Atma-Brahman Bhava 1s Vignana Nirvana) Matrata -- Bodhi's Supreme Knowledge-Bodhisattva- Q 154 Discuss the mnfluence of Vedas and Upanishads on Buddha s Philosophy Ans There were various religious and philosophical specula- tions in the conntry before the Buddha was born which undoubtedly exercised a great mnfluence upon his mind We notice m the first place a class of people performing various Vedic rites and sacrifices in the behef that they helped one to gain not only the pleasures and enjoyments of this world and the next but also liberation Along side of these advocates of Vedic sacrifices were others who had lost their faith mn them and held that they could hardly bring about the highest bhss m life Some of these thinkers attempted to interpret Vedic sacrifices allegorically, saying for instance that the sacrificial horse was not an ordinary horse but one having the dawn for the head the sun for the eyes, the wind for the breath, the heaven for the back the intermediate space between heaven and earth for the belly, the earth for the legs and so on They developed the new idea of internal sacrifice whtch came to be rightly known as jnana yajna (sacrifice of knowledge) in contrast with the older dravya yajna (sacrifice with material things) Among the followers of this system of internal sacrifice are Vedantins as well as the Buddha As time went on the nuthority of the scriptures the source of Vedic sacrifices began to lose its hold on the people As a conse quence there arose many free and independent thinkers who pro- pounded new systems of religious and plulosoplucal speculation Even the advocates of Vedic sacrifices used to sy that the offer- ing of antmal sacrifice and that of the sacrificial cake were of the same efficacy Gradually in later ages we find the offerine of ghee and cake as substitute for animals (ghntapasu and pishtapasu) And it is to be noted that at the precent day a stem of sugarcane or a pumpkin gourd (ikshudanda or kushmanda) is sacrificed as an animal by those worshippers who do not like ai imal sacrifice Be that as it may, a strong votce was raised by a certain section of the people against the Vedte sacrifices attended with animal killing whtch were openly declared to be impure (avishuddha) (270)

VEDAANTA AND BUDDHISM 271

Although it cannot be gainsaid that theism, in whatever from it might be, got a strong hold on the mind of some people at the time we are speaking of, yet, by a farge section of thinkers, it was utterly ignored. This seems to have been due to two factors , firstly, the belief in the extraordinary power of Vedie rites grew so strong among the followers of the karma marga (path of ritual) that no necessity what- soever was felt for the intervention of a God in bestowing the highest reward of the actions (Karmas), te, heaven (svarga) or that bliss which never disappears , secondly, the Vedantic monism declaring the existence of only One Self naturally removed the beltef in God also Tor, if there remuns only One, it is the man himself or his Self, as it is impossible to think of one's own anmilulation Besides, the conception of God is possible only when there is the notion of both the worshipper and the worshipped, and not otherwise When the jnana-marga (path of knowledge) of the Upanisld prevarled over the Karma-marga, external means for achieving the highest object of life naturally gave place to internal ones and thus meditation took the place of performance of rites and ceremonics , this give rise to yoga which developed to a great extent and was being much practised in the country long before the advent of the Buddha Long before the Buddha the religious life of the country had attuned a very high degree of moral standard, the key note of wluch was brahmacharya, the root of all spiritual advancement The freedom of thought prevailing mn his days helped to liberate hm completely from every bondige of authority Vedte or non-Vedic- He was independent in thought and followed reason and truth, in plice of any person or group of persons, however great or exper- enced He did not, however, altogether ignore pubhc opinion in regard to some outwird and trifling matters He would ask hts dis- ciples not to accept his words simply out of regird for him, but to do so only after a thorough examination of them, just as a man accepis gold after cutting, burning, and rubbing it on a piece of touchstone He was very practical, never mduleing in mere speculation He would never discuss any question which in his opinion was of no use to the enquirer. There are tluings that cannot be expressed by words, but are only to be realized by oneself There are also truths that are too profound and difficult to be understoed by ordmary peopte With regard to such questions, even when pressed very hard, he would kecp stlent This attitude of the Buddha was onlv natural , for the highest truth is in fact silence lt was declared by the sages of the Upantshads long before the Buddha * We co not know, we do not understard how one can teich it It is different from the knewn, it is also above the unknown-thus have we heard from those of old who taueht us this." In short, he wis a sthitaprgn 1, one firm in judgment and wisdom. of the Bhigavid-Gita Hts heart was very compassionate and full of genume and unpiralleled love for all In ine beings, and he ued to feel very strongly their sufferings Moved by the suffering that he

272 INDIAN PH'LOSOPHY

saw around him he set out to discover a way of salvation, not first for himself, but for others; for he had such grent compassion (mahaakarunaa) that he did not care for his own salvation untif every- one was set free from suffering. Born in an atmosphere full of Upamshadic fragrance, he was, as the canomcal works will show, a real knowner not only of the Veda (Vedajnana) but also of the Vedanta (Vedantajnana) having fully practised brahmacharya (Samyutta Niklaya I 168, Suttanipata 463) 'And, like the Vedantists, after he had attained 'Supreme Knowledge, he used to perform not external but internal sacrifices t e, meditation Once when (Samyutta Nikaaya I, 168) a Brahmin came to him takıng in his hands the remainder of his oblation, the Buddha is reported to have addressed him to the following effect "Do not deem, O Brahmin, that purity comes by mere laying wood in fire, for It Is external Having, therefore, left that course, I kindle my fire only within, which burns for ever, and on that I have my mind rightly fixed for ever " "Here in this sacrifice the tongue is the saerificial spoon, and the heart is the altar of the fire " Referring to such Vedic sacrifices as ashvamedha, purushamedha, etc, which are attended with the slaughter of amimals, he holds that they do not make for the achievement of the desired result Hence great sages do not perform them On the other had, the sacrifices ifl which no animal such as goat or sheep or cow are killed are of great reward and should be performed by the wise (Samyutta Nikaaya I, 76) This view is expressed by the Blessed One more than once m the canonical works The words Brahmapraapt (Pah 'patti-attainment of Brahman) and Brahmabhuta (identified with Brahman) very well known m Vedantism are sometrmes found in connection with Buddhism in Buddhist works themselves, and there is no reason agamst accepting them in therr Upanishadic senses though with some modification of what is known by the word 'Brahma' in the compounds The Buddha or an Arliat is often spoken of as Brahmabhuta and if, for instance, one reads Itivnttaka , p 57, with a considerable, amount of knowledge of Vedanta one will naturally be inclined to take it in its Vedantic significances The explanation of the word 'Brahman' (in such cases by Buddhist authors seems to be from the sectarian point of view 'Brahman,' (being interpreted as 'highest or most excellent') (sseththa or ssreshtha), Brahma praapti is taken to mean 'attainment of the huighest state,' while Brahmabhuta means 'most excellent being' Just as the Buddha, like some of his predecessors, including the strict followers of the Upamshads, had no faith in Vedic sacrifices, especially in animal killing therei, so ltke some of his other predeces sors he found no place for God too in lus system of religion, nor did he discuss the creation and destruction of the universe Similarly, he had no faith in any external means by which the highest success of life could be attamed and consequently, again like the same predeces- sors of lus he accepted yoga and bhaavanaa (meditation) for achieving

VEDAANT AND BODDRISM 273

that pnrpose, laying spectal stress on brahmacharya, as in the Upam- shads He repeatedly asked his disciples to practise it for ptting an end to suffering (Mahaavagga, pp 12 ff) Like the Vedantists or the Indian philosophers m general he held that the reot cause of the samsnara, from wluch one seeks escape, is avidya (ignorance) though its interpretation or the process of its action may be diffreent with different thinkers Again, like the Vedantists, he maintained very strongly that suffering as due to desire, kaama, which beings about one's bondage This idea has found its fullest possible expression in the Htndu scriptures from the Vedas downwards. It is kaama that binds the world , there is no other bond It is never satisfed, nor is it ever extinguished by enjoyment of desired objects On the contrary, it grows stronger and stronger. So a sage says in a Vedic text (Atharva Veda IX 1: 20) "How great in sidth are heaven and earth, how far fire-to them art thou superior, always great to thee as such O kaama, do I pry homage . In a number of Vedic passages, kaama is identified with fire And tt is not far to seek why this identifcation is made Fire is never satisfied with any amount of fuel, so kaama can in no way be satisfied with any amount of its object The sages of the Upanishadas realized it fully and the following few words give expression to what they felt 'When the kaamas that are in his heart cease, then at once the mortal becomes ammortal and obtams here (ve an thts world) Brahman " The same or simtlar thoughts abound in other texts of the Upamishads, and the Bhagavad Gita is full of them Exactly the same view seems to have been heid by the Buddha as is seen from his declaration that the root cause of sufferings is Laama And rt is so well known a fact that it needs no elucidation The most significant incident of his kfe ts that he conquered Mara the Evil One It is only after this that he b-came a Buddha Remove all the tagen dary characters of the story and the bare truth will reveal itself that it was only after freeing htmself from destre that he attamed to Buddha- hood, Mara being in the story the personification of desire This may be compared with the well known dialogue between Yama and Nachi ketas mn the Kathopanishad If one considers the tremendous evil consequence of pursuing kaama it will be ewdent that there is no better word for its expression Mara fterafty signitfes what is meant by the word mritu (death) both of them being derived from the same root mritu (to die) Who as it that does not know that kala brings ubout death ? The lterature of the country tells tie same story in one way or another We are told that whatever misfortunes there are, here or here- after, they are rooted in ignorance (avidyas), and, desire Now the cessation of desire is possible only after the remoyel of ignorance, which requires for its own disappearance knowledge, or perfect wisdom Or perfection of wisdom The sages of the Upamshads solved the problem realining and advising that there as onty the self or Aatma without 1 second, "I amt

274 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY below, I am above, I am behind, before, right and left-I am all this " And they declared , "If a man understands humself to be the Aatman what could he wish or desire for the sake of which he "should pursue the body For "He who sees, percerves and understands this, loves the Self, delights in the Self, reveals in the Self, rejoices mn the self, becomes a svaraat (self resplendert)" That being the case, there rs nothing that could be an object of desire, nor is there anything to be frightened of for the possibility of fear is only there where there are two For instance, there are both a tiger and a man, the latter may be frightened by the former Thus by the realzation of the self one becomes completely free not only from desire but also from anxiety, trouble and sorrow, So it is said, "When a man understands that all beings have become a man, understands that all beings have become only the Self, what sorrow, what trouble can there be to him who once beholds that Unity ? Thus, on these or similar grounds, the sages of the Upanishads urged "Verily, the self is to be perceived, to be heard of, to be thought of, and to be meditated upon "

THE NOTION OF THE CAUSE OF BONDAGE Q 155 What is Buddha's notion of the cause of Bodage ? Discuss the way in which it differs from Vedantists Ans It is not that the Buddha did not listen to the above " declarations He did : but his perception of the Self was quite diffe rent, he thought that instead of being the cause of liberation as held by the followers of the Upamishads, the knowledge of the Self was, mn fact, the real cause of bondage The notion of 'I' and 'mne' is the cause of bondage, and, as such, it must be shaken off On the pomt of the necessity of release from bondage, both the Vedantin and the Buddha are at one, but, while the former maintains that it can only be effected by the knowledge of the Self the latter differs saying that the notion of 'I' and 'mine' can in no way disappear if there reatly is the existence of the Self This led him to take quite an opposite and a very bold view that there is no Self or Aatman, as it is understood Here it is said by hts followers that if one knows that, in fact, there is Aatman, one's notions of ']' and 'mine' or ahennkaara and mamakaara do not disappear and consequertly tl ere is no cessation of one's suffering For, when a man sees that there is Aatman, he identifies his body with it, and there arises his lasting love for it This love rouses thirst for comfort and this thirst prevents him frem realizing the transitoriness of the objects he wants to enjoy, and he loves to think that they are his and adopts means for their attainment Where there is the notion of the Self, there arises also the notion of the cther-than the Self, and owing to this division of the Self and the other-than-the Self, there spring up feelings of attachment and aversion from which all evils arre Thus, once a devotee is said to have extolled the Buddha , "If there is the notion of 'T' (ahannkaara) in the mind, the continuity of birth does not cease, nor goes away

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the notion of 'T from tke mind, if there is the notion of Aatman And there ts no other teacher than you mn the world advocating the absence of Aatman Therefore there is no other way to deliverance than your doctrine' And it is said by a prominent teacher of Buddhism that as all the passions and evils arse from the notion of Aatman (satkaayadrshtı) and the object of the notion is Aatman atself, as very existence is dened In order to root out desire (kaama) attempts are made in the doctrine of the Buddha to show that there is neither the subject of desire, and if that be so, naturally desires can in no way anse Thus there is the cessation of destre, whereupon liberation or mirvaana follows as a nataral sequencc. The denil of Aatman is called naraatmya, literally 'the state of berg devoid of Aatman' Radically the word atman means "narure (Svabhaav1 own being ) wluch never undergoes any change, nor depends on anything for its being This natraatmya is twofold pudgala narraatmya and dharma- nairatmya. Pudgala is nothing but what Is known to us by such terms as sattva jiva purusha, and so on, that is the Self By pudgala nairaatmya we understand that what is belteved to be a Self or Atman has no independent nature of its own, and consequently no existence in fact and therefore it is not a thing in reality (vastusat) but exists merely m amagination as a name, a term a designation a convention for serving the purpose of ordinary life Similarly, the dharmas or things around us, mternal or external have not thei Aatman or independent nature because they depend for their being on ctuses and conditions (pratityasamutpaada) And how can that which as not its own nature be in the nature of others ? Argument after argument has been offered in support or in refutation of this wew, but to avoid prolxity, we need not discuss them here.

VIGYANA VAADA Q 156 Explain the principal doctrines of Yogachara school of Buddhsm. (Osmamia 1962 , Mysore 1963)

Write a short note on Vigyanvaada Ans There being neither the subject nor the object there is no room for desire in the case of a wise man Ths idea bes at the root of the two well known schools of Buddhism, Vynanavida and Sunvavida Taking its stand on such statements of the Buddha as 'All this as nothing but chitta', a state- ment undoubtedly based on the Upamshads the Vynanavada postu lates the extstence of chitta or 'mind' only, as the Vedanta of Brahman only, and utterly demes all external thines which arc, according to it just fike the phantoms created tn a dream Impunties ot passions (kle sas), such as desire, obstruct the ittainment of

276 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

liberation, and, as such, are regarded as a 'cover' (kle'saavarara) They are due to the conception or notion of Aatman or Self (atmadrishtr), and so they must disappear only when one really understands that m fact there is nothing that can be called Self (pudgala-nairatmya) Then follows liberation Man is steeped in ignorance about the things he sees around him, for the things he sees are not in fact what they appear to him, they being only the vibrations (spanda) or transformations (parinaama) of chitta Such ignorance is also an obstruction and, like darkness, covers the knowable (jneya), the real truth, and is known to be a 'cover of the knowledge' (jneyaavarana) When this cover is com- pletely removed by means of the right view of things, one becomes omniscient (sarvajna)

SUUNYA VAADA

Vigyanvada Docs Sunyavada deny the reality altogether ? Q 157 Discuss the difference between Sunyavada and

(Allahabad 1959)

Write a short note on Sunya Vaada Or

Ans The advocates of the Sunyavada who also hold the doctrine of pudgala and dharma nairatmya or sunyata, as explained above, teach us thas there is nothing real, as everything is devoid of its innate or independent nature that being the ease, anything that appears before us depends for its being on causes and conditions It cannot, therefore, be said that there is anything in its own or innate form (sva ruppa) We see a thing, no doubt, but it appears to us m its imposed (aaropita) form, and not its own form (sva ruupa) Now, if a thing visible to us is only in its imposed form, of what kind it is then in realty ? What is its own form ? The answer is that it is dharmata (the state of being a dharma, thing) But what ts dharmata 7 Own being (sva bhaava) What is own being ? Nature (prakriti) And nature ? That which is called voidness (sunnyata) What does voidness mean ? The state of being devord of own being (nait svabhavya) And what are we to understand by it 7 That which is 'suchness' (tathata) What is 'suchness' ? Being of such nature (tathata) that is, the state of being not hable to change (avikarıtva) the state of permanent existence (sadvasthayita) To be more clear, the svabhava of a thing means only that which is idependent of another (paramirapeksha), and thus, having not been before, it does not come into being (not abhutva bhavah) Therefdre the svabhaiva of fire is nothing but its non oriemation (anutpada) and not its heat, because heat depends on its causes and conditions, and comes mto being after having not been at first Thus there appeass nothing, nor does anything disappear, nothing has an end, nor 's anything eternal ; nothing is idenucal nor is anything differentiated , nothing comes higher " there is only dependent origi-

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nation (pratitya samutpida), wheree ceases all expression (Prapah- chopt'sama) Vicwing things in this hght, these teachers, the propounders of doctrine of 'sunyata' which in this system implies simply the rejection of all sorts of imposition (sarvarapa ntrakriya), declare that anything. external ot internal, that ipptars to us as existing is, in fact, unreal. like the tmaginary town in the sky (gindharva-nagara) Thus, there being nothing internilly or externally, the notion of 'I' and 'mine' techmically satkaya-drishti, disappears completely, as there is neither the subject nor the object of the notion The disappearance of this notion es followed by the disappearince of samsara which has its roots struck deep in it The sole object of the followers of the sunyavida is to root out the notion of '1, mine', or the Self and that which belongs to the Seif * One who believes in the void (sunyata) ts not attracted by world ly things, because they are baseless He is not delighted by gain, nor is cast doun by not gaining He does not feel proud of glory Scorn docs not make hem shrink nor does praise win him Neither does he feel attached to pleasures, nor does he feel an aversion to pain He who is not so attracted by worldly things Lnows what the void means Therefore one who belteves in the void has neither likes nor dislikes He knows that which he muight like, to be only void, and regards it ns void only He who likes and dislikes anything docs not know the vord and he sho indulg-s in quarrel or dispute or debate with any one does not Lnow this to be only vord nor does he so regard it " When by the meditation on sunyats vanishes the idea of and 'mine' both internally and externally, all the up idanis 'holdines up, TI", desire (kama) wrong views (drishti), belief in rites (silavrit1- pramr'sa) ind soul theones (Antma vada) also vunsh This extinctrin of upadanas is followed by the birth Thus karmas and passions beine extinet mokshn (liberition) is obtamed

VIGNAANA IS AATMA Q 158 Compare Vigyanvada of Buddhism with Aatm- vnd of the Upanishads Ans The Vynanavada referred to above may be based on the Upintsbads This will be perfeetly clear if one reads the Vedinta in the lipht thrown bv such older teachers as Gaudapada In the Upnishnds Bribman which is identtcal with Aatman is onl Vynant (cons tousnes or jnaana Therfore Brahmavada or Aatma vndt is in fct Vyninavadı Somehon or other, when ill these three, Bril min Antman and Yynin, are regarded is identical, the following and stmilar Upanishadic texts can very well be quoted as referring to Vinana t * Verils, all das is Aatman,' * Brahmin glone is all this." "All thts is Brahman, ' "There is no diversity here He

INDIAN PHILOSOPHY who perceives diversity here goes from death to death " Thus, to say all this is Brahman or Aatman amounts to saying that all this is vijnan, or m other words, all this is a vivarta, 'illusory manifestaion' or parinaama transformation' of Brahman or Vynaana Compare this with the following words whuch are said to have been uttered by the Buddha hrmself "O the sons of Jina, the three planes are only chitta * The words Clutta, Manas, and Vynaana are synonymous. It is evident from the above that in both the Vedantic and Buddhistic schools of thought, the external world has in fact no reality , and though it appears to us, thuis appearance itself is due to Avidya accord- ing to the Vedantins, or to vasana (mental impression), as the Buddhists would mamtain In other words, it is Avidyaa or Vaasanaa that changes Vinaana into external phenomena as m iflusion, mirage, dream, etc When the Vimana does not perceive any object whatsoever, it rests only in itself This state of resting of the Vynaana only in itself is called Vijnaanamaatrataa say, makti, 'deliverance' And this is, as the Vijnaanavaadins In the Vedatr this Vejmanamantrataa is expressed in the words, aatmasamstha-jnaana (jnaana that rests in itself of Gaudapada mn his Aagamasaastra (III 38) This statement of Gaudapada is undoubtedly based on such words of the Upanishads as the following (Chhando gyopanished VII 24, 12) 'Where one sees nothing else, hears nothing else, understands nothing else that is the Infinite (bhoo- man) The Infinite is immortal The finite is mortal " * Sir, in what does the Infinite rest ?" "In its own greatness or not even in greatness " The exposition of Gaudapada (III 46) is here very clear Says, he, When the chitta does not fall into a state of oblivion, nor is dis- tracted again, nor is unsteady, nor has it any sense image then it becomes Brahman ' BRAHMA BHAAVA IS VIGNAANA MAATRATAA Thus the Vinaanamatrataa of the Vyninavadins is mn fact the Brahmabhaava of the Brahmavadins or Vedantins Brabmabhaava means the 'state of Brabman' or 'becoming Brahman ' And this is the mukti of the Brahmavadins Therefore, on this point, which is a vitally important one, there is entire agreement between the two Vijnanavadins-the Vedantists and the Buddhists Or to put it mn other words, the origmal author of the Buddhist Vinanavada . e, the Buddha himself, understood the Vijnanavada or Brahmavada of the Upanshads in the same hght as adopted by such teachers as Gauda- pada and the author of the Yogavasishtha Ramayana It is, therefore, not too much to say, at least so far as the present pomt is concerned. that the Buddha was really a knower of the Vedanta, as observed above It can further be observed, I think, that the prapanchopa sama of the Madhyamikas, and the later Upanishads such ar the Maandu- kya, Vynaana or Vijnaptimaatrataa of the Vinanavadios, nirvaans

THE PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDHISM 279

of the Buddhists in general Brahmaprapt or Brahmabhava of the Vedantıns Kevala jnana of the Samkhyas yoga or chittavrithi mrodha of the Yogmns parmapada of Vishnu in the Upamshads and the devotional hterature of the country, are, m fact, different expres sions of one and the same thing It is evident from the dialogue between Assajt and Saarputta as described in the Vinaya (Mahaavagga I 23), that the spirit of the truth that dawned upon the Buddha hies in his explanation of the origination and cessation of the objects that proceed from a cause This refers to his law of twelve membered cause of existence (dvaada - saanga niddan) and dependent origination (pratitya samutpaada) They show the grad ial origination of the whole mass of sufferings, the starting point of which is ignorance (avidyas) and also its cessa tion hrough the cessation of its fundamental cause ignorance

BODHI S SUPREME KNOWLEDGE Q 159 Write a short note on (a) Bodhis Supreme Knowledge, (b) Bodlusattva Ans (a) Now, the cessation of ignorance depends only on Bodhi, 'Supreme Knowledge, which is in no way easy to acquire An aspirant to it, who is known in the system by the name of Bodhisattva is to strive for it throughout lus life dotng vartous duttes The ideal of this practice (charya) of a Bodhisattva is very great indeed there is nothing more ennobling in Buddhism than this It is not the subtle truth nor the profound philosophy of Buddhism that attracted people of so many lands for we cannot think that the average persoh understood them thoroughly and then accepted the relteion for mn the words of the Buddhi himself they are very difficult to perceie and to understand unattaiable by reasontng intelligible only to the wise What is it then in Buddhism that won the hearts of the people? It is the noble aim to be achieved the discipline to be observed and the prictice to be made through the whole life by a Bodinsattva for nirvaana BODHISATTVA (b) Before becoming a Buddha anyone who strives for Buddha- hood is a Bodhisattva and everyone can become a Buddht There- fore the Bodhisattva stage is the stage of discipline preparatory to the attainment of Bodlt The first and the most important thing in the life of a Bodhisattva 's mahamatri great love and mahakaruna great compassion. Matri is that love for all beings (sarvasattyn) which a mother feels towards her only and very dear son And the Maitn that prompts L Bodhisattva to offer lis body and life and all sources of good (kusalimuula) to all living beings without any expectation of return is mahnmaitri And the thought or intention to work for the deliver- arce of all sentient beings fallen into the unfathomable and unbound

280 INDIAN PINLOSOPIY ed ocean of samsaara is called karuna (compassion) And the Karonaa with which a Bodhisttva desires bodhi or enlghtenment not first for himself but for others is mahaakarunan We are told that the prince of Kapilvastu, Siddhartha, when he was in the stage of a Bodh sattva, was moved not by his own sufferings but those of the world, such was lus love and Lindness towards it Therefore a Bodhrsattva, with a heart full of mahamaitri and mahaakarunan, Anowig thoroughly the miseries, sorrows md suffer Ings of the world, identifies his own happiness with the removal of the sufferings of all creatures, and meditates as follows "When pain and fear are not pleasant to me as they are not to others, then how am I different from others that I should preserve myself and not others ? Thmnking thus a Bodhisattv, in order to put an end to pam and attain the height of joy, both for himself and all other living beings of the world, makes his faith (sraddhaa) firm and fixes his mind on Bodht, praying . "May I become a Buddha to effeet the good and happiness of all sentient beings of the world and to put an end to all their sufferings ' "By this good action of mine may 1 become a Buddhn so that for the good of the universe I may preach the truth delivering thereby all hving beings, now subjected to vario sufferings "

NIRVAANA Q 160 What happens to a Ithagata (perfect man) aft death ? Does he contiue to exist or does he cease to exist State the standpoint of the Buddha on Nirvana Ans Undoubtedly he wants the cessation of suffering or nt vaana, but first not for himself, but for others Extremely difficult is the path of a Bodhisattva, yet he dares t tread it out of his love for lus fellow beings He is to worship th Tathagatas (Buddhas) and he thinks that tlis can be done only b serving the world Hence he says "In order to worshup the Tatha gatis I undertake the duties of a servant of the world Let the mult! tude of people put their feet on my head, or let them kill me, let th Lord of the world (Buddha) be pleased The kind hearted Tthagata have identified themselves with the world, indeed they are seen in thi form of beings , these are the only Lords Why then show them dis respect ? This is the worship of the Tathagatas, this is the accomp lishment of one's own good, this is the removal of the world s trouble "Let this, therefore, be my holy practice (vrata) " What happens to a Tathagata (perfect man) after death ? Does he continue to exist or does he cease to exist ? Does he both exist and not exist, or does he neither exist nor not exrst 7 Buddha felt constrained to remam silent whenever sach an

VEDAANTA AND BUDDHISV 281

inquiry was presssd He ws always reluctant to commit himself to iny stitement in reply to any of the above four queries The real reason is thit he was not prepared to admit any of the questions-to entertam the inquiry in that form With the inquiries, however, those were the questions that vitally concerned them Buddha felt it neces sary to explam his own posttion thus "Just as it is not possible to know whither the fire is gone which was so lons burning before a man after it is extinguished once for all on the exhaustion of all materials of burning-the fuet-tn the same way it is not possible to represent a Tathigata after he has passed away on the complete exhaustion of all materrls ot bodily existence and of all pre-requisities of representation of an individual as com- monly known " To say that Buddha attained parinirvana is the same as to say in ordinary language that he died In luis own words to attam pari- mrvan is to see ' the fire of fife extinguished in that elemental con- dition of extriction which allows no residuum of possibihty for reignition With the Jaina, too, parmirvana is the last fruit of final consum- mation of the highest perfection attained by a man or attamable in human life But with him parimrvana is the same term as nirvana or moksha meaning final liberation that comes to pass on the complete waning out or exhaustion of the accumulated strength or force of karma With the Jaina however, nirvana or moksha is not a dread ful or terrble term like the Buddhist parinirvana which suggests at once an idea of the complete annthlation of individuahty of a samt after death by the simile of the total extinction of a burning lamp on the exhaustion of the oil and the wick With the Jaina mirvana is nothing but a highly special or trans cendental condition of human soul, in which it remams eternally ind absolutely free from passion hatred birth, decay, disease and the like, because of the complete waning out of all causes of dukkha How a Bodhisattva serves humanity is described as follows n Bodhi Charyavatara III p p 11 14 16 21 ' May I be a lamp to those who want it, a bed for those who require it a servant of all May I have the power to dispose myself in varions ways so that all living beings in space may live upon me until they are liberated " "Let whatever suffering the world has, come to me and may the ments of the Bodhisattva make it happy The same idea has struck its root deep in Brahmansm, specially in Varshnavism Rantideva supplcates fervently mn the Bhagavata Purana (IX 21 12) . "I do not want the highest state from God, nor do I want the attainment of the eight powers (siddhis) nor the absence of rebirth but I want to undergo the sufferings of all beings, being mn them, so that they may become free trom miseries" The following is from the prayer of Dhruva who was asked by his beloved Lord, when he appeared before him, to choose a boon.

