1. A Study of The Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Francis Catalina V. MRML

A STUDY OF THE SELF CONCEPT OF

SĀNKHYA YOGA PHILOSOPHY A STUDY OF THE SELF CONCEPT OF

SAŃKHYA YOGA PHILOSOPHY

by DR. FRANCIS V. CATALINA, San Luis Obispo, Califcrnia

with an introduction by DR. FREDERIC SPIEGELBERG Professor of Indian Thought, Stanford University, California.

MUNSHIRAM MANOHARLAL Oriental Publishers and Booksellers Post Box 1165, Nai Sarak, Delhi-6.

First Published April: 1968 C 1967 DR. FRANCR V. CATALTHA Francis Victor Catalina (1924)

This book is dedicated

to

Marie

Set in 10 Point and 8 Point New Times Roman Face

PRINTED AT THE SHAHDARA PRINTING PRESS, THROUOH P. S. THAKUR & CO., NAVIN SHAHDARA, DEEHI AND PUBLISHED BY DEVENDRA JAIN FOR MUNSHIRAM MANOHARLAL, 10-B, NEEAH SUBHASH MARO, DELI-6.

INTRODUCTION

by

DR. FREDERIC SPIEGELBERG Professor of Indian Thought, Stanford University, California and of the C.G. Jung Institute, Zurich, Switzerland

"MAN'S prime interest is man." This first sentence of Catalina's book on Sankhya-Philosophy, when viewed without the quali- fying statements which follow in later chapters and clearly describe its meaning, presents a mighty challenge and one might be inclined to violently disagree with it. True, it appears today on the surface in materialistic society and in the accompanying philosophy of logical positivism, as if man were man's chief and only concern. Who is interested in nature as such and its beauties ? Who but a few monks today dares to show interest in metaphysics ? But this all, surely, is only a surface impression. Man at all times and, subconsciously, also today, is primarily interested, even fascinated, by the great riddle of it all, by the mystery of Being, in all its aspects, in himself, and in all things. Since Brahman is a fact-or, rather, a metafact-man is bound to run headlong into it, in all his search and endeavours, whether it be theological, philosophical, scientific or artistic. Man, as any other being, surely does not live for his own sake, but for Brahman's sake. We and all things, after all, are only the shadow of a great light, which has more power and more Being, than anything else. But since man has been created with the dreadful ability to forget about this truest of all facts, his endeavours appear mostly to be anything but worship. This may not be true sub

viii Introduction

specie aeternitatis, but we live often under this impression. So it takes usually a long time, and much effort to discover the underneath-meaning of our doings. Seemingly we run after limited, minor values, when all at the same time these so-called values take their attraction, their worth, and their apparent PREFACE being only from the Great Source. It is ultimately the Prime Mover who stands behind any of our desires and activities, though invisible to the uninitiate. But if this state of forgetfulness is made a virtue of, as in THE antidote contained in the following quote1 will serve to much of today's Western Philosophy, one dreads to think what demonstrate the fundamental reason for the writer's appreciation will finally be the result of such deliberate repression. If it of the living Indian cultural tradition. is true that history tends to swing like a pendulum from one My Chinese friends, menaced by Communism, took extreme to the other, we might be heading towards an era of refuge in Confucius, quoted classic sayings from the Han unbridled emotionalism, without the redeeming counterweight dynasty, or buried their bothered heads in the Church, of the intellect, since intellectualism in its extreme is about to which consoled them in a medium that was not quite go mad in its self-restriction and total denial of all that is their own, but was at least alive, real, and belonged to behind the forbidden window of man's deeper meaning. the twentieth century. My Indian friends, after discussing In India it has been Lokayata philosophy, which ages ago Communism in China and the East in general, moved on has presented us with a twisted caricature of man's search to the more congenial subject of the latest developments for meaning. Similar self-restricting tendencies may, at first in European philosophy, literature, and art, and their glance, also be found in Sankhya-Philosophy. In obvious relation to current Indian thought. My Chinese friends reaction against Vedäntic exuberance here is the attempt to had arrived at a full stop of utter uncertainty, where design a world-picture, not by starting with the light, but with for my Indian friends there was not even a comma. the shadow of appearances. And the emphasis of this search There are a few other remarks that must be made that are is on psychology or, paraphrasing the first sentence of this book pertinent to a better understanding of the intent and approach by altering the spelling of "man" the second time it occurs into to the study. The basic assumption is that the ultimate goal of "Man" with capital letter : "The prime interest of man is each individual man is to "know thy Self", and that the ways Man." in other words : by looking deeply enough at the very of doing this are necessarily as many as there are individuals. core of his Being, the psychologist too discovers necessarily In the course of describing the Sankhya concept of the the background of his and of all being. cosmological ground of the phenomenal universe, a number of Thus it comes to be that the search for the true Self, rather comparisons have been made between the trinitary nature of than to be an egotistic enterprise, becomes another form of prakrti and contemporary concepts of the nature of matter. metaphysics. This is what makes the research of this book so These comparisors gain in validity as one follows the develop- fascinating. ment of nuclear physics. The different guna aspects of prakrti are more specificaliy comparable to modern concepts as follows: the sattva guna is the cohesive organizing force that gives form to the fundamental quanta of matter, rajas guņa is the dynamic

259 pp. * Austin Coats, Personal and Oriental (New York, Harpers, 1957),

x Preface Preface

and static energy aspect of this primordeal particle, and mass has given so much of his time in reading and re-reading of the or momentum is designated as the tamas guna. The concept of evolution of the phenomenal world of nature that results from manuscript as it was being written as well as hours of discussion

the involution of the purusa is very similar to current cosmo- that my most heartfelt thanks cannot convey my deep appreci-

logical theories on the development of the universe from an ation of his patience and inspiration. There can be no question

undifferentiated plenum to the present localized negative that the responsibility of the validity of the presentation and

entropic states. There are other parallels, but these are suffi- interpretation of the concepts in this study rest solely with

cient, I believe, to demonstrate the pertinence of the Sankhya the author. There is one person that had so much to do with

concept of the matrices of the Self's involvement and evolvement. the going of this study that words fail to indicate the depth

The complimentary concepts of the self that are expressed by of her inspiration and devotion. She displayed more patience

Sankhya and Yoga philosophies are coming more to the fore than Job, more persuasive power than Demosthenes, and gave

in the thinking of more and more contemporary scholars In more encouragement and help than can ever be acknowledged.

some cases because of the inevitable force of contemporary It is to my wife that this book is dedicated as a small gesture

scientific evidence and in many others it is due to their exposure of my affection.

to the philosophies of the Orient. There are more who now feel that the study of non-Western traditions and philosophies to learn from them is more acceptible in academie areas. As a result the concept of the self as expressed in contemporary philosophy is becoming more akin to that of the Orient, and -Francis V. Catalina.

in fact many schools of psychology are now openly attempting to utilize the Yoga concept of the mind in the context of modern man's needs. It is hoped that the effort here will be of some help in furthering the process of integration of the best of the insights of the worlds thinkers without the artificial distinctions into Orient and Occident. In acknowledging the help and encouragement of some specific people I do not wish to appear ungrateful to those 1 do not mention, because I am grateful and I know that they understand why their names do not appear here, for it require an unreasonably long listing. For the many opportunities of continuing dialogue that was afforded me by the professors and students at the American Academy of Asian Stadies, my sincere gratitude. There are some that I must thank by name. They are J R. Mccullough, C.S. Lovedjeiff, M.G. Wilkenson, A.W. Watts, and H.R.H.P.P. Diskul. Not only do I owe my profoundest thanks to Professor Frederic Spiegelberg for the help he gave me as a student and his graciousness in making time in his busy schedule to write an introduction to my book, it is to him I owe my interest in Oriental Philosophy in general and Indian Philosophy in particular. Dr. Haridas Chaudhuri

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION BY DR. FREDERIC SPIEGELBERG vii

PREFACE ix

I. INTRODUCTION 1

Objective of study 4

Scope of study 5

II. THE HISTORICAL POSITION OF SANKHYA AND YOGA 8 Sānkhya and Kapila 13

Yoga and Patañjali 15

Sānkhya and Yoga 19

III. SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF SĀKHYA-YOGA 23

Theory of causation 24

The composition of prakrti 31

The guņas 36

The state of pralaya 40

Evolution 43

The tanmātras 50

Sānkhya epistemology 53

IV. YOGA AS A SEPARATE SYSTEM 56

v. THE SĀNKHYA-YOGA CONCEPT OF THE SELF 61

Sänkhya-Yoga Psychology 73

The method of attaining release 84

VI. THE SELF CONCEPT : EAST AND WEST 89

VII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 122

BIBLIOGRAPHY 149

INDEX 159

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

MAN'S prime interest is man. This interest has been and still is the prime mover in all that man does. For no matter what his method, he is ultimately seeking to solve the riddle of himself. It is imperative that he obtains this information so that he may be better able to direct himself in the fulfillment of his being. Thus, it is the connate objective of all men, in their own diverse ways, to seek the essence, the 'ding an sich,' that which makes man man. In this search many efforts have been and are still being made. Each individual feels that his is the correct method,and so far as he does, he directs his devotion with more or less fervour. So some men can be seen dismembering the bodies of the deceased down to the minutest cell, others testing and compounding chemicals and elements, while others seek the solution of the why and wherefore of the human machine in other actions of nature. These different attempts towards man's understanding of himself are termed objective sciences. Each of these have taken certain basic prosuppositions as valid truths and are endeavouring to extricate the essence of the microcosm by assembling mountains of statistics that are purported to give the macrocosm in outline. Efforts have been made to comprehend these particular studies under one discipline, that discipline being philosophy. It is the task of this highest science of sciences to view all the disparate efforts and strive to understand and coordinate them into a meaningful whole so that man can know his being and thus his value. Philosophy, too, has taken up the problem of the meaning of man. Unfortunately, this field has succumbed to the same evil

2 A Study of the Self Concept of Sänkhya Yoga Philosophy Introduction 3

which it was supposed to overcome, that is, it has become side of the globe for mutual survival. In order to do this one dissipated into innumerable squabbles over the dissection of and must either visit the area and talk with the people, or read the proper method of ideation. One of these lines of endeavour reports of others on the culture and customs that are prevalent has been directed at the problem of individuality; the question in these Asiatic countries. of what makes one man different from another man, or are Basic to an understanding of these cultures is an acquaintance they no more than just so many units of animated protoplasm ? with their philosophy and its manifestations in the religion and It can be seen that these are merely restatements of the basic customs of these people. Most of the reports of these aspects problem of man. Many ideas have been expressed as answers of the Oriental cultures have been done by people who were and as many different statements of this crucial problem have trying to study these 'semi-civilized natives' of a subjected been propounded. This is to be found in any culture which has country, not so much for the value of understanding the points developed philosophically, in fact, this is part and parcel of the of view of the people as for finding a method of Christianizing cultural and philosophical growth of any society. them or better securing their rule over them. The aim here is Man in his effort to find enlightenment has sought 'The to try to understand these people and their culture so that a Truth.' His search must not turn back because of the unfa- better relationship can be achieved and for the values which miliar terrain encountered. As in the past, men are turned back these studies can give. This does not mean that the learning and frustrated, not by 'The Truth,' but by his conception of process should be a one way matter. Both Occidental and what that truth is. He is constantly haunted by the fear that the Oriental should make a strenuous effort at understanding each golden light which he has been pursuing might in reality be a other's ideals and efforts at implementing them. Each must be will-o-the-wisp. The comfort of the old philosophy makes it willing and eager to learn, accepting what is good from others difficult to consider and examine an alien system of thought. and rejecting what is not good from his own background. No Pride is by far the greatest stumbling block to the acceptance of culture has a monopoly on intellectual achievement, some only the possibility that the goal of true knowledge and wisdom shine more in one area of human endeavour than in another. might be found outside the cultural realm of his own birth and Generally, in Western academic and cultural circles, those growth. who study Oriental cultures and philosophies are considered as This exclusive inclusiveness has been and still is in practice either occultist quacks or aspiring Christian missionaries. A throughout the world. Western man has been a victim of this more enlightened view is gaining headway, but it is not by any quandary to a greater extent than he is willing to admit. means fully appreciated. One of the basic philosophical concepts Isolation of the universal is an incongruity, and so long as men of the Orient that has been much maligned is that of the insist that they have the patent on the proper approach to individual and his value. infinity, so long will the path lead nowhere but deeper into the The majority of Asians are non-Christian and in fact are not infinite maze of the finite. The finitude of the manifested world in the tradition of Judeo-Hebraic religious philosophy. This does not guarantee its comprehension by finite minds. Many puts the Jews, Christians, and Moslems into a group which efforts in this direction are being made, and so far apparently, tends to regard all other groups as pagan. Approximately half succeeding only in building up an infinite mountain of statis- the world's population adheres to beliefs which have their tical materials. On the other hand, some new insights into the roots sunk deep in the philosophical and religious speculation infinite have been made by Western minds due to the influence of the wise men of India. Not only does Hinduism, Buddhism, of Oriental methods of subjective introspection. and Sufism owe their teachings in total or in part to the With the world situation as it is, the interest in the Orient utterances of these sages, but a larger portion of the Western and its peoples are coming to the fore. The feeling is that the tradition than is admitted has its foundations in these specula- Occident must strive to understand the people on the other tions. Thus, in order to have more of an understanding of

4 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy Introduction 5 these systems and to better know Western thought, it is necessary to strive to understand the principles of these objective seems to be the leading of the 'Good Life.' All of philosophical systems. these studies of the philosophies of this area will be directed to the effort of demonstrating the universals which are to be 1. OBJECTIVE OF STUDY found in all systems. For it is felt that most disagreements are only in degree and more apparent than real. In order that a fuller understanding of the Hindu, Buddhist, Further, this investigator feels that any study or human and other associated philosophical-religious groups may be endeavour must have value to man if it is to be of any conse- (z4e) better approached, the fundamental philosophic concepts of quence. The prime concern in this study is the definition of these systems must be thoroughly examined and assimilated. the self in the Socratic sense of 'know thy self.' This having been accomplished, their influences and ramifica- It must be remembered that we are here discussing philosophy tions in other areas, and in diverse cultural movements can be and not practices that are in current social usage. Too often in more readily traced. The advantages of this will be, among the past the best of the West has been held up to the worst in the others, the fuller and more integrated view of not only these East. Comparisons cannot rightfully be made between Plato, other systems, but of both cultural heritages and thus an Christ, Kant, or Russell and such fanatics of Christian society improved chance for international expression of brotherly love such as the snake cults, the witch hunters, and the Doukhobors. for all fellow beings. On a more personal level, this enlargement Yet, this is done in considerations of non-Christian cultures. of our individual perspective will enable us to direct our If comparisons are to be made, they must be made on the efforts toward gaining of the ultimately and necessarily more same level; the best with the best and not the best with the worst peaceful world if mankind is to survive. Even more subjectively, unless the latter comparison is made within the same society. the possibility of our fully expressing and finding our individual The area in which the writer plans to make his life work is selves will be immensely aided. philosophy, and he feels that philosophy cannot be regarded as Since the prime interest here is with the intrinsic value of man, a sectional or provincial field of human endeavour. In line with and in view of the accepted necessity of the enlargement of the this, thought and effort have been made to understand some individual perspective, this study shall be directed toward a better of the philosophical systems which are not the direct basis of comprehension of the Indian efforts at elucidating the concept Western cultural heritage. Some time has been spent in the of the essential individual. The hoped-for benefits of this study of the philosophical systems of India. This is directly attempt are first, a more thorough understanding of the concept due to a basic philosophy of cultural integration and amalgama- of the true self and of the personal worth of the individual, and tion, and in an effort to implement this concept the present secondly, as a possible foundation for the enlargement of the paper has been undertaken. neighbourhood society to the inclusion of all peoples, thus putting into practice the concept of universal love as taught by II. SCOPE OF THE STUDY all enlightened ethical systems of the world. This investiga- tion is primarily concerned with the Sänkhya-Yoga concept of A brief historical review of the place and development of the the individual as incompassed within the concept purusa. It is Sankhya and Yoga systems in the philosophies of India will be hoped that this vill show that far from having no personal dealt with in the first section of the dissertation. Evidences will value, the individual has been most consistently the prime be cited which will show that the roots of philosophic thought concern of the philosophers of India. which emerged from the ancient literature of India extend It is contended here that the ultimate objective of most back into time prior to the historic Aryan immigration into the systems of philosophy is, in the last analysis, the same. That valley of the Indus. Some of the effects of the Aryan invasion and their subsequent amalgamation with the indigenous peoples

6 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy Introduction

and culture will be discussed. The strength and vigour of this relationship of these two disparate existences is explained. Once marriage is indicated by the tremendous cultural and philoso- the relationship is properly defined, the method of attaining phic growth which followed. Among the intellectual children release is given through a discussion of the Sankhya-Yoga are the philosophic systems of Nyaya, Vaiśesika, Mīmāmsā, psychology. Buddhism, Vedānta, Sānkhya, and Yoga. After the historical The next area of discussion is that of the self-concept of background of the Sänkhya and Yoga schools is presented, several representative Western philosophers. The systems of the there will be a brief survey of their founders and of the main particular philosophy is presented in so far as is necessary to literature of each. The relationship of these two systems and make the particular self concept clear. It will be seen that_the that of the other schools of philosophy will conclude the only Western philosophers which had self concepts which are discussion of the historical background of their position in similar to that of the Sankhya-Yoga are the more ancient ones. Aucenn Indian Philosophy. The dilemma which was given to the Western world by Following the historical background will be a chapter dealing Descartes is examined and followed to its present development with some of the basic concepts of Sänkhya-Yoga. First, the in the two major contemporary Western schools. Essentially name of Sänkhya is discussed and some of the general attitudes the dilemma of Descartes is still a very thorny problem for the about this system. The theory of causation, satkārya-vāda, is West, whereas the dilemma does not exist for the Sankhya- examined and its logic followed to its conclusions regarding the Yoga, and in fact, it is not a problem for any of the other ultimate source and matrix of all worldly phenomena, prakrti. current Indian philosophies. The composition of prakrti is presented and the characteristics Lastly, the dissertation is summarized and discussed and the of its ultimate constituent units, the gunas, are studied. Then conclusions concerning the Sankhya and Yoga self concept and the theory of pralaya or homostasis is discussed and how the those of the West are drawn. The fallacy or the illusion of the prakrti with its gunas evolves the world, both the psychical and absolute distinction of mind and matter is pointed out. The the physical. The chapter is concluded with a description of evidences of present day efforts in both the physical and the epistemological theories of the Sankhya. psychological sciences are cited to show how accurate the Chapter four deals with the relationship of the Sankhya and philosophies of the Sänkhya-Yoga are today. Yoga philosophies. Reasons are cited for regarding the two systems as two complementary but distinctly separate systems despite their extreme similarity. The major factor is the diffe- rence in the point of emphasis. Sankhya uses logic and intellectual effort to find the universals, while Yoga approaches the problem of attainment on the personal level of application. Using the previous chapters as background, the self-concept of the complementary systems of Sänkhya and Yoga forms the topic of the next chapter. Here the five arguments for the existence of the non-substantial aspect of man is presented along with the reasoning concerning the multiplicity of purușas. There is a slight diversion in the discussion of the Scholastic concept of the soul and the Sankhya concept of the linga-śarīra. This diversion leads into the description, in so far as is possible, of the purușa. Since the purușa and the prakrti are defined in terms which make them mutually exclusive, the problem of the

The Historical Position of Sānkhya and Yoga

of the rebuilding of the citadel walls that the inhabitants were on the defensive in the last days of the city."2 Further indica- tions from the Valley of the Ganges suggest that as the raiders made further intrusions, there was "a spread of techniques and CHAPTER II peoples eastward from the old Hārāppā kingdom as danger threatened from the west."3 From the literature and artifacts that have survived the age, it seems that "all these migrations THE HISTORICAL POSITION OF of peoples came at a time when there is a breaking-up of the SĀNKHYA AND YOGA ancient Western Asiatic civilizations and the introduction into the old strongholds of civility, of new blood, new ideas, and even perhaps new techniques, such as the use of the horse- drawn chariot in warfare."4 As with any philosophic system, one can find rudiments of Whenever a nation conquers another higher culture, it does the ideas expressed in the antecedent philosophic endeavours. so because, among other reasons, it admires and desires the This in no way reduces the value or importance of the restate- benefits of that culture. Hence, the barbarians physically ment of these ideas in what the particular philosopher believes conquer the peoples and unconsciously begin to absorb the is a more universal system leading to the living of the good life. benefits of their artifacts. Without realizing it, they also Each new system is the amalgamation of all the diverse ideas assimilate the philosophy behind the actuality of the culture. and learnings that the author has experi nced. Sankhya is also From this assimilation and mixing of the intruders and people an integration of many concepts, some of which can be found of the settled civilizations, there begins to arise in various in the Vedas and Upanisads, but the Sankhya is the result of places an admixture, and stratification begins to produce a co- more than just the Aryan influence. A changed mode of mingling reducing variance so that "the barbarians impercepti- thought can already be seen in the Upanisads, and Kapila's bly assimilated the traditions of the civilization they had rendering of these thoughts makes this more emphatic. despised yet prized; they had conquered only to be themselves Many of the ideas correlated and systematized in Sankhya can conquered at last by its persuasive and subtle power."5 Today be found distributed throughout the Upanisads. These ideas in India, symbols and items of religious art and practices can became more prominent in the latter Upanisads. It must be be seen which are replicas of some of the articles found in the remembered that the latter Upanisads were composed contem- archeological searches of the ancient and pre-aryan cities. porarily and following the time of Kapila.1 Further, the Aryan Zimmer cites several evidences of continuity, such as the forms invasion was not into an area devoid of any culture. The of ox carts, of tools, the art of domesticating elephants, and findings of archaeologists at Hārappā and Mohenjodāro as well the many bathing places that are comparable to those found in as other sites indicate the invading nomads found a very high Mohenjodaro. Zimmer further states culture, or at least the remnants of it. From the research Conspicuous among the Indus Valley religious symbols findings "at Mohenjodāro it seemed clear that the civilization is the phallus-to this day the most common object that had survived so long was already effete and on the wane of worship in the sanctuaries of Hinduism, where it when the raiders came, and at Harāppa we know from evidence 2 Stuart Piggott, Prehistoric India (Middlesex, Penguin Books,

1 Paul Masson-Oursel, Helena Willman-Grabowska, Philippe Stern, 1952), p. 239. 3 Loc. cit. Ancient India and Indian Civilization (London, Routledge and Kegan 4 Ibid., p. 241. Paul Ltd., 1951), p. 201. 5 Loc. cit.

10 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy The Historical Position of Sānkhya and Yoga 11

represents the generative male energy of the universe, and is symbolic of the great god Shiva. Furthermore, of the indigene religion into their own pantheon, but in a

the complement to the male symbol, in Mohenjodäro subordinate position in relation to the gods they had brought

as well as in Modern India, is our goddess with the with them through the gap in the Himalayas. But gradually

lotus in her hair.6 there occurs a "resurgence of the earlier Indian forms, and

He also points out that the Mother goddess of the world is their definitive reassumption of power with the triumph of

not mentioned in the Aryan literature as such, but is attached Vishnu, Shiva, and the Goddess over Indra, Brahma, and their

to the main body of the Rig Veda as a "late and apocryphal entourage."10 This absorption of the intruding culture by the

hymn."7 Zimmer finds that : supposedly destroyed civilization is not new apparently, and

It is extremely interesting to observe that among is evidently still a present day phenomenon.

the few remains surviving to us from the Indus Civili- Scholars have enough information concerning the life of

zation-coming down through a corridor of some six ancient Greece torecognize strains other than the Indo-European

thousand years as echoes of a religiosity antedating the in the structure of Greek life and thought. A more recent

arrival of the Vedic Aryans, an antique religiosity, example of this amalgamation process is contained in the

old as the pyramids of the Nile-the two aspects of the history of the Roman conquest of the Greeks, who in turn

God are already revealed. Figure 42 shows a ittle conquered them culturally. Some of it is going on right now.

faience plaque from Mohenjo-Daro, on which is engraved The great influx of Oriental art and commercial goods into our

a horned deity, seated like a yogi with his heels pressed markets, and the stimulation of interest and thought are a few

close together, naked, having three faces, and with examples of a present day movement in that direction. It is not

phallus erect. The personage wears many bracelets on meant to indicate that the conquering power has nothing to

his arms and a great fan-shaped headdress-perhaps the contribute, but rather the amalgamation of the cultures usually

latter is the piled up, matted hair. He is seated on a produces a new and greater culture. The West can contribute

little throne or altar, and is surrounded by two antelopes, a large amount of technological knowledge while learning what

an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and a buffalo. (The to do with the advantage gained thereby.

glyphs along the upper margin cannot be deciphered). Sānkhya, as "the first of the six schools of Indian Philoso-

The figure resembles nothing so much as Shiva- phy"11 represents, in the opinion of the writer, the beginning of

Pashupati, "The Lord of Beasts."8 the "golden age" of Indian Philosophy. This does not say that

Another figure, a torso from Hārāppā, because of the position the coalesced civilizations had not produced anything before

of the base of the extremities, resembles the "posture of dance. this. This is the beginning of the sum of the parts of the

In fact, there is every reason to believe that this archaic torso cultures to exceed the total of these parts. The rudiments of

represents a dancer, not very different in form from those of Sankhya and any other philosophy which are found in the

the much later Natarāja type."9 Upanișads, of course, represent the intellectual field of battle

Historically in the literature of India, the efforts of the on which the cultural heritage of the invaders and the invaded

Aryans to dominate the enslaved peoples can be traced. One met. The vanquished and the vanquisher both are different

of the devices for doing this was the absorption of the gods from the original combatants by virtue of having engaged in the conflict, if nothing else. Changes in style as well as content € Heinrich Zimmer, Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization of the literature of India amply show this. (New York, Pantheon Books, 1947), p. 95, ? Ibid., p. 96. 10 Loc. cit. Ibid., p. 168. Ibid., p. 169. 11 Ram Chandra Bose, Hindu Philosophy (New York, Funk and Wagnalls, 1884), p. 96.

12 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy The Historical Position of Sankhya and Yoga 13

The most outstanding concept introduced to the Aryan mind May it be well with us in rest and labour. Preserve us is that of the unending cycle of rebirth in man, and all that it evermore, ye gods, with blessings.16 implied. Immortality became something to be escaped, not As the amalgamation proceeds, the desirability of immorta- something to be sought after. The concept of immortality the lity fades. Crass immortality is no longer a prize to be sought, Aryan brought with him from his home beyond the Kyber Pass but one to be shunned, for the heavens and hells are also in was very nearly the same as that of the Homeric Greeks. "All the wheel of samsara. The immortality they had previously that the Rigveda wanted was that the pious man should live sought became a chain fastening them to the treadmill of out his full life without premature death. After life the dead samsāra. were received into abodes which were too indeterminate to be As the period of the emergence of the philosophic system of called either heavens or hells."12 This attitude of both these Kapila is approached, it is found that certain premises (which Aryan groups was due to the belief that "all that made a man are alien to the literature of the original migratory nomads a man and life worth living was bound up with the body."13 that streamed into India by way of the great northern gateway) The gods of these people, Greek and Indian Aryan, were, have been accepted. "glorified men : gay, lustful, brawling heroes,"14 who exempli- The Aryans came into India and found an advanced civiliza- fied the ideal of nomadic warrior tribes. As these people settled tion. After conquering these peoples, the Aryans adapted their and life became more sedate, because of less frequent wars and lives to the use of the artifacts of the enslaved peoples. Through more abundant food, they began to have time to do more contact with the artisans and the use of native household thinking and to produce new hymns for the Rigveda. With the servants, the indigenous philosophy began to be integrated into result these new hymns became more concerned with morality their own thinking. Thus, the Rig-Vedic religion became and "the belief in the existence of another world, where the Brahmanism by degrees. This merged into the period of the highest material joys are attained as a result of the performance Upanisads and gave birth to the philosophies of Sankhya and of the sacrifices and also in a hell of darkness underneath where Yoga as systems. Following these came the development of all the evil-doers are punished."15 But there was no desire to seek philosophies now current in India and throughout most of the release from the wheel of samsära, in fact they had no concept Orient. The cultural integration is still going on. The East, of Karma and samsära. The ideal desired was the exact oppo- unlike the West, is more receptive to the opportunity to site of that sought in the effort to escape from the round of incorporate and improve its philosophical understanding. The samsära. In the oldest Vedas we find prayers seeking immorta- West is beginning to make use of this opportunity also. lity in the heavens with the gods. Ina Rig-Vedic hymn to Varuņa the prayer ends with a plea for riches and immortality. I. SĀŃKHYA AND KAPILA

This gentle lord gives wisdom to the simple : the wiser god leads on the wiser to riches. In the preceding, pages the name of Kapila has been mentioned

O lord, O Varuņa, may this laudation come close in connection with Sankhya. Kapila seems to have undisputed claim to the authorship of the Sänkhya system. Who he was is a to thee and lie within thy spirit. very confused issue, for little if anything is known about him. He

12 Paul Masson-Oursel, op. cit., p. 135. probably lived in the century before Buddha's life and teaching. 13 B.A.G. Fuller, A History of Philosophy (New York, Henry Holt According to tradition, Kapila's father was a Rsi (inspired & Co., 1945), p. 20. sage) by the name of Kardama, and his mother was called 14 Lewis Browne, This Believing World, (New York, The Macmillan Devahūti. "Kapila is believed to have learned the rudiments of Co., 1930), p. 91. 1> Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian Phitosophy (Cam- 16 Robert O. Ballou, Editor, The Bible of the World (New York, The bridge, at the University Press, 1951), Vol. I, p. 25. Viking Press, 1939), p. 14.

14 A Study of the Self Concept of Sänkhya Yoga Philosophy The Historical Position of Sānkhya and Yoga 15

philosophy and the nature of the soul from his mother."17 older."20 The Sankhya-Kārika is regarded as "the earliest There is a carving in the cave temple of Anuradhapura in Ceylon available as well as the most popular textbook of the school. which is purported to be a likeness of Kapila. He passed the From its name it is clear that it is not the first work of the latter part of his life on Sägara island, located in the mouth of system."21 īśvarakrsna claims to be in a direct line of succession the Ganges River about ninety miles from Calcutta. Every from Kapila through Āsuri and Pañcasikha. Āsuri has been year thousands of devoted people visit this island on the last day placed before 600 B. C. by some scholars, while Pañcasikha is of the Indian month of Magha (January-February). In this thought to have lived during the first century A.D. pilgrimage and through worship, Kapila's memory has become Thus we have evidence of a continuing tradition extending a tradition. The scholars may be confused and have doubts beyond twenty-five hundred years. During the course of this about the facts of Kapila's life, or even doubt his ever having time some of the followers of Kapila wrote works and existed, but to many Indians he is worshipped as a great sage commentaries, but most of these were lost to us, and there is and philosopher. but little information about their contents. Kapila is ultimately to be regarded only as a symbol embody- Other than īśvarakrşņa's Sānkhya-kārikā, which "claims to be ing the philosophic principles of the Sankhya system. In this merely a condensation of an earlier text called Sastitantra,"22 regard, the Indians feel that the teaching is of the utmost impor- some of the other available works are Gaudapād's Bhāșya (8th tance rather than the individual who propounds these truths. century A.D.), Vācaspati Miśra's Sāmkhyatattvakaumudī (9th This candour of India is due to the concept of the phenomenal century A.D.), and based upon this is Nārāyaņatīrtha's Sāmkhya- being as a momentary mode of expression of the Truths of candrikā. In the 15th century, Aniruddha wrote the Samkhyavrtti Infinity. It can also be pointed out that the concept of time as and Mahādeva's Sāmkhyavrttsāra is placed about 1600 A.D. By cyclic rather than linear has a great deal of influence on the far the most important work done by Vijñānabhiksu is his historical sensitivity of philosophic thought in India. Western Sāmkhya-pravacanabhāsya. This sixteenth century scholar also scholars have been baffled and dismayed by this lack of concern produced the Samkhyasāra, Yogavārttika, Yogasarasamgraha, for the past in respect to personalities of great men. and a commentary on the Brahma Sūtra called Vijnānamrta. In Mythical or otherwise, Kapila is accepted as the founder of modern times, of course, there have been more works produced the Sankhya system. It is not claimed that everything in his on the Sankhya philosophy, but all are based upon the above philosophicteachings wereoriginal with him. "No work of his, if literature. he ever committed his system to writing, has been preserved."18 "There is no evidence to show that the Sämkhyapravacana II. YOGA AND PATAÑJALI Sūtra and the Tattvasamāsa generally attributed to Kapila were composed by him."19 The Sānkhya-kārikā of īśvarakrșņa is Historically, Yoga as a practice is more ancient than is the "the oldest systematic manual which has been preserved. As it literature known by that name. This statement is quite generally was translated into Chinese between 557 and 583 A.D., it accepted by the scholars of Indian philosophy. The physical cannot belong to a later century than the fifth, and may be still practice of yoga is evident from the Mohenjodaro plaque described above by Zimmer as resembling "nothing so much as Shiva-Pashupati,"23 who is still regarded as "the Divine Yogī, 17 Theos Bernard, Hindu Philosophy (New York, Philosophical Library, 1947), p. 66. 18 Arthur A. Macdonell, A History of Sanskrit Literature (Delhi, 20 Macdonell, loc. cit. Munshiram Manoharlal, 1960), p. 393. 21 Radhakrishnan, loc. cit. 19 S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy (London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1948), Vol. II, p. 254. 22 Bernard, op. cit., p. 82. 23 Zimmer, loc. cit., p. 168.

16 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy The Historical Position of Sankhya and Yoga 17 the model and archascetic of the gods."2 The historical background of India is very well put by Radhakrishnan: "The science of breath had attracted notice in many of the The great river of Hindu life, usually serene but not earlier upanisads, though there had not probably developed without its rapids, reaches back so far that only a long any systematic form of prāņāyāma (a system of breath control) view can do justice to its nature. From prehistoric times of the Yoga system."29 It is not until the "Maitrayani that we influences have been at work moulding the faith. As a find the Yoga method had attained a systematic develop- result of the excavations in Harappa and Mohenjodaro ment."30 From the above evidence it appears that not only we have evidence of the presence in India of a highly has the Yogic practices been a part of man's culture for developed culture that must have had a long antecedent thousands of years, but that he has always responded to an history on the soil of India, taking us back to an age inner urge toward communication with the Supreme Being. that can only be dimly surmised. In age and achieve- These Yogic practices have undergone many alterations and ment the Indus-valley civilization is comparable to adjustments to the new cultures, which, each in their turn, that of Egypt or Sumeria. The noteworthy feature of were absorbed unto the present. The point here is that Yoga this civilization is its continuity, not as a political power and its philosophy is not purely of Aryan origin. but as a cultural influence. The religion of the Indus Of the Patañjala school of Smkhya, which forms people is hardly distinguishable, according to Sir John the subject of the Yoga with which we are now deal- Marshall, from that aspect of Hinduism which is bound ing, Patañjali was probably the most notable person up with animism and the cults of Siva and the Mother for he not only collected the different forms of Yoga Goddess. These latter do not seem to be indigenous to practices, and gleaned the diverse ideas which were or es the Vedic religion.25 could be associated with the Yoga, but grafted them all He further states that "the religion, in the first literary records on the Samkhya metaphysics, and gave them the form that have come down to us, is that of the Aryans, though it in which they have been handed down to us.31 was much influenced by the Indus people, the Dravidians, and Patañjali is regarded and he so indicates that he is the the aborigines".26 The word Yoga appears in the Rig-Veda compiler of the Yoga system into the Yoga Sütra.32 For he is primarily in a sense of "achieving the unachieved, a connection considered by the two great commentators on the Vyāsabhāsya, and the like."27 and less frequently in the sense of yoking or Vacaspati and Vijnana, "not the founder of Yoga but an harnessing. As there is a growth in the ideas of aceticism editor."33 A critical study of the sutras will show that they "do (tapas) and self-control : not show any original attempt, but a masterly and systematic The force of the flying passions was felt to be as compilation which was also supplemented by fitting contribu- uncontrollable as that of a spirited steed, and thus the tions."34 In the Yoga sutra, the first three chapters are word yoga which was originally applied to the control composed in such a systematic form defining and classifying of steeds. began to be applied to the control of the already existent materials, that it shows Patañjali only systema- senses.28 tized them. Another factor is the lack of missionary zeal which is indicative of his recording a pre-existent system.

24 Ibid., p. 115. 5 G.T. Garratt, The Legacy of India, (Oxford, at the Clarendon Press, 1951), p. 257. 29 Ibid., p. 227. 30 Loc. cit. 26 Ibid., p. 258. 31 Ibid., p. 229. 27 Dasgupta, loc. cit., p. 226. 32 Radhakrishnan, op. cit., p. 341. 28 Loc. cit. 33 Dasgupta, loc. cit. 34 Loc. cit.

