1. Al Biruni_The Chronology of Ancient Nations 1879

THE CHRONOLOGY

OF

ANCIENT NATIONS

AN ENGLISH VERSION OF THE

ARABIC TEXT OF THE ATHAR-UL.BAKIYA OF ALBIRUNI,

OR

"VESTIGES OF THE PAST,"

COLLECTED AND REDOCED TO WRITINO BY THE AUTHOR .. IN A.H. 390-1, A.D. 1000.

TRANELATED AND EDITED, WITH NOTES AND INDEX, BY

De. C. EDWARD SACHAU PROYES8OR IN THE ROYAL ONIVERSITY OF BRRLIN.

LONDON: PUBLISHEO FOR THE ORIENTAL TRANSLATION FUND OF GREAT BRITAIN & IRELAND BY WILLIAM H. ALLEN AND CO. 18 WATERLOO PLACE, PALL MALL. PUBLISHERS TO THE TADIA OFFICR.

PREFACE.

Ir was Sir Henry Rawlinson who first directed public attention to this work of Albiruni, in his celebrated article on Central Asia in the "Quarterly Review " for 1866, in which he gave some valuable information derived from his own manuscript copy, now the property of the British Museum. In offering the book, both in text and trans- lation, to the learned world, I feel bound to premise that it is scarcely of a nature to attract the interest of the general reader. It appeals to minds trained in the schools of various sciences. Even competent scholars will find it no easy matter to follow our author through all the mazes of his elaborate scientific calculations. Containing, as it does, all the technical and historical details of the varions systems for the computation of timo, invented and used by the Persians, Sogdians, Chorasmians, Jews, Syrians, Harranians, and Arabs, tngether with Greek traditions, it offers an equal interest to all those who study the antiquity and history of the Zoroastrian and Jewish, Christian and Muhammadan religions .* The work of Albironi has the character of a primary source. Oriental philologists are accustomed to see one book soon superseded by another, Barhebraeus by Ibn-al'athir, Ibn-al'athir by Al-Tabari. Although it is likely enough

• By Christian, I understand the Melkite and Nestorian Churches, whilst the author does not seem to have known much more of the Jacobites than the name.

vi PREFAOE.

that on many subjects in this book we shall one day find better authenticated and more anoient information, I venturo to say, that, as a whole, it will soarcely ever be superseded It is a standard work in Oriental literature, and has been recognised as such by the East itself, repre- senting in ite peouliar line the highest development of Oriental soholarship. Perhaps we shall one day find the literary sources themselves from which Albirunt derived his informatios, and shall be enabled to dispense with his extracts fre a them. But there are other chapters, e.g. those on the calendars of the anoient inhabitants of Central Asia, regarding whioh we shall, in alllikelihood, never find any more ancient information, because the author had learned the subject from hearsay among a population which was then on the eve of dying out. As the first editor and translator of a book of this kind, I venture to claim the indulgence of the reader. Generations of scholars have toiled to oarry the understanding of Herodotus to that point where it is now, and how muoh is wanting still 1 .. The work of generations will be required to do full justice to Albirtni. A olassioal philologist oan edit a Greek text in a correct form, even though he may have no complete understanding of thesubject-matter in all possible relations. Not so an Arabio philologist. The ambiguity of the Arabio writing proh dolor !- is the reason why a manuscript expresses only three-quarters of the author's meaning, whilst the editor is compelled to supply the fourth quarter from his own knowledge and discernment. No number in any chronological table can be considered correot, as long as it is not proved by computation to be so, and even in the simplest historical narrative the editor and translator may most lementably go astray in his interpretation, if there is something wrong with the method of his research.

PREFAOE. vii

I have boldly attacked the sometimes rather enigmatio style of the author, and if I have missed the mark, if the bewildering variety and multiplioity of the subjeot-matter have prevented me reaching the very bottom of every question, I must do what more or less every Oriental author does at the end of his work,-humbly ask the gentle reader to pardon my error and to correct it.

I. The Author. The full name of the author is Abu-Raihan Muhammad b. 'Ahmad Albirunt. He quotes himself as Abu-Raihân (vide p. 134, 1. 29), and so he is generally called in Eastern literature, more rarely Albtruni. The latter name means, literally, extraneous, being a derivative from the Persian y which means the outside as a noun, and outside as a preposition. In our time the word is pronounced Birun (or Beeroon), e.g. in Teheran, but the vowel of the first syllable is a yai-majhul, which means that in more ancient times it was pronounced Berun (or Bayroon). This statement rests on the authority of the Persian lexicographers. That the name was pronounced in this way in Central Asia about the author's time, we learn from an indisputable statement regarding our author from the pen of Alsam'anf, a philologist and biographer of high repute, who wrote only one hundred years after the author's death (vide Introduotion to my edition of the text, p. xviii.). He was a native of Khwtrizm, or Chorasmia, the modern K hiva; to speak more accurately, a native either of a suburb (Bêrin) of the capital of the oountry, both of which bore the same name Khwariam, or of the country-district (also called Berin) bolonging to the capital, Albirini was born A.H. 362, 3. Dhu-alhijja (A.D. 973,

PREFACE.

4th September), and died A.H. 440, 2. Rajah (A.D. 1048, 11th December), aged seventy-five years. The first part of his life he seems to have spent in Khwarizm, where he enjoyed the protection of the House of Ma'min, the rulers of the country. Originally vassals of the kings of Central Asia of the House of Saman, they became indeperdent when the star of their masters began to sink, i.e. bet ween A.H. 384-390. They were, however, not to play a great part in the history of the East, for so early as A.H. 407 their power was orushed by the great Mahmud of Ghazna, and their dominions annexed to his empire. Like Albirini, other soholars also of high standing received protection and favours at the court of the Ma'muni princes. The anthor is known to have lived some years also in Jurjan, or Hyroania, on the southern shores of the Caspian sea, under the protection, and perhaps at the court, of Kåbts ben Washmgir Shams-alma'&li, who ruled over Hyrcania and the adjoining countries at two different periods, A.H. 366-371 and 388-403. To this prince he has dedicated the present book, apparently about A.H. 390-391, (A.D. 1000). During the years A.H. 400-407 he stayed again in his native country at the court of Ma'mun b. Ma'mun, as his friend and counsellor. He was a witnese of the rebellion that broke out A.H. 407, of the murder of Ma'muin, and of the conquest of the country by Mahmud of Ghazna, who, on returning, oarried off him and other scholars to Afghan- istan in the spring of A.H. 408. Among his numerous works, we find mentioned a "Chroniole of Khwarizm," in whioh he probably had re- oorded all the traditions relating to the antiquity of his native country, and more especially the history of those events of

PREFAOE. ix

which he had himself been a witness. This work seems to be lost. However, an extract of it has come down to us as the last part of the great chronicle of the royal house of Mahmnd, oomposed by Albaihakt, the editior of which we owe to the industry and learning of the late W. H. Morley ("Bibliotheca Indica," Calcutta, 1862, pp. 834, &o.). With A.H. 408 begins a new period in the author's life, when he enlarged the cirole of his researches on mathe- matics, astronomy, geography, ohronology, and natural sciences by his study of India, its geography and history, of the language and literature, manners and customs, of the Hindts. It was the period when he gathered all those materials which he deposited towards the end of his life in his famous " Memoir on India." After Albiruni had settled in Ghazna, he paid at least one more visit to his native country. He died, probably, at Ghazna. Whether he travelled much in other countries besides India, I have no means of proving. From the present book we can only infer that, besides his native country and Hyrcania, he also knew parts of Modia, e.g. Rai (Rhagæ).

II. His Work. Albirfmi calls his work Alathar Albakiya 'an-il-Kardn Alkhaliya, i.e. monuments or vestiges of generations of the past that have been preserved up to the author'e time, meaning by monuments or vestiges the religious institutes of various nations and seots, founded in more anoient times, and, more or less, still practised and adhered to by the Oriental world about A.D. 1000. With admirable industry the author gathers whatever traditions he ean find on every single fact, he confronts them with eaoh other, and inquires with critical acumen

into the apeciai merits or demerits of ench single tradition. Mathematical acouracy is his last gauge, and wherever the nature of a tradition admits of such a gauge, he is sure to verify it by the help of oareful mathematical caloulation. To epesk in general, there is much of the modern spirit and method of critical researoh in our author, and in this respeot he is a phenomenon in the history of Eastern learning and literature. Authors of the first centuries of the Hijra sometimes betray a great deal of common sense and good method, sometimes also unmistakable traces of a marked individuality, whilst the later centuries are oharacterised by the very opposite. Then the author entirely disappears behind his book ; all literary work sinks down to the level of imbecile oompilation from good and bad sources; the understanding of the life and literature of the preceding centuries becomes rare and distorted. Common sense has gone never to return, and very seldom do we meet with s trace of scientifio method or of the individuality of the author. The fourth century is the tarning-point in the history of the spirit of Islam, and the establishment of the orthodox faith about 500 sealed the fate of independent research for ever. But for Alash'art and Alghazzali the Arabs might have been a nation of Galiteos, Keplers, and Newtons. Originally I intended to give a complete exposé of the souroes whence Albirhni has drawn his manifold informa- tion, but the material hitherto available for researohes on the literary history of the east is still so scanty that I had to desist from my plan. This applies in partioular to the east of the Khalifate, to Khurasan. We are com- paratively well informed regarding the literature of Mesopotamis, Syris, Egypt, and the farther west of Islam, whilat we have very little information regarding the scien-

PREFAOE, xi

tific and literary life east of Bagdad as it developed itself during the first three centuries of Abbaside rule, under the proteotion of the imperial governors and the later indo- pendent princes,.e.g. the House of Saman. It is to be hoped that Central Asia and Afghanistan, when once in the grasp of European influence, will yield us rioh colleotions of valuable literary monumonts. Hitherto manuscripts coming from those countries are seldom met with in the great libraries of Europe. As for the written material which the author had at his disposal, he quotes many a book of whicl I elsewhere can scarcely find a trace. All the books, e.g. on Persian and Zoroastrian history and traditions, composed in early times, not only by Zoroastrians but also by Muslims, converts from the Zoroastrian creed, are altogether un- known in Europe; and it seems very probable that the bigoted people of later times have spared very little of this kind of literature, which to them had the intolerable smell of filthy idolatry. As regards Persian history, Albirni had an excellent predecessor in Alisfahant, whom he follows frequently, and whom he was not able to surpass in many points. From oral information Albirfini seems to have learned all he knows of the chronology and calendar of tho Zoroastrian populations of l'ersia, of his native country, and of Sogdiana (or Bukhara). In his time the majority of the country-people still adbered to Ahuramazda, and in most towns there must still have been Zoroastrian commu- nities, so that Albiruni did not lack the opportunity for studying the mannors and institutes of the then existing followere of Zoroaster. Unfortunately, the Zoroastrian creed had lost its clerioal and political unity and constitu- tion. The people practised their oustoms as they bad seen

xn PREFAOE.

their parents do, but they had no longer a oorrect under- standing of their origin and meaning. Certainly a Mohe- dan-Mobed of the time of Ardashir BabekAn would have been able to give a more acourate and complete account of Zoroastrian life and religion; but still we must be thankful to Albirunî for his having preserved to posterity the festal oalendars as used by Zoroastrians of his time when their religion was on the eve of dying out. To oral information I ascribe also the author's admirable knowledge of the Jewish calendar. Jewish soholars will be able to say whether his informants were Ananites (Karaites) or Rabbanites. My critics do not seem to have noticed that Albirini, a Muslim, is the first of all the scholars we know who has composed a soientifio system of the Jewish chronology. He is muoh anterior to Moses Maimonides, also to Abraham bar Chiyya, being a contem- porery of R. Sherira and Hai Gaon, who seem to play a prominent part in the history of Jewish chronology. With Nestorian Christians he must have been acquainted, as he speake of the Nestorian communities of his native country. His report of the Melkite feasts, &o., may have been oommunioated to him by Nestorian priests from Syriao ecuroes. Albirini wrote both in Arabio and Persian, as he has edited his "Kit&b-altafhim" in both languages. There is a possibility of his having had a smattering of Hebrew and Syriao (vide pp. 18, 19), but of Greek he seems to have been ignorant, and whatever he relates on the authority of Greek authors-Ptolemy, Galen, Eusebius, &o .- must have been communicated to him by the ordinary ohannel of Syriac-Arabio translation. His study of Sanskrit falls into the latter half of his life. From oooasional notes in the book & desoription of the

PREFACE. xiii

anthor's oharaoter may be gleansd. He ssems to have besn a truth-loving man, attacking all kinds of shams v ith bitter saroasms. He was not without a humoristio voin, and his occasional ironical remarks offer a ourious contrast to the pervading earnestness of the tenor of his speech. Ag a. Muslim he inclined towards the Shi'a, but he was net a bigoted Muslim. He betrays a strong aversion to the Arabs, the destroyers of Sasanian glory, and a marked predilection for all that is of Persian or Eranian nationality. Muslim orthodoxy had not yet become so powerful as to imperil the life of a man, be he Muslim or not, who would study other religions and publicly declare in favour of them. Dakîki, a poet not long anterior to Albirtnî, a favonrite of the Muslim house of Saman, was allowed to sing-

"Of all that is good and bad in the world, Daliki has choaen four things to himeelf: A woman's lips as red as rubies, the melody of the lute, The blood-coloured wine, and the religion of Zoroaster."

Not long afterwards, at the court of the great Mahmud of Ghazna, these verses would probably have proved fatal to their author. Habent sua fata libelli, and I may add, the fate of this book, from the time of its composition till the time when I began to study it, has not bean a fortunate one. Only a few were able to understand it, few had an interest in having it oopied. In the form in which I offer the book to the reader it is nct complete. Many most essential parts, both large and small, are missing, e.g. the chapter on Zoroaster, a most deplorable loss, arising probably from Muslim bigotry. However, J. should think it does not require an apology from me to have edited the book in this mutilated form in

xiv PREFAOE.

which I have found it in the manusoripts. Should the favour of time bring to light one day a oomplete copy, I shall be happy if ciroumstanoes will allow me at once to edit the hitherto missing parts in text and translation. The basis of my edition consists of two manuscripts of the seventeenth and one of the nineteenth century, all full of faults, and-what is worse !- agreeing with each other almost in every partioular. In fact, all three oopies repre- sent one and the same original. Fortunately a chronolo- gical work offers this advantage, that in many oases mathematical examination enables the editor to oorreot the blunders of the tradition, e.g. in the numerous tahles. My notes are in the first place intended to give the calou- lations on which the tables rest. Besides, they contain oontrihutions to the explications of certain difficult passages, short information on points of literary history, and, lastly, a few remarks on the text and corrections. For all other introductory questions I refer the reader to the German preface to my edition of the text. In offering my translation to the English reader, I desire to thank my friend, the Rev. Robert Gwynne, Vioar of St. Mary's, Soho, London, who not only oorrected the whole manuscript, but also read the proof-sheets of the entire book.

EDWARD SACHAU.

Berlin, 24th May, 1879.

CONTENTS.

Pago TRANSLATOR'A PREPACE 4 8 1 PREFACE 1

OHAPTER I .- On the Nature of Day and Night, of their Totality and of their Beginnings CHAPTER II .- On the Nature of that which is composed of Days, viz. Months and Years 11

CHAPTER III .- On the Nature of the Eras and the different Opinions of the Nations regarding them 16

CHAPTER IV .- The different Opinions of varions Nations re- garding the King called Dhu-al-karnaini or Bicornutus 43

CHAPTER V .- On the Nature of the Months which are used in the preceding Eras 52

CHAPTER VI .- On the Derivation of the Eras from each other, and on the Chronological Dates, relating to the Cemmence- ments and the Durations of the Reigns of the Kings, according to the various Tra.ditions 84

CHAPTER VIL-On the Cyclee and Year-pointa, on the Moleds of the Years and Montha, on their various Qualities, and on the Leap-monthe both in Jewish and other Years - - 141

CHAPTER VIII .- On the Eras of the Peendo-prophets and their Communities who were deluded by them, the curse of the Lord be upon them . 186

CHAPTEE IX .-- On the Festivale in the Months of the Persians . 199

OHAPTER X .- On the Festivale in the Months of the Sughdians - 220 CHAPTEE XI .- On the Festivale in the Months of the Khwariz. - 223

xvİ CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XII .- On Khwarizm.Shah'a Reform of the Khwirizm- Page

ian Festal Calendar - 229

CHAPTER XILL-On the Daya of the Greek Calendar aa known both among the Greeks and other Nations . . 231

CHAPTER XIV .- Of the Festivals and Fast-daye in the Months of the Jewa 268

CHAPTER XV .- On the Festivals and Memomble Daye of the Syrian Calendar, celebrated by the Melkite Cbristians 282

CHAPTEE XVI .- On the Christian Lent, and on those Feaste and Festive Days which depend upon Lent and rovolve parallel with it through the Year, regarding which all Christian secte agree among each other . 299

CHAPTER XVII .- On the Festivals of the Nestorian Christians, their Memorial and Fast Daye . 306

CHAPTER XVILL-On the Feasts of the ancient Magians, and on the Fast and Feast Daya of the Sabians 314

CHAPTER XIX .- On the Festivals of the Arabe in the time of Heathendom 321

CHAPTEE XX,-On the Festivels of the Muelims - 325

CHAPTEE XXL-On the Lanar Stations, their rising and setting, and on their Imagee 335

ANNOTATIONS - 367

INDEX . 449

ERRATA.

p. 383, delete the first tiro lines and insert- Sawir. Perhaps ientical with tho EaBepol of Byzantine authors, from whom Siberia derived its name. p. 451, col. 2, last liue, delele Chiua, 266, 10. p. 452, col. 1, line 1, affer Chinese inserf 266, 10. p. 460, after line 42 ioard- Poisou-monntain (rarofied atmsphere), 263, 17. p. 462, col. 2, after line 18 inaert -- Tibetans, 263, 17.

DIRECTION TO THE BINDER. Table of Kebi oth to face p. 154.

PREFACE.

IN THE NAME OF JOD, THE COMPASSIONATE, THE MERCIFUL.

PRAISE be to God who is high above all things (lit. those which ara unlike, and those which are like to each other), and blessing be on Muhammad, the elected, the best of all created beings, and on his family, the guides of righteousness and truth. One of the exquisite plans in God's management of the affairs of his creation, one of the glorious benefits which he has bestowed upon the entirety of his creatures, is that categorical decree of his, not to leave in 10 his world any period without a just guide, whom ha constitutes as a protector for his creatures, with whom to take refuge in unfortunate and sorrowful cases and accidents, and upon whom to devolve their affairs, when they seem indissolubly perplexed, so that the order of the world should rest upon-and its existence be supported by-his genius. And this decree (that the affairs of menkind should be governed by a prophet) has been settled upon them as a religious duty, and has been linked together with the obedience towards God, and the obedience towards his Prophet, through which alone a reward in future life may ha obtained- in accordance with the word of him, who is the truth and justice-and 20 his word is judgment and decree, "O ya belevers, obey God, and obey the prophets, and those among yourselves who are invested with the command." (Sara iv. 62.) Therefore, thanks be to God for those blessings, which he has bestowed upon his servants, by esalting our master, the commander, the prince, the glorious and victorious, the benefactor, Shams-alma'alt, may God

ALBÎRÛNÎ.

give him a long l''e, and give duration to his power and majesty, preserve tbrough the couree of time bis excellence and his splendour, protect his wholo house (lit, tbe areas inside and outside his house), prostrate all those who envy him, and all his enemies, (by eralting bim) as a guide, who justly rules over his creatures, who furtbers religion and truth, who fights for the altar and the bearth of the Muslims, and who protects their country against the mischief of evil-doers. Aud God has supported bim by giving him a character similar to that with which he has hlessed his Prophet, the bearer of his revelation; for be, wbose name he praised, bas said: "To thee bas been given a high character." (Sûra Ixviii. 4.) 10 How wonderfully hae he, whose name is to be exalted and extolled, coinbined with the glory of his noble extraction the graces of his generous character, with his valiant soul all laudable qualities, such as piety and righteonsness, carefolness in defending and observing the ritee of re- ligion, justice aud equity, humility and boneficence, firmneas and deter- mination, hberality and gentleness, tbe talent for ruling and govorning, for managing and deciding, and .ther qualities, which no fancy could comprehend, and no human being enumerate! And how should a man wonder at this, it being undeniable that God has the power to combine the whole world in one individual (i.e. to create a microcosmos)! There- 20 fore, may God permit the Mnslims still for a long period to enjoy the kindnesa of his itentions, the ingenuity of his plane, aud his evidently merciful and pitiful mind, with which he cares for tbem ! May they from day to day derive more benefite from the perpetual shade of his majesty, to which they are accustomed! And may God assist by his kindness and merey, high and low, to fulfil the worbs of obedience towarde God, which are imposed upon them I Dedication .- The Author's Method .- A learned man once asked me rogarding the eras used by different nations, and regarding the difference of their roote, i.e. the epochs where they begin, and of their branches, i.e. 30 the months and years, on which they are based; further regarding the causes which led to such difference, and the famous festivale and com- mhemoration-days for certain times and events, and regarding whatever else one nation practises differently from another. He urged me to give an explanation, the clearest possible, of all this, so as to be easily intelli- gible to the mind of the reader, and to free him from the nesessity of wading through widely ecattered booke, and of consulting their anthors. Now I was quite aware that this was a task difficult to handle, an object not easily to be attained or managed by anyone, who wants to treat it as a matter of logical sequence, regarding which the mind of the student is 40 not agitated by doubt. However, from the majesty of our master, the prince, the glorious and victorions, the buaefactor, Shams-alma'ali-may God make his power to endure !- I derived strength in exerting my capabilities, and trying to do my ufmost in order to explain the vhole eubject on the basis of that information which I bave gathered either as

PREFAOE. 3

an ear- or eye-witness, or by cogitation and study. Besides, I was encouraged by that robe of blessed service, in which I have dressed myself, to compose such an explanation for him, who occupies a high throne, that he may see herein a new sign of my service, and that thereby I may obtain the garments of such a glory, the memory and splendour of which will last as my heirloom in posterity through the flood of ages and generations. If, therefore, he-whose noble mind may God preserve !- will favour his servant by overlooking his audacity, and accepting his excuses, he follows the right idea, if it pleases God. And now I 10 commence and say : The best and nearest way leading to that, regarding which I have been asked for information, is the knowledge of the history and tradition of former nations and generation's, because the greatest part of it consists of matters, which have come down from them, and of remains of their customs and institutes. And this object cannot be obtained by way of ratiocination with philosophical notions, or of inductions based upon the observations of our senses, but solely by adopting the information of those who have a written tradition, and of the members of the different religions, of the adherents of the different doctrines and religious sects, 20 by whom the institutes in question are used, and by making their opinions a basis, on which afterwards to build up a system; besides, we must compare their traditions and opinions among themselves, when we try to establish our system. But ere that we must clear our mind from all those accidental circumstances which deprave most men, from all causes which are liable to make people blind against the truth, e.g. inveterate custom, party-spirit, rivalry, being addicted to one's passions, the desire to gain influence, etc. For that which I have mentioned, is the nearest way you could take, that leads to the true end, and the most efficient help towards removing all the clouds of uncertainty and doubt, which beset 30 the subject. It is impossible in any other way to reach the same purpose, notwithstanding the greatest care and exertion. On the other hand, we confess that it is by no means easy to act upon that principle and that p. 5. method, which we have laid down, that on the contrary from its recondite nature, and its difficulty, it might seem to be almost unattainable-on account of the numerous lies which are mixed up with all historical records and traditions. And those lies do not all on the face of it appear to be impossibilities, so that they might be easily distinguished and eliminated. However, that which is within the limits of possibility, has been treated as true, as long as other evidence did not prove it to be 40 false. For we witness sometimes, and others have witnessed before us, physical appearances, which we should simply declare to be impossible, if something similar were related from a far remote time. Now the life of man is not sufficient to learn thoroughly the traditions of one of the many nations. How, therefore, could he learn the traditions of all of them? That is impossible.

4 ALBİRONİ.

The matter standing thns, it is our duty to proceed from what is near to the more distant, from what is known to that which is less known, to gather ths traditions from those who have reported them, to correct them as much as possible, and to leave the rest as it is, in order to make our work help him, who seeks truth and loves wisdom, in making independent researches on other suhjects, and guide him to find out that which was denied to ns, whilst we were working at this subject, by the will of God, and with his help. In confermity with our plan, we must proceed to explain the nature of day and night, of their totality, i.e. the astronomical day, and assumed 10 beginning. For day and night are to the months, years, and erde, what one is for the numerals, of whioh they are composed, and into which they are resolved. By an accurate knowledge of day and night, the progress towerds learning that which is composed of them and built npon them, becomes easy.

5

CHAPTER I.

ON THE NATURE OF DAY AND NIGHT, OF THEIR TOTALITT AND OF THEIR BEGINNINOS.

I BAY: Day and night (i.e. vuxenuepov) are one revolution of the sun in the rotation of the universe, starting from and returning to a circle, which has been assumed as the beginning of this same Nychthemeron, whichsoever circle it may be, it heing determined by general consent. This circle is a " great " circle; for each great cirele is dynamically an horizon. By " dynamically" (To ouvauei), I mean that it (this circle) 10 may be the horison of any place on the earth. By the "rotation of the universe," I mean the motion of the celestial sphere, and of all that is in it, which we observe going round on its two poles from east to west. The Setting of the Sun as the beginning of the Day .- Now, the Arabs assumed as the beginning of their Nychthemeron the point where the setting sun intersects the circle of the horizon, Therefore their Nychthemeron extends from the moment when the sun disappears from the horizon till his disappearance on the following day. They were induced to adopt this system by the fact that their months are based upon the course of the moon, derived from her various motions, and 20 that the beginnings of the months were fixed, not by calculation, but by the appearance of the new moons. Now, full moon, the appearance of which is, with them, the beginning of the month, becomes visible towards sunset. Therefore their night preceded their day; and, there- fore, it is their cuetom to let the nights precede the days, when they p. 6. mention them in connection with the names of the seven days of the week. Those who herein agree with them plead for this system, saying that darkness in the order (of the creation) precedea light, and that light suddenly came forth when darkness cristed already; that, therefore, 30 that which was anterior in existence is the most suitable to be adopted

6 ALBİRÔNİ.

as the beginning. And, therefore, they considered absence of motion as superior to motion, comparing rest and tranquillity with darkness, and because of the fact that motion is always produced by some want and nccessity ; that weariness follows upon the necessity ; that, there- fore, weariness is the coneequence of motion. Lartly, because rest (the absence of motion), when remaining in the elements for a time, does not produes decay; whilst motion, when ramaining in the elements and taking hold of them, produces corruption. As instances of this they adduce earthquakes, storma, waves, &c. The Rising of the Sun as the beginning of the Day .- As to the 10 other nations, the Greeks and Romans, and those who follow with them tho liko theory, they have agreed among themselves that the Nych themaron should be reckoned from the momant when the sun rises above the eastern horizon till the same moment o' the following day, as thair months are derived by calculation, and do not depend upon the phases of the moun or any other star, and as the months begin with the beginning of the day. Therefore, with them, the day precedes the night; and, in favour of this view, they argus that light is an Ens, whilst darkness is a Non-ens. Those who think that light was anterior in exietence to darkness consider motion as superior to rest (the absence 20 of motion), because motion is an Ens, not & Non-ens-is life, not death. They meet the arguments of their opponents with similar ones, saying, e.g. that heaven is something more excellent than the earth; that a working man and a young man are the healthiest; that running water does not, lihe standing water, become putrid. Noon or Midnight as the beginning of the Day .- The greater part and the most eminent of ths learned men among astronomers reckon the Nychthomaron from the moment when the sun arrives on the plane of the meridian till ths same moment of the following day. This is an intermediate view. Therefora their Nychthemera begin from the 30 visible half of the plane of the meridian. Upon this sy stem they have built their calculation in the astronomical tebles (the Canons), and have thereby derived the places of the stars, along with their equal motions and their corrected places, in the almanacks (lit. year-boos). Other astronomers prefer the invisibls half of ths plane of the meridian, and bagin, therefore, their day at midnight, as e.g. the author of the Canon (Zij) of Shahriyfran Shah. This does not alter the case, as both methods are based upon the same principle People were induced to prefer the meridian to the horizon by many circumstances. One was, that they had discovered that the Nych- 40 themera vary, and are not always of the same length; a variation which, during tha eclipses, is clearly apparent even to tha senses, The reason of this variation is the fact that the courss of the sun in the ecliptic varies, it beiug accelerated one time and retarded another; and that tho single sections of ths ecliptic cross the circles (the horizons)

ON THE NATORE OF DAY AND NIGHT. 7

at a differont rate of velocity. Therefore, in order to remove that variatien which attaches to the Nychthemern, they wanted some kind ef equation; and the eqration of the Nychthemera hy means ef the rising of the ecliptic above the meridian is constant and regular every- where on the earth, because this cirele is one of the horizons of the p. 7. globe which ferm a right angle (with the meridian); and because its conditions and qualities remain the same in every part of the cartu. This quality they did not find in the berizontal circles, for they vary for each place; and every latitude has a particular horizon of its own, 10 diffsrent from that of any other placc, and because the single sections of the ecliptic eross the horizons at a different rate of velocity. To use the horizens (for the equation of the Nychthemern) is a proceeding both imperfect and intricte. Another reason why they preferred the meridian to the horizon is this, that the distances between the meridians of different places correspond to the distances of their meridians on the equator and the parallel circles; whilst the distances between the horizental cireles are the same with the addition of their northern and southern declination. An accurate deseription of everything eonnected with stars and their 20 places is not possible, except. by means of that direction which depends upon the meridian. This direetion is called "longitude," whieh has nothing in common with the other direction, which depends upon the berizen, and is called "latitude." Thereforo they have chosen that cirele which might serve as a regular and constant basis of- their caleulations, and have not used others; although, if they had wished to use the horizons, it would have been possible, and would have led them to the same results as the meridian, hnt only after a long and roundabeut process. And it is the greatest mistake possible purpesely to deviate from the direct route in order to 80 go by a long roundabout. Day, Night, and the Duration of the Day of Faet .- This is the general definition of the day whieh we give, the night being included. Now, if we proceed to divide and to distinguish, we have to state that the words " Yaum" (day) in its restricted signification, and " Nahar" (day), mean the samc, viz., the time from the rising of the body of the sun till its setting. On the other hand, night means the time from the setting of the bedy of the sun till its rising. Thus thess twe terms are used umong all nations by general consent, nobedy disputiug their meanings, exeept one Muslim lawyer, whe has defined the beginning of 40 the day to be tho rise of dawn, and its eud to be the setting ef the sun, because he presumed that the day and the duration of fnating were identical. For this view of his he argues from the following word of God (8ora ii. 183): "Eut and drink till you ean distinguish a white thread from a black thread at the light of daum. Thereupon fast the entire day till the night." Now, he hns maintained that these two termns

8 ALBİRUNİ.

(dawn and night) are the two limits of the day (beginning and end). Between this view, however, and this verse of the Coran there is not the slightest connection whatsoever. For if the beginning of fasting was identical with the beginning of the day, his (God's) definition of some- thing that is quite evident and well known to everyhody, i such terms, would be like a pains-taking attempt to sxplain something void of senss. Likewise he hae not defined the end of day and the beginning of night in similar terma, because this is generally known among all mankind. God orders that fasting should commenco at the rise of dawn; hut the end of fasting he does not describe in a similar way, hut simply says 10 that it shonld end at "night," because sverybody knows that this means the time when the globe of the sun disappears. Hence it is evident that God, by the words of the firat sentence (i.e. eat and drink till you can distinguish a white thread from a black thread at the light of dawn), does not mean the beginning of day. A further proof of the correctnesa of our interprstation is the word of God (Sura i. 183): "It has been declared as lawful to you during the p. 8. night of fasting to have intercourso (lit. to speak obscene things) with your wives," &c., to the passage, "Thersupon fast the entire day till the night." Thereby he extends the right of having intercourss with one's 20 wife, and of eating and drinking, over a certain limited time, not over the entire night. Likowise it had been forbidden to Muslims, before this verse had been revealed, to eat and drink after night-prayer (the time when the darkress of night commences). And still people did not reckon their fasting by days and parts of the night, but simply by days (although the time of fasting was much longer than the day). Now, if poople say that God, in this verse (Sura ii. 183), wanted to teach mankind the beginning of the day, it would necessarily follow that before that moment they were ignorant of the beginning of day and night, which is simply absurd. Now, if people say the legal day is different from the natural day, 30

this is nothing bnt a diffsrence in words, and the calling something by a name, which, according to the usage of the language, means something else. And, hesides, it must he considered that there is not the slightest mention in the verse of the day and of its beginning. We keep, how- ever, aloof from pertinacious disputation on this subject, and we are willing to agree with our oppononts as to the expressions if they will agree with us regarding the subject-matter. And how could we believe a thing the contrary of which is evident to our senses? For evening-twilight in the west corresponds to morning- 40 dawn in the east ; both erise from the same cause, and are of the same nature. If, therefore, the rise of morning-dawn were the beginning of the day, the disappearence of eveniug-twilight would be its end. And actually some Bhiites hava beeu compelled to adupt such a doctrine. Let us take it for granted that those who do not agres with us

ON THE NATORE OF DAY AND NIGHT. 9

regarding that which we have previously explained, agree with us as to the fact that twice a year night and day are equal-once in spring and once in autumn. Further, that he thinks, like us, that we have the longest day when the sun stands nearest to the north pole; the shortest day when the sun is at the gieatest distauce from the north pole; that the shortest sumimer night is equal to the shortest winter day; and that the same meaning is expressed by the two verses of the Ceran : "God makes night enter into day, and he makes day enter into night" (Sura xxxv. 14), and " He wraps night around day, and he wraps day 10 around night" (Sura xxxix. 7). Now, if they do not know this, or pretend not to know it, at all events they cunnot help admitting that the first half of the day is six hours long, and likewise the latter half. Against this they cannot pretend to he blind, hecauss of the well known and well authenticated tradition which relates to the prerogatives of those who hasten to the mosque on a Friday, and which shows that their wages are the highest, although their time of work in the six hours from the heginning of the day till the time of the decline of the sun is the shortest. This is to be understood of the Horc temporales obligua (wpat kaiomkal), not of the Horc rectc, which are also called @guinoctiales 20 (ώραι Ισημεριναέ). Now, if we should comply with their wish, and acknowledge their assertions as truth, we should have to helieve that an equinox takes place when the sun moves on either side of the winter solstice (i.e. near to the point of the winter-solstice eitler arriving there or leaving it) ; that this takes place only in some parts of the earth to the exclusion of others ; that the winter night is not equal to the summer day, and that noon is not then when the sun reaches the midst between his rising and p. 9. setting points. Whilst just the contrary of these neccssary inferences 30 from their theory is the conclusion generally accepted even by those who have only a slight insight into the matter. That, however, similar absurdities must follow out of their reasoning he only will thoroughly comprehend who is to some degree acquainted with the motions of the (celestial) globes. If somehody will stick to what people say at dawn-rise, " morning has come, night has gone;" what is he to think of what they say when the sun is near setting, and lecomes yellow-"evening has come, day has gone, night has come?" Such expressions merely indicate the approaching, the advaneing, and the receding of the precise time in which people just 40 happen to be. These phrases are to be explained as metaphors and metonymics. They are allowed in the usage of the lauguage, ef. ec. the word of God (Stra xvi. 1): "The order of God has come; therefore do not hurry it." Another argument iu favour of our view is the following saying, which is attributed to the Prophet, to whom and to whose family may God be merciful: " The prayer of the day is silent." And the fact that

10

people call the noon-prayer the "first " prayer, becanee it is the firet or the two daily prayers; whilet they call the afternoon-prayer the"middle" prayer, because it ie in the midst, between the first of the two daily prayers and the first ef the prayors of tho night. My only object in all I bave discuesed in thie place is to refute the opinion of those who think that those things which are necessary for certain philosophical or physical causee prove the contrary of that which is indicated by the Coran, and who try to support their opinion hy the doctrine of one of the lawyers and commentators of the Coran. God helps to the right insight!

11

CHAPTER II.

ON THE NATURE OF THAT WHICH I8 COMPOSED OF DAVS, VIZ., MONTHS AND YEARB.

I SAY: Year means one revolution of the sun in the ecliptic, moving in a dirsction opposite to that of ths universal motion, and returning to the eame point which bas been assumed as tbe starting-point of his motion, whichsoever point this may be. In this way the sun includee in hie course the four seasone, spring, summer, autumn, winter, and their four different natures ; and returns always to the point whence he commenced. 10 According to Ptolemy these revolutions are equal, because he did not find that the apogee of the sun moves; whilst they are unequal according to the authors of Sindhind and the modern astronomers, because their observations led them to think that the apogee of the sun movee. In each case, however, whether thsy he equal or different, thees revolutions include the four seasons and their natures. As to the length of such a revolotion in daye and fractions of a day, the results of the astronomical obeervations do not agroe, bot differ considerably. According to some obserrations it is larger; according to otbers less. However, in a short space of time this differenee scarcely 20 becomes perceptible; but in the long run of time, when thit difference is being redoubled and multiplied many times, and is then summed up into a whole, a very great error becomes clearly manifest, on account of which the sages have strongly recommended us to continue making observations, and to guard against errors which possibly might have entered into them. The difference of the obserrations regarding the length of one annual p.10.

revolution of the sun does not ariee from this cause, that people do not know bow properly to institute such obaervations, and to gain thereby an accurate kowledge of tbe real state of the thing; but from this 80 cause, that it is impossible to fix the parte of the greatest circle by

12 ALBİRONİ.

means of the parts of the smalleet circle. I refer to the smallnese of the instruments of observationa in comparison with the vastness of the bodies which are to be observed. On this subject I havo enlarged in my book, called Kitab-alietishhad bikhtiltf-af arsad. During this time, i.e. during one revolution of the sun in the ecliptic, the moon completes a little less than 12; revolutions, and has 12 lunations. This space of time, i.e. tho 12 revolutions of the moon in the ecliptic, is, technically, the lunar year, in which the fraction (beyond the 12 revolutions), which is ncarly 11 days, ie dieregarded. The same fact, further, is the reason why the ecliptic was divided into 12 equal 10 parts, as I have explained in my hook on the investigation of rays and lights ; the same which I had the hononr to present to His Highnese. May God increase his majesty ! In consequence, people distinguish two kinds of years-the Solar year and the Lunar year. They have not used other stars for the purpose of deriving years from them, because their motions are comparatively hidden, and ean hardly ever be found out by eyesight; but only by astronomical obesrvations and erperiments. Further (they used only eun and moon for this purpose), because the changes of the particles of the elements and their mutual metamorphoses, as far as tims and the 20 state of the air, plants and animals, etc., are concerned, depend entirely npon the motions of these two celestial bodies, becanse they are the greatest of all, and becauss they excel the other stars by their light and appearance; and because they resemble each other. Afterwards people derived from these two kinds of years other years. The Solar Year .- According to the statement of Theon, in his Canon, the people of Constantinople, and of Alexandria, and the other Greeks, the Syrians and Chaldeans, the Egyptians of our time, and those who have adopted the year of Almu'ta-did-billah, all use the eolas year, which consiste of nearly 365} days. They reckon thcir year as 365 30 days, and add the quarters of a day in every fourth year as one complete day, when it has eummed up thereto. This year they call an intercaiary year, because the quarters are intercalated therein. The ancient Egyp- tiane followed the same practice, but with this difference, that they neglected the quarters of a day till they bad summed up to the mumber of days of one complete year, which took place in 1,460 years; then they intercalated one year, and agreed with the people of Alexandria and Constantinople as to the beginning of the year. So Theon Alexandrinus relates. The Persians followed the same rule as long as their empire lasted; 40 p. 11. but they treated it differently. For they reckoued tbeir year as 365 days, and neglected the following fractions until the day-quarters had summed up in the course of 120 ycars to the number of days of one complete month, and until the fifth parts of an hour, which, according to their opinion, follow the fourth parts of a day (i.e. they give the

ON TRE NATURE OF MONTHS AND YEARS. 18

solar year the length of 365 days and } hour), had summed up to one day ; then they addsd the complete month to the year in each 116th year. This was done for a reason which I shall explain hereafter. The sxample of the Persians was followed by the ancient inhabitants of Khwarizm and Sogdiana, and by all who had the same religion as ths Persians, who were subject to them, and were considsred as their kinsmen, during the tims when their empire flourished. I have heard thst the Peshdadian kings of the Persians, those who ruled over the entire world, reckoned the year as 360 days, and each 10 month as 30 days, without any addition and subtraction; thet they intercalated one month in every sixth year, which they called "intercalary month," and two months in every 120th year; the one on account of the five days (the Epagomena), the other on account of the quarter of a day ; that they held this year in high honour, and called it the " blessed year," and thst in it they occupied themselves with the affairs of diving worship and matters of pnhlie interest. The character of the system of the ancient Egyptians, sccording to what the Almagsst relates regarding ths ears on which its own system of computation was based, and of the systena of the Persians in Islam, and 20 the people of Khwarizm and Sogdiana, is their aversion to the fractions, i.e, the { day and what follows it, and their nsglecting them altogether. The Lani-Solar Year .- The Hebrews, Jews, and all the Israelites, the Sabians, and Harranians, used an intermediate system. They derived their year from the revolution of the sun, and its months from the revolntion of the moon-with this view, that their feast and fast days might be regulated by lunar computation, and at the same time keep their places within the year.\ Therefore they intercalated 7 months in 19 lunar years, as I shall explain hereafter in the derivation of their eycles and the different kinds of their years. 30 The Christians agreed with them in the mode of the computation of their fasting and of some of their festivals, the cardinal point in all th's being the Passover of the Jews; but they differed from them in the use of the months, wherein they followed the system of the Greeks and Syrians. In & similar way the heathen Arabs proceeded, observing the difference between their yesr and the solar year, which is 10 days 21; hours, to speak roughly, and adding it to the vear as one month p. 12 .. 8s soon as it completed the number of days of a month. They, however, reckoned this difference as 10 days and 20 hours. This bnsiness was administered by the Nasa'a (the intercalators) of the tribe of Kinana, 40 known as the Kalamis, s plural form of Kalammas, which signifies a full-flowing sea. These were 'Abu Thumama and his ancestors : I. 'Abu Thumama Junada ben Auf ben 'Umayya ben Kala' ben

14 ALBİBONİ.

V. 'Abbåd ben Kala' ben VII. Hudbaifa. They were all of them intercalators. The first of thera who held this office was- VII. Hudhaifa ben 'Ahd ben Fuķaim ben X. 'Adiyy ben 'Âmir hen 10 Tha laba ben Målik ben XIV. Kinana. The last of them, who held it, was 'Abu-Thuinama. The poet, who celebrates them, describes him in the following terms :- "There is Fukaim! He was called Alkalammas, And he was one of the founders of their religion, Hie word heing obeyed, he being recognised a à chieftain." And another poet saye: " (He was) famous among the forerunners of Kinana, 20 A celehrated man, of exalted rank. In this way he spent his time." Another poet says: "The difference between the revolution of the sun and new-moon He adds together and sums it up, Till it makes out a complete month." He (i.e. Hndhaifa) had taken this system of intercalation from the Jews nearly 200 years before Islam; the Jewe, however, intercalated 9 months in 24 lunar yeare. In consequence their monthe were fixed, and came alwaye in at their proper times, wandering in a uniform course 30 through the year without retrograding and without advancing. This state of thinge remained till the Prophet made his Farewell pilgrimage, and the following verse was revealed to him: "Intercalation is only an icrease of infidelity, by which the infidels lead astray (people), admitting it one year and prohibiting it in another." (Stra ix. 37.) The Prophet delivered an address to the people, and said: "Time has come round as it was on the day of God's creating the heavens and the earth," and, continuing, he recited to them the (juat mentioued) verse of the Coran on the prohibition of the Naat, i.s. interenlation. Ever since thoy have neglected intercalation, so that their months have 40 receded from their original places, and the names of the months are no longer in conformity with their original meanings.

ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS AND YEARS. 15

As to the other nations, their opinione on this subject are well known. They aro likely to have no other syetems besides those we have men- tioned, and each nation seeme to follow the example of.the eyetem of their neighbours. Years of the Indians .- I have heard that the Indians use the appearance of new-moon in their monthe, that they intercalate one lunar month in every 976 daye, and that they fix the beginning of their era to the moment when a conjunction takee place in tho firet minute of any p. 13. zodiacal sigu. The chief object of their searching is that thie con- 10 junction should take place in one of the two oquinoctial points. The leap-year they call Adhimasa. It is very possible that this ie really the caee; because, of all stara, they use epocially tho moon, her mansione and their subdivisions, in their astrological determinatione, and not the zodiscal signs. However, I have not met with anybody who had an accurate knowledge of thie eubject; therefore I turn away from what I cannot know for certain. And God is my help! 'Abu-Mubammad Alna'ib Alamuli relatee in his Kitdb-alghurra, on the authority of Yakub ben Tarik, that the Indiane uee four different kinde of epacce of time : 20 I. One revolution of the eun, etarting from a point of the ecliptic aud returning to it. This is the eolar year. II. 360 risings of the eun. This ia called the middle-year, because it is longer than the lunar year and shorter than the solar year. III. 12 revolntions of the moon, starting from the etar Alsharatan (i.e. the head of Ariee) and returning to it. This ie thoir lunar year, which consiste of 327 daye and uearly 7% hours. IV. 12 lunatione. Thie is the lunar year, which they use.

16 ALBiRUNİ.

CHAPTER III.

ON THE NATURE OF THE EBAS, AND TEB DIFERENT OPINIONO OF THE NATIONS RROARDING THEM.

ERA meane a definite epace of time, reckoned from the beginning of some past year, in which either a prophet, with signe and wonders, and with a proof of his divine mission, was sent, or a great and powerful king rose, or in which a nation perished by a univereal destroctive deluge, or by a violent earthquake and sinking of the earth, or a sweeping pestilence, or by intense drought, or in which a change of dynasty or religion took place, or any grand event of 'ne celestial and 10 the femous tellurian miraculous occurrences, which do not happen save at long intervals and at times far dietant from each other. By such evente the fired moments of time (the epocha) are recognised. Now, such an era cannot ba dispensed with in all eecular and religious affairs. Each of the nations scattered over the different parts of the world has a special era, which they count from the times of their kings or prophets, or dynasties, or of soms of those events which we have just now mentioned. And thence they derive the dates, which they want in social intercourse, in chronology, and in every institute (i.e. festivals) which is exclusively peculiar to them. 20 Era of the Creation .- The first and most famous of the baginnings of antiquity is the fact of the creation of mankind. But among those who have a book of divine rovelation, such as the Jews, Christians, Magians, and their various sects, there exists such a differeuce of opinion as to the nsture of this fact, and as to the question how to date p. 14. f.om it, the like of which is not allowable for erss. Everything, the knowladge of which is connected with the beginning of creation and with the history of bygone generations, is mired up with fnlsificatione and myths, because it belongs to a far remote age; because a long interval separates ue therefrom, and because the student is incapable of 30

ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 17

keeping it in memory, and of fixing it (so as to preserve it from con- fusion). God saya: "Have they not got the atories about those who were before them? None but God knows them." (Sura ix. 71.) There- fore it is becoming not to admit any account of a similar subject, if it is not attested by a book, the correctness of which is relied upon, or hy a tradition, for which the conditions of authenticits, according to the prevalent opinion, furnich grounds of proof. If we now first consider this ert, we find a considerable divergence of opinion regarding it among these nations. For the Persians and 10 Magians think that the duration of the world is 12,000 years, corre- sponding to the number of the signs of the zodiac and of the months; and that Zoroaster, the founder of their law, thought that of thoee there had passed, till the time of his appearance, 3,000 years, intercalated with the day-quarters ; for he himself had made their computation, and had taken into account that defect, which had accrued to them on account of the day-quarters, till the time when they were intercalated and were made to agree with real time. From his appearance till the heginning of the Æra Alexandri, they count 258 years; therefore they count from the beginning of the world till Alexander 3,258 years. 20 However, if we compute the years from the creation of Gayomarth, whom they hold to be the first man, and aum up the years of the reign of each of his successors-for the rule (of Iran) remained with his descendants without interruption-this number is, for the time till Alesander, the sum totel of 3,354 years. So the specification of the single items of the addition does not agree with the sum total. Further, the Persians and Greeks disagree as to the time after Alexander. For they count from Alerander till the beginning of the reign of Yazdajird 942 years 257 days. If we deduct therefrom the duration of the rule of the Sasanian kings as far as the beginning of 80 the reign of Yazdajird, as they compute it, viz., nearly 415 years, we get a remainder of 528 years as the time during which Alexander and the Muluk-al-tawa'if reigned. But if we sum up the years of the reign of oach of the Ashkanian kings, as they have settled it, we got only the sum of 280 yeare, or,-taling into regard their difference of opinion as to the length of the reign of each of them,-the sum of not more than 300 years. This difference I shall hereafter try to settle to some extent. A section of the Persians is of opinion that those past 3,000 years which we have mentioned are to be counted from the creation of Gayomarth; becanse, before that, already 6,000 years had elapsed -- a 40 time during which the celestial glohe stood motionless, the natures (of created heings) did not interchange, the elements did not mix-during p.15. which there was no growth, and no decay, and the earth was not cultivated. Therenpon, when the celestial globe was set a-going, the first man came into exiatence on the equator, so that part of him in longitudinal direction was on the north, and part south of the line. The animals 2

18 ALBiRONİ.

were produred, and mankind commenced to reproduce their own epecies and to multiply; the atome of the elements mixed, ao as to give rise to growth and decay ; the earth was cultivated, and the world was arranged in conformity with fixed norms. The Jews and Christians differ widely on thia subject; for, according to the doctrine of the Jews, the time between Adam and Alexander is 3,448 years, whilst, according to the Christian doctrine, it ie 5,180 geare. The Christians reprach the Jews with having diminished the number of yeare with the viow of making the appearance of Jeeus fall into the fourth millennium in the middle of the seven millennia, which are, 10 eccording to their view, the time of the duration of the world, ar as not to coincide with that time at whioh, as the prophete after Moses had prophesied, the hirth of Jeeus from a pure virgin at the end of time, was to take place. Both parties depend, in their bringing forward of arguments, upon certain modes of interpretation derived from the Hisab-al-jummal. So the Jewe expect the coming of the Messiah who wae promiaed to them at the end of 1,335 yeare after Alexander, ex- pecting it like something which they know for certain. In consequence of which many of the peeudo-propbets of their sects, as s.g. Al-ra'i, *Abu-Isa Al-isfah&ni, and others, claimed to be his meesengers to them. 20 This expectation was based on the assumption that the beginning of this era (Æra Alexandri) coincided with the time when the sacrifices were abolished, when no more divine revelation was received, and no more prophete were sent. Then they referred to the Hebrew word of אנכי הסתר אסתיר ,(18 . God in the 5th book of the Thora (Deut. xxxi which means:"I, God, shall conceal my ,פני מהם ביום ההוא being till that day." And they counted the letters of the worde "HON nOH, the word for " concealing," which gives the eum of 1,335. This they declared to be the time during which no inspiration from heaven waa received and the sacrifices were abolished, which is meant 30 by God's concealing himself. The word "being" (l="5) is here synonymous with "affair" (or "order, command"). In order to support what they maintain, they quote two passages in the Book מעת הוסר התמיד ולתת שקוץ שמם ימים אלף: (11 . of Daniel (xii which means: "Since the time when the sicrifice ,ומאתים ותשעים was abolished until impurity comee to destruction it is 1,290." אשרי המחכה ויגיע: (12, . and the next following passage (Dan. ii . which means:"Thers לימים אלף ושלוש מאות ושלשים וחמשה fore happy he who hopee to reach to 1,335." Some people explain the difference of forty-five years in these two passagea so as to rofer 40 p. 16. the former date (1,290) to the beginning of the rebuilding of Jerusalem; and the latter (1,335) to the time when the rebuilding would be finiehed. According to others, the tirst number ie the date of the birth of Mesaiah, whilst the latter is the date of his public appearanco. Further, the Jews say, when Jacob bestowed his blessing upon Judah (Gen. xlix. 10), he

ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS.

informed him that ths rule should always remain with his sons till the time of the coming of him to whom the rule belongs. So in these words ho told him that the rule should remain with his descendants until the appearance of the expected Messiah. And now the Jews add that this is really the cass; that the rule has not been taken from them. For ths Nma tN' ie. "the head of the oxiles" who had been banished from their homes in Jerusalem, is ths master of every Jew in the world; the ruler whom they obey in all countries, whose order is carried out under most cireumstances. 10 The Cbristians use certain Syriac words, viz., loo;o lnto som i, which mean " Jem,s, the Messiah, the greatest redeemer." Com- puting the value of the letters of these words, they get the sum of 1,335. Now, they think that it was these words which Daniel meant to indicate hy those numhers, not the above-mentioned years; hecause in the tert of his words they are nothing but numbers, without any indication whether they mean years, or days, or something else. It is a prophecy indicative of the name of the Messiah, not of the tims of his coming. Further, they relats that Daniel once dreamt in Babylonia, some years after the accession of Cyrus to the throne, on the 24th of the first 20 month, when hs had prayed to God, and when the Israelites were the prisoners of the Persiang. Then God revealed to him the following (Dan. ir. 24-26) : "'Urishlim, i.e. Jerusalem, will be rebuilt 70 Sabu', and will remain in the possession of thy people. Then the Mesgiah will come, but ha will be killed. And in consequencs of bis coming 'Urishlim will undergo its last destruction, and it will remain a ruin till the end of time." The word Sabi' (Hebrew yat) means a Seplennim. Now, of the whole time (indicated in this passage) t.ven Septennia refer to the rebuilding of Jerusalem, which time ia also mentioned in the Book of Zekharya ben Berekhya hen Iddo' (Zechariah iv. 2): " I have 30 beheld a candlestick with seven lamps thereon, and with seven pipes to each lamp." And before this he says (iv. 9): "The hands of Zerubbabel hare laid the foundation of this house, his hands also shall finish it." The tine from the beginning of his rebuilding of the house (i.e. Jeru- salem) till its end is 49 years, or 7 Septennia. Then, after 62 Septen- nia, they think, Jesus the son of Mary came ; and in the last Septennium the sacrifices and offerings were abolished, and Jerusalem underwent its above-mentioned destruction, insomuch that no more divine revelation nor prophets were sent, as the Israelites were scattered all over the world, utterly neglected, not practising their sacrifices, nor having a p.17. 40 place where to practise them. In reepect of all we have mentioned, each of the two parties makes assertions which they cannot support by anything but interpretations derived from the Hisab-al jummal, and fallacious subtilties. If the student would try to establish something else by the eame means, and refute what they (each of the two parties) maintain, by similar argumeuta,

20 ALBİReNİ.

it would not be difficult for him to search for them. As to what the Jews think of the continuance of the rule in the family of Juda, and which they tranefer to the leaderehip of the exiles, we must remark that, if it was correct to extend the word "rule" to s eimilar leadership by way of analogy, the Magiane, the Sabiane, and othere would partake of this, and neither the other Ieraelites nor any other nation would be exempt therefrom. Because no clase of men, not even the loweet, are without s sort of rule and leadership with relation to others whe are etill inferior to them. If we referred the numerical value of the word " concealing" in the 10 Thora to that period from the earlieet date which the Israelites assign to their exodne from Egypt till Jesue the son of Mary, thie interpretation would rest on a batter foundation. For the time from their exodus from Egypt till the acceesion of Alexander is 1,000 years according to their own view; and Jeaus the son of Mary was born Anno Alexandri 304, and God raised him to himeelf Anno Alerandri 336. So the eum of the years of thie complete period is 1,335 as the time during which the law of Moeee ben Imrin exieted, till it was carried to perfection by Jesus the eon of Mary. Aa to that which they derive from the two passages of Daniel, we can 20 only say thet it would be possible to refer them to something different, and to explain them in a different way; and more than that-that neither of their modes of interpretation ie correct, except we euppose that the beginning of that number precedes the time when they were pronouneed (by Daniel). For if it ie to be understood that the begin- ning of both numbere (1,290 and 1,335) ie one and the eame time, bo it past, present, or future, you cannot reasonably explain why :he two paseages should have been pronounced at different times. Ard, nou to speak of the difference between the two numbere (1,290 and 1,385) the matter can in no way hs correct; because the second passage ("Happy 30 he who hopes to reath 1,335") admits, firet, that the beginning of the number precedes the time when the passage was pronounced; so that it (the number) may reach ite end one year, or more or lees, after the enpposed time; secondly, that the beginning of that number may be the very identical time when the paseage was pronounced; or, thirdly, that it may be after this moment by an indefinite time, which may be smaller or greater. Now, if a chronological etatement may be referred to all three epheree of time (paet, preeent, and future), it camnot be referred to any one of them except on the basis of a clear text or an indisputable argument. 40 The firet passege ("Since the time when the sacrifice was sbolished, until impurity comes to destruction, it ie 1,290") admits likewiee of being referred, first, to the first deetruction of Jerusalem; and, secondly, to p. 18. ite second destruction, which happened, however, only 885 yeare after the accession of Alexander.

ON THE NATURE OF THE EFAS. 21

Therefore the Jews have not the slightest reason to connnence (in their calculations as to the coming of the Messiah) with that date with which they have commenced (viz., the epoch of the Ara Alexandri). These are douhts and difficulties which beset the assertions of the Jews. Those, however, which attach to the schemes of the Christians are even more numerous and conspicuous. For even if the Jews granted to them that the coming of Messiah was to take place 70 Septennia after the vision of Danisl, we must remark that the appearance of Jesus the son of Mary did not take place at that time. The reason is this :- The 10 Jews have agreed to fix the interval between the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt and the Æra Alerandri at 1,000 complete years. From pas- sages in the books of ths Prophets they have inferred that the interval between the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt and the building of Jerusalem is 480 years; and the interval between the building and the destruction by Nebucadnezar 410 years; and that it remained in a ruined state 70 years. Now this gives the sum of 960 years (after the exodus from Egypt) as the date for the vision of Daniel, and as a remainder of the ahove.mentioned millennium (from the exodus till Æra Alexandri) 40 yeare. Further, Jews and Christians unanimously supposs 20 that the birth of Jesus the son of Mary took place Anno Alexandri 304. Therefore, if ws use their own chronology, the birth of Jesus the son of Mary took place 344 years after the vision of Daniel and the rebuilding of Jerusalem, i.e uhout 49 Septennia. From his birth till the time when he began preaching in public are 41 Septennia more. Hence it is evident that the birth (of Jesus) precedes the date which they have assulned (as the time of the birth of the Messiah). For the Jews there follow no such consequences from their chrono- logical system ; and if the Christians should accuse the Jews of telling lies regarding the length of the period between the rebuilding of 30 Jerusalem and the epoch of the Æra Alexandri, the Jews would meet them with similar accusations, and more than that. If we leave aside the arguments of the two parties, and consider the table of ths Chaldean kings, which we shall hereafter explain, we find the interval between the beginning of the reign of Cyrus and that of the reign of Alexander to be 222 years, and from the latter date till the birth of Jesus 304 yeare; so that the sum total is 526 years. If we now deduct therefrom 8 years, for the rehuilding (of Jerusalem) com- menced in tho third year of the reign of Cyrus, and if we reducs the remainder to Septennia, we get nearly 75 Septennia for the interval 40 between the vision (of Daniel) and the birth of Messial. Therefore ths birth of Messiah is later than the date which they (the Christians) have assnmed. If the Christians compute the Syriac words (!O00 Lalo sars los), and beliove that because of the identity of their numerical valus with the number (1,835, msntioned by Daniel), these words were meant

22 ALBİRONİ.

(by Daniol) and not a certain number of years, we can only say that we cannot accept such an opinion except it be confirmed by sn argument as indubitable as ocular inspection. For if you computed the numerical value of the following words: ie dl o. tadt Il ("th deliver- ance of the creation from infidelity by Muhammad"), you would get the sum of 1,385. Or if you computed the words ole r p. 19. aaah cout, siot ("the prophecy of Moses ben 'Imran regarding Mu- hammad; the prophecy of the Meeriah regarding ' Ahmad"), you would got the same sum, i.e. 1,335. Likewise, if you counted these words: 32 h Aion SLu 29 ("The plain of Furan shines with the illiterate 10 Mubammad"), you would again got the same sum (1,835). If, now, a man asserts that these numbere are meant to indicate a prophecy on account of the identity of the numerical values of these phrases with that of the Syriac words (1i loo;o l to soa), the valne of his argument would be axactly the same as that of the Christiane regarding those passages (in Daniel), the one case closely reeembling the other, even if he should produce as a testimony for Muhammad and the truth of the prophecy regarding him a paseage of the prophet Isaish, of which the following is the meaning, or like it (Ieaiah xxi. 6-9): "God ordered him to set a watchman on the watchtower, that he might declare what he should 20 tes. Then he said: I see a man riding on an ass, and a man riding on a camel. And the one of them came forward crying and seaking: Babylon is fallen, and its graven images are broken." This is a prophecy regarding the Messiah, " the man riding on an ase," and regarding Muhammad, "the man riding on a camel," hecauge in conseqnence of his appearanca Babylon has fallen, its idole have teen broken, ite castles have been shattered, and its empire has perished. There are many passages in the book of the prophet Isainh, predicting Muhammad, being rather hinte (than clearly out-spoken words), but easily admitting of a clear inter- pretstion. And with all this, their ohstinacy in clinging to their error 30 induces them to devise and to maintain things which are not acknow- ledged by men in goneral, viz .: that "the man riding on the camel," ie Moees, not Muhammad. But what connection have Mosee and hia people with Babel? And did that happen to Moses and to his people after him, which happened to Muhemmad and his compenione in Babel? By no means I If they (the Jewe) had ono sfter the other escaped from the Babylonians, they would have considered it a suflicient prize to carry off to return (to their country), even though in a desperate condition. This testimony (Issiah xxi. 6-9) is confrmed by tho word of God to Mosos in the fifth book of the Thore, called Almathnd (Deuteronomy 40 xviji. 18, 19) : "I will raiss them up a prophet from among their brethren lika unto thee, and will put my word into his mouth. And he shall speek umto them all that I shall command him. And whososver will not hearken unto the word of him who speake in my name, I chall take revenge on him." Now I should like to know whether there are other brethren of the song

ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS.

of Isaac, axespt the sms of Ishmael. If they sav, that the brethren of the sons of Israel are the children of Esau, we ask only : Has thers then risen among them a man like Moses-in the times after Moses-of the sama description and ressmbling him ? Does not also the following paasage of tha same hook, of which this is the translation (Deut. Ixxiii. 2), hear testimony for Muhammad : " The Lord came from Mount Sinai, and ross up unto us from Seir, and he shined forth from Mount Paran, accompanied by ten thoweand of saints at hia right hand?" The terms of 'bis passage are hints for the establishing of the proof, that the 10 (anthropemorphic) descriptions, which are inherent in them, cannot be referred to the essence of the Creator, nor to his qualities, he being high above such things. His coming from Mount Sinai means his secret conversation with Moses there; his rising up from Seir means the appearance of Messiah, and his shining forth from Paran, where Ishmael graw up and married, means the coming of Muhammad from thence as the last of all the foundere of religions, accompanied by legions of sainta, who were sent down from heaven to help, heing marked with certain badges. He who refuses to accapt this interpretation, for which p. 20. all evidence has berne testimony, is required to prove what kinds of 20 mistakes there are in it. " But he whoss companion is Satan, wos to him fos such a companion!" (Sûra iv. 42.) Now, if the Christians do not allow us to use the numerical values of Arabie words, we cannot allow them to do the same with the Syriao words which they quote, hecause the Thora and the hooks of thoss prophets were revealed in the Hebrow language. All they have brought forward, and all we are going to propound, is a decisive proof, and a clear argument, showing that the words in the holy hooks have heen altered from their proper meanings, and that the text has undergone modifica- tions contrary to its original condition. Having recourss to this sert of 80 computing, and ef usig false witnesses, shows and proves to evidence, thst their authors purposely deviate from the path of truth and right- eousness. If we could open them a door in heaven, and they ascended therehy, they would say : "Our eyes are only drunken. Nay, we are fascinated people." (Stra xv. 15.) But such is not the cass, The fart. ' ( is that they are hlind to the truth. We pray to God, that he may heln and strengthen ns, that he may guard us against sin, and lead us by the right path. As to the doctrine ef abrogation (of ons holy beok by another), and as to their fanciful pretension of having passages of the Thera which order 40 him who claims to be a prophet after Moses to be put to death, we must state, that ths groundlessness of thess opinions is rendered avident hy other passages of the Thera. However, there are more suitable places to apak of these opinions than this, and so we return to our subject, as we have already hscoms lengthy in eur exposition, one matter drawing us to another.

24 ALBİRUNİ.

Now I proceed to state that both Jews and Christians have a copy of the Thora, the contents of which agree with the doctrines of either sect. Of the Jewish copy people think that it is comparatively free from confusion. The Christian copy is called the " Thora of the Seventy," for the following reason: After Nehukadnezar had conquered and destroyed Jerusalem, part of the Israelites emigrated from their country, took refuge with the king of Egypt, and lived there under his protection till the timo when Ptolemaus Philadelphus ascended the throne. This king heard of the Thora, and of its divine origin. Therefore he gave orders to search for this community, and found them at last in a place numbering 10 ahout 30,000 men. He afforded them protection, and took them into his favour, he treated them with kindness, and allowed them to return to Jerusalem, which in the meanwbile had been rebuilt by Cyrus, Bahman's governor of Babel, whu had also revived the culture of Syria. They left Egypt, accompanied Ly a body of his (Ptolemans Philadelphue') servants for their protoction. The king said to them: "I want to ask you for something. If you grant me the favour, you acquit yourselves of all obligationa towarde me. Let me have a copy of your hook, the Thora." This the Jews promised, and confirmed their promise hy an oath. Having arrived at Jerusslem, they fulfilled their promiee by sending him a copy 20 of it, but in Hehrew. He, buwsver, did not know Hebrew. Therefore he addressed himself again to them asking for people who knew both Hebrew and Greek, who might translate the brok for him, promising them gifts and presents in reward. Now the Jews selected seventy-two p.21. men out of their twelve tribes, six men of each tribe from among the Rabbie and prieste. Their names are known among the Christians. These men translated the Thora into Greek, after they had been houeed sepasately, and each couple had got a servant to take care of them. Thie went on till they had finished the translation of the whole hook. Now the king had in his hands thirty-six translations. Thess he com- 30 pared with each other, and did not find any differences in them, except those which alwaye occur in the rendering of the same ideas. Then the king gave them what he had promised, and provided them with every- thing of the hest. The Jews asked him to make them a present of one of those copies, of which they wished to make a boast hefore their own peopls. And the king complied with their wish. Now this ie the copy of the Christians, and people think, that in it no alteration or traneposi- tion has taken place. The Jews, however, give quite a different account, viz. that they mads the translation under compulsion, and that they yielded to the king'e demand only from fear of violence and maltreat- 40 ment, and not hefore having agreed upon inverting and confounding the text of the book. There is nothing in tho report of the Christiane which, even if we should tak it for granted-removea our doubts (as to the anthenticity of their Bible); on the contrary, there is something in it which strengthens them greatly.

ON TRE NATURE OF THE ERA8.

Besides these two copies of the Thora, there is a tbird ons that exists among the Samaritans, alse known by the name of Al-lamasasiyya. To them, as the substitutes fer ths Jews, Nebucadnezar had given the country of Syria, when he led the Jews into captivity, and cleared the country of them. The Samaritans had helped him (in the war against the Jews), snd bad pointed out to him the weak points of the Israelites. Therefore, he did not disturb them, nor kill them, nor mako them prisoners, but he mads them inhabit Palestine under his protection, 10 Their doctrines are a syncretism of Judaism and Zoroastrianism. The bulk of their community is living in a town of Palestine, called Nabulua, where they have their churches, They bave never entered the precinets of Jerusalem since the days of David the prophet, because they main- tain that hs committed wrong snd injustiec, and transferred the holy temple from Nabnlus to Aelia, i.e. Jerusnlem. They de not touch other people; but if they happen to be touched by anyone, they wash themselves. They do not acknowledge any of the prophets of the Israelites after Moses. Now as to the copy which the Jews have, and on whieh they rely, w9 20 find thst according to its account of the lives of the immediate descend- ants of Adam, the interval between the expulsion of Adam from Paradise till the deluge in the time of Noah, is 1,656 years; according to the Christian copy ths same interval is 2,242 years, and according to the Samaritan copy it is 1,307 years. According to one of the historians, Anianus, the interval between the creation of Adam and the night of the Fridsy when the deluge commenced, is 2,226 years 23 days and 4 houre. This statement of Anianua is reported by Ibn-Albazyar in his Kitab-alkiranat (Book of the Conjunctions); it comes very near that p. 22. of the Christians. However, it makes me think that it is based upon 30 the methods of the astrologers, because it betrays evidently an arbitrary and too subtle mode of research. Now, if such is the diversity of opinions, as we have described, and if there is no possibility of distinguishing by means of anslogy- between truth and fiction, where is the student to search for eract information ? Not only does the Thora exist in several and different copies, but something similar is the ease with the Gospel too. For the Christians have four copies of the Gospel, being colleeted into one eode, the first by Matthew, the second by Mark, the third by Luke, and the fourth hy 40 John; each of these four disciples having composed the Gospel in con- formity with what be (Christ) had preached in his country. The reports, contained in these four copier, auch as the descriptions of Messiah, the relations of him at the time when he preached and when he was crueified, as they maintzin, differ very widely the one from the other. To begin with his genealogy, which is the genealogy of Jeseph, the bridegroom of Mary

26 ALBİRONİ.

and step.fathor of Jesus. For accordingto Matthew (i. 2-16), his pedigree is this :-- I. Joseph. Zorobabel. Joram. Salmon. Jaoch. Salathiel. Josaphat. Naasson. Matthan. Jechonias. Asa. Aminadab. Eleazar. Joeise. Abia. Aram. V. Eliud XV. Amon. XXV. Roboam. XXXV.Esrom. Achin. Manasse8. Solomon. Phares. Zadok. Ezkias. David. Judas. Azor. Ahaz. Jesse. Jacob. 10 Elyakim. Joatham. Obed. IsBAc. X. Abiud. XX.Oziss. XXX. Booz. XL. Abrabam. Mattbew in stating this genealogy commencee with Abraham, tracing it downward (as far as Joseph). According to Luke (iii. 23-31) the pedigree of Joeeph ia tbie :- I. JoBepl. Esli. Salathiel. Matthat. Heli. Nagge. Neri. Levi. Matthat. Maath. Melchi. Simeon. Levi. Mattathias. Addi. Juda. V. Melchi. XV. Semei. XXV. Coasm. XXXV.Joseph. 20 Janna Joseph. Elmodam. Jonam. Joseph. Jndas. Er. Elyakim, Mattathias. Joanna. Joseph. Melea. Amos. Rhesa. Elieeer. MenaD. X. Naum. XX.Zorobabel. XXX. Jorim. XL. Matatha. Nathan. XLII. David. This difference the Christians try to exouse, and to account for it, saying, that there was one of tbe lawe prescribed in the Thora which ordered that, if a man died, leaving hehind a wife but no male children, 30 the brother of the deceased was to marry her instesd, in order to raise np a progeny to the deceased brother; that, in consequence, his children were genealogically referred to the deceased brother, whilst as to real birth they were the children of the living brother; that, therefore, 23. Joseph was referred to two different fathers, that Heli was his father gencalogicaly, whilst Yakob was his father in roality. Further, they say, that when Matthew had stated the real pedigree of Jossph, the Jews blamed him for it, Baying: " Hie pedigree is not correct, because it has heen made without regard to his gensalogical relation" In order to meet this reproach, Luke stated his pedigrco in conformity with the 40 genealogical ordinances of their code. Both pedigrees go back to David, and that was the object (in stating them), because it had been predicted of the Messiah, that he would be " the son of David." Finally, the fact that only the pedigree of Josepb has been adduced

ON THE NATURE OF TBE ERAS. 27

for Mesaiah, and uot that of Mary, is to be explained in this way, that according to the law of the Israelites, nobody was allowed to marry any but a wife of his own tribe and clan, wherehy they wanted to prevent confusion of the pedigreos, and that it was the eustom to mention only the pedigrees of the men, not those of the women. Now Joseph and Mary being both of the aame tribe, their dcscent must of necessity go back to the samte origin, And this was the object in their statement and account of the pedigree. Everyone of the secta of Marcion, and of Bardesanes, has a special 10 Gospel, which in some parta differs from the Gospele we have men- tioned. Also the Manichæans have a Gospel of their own, the contents of which from the first to tho last are opposed to the doctrines of the Christians; but the Manicheuns consider them as their religions law, and believe that it is the correct Goapel, that its contents are really that which Messiah thonght and taught, that every other Gospel is false, and its followers are liars against Messiah. Of this Gospel there is a copy called, "The Gospel of the Seventy," which ie attributed to one Balamis, and in the beginning of which it is stated, that Sallam ben 'Abdallah ben Sallam wrote it down as he heard it from Salman Alfarisi. He, how- 20 ever, who looks into it, will see at once that it is a forgery; it is not acknowledged by Christians and others. Therefore, we come to the oonclusion, that among the Gospele there are no books of the Prophete to he found, on which you may witl good faith rely. Era of the Deluge .- The next following era ia the era of the great deluge, in which everything perished at the time of Noah. Here, too, there is auch a difference of opinions, and euch a confusion, that you have no chance of deciding as to the correctness of the matter, and do not even feel inclined to investigate thoroughly its historical truth. The reason is, in the first instance, the difference regarding the period between 30 the Æra Adami and the Deluge, which we have mentioned already ; and secondly, that difference, which we shall have to mention, regarding the period between the Deluge and the Ara Alexandri. For the Jewa derive from the Thora, and the following booka, for this latter period 1,792 years, whilst the Christians derive from their Thora for the same period 2,938 yeara. The Pereians, and the great mase of the Magians, deny the Deluge altogether; they believe that the rule (of the world) has remained with them without any interruption ever since Gayomarth Gilshah, who was, p. 24. according to them, the first man. In denying the Deluge, the Indians, 40 Chinese, and the various nations of the cast, concur with them. Some, however, of the Persians admit the fact of the Deluge, hut they describe it in a different way from what it is described in the booka of the prophets. They say, a partial deluge oceurred in Syria and the west at the time of Tahmurath, but it did not extend over the whole of the then civilized world, and only few nations were drowned in it; it did not

28 ALBİRCNİ.

extend heyond the peak of Hulwan, and did uot reach the empires of the east. Further, they relate, that the inhabitante of the west, when tbey were warned by their sages, constructed buildings of the kind of the two pyramids which have been huilt in Egypt, saying: "If the disnster comes from heaven, we shall go into them; if it comes from the eartl, we shall ascend above them." People are of opinion, that the traces of the water of the Deluge, and the effecte of the waves are still visible on these two pyramide half-way up, above which the water did not rise. Anotber report says, that Joseph had made them a magazim, where he deposited the bread and victuals for the yeara of dronght. 10 It is rolated, that Tahmurath on receiving the warning of the Deluge -231 reara before the Deluge-ordered hie people to select a place of good air and soil in his realm. Now they did not find a placo that answered better to this description than Ispaban. Thereupon, he ordered all ecientific books to bo preserved for posterity, and to be buried in a part of that place, least exposed to obnosious influences. In favour of thie report we may etate that in our time in Jay, the city of Iepahan, there have been discovered hille, which, on being excavated, disclosed houses, filled with many loads of that tree-bark, with which arrows and shielde are covered, and which is called Tis, bearing inscriptions, of 20 which no one was able to say what they are, and what they mean. These discrepancies in their reports, inepire doubts in the student, and make him inclined to believe what ie related in eome books, viz. that Gayowarth was not the first man, but that he was Gomer ben Yaphet ben Noah, that he was a prince to whom a long life was given, that he settled on the Mount Dunbawand, where be founded an empire, and that finally his power became very great, whilst mankind was stil! living in (elementary) conditions, similar to thoee at the time of the creation, and of the firet etage of the development of the world. Then he, and some of his children, took possession of the Mpara of the worln. 30 Towarde the end of hie life, he became tyrannical, and called himself Adam, saying: "If anybody calle me by another name than this, I shall cut off his head." Others are of opinion that Gayomarth wa8 Emim (nN?) ben Lud ben 'Aram ben Sem ben Noah. The astrologers have tried to correct these vears, beginning from the firat of the conjunctions of Saturn and Jupiter, for which the sagea among the inhabitante of Babel, and the Chaldaans have conetructed astronomical tables, the Deluge having originated in their country. For people say, that Noah built the ark in Kufa, and that it was there that "the well poured forth its waters" (Sara xi. 42; xxiii. 27); that the ark 40 rested upon the mountain of Aljudi, which is not very far from those regions. Now this conjunetion occurred 229 years 108 days before the Deluge. This date they studied carefully, and tried by that to correct p. 25. the subgequent timee. So they found as the interval between the Deluge and the beginning of the reign of the first Nebukadnezar (Nabonassar),

ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 29

2,604 years, and as the interval between Nebrkadnezar and Alexander 486 years, a reeult which comes protty near to that one, which is derired from the Thore of the Christiane. This was the ers which 'Abu-Ma'shar Albalkhi wanted, upon which to basa his statements regarding the mean places of tho stars in bis Canon. Now he suppoeed that the Deluge bad taken place at the conjunction of the etars in the laet part of Pisces, and the first part of Aries, and be tried to compute their places for that time. Then he found, that they- all of them-stood in conjunction in the space between the twenty-seventh 10 degree of Piscee, and the end of the first degree of Aries. Further, he supposed that between that time and the epoch of the Æra Alexandri, there is an interval of 2,790 intercalated years 7 months and 26 days. This computation comce near to that of the Christians, being 249 years and 3 months less than the estimate of the astronomers. Now, when he thought that he had well established the compntation of thie eum according to the metbod, which he has explained, and when he had arrived at the result, that the duration of those periods, which as- tronomere call " star-cycles," was 360,000 jears, the beginning of wbich was to precede the time of the Deluge by 180,000 years, he drew the 20 inconsiderate conclusion, that the Deluge had oceurred onco in cvery 180,000 years, and that it wonld again occur in future at similar intervals. Thie man, who is so proud of bie ingenuity, had computed these star- cycles only from the motione of the stars, as they bad been fired by the observations of the Persians; but they (the eycles) differ from the cyeles, which bave been based upon the observations of the Indians, known as the " cycles of Sindhind," and likewise they differ from the daye of Arjabhas, and the days of Arkand .. If anybody would construct such cycles on the basis of the ohservations of Ptolemy, or of the modern 30 astronomers, he might do so by the belp of the well known methods of euch a calculation, as in fact many people hare done, e.g. Mubammad ben 'Ishak hen 'Uetadh Bundadb Alsarakhsi, 'Abt.al.waff Muhammad ben Muhammad Albuzajani, and I myself in many of my booke, particnlarly in the Kitab-al-istishhad bikhtilaf al'arsad. In each of these cyclee the etare come into conjunction with each other in the first part of Aries once, viz. when they etart upon aud return from their rotation, bowever, at different times. If he ('Ab-Ma'shar) now would maintain, that the stare were created standing at that time in the firet part of Arice, or that tho conjunction of the etars in that place 40 is identical witb the beginning of the world, or with the end of the world, euch an assortion would be utterly void of proof, although the matter be within the limite of poseibility. But euch conclusione can never he admitted, except they rest on an evident argument, or on the report of come one who relates the origines of the world, whose word is relied npon, and regarding whom in the mind (of the reader or hearer)

90 ALBiRONİ.

this persuasion ie established, that he had received divine inspimation and help. 26. For it is quite poasible that these (celestial) bodies were scattered, not united at tho timo when the Creator designed and created them, they having theso motions, by which-as calculation shows-they must meet each other in one point in such a time (as above mentioned). It would be the same, as if we, e.g. supposed a circle, in different separate placee of which wo put living beings, of whom some move fast, others slowly, each of them, however, being carried on in equal motions of ite peculiar sort of motion-in equal times; further, suppose that we knew their 10 distauces and places at a certain time, and the measure of the distance over which cach of them travele in one Nyohthemeron. If you thon aak the mathematician as to the length of time, after which thay would meet each other in a certain point, or before which they had met each other in that identical point, no blame attachee to lum, if he speaks of billione of years Nor does it follow from his account that those beings ezisted at that (past) time (when they met each othar), or that they would stil erist at that (future) time (when thay are to meet again); but this only followe from bis account, if it ie properly explained, that, if these beinge really existed (in the past), or would still esist (in future) in that same 20 condition, the reeult (as to their conjunetione) could be no other but that one at which be had arrived by calculation. But then the verifica- tion of this eubject is the task of a science which was not the acience of 'Abu-Ma'shar. If, now, the man who usee the cycles (the star-cyclee), would conclude that they, viz. the stars, if they atood in conjunction in the first part of Aries, woold again and again paes through the same cycles, becanse, according to his opinion, everything connected with the celestial globe ie exem pt from growth and decay, and that the condition of the stars in the past was exactly the same, his conclngion would be a mere asanmption 30 by which he quiete his mind, and which is not supported by any argu- ment. For a proof does not equally apply to the two sides of a contra- diction; it applies only to the one, and excludes the other. Besides it is well known among philosophers and others, that there is no such thing as an infinite evolution of power (Suraus) into action (mpagis), until the latter comes into rea) existence. The motions, the cycles, and the periods of the past were computed whilst they in reality existed; they have decreased, whilst et the same time incressing in number; therefore, they are not infinite. This exposition will be sufficient for a veracious and fair-minded 40 atudent. But if he remaine obetinate, and inclines te the tricks of over- beering people, more explanations will be wanted, which exceed the compass of this houk, in order to remove these ideas from his mind, to heal what is feeble in his thoughts, and to plant the truth in his soul. However, there are other chaptere of this book where it will be more

ON TEE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 31

smtable to speak of this subject than here. The discrepanoy of the cyolee, not the discrepangr of the observations, is a eufficient argumont for-and a poworful help towards-ropudiating the follies committed hy 'Abu-Ma'sbar, and relied upon by foolish people, who abuse all religions, who make the oycles of Sindhind, and others, the mcans by which to revile those who warn them that the hour of judgment is coming, and who tell them, that on the day of reaurr-etion there will be reward and puishment in yonder world. It ia the same set of people who excite suspicions against-and bring discredit upon -- nstronomers and mathe- 10 maticians, by counting themsslves among their ranks, and by representing themsel ves as professors of their art, although they cannot even impoee p. 27. upon anybody who has only the elightest degree of scientific training. Era of Nabonassar .- The next following era is tho Era of the firet Nebukadnezar (Nabonassar). The Persian form of this word (Bukh- tanasgar) is Bukht-narsi, and people say that it means " one who weepe and laments much "; in Hebrew, " Nebukadnezar," which is said to mean "Mercury speaking," this bcing combined with the notion that he oherished ecience and favoured scholara, Then when the word was Arabised, and its form was simplified, people said "Bukhtanasgar." 20 This is not the same king who devastated Jerusalem, for between these two there is an interral of about 143 years, as the following chronological tables will indicate. The era of this king is based upon the Egyptian years. It is employed in the Almagest for the computation of the places of the planets, becanse Ptolemy preferred this era to othere, and fixed thereby the mean places of the etars. Besides he naee the cyclee of Callippus, the beginning of which is in the year 418 after Bukhtanagsar, and each of which consiste of seventy-eix solar years. Those who do not know them (these cycles), try to prove by what they find mentioned in Almagest, that they are of 30 Egyptian origin; for Hipparchus and Ptolemy fix the times of their observations by Egyptian days and monthe, and then refer them to the corresponding cycles of Callippus. Such, however, is not the case. The firvt cycle, employed by those who compute the months by the revolution of the moon and the years by the revolution of the sun, was the cycle of eight years, and the second that of nineteen years. Callippus was of tho number of the mathemsticians, and one who himself-or whose people -- considered the use of this latter cycle as part of their laws. Thereupon, he computed this cycle (of seventy-six yeare), uniting for that purpose four cycles of nineteen years. 40 Some people think that in these cycles the beginning of the months was fixed by the appearance of new moon, not by calculation, as people at that (remote) age did not yet know the calculation of the eclipses, hy which alone the length of ths lunar month is to bs determined, and theee calculations are rendered perfect; and that the first who knew the theory of the eclipess was Thales of Miletue. For after having freqnently