CHABTER XII PHILOSOPHY OF JAINISM As old as Vedic Religion Plulosophy of Jainism-As an old and Vedie religion-The Place of Jama Darsana among the Indian Darsams-Aapt the Lord -Arahat Parameshtin or Tirthankar1-Aacharyis Upadhayas and Sadhus-Moksh Marga Path to Silvition-The Areamas-Jama Metaphysics-The five Ultimate Reals-Chetan -- Karma-Dravya und Guna-Bheda Abheda-No Samavaya-Classification of Jıvas-Ajıva Dravyas-Aakasa-Dharma ind Adharma-Kala-Aasrava-Mok sha-Juna Logic and Theory of knowledge-The doctrine of Aast Nastı-The Doctrine of Sapta bhangı Juna Ethics Ratnatriya- The five Vratis or abstinences-The Spirit of Alumsa-The Nine Types of Cruelty-Five Types of Falsehood -- The Duty of the Home less Yogin-The Stages of Spiritual Advancement-Conclusion) Q 162 It is contended that Jamism is as old as the Vedic religion, if not older ; Give a brief historical back ground of Jamism Ans It is now a well known fact that the last of the Jam: Tirthankaras, Lord Mahavira, was an older contemporary of Gautamt Sakya Mum, Lord Buddha, According to the Cambridge History of India, the twenty thtrd Tirthankara, Lord Parsvanatha was also a historical person According to the Jaia tradition he preceded Mahavira by 250 years We may make bold to say that Junism, the religion of aluimsa (non injury) is probably as old as the Vedic religion if not older In the Righ Vedic mantrs we have clear references to Rishabha and Arshtanemi-two of the Jaina Tirthankaras the former being the founder of Jama dharma of the present age The story of Rishuibha also occurs in the Vishnupurana of Bhagvatapurana where he figures as an avatara (Incarnation) of Narayana in an age prior to that of the ten avtaras of Vishnu It is not necessary to emphasize the fact that throughout Vedic literature consisting of the Samhitas the Brahmanas and the Upa nishads, we find two ocurrents of thought opposed to each other run ning parallel sometimes the one becoming dominant sometimes the other one enjoining animal sacrifice in the yajnas (sacrifice) and the other condemning it Hence it is obvious that from the very earliest period of Hindu thought alnmsa dharma and its opposite have been struegling for domination 'Ma lumsayat sarvabhatan 1 the Vedic passage which condemns shedding of blood occurs side by side (284)

PHILOSOPHY OF JAINISM 285

with "Sarvamethe sarvam hanyat."2 The mythic rivalry of Visva- mitra and Vasistha, and the story of Sunal' sepa occuring in the Rig-Vedic hymns, similarly indicate the existence of and rivalry between two schools of thought, one sanctioning the sacrifice and the other opposing it. It is curious to note that the party which opposed animal sacri- fice was led bv Kshatriya leaders, whereas the party which defended animal sacrifice was led by the priestly class. When we enter the Upanishadic stage the cleavage between the two kinds of dharma becomes quite obvious. The characteristie doctrine of Upanishadıc lıterature, Aatmavidya (Self-realization), with its associated doctrine of tapas (Self-discipline) becomes openly recog- nized as the highest dharma ; whereas the older sacrificial ritualism is assigned a lower status. Thus the school of Aatma-vidya which had been supporting the doctrine of ahimsa and hence bad been opposed to animal sacrifice must be considered to be the forefathers of the latter-day Jama thinkers of ancient India. The recent excavations at Harappa aed Mohenjodaro have brought to light still more surprising facts. On the seals and coins dug out from these places are found figures resembling the Jaina Tirthan- karas. According to Jaina tradition itself, the Vedas were at one time based upon the doctrine of ahimsa and became perverted later on through the personal rivalry between the two teachers at the time of King Vasu.

THE PLACE OF JAINA DARSANAS AMONG THE INDIAN DARSANAS Q. 163. Discuss the place of Jaina Darsana among the Indian Darsanas. Ans. It is the usual practice of Hindu philosophers to classify Darsanas (philosoplues) into two groups-Vedic and non-Vedic : those that accept the authority of the Vedas and those that reject the authority of Vedas. They are otherwise known as Aastıka Darsanas and Nastika Darsanas. Under the former heading it is usual to include Samkhya and Yoga, Nyaya and Vaiseshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta. Under the latter come the Jaina Darsana, Buddha Darsana and Charvaka Darsana. It is not necessary to attach any importance to the distinetion between Aastıka Darsana and Nastika Darsana. From the foregoing sketch it is obvious why the Jainas had to reject Vedas and Vedic ritualism. Since there is that fundamental difference between ahimsa dharma and vedic ritualism the followers of the former cannot be expected to accept the ritnalism, involving animal sacrifice. Hence it is but a truism to say that the Jaina Darsana is outside the Vedic fold. But on this score it is extremely misleading to call it a Nastika Darsana, which becomes still more misleading when transfated into English as an atheistic school.' The term atheism

288 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

According to Jaia tradition, the scripture embodying the knowledge of ultimate reality is periodicallyt revealed for the benefit of mankind by the Tirthinkaras or the Arhats: The Tirthankara occupies a privileged position among mankind His status exactly corresponds to that of the founders of various other religions or to the conception of the avetaras Born with the privilege of becoming the Lord of religion throught tha adoption of yoga practice or tapas, after destroying the most powerful of karmic bondages, the Tirthankara attams omniscience in this world He becomes entirely free from the wants and destres characteristic of the flesh, Establishung his own self mn tts purity, un- contaminated by the defects of the body whtch still clings to him, filled with universal love and mercy for all living beings, worshipped by the Lords of the three worlds, the Tirthankara spends some time in the world with the object of propounding the dharma for the benefit of the jivas that are still entangled in samsara After achievmg his own object in life by the realzation of his true self hood and thus be- coming endowed with knowledge, power and bliss of infinte magni- tude, the Tirthankara Parameshthi tours the country propounding the dharma and defining the path of salvation, so that others may also have the benefit of ltberatton from samsara-the cycle of births and deaths For this benefit, it is said that Indra constructs an elaborate moving audience hall which serves both as a vehicle carrying the Tirthankara from place to place and an audienge hall accommodat- ing the devout bhaktas (followers) eager to listen to the truth pro- pounded by him This is known as the samavasarana mandapa m Jaina lterature Whenever this mandapa appears in any particular locality carrying the Tirthankara Paramadeva who is the embodiment of universal love and mercy, there is a reign of universal peace and harmony Animals instinctively ancagonistie to one another exhibit a tendency of peace and goodwill to one another Such is the result of the very presence of the Lord promoting universal love ind mercy to all Thus the Tirthankara, sice he conquers all the deleterious karmas, is able to realise his true nature and becomes a Sarvajnna He is immersed in infimte bhss and is worshipped as Sarvesvara, Sarvahita, Mahadeva, Maha Vishnu Arhadeva and'in similar other divine names, one thousand and eight in number Such Tirthankaras appear in the world in different cosmic periods which, according to Jama philosophy, consist of an age of evolution and growth followed by an age of dissolution and decay The former is called utsarpini and the latter avasarpini, the two constituting the complete cosmic cycle of time Each of these time periods is further subdivided into six, and the present world period represents the period of decay or avasrpini, of whch the current division is the fifth time period called pannchama kala In the period immediately prior to this, the fourth period of avasrpini appeared all the twenty four Tirthankaras of the modern world pertod *There are Rishabha, Ajita, Sambhavi, Abbinandana, Sumati, Padmaprabha Suparsva, Chandraprabha, Pushpadanta, Sitala, Sreyam'sa, Vasupujya,

PHR OSOTHY OF JANPM 290

Vimla, Ananta, Dharna, Sant, Kuntha, Ara, Mall, Munsuvnita, ' Nemi, Par'sva and Vardhamana Mahavira. With Mahavira ends the line of the Tirthankaras as atso the fourth period of avasarpini. The Tirtbankara is associated with five inds of festivafs known as the pinch-talyanis in which worship the devas take pirt. The Pancha- kalyanas are (1) Svargavatarana, the descent of a deva to become a Tirthankara : (2) Mandarabhsheka (otherwise known as jinmabhi- sheka), rejoiing at the birth of the Tirthankara, by performing an abhisheka at the summit of Mandam giri ; (3) Dikshal alyana, when the Tirthanakarn renounces the kirgdom and worldly pleasures in order to become a yogin ; (4) Kevalotpattt wbich represents the appearance of omniscient Lnowledge as the result of tapas and the destruction of karmas , and (S) lastly, Parinirvana-Lalayan represent- ing the complete destruction of Parmatma-svarupa. The paraphernalta provided by Indra in order to eelebrate the glory of the Arhat Para- meshthn consist of such marvellous occurrences as the appearance of an ashoka tree to provide shade, the rain of divine ffowers, the sound- ing of divine musc, the fanning with chamars, the provnon of a smbisina (throne), the ereation of halo of light surrounding his divine body. and the ereauon of a triple umbrella, representing his suzerainty over all the thrce worlds. These are the privileees of a Tirthankara and the devas vie with one another to offer hum worship.

290 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY propularise the Jma dharma in order to help the several souls entangled in samsara to reach the safe heaven beyond He educates and instructs The third class consists of Sadhu Paramesh thins s e all those great souls who do not have any defimte function either of authority or of instruction but still illustrate through the r conduct, the great path to salvation so that others following their example may accept the dharma and adopt the path of self disc pl ne and self realization All these five constitute the Pancha Parameshthins the five kinds of beings worshipped by the Jamas as representing the ideal in 1 fe at different stages of realzaston

MOKSHA MARGA-PATH TO SALVATION Q 167 Discuss the moksha marga or the path to salvation shown by Jamism Ans The most important message of Jamism is moksha marga It is otherwise known as Ratnatraya the three jewels of right beltef right knowledge and right conduct These three must be present together to constitute the path to salvation Since all the three are emphasized equally and since the mokshr marga is impos sible without the comprehence of all the three it is obvious tlat Jaiism is not prepared to admit any one of these three m isolation as a means of salvation There are relgious schools wlich lay all the emphasis on bhakti or faith on jnana or knowledge on karma or moral conduct The Bhagavatas mostly emphasze the bhakti aspect Provided that is granted one is sure of reaching salvation The Vedantıns especrally Advait Vedantıns emphasize the jnana aspect Provided avidya or ignorance is dispelled moksha or salvation is witlun your reach The Purva Mimamsa school may be said to emphasize karma or conduct But according to Jainism no such one- sided emphasis can be accepted as the correct path All the three must co exist in a person if he is to walk the path of salvation Tre Jama commentators make the meaning quite clear by bringing in the analogy of medicine as curative of some malady A patient before accepting the medicme prescribed for him by a doctor must have complete farth in the doctor and must believe in the efficacy of the medicine Mere belief of tlus type is not enough he must be in a position to lave accurate information as to the nature of the medicmne, how it is so be used and how it will gradually work as a curat ve principle before he is rid of huis sicl ness Mere faith in its eflicacy and knowledge of its use will not be enough to bring about a cure in him uniess he carries them out in practice by taking the doses as prescubed by the doctor and by observing the dietary rules consistent with the taking of the medicine Faith in its efficacy knowledge of its use and actual taking of the medicine-all these three must be present if a cure is to be effected Any one of these though valuable in itself will not be enough to bring about a cure In the same way

PHILOSOPHY OF JAINISM 291

the universal malady of samsaric (worldly) misery which every soul is suffering from can be cured by this triple panacea -- the Ratnatraya, when accepted as a mixture of the three principles of right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. If any one element is missing, the other two would be useless. Hence the emphasis is laid by the Jaina thinkers on the Ratnatraya which consttute the moksha marga. This moksha marga is revealed by the Tirthankara or Arhat Parameshthin for the benefit of suffering mankind.

THE AAGAMAS Q. 168. Write a note on the Angmas. Ans. The Aagmas or the scriptures are revealed by the Sarvajna or the omniscient being. The Jaina scripture should not be in conflict with the well-known pramanas, the criteria of correct knowledge. It must be capable of leading men towards higher goals, to svarga and moksha. It must give correct information as to the nature of reatity. It must give detarls of the putusharthas (end of human bife) of dharma religions ment, artha (wealth), kama (enjoy- ment) and moksha. The scripture with such characteristics, and revealed by the Sarvajna has been handed down from generation to generation by a succession of teachers called Ganadharas, beginning with Sudharma, the chief disciple of the Tirthankara Mahavira Vardhamana. It is known by the following appellations; the Sidhanta, Paramagama, Kritanta, Veda, Sruti, Sastra, etc. The

and Prakirna. scripture of the Jains is grouped under three classes of Anga, Purva

JAINA METAPHYSICS Q. 169. Give an account of Jaina Metaphysics and clarify the Jain concept of Jiva, (Mysore 1962, Osmania 1963, Agra 1965) Or

philosophy. Examine the concents of (1) Self and (2) Liberation in Jain (Poona 1903)

Write a critital note on the Jaina doctrine of matter, Karma, and Soul. (Baroda 1959, Karnatak 1965)

Explain the fondamental ideas of Jainism. (Oaleutta 1951) Ans. The Jama phifosophy might be summed up in one sentence. The living and the non-living, by coming into contact with each other, forge certain energies which bring about birth, death, and various expericnces of life; this process could be stopped, and the energies already forged destroyed, by a coorse of discipline leading to salvation. A close analysis of this brief statement shows that it involves seven propositions ; firstly, that there is something called the

292 INDIAN PHLOSOPHY

living , secondly, that there is something called the non living, thardly that the two come into contact with each other , fourthly that the con tact leads to the production of some energtes , fifthly, that the process of contact could be stopped , sixthly, that the existing energies could also be exhausted , and lastly, that salvation could be achieved These seven propositions are called the seven tattvas or realities by the Jainas The first two great truths are that there is a jiva or soul and that there is an ajivi or non soul These two exhaust between them all that exists in the universe A recognition of the two entities at once marks the Jama system out as duahstic lke the Sammkhya and distinguishnble from the momstic Vedanta whch accepts only one reality without a second The Reality according to Jaia philosophy is uncreated and eternal * Upapada-vyaya dravya yuktam sıt > Reality is that wluch is characterized by appearance and disappearance in the midst of permanence Tls is the peculier doctrine as to the nature of realty found in Jamna metaphysics and the only parallel to thts in Western thought is the Hegaban doctrine of the dialectical nature of reality -- thesis and antithests reconciled and held together by synthests Every object of reality embodies in itself an affirmative and a negatrve aspect synthesized and held together by its own complex nature quite analogous to the biological principle of metabolism comprehendmg and reconciling in itself the two opposite processes of kataboltsm and anbolism Such is the complex nature of reality according to Jaina metaphysics It maintains its identity and permanency only through the continued process of changes consisting of ongin and decay- identity in the midst of veriety, and permanency through change Neither the permanency or the process of change can be separated from each other Each is indispenseble to the other and hence cannot be separated in realty, though one may be differenttated from the other in thought and speech From this triple nature of reality arise various other philosophical doctrines assocated with Jaina metaplystcs THE FIVE ULTIMATE REALS Such ultimate reals are five in number according to Jaina meta phystcs These constitute the primary elements which go to build up the cosmos They are Jiva pudgal, dharma adharma and akasa These primary constituent elements of the cosmos are technt cally called pannchastikaya, the five astikayas The term astika is a technical term of Jaia metaphysics The first part asti imples existence The second part kaya impltes volume Astikaya, therefore, means a category which is capable of having spatial relations Here spatial relations should be differentiated from volume associated with matter Material y is corporeality which is pecubar to pudgala or matter Of these 'five astikayas pudgala alone is murta (corporeal), the others are amurta (non corporeal) though they are astikayas or existences having spatial relitions Of these the first jıva astikaya relates to souls or atmans It is the only chetana category, the other four being uchetinas This chetana (conscious) entity jiva is entirely different from pudgala or matter which represents the

VEDAANTA AND JATNISY 293

inorganic world. If time is added to these five astikayas, then we have the six dravyas (substances) of Jaina metaphysics. The time category is different in nature from the five astikayas since it is a unilateral series, whercas the astikayas are capable of being associated with multiple spatial points or pradessas. Anything that is capable of having simuftancous relations to multiple spatiat points or pradessas would come under astikaya, whereas time can have only unilateral relation of moments and hence cannot have simultancous relations to a group of multiple points. It corresponds to unilateral serics in methematics and hence it is excluded from the class of astikas. In Jaina metaphysics, nevertheless, it is included under the sit dravyas. cach dravya having the dialectical nature referred to above. CHETANA The desenption of jiva dravya as a chetana entity is exactly similar to the description of atman in upnishad literature. Since its nature is chetana, of chitsvarupa, it has the essential characteristics of perception and Anowledge. In itself it is incapable of being measured by material units or space umits. in the conerete world it is always found associated with a body as an organized being. As an embodied jiva it has all the characteristics of a fiving being associated with a body and other sense organs. In this concrete world so orga- nized and associated with the body jivas are of four main groups necording to the four eatis (destination) ; Devas or divine beings. naras or human beings, narakas or beines relating to hell, and tiryaka or the lower animats and the plant world.

294 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

according to Jama metaphysics he is a knower, an actor and sa emoyer He has knowiedge of objects, he acts erther to possess them or avoid them and as a result of his action is able to enjoy the fruis thereof Thus he is endowed with the triple nature of consctousness- conation cogmtion and emotion In this respect the Jaina conception of jivatman is wholly different from the other views For evampl4 the Samkhya conception of Purusha makes him the knower and the enjoyer but not the actor The Samkhys Purusha is dtstinctly mn- active His activities are entirely secondary and derived m as-much as he is ssociated with Prakriti, of which his own body is a modifi cation It is this relationship that is explamed metaphorically by the Smkhya school through the story of the lame man on the back of the blind-the Purusha guiding the pith while being carred by the blind Prakrits Jun meraphysics rejects this view and makes the atman ietive in himself and whnat he enjoys is Bhoktr Hence the Samkhya doctrine that Purusha is akartri is rejected by Juinn meta physics

DRAVYA AND GUNA Dravya is that which manfests ttself through its owa gonis and paryryas-qualities and modifications Dravya is a dynamic cate gory which imphes \ process as already explaied This process expresses itself in the form of qualities as well as modifications The ustat sllustration given is gold with its qualties of yellouness brithance, mallenbilitv ete Its parynyas or modifications are tle various ornaments that can be made of it One orniment may be destroyed ind out of the gold another ormment may be made The disapperance of one piryay or permanent and constans are the characteristics of every dravya Utpidi and vynya appearance ond disappearance always refer to the changing modifications while perma nence always refers to the underlying substance From the ispect of dravya it is permanent Therefore permanence and change m reahty refer to two different aspects -- change from the aspect of modifications and permanence from the aspect of the urderlytng substance When one mode disappears ind another mode appears there is certmly no change in the underlying substince

BHEDA-ABHEDA In the illustrations given above gold remains the same is the relation between gold and its quabties Jama metaphysics dees Sımutar

not recognise gunas wthout dravyas nor dravyas without gunis Qualities without substratum and substrium wthout quatities mt both empty abstractions and hence unreal The qualities of potd are entirely distinet from the qualties of any other baser metal Hence the qualities are identical with the underlying substarce because the qualities const tute the expression of the substance Since gold is distinet in n tu e from iron or lead the propertres are ilso distinct. The qualties of ene cinnot be trinsformed into the qualities of the other ' Thus substarce and qualtties are identical inasmuch ns the

THE PHILOSOPHY OF JATNISM 295

latter exlubits the nature of the former in spite of this identity between I dravya ind guna, they are distinct from each other If there is no i fundamental dufference between substance and quality, dravya and gunn there will be no means of apprehending the nature of dravya except through its manifestation Hence the two must be kept sepa- rate in Thought though they cannot be separated in reality Dravya and guna substance and quality, may be said to be different from each other from one point of view and yet identical from another point of view It is both bheda and abhieda different and yet identt- cal This bheda nbheda point of view is again pecuhar to Jaina metaphysics

NO SAMAVYA In this respect it is fundamentally distinct from the Vaiseshika

tinct padartha from guna and the two are brought together by a third poit of view According to the Vaiseshika school dravya is a dis-

principle or gunas are considered to be quite distinct Knowledge (nana), feeling (Iccha) and comtion, as properties of Jiva exist in- dependently of the soul but are brought together by the intervention of a third padartha, samaviya, whose function it is to cement to- gether the substance and its qualities As has already been pointed out, Jama metaphysics completely rejects this view Jnan and other properties of the jiva or soul are inseparable from the nature of the soul and hence the presence of properties in the atman is not the result of i combination effected by a third principle The quanties of the itm in ire there and the mture of the atman expresses itself only through the properties If I nowledge feeling and conation, the pro perties of the soul were considered to be existing independently of the atman, then the soul without these properties will cease to be a cons- cious principls, a chetana dravya and hence will be indistinguishable from the achetna dravya (matter) The distinction between chetana and achetana among the reals will cease to have iny meaning Sımilar- ly properties such as jnana and sukhn or duhkha (Pleasure or pain) since they do not have any relation to a chetan dravys will cense to be the properties of the chetan entity and their asseention with the dravy a effected b a third principle may be with matter, an achetana dravya and not necessanily with a jiva Thus the absolute indepen dence of gunn and gurm, property and substractum is rejected by Jain metaphysics as an impossible doctrine Hence jiva is essentrilly of the nature of jnana which should not be interpreted as a quafity made pecuhar to jiva by the operation of a third principle Thus jiva which is by nature a conscious or chetana principle is fundamentatty different from material substance, ind yet in concrete life it is inti- Irwely i association with a body CLASSIFICATION OF JIVAS Throuchout the hving kingdom in the botinical and zoolgical world life is found in assocrtion with matter This qesoention of jwva with body its sarira is an important chtracteristic of the concrete livyie world Jiva in association with its body is quite different from

296 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Jiva in its pure state former samsara jiva The latter is called the pure Aatman and the This simsara jiva in association with its appro- priate body is said to be of different grades of existence Of course jiva in the four different gatis are all considered to be the samsara

kingdom are classified according to therr development Jaia plulo Jivas In addition to this distinction of gatis jivas in the bolog cal

sophy divides the jivas in the world according to the principle of the development of the sense orgins The lowest class of jivas cons sts of ekendriya jivas or jivas having only one sense organ Next higher to this are dvindriya jivas or jivas having two sense organs Then higher above we have jivas with three indriyas Then there are jivas of four indriyas then panchendriya jivas or jivas of five sense organs and lastly samanaska e pinchendriya jivas with manas (mind) The first class referes to the vegetible kingdom which is con sidered to be a part of the living world according to Jaina Philosophy Trees and plants have all the properties of hving organism such as assimlation growth and decay and reproductton with only one sense organ -- the awareness of touch They are endowed In addition to the recognition of the botamical world as a part of the brologicnl world Jama philosophy speaks of sukshma ekendrya jivas m niite and microscoptd orgatusms endowed with only one sense-the sense of touch These generally restde in other bodies Some of them are found in solid objects like the earth others are born in water some others live in air and some others m light According to thewr place of restdence these lıves are called pritlvi kayıka apkayıka vayu kayıka and tejas kayikas-those that reside mn earth in water, in air and I ght respectively This doctrmne of sukshma ekendriya j vas with their respective places of residence is entirely misunderstood by Orten tal scholars who go to the extent of attributing to Jama plulosophy a primitive doctrine of animism that earth water air ete have their own souls This confusion ts unfortunately the result of a lack of under standing of the fundamentals of Jama metaphysics Worms represent the second class of organisms with two senses -- touch and taste Ants represent the third class with touch taste and gmell Rees represent the fourth class with sight in addstion to the three Higher amimals represent the fifth class having mn addition the sense of earning Of course man represents the luighest of these classes having m nd in addition to the five senses AJIVA DRAVYAS The dravyas which belong to the non living class the aj væ dravyas and pudgala dharma adharma akası and kala-matter the principle of motion the principle of rest space and time All these are achetana (insentient) dravyas Pudgala or matter is murta dravya the corporeal category which can be prescribed by the senses It is issociated with sense properties such as colour taste and smell These constst of ultimate entities called atoms or paramanus By the combination of these atoms aggregates are formed which are cilled skandha Thus the term skandha in Juma metaphysics means quite u different thing from the Buddlustic skandha 'These agereg ites may