18 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy The Historical Position of Sānkhya and Yoga 19

From the above statements it is readily seen that Patañjali III. SĀŃKHYA AND YOGA does not display as much originality in his Yoga sūtra as Kapila does in his Sānkhya sūtra. Chronologically, the philosophy of Sānkhya as a system A good deal of disagreement is found in the matter of the precedes that of Yoga. In the main, the two systems are very identity of Patañjali. There are three Patañjalis in the literature much alike. However, there are some significant differences of India. One a medical writer, another a grammarian, and of which warrant our calling Yoga a separate system of philosophy. course Patañjali of the Yoga sūtra. Patañjali is not regarded as The metaphysical position of the two is fundamentally the same, being a mythical being. The difficulty arises from the confusion but they differ in their views of ethical, practical, and philoso- of these authors of the three areas of literature. All three phical concepts. authors are regarded by some as the one and same person, Dasgupta makes the point that the Sankhya and Yoga others make the identity of the grammarian the author of the philosophies have gone through a number of modifications since Yoga sutras, and others regard the medical writer as the author their compilation. He further indicates that Patañjali used the of the Yoga sūtras. In the writings of Dasgupta the evidence is common source of the ideas found in Sankhya rather than "against the identification of the two Patañjalis by some Yoga deriving all the common concepts from Sankhya. At any rate, and medical commentators of a later age."35 He concludes in the Yoga system of Patañjali, which calls itself an exposition respect to the other twel: of Sankhya, is an amalgamation of the common metaphysical I am disposed to think that the date of the first three concepts of Sankhya with all the different forms of practice and chapters of the Yoga sutras must be placed about the diverse ideas concerning Yoga that he could collect. Dasgupta second century B.C. Since there is no evidence which says that an analytical study of the Yoga sūtras will bring can stand in the way of identifying the grammarian "conviction that they do not show any original attempt but are Patañjali with the Yoga writer, I believe we may take a masterly and systematic compilation, supplemented with them as being identical.36 certain original contributions."37 Further argument could be cited both for and against the Ram Chandra Bose opens his chapter on the Yoga philosophy above conclusions. by saying that it "is the counterpart of the Sankhya system, Other than the Yoga sutra of Patañjali which is the oldest and begins where the other ends."38 He further states that the text book on the Yoga philosophy there are the Bhäsya on the Sankhya gives us the goal but that Yoga shows how we can Yoga sutra of Vyasa (fourth century A.D.); the glossary on attain this goal. This investigator finds with Bose that "the Yoga Vyāsa's Bhāșya called tattvavai-sāradī (ninth century); Bhoja's philosophy may properly be represented as the counterpart, not Rājamārtānda, and the Yogasārasamgraha of Vijñānabhikșu. only of the Sankhya system, but of almost every other system The Maitrāyana, Sāndilya, Yogatattva, Dhyānabindu, Hamsa, of Indian philosophy, theistic, atheistic, and pantheistic,"39 and and Nababindu are some of the later Upanisads which assign to this should be added panentheistic. Yoga philosophy is the much importance to the Yoga principles. Thse are the major practical approach to the goal of almost every system of sources of our knowledge of the Yoga system. The Yogasūtra philosophy in India-with variations to accommodate the is the basis of the system, and the others are elaborations and particular philosophy with which it is being used. clarifications. It can readily be seen from the foregoing that the systems of Sānkhya and Yoga are of fundamental importance in the

37 S.N. Dasgupta, Yoga Philosophy in Relationship to other Systems of Indian Thought (Calcutta, University of Calcutta, 1930), p. 51. 35 Ibid., p. 231. 3 Bose, op. cit., p. 157. 36 Ibid., p. 238. 39 Loc. cit.

20 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankkya Yoga Philosophy The Historical Position of Sankhya and Yoga 21

understanding of Indian philosophy in general. This includes all all fit into the above description, and also the so-called hete- the systems, orthodox or heterodox; that are now in India or have migrated to other lands. Most of the systems now existent in rodox schools of thought. The mark of orthodoxy is not the

Indian thought developed upon their antecedents, in all proba- belief in God but the acceptance of the authority of the Vedas.

bility around the beginning of the Christian era. Since Sankhya The terms which describe these two concepts have altered their

and Yoga are the antecedents, it is contingent on the student of meaning. Originally, the words āstika and nāstika meant a belie-

Indian philosophy to understand these two systems so that he ver and a disbeliever of the Vedas. Today it is taken to

will be able to follow the reasoning of the latter arguments and mean respectively theistic and atheistic. Another meaning that

expositions. Since the current systems evolved during the present it formerly had was that of a believer in immortality, and with this interpretation all the Indian schools of philosophy (except era, they are not only interrelated in time but also in subject matter. The approach exemplified in the Sankhya and Yoga phi- that of the Carvakas, the materialists) would be included.

losophies has served as the model of many subsequent intellectual Sānkhya and Yoga are ästika in both of the old meanings of the

production. However, since they were expounded by contempo- word. In reality, it seems that Kapila remained silent as did the

raries, they often enlisted the logic of the arguments of their Buddha in respect to the concept of God. He felt that the exis-

opponents either to support their contentions or anticipated the tence or non-existence of God could not be proved or disproved,

possible objections to their own structure and presented evide- and thus beyond his system of philosophy. Patañjali makes only a mild reference to God in four aphorisms of book one. In nces to thwart these possible rejoiners. Thus as with the study of present day philosophic development, it is often necessary to aphorism twenty three he says "Or by profound devotedness toward the Lord, (the ascetic may attain the state of abstract undertake the study of more than one system in order to meditation)."41 The individual student can choose to concen- comprehend the one which is of immediate interest. With these thoughts in mind, the Sankhya and Yoga philosophies will be trate on any single object, and if he so chose, it may be īśvara who is described in aphorism twenty four as being. "A examined in relationship to one another with special reference particular Spirit (Purusa) untouched by troubles, works, fruits, to their concepts of the self. An understanding of these ancient or deserts."42 The object of concentration is not as important as philosophies would be particularly valuable as a guide to the the intensity of effort. The difference between Sänkhya and understanding of the present philosophies of modern India, Yoga does not appear to be crucial on this point. It is conten- and can be of assistance in the understanding of contemporary ded that Sänkhya does not deny the existence of God. All that Western philosophies. Pre-dating Sankhya and Yoga as formal systems are two is denied is that "It is not established (that there is an eternal

doctrines which are still functional in the philosophies of pre- Lord); because there is no evidence of it."43 The evidence that

sent day India. The two are mukti and karma. These two, with appears to be denied are the three kinds of proof which Sankhya

their necessary corollary concepts, form a basis for doctrinal admits; perception, inference, and testimony. Sānkhya denies the existence of evidence of isvara, and is non-committal continuity among the different systems now current. "These doctrines are regarded so cardinal and inviolable that there was about ïsvara's existence or non-existence. It is up to the

hardly any voice in India that protested against them."40 Even student of Sänkhya or Yoga to decide for himself, and thus in

with this general agreement in regard tothese two doctrines, there the contemporary meaning, make these systems āstika or nāstika, theistic or atheistic respectively. Atheism does not necessarily are a great many divergences in greater or lesser degree which resulted from the natural development of the particular philosophy 41 Tookaram Tatya, The Yoga Philosophy (Bombay, the Subodha- in line with its own specific premises. The six orthodox systems Prakash Press, 1885), p. 22. 42 Loc. cit. 40 Dasgupta, Yoga Philosophy, op. cit., p. 10. 43 James R. Ballantyne, The Sankhya Aphorisms of Kapila (London, Trübner & Co., 1885), p. 319.

22 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy

mean a denial of God although it is usually so regarded. It also means the belief in a non-personal God. Sänkhya and Yoga are generally regarded to be alike in their doctrines of cosmology, physiology, psychology, and the emanci- pation as the goal of life attainable by a clear distinction betmeen matter and spirit. They are usually considered different CHAPTER III

on the matters of atheism and theism and the approach for attai- ning knowledge of the distinction between puruşa and prakṛti. According to Richard Garbe in his article in Hasting Encyclope- SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF SĀŃKHYA-YOGA

dia of Religion and Ethics, Yoga has become "more persona- listic in more recent literature."44 An examination of the funda- mental doctrines of these systems is essential to an understa- A name, as applied to any philosophy, is usually a key word nding of their Self concept. embodying either a prime concept or a distinguishing concept of the philosophy which marks it from other philosophies or from its parent system. In time, the name of a philosophy can become clouded, and its original meaning is no longer clear. The titles of Sankhya and Yoga are not excepted from this confusion. In the case of Sänkhya, a number of interpretations are found as to its origin. The most common takes the name of Sānkhya as being derived from the word sankhya, which means number. This interpretation is arrived at because its method of attaining the right knowledge. On the other hand, another derivation is taken from the two words samyag jñana. These together mean perfect knowledge. Chatterjee and Datta feel that the latter origin is the more plausible. Possibly both origins have some sort of validity as they both seem to have a place in the descrip- tion of this philosophical system. It would seem that the choice is of either the means or the ends as the crux of the philosophy. The aim of this philosophy, as with many systems of India, is the ending of all pain and suffering. Its method is the gaining of the perfected knowledge of the ultimate reality by an analysis and enumeration of the fundamental categories of existence. In ultimate analysis Sānkhya affirms two basic principles, purușa and prakrti. The other categories of existence are derived from them and their interaction. The Sankhya system is normally thought of as an atheistic and dualistic system. There seems to be a good bit of evidence 44 R. Garbe, "Yoga" Hastings Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics to disprove this. For example, in a quote of Burns-Gibson by 1st. edition, XII, p. 831. Dasgupta we find this in part :

24 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy Some Basic Concepts of Sankhya-Yoga 25

As existents, the many souls and one prakrti are the Sänkhya understanding of the relationship of an effect to one co-existence, the unity of Being and Knowing, and its material cause. The problem as seen by the Sankhya as pure beings they are absolutely indistinguishable philosophers is this : is the effect originally existent in the from one another and from nought. For thought, they material cause prior to its manifestation as an effect ? Their collapse into one, and that one sinks into non-being. findings are in the affirmative. They "define cause as the entity What then remains is Vyakta, the phenomenal world in which the effect subsists in a latent form."4 The basis of their of subject and object, co-existent, co-essential and conclusions rest upon these grounds : (1) No activity can be inseparable in their utter central-distinction. And this directed-toward a non-existent object. (2) An effect can only residuum of Kapila exactly corresponds with the resi- be produced by a material cause which is causally related to it. duum of Spinoza, when his infinite attribute of thought (3) Particular effects can only be the result of certain particular of consciousness has absorbed and superseded all other causes. (4) The effect must exist in an unmanifested form as a infinite attributes, rendering them inevitable in the potential of the efficient cause. (5) It is denied that something dialectic of reflection.1 can come from nothing. (6) That cause and effect are not It should be added that the Indian mind does not accept different, fundamentally they are identical with each other in the pantheistic concept that the universe exhausts the ultimate the material cause. source of all. Rather they feel that the manifested world is The first statement that a non-existent cannot be made the . only a very small portion of infinity, and thus are more object of an activity is demonstrated by the example of the correctly called panentheistic. In the "Bhagavad-Gita" this impossibility of changing the colour blue into red, or salt into statement is found in the Eighth Discourse, the twentieth sugar. Hence, any effect that is produced from some material śloka; "Verily there existeth, higher than that unmanifested, cause must have pre-existed in that cause, and can only be another Unmanifested, Eternal, which during the destruction manifested by particular conditions which are favourable to its of all beings, is not destroyed."2 manifestation. The activity of the efficient cause, like the potter Sankhya is a dualistic system as it is today, which has been and his tools, is necessary to manifest the effect, pot, which indicated above. However, there is some evidence to support exists implicitly in the clay. the view that it may not be an absolute dualism.3 Be that as it The second ground that is given follows from the first. It is may, attention now is turned to the arguments that are used stated that the relationship between material and its effect is to arrive at an apparent duality of prime principles. invariable. This can be seen in relation to the above statement, which says that the pre-existent effect can only be manifested by I. THE THEORY OF CAUSATION certain conditions. The material cause cannot produce an effect

Purușa and prakrti are the two ultimate principles as derived which is not in any way related to it causally, nor can it be

by transcendental analysis of the structure of experience. Purusa related to that which does not exist. Hence, the effect must

is the pure subject, the ultimate source of all consciousness. have existed in the material cause prior to its manifestation.

Prakrti is the causal background of the whole objective world Number three is a reiteration of the above statement. Only

and is derived from the Sänkhya theory of causation (satkärya- certain effects can possibly come from certain causes. The examples

vāda). This theory of causation, satkārya-vāda, is based upon cited are those of curds coming from milk, and that cloth can only be made out of thread, no matter the material of the thread.

1 Dasgupta, Yoga Philosophy, op. cit., p. 23. This verifies the existence of the effect in the material cause, ª Annie Besant, Bhagavan Dās, Bhagavad-gita (Adyar, Madras, otherwise any effect could be produced from any cause. This The Theosophical Press, 1950), p. 153. 3 Dasgupta, pp. 220-221: Majumdar, pp. 31-32, 52ff .. 105-106. 4 Radhakrishnan, op. cit., p. 256.

26 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy Some Basic Concepts of Sankhya-Yoga 27

does not deny the possibility of man discovering the necessary Following the Sankhya theory of causation to its logical conditions which he must bring about to produce an effect which is inherent in a material cause which does not readily conclusion, and since their theory "means a real transformation of the material cause into the effect, it logically leads to the manifest itself from this particular cause under normal condi- concept of prakrti as the ultimate cause of the world of objects."6 tions. Thus they allow for discovery of natural laws which allow They do not exclude any object of the world. Not only de they men to produce such materials as plastics. A notential effect is an existent effect according to the fourth include the part of the world which is normally thought of as the physical world, but they also include men's bodies and assertion. That is, the effect exists prior to its manifestation in minds, the senses, and the intellect, which are regarded as limited a potent cause and only needs the presence of the proper condi- tions to bring about the actualization of the effect of this and dependent things resulting from various combinations of certain elements. Sankhya is a pluralistic system of philosophy particular cause which holds the potentiality of this effect, and probably many other effects which will become phenomenal which "attempts an explanation of nature as an immense

under the proper conditions. This potentiality of a cause to complexity of elements which is ever changing."7 This ever-

produce an effect is considered to be a power that is definitely changing "hierarchy of forms from physical matter, which is itself a product of submaterial elements, is represented as an related to that effect. In conjunction with this, the assertion is unfolding of the resources of nature."8 This brings the discus- that the power cannot be related to an effect if there is no existence of the effect in some form before the effect is changed sion to the point where it must be said "If all effects are latent in their causes, and if infinite regress is to be avoided, there from its state in the unmanifested to the actualized state in the must be an uncaused cause."9 Thus, the Sankhya theory of manifested world. causation leads naturally to an ultimate basis of the empirical The next argument presented states that if the effect is world that is the unmanifested prakrti. really non-existent before its production by the cause, then this must mean that the non-existent has come into existence. The line of argument for the existence of prakrti runs as follows : (1) All individual things are limited and dependent on /shy That is to say, the material cause has produced something from something which is more comprehensive. So these particulars pe nothing, and this is considered to be absurd by the Sankhya philosophers. must be dependent upon something which is not limited, 4

Sankhya's last theory on causation is that, ultimately, cause something which is more universal and lasting than the

and effect are not in reality different. This identity is used to particulars. Thus "The finite as the finite cannot be the source

affirm the existence of the effect in the cause. Since the material of the universe."10 (2) All the things of the world possess

cause is accepted as existing, and the effect is not really different certain pervasive characteristics which are common to all.

from the cause, then the effect must also exist, whether it is These are the ability to produce pain, pleasure, and indifference. This then implies that all individual things have as their source manifested or not. "In fact, the effect and the cause are the explicit and implicit states of the same substance."5 A piece of a common cause. Here is a primitive statement of the current

cloth is not actually different from the threads from which it is nuclear theory, for the Sänkhya feels that the elements are not

composed, nor is a statue really different from the stone which completely distinct from one another. (3) "All effects proceed

it has been carved. These statements convinced the Sänkhyans from the activity of some cause which contains their potentiality

that the effect exists in the material cause prior to its appearance or production in the phenomenal world. 6 Ibid., p. 261. 7 Radhakrishnan, op. cit., p. 259. * Satischandra Chatterjee, Dhirendromohan Datta, An Introduction 8 Loc. cit. to Indian Philosophy, (Calcutta, University of Calcutta, 1950), p. 260. 9 Loc. cit. 10 Loc. cit.

28 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy Some Basic Concepts of Sankhya-Yoga 29

within it."11 "Evolution implies a principle which cannot be be evolved, and that although every effect has a cause, prakrti equated with any one of its stages. It is something larger than is without cause and is the cause of all effects. Prakrti is called its products, though immanent in them."1ª "The world of pradhäna as it is the mainspring of all effects. Further, it is the objects which are effects must, therefore, be implicitly contained primary form of being from which the various orders of existence in some world-cause."13 (4) All effects are eventually re-dissolved evolve. Sānkhya recognized that it is impossible todeduce purușa into their cause. Each particular effect is produced by its from prakrti, that is self cannot be deduced from the non-self. particular cause, and this cause which is the effect of a prior Radhakrishnan then distinguishes between the prakrti and its cause is finally resolved into its cause, and finally we come to products. The products are caused, dependent, many, and the cause which is the cause of all subsequent causes and is limited in time and space. Conversely, prakrti is uncaused, itself its own cause. The process must stop somewhere otherwise independent, one, and all-pervading and eternal. The products it falls into the fallacy of an infinite regress, ad infinitum. are the evidences of prakrti. Since prakrti cannot perish, it Further, anywhere it should stop and say here is the original could not have been created. An intelligent principle cannot be cause; it will be prakrti. For this is what prakrti is, "the root the material from which the inanimate world is produced, since cause of the world."14 There are other arguments which are spirit cannot be transformed into matter. Finally, agency does put forward to substantiate the concept of prakrti. Two more not belong to the purusa or self but to the ahamkara or grounds upon which they base their case are given by Radha- self sense, which is itself nothing other than a product of krishnan, "The effect differs from the cause, and we cannot there- prakrti. fore, say that the finite and conditioned world is its own cause. The above is a summary of the grounds for the existence ot the ... There is an obvious unity of the universe, suggesting a prime principle of prakrti. Some of the arguments are also single cause."15 According to the Sankhya, there is a continuity presented for the dichotomy of spirit and matter. This problem between all levels in the world, and the evolvement and devolve- shall be examined later. An understanding of prakrti is essential ment of the products proceeds with a definite order. to the full understanding of the self concept as expressed by The world is the parinama or transformation of prakrti. All the Sankhya and Yoga philosophies. It is also necessary to things are the effects of an active cause, because nothing cannot understand the concept of prakrti if the method for reaching produce something. Hence, "the cause must contain more the self is to be grasped. Another point in the understan- reality than, or at least as much reality as, the effect."1 This last ding of the self concept of these two philosophies is the statement seems to say that the avyaktam, unmanifested prakrti learning of what matter is and what is not spirit or is more than that which is manifested in it, and at the very self. least it is equal to all of its effects. But the description of As men have accepted the modern atomic theories without prakrti as unmanifested precludes the possibility of its infinity physically perceiving the atoms or their sub-atomic particles; so being used up in the finitude of the manifested universe. the Sankhya feels that the concept of prakrti should be accepted Radhakrishnan17 sums up the reasoning for the existence of on inferential grounds as science has done with the atom. It is prakrti saying that nothing which is not originally involved can of little importance that prakrti cannot be seen. For there are many things which are readily accepted even though they are 11 Chatterjee & Datta, op. cit., p. 263. beyond the range of human perception. Things of this category 12 Radhakrishnan, loc. cit. can be either too large to encompass or too fine to be percep- 13 Chatterjee & Datta, loc. cit. tible to the senses without the aid of instruments. Even 14 Ibid., p. 264. 15 Radhakrishnan, loc. cit. instruments fail, for the most powerful microscope cannot 16 Loc. cit. show an atom, nor can the most powerful telescope show the 17 Ibid., p. 260 whole of the vast universe, which is only a speck in infinity.

UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL

30 A Study of the Self Concept of Sänkhya Yoga Philosophy Some Basic Concepts of Sānkhya-Yoga 31

The Western theory of the conservation of matter and energy is change going on, the constitution of the atoms demands that stated by the Sänkhya philosophers in the following terms. they remain in constant motion. Consequently, every move "Nothing that exists can be destroyed, and the products exist must be compensated for by another move which negates the in prakrti, though in an unmanifested state."18 What is this material cause of the worid ? Prakrti is the first prior movement. So it can be seen that the state of pralaya is a state of quiescence and equilibrium, but it is a dynamic state cause, and in potential holds all effects which are manifested in of infinite potentiality. the world as well as those which are not so manifested. The The ultimate constituent factors which are comparable to the manifested world includes not only all of the objective sphere Greek conception of the atoms as irreducible and ultimate reals of experience, but also the realm of the subjective and psycho- are called gunas in the Sankhya philosophy. The guņas can be logical experience as well. From this it is seen that the concept compared with the actual meaning of the word atom, viz. of what constitutes the non-self, anatman, will delineate what indivisible, for the gunas cannot be reduced further and stil! constitutes the self, or purusa. The reasoning by which the have existence, in the usual sense of the word. Prakrti is the existence of prakrti is deduced has been shown. Now the pre-existent or unmanifest substrate which is the first cause. In doctrine of evolution, tattvāntarapariņāma, will be examined, the state of pralaya, prakrti, though unmanifest and as the and the basis of this evolution and conversely the involution of undifferentiated cause of the gunas, holds all effects in a state the world of things. of potentiality. Only three effects actually materialize directly "Sankhya believes that before this world came into being from prakrti, and this trinity is the material cause of all other there was such a state of dissolution-a state of disunion and effects. Thus, prakrti is the root producer of these ultimate had by their mutual opposition produced an equilibrium the constituents which by their premutation and combination prakrti."18 This state can be compared to the concept of physics constitute the manifest universe. The concept of these primal that the universe shall cease to be functional when a perfect constituent units of prakrti will be examined. equilibrium is attained. That is, with no differences in potential there can be no change. If there can be no change, there can be 11. THE COMPOSITION OF PRAKRTI

no movement; no movement means there can be no time, or succession of causes and their effects. With no effects the world First, the word guna has three meanings which somewhat

of production cannot be said to exist. In order for the world describe the first production of prakrti. In Sanskrit guņa has

to be evolved, the state of pralaya must be disturbed. There three meanings, quality, rope, and not-primary. It must be

appears to be no satisfactory explanation of the cause of the remembered that these ultimate and subtle entities are not

disturbance. Apparently, along with the other inbuilt laws of I qualities but are constituent factors. Sankhya does not allow

function of prakrti, there is a cyclic evolving and dissolving that for the separate existence of qualities. All qualities are the

is eternally operating. Sankhya is no different from any other results of the various combinations of the ultimate units of

system which attempts to describe the world of nature. They substance. The so-called qualities are nothing more or less

all have this difficulty of establishing the creative cause of than the "particular manifestation or appearance of a subtle

disturbance of the state of pralaya which is a perfect balance entity."20 Quality is not possessed. It only indicates a substance's

of heterogeneous parts constituting a placid, characterless manner of reacting. No matter how many qualities one seems

homogeneity. Of course, the equilibrium is similar to that of a to find, Sankhya says that it is only our interpretation of the

chemical equilibrium. Even though there is no apparent reactions of these subtle entities. This is true also for all qualities, whether attributed to the physical or mental world.

18 Ibid., p. 261. This conception of the gunas does not leave very much that is

19 Dasgupta op. cit., p. 245, 20 Ibid., p. 243.

32 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy Some Basic Concepts of Sankhya-Yoga 33

not considered to be subtle substance, and thus belonging to electron, and the neutron. These three are, in a sense,

the material world. The Sankhya by including the realm of the comparable to the concept of the Sankhya of the sattva,

mind eliminates the dichotomy of mind and matter. The functio- rajas, and tamas respectively. The proton provides the

ning of the mind is to be understood in a physical sense. The coalescence or form of the atom, the electron gives us energy,

development of the science of cybernetics21 in the West is based and the neutron provides the mass. The Sankhya felt that the

upon this conception of the mind. This similarity will be atom would exhibit the characteristics of the guna which was

examined further in the section on psychology. predominate in it. Of course, the Sankhya would indicate that

Why were these three ultimate subtle entities called gunas, the atom is a compound of the panchikarana, even here the

and how do the ideas of qualities, rope and not-primary characteristics of the different atoms would be dependent upon

actually apply to these substances ? The gunas signify factors the varying modes of combination of the gunas in them. For

or constituents of prakrti. "They are called gunas (or qualities), instance, if the sattvas were predominate the atom would be

since prakrti alone is substantive, and these are merely elements very light and subtle. In other words, the ratio of sattvas,

of it."22 Beyond this the idea of quality does not apply in rajas, and tamas present in any one atom is the essential

Sänkhya. It is suggested that since the gunas are the cause of determining factor for the manifestation of any particular

the purusa's being bound to this phenomenal world, the idea quality. For example, drawing from some elementary chemistry,

of rope with its strands is appropriate. Since the gunas are not the composition of water is known to every school child in the

the prime cause, but are the effects of prakrti, they are rightly junior high school of today. It is composed of the atoms of

referred to as not-primary. "But in whatever sense we may be hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of two to one, and is generally inclined to justify the name guna as applied to these subtle written with the symbols of H2O=water. The two different

entities, it should be borne in mind that they are substantive atoms act quite differently when independent of each other. entities or subtle substances and not abstract qualities."23 The Also if the ratio of these atoms is changed we find that we

gunas are infinite in number24 and in accordance with the above have a new product such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) etc.

named characteristics have been classified into the three types This rather common material, usually found on the drug store

mentioned earlier. Their names are sattva (intelligence-stuff or shelf in the form of a solution, exhibits properties which are

potential consciousness), rajas (energy-stuff), and tamas (mass- quite different from those of water. As can be expected, a

stuff). These gunas "which agree in certain characteristics of compound consisting of the atoms enacts its own individual

self-shining or plasticity are called the sattva-gunas, and those characteristics when it is free of other atoms. Is it not probable

which behave as units of activity are called the rajo-guņas and that the elementals of the atom would also display their own

those which behave as factors of obstruction, mass or materiality characteristics in a state of freedom ?

are called tamo-gunas."25 Due to different combinations or The gunas are ever active, forming and reforming new

ratios of grouping of these three entities the multitude of compounds, producing novel qualities and congregating into qualities come into being. This concept is embodied in the new substances, except when in the state of pralaya or state of

modern scientific conception of the construction of the atom. equilibrium. In this state the gunas are so arranged as to be

In this scientific conception the atom has the proton, the prevented from being re-distributed. Dasgupta26 describes the state of pralaya as the one and only stage in which the guņas 21 James T. Culbertson, Consciousness & Behaviour (Dubuque, Iowa, are not compounded in varying proportions. Each of the guņa Wm. C. Brown Co., 1950), p. viii. " Radhakrishnan, op. cit., p. 263. substances are so opposed by each of the other guna substances

" Dasgupta. op. cit., p. 244. that their equal and mutual opposition creates an equilibrium

" Radhakrishnan, op. cit., p. 265. " Dasgupta, loc. cit. 26 Loc. cit.

A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy Some Basic Concepts of Sānkhya-Yoga 34 35 in which the characteristics of none of the gunas manifests inferred from the objects in the world which are the effects of the itself. This state of pralaya is absolutely void of all characteris- inter-action and intra-action of the gunas. In the Sānkhya analysis tics, and thus, is absolutely incoherent, indeterminate, and of thought and matter, feeling is the basic ingredient of the guņas, indefinite. It is without quality, a simple homogeneity. This that is they are feeling substances. They believe that "feeling is state of pralaya is a state of being, which is, as it were, non- the most interesting side of our consciousness. It is in our feelings being, and this state in which the gunas are in mutual equilib- that we think of our thoughts as being parts of ourselves.''29 rium is called prakrti. Pralaya is a state which cannot properly Upon analyzing any percept into its raw datum, it is found to be be said to be existent nor non-existent as it fulfils no purpose, composed of a group of crude and undeveloped sensations yet it is the hypothetical mother of all things. Out of the state at the instant of its appearance. It is received as more of a of pralaya come all modifications once and the equilibrium is shock than as an image, and according to Dasgupta30 it is

disrupted. received more as a feeling mass than as an image. He believes The gunas have as one of their essential characteristics that that even in ordinary life the elements which precede an act of change. They are in a constant state of flux, forever changing of knowledge are probably mere feelings. Dasgupta seems to and the transformations are of two kinds. One is the trans- mean by feeling, not the sense reaction to external stimuli, but mutation of one guna into another state of intensity within the feeling in the aesthetic sense. Evolution in the Sankhyan itself. This is a never-ending process. The triune 'atoms' which sense proceeds from the highest to the lowest. This is so for constitutes prakrti are thus in constant process of pulsation. In most of the other philosophies of India. Proceeding down through the evolutionary scale, the automatic actions and eelines this state of equilibrium there can be found no motion, nor sound, nor taste, touch, colour, nor smell, none of the qualities. relations of matter are concomitant with crude manifestations of In this state of equilibrium which is motionless, the trans- feeling which do not arise to the level of knowledge At the formation or change that occurs is the one that makes one of lowest level the distinctive feeling no longer exists, and the the gunas predominate over the others. When this happens, the matter-complexes only give rise to physical reactions. The condition which allows the reproduction of the world has earliest track of consciousness is feeling, according to Dasgupta. occurred once again. "A thing is always produced, never created, At these lower levels it would probably be more accurate to according to the Sankhya theory of satkāryavāda. Production say that instinct is the earliest mark of consciousness. Matter- is manifestation and destruction is non-manifestation."27 This complexes at a certain stage become feeling-complexes and vice transformation is "called virūpapariņāma, or change into the versa. He concludes that the feelings are therefore the things- heterogeneous, and is the starting point of the world's in-themselves which constitute the ultimate substance of both evolution."28 Some of the attributes of the three gunas will be consciousness and gross matter. Feeling is the ultimate subs- discussed in order that the Sankhya theory of evolution of the trata of all that is gross or mental matter. material world, mind, and matter, can be understood. For both The West is accustomed to consider feeling as subjective, and thought and gross matter are composed of sattva, rajas, and hence not valid as a true expression of the world as it is in itself. tamas. Sattva and rajas predominate in thought, and tamas Not so with Sankhya, for they "hold that thought and matter are and rajas do so in gross matter. First, some of the proofs and but two different modifications of certain subtle substances which arguments for the existence of the gunas will be explored, then are in essence but three types of feeling entitics."31 The theory the attributes of these three ultimate entities shail be better of satkārya-vāda or causation is the bas's of the deduction of understood. The gunas cannot be seen by us, and therefore are the existence of the gunas. The reason is as follows : 2 Dasgupta, op. cit., p. 242. 27 Radhakrishnan, op. cit., p. 263. 30 Loc. cit. 28 Chatterjee and Datta, op. cit., p. 267. a1 Ibid., p. 243.

36 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy Some Basic Concept of Sānkhya-Yoga 37

All objects of the world, from the intellect down to the ordinary objects of perception (e.g. tables, pots, etc.), are goodness and happiness. This element is thought to be buoyant

found to possess three characters capable of producing or light. Further explanation of the sattva element by Chatterjee

pleasure, pain and indifference, respectively. The same and Datta tells us that Sattva is that element of Prakrti which is of the nature things are pleasurable to some person, painful to another, and neutral to a third .... Now, as the cause must contain of pleasure, and is buoyant or light (laghu), and bright or

what is in the effect, we can infer that the ultimate cause illuminating (prakāśaka). The manifestation of objects

of things must have been constituted also by the three in consciousness (jñana), the tendency towards conscious manifestation in the senses, the mind and the intellect, elements of pleasure, pain, and indifference.32 luminosity of light, and the power of reflection in a These three subtle entities are called respectively sattva, mirror or the crystal are all due to the operation of the rajas, and tamas, and they are "constitutive of both prakrti, the element of sattva in the constitution of things.36 ultimate substance, and the ordinary objects of the world."33 Heinrich Zimmer's view of this concept is a bit different. His

III. THE GUŅAS examination is from a somewhat philosophical philological perspective. He analyses sattva as a noun which was built on The three gunas sattva, rajas, and tamas in that order will be the participle 'sat' or 'sant' which is derived from 'as' the verb described. The order of these three is from the most desirable 'to be.' 'Sat' to Zimmer, means being as it should be, i.e., good, to the least desirable. That is sattva which is the nature of well, perfect. Accordingly, 'sattva' is the ideal state of being, pleasure, light and illumination, is more desirable than rajas, and is exemplified by goodness, perfection, crystal purity, which is of the nature of pain, mobility, and stimulation. Rajas is immaculate clarity, and utter quiet. "The quality of sattva in turn more desirable than tamas, the element with a nature of predominates in gods, and heavenly beings, unselfish people, indifference, mass, and envelopment. All of these feelings are and men bent on purely spiritual pursuits. This is the guņa descriptive of very worldly reactions to the experiences of life. that facilitates enlightenment."37 The sattvas appear to represent But further examination reveals the ideals of the Sankhya and the substantial basis of all of our ideals. The purer the sattvic Yoga philosophies, and many of the current philosophies of content of anything, the higher the thing is in the hierarchy

India, are far from being of a worldly nature. of the prakrtic good. "An infinite number of subtle substances which agree in "The second guna, rajas, is the source of all activity and certain characteristics of self-shining or plasticity are called the produces pain. Rajas leads to a life of feverish enjoyment and sattva-gunas,"34 or intelligence-stuff, says Dasgupta. Radha- restless effort."38 Rajas is interpreted by Dasgupta as energy- krishnan35 describes this guna as potential consciousness, and stuff. The description given by Chatterjee and Datta state that, that it tends toward conscious manifestation causing pleasure to "Rajas is the principle of activity in things. It always moves the individual. He says that etymologically, the word sattva has and makes other things move. That is, it is both mobile (cala) been derived from the root 'sat' which means that which is real or and stimulating (upaşțambhaka),"39 and further, "On the affec- existent. Since consciousness, caitanya, is generally attributed to tive side of our life, rajas is the cause of all painful experiences this type of existence, sattva is said to be potential consciousness. and is itself of the nature of pain (duhkha)."40 Zimmer's des- A secondary sense of 'sat means perfection, thus sattva produces 36 Chatterjee and Datta, op. cit., p. 265.

3ª Chatterjee and Datta, op. cit., p. 264. 37 Heinrich Zimmer, Philosophies of India (New York, Pantheon Books Inc., 1951), p. 295. 3 Ibid., p. 265. 38 Radhakrishnan, loc. cit. 34 Dasgupta, op. cit., p. 264. 39 Chatterjee and Datta, loc. cit. 35 Radhakrishnan, op. cit., p. 262. 40 Ibid., p. 266.

38 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy Some Basic Concepts of Sankhya-Yoga 39

cription of rajas shows how undesirable the guna rajas is within the ideal goal of the Indian philosophies : Tamas is the principle of passivity and negativity in

The noun rajas means, literally, "impurity"; in reference things. It is opposed to sattva in being heavy (guru) and

to the physiology of the female body, "menstruation", in obstructing the manifestation of objects (varanaka).

and more generally, "dust." The word is related to rañji, It also resists the principle of rajas or activity in so far

rakat, "redness, colour," as well as to raga, "passion." as it restrains (niyam) the motion of things. It counte-

The dust referred to is that continually stirred up by wind racts the power of manifestation in the mind, the intellect

in a land where no rain falls for at least ten months and other things, and therebyproduces ignoranceand dark-

a year.41 ness, and leads to confusionand bewilderment (moha).43

He continues, saying that the rajas obscures the view of not By its negativity and passivity it acts obstructing the principle

only the universe but also of oneself. It is the product of both of activity and produces a dull and lazy individual. It is the

intellectual and moral darkness. The mythological being in source of the state of apathy or indifference, visada. The three

which rajas guna predominates are the titans. They are the guņas, sattva, rajas, and tamas have been compared to the

anti-gods or demons who exhibit the will for power in its full whiteness, redness, and darkness, respectively.

force and are reckless in the pursuit of supremacy and A fairly well diversified conception of the last of the guņas

splendour. They are bloated with ambition, vanity and boastful should be had with Zimmer's interesting philologicala nd natura-

egotism. The rajas guna is evidenced everywhere among men. listic comments concerning tamas. He says, "Tamas (cf. Latin

This guņa inspires desires, likes, and dislikes, competition, and tene-brae, French téné-bres)-literally darkness, black, dark-blue;

the urge for the enjoyments of the world. It is the inner spiritually, "blind-ness"-connotes the unconsciousness that

compulsion of man and beast which drives them toward the predominates in the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms."

good of life regardless of the suffering or the expense to the Continuing, he points out that, "Tamas is the basis of all lack

needs of others. of feeling, dullness, ruthlessness, insensibility, and inertia. It

As has been mentioned previously, the effort toward the causes mental gloom, ignorance, error, and illusion."44 His

achievement of the goal of liberation necessitates the concentra- presentation then shows that the stolidity of apparently lifeless

tion of sattva and rajas guņas in one's being. The guņa rajas is matter, the mute and merciless strife among the plants for soil,

the creator of chaos if undirected or not held in check by either moisture, and air; and the insensible, ruthless search and devour-

of the other two gunas. Sattva tends to give the rajas guņas ing prey of animals ; are some of the primary manifestations of

direction, recognizing thatdirection is also a manner of checking this universal principle. Its manifestation on the human level

its wild and irresponsible activity, while tamas tends to hold is in the slothful stupidity of the egotistic and self-satisfied

it in check by sheer force of inertia. This will be clarified individuals who acquiesce to anything so long as they feel that

after the properties of this last, and spiritually, most undesirable their personal slumber, safety, or interests are secure. On the

of all the gunas are enumerated. positive side this guna represents the power or force giving

From Dasgupta's simpletran slation of mass-stuff through stability to the universe, to every society, and to the individual.

Radhakrishnan's statement explaining tamas as, "that which This is the natural result of tamas, counterbalancing the ever

resists activity and produces the state of apathy or indifference, present possibility of the self-explosion which perpetually

It leads to ignorance and sloth."42 A more detailed description attends the motile dynamism of the rajas guņa.

is given by Chatterjee and Datta: After having reviewed some statements on what the three guņas are and what they exhibit in the material world, an

41 Zimmer, Philosophies. op. cit., p. 296. 2 Radhakrishnan, op. cit., p. 263. 43 Chatterjee and Datta, loc. cit. :44 Zimmer, Philosophies op. cit., p. 297.