32 ALBİRtNİ.

attended the lecturee of the mathematiciane, and having learned from them the science of form and motion3 (astronomy), he proceeded to dis- cover the ealculation of the eclipses. Then he happened to come to Egypt, where he warned people of an impending eclipse. When, then, hie prediction had been fulfilled, pcople honoured him highly. Thematter, ae thus reported, does not belong to the impossible. For each a- : goes hack to certain original sourcee, and the nearer it is to its origin, the more eimple it ie, till you at last arrive at the very origin itself. However, this account, that eclipses were not known before Thales, mutt not be underetood in this generality, but with certain local 10 restrictione. For eome people refer this scholar (Thales) to the time of Ardashir hen Babak, others to that of Kaikubadh. Now, if he lived at 28. the time of Ardashir, he was preceded by Ptolemy and Hipparchus; and theee two nmong the astronomere of that age knew the suhject quite suficiently. If, on the other hand, he lived at tho time of Kaiknbadh, he stands near to Zoroaster, who belonged to the sect of the Harranians, and to those who already before him (Zoroaster) excelled in science, and had carried it to such a height as that they could not be ignorant of the theory of the eclipees. If, therefore, their report (regarding the dis- covery of the theory of the eclipses by Thales) be true, it is not to be 20 understood in this generality, but with certain reetrictions. Era of Philippus Aridans .- The era of Philip, the father of Alexander, is based npon Egyptian years. But this era is aleo frequently dated from the death of Alexander, the Macedonian, the Founder. In both casee the matter is the same, and there is only a difference in the exprossion. Because Alexander, the Founder, was eucceeded by Philip, therefore, it is the same, whether yon date from the death of the former, or the acceesion of the latter, the epoch being a connecting link common to both of them. Those who employ this era are called dlepandrines. On ta's era Theon Alexandrinus has based bis eo-called " Canon." Dra of Alezander .- Then follows the era of Alexander the Greek, to 30

whom eome people give the eurname Bicornutus. On the difference of opinions regarding this pereonage, I shall enlarge in tho next following chapter. This era is based upon Greek years. It is in use among most hations. When Alezander had left Greece at the age of twenty-six yeare, prepared to fight with Darius, the king of the Persians, and marching npon his capital, he went down to Jerusalem, which was inhabited by the Jews; then he ordered the Jewe to give up the era of Moses and David, and to use his era instead, and to adopt that very year, the twenty- eeventh of his life, as the epoch of this era. The Jews oheyed his 40 command, and accepted what he ordered; for the Rabbis allowed them such a change at the end of each millennium after Moses. And at that time just a millennium had hecome complete, and their offeringe end sacrifices had ceased to be practised, as they relate. So they adopted hie era, and used it for firing all the occurrences of their months and daye,

ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 33

as they had already done in the twenty-sisth year of his life, when he first started from home, with tho view of finishing the millennium (i.e. so as not to enter upon a new one). When, then, the first thousand yeara of the Æra Alexandri had passed, the end of whieh did not coin- cide with any striking event which people are accustomed to make the epoch of an era, they kept the Ara Alexandri, and continued to uee it. The Greeks also use it. But according to the report of a book, which Habib ben Bihriz, the metropalitan of Mosul, has translated, ths Greeks used to date -- before they adopted the Ara Alexandri-from the migration 10 of Yunan ben Paris from Babel towards the west. Era of Augustus .- Next follows the era of the king Augustus, the p. 29. first of the Roman emperors (Cæseres). The word "Cwsar" means in Franhish (i.e. Latin) "he has been drawn forth, after a cutting has been made." The explanation is this, that his mother died in labour-pains, whilst ehe was pregnant with him; then her womb was opened by the "Cæsarean operation," and he was drawn forth, and got the surname "Casar." He used to boast before the kings, that he had not come out of the pudendum muliebre of a woman, as also 'Ahmad ben Sahl ben Hashim ben Alwalid ben Hamla ben Kamkar hen Yazdajird hen 20 Shahryar used to hoast, that the same had happened to him And he (Augustus) used to revile people calling them " son of the pudendum muliebre." The historinng relate, that Jeeus, the son of Mary, was bern in the forty-third year of his reign. Thie, however, does not agree with the order of the years. The chronological tables, in which we ehall give a corrected sequence of evente, necessitate that his birth should have taken place in the seventeenth year of his reign. It was Augustus who caused the people ef Alexandria te give up their system of reckoning by non-intercalated Egyptian year, and to adopt 80 the system of the Chaldgans, which in our time ie used in Egypt. This he did in the sizth year of his reign; thsrefore, they took this year as the epoch of this era. Era of Antoninus .- The era of Antoninus, one of the Roman kings, was based upen Greek years. Ptolemy corrected the places of the fixed stars, dating from the beginning of his reign, and noted them in the Almagest, directing that their positions should be advanced one degree every,year. Era of Diocletianne .- Then follows the era of Diocletian, the last of the Roman kings who worshipped the idols. After the sovereign potver 40 had been transferred to him, it remained among his descendanta. After him reigned Consiantine, who was the first Roman king who became a Christian. The years of this era are Greek. Several anthors of Caneng have used this era, and have fixed thereby the necessary paradigma of the prognostice, the Tempora natalicia, and the conjunctione. Era of the Flight .- Then follows the era of the Flight of the

34 ALBIRUNI.

Prophet Muhammad from Makka to Madina. It is based upon Lunar yeare, in which the commencements of tho months are determined by the appearance of New Moon, not by calculation. It is used by the whole Mohammadan world. The circumstances under which this very point was adopted as an epoch, and not the time when the Prophet was either born or entrusted with his divine miesion or died, were the following :- Maimun ben Mihran relates, that Omar ben Alkhattab, when people one day handed over to him a cheque payable in the month Shoban, ssid :- "Which Sha'ban is meant? that one in which we are or the next Sha'ban?" Thereupoa he assembled the Companions of the Prophet, 10 and asked their advice regarding the matter of chronology, which troubled his mind. They answered: " It is necessary to inform onrselves of the practice of the Persians in this reepect." Then they fete HurmuzAn, and asked him for information. He said: "We have w. computation which we call Mah-rus, t.e. the computation of monthe and days." People arabized this word, and pronounced tr (Mu'arrakh), and coined as p.30. its infinitive the word " Ta'rikh." Hurmuzan explained to them how they used this MAh-roz, and what the Greebs used of a similar kind. Then Omar spoke to the Companions of the Prophet : " Establish a mode of dating for the intercourss of people." Now some said: "Date ac- 20 cording to the era of the Greeke, for they date according to the era of Alerander." Others objected that this mode of dating was too lengthy, and said : "Date according to the er of the Pergians." But then it was ob. jected, that as soon as a new king arises among the Persians he a bolishes the era of his predecessor. So they could not come to an agreement. Alsha bi relates, that 'Abu-Mosa Al'aah ari wrote to Omar ben Alkhettab: "You send ns letters without a date" Omar had already organized the registers, hed established the taxes and regulations, and was in want of an era, not liking the old ones. On this occasion he aasembled the Companions, and took their advice. Now the most au- 30 thentic date, which involves no obscurities nor possible mishaps, seemed to be the date of the flight of the Prophet, and of his arrival at Madina on Monday the 8th of the month Rabi' I., whilst the heginning of the year was a Thursday. Now he adopted this epoch, and fixed thereby the dates in all bis affairs. This happened A.H. 17. The reason why Omar selected this event as an epoch, and not the time of the hirth of the Prophet, or the time when he was entrusted with his divine mission, is this, that regarding those two dates there existed such a divergenoy of opinion, as did not allow it to be made the basis of something which must be agreed upon universally. 40 Further he (Alsha'bi) says: People say that He was born in the night of Monday the 2nd, or the 8th, or the 13th of Rabi' I .; others say that he was born in the forty-sixth year ef the reign of Kiara Anoshirwan. In consequence there is also a difference of opinione regarding the length of his ife, corresponding to the different statemente regarding his birth.

ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 35

Besides, the single years were of different length, some having been intercalated, others not, about the time when interealstion was prohibited. Considering further that after the Flight, the affairs of Ielam were thoroughly established, while heatheniem decreased, that the Prophet was saved from tho calamitice prepared for him by the infidels of Makka, and that after tho Flight his eonquests followed each other in rapid snccession, we eome to the conelusion that the Flight was to the Prophet, what to the kings ie their accession, and their taking poaseesion of the whole sovereign power. 10 As regards the well known date of his death, people do not like to date from the death of a prophet or a king, exeept the prophet be a liar, or the king an enemiy, whose death people enjoy, and wish to make a festival of; or he be one of thoso with whom a dynasty is extinguished, so that his followers among themselves make thie date a memorial of him, and a mourning feast. But thia latter case has only happened very seldom. E.g. the era of Alexander the Founder is reckoned from the time of his death, he having been eonsidered as one of those from whom the era of the kings of the Chaldæans and the western kings wae trane- ferred to the era of the Ptolemæan kings, of whom each is called Ptolemy, 20 which means wrlike. Therefore, those to whom the empire was trang- ferred, dated from the time of his death, eonsidering it as a joyful event. It is precisely the sa:ne in the case of the era of Yazdajird ben Shahryar. For the Magians date from the time of his denth, hecause when he perished, the dynasty was extinguished. Therefore they dated from his death, mourning over him, and lamenting for the downfal of their p. 31. religion. At the time of the Prophet, pcople had given to each of the years between the Flight and hie death a special name, derived from eome event, which had happened to him in that identical year. 30 The lst year after the Flight ie "the year of the permission." The 2nd year "the year of the order for fighting." The 3rd year The 4th year "the year of the tria)." "the year of the congratulation on the

The 5th year occasion of marriage." "the year of the earthquakre." The 6th year "the year of inquiring." The 7th year " the year of gaining vietory." The 8th year " the year of equality." The 9th year 40 The 10th year "the year of exemption." "the ycar of frewell." By these namee it was rendered euperfluous to denote the years by the numbers, the let, the 2nd, etc., after the Flight. Era of Yadajird .- Next followe the era of the reign of Yazdajird ben Shahryur ben Kieri Purwiz, which is based upon Persian non- 3 *

36 ALBİRONİ.

intercalated years. It has been employed in the Canone, becanse it is easy and simple to use. The reasen why precisely the era of thie king ameng all the kings of Persia has become so generally known, ie thie that he ascended the throne, when the empire had bcen ehattered, when the women had got Lold of it, and usurpere had seized all power. Beeides, he was the last of their kinge, and it was he with whom Omar ben Alkhatttb fought mest of theee famoue ware and battles. Finally, the empire euccumbed, and he was put to flight and was killed in the house of a miller at Marw-i-Shahijan. Reform of the Calendar by the Khalif Almu'tadid .- Lastly, I0 the era of 'Ahmad ben Talha Almn'tadid-billah the Khalif was based upon Greek years and Pereian monthe; however, with this difference, that in every fourth year one day waa intercalated. The following is the origin of this era, ae reported by 'Abt-Bakr Alsuli in hie Kitdb aFaurd, and by Hamze ben Alhasan Alisfahani in hie book on famens poems, relating to Nauriz and Mihrjan. Almutawakkil, while wandering about over one of hie hunting-grounds, observed corn that had net yet ripened, and not yet attained ite proper time fer being reaped. So he said : "Ubaid allth ben Yahya has asked my permission fer levying the taxes, whilet I obeerve that the corn is still green. From what then are people 20 to pay their taxes? " Thereupen he was informed, that this, in fact, had done a great deal of harm to the pcople, so that they were compelled to borrow and to incur debts, and even to emigrate from their homes; that. they had many complaints and wrongs to recount. Then the Khalif said: "Has this arisen lately during my reign, or has it alwaye been eo ?" And people answered : "No. Thie is going on according to the regola- tions establiehed by the Persian kinge for the levying of the taxee at the time of Nauruz. In this their example has been foilewed by the kings of the Arabs." Then the Khalif ordered the Maubadh to be brought befere him, and said to him: "Thie bas been the enbject of much re- 80 seareh on my part, and I capnot find that I violate the regulatiens of the Pereiana. How, then, did they levy the taxee from their eubjects -- considering the beneficence and good will which they observed towarde them ? And why did they allow the taxes to be levied at a time like .32. thie, when the fruit and corn ere not yet ripe?" To this the Kaubadh replied : "Although they alwaye levied the taxee at Nauruz, this Dever happened except at the time when the corn was ripe." The Khalif asked: "And how was that?" Now the Maubadh explained to him the nature of their yeare, their different lengthe, and tbeir need of intercala- ten. Then he procceded to relate, that the Pereiane used to intercalate 40 the years; but when Islam had been eetabliehed, intercalation was aboliehed; and that did much harm to the people. The landholders assembled at the time of Hisham ben 'Abdalmalik and called on Khalid Alkuori; they oxplained to him the eubjeot, and asked him to poetpone Nauriz by a month. Khalid declined to do so, hut reperted on the

ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 37

eubject to Hisham, who said: "I am afraid, that to thie anhject may bo applied the word of God: " Intercalation is only an incrense of heatheniem" (Sura iz. 87). Afterwarde at the time of Alrashid the landholders as- eembled again and called on Yahya hen Khalid ben Barmak, asking him to postpone Nauruz by about two months. Now, Yahya had the inten- tion to do so, but then hie enemnies began to speak of the oubject, and eaid : "He is partial to Zoroastrianism." Therefore he dropped the subject, and the matter remained as it waa before. Now Almutawakkilordered'Ibrahim hen Al'abbae Alsuli to be brought 10 before him, and told him, that in accordance with what the Maubadh had related of Nauruz, he ehould compute the days, and compose a fixed Canon (Calendar); that he should compose a paper on the poetponement of Nauruz, which was to be eent by order of the Khalif to all the provinces of the empire. It was determined to postpone Nauruz till the 17th of Hazirin. Alguli did 'as he was ordered, and the letters arrived in the provincee in Muharram A.H. 243. The poet, Albuhturi has com- posed a Kapida on the eubject in praise of Almutawallil, where he days: "The day of Nauruz has returned to that time, on which it was fixed by 20 Ardashir. Thou hast trausferred Nauruz to its original condition, whilst before thee it was wandering abont, circulating. Now thou hast levied the taxes at Nauruz, and that was a memorable benefit to the people. They bring thee praise and thanke, and thou bringest them justico and a preeent, well deserving of thanke."

However, Almutawakkil was killed, and hie plan was not carried out, until Almu'tadid aecended the throne of the Khalifate, delivered the provinces of the empire from their usurpers, and gained suflicient leieure 30 to atudy the affaire of his subjects. He attributed the greatest import- ance to intercalation and to the carrying out of this measure. He followed the method of Almutawakkil regarding the postponement of Nauriz; however he treated the subject differently, inasmuch as Almu- tawakkil had made the basie of hie computation the interval between his year (ie. that year, in which be then happened to live), and the beginniog of the reign of Yazdajird, whilst Almu'tadid took the iuterval betwuen his year and that year in which the Persian empire perished by the death of Yazdajird, because he-or those who did the work for him-held thie opinion, that eince that time intercalstion had been neglected. This 10 interval he found to be 243 yeare and 60 daye+a fraction, arieing from the day-quarters (exceeding the 365 daye of the Solar year). Theee 60 p. 33 days he added at Nauruz of his year, and put Nauruz at the end of them, which fell upon a Wedneaday, the Ist Kburdadh-Mih of that year, coinciding with the 11th of Haziran. Thereupon he fixed Naurnz in the

38 ALBİRUNİ.

Greek months for this purpose, that the months of his year shonld be intercslated at the same time whon the Greeke intercalate their years. The man who was entrusted with carrying out his orders, was his Waztr 'Ahu-alkasim 'Ubaid-allah hen Sulaiman ben Wahb. To this subjeet the following vorsos of the aetronomer 'Ali ben Yahya refer :- "O thou restorer of the untarnished glory, renovator of the shattered

Who hast again established among ue the pillar of roligion, after it had empire !

heen tottering ! Thou hast surpassed all the kings like the foremost horse in a race. 10 How hlesaed is that Nauriz, whon thon hast earned thanks besides the reward (duo to thee for it in heaven)! By postponing Nauruz thou hast justly made precede, what they bad postponed."

On the same subject 'Alt hen Yahyh says: " The day of thy Nauruz is one and the same day, not liable to moving backward, Always coinciding with the 11th of Haztran." Now, although in bringing about this measure much ingenuity has been displayed, Nauruz has not therehy returned to that place which it 20 occupied at the time when intercalstion was still practised in the Persian empire. For the Persians had already begun to neglect their intercalation nearly seventy years before the death of Yazdajird Because at the time of Yazdajird hen Shapor they had intercalated into their year two months, one of them as the necessary compensation for that space of time, by which the year had moved backward (it being too ehort). The five Epagomena they put as a mark at the end of this intercalary month, and the turn had just come to Ahan Mah, as we shall explain hereafter. The second month they intercalated with regard to the future, that no other intercalation might he needed for a long period. 30 Now, if you subtraet frotu the sum of the years hetween Yazdajird ben Shapur and Yazdajird ben Shahryar 120 years, you get a remainder of nearly-hut not exactly-70 years; there is much uncertainty and con- fusion in the Persian chronology. The Portio intercalanda of these 70 years would amount to nearly 17 days .. Therefore it would have heen necessary, if we calculate without mathematical accuracy, to postpone Nauruz not 60, but 77 days, in order that it might coincide with the 28th of Haziran The man who worked out this reform, was of opinion, that the Persian method of intercalation was similar to the Greek method. . Therefore he computed the days since the extinction of their empire. 40 Whilst in reality the matter is a different one. as we have already ez- plained, and shall more fully explain hereafter. This is the last of those eras that have hecome celehrated. But

ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 39

perhaps some ether nations, whose countries are far distant from ours, have eras of their own, which have net been handed dewn to posterity, p.34. or such eras as are new obselete. Fer instance, the Persians in the time of Zeroastrianism used te date successively by the years of the reign of each of their kings. When a king died, they dropped his era, and &dopted that of hie snccessor. The duration of the reigns ef their kings we have etated in the tahles which will follow hereafter. Epochs of the Ancient Arabs .- As & secend instance we mentien the Ishmaelite Arabe. For they used to date from the constrnetion of 10 the Kafha by Abrahom and Ishmael till the time when they were dis- persed and left Tihama. Those who went away dated from the time of their exodus, whilst those who remained in the country dated from the time when the last party of the emigrants had left. But afterwards, after a long course of time, they dated from the year when the chieftain- ship devolved upen 'Amr hen Rabi'a, knewn by the name of 'Amr ben Yahya, whe is said to have changed the religion of Abraham, to have brought from the city ef Balka the idel Hubal, and to hare himself made the idels 'Isaf and Na'ila. This is said to have happened at the time of Shapur Dhu-alaktaf. This synchronism, hewever, is net berne out by 20 the comparison of the chronological theories of hoth sidee (Arahs and Persians). Afterwards they dated from the death of Kab hen Lu'ayy-till the Yeas of Treason, in which the Bant-Yarbu' stole certain garments which eome of the kinga of Himyar sent to the Ka'ba, and whex a general fighting among the peeple occurred at the time of the holy pilgrimage. Thereupon they dated from the Year of Treason till the Year of the Ele- phants, in which the Lord, when the Ethiopians were ceming on with the intention of destroying the Ka'ha, brought down the consequences of their cunning enterprise npon their own necks, and annihilated them. 30 Thereupon they dated from the era of the Hijra. Some Arabe used to date from famoue accidents, and frem celebrated days of hattle, which they feught ameng themselves. As such epechs the Rana-Kuraieh, e.g. had the follewing ones :- + 1. The day of Alfijar in the sacred month. 2. The day of the Confederacy of Alfudul, in which the contracting parties hound themselves to assist all those to whem wreng was done. Because the Banu-Knraish committed wrong and violence against each ether within the hely precinct of Makla. 3. The year of the death of Hisham hen Almughtra Almakhzumi, 40 for the celebratien of his memery. (4) The year of the reconstruction of the Kaba, by order of the Prophet Mubammad The tribes 'Aue and Khazraj used the following days as epochs :- 1. The day of Alfada.

40 ALBiRÛNİ.

2. The day of Alrabi'. S. The day of Alruhaba. 4. The day of Alearara. 5. The day of Dahis and Ghabra. 6. The day of Bughath. 7. The day of HAtib. 8. The day of Madris and Mufabhis.

Among the tribes Bakr and Taghlib, the two sons of Wa'il, the following epochs were used:

1. The day of 'Unaiza. 10 2. Tho day of Albinw. S. The day of Tabla-allimam. 4. The day of Alķusaibât. 5. The day of Alfaşil.

These and other " war-days" were used as epochs among the different tribes and clans of the Arabs. Their names refer to the places wbere they were fought, and to their causes. If, now, these eras were kept in the proper order in which chronological subjects are to be treated, we should do with them the eame that we intend to do with all the other subjects connected with eras. However, 20 people say that between the vear of the death of Kab hen Lu'ayy and the year of Treason there is an interval of 520 years, and between the year of Treason and tne year of the Elephante an interval of 110 years. The Prophet was horn 50 years after the invasion of the Ethiopians, and between his birth and the year of Alfijar there were 20 years. At p.35. this hattle the Prophet was present, as he has said himself: "I was present on the day of Alfjar. Then I shot at my uncles." Between the day of Alfijar and the reconstruction of the Ka ba there are 15 years, and 5 ycars hetween the reconstruction of the Ka'ba and the time when Muhammad was entrusted with his divine mission. 30 Likewise the Himyarites and the Banu Kahtan used to date by the reigns of their Tubba'e, as the Persians by the reigns of their Kisras, and the Greeks by the reigns of their Caesars. However, the rule of the Himyarites did not always proceed in complete order, and in their chronology there is much confusion. Notwithstanding, we have stated the duration of the reigns of their kings in our tables, as aiso those of the kings of the Bant-Lakhm, who inbahited Hira, and were settled there, and had mado it their home. Chorasmian Antiquities .- In a similar way the people of Khwa- rizm proceeded. For they dated from the heginning of the colonization 40 of their country, A. 980 before Alexander. Afterwards they adopted as the epoch of an era the event of the coming of Siyawush hen Kaiki'us down to Khwarizm, and the rule of Kaikbusru, and of hia

ON THE NATURE OF THE ERAS. 41

descendants over the country, dating from the time when ho immigrated and extended lia sway over the empire of the Turks. This happened 92 years after the colonization of the country, At a later time they imitated the example of the Persians in dating hy the yeare of the reign of each king of the line of Kaikhusra, who ruled over the country, and who was called by the title of Shakiya. This went on down to the reign of Afrigh, one of the kings of that family. Hie name was considered a bad omen like that of Yazdajird the Wicked, with the Persiane. His eon succeeded him in tho rule of 10 the country. Ho (Afrigh) built hie castle behind Alfir, A. Alezandri 616. Now people began to date from him and his children (i.e. by the yeare of his reign and that of his descendante). Thia Alfir was a fortress on the outekirts of the city of Khwarizm, built of clay and tiles, consisting of three forts, one being built within the other, and all three being of equal height; and riaing ahove the whole of it were the royal palaces, very much like Ghumdan in Yaman at the time when it was the residence of the Tubba's For this Ghum- dan was a castle in San'a, opposite the great mosque, founded upon a rock, of which people say that it was built by Sem ben Noah after the 20 Deluge. In the castle there is a cistern, which he (Sem) had digged. Others think that it was a temple built by Aldahhak for Venus. This Alfir was to be seen from the diatance of 10 miles and more. It was . broken and shattered by the Oxus, and was swept away piece hy piece every year, till the last remains of it had disappeared A. Alexandri 1305. Of thie dynasty was reigning at the time when the Prophet was entrusted with hia divine mission- 10. Arthamukh ben 9. Bûzkår ben 30 8. Khamgri ben 7. Sbåwuah ben 7 6. Sakhr hen 5. Azkajawar ben 4. Askajamûk ben 3. Sakhassak hen 2. Baghra ben 1. Afrtgh. When Kutaiba ben Muslim had conquered Khwarizm the second time, after the inhabitante had rohelled, he constituted as their king- 40 14. Askajamuk hen 13. AzkAjawar ben 1. 12. Sabri ben 11. Sakbr hen 10. Arthamfkh,

42 ALBİRONİ.

p. 36. and appointed him as their Shah. The deacendants of the Kisras lost the office of the " Wall" (the governorship), bnt they retained the office of tho Shah, it being hsreditary among them. And thsy accommo- dated themselves to dating from the Hijra according to the uss of the Muslims. Kutaiha ben Muslim had extinguished and ruined in every possible way all those who knew bow to writo and to read the Khwariamt writing, who knsw ths history of the country and who studied their sciences. In consegnence these things are involved in so mnch obscurity, that it is impossibls to ohtain an acenrate knowledge of the history of the 10 country eince the time of Islam (not to apeak of pre-Muhammsdan timss). The Wildya (governorship) remained afterwards alternately in the hands of this family and of others, till the time when they lost both Wildya (governorship) and Shahiyya (Shahdom), after the death of the martyr 22. 'Abu 'Abdallah Mubammad ben 21. 'Ahmad ben 20. Muhammad ben 19. Trâk ben 20 18. Mangur ben 17. 'Abdallah ben 16. Turhasbâtha ben 15. Shawushfar ben 14. Asimjamůk ben 13. AzkAjawar ben 12. Sabri ben 11. Sakbr ben 10. Arthamukh, in whose time, as I have said, the Prophet was entrasted with his divine mission. 30

Thie is all I could ascertain regarding the celebrated eras; to know them all is impossible for a human being. God helps to the right insight.

48

CHAPTER IV.

THE DIFPERENT OPINIONS OF VARIOUS NATIONS REOARDING THE KINO CALLED DHU-ALKARNAINI OR BICORNUTUS.

WE mnst erplain in a separate chapter what people think of the bearer of this name, of Dhu-alksrnaini, for the suhject interrupts, in this part of the course of our exposition, the order in which our chronology would have to proceed, Now it has been said, that the story about him as contained in tha Koran, is well-known and intelligible to everybody who reads the varses 10 apecially devoted to his history. The pith and marrow of it is this, that he was a good and powerful man, whom God had gifted with eitra- ordinary authority and power, and whose plans be had crowned with success both in east and west ; he conquered citias, subdued countries, reduced his subjects to anbmission, and united the whole empire under his single eway. He is generally sssumed to havs entered the darkness in the north, to have seen the remotest frontiers of the inhahitable world, to hare fought both against men and demons, to hava passed between Gog and Magog, so as to cut off thair communication, to have marched ont towards the countries adjoining their territory in the east 20 and north, to have restrained and repelled their mischisvous inroads by meane of a wall, construeted in a mountain-pass, whence they used to pour forth. It was huilt of iron-blochs joined by molten hrass, as is still now the practice of artiaans. When Alaxander, the son of Philip, Alyonant (i.e. the Ionian, mean- ing the Greek) had united under his sway the Greek empire (lit. the empire of the Romans), which had previously consisted of single prin- 1. .8 cipalities, he marched against the princes of the west, overpowering and subduing them, going as far as the Green Sea. Thereupon he returned to Egypt, where he founded Alezandria, giving it bis own name. Then 30 he marched towards Syria and the Israelites of the country, went down

44 ALBİRONİ.

to Jerusalema, sacrificed in its temple and made offerings. Thence ho turned to Armenia and Bab-al'abwab, and paased even beyond it. The Copte, Borbers, and Hebrewe obeyed him. Then he marohed againet Dara, the eon of Dira, in order to take revenge for all the wrongs which Syria had euffered at the hande of Bukhtanagsar (Nebukadnezzar) and the Babyloniens. He fought with him and put him to flight eeveral times, and in one of those battles Dara was killed by the chief of his body-guard, called Nanjushanas ben Adharbakht, whereupon Alexander took posseesion of the Persian ompire. Then he went to India and China, making war upon the most distant nations, and subduing all the 10 tracts of country through which he passed. Thence he returned to Khuriaba, conquered it, and built several towne. On returning to 'Lrik he became ill in Shahrarir, and diod. In all his enterpriees he acted under the guidance of philosophical principlee, and in all his plans he took the advice of his teacher, Arietotle. Now, on account of all this he has been thought to be Dhu-alkarnaini, or Bicornutus. As to the interpretation of thie eurname, people say he was called so because he resched the two "horns" of the sun, i.e. his rising and eetting places, jnst ae Ardashir Bahman was called Longimanus, becanse hie command was omnipotent, wherever he liked, as if he had only to 20 stretch out his hand in order to set thinge right. According to others he was called so because he descended from two different " generations" (lit. horne) i.e. the Greeks and Pereians. And on thie subiect they have adopted the vague opinions which the Persians have devised in a hoetile epirit, vis. that Dara the Great had married his mother, a dsnghter of King Philip, hut she had an offensive odour, which he could not endure, and so he sent her back to her father, she being pregnant; that he was called a son of Philip, simply because the latter had educated him. This etory of theirs they try to prove by the fact, that Alexander, when he reached Dara, who was expiring, put his 30 head on his lap and epoke to him : " O my brother, tell me, who did this to you, that I may take revenge for you?" But Alexander eo addreesed him only because he wanted to be kind towards him, and to represent him (Dara) and himself se brethren, it heing impossihle to addreee him as king, or to call him by his name, both of which would have betrayed a high degree of rudeneee unbecoming a king. On Real and Forged Pedigrees .- However, enemiee are always eager to revile the parentage of people, to detract from their reputation, and to sttack their deeds and merits, in the same way as friends and partisane are eager to embellieh that which ie ngly, to cover up the weak 40 parta, to proclaim publicly that which is noble, and to refer everything to great virtnes, as the poet deseribee them in these words :--

"The eye of benevolence is blind to every fault, But the eye of hatred discovers every vice."

THE KING CALLED BICORNUTCS. 45

Obetinacy in this direction frequently leads people to invent landatory stories, and to forge genealogies which go back to glorious ancestors, as p. 88. has been done, e.g. for Ibr 'Abdalrazzak Altusi, when he got mado for himself a genealogy out of the Shabnama, which makes him descend from Minosheihr, and also for the house of Buwaihi. For 'Abu-'Ishak Tbrahim ben Hilal Alsabi, in his book called Altaj (tho crown), makes Bnwaibi descend from Babram Gur by the following line of ancestors :- I. Buwaihi. Fanakhverů. 10 Thamân. Kühi. V. Shirzil junior. Shirkadha. Shtrztl senior. Shirânshâh. Sbirfana. X. Sasananshab. Sasank hurra. Shûzil. 20 Sasanidhar. XIV. Bahrim Gur the king. 'Abu-Muhammad Alhasan ben 'Ali ben Nana in his epitome of the history of the Buwaihides, saye that- I. Buwaihi was ths son of Fanakhusra, the son of ThamAn. Then some people continue Thaman, the son of Kaht, the son of 30 V. Shirzil junior ; whilst others drop Kuhi. Then they continue- Sharzil senior, the son of Shiraushah, ths son of Shirfana, the son of Sasananshâh, the son of X. Sasankhurra, the son of Shûzil, the son of Basanadhar, the son of 40 XIII. Babrim.

Further, people disagree regarding this Bahrim. Those who give the Buwaihides a Persien origin, contend that he was Bahram Gor, and continue the enumeration of his ancestors (down to the origin of the

46 ALBİRÔNİ.

family Shsan), whilst others who give them an Arabie origin, say that he was- Babrâm ben Aldabhak ben Al'abyad ben MuAwiya ben Aldailam ben Båsil ben Pabba ben 'Dad. 10

Othera, again, mention among ths series of ancestors- LAht hen Aldailam ben Bisil, and maintain that from this name his son Laythaj derived bis name. He, however, who considers what I have laid down at the beginning of this book, as the conditio sine qua non for the knowledge of ths 'proper mean between disparagement and exaggeration, and the necessity of the greatest carefulness for evsrybody who wants to give a fair jndgment, will be aware of the fact, that the firt member of this family 20 who became celebrated was Buwaihi ben Fanakhnsra. And it is not at all known that thoss tribes were particularly careful in preserving and continuing their genealogical traditions, nor that they knew anything like this of the family Buwaihi, before they came into power. It very rarely happens that genealogies are preserved without any interruption during a long period of time. In such cases the only possible way of distinguishing a just claim to some noble descent from a false one is the agreement of all, and the assent of the whole generation in ques- tion regarding that subject. An instance of this is the lord of mankind,- 30 I. Muhammad, for he is the son of 'Abd-all&h ben 'Abd-almuttalib ben Hashim ben V. 'Abd-Manaf ben Ķusayy ben Kil&b ben Murra ben Ke'b ben X. Lu'ayy ben 40 Ghtib ben Fihr ben Malik ben Alnadr ben

THE KING CALLED BICORNUTUS. 47

XV. KinAna ben Khuzaima ben Mudribs ben 'Ilyås ben Mndar ben XX. Nizår ben Ma'sdd ben XXII. Adnân, Nobody in the world donbts this lineage of ancestors, as thsy do not 10 doubt either, that he descends from Ishmael, the son of Abraham, The p. 89. ancestry beyond Abraham is to be found in the Thora, However, regarding the link of parentage between 'Adnan and Ishmael there is & eonsiderable divergence of opinions, inasmuch as some people consider as the father the person whom otbers take for the son, and vice versa, and as they add considerably in soms places, and leave out in others. Further as to our master, the commander, the prince, the glorious and victorious, the benefactor, Shams.almafalt, may God gire him a long life, not ons of bis friends, whom may God help, nor any of his opponents, whom may God desert, denies his noble and ancient descent, 20 well established on both sides, although his pedigree back to the origin of hia princely family has not been preserved without any interruption. On the one sids he descends from Wardanshah, whose nobility is well-known throughout Ghilan; and this prince had a son, besides the prince, the martyr MardAwij. People say, that the son of Wardan- shah obeyed the orders of 'Asfar ben Shirawaihi, and that it was he, who snggested to him (his brother Mardawij) the idea of delivering the people from the tyranny and oppression of 'Asfar. On the other side he descends from the kings of Media, called the Ispahbads of Khurasan and the Farkhwarjarshahis. And it has nsver been denied Pafas, 30 that thoss among them, who belonged to the royal house of Persia, claimsd to have a pedigree which unites them and the Kisras into one family. For his unele is the Ispahbad- I. Rustam bon ose ben Rustam ben RArin ben V. Shahryâr ben o3pa ben Surkhåb ben 40 4 ben Sh&pûr bẹn X. Kayûs ben XI, Kubadh, who was the father of Andshirwan. May God give to our master the empire from east and west over all

48 ALBİRÊNİ.

the parts ef the world, as ha has assigned him a noble origin on both sides. God's is the power to do it, and all goed comes from him. The same applies to the kings of Khurisan. For nobody contests tha fact, that the first of tbis dynasty -- I. 'Isma'il was the son of 'Ahmad ben 'Asad ben Samân khudâh ben V. alowe hen owb ban 10 say ben Bahrâm Shtbin hen IX. Babram Jnahanas, the commander of the marches of Adbar- baijan. The same applies further to the original Shahs of Khwarizm, who belonged to the royal house (of Persia), and to the Shahs of Shirwin, because it is believed by common consent, that they are descendants of the Kisras, altheugh their pedigree has not been preserved uninterruptedly, The fact that claims to some nohle lineage, and also to other matters, are-just and well founded, always becomes known somchow or other, 20 even if people try to eonceal it, being like musk, which spreade its odour, although it be hidden. Under such circumstances, therefore, if people want to settle their genealogy, it is not necessary to spend money and to make presents, as 'Ubaid-allah ben Alhasan ben 'Ahmad hen 'Abdallah ben Maimon Alkadda did to ths gencalogists among the party ef the .. . 40. Alides, when they declared his claim of descent from them to be a lie, at the time when he came ferward in Maghrib; finally he succeeded in contenting them and in making them silent. Notw thstanding the truth is well known to the student, although the fabricated tale has been far spread, and although his descendants are powerful enough to suppress 30 any contradiction. That one of them, whe reigns in our time, is 'Abû- 'Alf ben Nizar ben Ma'add ben 'Isma'il hen Muhammad ben 'Ubaid- allah the usurper. I have enlarged on this subject only in order to show how partial people are to those whem they like, and how hostile towards those whom they hate, so that frequently their exaggeration in eithe direetion leads to the discovery of their infamous designs. That Alexander was the son of Philip is a fact, too evident to be coneealed. His pedigree is stated by the most celehrated genealogists in this way :- 40 L. edl Philip,

y Hermes, هدس

THE KING CALLED BICORNUTOS. 49

V. sp Meton. Rome. لیطی پرنان Yunân. يافث Yafeth. x. orr RAmiya. Byzantium. ٹوفیل Theophil. 10 Rome. XV. oM Al'aşfar. .Elifaz البمر .Esau العيص Sout Isaak. XIX. (del Abraham. According to another tradition Dhu-alkarnaini was a man, called Stl, who marched against Simirus, one of the kings of Bahel, fought with him, made him a prisoner and killed bim; then he stripped off the skin of his head together with his hair and his two curls, got it 20 tanned, and used it as a crown. Therefore, he was called Dhu-alkarnaini (Bicornutus). According to another version he is identical with Almundhir hen Ma-alsama, i.e. Almundhir hen Imru'ulkais. Altogether the most curious opinions are afoat regarding the bearer - - of this mame, that, e.g., his tnother was a demon, which is likewise believed of Bilkis, for peeple say that her mother was a demon, and of 'Abdallah ben Hilal the juggler, for he was thought to be the devil's son-in-law, being married to his daughter. Such and similar ridiculous stories people produce, and they are far known. It is related, that 'Umar ben Alkhuttab, when he heard one day people 30 entering into a profouud discussion on Dhu-alkarnaini, said, " Was it not enough for you, to plunge into the stories on human beings, that yon must pass into another field and draw the angels into the discussion?" Some say, as Ibn Dursid mentions in his Kitub-alwishith, that Dhu- alkarnaini was Alsa'b ben Albaminil Alhimyari, whilst others take him for 'Abu-karib Shammar Yur'ish ben 'Ifrikis Alhimyari, and believe that he was called so en account of two curls which hung down upou his shoulders, that be reached tho east and west of the earth, and traversed its north and south, that he subdued the countries, and reduced tho people to complete subjection. It is this prinee about whom 40 one of the princes of Yaman, 'As'ad ben 'Amr beu Rabi'a bep Milik ben Subaih ben 'Abdallah hen Zaid hen Yasir ben Yun'im Alhimyari boasts in his poems, in which he says :-- "Dhi-alkarnaini was before me, a true believer, an exalted king on p. 41. the earth, nover subject to anyhody.

50 ALBÍRÔNİ.

He went to the countriee of the east and wust, always seeking imperial power from a liboral and beuntiful (Lord). Then he eaw the setting-place of the sun, at the time when he seta in tho well of fovor-water and of badly emelling mud. Before him there was Bilkis, my aunt, until her empire came te an end by the hoopoo." Now it scems to me that of all these versions the last is the true ona, becanse the princes, whose names begin with the word Dhu, occur only in the history of Yaman and nowhere else. Their namee are always a compound, the first part of which is the woed Dhu, e.g., Dhu-almanar, 10 Dhu-al'adh'Ar, Phu-alshanatir, Dhu-Nuwas, Dhu-Jadan, Dhu-Yazan, and others. Besides, the treditions regarding this Yaman prince, Dhu- alkarnaini, resemble very mnch that which ie related of him in the Koran. As te the rampart which he constructed between the two walls, it must be stated that the wording of the Koran does not indicate its geographical situation. We learn, however, from the geographical works, as Jighrafiya and the Itineraria (the books called Maadlik wa- mamalik, i.e. Itinera et regna), that thie nation, vis. Yajuj and Majuj are a tribe of the eastern Turks, whe live in the most southern parta of the 5th and 6th hipara. Beeides, Muhammad ben Jartr Altabari 20 relates in his chronicle, that the prince of Adharbaijan, at the time when the country was conqnered, bad sent a man to find the rampart, from the direction of the country of the Khazars, that this man saw the rampart, and described it as a very lofty building of dark colour, situated behind a moat of solid struetaro azd impregnable. . 'Abdallab ben 'Abdallah ben Khurdadhbih relatee, on the authority of the dragomen at the court of the Khalif, that Almu'tasim dreamt one night, that this rampart had been opened (rendered accessible). There- fore he eent out fifty men to inspect it. They set out from the road which leads to Bab-alabwab, and to the countrees of the Lan and 30 Khazar; finally they arrived at the rampart, and found that it was con- structed of iron tilcs, joined together by molten brass, and with a bolted gate. Its garrison consisted of people of the neighbouring countriee. Then they returned, and the guide led them out into the district opposite Samarkand. From these two reporte, it is evident that the rampart must be situated in the north-west quarter of the inhabitable earth. However, eepecially in this latter report, there is something which rendere its authenticity doubtful, vis. the description of the inhabitants of that country, that they are Muslime and speak Arabic, although they are 40 without the slightest connection with the civilized .world, from which th' are eeparated by a black, badly smelling country of the extent of many days' travelling; further, that they were totally ignorant as to both Khalif and the Khalifate. Whilst we know of no other Muslim nation which is separated from the territory of Ielim, except the

THE KING CALLED BICORNUTUS. 51

Bulghar and the Sawar, who live towards the end of the civilized world, in the most northern part of the 7th Aipa. And these people do not make the least mention of such a rampart, and they are well acqnainted with the Khalifate and the Khalifs, in whose namo they read even the p. 42. Khutba; they do not speak Arabic, hut a language of their own, a mixture of Turkish and Khazari. If, therefore, this report rests on teatimonies of this sort, we do not wish to investigate thereby the truth of the subject. This is what I wished to propound regarding Dhu-alkarnaini. Allah 10 knows best!

52 ATBİRtNİ.

CHAPTER V.

ON THE NATURE OF THE MONTRE WRIOH ARE UOED IN THE PEECEDIHO ERA8.

HERETOFOE I have mentioned already that every nation uses a epecial era of its own. And in tbe same degree as they differ in the use of the eraa, they differ regarding the heginning of the months, regarding the number of daye of each of them, and the reasons assigned therefor. Of this subject, I mention whst I havo learnt, and do not attempt to find out wbat I do not know for certain, and regarding which I have no information from a trustworthy person. And first we give the monthe 10 of the Persians. Months of the Persians,-The number of the months of one year is twelve, as God has said in his hook (Sura ix. 36): " With God the numbsr of the months was twelvs months, in the book of God, on the day when God created the heavens and the earth." On this subject there is no difference of opinion between the nations, ercept in the leap- years. So tbe Persians have twelve months of the following names :- Farwardin MAh. Mihr Mah. Ardibahisht Mah. Âban MAb. Khurdadh Mâh. Âdhar MAh. Tir Mâh. 20 Dai Mâh. Murdadh MAb. Bahman Mah. Shahrewar Mab. Isfand&rmadh Mah.