THE PRILOSOPHY OF BUDDHISM 297

range from the smallest molecule of two atoms to the most important aggregate or maha skandha represented by the whole physical universe is entirely dependent upon the ultimate constituent elements or the paramanus. The pancha bhuta (five elements) of other systems are but examples of these aggregates of atoms. The paramanu or the ultimate atom cannot be perceived by the ordinary senses. So also the minute aggregates or the skandhas. The peculiar doctrine of the Jaina metaphysics is the doctrine of karmic matter, karma prayoga pudgala (karma sarira)-subtle material aggregates which form the basis for the binding up of the subtle body which is associated witli every jiva, till the time of its liberation or moksha. The gross organic body which is born of the parents, nourished by food, and subject to disease, decay and death, is the ordinary body known as audarik sariras the body which is given birth to and is cast away by its associa- ted jiva at the time of death. But in the karma-sarira the jiva cannot so cast away during its existence in samsara. This subtle karmic body is inevitably associated with every samsara jiva throughout its career in the cycle of births and deaths. In fact it is this karmic body that is responsible for the samsaric changes of atman which is in itself a pure chetana dravya. Its intrinsic purity is thus lost or diminished, because of its association with this karmie body constituted by the subtle material aggregates or karma pudgalas. The building up of this karmic body around the soul is conditioned by the physical activities of the soul itself. The conscious activities sucl as desires nnd emotions, according as they are healthy or unhealthy, act as causat conditions for the building up of the karmic body which becomes the vehicle for good or evil according to the nature of the psychic con- ditions which determine them and in its turn affects the nature of the psychic experience. Thus the interdependence between jiva and the karmic body acting as cause and effect, each in its turn, continues to keep up the show of the samsaric drama. But this should not be interpreted as fatalism, because the jiva has in its unfathomable being a mighty potency transcending the limitations imposed upon it by its association with its karmic body. Thus each person has the power and possibility of becoming an architect of his own destiny. Jiva and pudgala thus constitute the main dravyas. All activi- ties in the world must be pitimately traceable to these two entities, jivas and pudgalas, soul and matter. Hence they are called active principles, sakriya-dravyas-dravyas which are capable of acting. The other dravyas-dharma, adharma, akasa and Lala are therefore called nishkriya dravyas-dravyas without intrinsic activities,

298 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY soul, is cilled ilokaakasa-the space beyond the world Thas according to Jaia concepuon the physichl untverse is supposed to have a definite structure within which are accommodated all the jivas and all the pudgala skandhas and paramanus DHARMA AND ADHARMA-MOTION AND REST Dharma and adharma, the principle of mot on and the principle of rest, are two categories peculiar to Jaina metaphysics which are not found m any other Indian system There are achetana drayas hence they differ from jiva They are amurtas and hence differ from pudgila or matter They are nishkriyas, without intr nsic activity and hence differ from both jiva and pudgala the only two dravyas whch have ictivities They resemble the other dravyas except kals inasmuch as these are called astikayas-existenre having the capacity to be related to several spatial points umultaneously what is technt cally called pradesatva The two pervade the whole of loka-akasa They do not extend beyond it Subtle and imperceptible in them selves, they are endowed with important properties of serving as conditions for motion or rest Movement in world is associated with either a jiva or a pudgala Motion in a moving object, whether living or non-living is the result of appropnate causal conditions restding in the thing itself -- jtva or pudgala, these bemg sakriya dravyas are capable of moving by themselves or as the result of appropriate causal conditions, which must also be material or living The movement mn these things is necessarily conditioned by the presence of this dharma dravya wluch pervades the whole of the world Remaiing in itself non operative this dharma dravya serves as a condttion for making movement posstble and the illustration generally given is the presencc of water for the movement of the fish When a fish swims the movement is due to an operative cause present in Itself Nevertheless swimming would be impossible without the presence of water Water in the ocean is not an operative cause of the movement, Nevertheless it is a necessary condition Stmilarly while life and matter are both capable of moving of their own accord determtned by appropriate operative causal conditions, their movement is certainly dependent upon the presence of this non operative princt ple called dharma Similarly when a moving object comes to rest it is necessary to have the presence of in opposite principle Such a principle deter- mining rest, t e, coming to a standstill in the case of a moving object (whether living or non living) is adharma dravya This also is a non operative condition of rest A moving object coming to rest is certatnly the result of an operative condition present in itself A bird must cease to beat its wings so that its flight may come to a stop But the stopping of activity requires a further condition, A bird censing to fly must perch on the branch of a tree or on the ground just as the branch of a tree or the ground serves as non-operative condition of rest, the presence of the adharma principle serves as a condition for moving objects to come to rest Why should we postulate thete two prmnciples of dharma and

THE PHILOSOPHY OF JAINISM 299

adharmn 7 Is it not enoueh to have the rest of the categories ? Jama metaphysics answers this objection and postulntes the necessity of these two principles by stating that without these two there would be no definite structure of the world The cosmos will dismntegrate into prmordial atoms which may spread throughout the whole of infinte space Hence there will be no distinction b tween loka ind aloka,

of tne world the world and the beyond There will be no permanent corstitution Without constancy in the structure of the world there w ll be nothing left but chaos Hene what sustains the world is world and what prevents the disintegrition of the world into i chaos Is the presence of these two p inciples dharma and adharma Hence we have to postulate these two categories in order to explain the nature and consttution of the cosmos KALA-TIME The last dravya is kala or time Jaini metaphysies pestulates time as a necessary category of existence Without postulating time it is not possible to understand growth and evolution The whole world consisting of matter as well as soul is in a process of change-either evolution or involution Change involving growth and decay consti tute the very nture of the concrete world The process of change without time would be unintellroible and must be dismissed as rllusory Since the concrete world cannot be dismissed as illusory iccording to Jama metaphysics time must be postulated is a necessary condition of change This time serves as the condition of change in other things and is called kala dravya or the category of time This real time is contrasted with vyayaherikn time based upon conventions Kalt dravya or real time consists of movements or kala paramanus which constitute a time series having only the relation of before and after There can be no simultaneous moments in the time series The conventional time is the time which we use in our social life the durations being measured by the movements of the sun and moon This is of different durations according to different measures and ranees from the shortest nimisha to the longest yuga These are the six dravyas according to Jait metaphysies whtch may be grouped under two heads jiva dravya and ajiva drivya the ltter containing all the other five m it

AASRAVA We have noticed already that the jiva throughout the samsaric life is associated with a karmic body which forms the nucleus around which the grosser bodies are built up According to this conception the building up of the karmic body forms the foundation for life in samsara and the disintegration of the karmic body constitutes the final liberation of jiva The process of building up of the karmic body and the plan of breaking up of the same are considered to be important aspects of metaphysical truth Jiva and ajva beme the primary enti ties how are they brought together to build up the body appropriate to each jiva ? In answering this question Jaia metaphysics describes the process in the followig way Aasrava which term means

300 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY flowing in ', represents the process by which karmic molecules are ittracted by a jiva according to charecteristic psychic experience The process of asrava or the flowing in of karmic molecules is th» main basis of the building up of the karmic body which like the cocoon of a silkworm surrounds the jiva and acts as an impediment agaist the free manifestation of the intrintic qualtties of the jiva When once there is the process of flowing in or karmic matter, the next stage is bandha when the karmic matter gets settled or fixed up in the karmic body This karma bondaee is of virious intensity and duratton So long as the jiva is not alive to his own intrinsic properties and so long as he identifies himself with objects alien to himself the building up of the karmic cocoon goes on interminably But when the jiva realizes his nature as distinct from the material world he endeavours to extricate himself from the trammels of the smsarre world whose root ciuse is the karmic body The first step in extricating oneself from the sh ckles is called samvart, putting a stop to the inflow of karmic matter and thus obstructing the stream of karmic molecules which may get absorbed in the karmic body Tlus process of samvara or blocking up the inflow is conditioned by the appropriate mental attitude characterized by freedom from the attractions of sense objects and concentration upon ones own nature In other words yogic meditation or tapas is the inevitable condition for preventing the flowing in of karmic matter and for preventing fresh assimilation by the karmic body When once this is achieved then the yogin turns his attention to the karmic deposits already present in his karmic body By concentrated attention and by endeavour to realize ones own true nature by tapas the already deposited karmic matter is loosened and finally shaken away This process by whicn the karmic body gradually gets disintegrated by the attack on its intensity and duration is technically called the process of nirjara When the karmic body has already lost the chance of being strengthened by new karmie matter by samvara and when the old karmic matter already present thus crumbles and disintegrates the karmic body which is like the cocoon of the silkworm gradually gets diminished in its intensity and duration till it finally disappears Side by side with the decay of the karmic body intrinsic qualities of the atman get expressed more and more

MOKSHA And when the karmic body finally disintegrates ind disappears the atman shines in full luminosity, in infinite greatness and inlinite glory which state represents final liberation or moksha Then the samsarik jiv by the process of destroying all the karmas becomes Paramatman the pure sout with infinite knowledge, power ind bliss These stages represent critical periods in the life history of the sou! Technically accarding to Jaina metaphysrs these together with primary entities jivas and yivas constitute the seven tattvas (principles) Jiva unva drava abhandhn samvart mirjanra ind moksha 'If we add the two mental attamments punya and papi virtue and vice to these we get the nine padarthas (categories) Thus

THE PHILOSOPHY OF JAINISM 301

we have in Jaina metaphysics the five astikayas, the sıx drivyas- when time is added on to astikayas, the seven tathvis and the nine pidarthas according to the poit of view adopted and the purpose for which the categones are enumerated

JAINA LOGIC AND THEORY OF KNOWLEDGC Q 170 Discuss the Jain theory of knowledge Does it lead to scepticism > Baroda M A 1964) Ans According to the Jaina theory there are five different types of knowledge viz matt sruti, avadht manah paryaya, kevala jnam-ordiniry sense experience knowledge from the scripture, a kind of clairvoyance a kind of telepathy, and the fiimte knowledge,

sense experience which is generally conditioned by perception through respectively The first or matynina refers to the ordmary process of

the activities of the sense organs and the inferential knowledge based upon these The second type sruti jnana, is the knowledge revealed by the scripture, the scripture itself being revealed to the world by Survyna Vitiraga Parameshthin The third type is called avadht jnana From the deserption given of it it corresponds to what is known as clurvoyance It imphes the perception of things and events at a great distance of time or space It is a kind of extra sensory perception not ordinarly wailable to all persons though it is latent in cveryone Through the instrument of extra sensory perception one my ictuilly see events taking place in a distant lind or a distant time The fourth tvpe is manah paryaya jnana Ths refers to the knowledge of the thoughts taking place in other individual minds It is different from the former, in as much is it does not resemble ordinary visunl perception It has direct access to the mind of other persons ind this capacity arises only as a result of yoga and tapas The last kevila jnana refers to the infimte knowledge wnich the soul attains as the result of complete hiberation or moksha Thes- are five kinds of jnan which constitute the pramanas (instrum nts of knowledge, iccording to the Jais theory of knowledge Of thest, the first two are described as paratyaksha jnana (direct knowledge) becquse they are duc to the dtrect perception of the soul without any intervening medium This use of the pratyaksha is peculiar to the Jain theory of knowledge The term aksha means the atman or soul and prityaksha jnana is the direct knowledge by the atman Since mati jnana and sruti jnana do not form such direct perception by the soul they are called parokslt, because they depend upon the mtervening medtum of the sense organs This use corresponds to the yogic pratyksha of o her systems The acquisition of knowledge therefore depends upon these prumanas whose function it is to reveal the nature of objects m rethty The external world revealed throuch these primanas consists of real objeets and hence should not be dismissed as illusory respect the Jhina theory of knowledge rejects the theory of maya of In this

Advaitism as well as the Duddhistic doutrint of tusoriness of the

302 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY objective world The function of jnana is merely to reveal on the one hand, the objective reality which is already extsting, and also to reveal itself on the other hand Knowledge, therefore, is like a lamp which on account of its luminosity reveals other objects as well as itself, the objects so revealed being real The external objects so known are independent, masmuch as they exist by themselves and yet are related to know as they are revealed by Knowledge Similarly, in the case of the soul, it is both the object and the object of knowfedge in one , this inner experience is able to reveal the nature of chetana entity-the soul THE DOCTRINE OF ASTI NASTI The logical doctrine of Jaina phlosophy forms the most impor- tant aspect of that school, but unfortunately it is the doctrine most misunderstood by the non Jai eritics The fundamental principle of this logical doctrine imples the possibility of a positive and negative predication about the same thing How this is possible is the per- plexing question which confronts the critic, who at once concludes from the apparent contradictoriness that it is absurd The doctrine is generally referred to as asti nasti, the thing both is and is not Stated so simply, it is prima facie contrad ctory But when we carefully examine the doctrine as expounded by the Jama philosophy, it appears to be a statement of an obvious truth whuich cannot be reasonably controverted According to Jama logic, affirmtive predication about a thing depends upon four conditions-svadravyn, svakshetra, svakala and svabhava-its own substance, its own time or duration and its own nature or modification Correspondingly the negative predication about the same thing is conditioned by the four things of an opposite nature-pardravya, pirakshetra, parakala parabhava-alien sub stance, alien locality, then nature or modification Let us explam the point more clearh. When you want to describe a particultr ornament made of gold, you ean also say that it is not made of any other baser metal It is made of gold and it is not made of iny other metal-ire two obvious predications about the same tluing, the affirmation from the pomt of view of itself and the negation from the point of view of other substances Asti from svadravyr and nasti from paradravya both istr and nasti referring to the gold ornament, Similarly, when you are talking about a certain object with locality and it is not in any other place When you find the cow in its shed, you say the cow is present in the shed And about the same cow you can say that it is not out m the field Thus you say that Socrates was born in Athens and Socrates was not born in Rome-affirmative predication from sval shetra and negative predication from para kshetra, both referring to the same individual Similarly, you may affirm the historical period of any individual when you refer to his proper time in history, and deny his relationship to any other period of time Tennyson lived in the Victortan age and he did not live tn the Elizabethan period The same with the last condition, bhava or mode Charles I died on the gallows and did not die in his bed

THE PHILOSOI HY OF JAINISM 303

Trom these examples it is quite obvious that both affirmative and negative predications are possible about the same thing from different points of vicw, enumerated above It is this that is most important in this theory of predication From the same point of vicw certainly it would be absurd to talk of affirmation and negation The affirmative predication is conditioned by one aspect and the negative predication is conditioned by another It is this difference of aspect that makes the ast-nasti doctrme quite possible and enables us to have an affirmative and negative pradication about the same object of reahty The Jamn doctrine of asti-nasti-the possibilty of two predi- cations, affirmative and negative, about the same thing, refers only to the reals and not to the unreats

THE DOCTRINE OF SAPTABHANGI

of Syadvad Q 171 Give a critical exposition of the Jaina doctrine (Poona M A 1960 , Jodhpur 1965 Rajasthan 1965)

lute ? What is Syadvad ? Is Syadvad itself relative or abso- Or

(Banaras 1963)

Can Syadvad escape from objection arising from answer- Or

ing this question ? (Gurat 1961)

in it ? What is Syadvad ? What merits or defects do you see (Agra 1962) Or

from scepticism Explain the aim of Syadvad distinguishing it carefully (Banaias 1957) (Tor ansuer see also question 169) Ans Based upon this principle is the other logical doctrine saptabhangi, the seven modes of predication If your object is to assert about a thing somethng in relation to its own substance or locality, time or mode, you will be satisfied with mere affirmation or asts If your object is to assert something in relation to an alien substance, localty, time and mode, you will be s itsfied with negation or nasti If you are interested in both the aspects, then you will assert both, one after the other, asti and nasti But if you attempt to represent both these aspects, affirmatie and negative, in the same predication, you find it impossible to do so Language fuils to express your mcaning both the points together You can only say that it is impossible so to assert It is aviktavya (mexpressible) Thus you have the four intial modes of predication in the group of saptabhangt If you combine the fourth item, avaktavya, to each of the first three, then you have alf the seven modes of predicition Asti, nasti, astt- nastı, avaktavy, astı avaktavy, nstr avaktavya and astinastr avak+ tavyr These are the only seven possible modes of predication that vou can have

304 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

JAINA ETHICS -- RATNATRAYA Q 172 Give a brief account of the ethical doctrine of the Jaina and Buddhist systems (Poona M A 1960) Ans There are two courses of moral discipline according to Jaina etl ics, one prescribed for the houscholder and the other for the homeless sanyasın The former is called the conduct of the householder and the latter, the conduct of the ascetic In both cases the code of morals is based upon the doctrine of ahimsa Everything is interpreted in the light of that ideal We have already seen that the path of righteousness consists of the three elements-right farth, night knowledge and right conduct Hence the path prescribed either for the householder or for the ascetic must necessarily consist of these three jewels or the ratnatraya Right faith, right knowledge nnd right conduct together consti tute the way to salvation These correspond to the bhakt jnana and karma yogas, of Hinduism, but the chief difference is that whie Hinduism regards them as singly sufficient to lead the aspirant to the final goal, Jatnism considers a combination of the three as essenttal for the desired end Hence dharma or the path of duty, according to Jainism consists of the ratnatraya-rght faith, right Knowledge and right conduct. Dharma would be icomplete if any one of these is wanting Hence the path of duty is associated with these three elements Of these three inevitably the first is the foundation of dharma Samyak darsana or right faith is the basis of conduct Hence it is emphasized as the important starting pomt mn the religious life of a Jama householder, not to say of the ascetic In arder to possess an unwavering faith the Jaina householder is expected to get rid of certain undestrable qua htres -- the three types of superstitious ignorance and the eight kinds of haughtiness or arrogance The householder must rid lumself of these evils before he can be sure of his faith What are the three types of superstitious ignorance ? These are said to be three mudbas- loka mudha, deva mudha and pashandi mudha The first refers to the general superstition among people that by bathing in the so-called sacred rivers one ean attain spintual purity and not merely bodily cleanliness Similarly, climbing up the hilis or watking through fire may be associated with a certain sanctity Such beliefs are considered to be entirely superstmous and one must renhze that no spirtual sanctity can be derived from such practices Stmilarly, people believe in the power of village gods and goddesses who ate endowed with ordmnary human qualities and human emotions Attempts to pro pitiate such gods and goddesses with the object of securing certun selfish ends will come under the second type of superstition calkd deva mudha Devotion to certam false ascerics who are actuated by the sole motive of self aggrandizement and acceptince of their teaching as gospel truth would come under the third type of superstition called pasandhi mudha One should be careful not to be misled by such false teachers Freedom from these types of superstition is the pri mary condition of neht fanth Even this is not enough One who

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has the right faith must be free from the eight types of arrogance. Huminity is the sincquanon of religious worsluip. Jaina teachers evidently emphasize humilty as a necessary condition for entering the kingdom of God and such humility could be secured only by ridding oneself of the eight types of haughtiness : "Don't be arrogant because you are very intelligent. Don't be arrogant that you are able to con- duct a grand type of temple worship. Don't be haughty because of your noble family. Don't be conceited because of your caste. Don't be conceited because of your physical or mental strength. Don't be haughty because of your magical powers. Don't be conceited because of your tapa or yoga. Don't be conceitad because of the beanty of your person." Uniess you free yourself of these eight types of arro- gance you cannot have right faith. Hence you will not be fit to walk the path of right-eousness. It is interesting to note how the Jama teachers emphasize these cight types of conceit as incompatible humi- tity. Even caste pride must be got rid of. For according to the teacher even a matanga (Chandala), if he has right farth, will be con- sidered the God of gods. Eliminating superstation and haughtiness right faith must be made the foundation of religions hife. On this foundation equipped with knowledge or samyak jnana, samyak charitra or right conduct must thrive. The life of the hauseholder in certain respects is better than the hfe of the ascetic. If it is possible for the householder to walk the path of the ascetic. If it is possible for the householder to walk the path of righteousness without indulg- ing in worldly pleasure and to secure his spiritual freedom, then his life is certainly much higher and much nobler than the life of the home- less ascetic who roams about in the forest and yet whose thoughts are turned towards things worldly.

THE FIVE VRATAS OR ABSTINENCES Q. 173. Write short notes on the five Vratas. Abstinences (1) the Spirit of Ahimsa, (2) The Truth and Five types of falschood, (3) Non theft, (4) Chastity, (5) Non attachment. Ans. The householder thus equipped with right fatth and right Xnowledge must observe the five vratas or abstinences He must be free from cruelty, untruth, unchastity and unnecessary laxury. Every houscholder is enjoined not to have anythng to do with these five things. Thou shalt not kill, thou shalt not utter untruth, thouh shalt not steal, thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's wife, thouh shalt be free from avarice. These are called anuvratas, the littte code of morils since they are of limited application. When they are applied without limitation, then they become mahivratas, the great code of morals, which is prescribed for the vatis or homeless ascetics. It is worth noticing thit alumsa leads the five vratas ; Ahtn sa -- non- crucity, satya-truthfulness, asteya-non theft, brahamacharya-chas- tity, and aparigraha-non-attachment to worldly goods. Every house-

306 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY holder is expected to practise these five vratas according to his capa holder's life according to the success of his discipline, before he can city He has to pass through the eleven stiges or grades of a house enter the life of an ascetic 1 THE SPIRIT OF AHIMSA The first vrata, ahimsa, means not injuring any living being an animal or even an insect, either by thought, word or deed It is not enough that you yourself do not directly injure , you should neither cause mnjury through an agent nor indirectly approve of the conduct of others when they mclude in such an act of cruelty Neither inflict in jury yourself directly nor cause it to be inflicted through some other agency nor approve of the conduct of others when they indulee in such cruelty such is the implication of the first ind most important vrata for a Jaina householder , so entirely different is this doctrine of alumsa from what is preached and practised by the Buddhist According to the Buddhist ideal ahimsa merely means not directly Inflicting injury oneself The other two types do not come under it Hence they would purchase meat from the butcher, though they them selves would not kill the animal, But according to the Jainas such a conduct is not consistent with the spirit of alumsa Because the Jaina conception of ahimsa imples not merely abstuning from direct injury but also abstaining from the two types of indirect injury- instigating othe s to cruelty and approving of cruelty in other Himsa in any from should be avoided Thus nine types of cruelty should be avorded if this principle is to be rightly observed This principle of ahumsa may very often be violated by circumventing it There are five such violattons, Cutting the ears or tail of animals binding them cruelly with ropes, thus preventing free movement, benting them cruelly with sticks compelling them to carry burdens beyond therr capacity and not feeding them properly 2 TRUTH AND FIVE TYPES OF FALSEHOOD The second vrita, not to utter falsehood, is quite obvious But it is interesting to note that even speaking truth which results in injury to others should be avoided Thus it is clear that this princrple is subordinated to the principle of ahimsa which is the primary principle The second vrata of satya also has five types of violations , Teaching false doctrines with the object of misleading people, openly proclaim ing from sheer wantonness certuin secrets such as those pertaiing to the private life of prople, scandal mongering out of envy, sending anonymous letters containing mischervous insinuations and suppressing the truth for the purpose of deceiving others 3 NON THEFT A tlung may be left on account of forgetfulness, it may nccidently fall on the road _Such things beloneing to others should not be taken possession of for it may amount to stealing other s pro perty This principle is also to be evaded in five different ways Instigiting a person to go and steal m somebody s house recurng

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tolen property, accompanying a victorious army in a military' ampaign with the object of looting the enemy's town, using fraudulent veights and measures, and adulterating things in selling them. 4. CHASTITY The fourth principle refers to chastity or sex purity known as brahmacharya. This also is liable to be evaded on account of extreme lust.

5. NON-ATTACHEMENT The last refers to limiting one's attachment to wealth and other worldly goods-parimita parigraha. Inordinate longing for worldly goeds will never result in contentment and happiness, and thus prevent the spiritual harmony and peace of life. Hence even a householder) has to reduce his wants and limit his desires if he is to pursue his spiritual carrers so that he may not be altogether lost in the world. If he is to be in the world but not of the world, he must certainly practise bis detachment from worldly possessions.

STAGES OF SPIRITUAL ADVANCEMENT Q.174. State briefly the fourteen Stages of Spiritual advancement in Jainism and bring out the duty of the homeless Yogin, Ans. There are fourteen stages of spiritual advancement laid. down. These are called guna-sthans. Of these, the first five are' convered by a householder. The ascetic begins at the sixth with some slackness in conduct and thought activities. This is remidied at the seventh ; the passions arc controlled at the eighth, perfect purity of mind is achieved at the ninth, very littte of self-interest remains the tenth, all delusion subsides at the eleventh and ceases altogether at the twelfth. At the thirteenth he shines fourth as a teaeher perfect in knowledge, with all the karmic influences at rest, he is a Kevalin, an Arhat or a Tirthankara. As the fourteenth guna-sthana, the mortal coil is thrown aside once for all and he becomes a Siddha. THE DUTY OF THE HOMELESS YOGIN The hcuscholder's dharma is but a preparation for the life of the ascetic. The pancha anuvratas are but the probation for the pancha mahavratas. The discipline of the householder finds its culmination in the life of the yogin. Hence the dhatma for the home- less is the timitless and complete application of the very principles which are prescribed for the householder is specially intended to liber- ate him from the domestic ties which bind him to his wife and children, to his land and wealth. After completing this period of probation the louscholder evidently is expected to enter into a wider realm of activity. His tove and sympathy liberated from the sphere of of domestic environment would thereafter become available for the whole animal creation. He quits the house surrounded by the four

300 INDIAN PHILOSOPIIY

walls, merely to enter into another residence in whuich the whole realm of nature becomes his abode The entire dumb creation now shares Ius love and sympathy which were avatlable only to the few members of lus family Now he has no roof to live under except the star bespangled canopy the heavens His new habitation is rot walled round by obstactes Now his heart throbs in syspathy with the whold of creation Such a life prima facie appears to be the very contradic tion of the householder's life The yogin when he quits the household to identify humself with the whold realm of nature, has to observe certain principles ind adopt certam courses of conduct appropriate to hs new surroundings Since he quits the world once for all and since he does not associate htmself with the ordinary social occupations his behaviour in general becomes quite out of the ordinary and entirely unconventional He hmts his words and thoughts and refrains from indulging in useless and unnecessary activities No idle word escapes luis lips, no wanton movements are indulged in by hus body, nay, not even ideal thoughts are allewed to have then own way He is a new mission and hence the method of his life is also novel Not only does he control hus thought, word and deed but lie olso develops a gentleness of behaviour characteristic of one who has mastered all his emotions An ordinary person is generilly a slave of cmotions harness of movement and general excitement in behrviour are characteristic of one who is swayed by the grosser emotions The psychic violence within, due to the emotional excitement manifests itself in the general excitement of behaviour in the case of ordmnary general mortals But in the case of the yogmn who has conqured such cmotions, who has put this heel of dhyana on such disturbing experiences gentleness of behiaviour comes naturilly The words that escipe his lips are soft and gentle soothing and consoling Even the movements of his limbs are so gentle that not even a worm is injured nor a bird disturbed from its purch Whle speaking and walking bis behaviour is a source of comfort to the disturbed In hts presence even birds and ammals otherwise frightened will muster courage Even the ferocity of wild animals will be disarmed, for, what is the might of the flesh before the peiceful spint of this sage ? Thus equipped with an internal peace and lmrmony, the yogin carries nbout him a spirtt full of melody by whtch all sores are soothed and all diseards are dissolved With an ordinary man lus body is but a psycho physical mechamsm responding to the infinite suimuli that the environ ment is full of Like clay on the potter s wheel nature through her infimte stimul touches and shapes the human personality which has at the best an efficient response apparatus This very often makes man a creature of lus environment alternately exalted ard depressed according as its stimul sustain him or not But the life of the Yogin is quite different His whole drscipline aims at the conquest of the environment His pride consrsts in being unshaken by its changes Its thousand and one surging stimult may break agamst him with accumulated violence, but he remains in himself unshaken bke a pillar of rock, for he is not aware of them His thoughts are fixed on lgher and nobler things When he .