40 A Study of the Self Concept of Sänkhya Yoga Philosophy Some Basic Concepts of Sankhya-Yoga 41

attempt will be made to synthesize a conception of each of compensating change. The saying that nature abhors a vacuum these subtle entities. The gunas are eternally in a process of could very well be said that nature (prakrti) abhors imbalance. transmutation, that is they continually change the intensity of In fact, Sankhya insists that there is a constant effort on the their characteristics, which delineates them one from another part of the gunas to re-establish the state of pralaya or so that they are at any one moment more or less distinguishable sāmyāvastha, the state of quiet or equilibrium. Thus, it appears from each other. There has been no evidence as yet to indicate that not only does prakrti cooperate in the production of the whether or not there is an order of progression in these universe, but she strives to dissolve it back into the primeval transmutations or whether they are of a chaotic nature. The homeostatic homogeneous state beyond existence and nonexis- properties of the gunas, sattva, tamas, and rajas appear to be a tence. It would seem that this is the identical state sought by corollary of the conception in the popular aspect of the religious the individual in his effort to free himself from the rope (guņa) mythology of India in the ideas expressed by creation, which binds him to the round of existence. If this is so, then maintenance, and dissolution. These conceptions are embodied all one must do is to cooperate with nature and the desired state in the Gods of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. It should be noted of samadhi will be achieved. that each of these Gods is worshipped primarily for their being Before there is any existent thing, prakrti is in the state of Evolver, Maintainer, and Desolver of the universe, respectively. equilibrium. The gunas are perfectly balanced in a dynamic Yet they are a Trinity in the full meaning of thew ord. For each way. Each of the gunas is constantly in the process of transmu- is regarded as only a particular aspect of the Unity that is One. tation within itself, i.e. similar to uranium 235 and uranium This does not deny the existence or need of the other aspect, 238. The balance is maintained so long as the gunas remain in for it is assumed that the gunas need the opposition, or rather the proper ratio in any one area of the prakrti. In some way the substance of the other gunas, to enable it to function this equilibrium is broken; possibly by the concentration of according to its nature. From this basic configuration of the one guna's intensity over that of the other two, either by atoms of the Sänkhya evolves the entire universe. internal transmutation or by accumulation. When this occurs, it is the beginning of the "change into the heterogeneous, and IV. THE STATE OF PRALAYA it is the starting point of the world's evolution."45 What causes

The primordial state of prakrti is that of pralaya and this change from the state of equilibrium ? If the prakrti is the

sāmyāvastha. This is called a state of dissolution or a state of first cause, then it must be the cause of its attaining the

equilibrium. The former refers to the fact that prakrti is at rest quiescent state as well as being the cause of its return to the

and the latter to the dynamic aspect of this in-action. This is active heterogeneous state in which the world evolves.

the present day theory of science centered around the conception It is postulated that the prakrti or the sum-total of

of homeostasis, or the laws of thermodynamics. Simply, this the gunas is so connected with the purusas, and there is

theory means that for every action there is a reaction. Because such an inherent teleology of blind purpose in the lifeless

of the tendency toward a state of equilibrium, every force prakrti, that all its evolution and transformations take

which tends to disrupt the movement towards the equilibrium place for the sake of the diverse purusas, to serve the

brings other forces into play which work to re-establish the enjoyment of pleasures and sufferance of pain through

process toward the state of equilibrium. experiences, and finally leading them to absolute freedom

A chemical equilibrium that is arrived at in any particular or mukti.16

reaction is an excellent example of this law of nature. Of course there are more complicated ramifications of the above example, but the main point here is that any one change brings on a 45 Chatterjee & Datta, op. cit., p. 267. 46 Dasgupta, op. cit., p. 247.

42 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy Some Basic Concepts of Sānkhya-Yoga 43 Essentially, the same points are made by Chatterjee and Datta. They write, "The evolution of the world has its starting-point neous and indistinguishable state. Equilibrium has once again

in the contact (samyoga) between purusa or the self and prakrti been achieved. It must be noted that :

or primal matter."47 Attention is drawn to the fact that the In the unmanifested condition, prakrti is but the union

contact between the prakrti and purusa does not imply any of opposites. When they are all held together in a state

real conjunction such as is found in finite material substances. of equilibrium (samyavāsthā), there is no action. The state

Rather, "It is a sort of effective relation through which prakrti of rest is said to be the natural condition of prakrti. Yet

is influenced by the presence of purusa in the same way in the absence of outer activity does not mean the absence of

which our body is sometimes moved by the presence of a any tendency to act. The tendencies to manifestation

thought."48 Since there can be no evolution unless these two (sattva) and activity (rajas) are held in check by the

become related to each other in some manner, the world's tendency to non-manifestation and non-activity (tamas).50

evolution cannot be due solely to the non-intelligent prakrti. The supreme principle of the universe is conceived by

The evolutionary process must be guided by the intelligence of Sankhya, and Yoga, as a unity of elements exhibiting real

the purușa. opposition toward each other; "an abstract unit can be either

Radhakrishnan appears to completely concur with the perpetually active or perpetually inactive."51 Prakrti, when in the state of pralaya, is not a mere passive preceding discussion. He asserts that prakrti is not naturally unstable and does not differentiate because of necessity. A equilibrium, but a state of dynamic tension, according to Dasgupta. Further, this intense activity of the dynamic tension disturbance in the guņa equilibrium brings about the destruction of prakrti by the overcoming of the dynamic tension, overweigh- does not lead to the generation of new things and qualities. The course of new productions is suspended in pralaya for the ting one side and thus once again initiating the process of becoming. Without the transcendental influence of purușa, activity of the equilibrium is repetitious, and serves only to maintain prakrti in the quiescent state. prakrti cannot evolve. Radhakrishnan says, "The fulfilment of The state of pralaya thus is not a suspension of the the ends of the purusa is the cause of the manifestation of prakrti in the three specialized states," and "since prakrti is teleology or purpose of the gunas, or an absolute break

one and ubiquitous, all things have prakrti for their basis, and, of the course of guna evolution; for the state of pralaya, since it has been generated to fulfil the demands of the in a sense, everything shares the characters of everything accumulated karmas of purusas, and since there is still else."49 It is evident from the above that even though the prakrti is activity of the gunas in keeping themselves in a state of suspended production, is also a stage of the samsāra cycle.52 the one ground of all, that is, in the realm of existence, there is no purpose for her existence except to fulfil the round of Before going on, it should be pointed out that the state of mukti or liberation is a state which is very different from the samsära. In moving through the cycle prakrti is actualizing and state of pralaya. In this stage the guna movement ceases for- manifesting her own nature. The prakrtic nature is not unstable, as was pointed out above. ever with reference to the liberated purusa.

When all the karmas of all the purusas wear out, the multip- V. EVOLUTION licity of this world dissolves into the quiescent state. In this state nothing remains except the gunas in their primal homoge- Prakrti, the root-evolvent, is at rest in its natural state. The factor which disturbs the equilibrium and begins the whole 47 Chatterjee & Datta, op. cit., p. 271. 50 Loc. cit. 48 Loc. cit. 51 Loc. cit. 9 Radhakrishnan, op. cit., p. 266. 5ª Dasgupta, loc. cit.

44 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy Some Basic Concepts of Sānkhya-Yoga 45

evolutional process anew is "the transcendental (non-mechani- sense-motor organs is the first step. In the last step the five cal) influence of the purusa."53 This effect is explained by the subtle physical elements (tanmätra) and the gross elements with analogy to the manner in which a piece of iron is affected by a their products are completed. magnet, without the magnet itself being affected by the iron. The first product to emerge in the evolutionary process is This transcendental influence of the purusa means that there is mahat or buddhi. The mahat is primarily composed of sattva an inherent teleology in the constitutive elements of prakrti gunas. It "is indeed the earliest state from which all the rest of which assures that all the guna movements and modifications the world has sprung forth; and it ... holds within it the are in such a manner that the purpose of the purusa is served. minds (buddhi) of all purusas which were lost in the prakrti There are two views concerning the teleology of prakrti. One during the pralaya."58 These buddhis, containing all the old says that by its own nature prakrti establishes the state of ignorance (avidyā), re-establish the old relationship with the pralaya, and then disturbed it again starts her creative work specific purusa with which it has always been associated. Once anew. On the other hand, it is asserted that the activation of some of the buddhis begin to evolve, all the other buddhis prakrti is dependent upon the transcendental influence of the separate out from prakrti. The buddhis are almost pure sattva puruşa. Prakrti "is called the root-evolvent, as being both root guņa. This process, once it begins, proceeds much as a chain and evolvent; it is the root of all effects."'54 reaction. A concentration of the sattva guna causes the other īśvarakrşņa's Kārikā states in the third sūtra : transformations of prakrti to have a preponderance of this Nature (Prakrti) the root (of material forms), is not guna exactly as the original buddhis. This stage which consists produced. The great One (Mahat-Buddhi or Intellect) and of all the buddhis is called buddhitattva. The buddhi-transfor- the rest (which spring from it) are seven (substances), mation is the primary modification of prakrti. It is the most producing and produced. Sixteen are productions (only). universal stage, for it encompasses all the individual buddhis Soul is neither producing or produced.55 as well as the potential of all matter from which the gross Sūtra twenty two of the Kārikā states : world is evolved. The buddhitattva viewed as the broadest and From Nature (Prakrti) issues the great principle (mahat, wholly unqualified state consisting of the entirety of the intellect), and from this the Ego or Consciousness; from universe, is named mahat (the great one). Mahat is distingui- this (consciousness) the whole assemblage of the sixteen shable from prakrti, and thus is called linga (sign). Prakrti, (principles or entities), and from five of the sixteen the five because of its characterlessness, is called alinga. gross elements.56 As the direct functionary of the purusa, the buddhi "is that These two statements cover all the productions which con- which discriminates the subtle difference between the chief stitute the manifested world. This process is accomplished in principle (Pradhana=Prakrti) and the soul."59 It must be two steps. They are "the psychical (pratyayasarga or buddhi- emphasized that what has usually been translated as soul in the sarga) and the physical (tanmātrasarga or bhautikasarga)."57 literature of India would, in reality, be better translated as The evolution of the buddhi, the Ahankara, and the eleven spirit or self. When buddhi, as mind, has defined itself in appropriate ways, 53 Loc. cit. it developes (with the aid of rajas) the sāttvika or vaikārika 4 E.B. Cowell, and A.E. Gough (Translators), The Sarva-Darsana- ahankāra. The ego-sense or ahnkära is distinguished from the Samgraha by Madhava Acharya (London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner buddhi as it "is a specific expression of the general conscious- & Co., Ltd., 1914), p. 221. 55 John Davies (Translator), The Sankhya Kārikā of Išwara Krishna, (London, Trubner & Co., 1981) p. 17. 56 Ibid., p. 54. 58 Dasgupta, loc. cit. 7 Chatterjee and Datta, op. cit., p. 277. 5º Davies, op. cit., p. 72.

46 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy Some Basic Concepts of Sānkhya-Yoga 47

ness (buddhi)."60 The function of the buddhi "is a mere an emanation of it, is itself formed for the modes), and understanding and general datum as thisness,"61 while the their various action has the effect of producing different ahankāra's function is abhimāna or self-assertion. Both of results ; the first and second modes in union causing the these words, ahankāra and abhimāna, mean more than self first issue, and the second and third in their joint action consciousness. They add "to the simple conception of indivi- the inferior class of existences.66 duality the notion of self-property, the concentration of all The individual buddhi and their particular sattva evolutes of objects and interests and feelings in the individual."62 When ahankāra and the eleven derivatives are so related that though these words are used in an ordinary sense, they mean pride. they are different from buddhi in their functions, they are all This meaning is only secondary. Philosophically they are used comprehended in the buddhi, and marks only its gradual only to express "the perception, not the exaltation, of the self; differentiations and modes. As the ahankāra partially depletes though very naturally this perception led to a sense of supe- itself generating the lower evolutes, it draws upon the buddhi riority over outward things."63 Further modifications follow for replenishment, and the buddhi, in turn, is refilled from the state of mahat-tattva, developing in a three-fold manner, due prakrti. Prakrti is the infinite reserve of the constituent factors to the three different gunas. This disturbance of the mahat by for the evolution of the universe. the three parallel surgence of the gunas results in the stage The ahankāra is regarded as the principle of individuality and called ahankāra. Depending upon which guņa (sattva, rajas, or the ego-function. The cause of the self, believing that it is tamas) is predominant in each of these aspects of development, involved in all the responses to the phenomenal world, is the the tendency is called in the order listed; vaikārika ahankāra, ahankāra. It is also "the center and prime motivating force of rājasika or taijasa ahankāra, and tamasika ahankāra or bhūtādi. 'delusion' (abhimana)."67 Zimmer further describes the ahankāra Rājasika ahankāra is not able to denote a new preponderance as : alone. It only enables the transformations of the other two The misconception, conceit, supposition, or belief that gunas. In the case of the sattva preponderance, the buddhi refers all objects and acts of consciousness to an "l" only becomes more definite in character. (aham). Ahankāra-"the making (kāra) of the utterance The ahankära is three-fold according to which guņa is pre- 'I' (aham)"-accompanies all psychic processes, produc- dominate. When the sattva guņa predominates, the vaikārika ing the misleading notion "I am hearing ; I am seeing ... " ahankāra gives rise to "the eleven organs, namely the five etc. It is thus the prime cause of the critical "wrong organs of perception (jñanendriya), the five organs of action conception" that dogs all phenomenal experience ; the (karmendriya), and the mind (manas).64 The derivatives of idea, namely, that the life-monad (purusa) is implicated the tamas mode of ahankāra are the five subtle elements in, nay is identical with, the processes of living matter (tanmātras). The rājasika ahankāra functions in both the other (prakṛti).68 modes of the ahankāra, "and supplies the energy needed for the Ahankāra is the agent, not the purușa. "Mahat stands to change of sattva and tamas into their products."65 ahankāra as consciousness to self-consciousness. The former is The three modes therefore act upon, or rather within, the logical presupposition of the latter."69 From the ahankāra egoism or consciousness (for this, as a part of Prakrti, or evolves "the eleven principles" which are the organs or faculties of sense and action, together with the 'manas'."70 The faculties 60 Dasgupta, op. cit., p. 250. 61 Loc. cit. 6" Davies, op. cit., p. 61 62 Davies, op. cit., p. 59, n4. 67 Zimmer, op. cit., p. 319. UNIVERSITY 63 Loc. cit. *9 Loc. cit. OF BRISTOL "4 Chatterjee and Datta, op. cit., p. 274. 69 Radhakrishnan, op. cit., p. 268. 65 Loc. cit. 70 Davies, op. cit., p. 60. LIBRARY

W.M.L

48 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy Some Basic Concepts of Sankhya-Yoga 49 of sense are those of seeing, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. The five subtle organs of action are those of speech, grasping, Sānkhya insists that "the sense is something super-sensuous ;

walking, digestion and reproduction. to confound it with the site is a mistake."74 It is further

The real organs are not the perceptible external organs, contended that the sense organs are non-material since they are like the eye-balls ... etc. There are certain imperceptible derived from ahankāra. Both the sensory and motor organs

powers (śakti) in these perceptible end organs which are presided over by the mind, manas. In the hierarchy of apprehend physical objects and act on them, and are the three internal organs, manas is the lower, next is the

therefore, to be regarded as the organs (indriyas) proper.71 ahankāra, and then the buddhi. These three are "the principal Sankhya calls the organs of perception or cognition budhin- sense-organs, since they apprehend all objects : past, present, and

driya; and those of action are termed karmendriya. As indicated future. The external senses are the subordinate organs, since they above, the organs of cognition and action are not thought of as apprehend only present objects."75 The concept of the internal the physical organs. They are regarded as the "determinate organs as higher or lower is relative, depending upon the function modifications of the indeterminate modifications of the indeter- of the particular organ. In ascending order, the "Manas is the minate mind-stuff (ahamkara or egoism)."72 The material organs chief organ in relation to the function of the external senses; of the gross body are considered to be "the seats of those ahankāra is the chief organ in relation to the function of manas ; determinate sensory and motor psychophysical impulses. The and buddhi is the chief organ in relation to the function of buddhīndriya are the receptive psychophysical senses, while the ahankara."76 Buddhi is considered the prime organ because of karmendriya are the reactive psychophysical senses. The sense its more direct relationship with the purusa or self, its pervasion

organs are subtle matter since they are derived from the of all the sense organs, the retention of all subconscious impres- ahańkāra; sions, samskara, and the faculty of memory and meditation

. .. which, though not spiritual, may be called mental The buddhi and its sattva evolutes of ahamkara and the

or psychophysical. Hence, the distinction between the senses are so related that though they are different from organs of knowledge and the organs of action is ultima- buddhi in their function, they are all comprehended in the tely based upon, the primary distinction between the buddhi, and mark only its gradual differentiations and

sensory and motor mechanisms of the psychophysical modes."77

organism, by which it knows the external world and reacts Thus, every buddhi and its included ahankara and senses to it.73 constitutes a separate microcosmos distinct from all other buddhi The reception and reaction to the physical world proceeds groups. They, the buddhis, are similar to each other, but due to from the raw experience of the external senses to the mind, their own particular avidyā, ignorance, this similarity does not manas, where these impressions are assimilated, classified and become identity to the extent that perception is dependent upon synthesized before being transmitted to the unifying appercep- the senses, the manas, and the ahankara, it is particularized for tion of the ahankara. Then they are determined by the buddhi the individual buddhi. On the other hand, the portion of percep- and finally presented to the self. The buddhi then reacts to these tion which is not part of the sense experience is regarded as impressions, reversing the procedure. belonging to the "community of all buddhi in the buddhi- tattva."78 The buddhitattva is a community of individual

Chatterjee and Datta, op. cit., p. 275. 74 Ballantyne, op. cit., p. 204. " Jadunath Sinha, Indian Psychology Perception, (London, Kegan Paul, 75 Sinha, op. cit., p. 6. Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd., 1934), p. 4. 76 Ibid., p. 7. 73 Loc. cit. 77 Dasgupta, loc. cit. 78 Loc. cit.

50 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy Some Basic Concepts of Sankhya-Yoga 51 buddhis which are made distinct by their own particular avidyā, the tanmatras are without the form which is actualized in ignorance. particles of gross matter. These potentials must undergo further VI. THE TANMĀTRAS transformations, aggregating into new configurations before they develop to the point at which they can act as a stimulus to The discussion above has been concerned with the sattva the senses. The particles of gross matter go through a state in evolutes of the ahankāra. It will be remembered that the ahankāra ! which they are too minute to act as sensory stimuli and are has a threefold development. The first is the sattvic tendency, infrasensible. the second is the rajasic, and the third the tamasic. These three The five tanmatras are the generic essences of the five gross modes of development are not independent of each other. They physical elements. The tanmatras evolve progressively and are to be regarded only as three aspects of a unity. The gross simultaneously in this order; śabda, sparśa, rūpa, rasa, gandha, elements from which the world of objects is evolved are the that is sound, touch, colour-shape, flavour, and smell. The first tanmātras. The tanmätras evolve from the aspect of the tanmātra to be generated directly from the bhūtādi is the śabda. ahankāra, which has a preponderance of tamas. This state is The rüpa tanmätra follows the same pattern, that is a unit of called bhūtādi. The bhūtadi is an intermediate state. With the sparśa plus a tamas unit from bhūtādi combined to form the help of the rajas, the tanmātras are generated from the bhūtādi rūpa tanmātra ; this occurs for the next two also. Schematically state. "The bhūtādi thus represents only the intermediate stage this process can be represented as follows : through which the differentiations and regroupings of tamas Śabad sabad tanmātra reals in the mahat proceed for the generation of the tanmātras."79 Śabda and a tamas unit . . sparśa The Sankhya concept of evolution must not be thought of as Sparśa , meaning "coming out or emanation, but increasing differentia- Rūpa ›, . . rūpa tion in integration within the evolving whole."80 In the stage Rasa .. rasa ,, of bhūtādi the regrouped tamas reals constitute the differentia- These constitute the intra-atomic units "which must be . . ganda

tion which has taken place within the mahat. This state of grouped and regrouped in a particular form to constitute a new bhūtādi is completely homogeneous and inert. It has only the existence as atoms before they can have the power of affecting characteristic of quantum or mass. our senses."81 The basic difference betwesn the tanmatras and Following the bhutadi stage of differentiation is that of the the paramaņu or atoms, is that the tanmatra are only poten- tanmātras. Tanmātra designates subtle matter, which is "vibrā- tially capable of affecting the senses ; whereas the paramāņu are tory, impingent, radiant, instinct with potential energy."81 They the actual gross material of the world. result from the disproportionate collocation of the primal tamas Before going on, it must be pointed out that the description units with the primal rajas units. The various tanmätras "possess of gross matter as ether, air, fire, water, and earth is not to be physical characters, some of them penetrability, others again thought of as a tabulation of the constituent elements as based capability of viscous and cohesive attraction."82 They also upon a chemical analysis. They are to be regarded from the possess the potentials of the energies of the "inner, subtle effect upon the five senses by which the objects of the world counterparts of the five sense experiences, viz., sound, touch are, known. cclour-shape, flavour, smell,"83 but since they are subtle matter, Each of our senses can only apprehend a particular 7 Ibid., p. 251. quality and thus five different ultimate substances are se Loc.cit. said to exist corresponding to the five qualities which may $1 Loc. cit. be grasped by the five senses. In accordance with the 82 Loc. cit. sª Zimmer, op. cit., p. 327. 83 Dasgupta, op. cit., p. 252.

Some Basic Concepts of Sankhya-Yoga 53

52 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy tanmātra further integrates mass units from the bhūtādi and sexistence of these five elements, the existence of the five ākāśa atoms result. This latter is referred to as kārayākāsa. It potential states or tanmatras was also conceived to exist is generated throughout the matrix of the kāraņa-ākāśa and as the ground of the five gross forms.85 serves as the basis for the production of the vayu atom. The Observation of the external world, whether by scientific kārayākāśa, since it is atomic, occupies limited space. The instruments or not, is ultimately the response of the senses. ahankāra and the five tanmātras are referred to as aviśeșa or The instrument gathers data which can have meanins to men indeterminate since they are capable of further determination only after it has been presented to the mind by w:y ef the and differentiation. The visea or determinate elements are the

senses. eleven senses and five mahābhūtas. There is a distinction made The physical atoms are generated from the tanmātras. First, between the configurational change and that resulting from the the śabda tanmātra augmented with tamas from bhūtādi, genera- evolvement of prakrti. The viśesa represent the final products tes the akāśa, or ether. Following this, the touch potential or of prakrti's course of evolution. All the rest of the phenomena sparśa tanmātra combine with the śabda tanmātra to produce of the world is nothing more than the rearrangement of these the gross atom of air or vayu. The process is repeated to form factors into new configurations and collocations. the other gross atoms, that is the tanmātras of sparśa and rūpa The five mahabhūtas are referred to as atoms by Dasgupta, combine to generate the fire or tejas atom, and the series con- but it would be better to consider them as sub-atomic particles. tinue for the formation of the water or ap-atom and the earth These five factors are the basic constituents from which the or kșiti atom. After the generation of the ākāśa, the production "atoms" of the elements are produced. Thus, a certain aggre- of the gross atoms progresses to produce all the different gation of the mahabhutas will result in the configuration which atoms and simultaneously all the atoms increase in quantity. is called hydrogen and by further modifications of this colloca- Some of the ākāśa atoms remain as ākāśa atoms and some tion, all ninety two of the natural atoms of modern physics are of the vāyu atoms remain as vāyu atoms and so on for the evolved. The modern scientific concept of the atom acknowled- others. The phenomenal world is thus made up of all the ges that they are all ultimately compounded of the same factors, five gross atoms in varying combinations. Some of the pro- only varying in the quantities of the basic materials. The perties of the mahabhutas are as follows : "The ākāsa-atom Sānkhya philosophy has a cosmology which is very ancient, yet possesses penetrability, the vayu-atom impact or mechanical it appears to be very applicable in today's world. pressure, the tejas-atom radiant heat and light, the ap-atom cohesive attraction."86 VII. SĀŃKHYA EPISTEMOLOGY The ākāśa is a transitive form linking the bhūtādi to the tanmatras and these in turn to the production of the gross The Sänkhya theory of knowledge is based upon the assump- atoms. The Sānkhya designates two types of ākāśa. Kāraņa- tion that there are three discernable aspects of knowledge. ākāśa which is non-atomic and all-pervasive is the formless They are the knower, the known, and the matrix of knowledge. mass in bhūtādi. The "ākāśa corresponds in some respects to The subject or knower is a conscious being and in reality the the ether of the physicists and in others to what may be called self. The object or known is that which is presented to the self proto-atom (protyle),"87 and cannot be regarded as mere by way of the mediating intellect. The matrix of knowledge is negation or unoccupiedness, āvaraņābhāva. When the rajas and the transcendental relationship of the purusa and the buddhi tamas factors associate, the tanmätra of sound is formed. The with its component parts. Pramā or valid knowledge has only three sources. "Perception, inference, and fit testimony are the three-fold (kinds of) 85 Loc. cit. 86 Ibid., p. 253. a ccepted proof, because in them every mode of proof is fully

87 Loc. cit., n.

54 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy Some Basic Concepts of Sānkhya-Yoga 55

contained."88 What cannot be demonstrated by the three methods named cannot be counted as valid knowledge. True In Sankhya, as in all the philosophies of India, the basis of

-knowledge must be definite and unerring. release from all the pain and suffering of life is vidyā. The path

Perception, which is of two kinds, is "definite cognition of to mukti of liberation is by overcoming the avidyā or ignorance

particular objects through the contact of the senses."89 Percep- and attaining right knowledge. The valid sources of knowledge

tion precedes the other two modes and is regarded as their are the keys to mukti, if properly utilized. The application of

superior because of this priority. The definition is only of the these modes of knowledge will be more fuliy dealt with in the

sense perception and does not apply to perception as experienced discussion of the self.

by one who has achieved mukti. The two kinds of perception are indeterminate and determinate. Indeterminate or nirvikal- paka perception is constituted of the raw sense data of the physical senses, and is called älocana which denotes only the bare act of sensing an object. The other, savikalpaka or deter- minate perception, is the result of the raw sensum being analyzed, synthesized, and interpreted by manas. This is called judgement or vivecana. The second source of valid knowledge is that of inference. This is also divided into two types of inference. They are vīta and avīta. These two terms mean affirmative and negative respectively. An inference is vīta if it is based on a universal positive proposition, and avīta if based on a universal negative. Inference of the sankhya is the same as that of our modern logicians and can be either of a deductive or inductive nature. Vita is of two kinds, roughly, corresponding to deduction and induction. The first is purvant inference and is based upon particular observations; and the other is sāmānyatodrsta which is based upon logical relationships. The last of the three sources of valid knowledge is that of testimony. It is not just any testimony, but is "testimony (such as is entitled to the name of evidence) is a declaration by one worthy (to be believed)."$0 This category of knowledge is also divided into two subdivisions, and these are known as laukika and vaidika. The first refers to valid assertions of ordinary trustworthy persons. The latter is the testimony of the scriptures. This last category is not to be accepted blindly, but must withstand logical analysis. 88 Davies, op. cit., p. 22. 8° Ganganatha Jha, (Translator), The Tattva-Kaumudi (Poona, The Oriental Book Agency, 1934), p. 14. 90 Ballantyne, op. cit., p. 123.

Yoga as a separate system 57

The two most widely recognized differences are those dealing with the idea of "God" and the emphasis on the practical aspect of Yoga, it is widely recognized that Yoga practices are considered "the counterpart, not only of the Sänkhya system,

CHAPTER IV but of almost every other system of Indian philosophy."2 The relationship of Yoga to the Sankhya system, and most of the other systems, is described by Bose as follows : YOGA AS A SEPARATE SYSTEM The Yoga Philosophy is the counterpart of the Sankhya system, and it begins where the other ends. The conclu- sion to which the Sankhya system brings us is that the emancipation of the soul is effected by right knowledge, YOGA is almost invariably linked with the Sankhya philosophy. ... The Sankhya Philosophy raises the question, but Yet it is regarded as one of the six darsanas. Yoga has been refers to the Yoga Philosophy for its solution; and there- referred to as the Theistic Sankhya because of the similarity of fore the first form is incomplete without the second.3 the two systems. This reference stems from the inclusion of It is evident from this and many other statements that the Īśvara in the Yoga Sūtra. Sānkhya only denies the possibility close doctrinal affinity of Sankhya and Yoga is quite generally of a logical concept of God, and hence does not refer to God accepted. Dasgupta acknowledges the two systems are similar,

in its system of logic. but he feels that they are similar because of a common origin ; Yoga teaches a system of discipline which is designed to give a source which gave rise to the development of two systems the practitioner perfect physical and psychological control along almost parallel lines. Some claim that "the only difference of himself. This control enables him to attain Mukti or between the two is that the Samkhya pertains to the universal

liberation. condition of nature, and the Yoga system pertains to the

It seems that the addition of the God concept and a series of individual condition of nature."4

practices to the Sankhya system would hardly justify counting In the practical system laid down for the introverted concent- Yoga as one of the six orthodox systems of philosophy. The ration, one of the steps urged to aid one in developing singleness

importance of Yoga is seen in its inclusion in the six systems of mind is the directive to concentrate upon one object. Among

as well as the fact of its being accepted as the counterpart of these objects is listed "God". In book one, aphorism twenty almost every other system of philosophy of India. Further three, Patañjali says "Illumination is also attained by devotion"

confusion is added by "both the Kapila Sankhyasutra and the to God."5 A later aphorism states, "Or (the steadying of

Patañjali Yoga-sütra being referred to as 'Sānkhya-pravacana', the mind may be effected) by pondering anything that one (an exposition of Sankhya)."1 Dasgupta does not feel that the approves."6 Yoga system is simply a modification of that of the Sānkhya. The above aphorisms indicate that Garbe's assertions that He believes that both the systems of Kapila and of Patañjali God is interjected as a sop to the theists seems to have some are derived from the same original school of Sankhya, which foundation. It is more probable though that Patañjali was, as preceded Kapila as well as Patañjali. Metaphysically, these two schools are fundamentally the same, but there are many philoso- 2 Bose, op. cit., p. 157.

phical, ethical, and practical points upon which they differ 3 Loc. cit., vide p. 31. Bernard, op. cit., p. 89. sharply. 5 S.P. Swami, Aphorisms of Yoga (London, Faber & Faber, Ltd., 1938), p. 37 1 Dasgupta· Yoga Philosophy, op. cit., p. 2. Tatya, op. cit., p. 35.

58 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy Yoga as a separate system 59

most Indian writers, concentrating upon the process of develop- them all under the concept of citta. They are thus regarded only ing the thesis of his method of gaining control of the mind. as aspects of the citta. Yoga regards citta as all pervading in Anything which was not directly concerned in this process is the human form; Sankhya does not. The Yoga accepts the same alloted only incidental mention. It seems to be normal practice sources of valid knowledge as the Sankhya; perception; inference, for most writers to mention things only in a cursory manner or and authoritive testimony. Citta has five states or vrttis. They ignore them completely if it is felt that the discussion of the are the vrttis of right cognition, illusory knowledge, imagina- subject would only be redundant for his readers. Another factor tion, sleep and memory. The aim of Yoga is the complete which holds a high place in the intellectual climate of India is that control of these states so that the reflection of, the purusa will of individualism. Contrary to the view of many Western writers, be more perfect and thus bring about liberation. most of the philosophies originating in India hold that the One point of difference in the cosmologies of these two individual freely determines his own path to liberation. There philosophies is that of the source of the tanmatras. This is almost unanimous acceptance of this goal. The statement difference appears to be due to the emphasis of the universal by that there is but one goal and the paths to it many, is almost Sankhya, and conversely the emphasis of the individual by universally accepted in Indian thought of today. Yoga. In the Sankhya the tanmātras evolve out of the ahankāra Even though Yoga allows for the existence of Iśvara, the while the Yoga feels that the source is the mahat. This separa- description given is that of one of the multitude of purusas. tion allows for the attainment of mukti while still of this worid. "The Lord is a particular Spirit (Purusha) untouched by If the tanmätras are a part of the ahankāra, the discrimination troubles, works, fruits, or deserts. In Him does the germ of the which dissolves the ego sense would also dissolve all that is omniscient bccome infinite. He is the preceptor even of the first, based upon it. Thus, the Yoga gives the objective world more for he is not limited by time."7 Sankhya does not allow for the validity. This does not imply that the tanmätras, which superiority of any of the purusas over any of the others. Iśvara, constitute the individual, are independent of the ahankāra. The by l is omniscient influence, "facilitates the attainment of libera- evolutionary process for both philosophies ultimately are not ticn, but does not grant it."8 Liberation is not union with very different in their final products. Another cosmological "God," but it is the discrimination between prakrti and purușa difference revolves around the disruption of the prakrtic pralaya. as in the Sankhya. The position of Sankhya on the concept of In the case of Sänkhya, the equilibrium is broken by innate God is that of agnosticism. God is outside the realm of the teleology of the guna attributes of prakrti activated by the knowable, hence is not a proper subject of epistemology. It transcendental influence of the purusas. The cycle is never would appear from these two positions that the two systems are ending, and is the basis of cycles of creation and destruction of not as antithetical as the titles of atheism and theism would the universe. Yoga attributes the disturbance of the pralaya indicate. This difference seems to be more apparent than real. to the transcendental influence of Iśvara. In either instance the In the area of cosmology and psychology there are a few impetus is of a nature similar to that of the sun on the earth. differences which do not appear to be much more than one of Prakrti reacts to the effulgence of the purușas or īśvara. All the points emphasized. While Sänkhya insists upon discrimina- the purusas and īśvara are uneffected by prakrti at any point tive knowledge derived by logical analysis, Yoga lays emphasis of the cycle of production and reduction. The apparent effect upon psychological discipline. Manas, ahankāra, and buddhi is due to a lack of discrimination between the observer and are regarded as distinct principles by Sānkhya. Yoga groups the observed. Mukti or liberation results from viveka or discriminative knowledge. Purușa has achieved the state of

Ibid, p. 22 kaivalya or isolation-integration, which is the ultimate goal of

Radhakrishnan, op. cit., p. 371 ; Dasgupta, op. cit., p. 25S; Dvivedi all beings when this discrimination is attained. op. cit., p. 21. A point of agreement between Yoga and Sankhya is that of

60 A Study of the Self Concept of Sänkhya Yoga Philosophy

regarding time and space as construction of the mind.9 "As a matter of fact, there is no real aggregation between the moments and their succession; hence all such Divisions of time ... are purely subjective."10 Since time is regarded as subjective, it cannot have any real objective existence. "The knowledge born of discrimination is liberative, omni-objective, comprehending things in all conditions, and simultaneous."11 When true CHAPTER V

knowledge is achieved, the categories of the mind which are born of avidyā are superseded and the purușa recognizes itself as beyond all the wiles of prakrti. The purusa which is in reality THE SĀNKHYA-YOGA CONCEPT OF THE SELF

beyond any mutation, is not bound by space and time or any other category of mind. Sankhya and Yoga are very much alike in their basic philosophy. The great difference is in the area emphasis. Sänkhya Up to this point, the paper has dealt primarily with what concentrates on the fogical structure of the world and its constitutes the non-self. It has been indicated that everything availability to understanding, while Yoga directs its major which is a part of the world is not of the self. Human under- effort toward the embodiment of this knowledge in the life of standing is dependent upon the mind which is not a part of the the individual. Sankhya gives the preference to the theoretical, self. From the time that man first attempted to express or and Yoga devotes its major effort to the application of the convey an idea to another man, the problem of communication theory to practical life. has been with us. How does one know that his idea has been correctly grasped ? In the everrday world this problem of com- munication causes difficulty, and much more so in the discussion of abstractions. The concept of the self as wholly other than the rationally conceivable is very difficult to grasp and even more difficult to convey. A more accurate explanation of the self might be made by designating the things which it is not. In fact, this is the basis of the incorrect interpretation of the philosophies of the Orient as being negative in their outlook. This is erroneous, of course, and due to a faulty understanding of the teachings of these peoples. Since Sānkhya and Yoga are so similar they have many terms in common. Most of the terms are also used in the same way. They do differ in respect to the universal and the individual. This difference is due to the contrariety of the base of their systems. The former deals primarily with the universal aspects of the world, while the other deals with the universal categories as they are related to the all-important individual.