I have heard the geometrician 'Abt Sa'td 'Ahmad ben Muhammad ben 'Abd-aljalfl Alsijzi relating of the ancient inhabitants of Sijistan, that they called these months by other names and commenced lihewise with Farwardin Mah. The namee are these

كوال .1 تیر كیائوا

ON THE NATURE OF MONTES. 53

IX. WLST

کوھں هرائرا XUI. 1h Every one of the Persian monthe has 30 daye, and to onch day of a p. 43. month thoy give a spccial name in their language. Theso aro the names-

L. Hurmuz. XI. Khûr. XXI. Râm. Bahman. MAh. Badh. 10 Ardibahisht. Tir. Dai-ha-dîn. Shahrewar. Gosh. Din. Isfandarmadh. Dai-ba-mihr. Ard. VI. Khurdadh. XVI. Mihr. XXVI. Ashtâdh. Murdadh. Srôsh. Asmân. Dai-ba-âdbar. Rashn. Zamyâdh. Adhar. Farwardin. MArasfand. Åbân. Bahrâm. Anirân.

There is no difference among the Persians as to the names of these days; they are the same for every month, and they follow in the same 20 order. Only the days Hurmuz and Aniran are called by some, the former Farrukh, the latter Bih-ros. The sum total of the days is 360, whilst, as we have already observed heretofore, the real year (i.e. the mean solar or tropical year) has 365} daye. Those additional five days they called Fanji (Panji) and Andargah, arabized Andarjah; they are also called Almasruka and Almus- taraka (i.e. jucpai kloripoiat), on account of their not being reckoned as part of any one of the monthe. They added them between Aban Mah and Adhar Mah, and gave them names, which are different from those of the days of each month. These names I never read in two books, 30 nor heard them from two men, in the same way ; they are these- بمشمكاه .V

In another book I found them in the following form : اهنول .I ومستوحت V٠

The author of the Kitab.alghurra, Alna'ib Alamuli gives them these names- أستول .II خوفول .I III. اسفندمت IV. وهوخوهتر V. وهشت بيشت p.44.

Zadawaihi hen Shahawaihi in his book on the cauecs of the festivals of the Persians, mentions them in this form-

فنجة الوفعه .I قنمة الدرلده .II 40 نتجة أورورديان .IV فتجة التركاهان ٧٠

54 ALBİRONİ.

I myself heard 'Ahu alfaraj ben 'Ahmad ben Khalaf Alzanjani say that the Mobad in Shiriz had diotated thom to him in this form- وهشتربات كاة V٠ وهو خشفركاه .IV اسبتملكاه .III اهتوكاة .II اهنوذكاة .I And lastly, I have heard them from the geometrician 'Abu-alhssan Adharkhura, the son of Yazdankhasis, in thie form- هول .I IV. FASA (Ahunavaiti.) (Ustavaiti.) (Spentamainyu.) (Vohukbehathra.) ومستوهت V٠ (Vahistôisti.) The sum total of their days, thereforo, was 365. The quarter of a 10 day (beyond the 365 days) they neglected in their computation, till theee quartera of a day had summed up to the daye of one complete month, which happened in 120 yesre. Then thoy added this month to the other monthe of the year, so that the number of its monthe became thirteen. This month they called Kabiea (intercalary month). And the days of thia additional month they called by tho same names as those of the otber months. In thie mode the Persians proceeded till the time when both their empire and their religion perished. Afterwards the day-quartere were neglected, and the yeam were no longer intercalated with them, and, 20 therefore, they did not return to their original condition, and remained considerably behind the fixed points of time (i.e. real time). The reason was this that intercalation was an affair settled under the special patronage of their kinge st a mceting of the mathematicians, literary celebritios, historiographers, and ehroniclera, prieste, and judges,-on the basis of an agreement of all those regarding the correctnems of the calculation, after all the persone I have mentioned had been summoned to the royal court from all parte of the empire, and after they had held councils in order to come to an agroement. On thie occasion money was epent profusely to such an extent, that a man who made a low eetimate 30 esid, the cost had sometimee amounted to one million of denare. This Bame day was obeerved as the moet important and the most glorious of all festivale; it was called the Foast of Intercalation, and on that day the king uaed to remit the taxes to his eubjects. The reason why they did not add the quarter of a day every fourth year as one complete day to one of the months or to the Epagomens, was this, that according to their viewe, not the days, but only the months are liable to beingintercalated, becausc they had an aversion to increasing the number of the daye; this was imposeible by reason of the pre- acription of the law regarding the daye on which zamzama (whispering 40 prayer) must he said, if it is to he valid. If the number of daye be inercased by an additional day (the order of the daye of samzama

p. 45. according to the law, is disturbed). t It was a rule that on each day a epecial sort of odoriferous plants and

ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 55

flowers was put before the Kisrds, and likewise a special drink, in a well regulated order, regarding which there was no difference of opinion. The reason why thsy put the Epagomenm at the end of Aban Mah, between thie month and Adhar Mah (lacuna).

The Persians baliovo that the beginning of their year was fixed hy the creation of the first man, and that this took place on the day Hurmuz of Farwardin Mah, whilst the sun stood in the point of the vernal equinox in the middle of heaven. This occurred at the beginning of 10 the seventh millenium, according to their view of the millennia of the world. The astrologers hold similar opinions, vis. that Caneer is ths horo- scope of the world, For in the first cycle of Sindhind the sun stands in the beginning of Aries above the middle hetween the two euds of the inhabitable world. In that case, Cancer is the horoscope, which sign according to their tenets, as we have mentioned, signifies the commence- ment of rotation and growth. Others say, that Cancer was called the horoscope of the world, becauso of all the zodiacal signs, it stands nearest to the zenith of the inhabit- 20 able world, and because in the same sign is the ifoua of Jupiter, which is a star of modcrate nature ; and as no growth is possible, except when moderate heat acts upon moist substances, it (i.e. Cancer) is fit to be the horoscope of the growth of the world. According to a third view, Cancer was called so, because by its creation the creation of the four elements became complete, and by their becoming complete all growth beeame complete. And other comparisons besides of a similar kind are brought forward by the astrologers. Further, people relate: When Zoroaster arose and intercalated the 30 years with the months, which up to that time had summed up from the day-quarters, time returned to its original coudition. Then he ordered people in all future times to do with the day-quarters the same as he had done, and they obeyed his connnand. They did not call the inter- calary month by a special name, nor did they repeat the name of another month, but they kept it simply in memory from one turn to another. Being, however, afraid that there might arise uncertainty as to the place, where the intercalary montb would have again to be inserted, they transferred the five Epagomena and put them at the end of that month, to which the turn of intercalation had proceeded on the last 40 occasion of intercalating. And as this subject was of great importance and of general uss to high and low, to the king and to the subjects, and as it is required to be treated with knowledge, and to be carried out in conformity with nature (i.e. with real time), they uscd to postpone intercalation, when its time happened to occur at a period wheu the condition of the empire was disturbed by calamities; then they neglected

نار ALBÎRÊNİ.

intercalatiou so loug, until the day-quartere summed up te two montbe. Or, on the other hand, they antioipated intercalating the year at once by two months, when thoy expeoted that at the time of the next coming intercalatien circumetances weuld dietract their attention thsrefrom, as it has bsen dons in the time of Yazdajird hen Sabur, fer no ether motive but that of precaution. That was the last intercalatien which thay carriod out, under tho superintendence of a Dastur, called Yazdajird Alhizari. Hizar was an estate in the dietriet of Istakhr in Fara, from which ho received his name. In that intercalation the turn had come to Aban MAh; therefore, the Epagomene were added at its and, and 10 there they have remained ever eince on account of their neglecting intercalation. Months of the Sogdians,-Now I shall mention the menthe of the Magians of Transoxiana, the peeple of Khwarizm and of Snghd. Their months have the same number, and the same numher of daye as theee of the Peraians. Only between the beginning of the Persian and the Transexapian menthe there is a difference, because the Transoxanians .46. append the five Epagemene to the end of their year, and commence the year with the 6th day of the Persian menth Farwardin, Khurdadhroz. So the beginning of the months is different until Adhar Mah; afterwards 20 they have the same beginninge. Thees are the names of the months of the Sughdians. I. Jrey of 30 days. VII. jts of 30 days. اپانچ ئیس فوع بساك مسافوع

عشوم

Some people add a Jim (s) at the end ef os and eyes, and proneunce and er ; they add a Nun and a Jim () at the end of JL+ 30 and lans and proneunce and s. They call each day by a special name, as is the custom with the Persians. These are the names of the thirty daye-

1. SWA حوير .11 راس .21 چهیىر .2 12. che 22. 31, کیش .13 23. md ختفور .4 غش .14 24. 025 مبددارمد .5 ست .15 25. ést 6. 30 مخش .16 26. Stt سرشي .17 27. 40 8. 0 18. رأم حيد .28 اتي .9 فروذ .19 نفيند .29 المن .10 وخشهر .20 فر .30

57 ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS.

Some people give the day aye the name y. The names of the five Epagomens are the following :- p.4. اردم بيس.V وفاذن.IV رضش .III مخيدن .HI عاوك ست .I Regarding these names the same difforenco exists among the Sugh- dians as among the Persians. They are also called hy tho following Damee: سيرزدة٧٠ ماج رد.1V مردرد .MI مبورد .II زنورد .I These five daye they add at the end of the last month , The Sughdian system of intercalation agreed with the practice of tho 10 Persians, as also did their neglecting intercalation. The reason why there arose a difference between the beginnings of the Sughdian and the Persian years I shall describe hereafter. Months of the Chorasmians .- The Khwarizmians, although a branch of the great tree of the Persian nation, imitated the Sughdians as to the beginning of the year and the place where they add the Epagomenm. These are the names of their months- أوسري .VII ياناغن فاغسرتان راچيبك روجنافو ناوسارجى I

اروفو فەمحكا چرین أردوهت فوسيرح الكام

وقمرفونافكائج ١لكام هروداد قوچيرى 20 اهمن فوبرد انكام چېرى فارازات همداد أسبددأرمجى فرعشوم اخشرپورى Others abbreviate these names and use them in this form- أومرى .VII فاوسارچي .I پاناخن اردوست ارو هوداذ

اہمن همدائ اسبعدارسجى

The thirty days they call by the following names. 30

رام .21 اخير .11 يمود .1 22. 31, 12. 8ls ارمين .2 هڈو .23 هپری .13 أردوشت .8 ډچنی .24 فرهى .14 اعشربورى .4 أرجوعى .25 ډڈو .15 أسبددارسمى .5 أهتاذ .26 قیئ .16 هرودال .6 p. 48. أسمان .27 أسروف .17 همدال .7 راث .28 رضن .18 دقو .8 مرسبعد .29 روجن .19 ارو .9 أوفرع .30 ارشن .20 باناحن .10 40

I have found that they begin the Epagomenm, which are appended at

58 ALBİRON ?.

the end of the month Ispandarmaji, with the same name by which they begin the days of the month; the second day they call Asmin, the third Ardawaaht, and so on till the fifth day Ispandarmajt. Then they return and commence anow with the fret day Jin,, the let of the month Nawasarji. They do not nse or evon know special names for the Epagomena, but I believe that thie fact simply arises from the same confusion, regarding these namee, which prevails among the Persiane and Sughdians. For after Kutaiba ben Muslim Albahili had killed their learzed men and prieets, and had burned their booke and writings, they became entirely illiterate (forgot writing and reading), and relied in 10 every knowledge or science which they required solely upon memory. In the long course of timo they forgot that on which there had boen a divergence of opinion, and kept by memory only that which had been generally agreed upon. But Allah knows best ! As to the three identical namee of daye (the 8th, 15th, and 23rd,- Dai in Persian, Dast in Sughdian, Dadha in Kbwarizmian), the Persians refer them to the following, and compound them with these, saying Dai-ba-Adar, and Dai-ba-Mihr, and Dai-ba-Din. Of the Sughdians and Khwarizmians some do the same, and others connect the worde in their language for "the first, the second, the third," with each of them. 20 In the early times of their ompire the Persians did not uso the week. For, firet, it was in use ameng the nations of the weet, and more particu- larly among the people of Syria and the neighbouring countries, because there the prophets appeared and made people acquainted with the first week, and that in it tho world had been created, in conformity with the beginzing of the Thora. From these the use of the week spread to the other nations. The pure Arabiane adopted the week in consequence of 19. the vicinity of their country to that of the Syriang. We have not heard that anybody has imitated the example of the Persians, Sughdians, and Khwarizmiana, and has adopted their usage (of 30 giving special names to the thirty daye of the month, instead of dividing them into weeke), except the Copts, i.e. the ancient inhsbitante of Egypt. For they, as we have mentioned, used the names of the thirty daye till the time when Augustus, the eon of Gajue, raled over them. He wanted to induce them to intercalate the years, that they might alwaye agree with the Greels and the people of Alezandria. Into this subject, however, it would be necessary te inquire more closely. Atthat time precisely five years were wanting till the end of the great inter- calation period. Therefore, he wai d till five years of his rule had elapsed, and then he ordered people to intercalate one day in the months 40 in every fourth year, in the same way as the Greeks do. Thereupon they dropped the use of the names of the single days, because, ae people say, those who used and knew them would have required to invent a name for the intercalary day. They (the names of the days of the month) have not been handed down to posterity.

ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 59

Months of the Egyptians .- The following are the names of their months :-

I. Thot 30 days. VII. Phamenoth 30 days. Paophi 30 Pharmuthi 30 Athyr 30 Pachon 30 Choiak 30 Payni 80 Tybi 80 Epiphi 80 Mechir 30 30

Thece are tho ancient names of the monthe. In the following we give 10 the names which were modernized by one of their princes, after inter- calation had been adopted :-

هتور پشتس ګيھك هونة

Some people call the months wes, wls, ut4, and syr by the names is, bes, lh and sl. These are the forms on which 20 people agree; in some books, however, these names are found in forms somewhat different from those we have mentioned. The five additional days they call, 'Emayouoat, which meang "the small month ;" they are appended at the end of Mesori, and at the same place tho intercalary day is added, in which case the Epagomone are six daye. The leap-year they call tadt, which means " the sign." p. 5 Months of the People of the West .- 'Ahu-al'abhas Alamuli relates in his Kitab-dald'il alkibla, that the Western people (of Spain?) use months, the heginnings of which agree with those of the Coptic months. They call them by the following names :- 30 I. May 30 daye. VII. November 30 days. Jane 30 December 30 July 80 January 30 Augnst 30 Fehruary 80 Septem ber 30 March 30 October 30 April 30

Then follow the five Epagomena at the end of the year. Months of the Greeks .- The months of the Greeks are alwaye twelve in number. Their names are these :- I. 'Iavovapos 31 daye. IV. 'Anpils 30 days. 40 Φεβρουάριος 28 Matos 31 MápTLOS 81 30

60 ALBİRÙNİ.

81 daye. X. 'ONTOBpIcs 31 days. Λύγουστος 31 Νοέμβριος 30 Σεπτίμβριος 30 Δεκέμβριος 31

The sum of the days of their year is 365, and as in all four years the four quarters of a day are eummed up, they appeud it as one complete day to the month February, so that thie month has in every fourth year 29 days. He who first induced people to intercalate the years was Juliue, enlled Dictator, who ruled over them in bygone times, long hefore Moses. He gave them the months with such a distribution (of the days), and with such names as we havs mentioned. He induced 10 them to intercalate the day-quarters into them (the monthe) in every 1461st year, when the day-quarters had eummed up to one complete year. So that (this intercalation) preserved these (the monthe, kceping them in agreement with real time). This intercalation they called the "great one," after they had called the intercalation, which takes place every four yeare, the "small one." This "small " interenlation, however, they did not introduce until a long poriod had slapsed after the death of the king (Julius Cæsar). A characteristic of their system is the division of the days of the months into weeke, for reasons which we have mentioned before 20 51. The anthor of the Kitab-ma'khadh-almawakit (method for the deduc- tion of certain times and dates) thinks that the Greeks and other nations, who are in the hahit of intercalating the day-quarter, had fixed the sun's entering Ariee upon the beginning of April, which correeponds to the Syrian Niean, as the beginning of their era. And we confese that in his accoun he comes pretty near the truth. For astronomical observa- tion has taught that the fraction which follows the (365) days of the eolar year, ie leas than ons complete quarter of a day, and we ourselves have observed that the sun's entering the first part of Aries precedee the beginning of Nisan. Therefore that which he mentions is possible, 30 and even likely. Further on he saye, speaking of the Greeks, that "they, on pereeiving that the beginning of their year had changed its place, had recourse to the years of the Indians; that they then intercalated into their year the difference between the two years (viz., the Greek year and the eolar year), and that in coneequence the sun's entering the firet part of Aries again took place at the beginning of Nisan. If we on our aide do the eame, Niean returna to ite original place." He hae tried to give an example, but has not finished it, being incapable of doing eo. On thie occasiou he bas shown his ignorance, as he, in his account of the Greeke, 40 has also rendered it evident that he is inimical to the Greeks, and partial to othere. The fact is, that according to the Indian eystem he has con- verted the difference between the Grcek yoar and the solar year into fractions, putting it down ae 729 eeconds. Then he changes also the day

ON TRE NATURE OF MONTHS. 61

into seconds, and divides them hy that difference. So he gets 118 ears 6 months and 62 days. This would be the space of time in which the calendar would necessitate the intercalation of one complete day, on account of this plus-differonce. Further, he says, " Now, if we inter- calate the past years of the Greek era," which were at his time 1,225 years, " the sun's entering the first part of Aries again takes place at the beginning of Nisan." But he has dropped his example, and has not intercalated the years. If he had done so, his conclusions would have led to the contrary of what be says and maintains, and the beginning of 10 Nisan would come near the sun's entering the first part of Taurus. For that date, which he wanted to treat as an example, would necessitate the intercalation of 10g days. Now the Greek year being too short (according to him), the beginning of Nisan precedes the sun's entering the first part of Aries, and the time which it would be necessary to intercalate (portio intercalanda), would have to bo added to the first of Nisan, so as to proceed as far as to the 10th of it. Now I should like to know which equinox this man, who is so partial to the Indians, meant. For tho vernal equinox took place according to their system at that time six or seven days before the first of Nisân. I 20 should further like to know at what time the Greeks did what he relates of them. For they are so deeply imbued with, and so elever in geometry and astronomy, and they adhere so strictly to logical arguments, that they are far from having recourse to the theories of those who derive the hases of their knowledge from divine inspiration, when their artifices desert them and they are reqnired to come forward with an argument; not to mention the sciences of philosophy and theology, physics and p. 52. arts, cultivated among the Greeks. " However, everybody acts according to his own mode, and each community enjoys what they have got of their own." (Sura xvii. 86.) That man had not read the Almagest, and 30 had not compared it with the most famous book of the Indians, called the Canon Sindhind. The difference between them must be evident to anybody in whom the slightest spark of sagacity is left. To something similar Hamza ben Alhasan Alisfahanf has applied him- self in his treatise on the Nauroz, at the time when he was partial to the Persian modc of treating the solar year, because they reckoned it. as 365 days and 64 hours, while the Greeke neglected in their intercala- tion the fraction following the six hours. As a proof he adduced that Mubammad hen Musi ben Shakir, the astronomer, had explained this . subject, and had enlarged on it in one of his books on the solar year, 40 and that he had produced the arguments for it, and pointed out the errors of the ancients, who had held erroneous views in this respect. Now, we bave gramined the astronomical observations of Muhammad ben Misa, and of his brother 'Ahmad, and we have found that they prove only that these fractions are less than six hours. The book. to which Alisfahani refers, is attributed to Thabit ben Kurra, beeause he

62 ALBİRÔNİ.

was a profege of thoae people, entirely mixed up with them, and because it was he who polished for them their scientific work. He had collected the materials of this book with the object of explaining the fact of the solar years not being alwaye equal to each other, on account of the motion of the apogee. With all thie he was compclled to aseume equal circles, and equal motions along with their times, in order to derive thereby the mean motion of the sun. But he did not find equal circles, except those which move in an excentric plane, described (viz. the cireles) round a point within it, which point is assumed exclusively for these circles. And this circle, which was songht for, extends the six hours by 10 additional fractions (i.e. its time of revolution is 365 days 6 hours+a fraction), as Hamza haa related. However, such a circle is not called a solar yoar, for the solar year is, as wo have defined already, that one, in which all natural ocenrrences which are liablo to growth and to decay return tc their original condition. Jewish Months .- The Hebrews and all the Jewa, who claim to be related to Moses, have the following twelve monthe :-- I. Nisan of 30 daye. VI. Tishri of 30 days. Jyar of 29 Marheehwan of 29 Siwân of 30 Kislew of 30 20 Tammus of 29 Tebeth of 29 Âbh of 30 Shefat (Shebhat) of 30 Elol of 29 Adhar of 29

53. The eum total of their daye is 354, being identical with the number of days of the lunar year. If they simply used the lunar year as it is, the sum of the days of their year and the number of their monthe would be identical. However, after having left Egypt for the desert Al-tih, after having ceased to be the slaves of the Egyptians, having been delivered from their oppreesion, and altogether separated from them, the Israelites received the ordinancee and the lawe of God, 30 described in the second book of the Thora. And this event took place in the night of the 15th Nisn at full moon and spring time. They were ordered to observe this day, as it ie said in the second book of the Thora (Exodus xii. 17, 18) : " Ye ehall observe this day as an ordinance to your generations for ever on the fourteenth of the first month." By the " first month " the Lord does not mean Tishri, but Nisan; because in the same book he commands Moses and Aaron, that the month of pasg- over should be the first of their months, and the beginning of the year (Exodus xii. 2), Further, Mosee spake unto the people: " Remember the day when ye 40 camne out from bondage. Therefore ye shall not eat leavened bread on this day in that month when the trees blossom." In consequence, they were compelled to use the solar year and the lunar months; the solar year in order that the 14th Nisan should fall in the beginning of apring,

ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 63

whan tha Jeaves of the trees and the blossumns of the fruit trees coine forth' the lunar months in order that, on the same day, the body of the moon should be lit up completely, standing in the sign of Libra. And as the time in question would naturally advanee for a certain number of days (the sum of the days of twelve lunar months not being a complete year), it was necessary for the same reason to append to the other months these days, as soon as they made up one complete menth. They added these dars as a complete month, which thes called the First Adhdr, whilst they called the original month of this namc the 10 Second Adhar, because of its following immcdiately behind its namesake. The leap-year they called 'lobar (hay), which is to be derived from Meubbereth (mav), meaning in Hebrew, "a pregnant woman." For they compared the insertion of the supernumerary month into the year, to & woman's bearing in her womb a foreign organism. According to another opinion, the First Adhar is the original month, the name of whieh without any addition was used in the common year, and the Second Adhar is to he the leap-month, in order that it should have its place at the end of the year, for this reason, that according to the command of the Thora, Nisan was to be the first of their months. 20 This, however, is not the case. That the Second Adhar is the original month, is evident from the fact, that its place and length, the number of its days, the feast- and fast-days which occur in it, are not liable to any changes. And of all these days nothing whatsoever occurs in the First Adhar of a Jeap-year. Further, they make it a rule that, during the Second Adhar, the sun should always stand in the sign of Pisces, wbilst in the First Adhar of a leap-year he must be in the sign ef Amphora. Five Cycles .- Now for the leap-years they wanted a certain principle p. 54. of arrangement as a help to facilitate their practieal use. Thersfore they looked out for cycles which were based upon solar years, consisting 30 of lunar months. Of thess cycles they found the following five :- L The cyele of 8 years consisting of 99 months, of which there are 3 leap-months. II. The cycle of 19 years, called the Minor Cycle, consisting of 235 months, of which there are ? leap-months. III. The cyele of 76 years, consisting of 940 months, of which there are 28 leap.months, IV. The cycle of 95 years, called the Middle Cycle, consisting of 1,176 months, of which there are 35 leap-months. V. The cycle of 532 years, called the Major Cycle, consisting of 6,580 40 months, of which there are 196 leap-mouths.

Of thess cycles they choose that one, the observation of which would be the easiest and simplest. This qualily is peculiar to the cycles of 8 and of 19 years, with this difference, however, that the latter one agrees

64 ALBİRONİ.

more closely with solar years. For this cycle contains, according to them, 6,989 days 16,58 honra Thoss small particles of an hour they call Halaks (D' ?? D), of which 1,080 make one hour. If, therefore, you bave got minutes, i.e. the 60th parta of au hour, and you want to change them into Halaks, you multiply them by 18, and you get the corre- sponding number of Halaks. And if you want the converse operation, you multiply the number of Halaks by 200, and you got a sum of thirds of an hour (i.e. the 60th parts of a second); these fractions you can then raise to wholes. Now, if we reduce this cyole (of 19 years) to fractions and change it 10 into Halaks, we get the following sum of Halaks :- 179,876,755, oxproesod in Indian ciphers. The solar year ie, according to them, 365 days 5318} hours long; this latter fraction is nearly identical with 990 Halaks. If we now also reduce the solar year into Halaks, we get the sum of -- 9,467,190 Halaķs. If you finally divide by this number ths number of ths Halaks of the cycle of 19 yeare, you get as the quotient, 19 solar years, with a remainder p. 55. of 145 Halaks, whicb is nearly the 7th part of an hour and a fraction. If wa perform the same operation with the cycle of 8 years containing 20 2,928 days 12 hours and 747 Halaks, we get as ths sum of its Halaks the number -- 75,777,867 If we divide this sum by the eum of the Halaks of the solar year, we get 8 solar years, and & remainder of 1 day 13 hours and 387 Halaks, which is nearly i+ (i.e. $a) hour. Hence it ie evident that the cycle of 19 years comes nearest to real time, and is the best of all cycles which have been used. The other cycles are simply composed ef duplicatione of the cycle of 19 years. Therefore the Jews preferred this cycle, and regulated thereby inter- 30 calation. The three Ordines Intercalationis .- Now, although they agreed on the quality of the year as to the order of intercalation in the Mahzor (mnd cycle), when it has to take place, and when not, they differed amoug each other regarding the nature of the beginning of the Mahzors. And this has also produced & difference regarding the order of inter- calation in the Mabzor. For eome take the current year of the Era Adami, of which you want to know whether it is a common year or a leap-year, and reduce tho numbor of years to Mulizors Ly dividing them by 19; then you get complete Mahzors, and as a remainder, the years of 40 the Mahzor not yet finished, including the eurrent year. And then the order of the leap-ycare is fixed according to the formula matim ie. ths 2nd, 5th, 7th, 10th, 13th, 16th, and 18th years.

ON THE NATORF OF MONTHS. 65

Othare take the years of the same Ara Adami, subtract one year, and fix the order of the icap-years in the remainder of the years of the incomplete Mahzor according to the formula .750779, i.e. the Ist, 4th, 6th, 9th, 12th, 15th, 17th years. These two cycles are attributed to the Jewe of Syria. Others again subtract from the sum of years two years, and compute the order of the leap-yeare by the formula -r, i.e. the 3rd, 5th (5=8+2), 8th, 11th, 14th (5+3+3+3), 16th (16=14+2), and 19th (19=16+8) years. 10 Thia latter mode of arrangement is the most extensively diffused among the Jers; they prefer it to others, becauss they attribuie its invention ro the Babylonians. All three modes of computation are to be traced back to one and the sama principle, on which there cannot be any difference of opinion, as is illustrated hy the following circular figure :-

Common Y4 CommonYE Leap Year 1 19 Common LeapYear CommonY+|CommonY. Leap fear|Conmor 2 19 18 78 1 17 momoYf LeapYear 18 17 27 79 76 16 25 16 The small circle contains 15 ComananY: CammonY 3 the formuia 14 גבאבג 15 The larger cirole 13 14 the formela 5 3

אדוטבהז The largest cirdle 12 13 14 the formnla 9 בהזיגוח 12 9 Comman Y Leap Year 9 13 V 8 6

8 7 Leap Year 8 6 6

66 ALBİR ONt.

The first (outer) cirole indicates the quality of the year, whether it is a common year or a leap-ycar. The three other circles oontain the three formula, indioating tho ordor of the leap-years in the Mahsors ; the p. 56. second cirele, the formula ravin; the third oirele, the formuln -גבטבג and the inner cirele, the formula ; ארוטבהן The oycles which we hsve mentioned hitherto, are derived from the moon, though not exolusively. The solar cycle consists of 28 years, and serves to indicate on what days of the week the solar yeare com- menco. For if the Jewish year had simply 865 daye without the quarter- day, the beginning of the year would in overy seven years return to tho 10 same week-day. Since, however, they are intercalated once in four years, the beginning does not return to the same day, except in 28 yenre, i.s. 4x 7 years. Likewise the other cycles, heretofore mentioned, do not, on being completed, return to the same weak-day, except the largost oycle, on account of its arising from a duplication of tho cycle of 19 years with the solar cycle. The thres kinda of the Jewish Year .- I say further : If the Jewish years had simply the firet two qualities, i.a. were either common yeare or leap-years, it would be easy to learn their heginnings, and to dis- tinguish between the two qualities whioh are prcper to them, provided 20 the ahove-mentioned formula of computation for the years of the Mabzor he known. The Jewish year, however, is a threefold one. For they have made an arrangemont among themselves, that New Year shall not fall on a Sunday, Wednesday, or Friday, i.e. on the days of the sun and his two star. (Mercury and Venus); and that Passover, by which the beginning of Nisan is regulated, eball not fall on the days of the inferior stars, i.e. on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, for reasons on which we shall hereafter enlarge as much as possible. Thereby they were compelled either to postpone or to advance New Year and Passover, when they happened to fall on one of the days mentioned. 80 For this reason their yoar consiste of the following three species :-

I. The year called ogle, i.e. the imperfect one (inbty, in which the months Marheshwan and Kislew have only 29 daye.

II. The year called lus, i.e. the intermediate (17709), lit. secun- dum ordinem suum, in which Marbeshwan has 29 days, and Kislew 30 days. III. The year called poodla, ie. the perfect one (Npyses), in which both Marheshwan and Kislew 'ave 30 daye.

Each of these three speciee of years may be either a common year or a leap-year. So we get a combination of six speciee of years, as we d0 have here illustrated in the form of a genealogical diagram, and dis- tributed in the following representation.

ON THE NATURE OF MOXTHS. 67

THE YEAR.

Common year of 12 months. Leap-year of 13 menths.

Perfect, of 355 daya. Marheshwan, 80 days. Perfect, of 385 days.

Kislew, 80 days. Marheshwan. 30 days. Kialew, 80 days.

Intermediate, of 854 days. Intermediate, of 384 days. Marheshwan, 29 days. Kislew, 80 day s. Marbeshwan, 29 days. Kialew, 30 days.

Imperfect, of 353 dars. Marheshwan, 29 days. Imperfect, of 383 days. 10 Kislew, 29 days. Marheshwan, 29 days. Kislew, 29 days.

For ths doduction of thess differences they have many modes of com- putation as well as tables, which ws shall not fail to explain hereafter. Detarmination of New Moon .- Regarding their knowledge of the baginning of the month, and the mode in which it is computed and used, the Jaws are divided into two secta, one of which are the Rabbanites. Thay derive the beginning of the month by means of calculation from ths mean motions of the two luminaries (aun and moon), no regard being had as to whether new moon is visible already or not. For it was their 20 object to have a conventional time, that was to begin from the conjunc- tion of sun and moon. By the following accident they were, as they relate themselves, induced to adopt this aystem: at the time when they returned to Jerusalem, they posted guards upon the topa of the mountains to observe new moon, and they ordered them to light a fire and to make a smoke, which was to bo a signal for them that new moon in fact had been seen. Now, on account of the enmity which existed between them and the Samaritans, these latter went and sent up the smoke from the mountain ona day before new moon was seen. This practice they continued during several months, at the beginnings of 80 which heaven always happened to be clouded. Finally, people in Jerusalem found out this, observing that new moon, on the 3rd and 4th of the month, rose above the horizon from the east. Hence it was evident that the Samaritans had deceived them. Therefore they had racourse to the scholara of their time, in order to be protected by a aystem of calculation against the deceitful practices of their enemies, to which they were exposed by their present method. In order to prove that it was legally permitted to fir the beginning of the month hy calculation instead of observation, they referred to the duration of the deluge. For they assert that Noah compnted and fixed 40 the beginninge of the months by calculation, because heaven was covered p. 58.

ALBiRUNI.

and clonded for so long as six months, during which time neither new moon nor any other phase of the moon could be observed. The mathematicians, therofore, computed for them the cycles, and taught them how to find, by calenlation, the conjunctions and tha appearance of naw moon, viz. that between new moon and the con- junction the time of 24 houre must elapse. And this comes near the truth, For if it was the corrected conjunetion, not the mean one, the moon would in thase hours move forward about 13 degrees, and her elongation from the eun would be about 12 degrees. This reform was brought about nsarly 200 years after Alexander. 10 Before that time they used to ohserve the Tetifoth (mianon), ie. the sear-quartera, on the computation of which we shall enlarge hereafter, and to compere them with the conjunction of that month, to which the Tekufa in question was to be roferred. If they found thot the con- junction preceded tha Tekufa by sbout 30 days, they intercalated a month in this year, e.g. if they found that the conjunction of Tammuz preceded the Tekufa of Tammuz, i.e. the summer-solstice by about . 80 daye, they intercalated in that year a month Tammuz, so that i' had one Tammuz and a second Tammuz (am) mon). In the same way they acted with the other Tekuroth. 20 Some Rabbanites, however, deny that such guarde were posted, and that they made a smoks as a sigual. According to their opinion, the causa of ths deduction of this system of calculation was the following : the scholars and the priesta of the Israelites, feeling convinced that their people would be scattered and dispersed in consequence of the last destructinr of Joruanlem, as they thought, were afraid that their com- patriots, being scettered all over the world, and solely relying upon the enpearance of new moon, which of course in different countries would be differeut for them, might, on account of thia, fall into dissensione, and a echism in their doctrine might take place. Therefore they invented 80 these calculations,-a work which was particularly attended to by Eliezer ben Paruah, and ordered people to adhere to them, to use them, to return to them, wherover and under whatever circumstances they lived, so that a schism among them might be avoided. The second sect are the Milddites, who derive the beginning of the month from w.v coujuuction; they are also called Alfurra and Alish- ma'iyya, becau .. they demand that people shall only follow the wording of the test, no regard being had to considerations aud analogies, etc., even if it may he illogical and impracticable. One party of them is called the 'nanites, who darived their name 40 from 'Anau, the head of the emigration (Nmn wNn), who lived between 100 and 110 ycars ago. A head of the emigration must of necessity be one of the descendauts of David; an offspring of another family would not be fit for this office. Their conmnon people relate, that only he is qualified who, standing upright, can reach his knees with the tops of his

ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 69

fingers; just as people relats such tbings of the prince of the trus believera, 'Ali ben 'Abt Talib, and of thosc of bis descendants who are qnalified for the Imama and the rulo of the community (the Muham- madan world). The genealogy of this 'Anan is the following :- 1. ענן בן דניאל ב׳ שאול ב׳ ענן ב׳ דוד נ. ב׳ חסדאי ב׳ כפנאי ב׳ בסתנאי ב׳ הנומר ב׳ זוטרא X1. ב׳ רב הונא ב׳ שפטיה ב׳ הונא ב׳ נתן ב׳ אבא מר XVI. ב׳ רבנא עקיבא ב׳ שבניא ב׳ זכאי ב׳ חזקיא ב׳ שמעיא 10 XXI. ב׳ שפתיא ב׳ יוחנן ב׳ רצוציתא ב׳ ענן ב׳ ישעיא XXVI. ב׳ זכריא ב׳ ברביא ב׳ עקוב ב׳ חנניא ב׳ בסידיא p. 59.

XXXI. ב׳ מעשיא ב׳ פדיה ב׳ זרבבל ב׳ שאלתיאל ב׳ יהויכין XXXVI. ב׳ יהויקים ב׳ יהואתז ב׳ יאשיה ב׳ אחזיא ב׳ יהורם XLI. ב׳ יהושפט ב׳ אסה ב׳ אביה ב׳ רחבעם ב׳ שלמה . XLVI. בדור He opposed a community of Rabbauites in many of their observances. He fired the heginning of the month by the appearance of the new moon in a similar war, as is prescribed in Islam, not caring on what day of the week the heginning of the month happened to fall. He gave up 20 the system of computation of the Rabbanites, and made the intercalation of a month depend upou the ohservation of barley-seed in 'Irak and Syria hetween the Ist and the 14th Nisan. If he found a first.fruit fit for friction and reaping, he left the year as a common sear; if he did not find that, he intercalated the year .- The mode of prognosticating the state of the corn was practically this, thnt one of his followers went out on ths 23rd Shehat, to examine-in Syria and the countrics of a similar climate-the state of the barles-scrd. If he found that the Safa, i.e. the prickles of the beard of the car of corn, bad already come out, he counted from that day till Passover 50 days; if he found that it had 80 not yet come out, he interealated a monti into the jear. And some added the intere.rlary month to Shefat, so that there was a Shefat and an U-Shefat ; whilnt others added it to Adhar, so thst there was an Adhar and a We-Adhnr. The Ananites mostly use Shefat, not Adhar, whilst the Rabbanites use exelusively Adhar. This system of prognosticating the stat. of the corn is a different one according to the difference of the air and the climste of the countries. Therefore it weuld be necessary to make a special rule for every place, and not to rely upon the rule made for one certain place, because this would not be applicahle elsewhere. 40 Syrian Months-The Christians in Syria, Trak, and Khurfaan have combiued Greek and Jewish months. For they use the months of the Greeka, but have adopted the Ist of the Greek Octoher as the bewinning

70 ALBİRÔNİ.

of their year, that it might bo nearer to the Jewish new-year, because Tishri ef the Jews always precedes that date a littls. And they call their months by Syrisn names, seme of which agres with the Jewish namee, whilst others differ. People have derived theee names from the Syrians, i.e. the Nabstaana, the inhabitants of Sawid; the Sawid of Irak being called Suristan. But I do not ses why they derive these months from them, hecauss in Islam they uae the monthe of the Arabs, and at the time of heathenism they ueed the months of the Persians. Othere say that Suriatan means Syria. If that be the case, the inhabi- tants ef this country were Chriatiana hefors the tims ef Islam, and held 10 a middle position between Jewish and Greek theories. The names of their months are theee :-

I. Tishrin kedim of 31 daye. Tishrin hrhi of 80 VI. Nisân of 30 days. Iyâr of 81 Kanun kedim of 31 HaztrAn of 30 KAnân hrâi of 91 Tammuz ef 31 Shebat of 28 Abh of 31 Adhâr of 31 Îlul of 30

In the month Shebat they intercalate ons day every four yeare, se that it then has 29 daye. Regarding the quality of their year they agree 20 with the Greeks. These months have become widely known, ae that even the Muslims adopted them, and fixed thereby the dates of practical life. The worde Kedim (primue) and Hrat (pestremus) have been translated into Arabic, and in the word at they have added an Elif, se as to make it ul, because a single ya (without Tashdid) ie dinagrecable to the organ of the Arahs, if this Elif is net added. Months of the Arabs .- The Arabs havs the following twelve months :-

I. Almuharram. VII. Rajab. 80 Şafar. Sha bân. Rabî' I. Rabi IL. Ramadân. St wwal. Jumada I. Dhu-alha'da. Jumâda II. Dhû-alhijja.

Regarding the etymology of these names various opinions have been advanced, Almuharram, e.g. wae called so, hecause it was one of the Hurum, i.e. the four vacred months. Safar was called so, because in it people used to procure their pro- vieiens, going out in a compans of meu which was called Safariyya. 40 Ths two monthe Rabt were called so on account of the coming forth of the flewers and hlossoms and of the centinual fall of dew and rain.

ON THE NATURE OF NONTHS. 71

All of which refers to the nature of that season wbich we call "autumn," but which the Arabs called " spring" (Rabs). The two months Jumadd were called so, because in them the water froze (5). Rajab was called se, because in it people formed the intention of traveliing, there being no fear of the evils of war. For " rujba " means sustentaculum (a thing by meane of which a tres is propped up), and hence people say, " a propped up (mwrajjab) palm-tree which beara a keavy load of fruit." 10 Sha'ban was called so, because in it the tribes were dispersed. Ramadan was called so, hecause of the stones being roasted by the intense heat. Sharwcal waa cailed so, becanse of the increasing and the decreasing of tho heat. Dhu-alka da waa called se, because in it people stayed in their homes. Dha-alsijja was called se, because in it people performed the Hajj, i.e. the pilgrimage. We found, however, also other names of the monthe of the Arabe, which were given to them by theiz ancestors. They are the fol- 20 lowing :- I. Almu'tamir. VII. Al'aşamm. Nâjir. 'Âdil. p. 61.

Khaw wAD. Nåfiķ. Suwan. Waghil. Hantam. Huwa'. Zabbå. Burak.

Tha forme as well as the order of these names sometimes differ from what we have given. One of the poets, e.g. has comprised thom in the following verses :-

80 " We have commenced with Mu'tamir, Najira, and Khauwin, to which follows Suwan. And with Zabba comes Ba'ida, its next fellower. Then comes the turn of 'Asamm, in which hatred wa: deaf. And Waghilo, Natila, and 'Adila, all three ars neble and beautiful. Then comea Ranna, and after it Burak. Now are complete the months of the year, as yon may count with your fingers."

In the following we shall explain the meanings of these names according to the statemenis of tha dictionaries :-

Almu'tamir means that it " obeys" all the decrees of fortune, which 40 the year is going to bring.

72 ALBİRÔNİ.

Najir ie derived from najr, which means "intenee heat," ae it is uaed in the following verse :-

" A stinking water, on account of whioh a man turne hia face seide, Dven he who ie tortured by thiret, if he taeted it in a ' bodling hot' month." Khawwan is the form jw of the verb " to deceive," and Suwdn ie the form jus of the verh " to preserve, to take care." And these eignificatione agreed with the naturee of the monthe at the time when they were firet empleyed es namee for them. Zabbd meane a "great and freguently occurring calamity." The month 10 was called co, because in it there wae much and freqnent fighting. Ba'id, too, received ite name from the fighting in it, fer many people need to "perish" in it. Thie circumetance ie expressed in tbe following proverb: " All that ie portentous happens between Jumada and Rajab." For in thie month people were in great haste and cagernese to carry out whatever blood revenge or warlike expeditione they were npon, before the month Rajab came in. 'Aşamm was called eo, becauee in it people abstained from fighting, so that the clash of weapone was not heard. Waghil meane " one who comes to a drinking-party without having been 20 invited." Thie month wae called so, becauee it euddenly comee in after Ramadan, and Lecauee in Ramadan there was much wine-drinking, on account of the next following monthe being the monthe of pilgrimage. Natil meane " a measure, a pot of wine." The month was called eo, because in it people indulged in drinking debauchee, and frequently used that pot. 'Adil is derived from " 'ad" (which means either " to be just " or "to turn aeide"). The month was called so, becanee it was one of the monthe of pilgrimage, when they used to abetain from the use of the Ņațil, i.a the wine-pot. 80 Ranna was called eo, because the eheep were " crying" on account of the drawing near of the time when they were to be killed. Burak was called ev, because of the kneeling down of the camels on being led to the slaughtering-place. A better versification of theee namee than the above-mentioned one is that by the Wazir 'Iema'il ben 'Abbad :-

" You wanted to know the monthe of the pagan Arabe. Take them according to the order of Mubarram (Safar, etc.), of which they .- partake. >. 02. Firet comee Mu'tamir, then Nijir; and Khawwan and Suwin are 40 connected by one tie. Hanin, Zabba, 'Aşamm, Adil, Nofik with Waghl, and Ranna with Burok."

ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 73

If the etymologies of these two classes of names of the montha are such aa we have related, we must suppose that between the two periods of giving the names there was a great interval of timo. Or elso our expisnations and etymologies would not he correct. For in one elass of the months the highest piteh of the heat is Safar, whilst in the other it ie Ramadan; and this (that the greatest heat should be either in Safar or in Ramadan) is not possible at one and the same period, or at two periods which are not very far distant from eacb other. Intercalation of the Ancient Arabs .- At the time of paganism 10 the Arabs used their months in a similar way to the Muslims; their pilgrimage went wandering around through the four seasons of the vear. Bnt then they desired to perform the pilgrimage at such time as their merchandise (hides, skins, fruit, ete.) was ready for the market, and to fix it according to an invariable rule, so that it should occur in the most agreeable and abundant senson of the year. Therefore they learned the eystem of intercalation from the Jews of their neighhourhood, about 200 years before the Hijra. And they used interralation in a similar way to the Jews, adding the difference between their year and the solar year, when it had summed up to one complete month, to the months of 20 their year. Then their intercalators themselves, the so-called Ralamis of the tribe Kinana, rose, after pilgrimage had been finished, delivered a epeech to the people at the fair, and intercalated the month, calling the next following month by the name of that month in which they were. The Arabs consented to this arrangement and adopted the decision of the Kalammas. This proceeding they called " Nast'," i.e. postponement, because in every second or third year they postponed the beginning of the year for a month, as it was required hy the progression of the year. One of their pocts hae eaid :- " We have an intercalator, under whose banner we march ; 80 He declares the months profane or sacred, as he likes." The first intercalation applied to Muharram; in consequence Safar was called Muharram, Rabi I. was called Safar, and so on ; and in this way all the names of all the months were changed. The second inter- calation applied to Safar; in consequence the next following month (Rabi I.) was called Safar. And this went on till intercalation had passed throngh all twelve months of the year and retnrned to Muharram. Then they commenced anew what they had done the first time. The Arabe counted the eycles of intercalation and fixed thereby their datos. They said for instance: " From the time a till the time y the 40 years have turned ronnd one cycle." But now, if notwithstanding intercalstion it hecame evident that a month progressed beyond its proper place in the four seasons of the year, in consegnence of the accumulation of the fractions of the solsr year, and of the remsinder of the plus-diference between the solar year

74 ALBİRONİ.

and the lunar year, to which latter they had added thie plus-difference, they made a second intercalation. Such a progression they were able to recognize from the rising and setting of the Lunar Maneione. Thie went on tiD the time when the Prophet fled from Makba to Madhns, when the turn of intercalation, as we have mentioned, had come to Sha'ban. 68. Now, thia month was called Muharrum, and Ramadan was called Safar. Then the Prophet waited till the " farewell pilgrimage," on which occasion he addreesed the people, and said: " The eeason, the time has gone round as it was on the day of God'e creating the heavene and the earth." (Sura ix. 38.) By which he meant that the monthe had returned 10 to their original placee, and that they had been freed from what the Arabe wed to do with them. Therefore, the " farewell pilgrimage," was also called " the correct pilgrimage." Thcreupon intercalation was prohibited and altogether neglected. Months of the Themudeni .- 'Abu-Bakr Muhammad ben Duraid Al'azdi relatee in his Kitab-alwishai, that the people Thamud called the montha by the following names :- I. Mujib ie. Maharram. VII. Haubal. Mûjir. Manhâ. Morid. Daimur. 20 Mulzim. Dâbir. Muşdir. Haifal. Haubar. Musbil.

He saye that they commanced their year with the month Daimur, i ... Ramadan. The following is a versification of these names by 'Abt-Sahl Tså ben Yahya Almasibi :- ,"The montba of Thamud are Mujib, Mijir, Murid; then follow Mulzim and Muşdir. Then come Haubar and Haubal, followed by Mauhd and Daimur. Then come Dubir, and Hatfal, and Musbil, till it is finished, the most 80 celebrated among them." Arabio Names of Days .- The Arabe did not, like the Persiane, give epecial names to the single daye of the month, but they bad apecial . names for each three nights of every month, which were derived from the atate of the moon and her light during them. Beginving with the first of the month, they called- The firat three nighte (1st-8rd) ghurar, which is the plural of guurra, and means the firet of everything. According to others they wore called eo, because during them the new moon appeared like a blase on the forehead of a horse. 40 The eecond three nights (4th-6th) nufal, from tanafala, which meane, "bagirning to make a present without any necessity." Othere call them shuhb, i.e. the white nighte.

ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 75

The third three nights (7th-9th) tusa', because the ninth night is the last of them. Others call ihem buhr, because in them the darkness of the night ie particularly thick. The fourth three nights (10th-12th) 'uahar, because the tenth night ie the first of them. The fifth three nights (18th-15th) bid, hecause they are white by the shining of the moon from the beginning of the night till the end. The sixth three nights (16th-18th) dura', because they are black st the beginning like the sheep with a black head and a white body. p. 64. 10 Originally the comparison was taken from a coat of mail in which people aro clad, becanse the colour of the head of bim who is dressed in it, differs from the colour of the rest of his body. The seventh three nighta (19th-21st) zulam, because in most cases they were dark. The eighth three nights (22nd-24th) aanadis (from aindis=extremely dark). Others call them duhm, on account of their being dark. The ninth three nighte (25th-27th) da'adi', because they are remain- ders (or last parts). Others derive it from the mode of walking of the camels, viz., stretching forth the one foot, to which the other is 20 guickly following. The tenth three nighte (28th-30th) minak, on account of the waning of the moo and the month. Besidee, they distinguished rertain nighte of the month by special names, e g. the last night of the month was called sirar, hecause in it the moon hides heraelf; it was also called fadama on account of tbere heing no light in it, and bard', because the sun has nothing to do with it. Likewis the last day of the month was called nahir, because it is in the nohr (throst) of the month. The 13th night is called sauri', the 14th the night of "badr," because in it tbe moon is full, and ber light complete. 80 For of everything that has hecome complete ycu say badara; e.g. 10,000 dirhams are called one badra, because that is supposed to be the moet complete and the last number, although it is not so in reality. The Arabs used in their months also the seven days of the week, the ancient names of which are the following :- 1. 'Awwal, i.e. Sunday. 2. 'Ahwan, 3. Jubar. 4. Dubâr. 5. Mu'nis. 40 6. 'Artba. 7. Shiyâr. They are mentioned by one of their poets in the following verse :- "I strongly hope that I ehsll remain alive, and that my day (of death) will be either 'Auwal, or 'Ahwan, or Jubar,

76 ALBİRÔNİ.

Or the following day, Dubar, or if I get beyond that, cither Mu'nis or 'Aruba or Shiyar."

Afterwards the Arabs gave them the following new names :-

Al-'abad, i.e. one. Al-ithu&n, » two. Al-thulatha, „, threa. Al-'arbi'h „ four. Al-khamis „ five. Al-jum'â, » gathering. Al-sabt, sabbath. 10

The Arabs fixed the beginning of the month by the appearance of new moon, and the same has been established as a law in Islam, as the Lord has said (Sura ii. 185): " They will ask thee regerding the new moons. Speak : they are certain mements of time for the use of man- kind (in general) and for pilgrimage." Determination of the length of Ramadan, the Month of Fasting .- Some years ago, however, a pagan sect started into existence somehow or ether. They considercd how best to employ the interpre- tation (of the Koran), and to attach themselves to the system of the exoteric school of interpreters who, as they maintain, are the Jews and 20 Christians. For these latter have astronemical tables and calculations, by means of which they compute their months, and derive the knowledge of their fast days, whilst Muslims are compelled to observe new moon, and to inquire into the different phases of the light of the moon, and into that which is common to both her visible and invisible halves. But then they found that Jews and Christians have no certainty on this subject, that they differ, and that one of them blindly follows the other, although they had done their ntmost in the study of the places of the moon, and in the researches regarding her motions (lit. expeditions) and stations. Thereupon they had recourse to the astronomers, and composed their Canona and books, beginning them with dissertstions on the elements of the knowledge of the Arabian months, adding various kinds of compu- 65. tatiens and chronological tables. Now, people, thinking that these calculations were based upon the observation of the new-moons, adopted some of them, attributed their authorships to Ja'far Al-sadik, and belicved that they were ons of the mysteries of prophecy. However, thess calculations are based not upon the apparent, but upon the mean, i.c. the corrected, motions of sun and moon, upon & lunar year of 3541 days, and upon the supposition that six months of the year are complete, six 40 incomplete, and that each complete month is followed by an incomplete one. So we judge from the cature of their Canons, and from the books which are intended to estsblish the bases on which the Canons rest.

ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS.

But, when they tried to fix therehy the beginning and end of festing, thair calculation, in most cases, preceded the legitimate time by one day. Whereupon thsy set ahout eliciting curious things from the following word of the Prophet: " Fast, when she (new.moon) appears, ard cease fasting when she re-appears." For they asserted, that the words " fast, tohen she appears" (sand tyo), mean the fasting of that day, in the afternoon of which uew-moon hecomes visihle, as people say, " prepare yourselves to meet him" (ah,mS to), in which case the act of preparing precedes that of meeting. 10 Besides, they assert that the month of Ramadan has never less than thirty days. However, astronomers and all those whe consider the sub. ject. attentively, are well aware that the anpearance of new-moon docs not proceed regularly according to one and the same rule for several reasons: the motion of the moon varies, being sometimes slower, some- times faster; she is sometimes near the eartli, sometimes far distant; she ascends in north and south, and descends in them; and each single one of these occurrences may take place on every point of the ecliptic. And besides, some sections of the ecliptie sink faster, others slower. All this varies according to the different latitudes of the countries, and 20 according to the difference of the atmosphere. This refers either to different places where the air is eitber naturally clear or dark, being always mired up with vapours, and mastly dusty, or it refers to different times, the air being dense at one time, and clear at another. Besides, the power of the sight of the observers varies, some being sharp-sighted, others dim-sighted. And all these cireumstances, however different they are, are liable to various kinds of coincidences, which may happen at sach heginning of the two months of Ramadan and Shamral under innumerable forms and varieties. For these rcasons the month Ramadan is sometimes incomplete, sometimes complete, and all this varies accord- 80 ing to ths greater or less latitude of the countries, so that, e.g. in northern countries the month may be complete, whilst the same menth is incomplete in southern countries, and vice versa. Further, also, these differences in ths various countries do not follow one and the same rule; on the contrary, one identical circumstance may bappen to one month several consecutive times or with interruptions. But even supposing that the use which they make of those tables and caleulations were correct, and their computation agreed with the appear. ance of new-moon, or preceded it by one day, which they have made a fundamental principle, they would require special computations for each 40 degree of longitude, hecause the variation in the appearance of new. moon does not depend alone upon the latitudes, hut to a great extent also upon the longitudes of the countries. For, frequently, new-moon is not seen in some place, whilst she is seen in another place not far to the west; and frequently she is seen in hoth places at once. This is one of the reasons for which it would be necessary to have special calculations

78 ALBİRÛNİ.

and tables for overy single degree of longitude. Therefore, now, their theory is quite ntopian, vis. thet the month of Ramadan should always be complete, and that both its beginning and end should be identical in the whole of the inhabited world, as would follow from that table which they use. If they contend that from the (above-mentioned) tradition, which ie traced hack to Muhammad himself, the obligation of making the beginning and end of fasting precede the appearance of new-moon, follows, we muet say that such an interpretation is unfounded. For the particle Lâm (si J) relates to future time, as they have mentioned, 10 and relates to past time, as you say, e.g .: . MOs ("dated frmm this or that day of the month"), i.e. from that moment when adays of the month were past already, in which cass the writing does not precede the past part of the month. And this, not the first mentioned, is the meaning of that tradition. Compare with this the following saying of the Prophet: " We are illiterate people, we do not write nor do we reckon the month thus and thus and thns," each time showing his ten fingers, meaning a complete month or thirty days. Then he repeated his words, saying, "and thus and thus and thue," and at the third time he held back one thumb, meaning an incom plete month 20 or twenty-nine days. By this generally known sentence, the Prophet ordained that ths month should be one time complete, and incomplete another time, and that this is to be regulated by the appearance of new- moon, not by calculation, as he says, "we do not write, nor do we reckon (calculate)." But if they say that the Prophet meant that each complete month should be followed hy an incomplete one, as the chronologists reckon, they are refuted by the plain facts, if they will not disregard them, and their trickery in both small and great things, in all they have committed, is exposed. For the conclusion of the first-mentioned tradition proves 80 the impossibility of their assertion, viz. " Fast when she (new-moon) appears, and cease fasting wken she re-appoars, but if heaven be clouded so as to prevent your observation, rockon the month Sha'ban as thirty days." And in another tradition, the Prophet says, " If a cloud or black dust should prevent you from observing the new moon, make the number thirty complete." For if the appearance of new-moon ha known either from their tables and calculatione, or from the statements of the anthore of the canons, and if the beginning and end of fasting is to precede the appearance of new-moon, it would not he necessary to givo full thirty days to the month Sha'ban, or to count the month Ramadan as full 40 thirty days, in case the horizon shonld be covered by a cloud or by dust. And this (i.e. to give full thirty daye to Ramadin) is not possible, except by performing tho fasting of the day in the evening of which the new- moon is first seen.

ON THE NATURE OF MONTHS. 79

If, further, the month Ramadan were always complete, and its beginning were known, people might do without ths observation of new-moon for the month Shawwal. In the samo way, the word of the Prophet : "and coass fasting when she (new.moon) re-appears," is to bo interpreted. However, party spirit makes clear-seeing eyes blind, and makes sharp- hearing ears deaf, and instigates people to engage in things which no mind is inclined to adopt. But for this reason, such ideas would not p. 67. have antered their hsads, if you conaider the traditions which occur in 10 the books of the Shi'a Zaidiyya,-may God preserve their community !- and which have been corrected by their authorities,-may God bless them !- as for instance, the following: In the time of the Prince of the Believers ('Ali) people had been fasting twenty-eight days in the month of Ramadan. Then he ordered them still to perform the fasting of one day, which they did. The fact was that both consecutive months, Sha'ban and Ramadan, were imperfect, and there had been some obstacle which had prevented them from ohserving new-moon at the beginning of Ramadan; they gave the month the full number of thirty days, and at the end of the month the reality of the case became evident. Then 20 there is the following saying, related to have been pronounced by 'Abu 'Abd-Allah Aladik : " The month of Ramadan is liabls to the same increase and decreass as the other months." Also the following is reported of tha same: " If you observe the month Sha'bun without being able to see the new- moon, count thirty and then fast." The same 'Abu-'Abd-Allah Alsadik, on being asked regarding the new-moon, said: "If you see the newo moon, fast, and if you ses her again, coass fasting." All these traditions in the code of the Shi'a refer only to the fasting. It is astonishing that our masters, the family of the Prophet, listened to such doctrines, and that they adopted them as a uniting link for the 80 minds of the community of ths bcliovers who profess to follow them, instead of imitating the example of their ancestor, the Prince of the Believers ('Alf), in his aversion to eonciliating the obstinate sinners, when he spoke: "I did not hold out an arm to thoss who load astray" (i.e. I did not lend support to them). As regards the following saying, ascribed by tradition to Alsadik: " When you observe the new-moon of Rajab, count fifty-nine days, and then begin fasting;" and tbe following saying ascribed to tho same: "If you see the new-moon of the month of Ramadan at the time when she appeare, count 354 days, and then begin fasting in the next following 40 year. For the Lord has created the year as consisting of 860 days. But from these he has excepted six days, in which he created the heavens and the earth; therefore they (these six days) are not comprehended in the numher (of the days of the year)"-regarding these traditions we say, that, if they were correct, his (Alsadik's) statement on this subject would rest on the supposition, that it (the month Ramadan) was really

80 ALRİRONİ.

greater in one place, and did not follow the same rule everywhore, as we have heretofore mentioned. Such a method of accounting for the six days is something so subtle, that it proves the tradition to be false, and renders it void of authenticity. In a chronicls I have read the following : 'Abu-Ja'far Muhammad ben Snlaiman, Governor of Kifa, under the Khalif Mansur, had imprisored 'Abd-alkarim ben 'Abi-alauja, who was the uncle of Ma'n ben Zn'ida, one of the Manichmans. Thia mau, however, had many protectors in Baghdid, and thesc urged Mansur in his favour, till at last he wrote to Muhammad ordering bim not to put Abd-alkarim to death. Meanwhile, 10 'Abd-alkarim was expecting the arrival of the letter in bis cause. He said to 'Abu-aljabbar confidentially : " If the 'Amir gives me respite for three days, I shall give him 100,000 dirhams." 'Abu-aljahbar told this to Muhammad, who replied: " You have reminded me of him, whilst I p. 88. had forgotten him. Remind me of him when I return from the mosque." Then, when he returned, 'Abu-aljabbar reminded him of the prisoner, whereupon he (Muhammad) ordered him to ba bronght and to be behcaded. And now, knowing for certain that he was to be killed, he said, " By God, now that you ars going to kill me, I tell you that I have put down 4,000 traditions (in my books), in which I forbid 20 that which is allowed, and allow that which is forbidden. And verily, I have made you break your fast when you ought to have fasted, and I have made you fast when you ought not to have fasted." Thereupon he was heheaded, and afterwards the letter in his cause arrived. How thoronghly did this heretie deserve to he the author of this subtle interpretation which they have adopted, and of its original (i.e. the text to which the interpretation refers)! I myself have had a discussion with the originator of this soct, regarding the Musnad-tradition (i.e. such a tradition as is carried back by 80 an uninterrupted chain of witnesses to Muhammad himself). On which occasion I compelled bim to admit that consequences, similar to those here mentioned, follow from his theories. But then in the end he declared, that the subject was one that of necessity resulted from the language (i.s. from the interpretation of the Lam-altaukit), and that the language has nothing whatever to do with the law and its corollarics. Thereupon, I answered: " May God have merey upon yon! Have not Godand his Prophet addressed us in the language generally knownamong the Arabs? But the thing is this, that you have nothing whaterer to do with the Arabic language; and alsoin the science of the law you are utterly 40 ignorant. Leave the law aside and address yourself to the astronomers. None of them would agreo with you regarding your theory of the per- petual completeness of the month of Ramadan; none of them thinks that the celestial globe and sun and moon distinguish the moon of Ramadan from among ths others, so as to move faster or slower just in

ON THE NATUR OF MONTHS. 81

this particular month. The luminaries do not mark out this month in particular as do the Muslims, who distinguish it by performing their fasting in it. However, arguing with people who are obstinate on purpose, and per- severe in their obstinacy on account of their ignorance, is not productive of ans good, either for the student or for the object of hia rescarches. God speaks (Sura lii. 44): " If they saw a piece of heaven falling down, they would sas, 'It is only a conglomerated clond.'" And further (Sura vi. 7): "If we sent down to vou a book (written) on mper, and 10 they touched it with their hands, verily the unbclieving would say, 'This is nothing but evident witchcraft.' " God grant that we may always belong to those who follow and further the truth, who crush and expose that which is false and wrong! Months of the Reformed Calendar of Almu'tadid .- The months of Almu'tadid are the Persian months, with the same names and the same order. But the Persiau day, are not used in these mouths, becauss to the Epagomene in every fourth year one day is added by way of intercalation ; and so for that reason which we have mentioned, when speaking of the months of the Egyptians, the (Persian) names of the 20 single days have been dropped. The order of intercalation used in these months agrees with that of the Greeks and Syrians. As to the months of the other nations, Hindus, Chinese, Tibetans, Turks, Khazars, Ethiopians, and Negroes, we do not intend, altbough we have managed to learn the names of some of them, to mention them here, postponing it. till a time when we shall know them all, as it does not agree with the method which we have followed hitherto, to connect that which is donbtful and unknown with that which is certain and known. We have collected in the following table the names of the months 30 which have been mentioned in the preceding part of this book, in order to farilitate the study of the various kiuds of them. God leads to the iruth !

70. TABLE OF THE MONTES. 82

Their beginning The beginning of their Beginning of the is the appearance

montba is the The beginning of tbeir months is the of New.Moon, The beginning of the months

saoond Nanroz. months is tha frat Nanroz. Appearance of Their number is the appearanca of New-Moon sbont begins with Daimur which New.Moon which is obgerved the Vernal Equinoz. corresponds with (not calculated). Bamıdan.

Khwtriz miane. Seghdiane. The ancient inbabitants of Sijistkn. Persians. Jews. Thamhd. The inha- The inha- Pagan Arabe. Muslim Araba. bitants of bitants of بجارتك Knba.

كاوسارجى نوسرد کوال Farwardin-Mah Tishri Mujib Almu'tamir Almuharram

AT-BiRONİ. أردوست رهو Ardibahisht- Marheshwân Mûjir Nâjir Safar MAh ندی ثوسرد اوین

اوسال Khurdadh- Kislêw Murid Khawwan Rabf the Måh سافول حمش first. دساكلچ ٹېرکیائوا Tir-Mah Țebeth Mulzim Bussân Rabi the سافت last. أصتاديداأ ممدال Murdadh-MAh Shebat Musdir Hantam Jumada the ڈو first. اورہس

أعشرپورى Shahrewar- Adhâr Haubar Mâh Zabbâ Jumada the last. أوسرى نفکان Mihr-Mah Nisân Hauhal Al'aşammn Rajab.

تاناص ابائج هرائوا Âbân-Mâh Iyâr Mauha 'Adil Sha ban جدل الما

اركماروا Âdhar-MAb Stwân Daimur Nâfiķ Ramadan هياى

مسائوع کوېشت Dai-Mah Tammuz Dâbir Waghl Shawwal معاء

أحمن کرس Babman-Mah Âbh Haiķal Huwa' Dhu-alla'da

اسبندارمجى خشوم ساروا Isfandarmadh- *Elốl Musbil Burak Dhu-alhijja Mâh ...

I have not been able to learn how The beginuing of these months The heginning of the leap-rear The berlnalag of is the 29th of Ab, The beginning of these montha these months is an iong these mooths is the conjunctiou are, nor what taking place the beginning of the eimple is the frst dny of the nesu med day thep meaD, Dor of year is the lst of Syrian month Kinon the which is not in rele. what idnd thoy are. about the vernal equinox. Dai-Mth. Inst. tion to anything else.

Turks. Hindns. People of the Ancient Greeke Syrians. Tarks. West. Copts. Greekn. (Poruaier).

ON THE NATOR OF MON THS. Ulugh Ây بيشاك May Thôth Audynæus Yanuarius Teshrin the first Sijkan

Küdük Ây زیشت June Phaôphî Peritius Februarius Teshrin the last Od

Birinj Ây ١١سار July Athyr Dystrus Martius Khnhn the frst PArs

Ikinj Ây سراران August Choiak Xauticus Maius Khnun the last Tafshikhan

Altunj Ay September Tybi Artemisius Aprilius Shebât Lû

Beshinj Ây October Methir Daisius Yunius Âdhâr Yylan

Sekizinj Ây November Phamenôth Paneraus Yulius Nisân Yont

Tokuzunj Ây مٹکس December Pharmuthî Lous Augustus Iyâr Kuy

Onunj Ây برش January Pachôn Gorpiaus Septembrius Hazirân Picîn

Türtünj Ây February Payni Hyperbere- Octombrius Tammiz Tagbuk 6 € tæus. Udūnj Ây با کر March Epiphi Dius Novembrius Âbh It

Tetinj Ây جيتر April Mesori Apellæus Decembrius Tunguz 83 .p. 71.

84 ALDİRÛNİ.

p. 72. CHAPTER VI.

UN THR DRRIVATION OF THE BEAS FRON EACH OTHEE, AND ON THE CHRONOLOGICAL DATES, RELATING TO THE COMMENCEMENTS AND THE DURATIONS OF THE REIONS OF THE KINGS, ACCORDINO TO THE VARIOOS TRADITIONS.

Ir is the special object at which Iaim in this boek, to fix the durations (of the reigns of the kings) by the most correct and perspicnous method. But, now, wishing to explain the derivation of the eras from each other in conformity with the usual mode of the canons, which spccify the various kinds of calculation and of derivation (e.g. stating one era in 10 the terms of another), and which contain rules and paradigms, I find this subject to be & very wide one, and the wish to embraco this wLole science compels me to cause trouble both te myself and to the reader. Agreeably to the method which I have adhered to from the beginning of this book, I shall explain the intervals between the epochs of the usual eras by a measure which is counted in the same way by all nations, i.e. by days; for, as we have already mentioned, both ears and months aro differently measured. Everything else is gencrally mentioned in years, hut for the knowledge of the iutervals between the epochs of the eras the statement in days is quite sufficient, since it has been impossible 20 to obtain a knowledge of the real quality of the years ef the various eras, and there has been but little need for the use of themt. Now, if we in some places wander about through various branches of science, and plunge into subjects which are not very closely connected with the order of our discussion, we must say that we do not do this because we seek to be lengthy and verhose, but as guided by the desire of preventing the reader from getting tired. For if the mind is con. tinually occupied with the study of one single science, it gets casily tired and impatient; but if the mind wanders from one science to another, it is as if it were wandering about in gardens, where, when it 30 is roving over one, anether one already presents itself; in consequence of which, the mind has a longing for them, and enjoys the sight of them; as people say, " Everything that is new offers enjoyment."

ERAS, DATES, AND REIGSS OF KINQS. 85

Now let us begin with tho traditions of those to whom a divine book was sent (Jews and Christians) regarding Adam, his children and their deseendants. All this we shall fx in tables, in erder to facilitate the pronunciation of their names, and the stndy of the different traditions regarding them. On this suhject we combine the traditions of the Jews snd Christians, placing them oppesite to ench other (in the same table). We commenee by the help of God, under his guidance, and with his gracions snpport. p. 73.

10 The Names of the Descendants of Adam, who form the Chronological Chain of the Era, and the Chrouological Dilfereuces bet ween Christians and Jews regarding thom. tho Jews. cording to the Christians. him-necording to theJews. Bo wns hom to them- em uccordin to the CLris- accordiby to the Jews. era-secording to the Jews. them lived-nccording to after a sou had been horn to son wus born to thene ac.' How long each of them lived Tbe sutn of the yeurs of the ; How loug altogether ench of The sum of the years of the | How old they were when a: How old they were when a,

1 .- Adam tbe fatbor of mankiod-till the birth of bis son Seth Setb ben Adam-till the birtb of 230 230 130 800 . 930 130

his sou Enos Enos ben Sotu-tin the hirth of 205 495 105 807 912 235

20 bis soo Cainan . 190 Cainan ben Enos-rill the birth of 625 90 815 . 905 325

bis son Mahaloleel . Y .- Mohalaleel ben Cainan-till the 170 795 70 810 910 395

birth of his son Jared Jared ben Mahalalcel-till the 16: 9G0 65 830 895 460

birth of his son Euocb 162 1129 Enoch ben Jared-till tbe birth of 162 800 962 622

bis son Methuselah Methnselab ben Enoch-till the 165 1287 65 300 365 687

30 birth of bis sou Lawech 16 1-454 187 782 Lamech ben Methnselah-till the 969 874

birth of bis son Noah 18$ 1642 182 595 X .- Noah ben Lamech-till tha birch 777 1056

of his son Sem Sbem ben Noah-till the Deluge. 500 2142 500 2212 450 950

From the Delage till the birth of 100 1556 100 500 600 1656

Arpbaxsd ben Shem Arpharad bea Sbem-till the birth 2 22.14 2 0 1658

40 of bis son Salahı Salab ben Arphaxad-till the birtu 135 2379 35 463 198 1693

of bis son Eber XV .- Eber bso Salah-till the birth of 130 2509 30 460 490 1728

his son Peleg Peleg beo Eber till the birth of : 134 2643 396 430 1757

bis son Ren Rea bon Yeleg-til the birth of 130 2773 30 179 209: 1787

hia son 8erug Serng ben Ren-till ths birth of 132 2905 32 175 207:1819

bis son Nabor Nahor bea Serug-till the birth of 130 9035 80 170 200 50 1849

his soo Terab XX .- Terah bea Nahor till tho birth 79 3114 29 119 148 ! 1878

of his son Abraham . 75 3189 70 135 205 : 1918

86 ALBİRONİ.

p. 74. Now, he whe studies the numbers of years of thie table, till the birth of Abraham, will become aware of the differonce between the two systems (that of the Christians and that of the Jews). The Jewish copy of the Thora, although stating the duration of the lives of Abraham, Isaac, Ja.sb, Levi, Kohath, and Moses, does not specify how old they were when a son was bern to each of them, nor how leng they lived after that ; except in the case of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. For it is stated that Isaac was born unto Abraham when he was 100 years of age, and that he afterwards lived 75 years mere; that Jacob was born unto Isasc when he was 60 years of age; that 10 . Jacob entered Egypt togsther with his sons, when he was 130 years of age, and that he after that lived 17 years mere. Now, the Israelites stayed in Egypt 210 years, according to the state- ment of the Jewe, that between the birth of Abraham and that of Meses there was an interval of 420 years, and that Meses was 80 years of age, when he led the Israelites ont of Egypt. Frem the second book of the Thera, however, we learn that the entire length of the sojourning of the Israelites in Egypt was 430 yeare. If, new, the Jews are asked to account for this difference, they maintain that that space of time is to be counted from the day when God made the treaty with Abraham, and 20 promised him to make him the father ef many natiens, and to give to his descendante the country of Canaan as an inheritance. But we leave the matter to God, whe knows best what they mean. The chronelegical differences regarding the later perieds of Biblical history, arising out of the three different copies of the Thora, are of the same kind as we have already explained. How little care the Jews bestow upon their chronelogy is shown to evidence, by the fact, that they, all of them, believe in the first instance, that between their exodus from Egypt and Alerander there is an interral of 1,000 yeare, corrected (i.e. made to agree with the sun or real time) 30 by intercalation, and that they rely on this number in their computation of the qualities of the years (whether they be perfect or imperfect or intermediate). Bnt if we gather from their books which follow after the Thora, the years of every one of their rulers after Moses, the scn of Amram, and add them together, we get a sum which already at the building of Jerusalem goes heyond the millennium by such a space of time as cannot be tolerated in chrenelogical computations. If this sum were too small (less than a millennium), the difference might be accounted for by assuming that an interval between two persons might have been omitted. But a surplus in this case does not admit of any interpretation 40 whatsoever. Being unabls to give a satisfactory answer to such a question, some of them assert that the accurate specification of these years was found in the records of the family of Juda, and that these records are ne longer at their disposal, but hare been carried off to the countries of the

ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 87

Greeks. For after the death of Solomon, the Israelites were aplit into two parties. The tribes of Juda and Benjamin elected as their king the son of Solomon, whilst the ten tribes elected as their king Jeroboam, the client of Rehohoam, the son of Solomon. And thoreupon he led them astray (to idolatry), as we shall mention hereafter in the chapter on the Jewish festivals. His children reigned after him, and botb parties made war upon each otber. The following ie a synopsis of the years of their rulers, who ruled over them after their exodus from Egypt, when they marched towards 10 Bahr-al-kulzum (the Red Sea) in order to pass it, and to march to Altik, a p. 75. desert n Alhijaz, in the direction of Jeruaalem; all of which rests on the authority of their chronicles. But they have another book which they call Seder-olim ( סדר עולם ), i.e. the years of the world, which contains a less sum of years than that of the books which follow after the Thora, whilst in some respects it comes near to their original system. The statements of both these kinds of their hietorical records we have collected in the following aynopsia.

88 ALBİRONİ.

The Names of the Rulers, Governors, Prieate, and Judges of the Ieraelites till the Foundation of the Temple, whioh is a space of 480 years. Biblical chronicle. Seder- OlAm. ruled, according to ruled, according to the How long each of them The sum of the years. The sum of the years. How long each of them

The Israelites left Egypt and dwelt in the desert till the death of Moses 40 40 40 40 Yehosho'a ben Nun, the successor of Moses 27 67 27 67 10 'Othni'el ben Kenaz 40 107 40 107 'Eglon tho king of Mo'ab and the Ama- Iekites of ths Bant-'Ammon 18 125 'Êhud hen Gera, the left-handed, of the Ephraimites 80 205 80 187 Shamgar hen 'Anath 20 225 Dehora the prophetess and her lieu- tenant Barak 40 265 40 227 Ths Midianites, the oppressors 7 272 234 Gid'on ben 'Ofra, of the tribe of Manasseh 40 312 7

3 315 277 20 'Abimelekh ben Gid'on . 43 23 6. Tola' ben Pu'a, of ths tribe of Ephraim 338 Ya'ir from Gil'ad, of the tribe of Ma- 44 321 22 360 Ths sons of 'Ammon the Philistine, i.e. nasseb

the people of Palestins 18 378 18 339 Yiftah from Gil'ad 6 384 6 345 'Ibeîn, also called Nashôn, from Beth- lehem 7 391 7 352 'Êlon 10 401 10 362 80 'Abdon ben Hillêl . 8 409 8 370 Ths Philistines 40 20 445 Shimshon the giant of the tribe of Dần 469 20 390 The people without a ruler 10 479 'Eli the priest 40 519 40 430 The ark in the hands of the enemies, until Samuel was sent 10 529 10 440 Samuel, till they asked him to give them a king, whereupon he mads Talut their king + 20 549 - Saul, i.e. Talût 20 569 20 4421 40

David; he commencsd building the Temple in the 11th year of his reign . 40 609 40 482 Solomon ben David-till he finished the Temple 612 485 co Co

ERAS, DATLS, AND REIGNS OF EINGS. 89

p. 77. to

The Namee of the Kings and other Rulers of the Israclites from the Foundation of the Temple till its first Destruotion, whioh is a space of -

410 years, Seder-'Olamn. ruled, necording Biblical ehronicle. ruled, uccording to the How long each of them The sum of the years. The sum of tho yeare. How long eacb of tem

Solomon ben David-after the Temple was finished 37 17 649 37 522 Rehab'âm ben Solomon 666 17 539 'Abiyya beu Rebah am 3 669 2 541 10 'ÂsA ben 'Abiyya 41 710 41 582 YehoshAfat hen 'Asa 25 735 23 605 Yehôrâm ben Yehôshâfât 8 743 611 'Ahazya hen Yeborâm 1 744 11 622 'Athalya-till she was billed hy Yo'Ash 6 750 6 628 Yo'ash ben 'Ahazya-till he was killed by his people 'AmazvA ben Yo'ish-till he was killed 40 790 40 668 29 1 819 29 697 'Uzziya ben 'Amazya -- till he died 52 52 749 Yotham ben 'Uzziyya-till he died 871 16 887 16 765 20 'Ãhiz ben Yotham-till be died 16 903 16 773 ! Hizķiyya ben 'Ahâz, the king of all the tribes. 29 I 932 Menashshe ben Hizķisya 29 802 55 987 55 857 'Ammon ben Menashshe 2 :989 2 859 Yoshiyya ben 'Ammon-till he was killed by the king of Egypt 31 1020 Yeho'nhaz ben Yo'shiyya-till he was 31 890

made a prisoner by the kiog of Egspt 3 1023 - - Yeboyakim ben Ycho'nhaz, set up by 80 the king of Egypt 10 1033 11 901 Yehoyakhin ben Yehoyakim, till he wae made a prisoner by Nebucadnezar 3 1036 Sidkiyya- till he rebelled against Nebu- p. 78.

cadnezar, when he was killed and the .. Temple destroyed 6 1042 11 912

The Temple remained in ruins 70 !1112 70 982 But according to another view between the time when they were led into i 40 captivity and Daniel there was an j interval of . From Daniel till the birth of the Mes- 90 1202 90 .1052!

From the birth of the Measiah till the . siah 483 1685 483 1535

epoch of the flight of Muhammad 600 12285 600 2135

90 ALBİRONİ.

It cannot be thought strange that you should find similar dig- crepancies with people who have several times suffered so much from captivity and war as the Jews. It is quite natural that they were dis- tracted by other matters from preserving their historical traditions, more particularly at times of such distress, "when each woman who suckled a child forgot her child, and each pregnant woman gare birth to the burtben of her womb." (Stra xxii. 2.) Besides, the governorships and headships were not always held by ons and the same tribe, hut came to be divided (among several tribes) after the death of Solomon the son of David; then one part of them was 10 held hy the tribes of Juda and Benjamin, another part by the other tribes of the Israelites. Further, their rule was not organized so well; nor their empire and government handed wer from one to the other in such good order as to render it necessary for them both to preserve the dates when each of their rulers ascended the throne, and to record the duration of hie reign, except by a rough method of computation. For some people maintain that, after the death of Joshua, Kushan, the King of Mesopotamia, of the family of Lot, overpowered them, and held them under his sway during eight years; that then Othniel ross, And some people attribute 20 to his rule more years, others less. Frequently, ons author thinks that some ruler reigned over them so- and-so many years, whilst another aasigns to his rule a less number of years, and maintains that the former number represents the duration of his whole life (not that of his rule); or a third possibility is this, that by adding the two spaces of tims, mentioned hy the two anthora, you get a common space of time for two rulers, during which they ruled simultaneously. The chronological system of the Seder-'olAm, although coming near to the sum (assumed by ths generality of the Jews), differs considerably 30 from the statements in detail; this applies specially to the time of the firat building of the Temple, not to mention the uncertainty which hangs over those points of their history which we have spoken of before. The length of the Human Life .- Some one among the inerperienced and foolish people of the Hashwiyya and Dahriyya sects, have rejected as incredible the long duration of lifs which has heen ascrihed to certain tribes in the past, specially to the patriarchs bsfore the time of Abraham. Likewise they consider as monstrous what has been related of the huge size of their bodies. They maintain that all this lies altogether beyond the limit of possibility, drawing their conclusions from objects wbich 40 they are able to observe in their own age. They have sdopted the doo- trine of astrologers, regarding the greatest poasible gift (of years of life) which the stars are supposed to bestow upon mankind in the p. 79. nativities, if ths following constellation occurs : Ths sun must be at ouch a nativity both mater familias and pater familias, i.s. he must stand

ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 91

in bis domus (olkos), or in bis altitudo (upopa), in a cardo, and in a con- cordant masculine quarter. In that case he bestows his greatest years, ie. 120 years, to which the

Moon . adds 25 years. Venus 8 Jupiter 12 .

These are the smallest years of each of these three stars, for they are not able to add a greater number of vears, if they have a concordant aspect (in relation to the horoscope). Further, the two unlueky among 10 the stars (Saturn and Mars) must bave no aspect to the boroscope, so as not to exereise any diminishing influeuce. The Caput Draconis must stand with the sun in the same sign of the ccliptic, but still sufficiently far from him, so as not to stand within the opot eKAELnTIKoL. If this constellation occurs, it increases the gift (of years of life) of the sun hy one fourth, i.c. 30 years. So the whole sum of years makes 215 years, which they maintain to he the longest duration of life which mortal man may reach, if it is not cut short hy any accident. The natural duration of life is to he 120 years, because the existence of the world depends upon the sun; and this number of years represents ths 20 greatest years of the sun. Those people have settled this uestion as it best pleases them. And if reality followed their desire, heaven and earth would be greatly the worse for it. They have built their theory on a basis, the contrary of which is approved of by astronomers, in so far as they ascrihe " greatest years " to these planets. They say in their hooks that these planets used to bestow their " greatest years" in the millennia of the fiery signs of the zodiac, when in them the rule was exercised by the superior planets (Saturn, Jupiter, Mars), and when the years of the sun and of Venus were made to exceed by far the longest duration of life ascribed 80 to any one of the patriarchs. This man is their master in chronology; they trust in his word, and do not oppose his audacity. He actually maintains that inan may live during the years of a "middle conjunction" (of Saturn and Jupiter), when the nativity coincides with the transitus of the conjunction from one trigon to another, whilst the ascendens is one of the two houses of either Saturn or Jupiter, when the sun is mater familias in day-time, and the moon at night, exercises the greatest power; that the same is possihle, if this same constellation occurs at the transitus of the con- junction to Aries and its trigons. 40 And the argument for the assertion, that the new.born human heing may live during the years of the " greatest conjunction," i.e. about 960 years, until the conjunction returns to its original place, is of the same description.