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arries luis body as a temporary tiberncle to achieve his spritunl goal. crtamnly he finds no time to attend to these little inc'nveniences hich nature may create around him. The body wluch may bea urce of inconvenience and trouble to the ordinary man ceases to be ich in the case of a yogi For, tn his ease, the body derives its rength and vitality from the inner strength and vitality of the spirit. inly where thesc are not availible one has recourse to the intemor icans of medicine and doctoring Butt to one who carries in lumselt ie tniversal panaeea there can be neither discase nor decay He my lie in a mountam cave or roam about in the forest land He is lways rooted in lumself his mind is completely self-possessed. This nquest of the eavironment even mcluding his own body carries him irough the threshold of a newer world, where he enjoys a bappiness ir surpassing the pleasure of the senses known to lum, and he secures the peace that passeth understanding Becauste of the heritage of this spirtual kingdom he considers the conerete world in which he lned before to be worthless trash The laws and institutions which matter so much to ordinary mortals appears to him quite irrelevant and useless For has he not row become a superman hivng the

310 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY sage of Jamism to mankind ' Be a man first and last, for the kingdom of God belongs to the son of man " It is this same truth that is pro claimed in unmistakble terms by the Upamshadic text 'tat wam asi' "Thou art That".

CONCLUSION Q 175 Briefly sum up Jainism in all its aspects Ans Traces of Jainism go far back mto history and it ls cer tafnly older than Buddhism It has made substantial contributions to the development of art in the country Its hterature is very rich and linguistically varied, preserving forms of languages which are nowhere else preserved Its philosophy is duahstic, believing in the separate existence of soul and matter Its ethics is based upon the prmciple of ahtmsa and it tries to produce men who have no tendency to do Vi0 lence to any creature much less to a brother human being Its attitude towards other faiths is determined by its philosophy of anekant whtch teaches that every single statement may have a partial truth in it and that in order to get at the whole truth one must get together all the different points of view the system Peace and tolerance are, thus inherent in

CHAPTER XIII THE CHAARVAAKA PHILOSOPHY Four Stages (Charvaaka Plulosophy -~ Four stiges -- 1 Barhaspatya- 2 Lokayntta-No Future or Previons Births-No soul apart from the body-Religion is harmfui-Freedom movement-Rise of Buddhism- Development of Atts and sctences-Materialism in India-3 Chaar- vaka School-The Anslika Darsanas systematised -- 4 Nasthika School-Materiahsm anmhilated by Hinduism ) Q 176 Trace the origin of Chaarvaka theory and dis- cuss its place in Indian Philosophy

Ans The Charvaka philosophy called in question all kinds of knowledge, immediate as well as medtate, and all evidence, perception as well as inference It denies the authority of even the Vedas The philosophy may be said to be the Indian form of materialism Faur stages of development of this plulosoyhy may be recognised (1) Barhaspatya-(Propounder-Brihaspati) (2) Swabhavavada-(Proponder Ajıta Kesa-Kambalın) (3) Lokayat :- (Propounder-Charvika) (4) Nasthik1-(Propounder-Purandar) BARHASPATYA Barhaspatya takes its name from Brihaspati, the preceptor of the gods, who is regarded by scholars as the founder of this system Amongst the Indian systems of philosophy materialism may be counted is very old It is a fact that all other schools of thought try to refute the truths established by this school, thus admitting priority It is also a fact that the world darsana in its primary sense means perception , in its secondary sense it means the sastra (seripture) which is as good an authotity as perception Originally, this school of Brihaspat meant vitanda or easuistry and nothing else With its imptience of all authority it tried to refute the views of other sehools It was, mn its onginal stage, without any constructive clement and without any positive theory to pro- pound . it was negative and destructive This negative aspect finds etpression mn the Vedas themselves From the earliest vedic times there were peopte who dented the existence of even the vedic deities The Vedte liymns pointedly refer to scoffers and unbelievers Those hymns which are traditionally ascribed to Brihaspati, the son of Lika contain the first germs of protest against a mere verbal study of the

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312 INDIAN PIRLOSOrY Vedas and emphatically declare that a man who tries to understand them is far superior to a mere priest. Opposition was the only duty of the followers of Brihaspati and they did it from the very beginning of their career. They opposed the Vedas and the practice of repeating them mechanically. But all these represent only the negative aspect of the Barhaspatya system, which therefore appeared to be incomplete. In the first stage of the gods the existent was born of the non- existent. The Svetasvatara Upnishad enumerates some of the most popular theorres current at the time in explanation of the origin of the universe, and naturahsm is one of them. Up till then it was an independent doctrine and the Barhaspatyas were merely the opposi- tionists. Briluspati, with a lofty enthusiasm, flung away the fetters of religion so that he might be nghtcous and noble. Some of the verses of the Vedic liymns aseribe to hum are quite edifying. The Vedic lterature posterior to the Mantras is disfigured by anecdotes in which the pious sages poured out their wrath on the heads of those carly oppositionists, a.e., Brihaspati and his followers. The Taittira Drnhmana relates an interesting ancedote wlich runs as follows - "Once upon a time Brihaspati struck the goddess Gayatri on the head. The hend, smashed into pieces and the brain split. But Gayatri is immortal. She did not die. Every bit of her brain was alive." Some scholars find an allegorical meaning behind this ; Gayatri is the symbol of Hinduism ; Brihaspati tried to destroy it by introducing opposition. But Hinduism is eternal, it was nnt destroy- ed. In the Maitrayant Upanishad we find another ancedote : Brihas- patt having assumed the form of Sukra brings forth false knowledge for the safety of Indra and for the destruction of the asuras. By it the asuras show that good is evil and evil is good ; and they say that this new law, which upsets the Vedas, should be studied. Here Brihaspati is painted as a deceiver, a hypocrite. The Mahahharata rocords a story of this period relating how Brihaspati the sceptic had a long discussion with Manu, one of the founders of the sacrificial cult, and was in the end converted to the latter's viewpoint. The Vishnupurana records that a number of demons, in ancient times, began to practise severe penances according to the injunctions of the Vedas. This caused great apprehension to Indra. At his prayer Mayamoha was created who preached to the demons the pernicious doctrines of Brihaspati, not for their benefit but for their destruction. Thus they became enemies of Brahmanas, gave up their duties and were averse to the duty of the Vedas. Then, as they had strayed from religous observances, Indra killed them.

Q. 177. Discuss Charavaaka theory of knowledge. Ans. The principle of causation was rejected, because sensuous perception is not an evidence in support of it. Mere perception of two events which stand isolated and self-contained is not suflicient to

THE CHAARVAAKA PIILOSOPHY 313

establish between them a causal relation "To ascertain whether a given antecedent condition has the character of a true cause, It is really necessary to find out with certaianty the elements of invaria- bilty ind of relevancy involvrd in such a notion But this certitude can never be arrived at" The universal propositions cannot be establisled by our limited perceptions Perception (Pratyaksha) presupposes actual contact of the object with the perceiving organ and is thus necessarily confined to the present It is a case of here and now , it does not extend to the past or the future and is thus unable to establish universal connection of things In other words sense perception can give us only particular truths But the knowledge of particular facts cannot give us knowledge that is universally true Therefore perception cannot give us universal relations Nor can this be established by inference (Anumana) alone For the inference which yields a universil relation as its conclusion cannot work unless it presupposes another universal connection as a necessary pre eondition of its possibility and that agun inot ier and so on In other words the process of reaching a untversal conclusion is always hike arguing a circle Thus even inference in itself is not sufficient to produce a universal proposition Nor is the universal relation supphed by testimony (Sabda) , for testimony involves inference Comparison (Upaman1) is equally unable to establish a universal relation , it only establishes the relatron of 1 name to something that bears that name Now such relation of the name and the named is a particular relation, whilst we are in search of in unconditional universal relation Thus the umversal relation, which is indispensable to all inference, is not given by any of the so-called sources of know- ledge Therefore universal relations cannot by any meins be estab- lished As inference is not possible withont universal connection and universal connection is unattainable the Lokayta as a system dis- carded in its earlier stages inference as a source of knowledge It rejected ether as an element because ether cannot be known by perceptien, and it maintained that the four elements, tiz earth, atr, fire and water, are original principles of all thines These elements, tn thei atomie condition, when mixed together i a certamn proportion and according to a certain order become transformed into an organtsm Consciousness is a funetion of the body which is an indispens- able factor for its manifestation Conscionsness does not inhere in particles of matter When these particles come to be arranged mto a specific form, in a manner not yet scientificlly explicable, they re found to show signs of life, Life ad consciousness are identical Our thinking power is destroyed with the dissolution of the elements by whose combinatton it is evolved Consciousness is produced from the body which is endowed with life are vital atr Without sensation no consciousness is possible When the body perishes no conscious ness can remam , it must perish also So there is nothing to trans- migrate The body consciusness and sense organs are momentary The mind is merely the product of a combination of elements just as

314 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

wines are the result of chemical combinations The four elemeats when combined produce or manifest the mind, there is no other reahty than they The instmctive moyements and expressions of new born babes are due to 'external stimuh and much as the opemng ind closing of the lotus and other flowers at different hours of the day or night, or the movement of iron under the influence of load stone In the same way the spontaneous generation of living organisms is frequently observed eg, the case of amimalcules which develop in moisture or Infusions or of the maggots or other worms which are developed mn the constituent particles of curds and the hke and which begm to live and more in short a time ' It is an indispat able fict thit sensations and perceptions can arise only in so far as they are conditioned hy a bodily mec ianism But it would not be so were not the body the receptacle of consctousness The properties of pirticular prepirtions of food and drink conducive to the develop ment of the intellectual powers, afford mother proof in favour of the fact that consciousness is a function of the body As contraction is the function of mascles, so does the bram generate thoughts, move ments and feeltngs, The mind, therefore, has no substantial reality of its own but springs out of the vibrations of the molecules of the bram When the molecular activity of the brun sinks below a certain level consciousness disappears and the mind ceases to exist as ta sleep When again it rises above a certam degree consciousness reappears The conscious life is not a life of conttnuity It is coming out of and again going into nothing The hypothess of the contruous stream of consciousness is a myth of divines and theologians One may object that smnce the body is deelared to be the agent of all actions, it should be hield responsible for their natural conse- quences but this is impossible The particles which form the body art always in a state of flux and the body which performs an action al one moment does not persist and the next to feel its reaction It # on the other hand undemable that the body suffers change, To th: the reply of the Lokayatikas is that therr system does not admit the existence of consequences of good or evil actions Aceording to thr school the experiences of pleasure and pain come by chance This r refuted as follows -The theory of matter is unable to account fo the facts, of memory and reconnition Reason demands that memor: and the original experience whtch gives rise to it should be referrev one and the same consctous subject But this is possible only wher the subject is fundamentally an unchangeable entity This difficult! is met by the Lokayatikas in the following manner Ehe trances lef by previous experiences are capable of being transmitted from th material cause to its direct product, an analogous tnstance being thi transference of the ordour of musk to the cloth in contact with i But the general answer of this school to every questian is that every thing happens through the influence of svabhava It is svabhava o a law of nature that consciousness is a function of the body and th body is the self

316 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY Examine the views of Charavaaka on the existence of God Ans With the denial of Karma this school demies the existence of universal mysterious agency called fate (adrishtr or daiva) It denies the existence of merits or demerts acquired mn our previous existence In answer to the objection that fate must be admttted as the cause of the differences and detern inations of the phenomenal world Brihaspatt s followers bring forward the doctrine of svabhava or spontincous generation of things according to their respective natures Religion is as harmful as opium prayer is the hope of men who are weak, without the will power to do anything, worship is mn sincere -gousm to sa e oneself from the tortures of hell and prophets are the greatest lars tmong men The Vedas are no authority, for they cont un mantras (formulae) wluch do not convey any meaning whatsoever some are ambiguous or contradictory and some repeat what is already known As regards the other portions of the Vedas we always find discrepincies and contradictions among them, cases ure not rire where a lme of action prescribed by one text is condemn ed by another Acain they speak of results that are never realized If it were possible for the sacrifices to make one reach heaven after the performance of them has ceased the performers themselves have perished ind the requitsites have been used up then the trees of a forest burnt down by fire might as well produce abundant fruit Religious exercise and ascetic practices are merely a means to liveli hood for men devoid of intellect and manliness A Putreshti sacri fice performed for the birth of child may or may not be followed by that event When a child is born the knaves sy that it is due to the power of their incantations, uttered in the course of the rite, and when a child is not born they explain it as being due to the rites being incomplete in some way or other, The priests say tnat a beast slain in a sacrifles goes to heaven Then how it is that they do not kill their own old fathers in a sacrifice in order to send them directly to heaven ? If the offerings in a funeral ceremony may produce gratt fication to being who are dead, then in the case of travellers when they start, it is needless to give them provisions for the journey All these ceremonies are prescribed by the Brahmins as a means to their livelthood and ire worth no more than that Hence the endea vour to propitate the geds through relgiots ceremontes to satisfy them by prayers is vain and illusive Religion is the invention of indi vidutls desirous of deceiving their fellowman in order to further ther own selfish intererts There is no particular place named heiven even the Vedas themselyes doubt the existence of a world beyond If a man goes to another world after death why doss he not come back down by the love of his friends ard relatives ? When once this bndy is reduced to ashes how can it ever go to another world ? When we dre, everything ends there We do not enter into ? religion of pam or of darkness unreleved by a single ray of light, Thar God is the judge of our actions also does not stind to rerson because in that cise partiality and crueity on His part would be mevitable If He

THE CHAARVAAKA PHILOSOPHY 317

visits us with the evil consequences of our sins. He becomes our enemy for nothing. Therefore it is better not to have a God than to have a cruel and partial God. There is no such thing as God, the supreme author and governor of the world, an omniscient spirit. the senses cannot reach Him. Adrishta (fate), the principle of causality, and inference itself are also denied. The Vedas reveal no signs of infallibility. So how can we ascertain that an all-knowing, all-per- vading and ali powerful spirit exists ? Nature and not God is the watchword of this school.

FREEDOM MOVEMENT Q. 180. Describe the effects of 'Freedom movement' initiated by Charavaaka on orthodox Brahmanism. Ans. As a consequence of this kind of destructive criticism, kama or the fulfilment of desire was considered to be the summum bonum of human life. At this stage the Vratyas or the Aryans of previous and later migrations were incorporated into this sect. They too, like the Lokayatikas, challenged everything including the caste system, the sacrifices and the Vedas and were bitter opponents of orthodox Brahmanism. Of these Vrtyas, we hear of as many as sixty heretical teachers. Strengthened by the support of these Vratyas, the Lokayatikas exhorted people to strain every nerve to work out their immediate earthly welfare instead of running after heaven. The result of this movement was an aspiration for freedom, by which they meant, an all-round freedom -- for the individual as well as for society, for man as well us woman, for the rich as well as for the poor, for indi- viduals and for classes. They called upon all to cast off their age long shackles and march shoulder to shoulder towards freedom. RISE OF BUDDHISM The wonderful result of this struggle for freedom was the rise of the Buddhistic culture. Buddha's views against the Vedic sacrifices, the memorizing and fruitless repetition of the Vedic mantras, the caste system, the authority of the Vedas and the worship of the deities, the magic rites and the ascetic practices-have their counterpart in the views pf the Lokayata. It is perhaps because Buddhism was greatly influenced by the Lokayata school that we find in later accounts of this system the doctrines of Buddha and Chaaravaka almost amalga- mated and the name 'Chaaravaka' sometimes applied to Buddha. India had been seething with free thinking and Buddha was the pro- duct of this freedom. No man ever lived so godless, yet so godlike a life as Buddha did. DEVELOPMENT OF ARTS AND SCIENCES The Vishnupurana has a record of this stage of the school. It refers to a sect of people of very ancient otigin who were free to live wherever they liked, unworried by conventions, pure at heart and -.. blameless in action. Virtue or vice they had none ; they hved in '

318 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY atmosphere of perfect freedom in which men could move without the fear of conventional dogma of religion and social usage But the people were not satisfied-merely with socral and religious freedom politics became incorporated with the Lokayata school which ignored anvikshikt (metaphysics) and trayt (Vedas) whichtdealt with the supersensuous, and appreciated dandaniti (politics) and vartta (eco nomics) as the only branches of I nowledge deserving special cultiva tion The earthly king became the only God So long kama or pleasure was considered to be the only good of human life, how artha or material advantage was added to it As the Lokayatıkas capture the hearts of the cultured as well as the common people, all became earnest in worktng out their immediate earthly welfare The result of this movement was the origination and propagation of diffe rent arts and sciences Vatsyayana mentions some sixty four names of Indian fine arts waich flourished probably in tlus period of Indian materjalısm

MATERIALISM IN INDIA Q 181 Sam up the views of the various materialists schools on Hedonism Ans (a) Kambalassvatarn Ajita Kessakambalın and many other materialists also wrote their works on Indian materialism during this period The Samannaphalasutta preserves the folling record of Ajita s view There is no such duty as the giving of alms or the performance of sacrifices or the making of offerings Good and evil deeds produce no result, and there is no such thing as this world of the next There is nerther father nor mother nor beings spinging into life even without them There are no recluses or Brahamanas who having realized the meamng of both this world and the next make their wisdom known to others A human being is made up of four elements when he dies earth element in him returns to the earth the fluid to the water, the heat to the fire and the atry element to the ur Four bearers removes his dead body till they reach the burning ground men utter fourth his eulogies but there his bones are bleach ed and his offerings end in ashes The talk of gifts is the doctrine fools It is an empty lie mere idle talk, when man say there is a prophet there Fool and wise man alike on the dissolution of their body, are annihilated after death they are not This Anta flourished during the life time of Buddha Upto that ttme politics was not taken up by the Lokayatika , So there is no trace of it in the teachmnes of Ajtta In later accounts specially in the record preserved by Krishna Misra it is mentioned very distinctly Krishna Misra gives an almost perfect account of the doctrines of Lokaynta school 'Lokayata is always the only sastra In it only p-rceptual evidence is authority In elements are earth water, fire and air `Wealth and enjoyment are the objects of human existence Matter can think There is no other world Death is the end of all

THE CHAARVAAKA PHILOSOPHY 319

CHARVAKA SCHOOL (b) This prosperity and success of the Lokayata system ended in corruption and misrepresentation Extreme freedom gave birth to licentiousness Supreme bliss was transformed into sensual pleasure, the enjoyment of which in its gross form became the only end of human life The elevated teachings of Brihaspati were mett morphosed into the eroticism or his wicked followers Let us enjoy pleasure alone, they sud It is the only thing which is true and good The only reasonable end of man is enjoyment We know pleasure is never pure, never free from pain should we therefore reject our life 7 Should we fling away sheaves of paddy rich with the finest white grains because they are covered with the husk and dust? Sbould we refram from plucking lotuses because there are throns in them ? Shall we not take fish because they have Bones and scales Should we exclude from our meal only for the trouble it will give in husking ? Who will not soothe lus mind and body in ambrosial moonlight though there are spots in the moon ? Shall we not enjoy the pleasant breeze of summer because there is a little dust in it ? Should we not prepare food for fear of beggars ? Unmixed happiness is not available in this world yet we cannot overlook the least bit of it The only good of life is the individual's own plensure We should fully enjoy the present , to sacrifi e for the future is unwarrented and perious The present is ours the past is dead and gone , the future is doubtful The present is all that we have , let us make the most of it With this credo the Lokayatikas of that remote pertod of Indian history preached and practised an extreme form of hedonism At this stage Indian matermlism got the additional designation of Charvaka The word means 'entertaiing speech' While you live, drink, for once dead you never shall return, "As long as he lives let i man live happily even borrowing money, let him drink ghee The propa- gation of this cult was the first step towards the downfall of the system of Lokayata NASTIKA SCHOOL (c) At this stage of Indin matenaltsm the Baddhists and Jains came to the field or philosophy to preach spiritualism In their first appearance they pretended to be the successors of the old heretics ve, the followers of Brihaspatr by directing their attacks mainly against the doctrines relating to sacrifices and actually preached and practised in the Vedic school They became, like the Lokayatıkas very popular for the time being as the mind of the people were still under the sway of materlalistic doctrtnes But as the time went on the state of things began to change The Charvakas came to know wiat these new comers really were They led their opposition against the orthodox Buddhists and Jains as they had previously done agatnst the Vedicists The results was that the Lokayatikas were opposed both by the Vedicists and by the Buddhtsts and Jains By this stmultancous attack from various sides they were for the first time pushed to the corner The philoso

320 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

phers of the Vedic school now became very strong , aided by the spiritualistic doctrines of the new heretics, they stood as successors of the sages of old and repelled the attacks on the eternal principles of spirituality As time pissed, one Vedie school after another opposed the heretics in general, both old and new -- the Lokayatıkas, Buddhists and Jains They opposed the materialistic view of the old heretics and the antt Vedic doctrines of the new

THE AASTIKA DARSANAS SYSTEMATISED Q 182 State how materialism came to be refuted by Orthodox Vedic school ? Ans The pioncer of these advocates of the orthodox Ved school was perhaps the sage Gotama, who adduced very strong arguments against the theory of Dehatmavada (which preaches that the body is the self) of the old heretics and established the theory that the body is different from the soul (Nyaya) Then came Kanada who made an endeavour to refute the theory of svabhavavada or Naturalsm of the old heretics by propagating the theory that the diversity of creation cannot be due to Nature which is unconscious The diversity, he said, produced from the atoms, which are uncons cious, through the will of God in agreement with the doings of one's previous births After litm, Kapila, who is regarded by some as representing the oldest trend of philosophy, formulated his arguments in favour of dualism, for which the field has already been prepared by his predecessors Then came Patanjal with his system of Yoga and tried to estabtish the existence of God Whep through the influence of these teachers, the maes mind was almost incltned towards spirtualism and belief mn the transmigration and spiritual nature of the soul Jarmim appeared and made an attempt to establish authori tative, that karma or action was more powerful than even God, if there was any , and that for the sake of the puritication of the mind the performance of rites was indispensable. When under the influence of Jaimai, the minds of the people became prepared, by the per formance of duttes sanctioned by the Vedas, for conceiving the spiritualistic soul, and the influence of anti Vedic almost worn off, Vyasa came to the field and preached luis spirttualstic or idealistic philosophy MATERIALISM ANNIHILATED BY HINDUISM Lokayata, wavered and leaned towards spirttualrsm This stage may be called the second or the middle stage of its downfall, when it admits, gradually, the identification of the self with the sense organs, the vital principle and the mind, shaking off its old doctrine of the identification of the self with the body The first view, mn which the self is identihed with the sense organs, is based on the fact that consciousness and hodily movements follow the iitiative of the senses and that the judgment expressed in "I am blind," which shows this

THE CHAARVAAKA PHILOSOPHY 321

tdentificatron, is umversally accepted as valid Opposed further by the sprritualists, it muntams that the vital principle is really the source of intelligence, for on it the senses depend for their existence and operation When this view too was attacked, its sponsors main- tained that consciousness was a qualty of the mind The other organs were only the means of ideterminate sense knowledge It was the mind that introduced the elements of determinateness More- over, the mind by its power of volition controlled the outer organs and might perstst and function even when the fatter were absent Therefore the mind was the true self All these have been recorded by Sadanandt in his Advaitabrahma Siddht He speaks of four different materialistie schools, the chief point of contention among whom is the conception of the soul One school regards the soul as identical with the gross body, another with the senses, a third with tke vital principle and fourth with the organ of thought Arun, the Lokayatikas had so long maintained that perception was the only source of knowledge Now being severely atticked by its opponents, who marntaied the authority of inference, it showed for the first tme its leaning towards admitting mference as a source of knowledge At first it said that for practical purposes probability was sufficient. At the sight of smoke rising from a spot we have a sense of the probability of fire and not of tts certainty, this is enough for all F practical purposes and there is no need to assume the eustence of a distinct kind of evidence catled ference When further pressed, this school accepted inference as a means to nght knowledee as it wis useful in our daily life But it rejected the mechamcal form of inference proposed by the Buddhists and others as being uttercly impracticable for daily use In other words it divided inference into two classes-one class referring to the future and the other to the past. It accepted the second and rejected the first, the inference about what hns never been perceived, as for example, the futu e world God and the soul Purandara flourished mn this penod as an advocite of the Charvaka school Sankara, the commentitots Kamalas la and Abhayadeva, Jayanta, the author of the Nyaya-

his vicws manjarr and the unknown at thor of the Sarvamata-samgraha record Being further pressed, this school accepted, it this stage, even ether as an element -- a fact adverted to by Gunaratna As they were supported by the Buddhists and the Jains in their attack on the Vedic sacrifices, the old heretient oppositionist, agam borame very powerful They got their general mames of nastika more or less pushed to the background New serptures of the Vedie schools were in course of preparation, fully adapted to the nceds, tastes and tendencies of the changing times but not entirely divoreed from all connection with the Vedas Volummous works were wrttten which satished the varying temperaments of the p-opke. But elements of different nitures were expressly wuble in these schonls Bv wav of compromise with the old heretical seloot, whos. mfluree still predeminated in the country, they incleded and adapted the populr doctrines regarding indulgence of the senses, and as succe sors of the spirttuahstic schools, they eave them an csoteric purpose and thus

322 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

modified them to some extent Since that time, the period of the great Hindu revival after the fall of Buddhsm, Indian has been populacly Vedic, te, Pauranika and Tantrika, in her outlook, though the Charavaaka system must have been in extstence even so late as the tie of Harbhadra, Gunaratna, Santarakshita, Kamalasila, Siddhasena, Abhayadeva, Krishna Missra, Sriharsha, Jayanta Sadananda Madhavacharya and others who have criticized its theorres in their works It was Sankaracharya and his school who did not even consider the Charvaaka school to be a system of philosophy The great reaction against Charavaakism was started by Madhavacharya who pronounced the Charavaaka system to be the lowest system of philosophy ind scored a most decisive victory over it Through lapse of time the original works of the Brihaspati school, the exterme materrlistic system of India, etther pertshed owig to natural causes or was destroyed by its powerful rrals The Buddhistic and Jam Schools, bemg spiritualistic in essence, did not meet with total annht- lation As to the materialistic school, it may be that for a considerable time its views became more and more feeble and unpopular until it lost independent existence and was absorbed mto other schools of spiritulistic philosophy

Q 183 What has been said by Brihaspati on the ritrals Ans And all this has been said by Brihaspati "There is no heaven, no final liberation, nor any soul in another world Nor do the actions of the four castes, orders, etc , produce any effects The Agothotra, the three Vedas, the ascetic's three staves and smearing one's self with ashes, were made by Nature as the livel hood of those destitute of knowiedge and manliness If a beast slain in the Jyotishotma rite will itself go to heaven

father ? Why then does not the sacnficer forthwith offer lns own

If the Sraddha produces gratification to beigs who are dead ? Then here, too, in the case of travellers when they start, it Is needless to give provisions for the journey If, beings in heaven are gratified by our offering the Sraddha here Then why not give the food down below to those who art standing on the housetop ? While life remains let a man hive happily, let him feed on ghee even though he runs in debt , When once the body becomes ashes, how can it even return agarn ?