Dasgupta, op. cit., p. 256, n2. The terms purușa and jīva are used to indicate the self in

10 Jha, op. cit., p. 215. Sankhya-Yoga. The usual interpretation of these terms by 11 Ibid., p. 219. many modern scholars, both Western and Eastern, is that of soul. Since this latter term has had so many different associations

62 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy The Sänkhya-Yoga Concept of the Self 63

connected with it, it would be better to use the terms self "The exact nature of soul is however very difficult of com- or spirit. Better still, the terms should be adopted as they are. prehension, and yet it is exactly this which one must thoroughly Purușa and jīva can be made clear just as easily as the terms grasp in order to understand the Samkhya philosophy."3 Of soul, self, and spirit. It might even be easier to convey the course this also applies to its theistic twin, Yoga. The purușa concept represented by these two symbols, as they will not have of the Yoga as well as Sankhya philosophy is described as as many disadvantages as the more familiar but overworked entirely devoid of characteristics of any kind. Its nature is that terms of self, soul, and spirit. of pure consciousness (cit). Vedānta and the Sānkhya-Yoga Sankhya feels that the existence of the purusa is not a matter views differ in their consideration of the purusa. Vedānta con- of dispute, although it is conceded that there is disagreement siders the purușa's nature to be pure intelligence and bliss among philosophies about the nature of purușa. In fact, the (ananda). Not so with Sankhya-Yoga, for bliss is considered but acceptance of the purusa is regarded as axiomatic. another name for pleasure, which as such is a part of the (The relation of cause and effect is) not (alleged as) the prakrti and not of the purușa. means of establishing (the existence of Soul); because, as Another area of dispute with the Vedanta is the consideration is the case with (the disputed term) 'merit', there is no of the individual selves (jīva). In Vedānta the jīvas are consi- dispute about there being such a kind of thing ; (though dered to be but manifestations of primal ignorance (maya), and what kind of thing is matter of dispute).1 as such are illusory from the ultimate standpoint. Sankhya- This aphorism is further enlarged upon in the commentary Yoga asserts that there are many purusas and that they are real which accompanies it : and not illusory. Sankhya-Yoga is definitely dualistic in the There is no dispute about 'there being such a kind of insistence on the absolute dichotomy between purusa and thing', i. e., as to there being Soul ... for the dispute is prakrti, spirit and matter. With respect to the distinction (not as to its being, but) as to its peculiarity (of being), between individual purusas, they are just as resolved that the as (whether it be) multitudinous, or sole, all-pervading, purușas are infinite in number, hence they are pluralists. Kapila (philosophical system, or theory), there is no dispute as to says that : (there being something to which may be applied to the term) Because there is definite adjustment of birth, deatn, 'merit' (dharma)-for the difference of opinion has regard and the organs, because there is non-simultaneity of to the particular kind of (thing, ... which shall be held activity and because there is diversity due to the three to involve) 'merit'.2 Attributes-the plurality of Spirits is established.4 This argument apparently included even the materialist. In Vācaspati Miśra comments that the conjunction of purușa the following aphorism, the materialists are refuted. Kapila with a new body, physical and psychological, "does not mean then gives the reasons for the acceptance of a particular kind modification; since the Spirit is essentially unmodifiable."5 He of purușa. further states that one purusa for all would result in all humans The self-intelligent principle, purusa, is distinguished from being born, dying, and doing various things at the same time. the prakrti and its qualities. The purușas are isolated, neutral, This absurdity of universal uniformity of human action is intelligent and inactive. They are many, without parts, without avoided by the hypothesis of multiplicity of purusas. Another qualities, and do not contract or expand. When occupying a argument in favour of plurality is based upon the natural body, it is allpervasive and is not contained in the body in which it is manifested. * Dasgupta, op. cit., p. 238. 1 Ballantyne, op. cit., p. 158. 4 Jha, op. cit., p. 64. Loc. cit. 5 Ibid., p. 65.

A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy The Sänkhya-Yoga Concept of the Self 64 65 diversity inherent in the three Attributes. Miśra's concluding In a later aphorism this statement is found: "Because that comment on this aphorism states : which is combined (and is, therefore, discerptible), is for the This 'diversity' or 'differentiation' due to the distribu- sake of some other, (not discerptible)."12 The Yoga Aphorisms tion of the Attributes in the various entities, could not be also indicate that "For the sake of it alone is the entity of the explained if the Spirit were one and the same in all. On visible."13 'It' refers to the purusa, and the 'entity of the the hypothesis of plurality, however, there is no visible' is prakrti. The point that is being made here is that difficulty.6 there is a teleology for the actions and productions of prakrti, Davies, in his commentary on Kārikā eighteen, points out and that reason is the self or purusa. that Kapila is represented as having written in book one, The second basis for postulating the purușa is given in this aphorism one hundred fifty four to the effect that there is no aphorism : "(and Soul is something else than the body, &c.); conflict between his teachings and those of the Vedas. The because there is (in Soul), the reverse of the three Qualities, aphorism is as follows: "There is no opposition to the Scrip- &c."14 Purusa is the viewer of all the productions of prakrti's tures (declaratory) of the non-duality (of Soul); because the three gunas. This argument is inferred from the previous reference (in such texts), is to the genus, (or to Soul in statement. For, if a thing is for the sake of another, and to general)."7 According to Davies, "The sūtra is probably a late avoid the 'regressus ad infinitum', the non-composite nature of interpolation, due to someone who wished to reconcile the purușa must be accepted. Thus the properties of the purusa are system of Kapila with that of the Vedantist school."8 He as follows : "Without the three attributes, distinguishable, non- further states, "Kapila himself seems to have been too honest objective, (subjective), uncommon (specific), sentient, and not and too bold a thinker to make such an attempt."9 The con- productive."15 cept of the genus of purușa is not only contrary to Kapila's "Because there must be control,"1s is the third premise. teachings but is also counter to the teachings of the Vedanta "There must be a presiding power, a pure consciousness which system. Each jīva is accepted as an ens by Kapila. "If an co-ordinates all experiences."17 absolute Supreme Spirit exists," Kapila appears to have felt, The objects constituted by the 'three Attributes' are "such a nature lies outside the domain of philosophy; Huma- such as 'are always controlled' ... therefore, they must nity being with him ... the highest point of philosophic have a 'controller', and this controller must be beyond the research."10 three Attributes and independent ; ... and this is the Five primary arguments are put forward by this philosophic spirit.18 system in support of the existence of the purușas. In the The fourth argument is that "there must be someone to Sānkhya aphorisms the first argument is as follows : experience."19 Since "It is Nature that is experienced; the (The existence) of Soul (is inferred) from the fact that experiencer is Soul."20 Prakrti is regarded as non-intelligent the combinations (of the principles of Nature into their and her products can only be experienced by an intelligent various effects) is for the sake of another (than agent, purușa. unintelligent Nature, or any of its similarly unintelligent 1ª Ibid., p. 159. products).11 18 Tatya, op. cit., p. 67 ; Jha, Yoga-Darshana, p. 122. " Ballantyne, op. cit., p. 160. s Ibid., p. 66. 1s Jha, Tattva-Kaumudi, p. 61. Ballantyne, op. cit., p. 171. 16 Ibid., p. 62 * Davies, op. cit., p. 50. 17 Radhakrishnan, op. cit., p. 280. 9 Loc. cit. 18 Jha, op. cit., p. 62. 10 Loc. cit. 19 Loc. cit. 11 Ballantyne, op. cit., p. 81. 20 Ballantyne, op. cit., p. 161.

66 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy The Sänkhya-Yoga Concept of the Self 67 The last argument is the basis of the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali. that is incompatible with the requirements of its perfect Sānkhya says, "(It is for Soul, and not for Nature;) because the happiness ... the spirit-world, the world of the pure- exertions are with a view to isolation, (from all qualities; a intelligible is beyond the natural faculties of the human condition to which Soul is competent, but Nature is not)."21 soul, and consequently, ... the soul cannot rise to an In the commentary the reasoning by which this conclusion is apprehension of such objects.24 derived is as follows : Davies' commentary on the Sānkhya Kārika says in part that The very essence of Nature cannot depart from it (so the linga-sarīra is a kind of spiritual body formed of the intellect as to leave it in the state of absolute, solitary isolation (buddhi), egoism, manas, and the subtle elements. He further contemplated)-because the three Qualities are its very indicates that the linga-śarīra has an existence which is separate essence, (the departure of which from it would leave from that of the gross body. It does not die with the body, but nothing behind), and because it would thus prove to be has a subtle kind of vitality formed of prakrtic material, thus not eternal, (whereas, in reality, it is eternal). The isola- it is capable of ascending to the heavens of the gods.25 "It tion (kaivalya) of that alone is possible of which the forms the personality of each individual.'25 The self concepts of qualities are reflexional, (and not constitutive) ; and that some representative Western thinkers will be taken up in more

It would be better to use spirit or self rather than the term is Soul.22 detail in the next chapter.

soul. What is called soul in the West is more properly compared Iśvarakrsna describes the witnessing purușa as, "isolated,

with the linga-sarīra in Sānkhya-Yoga. Linga-śarīra is capable neutral, perceptive, and inactive by nature."27 Purușa is descri-

of enjoying the glories of a heaven, whereas the purusa is bed by Kapila in the Sānkhya Aphorisms as "without qualities,"

beyond any involement of any kind. Self is different than soul "intelligent," "witness," "constantly and altogether free," and

because purușa is not a mental substratum, but is of the nature "indifferent."28 "Within each individual, the self-luminous

of pure consciousness (suddha cit). The comparison here is purușa, ātman or pums illuminates all the processes of gross best made by showing two statements which describe the soul and subtle matter ... of both life and consciousness."29 The

and one which describes the linga-sarira. The first statement is description of the purusa must take a negative approach for it

as follows : is within the capabilities of the rational mind to designate what

... in the case of man, the substantial form is a spiri- it is not, not what it is. The purusa is "without form, or con-

tual soul, a form which can exist by itself apart from tent ... devoid of qualities and peculiarities, ... without

matter .... It must be remembered that the soul is not a beginning, without parts and divisions."30 It appears that the

pure spirit, as thought has not what is spiritual but what purușa represents that which is permanent, immutable, and in-

is abstract as its direct object ; hence it has need of the transient in each individual. That which reaffirms constantly senses of the body, to bring it in contact with the world that the individual of today is the same individual it was yester- day plus all the new and continuous experiences that have and of knowable reality.23 The second statement also indicates that : are proceeding eternally. Purusa, then, is the life-monad, that

.. the normal exercise of the soul's activity requires the co-operation of the organism and that the soul when 24 Ibid., p. 326. separated from the body is in a state of relative inferiority 25 Davies, op. cit., pp. 76-77. 2e Ibid., p. 80. 21 Ibid., p. 162. 27 Ibid., p. 50. 22 Loc. cit. 28 Ballantyne, op. cit., pp. 56-165-179-181. 23 Mercier, Cardinal, et.al., A Manual of Modern Scholastic Philosophy 29 Zimmer, op, cit., p. 285. (London, Kegān Pawl, Trench, Trübner & Co. Ltd., 1926). p. 308, Vol 1. 30 Loc. cit.

68 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy The Sankhya-Yo ga Concept of the Self 69

"living entity concealed behind and within all the metamorpho- this idea; all of our thought and other emotions or volitional ses of life in bondage."31 It is spiritual and of the nature of sheer, self-effulgent light, (prabhasa). If the purusa is of the operations are in reality the non-intelligent transformations of

nature of an inactive, neutral, formless, and qualityless entity, the buddhi or citta. It is by virtue of the buddhi's preponde- rance of sattva that the purusa's reflection causes the buddhi to the natural question is how does it become involved in the mesh of prakrti with its gunas ? How does it control the physi- appear as though the intelligence were its own. He further indicates that according to Sänkhya-Yoga the purusa cannot be cal embodiment with all of its more subtle attachments (buddhi, ahankāra, etc.), if it does control the human manifestation ? directly demonstrated by self-consciousness. The purusa's exis- tence is to be inferred on teleological grounds and on grounds These two questions seem to be the eternal thorns in the side of all dualistic systems. In Sānkhya-Yoga these questions have of moral responsibility. "Ordinarily he is identified with or lost in his own confused picture of life."37 He, the purusa, cannot been anticipated. The answer to both questions seems to be be directly recognized as being separate from the buddhi modi- self-illusion. Patañjali says in book two, aphorisms six and fications unless discriminative knowledge has been attained. seventeen, that the "sense of being is the identification of the Without discriminative knowledge, because of the eternal seer with the instruments of knowledge,"32 and "the basic avidyā, the changing states of buddhi are regarded as conscious. cause of all karma is the identification of the self with the These changes are so associated with the reflection of the purusa experience and environment."33 The pure intelligence, purusa, in the buddhi that they are interpreted as the experiences of and the non-intelligent, buddhi, resemble each other in such a the purusa.38 The reflection of the purusa and the buddhi are way that buddhi, though in itself is "insentient, appears as if so associated that the discriminative knowledge can come after sentient by virtue of being reflected in the sentience,"34 of complete quiescence of the buddhi has been achieved. An excel- purușa. It must be remembered that the buddhi is composed lent analogy is given in Bhoja Raja's commentary to the fourth of gunas, the subtle elements of prakrti, and that the guna in aphorism in book one, where he compares the mind to a pool extreme preponderance is the sattva of intelligence stuff. The and the purusa to the moon, "the moon (reflected) in the resemblance, in fact, is of the caliber of the image reflected moving ripples of the water, looks as if that orb itself were from a mirror.35 Thus it is the buddhi which reflects the purity moving."39 and intelligence of the purusa to such a degree as to appear to Vijñāna Bhikșu objects to this view of Vācaspati. For Vijñāna the viewing purusa as its own intelligence. Bhoja Raja com- Bhiksu felt that this type of an association of the buddhi with ments, in part, to aphorism eight of book one of the Yoga the purușa's image did not support a valid conception of a real Aphorisms, that misconception is a notion which arises in res- person who is the experiencer. He considered the buddhi to be pect of something that is not so and which does not abide in intellectualized by the reflection of the image of the purusa the form of the thing. That is, the notion does not reveal the which is then super-imposed upon the purusa. This then, true form or real nature of the thing.36 Dasgupta elaborates results in an abiding and experiencing person. Dasgupta says of these two ideas, "What-ever may be the explanation, it seems 31 Ibid., p. 284. that the union of the buddhi with the purusa is somewhat my- 32 Coster, Geraldine, Yoga and Western Psychology, (London, Oxford stical."40 Earlier, Dasgupta stated that according to the Sānkhya University Press, 1935), p. 111. 33 Ibid., p. 114. view the relationship of the purusa and prakrti is a transcen-

31 Jha, op. cit., p. 15. dental one. In a footnote to this he points out that the Yoga 35 A clear pool is a better analogy, for the disturbance of the waters causes the purusa to lose sight of his pure reflection. Tatya, op. cit., 37 Coster, op. cit., p. 100 ; Patañjali, Book I, Aphorism 4.

p. 4. 38 Dasgupta, op. cit., p. 260.

38 Ibid., p. 6. 39 Tatya, op. cit., p. 4. 40 Dasgupta, loc. cit.

70 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy The Sankhya-Yoga Concept of the Self 71

has a different view on this.41 It holds that it is the creative of purușa and prakrti is thought of as mystical46 by Dasgupta, will of isvara which allows the evolvement of prakrti which in turn produces the situation whereby the purusa finally is able while Radhakrishnan responds, "Purusa is said to be out- side prakrti, and its influence on prakrti, though real, is to realize the freedom which it has always possessed. The relationship of buddhi (prakrti) and purușa is described unintelligible."47 Referring to the purusa as the life-monad, Zimmer says in by Radhakrishnan thus : The first cause, as well as the final cause, of all the connection with this double problem of the relationship of prakrti and purușa that by its mere inactive and luminous cosmic process is purușa. But the causation of purușa is presence, the purusa seems to be the activator, and in this purely mechanical, being not to its volition but to its mere hallucinatory role is known as the Lord or Supervisor (svamin, proximity. Purusa moves the world by a kind of action adhisthātar) even though it does not actually command or which is not movement. It is compared to the attraction control. Automatically and blindly the conditioning attributes of a magnet for iron.42 It is interesting to note that there is an apparent disagreement (upädhis) work of themselves. The real center and governor of their life process being the antahkarana or inner organ. The between Dasgupta and Radhakrishnan on this point of the relationship of the puruşa and prakrti. What Dasgupta regards purușa, by virtue of its effulgence, illuminates and is reflected in the process. This association of the purusa and prakrti as "the transcendental (non-mechanical) influence of the never had a beginning and has existed from all eternity. He purușa43 is considered "purely mechanical"44 by Radhakrishnan. compares the relationship to that of the sun upon the earth It seems as though Radhakrishnan has taken the analogy of and its vegetation. There is no effect upon the sun by the the magnet and iron as a reality rather than merely a mental pervasion of the earth by its life giving rays. What appears to construct to be used as a tool to make the incomprehensible be the sun's activity is in reality nothing more than the activity just a bit more understandable. of matter due to the incidental bathing of the earth by the sun's Radhakrishnan compares the purușa concept of Sānkhya rays. "The self-effulgence of the uninvolved life-monad with the God concept of Aristotle. For Aristotle affirms a transcendent God as the prime origin of the world and its (purusa), by suffusing the unconscious material of the realm and

motions. This God is "a purely contemplative being shut up processes of lifeless matter (prakrti), creates, as it were, both

within himself, so that he can neither act upon the universe nor the life and consciousness of the individual.48 Zimmer cites the

take cognisance of it."45 The movement of the world is not example of an unmoving person reflected in a moving mirror

determined by God, it is rather created by the striving after giving the illusion of the person moving. This is similar to the situation of two railroad trains standing God by the world. God, Pure Intelligence, unmoved, moves in the station. An individual in one of the cars, looking at the the universe by His mere being. Is this a mechanical influence upon the world of things ? Does this differ substantially from other train, sees movement and for a moment he is unaware as

the transcendental relationship of purusa and prakrti ? Both to which is moving, he in his railroad car or the other train. As a final demonstration of this relationship of the dualism questions appear to require a negative answer. The relationship of prakrti and purușa, Max Müller cites a simile : .. the purusha, when he seems to see, to combine, to rejoice, to suffer, and to will, does so by misapprehension

41 Ibid., p. 248. 42 Radhakrishnan, op. cit., p. 289. 43 Dasgupta, loc. cit. 46 This relationship cannot be defined in terms of logical categories. 44 Radhakrishnan, loc. cit. 47 Ibid., p. 290. 45 Loc. cit. 4 Zimmer, op. cit., p. 287.

72 A Study of the Self Concept of Sänkhya Yoga Philosophy The Sänkhya-Yoga Concept of the Self 73

nonly, like a spectator who is carried away by his sympa- To the question, what becomes of purusa once it has attained thies for Hecuba, but who in the end dries his tears and freedom or release, Müller says : stops his sighs, leaves the theatre of the world and brea- But this is a question which no philosophy can be thes the fresh air of a bright night.49 expected to answer. All that can be said is that Purusha, Müller points out the great similarity between this simile and freed from all Prakritic bonds, whether ignorance or the one Sankhya uses in describing prakrti as a dancer which is knowledge, joy or sorrow, would remain himself, would given in Kārikā fifty nine, "As a dancing girl, having exhibited be what he alone can be, unrestricted, not interfered herself to the spectators of the stage, ceases to dance, so does with, free and independent, and hence in the highest Nature cease to operate when she has made herself manifest to sense of the word perfect and happy in himself.51 the Spirit."50 It is to be noted that Müller's answer is very similar to the Fundamental to a thorough understanding of the Sānkhya answer that Buddha gives in relation to this question.52 and Yoga philosophies is the concept of prakrti, the concept of The state of ineffable tranquillity which seems to be identical purusa, and the concept of the relationship of the two. Prakrti, with the state or condition in which the purusa exists eternally, composed of the three subtle ultimates called guņas, becomes both prior to and after its release from the entanglements of manifest only after the dynamic equilibrium of the three gunas the alluring prakrti, has been misinterpreted innumerable (sattva, rajas, and tamas) is disturbed by the transcendental in- times. The misinterpretation has occurred both in the cultures fluence of the purusa. The manifestations which prakrti assumes, of the Orient as well as in the Occident. The uninformed seek once the state of pralaya is disrupted, are the guna aggregates a heavenly place whére all the things and pleasures which they which form the basis of the various phenomena of the physical have denied themselves here on earth will be gratified. As the and mental worlds. As for purusa, it is of the nature of pure people become more informed, they seek a more and more intelligence, effulgent, inactive, neutral, and devoid of any spiritual reward for the good life they lead here. The saints, comprehensible characteristics. The prakrti is of the opposite both of the East and West, are the very personification of nature, non-intelligent, dark, active, and without purpose other tranquillity. It appears that the people who have really had the than the service rendered to the purusa. Prakrti is like a beatific vision agree to a very large extent as to what they have puppet on strings, so long as the purusa's light of conscious- experienced. ness shines upon her she performs, as soon as the light of consciousness leaves her she can no longer perform rationally I. SĀNKHYA-YOGA PSYCHOLOGY and disappears back into the unmanifested state of pralaya. The multitude of purusas are absorbed into the prakrtic It should be remembered that in these systems of thought,

entanglement in much the same manner in which an audience although the world of the three subtle gunas is as real as that

/ becomes absorbed in a good drama production. of the purusa, the apparent participation of the purusa in the

True insight awakens the purusa to the real nature of the phenomenal world, physical and mental, is nothing more than

situation. This can be achieved only by bringing the buddhi to self-illusionment of the purusa by its own unawareness of the

perfect rest so that the purusa can behold its true reflection distinction between itself and the prakrti and its products. The

and thus know itself in all its purity. Mukti is achieved when association and participation of the purusa in the prakrtic

the purusa discriminates between itself and the reflection. drama, "is a kind of optical effect-a psychological illusion-

51 Müller, op. cit., Vol. III, p. 81. 49 Max Müller, Indian Philosophy (Calcutta, Susil Gupta (India) Ltd., 2 Conze, E., Ed., Buddhist Texts Through The Ages (Oxford, Bruno 1952), p. 80, Vol. III. Cassirer, 1953), p. 170. 50 Jha, op. cit., p. 121; Davies, op. cit., p. 94.

74 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy The Sänkhya-Yoga Concept of the Self 75

which makes it appear as if the life-monad were in bondage, trapped in karmic meshes, caught in the unceasing activities"53 Complete independence of all the pairs of opposites, dvandva,

of the eternal dance of the guna substances. Bondage, the con- that assail and seduce man is the unconditional prerequisite by

dition which the limited and limiting mind, buddhi or citta, which control and experience of this functionalism is brought

entertains towards the ever changeless, transcendent, and un- about. The entities belonging to the macrocosmic realm of

tainted self, is mere illusion. Salvation then is nought but the name-form can be dissolved and summoned back at will, only

release of the illusion by the purusa, for this is the only hold by a yogi who has accomplished perfect and unconditioned

that prakrti has upon it. There is, according to Sankhya-Yoga, control of himself. With all of its contents and wisdom, the

between these two eternal reals, a gulf of unspanable hetero- human mind is conditioned in every specific case by the peculiar balance of the subtle gunas that go to make up its character, geneity, unspanable apparently except via the illusion. Yoga, as a discipline, may be considered to be designed to disposition and all else that makes it a corporeal being. "His

"yield an experience of the sovereign aloofness and isolation ideas, beliefs, and insights, and even the things that he sees

of the suprapersonal nucleus of our being."54 by way of the around him, are, finally, but the functions or reflexes of his

intentional suppression of the spontaneous activities of the particular manner of not-knowing-better."57 Avidya, the lack

matter with which it is involved. This matter is the bodily form of discriminative knowledge, is the bird-net which at once

and psychic shells which have been superimposed by self- catches and supports him as a personality. This intangible and

deception on the purusa. binding limitation of his being will determine the experiences

The Yoga philosophy is a realistic, mystical and scientific of this and following states of existence.

school of thought. It is realistic because it insists upon the Zimmer feels that according to the analysis of the psyche

real existence of the phenomenal world and a normal evalua- presented by the Sänkhya, and assumed by the Yoga philoso-

tion of the perceptions of the senses; it is mystical in its aim phers, man is active (kartā) through his five organs of action,

for a truth beyond mental comprehension, it is scientific in and receptive through the five organs of perception. These

method and training of the total individual, employing the two sets are the vehicles of spontaneity and receptivity, and

best psychological principles.55 he further describes them as the faculties working outward,

Yoga is fouaded upon a doctrine of psychological functiona- bāhyendriya, and function as gates or doors, while the manus,

lism. This system constructs and then transcends the various ahankāra, and buddhi, which constitutes the inner organ or

planes or worlds of experience. The relativity of all states of antahkarana act as the gatekeepers, inspecting, registering and

reality are thus demonstrated and made known. The inner controlling the flow of traffic.58 That is to say, the sensual

world becomes known as a function of the inner psychic organs experiences of the external world are collected and registered

and the outer organs. Control of these energies by extension or through manas, appropriated by the ahankāra and then presented

retention enables the practiser of Yoga to contract or expand to the buddhi which is the equivalent of the chancellor of the

the world of his experience at will, and thus he is freed of all king and in its turn delivers them to the purusa. In the Tattva-

bondage. Success is dependent upon the directing of the sense Kaumudī, Vācaspati Miśra gives an analogy of a king who

faculties toward or withdrawing from the usual planes of though inactive in the direct administration of his kingdom,

projection ayatana.56 effects the active function of government. Outwardly, his control is relayed by way of the chancellor, the king's chief 63 Zimmer, op. cit., p. 315. representative of state, down through the hierarchy of govern- 54 Ibid., p. 316. ment to the extreme echelons of authority. Conversely, the 55 Earnest E. Wood, Practical Yoga Ancient & Modern (New York, E.P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1948), p. 28. 57 Ibid., p. 317. 56 Zimmer, loc. cit. 58 Loc. cit.

76 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy The Sankhya-Yoga Concept of the Self 77

reports from provinces progressively pass through larger and the round trip from freedom to freedom is presumed to remain more centralized regional offices until the digested reports are free for the rest of eternity.65 In the case of the released presented to the king by the chancellor.59 prakrtic elements which compose the citta, it is not clear The misconception of the self is in the reflected prakrtic self whether it too is forever reduced to the state of pralaya or if it and not in the self as such. This reflection of the purusa is returns to the prakrtic reserve which is ever in flux, performing what gives the prakrti the appearance of consciousness.60 for the remaining purusas. It is doubtful whether this was Ahankāra is the binding which seems to unite the prakrti and given any consideration, since the presumption has been cited purusa. The relationship of the purusa and prakrtic buddhi where the prakrtic gunas are for one purpose, and that is to which is associated with it is of such a nature as to cause what- serve the purusas, leading them back home to their natural ever mental phenomena that occur in the mind to be state of kaivalya. The purușa, at least in respect to the prakrti, interpreted by the purușa as being its own experiences.61 "Even appears without the sense of appreciation for the services non-discrimination belongs to buddhi, and in bondage it is rendered. reflected in purușa."€2 In connection with this, Dasgupta indica- There is an immediate conjunction between the purusa and tes in his book 'Yoga As Philosophy and Religion', how the citta pertaining to it, and indirectly with the rest.66 "While complete this reflection of the purusa by prakrti is, even in the purușa is the saksin of buddhi, i.e. the witness of the states of last stage before final release. Writing of the purity of the buddhi without any intermediary, it is the beholder, drașțā, of preponderance of the sattva or mind stuff at this stage, he others through the aid of buddhi."67 The free and indifferent indicates that just prior to the state of kaivalya it is almost purusa is the saksin when reflected in the perfectly controlled identical to kaivalya, the state of perfect isolation-integration. prakrtic buddhi. In this state the mind is so perfect that it reflects the purusa The terms buddhi and citta are used interchangeably. The without distortion of any kind. The difference at this point is Yoga word, citta, is regarded as the repository of all sub- not really different from the state of kaivalya except in that the conscious states. Generally, Sankhya uses buddhi in this way. purusa must make the final step and recognize itself as distinct The meaning of both words is the same in substance, that is from the reflection, no matter how perfectly it reproduces an the mind, but the emphasis is on two different functions. The image of itself. When this occurs, prakrti can serve no longer term buddhi emphasizes the idea of intellection.68 to bind the purusa.63 In the Sānkhya Kārikā's sixty-five and When the buddhi is ruled by sattva, true knowledge is pos- sixty-six and in the Yoga sutras, the last half of Book IV, sible, when by rajas, desire results, and when by tamas, false describes this state and its outcome for the purusa. "Indepen- knowledge arises. Three factors are involved in all knowledge; dence is the counter-product when the Qualities of Nature are the object, the subject knowing, and the process of knowledge. devoid of purpose for the real man, or, the power of conscious- "Citta exists for the sake of the purusa, who is deeper than ness stands firm in its own nature".61 thought, feeling, and will."69 "Since they are other than both It seems from this that there is a mutual release for both the (Soul and Nature, the only two uncaused entities) Mind and the purusa and its prakrtic elements. The purușa, once it has made

50 Jha, op. cit., p. 89. 65 The freedom of discrimination between seen and seer does not 60 Ballantyne, op. cit., p. 163. restrict purusa from being a spectator of the prakrtic dance. 61 Ibid., p. 65; Tatya, op. cit., p. 3 and p. 69. 66 Davies, op. cit., pp. 17, 54, 92. $2 Radhakrishnan, op. cit., p. 292; Ballantyne, op. cit., p. 65. 67 Radhakrishnan, loc. cit. e3 Dasgupta, Yoga as Philosophy and Religion, (London, Kegan Pawl, 68 Dasgupta, History of Indian Philosophy, p. 265n; Radhakrishnan, Trench, Trübner & Co., Ltd., 1924), p. 22. op. cit., p. 345ff. " Wood, op. cit., p. 245. 69 Radhakrishnan, op. cit., p. 346.

78 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy The Sankhya-Yoga Concept of the Self 79

rest are products."70 Although the purusa is considered the simultaneously.78 Thus, it is only possible to be aware of the seat of knowledge, its nature is not altered by conjunction with objective world, or of the buddhi or of the purusa. They cannot the prakrtic being.71 "Knowledge results when the intelligence, be cognised all at once. Consciousness can only be directed caitanya, is reflected in the mirror of the thinking substance, toward one idea at a time. citta, and assumes its form in so far as the latter has the form "Memory is not-allowing a thing cognized to escape."79 of the object."72 Coster renders sutra seventeen of book four Radhakrishnan says that memories are impressions left in the of the Yoga Sūtra to read, "In order to know an object it is citta, and that these impressions leave residua which cause necessary for the mind to be able to reproduce that object in interests, desires, new births and further experiences. He mental matter."73 The same sütra is number sixteen in Tatya's further states that the citta's functioning produces potencies edition of the Yoga sutra with Bhoja Raja's commentary, and which in turn cause other potencies; supplying the driving force he translates it as follows, "An object is known or unknown to to spin the wheel of samsāra perpetually. The chain reaction of the mind inasmuch as the tint of the object is required (to it)."74 potencies resulting from passions and desires produce the sense The Sänkhya Aphorisms discuss this topic in book one apho- of personality and life in samsāra.80 risms eighty-seven and eighty-nine. The commentary says in Purusa is distinguished from the ahankāra since the ego-sense part that, "knowledge and its sources are due only to the con- is dependent upon the experiential world. Ahankara leads a junction of the proper sense organ and results in sense percep- restless and dissatisfied life, for it is subject to the five afflic- tion."75 The citta undergoes modification assuming the form of tions of avidyā. Avidyā "is regarding the non-eternal, impure, the objects presented to it, but being of an unconscious nature it painful and not-self as the eternal, pure, pleasant, and self."81 has no perception of what it sees. It can only perceive by way of Further, "Egoism (asmita) is the identifying of the power that the reflection of the self acting on it. "The thinking principle (i.e. sees with the power of seeing,"82 as well as with the other ins- intellect) tinged by the knower and the knowable is the totality truments of the body and mind. This mis-identification leads to of objects."76 That is the citta or buddhi is affected by both further attachments such as the desire for pleasurable experi- the objects of knowledge and the purusa. It is by the conjunc- ences, the dread of the unpleasant and "The strong desire for tion of the purusa that the buddhi is produced and is able to life, seen even in the learned, and ever sustained by its own function, and since the buddhi is the internal organ which force."83 Mukti is achieved only upon the complete suppression gathers and assesses the sense data, it is affected by the objec- of all of these attachments. Once this is done the self-citta tive world. Despite the fact that the citta is in constant flux, relationship is rendered null and void. "The functions of the mind are always known, on account of When the self is freed from citta, it withdraws itself the constant nature of its lord, the purusa."77 Citta is not self into its ground, becomes passionless, purposeless and perceiving and is capable of only one modification at any one depersonalised. The purușa in its true nature is merely th time. Cognition of more than one object cannot occur wo .spectator of the mind's activity. When the mind (citta) is active, the self appears to experience various conditions, 70 Ballantyne, op. cit., p. 150. Ballantyne, op. cit., p. 117. 2 Radhakrishnan, op. cit .. p. 346. 78 Ibid., p. 126; Tatya op. cit., p. 158. 73 Coster, op. cit., p. 129. 7º Ibid., p. 8. 74 Tatya, op. cit., p. 155; Wood, op. cit. p. 198; 80 Radhakrishnan, op. cit., p. 346. i5 Ballantyne, op. cit., p. 104. 81 Wood, op. cit., pp. 63-235; Jha, op. cit., p. 82; Dvivedi, op. (11., 76 Tatya, op. cit., p. 160. p. 41; Tatya, op. cit., p. 54. ?7 M.N. Dvivedi, The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali (Madras, The Theoso- 82 Tatya, loc. cit. phical Publishing House, 1947), p. 124. 83 Dvivedi, op. cit., p. 42.

The Sänkhya-Yoga Concept of the Self 81 80 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy mean blinded or ignorant. In this type of concentration the and when the mind becomes calm in meditation, the self abides in its own true form.84 mind instinctively attaches itself to the things of the world. The last stage, which is associated with the three gunas is that There is a difference between the understanding of avidya by the Sankhya and the Yoga philosophies. In the Sāņkhya avidya of viksipta. This is the ordinary state of the mind in which it is regarded as the failure of the purusa to perceive the distinc- avoids the distasteful and seeks the pleasant. Viksipta means tion between the buddhi and itself, and thus is bound to the unsteady or distracted. When citta is entirely filled by the sattva guna, it is in the buddhi and its transformations. "This non-distinction of purusa from buddhi which is itself a mode of buddhi is what is meant state of ekāgra or one-pointedness. Here the mind is directed by avidyā (non-knowledge) in Sānkhya, and is the root of all steadily toward only one object for an extended period of time. This is the final stage preparatory to the complete and absolute experience and all misery."85 In the Yoga, avidyā is due not to stabilizing of the mind. Nirodha or the state of cessation is non-distinction but to positive mis-conception of itself as the the condition of the mind which allows the achievement of citta. This anyathākhyāti is the cause of the purușa accepting mukti. The entire system of Yoga is aimed at the achievement "the non-eternal, impure, evil, and non-ätman, to be eternal, of the last two stages of ekägra and nirodha, for they are pre- pure, good, and ātman, respectively."86 Avidyā is the very liminary to the attainment of samadhi. substance of the unbroken series, santana, of the hindrances, Concentration is acknowledged to be present in all the states kleśa, and of latent impressions due to karma, karmāśaya, and of mind. The difference is in the degree of intensity. The more its fruition.87 Yoga and Sankhya both maintain that liberation can come intense the concentration, the more nearly is samādhi approa- ched. The vrtti or mental modifications have been stopped in only through the true discrimination between purusa and the buddhi. The main emphasis of the Yoga system is on the nirodba, but then the latent residue of samsara must be

method of attaining the state of freedom and the suppression removed, otherwise it may serve as the root of a new growth of of all the activities of the mind in both the buddhi and citta vrtti and all the involvements of life. If these samsaras are not disposed of they may subsequently manifest themselves in a aspects. It is emphasized that the state of dreamless sleep is not to be confused with the final stilling of the mind. "Sleep is the conscious state when a proper occasion arises. Similarly, vrttis idea based upon the conception of absence."88 The objective encourage similar depositions, much after the idea that once an act is performed the first time all subsequent performances of of Yoga or concentration is the exclusion of the superficial it are enacted with that much more ease. Habits, good and layers of mental activity until the purușa is laid bare. Citta has bad, are thus formed. Thus, not only are new modifications to the quality of concentration in all the five stages. The five stages are kşipta, mūdha, vikśipta, ekāgra, and be prevented by the Yogi, but all the previous deposits of nirodha. The first and most common to men is the stage of samśaras are to be exhumed and eliminated so that they may ksipta, which means wild or restless. Concentration on any one not again bear fruit. The mind, once rid of all the vrttis, is area or object of experience is of very short duration, flitting considered to be in "a balanced state (samapatti), and to assume the form of whatever object is presented to it, the about as a humming bird seeking the nectar from the many flowers in the garden of life. The next term, mūdha, is taken to knower, the known or act of knowledge."89 That is "to the Person, the Sense-organs and the things of the world,-it assumes the form of these; and this is what is called the state s4 Radhakrishnan, op. cit., p. 347. of coalescence (Samäpatti)."90 The nature of the object as it is 85 Dasgupta, History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. I, p. 260. 86 Dvivedi, op. cit., p. 41. 89 Radhakrishnan, op. cit., p. 348. 87 Radhakrishnan, loc. cit., n. s Jha, op. cit., p. 62. ss Wood, op. cit, p. 34; Jha, op. cit., p.22.