92 ALBIRUNİ.

He has explained and propounded this subject in tho beginning ef bis book, " De Nativitatibus." Thir. uow, is their belief in the gifts (of years of life) of the stars. Regarding these years, which the single planets are suppesed to bestow upon mankind, wa have had a discussion with the astrenomers whe use them, in the Kitab altundih 'ala sina at altamwih (i.e. the book in which the swindling profession is expesed), and we have giveu a dircction how to use the hest method in all questions where these years occur in tha book entitled, Kitub alshumis alshufiya lilnufas. Now, personal observation alone, and conclusiona inferred therefrom, 10 do not prove a long duration of the human life, and the huge size of human bodies, and what else has heen related to be beyend the limits of poasibility. For similar matters appcar in the course of time in manifold shapes. There are certain things which aro bound to certain times, within which they turn round in a certain order, and which undergo transfermatiens as leng as there is a possibility of their existing. If they, nuw, are not observed as long as they are in existenca, people think them to be improbable, and hasten to reject them as altogother .80. impessible. This applies to all cyclical occurrences, such as the mutual impreg- 20 nation of animals and trees, and tne forthceming of the sceds and their fruits. Fer, if it were possible that men did net know these occurrencee, and then were led to a tree, atripped of its leaves, and were told what occurs to the tres of getting green, of producing blossems and fruits, etc., they would certainly think it imprubable, till they saw it with their own eyes. It is fer the same reason that people, who come from northern countries, are filled with admiration when they see palm-trees, olive-trees, and myrtle-treea, and ethers standing in fuli-bloom at winter- time, siuce they never saw anything like it in their own country. Further, there are ether things occurring at times in which no cyelical 80 order is apparent, and which seem te happen at random. If, theu, tha time in which the thing occurred has gene by, nothing remains ef it except the repert about it. And if you find in such a repert all the conditions of authenticity, and if tha thing might have already occurred before that time, you must accept it, though you havs no idea of the nature nor of the cause of the matter in questien, Irregular Formations of Nature .- There are still other things which occur in like manner, but which are called " faults of nature" (lusus naturc), on account ef their tranegressing that order which is characteristic of their species. I, Lowever, do net call them "faults of 40 nature," but rather a superfluity of material beyend the due prepertions of the mcasure of cverything. Te this category beleng, s.g. animals with supernumerary limbs, which occur somctimes, when nature, whese task it is to preserve the speciee es they are, finds some superfluous sub- stance, which she forms into some shape instead of throwing it away ;

ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 93

likewiee animals with imperfect limbs, when naturo doee not find the substance by whieh to complete te form of that aunual in eonfc e nity with the structure of the apecies to whieh it belongs; in that case she forms the animal in such a sbape, as that the defeet is made to lose its obnoxious eharacter, and she gives it vital power as mueh as possihle. This is illustrated by an example, whieh Thabit ben Sinan ben Thabit ben Kurrs relates in his ebronicle, viz. that he had seen near Surraman- ra'a an Indian chickeu that had como out of the egg without a defect, and of complete strueture; but its head had two heaks and three eyes. 10 The same author reports, that to Tuzim, in the dars of his reign, people brought a dead kid with the round face, the jaws and teeth like those of man; but it had only one ere, and something like a tail on its forehead. Further, he relates that in the district Almukharrim, of Baghdad, there was born a ehild, wbich died instantly; it was brought before Gburur- aldaula Bakhtirar at the time wheu bis father Mu'izz-aldanla was still alive, and he examined it. It was one complete body without a defect, and without an addition, except that two protuberances rose from it, and upon these there were two complete heads, with eomplete lincaments, with eyes, ears, two nostrils, and two months; between the loins were 20 genitals like those of a woman, ont of whieb the orifice of the penis of a man was apparent. Another report of bis says, that one of the nobles of the Greeks sent to Nasir-aldaula, in the winter of A.H. 352, two men grown together by the stomach ; they were Aramæans, and twenty-five years of age. He p. 81. says, they were called Multabiyani (i.e. two bearded men). They were aceompanied by their father. TLey turned their fares towards each other, but the skin, whieh formed the comunon connecting link betweeu them, was long, and besides susceptible of extending so far as to permit the one to rise from the side of the other. People describe them as 30 haring, each of tbem, separate and complete organe of generation; that they did their eating and drinking, and the roneratio alvi at different, times; that they used to ride on one animal, the one closely behind the other, but so as to turn tbeir faces towards eacb other; that the one had an inclination for women, the other for boys. LThere is no doubt that the Vis Nafuralis (the ereative power of nature), in all work it is inspired and commissioned to carry out, never drops any material unused, if it meets with such; and if there is abun- darce of material, the Vis Naturalis redoubles its creating work. Such a double-ereation sometimues proceeds in this way, that one being comee 40 into existence in close proximity to another, being at the same time something separate by itsrlf, as, e.g. in the case of twins; sometimes a being comes into existenee tied up to another heing, as, e.g. in the case of the two Aramæans; at other times, again, a being comes into existence inserted iuto and mixed up with another one, as in that caso which we mentioned before speakiug of the two Arammane.

94 ALBİRONİ.

The various kinds of double-croations of this and other descriptions are also found among the ether animals (bcsides man). There are, e.g. said to be certain species of sea-fishes that are double ones. I mean to say, if you open such a fish, you find a similar one inside. Frequently, too, tho reduplication of formation may pass into a multi- plication. All of which is ulso found among the plants, Look, for instance, at the double-fruits that are grown together, at the fruits with double kernels, which ars included in ons shell. An example of such a double-formation, of which the one thing is inserted into the other, is an orange, in the interior of which you find another orange of the same 10 kind. Frequently the Vis Naturalis has not succeeded in finishing the double. creation, and producing a complete whole. In which case, shs increases the number oflimbs, sither in their proper places, as e.g. supernumerary fingers-for although they ars more than usual and than is necessary, still they are found in that place which is appropriated to fingers,-or not in their proper places. And in this casc it would be correct to call such a formation an Error of Nature. An instance of this is the cow that was in Jurjan at the time of the Sthib, and when the family of Buwaibi beld the country under their sway. Everybody, both young and old, 20 had seen it, and they related to me that it had on abe bunch close to the neck a foreleg like its other two forelegs, quite complete, with its shoulder, its joints, and hoof; and that she moved it about as she liked, contracting and extending it. This cass may justly be considered an error (of nature), because that supernumerary limb was quite useless, and becanse it had neither its proper place nor direction. Now, all these and similar classes (of uncommon creations), on which I have composed special beoks, would not be admitted as possible by anyone who did not witness them, because he would not find in them the 30 couditions of authenticity. Length of the Ruman Life .- The length of human life is taught by experience to bs regulated by a genealogical ratio. For instance, with the Himyarites and others, long life is a peculiarity. Besides long life occurs in one place to the exclusion of others, e.g. in Farghana and Yamama. For well-informed people relate that in those countries some people grow older than anywhere else. And in this respect they are still surpassed by the Arabians and Indians. Of this same 'Abu-Ma'shar Albalkbi, the following story is related by 'Abu-Sa'id Shadhan in his Kitab-almudhekara bilasrar (i.e. the book in 40 which ba brings mysterious subjecta before the mind of the reader) :- p. 82. The nativity of a son of the King of Eerendib (Ceylon) was sent to him. Hie Ascendens was Gemini II, whilst Saturn stood in Cancer s, and the Sun in Capricorn W. Now, 'Abu-Ma'shar gave his judgment that he would live during the middle cycle of Saturn. Thereupon, I said to

ERAS, DATES, AND REIONS OF KINGS. 95

him, "God forbid! The olkodcororis moves hackward in the crisia of retrograde motion in a domus cadens of the cardines, so as not to give more than its small cycle. You must subtract fifty years therefrom on account of the retrograde motion." 'Abu-Ma'shar : "Those people are the inhahitants of a xAipa, of whom one knows hcforehand that they live very long, so that they frequently live on in a decrepit state, whilst Saturn is their companion. I have been told thet, if a man dies before reaching the midale cycle of Saturn, peeple wonder that he has died so soon. If, therefore, Saturn occupies 10 the dignity of oikodeororis in a xAina of his owu, he doce not, in most cases, give less than his great and middle cycles, except he be in cadente domo." I: "But, surely he is in cadente domo." 'Abu-Ma'shar: "Quite so! He (Saturn) is falling out of the figure of the Aspectus, but he is not falling out of the Directio." (Here is a lacuna.)

The mysteries of the second are numerous. It is likewise in a well beneath the earth. In this circumatance there is curious matter for astonishment. Now, in this place, they have admitted that in one kliua 20 people live longer than in another. In another place he ('Abu-Sasd Shadhin) relates of the same 'Abu- Ma'shar, that he was in his company when he was asked by 'Abu-'Işma, the Wazir of Saffar, regarding something in the signe of his nativity, which he ('Abu-Isma) was alarmed ahout. 'Ahu-Ma'shar: " Do you know of what age your father diedf" 'Ahû-'Işma: "Yes." 'Abu-Ma'ahar: "Have you already reached the same age?" 'Ahû-Igma : "I have passed it already." 'Abu-Ma'shar : "Do you know at what age your mother died?" 30 'Abu-Işma: "Yes. That age, too, I have passed already." 'Abu-Ma'shar: "Do you know how long your paternal grandfather lived ? " 'Abu-Isma: " Yes. But that I have not yet reached." 'Abu-Ma'shar: "Then consider whether that difference, which ie indicated by your nativity, agreee with the life of your grandfather?" 'Abt-Tşma: "Yes, it does agree." 'Abo-Ma'shar: "In that case you are right to be alarmed." Then he procoeded to explain : "Nature is most powerful. For in any mishap that befals a man when he is as old as his father or mother or his paternal 40 grandfather were at the time of their death, he is certain to perish, except there be strong evidence (to the contrary). This is clear, too, in plants and seeds. For tbere are certain apecies of them which are known to exist very long, whilst others soon meet with mishaps and exist only a short timg."

96 ALBTRÔNİ.

Now, 'Abu-Ma'shar again admits in this place that the duration of life is regulated by a genealogical ratio. Therefore, that sstrological theory, to which they cling, is devoid of sense, since thay admit such a goncalogical ratio as not impossiblo. On the contrary, it is necessary, a8 we have already mentioned. If this sect will reject srerything that does not occur in their time or place, so as to fall under their personal ohservation, if they do not them- selves find this everlasting scepticism of theirs absurd, if they will not admit anything that hes happened in their ahsence, wo can only say that extraordinary occurresces do not happen at all times; and if they, 10 indeed, happen in some one age, they have in the course of time and the passing of generations no other tie which conneets them with pos- terity except the uninterrupted chain of tradition. Nay, if they would draw the last conclusions from their theery, they would be mere sophists, and would he compelled to disbelieve anybody who would tell them that there are still other countries in the world besides those in which they are living; and other absurdities of a similar kind would follow. If you would listen to them on the subjects which they propound, you p. 83. would find that they refer to the traditions of the Indians, and rely on various sorts of tricks which they attribute to them. By way of argu- 20 ment they always mention an Indian idol, cut out of stonc, the neck of which is surrounded by numerous iron collars, which represent the Indian eras of 10,000 years, and, if counted, would amount to an enor- mous sum of years. But if you then tell them what they, i.e. the Indians, maintain, vis. that the King of Jamalabadhra, that town whence the Myrobalana, the Phyllanthus emblica, and the Myrebalana bellerica are exported, even at the age of 250 years, rode and hunted and marricd, and hehaved altogether lile a young man, and that all this was the consequence of a dietetic treatment, they will reject it, and declare that the Indians are evident lars, not really learned men, because they base 80 their sciences upon inspiration, and that therefore their doctrines are not trustworthy. Besides, they will begin to speak of the suhtlety of all the tenets of the Indians in all qnestions of law and religion, of reward and punishment (eschatology), and they will dwell on the various sorts of torture which they practise in castigating their own bodies. It is this sect whom God means in the verse of the Koran (Sura x. 40): "Nay, they have declared to he a lie something, the science of which they did not comprehend "; and in the other verse (Sura xlvi. 10): "And as they would not be guided thereby, verily, they will say: That is an old lie." They admit only that which suits them, although it he 40 feehle, and they avoid everything that differe from their dogma, although it he true. I have read & book of 'Abe-'Abdallah Alhusain ben 'Tbrahim Altabari Alnatili, a treatise on the duration of natural life, where he maintaing that its grestest leugth is 140 solar years, beyond which no increase is

97

possible. He. howevor, who denies thie eo categorically, is required to produce a proof, which the mind is obliged to accept, and in which it acquiesces. But he has not established the least proof for his assertion, except that in his premises he lays down the following theory :- Three Status Perfectionie are peeuliar to man- I. His attaining to manhood (or womanhood), the time when he becomes able to propagate his own race. That is the beginning of the second Seventh. II. When bis thinking power ripeue, and his intellect proceeds fron 10 duvaps to roigois. That is the beginuing of the sixth Seventh. III. When be becomes able to govern bimself, if he be unmarried; his family affairs, if he he married; his publie affairs, if he exercise some public authority. The sum of these three Status Perfectionie is to be 140 ycars. We do not sco by what proportion 'Abu-'Abdallah has calculated these numbers. For there is no proportion nor progression apparent among them. Verily, if we conceded to him that there are three such Status Perfectionie, if we then counted them in the way he has done. and declared finally, pre-supposing we did not apprehend heing required to 20 catablish a proof, that the sum of these Status is 100 or 1,000 or some- thing like it, his method and ours would he quite the same. However, thers is this difference, that we find, that in our time man attains those phases of development, which he represents as the characteristic signs of the Status Perfectionis, in quite other Sevenths and times than those which he mentions. God knows best his meaning! As reegards the (superhuman) sizs of the bodies (of former genera- tions), we say, if it be not necessary to helieve it for this reason, that we cannot observs it in our time, and that there is an enormous interesl between us and that time, of which euch thinge are related, it is there- 30 fore by no means impossible. It is the samc, the like of which is related in the Thora of the bodies of the giants (Nephilim, Repha'im, 'Euakim), p. 84. and the belief in this has not been abandoned since the time when the Israelites saw them with their own eyes. Therefore everybody may attack and ridicule this subject, if he likes! If the Thora was read to them, and they read it themselves, though up to that moment they had not declared the readers of the Thora to be liare, yet even if the giants were something quite different from what they are described to be (i.e. less extraordinary), they would declare the reader of the Thora to be a liar, in case he related anything that is not borne out by their ex perience 40 and observation. If, indeed, there had never heen classes of men with bodies of an exfraordinary vastness, God having given them an uncom- mon size (ride Koran, ii. 24), no recollection of them would have remained in the uninterrupted chain of human tradition, and people would not compare with them everybody who, in size exceeds their genus, as it is

98 ALBİRONİ.

known to us. For instance, the people of 'Ad haso become provsrbial in this sense. But bow can I expeet thom to believo n . regarding the people of 'Ad, since they reject oven that which is much nearer to our time and much more apparent? They produce such argumente as do not counterbalance the very weakest of these arguments which are nrged against them. Thsy shun accepting the striking arguments, flying before them like fugitive asses that fly before a liou (Koran, Ixtiv. 51). What would they say of the monuments of larger rsccs of men which oxist still at the presont time, such as tho houses which were cut intothe solid rocks in tho mountains of Midian, of the graves built in the rocks, 10 and of bones buried in their interior, which are as large as camel-bones and even larger, of the had smell of those localities, which is so strong that you cannot enter there without covering the nose with something ? And it is the common consent of all who inhabit thoso places that they (the authors of thoee monumonts) are "the people of darkness." But, when they hear of "the day of darkness," they only laugh in a mocking way, make grimaces in haughty disdain, turn up their noses in joy over their theories, and in the persuasion that they are infinitely superior to, and altogether distinguished from all common peoplo. But God is eufficient for them; they will get tho reward of their doings, and we 20 that of oure! Chronological Tables .- In some book I bave found tables illustrative of the durations of the reigns of the kings of the Assyrians, i.e. the people of Mosul, of the kings of tbe Copts, who reigned in Egypt, and of the Ptolemaan princes, each of whom was called Ptolemeus. For Alexander, when dying, ordered that every king of the Greoks after him should be called Ptolemsus, in order to frighten the enemies, because the word means "the warlike." In the same book I have found the chronology of the later kings of the Greeks. In this book, the interval between the birth of Abraham and 30 Alesander was reckoned as 2,096 years, which is more than Jews, Christiane, and astrologers (those who apply the conjunctione of Saturn and Jupiter to history) reckon. Now I have transferred thoee identical tables into this place of my book, Time has not enabled me to correct the names of the kings on the basis of their true pronunciation. I hope, therefere, that everyone will endeavour to correct and amend them, who like myself wishes to facilitate the subject for the student, and to free him frow fatigue of research. And nobody ought to transcribe these tables and the other ones except him who is well acquainted with the Hurif-al-jummal, and 40 honestly endeavours to preserve them correet. For they are corrupted by the tradition of the copyists, when they pass from hand to hand among them. Their emendation is a work of many years.

ERAS, DATES, AXD REIGNS OF KINGS. 99

How long p. 85. NANES OF THE KINOS OF THE ASSYRIANS, i.e. the people of Mosul. eaoh of The eum of the Thoy ere 37 in numbor, and they reigned daring 1305 yoara. thon roigned. yeora.

I. Bêlos 62 62 Ninos. He built Ninive in Mosul. Abra- bam was born in the [43rd year] of his reign 52 114 Semiramis the wife of Ninos. She 10 founded the ancient Samarri west of Surra-man-ra'a . 42 156 Zames the son of Ninos. Abraham was tried by him, and fled therefore to Pa-

V. Areios lestine in the [23rd year] of his reign 88 194 30 224 . Aralios . 40 264 Xerxes 30 294 Armamithrês 38 332 Belôchos 35 367 + 20 X. Balaios . 52 419 . Altadas . 32 451 Mamythos 30 481 . Manchalous 30 511 Sphairos 20 581 XV. Mamylos 30 561 Sparethus 40 601 . Askatades 40 641 . Amyntês 45 686 Belocbos 25 711 . 30 XX. Balatores 30 741 p. 86.

Lamprides 82 773 . Sosares . 20 793 Lampares 30 828 Panyas 45 868 XXV. Sosamos 19 887 Mithraios 37 924 Tautanes. In bis time Lliou was taken by the Greeks, whe had made war upon it 955 . 40 Teutaios 40 995 Thinaios 30 1025 XXX. Derkylos 40 1065 Eupales. In his time David reigned over Israel 38 1103 Laosthenes. In his tims the Israelites were divided into two kingdoms 40 1143 Piritiades 30 1173 Ophratsios 20 1193 XXXV. Ophratanes. On the 167th day of the 50 42nd year of his reign Homer was born, who is with the Greeks the firet poet, as Imru'ul-Kais with the Arabs 50 1243 Akraganes 42 1285 . . XXXVII. Thonos Konkoleros 20 1805

7 0

100 ALBİB CNİ.

p. 87. Western authors relate that, during the reign of this Inet king (Thones Konkoleros. alias Sardanapalus), the prophet Jonah was sent to Niniveh, and that a foroigner, called Arbat (Arbaces) in Hebrew, Dah-ak in Persian, and Dabbak in Arabie, came forward against this king, made war upon him, put Lim to flight, killed him, and took possession of the empire, holding it till the time when the Kayfniane, the kings of Babylonia, whom western authors are in the hahit of calling Chaldæans, brought the empire under their sway. The reign of Arbaces lasted eeventy-two years. Here we muet remark that the Chaldeans are not identical with the 10 Kayanians, but were their gorerners of Babylonia. For the original residence of the Kayhniana was Balkh, and when they came down to Mesopotamia, people took to calling them by the same name which they had formerly applied to their governors, i.e. Chaldæans. According to eome chronieler, Nimrod ben Kuah ben Ham ben Noah, founded a kingdom in Babylenia twenty-three years after the Confusion of Lenguages. And that was the earliest kingdom established on earth. The Confusion of Languages happened contemperaneously with the birth of the patriarch Re'u. The same chronicler mentions other kinge that rose after Nimrod, until the empire passed into the hands of the Aseyrian 20 kings, the chronelegy of whem has been illustrated by the preveding table. The chrenology of the kings that have been recorded, ie repre- sonted hy the following tahle :-

How long Sum of THE KINGS OF BABYLONTA. they the reigned. yoare.

Nimråd 69 69 قمدورسي 85 154 Bamirus Arpakhehadh 72 226

Babylonia dfamdevros, till it was occupied by the 10 236 30

Assyrians 5 241

p. 88. For the kings of Babylonia, we have aleo found another chronological tradition, beginning with Nebukadnezar the First (i.o. Nahonassar), and ending with the time when in consequence of the death of Alexander & Krfrys, people began to date by the reigns of the Ptolemaan princes. This tradition, now, we have transferred into this book, having corrected the numbers for the duratione or their reigns. As to the names, how- ever, I have simply transcribed them letter by letir, since I bave net had an opportunity to cerrect them according to their pronunciation. 40 The following table contains thie chronolegical tradition.

ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 101

How long TABLE OF THE KINGS OF THE OHALDEANS. each The sum of them of the reigned. years.

Bukbtanaşşar Primus. With him the era in the Almagest begins 14 14 . Nebucadnezar. Nadios 2 16 Chinzeros 21 Ilulaios 26 10 Mardokempad 12 38 Arceanus 5 43 'Αβασίλευτος 45 Bilibes 48 Aparanadios 6 54 Erigebalos 55 Mesesimordakos 4 59 'Αβασίλευτος δεύτερος 8 67 Asaridinos 13 80 Saosduchinos 20 100 20 Nabopolassaros and Kiniladanos 22 122 Nebucadnezar 21 143 Bukhtanassar, who conquered Jerusalem 43 186 2 188 p. 89

Balțeshaaşar 4 192 Darius the Median, the First 17 209 Cyrus, who rebuilt Jerusalem 218 Carabyses 8 226 Darius 36 262 Xerxes 21 283 30 Artaxerzes Primus 43 326 Darius 19 345 Artaxerxes Secundus . 46 391 Ochus 21 412 2 414 Darius 6 420 Alexander ben Macedo, o kriomys 8 428 ..

Henceforward people commenced to date from the reign of Philippus.

102 ALBİRONİ.

p. 90. NAMES OP THE COPTIC KINOS IN EOTPr. How long They are 34 in number, besidea the Persiana, and eaob The sum they reigned during 894 years. of them of the reignod yeare.

I. Diospolitæ 178 Smendis 26 178 Susennes Nepherchsres. 101 204 305 V. Amentphthis . 4 309 9 Osochôr 318 Psineches 6 824 9 Psûsennês 833 10

35 Sesonchôsis 368 X. Osôrthôn 21 389 .

Takelothie 15 *13 404 .

Petbastis 417 Osôrthôn 25 442 Peammos 451 10 XV. otous,t (Euphaniaa ?) 461 Sabakon Athiops 44 12 505 Sebichôs 12 517 20 Tarakos Æthiops 529 20 Ammsris Æthiops 12 549 p. 91. XX. Stephinathis 561 7 Nechepsôs 568 6 Nechaô 574 . 8 Paammêtich 08 582 Nechepsô (?) Nechao (?) 44 626 6 XXV. Psammothis . 632 Vaphris 17 649 Amasis 25 674 716 30 The Persiang till Darius 42

Amyrtaios 114 830 6 XXX. Nepheritês 836 Achoris 6 842 Psammuthis and Muthatos (!) 12 854 . 2 Nektanebês 856 Teôs 13 869 XXXV. Nektanebos 876 18 894 Henceforward people ceased to date by the reigns of these and the Chaldean Fings 40 and commenced to use the era of Alex. ander the Greek.

. P. adds 68, L. adds 8, as tho reading of another mannecript.

ERAS, DATES, AND REIGXS OF KINGS. 103

Here we add the chrenological tables of the Ptolemaaus and the Roman Emperors. Chronolegy since the time of Phitippus (Aridæus) consists of three parts :- I. of Anni Philippi; II. of Anni Augnsti ; II of Anni Diocletiani. The first are the non.intercalated years of the Alexandrians; tho secord are the iuterealated years of the Grecks; and of the same kind as the second are the Anui Diocletiani. With this king a new era conunences, because, when the empire had devolved upon him, it remained with his descendants, and because after his death the Christian faith was generally adopted. Another (later) era than the 10 Era Diocletiani has not been mentioned, although the rule several times slipped out of the hands of his family. God knows hest! Here follow the tahles :-

NAMES OF THE KINGS OF MACEDONIA, who are the Greeks (lonians), also called How long Sam of p. 92.

Ptolemxans. they the reigned. years.

Philippns Alerander II. flius Alcxandri 7 12 19 Ptolemaus filius Lagi o Aoyixos. He conquered Palestine, went up to Jerusalem and led the 20 Israelites into captivity. Afterwards he restored them to liberty and made them a present of the vases of their Temple Ptolemaus Philadelphus. He caused the Thora 2C 39

to he translated into Greek 77 Ptolemæus Euergetes Phnakon Primus 38 25 102 Ptolemæus Philometor 17 119 Ptolemaus Epiphanes Phuskon Secandus . 24 Ptolemæus Phifopator the Deliverer 143 35 178 Ptolemmus Euergetes Alexander Secuudus 29 207 30 Ptolemæus Soter the Iron-smith, Artium Fautor 36 243 Ptolemens Dionysius Optimus Cleopatra, till the time when Gajus, in Latin 29 272

Julius, became Dictator . Cleopatra, till the death of Gajus and the succes- 275

sion of his son Augustus. Cleopatra, till the time when he (Augustus) killed 4a.6m. 279

her 14a. 6m. 294 ..

The calling Cleopatra by the name of Ptolemœus is a point of dis- cuasion, on account of ber being a woman. But as she resided in 40 Alexandria, and waa the queen of it, she was called by that name. Gajus, in Latin Julius, meuns " king of the world."

104 ALRIRONİ.

93. NAMES OF THE ROMAN CIKGS, i.e. the Crsers who resided in komo. Thoy aro How long eaoh of Sum of the Banu-el'asfar, i.e. the descendants tbe of Sepho ben 'Elfphaz ben Esan ben Isaak ben Abrabam. tkem reigaed. Jears.

Augustus Cæsar, after he had killed Cleopatra 43 43 Tiberius filius Augusti 22 65

Claudius, who killed the Apostle Paul and Simeon Gajus 4 69

Petrus 14 83 Nero, who killed the believers 14 97 10 Vespasianus. One year after his accession to the throne he conguered Palestine, and having he- sieged the Jews in Jerusalem for three years, he destroyed it, killed many, scattered the rest over the empire, and aboliahed their religious rites 10 107 Titus . 110 Domitianus. In the9th year of his reign Johannes the Evangelist was banished. Thereupon he hid himself on an island till the emperor's death. Then he left the island and dwelt in Ephesus 15 125 20 Nerva 1 126 Trajanus 19 Hadrianus. 145 It was he who destroyed Jerusalem and forbads anyone entering it in the 18th year of his reign 21 166 Antoninus. It was he who rebuilt Jerusalem. Galenus says that hs composed a book on ana- tomy in the beginning of his reign 28 189 Commodus 82 221 94. Severus and Antoninus 25 Antoninus alone. Towarde the end of his reign 246 30

Galenuş died Alexander filius Mammem. Mammma means 4 250

" woak" 13 263 Mariminus 266 Gordianua 272 Philippus 6 278 Decius, who occurs in the story of the Seven Sleepers 1 279 Gallus 3 282 Valerianus 15 287! 40

Claudius 1 288 Aurelianus 6 294 Prohus 301 Carus and Carinus 2 308

ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 105

How long p. 95.

NAMES OF THE KIXOS OP CeaISTEXDOM. each of Anui them Diocle- reigued tiaui.

Diocletianne Coustaotious. The frst king who adopted Christianity. Ho 21 2 1

hailt tbe walle of Constantinople. In the 1st ycar of his reign hia mother, Hclene, sought for tba wood of the Cross,

10 which sho fnally foond. lo the 19th year the bishops

tianity assembled in Nicga end estshligbed tho canons of Cbris-

Constantinus (Coostsutins) 63 24 Juljanos Apostata 77 2 79 Yalentiniaons Valens. Ile was bnrned, in escaping, in a barn 1 80 14 94 Theodosius the Great 17 111 Arcadina, his con 124 Theodosins Minor. In his time Nestorios wes escommnni- 13

Marcianne aod bis wife Palcherie. In thair tima the Jacobites 42 166 20 catcd .

were excommnunicsted 6 172 Leo tha Grent. Hc belouged to the moderate party . 18 Zano Alarmineki. He wae a Jacobito . 17 190

Anastasms. He built Ammorium, and wes a Jacobite 27 2 07 234 Jnstintis Justiniaoue. He bnitt the church in Ruha (Edessa) 243 87 Tiberins . Mauricios. Ho belped Kisra against Balrim Shubin . 14 2 80 204

Phoces, who wee besieged in Coustantinople by Sbahrberdz, 14 2 98!

30 the general of Kiara 8 Heraclius tho wise 318! p. 96.

Coustaotinus. He was murdered in the beth 81 319 350 Constaations 27 977 Constantioes 16 399 Justiniauus. Tho Greeka cnt off his noso Leontins. He was found to be a weak mau, being decrepit. 10 403

So be was dethroned 8 406 Tiberius. Apsimarus 418 Justinianns Rhinomêtos 419 40 Philippicus Anastasine. Atlimns (Artemius). He wss dethroned, when 422

21 he could not carry on the wur 424 Theodosing. Hs was besieged by Maslama bau 'Abd-almalik Lee the Great. Hn deceived Maslama and repuised him from 425

Coustantinople 24 449 Coostantiuns, tha sou of Leo the Greot 34 489 Leo Junior, tha son of Constantiuus Seuior 4 Constantinus Jnnior, the son of Leo Janior 487 18

50 Angusta (Irene) raled tbo Greok empire 506 510 Nicephoras and 8tauracins tho son of Nicephorus Michael the son of Georgina 18 528

Lco, till be was murdered by Hicheel iu the church 7 -

Michael Constantinopolitanos, the murdcrer of Leo bee Theo. philus han Michael Constantinopolitanus Baailina the Rlavonian, the laat of their kinga . 7a. 6m. 8a. 5m.

106 ALBİRONİ.

97. THE KINGS OP CONSTANTINOPLE, How long ns Hamza Alisfuhant recorda them on the each of themn Sum of tho years. authority of the judge Alwaki', who took them reigned. from a book that belonged to the Greek Emperor. Years. Months. Years. Mouths.

Conetantinas, the son of Helene, the Victorious 81 0 81 Constantinos, his 6o0 24 0 55 0 Jnlianus hie nephow 2 6 67 6 Theodosins 10 68 . Gratianus. Valectiniaons 74 8 10 Arcadius, the sou of Theodoelus 13 87 Theodosius, the sou of Arcadina 42 129 . Murcisnns 29 0 158 Leo Benior 16 0 174 6 Leo Junior 1 0 175 6 Zeno 192 . 17 0 6 Ansatasins 27 4. 219 10 Antlis . 11 281 Kastrondns. Daring his reign the Prophet was horn 88 269 10 Stephanus 4 8 2781 1 20 Marcianns (Mauricins). Daring hie reigu the Pro- phot recoived his Divine mission 20 208 5 Phocas. During his reign the fight of the Prophet 0 Heraolius sad his eon. During their roign the Pro- occnrred 8 801 6

pbet diod 81 0 992 . 98. Conetantions, the souof Heraclee 25 0 367 P Constantinos, the son of Heracles' wife 17 0 88 6 Constantinna, the son of Hsraolos 10 0 894 . Leo or Leou (LAwi or Elyan) 8 0 397 5 30 Tiherias 0 411 ₱ 5 . Estinus (Justinianne). 6 0 417 . Ana stasius 6 0 429 Theodosias 0 426 Leo. Daring his reign the empire of the Bant- 'Umayya wae dismomberod 25 450 Loo, tho aon of Constantinus. People think that he was & worthless character, notwithstanding the iength of hie reign 0 466 8 Constautinus, the son of Leo 10 465 8 40 Constautinus 6 6 471 11 Irecs, who received the empire from her father 0 476 11 Nicephorus, at the tims of Hardn Alrashtd . 8 11 488 Stauracius, hie eon 486 10

5 478 P] 0 Miohael, hie 6o0 Theophilne, his son 22 8 498 Micheol, the eon of Theophilus. With this king ths dynasty oxpiros at the time of the Khalif Al- mo'tarz 28 0 626 8 Baeilics tho Slavonian 20 0 646 50 Loo tho soo of Beailioe. Anno Hijrm 278 at the timo of Almu'tadid . 26 0 [672] Alexander, the sou of Basilius. Hs dicd from a tumour in ths bolly, A.H. 299 1 2 [678] 10 Coustantinus, the con of Loo, A.H. 801.

ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 107

Chronology of the Persians .- The Persians call the first man p. 99. Gayomarth, with the surname Girshah, i.e. " king of the mountain," or, as others say, Gilshah, i.e. "king of the clay," because at that time there was no other man in existence (but himself, there being nothing but clay). People say that his name (Gayomarth) means " a living, rational, mortal being." The chronology of the Persians beginning with Gayomarth is divided into three parts :-

A. Part I. From Gayomarth till the time when Alexander killed 10 Darius, seized upon the provinces of the Persians, and transferred their scientifio treasures to his own country. B. Fart II. From that time till the time when Ardashir ben BAbak came forward, and the Persian empire was re-established. C. Part III. From that time till the time when Yazdajird ben Shahryar was killed, when the empire of the Sasanian dynasty was dissolved and Islam arose.

Regarding the beginnmg of the world, the Persians relate many curious traditions, how Ahriman, i.e. the devil, was born out of the thought of God and of his pride in the world. And also regarding 20 Gayomarth: for God, being hewildered at the sight of Ahriman, was covered with sweat on the forehead; this he wiped off and threw away; and out of this sweat Gayomarth was born. Then God sent him to Ahriman, who overpowered him, and began to travel about in the world, always riding upon him. At last, Ahriman asked him what was the most odious and horrible thing to him. Whereupon he said, that on arriving at the gate of hell he would suffer a painful terror. On having arrived, then, at the gate of hell, he became refractory, and managed by various contrivances to throw off the rider. But now Ahriman re- mounted him, and asked him from what sida he was to begin devouring 80 him. Gayomarth answered: "From the side of tho foot, that I may still for some time look at the beauty of the world," knowing quite well that Ahriman would do the contrary of what he told him. Then Ahriman commenced devouring him from the head, and when he had comc as far as the testicles and the spermatic vessels in the loins, two drops of sperma fell down on the carth. And out of these drops grew two Ribas bushes (Rheum ribes), from among which Mesha and Meshina sprang up, i.e. the Pereian Adam and Eve. They are also called Malha and MalhayAna, and the Zoroastrians of Khwarizm call them Mard and Mardana. 40 This is what I have heard from the geometrician, 'Abd-alhasan Adharkhur. In a different form this tradition, regarding the origin of mankind, is related by 'Abfi-'Ali Muhammad ben 'Ahmad Albalkhi, ths poet, in the

108 ALBİRONİ.

ShAhoAma, who premisee that he has corrected hie report on tho basie of the following sources :- I. Kital-siyar-almulak by 'Abdallth ben Almukaffa'. by Muhammad ben Aljahm Albarmaki. III. by Hisham ben Alkasim. IV. by Bahram ben Mardanshah, the Maubadh of the city of Sabur. v. by Bahram ben Mibran Alisbahanf. Besides he has compared his account with that of the Zcroastrian Babrâm of Herat. He saye : Gayomarth stayed in Paradise 3,000 years, 10 i.e. the millennia of Aries, Taurus, and Gemini. Then he fell down on the earth and lived there safely and quietly three other millennia, those of Cancer, Leo, and Virgo, till the time when all that is evil in the world wae brought about by Abriman. The story is as followe: that Gayo- marth, who was called Girshah, because Gir means in Pahlavi " moun- tain," dwelt in the mountains (AljibAl-Media), being endowed with so 100. much beanty that no living being conld view him without becoming terrified and losing the control of its senaes. Now, Ahriman had a son called Khruira, who one day met with Gayo- marth, and was killed by him. Whereupen, Ahriman complained to God 20 of Gayômarth; and God resolved to punish him in order to keop those covenants that existed between him and Ahriman. So he showed him first the punishments of this world and of the day of regurrection and other things, so that Gayomarth at last desired to die, whereupon God killed him. At the same moment two drons of sperma fell down ont of his loins on the meuntain Damdadh in Istakhr, and out of them grew two Rihas-bushes, on which at the beginning of the ninth month the limbs (of two human bodies) began to appear, which by the end of that month had become complete and assamed human shape. These two are Meaha and Meshyana. Fifty years they lived without any necessity for 30 eating and drinking, joyfally and without any pain. But then Ahriman appeared to them in the shape of an old man, and induced them to take the fruit of the trees. He himself commenced eating them, whereupon he at once again became a young man. And now they (Mesba and Ma- ahyana) began to eat. Then they were plunged into misfortunes and evils. Lust arose in them, in consequence of which they copulated. A child was born unto them, but they devoured it from abeer ravenoueness. But then God inspired their hearts with mildness. Afterwards the wife gave birth to six other children, the names of whom are known in the Avasti. The soventh birth produced Siyamak and Fravak, who married 40 and begot a eon Hoshang. Regarding the chronology of this first part, the lives of the kinge and their famous deeds, they relate things which do not seem admisaible to the mind of the reader. However, the aim of our undertaking being to

ERAS, DATES, AXD REIGNS OF KINGS. 109

coleot and to communicate ehronological material, net to criticize and correct historical aceounts, we record that on which the scholars of the Persians, the Herhadhs, and Maubadhs of the Zoroastrians agrec among themselves, and whieh is reccived on their authority. At the same time we collect the materials in tables, as wo have done lieretofore, in order that our work may procerd on the samo plan which we have laid down for the chronologies of the other nations. To the naines of the kings we add their epithets, because they are distinguished by individual epithets, whilst as to the other kings, if they 10 have any epithet at all, it is one common to their whole class, by which he as well as everybody elsc who reigns in hia place is called. Those common epithets correspond to the Shahanshah of the Persians. A list of them we give in the following table :- The Epithets The Classes of Princes. that appls to the Prinees of these Classea.

The Sasanian kings of the Persians . Shahanshah and Kisra. The Greek kings Bâsili, i.e. Cæsar. The kings of Alexandria Ptolemœus. 20 Yaman Tubba'. the Turks, Chazar, and Ta- p.l gharghnz . Khakhan. the Ghuzz-Turks. Hanuta. .. the Chinese . Baghbûr. India Balhara. Ķannûj Râbt. the Ethiopians Alnajasht. the Nnbiang Kabil. the islands in the eastern 30 oceam Maharaj. the mountains of Tabaristan Ispahhadh. Dunbawand Masmaghan. Gharjistân ShAr. Sarakhs Zadbawaibi. Nasa and Abiward Bahmana. Kash Nidân. 01 Farghana Ikhshid. Asrushana Afshin. Shâsh . Tudun. 40 Marw . Mahawaihi. Nishapur Kanbar. Samarkand Tarkhun. Sarir Alhajjâj. Dahistân Sûl. Jurjân Anâhpadh.

110 ALBİRONİ.

The Claases of Princes. The Epitheta that apply to the Princos af theso Clasees. 02. The kings of the Sclavonians Ķabbâr. the Syrians . Nimrodh. the Egyptians Pharaoh. Bâmiyin Shir-i.BamiyAn. Egypt . Al'aziz. Kabul . Kibul-Shâh. Tirmidh Tirmidh-Sbab. 10 Khwarizm Khwarizm-Shah. Shirwin Shirwan-Shah. Bukhâr BukhAra-Khudah. Gûzgânân Guzgan-Khudah. Individual epithets (of princes) were not in use befors the reign of Islam, ercept among the Persians. Part I. is divided into three parts :- 1. Pehdudhians, those who ruled over the whole world, founded cities, discovered mines and produced the metale, and found out the elementa of handierafts and arts; who practised justice on earth, and worshipped 20 God as is his due. 2. Kinga of Elan, which means " paople of the highlande." They did not rule over the whole earth. The first who divided the empires of the world was Fredun the Pure, for he divided them between his sons, as a poet, a descendant of the family of the kisrus, says- "Then we have divided our empire in our time, Just as people divide meat on a meat-board. Syria and Greece es far as the setting-place of the sun We have given to a champion, to Salm. To Tos the Turks were given, and so a cousin 30 Holds the country of the Turka. And to Eran Alirak was given by dint of force. He has Obtained tho rule, and we have obtained the benefits thereof."

3. Kayanians, the heross. In their days the rule over the world became divided between the various nations. Between those parts (of ancient Persian chronology) there are gaps, on account of which the order and progress of chronology are much troubled and obscured. Here follow the kinga of Part L, according to the opinion of the generality of the Persians. 40

ERAS, DATES, AND REIONS OF KINGS. 111

p.109. The How classes THe NAMES OS TnE PERBIAN KINGS long of tha of PART I. Their Sum Epithets. eachof of the : Kinga. , them reigned. Jeara.

Gavômartk Till tho birth of Megha and Meshana, who is Girsbab 80 30

called "Mater fliorum cr filiarum." Theso

10 two are the Persian Adam and Ers . Till Mesht and Meshang married 40 70 190 inen

Till the birth of Hoshang 50 99 218 The frst

Hoshang bon Afriwak hen Siyamak hen Mesb& 259 Tahmtrath ben Wijahan hon Inkabadh ben Ho- Peahdadlı 40

shang-till the coming-forward of Budasnf . Zebawaud 1 Tho same-after that event 254 289 Jam ben Wijnhan. From the tims when he erdered psople to fahricato weapone till tho time when be ordered them to spin and

20 Till the time wben be ordorod people to divide weava . Shêdh 60

themsalves into feur classes . Till the time whon be made war upon tho 50 383

demone and gabdoed them Till tho time wheu he ordered the demons to 50 489

break rocks oat of the monntains and to carry

Till the timg when ho ordered a whcelod- them 100 539

carriage to be conatructed. It was con- stracted, and he rode upon it . 66 599 30 After that, poople lived in health ond happiness -till the time when be hid himself 300 S99 Ho coatined to ho hidden-till he was scized hy Aldabblk, who tore nut his howels and sawed bim with a anw 999 Tho Pishdlidians, the Just. Aldahbtk heo 'Ulwan of the Amalekites or- 100

with aoother namo-Bevarosp hen Arwand- asp ben Zingas hen Barishand ben Ghar, who was the fatber of the pure Arabiane, ben Afrawak ben Siyamak ben Misba 1999 40 Afredan ben Athfian Gan hen Athfiyin Nigao Azbdohak 1000

hen Athfyan ben Shabrghe ben Athfiran p.104.

Akbunhagan hen Athfyan Sipedhgio ber Athfyan Dizsgio ben Athfiyan Nigao ben Nefurtah ben Jam the King . Almanbadb 200 2199

fmj. He was killed by his brothers Salm and ?8j, who reighed after bim. They were oll thres sone of Afredun Almnstafa 300 2499 Minoshjihr ban Guzan, the daughter of fraj-

50 till the timo wben he killed Toj and Salm, i.B. Sbarm in Persian . Till the tima when the son of Toj occapied Feroz 20 2519

Branshabr, and drove Miuosbjibr out of the conntry 60 2579 Firdsiyds hen Bashang ben fnat hen Rishman ben Tork ben Zshanaap hen Arshasp ben Taj the highlands. -till tbe time when Mintshjihr guined tbe victory over bim and drove bim away. There. npon thay mado a treaty on the baais ef the well-known arrow-shet 12 2591 The kings of Elln, the people of

112 ALBİRONİ.

The How TOs NAMEA OF THE PESSIAn EJNOS Their Jong Sum of the of PAAT I. Epithets. each of of the Kings. them . feara. roigned.

Minbebjibr-till bia death Tozh the Turk ooenpying Alrak 28 FirAsiyAb 2619 12 2631 Zab ben Tahmaap bon Kamjahtbar ban Ze hen Htebab hen Widinak ben Dusar hen Mi- noahjihr together with- Garshasp, i.e. 8Am boa Nariman bon TahmAap The two 5 2636 . 10

han Ashak hen Noah ben Dueer ban Mi. companions.

noehjihr the people of tbe bighlande. The kings of Elan,

Kaikobodh ban Zegh ban Nudhagå ban MAiebt hon Nodbar hen Minbahjibr Kaikdas ben Kainiya ben Kaikohaah-till ha Tha Firat 100 2736

rebelled, wherenpon be was takea prisoner by Shammar and afterwarde delivered by Bustam ben Daatan han Garsbasp the King . Nimrud 75 2811 Tho same-from the latter event till hia death .