324 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

of this school But it is indeed very difficult to beheve that materia ltsm which is allowed the status of a separate school of Indian Phitosophy should really be so crude and degenerate as it is pated But we have to remain satisfied with these meagre and one sided accounts in the absence of the origmal works of this school Some of the important Sutras of Brihaspatt (1) Earth water, fire and air are the elemeats (2) Bodies, senses and objects are the results of different combi nattons of elements and mind is only a product of matter (3) Consciousness arises from matter like the intoxicating qualtty of wine arise from fermented yeast Perception is the only authority (4) The soul is nothing but the consctous body (5) Enjoyment is the only end of human life (6) Death alone is liberation Charvaaka admits the existence of fourelements-earth, water, fire and air-only and he rejects the fifth the ether because it is not perceived but mferred Stmilarly Soul and God and hereafter are rejected Everything which exists including the mind, is due to a partrcular combination of these four elements The elements are eternal but their combinations undergo production and dissolution Consciousness is regarded as a mere product of matter It is produced when the elements combine in certai proportton It is always assocua tedwith the body and vinishes when the body disintegrates Just as the combination of betel areca nut and lime producest he red colour or just as fermented yeast produces the intoxcatig qualty, similarly, a particular combination of the elements produce sconsciousness thoush the elements separately do not possess it Consciousness is the result of an emergent and dialectical evolution It is an ept phenomenon a by product of matter * Matter secretes mind, lever secretes bee The so called soul is simply the conscious living body, God is not necessary to account for the world and the values are foolish aberra tions Four different schools of materialism One Identifies the soul with the gross body (Sthula Sharra) another with the senses (Indriyas) , another with vital Breaths (Pranas) and the last with the mental organ (Manas) All the schools agree in regarding the soul as a product of matter Shantaraksita says that the materialist Kambalashuatara mamtains the views that conscrousness arises out of the material body associated with the vital breaths Criticism -If consciousness means self consciousness as it means in the human beings then it cannot be identified with the lwv ing body The animals also possess the living body, but not rational consciousness The Chaaravaaka replies that it is a patticular com bmnation of the elements which obtains only in the human body that preduces consciousness and that therefere livine human body and

THE CHAARVAAKA PHILOSOPHY 325

Dnsciousness are always associated together and nobody has seen onsciousness apart from the living human body But argument is rong if consciousness is an essential property of the human body, it hould be inseperable from it as the Chaarvaaka claims But it is not D In swoons, fits, epilepsy, dreamless sleep etc The living body is ecn without consciousness- And on the other hand, in dreams, cons- tousness, is seen without the living body when a dreamer awakes he lisowns the dream-body but owes the dream consciousness The Iream objects are sublated in the waking life, but the dream conscious- less is not contradicted even in the waking life MATERIELISM This proves that consciousness persists through the three stages if walking life, dream life, deepsleep life and is much superior to naterial body which is its instrument and not its cause More, the ubject knower, cannot be reduced to the object, the known, since afl ›bjects presuppose the existence of the subject Subject is the enjoyer ind the object is the enjoyed and the two cannot be identtfied Again, the fact that consciousness is not experienced without the materil body, is no argument to prove that it is a mere product of mitter Sight is not possible without hight yet hight cannot be te- garded as the cause of sight Mere co existence is not causation The two horns of a bull which are always found together cinnot be re- garded as causally related The body is a mare instrument for the mantfestation of consciousness and cannot be regarded as its cause Moreover, if consciousness is a property of the body, it must be per- ceived like other materni properties tisted, nor seen, nor touched nor heard But it is neither smeit nor Again if consciousness is a property of the body then there should be no consciousness of the body, for why should the body, qualified to produce consciousness, itself stand in need of being manifested by consciousness ? Unlike other material properties it is private and consciousness of individual cannat be shared by others If the extstence of the soul surviving death cannot be demonstrated, its non existence too cannot be so demonstrated

185 Set out the main contributions of Charvaaka Epistemology to Indian Philosophy (Gujrat 1961) Ans The epistemoligical doctrine of the Chairvaka school ts that perception (Pratyaksa) is the only means of valid knowledge The validity even of inference is rejected Inference is said to be a mere leap in the dark We proceed here from the known to the un- known and there is no certainty in this, though some inference mav turo to be accidentally trus A general proportion may be true in pereeived cases, but there is no guarantes that it will hold true even in unperceived cases Deduetive inference is vitrited by the fallacy of petition principle It is merely an argument in cirele since the conclu- sion is already contuned in the major premise the validits of which is not proved Indication inference undertakes to prove the validity of

326 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY the major premise of deductive mference But induction too is un- certain because it proceeds from the known to the unknown True indication is hard on a causal relationship which means invarub associations for Vyaptı Vyapti therefore is the name of all inferenc But the Chaarvaka Challenges this universal and ivariable relatio shtp of concomitance and regirds it a mere guess work Perceptio does not prove this Vyapti So indication is uncertai and deductic is argument in a circle Shunyallada Buddhism and Advaita Vedant also have rejected the ultimate validity of inference together will a other means of knowledge as such including perception, though the msist on the empirical validity of all means of knowledge Th charvaaka distinction between ultimate and empincal knowledge is unknown t To accept the validity yf perception and, at the sam time and from the same standpoint, to reject the validity of mnferenc is a thoughtless self contradiction Criticism To refuse the valdity of inference from the empit cal stand point is to refuse to tlunk and discuss All thoughts a' discussions, all doctrines, all affirmations and demials, all proof and disproofs are made possible by inference The view tha perception is valid and mference is invalid is itself a result of m ference The charvaakr can understand others only througl inferunce and make others understand hum only through infurence Thought and ideas, not being materitl objects, cannot be percened they can only be inferred, So it is a self refuted system Perceptior itself which is regarded as valid by the charvaaka is often found untrue We perceive the earth as flat but it is almost round We percerve the earth as static but it is moving round the Sun Such perceptional knowledge is contradicted by inference Moreover, pure perception in the sense of mere sensation cannot be regarded is a means of knowledge unless conception of thought has arranged it into order and has given meaning and sionificance to those threads of sense data

Q 186 Examine critically the Chaaravaka ethics (Banaras, 1957)

Philosophy State and explain the main features of Chaarvaaka Or

Or (Madras 1962) Attempt an exposition and eriticism of Chaarvaaka cthics What are the presuppositions on which it is based ? (Osmama, 1909) Ans In Ethics the Chaaravaka regards sensual pleasure as the summom bonam of life Eat, drink and be merry for once the body I> reduced to ashes, there is no hope of coming back liere ngain There is no other world, no soul surviving death All vilues are m're phan toms created by a diseased mind Pleasure of the senses in this fife and that too of the indivdual is the sole end it is a crude indidual Hedonism Out of the four human values-Dharma, Artha, Kama and

THE CHAARVAAKA PHILOSOPHY 327

Moksha -- only Kama or sensual pleasure is regarded as the end and Artha or wealth is regarded as the means to realtze that end, while Dharmn and Moksha are altogether rejected Pleasure is regarded as nixed up with pain, but thit is no reason why it should not be icquired No body casts away the grain because of the husk " Chaaravaka's demal of human values, which make the life 1 worth living, is the main cause of the downfalt of the Chaaravakas Life ; without values is animal life not the human life Sensual pleasure is a very famt shadow of the supreme pleasure There is a qualitative differences mn pleasure The pleasure of the pig is certamly not the sames as the pleasure of the philosopher Later on Vatsyayana in his Kamz Sutra recommended the destrability of pleasure including sen- sual p'easure, yet regards Dharma or the moral values as the supreme end of life and says that acquisition of pleasure should be m confor- mity with Dharma He recommends a harmonious cultivation of all the three values of life-Dharma, Artha and Kama No valuc sbould be rejected, suppressed or looked down Because man after all is also a biological animal, satisfaction of the senses is as natural as the satis- faction of hunger or thirst But because man is not only a Biological animal, but also a Psychological and a moral creature, a rational and a self-consctous person capable of realizing the values he should, there- fore, instead of falling down to tha level of beasts transform the animal pleasure into fuman pleasure by means of urbanity, self-con- · trol, educate in culture and spirifual discipline

CHAPTER XIV ETHICS OF GITA Q.87. What in your opinion is the central problem of the Bhagwad Gita ? Give an account of the solution offered by the author. (Baroda 1959 Mysore 1962) What is the essential lesson of Gita ? Discuss the Or central points of its teaching Or Bhagwad Gita State and criticise the theory of Nishkam Karma of the (Allahabad 1961, Banaias 1963) Give an account of the Ethics of Bhagwad Gita Or

(Madras 1852) Examine the relation between Ethics and Metaphysics as implied in Gita (Baroda M A 1959) Not the renunciation of Karma but in Karma is the preaching of Gita (Poona M A 1960) Ans Action is the essential Jesson of Gita So the central point of the teaching is activeness, or to use the expresston of the Gita, Karma Yoga-Karma means "What is done" a 'Deed" But Karma Yoga also significes-Sacrifice. But what is usually signified in the Gita is duties that, in accordance with custom and tradition, were found associated at the time with particular sections or classes of the people, the Varna Dharmas as they are described The Karma Yoga is also sometrmes used in a fourth sense in the work, ts, divine worslup and devotional acts connected with it, such as prayers We ordinatily take Karma Yoga as taught in Gita, in the sense of sneial obligations which in one form or another are acknowledged in all organsed society The word Yoga means harnessing or apply- ing oneself to so that Karma Yoga, may be rendered as devotion to the discharge of socmal obligations All our deeds are actuated by a desire for something that I> at achieving some end. So we perform an action for some end So there is not a devotion to Karma itself but to the motive or end of Phala which the Karma will achieve. Arjuna fought, Why ? for attaming the Kingdom So fighting here seems a mean to bring about that preconcened end For Karm Yogt, the act should 328

ETTHICS OF GITA 329

be viewed not as a means but as an end in itself. That is, the idea of the result, which is to ensue from the action, must be dismissed altogether from the mind before as well as during the action. The term signifies the doing of a deed without the least thought of reaping its fruit. "Your concern is solely with action -- never with its fruit. An important consequence of following this prmnciple of action is that one can act with complete equamity. This teaching that we ought to engage ourselves in our work as members, of a social order in the usual way and yet banish from our mind all thought of deriving any personal benefit therefrom is the meaning of Karma-Yoga and constitutes the specific message of the Gita. Kurma Yoga is a mean between the two extreme principles or Ideals of Pravitti and nirritti, Nirritt is a negative ideal of rennu- ciation. It advocates the giving up of all Karma and withdrawing from the work-a-day world utterly. The Ideal of Pravitti recom- mended living in the midst of society undertaking all the obligations implied thereby, but it did not exclude the element of selfishness altogether. This is clear in the case of ritualistic activities where- by the store for a good, which was attainable in another life because they realized the enduring character of the self. Their belief in future life saved them from rating too high the value of worldly good. What they worked for was similar end i.e., selfish at the bottom. And in the case of activities which are not other worldy, they regarded themselves as not only bound to discharge their indeb- tedness to others what also as having a claim upon those others for what was due to themselves, and so far they felt short of a truly spiritual conception of life. So Karma yoga is the golden mean which preserves the excellence of both Ideals, of action and contem- plation. While it does not abandon activity it preserves the spirit of renunciation .It commends a strenuous life and yet gives no room for the play of selfish impulses thus it discards neither Ideal, but by com- bining them refines and ennobles both. So the Gita teachings stand not for renunciation of action, but for renunciation in action. The propriety of selecting the battlefield for imparting the teaching is that nowhere else is the subordmation of Individual am to the general good so complete. The soldier may Anow the cause for which he is fighting, but he can hardly say how that fight is going to end. Even supposing that it is the end favourably to hus cause, he, for aught he knows, wdll not be there at the time to share its beneficial results. Yet this uncertainty does not in the least reduce his responsibility as a fighter. He has to do his best and should realise to the utmost his value and importance as an agent, but at the same time forget altogether that he is to participate in whatever good may accrue from the discharge of his duty. It is the cause of the wider entity than himself that he is serving ; and his thought should not go beyond realizing that his responsibilty as an actor in the scene remains the maximum that represents the highest form of self- searifice to work for no profit to oneself, but yet to exert onself to the utmost . and the finest exhibition of this spirit in the world is to

330 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY be seen on a battle field In this wider sense it takes as its essential basis the Principle that activity is natural to man and that no view of life which overlooks that feature or minimizes its importance can be right , but this natural activity needs to be properly directed for otherwise it is apt to be utilized for selfish or material ends and this becomes the means of obscuring from man the higher end for which he exists What is the direction in which the activity should be exercised ? In answer to tlus question the Gita enjoms on all the performance of their respective duties One should never abandon one's specified work whether it be hgh or low In other words, it is social oblga tions mamly, though not solely that are aisked here to be discharged such as are caiculated to secure and preserve the solidarity of the society so it emphasize the social character of man ind generally speaking dechnes to look upon huim apart from the community of which he is a member So it appears that a Karma Yogin works without a purpose 1n vIew But no voluntary activity, however, seems conceivable without some motive or other Will without desire is a fiction, what then is the motive for execution here ? There are two answers to this question furnished in the book (1) Atma Sudhht which means 'purifying the self or' clearing the heart and (2) subserving the purpose of God-a fact which, by the way, imphes a mixture of teac ung here The spirit in wilch one eagages oneself in activity is different according to the two aims In the first case an action is done for the sake of the socnl whole of which the doer is a member , but in the other it is done for the sake of God, resigning or surrending its fruits to Him So in the first it appears duty to others and in the second it appears service to God The former type of agent is directly conscious of hs relation to his environment and realizes it as a factor demanding his fealty (loyalty) , the latter is conscious only of God concereved as a personality in constant touch with the world and whatever he does he regards as God's work, which has therefore to be done but whether we took upon the work done as duty or as divine service, it is not "disin terested" in every sense of the term So in what sense it has been described as detached The answer to this is that the activity which is natural to man if not properly guided, will become the means of obscuring from him the lugher end for which he exists By such an end Gitr unoerstands something more than moral rectitude It ums at the elimination of worldly desire even of the type commonly rsgarded as legitimate It does not rest satisfied with rationalizing our rmpulses, it means to spiritualise them It teaches that an active life led without any thought of securing the worldly results it mav yield sets free the springs of that inner life whose development is the one atm of man A Anad Karma yoga is disinterested only so fir is it turns our mind from these results and sets it on the path lending o the true goal not that it has no end at all, not thus do away with notives altogether , only tt furnishes one and the same motive for

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whatever we may do, vis , the bettermeut of our spirtual nature Thus though the teaching, by insisting upon the discharge of social obligations at all costs, seems to ignore the individual, it does not really do so since it provides at the same time for his advancement on a higher plane of life The Goal to be reached on this plane is conceived mn two ways, according to the double motive that is set before the Karma Yogin If the motive is "cleansing the heart", the Goal is self rea'isation , if on the other hand, it is subserving the purpose of God, the end is god realisation The first is becoming Brahman or absorption in the absolute in the linguage of upanishads The second is reaching the presence of God, though, it sometimes appears, evidently under the influence of the first, as merging in time The distinctive feature of the perfected state which is variously termed as "the hife absolute' and 'dwelling in God" is peace Only the attitude is predominantly one of Jnana in the case of person that sets before humself The Ideal of self realization and one of Bhakti or passionate devotion to God in the case of the other, Karma Yoga I0 the former fulfls itself in enlightenment which enables one to see oneself in all beings and all beings in oneself, in the latter, it finds its communication when a louting communion is established with God If we describe the one as the Ideal of enlightenment, the other repre- sents the Ideal of love, only it is love of God, and through Him of lus creatures Gita requires the man in the perfected state even to work, as there being nothing in outer activity which is incompitable with inner peace Here is the exalted posttion assigned to work by the Gita Karma yoga is accordingly to be understood in a double sense -- one having reference to an earlier stage of strife when the disciple, with a steady resolve, is continually wearing himself from selfish activity , and the other to a later stage when, at the dawn of truth, the strife is over and right conduct becomes quite spontaneous the outward expression of an inner conviction that has been aitamed It is the Karma Yoga in the first sense, which is ancillary, that forms the essential theme of the Gita, the second appears now and then as but a characteristic of the Goal to be kept in view by the spiritual asphant

188 Is a man free to choose the path he likes in the Condact of Life Discuss Q

Or Write a short note Freedom of will in Gita Ans Freedom of the will According to Gita's teaching man is free to choose the path he likes in the conduct of life But it also appears that he cn only follow the bent of lus nature (Prakriti) The answer given is that evil disposition operates not automatically,

332 INDIAN PIHLOSOPHY

but invarmably by appenling to our lower or senstous self Gita says that tn respect of every object of sense there is always fove or hatred One should not be controlled by it or should not come under the way of either, for they ire one's foe The senses and mind are its habta tion , and through them it decludes man So man should subjugate them first tn order that you mty bring down the ruinous foe So ta this way we are not accordingly driven to do evil agamst our destre No responsibility attaches to man for mere tmpulsive reaction except in so far as he is accountable for that impulse itself One should nat held to the sensuous self s promptings whether we can ignore that setf' But the question anses The reply is that we can if we only will , for we are conscious of the presence in us of 1 self higher than

butween wish and will It is in the conscr usness of this conflict that it So tnese ire the two combatants which give rise to inner conflt t

the possibility of a rght choice lies For the nature of the higher self is such that it will not allow itself to be subordinated to other unless we have once for all sank back into the life of mere antmal Se in order to save ourselves from falling back into the sensuous life Giti asks one to forearm oneself by accepting the true Ideal once for alt and to see that our actions become the expression of a single coherent purpose as imphed by its acceptance that is the meaning of telling us to substitute a umform aim viz, the betterment of our spiritual nature for the necessarly divergent ends of the many acuons wluch we have to do in life One must not have recourse to the method of replacing the lower aim by the higher when the selfish motive presents ttself because it might prove unpracticable The important point about the Karma doctrine is that paradoxi cal though may it seem, it mnspires us both with hope und restenation at once -- hope for the future and resignation towards what may oceur in the present that is not fatalism but the very reverse of it Every deed that we do leads to double result the pun Phala or pleasure following from it, according to Karma theory , but it also establishes in us t tendency to repeat the same deed in future Samskerna , every deed is bound to yield the first result s e, pleasure and pain (Phala) even the Gods cannot prevent it from doing so But that is all the necessity mvolved in the Karma theory As regards the Samskarna, on the other hand, we have within us the full power of control, so that we my regulate them as they tend to express inaction So there is thus nothing in the doctrine which either ehminates responst bilty or invalidates self efforts

Q 189 Is there any Ought after God realisation ? Discuss after Gita Ans The theory of Jnana Karma Samuchchaya occupied great attention at the time of Sankaracharya and the Mimamsakas Ubhabhyameva paksabhyam yathakhe pakshmam gatiln Tathaiva gyan karmbhyam prapyate Brahma shashwitam Says the sage Harita Just as a bird cannot Dy without two wings, so Jnana and

ETHICS OF GITA 333

Karma are both ne essary for the flght of the individual to the Absolute In the same way there is a passage in the Isopantsad Vidyana chavidyum cha yast dwedobhyam salt Avidhya mrityum teertwa vidyamritamashnute This has been interpreted on the one hand as involving a re conciliation and a synthesis of Jnan and Karma Sankarı on the other hand has his own arguments to disprove it He wants nothing else except Jnana pure and simple and has got nothing to do with the Karma There is another important theory which is advinced by a great modern Indian scholar the late Lokamanya Tilak According to Sankara Jnanottara Karma is impossible Karma stops as soon as Jnana is reached On the other hand Tilak advocates that man has a duty to perform even after the realisation of the highest self In the first place it is pointed out that action belongs to the body and so long as the body remains we cannot extricate ourselves from the influence of actions Then secondly selfless action or Nishkama Karma would alone enable us to move out of thraldom to actions Hence a man who performs selfless actions cannot be said to be performing any actions at all Anashratıh karmafalam karya karma karotı yog Sa sanyası cha yog cha na miragnir chakarys Finafly it is the responsibiity of i realised soul to point the way

the realiser to erring humamty and hence action becomes indispensable even for

Loksangrıhmevapı sampashyam kartımarhst Lokamanya Tilak has advanced these and other arguments for proving the imperativeness of action (ictions) even after the attam ment of the highest knowledge The question however arises whether there is any ought after God realisation JNANA NOT AN EVENT BUT A PROCESS We shall not go mto the detatis of the controversy but shail point out only one principle which will resolve not merely this contro versy about Jnanottara Karma but also the earlier controversy about Jnana Karma Samuchchaya a point which has not been lutherto noniced, namely that Jnana is not an event but a process Jnana might be regarded to be knowledge but the illummation is its proper meining for the word and fully Ilumition never comes finally We always keep making an asymptotie approach to illumination but never actually reach it Jnanesvar has told us that there is alwiys that difference between the aspirant and God is betweer the gold of fifteen carats and the gold of sixteen carats or between the moon on the fourteenth day and the moon on the ffteenth So Jnana is a process and not an

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event. The doctrine of Jnana Karma-Samuchchaya and Sankara ard the doctrine of Jnanottara-Karma debated between Sankara and Tilak-both fight shy of this principle of the nature of Jnana as being a process instead of an event So when we remember that we alway! keep making an asymptotic approach to the Absolute, then everything else becomes clear. Jnanottara Karma does not occur, Jnana-Karma Samuchchaya does not occur We are free to do our actions as w lke in the process of attamment of the highest illummation. If we are activists by temper, nothing can prevent us fron doing actions at any stage of our progress towards the attamment e our ideal. If we are contemplatives, nothing can stir us from a lifec God-enjoyment to which we are naturally born, though we may nc wholly set aside the principle of action to which we are not born Fmnally, if we are philosophers, the issue will be how best t determine the nature of the hghest Reahty and leave the rest to God Temperamental differences may be modulated but they canne be so radically changed as to wear an entrrely new aspect altogether

CHAPTER XV ADHYASA OR SUPERIMPOSITION Q 190 What is Adhyasa ? How does Sankaracharya put this conscept to a metaphysical use ? (Karnatal 1965) Ans The whole of Sankara's plulosophy may be summed up as follows The Brahman of the Upamishads is the only Reality, aed every- thing else-this world of manifoldness-is unreal, is a mere appe- arance , the individual soul (Jiva) is identical with Brahman, the one without a second, whtch the scriptures define as Existence-Know- ledge Bliss Absolute "Brahman is knowledge, Bhss" (Brih 3 9 28) This identity of of the Jiva and Brahman is clearly stated by the seriptures in texts like "Thou art That, O Svetaketu" (Chh 6 8 7) "I am Brahman" (Brth 1 4 10), and "The Self alone is to be medi- tated upon" (Brih 1 4 7) The question then naturally arises If Truth is one, whence arises this many which we experience through the senses ? Truth can- not contradict experience So Sankara had to explam this apparent contradiction between Truth and our everyday experience He says that plurality is an illusion (Maya) It has no renlity, for it dis- appears when the knowledge of the true nature of Brahman is reahzed It is just like seeing a snake in a rope in the dark This wrong per- ception is brought about by ignorance (Avidya) which is beginningless It is this ignorance which is the cause of all this duality, Brabman being mistaken for the world On account of this ignorance the individual soul identifies itself with its adjunets 'Upadhis') tiz, the body, senses, etc which are only superimposed on it This identifica- tion makes the soul think that tt is the doer, enjoyer, etc -though the truth is tuat it is none of these-and thereby it comes under the sway of birth, death, happiness, misery, etc, in short, becomes bound down to this wotld (Samsara) When Sankara says that the world is false, he does not mean that it is absolutely nothing, but that our experience is lrable to be stultified by means of knowledge of things as they are The world has a relative existence , it ts true for the time being, but disappears when true knowledge dawns It is not for all times, in other words, it is not real from the absolute standpoit Maya or ignorance is not a real entity We can neither say that it exists nor that it does not exist It is a mystery which is beyond our understanding, it is un- speakable (Anırvachanıya) As Maya is not real, it cannot be related to Brahman, the Reality, in any way whatsoever , for any relation