82 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy The Sänkhya-Yoga Concept of the Self 83

within itself is assumed by the mind in this stage. They are several states of concentration of lower quality than that of Perception by citta occurs when some external object affects it

samädhi. All of these lower stages do not have as their object through the sense-organs, and is accompanied by mental modi-

of concentration the purusa itself. "These constitute seeded- fications directly related to the object. Though the object has

meditation."91 Vyāsa explains this aphorism with this bhāsya : both specific and generic features, only the former is primarily

The aforesaid four 'coalescences' have the external concerned in perception. External objects are accepted as real

object for their 'seed'; hence the communion also (that is by Sānkhya-Yoga. "Like the universe, all sensible objects have

based upon them) is 'seeded'; and (as in the case of their eternal archetypes or noumena, which undergo phenomenal

coalescence), that (communion) which appertains to the changes, but are never absolutely destroyed."96 For when one

gross object is 'vacillating' and 'non-vacillating',-'delibe- object becomes another, the form is only modified. Objects

rate' and 'non-deliberate'.92 ultimately revert to their primary or noumenal state. They are

These four; savitarka, savichara, sananda, and sāsmitā; are to be considered phantasmal in this state. Sensations result

translated by Tatya as; argumentation, deliberation, beatitude when sensible objects excite the senses, and though the object

and egoism.93 The last term is differently translated by others. may be the same it may produce a different sensation. The

Some of the other translations are sense of power, self-con- impressions of the presented objects are received by the citta

sciousness, and sense of being.94 The other terms are also through the medium of one or another of the subtle substances,

differently translated, but the same meaning is carried by most the guņas. The cittic alteration by which cognizance of an object's of them. The mind is similar to a battleground. Many forces are in generic nature is gained is called inference. "The cognition of

conflict driving the person first one way then another. The invariable concomitance is the basis of inference."97 Perception

battle between the inner drives of man bring dissatisfaction of one or two things which are invariably connected serves to

and pain much as a battle between armies. Contentment and establish the other's existence.

peace are the result of harmony of the opposing parties or The third means of knowledge, the appeal to authority or

drives. These drives which interfere with the effort at concentra- scriptures, is that knowledge which is given by a trustworthy

tion are "Ignorance, Egoism, Desire, Aversion, and Tenacity source of things seen or inferred. This knowledge may be

(of mundane existence)."95 These five basic impediments are communicated to others through the use of words or language.

very difficult to control. Other obstacles or distractions to None of these means of knowledge are to be taken as mutually

concentration are disease, languor, doubt, carelessness, sloth, exclusive, for they are in actuality complimentary. It is insisted,

worldliness or addiction to objects, erroneous perception, failure, in fact, that all three be used in proper balance if there is to be

to attain the stages of concentration, and instability in the state progress toward the goal of perfect isolation-integration.

of abstraction. These obstacles and impediments are further Cognition, in order that it may be valid, must be distinguished

elaborated in other sütras in both systems. from the other four kinds of mental modifications. The invalid

The three means of knowledge which are accepted as valid by cognitive modifications or vrttis are misconception or viparyaya,

Sankhya and Yoga are perception, inference, and authority. which is an erroneous idea of the true nature of an object. Fancy or vikalpa is a verbal construct, which in fact, does not represent any thing in reality, sleep or nidrā, a vrtti supported 91 Dvivedi, op. cit., p. 34. by the negation of the waking and dream modifications, and 9ª Jha, op. cit., p. 70. memory or smrti the recollection of objects by samskaras or 93 Tatya, op. cit., p. 13. " Wood, op. cit., p. 212; Jha, op. cit., p. 30; Dvivedi, op. cit., p. 12. 95 Tatya, op. cit., p. 51. 90 Radhakrishnan, op. cit., p. 350. "7 Loc. cit.

84 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy

deposits left from previous experience of the thing. In connec- The Sankhya-Yoga Concept of the Self 85 tion with the concept of sleep indicated above, it should be noted that a vrtti of sleep is evidenced by the individual being able to of the illusory activities and penetrating beyond the mental state whether he has had a good, bad, or indifferent sleep. "Sleep- strata, which comprises mundane life to the concealed and cognition has been regarded as a particular kind of (positive) diviner nature deep within each individual. For ultimately, cognition (and not mere absence of cognition, unconsciousness), the real and final purpose of philosophy is to transcend the because it is actually recalled on waking."98 "So sleep is a power and task of reason. This is not only according to the particular kind of presented idea (pratyaya), and in samādhi Indian philosophers, but also to such classical Occidental even this modification has to be restrained."99 philosophers as Plato and Kant. Since Yoga assumes, as does Sankhya, that empirical know- Zimmer writes that the access to truth is attainable only by ledge, which is the product of the erroneous confusion of passage beyond the confines of ordered thought. Further, that buddhi and purusa, is the knowledge which is contained in and the teaching of transcendent truths cannot be by the very logic gained through perception, inference and authority; it cannot it transcends. It is taught by the pregnant paradox, symbol, and

be counted as being absolutely valid. "Vyāsa quotes a verse to image. The process of careful step by step progressive reasoning the effect : 'By the scriptures, by inference and by the eager is forced to halt eventually, but the mind can still go on to the desire for practice in contemplation, in three ways he furthers truths beyond the basic principle of earth-bound human logic; his insight and gains the highest yoga."100 That is, in order to that is, the pedestrian principle of the incompatibility of become totally integrated, isolated, realized, and fully matured opposites. A transcendent principle is one which encompasses (kevala), the seeker after the true wisdom must break the spell apparent incompatibles in a unity which is excluded on the of absolutely everything which his mind and feeling have ever logical level of comprehension. "Transcendent truths compre-

imagined to be his own. hend an ever recurrent coincidence of opposites and are characterized by an eternal dialectical process."101 II. THE METHOD OF ATTAINING RELEASE The first step toward understanding the paradox of pheno-

An indicated above, Yoga advances the proposition that menality is the purging of all the more ordinary impurities. In

salvation, by way of release, can be obtained by way of the order to do this, the practitioner of Yoga must practise the

discipline expounded in its teachings. The other systems appear following preliminary exercises : yama, niyama, āsana, prāņā-

to agree to a large extent, for they all have incorporated most yāma, pratyāhāra, dhyāna, dhāraņā, and samādhi. These mean

of the basic premises of Yoga and Sankhya into their own respectively forbearance, observance, posture, breath regulation,

philosophies. The basic concept in this method is to move abstraction, contemplation, meditation or deliberation, and

from one stage to another progressively upward toward the concentration. These are divided further. Yama consists in

final stage of samādhi. In order to do this, one must first learn practising the moral law in relation to killing, lying, stealing,

to concentrate and to meditate. That is, the subtle guna subs- continence, and covetousness. Niyama consists of the exercises

tances of the prakrti must be caused to come to a standstill in of purification, contentment, discipline, study, and in the Case

relation to the purusa with which it has been associated. The of Yoga, resignation to īśvara. The āsanas are comparable to

knowledge of reality will not be found in the use of the mind in the physical education programmes which accompany the course

an objective manner, rather it shall be through the suppression of studies in the school of today, and is based upon the premise that a sound and healthy body is necessary to more efficient

99 Jha, op. cit., p. 22. study. Prāņāyāma and pratyāhāra are a further refinement of

99 Radhakrishnan, loc. cit. the control over the physical aspect of the student of Yoga.

100 Įbid., p. 351, These first five are called the bahiranga or external aids, and

101 Zimmer, op. cit., p. 312.

86 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy The Sänkhya-Yoga Concept of the Self 87

the next three are the antaranga or internal aids to release. The antaranga are intellectual exercises. None of the eight are four are not to be thought of as being mutually exclusive. It is a

mutually exclusive for they are in fact all utilized in all the matter of individual temperament as to which is the more

stages of progress toward final liberation. The importance of emphasized. The anner mof listing is also a matter of preference.

any one is dependent upon the stage of development. Contemp- Patañjali would have listed the margas or paths in the above

lation is the fixing of one's mind (attention) upon one object. ascending order. His preference was that of Rāja-Yoga. Kapila,

Prolonged contemplation leads to the unity of the mind with of course, held Jñana-Yoga in the highest esteem. Akhilānanda

the object contemplated. This unity is meditation. When the does not list the margas as above. He describes Bhakti-Yoga as

consciousness contains only the object, concentration has been the realization through unselfish work and duty. Jñana-Marga

achieved. Samadhi when sustained and entered at will leads is the way of discriminative knowledge. Rāja-Yoga is the discipline which aims at complete control of the mind."101 to mukti. Further moral disciplines are to be added to the above men- There are other Yogas which have many followers. The one

tioned, such as mental hygiene, universal brotherhood, kind- which has the most notoriety in the West is that of Hatha-

ness, sympathy, cheerfulness, and equanimity. The Yoga Yoga. In this Yoga "the methods of bodily control, breath

discipline urges that the proper inhibitions are brought about regulation and mantras"105 are discussed. This discipline is

by practice and thus the roots of desire are destroyed as a the physical education part of Yoga. There are extremist in any

result of living a life of virtue, and the practices are the efforts culture, for the West also has its muscle bound athletes. The

needed to sustain progress toward steadiness of thought. This more bizarre extremist make the greatest impression, and

latter end is gained by purificatory action, continence; know- unfortunately, too often the comparison is made of "one's own

ledge, and faith. Through strict adherence to this regime, one good theory with the other's bad practice."106 The exercises of

acquires a detached tranquillity which leads to the final release the Hatha-Yoga are quite different from those to which the West

from the bounds and entangling meshes of the prakrtic guņa has become accustomed, but they have been derived over the centuries to accomplish a particular end. The primary purpose substance. In the Bhagavad-Gita, Krishna tells Arjuna that, "the evil for the physical exercises for Patañjali was the acquiring of a

doing, the deluded, the vile men, they come not to Me."102 healthful body which would not interfere with his mental

After indicating the fact of necessary moral integrity, the discipline; the same basis for the physical education department

primary approaches to mukti are enumerated and described in of present day schools.

the following verse : The basic concept of the Sankhya and Yoga concerning the

Among the virtuous ones who turn towards Me (the ultimate reality of man has been discussed. It has been shown

Divine) with devotion, O Arjuna, there are four kinds of that the Self concept of these two systems are identical for all

Bhaktas; the suffering, the seeker for good in the world, practical purposes. They do differ in some areas of thuir

the seeker for knowledge, and those who adore Me with psychology, cosmology and methodology. Sänkhya teaches that

knowledge.103 discriminative knowledge will result in liberation. Yoga acknow-

All of the present systems of philosophy in India recognize the ledges this, but insists that the achievement of this knowledge

four basic approaches to the ultimate goal. These four are called can only result from the complete stilling of all the mental

Bhakti-Yoga, Karma-Yoga, Jñāna-Yoga, and Rāja-Yoga. These faculties. Thus Sankhya is of the Jñana-marga and Yoga is the

134 Swani Akhilananda, Hindu Psychology (London, George Routledge 102 Besant and Das, op. cit., p. 136. & Sons Ltd., 1948), p. 179. 101 Anilbaran Roy (Ed.), The Message of the Gita (London, George 103 Radhakrishnan, op. cit., p. 358 n. Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1946), p. 119. 1J6 Rudolf Otto, India's Religion of Grace and Christianity Compared & Contrasted (New York, Macmillan Co., 1930), p. 59.

88 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy

Rāja-marga. They are not mutually exclusive, for concentration is necessary to study the Sankhya writings, and intellectual effort is essential to an understanding of the texts of the Yoga school. In the cosmology, Yoga introduces the personalistic God, īśvara, while the Sankhya insists that there is no evidence CHAPTER VI which can logically prove the existence of a divinity of the nature of iśvara. Psychologically, the difference between the two systems is one of emphasis. Sankhya directing its effort toward the gaining of the universals in a logical structure THE SELF CONCEPT: EAST AND WEST

of knowledge while Yoga concentrates its effort upon the universals which have meaning to the individual in his striving toward final liberation. In a sense, Sankhya is a negative approach to the knowledge of the self, for the logical structure, THE self concept of several representative Western philosophies

while positive, is designed to distinguish what is not the self. will be discussed and compared with that of Sankhya-Yoga.

It is the enumeration of the things referred to in the Upanisadic Starting with Plato and Aristotle, the study will proceed to the

statement of "neti, neti,"107 thus indicating the indefinibility of consideration of some of the contemiporary philosophers.

the purusa. This is primarily an intellectual regime. In Yoga The concepts of immortality, soul, personality, and the

the discipline is designed to enable the practitioner to "Know duration of existence are contained in and related to the self

thyself" in the Socratic sense. It is thus a positive approach concept. Plato's writings discuss all of these related concepts,

through a method of negating the effects of the prakrtic world. but due to his style, they are not treated in a systematic manner,

This positive action is directed so as to still gyrations of the "Plato himself hated nothing more than system-making."1 This

prakrtic dancer in order that the spectator will realize the distinc- is emphasized by the fact that "if he had a system, he refused

tion between the seen, the seeing, and the seer. Both systems to tell us what it was,"2 and any forcing into a system will

insist upon the follower being of sound body and mind, and serve only to distort and misrepresent his teachings. This lack

that he be a virtuous and moral person. If he is not, the of systematization is of itself not conducive to a full understan-

desired results cannot be achieved. The good life is the funda- ding of Plato's writings. That Plato believed in immortality of

mental requirement in all the philosophical systems of India. the soul, cannot be doubted. There does remain some doubt

It is recognized that there is room for disagreement concerning about the type of immortality and as to the character of the

what constitutes the good life and the method of achieving it. immortal being. In the Republic Plato says that Socrates con-

However, the disagreement is more of degree than of kind. cludes "since the soul is not destroye dby any evil, either its owig

In the next chapter several representative Western philosophic or another's, clearly it must be a thing that exists forever, and

writings will be examined in relation to the self concept. The is consequently immortal."3

purpose being to compare and attempt to evaluate the various In the Phaedo Socrates replies to Crito's enquiry about his

conceptions of the self in relationship to the various concepts burial wishes, that it is of little interest to him, but Crito must

and some of the more recent scientific discoveries. first catch and hold him. He then discourses to the group about

1 A. B, Taylor, Plato The Man and His Work (New York, Meridian Books, 1956), p. VII. 2 Loc. cit 107 Robert Ernest Hume, The Thirteen Principal U panishads (London, Francis M. Cornford, The Republic of Plato (New York, Oxford Oxford University Press, 1951), p. 97. University Press, 1945), p. 345.

90 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy The Self Concept : East and West 91

the distinction between the body and that which constitutes the form or content ... devoid of qualities and peculiarities, real Socrates.4 Another argument in favour of the soul is given in without beginning, without parts and divisions."11 For the Phaedrus. Socrates is again speaking, "The Soul is immortal, Socrates, the heaven beyond the heavens is the source of the for that is immortal which is ever in motion; but that which moves divine element in man. That this divine element is different and is moved by another, in ceasing to move ceases also to live."5 from the tripartite soul is indicated in the myth of the soul He concludes that, "Therefore, only that which is self-moving, looking beyond itself into the essence which is void of charac- never failing of self, never ceases to move, and is the fountain teristics. It is to be noted also that the description of the three and beginning of motion to all that moves besides."6 The state- parts of the soul is very similar to the three aspects of the linga- ment goes on to discuss the beginninglessness of the soul, and śarīra. Buddhi is comparable to the charioteer, while manas reasons that, "therefore the self-moving is the beginning of would be related to the good steed, and the ahankāra is similar motion; and this can neither be destroyed nor begotten."7 If to the dark and unruly horse. The three divisions of the the self-moving were destroyed, Socrates says, then the whole psyche are nous, thumos, and epithumia. These are taken to universe would cease to function. But since the self-moving is designate the intelligence, the spirited or emotional, and the immortal, he continues, it "is the very idea and essence of the appetitive or desiring aspect. These correspond quite closely soul."8 with the Sankhya concepts of buddhi, manas, and ahankāra.12 Still referring to the soul, he indicates that its form is of a It appears that Plato's concept of the immutable essence is very divine nature and that man can only speak of it in a figurative similar to that of the Sankhya-Yoga. However, it must be manner. The divine is described as "beauty, wisdom, goodness, remembered that Plato, recognizing the shortcomings of com- and the like."9 The myth of the ascent to the highest heaven munication, often resorted to the use of myths. These myths is continued, and Socrates says that the immortal souls, when were not meant to be taken literally, but rather the total effect they are at the end of their course, go out and stand upon the of the story is to be considered with regard to the concept that back of heaven, and as the revolutions of the sphere carry he wanted to put across. For "the Platonic myths almost them around, they behold the world beyond. Of this heaven always point to a gap in scientific knowledge."13 The concept above all the heavens, there is no poet which has sung or shall of the self is very nebulous in the writings of Plato. The dialo- ever be capable of singing in a manner worthy of this vision. gues, it should be recalled, were written for general circulation What does Socrates say of this vision ? "The colourless, formless and represent an attempt to popularize philosophy. What his and intangible truly existing essence, with which all true know- lectures at the academy contained, can only be gleaned from ledge is concerned, holds this region and is visible only to the the remarks of other writers and only in part from his own mind, the pilot of the soul."10 The description given by writings. If anyone should have learned directly from Plato, Socrates seems to be quite similar to that given in the Sānkhya it should have been his former student, Aristotle. Aphorism of the purusa. For the purușa is described as "without There is ample evidence that Aristotle did not always agree with the teachings of Plato. He advanced some new conceptions

4 B. Jowett, trans., The Dialogues of Plato (New York, Scribner, of his own, as well as altering the older conceptions to be better

Armstrong & Co., 1874), p. 444, Vol. 1. suited to his philosophy. His work is the first systematic treat- 5 Ibid., p. 550. ment of philosophy in Greek culture. This systematization aids 6 Ibid., p. 551 7 Loc. cif. 11 Ballantyne, op. cit., pp. 56, 165, 179, 181. Loc. cit. 12 Edward J. Urwick, The Message of Plato (London, Methuen & Co., ·Ibid., p. 552. Ltd., 1920), p. 18ff. gives an interesting comparison of these concepts. 10 H. N. Fowler, Trans., Plato (London, Wm. Heinemann, 1915), 15 E. Zeller, Plato & The Older Academy (London, Longmans, Green Vol. I, p. 475. & Co., 1876), p. 161.

The Self Concept : East and West 93

92 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy This disposes of the problems of what soul is and how it is

a great deal in knowing more precisely what he has to say on subjoined to the body. Aristotle summarizes his answer :

any given subject. He has, in fact, written a treatise specifically ... which applies to it in its full extent. It is substance

on the soul, De Anima. His approach is to state the problem, in the sense which corresponds to the definitive formula

discuss what has been said on the subject by others, and then to of a thing's essence. That means that it is 'the essential

give his own thoughts on the problem and propose solutions. whatness' of a body of the character just assigned.17

Aristotle devotes the entire first book to a very critical review But at the end of the chapter, Aristotle raises a question as to

of the ideas of the soul as expressed by his predecessors. After the relationship of the soul and the body. He says that the soul

this rather cursory presentation, he dismisses them and makes plus the body constitutes the animal. From this it indubitably

a fresh start. The problem is again posed, i.e. what is soul ? follows, according to the above reasoning, that body and soul

The basic assumptions upon which he builds his definition of are inseparable, or at least certain parts are not separable. The

the soul are three, and are predicated upon the concept of possibility of separation is due to the fact of the actuality of

substance. His assumptions are that substance has a sense in some parts of the soul, being nothing more than the actuality

which it is recognized as matter, another sense in which it is or potential of that part. Again, some can be separated because

regarded as form or essence, and lastly the other two in combina- they are not the actuality of any body whatsoever. He concludes

tion. He then states that matter is potentiality, and form is actua- the outline determination of the soul by saying, "Further, we

lity, and the latter has two related grades. Further, he reasons, have no light on the problem whether the soul may not be the

since natural bodies are thought of as the substance of all other actuality of its body in the sense which the sailor is the actuality

bodies, thus those which have life are composites. It, the com- of the ship."18 This discussion of Aristotle seems to indicate

posite, is also a body, and the body cannot be the soul because it that he suspected that his definition was not as efficient as he

has life attributed to it. "Hence the soul must be a substance in had at first thought.

the sense of the form of a natural body having life potentially In another chapter Aristotle describes the mind and its func-

within it."14 It is then posited that since substance is actuality, tions. The soul is equated with the mental life of an individual.

the soul must be the actuality of the body. As pointed out The discussion above seems to equate soul and form. In his

above, actuality has two senses. These two senses correspond discussion of the mind, Aristotle says, "mind must be related

to the possession of knowledge and the use of that knowledge. to what is thinkable, as sense is to what is sensible."1a This

Soul is actuality in the first sense, thus soul is a form, because conclusion is drawn from the following reasoning. Thinking is

form and actuality are synonymous for Aristotle. Soul is now a process in which the soul is acted upon by the thinkable,

the first grade of actuality of a natural and potentially living directly or indirectly. Thus, the intellectual part of the soul,

body. In order "to give a general formula applicable to all which is impassible, is regarded as capable of receiving the

kinds of soul, we must describe it as the first grade of actuality form of an object, or at any rate it must be potentially identical

of a natural organized body"15 with the character of the object but not with the object. This

From the generalized statement the question of the identity description of the process of knowing seems to be quite similar

of the soul and body can be dismissed as meaningless and to the Yoga concept about this process. For Yoga says, "An

unnecessary. This is because "Unity has many senses (as many object is known or unknown to the mind in as much as the tint

as 'is' has), but the most proper and fundamental sense of both of the object is required to it."20 This Aphorism is elaborated

is the relation of an actuality to that of which it is the actuality."16 17 Loc. cit.

14 Richard McKeon, (ed.) The Basic Work of Aristotle (New York, 18 Ibid., p. 556.

Random House, 1941), p. 555. Ibid., p. 589. 20 Tatya, op. cit., p. 155. 15 Loc. cit. 16 Loc. cit.

94 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy The Self Concept : East and West 95

by Bhoja Raja's commentary. He explains the Aphorism thus, that mind can think of itself and that matterless objects are "An external object is known and unknown from the tint of the identical with what thinks. A question is raised and is the topic object- i. e. from bestowing its shape upon the mind."21 for the next short but very much discussed chapter. It is asked The whole of chapter four of book three is very similar to why the mind does not always think. There are two factors in the description of the mind as given in book four of the Yoga all the things in nature, Aristotle reasons,26 and they are matter. Aphorisms of Patañjali. For, Aristotle indicates that the mind which is potentially all the particular things, and a cause which is itself thinkable.22 The structure of the mind is such that it is productive in the sense that it makes all the things of nature. potentially has the cause of all subsequent thinkable objects. Soul likewise has the two distinctive factors described above. There are many other similarities which are areas for further Thus the intellectual part of the soul is what it is because study. it becomes all things, and there is another part which is Aristotle says that the soul is the cause or the source of the what it is because it makes all things. That is, it is a cause or living body. He explains this to mean that the soul is the cause agent only in the manner in which light produces colours by and source of the body in the three recognized senses. "It is (a) falling upon objects-i.e. as the sun is the cause of life on the source or origin of movement, it is (b) the end, it is (c) the earth without it in reality acting with purpose in respect to the essence of the whole living body."23 This has the ring of the earth. "This intellect is separable and impassive and unmixed, concept of purusa, for the purușa is the origin of the move- being in its essential nature an activity. For that which acts is ments culminating in the empirical being. It is the end in the always superior to that which is acted upon, and constitutes sense that the dance of prakrti is for the everwitnessing purusa, the cause of matter."27 Continuing, he says that actual know- and the purusa is the very life of the body by its transcendental ledge is identical with things which are known and potential influence. Even Aristotle recognized that his concept of soul knowledge is prior in time to actual knowledge for the indivi- is used to cover a great many ideas or forms which do not dual, but not in the universe at large. The active intellect, he properly belong to soul in the highest sense. For he points out states, does not at one time know and at another not know. that movement is not in the soul, and that "mind itself is Aristotle then concludes the chapter with these two statements, impassible. Thinking, loving, and hating are affections not of which appear to be speaking of the distinction between two mind, but of that which has mind, so far as it has it."24 So it is concepts which are very similar to the Sankhya-Yoga concepts when the body declines all the activities such as the above of purușa and prakrti. His statements are as follows : decline also for "they were activities not of mind, but of the Only in separation from matter is it what it really is, composite which has perished: mind is, no doubt, something and this (its essential nature) is alone immortal and more divine and impassible."25 Near the end of the work, eternal. But we do not remember, because the reason of De Anima, Aristotle wrote a short chapter which has been an which we are speaking is impassive, while the intellect area of great discussion among his commentators from the which can be affected is perishable, and without the beginning. former does not think at all.28 In the previous chapter he has discussed the mode of know- Thus, when the psyche is freed from the conditions of the ledge and thinking in relation to the mind. Here he concluded world, it is itself in its purity and this alone is immortal and

"1 Loc. cit. McKeon, op. cit., p. 590. 16 Ibid., p. 591; A. Seth Pringle-Pattison, The Idea of Immortality 23 McKeon, op. cit., p. 561. (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1922), p. 66n. 24 Ibid., p. 548. 27 Loc. cit. 25 Loc. cit. 28 Loc. cit.

96 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy

eternal. Without this factor the soui is lifeless and unthinking The Self Concept : East and West 97

matter. There are at least four basic ways in which this statement There are several kārikās which could be quoted in compa- may be interpreted. First it can be taken to mean that being or rison with these statements of Aristotle, but two will suffice for existence is the effect or product of being conscious. That is now. The first, number twenty, says in part, "It is thus, from not the meaning of the formula for Descartes. The argument this union, that the unintelligent body (the linga) appears to be against this interpretation is that "implication is not production intelligent."29 The second is number forty-one, and says, "As or creation."31 Vietch further argues that this does not properly a painting does not stand without a support or receptacle, .. interpret "sum" consistently with the "cogito." For, he further so the linga does not exist unsupported, without specific ele- reasons, "if I am first of all supposed to be conscious, I am ments."30 In fact, the material discussed and the mode of supposed to be and to exercise a function or to be modified in handling it, and the conclusions reached in Aristotle's De Anima a particular form."32 Hence, he continues, "It could hardly, and the Sankhya-Yoga writings are almost too similar for one consistently with this, be said that 'I conscious' produce or not to notice and wonder about the similarity of origin. It is create myself, seeing that I am already in being and doing."33 recognized that it is possible to read too much into a writing, The second interpretation which is possible, according to Vietch and also that there is a different cultural basis in which these is that "my being conscious implies that I am and was, before ideas are expressed. It is also noted that the concept of the and in order to be conscious."34 He feels that Descartes would soul changed greatly and rather suddenly after contact with be the last to maintain that ego pre-existed before conscious- what are referred to as the Oriental mystery religions. Since ness. A third interpretation is that being conscious is the means Aristotle was so systematic, it seems that there exists a fertile of knowledge of existence. Consciousness and existence are field of research in the analysis and comparative study of the identical and are convertible phrases. Vietch says that this psychology of the Sänkhya and Yoga systems with those of the statement is inadequate for the thinking of Descartes. The in- Aristotelian writings. adequateness lies in the fact of using two terms to be identical. The next Western philosopher is Rene Descartes. He is regar- This does not effect an assertion of existence. Lastly, the state- ded by many as the father of modern European philosophy. ment which Vietch feels is the nearest approach to the true His writings are of importance in relation to the present paper meaning of Descartes. His interpretation of the "cogito ergo because of his basic premise. For his entire philosophy is built sum" is stated thus, "My being conscious informs me that I upon one thing which cannot be doubted by Descartes, and exist, or through my being conscious I know for the first time that is the existence of the self as the thinking agent. Whether that I exist. Here my being conscious is first in order of know- full implications of his thoughts on this subject were realized ledge."35 This is elaborated; being conscious is the means of by Descartes cannot be determined from his writings. He ap- showing existence. One's being conscious is first in the order proached the problem of knowledge in a negative manner. The of knowledge, that is it is the beginning of knowledge, both basic question which he asked himself was "What can I not temporally and logically. This is to be regarded as a two-fold doubt ?" His answer was his famous, "cogit ergo sum." This fact. For the act of realization of consciousness and existence Latin phrase has been variously interpreted. The translation is is almost simultaneous. This is not to be taken to mean an usually given as, "I think, therefore I exist." The disagreement absolute identity of existence and momentary consciousness, is not in the translation but in the understanding of what is meant by the visual and verbal symbols, "cogito ergo sum." a1 John Vietch, trans., The Method, Meditations and Philosophy of Descartes (London, M. Walter Dunne, 1901), p. 18. 32 Loc. cit. 29 Davies, op. cit., p. 51. 33 Loc. cit. 30 lbid., p. 78. 34 Ibid., p. 17. 3s Loc. cit.

98 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy The Self Concept : East and West 99

nor does it indicate convertibility of consciousness and exis- In Meditation III, Descartes begins by summarizing his con- tence. If these were regarded as identical, this would mean that clusions up to this point. He asserts that he is a thinking (con- "cogito ergo sum" is only a statement of a momentary fact. scious) thing or being who doubts, affirms, denies, knows some "All, therefore, that can be said, or need be inferred, is that objects, wills, refuses, and also imagines and perceives. Continu- my existence, or the me I know myself to be, is revealed in the ing, he says, that even though the things of imagination and consciousness of a definite moment."36 Vietch continues, "But perception might be nothing apart from his own existence, he I am not entitled to say from that alone that the being of me is is "assured that those modes of consciousness which I call restricted to that moment."37 He concludes that it might be perceptions and imaginations, is as far only as they are modes of found "that the identity and continuity of the momentary ego consciousness, exist in me."42 Early in the sixth meditation, he are actually implied in the fact that this experience of its exis- asserts the existence of the material world. Later he affirms the tence is not possible except as part of a series of moments of dichotomy of mind and body. This distinction is made on the successive states."38 In this manner he establishes that the ego grounds of the divisibility of the body and the unity of the mind. is not mere existence but duration through time is to be an In considering a particular philosophical system, it must be added feature. borne in mind that things may be read into the system which In the Meditation II, Descartes, after saying "Cogito ergo the author did not intend or at least did not fully realize. sum," asks himself a question. His question seeks to learn Descartes, as with most Western philosophers, has equated whether there is a single existence or a series. He answers the what are called ahankāra and antaḥkaraņa in Indian philosophy. question about the frequency of his existence thus, "As often These two are then equated with the eternal principle within as I think; for perhaps it would even happen, if I should man. That is, the ego and the total mind of man are thought of wholly cause to think, that I should at the same time altogether as one, this is then equated with soul, which Descartes takes cease to be."39 He further reasons that he is nothing more than as the abiding principle in man. He came near the Sänkhya- a thinking thing, and that this thinking thing is real and existent. Yoga concept when he recognized that consciousness and ego Now a new question arises. Is mind the extent of his being ? were not necessarily an identity. But he took the ego to be the Responding to this query concerning what a thinking thing durable thing rather than the consciousness as the essential is, he says, "It is a thing that doubts, understands, (conceives), being.43 Thus he failed to discover, for the West, the fundamental affirms,denies, wills, refuses; that imagines also, and perceives."40 fallacy of regarding the personality of the ego as an eternal These are all taken as properties of his nature and this nature reality. His failure was, in large part, due to the religious is the ego which does each of the acts listed above. The ego environment of his time. is the same being who perceives all the external phenomena Descartes recognized that an eternal thing must not be subject and even if it is objected that these are in reality false perceptions, to the changes of matter, so he created a dichotomy and a it cannot be denied that, "I seem to see light, hear a noise, dilemma. Mind and matter are absolutely different to him, and and feel heat; this cannot be false, and this what in me is this raised the problem of interaction between the two. This properly called perceiving, which is nothing else than thinking."41 problem is still with us in the West. Descartes is of importance not so much for his actual work in philosophy as for the stimulation and direction he gave to 34 Ibid., p. 20. philosophy. The basic problem he posed stirred men and gave 37 Loc. cit. 35 Loc. cit. 39 Ibid., p. 227. 40 Ibid., p. 228. 42 Ibid., p. 234. 1 Ibid., p. 229. 43 Ibid., p. 229.

100 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy The Self Concept : East and West 101

impetus to the thought systems generally referred to as Rationa- scope of their consciousness. They are built up in degrees as

lism. This system, broadly, is one which takes the criterion of a hierarchy is developed, until the divine monad is reached at

truth as being intellectual and deductive rather than strictly the pinnacle. This description has certain affinities to the concept of the cosmic man of the Jaina. Leibnitz in his philosophic sensory. Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz are usually thought of in connection with this school of thought. All three attempted works has apprcached the advaita theory in that all conscious-

a mathematical formulation which was designed to systematize ness is of the divine and is unique only to the extent that it

eternal truths for mankind. But in the relationship of mind does not recognize its source and origin. Since there can be no interaction between monads, nor between and matter, they only succeeded in compounding the problem. Descartes attempted to explain the apparent interaction of these the monads and the world, Leibnitz developed the theory of pre-

two absolutely different things by funneling the sense data established harmony. In this theory, God creates the world very

through the pineal gland to the mind or soul, and the mind's much as a clock is manufactured. All the various parts of this

reaction back through this tiny gland to the body. Spinoza gigantic mechanism is so synchronized that the experience of the

completed the divorce and developed a system whereby the phenomenal world appear to be happening to the particular

Universal One would create a parallel action for every response monad and at its direction. Not only has the mental world been

of the mind and vice versa. Thus, the last vestige of a casual severed from the physical world, but the eternal being of each

relationship between mind and its body was destroyed. For individual has been isolated from all other spiritual beings,

Spinoza, man is a psycho-physical entity who is, "so far as God including God. The extremity to which Rationalism had gone

exhibits himself in us in terms of Extension and Thought, a in the denial of validity for the external world and the assertion

correlation of a physical and a mental event."44 Mind and body of the utter insulation of the individual monads from all others,

being completely different, there can be no interaction between fostered a reaction of skepticism.

them. All there can be is a parallelism between bodily changes Depending upon the solution to the problem of the dichotomy

and mental registrations. It appears that Spinoza equated God of mind and matter, two schools of thought exist in the West.

with the phenomenal universe and this would be equating God One is called the idealist and the other the realist. These two

with prakrti in the thought of the Sankhya-Yoga. That is, the schools, in their extreme sense, represent the opposite horns of

mahat, since it is the first manifestation of prakrti and all the the dilemma resulting from this dichotomy. In the idealist

phenomenal world proceeds from it, is the source and origin of system, the only reality is that of the mind or spirit, while on

the parallel physical and mental changes. the other hand, the realist asserts that the external world has an

Leibnitz accepted the idea that there could be no intra-action existence entirely independent of the mind, and infact, some go

between the two modes of the one God's being. He postulated so far as to indicate that the material world accounts for the

a monad which is unextended, indivisible, simple, fundamental entirety of human experience. Between these extremes there are

and eternal. Each monad differs in degree from all others and many variations shading into one another. All the philosophical

its level of consciousness is its uniqueness. Except for the systems purport to give a description of reality. In large measure

allowances that Leibnitz made for the Christian teachings conce- the dilemma of the noumenal and phenomenal is of the philoso-

rning the human soul-monad, his system is strikingly similar to phers' own making. For the idealists and realists are "both

the concept of the Jaina philosophy. His monad is in reality incorrect, inasmuch as each tries to make one part the basis of the whole."45 In their efforts to escape the dualism of body and beyond description as is the purusa. The many monads make up the world and function at the level of their enlightenment, or mind, the pure idealistic concept was modified time and again.

44 B.A.G. Fuller, A History of Philosophy (New York, Henry Holt & E.E. Wood, The Giorious Presence (New York, E.P. Dutton & Co. Inc. 1951), p. 258. Co., 1947), Vol. II, p. 80.

102 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy The Self Concept ; East and West 103

An English philosopher, Locke, developed a system of idealism in this world and was the enduring factor which was and is which comes very near the concept of the self as exemplified by behind the person or whole series of persons. He could not Sānkhya-Yoga. His point of emphasis was epistemological rather recognize a causal relationship between things nor between than metaphysical. If he had fully understood his own state- moral actions. That is, the concept of Karma as a law of cause ment on personal identity, the West might have achieved a fuller and effect on both the material and moral level was outside of

comprehension of the relationship of mind and matter as wel! both his heritage and system. Thus, Locke stands for a concept as discovering the eternal and enduring self. Locke says that of the true self as consciousness and pairs it with the world of personal identity or the sameness of a rational being is depen- phenomena. His description of the self is similar to the self of dent upon the continuity introduced into consciousness by Sänkhya-Yoga, and of the physio-psychic being to the prakrtic memory. He even feels, since the body can be altered, that being of personal existence, but he failed to recognize that con- "continuity of consciousness is not dependent upon permanence sciousness is not part of phenomenal world which includes both

of organic constitution."46 Further, he makes the distinction of mind and matter.

man and person, and that the man might be a number of Taking his cue from Locke, George Berkeley accepted the

different persons. If there were no communication by way of premise that "the mind can know nothing but its own ideas or memory, man could not recognize that he was the one and conscious states,"48 and followed it to its logical conclusion.

same being. Locke even suggests that personal consciousness Since all things are ideas, he asserted that the physical world

is probable "annexed to the affection of one individual does not exist.49 His reasoning was that ideas are the sole

substance."47 objectives of cognition for the mind, thus things only have A study of the social and political conditions of the time will being in so far as they are perceived and since nothing outside give evidences indicating the stimulus and motive of Locke's the mind can be perceived they are non-existent.50 Berkeley thought. It was a time of change and all the old heretofore asserts that all that really exists is God and the human mind, accepted authorities were being questioned. In order to subs- and that the ideas of the external world are only the projection tantiate the ideal of freedom of thought and speech, a system of of the ideas of God., To the extent that the Mahat or first philosophy had to be constructed which would be consistent production of prakrti in the involutionary process and that with life and still allow the desired freedoms. Thus, Locke Citta, the phenomenal form of Mind, projects both the personal postulated the mind as a "tabula rasa" at birth and maintained mind and the external phenomenal world, Berkeley was expres- that all that one can know is that which he has experienced. If all sing the relationship of mind and matter as conceived in that can be known is the experiential world, there can be no Snkhya-Yoga. Of course he considered the first evolute of innate or "a priori" ideas. He failed to recognize that the prakrti as God, and thus represented a loss from the position structure of the mind constitutes innate ideas. Of course he was which Locke had made available. His successor, Hume, went prevented from developing a concept more similar to that of even further. For he declared that the only thing which can Indian philosophers, not only by the difference in cultural be known to exist are phenomena and all that the mind consists heritage but also by his doctrine concerning causation. Accor- of is nothing more than a conglomeration of different percep- ding to his reasoning, the observation of sequence plus ignorance tions arranged in certain relations.51 His concept of the self is of the actual relationship of events is what is normally referred thoroughly confused. He realized that his explanation was so to as a causal series. Because of this view of causation, he did 48 C.N. Bittle, Reality & The Mind (Milwaukee, The Bruce Publishing not recognize that his consciousness was what became enmeshed Co., 1941), p, 106. 49 Loc. cit.

4" Fuller. op. cit., Vol. II, p. 131. 50 Loc. cit.

47 Loc. cit. 1 Ibid., p. 108.

104 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy The Self Concept : East and West 105

poor in his "treatise" that he omitted any discussion concerning the external world is to be found in the configuration of the the self entirely from his "enquiry." Beyond being aware that water-marked design. These things which Kant said was ingrai- there seemed to be a something or principle which defied his ned into the very structure of the mind are "substantiality, and logic and did give continuity even though the phenomenal per- identity, and power, and necessary connection, and all the sonality was constantly changing.52 Hume could not find nor rest."56 Mind for Kant has a structure which is the "preliminary give a satisfactory explanation of this continuity. He believed condition, not the result, of knowledge."57 This conception of that all substances, including physical bodies, soul, and God, the mind is the basis for his theory of "a priori" knowledge. could be argued out of existence. The only things which he Kant accepted the inescapable fact of an experiencer as well would acknowledge "to exist are phenomena, and the mind as an external experienced world. But, both the external world consists of nothing but a heap or collection of different percep- and the experiencer can only be understood in terms of the tions united by certain relations."53 Hume recognized that the categories of the mind. These categories are just what prevents phenomenal personality did not represent the true inner being, the person from knowing what it is within itself. In Kant's mind but he never was able to discover the real self of man. The only the soul is the ego's representation of itself to its self, and the thing which he could assert was the fact of change permeating ego cannot be known since "the 'I' that does the thinking ... all of the phenomenal world and anything which is subject to only catches a 'me' which is not the 'l' as it is in itself, but change cannot be eternal. He was unable to achieve a satisfac- merely as it must represent itself to itself."8 Kant has equated tory philosophy because he still regarded the mind as different the ego with the eternal being of man, and made consciousness from that which it experienced. an attribute of the mind. His philosophy is in agreement with The trend of the British Empiricists toward a complete the Sankhya-Yoga system in making the mind and the world scepticism spurred Emmanuel Kant to attempt a vindication of of experience of the same substance and in that he insists that the human mind. His contribution was the recognition that the self of man is not know able to the ego of man. He erred the mind was not a passive recipient of the raw data of experi- in taking the ego as the unity of the mind and then equating the ence. He felt that all data received concerning the external ego, as the unity of the mind with the true self. For "Kant's world must conform to the structure of the mind.54 This was philosophy, while releasing the mind from the trap of the world, the very thing which he said all previous philosophers had failed binds the self in the trap of the mind."59 He made provision for to recognize. In this manner he re-established the possibility of the true, the good and the beautiful, but he failed to make the mind arriving at truth, and reason would again be conside- unity of their relationship other than in a mental construct. red "trustworthy within the realm of experience."55 Even though Although Kant recognized that the mind can only know the Kant accepted the denial of innate ideas, he felt that the ideational world of experience, his error prevented him from Empiricists had unknowingly ascribed innate predispositions to discovering that the mind had a purpose only in so far as it is the structure of the mind. Thus the mind is to be regarded only the function of the transcendental influence of the real self. void of experience at birth. The mind is not to be considered Like the Indian idealist philosophers, Kant regarded know- just a blank sheet of paper, but rather a sheet with a very ledge of the world as only idea. The ideas of the world are intricate design water-marked into it. The moment that experi- configurations which the mind gives to the sense data, which ence began to write upon it, the complicated pattern began to show through. Everything which the empiricists had denied to 5 Fuller, op. cit., p. 219. t6 Ibid., p. 218. *2 Fuller, op. cit., p. 171. 57 Loc. cit. 83 Bittle, loc. cit. 58 Ibid., p. 235. 84 Ibid., p. 109. Wood, op. cit., p. 274.

106 A Study of the Self Concept of Sänkhya Yoga Philosophy The Self Concept : East and West 107 it receives via the nerve system of the body. He would find agreement among the philosophers of the Vedānta and Sankhya- it as it is, with all its limitations and vissitudes, is to Yoga schools of thought with regard to the impossibility of the overcome fate and to transmute it into freedom.64 ego knowing what it is in itself, but the agreement would be on Hegel could assert a belief in the attainment of freedom grounds quite different from those of Kant. The assertion that because he saw that all of life is a process of becoming.65 the world cannot be known appears to resemble the doctrine of Since Hegel had seen that life is a unitary process, he broke māyā. His equation of the ego and the mind prevented him with his predecessors. Fichte's Absolute Ego was rejected from conceiving the ego as a particular mode of the total mind because "it remained a kind of 'substance' which underlay the of the individual which in its turn is nothing more than a finite ego."66 Further, he regarded Schelling's indeterminate particularized function of the universal mind. The reason that Absolute as purely a negative quality. Hegel felt that the the ego could not be known in itself is that it and "the external Absolute could not be outside of the experience of man if it is world are known only as phenomena, not as things-in-them- to account for and explain the "multiple, varied, changing, selves."60 Whereas Kant stopped here, the Indian philosophers, kaleidoscopic spectacle of existence."67 The Absolute could not realizing that the ego could not be known in itself because it be an Ego or Mind which creates the world by thinking, for bas no real existence, assert the possibility of the self realizing apart from its thinking the Ego or Mind is nothing. "An the self of itself, not in terms of the realm of the experiences of Absolute Ego or Absolute Intellect is simply the conscious the phenomenal world, but in an area of existence which is 'process' of experiencing and thinking, no less, no more. The beyond intellectualization. Thus, the West's fundamental error Real, then, is a 'process' not a substance."68 Thus the totality of equating the ego, the mind and the abiding being again of all experience fully describes the nature of the Real. Fuller thwarted the discovery of the inner being of man. says that Hegel's reasoning had him assert "The Absolute 'is' Kant, having resolved all that man could know of the pheno- the world-process, just as I 'am' my career. The Absolute is a menal world into the realm of ideas, set the stage for the 'life' and nothing more, just as I am my life and nothing "absolute" of George Hegel. The absolute for Hegel is "pure more."69 Thought of Idea, dynamic with immanent activity."61 His In the evolvement of the world-career, the Absolute does not concept of the Absolute shows the influence of both Schelling become nature and spirit, rather it proceeds to become nature and Fichte. For Hegel, "life is an organic unity, a spiritual and spirit through self-actualization. Hegel's concept of this activity, in which all seeming antagonisms between man and evolution is constituted of the ideas of thesis, antithesis, and nature are overcome, and the clash of opposing forces is synthesis. That is the Absolute proceeds to become spirit and stilled."62 In conjunction with the idea of the unity of all nature and evolves self realization by a series of transitions phenomena, Hegel had another leading idea, freedom. These from a "state of 'in-itself (an-sich), through the state of 'out-of- two basic ideas form the mainstay of his philosophy. In order self (für-sich, otherness)' into the state of 'for-itself (an-und- to be free it is necessary that "man conquers nature by obeying für-sich). The dialectic of the evolutionary movement is her."63 This victory is of a deep spiritual sense. through the three stages of position, contraposition, and the It is found in a triumph over his destiny, which consists in accepting with joyful resignation the renunciation his 63 Loc. cit. fate exacts from him. Not to rebel against life but to love 64 Loc. cit. 5 Wood, op. cit., p. 281. 312 66 Fuller, op. cit., p. 304. 60 Fuller, op. cit., p. 235. 67 Loc. cit. 1 Bittle, op. cit., p. 113. 68 Loc. cit. 2 Fuller, op. cit., p. 303. 69 Loc. cit.

108 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy The Self Concept : East and West 109

identity of these two or it can be said in another way," affirmation, negation, and the negation of negation."70 This the object of thought."75 Hegel has taken the realm of prakrti basic triad of Hegel's is the substance out of which the as that of the Absolute Purusa, for he has equated thought with

Absolute derives its self consciousness. Bittle says that since consciousness and thus given it, in his system, a value equal to Being and Idea are to be regarded as identical, it is by the that of ultimate reality. Unfortunately, the Western thinkers dialectic of the logical process of becoming that the Being-Idea do not seem to be able to conceive of thought as occurring

successively evolves from a state of indeterminateness to that within consciousness rather than being conscious.

of determinateness for all beings. Progressively developing into The philosophy which is thought to be most representative the world as nature and into spirit as consciousness. Finally of American thought is Pragmatism. This philosophy is all differences of being are harmonized in the Absolute Spirit. generally accredited to William James, and was based upon

In this manner Hegel has equated the entirety of unity and several earlier efforts. Pragmatism is a philosophy which insists

plurality as well as all identity and change with the supreme that mind is a part of nature and in fact is continuous with it.

self-differentiating unity of the Absolute Idea-Being. Essen- It regards the dualism of subject and object as false, and asserts

tially, unity is diversity and self negation and the power of that ideas and knowledge are merely instruments of activity

negativity is that eternal compulsion for self-evolution of the and are not ends in themselves. A proposition is considered to

Absolute. Thus, "as the final result of this self-actualization of be true only if it can be validated by direct application to

Being-Idea, all beings and all selves are but modes and mani- practical situations. "If it works, it is true," is an over simpli-

festations of the Absolute."71 This means that there is no fication of the pragmatic position on truth. For James' reality

creation, for all finite things are nothing but the appearances was nothing more than experience with two dimensions devoid

of the expression of the self realization of the Absolute as it of any transcendental depth. "It is only a flowing, extended

becomes through the process of logical necessity. For the 'surface'."76

omnitude of the Absolute Reality "all dualism between thought Postulating a concept of truth based solely upon empirical

and things is obliterated, and man and the world possess no phenomena, pragmatism does not allow for the existence of 'otherness' of their own : all is thought."72 anything outside the realm of experience. Thus, the "transcen-

From the cursory description of the philosophy of Hegel it dental unities of apperception, ego, souls, spiritual substances,

might appear that his system in describing the world as only are all out of the picture."77 James accepted plurality of

idea-in-process has great similarity to the doctrine of the streams of consciousness. In his concept of consciousness there

Vedānta dealing with the concept of māya.73 It does to the seems to be a certain inconsistency. He says that man has no

extent that it recognizes that the ultimate reality of experience right to go beyond experience for any metaphysical entities

is beyond intellectual description, but it falls short of the because of his truth theory. The existence of anything beneath

realization that comprehension of ultimate reality must be of a consciousness is denied in this theory, yet in discussing volition

nature different from one of its evolutes. "In fact, Hegel's own and attention in relation to experience, it is maintained that

opinion about the fundamentality of Idea partakes of his the content of consciousness is not exhausted by the data im- tendency to this error of mistaking parts for wholes."74 Since mediately presented to it. All experience is continuous, without he has developed a "doctrine of the identity of thought with any breaks at all. It is not atomic, rather it is continually flowing, shading, coagulating and merging into things or subs- 70 Bittle, op. cit., p. 114. tances. These then spill over and run into each other in both 71 Ibid., p. 115. 72 Loc. cit. 73 Wood, op. cit., p. 282. 70 Bittle, op. cit., p. 116. 74 Ibid., p. 285. ?e Fuller, op. cit., p. 465. 77 Loc. cit.

110 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy The Self Concept : East and West 111 time and space. There is nothing which is self-contained. All Royce held that since the individual cannot get beyond his phenomena are the result of the flux of ether-like "liquid own ideas, the whole of phenomena is essentially one world, 'transitive' stuff, which thickens immediately into some new thus "it is essentially the world of one self and 'That art Thou.' 'substantive' aspect. The content of consciousness then, though The self that 'means' the object is identical with the larger self infinitely multiple and varied, is 'one', not many."78 Thus that possesses the object."80 The deeper self is the knower in viewed, experience loses the distinctions between matter and unity of all truth. "There is then but one self, organically, form, substance and relation, and all experiential phenomena reflectively, consciously, inclusive of all selves and so of all tumble into and are absorbed into the stream of consciousness. truth. It is the Logos, problem-solver, all-knower,"81 Self, God, "The continuous, unbroken, flowing character of all experience Absolute. For Royce, reality is to be thought of as a supreme is sufficient to account for its continuity, without invoking the mind. Royce's Absolute does not engulf the individuals for intervention of a transcendent self."79 they are to be thought of as unique and essential parts of the The individual streams of consciousness for each man are to Absolute. Royce says, "My hypothesis is that in case of Nature be regarded as really currents in an ocean of experience. The known as our fellow-men, we are dealing with phenomenal obvious fact of the narrowness of normal consciousness is signs of a vast conscious process."82 "Nature as a whole and regarded to be the totality of the consciousness of the self. in its specific parts is conscious."83 The infinite and reflective James has erred as most Western philosophers have before him. Self transcends the individual consciousness and since it is all- His error is in taking the content of consciousness as reality. He inclusive, it is a person which is definitely more conscious than recognized that experience is the content of consciousness, but the particular individual. The Absolute Mind possesses self- did not comprehend that the container has a reality which is of reflecting knowledge, and knowledge which is aware of itself is an ultimate nature. Pragmatism fell short of full realization of nothing other than consciousness. Nearing the end of his book, the goal of all philosophies. It did move Western thought The World and The Individual, Royce asserts that the individual nearer to the understanding of the phenomenal world of mind Self may recognize that it finds fulfilment in God even while and matter. Unfortunately, the intellectual effort of the Occident distinguishing other Selves within the Absolute. "It may be has taken the means to be the end of the eternal search of conceived then as a Part equal to the Whole wherein it dwells."84 man. He closes with a statement that despite God's absolute unity, Another Western philosopher of import to the present study man, as an individual, preserves and attains his unique life and is Josiah Royce, who epitomized American Hegelianism. His meaning, and is not lost in the very life that sustains him for philosophy is based upon an assertion that the world is ideal. its own expression. This premise is based upon the fact that all that can be known Although Royce starts his system upon empirical grounds, "per se" is related to a mind. All that exists outside the mind he reflects the influence of his studies in Indian philosophy. His of the individual exists only if it is in another mind. Royce concept of the all-inclusiveness of the Absolute Self is very insists that to speak of an absolute unknowable is nonsense. near that of the Saguna Brahma of the Vedanta. His acceptance Further, that everything which is knowable is an idea, and as an idea it is the content of some mind. He continues, saying #0 M.M. Kaunitz, A Popular History of Philosophy (Cleveland, The that a thing capable of being known by a mind is essentially World Publishing Co., 1941) p. 358. ideal and mental, so that the real world must be a mind or a 81 Loc. cit. group of minds as differentiations of one absolute mind. 82 Josiah Royce, The World & The Individual, Second Series, (New York, The Macmillan Co., 1913), p. 226. 53 D.J. Bronstein, et al., Basic Problems of Philosophy (New York, 78 Ibid., p. 465. " Ibid., p. 465. Prentice-Hall Inc., 1949), p. 594. "4 Royce, op. cit., p. 452.

The Self Concept : East and West 112 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy 113

of the individual as an eternal mode of the Infinite Self is But it cannot be said that 'I' exist independently of 'them' says closely related to the thought of Ramanuja and to the Integral Fuller. Rather, he continues, the content of my consciousness,

philosophy of Sri Aurobindo. He recognized the Self as that is, the consciousness of which I am 'self'-conscious contains

conscious but not consciousness, and thus again remains a occurrences which belong to the community of complexes of Western thinker rather than an universal one. Salvation, for event-experiences. The "I" could be withdrawn, according to

him, was the unifying of the individual will with that of the Fuller, and the other event would not be affected, but in that case

Absolute. they would not be "my" experience. If the other event-experien-

Two contemporary philosophers who have taken a view ces were withdrawn, nothing would be left for the mind to be

which is thought to be the epitome of scientific thought are aware of, and thus no awareness to report to itself anything of

Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead. These two men itself. "Since every conscious subject is simply a unified awareness

have nearly the same view with respect to the concept of the of some aspects of other events, there can be no such thing as an

self. Russell regards consciousness as nothing more than a independently existing individual thinking subject."89 Russell

relation. He says, "No mental occurrence has, in its own actually credits William James with having inaugurated his

intrinsic nature, that sort of relational character that was thought along these lines, and in fact, the description of the

implied in the opposition of subject and object, or of knower event-experience, which constitutes the individual, is very

and known."85 Both men feel that the nature of mind and similar to the description of the thickening and folding of the

consciousness is not an entity apart from events. All events are flowing consciousness as described by James.

bipolar experiences fluctuating between the mental and the Essentially, the primary weakness of the philosophies of both

physical pole. "Consciousness is an ordering and unifying of Russell and Whitehead lies in the consistent failure to recognize

events such that the whole appears as more than the aggregate that consciousness as such and the finite consciousness of the

of its parts and as a new unit of occurrence."86 Fuller says individual are not the result of mere intersection of vectors of

that consciousness cannot be analyzed into a succession and events. James is more nearly correct in regarding the pheno-

collection of event-experiences, and the totality of these experi- mena of the world as occurring against a background of

ences is to be conceived of as constituting a single event. consciousness which ultimately encompasses all finite conscious-

Further, since it is a single event, it is an experience of itself as ness. Of course the equation of mind and consciousness is ever

well as its constituent occurrences. "It is a 'reflective' experience present in Western thought.

a report 'to' itself about itself. Our personal, individual, self- Russell and Whitehead have rightly indicated the ephemeral

conscious minds are such events."87 Minds are not isolated and character of the individual phenomenal being. The apparent

independent of the event-experiences entering them. Mental rational order of the universe is counted as God by Whitehead

configurations are intimately interwoven with other minds and and indicates that "the presence of a God in the structure of

external events. Mind knows both itself and the universe which the Real is something that nothing and nobody, not even God

constitutes its environment since event-experiences of other himself, can account for."90 This smacks of anthropomorphism,

contents and conformations intersect them. "So it is that the for it assigns the fallibilities of the human mind to the Infinite

content of 'my' consciousness is also an experience of events Being. This is the major weakness of the philosophies of today

happening outside and independently of myself."88 which follow in the general line of Logical Positivist. If the structure of the human mind can logically place events or ideas 85 B. Russell, An Outline of Philosophy (London, George Allen & into a system, then they are logical and valid. On the other Unwin Ltd., 1927), p. 225. :6 Fuller, op. cit., p. 492. 87 Loc. cit. 89 Ibid., p. 493.

Loc. cit. 90 Ibid., p. 494.

114 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy The Self Concept : East and West 115 hand, a concept which does not fit within the narrow limits of human logic is not rational nor logical. This error of circular the things which the Existentialist tends to reject is the systema- reasoning has occurred because they insist on the equation of tization of his philosophy. Yet Mounier says there are certain mind and consciousness, that is, they have made the part equal concepts which tend to recur in varying degrees in all forms of

to the whole. The mind, according to Sankhya-Yoga, is cons- the existential philosophies. He gives a description of eight cious, in so far as it is conscious, only because it is within the such concepts.

consciousness, resulting from the transcendental influence of The first asserts the contingency of the human being. This

the purușa. concept is based upon two questions or rather a two-fold ques- It is to be noted that Russell, and Whitehead in so far as he tion. They ask, why is the world a contingency of man in propounds a similar concept, has designated his concept of the general and why this particular man represented by the one ultimate real as a neutral monism.91 In taking the physical isolated individual asking this question. Within the Existentialist

world as the basis of his analysis of reality, Russell has made a philosophies are two main branches representing the Christian fundamental error according to Ross Thalheimer. That error is or theistic school of thought and the non-Christian or atheistic

in the differentiation of private and non-private sub-sensations. school. The former answers the above question by stating that It has been pointed out above that both Russell and Whitehead the individual's contingency draws its succour from "The original think of reality as a bipolar unity, a unity of the psychological contingency of the free creative act and this contingency has a

and physical aspects of mind. Thalheimer says : double application through the free mercy of the Incarnation

... that whereas sub-sensations are 'not' qualitatively and the Redemption."93 The creative act can be defined as the

and existently dependent upon a percipient organism, absolute distance separating man from God. But this act is not

images and "bodily feelings" 'are' qualitatively and exis- a source of joy, rather it is regarded as, " ... the misery of

tentially dependent upon a percipient organism, and that man without God and Divine Presence."94 On the other hand,

whereas sub-sensations 'obey' the laws of physics, images the answer given by the division represented by Heidegger and and "bodily feelings" do 'not' obey the laws of physics.92 Sartre, would respond that "the contingency of existence no

Thus, Russell, has in reality, established not only a dualism longer assumes the nature of an exciting mystery. Man is a in the area of private and non-private sub-sensations, but also stark, staring fact."95 When the individual becomes conscious,

in the realm of laws. He has one set of laws for the physical he is already what and where he is in the malestrom of life.

world and a second set for the psychological world of the mind. The second concept deals with the impotence of human

This, of course, would be denied by the Sankhya-Yoga philoso- reason. This concept deals with the paradox of the reason and

phers. Mind and the physical world are only different aspects unreason of the world. It is a scepticism which is taken to such

of the same primal stuff. extremes as to risk bringing the world to a state of absurdity.

Another system which is current today is that of Existentia- The objective of this is to jolt "wisdom out of its complacency,"

lism. As with any system, it too claims to have ancient and for the Christian, to reawaken the passion for the Cross."96

antecedents. Emmanuel Mounier connects Socrates with Exis- The paradox is the point where the logical systems "must be

tentialism because he is thought of as having founded a doctrine expressed as a mixture of knowledge and non-knowledge, as

of absolute morality which was based upon a conception of a something which stimulates investigation rather than something

type of felicity representing the good of man as man. One of

91 Russell, op. cif., p. 218. 93 E. Mounier, Existentialist Philosophies (London, Rockliff, 1951), 92 R. Thalheimer, A Critical Examination of The Epistemolegical and p. 24.

Psychophysical Doctrines of Berirand Russell (Baltimore, Md., The 94 Loc. cit.

Johns Hopkins University, 1931), p. 30. 95 Ibid., p. 25. 9c Ibid., p. 25.

116 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy The Self Concept : East and West 117

which is absolutely certain."97 It is the impotence of the mind, process. The individual must continually reassume his existence, as reason, to transcend itself in order to comprehend itself. beginning anew forever. He is a frail existent, lost in the bitter At this point another concept is introduced. This third ocean of infinity, and he is the weak, "lonely god without premise deals with the fact of the mind leaving itself to reach whom this spontaneous creation of myself by myself is liable itself. It is the bounding-leap of the human being. Man's at any moment to sink in the depths of nothingness."101 In the bounding-leap is the fact of his power to be which is an impul- theistic Existentialistic aspect the individual's instability is sion that makes him a "being-in-advance-of-himself." This is attributed to the fact that he is maintained in existence by the man's transcendence of himself. Man is self-determined, that is, action of God to whose decree he is continually subject. Beneath he is his own existence, and that existence is what he determines the humdrum of every day life of every man lurks the feeling it to be. Heidegger has proposed a prospective existence rather of frenzied anguish. This feeling which is constantly thrust into than the classical static concept of existence which is inert and the background is to be thought of as including elements of determined. Sartre says that man is a "being who is not what seduction and revulsion as well as holding both danger and he is and who is what he is not."98 So it is that man cannot be security. The feelings of frenzy and anguish are continually properly fitted into an abstract definition and made a part of a intersecting. These intersections create the "syncope of free- system anterior to his existence. "His moods are not permanent dom" for Kierkegaard. These very values of freedom and possessions which he owns, but ways of living in reality, each choice are the twin causes of the frenzy and anguish which of which in turn occupies his whole attention and carries him tend to negate their source. For Kiekegaard, anguish elicits a forward to the great adventure of being himself."99 The impli- response similar to ecstasy. In the case of Heidegger, anguish cation of Heidegger's movement of being is developed into an is the result of the brutal fact of finding one's self in the world. impotence by Sartre. The impotence which is the result of This realization of one's being-in-the-world and of the total "being-in-oneself" is taken to mean a type of fullness, a fullness worldliness of the world in its purity, causes Heidegger to that is a fullness of death. "Being-in-oneself is what it is in a resign to a form of obstinate abandonment of all hope. He stupid way, with no recoil upon itself and without any over- lumps all theories of salvation as psychological lies which have extension in advance of itself."100 Heidegger places emphasis been evolved out of fear of the anguish of living for death. upon the nature of tragic urgency of the call of the future. In the Christian, anguish and instability are thought of as Sartre regards time's duration as a hollow and rotten prospec- representing the ransom of his source of strength, freedom, and tive. For the past is finished and present represents an eternal the right of choice. The very necessity of making a decision is flight from a death which follows as close as the individual's the mainspring of human personality. Decision purges man of shadow. This eternal chase has in it the promise of eternity for all the surface doubts which beset him as he makes the final Kierkegaard. Not so for the non-Christian Existentialist, it is approach to the crises which finally compel his decision. Life a disgraceful flight from the hostility of being. is a series of gambles all forming the basis of the one great Following this line of thought, the next concept declares that gamble of death. The guiding principle in regard to this gamble the human being is instable. Because of its prospective nature, is that the being must be willing to take the risk. Theistic there is a fundamental instability in the contingency of the Existentialism regards the principle of decision as having individual which leads to a continual instability of his existence. guiding value. Atheistically, they think that it is risk all and No positive gain is achieved since it is a constant repetitive lose all. The fifth concept deals with what is involved in the myth of 97 Ibid., p. 27. the fall of man. In Christianity the separation of man and God 98 Ibid., p. 29. 99 Loc. cit. 100 Ibid., p. 31. 101 Ibid., p. 31.

118 A Study of the Self Concept of Sänkhya Yoga Philosophy The Self Concept : East and West 119

is regarded as an estrangement resulting from moral evil. On the other hand, the non-Christian feels estrangement as a result greater extent, he never is what he will be or what he wants to

of the encroachment of being on the subjective receiver. be."104 The human being is always "Ahead of himself, behind

The conclusive-finality and imminence of death is regarded himself, but never just himself."105

as the sixth concept. Although Existentialism favours an aggres- Sartre further feels that the human existence, no matter how

sive cheerfulness, it regards man's goal as unattainable. Divine spontaneous, is absolute deception. Attempting to objectify and

Grace will rescue the Christians, at least they hope so, from inwardize this deception, reflective consciousness endeavours

eternal death. On the contrary, Heidegger feels that there can to reclaim the being that disappeared in the unity of a particular

be no completion or totalness of life. He regards death as the aspect. Since it is already an aspect, it produces a distorted

purpose for the existence of man. It is man's greatest potential. reflection which enmeshes psychical life in the past. "It ascribes

"My death is my most personal potentiality; it is the most to the mobile and projective for-oneself a nature which is on

authentic, and, at the same time, the most absurd potentia- an exposition of the in-oneself; it merely projects a lifeless

lity."102 Death comes not at the end of life, but is present shadow of the for-oneself."106 Consciousness does not advance

potentially in every act of living. For Sartre, death is not to be the existent. Consciousness is to be regarded as nothing more

regarded as a cheerful prospect, no matter how macabre, rather than a further fundamental fraud. The human state is to be

as brutally bringing an end to being as a dynamic prospect. It equated with the analogy of the donkey and the carrot.

is a concrete concept which petrifies the being, rendering him Existentialism has a great deal of similarity to some of the

defenceless and totally dispossessing him of all meaning. philosophies of India. It resists efforts at systematization, and

The impossibility of communicating the experience of exis- it makes the individual existent the result of desire. The

tence is to be regarded as the primary source of suffering for phenomenal world owes its existence to the projection of the

the existent. This basic isolation is the seventh concept of the spectator of the world. Despite the derogatory attitude toward

Existentialist. Each being in himself is solitary and the inhabi- the goal of Eastern philosophy, Existentialism asserts that man

tant of a secret state from whence he cannot escape totally. comes from nothing and goes to nothing.107 Heidegger denies

The man in the relative state can, by robbing the inner secret that this movement from nothing to nothing is comparable to

state, manifest himself in the objective relationships of the what he terms Eastern nihilism. This philosophy is generally a

external life. The gap in the completeness of being results in very pessimistic school. Even the concept of hope as expressed

the being of human reality. This last concept, the eighth, takes by Gabriel Marcel is not a source of real hope. The Sankhya-

this gap, not as a positive state, but as nothing. Existentialism Yoga would agree with the Existential thinker in indicating

postulates nothingness as the main fiber of existence. Sartre that man's misery is due to his involvement in the world. It

says that "the being of human reality cannot be classed as an seems that the Existentialists have "gone and done it again," that

ontological super addition but as a faultiness of being, as a gap is they consider the phenomenal being as the real being of man.

in the completeness, of a being."103 The shortcomings of the They obviously are correct in regarding the human being as

world are due to the presence of human shortcomings and the transitory and contingent, but they have made the fundamental

existence of desire is taken as sufficient proof of this. Life is a error of the West and regarded pure consciousness as only an

continual struggle toward a goal which is unattainable. Human aspect of the human personality. Even the systems which appear

existence is vain existence, maintaining a miserable conscious- ness. "The human being is never what he is, and, to an even 104 Ibid., p. 43 105 Loc. cit.

10ª Ibid., p. 39. 106 Loc. cit

103 Ibid., p. 42. 107 H.J. Blackham, Six Existentialist Thinkers (New York, The Mac- millan Co., 1952), p. 97.

120 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy The Self Concept : East and West 121

nihilistic in the philosophies of the Orient hold a goal which problems of understanding the man of the world. The basic will give man release from the agonies of repeated entangle- problem of the present day world is to maintain the progress ment in the world. in both realms without creating a disbalance as has occurred In summary, it can be said that the philosophers of the West in other times. have tended to skirt the fundamental truth of the being of man. One fundamental method by which the values of both The ancient thinkers were more closely akin to the thinking spheres of human endeavour can be made of benefit to all is by which is represented in India today and all the yesterdays of greater familiarity with each other's culture and all that it known history. Unfortunately, for the Occidental world, the represents. The proper median of internalization and externali- mind of man has been taken to be the non-material aspect of zation must be achieved. Technologically, man has made man, whereas it has been almost continually regarded only as tremendous strides in recent years. He has only begun to an aspect of the phenomenal being in the Orient. The confusion recognize that he has created a gigantic deficit in the realm of the ego, the mind, and consciousness has gone on almost unabated. Only recently has a more universal spirit of philoso- of non-material values for man. The ever growing number of mental cases in the West is ample evidence that there is a need phy begun to penetrate into Western intellectual circles. The to look toward the peoples of the Orient for help on how they technological reduction of the size of the world has forced some to look at the Orient. It is beginning to produce benefit have managed to maintain such a low insanity rate. It is

to both. The so-called modern psychology is only beginning obvious that they are lacking, in the view of Europeans, in

to incorporate the lessons of the centuries of introspective many of the necessities of life. Sanity cannot be dependent upon the lack of want, for the country which has the highest investigation and experimentation. Still there is a resistance to incident of insanity also has the highest standard of living. giving credit where credit is due. As the horizons of the peo- ples of the world are expanded, there will come a greater and Eventually, the ultimate reality will be discovered by individual men, but whether it is accepted or not cannot be foretold. greater appreciation of each culture and what it can contribute Truth is not provincial, only men are. to the general well-being of the world society. Generally the philosophers of the West have been taking each of the steps that were made many eons ago in the East as the basis of their philosophies. Ultimately, the philosophies of science and non- science in the Occident will merge and find that they have not discovered a new philosophy, but have only recovered one which the older generations have misplaced. The cosmologies of modern day physics only tend to bear out the speculations made by the Sankhya philosophers three milleniums ago. Psychoanalysis is basically nothing more than what the guru of old did for his followers, and its aim is the development of a fully integrated person. Essentially, the difference in progress between the Orient and Occident has been due to the direction in which the search for the fundamental answers has taken. The former taking the internal path and the latter the external path. The internal path, since it is closer to the source, has had more success in helping man to be man in the realm of values. External search has revealed many of the solutions of the

Summary and Conclusion 123

indigenous cultures of very high level when they invaded India.1 These cultures were already very old at that time. The Aryans brought their artifacts and cultural inheritance with them. The subjected people and the Aryans co-mingled in the transaction CHAPTER VII of their daily tasks, and as they did so, an exchange of ideas took place. This exchange was not always at the verbal level. When the Aryan used the tools of the enslaved culture, he SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION learned by imitation. Native peoples were used for domestic servants and nursemaids. The formative years of the new generation of the Aryan people were thus very much under the

THE first problem the dissertation dealt with was the historical influence of the subjected peoples.

position of the Sänkhya and Yoga systems of thought in This influence can be traced in the literature of the Aryans.

the philosophical development of India. It was first pointed The more ancient hymns of the Vedas show the worldly philoso-

out that no system develops independently of the preceding phy of these nomadic peoples.2 As the new life became more and

intellectual accomplishments. When a group of people invade more comfortable, the infusion of some non-Aryan thoughts

another culture, it is done with an eye to the gain they will became more and more apparent. Recognizing this trend, and in

make in their material well-being. Domination of the defeated order to keep the subjected people in their proper place, the

society does not protect the conquerors from the cultural influe- Aryans absorbed the indigenous gods into the Vedic pantheon in

nces of their subjects. This influence works by way of personal an inferior position. Thus, they were not only degrading the

contact with the people as well as by the use and acceptance of indigenous gods, but they were justifying their tule over the

the products of their industries. This process of osmosis in original inhabitants. A good bit of the ancient literature appears

which a subjected culture diffuses into that of its captors was to be a form of propaganda to build up the ego and prestige of

indicated in some more recent Western history, that is, the the less cultured and nomadic settlers.

military conquest of the Greeks by the Romans who later tried Out of this amalgamation evolved a philosophic trend which

to be more Greek than the Greeks themselves. The reader was has continued down to the present day. This basic non-verbal

reminded of the process which is now functioning today in the attitude has allowed the philosophies of present day India to

United States of America. The stimulation of the recent wars flourish. So long as this attitude of acceptance permeates the

in the Orient has drawn attention to this great cultural area of philosophical efforts of the Indian and Buddhist thinkers; so

the world not only in a military and economic sense, but also long will philosophic effort have freedom to grow and bear its

in an aesthetical and intellectual sense. Contact between peoples fruits.

invariably results in a change in the parties involved. The A brief word was devoted to the founding of the two systems.

change in positive; its manifestation may be either negative or The germinal ideas for Sankhya and Yoga can be found in the

positive. The influx of art goods from the Orient indicates a ancient literature of India. The dating of Sänkhya as a forma-

tendency to appreciate art forms which heretofore had been lized system is in the sixth century B.C. and that of Yoga as

considered as curiosities. It is felt that a process similar to the at least three centuries B.C. This is not to say that the basic

above occurred in India when the nomadic Aryans made their philosophies of these two systems came into existence at the

exodus into the land of the Indus. mentioned times. Rather, it is only to indicate the approximate

Recent archaeological findings in the areas of Hārāppā, Mohenjodāro, and other sites have shown that the Aryan found 1 Vide. supra Chapter II; Zimmer, Myths and Symbols, p. 92f. e Vide. supra p. 19f.