335

336 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

between truth and falsehood is rmpossible The relatton is only appa rent, and therefore Brahman is mn no way affected by this tllusion which is superimposed upon it, even as the rope is not affected by the snake that is assumed to exist in it Therefore the only way to liberation from tlis worldly existence (Samsara) is to get rid of this wrong notion through the real knowledge of Brahman Just as in the case of the rope and the snake, it is the knowledge of the rope alone that removes the illusion of the snake and nothing else so also it is the knowledge of Brahman alone that brings about the cessation of this relative exrstence (Samsara) "A man who knows it alone truly, passes beyond death , there is no other path to go by" (Svet 3 8), "He comes not to death who sees that one " Piigrimages, austerities worship and charity -- these by them selves, without knowledge, cannot help us to attain Libemton Ther utilty hes onty mn punfying our mind (Chittisuddhi) cleansmg it of all worldliness, and thus making it fit to comprehend the Truth When Brahman is reahzed this phenomenal world disappears automatically, without any further effort on the part of the individual Knowledge of Brahman being thus the only way to Liberation, an inquiry into Brahman through the study of the Brahma Sutras is absolutely necessary. Sankara's explanation of the world as an illusion has given his philosophy the name of Mayavada or Anırvachanıya Khyatıvada It is also known as Vivartavada, the doctrine of the apparent modtfica+ tion of Brahman into this phenomenal world, as opposed to Parinama- vada or the doctrine of the actual modification of Brahman into this phenomenal world, as held by some other schools of Vedanta like the Visshtadvaitavada of Ramanuja Sinkara anticıpited that this method of explaining the pheno- menal worid would raise a protest from the vanous other schools of this time So at the beginning of his commentary on the Brahma sutras, he writes a masterly introduction, wluch is well known as the Adhyasa Bhashya or the section denling with superimposttion, wherem he

hypothests establishes superimposttion as a statement of fact and not a mere He starts with the objections that can possibly be raised agaist hts theory of Superimposition and then refutes them He says ; It is well known that the subject and the object, which hive for their spheres or contents the notions of 'I' and "Thou' respectively and

quently the superimposmen of the object and its attributes en the identified which are opposed to each other as darkness and light canrot be Hence their attributes aiso cannot be identifed Conse-

subject, whose essence is pure itelhgence, and vice versa, ought to be a logical impossibilty If the world phenomena are a case of superimposition, like the snake m the rope, then wluch is superimposed on whch ? Is the world supermposed on Brahman, or it ts the reverse ? In the latter case, the world, which is the substratum, like the rope in the example, would be a reality If it is the other way-the world on Bmhman --

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it is not possible, for Brahman is not an object which becomes an object when it is timited by time, space, and causation. Since Brahman is unlimited. It is beyond these, and so cannot be an object of perception ; as such it cannot be the substratum of a superimposi- tion Brahman is also the inner Self of every one and therefore can never be separate and in front of a person hke a rope, when alone the world can be superimposed on It. Neither can Brahman be both subject and object of the thinking process, for one and the same being cannot both be the agent asd the object of its activity at the same time. An object is that on which is concentrated the activity of the agent, and hence it must be different from the agent. If, again, Brabman is manifested by some other knowledge and thus becomes an object, It ceases to be self-luminous and becomes limited, and this the scriptures do not accept. Further, in all cases of superimposition there is an antecedent real knowledge of the object which is superimposed, as of the snake in the example. So to superimpose the world on Brahman a real knowledge of the world is necessary, and this would make the world phenomena and would be an impossibility and Liberation would be impossible. Thus in w hatever way we may try to establish the theory of superimposition, we are not able to do so. Yet, says Sankara, it is natural (a self-evident fact) on the part of man, because of ignorance, not to disttnguish between the two entities (the subject and the object), which are quite contradictory, and to superimpose the one on the other, and their attributes as well, and thus mixing up the real and the unteal to use such phrases as "That is I", or "This is mine". The self again is not altogether a non-object, for it is the object of the notion of the Ego. The self does not entirely elude our grasp Though the inner self is not an object and is also without parts, yet owing to ignorance, which is unspeakable and without a beginning, attrbutes ltke mind, body, senses, etc., which are products of ignorance, are superimposed on the self, and it behaves as if it were an agent, enjoyer, possessed of parts, and many -- although in truth it is none of these-and thus becomes an object. The real self can never be an object of knowledge. Self- consciousness is possible only with respect to self already qualified by these adjuncts (Upadhis). This sounds like an argument in a circle, for to establish superrmposition we have to accept the self to be an object, and the self can be an object only through the superimposition of adjuncts (Upadhis) ; it ts actually not so. It is a case like the seed and the tree. The seed gives rise to the tree, which again pro- duces the sced, the cause of the future tree, and so on. So in this serics of illusions withont a beginning, the self, which is the sub- stratum of the present superimposition, is an object on account of a past superimposition, and that one had for its substratum the self. which had become an object of a still cartier superimposition, and so on ad infioitum. The pure self without the limiting adjuncts is never the substratum of superimposition. It is the difference in the

338 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

limiting adjuncts, as shown above, that makes it possible for the self to be at the same time an agent and the object of action Superimposition, again, is due to ignorance and hence it is not necessary that the knowledge of the object superimposed must be a real knowledge It is enough if we hve a knowledge; it need not necessarily be reat , it can itself be another illusory knowledge That the self exists is proved by the intuitrve knowledge we have of it This is well known and but for it nothing would have been cognized in this world "He shtning, everything else shines" (Kath 2 2 15) We know thines m and through it , no consciousness or experience is possible independently of it Everyone is conscious of his own self, for no one thinks. "I am not" Nor, agam, is it necessary that the object to be a substratum of a superimposition should be before us, for we see that Akasa (skv) which is not visible to the senses, be comes a substratum for superimpositions by the ignorant, who impute blueness, spherical shape, etc, to it m such expressions as, 'The sky

ed fact is blue", and "It is spherical " Thus superimposttion is an establish

But then direct perception, which is the best of all proofs- since it is the bisis of all other means of knowledge like inference etc , affirms this world of manifoldness How can the seriptures that deny it carry conviction as against direct experence ? They canpot Hence seriptural textes that deny the many and uphold unity will , have to be interpreted in a manner so as not to contradict our ex- perience This view cannot stand For the seriptures (srutis) are impersonal, eternal, self-luminous, and so on Their validity is direct and self evident and therefore ifallible They constitute by themselves an independent source of knowledge Hence they too are to be accented as authoritative The fact is that cach evidence of knowledge has its own sphere wherein it is absolutely authoritative Perception has its supreme validity in knowledge through the senses There a hundred texts cannot prevail against it The scriptures (Srutis) on the other hand have their absolute authority in a province where Perception cannot be of any avadl Their province is trans cendental knowledge, which cannot be attained in any other way Here revelation, which does not depend on other sources of now Jedge, ts the final authorty, and not perception or even reason The scriptures do not deny the empirical validity of perception , they deny only its absolute or transcendentai valdity

SUPERIMPOSITION DEFINED Q. 191 Define Superimposition and discuss the various defnitions of Advaita School of Philosophy Ans Superimposition, says Sankara, is the apparent presenta- tion to consciousness, by wav of remembrance, of something pre- viously observed in some other thing It is an apparent presentation, that is knowledge which is subsequently falsified, m other words, xt is illusory knowledge According to Vachaspatr Misra this is the

ETIICS OF GITA 339

fundamental characteristic of superimposition, and the rest of the definition only differentiates it from those given by other schools of philosophy. But tle author of the commentary Ratnaprabha takes apparent presentation in some other thing as the characteristic mark of superimposition, and this seems to be more in keeping with Sankara, who says in his commentary, "But all these definitions agree in so far as they represent superimposition as the apparent presentation of the attributes of one thing in another thing." As it is impossible to have illusory knowledge without the mixing up of two things, we find the words something previously observed in the definition. These words, together with the words apparent pre- sentation, make it clear that the thing superimposed is not the real object seen some time before, but something like it A mere experi- ence, and not the realty, is what is necessary; hence the word observed. The experience should not be a present one, but a past one, and that is the significance of the word previously. So the thing superimposed is a false or unreal thing. But the thing on which it is superimposed is a real thing (thing). The words by way of remembrance exclude all cases of recognition where the object pre- viously observed again presents itself to our senses, as when a person seen at a particular place is again seen at another place. In rememb- rance the object previously observed is not in renewed contact with the senses. It is mere remembrance that operates in the case of superimposition. This definition of superimposition meets an objection of the Mimamsakas, who say that an unreal thing cannot be an object of experience. According to them all knowledge is real ; there can be nothing like false knowledge. They uphold the intrinsic validity of all knowledge, for every knowledge produces a sense of certainty in us and we have no doubt about it at the time. If it were otherwise, then we should always be in doubt and never arrive at any certainty.

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Mimamskas, is nothing but the negation of water, and it is therefore self-evident that the phenomenon we experience cannot be water Neither ean they say that the water m the mirage is not real, since it is experienced So the water in the mirage is neither real nor unreal, nor ean it be both at the same time Therefore we have to accept the phenomenon as something beyond our comprehension (Amrvacha- miya), which is exactly the view of Sankara Sankara says that the nature of objects is twofold, real and unreal The first mantfests by its very nature, depending on the object itself, the second, the unreal appenrance, depends on some other thing for its manifestation In a mirage the rays of the sun ire a reality, but their appearance as v ater is unreal and depends on some- thing else, the impressions (Samskaras) produced by sceing water elsewhere before That which is real always continues to be so, but the unreal is ever changing Brahman, the Reality, remains unchanged , but Maya and its products, which are assumed to exist in Brahman, are unreal and therefore everchanging, yet experienced by

they are unspeakable (Anırvachamya) us The world phenomena are neither real nor unreal, nor both,

DEFINITION OF SUPERIMPOSITION ACCORDING TO OTHER SCHOOLS Q 192 Examine the views of other schools of Indian Philosophy on 'Superimposition' and discuss their stand points Ans The four schools of phuilosophy in Buddhism define superimposition as "the superimposition of the ittributes of one thing or another". They maintain that in superimposition forms of cogm- tron, or modes of the internal organ in the form of the object are superimposed on an external object which itself may be real or illusory The Prabhakaras refute this definition, for according to the Buddhists there is no septrate entity called the Self apart from cons- ciousness (Vijnana) The Self is but a form of consciousness If m an illusion, where a rope is taken for a snake, the snake also be a form of cogmtion, then our experience ought to be of the kind "1 am a snake ' or ' My snake', and not as ' This is a snake " Therefore Prabhakaras define superimposition as "an error arsing from the non perception of the difference of that which is superimposed from that on which it is superimposed " There ts no positive wrong or illusory knowledge, but a mere non perception of the difference bet ween two real experiences, one of which is a past experience Where a mother-of pearl is taken for silver, the difference between the mother-of-pearl seen at the moment and the silver remembered is not perceived Naiyayikas refute this definition on the ground that mere non-perception of the difference cannot induce us to action But as a matter of fact we are tempted to possess the silver seen in a mother- of pearl Where there is no positive knowledge, as, for example, in

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profound sleep (Sushupti), there is no activity It is posttive know- fedge that is responsible for our activity, as we find from our experience in the dreim and waking states Nor can a mere remembrance mduce us to action So in illusion we are conscious of silver as a reality present before us, and not as a mere remembrance

The Naiyayikas therefore define superimposition as "the fictitious assumption of attributes (like those of stlver) contrary to the nature of the thing (eg, the mother-of-pearl) on which something cise (silver) is superimposed " An identity is established between the object present before us (the mother of pearl) and the sivet remembe- red which is not here ard now, but imagined, and which exists as a reality somewhere else The person is not conscious that it is only a memory of stlver, and not an actuality This identity between the silver seen elsewhere and the mother-of pearl is what gives rise to the illusion There is thus 1 positive factor in this experience, whtch is not the case in the Priblnkara's definition Yet it may be questioned how the silver which exists elsewhere can be in contact with the senses, which is essential if the silver is to be experienced as an actu ility in tront of us and not a mere memory If it be said tht there is transcendental contact (Alnukika Jnanalkshana Sannikarshn) of the senses with it, then where fire is inferred from smoke we cans ay y it is atso a cace of transcendental contact, and tnference as a means to knowledge becomes unnecessary Therefore we have to accept that m illusion an indescribable (Amrvachamya) silver is produced, which is a renhty for the time being It is this silver which is dtrectly perceived by the censes and gives rise to the knowledge, 'This is silver * The sifver that is seen in the mother of pearl is not present somewhere else, for m that case it could not have been experienced as here and now , nor is it the mind Neither is it mere nonentity, for then it could not have been an object of perception , nor can it be inherent in the mother in pearl, for in that case it could not have been sublated afterwards So we are forced to say that the stlver has no real existence anywhere but has only an apparent relity for the time bane which is unspeak ible

This superimposition is called ienorance (Avdya) metaphori- cally the effect being put for the enise Ignorance does not mean want of knowledge, but that kind of knowledge which 15 stultified later on by the knowledge of things ast hey are its counterpirtis called knowledge (Vidya) When the Self is discrimi- nated from its lomtting adjunets through Vedantle discipline and practice (Sadhan) rs heiring of seriptural texts, reflection, and meditauon on them then knowledge dawns, which destroves thts superimposition A mere intellectual knowledge however not meant here but aetual realzation Since through this superimposttion the two objects are not in the leist affected by the good or bad qualitles of cach other once true Anowledge diwns, it roots out ignorance with all its effects leaving no chance of its cropping up again Recrudescence would have been possible if owing

342 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

to the superimposition the Self was in any way contaminated by the non-Self and its properties This superimposttion (Adhyasa) due to ignorance is the pre sumption on which are based the distinctions among the means of knowledge, objects of knowledge, and knowing persons, in our career of daily activity, and so are also based all sersptural texts, whether they refer to rituals (Karma) or knowledge (Jnana) All our expe nence starts in this error which identifies the Self with the body, senses, etc All cogmtve acts presuppose this kind of false identifi cation, for without it the pure Self can never be a knower, and wthout a knowing personality, the means of right knowled.e cannot operate Therefore, the means of nght knowledge and the scriptural texts belong to the sphere or ignorance (Avidya) They are meant only for one who is still under ignorance and has not reahsed the Self They are valid only so long as the ultimate Truth is not realised , they have just a relative vtlue But from the standpoint of the ultimate Truth, our so called knowledge is all Avidya or no Xnowledge at all In the phenomenal world, however they are qune vald and are capable of producing empirical knowledge That our knowledge (empincal) is no knowledge at all is further proved by the fact that we do not differ from ammals in the matt ** of cogmtion Just a cow runs away when she sees a man with a raist stick in his hand, whle she approaches one with a handful of gree grass, so also do men, who possess higher intelligence, walk away froi wicked persons shouting with drawn swords, while they approac those of an opposite nature The behavtour of animals in cognmtior ete, is well known to be based on ignorance Therefore it can b inferred that man's conduct in the matter of cognition, etc, so long a they are under delusion, is also similarly based It may seem rather strange to say that even the seriptures belon, to the field of ignorance (Avidya) , for though in ordmary matters o cognition, etc, we may resemble animals and act through ignorance yet in matters religious, such as the performance of sacrifices the person who engages huimself in them has the knowledge that the Sel is separate from the body, since otherwise he cannot expect to enjoy the fruits of his ritualstic acts in heaven, the body beig destroyed at death But we forget that though a person who engages himself in ntualistic acts may have a knowledge of the Self as distinct from the body, yet it is not necessary that he should have a knowledge of the real nature of the Self as given by the Vedanta texts rather such Lnowiedge is destructive to him For how can a person who knows the Self to be not an enjoyer, agent, and so forth undertake any sacrifice enjoyment by the seriptures ? Scriptural texts like, "A Brahmana should perform a sacrifice," are operatie only on the supposition that attributes such as caste stage of life age ind circum stances are superimposed on the Self, which is none of these Not only is ntuahsm (Karmakainda) meant for persons under ignorance (Avidya), but even so is the Vedanta , for without the distincton of the means of knowledge, objects of knowledge, and knower it is not -

ETHICS OF GITA 343

possible to comprehend the meaning of the Vedanta texts A person who is conscious of these distinctions is under the sway of tgnorance (Avidya), being in the world of dualtty But there is a difference between Vedanta and ritualism Wlnle the latter has for its goal that which is within the sphere of ignorance, ltke enjoyment in heaven etc, the former helps one to realise lus true nature (nature), which destroys all ignorance How can ignorance lead to knowledge ? Empincl knowledge can produce transcendental knowledge through its empirical validity. To put it in Sri Ramakrishna's beautiful language "When we run a thorn in our hand we take it out by means of another thorn and throw out both So relative knowledge alone can remove that relative ignorance which blinds the eye of the Self But such know- ledge and such ignorance are both alike included in Avidya, hence the man who attains to the highest knowledge (Jnana), the know- ledge of the Absolute, does awiy in the end with both knowledge and ignorance, being free himseif from all duality " But before the dawning of reat knowledge the authority of the Vedas stands un- questioned, for a knowledge that has not been realised cannot prevent a person from entering on ritualistic activities It is only after realisation that seriptural texts cease to be operative But before that, "Let the scriptures be thy authorty in ascertaming what ought to be done and what ought not to be done Having known what is said 11 the ordinance of the semprores thou shouldst act here" (Gita 16 24) But when realisation dawns, then, "To the sage who has known the Self, all the Vedas are of so much use av 1 reservoir when there is flood everywhere" (Gita 2 46) It is only for the knower of Brahman that they have no value, and not for others

THE SIX SYSTEMS OF PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy Q 193 Give a critical estimate of the Six Systems of

Ans The Vedas are the seriptures of the Hindus, to whatever sect or denomination they may belong Thev are the carliest extant religious literature today and form the corner stone of the Indo-Aryan cultural edifice The Hindus beleve that the Vedas are not the utterances of any person but are eternal and owe their authority to no indivdual They are not inspired but expired by God These Vedas are divided into two sections, the Karmakanda and the Jnnnakanda, the former dealing with the ritualistic and the latter with the knowledge portion of the Vedas The latter section is also Anown as the Vedanta, the end of the Vedas, or the goal or gist of the Vedas These are not mere specultions but the record of the spintual experiences of the race for centuries actul reahzations or superconscious perceptions Though we find Vedintte thought even in some of the eirlest hymns of the Rig-Veda, eg , the Nasadiya Sukta, which forms as it

344 INDIAN PIILOSOPHY were the basis of later Upanishads, yet there is no denying the fact that the Indo Aryans in thesr earlier days in India were given more to rituåls and sacrifices These were elaborated to such an extent by the Brahmanas, the priestly class, that persons of rationabstie bent of mind revolted and questioned the very efficacy of the sacrifictal rehgion They engaged themselves in metaphysical problems and arrived at different solutions of the world The Vedantic thought that was in germ form was now acveloped more and more, and we have the pamshads This spint of revolt ageinst ntualism was carried on mamnly by the Kshatrivas The Indo Aryans were very bold thnkers and nothing was sacrilegious to them in their search after truth Traces of epposmtion against the religion of the Vedas are found in the Vedas themselves This tidal wave of rationalism in its extreme form yive rise to such schools of thought as the Charvalas, which were materialstie and anti refigious In the age immedtately preceding Buddha and durig his lfetime there was a great religious and philosophical upheaval in India From the Brahmajala Sutras we learn that in his time there were as many as sixty two different schools of philosophy in India We also learn from Buddhistic literature the names of a good number of teachers who were venerated in Aryavarta at the time-names like Purana Kasyapa, Katyayına, Makkalı Gosala, Niganatha Nathaputra, the founder of Jainism, and others While these great souls represented Indian culture from an anti Vedic standpoint there were many great mames that represented the culture from the traditional stardpoint- names that are still venerated by Hindu relgion and culture The destructive criticism of everything in the old system by the Charvakas and others set the orthodox section to organze their belief on a more rationlistic basis at d render it immune against all such This led to the foundation of the six systems of orthodox Hindu Philosophy- orthodox in the sense that they accepted the criticism

authority of the Vedas mn things transcendental-while there were others who did not accept this authority aad therefore were dubbed heterodox, though otherwise they too were the outcome of Upanishadic thought The accepfance ef the authonty of the Vedas by these orthodox schools however does not mean that they accepted them in toto Their allegiance to the Vedas varied widely and often it was too loose Of the six orthodox schools, m -. Nyaya, Vaiseshika, Sankhya, Yogr Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta, the last two are intimately connected with the Vedas, which is one of the reasons why they are not mentioned in the Jains and Buddhi stic literature, while the others are mentioned These six orthodox systems of thought developed side by side at different mtellcctual centres, of which there were a good number all over the country even during the Upamshadic pericd Agamn mn eacl system there were shades of difference Tlus for centuries philosophic thought developed in India till at last it became so unwieldy that a regular systematization of each school of thought was found a great necessity This led to the Sutr t literature

CTHICS OF GITA 345

THE SUTRAS These systematic treatises were written in short aphorisms cailed Sutras, meaning clues, and were itended as memory-aids to long discussions on any topic which the student had gone through with his teacher or Guru The thought was very much condensed, for much was taken for granted Consequently the maxmum of thought was compressed into these Sutras in as few words as possible Madhavacharya quotes from Padma Purana a defimtion of the Sutra in his commentary on the Brahma-Sutris which runs as follows ,

BRAHMA-SUTRAS "People learned in Sutra literature say that a Sutra should be concise and unambiguous, give the essence of the arguments on a topic but at the same time deal with all aspects of the question, be free from repetition and faultless " Though this defintion states what a Sutra ought to be, in practice, however, the destre for brevity was carried to such extremes that most part of Sutra literature is now unintelhgible, and this is particularly so with respect to the Vedanta- Sutras which has consequently given rse to divergent systems There was Sutra literature in every branch of Indo-Aryan knowledge which had become cambrous through centuries and required systematization. The authors of these Sutras, as we see, are not the founders of the thought or systems they propounded, but mere systematizers of the thought develuped on the subject by successive generations of thinkers for centaries The thought ot these Sutras was much developed by latter thinkers and even modified by them, though all of them disclaimed any originality in it, declaring that they were merely interpreting the Sutras This was specially the case with respect to the philosop'ucal Sutras All these subsequent thinkers belonged to one or other of the sic systems and developed its traditionary thought from generation to generation, rendering it more and more perfect, and more and more secure against the ever new criticisms of rival schools Such interpretations of the Sutras gave rise to various kinds of literary writings like Vakyas, Vrittis, Karkas and Bhashyas, each of them being more and more elaborate than the previous ones The Upamishads do not contain any ready-made consistent system of thought At first sight they seem to be full of contradictions Hence arose the necessity of systematizing the thought of the Badarayana, to whom the authorship of the Brahma- Sutras or Vedinta-Sutras is ascribed, is not the only one who had Upanıshads tred to systematize the philosophy of the Upamishads From the Brahama Sutras itself we find that there were other schools of Vedanta which had their own following We find the names of Audulomi, Kasakrıstna, Badırı, Jaımını, Karshnajını, Asmarathya

346 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

and other, mentioned. All this shows that Badaryana's Sutras do not constitute the only systematic work in the Vedanta school, though probably the last and best All the sects of India now hold this work to be the great authority and every new sect starts with a fresh commentary on it-without which no sect can be founded in this country.