124 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy Summary and Conclusion 125 time of their crystallization into formalized systems. Both schools are to be thought of as growing out of the common two cultures resulted in the civilization which produced the heritage of Indian intellectual effort, thus accounting for the Upanisads and the intellectual achievements which are continu-

similarities. ing even today. It cannot be said that the philosophies of The founders of these systems are Patañjali and Kapila for modern India are exact duplicates of the golden age of Bräh- the Yoga and the Sänkhya respectively. For some scholars manism. The philosophies which are generally referred to by the there seems to be some doubt about Kapila ever having lived. term of Hinduism have their roots in the ancient achievements For the people of India, unobstructed by excessive scholarship, of the society which was made up of the Aryans and the people his having existed and taught is unquestioned. It is more they found in India. The roots also draw succour from the

important that his teachings be understood than to waste time influx of the later intrusions of the cultures represented by the

in bickering about a particular phenomena having or not having Moslems and Christians. The mixing of several elements in occurred. Essentially, the same attitude exists in respect to chemistry produces a compound which has properties that are Patañjali, except that even the scholars acknowledge his having different from those of its constituents. In like manner, this is been a real individual. But scholars must disagree, they have the case for mixing of cultures. India's heritage goes very far raised a dispute about his proper identity. Most seem to think into the rich soil of history, but it has a life of growth even that Patañjali was both the grammarian and the compiler of the today. Yoga Sūtras. Sänkhya and Yoga are two philosophies which have a history Whether these two personalities are fictional or otherwise, that extends into the past beyond the ken of present day know- their philosophies have had a profound influence in the history ledge. They have value not only because of their age, but of thought in India and in fact in all the Orient. There are because they have not lost the essential ingredient of growth.

some evidences which show that this influence may have exten- This ability of ever renewing itself is the very foundation of ded beyond Asia. Pythagoras and Plato are two Western the "enduring East." This is exemplified by the quote which thinkers who are thought to have been influenced by the constitutes the preface. The resilience and vigour of a youthful Sankhya, or a very similar school of philosophy.3 Most of the mind are the very things which are essential to philosophic current philosophies of India exhibit certain aspects of the growth. It is this which the West must gain anew from India. teachings of both Sänkhya and Yoga. They have been greatly Each new surge forward in cultural and intellectual achievement enlarged and altered to fit the particular system in which they in the West has come about after a dramatic encounter with the have been absorbed. older civilizations of the East. The current development in Nature abhors a vacuum in any realm. This applies to the theoretical physics can find some of its roots deeply imbedded

realm of ideas as well as to that of the material world. Process in the philosophy of Sankhya. The modern effort in the realm in nature is an eternal cycle of pulsating growth, death, and of psychology is in reality a revival of the introspective science decay followed by further growth, death, and decay. The of Yoga, in some cases overtly, although the majority of materials of growth are the basis of death, and the products Western psychologists do not or would not agree with this of decay are the nourishment of a new growth. A new culture assertion. has its roots in the culture or cultures which it supplants. Next, some of the basic concepts of the Sänkhya philosophy The indigenous people of India had a rather advanced civili- were discussed and described in preparation for the understand- zation when the Aryan invasion occurred. The fusion of these ing of the method and goal of the Sankhya-Yoga psychology. The first problem dealt with in this chapter is the name of this system. Depending whether the emphasis is upon the method 3 Edward Washburn Hopkins, The Religions of India (Boston, Ginn & Co., 1895), p. 559f. or the goal, Sänkhya is taken to mean the enumeration of the categories of knowledge or as perfect knowledge. Both are

126 A Study of the Self Concept of Sänkhya Yoga Philosophy Summary and Conclusion 127

valid and serve very well in summarizing the Sänkhya, for it corresponds very closely to the description of the ultimate reality seeks to attain perfect knowledge by the enumeration of all of the material world as expressed by the modern nuclear theo- within the criterion of knowing. ries. The sattva, rajas, and tamas guņas of this ancient system of It is demonstrated that the philosophies of India are not to thought are essentially similar to the current concepts of the pro- be thought of as pantheistic. The weight of the evidence proves ton, electron, and neutron. Sattva and proton are similar in that that they do not believe that the manifest world exhausts the they represent the basic force of order within the structure of the Being of God, rather the manifest is spoken of in many places atomic building blocks of the material world. In the case of the as being within the unmanifested. electron and the rajas guna, the dynamic energy of the atom is Sānkhya has developed as a dualistic system. There are some the referent point. The mass of the atom is dependent upon evidences to indicate that it is not an absolute dualism. For the tamas guņa or, in today's terminology, the neutron. The example, the first emanation from prakrti is the mahat which theoretic physics of the modern scientists is only beginning to is the common source of all the buddhis that are lost in prakrti delve behind these three basic elements. In reality the guņa during the state of pralaya. The duality is of the purusa and elements are of a much subtler nature than the atomic compo- prakrti. These two ultimate principles are the bed rock nents. Each of these three elements, that is the electron, of all phenomenal existence. Purușa is the pure subject and is proton, neutron, is in all probabilities, composites of the the transcendental source of all consciousness. On the other elemental gunas. This is an area in which there remains much hand, prakrti is the causal background of the whole objective research, and it constitutes another problem to which the world. present investigator plans to return. It is not sufficiently The existence of prakrti is based upon the inferences from related to the present objective. logic and experiences. Satkārya-vāda or the theory of causa- As the material and first cause of the world, prakrti holds all tion is based upon these logical facts: (1) Activity can be effects whether manifested or unmanifested. The manifested directed only toward an existent object, (2) Effects are pro- includes not only the material phenomena of the world but also duced only by related material causes, (3) Particular effects the mental phenomena of the psychical life of individuals. It result from particular causes, (4) The effect exists unmanifested should be noted that prakrti holds all possible effect, and to as a potential of the efficient cause, (5) Something cannot come that extent all phenomena are determined. The area of freedom from nothing, (6) Cause and effect are fundamentally identical is in the determination of which effect will be actualized from with each other in the material cause. Followed to the logical the infinite potential. The satkārya theory gives the Sānkhya conclusion, these facts assert that the ultimate cause of the a theory of evolution which differs radically from that of objective world is contained in the concept of prakrti. the West. Both the material world and the mental world are embodied This doctrine of evolution, or tattvāntatapariņāma proceeds in the prakrti. The great difficulty of Western thinkers created from the highest state to the lowest, and is more properly a by the artificial dichotomy of mind and matter is never faced theory of involution. It is an aspect of the nature of the cons- by the Indian thinkers. An absolute distinction is made between titutive gunic elements of prakrti that they tend toward a state purușa and prakrti. All the psychical aspects of man are of equilibrium. In this state, called pralaya, the equilibrium placed within the realm of the natural world and thus available produces a homogeneity which is characterless. The world no for study and understanding. The dualism of Sānkhya is one longer has an actual existence, but it is not non-existent. It is of the material and the purely spiritual. existent as Potential, and not existent in that it is not in an Sānkhyan physics describes the prakrti as constituted of actualized state. Prakrti as the first cause is composed of three three basic elements which are not absolutely distinct from component factors. These components hold the potential of all one another. In fact, the description of these basic elements further productions in the world. All phenomena other than the

128 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy Summary and Conclusion 129 three gunas are nothing more than the resultant product of and Sänkhya both assert that the entire objective world is configurational relationships of these ultimate constituent reals. constituted of three basic substantive entities. Sānkhya has The term guna has at least three meanings, and in a certain proceeded further than the physists of today, for it has asserted sense all apply. The three meanings are quality, rope, and not- that there is but one material cause of the universe. Modern primary. The meaning of quality does not apply to the primal men of science are only now beginning to think in these terms. constituents directly, rather it applies to the reactional relation- When prakrti is in the equilibrium of pralaya, a homostatic ships of the gunas. Quality cannot be possessed, they are only situation exists. The pulsation of the gunas compensate and subjective responses to the manner in which these substances cancel any effect which could disturb the quiescent state. The interact. The second meaning is applicable in that the three cycle of evolvement is re-inaugurated when the prakrti again prakrtic elements are as three strands that make up the rope comes under the transcendental influence of the purușa. The which binds the purusa to prakrti and her productions. Since transcendental influence of the purusa is comparable to the in- they are not the final cause but are components of prakrti, they fluence that a magnet has upon a piece of iron. It effects the are not primary. The three gunas are sattva, rajas and tamas. iron and causes a change in its status, but the magnet is un- The gunas are not abstract qualities. They are real substantive affected by the reaction of the iron. Another analogy is that of entities or subtle substances. These ultimate constituents are the sun sending forth its rays of light in all directions and those infinite in number. Sattva guna is the finest and represents the rays effecting whatever object, such as the earth, it may strike aspect of prakrti which is most responsive to the transcendental and thus cause a reaction in the object. This relationship is one influence of the purusa. This guna designates the intelligence- of the most difficult for the human mind to grasp. It is this stuff or potential consciousness. Energy-stuff is called rajas, and problem with which Sankhya-Yoga deals; in fact, most of the is the very embodiment of activity. Factors of obstruction, systems of philosophy in India deal with this problem. mass or materiality are termed tamas gunas. The variety of As was noted above, the sattva gunas are the most responsive combinations of these guna factors is unlimited. The only limi- of the guņas to the influence of the purusa. This is due to an tation would be that which would result from the internal affinity of great similarity. The mental side of existence has a characteristics of the particular gunas. Above, it was indicated greater preponderance of this guna. In order to make use of that the modern concept of the structure of the atom was built the affinity of the sattva factor, it must be concentrated and the upon lines which are very similar to that of the Sankhya con- other gunas dispersed. Evolution of the products of the world ception of the physical basis of the world. It is only a similarity, within the prakrtic matrix consists primarily of reducing the for the atom as such is quite far removed from the first cause. preponderance of sattva until the comprehension of the purușa In the physics of this system the various gunas may combine and prakrti relationship becomea more and more difficult to with one another or with themselves. Thus, two or more sattva distinguish. There is a descent from the purely mental aspect guņas may combine and then later combine with one or more of existence to the evolvement of gross atoms which then rajas or tamas guņa, or both. In this manner, the particles of coagulate into the great variety of physical phenomenon. an atom are accounted for by this contemporary, though Once the dynamic equilibrium of the pralaya is broken, the ancient, system of thought. The electron, for example, has guņas undergo heterogeneous modification and the first product mass, motion, and a factor of coalescence. All three of the is mahat. The mahat is composed primarily of sattva guņas. It guņas are present, but the rajas guņa is in predominance. In the is the universal mind which holds within it all the buddhis of case of the other factors of the atom, it should more properly the purușas. Buddhi is the individual "mind" in its broadest be said that the sattva guņa predominates in its similarity to the sense. Within each of the buddhis are the old ignorances which proton, while in the case of the neutron, the similarity is in the have been carried over through the period of pralaya. Each predominance of the tamas guna. So it is that modern science buddhi with its particular avidya or ignorance re-establishes its

130 A Studv of the Self Concept of Sänkhya Yoga Philosophy Summary and Conclusion 131

relationship with the purusa. This is an area in which there is Every buddhi, with its included ahankāra modes and sense, much confusion. Does the transcendental influence of the purusa constitutes a separate microcosmos which is distinct from all cause the production of the mahat which contains the buddhis other buddhi evolutes of prakrti. All buddhis are similar in of all sentient beings ? Or is each purusa responsible for the that they have a common source in prakrti, but because of evolvement of its own buddhi ? This is the point which has their own particular avidya, each buddhi is individual and divided many thinkers. The Vedänta says that there is but one particularized. Both the phenomenal and epiphenomenal worlds purușa and all the multitude are but particular modes of that are included within the buddhi. The buddi and all of its One. The Yoga school insists upon the multiplicity of purusas, derivatives are of prakrti, and thus are ultimately only but credits only one particular purusa with the transcendental configurations of the prakrtic substantive constituent elements. influence to break the pralaya in order that the others might The physical side of the ahankāra development first produces progress toward the goal of full realization. In the case of the the subtle elements which in turn combine with more tamas Sānkhya, it is asserted that there is a plurality of purușas, and units to eventually form the atoms of the various elements. apparently each purușa breaks the pralaya in relation to itself. These disproportionate collocations of the tamas and rajas Some efforts have been made to make this a plurality within a gunas exhibit more than mere mass and energy. They possess generic oneness, and thus, the equilibrium would be broken by characteristics which are comparable to those which modern the culminative transcendent influence of all the bound purusas. science attributes to the particles which are displaced from Kapila maintained that if there were a single all inclusive purușa, atoms in nuclear fission. These particles are too fine for the it is outside the realm of philosophy. This is a problem which senses. The five tanmätras are the generic essences of the five must be solved by each individual seeker for himself when he gross physical elements. The tanmatras, after grouping and achieves the ultimate goal of Sankhya. regrouping, finally achieve a configuration which is comparable Following the emergence of the buddhi is that of the to the modern concept of the atom and are called paramāņu. ahankāra. This term means more than mere self-consciousness The tanmātras are only potential y able to affect the senses or self-assertion. Ahankāra means, in the philosophical sense while the paramanu are the actual gross matter of the world. in which it is used in Sänkhya, the perception of the self, Lest some chemists feel that the description of the five gross but because of. avidya this became the sense of self-exaltation elements is too archaic, it must be stated that the description or egotism. Within consciousness there are three modes of the of gross matter as ether, air, fire, water, and earth is not a ahankāra. They are sattvika, rājasika, and tāmasika forms of chemical analysis. It is descriptive only of the effect which ahankāra. The preponderant guņa of each is sattva, rajas, and the particular paramāņu has upon the senses. The prakrti is tamas respectively. Sattvika ahankāra in conjunction with the the infinite source of the gunas for the evolvement of the rājasika ahankāra give rise to the five organs of perception entire world of phenomena. The paramāņu are the final pro- (jñanendriya), the five organs of action (karmendriya), and the ducts of prakrtic evolvement; all that follows are merely a mind or manas. Rājasika ahankāra supplies the energy for the rearrangement of these factors into enumerable new configura- transformation of the tāmasa ahankāra into the five subtle tions and collocations. elements. These two parallel developments occur simultaneously. Epistemology is based upon the assumption by Sānkhya that The rājasika ahankāra functions only as the energizing factor there are three discernible aspects of knowledge. These aspects in the development prucess of the other two modes. In fact, are the knower, the known and the matrix of knowledge. The the relationship of the buddhi and the evolutes of ahankāra is knower or subject is a conscious being and in reality the self. only a differentiation of function, and all the evolutes of The known or object is that which the mediating intellect the sattva evolutes are comprehended within the buddhi as presents to the self. The transcendental relationship of the differentiations and modes. purușa and its particular buddhi with its component parts

132 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy Summary and Conclusion 133 constitute the matrix of knowledge. Valid knowledge has only three sources. Parmä or valid knowledge comes from percep- God. The God of Yoga is not a universal God, for He cannot tion, inference, and fit testimony. True knowledge must be aid or grant mukti to anyone. The most that is allowed Iśvara definite and unerring. is the ability to use His transcendental influence to disrupt the The two kinds of perception is the result of cognition of quiescent state of pralaya. Prakrtic activity facilitates the particular objects through contact of the senses. It must be achievement of mukti by the purusas which are bound by the noted that the perception of mukti is distinct from sensual avidyā. Sānkhya feels that prakrti has an inbuilt teleology perception. The two sense perceptions are indeterminate and which automatically brings the pralaya state to a temporary determinate. Indeterminate perception is the raw physical end, and thus, all purușas are of equal value and ability. cognition of the senses, and the determinate perception is Liberation is not union with God, rather it is true discrimina- the result of the manas having analyzed, synthesized, and tion of the essential distinction between purusa and prakrti, for interpreted the raw sensum. Inference is also divided into both the Sänkhya and Yoga philosophies. The difference bet- two types, vīta and avīta. The former means affirmative ween the schools on psychology is more apparent than real. and the latter means negative. An inference is vīta if it is Yoga seeks discriminative knowledge by emphasizing psycho- based upon a universal positive proposition and conversely logical discipline while the Sänkhya strives for the same goal it is avīta if based upon a universal negative. Sānkhya inference by way of logical analysis. Manas, ahankāra, and buddhi are is a combination of Western inductive and deductive reasoning. regarded as separate principles by the Sankhya, whereas Yoga The third and least reliable source of prama is that of autho- groups them all under one term and regards them only as ritative testimony. This source must withstand the analysis of modes of function within the citta. Yoga regards citta as all logic to be counted as valid. A reliable person or the scriptures pervading in the human form : Sānkhya does not. may be sources of this type of knowledge. The basis of release The same sources of prama are accepted by Yoga. These from the pain and suffering of life is vidyā. Mukti is to be three are also related to five vrttis or mental functions by Yoga. achieved by overcoming avidyā. Pramā is the key to mukti, if They are the vrttis of right cognition, illusory knowledge, it is properly utilized. imagination, sleep and memory. Yoga aims at a complete In the listing of the six main systems of Indian philosophy, control of all of these states so that the liberating discrimina- almost invariably Sankhya and Yoga are linked. The similarity tive knowledge can be achieved. of these two systems is such that some have referred to Yoga Cosmologically there is one basic difference. In Sänkhya the as the Theistic Sänkhya. It is in this area that their difference tanmātras evolve out of the ahankāra, but in Yoga they evolve has been most widely recognized, but it is not the most impor- directly from mahat. In this manner the Yoga system allows a tant point of difference. Yoga and Sänkhya are distinguished single individual to achieve mukti without dissolving the entire primarily in their approach and methodology in respect to world as they feel it would in the Sankhya system. Both of many philosophical, ethical and practical points. There are these systems comprehended the conception of space-time, and some evidences to indicate that both of these schools are made the expression of it purely relative to the perceiving parallel developments from a common source which preceded subject. both Kapila and Patañjali. Essentially, the basic difference between these two systems is It would not be correct to think of Sankhya as an atheistic one of emphasis. Sankhya concentrated upon the logical system of thought. It is agnostic in that it refuses to recognize structure of the world and thus the universal aspect of ex- anything which does not fit into its logical structure of the perience. Yoga directs its efforts toward the embodiment of the world. It does not deny God. All that is denied is the possi- pramã in the life of the individual. Sänkhya prefers the theore- bility of logically proving the existence of a comprehensible tical approach, while Yoga strives to apply its science to life.

134 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy Summary and Conclusion 135

Up to this point, the paper has dealt with the constitution of The dichotomy of puruşa and prakrti is absolute. The evident prakrti. This has been necessary because in order to understand diversity of human action is cited to support their contention what purusa is, it is essential that these two be delineated. of the multiplicity of purușas. Prakrti is the non-self and purușa is the self. The great difficulty Although the existence of the purusa is accepted as a fact by involved in discussing the purușa concept revolves around the Sānkhya-Yoga, five arguments are put forward in support of its fact that there are no categories of the mind which can properly existence. This was done for the benefit of the non-believer in apply to purușa. All mental constructs are of prakrtic substance all probability. The first reason for inferring purusa's existence and of the relations of these substances, Because of this diffi- is the fact that prakrtic combinations are intended for a culty, the philosophers of the East have resorted to a system of transcendent purpose. The next, since prakrti is of a composite negation in order to describe what the purusa is not. Unfor- nature, it cannot be resolved to an independent absolute. tunately, this very system has created a grave misunderstanding Thirdly, the progress of the unintelligent prakrti must have a in the minds of Western scholars. They have accused the presiding power which co-ordinates all experiences. The fourth Orient of negativism. Part of the fault lies in the fact that most assertion is that there must be someone which experiences, and of the translations of Oriental literature have been done by since prakrti is experienced there must be the experiencer, and people who were first and foremost philologists rather than he is the purusa. Finally, since there is a tendency toward philosophers. They would accept a technical term at face value isolation-integration, and since "the eternal prakrti's nature and miss its true meaning. For example, the term sūnya is does not allow it to achieve a state of absolute unity, kaivalya literally translated as void, and this term then is used to accuse is possible only to the purusa for which the guņas are only the system of nihilism. The term, in reality, does not mean that reflexional. ultimate reality is devoid of existence or characteristics, rather At this point, the use of the term soul in the translations has it means that the characteristics of the absolute cannot be been discussed. The confusion which surrounds this term described in any term that is dependent upon prakrtic sources because of its over use in the West was cited as sufficient cause for its validity. Purusa is beyond description. All that can be for its discarding, but a stronger reason was demonstrated. done is to indicate things about it and point to aspects of The great similarity between the description of the linga-śarira prakrti which most resemble the purușa. and the Christian concept of soul was presented. These two are For most of the philosophical systems of India, there is no not of the nature of the purusa since they partake of the nature doubt as to the existence of the purusa. The area of doubt that of prakrti. The soul or the linga-śarīra constitutes the persona- exists concerns the nature of the purusa. Kapila indicates that lity of the phenomenal individual, and that is composite and even the materialists acknowledge a purusa, although they try therefore not of an eternal nature. It would be more proper to to deny its permanent existence. use the terms spirit or self, but in reality the term purușa The self-intelligent principle, purusa, is distinguished from the should not be translated any more than the term "elan vital." prakrti and its qualities. The purușas are isolated, neutral, Īśvarakrsņa describes the witnessing purușa as isolated, neutral, intelligent, and inactive. They are many, without parts, without perceptive, and inactive by nature. Kapila states in his apho- qualities, and do not contract or expand. When occupying a body, risms that the purusa is without qualities, intelligent, witness, the purusa is all-pervasive and is not contained in the body in constantly and altogether free, and indifferent. The self- which it is manifested. The exact nature of the purusa must be luminous purușa within each individual illuminates all of the comprehended in order to understand the Sankhya and Yoga processes of gross and subtle matter of both life and conscious- philosophies. Both systems describe purușa as entirely devoid ness. It will be noticed that almost all of the terms are of characteristics of any kind and of the nature of pure cons- of a negative nature. How else could the purusa which is ciousness. Sänkhya-Yoga is not only dualistic, it is pluralistic. without form or content, devoid of qualities and peculiarities,

136 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy Summary and Conclusion 137

beginningless, and without parts on divisions, be described ? Purusa is the living and abiding entity which is behind and uninvolved, suffuses the non-conscious material of the world

within all metamorphoses of life in bondage. It is spiritual and and processes of life and consciousness and, in this sense only,

of the nature of sheer self-effulgent light. creates the life and consciousness of the individual. Another

If the purusa is of the nature of an inactive, neutral, form- example of this relationship is that of the spectator of a drama

less, qualitiless entity, how does it become involved with who becomes so engrossed in the play that he suffers the

prakrti which is its absolute opposite ? Further, is it able to agonies of the tragedy as though they were his own. At the end

influence the direction of the prakrtic processes ? These two of the play, he regains the sense of his own freedom.

problems are the eternal thorns which every dualistic system Fundamental to a thorough comprehension of the Sänkhya-

must solve if it is to have validity. For both Sankhya and Yoga philosophy are the concepts of prakrti, purușa, and the

Yoga the answer appears to be self illusion. The false identifi- relationship of the two. Prakrti becomes manifest only after the

cation of the self with the prakrtic activity is due in part to the dynamic state of pralaya is disrupted by the transcendental

fact that there is great similarity between the sattva guna and influence of the purusa. The manifestations which are assumed

purușa. The resemblance of the pure intelligence (purușa) and are the results of guna aggregates which are the basis of the

the buddhi as the reflecting power of prakrti is such that totality of the phenomena of both the physical and psychical

the buddhi takes on the appearance of sentience even though world. Purușa is of the nature of pure intelligence, effulgent,

it is intrinsically insentient. Buddhi reflects the purusa to such inactive, neutral and devoid of any comprehensible characteris-

a degree that the witnessing purusa seems to be viewing its tics. Prakrti, conversely, manifests a nature which is non-intel-

own intelligence. Since the buddhi, as a product of prakrti, ligent, dark, active, and purposeless. Prakrti is similar to a

is constantly in action, it reflects a distorted image of the puppet on a string. As long as the light of consciousness shines

purușa. The confusion results from the purușa believing that upon prakrti, she performs. When the purușa's effulgence is

it is viewing its own intelligence, when in reality it is the turned from her, she no longer is able to perform rationally

witness of a distorted reflection. In order to remove the avidyā and disappears back into the unmanifest stage of pralaya. The

of non-discrimination the buddhi must be brought to the state entire multitude of purușas are enraptured of prakrti in much

of pralaya. the same manner as an audience is captured by an excellent

How can the self-illusion of the purusa come about if the drama. True insight occurs when the purusa recognizes the

two prime principles are absolutely different ? In order that prakrtic entanglements for what they are. Mukti can be realized

things may interact, they must have some properties in com- only after the buddhi is stilled and the purusa discriminates

mon. Purușa and prakrti by their very nature do not have between itself and its reflection from the buddhi.

any factor in common. The relationship of these two is similar What becomes of the liberated purusa ? According to Müller,

to the relationship of the God of Aristotle to the world. The this is an improper question. All that can be said must have

unmoved mover of Aristotle moves the world merely by his reference to mental constructs, and since the purușa is beyond

being. There is no effort on his part, the effort is that of the the pale of even the most subtle forms of prakrtic substance, it

world striving after God. In like manner, the prakrti is activa- can only be indicated. Purușa returns to itself. In this state it

ted by the transcendental influence of the purușa. Purușa is the remains free of all the bonds of ignorance or knowledge, joy or

cause of the phenomenal world only in the sense that its sorrow, and is unrestricted in a state of perfection.

mere existence incites prakrti to activity. An analogy is made Both the purusa and the prakrti are real in the Sānkhya and

between the effects of a magnet and a piece of iron. There is Yoga philosophies. The relationship of these two is both the

no contact between the two, yet the iron is caused to respond result and cause of the self-illusion which makes it appear that

with activity. In like manner, the purusa by its effulgence, though the purușa is participating in the prakrtic cycle. The Sānkhya on the one hand has developed a theory of psychology to

138 A Study of the Self Concept of Sänkhya Yoga Philosophy Summary and Conclusion 139 explain the psychology of the self-illusion, while the Yoga has developed a method of applying the theory in the removal of process of knowing are the three factors of all knowledge. this illusion. Buddhi and the rest are products for the sake of the purusa The Yoga is a realistic, mystical and scientific school of which is more profound than thought, feeling, or will. Purușa thought. It is realistic in its insistence upon the reality of the is the seat of knowledge, but the conjunction with the prakrtic phenomenal world and that a normal evaluation of the percep- being does not alter its true nature in any way. In order that tions of the sense be made. It is mystical since its objective is the citta or the mental apparatus may perceive an object, it the achievement of the abiding truth, which is beyond mental must undergo a modification to the form of the object. Even comprehension. Its method and training of the total individual though the citta is modified in assuming the form of the object, is scientific, employing the best pyschological principles. Yoga it cannot have a real perception of what it sees. It perceives is founded upon a doctrine of psychological functionalism. The only by way of the transcendental reflection of the purusa acting relativity of all states of reality are demonstrated and made upon it. The citta is affected by both the objects of knowledge known. The inner world is known as a function of the inner and the purusa. It is by the conjunction of the purusa that the psychic organs and the outer organs. Control of these energies by buddhi is produced and is able to function, and since the buddhi extension or retention frees the Yoga practitioner from all world- is the internal organ which gathers and assesses the sense data, ly bondage. Complete independence of all the pairs of opposites it is affected by the objective world. Citta is in constant flux, is the unconditional prerequisite by which control and experience but despite this its functions are always known by the purusa. of this functionalism is brought about. Once the dvandvas or Citta is not self perceiving, nor is it capable of more than one psychic potencies are controlled, the bird net of avidyā is torn modification at any one time. Release is achieved when purusa asunder forever. He is no longer involved with the direction directs its consciousness toward itself. or the hierarchy of the body, both physical and psychic. Yoga and Sankhya both maintain that liberation can come · The relationship of purusa and prakrti is dissolved when it only through the true discrimination between purusa and the is recognized that the misconception of the self is in the prakrtic buddhi. The main emphasis of the Yoga system is on reflected prakrtic self and not in the self as such. This reflection the method of attaining the state of mukti by controlling all is what gives the prakrti the appearance of consciousness. the activities of the mind in both the buddhi and citta aspects. Ahankära or ego-sense is the binding which seems to unite the The objective of Yoga or concentration is the exclusion of the prakrti and purușa. This relationship of the purușa and its superficial layers of mental activity until the purusa is laid associated prakrtic buddhi is of such a nature as to cause the bare. There are many stages of concentration. The mind is purușa to regard all mental phenomena as its own experience. similar to a field of battle. Many forces are in conflict driving the Non-discrimination belongs to buddhi and in bondage it is person first in one direction then another. This clash between reflected in purusa. Final release is accomplished only when the the inner drives of man brings dissatisfaction and pain. Con- purușa discriminates between itself and its reflection, no matter tentment and peace results from harmonizing these apparently how accurate the reflection may be. Mukti is eternal for the opposing drives or interests. Sänkhya-Yoga assumes that em- purușa, the prakrtic elements formerly associated with it are perical knowledge, which is the product of the erroneous returned to infinite stock of the prakrti for re-use in further evo- confusion of buddhi and purusa, is the knowledge which is lutions of the other purusas which are still subject to avidyā. contained in and gained through the three sources of valid When buddhi has a preponderance of the sattva guņa, knowledge, but it can be counted only as relatively valid. true knowledge is possible. If the preponderant guņa is rajas, Buddhi can only approximate the reality of truth for the desire is the result. False knowledge occurs when the tamas purușa. In order to become totally integrated, isolated, realized, guņa is most abundant. The knower, the known, and the and fully matured, the seeker after the true wisdom must break the spell of absolutely everything which his mind and feelings

141 Summary and Conclusion 140 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy manner as the linga-śarīra is delineated by Sānkhya-Yoga, and have ever imagined to be his own. Reality will be found he also recognized that the soul looks beyond itself to that through the suppression of the illusory activities and penetrating beyond the mental strata which comprises mundane life to which is the object of all true knowledge. The truly existing essence of the soul is discussed in negative terms which are diviner nature of man Yoga advances the proposition that salvation can be obtained nearly identical with those used by Sānkhya-Yoga, colourless, by way of the discipline expounded in its teachings. The basic formless, intangible. Plato's psychology of the soul holds a remarkable similarity to the tripartite concept of the buddhi, concept in this method is to move from one stage to another manas, and ahankāra. The psyche or soul is constituted of progressively upward toward the final stage of samādhi. The real and final purpose of philosophy, according to Sānkhya- nous, thumos, and epithumia, and are roughly the equivalent Yoga is to transcend the limitations of reason in intellect. of the three listed above. Aristotle, the greatest pupil of Plato, Before a person can begin the mental discipline of the Yoga wrote an entire book on the very subject of the inner being of doctrines, he must become a morally healthy person. His body man. His discussion of the mode of knowing is similar to that must be disciplined so that it will not need too much of his of Sänkhya-Yoga. Aristotle finally states that the psyche can attention. The asanas are designed solely to give the student a only be itself in its purity when it has been freed of the condi- sound and healthy body so that he will be able to devote his tions of the world. He then concludes that the soul is nothing full energies to the arduous task of gaining control of the mind. but lifeless matter without the immortal and eternal essence. Eventually, the individual is able to maintain the attention of So it is that he recognizes the shortcomings of his own intellec- the mind upon a single object for an indefinite time. When this tual efforts, and that the essentia of man is not in or of the world. It is in fact of the nature of the purusa. stage has been attained, he experiences the state of samādhi. From the time of Aristotle until the time of Descartes, there This state, when sustained and entered at will, leads to mukti. In recognition of the individual differences, the philosophic was no substantial development in Western philosophy with systems of India assert that there are at least four basic paths regard to the self concept. The real contribution that Descar- tes made to philosophy is more in the stimulation which he or margas which lead to mukti. These are related to the four basic types of men. The margas are not mutually exclusive. It gave to philosophic endeavour. That is not to say that his efforts is a matter of individual temperament as to which is to be em- in philosophy were without influence, for he posed and com- phasized, and allowance is made for the individual to change pounded a problem, the solution of which has been the object from one to another as his personal development progresses. of almost every major Western philosopher since. His first The four basic margas are Bhakti, Karma, Jñāna, and Rāja. principle was that his real existence was his soul which he The individual's own position in relation to the goal of mukti equated with his mind. He then compounded the difficulties is the prime factor in determining which of the paths should thus posed, and declared that there exists an absolute distinc- be combined or emphasized. The goal is achievable by every- tion between mind and matter. The only connection that was one, the number of tries vary with the individual. Attainment allowed between the body and mind was a tenuous one through is assured, but it is up to the individual how rapidly the the pineal gland. From here the dilemma developed through state of pralaya will be brought about, and the beatific vision the various philosophers so that even this tenuous link did not of the purusa in all its purity will be experienced by the ever remain. If mind and matter are absolutely different, there can abiding purușa. be no interaction between them. Since there could be no interac- In the examination of the self concept of several representa- tion between these opposites, Spinoza developed a system of tive Western philosophers, it was discovered that the older parallelism. Occurrences in the phenomenal world were accom- systems more nearly approached the concept as expressed in panied by a corresponding change in the mind of the individual the Sankhya-Yoga. Plato describes the soul in much the same so that, to all apparent effects, the person was a participant in

141 Summary and Conclusion 140 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy have ever imagined to be his own. Reality will be found manner as the linga-śarīra is delineated by Sānkhya-Yoga, and through the suppression of the illusory activities and penetrating he also recognized that the soul looks beyond itself to that beyond the mental strata which comprises mundane life to which is the object of all true knowledge. The truly existing diviner nature of man essence of the soul is discussed in negative terms which are Yoga advances the proposition that salvation can be obtained nearly identical with those used by Sankhya-Yoga, colourless, by way of the discipline expounded in its teachings. The basic formless, intangible. Plato's psychology of the soul holds a remarkable similarity to the tripartite concept of the buddhi, concept in this method is to move from one stage to another manas, and ahankāra. The psyche or soul is constituted of progressively upward toward the final stage of samädhi. The real and final purpose of philosophy, according to Sānkhya- nous, thumos, and epithumia, and are roughly the equivalent Yoga is to transcend the limitations of reason in intellect. of the three listed above. Aristotle, the greatest pupil of Plato, Before a person can begin the mental discipline of the Yoga wrote an entire book on the very subject of the inner being of doctrines, he must become a morally healthy person. His body man. His discussion of the mode of knowing is similar to that must be disciplined so that it will not need too much of his of Sänkhya-Yoga. Aristotle finally states that the psyche can attention. The äsanas are designed solely to give the student a only be itself in its purity when it has been freed of the condi- sound and healthy body so that he will be able to devote his tions of the world. He then concludes that the soul is nothing full energies to the arduous task of gaining control of the mind but lifeless matter without the immortal and eternal essence. Eventually, the individual is able to maintain the attention of So it is that he recognizes the shortcomings of his own intellec- the mind upon a single object for an indefinite time. When this tual efforts, and that the essentia of man is not in or of the world. It is in fact of the nature of the purusa. stage has been attained, he experiences the state of samādhi. From the time of Aristotle until the time of Descartes, there This state, when sustained and entered at will, leads to mukti. In recognition of the individual differences, the philosophic was no substantial development in Western philosophy with systems of India assert that there are at least four basic paths regard to the self concept. The real contribution that Descar- or margas which lead to mukti. These are related to the four tes made to philosophy is more in the stimulation which he basic types of men. The margas are not mutually exclusive. It gave to philosophic endeavour. That is not to say that his efforts is a matter of individual temperament as to which is to be em- in philosophy were without influence, for he posed and com- phasized, and allowance is made for the individual to change pounded a problem, the solution of which has been the object from one to another as his personal development progresses. of almost every major Western philosopher since. His first The four basic margas are Bhakti, Karma, Jñāna, and Rāja. principle was that his real existence was his soul which he The individual's own position in relation to the goal of mukti equated with his mind. He then compounded the difficulties is the prime factor in determining which of the paths should thus posed, and declared that there exists an absolute distinc- be combined or emphasized. The goal is achievable by every- tion between mind and matter. The only connection that was one, the number of tries vary with the individual. Attainment allowed between the body and mind was a tenuous one through is assured, but it is up to the individual how rapidly the the pineal gland. From here the dilemma developed through state of pralaya will be brought about, and the beatific vision the various philosophers so that even this tenuous link did not of the purușa in all its purity will be experienced by the ever remain. If mind and matter are absolutely different, there can abiding purușa. be no interaction between them. Since there could be no interac- In the examination of the self concept of several representa- tion between these opposites, Spinoza developed a system of tive Western philosophers, it was discovered that the older parallelism. Occurrences in the phenomenal world were accom- systems more nearly approached the concept as expressed in panied by a corresponding change in the mind of the individual the Sankhya-Yoga. Plato describes the soul in much the same so that, to all apparent effects, the person was a participant in

142 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy 143 Summary and Conclusion the world of nature. Following Spinoza and Descartes, Leibnitz went even further and not only accepted the divorce of the ideas was denied. Locke regarded consciousness as a part of mind and matter, divorced every single monad from all other the phenomenal world. Following Locke's cue, Berkeley deve- monads, and in reality from the infinite source of all. Leibnitz's loped the concept of the mind and matter relationship in terms description of the monad is very similar to the conception of which are comparable to the mahat of Sankhya-Yoga. This the self as expressed by the Jaina philosophy. The monad, as development moved Western thought into a new direction and with the purusa, is beyond description and entanglement in away from the advanced position which Locke had brought it. the world. The only relationship between the monad and the Hume went even further than Berkeley and said all that can be world is due to the act of creation having set a pre-established known to exist are phenomena. The mind is nothing more than harmony between the occurrences in the world and the appa- a conglomeration of different perceptions arranged in certain rent perception of these occurrences in the monad. The excesses relationships. Hume recognized that the phenomenal persona- of the rationalistic school severed the ties of mind and matter lity did not represent the true inner being, but he never was and created an opposing reaction able to discover the real self of man. The world is in a constant Basically, there are two opposing views of reality. One says state of change and anything which is subject to change cannot that nothing exists excèpt as ideas in the mind, and the other be eternal. He could not see that he regarded mind as different asserts that there is nothing outside the physical world. Between from that which it experienced, and thus never found a satisfac- these extremes all manner of shading and combinations can be tory answer to the problem of the reality of man. found. All philosophical systems purport to give a description Even though Kant accepted the idea that the mind was blank of reality. Most fall short because they try to make a part of at birth, he denied that the mind was a mere passive receptacle reality the basis of the totality of reality. In the interpretation of the raw data of experience. The structure of the mind defined of a system, care must be taken so as not to insert more than the data in accordance with its internal configurations. In this the founder intended. Yet, this care does not deny the right and concept the mind cannot know the external world as it is in possibility of advancing beyond what the original thinker felt itself, nor can it know itself as it is in itself. Kant equated the was the final extent of his philosophy, for new ideas and inte- ego with the eternal being in man and made consciousness an rests constantly alter the circumstance in which a particular attribute of mind. His philosophy agrees with that of the philosophic idea may be applied. Sänkhya-Yoga in making mind and the world of the same In the systems of the empiricists can be found an interpretation substance and denying the ego the possibility of knowing the of the phenomenal world, both mind and matter, which is more real Self. Having discovered that the ego could not know the in accord with the findings of the ancient systems of India. Locke self, Kant failed to understand that the Self could know itself. was primarily interested in epistemology rather than the self con- By placing all that men could know in the realm of ideas, cept. His statement concerning personal identity comes very near Kant set the stage for the development of the absolute of Hegel. the psychological description of the unity of the buddhi and its This absolute is a unitary process. The description of the con- constituents. He further recognized that an individual might stituents of the absolute is strikingly similar to the constituents be more than one person. The possibility of consciousness of prakrti. It is composed of three elements which are com- being annexed to a single substance even occurred to him. Since parable to the three gunas. The elaboration of the absolute by his prime interest was with the mechanisms of knowledge, he Hegel is very near the evolution of the prakrti of the Sankhya- did not pursue these speculations. The outcome of his work in Yoga. All beings and selves are but modes and manifestations epistemology was the doctrine of the mind conceived as a of the absolute, but these modes and manifestations are thought blank sheet and capable of knowing only those things which realized. So the totality of all experience fully describes the the person has sensuously experienced. All possibility of innate nature of the real. Hegel, as others, has equated thought with consciousness and in so doing gives thought the value of