348 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY contun the germs of the distinction, wluch India has always held, between Mind and Consciousness SUPER-CONSCIOUSNESS The view is in consonance with Vedanta which calls the latent and sub consctous a Simskara and adds a third, tiz, Super Conscious ness that in beyond ordinary consciousness, whether latent or patent, which is pure Chit Chit is more or less veiled by mind To use one of the expressive metaphors of the Vedanta, Ciuit is like a lamp which the Mind envelops as a screen, sometimes revealing it by its transparency-sometimes concealing it by its opqueness, and thus always conditioning its illumtnation both as regards its quality and quantity MIND AND MATTER ARE LIMITED MODES OF POWER According to that vedanta, the principle is Pure Chit of which both mind and matter are limited modes of its Power All psychical functions, therefore, whether as Intellect (Buddhi), Feeling (ichha), Will (Ahankaara) and the like are limited modes (Vritti) Chit is pure consciousness itself Mind, m fact, is an unconscious force which in varying degree obscures ond limits Consciousness, such limitation being the Condition of all Finite Experience Chit is thus Consciousness, Mind is consciousness plus unconsciousness, Inter- mingled Consciousness-Unconsciousness which we see in all Finite Beings Mind is both substance and process It is substance as the mind substance or Antalikirana and it is process as the modifications or Vritti of that substance Mental process is a veiling or (relative) unverling of Chit which is itself unchanged, Consciousness appears however to undergo change because of the modifications of mind of which it ts ti e changeless substratum POWER (SAKTI) AS MIND We may take first the dualistic theories The Vedanta agrees with the Cause Theory in so far as the latter holds that conscious (mental) process and nervous process are causally related provided we substitute for the word conscious' the word 'mental'-The process is not in Consciousness but in Mind The mental is a subtle quasi material process Vedanta holds that both processes, physical and material, have a common ground in Consciousness and thus escape the difficulty in converving interaction between things of a wholly different nature as Mind and Body are commonly supposed to be It differs therefore from psycho physical parallelism in that the latter offers no explanation of the relation between psychosis and neurosis It asserts, not a mere concomitance, the nature of which is unexplam- ed, but a causual interaction between Mind aud Matter rendered possibly by their common ground Mind is enabled to see matter because both are forms of Supreme power (Maha Sakti) which is an attribute of the Supreme Consciousness

HINDU CONCEPTION OF THE MIND AND MATTER 349

UNITY BEHIND MIND AND MATTER Turning then to Monistic Western theories these hold that Mind and Matter are parallel manifestations of one underlying substance They are not two substances in iteraction, but this iteraction is the outer form of the inner ideal untty of consciousness, Each particle of matter has a mental aspect 'It is the same thing were sard in two Janguages Western science thus vaguely feels that there ought to be a untty behind mind and mattar, does not yet know where that unity has to be found, and so uses metaphors and language which from the Vedantic standpoit, appear vapue

From this standpoint we must first clearly distingutsh between worldly experience and Yoga experience, for which we have no warrant short of experience of this stage According to the former there is in fact dualty We cannot escape that From this dualistic standpoint there must be an interaction because if we assume two things we must assume an interaction between them Yoga experience transcendes this duality, as Pure Consciousness Consciousness is the ground of Knowledge and Known PURE CHIT CHANGELESS AND FORMLESS But here agam we must distingush Pure Consctousness (Cht) as such is neither efficient (Nimitta)nor material (Upadana) cause but Cosciousness Power (Chit Sakti)-both The former as pure Chit or Indian Consciousness is the changeless and processless background of all changes and processes Though not itself changing it contams the ground and possibibty of all change This alogical (Adhistana) position is expressed in Shakta doctrine by saying that in one aspect it remains what it is yet in another, It is changing to become the world Tluis is the Power of Sakti or Vimarsha aspect The first is the Being, the second the Becoming aspect Therefore in world experience, Indian Consciousness is the unchanging Principle of all changing experence Tnrough its power it appears as Mind and Matter It is against tis statie back groond that all changes occur Actrvity is ra Mind and Matter, now veiling now revealing unchanging Chit by their material processes as Psychosis or Neurosis It is simpler to say that Consciousness is the static aspect of Power (Chit Sakt) the kmnetic aspect of which (Mayashakti) produces Mind and Matter both in differing degrees being veilings by Unconsciousness of Consciousness THEORY OF PAN-PSYCHISM According to Pan Psychism ail matter has a rudimentary life, and mind ind matter has thus a psychieal aspeet This is so But in what sense ? In so far as anything or process is or can be an object of consciousness (jneya) it is Jada or non conscious The term has a psychological basis objectne or subjective Thus an object of consciousness may be either What Western science calls matter or quast-

352 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

a mystery Mind (Antahkarana) is through the sense organs (Indriyas) affected by the objects which it selects (as Manas) refers to atself the personal experience so enjoyed (as Ahankara) and then determines (as Buddhi) The one Mind does all this but is variously named according to its various functions as separate principle or Tattvas In actual experience or functioning of the Tattvas in the fully evolved world, the knowing process commences with the last evolved subjective principle or the senses The object of know ledge first knocks at this gate to be mtroduced withtn and to become subject to the inner operattng principles the last, of which to so operate is the determmtng faculty or Buddht THE REVERSE ORDER IN EVOLUTION But m the cosmic evolution of the Principles or Tattvas them- selves, the order is reversed and the last to function in the evolved world becomes the first to appear according to either a temporal of logical prius A logical analysis or experience establishes this The general basis of experience, to which in the functioning of the mdr vidual mind reference is made last must necessarily m the cosmc evolution appear first It is also clear that the evolving principles have also a more abstract sigmficance Thus the I making or indt viduabsing and centre making Principle (Ahankara Tattva) in indt vidual experience is that aspect of the mind which refers its onerations to that particular idividual Whereas in the cosmic sense it is the tendency to individualsation which manifests later as the individual Centre MIND IS BHAUTIKA (MATERIAL) The Mind (as Antalkarana or the Yoga darshana Chitta) Is neither all pervasive nor atomic and partless It is not therefore eternal has a beginmng and has a limited extension, that 1s, it is a thing of finite dimensions It is radiant, transparent, lght (Tejasa) like the solar rays light and mobile It is a kind of Radiant Matter In Vedanta Mind is called 'Bhautika' becruse it is a mode of the un mixed Bhutas (Sukshma Bhutas) from varying aspects of whtch are derived accolding to the Maya Vedanta both matter and Mind Therefore thes, two are essentialty simifar Mind (Antahktrana) is not rigid, that is, having the same configuration always, but elastic (Samkocha Vikasa Sila) It actually goes out like a ray (though not in act of knowledge altogether leaving the body) to the object of perception, envelops it, but the Vedanta holds not that mind is deriv ed from matter in the physical sense but that they (mind and matter) are fundamentally and essentially one, that is, Pure Consciousness (Chit) stressing or energising one way or the other They are different modes of the One Power (Sakti) as Substance Energy KNOWER, KNOWN AND KNOWING Mind then exists and moves in space This is a statement which has an important bearing on Yoga, and occultism, such as

354 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

the veil which enables man to manfest consciousness in varying degrees until by Yoga and elimination of mind, passage is made into Mindless Consciousness

RADIANT MIND GOES OUT TO THE OBJECT

The following well known passage from Vedanta-panbhasha gives an account of perception 'As water from s tank may flow through a channel into a plot of land and assume its shape (square, triangular or any other form, so the radiant mind (Tayjasa Anta- karna) goes out through the eye or any other sense organ to the place where an object is and becomes transformed into the shape of that object This modification of the Antahkarana stuff is called Vritti Such going out is subject to certain conditions The object must be Yogya, that is, must satisfy certain conditions inorder that it may at afl draw out the Antahkarana to itself

On this and in this connection Professor P N Mukhyopadhyaya observes "Western psychology gives us a one stded view of Percep tion , an external stimulus acting upon a sense organ ep, an ether- wave acting on the retina) The more vital side of the picture is however given by the above account quoted , the mind gocs out as a radiant energy and takes the shape of the object

In the Vedanta view the stress is latd on this side of the affarr, though the object's part is also recognised in the stipulation of Yogyataa (For the rund does not go out everywhere and always but only when certam conditions are fulfilled, among which we may suppose the trepping on the nerves by objective stimulation, the action on the body to be one, the mind s Samskara or predisposttion or interest in a given perception to be another, and there may be other subtler conditions) Thus the Vedanta view would appear to be a fuller view of the matter than the commonly accepted psychology of perception in the West The Jump' from the neurosis to the psychosis is a pretty long jump and an inexpltcable one in Western psychology The affair is explamed only up to the stimulation of the Annamayıkosha (the peripheral organs and the brai) but there is no suspicion of the really important Antahkarang and the Prana (vtal prmaple) on the Tamasika (Verling) crust of the object Really object-object the mteraction-Consciousness differently encrusted or veiled The Antahkarana is believed to be a stuff that being Sattvika (Consciousness revealing) and Tayjasa (radiant) can go out and invade the Tamasika (vetlng) crust of consciousness in the form of object Vishaya-Chaitanya), envelop and infuse tt by its own luminosity (some- what like the X rays which are themselves ordinarily mvisible but make opaque things transparent) and thereby discover the essential identity between itself and the object , it is the finding out of this essential identity between Consciousness as Knower (Pramatri chaitanya) and Consciousness as the Known (Vishaya Chaitanya) and that between Consciousness as knowing (Pramana chaitanya) and consciousness as

HINDU CONCEPTION OF MIND AND MATTER 355

object (Vishya chattanya) which makes the substance of perception according to Vedanta In terms of Shakta doctrine, Matri Manam and Meya or Knower, Knowing and Known are the gist (Samkalitartha) of the term Shaktr It is these three which are referred to the triplication of the Supreme Poit or Bindu in which Consciousness commen es to contract and thus subjectify itself as the Knower of Objects In perception there is a feeling of directness or immediateness. This feeling of directness is and can be the import of Chit or Con sciousness or Brahman only Thus in any direct apprehension of objects we are really face to face with Consciousness or Brahman Itself All differences (Bheda) are so many barriers set up by the magic of the vedl which is Shaku as Maayaa, m each act of per cepuion a barrier is momentarly removed so that the underlying and essential umty is recognised As Professor PN Mukhyopadhyaya well says Perception is thus an ict of owmng the s lf owmng another which it has disowned in practice (vyavahara) As however he is careful to point out, this act of owning or identifying in common perception is rather a confused sort of recognition not possessing the clear import of such ownings as Tat tvam ass' (That thouh art) Aham Brahama (I am Brahman) So ham (He I am) or as the Shaktas also say Saham (She I am) It is a kind of unconscious owning in actuat fact phulosophuically recognised by reflection, but actually reahsed by the supreme experience of identity to which these sayings refer THE REVEALING POWER OF ANTAHKARANA The revealing power of the Antahkarann has its degrees The Antahkarana of an ordinary man can reveal matters whether things or processes onty within certam narrow ltmtts, but by Sadhana (Proce s by whick the result destred (Siddhi) is attained) these limits can be more and more widened and this process is called Sattva Suddlu Thus Yogyata or competency is relative to the state of purification of Antahkarana The ordmary experiencer does not cognise directly (thoueh he can roughly infer) the Samaskara or tendencies lard mn the Antahkarana but it is claimed that a Yogin can, and when he does he remembers his past and future cycles of birth In clairvoyance and Yoga these subliminal sensations may be known

MIND IS NOT MATERIAL IN THE GROSS SENSE Mind however is not material in the gross sense that Matter is but in a finer and quast material sense All is in this sense materal which is not Spirit (Atma) Spirit does not interact Mind and Matter which are forms of its Power do so It is b cause they are

Matter at base the one and same Consciousness Power that Mind can know

YOGIC EXPERIENCE The transcendental Self is realised in the ecstasy of Yoga

356 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

(Samadhı) when the self 'stands away from' its limited vehtcles of Mind and Body This is the Experience-Whole of infimtely rich content All other experiences of the Supreme I is 'I am this untverse" The limited 'l' identifies himself with a particular mind and body in it To the Yogt, the whole world is his body and therefore there is nothing outside hm as in the case of those who experience through mind and body This knowledge is bondige They who surpass and are freed of it are mindless But man must first use his mind It is said 'by thnking of that which is nameless the stage is reached which is called Shakta' that is the inner state of which Matter and Mind are the outward expresston The Vedanta does not teach any inturtionalism whtch discards intellect On the contrary the Upanishad says (Br-Up -. , w 5) 'the self must be seen, heard, thought upon and deeply pondered Atmi va are drashtavyah, shrotvayo, mantavyo, nidıdhyasıtavyah' It is not by discarding any part of the limited self that the Full Self is known, but by the development of the hmned self mn every part and as whole tto Whole Conclusion The fundamental peculiarity of the Advaita Vedanta, and therefore of its Shakta form, is thedistinctron which it draws between Mind and consciousness in the sense of Chtt , Chtt s the mfinte Whole (Purna) in which all that is finite whether as Mind or Matter is

UNCONSCIOUS AND CONSCIOUS MIND Q. 196. Unconscious and conscious Mind are but two asperts of the Same Entity, 'the Psyche' Discuss Ans It is now commonly held that there is both Unconscious and Conscious Mind The first is described by Freud as consisting of all the real of the Ego which is unknown and cannot be spontaneously recalled by the subject and which is made manifest, and then in often a disguised form only, in special psychic conditions such as dreams and trances and can be evoked only by special methods it is now recognised that a large part of our psychic life remains and operates in the Unconscious so that we are perforce unawere of it Conscious Mind consists of that part of our psychic life of which we are aware Unconscious and Conscious Mind are but two aspects of the Entity, the psyche The Vedanta and Samkhya say that Mind, as such, is always an unconscious force opcration It derives its appearance of being conscious because of its association with the Conscious Principle or Chit It finalizes Chit for the individuat consciousness What is called in the West 'unconscious mind' is that state in which Mind ever associated with Consciousness, is yet not m the field of awareness owing to the density of the veiling princrple of Tamas In this reaim of the Western Unconscious Mind are all the Samsakaras or tendencies acquired in the course of the life history

CHAPTER XVII EVOLUTION THEORY KRAMA VIKAASA (Krama Vikaasa (Gradual Evolution)-Matter and Energy- Life Mind-Purusha-Para Prakriti-Vibrating string-Apara Pra kritt Creation and Life-Structure of Atom Sapta Vyahrıtı Jivatm- Aatma ) Q 197 Has the modern science been able to establish that 'ultimate reality is as eternal as eternity ? Illustrate your answer Ans The question is whether the ultimate reality is as eternal as the eternity Modern science has not been able to answer this question It has dealt with the material world But there are other things in this world than matter There are existence of life and mind in this creation , science has not said anything about them In order to find out the reality we have to consider matter, energy, life and mind all together f matter UNIVERSE < energy lıfe ( mind MATTER AND ENERGY Our ancient Rishis classified the material aspect of the universe snto Panchabhuta, they are-earth, water, air, energy and space Modern science classified them into 92 elements and energy (Heat light, electricity) At present science lias discovered the unity mn multiplicrty and tt is said that minute particles of electricity-electron and proton-are the real substance m all the creation It has not said anything about space and time Bohr, an eminent scientist, has suggested that "the minutest phenomena of nature do not admit of representation within the space-time framework at all " Thereforc in search of reality we have got to go beyond matter, energy, space and time or in one word, we have to go further than Jadaprakriti and take into consideration the Chetanapraknti, life and mind LIFE Life is the tendency of unfoldment of a being encircled by - circumstances which prevent the expression of the real self Life expresses itself in the material body through actions and sensations which manifests through the motor and sensory organs of the body called Indriyas The five karmendriyas, Vak, Pant, Pada, Payu and

.358 .

EVOLUTION THEORY 359

Upastha or the motor organs of speech, locomotion, (hands and legs) excretion (liquid and solid) The five Gnanedriyas are Chakshuh, Karn Nasika, Jivhya and Tvacha or the Sensory organs, eye, ear, nose tongue and skin respectively Through these instruments the sense organs, life transforms the external material stimulus into 5 Tan matras They are Sabda, Sparsa Rupa, Rasa and Gandha that is, the sensations of sound, touch image, taste and smell respectively Mind receives these Tanmatras and realises the external world as inter- preted by them In brief life is the motive force that transforms the material energy into mental energy or the materil wave into mental wavc which is received by the mind In other words life is the process of unfolding matter to mind MIND Mind is the spirit belund the Indriyas It is the master of the whole body The material impulses come through the Indriyas to mind, then only it ean realise the external world Without mind the organs are nothing A man cannot see the objects passing in front of his eyes if he is mattentive that is if his mind is somewhere else or engrossed in any other thought In other words eye cannot see if the mind is not there to receive the Tanmatra in order to complete the act of seeing, four things ire necessary the object, light, eye and mind A table is given below to illustrate the relation between matter, Indriya Tanmatra and mind

Matter Motor Organ Sensory Sensation Mind

Panchabhuta Karmendriya Gnanendriya Tanmatra Mana

Byom Panı Twacha Sparsa Mana

Space Hand Skin Touch Mind

Teja Pada Chakshu Rupa Mana

Energy Leg Eye Image Mind

Vayu Vak Karna Shabda Mana

Gasses Speech Ear Sound Mind

Apa Upastha Jıvhya Rasa Mana

Liquid Urinary Tongue Taste Mird

Kshitt Payu Nasıka Gandha Mana

Solıd Excretory Nose Smell Mind The following illustration will make it more clear A ray of light from the setting sun after travelling through the ether for eight minutes may fall on our eye and cause a disturbince on the ratina which travels along the optic nerve to the bram Here it is perceived as a sensation by the mind Tlts sets our thought into action and results in let us say, a poetic thought about sunset There is a con- tinuous chain between A BCD and t, v z connecting A-Poetic thought B-Thinkine mind C-Bramn G-Optic nerve and so on to z the atomic disturbinces in the sun

360 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Thought "A" results from the distant disturbances in the sun-z, just as the ringing of a bell results from pulling of a distant bell rope We can easily understand how pulling of a material rope, can cause a material bell to ring because there is a materil connection all the way But it is far less easy to understand how a disturbance in the material atom can cause a poetic thought to orginate The two are so entirely dissinilar in nature the essence of matter being extension in space and that of mind being thought

To be more clear let us take another illustration, a Radio A man sings in front of a microphone at Calcutta and we hear the sound through a radio recerving set at Delhi This much is easy to understand but what are the different links through which the sound passes ? Sound caused by the vibration of the vocal chord of a man produces vibration in the instruments (microphone) That vibration causes the electric current passing through the instrument to vibrate or the instrument causes makes and breaks in the current The disturbance in the current produces the same kind of disturbance in the electric field created by the high power current of the transmitting station The disturbance in the electric field reaches the receiving radio set which is tuned to receive those disturbinces The minute current received by the radio, ts amplified by the local current passing through the radio This amplified current produres the same dis- turbance in the loudspenker The loudspeaker reproduces the same vibration as produced by the microphone and it produces the sume sound as the song sung at Calcutta In brief, sound waves are trans- formed into electric waves, by the instrument, and electrie waves are again transformed into sound waves by anothar instrument The bell and rope were material and substantial enough to be observed by our senses and therefore easy to understand The interactions between sound wave, instrument and electric waves are not so substantial, therefore it is difficult to understand if one has got no knowledge of the nature of electricity Once the nature of electricity is known it becomes all clear, so this connection between Calcutta to Delhi Is all materml or one can say, they are all elecrical Causes must be of the sime nature as effucts, otherwise there cannot be any inter- actions

Similarly, if B, in our chain produces A, then B must be of the same nature as A, and C as B, thus z also must be of the nature as

ledge are our own thought and sensatton, A, B, (mental) We know A The only links of our chain, of which we have any dtrect know-

the existence of the remote links x, y, z only by inferences from the effect they transmit to our minds through our senses , we do not know what the distant objects really are but we only receive them in our mind as sensations produced by Indriyas So the impressions of the whole creation as receied by our mind are all mental Therefore the whole creation as concered by us is a crention of thought A critic may say it is true that mind receies x, y and z as mental waves but that do's not explun their true nature Scsence has

EVOLUTION THEORY 361

treated energy, the fundamental entity of the universe as a mathe- matical abstraction The ether or spice in which all events take phce has become as abstrict and as mithematical 15 parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude are nothing but a process of thinking Those mathemitical formulas We have seen that minutest phenomena of nature and the eustence of these minutest particles cinnot be proved by our sensual perceptions but only by 1 process of thinking The minute particles of nature are onlv a creation of mind Therefore the whole universe is a creation of mind If not our individual mind, it must be the Divine Mind S not only created by thought but consists of thoughts So the universe 1s

To a scientist, gold ts only a combination of particular number of electrons and proton, arransed in a partcular method But to a brautiful fady, it is only a shining metil used for the purpose of ornaments , she can never think (if not a scientist) of gold as a mass of partcles of Ln-rgy Similarlv tht> univers w nch subsists in mind and consists of mind can onlv b' comprehended by a seer a min who possesses the true knowledge of this erention who has died deep in quest of truth We can now say that matter and mind are essentrilly of the same nature

362 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Q 198 What is the nature of the mind of Purusha ? Is it finite or infinite ? Discuss how this mind is transformed into the matter Ans We have been talking so long about mind and tried to to prove that mind is the ultimate reality But whom the mnd be longs to ? Who is the tlunker ? The Eternal Being whtch is also named Purusha He is the cause of all causes Whatever exists whatever we see in the creation consists of this Eternal Substance (our mundane vocabulary compells us to use this term) Purusha of Brahma Sarwam Khalvidam Brahma is Brahma All things in the creation

We shall try to explain these wtth the help of two slokas of Shreemat Bhagwat Gita and show how sctentifically Gita has classt fied the different stages of the evolution of the ultimate Being or the first cause from almost a negative stige to a posttive creation Gita Chapter VII Stokas 4 and 5 Bhumrapo anala uayu kham mano buddhı reva cha Ahamkaram itıyam me bhinna Prakritrashtadha Apareyam itastwayam prakrıtt viddhı me param Jıvabhutam mahabaho yayedam aharyate jagat Earth water fire air space mang buddht and Ahankara are my prakriti or eightfold nature There is one other than these wh ch is my supereme nature or paraprakritt It p-rmeates the whole crention and holds it together A table is given below to make the sloka more clear and to show how the Eternal Being crystathsed into shane froml Suksham to Sthula PURUSHA SAT CHIT (Paraprakrıtı (Ahankara PRAKRITI ( ( (Chetana (Buddh Aannda

(Aparaprakrıtı (Mana ( (Vyom (Teja (Jara (Maruta Rupam (Aapa (Ashitt PURUSHA A question is generally asked What is Purusha ? It is v fy dificult to define one which is infintte and therefore indefinite None has yet given a direct deseraption Even Vedavyasa deseribed Him indtrectly and said Janmadyasya yatah that from which every object has

CVOLUTION THEORY 363

oniginated It never says what He is but how He acts just is science has failed to describe an atom, So we shall only mention how the idea of Godhood has developed mn human mind and how men have qualified Him differently according to their different conceptions and try to show how these coicide with the above sloka of Gitt The different conceptions about God have gren nse to so many different schools of philosophy and so many religions in tlus world Some have nmed lum Brahma, others call Him Iswara, God, Ram, Rahim, and many more names Some siy He is formless and unqualified, others says he has forms, he possesses all the qualities Some say He is the creavor, others say no, He is not, and consequently there is no creation Some say He is outside ereation, others say He pervades the whole of it Some sy He onty exists, others say He exists not Some say He is everything, others say He is nothing The only conclusion one can draw from all these diverse statements is that human mind has thought about Him in all possible ways from Asti (Positive) to Nastt (negative) Even while denying His exstence they are talking about Him All three sayings are true, only, they vary according to the stages of the development of mind It ts true He is everything It is also true that he is nothing and from that nothing everything has come out In the search of the cause of creation, we have to follow the cham of cause and effert, according to the faw of causation But we do not know all the causes of all the effects Science has followed the links of this chai to a certain extent and then failed We can only say that there is a cause which is the cause of all causes, where we must stop further questioning or the point will never be reached No one can drspute the first cause or eternal cause Let us call him Purusha or the cause of all causes Every one is in search of this ultimate Being, but the findings are very different So without going into detail, we shall try to explam, in brief, the main human conception of the Indefinite Beine

1 BRAHMA - Formless, quahtyless, actionfess, unchangeable, unthmkable, without beginning and without end 2 ISHVARA .- Formless but afl quafified, all powerful, all love and creator of this umverse 3 ISHVARA - Possessing form, power, love, justice and creator. 4 DEVATA - Possessing forms as found in nature, Images of wood, metal, stone and carth S AVATAARA - Human forms as Ram Knshna, Buddha, Jesus Christ and others worshipped as God or as messenger of God, son of God etc.

364 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

The conception of Brahma is a negative conception He is un- changeable (Akshara) He is formless He is mirguna or possesses no quality, therefore He cannot be a creator, as creation requires power and mtelhgence This school of thought is called absolute monism or advaitavada All that we see as creation is maya or illa sion, nothing exists but Brahma PARAAPRAKRITI This is the intermediate stage between Purushn and Aparaprak- ritı In this stage, Purusha develops Guna' and becomes qualified This qualified Being ts called Ishvara There are two concepttons of Ishvara , in one He is formless and in the other He possesses form In this stage of Paraprakriti He is formless but qualified He i Chitsvarupa, all conscious In thts stage, He has expressed the three gunas Sattva, Raja and Tama This school of philosophy is called qualified Monism or Visishtha Advattavada A question has always been asked how the nirguna (unqualtfied) became Saguna (qualified) or whence the attributes came When He is the all existing Being whatever came out was withm Him When he did not mamfest the Guna He was nirguna, when he drd it He was Saguna Why did He do so ? We cannot answer, we can only conjecture, He only can give a true answer But we see that He has expressed Humnself in His creation and that is His nature or wish In the Gita chipter 4 sloka 6 He has said, "I am the unchangeable one 1 was never born and I am the Lord of this universe, still I manifest myself in many forms under the Maya (disguise) of my own nature " That there is creation no one can doubt Even if it is illusion, is some say, the illusion extsts If we deny this then our philosophy, cience, rebgion and everything become false So we can only say hat he is both Nirguna and Saguna or in the terms of Upanishad He s nirgunoguni He is one, He is many He is quantum and He is ontinum He is minutest of the minute and greatest of the great Anorantan mahatomahtyan) When he is minute He is finite , when e is infimte He is formless and mrguna He t> unchangeable- nthout changing His essence He takes different forms, just as jat, up, dish and glass made of earth , one io substance but different in orms When he has manifested His power He is Ishwara and the tanges are His habtt or nature and the process of change is called rolution When one sees Purusha, and Prakriti as different entities, te question anses how Nirguna became Saguna ? But they are not fferent , just as fire and heat can never be separated, so, Prakritt n never be separated from Purusha We cannot separate a man om lus nature but we can know the nature of the man from lus The Gunas of Purusha are manifested m lus actions and it is his nature So nature or Prakritt is not a being but a be tions

ming and changes are its deep rooted habit When He is infimte, He is : "Ekamevt advitiyam" or one only exists and no second The igno ice or short-sightedness of human beings see him divided and then

EVOLUTION THEORY 365

only he appears to be finite or many. This finite view of the infinite or rdea of one disided into many is Maya or relatrity. It has been said that Brahma willed "Ekoham bahusyamo" one I shall appear as many. Will consists of two ideas, one is thought and the other is object of thought. Thought is one and the objects are many. He is the thinker and he is the object as he is the only one evisting He is the nomena and he is the phenomena. When a ray of white light passes through a prism it is refracted into rays of seven colours (V. I. B. G. Y. O. R.) but when the prism is removed, it becomes white again. Similarly when we look through the prism of the "Trigunati- mike" Maya, we see Him many, when that maya is removed He is seen one again. When he thought of himself as one, he has no qualty (Nuguna stage), but as soon as He thought Himself to be many, the comparison (relativity or maya) started and the Gunas revealed. How the three gunas were expressed will be clear by the following illustrations .

A man is standing alone on a pla'n ground devoid of any other object. In this stage he has no quality, in the sense, that no one can say whether the man is tall or dwarf, rich or poor, happy or unhappy. So, he may be called Nirguna. But as scon as a second person stands by this side, he either becomes tall or dwarf, rch or poor etc. It is interesting to note that a man is tall if a dwarf person stands by his side and dwart if a tall person stands by his side. Similarly he is rich if a poor person stands by his side and poor if the person is nch. Then what is the man in realty ? The man's plenty or poverty, happiness or misery coes not depend on his own self but on some other person by his side. So, we find that there is neither happiness nor misery in this world : there is only the companson of one state with another and nothing more. It has been said, he who has felt the deepest grief, is best able to experience supreme happiness So the man develops two qualities by comparison. The former nirguna stage becomes another quality in comparison with the fatter one. So a man develops three qualities by comparison with another. Let us follow another illustration. The wire in a string instru- ment is very fine and it is in a stationary position. Vibration is started and it begins to move. By the movement we see another shape and hear the sound. The shape appears to be thicker and translucent as compared with the real wire. The space through which the string moves is the breath of shape and the string is never steady at any one point though the figure appears to be stationary. The string is very fine and the figure is many times broader than the string, so we can say that the figute has substance in it. The shape we see is not wholly substantial but only an appearance caused by the movement of the real substance, the string And the sound we hear is also caused by the movement, the three phases of the string which set the air to vibrate in the same way. Therefore, all the phenomena we see are not the real substance at all but they are due to the thrce phases of movement of the real substance, whatever the substance may be.