144 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy Summary and Conclusion 145

ultimate reality. This is invalid because thought occurs within failure is in the complete faith in the efficacy of human logic. consciousness rather than being co-extensive with consciousness. Logical Positivists insist that only those ideas which can be The pragmatism of James denies the need or existence of a placed into a logical system are to be counted as valid. Such a transcendent self. The individual selves are thought of as only system of thought cannot account for nor acknowledge the fact particular streams of consciousness, and as such are mere that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Any experiential phenomena which eventually are absorbed into the concept of the transcendental influence of the true self acting main stream of experience. Normal consciousness is regarded upon the substance of the phenomenal world cannot fit into as the totality of the consciousness of the self. This conclusion such a system, although the system could and does have a proper was drawn from James's accepting the content of consciousness place in a more universal mode of thought. as the ultimate reality. Another contemporary philosophy of today is existentialism. The American Neo-Hegelian, Josiah Royce, conceives of the It refects efforts to systematize its thought, and regards the absolute as an infinite and reflective self transcending the individual existent as the result of desire. The phenomenal individual consciousness. Since this vast all-inclusive process world owes its existence to the projections of the spectator of is conscious, it is a supremely conscious person. Individual the world. Man comes from nothing and goes to nothing is selves can find fulfilment, with other selves, within the Absolute. the consensus of existentialist thinkers. Sankhya-Yoga would His concept of the Absolute Self is quite similar to the Saguņa agree with them because what they have described as man is Brahma concept of the Vedanta. Royce conceived of the Self the ahankära or the ego, and its very existence is the embodi- as conscious but not as consciousness. Salvation consists in the ment of desire. Obviously they are correct in regarding the unification of the will of the individual with that of the Abso- human being as transitory and contingent. lute. In relation to the Sankhya-Yoga, the will is an attribute From the perspective of the philosophy of Sankhya-Yoga of mahat which is an emanation of prakrti. So Royce remains the self concept in the West seems still inadequate. Various a true Hegelian. systems of philosophy have propounded self concepts which Whitehead and Russell express a philosophical position have all failed to shake the dilemma which Descartes posed for which is taken to be synonymous with that of contemporary them. Fundamentally, since the inception of the dichotomy of science. They regard consciousness as nothing more than a mind and matter in the Western thought, all efforts have relational character which is implied in the opposition of attempted to balance reality either on one or the other horn subject and object, or of knower and known. The nature of of the dilemma or to precariously perch on both. The problem mind and consciousness is not an entity apart from events. All has been and still is an illusion in light of recent evidence in events are of a bipolar nature fluctuating between the mental the field of psychology, physical science, and the studies of and physical pole. Consciousness is to be taken as the unity comparative philosophies. The ancient Greek thinkers were and order of the bipolar experiences which appear as more more in accord with what has been philosophical fact for the than the whole. Thus, they regard every conscious subject as a philosophers of India for almost three milleniums. There is no mere vector point or intersection of event-experiences, and real difference between mind and matter. Both are compound- since consciousness is simply a unified awareness of some ed of the same ultimate constituent units. These units are the aspects of other events, there can be no independently existing basic building blocks of all phenomena, whether it be physical individual thinking subject. The philosophy of Russell and or psychological. In the systems of Sānkhya and Yoga they are Whitehead, in the light of the Sankhya-Yoga, manifests a basic called gunas and in the West they could be termed quanta weakness in its failure to recognize that consciousness as such units. Essentially, the same concepts are designated by the and the finite consciousness of the individual are not the result terms sattva, rajas, and tamas as by the more modern terms of mere intersection of vectors of events. The root of this of cohesiveness, energy, and mass. The mode of physical

146 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy Summary and Conclusion 147

evolution is almost identical in modern theoretical physics and to proceed with his studies without the interference of an in the physics of the Sankhya. Both systems assert that the unhealthy and dissatisfied body. Excessive concern for the ultimate reality of phenomena is one, unitary, ultimate, and 'health and welfare of the body is to be frowned upon. enduring. The scientists of today have discovered that there is Equanimity cannot result from its negation. An unbalanced a segment of reality which does not conform to the regular laws of physics. In other words, there is an area which is not effort is likely to defeat its own purpose. The study has presented some of the principles of two subject to the laws of cause and effect.1 With regard to the philosophic systems of India. Both the Sankhya and the Yoga, modern concept of space-time the scientists of Sankhya-Yoga in the light of modern research, have very valid and applicable indicated long ago that this is only a relational situation of concepts for all peoples. The ancient remonstration of "know the prakrtic evolutes, and has no ultimate and abiding reality. thy self" is the heart of both of these systems, but they offer Modern psychological theories are finding that a great deal can be learned from the teachings of the Yoga philosophy. Once a more than just a goal. Not only is the goal presented, but a

real recognition of other cultural traditions is made, a mutually map is laid out and directions are given on how to achieve the

beneficial exchange of ideas and techniques can be fruitfully greatest of all treasures. To secure the benefits of any valid

achieved. philosophy, it must be applied to the individual's life, but it

The peoples of the Indian sub-continent have only recently must not be distorted in the adaptation to the individual needs.

begun a real renaissance of their heritage. It is to be hoped Life is dynamic and when its many facets are harmonized,

that they will not make the mistake of dwelling too much on mukti results. Prakrti returns to her unmanifest state and the purușa is freed from the attachment to the transitory prakrtic their past glories and thus remain stagnant. In either East or being West, the lessons of the ancients should be examined and utilized, but they must be adapted to the present world. Since In the state of pralaya, prakrti waits in dynamic quiescence to once again manifest itself for the benefit of the purușas the time of the crusades, the West has been infused with a which have not yet turned from the avidya caused by attachment sense of urgency which has gained in momentum to the point of foolhardiness. At first the effort was to catch up with the to the prakrtic dance. The purusa cannot achieve mukti, for it has, in reality, never lost it. It is simply a matter of realizing more learned and advanced cultures of the East, then the drive became one for superiority of Eastern material wealth rather itself in its pristine purity which re-establishes the eternal dis-

than a balanced and well rounded growth. The East rested on tinction between the products of prakrti and its constituent

its laurels, and the laurels withered. elements and the purușa. The purușa or self is pure conscious-

The advanced concepts of theoretic physics which are ness which infuses the prakrti with apparent consciousness by

contained in the Sankhya and the demonstrated psychological its transcendental effulgence. The self is beyond intellectual

theories of Yoga are sufficient proof that there is a great deal description and distinction, but it is not beyond realization by

which the West can and must learn from the philosophies of itself. Once the purușa has realized its eternal self there can no

India. Technology of the West must be used to aid the peoples longer be the avidya attachment to the non-self. It is free to

of Asia raise their standard of living, but both must not lose participate by its presence or to withdraw into complete

the ground which they have gained, for the one is not of value integration-isolation.

without the other. One of the basic teachings of Patañjali is The self concept of the Sankhya-Yoga defines purușa as pure

that the asanas should be practised only to enable the individual consciousness devoid of any humanly comprehensible charac- teristics. These systems do not regard the purusa as beyond

1 Lincoln, Barnett, The Universe and Doctor Einstein (New York, existence. Rather, purusa is beyond the ken of finite being. In

Mentor Book, 1952), p. 37. the West, the self concept has become entangled in the dilemma of a misconception of the distinction of mind and matter. At

148 A Study of the Self Concept of Sankhya Yoga Philosophy

present, the validity of the systems of Sänkhya and Yoga is being verified to a great extent by some of the modern developments in the realms of physical science, psychology, and in philosophy as discussed above. Intellectual recognition of the fact that all phenomena occur only in the light of the pure consciousness is of no value unless this knowledge is acted upon. Once the barriers to cultural communication have been dispersed, intellec- BIBLIOGRAPHY

tual appreciation can occur and this will make it possible that this knowledge can be acted upon. Mere familiarity with the system and the method of application is no guarantee that the fruit of the system will be received. There are many paths Adams, George Plimpton. Idealism and the Modern Age. New available, but they are of no value if the necessary effort is not Haven, Mass., Yale University Press, 1919. 253 pp. made. Each individual is his own past, present, and future, and Akhilananda, Swami. Hindu Psychology. London, Harper &

they are the products of his own making. Bros, 1946. 241 pp. Alexander, F. Matthias. The Use of the Self. New York, E. P. Dutton & Co., 1932. 143 pp. Atreya, Bhikhan Lal. The Yoga Väsistha and Its Philosophy. Benares, R. Pathak, 1939. 117 pp. Ayer, Alfred J. Language, Truth and Logic. New York, Oxford University Press, 1936. 254 pp. Ballantyne, James R. (trans.) The Snkhya Aphorisms of Kapila. London, Trubner and Company, 1885. 464 pp. Ballou, Robert O., Friedrich Spiegelberg, and Horace L. Friess. The Bible of the World. New York, The Viking Press, 1939. 1415 pp. Banerjea, Krishna Mohan, Dialogues on Hindu Philosophy. London, Williams & Norgate, 1861. 538 pp. Barnett, Lincoln. The Universe and Doctor Einstein. New York, A Mentor Book, 1953. 140 pp. Bartholomew, J. G. A Literary and Historical Atlas of Asia. London, J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., n.d. 226 pp. Beck, L. Adams. The Story of Oriental Philosophy. New York, Farrar & Rinehart, Inc. 1928. 339 pp. Behanan, Kovoor T. Yoga. A Scientific Evaluation. New York, The Macmillan Co., 1937. 270 pp. Belvalkar, Shripad Krishna, History of Indian Philosophy. Poona, Bilvakunda Publishing House, 1927-33. 2 Vols. Benignus, Brother. Nature Knowledge and God. Milwaukee, The Bruce Publishing Co., 1949. 662 pp. Bernard, Theos. Hindu Philosophy. New York, Philosophical Library, 1947. 207 pp.

150 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy Bibliography 151

Besant, Annie, and Bhagavan Das. Bhagavad-Gita. Adyar, Burtt, Edwin A. The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill. Madras, The Theosophical Pub. House, 1950. 460 pp. New York, The Modern Library, 1939. 1041 pp. Bhargava, Purushottam Lal. India in the Vedic Age. Lucknow, Carr, H. Wildon. A Theory of Monads. London, Macmillan Upper India Publishing House, 1956. 202 pp. & Co., Ltd., 1922. 351 pp. Bhattacharyya, Hari Mohan. Studies in Philosophy. (first series) Castell, Alburey, An Introduction to Modern Philosophy. New Lahore, Motilal Banarasidass, 1933, 127 pp. York, The Macmillan Co., 1943. 562 pp. Bittle, Celestine N. Reality and Mind. Milwaukee, The Bruce Chakravarti, Pulinbihari, Origin and Development of the Sāmkhya Publishing Co., 1941. 390 pp. System of Thought. Calcutta, Metropolitan Printing and Blackham, H.J. Six Existentialist Thinkers. New York, Mac- Publishing House, 1951. 325 pp. millan Co., 1952. 173 pp. Champion, Selwyn Gurney. The Eleven Religions. New York, Blakey, Robert, History of the Philosophy of Mind. London, E.P. Dutton & Co., 1945. 340 pp. Longmans Green & Longmans, 1850, 4 Vols. Chatterjee, P. C. An Introduction to Philosophical Analysis. Bookstaber, Philip David. The Idea of Development of the Soul Allahabad, Kitab Mahal, 1957. 170 pp. in Medieval Jewish Philosophy, Philadelphia. Chatterjee, Satischandra. The Problems of Philosophy. Calcutta, Bosanquet, B. The Principle of Individuality and Value, London, Das Gupta, 1949. 345 pp. Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1912. 409 pp. , and D. Datta, An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Bosanquet, B. Psychology of the Moral Self. London, Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1897. 132 pp. Calcutta, University of Calcutta, 1950. 443 pp. Chaudhuri, Haridas, Sri Aurobindo : The Prophet of Life Divine. Bouquet, A.C. Compararive Religion. Middlesex, England, Calcutta, Sri Aurobindo Pathamandir, 1951. 265. pp Penguin Books, 1951. 319 pp. Childe, Gordon. What Happened in History. Middlesex, , Man and Deity. Cambridge, W. Heffer & Sons Ltd., Penguin Books, 1950. 388 pp. 1933. 451 pp Clark, Walter E. Indian Conceptions of Immortality. Cambridge, Boutroux, Emile, The Beyond That is Within. London, Duck- Harvard University Press, 1934. 49 pp. worth & Co., 1912. 138 pp. Coats, Austin. Personal and Oriental, New York, Harpers, Bradley, F.H. Appearance and Reality. London, Swan Sonnen- 1957. 259 pp. schein & Co., 1906. 628 pp Conze, E. (ed.). Buddhist Texts Through the Ages. Oxford, Breasted, James H. The Dawn of Conscience. New York, Charles Bruno Cassierer, 1953. 170 pp. Scribner's Sons, 1934. 431 pp. Coomaraswamy, Ananda Kentish. The Dance of Siva. New York, Brinton, Crane. Ideas and Men. New York, Prentice-Hall The Sunrise Turn Inc., 1924. 139 pp. Inc., 1950. 587 pp. Hinduism and Buddhism. New York, Philosophical Bronstein, Daniel J., Yervant H. Krikorian and Philip S. Library, n.d. 86 pp. Wiener. Basic Problems of Philosophy. New York, Prentice- . Recollections, Indian and Platonic and On the One and Hall Inc., 1949. 752 pp. Only Transmigrant. Baltimore, Md., The American Oriental Brown, Thomas. Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind. Society Supplement. Vol. 64, no. 2 and 3, 1944. 43 pp. Boston, S.T. Armstrong, Cummings, Hilliard, and Co., . The Republic of Plato. New York, Oxford University 1826, 2 Vols. Press, 1949. 366 pp. Browne, Lewis. This Believing World. New York, The Mac- Coster, Geraldine, Yoga and Western Psychology. London, millan Co., 1930. 347 pp. Oxford University Press, 1945. 348 pp. Burnet, John. Early Greek Philosophy. London, A. & C. Cowell, E.B., and A.E. Gough. The Sarva-Darśana-Samgraha. Black, 1920. 375 pp.

152 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy Bibliography 153

London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd., 1914 Garratt, Geoffrey T. The Legacy of India. Oxford, The 281 pp. Clarendon Press, 1938. 428 pp. Culbertson, James T. Consciousness and Behavior. Dubuque, Ghose, Aurobindo, The Life Divine. New York, The Sri Wm. C. Brown Co., 1950. 210 pp. Aurobindo Library Inc., 1951. 1050 pp. Dasgupta, Surendranath. A History of Indian Philosophy. Cam- Ghosh, Jajneswar. Sankhya and Modern Thought. Calcutta, bridge, The University Press, 1922-57, 5 Vols. The Book Co., Ltd., 1930. 141 pp. . Hindu Mysticisms. Chicago, The Opencourt Publish- Gollancz, Victor. Man and God. Boston, Houghton Mifflin ing Co., 1927. 268 pp. Co., 1951. 567 pp. . Indian Idealism. Cambridge, The University Press, Gould, Wm. D., Geo. B. Arbaugh and R.F. Moore, Oriental 1933. 206 pp. Philosophy. New York, Russell F. Moore Co., 1951. 220 pp. Yoga as Philosophy and Religion. London, K. Paul Grousset, René. The Sum of History. Oxford, Tower Bridge Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd., 1924. 200 pp. Publications Ltd., 1951. 254 pp. + . Yoga Philosophy in Relation to Other Systems of Guthrei, Wm. Keith C. In The Beginning. London, Methuen, Indian Thought. Calcutta, University of Calcutta, 1930. 1957. 151 pp. 380 pp. Harrison, Jane. Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion. Davis, John. The Sānkhya Kārikā of Iśvara-Krșna. London, New York, Meridian Books. 1955. 682 pp. Trübner & Co., 1881. 151 pp. Harrison, Max Hunter, Hindu Monism and Pluralism. Bombay, Descartes, René. Discourse on Method and Metaphysical Medi- Oxford University Press, 1932. 324 pp. tations, trans., Gertrude E. Rawlings. London, The Walter Hegel, G.W.F. Philosophy of History. New York, P.F. Collier Scott Publishing Co., Ltd., n.d. 227 pp. and Son, 1901. 569 pp. Dickenson, G. Lowes. The Greek View of Life. London, Methuen Philosophy of Mind. Oxford, The Clarendon PressA- & Co., 1938. 261 pp. 1894. 202 pp. Dvivedi, M.N. The Yoga-Sūtras of Patāñjali. Madras, The Heimann, Betty. Indian and Western Philosophy. London, Theosophical Publishing House, 1947. 182 pp. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1937. 156 pp. Edman, I. (ed.). The Works of Plato. New York, The Modern Hiriyanna, Mysore. The Essentials of Indian Philosophy. Library, 1928. 577 pp. London, G. Allen & Unwin, 1949. 216 pp. Fletcher, Orlin Ottman. An Introduction to Philosophy. New The Quest After Perfection. Madras, University of York, The Macmillan Co., 1923. 420 pp. Madras, 1941. 28 pp. Flewelling, Ralph Tyler. Conflict and Conciliation of Cultures. Outlines of Indian Philosophy. London, G. Allen & Stockton, Calif., College of the Pacific Press, 1951. 106 pp Unwin, 1932. 419 pp. Frost, S.E. The Sacred Writings of the Worlds Great Religions. Holmes, Edmond Gore A. The Headquarters of Reality. London, New York, Perma Giants, 1949. 410 pp. Methuen & Co., Ltd., 1933. 207 pp. Fuller, B.A.G. A History of Philosophy. New York, Henry Hopkins, Edward Washburn. The Religions of India. Boston, Holt & Co., 1947. 560 pp. Ginn & Co., 1895. 612 pp. Gaer, Joseph, How the Great Religions Began. New York, A Huges, Ernest R. (ed.). The Individual In East and West. London, Signet Key Book, 1954. 240 pp. Oxford University Press, 1937. 197 pp. Gangali, Charuchandra, Studies in Hindu Thought. Calcutta, Hume, R.E. The Thirteen Principal Upanishads. Madras, Oxford The Utkal Sahitya Press, 1920. 48 pp. University Press, 1951. 587 pp. Garbe, R. The Philosophy of Ancient India. Chicago, The Jackson, R.J. India's Quest for Reality. London, The Buddhist Opencourt Publishing Co .. 1899. 89 pp. Society, 1947. 44 pp.

154 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy Bibliography 155

James, William. Psychology. Cleveland, Ohio, The World Sons, 1924. 214 pp. Publishing Co., 1948. 478 pp. Masson-Oursel, Paul. Comparative Philosophy. London, Kegan Jaspers, Karl. Reason and Existence. New York, The Noonday Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. Ltd., 1926. 212 pp. Press, 1955. 157 pp. i , Henena De William-Grabowska and Philippe Stern, Jeans, Sir James. Physics and Philosophy. Cambridge, at the Ancient India and Indian Civilization. London, Routledge & University Press, 1948. 222 pp. Kegan Paul Ltd., 1951. 435 pp. Jhā, Gangānātha, Translator. The Tattva-Kamudi. Poona, The Morcier, Cardinal, et. al., A Manual of Modern Scholastic Oriental Book Agency. 1934. 310 pp Philosophy. London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. The Yoga-darshana. Madras, The Theosophical Ltd., 1926, 2 Vols. Publishing House, 1934. 263 pp. Mitchell, J. Murray, and Wm. Muir. Two Old Faiths. New Joad. C.E.M. Great Philosophies of the World. London, Thomas York, Chautauqua Press, 1892. 152 pp Nelson & Sons Ltd., 1937. 156 pp. Mounier, Emmanuel. Existentialist Philosophies. London, Rankin Johnston, E.H. Early Sāmkhya. London, The Royal Asiatic Bros., Ltd., 1951. 142 pp. Society, 1937. 91 pp. Mukerji, A.C. Self, Thought and Reality. Allahabad, The Jung, Carl G. The Integration of the Personality. London, Juvenile Press, 1933. 410 pp. Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1952. 313 pp. Müller, Friedrich Max. The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy. Keith, Arthur Berriedale. The Religion and Philosophy of the Calcutta, Susil Gupta (India) Ltd., 1952, 4 Vols. Veda and Upanishads. Cambridge, Mass., The Harvard Myers, Philip Van Ness. The Eastern Nations and Greece. Boston, University Press, 1925, 2 Vols. Ginn & Co., 1904. 367 pp. . The Samkhya System. Calcutta, Association Press, Nettleship, R.L. The Republic of Plato. London, Macmillan 1918. 109 pp. & Co., Ltd., 1951. 364 pp. Lafargue, Paul. The Origin and Evolution of the Idea of the Soul. Nicholl, Donald, Recent Thought in Focus. New York, Sheed Chicago, Charles H. Kerr & Co., 1922. 127 pp. & Ward, 1952. 250 pp Lee, Otiz, Existence and Inquiry. Chicago, University of Chicago Northrop, F.S.C. The Meeting of East and West. New York, Press, 1949. 323 pp. The Macmillan Co., 1950. 530 pp. Leidecker, Jurt F. Josiah Royce and Indian Thought. New York, Otto, Rudolf, The Idea of the Holy. London, Oxford University Kailas Press, 1931. 32 pp. Press, 1950. 232 pp. Macdonell, Arthur A. A History of the Sanskrit Literature. Parker, DeWitt H. The Self and Nature. Cambridge, Harvard New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1900. 472 pp. University Press, 1917. 316 pp. Mckenzie, John. Two Religions. Edinburgh, Croall Lectureship Perry, Ralph Barton. Present Philosophical Tendencies. New 1950. 143 pp. York, Longmans, Green & Co., 1921. 383 pp. McKeon, R. Introduction to Aristotle. New York, The Modern Persson, Axel W. The Religion of Greece in Prehistoric Times. Library, 1947. 667 pp. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1942. 189 pp. Mclaurin, Hamish. Eastern Philosophy for Western Minds. Piggott, Stuart. Prehistoric India to 1000 B.C. London, Penguin Boston, The Stratford Co., 1933. 282 pp. Books, 1952. 293 pp Majumdar, K.A. The Samkhya Conception of Personality. Planck, Max. The Universe in the Light of Modern Physics. Calcutta, Calcutta University, 1930. 158 pp. New York, W.W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1931. 118 pp. « Malkani, Ghanshamdas R. Philosophy of the Self. Amalner, Plato, The Dialogues of. B. Jowett Translation, New York, The Indian Institute of Philosophy, 1939. 218 pp. Scribners, Armstrong T. Co., 1874, 4 Vols. Marchant, James. Immortality. New York, G.P. Putman's. Pringle-Pattison, A. Seth. The Idea of God. New York, Oxford

156 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy Bibliography 157

University Press, 1920. 443 pp. Benares, Nand Kishore & Bros., 1944. 229 pp. The Idea of Immortality. Oxford, The Clarendon Sartre, Jean-Paul, Being and Nothingness. New York, Philoso- Press, 1922. 210 pp. phical Library, 1956. 636 pp. Radhakrishnan, Sir Sarvepalli, editor. Contemporary Indian . Existentialism. New York, Philosophical Library, Philosophy. London, G. Allen & Unwin, 1952. 648 pp. 1947, 92 pp . History of Philosophy Eastern and Western. London, Shaler, Nathanial S. The Individual. New York, D. Appleton G. Allen & Unwin, 1952-3, 2 Vols. & Co., 1905. 351 pp. . Indian Philosophy. London, G. Allen & Unwin Ltd., Shastri, Prabhu Dutt. The Essentials of Eastern Philosophy. 1948, 2 Vols. New York, The Macmillan Co., 1928. 104 pp. Ramacharaka, Yogi. The Philosophies and Religions of India. Sinha, J. Indian Psychology. London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Chicago, The Yogi Publication Society, 1909. 359 pp. Trubner & Co., Ltd., 1934. 384 pp. Rawlinson, H.G. A Concise History of the Indian People. Sivandanda, Sri Swami. World's Religions. Rishikesh, India, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1950. 431 pp. The Sivananda Publication League, 1947. 188 pp. . Intercourse Between India and the Western World. Spaulding, Edward G. The New Rationalism. New York, London, Cambridge University Press, 1926. 194 pp. Henry Holt & Co., 1918. 532 pp. Reichenbach, Rans, The Rise of Scientific Philosophy, Berkeley, Swabey, Wm. C. Being and Being Known. New York, The Dial University of California Press, 1951. 332 pp. Press, Inc., 1937. 318 pp. Reinach, Salomon, Orpheus. A History of Religions. New Stanford, Charles. The Immortality of the Soul-Phaedo. New York, Liveright Publishing Corp., 1942. 487 pp. York, Hurst & Co., 1835. 225 pp. Renard, Henri. The Philosophy of Being. Milwaukee, The Tagore, Rabindranath. The Religion of Man. New York, The Bruce Publishing Co., 1948. 262 pp. Macmillan Co., 1931. 244 pp. Rogers, Arthur K. A Student's History of Philosophy. New . Sādhanā. London, Macmillan & Co., 1921. 164 pp. York, The Macmillan Co., 1932. 487 pp. Tatya, Tookeram. The Yoga Philosophy. Bombay, The Bombay Ross, Floyd H. The Meaning of Life in Hinduism and Buddhism. Theosophical Publication Fund, 1885. 226 pp. Boston, The Becon Press, 1953. 167 pp. Taylor, A.E. Plato; The Man and His Works. New York, Roy, Anilbaran. The Message of the Gita. Pondicherry, Sri Meridian Books, 1956. 562 pp. Aurobindo Ashram Press, 1946. 311 pp. Thalheimer, Ross. A Critical Examination of the Epistemologicat Royce, J., et al, The Conception of God. New York, The and Psychological Doctrines of Bertrand Russell. Baltimore, Macmillan Co., 1898. 354 pp. Johns Hopkins University, 1931. 35 pp. The World and the Individual. 2nd series, New York, Tyrrell, G.N.M. The Personality of Man. London, Penguin The Macmillan Co., 1913. 480 pp. Books, 1954. 295 pp. Runes, D.D. The Dictionary of Philosophy. New York, Philoso- Urwick, Edward J. The Message of Plato. London, Methuen phical Library, 1942. 343 pp. & Co., Ltd., 1920. 260 pp. Russell, Bertrand, An Outline of Philosophy. London, G. Allen Vreeda, Franz. A Short Introduction to the Essentials of Living & Unwin, Ltd., 1927. 317 pp. Hindu Philosophy. Bombay, Oxford University Press, 1953. . Dictionary of Mind, Matter and Morals. New York, 71 pp. Philosophical Library, 1952. 290 pp. Wach, Joachim. Types of Religious Experience, Christian and .The Problems of Philosophy. New York, Henry Holt Non-Christian, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1951. & Co., n.d. 255 pp. Weldon, Ellwood Austin. The Samkhya Karikds nf Hivare 275 pp. Saksena, S.K. Nature of Consciousness in Hindu Philosophy.

158 A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya-Yoga Philosophy

Krisna with the Commentary of Gaudapada. Philadelphia, E.A. Weldon, 1913. 15 pp. Wells, H.G. The Outline of History. Garden City, New York, Garden City Publishing Co., Inc., 1931. 1255 pp. Wheeler, Benjamin I. Dionysos and Immortality. Boston, Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1899. 67 pp. INDEX

Whitehead, A.N. Process and Reality. New York, Macmillan Co., 1929. 547 pp. . Science and Philosophy. New York, Philosophical Library, 1948. 316 pp. Berkeley 103.

Williams, M.M. Hinduism. London, Society for Promoting Bhakti-Yoga 86.

Christian Knowledge, 1890. 238 pp. Abhimāna 46, 47 Bhūtadi 50-3. Absolute 106-8, 111, 112, 144. Bliss 63. Wilson, George A. The Self and Its World. New York, The Aceticism 16 Body 90-3. Macmillan Co., 1926. 338 pp. Advaita 101. Brahmā 11, 40. Wood, Ernest E. Practical Yoga: Ancient and Modern. New Agnosticism 58. Brahmanism 13, 125.

York, E.P. Dutton & Co., 1948. 255 pp. Ahankāra 44-50, 58, 59, 76, 91, 99, Buddha 21, 73. Buddhi 44 8. 53, 58, 67, 72, 74-80, Woods, James H. The Yoga-System of Patañjali. Cambridge, 130, 131, 133, 138, 141, 145. Amalgamation 8, 11, 13, 19. 91, 126, 129-33, 136-42. Harvard University Press, 1927. 381 pp. Ananda 63. Buddhitattva 45, 49. Zacharias, H.E.E. Human Personality, Its Historical Emergence Antman 30. Buddhism 3, 4, 6. in India, China, and Israel. London, B. Herder Book Co., Antabkarana 71, 75, 99.

1950. 360 pp. A prioi 102, 105. C

Zimmer, H. Myths & Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. Aristotle 70, 89. 91-6, 136, 141. Aryan 5, 8, 10, 12, 13, 16, 122-25. Caitanya 36, 78 New York, Pantheon Books, 1947. 248 pp. Āsana 85, 86, 140, 146, Causation 24, 34, 35, 126. Asmita 79 Cause 6, 102, 146. Assimilation 9. Cārvākas 21. Āsika 21. Christ 5. Ātman 80. Christians 3, 115-8, 125, 135. Asuri 15. Citta 59, 69, 74, 77-80, 83, 103, 139. Atheism 19, 21, 22, 23, 115, 117, Coalescence 81, 82. 132. Cognition 78, 83, 84. Atoms 31-33, 51-3, 128, 131. Concentration 57, 80-2 Aurobindo 112 Consciousness 24, 36, 44, 47, 63, Authority 59, 82-4 66, 72, 76, 79, 86, 97-103, 105, Avidyā 45, 50, 55, 60, 69, 75, 78, 108-20, 126, 128, 130, 137, 142, 129-31, 136, 138. 144, 147. Avita 132. Cosmology 22, 53, 59, 88, 120. Avyaktam 28. D B Dancer 72 Beauty 90. Darśana 56 Becoming 107. Death 118 Being 108. Descates 6, 96-8, 100, 141, 142, 145.

A Study of the Self Concept of Sānkhya Yoga Philosophy Bibliography 161

160 Moslems 3, 125:

Dharma 62. Greeks 11, 12, 122, 145. Kant 5, 104, 143. Kapila 8, 13-8, 21, 24, 56, 64-4, 87, Mother-goddess 10, 11, 16.

Dialectic 107, 108. Guņas 6, 31, 33-6, 40-3, 46, 65, 68, 72-4, 77, 81, 83, 86, 127-31, 136-8, 124, 130, 132, 134, 135. Miller, Max 137. Divine element 91. 143, 145. Karma 12, 20, 42, 43, 68, 74, 80. Mukti 20, 41, 56, 59, 72, 80, 81, 86,

Doukhobors 5. Guru 120. 103 132, 133.

Dravidians 16. Karma-Yoga 86. Myth 90, 91. Dualism 23, 24, 101, 108-9, 114, 126, 134. H Kierkegaard 116, 117 Knowledge 77, 78, 82-4, 96, 97, N

Dvanas 75, 138. Hārappā 8, 10, 16, 122. 105, 109, 115, 131, 132, 138, 139.

Hata-Yoga 87. Nāstika 21.

E Heaven 12, 13. L Natarāja 10.

Ego, see ahańkāra, 97-99, 105-9, Hegel 106-9, 143. Nature 64, 72, 124.

Heidegger 115-119. Leibnitz 100, 101, 142. Nature 106-11.

120, 143, 145. Negativism 134, 128. Egoism 67, 79. Hell 12, 13. Liberation 58, 80, 88 Heterodox 20, 21. Neutron 33, 127, 128. Ego-sense 138. Linga 45

Elan vital 135. Hinduism 3, 4, 9, 125. Linga-śarira 6, 66, 67, 91, 96, 135, Nihilism 119, 134. Nirodha 81. Electron 33, 127, 128. Homostasis 6 141. Hume 103, 143. Locke, J. 102, 103, 142, 143. Nomads 8, 12, 13.

Emotion 91. Non-ātman 80.

Empiricists 104, 142. Logical positivist 113, 145.

Entrophy 30. I Logos 111. Non-dualism 64 Non-existent 103 Epiphenomenal 31 Epistimological 102, 131. Idealism 101, 102, 142. Identity 102 M Non-self 61, 134. Noumenal 101

Epithumia 91 Equilibrium 30, 31, 130. Ignorance 45, see avidyā. Indo-European 11 Mahābhutas 53 Nous 91. Nuclear theory 27 Estrangement 118. Indra 11. Mahat 45, 47, 59, 103, 129, 143. Mahat-buddhi 44 Nyaya 6.

Evil 118. Evolution 28, 30, 35, 42-50, 53, Indus Valley 9. Immortality 12, 13, 84, 90 Man 1, 4, 102, 106, 119, 120, 140, O

127-30. Individual 4, 47, 57, 58, 61, 93. 143, 145.

Exercises 85, 86 Inference 54, 59, 82, 132. Manus 46, 47, 49, 58, 67, 75, 91,

Existence 97, 98, 103, 104, 107, 117, 133,141. Occident 73, 120.

118, 127, 134. Intellect 27, 36, 44. Intelligence 78, 91. Marcel, G. 119. Orient 2, 11, 13, 73, 61, 66, 119, 120.122. Existent 119. Existentialist 115-19, 145. Involution 35. Margas 87, 140. Materialist 62, 142 Orthodox 20. Isolation 66 Iśvara 21, 56-9, 70, 88, 133. Matter 92, 100-3, 110, 126, 142-5,

F P Iśvarakrşņa 15, 35. 147. Māyā 63, 106, 108

Fichte 106, 107 J Memory 79 Panentheism 24

Form 92, 93, 110. Metaphysical 102, 109. Pantheism 24:

Freedom 102, 107, 117. Jaina 100, 101, 042. Microcomos 131. Pantheon 11. Mimāmsa 6. Paramānu 51.

G James, Wm. 109, 110, 113. Jews 3. Mind 27, 32, 45, 46, 49, 60, 68, 74- Parināma 28. 77, 81,82, 86, 90, 93-8, 100-14, Pataňjali 15, 17-21, 56, 87, 124,

Goal 1,4. Jiva 61-9 120, 126, 129, 139 ff. 132, 140. God 20, 22, 56, 57, see Iśvara, 70, Jñāna-Yoga 86. Mohejodāro 8-10, 15, 16, 122. Paths 87, see marga. 88, 100-4, 111, 113, 115, 117, 126, K Monad 100, 101, 142. Perception 53, 54, 59, 82, 84.

132, 133, 136. Monism 114, 146. Perceptor 83

Good life 5. Kaivalya 59, 66, 76, 77, 135. Morality 12. Person 102 103, 120, 142.

Goodness 90.

162 A Study of the Self Concept of Sänkhya Yoga Philosophy Bibliography 163

Personality 89, 119. Salvation 74, 84. Vita 132.

Phallus 9, 10. Samādhi 81, 84, 86, 140. Viveka 59.

Phenomena 106, 109-111, 113, 143, Samāpatti 81. Universal One 100. Vrttis 59, 81, 83. 84, 133

145. Samsāra 4, 12, 13, 79, 81. Universals 2, 5. 6. 57, 59, 61. Vyakta 24. Phenomenal world 73. 101, 103, Samskära 49, 83 Upanişads 8, 11, 13, 18, 125.

146. Sakāryavāda 24, 34, 35, 126. W

Physiology 22. Satre 115, 116, 118, 119. V

Plato 5, 89, 91, 124, 140, 141. Sattva 32-6, 43, 45, 50, 68, 69, 76, Whitehcad 112-4, 144. Pluralism 27, 63, 64, 109, 134. 77, 81. Varuna 12. Wisdom 90.

Prabhasa 68. Schelling 106, 107. Vaiśesika 6. Witch hunters 5.

Pradhana 29 Scholastic 6. Vedānta 6, 63, 64, 106, 108. 111, Witness 77.

Pragmatism 109, 110, 144. Self 5, 7, 20, 22, 29, 48, 61-7, 76- 30, 144

Pralaya 6, 30, 33, 34, 40-5, 59, 72, 80, 87, 88, 102-112, 130, 131, 134-6, Vedas 8, 10, 12, 13, 16, 21, 123. Y

136, 137, 140. 147. 141-7 Vidya 55.

Prānāyāma 17 Senses 27, 48, 49, 52, 83. Vishnu 11, 40 Yogi 77.

Prakrti 6, 22, 59, 60, 63.74, 76, 77. Sign 45. 84, 88, 94, 95, 100, 103, 109, 134 Šiva 10, 11, 16, 40 9, 143-7. Śiva-pashüpati 10, 15. Pramă 53, 139. Skepticism 101, 104. Pre-aryan 9. Smrti 83 Proton 32, 33. Snake cults 5. Provincialism 2. Space 60. Psychoanalysis 120. Space-time 146. Psychology 22, 133, 138, 146. Spinaoza 24, 100, 141, 142. Psyche 91, 95, 138, 141. Spirit 62, 66, 72, 107, 108, 135. Psychic shells 74. Socrates 88-91, 114. Purușa 4, 6, 21, 22-4, 27, 28, 42-4, Soul 6, 14, 45, 61-3, 89-96, 99, 47, 53, 58-74, 76-82, 90, 94, 95, 100, 104, 105, 109, 135, 140, 141. 109. 114, 126-41, 147. Subatomic 53. Pythagoras 124. Subject 109, 112. Substance 93, 105-110, 128.

R Suffism 3. Śunya 134.

Rajas 32-6, 43, 50, 77. Supreme Spirit 64.

Raja-Yoga 86. Ramanuja 112. T

Rationalism 100, 101. Realist 101 Rebirth 12. Tabla rasa 102.

Romans 11, 122 Tamas 32-6, 43, 50, 77.

Royce, J. 110, 111, 144. Tanmātra 45, 46, 50, 59, 131, 133.

Russell. B. 5. 112-4, 144. Tapas 16. Tattvāntarapariņāma 30, 127. Thumos 91. Time 60. Tranquillity 73 Saguna Brahma 111, 144. Transcendent truth 85. Saksin 77. Truth 2. 14. 109.

75 00307 .0100 25