366 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

The three phases may be classified as the threc Gunas The followin figure will make it clear ... Vibrating String E-Equilibrium == Sattva P-Positive = Raja N-Negative -Tama When Purusha set His thoucht wave into action or when mind started vibratton the three gunas developed The positive phase is the Rajoguna of action, the negative phase is the Tamoguna of inaction and the Sattvaguna is the unqualified or equilibrium state it is neither a state of action nor of inaction When mirguna Purusha expressed His gunas, the form and quality appeared and so the name is changed He became Ishwara This all powerful Ishwara is the cause of the creation Science has also proved that matter consists of vibration of minute particles of electricity, which are waves in the Ether These waves if unobstructed will move on to infintty, but when obstructed or bottled up (as it is called) in a timited space, they become a form of matter The divine thought wave not only developed the gunas but the idea of time and space also tha* of divided or limited time and space Our conceptions of time and space are Our idea of time is related to the rising and setting of the sun `If there be no sun or any other object to compare with there will be no time for us So the time and space undivided are Eternals but when seen as divided, they give the rdea of creation The cause of creation as given mn some of the Puranas is the * Tandava Nritya of Mahakala ' and space are fused into one In Mahakala or Eternity, the time dince, He crented them When Mahakala began His eternal Science too has got a glimpse of this idea Minkowski while establishing the theory of relativity, has said Time and space separately have vanished into merest shadows and only a sort of combination of the iwo preserves any reality " In this stage, the three Gunas and the idea of time and space developed Purusha has become Ishwara In the next stage the thought vibrition became more condensed and is called Aparaprakriti APARAPRAKRITI The supra mental thought wave of Purusha increased into many then the many became separate and each one of them thought itself as separate individual This idea of separateness or the idea of a part as separate entity from the whole, is the beginning of creation or Prakriti The idea of one and many or the idea of creator and creation as quite separate and essentially different entities is sponsored by a school of philosophy ealled Dvaitavada

EVOLUTION THEORY 367

Q 199 Write short illustrative notes on how the idea of space and time is related to creation-(a) Four dimension- al, (b) Sapta Vyahritis Ans (a) In the foltowing table, we shall try to explain how the idea of time and spaces is related to that of creation The tllustra- tion of "Tandava Nritya of Mahaakanla" will explain it very nicely MAHAAKAALA (Time and space fused into one DANCE

Rytlimic Movement

Time Divided Space Divided

One dimensional Three dimensional

Creation (4 dimensional) Mahaakaala is Eternal where time and space are fused into one Out of his unbounded joy He started his dance of infinite love Dance is thythmie movement Rhythm is time drvided ind move- ment of steps divide the space We speak of length, breadth and thickness, but can we separate any position of space like that ? Can we nctually divide space ? We put two substinces apart and measure the distances between them and say that we have separated their length of space The road is net divided by the mile stones , it runs alone But we say I have walked five miles ind my road is at an end' Similarl, time is also indivisible but when an event takes place we say, it took plice after some other events and divide time into past and present so time is not divided at all but we divide it by comparison of one event with the other It is nothing but relative comparison We cannot describe an event with- out the help of time so creation is four dimerstonal one dimension of time and three dimensions of space unted torether (b) Some say that creation started from his will He said, * Let there be light and there was light " Here the will or thoueht wave is the starting point of creation Wive leneth gives us the idea of space divided and vibration the tdea of time dided Vibration means frequency of movement per unit of time just as thought binds th- different objects of thoucht toecther. so, time fieures as mortar that binds the bricks of space together These bricks of space umted

368 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

together in different numbers and with different arrangements take different forms which give us the idea of creation

We have pointed out that three Gunas developed from the three phases of mental vibration Out of these three gunas the Sapta Vyahntis were formed By permutation and combination of thrte things we get seven Let us take three things and call them A, B, C The seven combinations that we get are a, b, c, ab, ac, be, abc The seven combrnations of Gunas are called "Sapta Vyahritis or the seven layers of the Vignanamaya sarra of the Divine, they are Bhuh, Bhuvah Svah, Mahah, Janah, Tapah and Satyam We find the

Nature seven layers of covering in all and every portion of Prakriti or

LVOLUTION THEORY 369

The grover mind-mans is self-centred It develops and brondens itself from self to socicty, communits, country, humanity and God The stites of development are also seven The stages of devefopment - (1) Turra-No vibration -- Nirvik ilpa. (2) Union-Not I but father -- Ahank ira (3) Bhakt-For God-Chitta (4) Dedicated-Tor others-Buddhi. (5) Communal-For community (6) Cwvilised-For self (7) Uncivtlised-For self Mina.

In the stage of Mana, the mind becomes very limrted ind be- comes attiched to the objects, mind does not come in direct contact with the objects but certain vibrations come from the objects through the sense orgins, wluch are received as sensations The vibrations ate the Sukshma forms of those objects So the mind recerves those finer vibrations which give us the idea of those objects. Let us go back to the Eternal mind It has got to pass through stmifir stages before et can take the shape of matter or crention The mentat vibrations increase and thereby the density increises When it becomes dense cnough to feel sensations it tales the form of Tanmatra In other words, the mind is condensed into Sensory vibritions and then the mind begins to feel The tanmatras or the sencations are sound, touch, image, taste and smell The ubrattons tnerease still more, when thry differentite into sensitions of spacc. cherpy. gas, liquid and sohdTly Tanmatra develops the conception of matter, when it is catled Sulshma Mahabhuta The Sukshma Mahabhuta futther condenses to Sthula Panchabhutz (Vyom, tej1 miruti, apa, Ashuttt) In the end, the panchabutas ire combined in diTerent proportions and tale different forms which are called crea+ tion The process by which the Sulshma mahabhutas continue 1n duff-rent proportions to form into panchabhutas is called panchi- karan It has been sard that the Sukshma mababhutis in proportion of Vyon 4 8, Teja 1/8 and Maruta 1/8, Apa, 1/8, Kstnt l/s, comb ne to form Sthula Vyom Sulhshma Mahabhutas Teja 4/8. Vyom 1/8, Maruta 1/S Apa 1/8, Ashitr 1 8, combene to form into into Sthula Tejs and so on So we find Panchabhutas possess the five layers of of Mahabhuta These are five hyers of the Sapta Vyatinh The layers are the five stages of mertal cenccpuons of ranchabhuta The ether two of the Sapta \yahrit are also there They ure called Ahanlar and mahatatta They are the mental and super-mental stares respreteh So the pnchabhuta have the Sapt Wstritr surroending then The super mental th waht rudteus mahattata w at the cen'te

370 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

becomes bottled up, as it were, in a fimte area by the mahabhutas which may be calied bricks of space. The bricks arrange themselves into particular form and are called energy. This energy takes the: shape of electron. So we see that Vyom condenses to Teja. This minute particle of energy is beyond sensory conception. The energy again condenses to atoms of matter called elements. The elements that came first are gaseous, then liquid and last to appears is the solid. These clements again combine in different proportions wben they are perceived as ereation. So we find Teja (quanta) has con- densed to matter (gascous, liquid and solid). It is very easy to say that Divine will or Paraprakriti condenses to Ahankara ; Ahankara to Mana ; Mana to Tanmatra ; Tanmatra to space, space to Energy ; Energy to Matter and Matter to creation, But it is very diflicult to realise that mind has been transformed into matter. The critics may question here that sensations are only possible when there are sense organs but without them how can there be sensa- tions at all ? lt can be proved that sensations are possible without the help of Sthula "Indnyas" or sense organs. We have so long been discussing about the transformation of Divine Will, which is all power- ful and transcends all our reasonings. But, it can be proved that all these are possible even wth our ordinary mind, what to say of Divine mind. When the sense organs come in contact with the material objects directly we feel the sensations, we can see them, touch them. But, there is another kind of sensation which we feel without the help of sense organs or Sthula Indriyas. Every one of us has ex- perence of dreams, one sees landscapes, men, women, anmals and other objects when the eyes are closed, one touches, talks, feels, pleasure and pain just as in waking condition, though there are no material objects before him. That one feels we cannot deny. We can only say that the sensations in dreams are less substantial. Even the substantiality is a purely mental concept, measuring the direct effect of objects on our sense of touch. Mind always receives the mental vibrations. In conscious state, the Sthula Indriyas transform the panchabhautic impulses into mental waves, which the mind receives. In other words, the material vibrations are transferred into mental vibrations In dreams, in the sub-conscious state the same process of transformation takes place, with this difference that the object is mental the Indriyas are mental and the impulses are also mental. It is now clear that there are Sukshma Indriyas, which enable us to feel all the sensations without the help of Sthula Indriyas and without the presence of material objects. Sometimes. it happens that a man hears, in dream as well as in waking condition, the call of some person even when that person is absent or dead. It is not a myth that devotees can hear the sound of Krishna's noopur (ornament worn in feet) even now in Brindavan It is a matter of a little practice of concentration that one can smell the scent of a particular flower and can see a particular image, whenever he likes without the presence of material objects. There are no stimuli coming from outsde, through the Sthula Indriyas to the mind,

CYOLUTION THEORY 371

then wherefrom these sensations come ? The only explanation that can be given is that mind condenses by process of concentration to Tan- matra forms or Sukshma mahabhuta which the mind receives back and feels the sensation just like a short circuit in an electric line. There are other examples of persons like Shree Ramanuja, Shree Ramakrishna Paramhansa and many others who used to talk with their 'Istam' (the God one worships), used to touch them and feel their presence just like a physical body. One, may disbelieve these incidents but our Rishis and Saints said that these are true. They challenged those who do not believe in them, to verify these facts by practice, to be convinced of them not by hearsay, not by simple argu- ments, but by realization. They have given instructions how to practise concentration by fixed gazing with unwavering mind on an image; for some time. Then to close the eyes and try to see the image in all its details, that is, to transform the mana to tanmatra and then by further concentration transform the tanmatra to mahabhuta and from mahabhuta to panchabhuta. The image then takes a three- Dimensional form, This is the precess of materialisation of mind, Divine as well as human.

Science has not yet accepted these facts but it can be said, by following the trend of thoughts of the modern scientists, that they are gradually realsing this truth, that mind s the essential substance whick the matter consists of.

We have traced the process and the different stages of transfor- mation of human mind. The Divine mind too transformed itself in a similar way to creation. Every creation has its beginning in mind. Let us take a most ordinary example of creation by man of a building. When a beautiful piece of architecture is seen, one naturally puts this question "who has made it" ? The answers in majority of cases will be that it was the mason. Is this answer correct? Was there no existence of the building before the mason gave it a three dimensionat shape with the help of bricks, morter etc. ? The budding took the shape, for the first time, in the mind of the architect who planned it. He has seen the whole of the building with all its details in his mind's cye (Sukshma Indriya) Then he sketched it on a piece of paper. If there be any mistake in the drawing he can at once point it out and say that it is not the true representation of the original. If he has not seen the origmnal building, how can he point out the defect ? If the building was not in eustence how could he see it ? Therefore the original cxistence of the building was in the mind of the architect; of course, it is less substantial than a building of bricks and mortar. This is what is called mental form of Existence The butlding took a two dimensional shape, Pratyakasa when it was drawn on a piper. The whole building is there, on the paper, with all its details ; it cn be seen with the naked eye (Sthula Indriyas), it has length and breadth. It is more substantial than the original but less substantral than a habitable buifding. This is a two-dimensional creation. The mason, thereafter constructed the binlding with bricks, mortar and other

372 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

materials and gave it a three dimensional shape, Ghatakasa The building was exactly according to the plan, in other words, it is the material representation of the origmnal mental form in all its details Similarly, the Great Architect planned the whole creation, which at first took a mental form Prakriti gradually worked out the plan in its time and place All the different forms umted by the morter of time and so the creation is four dimensional In our illustration, the architect, mason and materials are all different according to our conception of things, but in the case of the Eternal Being, He is the architect, the mason and the matenal, only He changed His form From One He becomes many In one form He is Purusha, in the next He becomes Prakritt and n the last Panchabhuta It has been said in the Gita (Ch 13 Sloka 19) that * both Purusha and Prakriti are eternal Purusha is nirguna and Prakritı is saguna or possesses quahties condensed Chetana and Jada material These qualities are the With the help of these materjals, Prakritı started the creation of nebulae stars suns planets animals and men according to the plan of Purusha in thetr respective time and place

CREATION AND LIFE

how did life first appearod an this Universe' ? If not, what is Q 201 Has the modern science been able to discover

the possible solution that can be given to explain the existence of life in the Universe ? Ans Energy is present everywhere Jike mind Minute parti- cles of Energy are scattered throughout the infimte space They are the fundamental particles of energy called protons, neutrons, electrons and positrens It has been found that the space between the stars which was believed to be empty, contains minute particles of elements like Calcium, Titamum and probably Hydrogen, Oxygen and Carbon As a matter of fact the amount of such dispersed matter Is estimated to be about ten times the amount of matter condensed in all the stirs in the sky It has been discovered that in some of the nabulae, only Hydrogen atoms are present There are others in which further creation of atoms of other elements is in progress, most of the stars started as balls of Hydrogen which go on gravitating and becoming more condensed The energy contained in those balls is provided by the transformation of Hydrogen into more complex

inner part of the ball gets heated and makes its debut as a red giant atoms Carbon takes a very important part in this process 'The

In course of time, all the 92 elements, (known up to date) are created Science has described the process of creation of stars, suns and planets in detail But, about the cause of existence of life in this universe, it is almost silent Science has only said that life begets life The question is how did life first appear? The stars and suns,

EVOLUTION THEORY 373

we see in the sky, are intensely hot (50 million degrees), far too hot for life to obtain a footing there The empty space beyond is so cold (about 484 degrees of frost in Firhrenheit scale) that all life in it will be frozen Life can only exist inside a narrow temperate zone which surrounds each of these fires at every definite distance One such planet is our earth Every kind of atom necessary for life must have existed on the newborn earth The perpetual dance of atoms caused them to untte in different groups and to arrange themselves in so miny kinds of figures At times, groups of atoms happen to arrange themselves in such ways as are found in living cells Science has discovered the importance of the element carbon, whose exceptional properties of forming molecules consisting of the largest number of atoms is the cause of the existence of life in our universe The question now arises, "Is a living cell merely a group of ordinary atoms arranged in a non ordinary wav or is it something more ? Is it merely atom or atom plus life ? ' The ball of fire in which these atoms developed could contain no tife Then where did'the life come from ? We must acquire further knowledce of the structure of itom before a reasonble answer can be given

STRUCTURE OF ATOM Bohr hs given a model of the structure of an atom with four orbits round a nucleus The nucleus consists of positne energy (proton) and the negative energy (electron) moving, round the nucleus in the orbit When the tlectron pisses from the outer orbit to the inner one that is it moves from orbit number 4 to number 3 or from number 2 to number 1, the electric force which attracts it to the nucleus will do work just as the force of gravity does For example, when water flows from a lugher to a lower level by gravity, it produces some kinetic energy which may be utilised for running a Dynamo or any other similar machne Similarly, the clectric force which attracts the electron to the nucleus does some work A part of this work is used to increase the kinetic energy of the clectron, making its velocity in mner orbit greater than in the outer one, but the rest of the work is transformed into radiation energy which ts emitted from the atom It then conttnues to move round the same orbit, before it moves to the next one When the electron has reached the innermost orbit it cannot get iny nearer the nucleus and herce cannot emit anv more radtation, unless it is impelled to pass from its inner to the outer orbit aeain by absorption of energy sufficient to bring nbout this chanee Once in the outer orbit aeam it is in a state to produce rediation by falling in a second time This process is repeated over and over again and the electron always brings a fresh supply of elec- tric charge with it Where is this unlnmited supply of energy coming from ? If it is from the nucleus how much eneres does the sanlt afeperes for ever ?

374 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

SAPTA VYAHRITI The only possible solution that can be given of the problem of the existence of hfe in our universe and the unlimited power at the nucleus of an atom, is that everything in the creation from an atom to universe has layers of coverings of Sapta Vyahrıtı The atom possesses not only four but seven orbits the seven stages of evolution of Prakriti The stages are solid, ltquid, gaseous, energy, space, Ahankara and Mahatattva The Mahatattva is the un- hmited power that binds the other layers together i each atom, m every mattiner, every life, in the whole of creation This power at the centre of the atom is the cause of the existence of the lfe in this universe and this is the source of untimited energy of the electron Every atom possesses not only the material aspect but also the mentil aspect The supramental aspect at the centre is the source of life or Shakti In one atom this Shakti is less substantial, so it cannot be perceiyed by our senses But, when a large number of atoms combine together to form such a big molecule, the total mental aspect of all the atoms, acting in harmony develops sufficient atoms of Shakti, that can be perceived by our senses as an action or move- ment, then, it is called life Therefore life is not something external but iternal m every atom, it becomes perceptible only when it is magmfied so much, mn a group of atoms Tle seven Vyahrities are the Vignanamaya Sarira of the Eternal Being Therefore every form he tikes must have those coverings This is the only explanation that ean solve all the unsolved problems of nature that confront the men of science In an atom, the mind starts from the inner orbrt to the outer and passes through the stages of space, energy, gas, liquid and solid In the outermost orbit it becomes solidified into electron In the 6th orbit it is in fiquid state This explains why the energy some times behaves is waves (liquid) and sometimes as corpuscles (solid) Science has also discovered that if an atom can be bombarded, an enormous amount of energy can be set free if the mahatattva which is at the centre and whtch cements the different layers of Vyahriti into one complete whole is liberated by breaking loose the outer coverings the binding wills, then, we can rench the mfinite shaktr which is ~ "Jiva Bhutam mahabaho Yayed im dharyats jagat "

This Shakti is the ultimate cause of energy and life m thts This Shakti is all pervading The millions of nebules,, stars and suns exist within n The same Shakn is within the smallest, universe

particle of energy And within the most finite of space, it is as un- umited as infinity. ANORANIYAN MAHATE MAHIYAN He is minutest of the minute and greatest of the great So we

EVOLUTION THEORY 375

see that mhatattva also behaves as fimte ond infinite both just like quantum and continum When it is infinite it is supermind when it is finite and multiplied in a group it is called life In our earth life first app-ared in water in the shape of unr ellular plant The elements Hydrogen Ovygen Carbon and cthers in the presence of sun s rays combined to form such a big molccule that could manifest the signs of life The signs of life are assimtlation movement exeretion respiration irritability, conjugation and automatism When 1 particular group of atoms has got the power of mitiating the vital processs indep ndently of any direct or fmmedtate stimuli from without it is called life It is difficult to realtse how first life app ared 7 Once we realise this it becomes easy to follon its development from umt ellutar to multicellular plants and from small plants to big trees In som" unie llular organtsms the structure b-came more complicated and it develop-d into antmals The first evidence of a living creature is fossil that has bren disrovered 15 Tribolite a kind of tnvertibrate that lived tn water The progress went on from invertibrate to vertibrate from fish to ampht ban reptiles mamals and men Without entering into detail a table is giv-n brlow to show th- s-quence of the er in which they fourished

ERA FOSSILS AVATAARA

Archacan or Azoic Primary or Palaeozwe Cambrın Invertibrates

Silurian D.vomian

Catboniferous Vertibrates Fish Margy7

Perunian Amphıbia Kurma

Secondaty or Mesozoie Trinsstc Reptil-

Jurassıe Cretaccous Tertiarv or Canacozore Tocenc Mimmals Varakt

Olie> ene Miocene . Ph ycene Java man

376 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

ERA FOSSILS AVATAARA Quaternary or Neozoic Pleistocene Man Vamana Present Rama Rama Rama Buddha Future Kalkı

In the above classification the names of Avataras have also been mentioned This fact in the order of evolution requires special attention The process of evolution of life is very gradual, just as the evolution of matter But when one species evolved into the next lugher one the changes are quite abrupt rather than gradual This fact was marked by Mendel and his followers For example, fish developed from invertibrate to vertibrate through an intermedtate stage of fish called amphioxus, which has only notochord and no vertebra. The smaller fish developed into Targer ones After further development the scales began to unite into a few plate-like coverings But how it at once changed to tortoise, with four legs in place of fins and a shield-like covering round the whole body mn place of scales in a mystery This kind of abruptness is marked in every step of evolution ' This fact proves that one Species continued tts deveiop- ment according to some gradual process but at the time of passing on to a next lugher stage, it had recourse to some other factor with a special force in it which caused the abruptness The form in which this specral force mantfests ttself and inspices the tower forms of life to progress to a higher plan of existence and determtnes its mode of future action ts called Avatara, Avatara is the embodiment of the essential principles which give impetus to the life for its future expression If I am allowed, I shall say that carbon is also an Avatara amongst hell elements Without the exceptional power of carbon many things specially life, would not have been possible in this universe In different periods (yugas) Avatars came in human form with certam higher qualites to inspire the human beings of that period to rise to a higler plante After the humant being reaches a certam plane, the development becomes gradual for sometime, but when the time comes for another rise to the next higher plane another Avatara appears

JIVATMA

Man possesses the same orbit of Vyahriti or the coverme of Maya, round the nucleus, which is called Jivatma (soul) It is the Divine power in man kept in bondage by the surrounding layers of Maya or ignorance This Divine power m man can be liberated by removing the outer binding layers that keep the soul in bondage, in the same way as the energy at the nucleus of an atom is released

EVOLUTION THEORY 377

In order to reach the Divine power, the bondages of ignorance must be removed, the frequency of vibrations of the mind should be reduced, the wordly attachments of mind should be cut off the prison walls of ignorance must be removed, before the source of infinite power can be reached, the ultimate reality, Brahma, can be known He who has known Brahma becomes so, Brahmajna Brahmaiva Bhavatı AATMA Such Divine persons amongst human beings are known as Avatara To know Brahma or Atma is the highest realisation of man and this is the highest evolution The starting pomt of evolution was the stage when the Divine mind was divided into many That mind becomes one again back from multiplicity to unity. It starts from unity to multiplicity and comes When the thought vibrations decrease, the fimte mind gradually expands and comes in contact with the Infinite When the vibrations come to one, it is in unty with the eternal mind Such minds are the teachers of mankind When the mind becomes pure, when the smaller self unites with the larger self, the mind attains a very strong will force or a very effec- tive power of suggestion We have seen such powers in Buddha and Jesus, who changed many sinners and cured many ailing persons by mental or spiritual power, this powerful mind is in every man, only it is less substantial One can make it substantial, only if he is willing, by means of practice and Sadhana Man possesses a mind which is all powerful, only, he is ignorant of the faut The day the ignorance is removed, the eternal Self will be revealed and the power will be reached Every physician exerts his will force or uses his power of suggestion in his own way, although he may be quite unconscious of it The greater the will force he possesses the greater will be the force of his suggesstion and the patients will have greater confidence in him The attendance of a tactfully optimistic physician is in itself an inspiration of hope and assurance to the patient By suggestion, we can exercise considerable influence on the Vigour of the inherent defensive force in man and infuse in the sub-conscious mind, tle elan vital or the will to live and that cures the patient The power of Jesus Christ lay in his abilty to evoke in a person so body effective a faith in his cure that, that fmith worked, wonders in his The success of suggestional method of cure depends on the perfect self confidence, on the all pervading belief in the perfection of of one's inner powers without the slightest hesitaton A simple misdeed or wrong action by the person hinders his self confidence Therefore, one should be pure mn heart without the shightest black spot in it and then only he can reach the source of unlimited power

380 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

entities with certum definite properties Space and time admit of divisibility and measurability, which are also properties of matter according to Nvaya science According to this definition of matter Electricity, which is extremely mobile and subtle but can be measured in so many units, is also a Dravya (ie, a matter Manas or muind) which has properties such Iocht and Dvesham (likes and dislikes) Sukham and Dumkham (Happmess and misery) is also regarded as Dravya, so also Antma THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MIND AND MATTER According to Hindu Philosophy, there is no unsurmountable gap between mind and matter because at the root they are one Each particle of matter has a mental aspect A block of stone is perceived by the natural eye as in tert lifeless matter The ordinary sense organs are insufficient to find the rudiments of life or mind in a stone Science can demonstrate irritability to environment in the minute particles of the stone (: e ) itcha and dvesha-desire for certain things and hatred for certain others which is one of the properties of life The Hindu Sciences recognised a gradual evolution of four states of Consciousness, uz, Sushupti (Sleeping State) in minerals, Swapna (Dreaming state) in plants, Jagrata (Waking state) in animals and Turiya (Super conscious state) in a Yogt The evolution of the Untverse is one of spiritual progression on a vast scale

EVOLUTION THEORY Q 203 What is the origin of the Universe according to Indian Philosophy Discuss the 'evolutiou theory according Indian Philosophy Ans The origin of the unverse is traced, according to Hindu Philosophy, to a homogeneous primordial matter, wl ich has neither shape nor consistency This is known as Prakrmt By the influence of Purusha, according to one school of thought, or by its own nature (swabhava), according to another, this Prakrit evolved into the universe by a succession of changes Imagine a sheet of still water into which a small stone is thrown or over which a breeze blows A succession of wives is started By studying each little wave, you will find that there is a tendency in it to move up and then down The rising of the wive is compared to Rajas and the opposite tendency to fall is compared to Tamas and the resultant state of momentary equilibrium between the two forces 'it the top of the wave is comparable to Satva These three fundamental gunas or modes, Satva, Rajas (Action) Tamas (mnertia) are called Trigunas The two opposing forces of action and inaction and result ing modes of stable equilibrium, are the first to show themselves in the changes taking place in Prakriti, the primordial matter The movement such as that of the stone thrown in water is

EVOLUTION THEORY 381

comparable to the movements taking place in Prakriti which results in the production of the waves of Ether. These primary waves are responsible for the production and conduction of the first sound in the universe. These arise first as marticulate sounds and gradually develop into articulate sounds. Thus are evoked the sounds commen- cing from a proceeding to ka and finally ending in ksha. Thus, we get the formula Akshara, an articulate sound which gives. us the capacity to convey our thoughts. Even in the minutest matter, there are, according to this theory, innumerable permutations and combinations of movements, resistance and equilbrium, (Rajas, Tamas and Satva) which give different properties to different atoms. The properties of all perceivable and conceivable things are attributed to these fundamental gunas. This, in short, is the theory of the constitution of matter according to the Samkhya and Nyaya Philosophies. The following table shows the evolution of the universe accord- ing to the Samkya philosophy.

1. Prakriti (unmanifested)+2. Purusha

2. Mahat (Cosmic matter of experience)

3. Ahankara (Self-Sense)

4. Manas 5. Tanmatras 5. Organs of sense (Pre Bhuta stage) 5. Organs of action. Sukshma Bhutas

5. Panchabhutas or Mahabhutas Total-24 Principles according to some, 25 alongwith Purusha, according to others. All substances are recognised by their properties. Derived from the fundamental Trigunas, viz., Rajas, Tama and Satva, there are properties of substances, such as smeft, taste, cofour, touch and sound, more or less pronounced in every substance. There are again pro- perties such as weight, roughness, dryness etc., which are classified into ten groups and which along with their opposities are counted as 20 properties. These are also called gunas in Ayurveda. The Trigunas are not properties, but are the three Fundamental Factors or Ultimate Reals or Entities from which every mental and physical phenomenon is evolved. 1. Guru-Heavy Opp-Laghu-Light 2. Manda-Inactive Tikshna -- Active 3. Hima-Cold Ushna-Hot