Kaikhttsrt bon Siytwnsb hen Kaikats-till tha 2886 20

time when ho wont away as a holy pilgrim and hid bimaalf Kailuhrusp ben Kaiwajl hen Kaimanish hen Humtyun 60 2946

Kaiknbådb-till be sont Bnkhtanaasar to Jerusalem, wha deatroyed it . The Bartrian 60

Kaiwiahtdap bon Luhriep-till the appearance 60 3006 .105. The aame after that event 3066 . .

of Zoroaster The esme after that eveat Alberbadb 30 3096

Eai Ardashtr-Bahman hen lefandiyar ben 90 3186

WiahtAap s Tall in 30 112 3298 The KayAnians, the beroes.

Khumdnf tha danghter of Ardaabir Babman . { the body. 3

Dard ben Ardashtr-Bahman Cihrâzad . 30 12 3328

Dird ben Dård-til he wae killed by Alesander The great 3940

tha Grook Tha aecond 14 3354 .

The account of the chronology of this Part I., which we have given, is stated very differently in the Kitab-alsiyar. Our account, however, comes nearest to that view regarding which people agree. The chro- nology of this same part, but in a different shape, I have also foond in 40 the hook of Hamza ben Albusain Alisfahani, which he calls " Chronology of great nations of the past and present." He says that he has ender.voured to correct his account by means of the Abasta, which is the religious code (of the Zoroastrians). Therefore I have transferred it into this place of my book.

ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 113

TABLE IJ. OF PART I.

How long p.106. each of Sum of NANES OF THE PESRDADAIAN KINGS, them tha taken from the Abasth, heginning with reigned. Years. Gayomarth.

Gayomarth the first man 40 40

An interregnum of 170 years.

Hôshang 40 80

Țahmūrath . 30 110

10 Jam . 616 726

Bawarasp 1000 1726

Afrêdun 500 2226

Minoshcihr . 120 2346

Firåsyab 12 2358

An interregnum of unknown length.

Zåb . 9 2367 .

Garshasp together with ZAb 2370

An interregnum.

NAVES OF TH& KAYANIAN KINGS. p.107. 20 Kaikobādh . 126 2494

Kaikaus 150 2646

Kaikhusran . 80 2726

KailubrAsp . 120 2846

Kaibishtasp . 120 2966

Kaiardaahir. 112 3078 .

Cihrâzad 30 3108

DarA ben Bahman 12 3120

Dårå ben Dâra 14 3134

8

114 ALBİRUNİ.

p.108. Forther, Hamsa relates that he has found also this part of Persian chronology in the copy of the Maubadh, such as is exhibited in the following table :-

TABLE IL OF PART 1.

How long each of Sam of the NAMES OP THE PESHDADELAN KINGS, them reigned. Years. taken from the Copy of the Manbsdh.

Gayomarth 30 Mesha and Meshanh-till they got children 30 50 80 Till their death 50 130 Interregnum 94 224 Hoshang 40 264 Tabmuroth 30 294 Jam-till he hid himself 616 910 He remained hidden 100 1010 Bewarasp 1000 2010 Frêdun 500 2510 Minôsh cihr 120 2630 Zů and Garshåsp 4 2634 20

p.109. NAMRA OF THE KAYANIN KINGO. Ksikohâdh 100 2734 . Kaikâds 150 2884 . Kaikhuarau . 60 2944 Luhrasp 120 3064 Bishthap 120 3184 Ardashir 112 3296 CihrâzAd 30 3326 Dara ben Babman 12 3338 . Dårå ben Dara 14 3352 30

p.110. In the biographical and historical boole that have been translated from the works of Western authors, you find an account of the kings of Persia and Babylonia, beginning with Fredun, whom they call, as people say, Yafol (Pal ?), and ending with Dara, the last of the Persian kings. Now, we find that these records differ greatly (from Eastern records) as to the nmber of the kings and their names, as to the durations of their reigns, their history, and their description. I am inclined to think that they confounded the kings of Persia with their governors of Babylonia, and put both side by side. Butif we altogether refrain from mention- ing those records, we should deprive this book of something that forms 40 a due part of it, and we should torn away the mind of ths reader there- from. We, now, exhibit this tradition in a special table of its own, in

ERAS, DATES, AND REIONS OF KINGS. 115

order to prevent oonfusion getting into the arrangement of the various syetems and traditione of thie book. Here it followe :-

THE KINGS OF PERSIA, How long beginning with Fredun, according to each of Snm of

Western outhors. them the

rei gud . Teara.

Yâfil, i.s. Fredun 35 85 Tighlath Pilesar 35 Salmanaasar, i.e. Salm 70

Sanherib ben Salmanassar, i.e. in Persian : Sanh- 14 84 10 raft 93 Sardum (Ezarhaddon), ie. Zu ben Tumaep 99 .

After him the following powerful kings 96

reigned :- Kaikobidh . 49 145 Sanherib II. p.111. 31 MAjam 176

Bukhtanaşşar, i.e. KaikAde 33 209

Evilad hen Bukhtanaşar 57 266 1 267 20 Belteshagear hen Evilad 2 269 . Dara Almâbî I., i.e. Darius . 9 . Koreah, i.a. Kaikhusrau 278 8 286 Cyrus, i.e. Lubraep 84 320 Cambyeee 80 400 Dara II. 36 Xerxes ben DArA, i.s. Khusran I. 436

Ardashir ben Xerxes, called ponpoxep, i.e. Longi- 26 462

manue 41 503 . 30 80 Khusran II. . Sogdianue, Notos ben Khusran 533 9 Ardashir ben Dar& II. 542

Ardaghir III. 41 583 27 Arsea ben Ochus 610 12 Dåra, the last king of Persia 622 16 638 .

The Jews, Zoroastrians, Christiana, and the rarious eects of them, p.112. relate the origines mundi and carry chronology down from them, baving previously admitted the troth ofsuch origines, and Laving gained certain viewe regarding them, on which people either agree or differ. He, how- ever, who denice euch origines, cannot adopt that which is built upon 40 them, except after producing various eorts of interpretations which he adds of his own. However, those origines mundi, i.e. Adam and Eve, have been nsed as the epoch of an era. [And some pcople maintain that time consiats of cyclee, at the end of which all created boings perish, whilst they grow at their beginning; that each aneh eycle has a special Adam and Eve of ita own, and that the chronology of thie cytle depende upon them. 8 *

116 ALBiRONt.

Other people, again, maintain that in each cycle a epecial Adam and Eve erist for each eountry in particular, and that hence the differeuce of human structure, nature, and language is to be derived. Other people, besidee, hold thie foolish persuasion, vis. that time has no terminus a quo at all ; they take eome dogmas from the foundere of religions, in order to conetruct some system by means of them. Many philosophere of this clcss have built np suoh ayeteme. You could hardly find a prettier tale of this kind than that one produced by Sa'td ben Muhammad Aldhuhlf in his hook. For he saye: "People lived in bitter enmity and strife with each other; the better among them were 10 maltreated and oppreesed by the worse. But then, at last, the just king, Peshdadh, tranaplanted them to a place, called Firdaus (Paradise), situated between Adan and Serendib. It was a place where aloe, clovee, and various eorta of perfumce were growing, and all kinds of delicioue things were to be found. There they dwalt, till one day a demon ("Ifvif) came apou them, the king of the wicked, and began quarrelling with them. In the same place Peshdadh found a boy and girl, the parents of whom were unknown. Theee he educated and called them Meahd and Meshana, and made them marry each other. Thereupon thay committed sin, and so he drove them out of that country." The tale as it hae been related, 20 is extremely long. He says that the interval between the time of their settlement in Paradise, the beginning of all chronology, and their meeting the demon was one year; till the time when Mesha and Meehana wero found,two more years elapsed; till their marriage, forty-one yeare; till their death, thirty years; and till the death of Peebdadh, ninety-nine years elapsed. But then he ceasee from going on with hie chronological account and does not carry it on. Chronology of the Ashkanians .- As to Part II. of Persian chro- nology from Alexander till the rise of Ardashir ben Babak, it muet be known that during this period the " Petty Princes" existed, i.e. those 30 princes whom Alexander had installed as rulers over certain epecial dis- tricts, who were all totally independent of each other. To the same period belonge the empire of the Ashkaniane, who held 'Trak and the p.118. country of Mah, ie. Aljibal, under their eway. They were the must valiant among the " Petty Princes ;" still the othere did not obey them, but ouly honoured them for thie reason, that they descended from the royal Persian house For the first prince of the Ashkanians was dehk ben Ashkan, called Afghurshah ben Balach ben Shapur ben Ashkan ben . hen Siyawush ben Kaikads أص أنكمار Most Persian chroniclers have connected the reign of Alexander 40 immediately with that of the first Ashkanian prince, by which that period was most improperly curtailed. Othere say that the Aehkaniana came into power some time after Alexander, whilat othera go on blunder- ing without any knowledge of the matter. I ehail relate in thie place euch of their traditione ae I have learned,

ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 117

and shall endeavour, as much as is in my power, to amend that which is wrong, to refute that wbich is false, and to establish the truth, beginning with that which corresponds most nearly to the Table I. of Part I., 1 also call it Table I. (of Part II.) :-

TABLE OF THE NAMES OF THE ASHRANIAN KINGS, How long corresponding to the Table I. of Part I. each Sum

Their Sornames- of them of the reigned. Yeare.

Alexander the Greek. 14 14 10 Ashk ben Asbkan Khoshdih 13 27 Ashk ben Ashk ben Ashk 52 Shapur ben Ashk : Asbkân 25 Zarrin 30 82 Babram ben Sbapur . . Khurn 21 103 Narsi ben Bahram . Gisuwar 25 128 Hurmuz bon Narsi : Slar 168 . Bahram ben Hurmuz . 40 Roshan 25 193 Feroz ben Babcam Balad 17 210 Kisra ben Feroz Baradib 20 230 Narsi ben Ferôz ShikAri 30 260 20 Ardawan ben Narsi The last 20 280

Next follows what corresponds to the Table II. of the same Part I., p.114. that which Hamza bas taken from tbe Abasta. This, again, I call the Tabula II., for the purpose of connecting those portions of the tbree parts of Pereian chronology that bear the same name (as Table I., II., IIL of Parte I., II., III.) with each other, and to bring the tables, thereby, into a good order. It will not be necessary to mention this another time :- TABLE II. OF PART II. IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE TABLES.

How loug Sum 80 NAMES OF TEE ASHORAKIAN KINGS, each according to Hamza. of them of the reigned. Tears.

Alezander the Greek 14 14 Ashk ben Balash ben Shapur ben Asbkan ben Ash the hero 52 66 Shapur ben Ashk 24 90 Jdhar ben Wijan ben Shapur 50 140 Wijan ben Balash ben Shapur, the nepbew of the preceding . 21 161 40 Judhar ben Wijan ben Balash 19 180 Narsa ben Wijan 30 210 1 Hurmuzan ben Balash, the uncle of the preceding . 17 227 Ferozan ben Hurmuzan 12 239 . Khusrau ben Ferozan 40 279 . Balash ben Ferozån 24 303 Ardawan ben Balash ben Ferozan 55 358 -. 1 1

118 ALBİRUNİ.

To this I add that which in the order of the tables is the third one, which Hamza saye he has taken from ths copy of ths Mauhadh, in order that the snbject may be carried on, as it has been dons in ths two pre- cading tables. Hsre follows ths Table III. of Part II. :-

TABLE IH, OF PART II.

p.115.

NAMES OF THE ASRRANIAN KINOS, How long each Sum taken by Hamza from the Copy of the Maubadh. of them of the reigned. Yearg.

Alezander the Greek After him reigned a claes of Greek princes, with 14 14 10

their Persian vizirs, altogether 14 in number 68 82 Ashk ben Dara ben Dara ben Dara 10 92 Ashk hen Ashkân 20 112 Shapur ben Ashkan 60 172 Babrâm ben Shapûr 11 183 Balash hen Shapur . 11 194 Hurmuz hen Balash 40 234 Feroz hen Hurmuz . 17 251 Balish ben Feroz 12 263 20 . Rhusrau ben Maladhin 40 303 BalAshân 24 327 . Ardawan ben Balashan 13 840 Ardawan the Great ben Ashkanan 23 363 Khusrau ben Ashkanin 15 378 . Bahafirid ben Ashkinan 15 Judhar ben Ashkanan 393 . 22 Balash ben Ashkanan 415 30 445 Narsi ben Ashkanan 20 465 Ardawan, ths last 31 496 30

0.116. Next I shall produce what I found in the chronicle of 'Abu-alfaraj 'Ibrabim ben 'Ahmad ben Khalaf Alzanjant the mathematician. This man, on having taken pains to compare the discordant traditions with each other, gives the following account of the " Petty Princes," and ths durations of their reigns, as is exhibited in the following table. He maintains that the Persians firod only the historical tradition regarding the Ashkanian princes, not regarding the other " Petty Princea," and that the Asbkanians first brought 'Lrak and Jibal under their sway Anno Alerandri 246.

ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF RINCS. 119

How long THE ASHK ANIANS, each of Sum according to the Chronicle of 'Abu.alfataj. them of the reigned. Yearg.

Alexander the Greek 14 14 The " Petty Princes" 246 260 Afghûrsháh . 10 270 Shapur ben Ashkân 60 330 Judhar, Senior 10 340 ah-10 Bizan the Ashkanian 21 361 tanes Judbar the Ashkanian 19 380 Narsi ths Ashkanian 40 420 Hurmuz 17 437 Ardawan 12 449 Khusrau 40 489 Balasb 24 513 Ardawan, Junior 13 526

We have also found & chronological synopsis of this same Part IL in the Shihnama by 'Abu-Mangur 'Abd-alrazzak, ouch as we exhibit in the 20 following table :-

p.117 How long THE ASHKANIANS, each of Sum according to the Shahnama. them of the reigned. Years.

Ashk ben Dara, according to others a descendant of Arish 13 13 Ashk ben Ashk 25 38 Shapur ben Ashk 30 68 . Bahram ben Shapur 51 119 80 Narsi ben Bahram . 25 144 Hurmuz ben Narsi . 40 184 Babrâm ben Hurmuz 5 Hurmuz 189 7 Feroz ben Hurmuz . 196 20 216 Narai ben Ferôz 30 246 Ardawan 20 266

The nature of this Part II. is brought to light by a comparative examination of these tables. It is a period that hegins with Alexander's conquest of Persia, and ends with the rising of Ardashir ben Babak 40 and hie seizing the empirs out of the hands of the Ashkanians. Both these limits are well known, and generally agreed upon. How, then,

120 ALBİRUNİ.

can the interval between them be a matter of doubt to us? However, it must be kept in mind that we are uot able to make out by a mere course of reasening the duration of the rule of eac !. of the Ashkanian prinees, nor of the other " Petty Princes," nor the number of the persons who occupied the throne. For all this depends upon historical tr dition, ank it is well.knewn to what mishap tradition has been subject. The least, now, we must try to do is to amend this Part II. as much as ia in our power. It is evident and not unknown to anybody, that the year in which Yazdajird came to the throne was A. Alex. 948. This undeniable date 10 we shall keep in mind as a basis, and establish it as a gauge by which to measure all their records. Let us first take the sum of years which we get from the Table I. of Part Il., i.e. 280 yeare. Hereto we add that sum which we shall 118. exhibit in the Table I. of Part III. for the time from the beginning of the reign of Ardashir till that of the reign of Yazdajird, it order to combine the like tables (i.e. Table I., II., III. of Part II. respectively, with Table I., II., III. of Part III.) with eacb other. This latter period is ahont 410 years. So we get a sum of

690 years, 20

which is less than ovr gauge by about 253 years. We shall drop this calculation ad not take further notice of it. Next we cengider the sum of years contained in the Table II. of Part II., i.e. 358 years. Hereto we add the aum which will he exhibited by Table II. of Part III., corresponding to the sum that occurs in the firet calculation, and ws get the sum total of

818 years, which is again less than our gauge by about 125 years, We shall drep this calculation, too, and proceed to the Tables III. in Parts II. and III., and add them together in the same way as we have 80 done with Table I. and II. Then we get the sum of 990 peare, which is again below our gauge by about thirteen years. We drop this calculation, snd do net further notice it. For chronology does not admit of this difference, although it may be so slight as nearly to approach the truth. If we maka the same calculation with the years exhibited in the book of 'Abu-alfaraj, combining the corresponding tables with each other, we get the sum of 949 yoe.rs, . 40

which exceeds our gauge by six years.

ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 121

If we pase by this and add together the years as reported in the Shahnama for this Part II., with the result of any of the tables of Part III., this calculation would etill less agree with our gauge (than the preceding onee). Now we shall put aside all these calculations, and try to derive an emendation of them from the book of Mani, called Shaburken, since, of all Persian booke, it ie one that may be relied upon (as a witness) forthe time immediately following the rise of Ardashir (ben Babak). Besides, Mani in bis law has forbidden telling lies, and he had no need what- 10 soever for falsifying hietory. Mani, now, says in this book in the chapter of the coming of the prophet, that he was born in Babylonia Anno Astronomorum Babylonim 527, i.e. Anno Alex. 527, and four years after the beginning of the reign of the king Adharban, whom I believe to be Ardawan the Last. In the same chapter he says that he first received divins revelation when he was thirteen years of age, or Anno Astronomorum Babylonic 539, two years after the beginning of the reign of Ardashir the king of kings. Hereby Mani states that the interval bctween Alexander and Ardashir is 537 yeare, end that the interval between Ardashir and the succescion 20 of Yazdajird is 406 years. And this result is correct, being based upon the testimony of a book, favoured by God with a long duration, which is used as a religious code. Further, we are informed by traditions, the correctnesa of which ie proved hy their mutual agreement, that the last interealation was carricd out at the time of Yazdajird ben Shapur, and that the Epagomena were put at the end of that month, to which the turn of intercalation had p.119. come, vis. the eighth month (Aban-Mah). If, now, we count the interval between Alexander and Ardashir aa 537 years, we find the interval between Zoroaster and Yazdajird ben Shapur to be nearly 970 years, in 80 which eight leap monthe are due, since it was their custom to inter- calate one month in every 120 years. But if we count that interval (between Alexander and Ardashir) aa 260-270 years, or something more, a8 300 yeara, as most authore do, we get a sum of about 600 yeare, in which only five leap months would be dus, whilst we have already men- tioned their report stating that eight leap months are due in that period. The latter ie therefore an irreconcileable supposition (vis. that the interval between Alexander and Ardashir is not more than 260-300 years). Likewise it is written in the books of astrologers, that tho horoscope 40 of the year in which Ardashir (ben Babak) rose was about half of Gemini, and the horoscope of the year in which Yazdajird rose was the sixth degree of Cancer, If, now, we multiply 981 degrees, which ie the surplus of the solar cycle over the whole days according to the Persians, by 407 yeare, wo get the sum of 152 degrecs. If we subtract this from the rising-place of the degree of ths horoscope of that year, in which Yazdajird came to the throne, and take the aro of the remainder for the

122 ALBiRONİ.

rising-place of the region of 'Trak, which was the residence of the Kisras, the horoscops is half of Gemini close to the place, which the astrologers mention. If the years, however, are either more or less, the horoscope does not agree (with what it is reported to have been). So, of course, that which is confirmed by two witnesses is more trustworthy than that which is contradicted by many. If we add to the 407 years, mentioned by the astrologers, the 587 years which are reported by the Shaburkan, we get the sum of 944 years. And that is the year of the Ara Alexandri for Yazdajird's accession to the throne. The surplus of one year is only possible in the 10 reports of such anthors as do not give detailed statements regarding ths months and minor fractions of time, in cousequence of the fact that the years of the Persians and Greeks commence at different times. Hamza relates that Musa ben Isa Alkisrawi, on having studied this subject, and perceived the confusion we have mentioned, said : "The interval between Alerander and Yazdajird's accession to the throne is 942 years. If we subtract therefrom 266 years for the period of the reign of the Achkinians, we get for the rule of the Sasanians, from Ardashir till the accession of Yazdajird, 676 years, In their ow traditions the Persians have no such chronological system." 20 Further, he says: "Thereupon we studied and examined the number of their kings. And here be it noticed that they have forgotten the names of some of them, whom the chroniclers have not mentioned, blending together some of their names on account of their similarity. I shall enumerate them as they really are." Accordingly, he, i.e. Musa, has increased the durations of their reigns and their number, as we shall explain, when the order of our exposition comes to that suhject, if God permits. ).120. Chronology of the Sasanians,-Now we proceed to treat of the third part of Persian chronology, the beginning of which is the rising 30 of Ardashir ben Babak of the family of Bahman ben Isfandiyar. For he was the son of Dabak Shah hen Sasan ben Babak ben Sasan ben Bahafirid ben Mihnnish ben Sasan senior ben Bahman ben Isfandiyar. This part of chronology also is not free from the same defects that beset the former two parts, but still they are less considerable. I commencs this part with the Table I., corresponding to the (first) tables of each of the two preceding parts, and I shall proceed hereafter with Tabls IL and IIT. If you gather the dates from the single tables of the three parta, you get the consecutive course of Persian chronology. Here follows Tahle I. 40

p.121. NAKTS OF THE SICiNIAN KINOR corresponding to Tables la in Parts I. and II. Their Sarnames. How long cach of them roigued. Sam of the Yeara

Years, Months. Days. Tears, Months. Days. Ardasbir bea BAbak BåbakAo 14 10 0 14 10 0 Satpur ben Ardasbtr Firdib 30 G 12 45 4 12 . Harmnz ben Sh&por The Hero 10 47 12 Babram ben Hurmoz, wbo killed Maot . 1 0 2 . Yazdajao . 8 3 60 15 . 6. Babrâm ben Bahram Sh&hidib 17 0 0 67 15 . Babråm ben Bahråm ben Babråm Sakånsb&h 0 4 0 67 9 15 ERAS, PATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. . Narst ban Bahram ben Babrim Nakhćirkao + 9 0 0 76 9 15 Burmaz ben Narsi Kobpad . 7 0 81 15 . Shapur ben Harmaz Dhu-al'aktAf Edba-sunb 72 0 0 156 2 15 . 10. Ardasbir beo Hormaz 160 15 . Tho Beaatiful 4 0 0 2 Shåpor beo Shapur / Sabor-aljunud 5 0 165 6 15 Bebram ben Shåpur KarmanehAh . 11 0 0 17G 6 15 . 4 Yazdagird beo Shapur Scoloratos . 21 5 17 198 0 Babrâm hon Yazdagird Gầr 18 10 0 216 10 2 15. Yazdagird bon Bohråm . | Shabdost 18 8 28 235 2 0 Fredun ben Yazdagird Mard Ana . 27 0 0 262 2 0 p.122. Baldeh ben Feroz . : KarmAn-måna 4 0 0 265 0 Kobad ben Ferôz . I Nik-rat . 38 0 0 304 2 0 . Jimdep ben Fåroz, the brother of the proceding NikArew 0 0 306 2 0 20. Kobad ben Feroz, tho second time Ziodiķ 0 0 310 0 Kisr& Andabirwin-till the birth of the Prophot Tho Joet Kiog 41 0 0 351 2 0 The aame aftorwarde 7 0 358 9 0 Hurmuz bon Kisru-till be wae deposod and strangled TurkzAd 10 308 4 10 Kierl-till be carried tho wood of the Cross away from Aolia Parwiz tho Glorious King 33 0 401 10 The aame afterwarde-till the Flight of tbo Proplict O 1 8 401 5 18 Ths some afterworda-till he wae doposod, blinded, ond killed 4 10 22 40G 4 10 Kobad hen Eisra-till he perishod io tho plaguo Shirawaibi 0 8 0 407 0 10 25. Ardashir ben Sbirawoibi, 7 yoars old Tho Little Ono 1 6 0 408 10 Sbabrbariz, whom Kiard had sent out to besicge Constantiooplo Khorromtn 40g 18 Purin, danghter of Kisrd Parwiz. Her mothor wae Mary, tho dangbtor of the Cæsar Fnrtunota 1 4 0 409 18 Kiara bon Kobad ben Hormaz beo Kisrd Porwiz The Short Ono 0 10 0 410 18 8 80. Azarmidukbt, doughter of Parwiz, till ebo wae poisnnod Fêrôz 20 11 O Khoshdid 410 Tho Just 6 0 411 5 8 Farrukhzhd Kboeran, o child . 6 8 Tho Last King 0 1 411 Yaadagird ben Sbahryar bon Kisra Parwiz, 15 years old 20 0 0 431 6 123 After bim the ruie of the Arabiane oommenoed

124 ALBİRONİ.

p.123. The following Table II. rests on the authority of Hamza, who says that he has amended it by means of the Abasta, and transcribed it from the Kitab-alaiyar-Alkabir.

TARLE II. OF PART III.

How long eaoh of them Sum of the Years. NANES OF THE SARANIAN reigned.

KINus Years. Months. Days. Yeara. Monthe, Days.

Ardaohir Båbak 14 6 0 14 6 Shapur ben Ardashir 28 44 6 28 Hurmuz ben Shapur 1 10 0 46 4 28 10 Bahram ben Hurmuz 8 8 3 49 8 1 5. Bahram ben Bahrâm 17 0 0 66 8 1 Bahrâm ben Bahram ben Bahrâm 0 0 67 0 1 Narai ben Bahram 9 0 76 0 1 Hurmuz ben Narsi 7 5 89 5 1 1 ShApur ben Hurmuz Dhu-al'aktaf 72 0 0 155 5 1 10. Ardashir ben Hurmuz 4 0 159 5 1 20 Shapur ben Shapur 50 4 0 209 9 1 Bahrâm ben Shåpûr 11 0 0 220 9 1 Yazdagird ben Bahram Sceleratus . 21 5 8 242 2 9 Bahram ben Yazdagird, Gûr 28 0 0 265 p.124. 15. Yazdagird ben Bahram 18 4 28 288 7 Feroz ben Yazdagird 27 0 1 810 7 8 Balash ben Ferôz . 4 314 7 8 30 Kobad ben Feroz 43 0 357 7 ! 8 Anoshirwan ben Kobad. 47 1 0 405 2 8 20. Hurmuz ben Anoshir- wan . 11 7 10 416 9 18 Parwiz ben Hurmuz 88 0 0 454 9 18 8 Shirawaihi ben Parwiz 0 ! 0 455 18 Ardashir ben Shirawaihi 1 6 0 456 11 18 Purandukht, daughter of Parwiz 1 4 458 3 18 25. Guskanasptadha . 0 458 5 18 40 .... Azarmidukht, daughter of Parwiz 1 0 459 9 18 Khurzad Khugra 0 459 10 18 Yazdagird ben Shahryar 20 0 0 479 10 18

ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 125

The following Table III. in this Part is that one which Hamsa says he p.125. transcribed from the copy of the Maubadh.

NANES OF THE SAOANIAN KISGS, ! How long each of thom Sum of the Years. such aa Hamza saye he baa reigned. taken from tha Copy of the Maubadh. Yeara. : Montha.j Daya. Yeara. Monthe. Daye.

Ardashir b. Babak (after having made war upon the "Petty Princes") . 14 10 0 14 10 0 10 Shapur ben Ardashir 30 C 15 44 10 15 Hurmuz ben Shapur 3 0 48 1 15 Bahram ben Hurmuz 17 0 0 65 1 15 105 5 15 -- 5. Bahram Sakin-shâb 40 4 Narsa ben Bahrâm 9 0 : 0 114 5 15 Hurmnz ben Narsa 0 0 121 5 15 Shapur Dhu-al'aktaf 72 0 ! 0 193 5 15 Ardaahir ben Hurmuz 0 0 197 5 15 10. Shapur ben Shapur 0 0 202 5 15 : Bahram ben Sbapur 11 0 0 213 ! 5 15 20 Yazdagird Sceleratue 21 5 18 234 11 .. Babrim Gur 19 11 0 254 10 3 Yazdagird hen Bahrâm. 14 4 18 269 21 15. Feroz ben Yazdagird. 17 0 286 2 21 .-. Balaeh ben Feroz . 4 0 0 290 2 21 Kobad ben Feroz 41 0 0 831 21 .

Anôshirwân 48 379 21 p.126. Hurmuz ben Anoehirwân 12 0 0 391 2 21 i20. Parwiz 38 0 0 429 2 21 Kobad Shirawaihi . 8 0 429 10 -- 30 Ardashir ben Shirawaihi 1 0 431 4 21 Purân, daughter of Parwiz 1 4 432 8 21 Fêrôz 0 1 432 9 21 25. Azarmidukht 0 G 0 433 3 21 Khurradadh Khusra 1 0 434 3 21 Yazdagird ben Shahryar 20 D 454 3 21

126 ALBİRÛNİ.

In the book of 'Abu.alfaraj Alzanjani we bave found the chronology of this Part differing from our accounts in the preceding three tables; we have added lis account in tbis place, in conformity with what we have done in the preceding two Parts. And berowith the Chronological Table ends.

p.127. How long each of them Bam of tho Years. NAWEA OF THE SACANIAN KINGE, raigned. aocording to the Tradition of 'Abů-alfaraj Alzanjani. Years. Mouths.| Days. Yaara. Montha Days.

Ardashir hen Babak 14 10 0 14 10 0 Shapur ben Ardasbir 81 6 18 46 4 18 10 Hurmuz ben Shapur 1 6 0 47 10 18 Bahrâm ben Hurmuz 51 1 21 5. Babram ben Bahrâm 17 0 0 68 1 21 Babrâm ben Bahram ben Babrâm 4 0 72 5 21 Narsi ben Babrâm. 9 0 0 81 5 21 Hurmuz ben Narst 9 0 0 90 5 Shapur ben Hurmuz 72 0 0 162 5 21 5599327777 729949 Dhual'aktaf 10. Ardashir ben Hurmuz 4 0 0 166 5 21 20 Sbapur hen Shapur 5 4 0 171 9 21 Bahrâm ben Sbapur 11 0 0 182 9 21 Yazdagird Sceleratus 21 5 18 204 9 Bahrâm Gur . 18 11 223 12 15. Yazdagird ben Bahrim 18 4 18 241 Hurmuz 7 0 0 248 7 0 Feroz ben Yazdagird 27 0 275 7 0 Balash ben Feroz 4 0 0 279 0 Kobad and Tamasp, sona of Fêrôz 43 0 0 822 0 30 20. Anosbirwan ben Kobad 47 5 370 5 p.128. Hurmuz ben Anoshirwin 11 7 15 381 20 Parwiz ben Hurmuz 38 0 0 419 9 20 Shirawaibi hen Parwiz 0 0 420 4 20 Ardashir ben Shirawaibi 0 5 0 420 9 20 25. Khuhan, who besieged the Greeka 0 0 29 420 10 12 KisrA ben Kobad 0 3 0 421 1 12 Pirân, daughter of Parwiz 1 6 0 422 7 12 Gushanasptadba 0 0 422 9 12 40 Azarmidukht, daughter 122 of Parwiz 0 4 0 423 1 12 30. Farrukhzad Khusran 0 1 0 423 2 12 Yazdagird ben Shahryâr 20 0 0 4.13 12

ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS GF KINGS. 127

Next we return to fulfil our promise of explaining the way in which p.129. Alkisrawi works out the chronology of this Part IIL., having perccived the confusien of the fermer two parts, although we cannet help wonder- ing very much at him and at his method. For, whilst trying and experi- menting, he has subtraeted from the period betwreen Alexander and Yazdagird 266 years for the period of the Ashghanian rale. Hamza, however, records only that tradition, which he saye he has taken from and amended by meana of the Abasta, and the other tradition which he says he has taken from the copy of the Maubadh. And according to 10 hoth these traditions, this period is longer even than 350 years (Hamza- Abasta, 358 years; Hamza-Maubadh, 496 years). Now it is necessary fer us to use either of these two traditions, or to add to them that one whieh Alkisrawi holds to be eorrect (as a third tradition), in order not to use any other tradition but those which he himself mentions. Or did he possibly place his confidence in ti.t one whieh we have mentioned, and derived from the Shabnama (266 yeare) ? Further, now, as Alkisrawi has done this, and thinks that the existence of such confusion is an established faet, I should like to knew why he refers it to the peried of the Sasfnian, not to that of the Ashghanian 20 rule. For there was much more opportunity for mistakes creeping into the chronology of the Ashghanians (than into that of the Sasanians), because during their period the Persian empire was disorganized, every- one minded only his own affairs, and people were prevented by various cireumstances from preserving their ehronology. Such were, e.g. the calamities which Alexander and his Greek lieutenants brought upon them, further the eonfiagration of all the litcrature in whieh people delighted, the ruin of all fine arts which were the recreation and the desire of the people. And more than that. He (Alexander) burned the greatest part of tbeir religious eode, he destroyed the wonderful archi- 30 tectural monnments, e.g. these in the mountains ef Istakhr, new-a-days known as the Mosque of Solomon ben David, and delivered them up te the flames. People even say that eveu at the present time the traces of the fire are visible in some places. This ie the renson why they have neglected a certain space of time in the first part of the period, between Alesander and Ardashir, viz. when the Greeks reigned over them. And ther did not begin to settle their chronology until their fright and terror had subsided in consequence of the establishment of the Ashkanian rule over them. Therefore the period preceding this event was much more lahle to confusion (than the 40 later period of the Sisanians), because under the Sisanians the empire was in good order, ard the royal dignity was transmitted in their family in uninterrupted succession, whilst in the time of those (their predeces- sors) there was much confusion. This is proved by all tbe testimonies which we have produced in support of this our view. Here follows the table containing the se-called emendation ef Alkisrawi.

128 ALBİRUNİ.

p.180. NANES OF THE BÅORNIAN KINGS, How long eaoh of them

as reported by Hamza, reigned. Som of the Years.

eccording to the Emendation of Alkisrawi. Tears. Months. Daye. Yeare. Months. Daya.

Ardashir ben Babak 19 19 10 0 09033 10 0 Sabur-aljunud 32 0 52 0 Hurmuz b. Sabur-aljuntd 1 10 0 54 0 0 Babråm ben Hurmus 9 0 63 0 5. Bahram ben Bahram 23 0 86 0 BahrAm ben Bahram ben 10 Babrâm 13 4 0 99 0 Narsa ben Bahram 9 0 0 108 . 4 0 Hurmuz ben Narsa . 13 0 0 121 0 Shapur Dhu al'aktif 72 0 0 193 7 0 10. Ardashir, brother of the preceding 4 0 0 197 7 0 Sh&pûr ben Shápur Dhâ- alaktaf 82 0 0 279 7 0 Bahram, son of the pre- ceding 12 0 0 291 7 0 20 Yazdagird ben Bahrâm, Clemens, Princa of Sbarwiu 82 0 0 378 7 0 Yazdagird ben Yazda- gird, Atros. 23 0 0 396 7 0 15. Bahram Gur, son of the preceding 29 0 419 0 Yazdagirdh. Bahrâm Gur 18 437! 0 0 Bahråm ben Yazdagird. 26 0 463 1 0 Ferôz ben Bahram 0 1 492 1 1 30 Balash ben Feroz 0 0 495 1 1 20. Knbad, brotherof Balash 68 0 0 563 1 1 p.131. Anoshirwan ben Kubad 47 0 610 8 1 Hurmuz ben Anoshirwan 23 0 633 8 1 Parwiz ben Hurmuz 38 0 0 671 8 1 Shirawaihi ben Hurmuz 0 8 0 672 4 1 25. Ardasbir ben Sbirawaihi 1 0 678 4 1 Shahrbarâz 0 1 8 673 5 9 Burân, daughter of Kisra Parwiz 1 0 0 674 5 9 40 . Khushnushbanda (Gush- anasptadha) 0 2 0 674 9 Khusrau ben Knbad ben Hurmuz 0 10 0 675 5 9 30. Ferôz, a descendant of Ardashir ben Båbak. 0 2 0 675 7 9 Azarmidukht, daughter of Parwiz 0 675 I1 9 Farrukhzåd ben Khusrau b.Parwiz. Hismother 50 was Girawaihi, sister of Babrâm Shubin 0 1 0 676 0 9 34. Yazdagird ben Shahryår 20 0 0 696 0

ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF RINGS. 129

On Titles in the Khalifate .- It is a theory of the astrologers that p.182. none of the khalifs of Islam and the other kings of the Muslims reigns longar than twenty.four yaars. As to ths reign ef Almuti that ertended to nearly thirty years, they account for it in this way, saying that already at the end of the reign of Almuttaki, and at the beginning of that of Almustakfi, the empire and the rule had heen transferred from the hands of the family of 'Abbas into those of the family of Buwaihi (Buya, Boya), and that the authority which remainsd with the Bani-'Abhts was only a juridical and religious, not a political and secular affair, in 10 fact something like the dignity of the Rosh-galathi with the Jews, who exercises a sort of religious authority without any actual rule and empire. Therefore the 'Abbaside prince, who at present occupies the throne of the Khilifa, is held by the astrologers to be only the (spiri- tual) head of Islam, but not a king. Already in ancient times astrologers used to prophesy this state of affairs. Such a prophecy you find, eg. in the book of 'Ahmed ben Altayyib Alsarakhsi, whers be speaks of the conjunction of Saturu and Mars in the sign of Cancer. The same was distinctly declared hy the Hindu Kanaka, the astrologer of Alrashid, for he maintained that the 20 reign of the Bant 'Abbas would be transferred to a man who would coms from Ispahan. He determined, also, the time when 'Alf hen Buwaibi, called Lmad-aldanla, should come forward in Ispahan (as a claimant to guprems powor). When the Bant-'Abbas had decorated their assistanta, friends and enemies indiscriminately, with vain titles, compounded with the word Daula (ie. empire, such as Helper of the Empire, Sword of the Empire, etc.), tbeir empire pcrished; for in this they went beyond all reasonable limita. This went on so long till those who were cspecially attached to their court claimed something new as a distinction between themselves . 30 and the others. Thereupon the khalifs bestowed double titles. But then also the others wanted the samc titles, and knew how to carry their point by bribery. Now it became necessary a secoud time to create a distinction between this class and those who were directly attached to their court. So the khalifs bestowed triple titles, adding besides the title of Shabipshah. In tais way the matter became utterly opposed to common sense, and clumsy to the highest degree, so that he who men- tions them gets tired before he has scarcely commenced, that he who writes them loses his time and writing, and he who addresses them runs the risk of missing the time for prayer. 40 It will not do any harm, if we mention here the titles which, up to owr time, have been bestowed by their majesties the khalifs. We shall comyrise them in the following table.

9

180 ALBİRÔNİ.

.133. The Names of those on whom The Titles whioh were bestowed Titles ware bestowed. by Their Majesties the Khalifs. AlkAsim ben 'Ubaid-allih. Waliyy-al-daula. His son. 'Amid-al-daula. 'Abu-Muhnmmad ben Hamdin . NAşir-al-daula. His son Sa'd-al-doula. 'Abu-alhasan 'Alf ben Hamdin Saif-al-daula. 'Alf : in Buwaibi . Imad-al-daula. 'Abu-albasan 'Ahmad ben Buwaihi Mufizz-al-daula. Alhasan ben Buwaihi Rukn-al-daula. 10 'Abu-Manaur Bakhtiyar hen 'Abi- Izz-al-daula. albasan. 'Abu-'Ishnk ben Alhusain Umdat al.daula. 'Aba-Harb Alhabasbt ben 'Abi. Sanad-al-daula. alhusain. 'Abo-Manaur Bisutun hen Washm- Zahir-al-daula. gir. 'Abu-Mangur Buwaihi ben Alhasan Mu'ayyid-al-daula. Almarznban ben Bakhtiyar . I'zaz-al-daula. Kabus ben Washmgir Shams-al-ma'alî. 20 'Aba-'Ahmad Harith ben 'Ahmad Waliyy-al-daula. 'Aba-Shuja' Fanakhusra ben Al- 'Adud-al-daula wa Taj-al-milla. basan. 'Abu-KAlinjar ben Fanakhusra Fakhr-aldaula wa Falak-al-'umma. 'Abû-Kâlinjar Marzuban ben Samşim-al-daula wa Shams-al- FanAkhusra. milla 'Abu-alfawaris ben Fanfkhuera . Sharaf-al-daula wa Zaman-al-milla. 'Abu-Talib Rustsm ben 'Alf . Majd-al-milla wa kahf-al-'umma. >184. 'Abû-alkisim Mahmud ben Sabuk- Yemin-al-daula wa 'Amin-al-milla. tagin. 'Abt-Naşr Baha-al-daula wa Diya-al-milla wa 30 Khurra Feroz ben Fenakhnsra. Ghiyath-al-'umma. 'Abu-alhasan Mubammad ben Napir-al-daula. 'Ibrâhim. 'Abu-al abhas Tash Alhajib Husam-al dauls. 'Abu-alhasan Fi'ik-alkhâșaa 'Amid-al.daula. 'Abu-Ali Mnbammad ben Muham- Naşir-al-daula. mad ben 'Ibrahim. Sabuktagin, frst Mu'in-al-dauls. Afterwards he received the title of Nâşir-al-din wal-daula. Mahmud ben Sabuktagin Saif-al-daula. 'Abu-alfawaris Bekttzn Alļâjib Sinan -al-daula. 'Abu-alķasim Mubammad ben Naşir-al-daula. Tbrâhtm. 'Abu-Mansur Alp Arslan Albalawi Mu'in-al-daula.

ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 131

Alse the Wazirs ef the Khalifs have received certain titles, com- pounded with the word Dhi, as e.g. Dhi-al-yaminain, Dhit-al-ri'asatain, Dhu-al-kifayatain, Dha-al-saifain, Dha-al-kalamain, etc. The Buwaibi family, when, as we have meutioned, the power passed into their hands, imitated the cxample of the khalifs; nay, they made it still weree, and their title-giviug was nothing but one great lie, when they called their Wazire, e.g. Kafi-al-kufat, Alkafi Al'auhad, 'Auhad- alkufat. The femily of Saman, the rulers of Khurasan, had ne desire for encb 10 titles, contenting themselves with their kunyas (such as 'Aba-Nasr, ' Abu- al-hasan, 'Abi.Sulih, 'Abn-al-kasim, 'Aba-al-harith). In their lifetime they were called Almalik, Almu'ayyad, Almunafak, Almansar, Almu'ai- żam, Almuntasir, and after their death, Allamid, Alshahid, Alsa'id, Alsadid, Alradi, elc. To their field-marshals, howerer, they gave the titles of Nusir-aldaula, 'Imd-aldaula, HIusim-aldaula, 'Amid-alduula, Saif-aldaula, Sinan-aldaula, Mu'in-aldaula, Naşir-aldaula, in imitation ef the ways of the khalifs. The same was done by Bughrakhan, when he had come forward (to claim supreme power) A.H. 382, calling himself Shikub aldanla. 20 Seme of them, however, have gone beyond this limit, calling them- selves 'Amir-al-'alam and Sayyid-al-'umart. May God inflict en them igneminy in this werld, and show to them and to others their weakness ! As to the 'Amir, the glorious Prince, may God give a long duration to his reign ! (to whom this book is dedicn.ted), His Majesty the Khalif addressed him in a letter, and offered to him titles, such as these com- pounded with the word Daula (e.g. Saif-al-daula, Husam-al-daula, ete.). . But then he considered himeelf superior to them, and abhorred the idea of being compared with these who were called by such titles but only in a very metaphorical way. He, therefore, selected for himself a title 80 the full meaning of which did not exceed his merits (Shams-al-ma'ali, p.135. i.e. Sun of the Heights). He has beceme-may God give a long duration to his power !- among the kings of the wortd like the sun, who illuminates the darkness, in which they live, by the rays of his heights. He has come into high favour with the khalifs as a prince of the Believere. They wanted to redouhle and to increase his title, but his noble mind declined it. May God give him a long life; may he enlighten all the parts ef the werld by his justice, and bless them by his lock; may He raise his affairs and thosc of the eubjects who dwell in his shadow to perfectien, incrensing them everlastingly. God is almighty to do this, 40 and seee and knows all the affairs of his slaves! Intervals between the Eras .- After this digression we now return to the point whence we started, and proceed, after having finished the cellection of chronological dates in the preceding tables. Next we must turn eur attentien towards fulfilling our promise of teaching the reader that knowledge by means of which he may compute the eras that ars 9 *

132 ALBİRONİ.

ueed in the Canons, for astronomical observatiens, and elsewhere, e.g. in conmercial stipulations and contracts. To this we shall prefix a twofold Tailasan, which will indicate the intervale between the single eras in & conetant measure, i.c. in days. In the lower half under the diagonal, you find the distances computed in days and written in Indian ciphers. In the upper half you find twe kinds of numbers; the upper ones are these identical daye written according to the sexagesimal system, whilst the lower ones are the same days in their various degrees (units, tenths, hundreds, efe.) transcribed from the Indian ciphere into the Huruf- aljummal. The following well-known calculatien is an example of this system of 2 of 10

notation. If we take { [(16ª)*79}ª or 1616, and eubtract 1 from the eum, we get the total sum of the reduplications of all the checks of the chessboard, if we commence with one fer the first check. This sum, noted in Indian ciphers, is the following: 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 ; noted according to the scxagesimal system: 30.30.27.9.5.3.50. 40. 81. 0. 15 .; and transcribed into the Hurif-aljummal: האואההטעגזמדזורדחא If you trapscrit.e thene characters one after the cther into Indian ciphers, you get the above-mentioned number. 20 Now, in the same way as this example, our Teilasin is to be under. staod. This threefold system of notation we use for ne other purpose but this, that each mode should bear testimony to the other in case a doubt should arise regarding seme of the characters and figures that denete the numbers. We mention our method only in a summary way, and not at full p.186. length, because the reader of this book must be more than a beginner in mathematics. We say, if a man wants to find an (unknown) cra by the help of a known one, lct him reduce the whole of the known era into days, and this sum ie called " The Basis." Then he muet take the 30 interval between the two eras, viz. the known and the unknown ones. This we call " The Equation." If, then, the known era (i.e its epoch) precedes the unknown one, he subtracta the equation from the basis. If, on the other hand, the known era (i.e. ita epoch) follows the unknown one, he adds the equation to the basie. And the sum which he gets is the number of days of the unknown era. Thereupon he must divide this sum of days by the number of days of that kind of year which is ascribed to the en in question. By this division he gets complete years. And the remainder of days is to be 40 distributed ever the months of the year according to the proper lengths which we have mentioned as peculiar to each of the different kinds of them. Here are the days of the intervals between the epochs of the various eras represented in the twofold Tailasan, God is allwise!

TABLE SHOWING THE INTEEVALS BETWEEN THE EPOCHS OF THE EBAS, CALCULATED IN DAYS.

p.187. 33.27.45. 6. 38.46. 18. 6. 15. 46.17. 6. 56.1. 44.5. 38.34. 28. 5.28.14. 12. 5. 54. 7. 43. 4.33. 55.41. 4.18.56.58.3. Era Diluvi حومبا١ with Egyotian هرططهھا وأهمجبا درطای جوطدأي seard nod months

20.31.46. 2.25.50.19.2.2.50.18.2. 43.5.45.1. 20. 38.29. 1. 15.18.13. 1. Bza Na- 41. 11. 44. 20. 59. 42. bonassarL, مزدها with Eryptian 860,173 جدجمرج Jeara nnd mouths, ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 0.32.3.2. 5.51. 36. 1.42.50.35. 1. 23. 6.2.1. 0.39.46. 55. 18. 30. 21. 12. 1. Phnligpl, 1,014,933 هووحدچ أدجد 154,760 بدلدج هجاطی with Egyptinn Fears and months. 39. 19. 2. 2. 44.38.35. 1. 21.88.34. 1. 2.54. 0.1. Era 39.26.45. Alerandrl, أعمج ډدطاب ضطهچوا 34. 6.29. دطودی witb Byrian 4,341 159,101 1,019,274 Jeas's and Donths. 5.13. 33. 1. 10. 32. 6. 1. 47. 31. 5. 1. 28. 47. 31. 5. 20.16. Era Aogusti لھطچب 109,135 هقية with Greek 104 794 263,895 1,124,068 yenra and Egyp tian months. ... 0. 53. 16. 1. 5. 12. 50. 42. 11. 49. 23. 27. 15. Antonini جدوهة with Oreok 58,805 163,599 167,940 322,700 1,182,87 years and Egtni tian months. 87.25. 1. 1. 42. 44. 34. 19. 44. 33. Era Diooletiant, طهداجا witb Groek 55,643 114,448 219.242 223,583 378,343 1,238,516 Fense and months. 18. 41. 27 .: 23.0.1. Ara Fuga, with lunar years 235,907 340,701 345,042 1,359,975 l and Amuic 121,459 177,102 499,802 months.

55.40.26. Eira

ههط with Peraiat 3623 125,082 180,725 239.530 344,324 348,665 503,425 1,363,598 years and months. Ma'tadidi with Greek 96,055 99,678 221,137 276,780 335,585 440,379 444,720 599,480 1,459,653 133 Jears and Per- sinD months.

134 ALBİRONİ.

138. The Chess Problem .- For the solution of the chess problem (lit. for the reduplication of the chess and its caleulation) there are two funda- mental rules. The one of them is this :- The square of the number of a check a of the 64 checks of the chess- hoard is equal to the number of that check the distance of which from the check is equal to the distance of the check z from the Ist check. For example : take the square of the number of the 5th check, i.e. the square of 16(16°)=256, which is the number belonging to the 9th check. Now, the distance of the 9th check from the 5th is equal to the distance of the 5th check from the first one. 10

The second rule is this :- The number of a check z minus 1 is equal to the sum total of the numhers of all the preceding checks. Example: The number of the 6th check is 32. And 32-1 is 81, which is equal to the sum of the numbers of all the preceding checks, i.c. of- 1+2+4+8+16(=31). If we take the square of the square of the square of 16, multiplied by itself (i.e. {[(16ª)]*]ª or 1618), this is identical with taking thesquare of the number of the 33rd check, by which operation the number ofthe 65th 20 check is to be found. If you diminish that number by 1, you get the sum of the numhers of all the checks of the chessboard. The number of the 33rd check is equal to the square of the number of the 17th check. The number of the 17th check is equal to the square of the number of the 9th check. The number of the 9th check is equal to the square of the number of the 5th check. And this (i.e. the number of the 5th check) is the above- mentioned number 16. 'Abt-Raihan says in his Kitab-al'arkam (Book of the Ciphers): "I shall explain the mcthod of the calculation of the chess problem, that 80 the reader may get accustomed to apply it. But first we must premise that you should know, that in a progression of powers of 2 the single numbers are distant from each other according to a similar ratio. (Lacunaf) If the number cf the reduplications, i.e. the number of the single members of a progressiou is an even one, it has two middle numbsrs. But if the number of the reduplications is an odd one, the progression has only one middle number. The multiplication of tho two ends by each other is equal to the multiplication of the two middle uumbers. (In case there is only one middle number, its square is equal to the multiplication of the two end 40 numbers.) This is ons thing you must know beforehand. The other is this :- If we want to know the sum total of any progression of powers of 2, we take the double of the largest, i.e. the last number, and subtract

.

ERAS, DATES, AND REIONS OF KINGS. 135

therefrom the smallest, i.e. the first number. The remainder is the sum total of these reduplications (i.e. of this progression). Now, after having established this, if we add to the checks of the chessboard one check, a 65th one, then it is evident that the number which belongs to this 65th check, in consequence of the reduplications of powers of 2, beginning with 1, is equal to the sum of the numbers of all the checks of the chessboard minus the lst check, which is the number 1, the first member of the progression. If, therefore, 1 is subtracted from this sum, the remainder is the sum of the numbers of 10 all the checks of the chessboard. If, now, we consider the 65th check and the lst as the two ends of a progression, their medium is the 33rd check, the first medium. Between the checks 33 and 1, the check 17 is the medium, the second medium. Between the checks 17 and 1, the check 9 is the medium, the third medium. Between the checks 9 and 1, the check 5 is the medium, the fourth p.139.

medium. Between the checks 5 and 1, the check 3 is the medium, the fifth 20 medium. Between the checks 3 and 1, the check 2 is the medium, the sixth medium, to which belongs the number 2. Taking the aquare of 2 (2=), we get a sum which is a product of the multiplication of the number of the Ist check hy that of the 3rd check (1x4=22). The number of the Ist check is 1. This product, then, is the fifth medium, the number of the 3rd cheek, i.e. 4. The square of 4 is 16, which is the fourth medium in the 5th check. The square of 16 is 256, which is the third medium in the 9th check. The square of 256 is 65,536, which is the second medium in the 17th 30 check. The square of 65,536 is 4,294,967,296, which is the first medium in the 33rd check. The square of 4,294,967,296 is 18,446,744,073,709,551,616. If we subtract from this sum 1, i.e. the number of the first check, the remainder is the sum of the numbers of all the checks of the chess. board. I mean that number which at the beginning of this digression we have used as an example (of the threefold mode of numer) rotation). The immensity of this number cannot be fixed except by dividing it by 10,000. Thereby it is changed into Bidar (sums of 10,000 dirhama). 40 The Bidar are divided by 8. Thereby they are changed into 'Aukdr (loads). The 'Aukar are divided by 10,000. Thereby the mules, that carry them, are formed into Kuf'an (herds), each of them consisting of 10,000. The Kuf'an are divided by 1,000, that, asit were, they (the herds) might graze on the borders of Wadie, 1,000 kids on the border of each Wudi.

136 ALBİRUNİ.

The Wadis are divided by 10,000, that, as it were, 10,000 mountains should riss out of each Wodi. In this way, by dint of frequently dividing, yon find the number of thoso mountains to be 2,905. But these are (numsrical) notione that the earth does Lot eontain. God is allwiso and almighty !

140. Rules for the Reduction of the different Eras .- Now we shall give a dstailed exposition of the subject of this chapter (i.e. the derivation of the eras one from ths other), which cannot be dispensed with. We must, however, postpons our exposition of the derivation of the Ero 10 Adami and Ara Diluvii according to Jews and Chrietians, because they are eonneeted with the years and months of the Jews. And these are very intricate and ohscure, and offer many difficulties for caleulation,- & chspter, part of which we have already mentioned before. For which reason we mnst direet our attention exclusively to this subject, and explain it in a special chapter. And now we commence with tho detailed srposition of the eras, pre-supposing ths number of days which form the intervals between the epochs of the eras and that day which ie sought to be known. Thess daye we call Dies Parata. If we want to find the Ara Diluvii, according to 'Abu-Ms'shar, who 20 uses it in his Canon (or calendar), we divide its Dies Paratæ by 365, whereby we get complete years. If there is a remainder of days, we change them into Egyptian months. The Ist of Tôt of this ra Diluvii always coincides with the 18th of Bahman-Mah in the non-inter. calated Era Yardagirdi. If we want to find the Ara Nabonassari or the Ara Philippi, wo divide its Dies Parata by 365, whereby we get complete years. The remainder of days is distributed over the single months, to cach month its proper portion. We begin with Tot, the 1st of which always coin- cides with [the lst of] Dai.Mah in the non-intercalated Era Yaadagirdi. 30 If we want to find the Era Alezandri, we divide its Dies Parata by 3654 days, i.e. we multiply the Dies Parata by 4, changing them into fourth-parts, and the eum total we divide by 1,461, i.e. by the day s of the year reduced into fourta-parte. Thereby we get complete yeare. The remaining fourth-parts we raise again to whole days, dividing them by 4. Then we distribute them over the single months, to each month its proper portion, beginning with Tishrin I. If there is a remainder of days that do not fill up one month, this remainder represente the date of that identical month. To the month Shubat we must give twenty-nine 40 days in s leap yoar, snd twenty-eight days in a common year. The leap year is recognized in this way, that we consider the remainder which we get after dividing the fourth-parts (of the Dies Parata) by 4. Il the remainder is 2, the currrent yoar is a leap year. If the remainder is less or more (i.e. 1, or 3, 4), the year is a eommon year.

ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF KINGS. 137

The reason of thie is, that intercalation preceded the epoch of this era by two years, co that at the beginning of the era two fourth-parts of a day had already eummed up. If, therefore, at the end of the era there is a remainder of two fourth-parts, these, togethor with the two fourth. p.141. parte at the heginning of the era, make up one complete day. In that case the year is a leap year. (In thie calculation the Syrian year and months are used.) If we, however, compute thie era according to the method of the Greeke, we subtract 92 from the number of its Dies Parate, because 10 the beginning of the Greek year differe from that of the Syrian year. The remainder we compute in the same way as wo have done according to the method of the Syrians. The remaining fourth-parts we raise to whole daye, and distribute them over the single months, to each mouth ite proper portion, commencing with Januarius, i.c. Kanun the Last. The leap year ie ascertained in the same way that we have mentioned before. If we want to find the Ara Augusti, we compute ite Dies Parata in the same way as we have done with the ra Alexandri, so as to get complete years and a remainder of fourth-parts of a day. These latter 20 we change into days, and distribute them over the single months, to each month ite proper portion, beginning with Tot. If the year ie & leap year, we count the Epagomenc, i.e. the small month, as sir daye, whilst in a common year we count it ae five daye. The leap ycar is recognized by there being no remainder of fourth- parta of a day after we have converted them into whole daye. Of which the reason ie this, that the leap year preceded the beginning of the era. On thie enbject (the Epagomence) there eannot be much uncertainty, since they are placed at the end of the year, and the let of Tot always coincidee with the 29th of the Syrian month Abh. 30 Of the Era Antonini, we compute the complete years in the same way that we have cxplained for the Æra Augusti. The remainder (of fourth-parts of a day) we divide by 4, and distribute the whole daye over the single months, to each month its proper portion, begmning with Tot. In a leap year we connt the Epagomeng as eix days. The leap year is recognized by there heing one quarter of a day as a remainder of the fourth.parte (of a. day). Of the Era Diocletiani, we compute the Dies Parate in the same way as we have done with the Æra Augusti, etc., so as to get complete years and to convert the fourth-parts again into complete days. Thereupon 40 we distribute them over the eingle months, beginning with Januarius, i.e. Kanun the Last. In a leap year we give to Februarius, i.e. Shubat, twenty-nine daye, in a common year twenty-eight days. The leap year is recognized in the eame way as for the Dra Alczandri, by there being two fourth-parts as the remainder of the fourth-parte of a day.

100 ALBIRUNI.

As regards the cras of the Arabs and their months, how they inter- calated them, and in what order they arranged them in pagan times, this is a subject that has been uiterly neglected. The Arabs were totally illiterate, and as the mcane for the perpetuation of their traditions they relied solely upon memory and poetry. But afterwsrde, when the generation of those who practised these things had died out, thero was no further mention of them. There ie no possibility of finding out such matters. 142. If we want to find the Era of the Hijra ss used in Islim, we divide ite Dies Paratæ hy the mean length of the lunar year, i.e. 3541+} daye 10 (3541¿ days), which ie effected hy multiplying the number of days by 30, the emallest common denominator for both fractions, fifth and sixth parte. The eum wo divide by 10,631, which is the product of 354 multi- plied hy 30, plus 11=1+1. The quotient represents complete lunar yeare, and the remainder con- siats of thirtieth-parte of a day. If we divide theee by 30, wo get again whole daye, which we distribute over the single monthe, giving to one month thirty daye, to the other twenty-nine alternately, beginning with Almuharram. The remainder of daye that does not make up one com. plete month, represents the date of that identical month. 20 This is the methed for the computation of the eras used in the Canons. But if thero are still other methods which people adopt for thie pur- pose, they ell go hack to one and the same principle. As for the calculation which is based upon the appearance of new moon, it muat be remarked that two imperfect months (of twenty-nine days) may follow cach other as well as three perfect ones (of thirty days), that the lunar ycar may exceed the above-mentioned measure (of 35411 days), whilst it may not attain this length at other times, the reason of which ie the variation in the rotation of the moon. Of the ra Fasdagirdi, we divide the Dies Parata by 365, whereby 30 we get complete years. The remainder we distribute over the single monthe, to each month ite proper portion, beginning with Farwardin- Mah. In this way we come to know the era, the epoch of which is the heginning of his reign, that era which is used in the Canons. If we, however, want to find the Era of the Zoroastriane, we suhtract twenty yeare from the Æra Yazdagirdi. The remainder is the Era of the Zoroastrians. For they date from the year in which Yazdagird wae killed and their national empire ceased to exist, not from the year in which he ascended the throne. The Era of Almu'tadid-billah we compute in the same way as the 40 Ara Alesandri. We give to each month ite proper portion, as to the Persian monthe, beginning with Farwardin-Mab, and proceeding as far as the heginning of Adhar-Mah. If, then, the year is a leap year, which is recognized in the same way as in the Ara Alexandri, by there being & remainder of tw' fourth-parta of a day, (we count the Andargahe or

ERAS, DATES, AND REIGNS OF RINGS. 139

Epagomenc between Ahan.Mah and Adharmah) as sis days, whilst in a common year we count them only as five days. New-Year (Nauroa) always coineides with the 11th of Hazirin, for those reasons which wa have already mentioned by ths help and the snpport of God! Now it would seem proper to add a chapter which is waning in the Canons, and has not been treated by anybody except by 'Abu-alabhas Alfadl ben Hatim Alngirizi, in his eommentary on Almagest. And still it is a subject of frequent occurrence, and those who have to employ it may not always know what to do with it. The thing is this, that you 10 may bs required to compute a date for a certain time, the known parts p.143. of which ars various species that do not heloug to ons and the same genus. There is, e.g. s day the date of which within a Greek, Arabic, or Persian month is known; but the name of this month is unknown, whilst you know the namo of another month that corresponds with it. Further, you know an era, to which, however, these two months do not helong, or such an era, of which the name of the month in question is not known. Example :- (a) On the day Hurmuz (b) in the month Tammûz 20 (c) in the year uf the Hijra 391. In this case the proper method is to compute the Ara Alerandri for the Ist of Muharram of A.H. 391. Thereby we learn with what month and day of the Arabian months the Ist of Tammaz coincides. Further, we compute the Era Yazdagirdi for the 1st of Tammuz, whereby ws learn on what day of Tammuz the day Hurmuz falls. In this way the three eras together with their species and genera are found out. If besides these elements the name of the week-day is known, this is an aid and a help for obmining a correct result. Example :- (a) On Friday 30 (b) in the first third of Ramadan (c) in the year of Yazdagird 370.

Here the right method would be first to compute the Arabic era for the Nauroz of this year of the Era Yazdagirdi, and thereby to compute the first third of Ramadan. Then we consider the week-days, to find which of them are the heginnings of the months Thereby we find what we wanted to find. Likewise, if the week-day and its place within some month, together with some era, are knon ui, and if also the name of the month is known, you can find this out in the same way as we have mentioned. 40 The student who thoroughly knows all these methods will be able to solve whatever question of this sort be put to him; he will find out everything, if he considers the subject as it vught to be considered. If those parts of such dates, the numerical values of which are known,

140 ALBİRONİ.

should be composed of diverse elementa, so that their unifs mean some. thing differont from what the decades (tenths) mean,-e.g. you eay of a day : the 25th, referring the 5 to a Persian month and the 20 to a Greek month, of which either one is known, or of which the two are unknown; or if you say: Anno 345, referring the 5 to a Greek, the 40 to an Arabian, and the 300 to a Persian era,-in euch cases tho clevor. neas of the student will mansge to solve the problem, although tho caloulatione necessary for such a derivation may be very long. God helps to find the truth !

141

CHAPTER VII.

ON THE CYCLES AND YEAR POINTS, ON THE MOLLDS OF THE YEARS p.144 AND MONTHS, ON THEIR VARIOUS QUALITIES, AND ON THE LEAP MONTHS nOTH IN JEWISH AND OTHER YEARS.

HAVING in the preceding pages erplained the derivation of the eras from each other, with the exception of the Æra Adami and Ara Diluvi, according to the systems of Jews and Christians, we shall now have to erplain the method by which we may obtain a knowledge of these two eras. To this we shall prefix a treatise on the Jewish years and months, 10 their cyclcsand the Moleds of their years, followed by an investigation of the comrencemen ts of the years of other pations. And hereto weshalladd such things as may prove a ready help towards obtaining the object in view. Now we proceed to state that the Æra Adami is used by the Jews, the Era Diluvii by the Christians. If the lst of Tishri coincided with the lst of Tishrin Primus, the Era Alezandri would be equal to the Æra Mundi, plus 3,448 years, which is, according to Jcwish doctrine, the interval hetween Adam and Alerander. However, the lst of Tishri always falls between the 27th of Abh and the 24th of flul on an average. Therefore, the Era Alerandri, minus 20 that time by which the beginning of the Jewish year precedcs the beginning of the Christian one, is equal to the complete Æra Adami, plus the interval between Adam and Alexander. The reason why the Ist of Tishri always varics within those days (27th Abb-24th fol), is this, that on an average the Jewish passover always varies between the 18th of the Syrian month Adhar and the 15th of Nisan, which is the time of the sun'smoving in the sign of Aries. For it is the opposition occurring within this time, on which all those cir- cumstances depend which form the conditio sine qua non for passover. This, however, is only an approximate calculation. For if the solar 30 year went on parallel with the days of the Greek year (lacuna ?? ). But this is impossible, since we have found by astronomical observation that this fraction (beyond the 365 complete days of ths yoar) is 5h. 46' 20" 56"". Therefore ths sun, rotating at the rate of velocity found hy astronomical observation, reaches any place whatever of the

142 ALBİRONİ.

eoliptio earlier than be would rench it by that rotation on which their method is hased, in each 165 complete daye (sic !) 145. We shall use, however, their own eystem, and shall now explain how we may find the beginning of thoir year, and how we may ascertain its nature, whether it be a common or a leap year, imperfect, intermediate, or perfect. Now, if we want to find this, we add to the date of the Era Alez- andri, for the let of the Syrian Tishrin Primue, 3,448 years. Thereby we get the corresponding date of the Aha Adami for the let of (the Jewish) Tishri, that falls either in the end of Abh or in flul, hoth of which monthe precede that Tiehrin Primue whence we started in this calculation. 10 If we, further, want to know whether the year of which we have found the beginning be a common year or a leap year, we aubtract 2 from the number of years, and divide the remainder hy 19; the quotient we get represente the number of complete Minor Cycles. The remainder we compare with Circle I. of the Assaying Circle. There we find in Cirdle I., opposite to the year of the cycle, an indication of its nature, whether it be a common or a leap year. Further, we find in Circle III. the date of the Syrian month on which the beginning of the year in qnee- tion falle. And lastly, we find in Circle IV. the name of this Syrian month. Here followe the diagram of the Assaying Cirele :- 20

64

T

61 c

16 L

. 91 4 Abh ASSAYING CIRCLE 2227 .aocor ding to the 15 C 15

S Ordo intercalatimnis Abh 27 L 24

6

Ábh 13

30 21 10

C C

10 9

CYCLES, PEAR POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP MONTHS. 148

If the Enneadecateris, on being complete, returned to the enme day of the week whence it started, which, as we have already mentioned, is not the case, we should have added in the Assaying Circle a cirele V., for the indication of the daye of the weeks on which the New-Year days of the single years of the Enneadecateris would fall. Under these circum- etances, howover, it is impracticable. If we want to find the week-day with which the day indicated in Cirele IIL corresponds, we compute, by methods which will be hereafter explained, the commencements of either Abh or flul of the year in 10 question, in whichsoever of these two monthe that day may fall. On having carried out this, we learn what we wanted to know. This, our caleulation regarding the let of Tishri, is an average cal- culation, without any other correetion bcing employed. But now the beginning of Tishri frequently falls on such daye which the Jewe, aa we have already mentioned, do not allow to be New.Year's day. There- fore it becomee necessary te fix it on a day earlicr or later. If we, now, want to acquaint ourselves with this correction (lit. equation), we must first know the conjunction of sun and moon at the beginning of Tishri, according to the theory of the Jews themselves, 20 not that of the astronomers. For between theee two theoriee there are certain divergencies :- I. They give to the lunar month, extending from conjunction to con- junction, the length of- 29d. 12h. 793 Halnks, which is equal to (29d. 12h.) 44/ 3" 20", [whilst modern observers have found it to be 29d. 12h. 44/ 2" 17"" 21IP.] 12v Therefore the difference between the two computationg is

30 1" 2' 38IY. 48V p.146. II. They give the solar year, if they reckon with mathematical accu- racy, the length of 365d. 54181b. whilst modern astroDomers have fonnd it to be shorter. III. Astronomers teach that that portion of the Nychthemeron which elapees between the time of conjunction and that moment when new moon hecomea visible, varies according to the differences of both the longitudes and latitudes of the placee, whilst the Jewe compute it every- where according to one and the same rule. We do not know for which 40 particular place this mode of computetion was originally calculated, but it seems rather likely that it was made for Jerusalem or its environs, for thero was their central seat.

144 ALBİRONİ.

IV. They determins this space of time (between tha conjunction and the appearance of new moon) by Gpat kaiptkal. Whilst it is well known that it is not allowed to ues tham for the computation of conjunction, except on the equator. V. They compute the conjunctions by the mean, not the apparent motion. Therofore passover frequently falls two complete days later than the real opposition-one day in consequence of the Eguations, another day in consequence of their poetponing pasaover from a Dies illicita to a Dies licita. Computation of the Moled of a Year according to the Jewish 10 System .- If we, now, want to find the Moled of a year, which term the Jewe apply to the conjunction at the beginning of each month as well as the conjunction at the beginning of every cycle, we take tho complete years of the ra Adami, i.e. till the end of the year which is preceded hy the month Tiskri in queetion. We convert the number of years into Minor Cycles, and multiply the numher of cycles by 2d. 16h. 595H, which you get ae a remainder if you convert the daye of the minor cycle into weeks. The product which arises we keep in mind. Thereupon, we coneider tha remainder of yerre that do not fill up one 20 complete minor eycle. How many of them are common years, how many leap years, wa learn hy the Ordo intercalationis,

(i.e. the End, 5th, 7th, 10th, 13th, 16th, and 18th.years of the eycle are בהזיגות

leap years). The number of common years we multiply by 4d. 8h. 876H, the number of leap years by 5d. 21h. 589 . The product of these two multiplications we add to the sum we have kept in mind. To the eum we always add 5d. 14h., 80 which repreeente tha interval betwecn the time of the conjunction and the beginning of the night of Sunday that was the commencement of the first ycar of the Era Adami. Then we raise each 1,080 Halake to 1 hour, and add it to the other hours; each 24 hours we convert into 1 day, and add it to the other daye. The eum of daye that ariees we convert into weeke, and the re- mainder of daye that are lees than a week is the dietance of the Moled from the beginning of the night of Sunday. Now, that time to which in tha last instance our calculation leada us, is the tima of the conjunc. p.147. tion at the beginning of Tiakri. 40 We have mede such a computation for a year of the Era Alerandri, in order to facilitate the procees and to simplify the apparatus. If you want to find the conjunction at the beginning of Tiehrt, taks the years of the Ara Alerandri, and suhtract therefrom always 12 yeare, which are the remainder of the minor cycle at the epoch of the Æra

OYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLRDS, AND LEAP-MONTHS. 145

Alexaudri, according to the Ordo intercalationis 21. The remainder of years divide by 19; the quotient you get is the number of minor cycles. Convert thece minor oyclee into great eycles, if they are of a suffcient number to give complete great cycles, and keep in mind what remainder of years you have got. They are the current years of the cycle in question, according to the Ordo intercalationis 22027. The great cycles, if you get such, compare with the table of the great cycles, and take the number of days, hours, and Halakim which you find 10 opposite them. The small cycles compare with the table of the amall cycles, and the number of days, hours, and Halakim which yon find opposite them. These two number. add together, days to days, hours to hours, and Halaķîm to Halâķîm. This aum add to the Basis, which is written in the table uppermost, and which is the Moled of the 12th year of the Ara Alexandri. Con- vert each 1,080 Halakim into an hour, each 24 hours into a day, and the daye into weeks. The remainder of days you get is the distance between the beginning of the night of Sunday and the time of the conjunction. 20 This is according to Jewish calculation. We have used as the starting-point in this our calculation the begin- ning of the night for no other reason but this, that they commence the Nychthemeron with sunset, as we have mentioned in the first part of this - book. - Here follows the table, computed by that method of calculation which we have explained in the preceding pages :- p.148.

Tha Namherg' The Yeare of the of the Days. Hours. Halâķim. 8mall Cycles. Small Cycles.

30 1 19 2 16 595 38 5 110 57 1 1 705 4 76 18 220 5 95 6 10 815 6 114 2 3 330 133 4 19 925 8 152 12 440 9 171 3 4 1,035 10 190 5 21 550 40 11 209 1 14 65 12 228 G 660 18 247 6 23 175 14 . 266 2 15 770 15 285 5 8 285 10

146 ALBİRONİ.

The Numbera Tho Years of the of the Dayo. Honra. Halațim. Small Oyoles, Small Oyoles.

1362403514623 16 304 0 880 17 328 17 395 18 842 6 9 990 19 361 2 505 20 3S0 19 20 21 399 11 615 22 418 4 130 10 23 437 20 725 24 456 1 13 240 25 475 4 5 835 26 494 6 22 350 27 518 14 945 28 532 5 7 460

149. The Sing le Years of the Small Cycle. Daya. Honra. Halāķim. Leap Years.

21 589 20 .- --. 6 385 15 181 4 6 12 770 5 21 566 L 6 19 75 - ... 0 3 951 8 12 747 L 9 3 10 256 10 0 19 52 11 5 928 80 12 4 437 10 288 14 5 19 29 L 15 4 16 618 16 2 1 414 L 17 22 1003 18 5 799 19 16 595 L

OYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP-MONTHS. 147

p.150. The Numbere The Years of the Hourg. Țalâķim. Great Oyoles. of the Great Cyoles. Daye.

1 532 5 1064 460 3 14 920 1596 1 22 800 2128 0 5 760 2660 5 13 3192 140 3 10 6 20 $00 8724 3 1060 8 4256 11 4788 440 9 5 18 900 10 5320 4 2 280 11 5852 2 9 12 6384 740 17 120 13 6916 6 0 580

Astronomical Computation of the Moled of a Year .- If a mathe p.151. matician wants to know the time of conjunction as determinsd by astronomical observation, not that one which is found by the rules of 20 the Jewish chronologers, he may use the (following) table, which we have tried to compnte in the same way as the preceding ones, on the basis of the corrected ohservations that have heen made not long before our time. For this purpose we have consulted the view of Ptolemy regarding the mean length of the month, the view of Khalid ben 'Abd- almalik of Marwarudh, according to his measurements made at Damas- eus, the view of the sons of Musa ben Shahir, and of others. Of all these, we found the most deserving to be adopted and followed that of ths sons of Musa ben Shakir, because they spent their whole energy in endeavouring to find the truth; hecause they were unique in their age 30 for their knowledge of, and their skill in, the methods of astronomical ohservations ; because scholars bore witness of them to this effect, and warranted the correctness of their observations; and lastly, hecause there is a long interval between their observations and those uf the ancients (Ptolemy, Hipparchus, ete.), whilst our time is not far distant from theirs (ie. from the time when the sons of Musa ben Shakir made their observations). Now we have computed the Basis aceording to their view, vis. the date of the conjunction at the beginning of the 13th year of the Era Aler- andri. It occurred at Baghdad, 21h. 20' 50" 14" 29IV. after noon on a 40 Tuesday. And hecause the meridian of Jerusalem, on account of its more western longitude, is bebind the meridian of Baghdad by 14 Times, we have subtracted the corresponding space of time, ic. 56 minutes from the date of the sams conjunetion at Baghdad. So we get as a remainder ths Basis for Jerrsalem, i.e .- 20h. 24' 50" 14" 29rV. after noon. 10 *

148 ALBİRÛNİ.

He who calcwlates on thie basis subtracts alwaye 12 from the incom- plete yeare of the Era Alezandri (i.e. from the Era Alecandri, including the current year), and converts the remainder into great and small eycles. He takes that portion of hours, minutes, seconds, eto. which correeponds in the tables to each of thess numbers of great and small cyelee. The remainder of eingle yeais he comparee with the table of the consecutive yeare of the emall cyele; he takee the values which he finda in the table oppesite thie numher of years, and adds these three Characters (of the Great Cycles, the Small Cycles, and the Cousecutive Yeara of the latter) together. This sum he adds to the Basis, and raises the hours and 10 fractions of an hour to days and the correspor ding wholee. Thereupon he converts the days into weeke, and the remainder which he gets is that time which has elapeed between the noon of Sunday at Jerusalem and the conjunction at the beginning of Tishri. Hore follows the table as based upon astronomical observations :-- p.152. The Numbers The Years of the of th8 Days. Hours. :Minutee. Seconds. Thirds. Fourths. 8 mall Gyoles. Small Cyeloa.

The Bosis. 12 2 20 24 50 14 29

19 2 16 28 57 57 53 20 38 5 8 57 55 55 46 53 53 39 3 57 1 26 76 51 51 32 4 17 55

71 5 95 6 10 24 49 49 25 6 114 2 53 47 47 18 7 133 4 19 22 45 45 11 152 0 51 43 43 4 8 9 171 3 4 20 41 40 57 10 190 5 20 49 39 38 50 11 209 1 13 18 37 3C 43 30 12 228 4 5 47 85 34 36 13 247 6 22 16 38 32 29 14 266 14 45 31 30 22 15 285 5 7 14 29 28 15 16 304 23 43 27 26 8 17 323 3 16 12 25 24 1 18 342 6 8 41 23 21 54 19 361 2 1 10 21 19 47 20 380 4 17 39 19 17 40 21 399 0 10 8 17 15 83 40 22 418 2 37 15 13 26 28 437 5 19 6 13 11 19 24 456 1 11 35 11 9 12 2.5 475 4 4 26 494 6 22 83 7 4 58 27 513 13 2 5 51 28 532 5 81 3 0 44

CYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP-MONTHS, 149

p.159. The Single Years of the Days. Houra. Minutes. Secoude. Thirda. Fourtbs. Small Cyoles.,

1 5 21 82 29 45 35 6 20 57 13 49 3L 0 15 9 24 42 4 6 12 41 54 27 98 21 80 21 55 52 6 19 2 51 41 27 10 7 0 51 19 9 41 8L 4 12 99 46 37 55 --. 9 10 12 16 23 80 10 0 19 0 43 51 44 11 L 5 3 49 11 19 58 12 4. 1 21 41 5 33 13 1 10 10 8 33 47 14 L 5 18 58 96 1 15 4 16 31 5 47 36 16 L 2 1 19 33 15 50 20 17 0 22 52 1 25 18 5 40 30 29 39 19 L 16 28 57 57 53

p.154. The Numbers of the Their Years. Days. Hours. Mibutea. Sccoods. Thirds. Fourths. Grest Cycles. 1

01228 532 5 31 3 0 44 1234567830 1064 11 2 6 1 28 1596 16 33 2 12 ... 4 2128 6 22 4 12 56 80 2660 5 3 35 15 40 6 3192 9 6 18 4 24 3724 14 37 21 5 8 8 4256 6 20 8 24 5 52 9 4788 5 1 39 27 36 10 5320 7 10 30 20 11 5852 1 12 41 33 8 4 89 12 6384 6 18 12 36 48 .. 13 6916 4 23 43 39 32

(In this our calculation of the conjunction) we have used noon as p.155. 40 terminus a quo for no other reasen but this, that we may more easily find the aquation for the maled by this method than by using the horizons (i.e. reckoning from sunset, as the Jews du). The hours of the longcst day for the latitude of Jerusalem are 13h. plus a fraction. Therefore the calculation of the Jews by pat kaypwal

150 ALDİRÜNİ.

is incorreet, except in case the conjunotion at the beginning of Tiahri should coincide with the autumnal equinox. This, howevor, never hap- pens. On the contrary, the conjunction at the beginning of Tishri always either precedes or follows the autumnal equinox by a considerable apace of time, as we have explaincd herctofore. Relation between the beginning of the Year and ite Character. -If we, now, make ont the time of the conjunction hy the traditional cal- culation of the Jewe, or by means of the table which we have constructed according to their theory, we arrive at the knowledge of the beginning of the year and of its character, whether it be imperfect, intermediate, 10 or perfect, whilst we hare already previously learnt how to know whether the year be a common or a leap year. Thereupon we look in the Table of Limits for a apace of time in the week within the limita of which the oonjunction as found by our enleulation falls. If the year bo a leap rear, we look into the column of leap yeara; if it be a common year, we look into the column of common years. Having made out this, we find opposits the indication of the week-day on which the year commences, and of the quality of the year. Once knowing the heginning of the year (its precise date in the week) and its quality, and combining with it our knowledge as to whether the year is a common or a leap year, we 20 come to know the beginning of the next following year. Here followe the Table of the Limits :--

p.156. Tha Limite of the Time Spheres aa distributed Charaoter over the Week, in Common Yeara. NOw-Yesr'e Day. of the Year.

From noon of Satorday

9h. 204H. in the night of Sanday till Imperfect.

From 9h. 204H. in the night of Sunday till 3h. 589H. in the day of Monday, if the preceding year is a leap year; 80 2 Perfeot.

Noon of Monday, if the preceding year is a common year

From 8h. 589H. in the day of Monday,

From noon of Monday, or

till Intermediats.

9h. 204H. in the night of Tuesday

OYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP-MONTRS. 151

The Limita of the Timo-Spheres as distributed over the Week, in Common Yoars. New-Jear's Day. Charaoter of the Year.

From 9h. 204H. in tho night of Tuesday

9h. 204H. in the night of Thursday till 5 Intermediate.

From 9h. 204H. in the night of Thursday

Noon of Thursday till 5 Perfect.

From noon of Thursday 10 Oh. 208H. in the night of Friday, if the till

following year is a common year; 7 Imperfect.

9b. 204H. in the night of Friday, if the till

following year is a leap year

From Oh. 208H. in the night of Friday,

Frons 9h. 204H. in the night of Friday, or 7 Perfect. till 20 Noon of Saturday.

p.157 The Limits of the Time Spheres as distributed New-Year'e Character over the Week, in Leap Yeare. Day. of the Years.

From noon of Saturday 2 8h. 491H. in the day of Sunday till Imperfect.

From 8h. 491H. in the day of Sunday till 2 Perfect. Noon of Monday

From noon of Monday 30 till 3 Intermediate. Noon of Tuesday

152 ALRÍRONİ.

The Limita of the Time Spberee ee distributed New-Year's Charaoter over the Week, in Leap Years. Day. of the Yeara.

From noon of Tueeday till Intermediate. 11h, 695H. in the night of Wednesday

From 11h.695H. in the night of Wednesday 5 Perfect. Noon of Thureday till

From noon of Thursday till 7 Imperfeot. 10 8h. 491H. in the day of Friday

From 8h. 491H. in the day of Friday till Perfect. Noon of Saturday.

.158. Further, of theee conditione and qualities there are certain ones which oxclusively attach to the year in case ite beginning falls on a certain day of the week, the other conditions being excluded. If you call thie cir- cumstance to help, it will prove an aid towarde obtaining the object in view. In the following fgure we repreeent thie subject by meane of divisione 20 and ramifcatione :-

THE YEAR is either a common year or a leap year.

Thursday (i.e. if New.Year'e day Thursday. ie a Thursday). The year cannot be Imperfect. It cannot be Intermediate.

IN BOTH COMHON AND LEAP YEARS.

Tuesday. Monday. Saturday. It is always It can never be It can never he 30 Intermediate. Intermediate. Intermediate.

159. Further, of these conditione there are certain onee which may happen in two consecutive years, whilst others cannot. If we compriee them in & Tailasan, it will afford a help towards utilizing this circumstance, and will facilitate the method. We must look into the equare which belongs

CYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLADS, AND LEAP-MONTHS. 153

in common to the two qualities of the two years; in that square it is indicated whether the two years of two sneh qualitios can follow each other or not.

3 1 Imperfect. Qualities of the years.

Cannot follow 1 Intermediate. 5 4 1

each other. Imperfect.

6 4

Perfect. Cannot follow Cau follow 4 2

each other. each other. Intermediate.

10 5 3 6 Can follow Can follow Can follow 6 each other. each other. each other. 6 Perfect. 3

The reason why two intermediate years cannot follow each other is this, that their ends and beginnings cannot be hrought into concord with p.160.

each other, as the Table of Equation at the end of this book will show. The reason why two imperfect years cannot follow each other is this, that the perfect monthe among the months of the cycle (Enneade- cateris) prepon derate over the imperfect ones. For tho small eycle com- prises 6,940 days, i.e. 125 perfect nionths and only 110 imperfect ones. For the same reason, three months which are perfect according to the 20 appearance of new moon, can follow each other, whilst of the imperfeet months not more than two can follow each other. And their following each other is possible only in consequence of the variation of the motions of the two great luminaries (sun and moon), and of the variation of the setting of the zodiacal signs (i.e. the varying velocity with which the sun moves through the various signs of the Ecliptic). In what Period the beginning of the Jewish Year returns to the same Date .- If the conjunctions at the beginuings of Lwo con- secutive great eycles (of 532 years) coincided with each other (i.e. if they were cyclical in such a way as to begin always at the same time of the 30 week), we should be able to compute the qualities of the Jewish years by means of tables, comprising the years of a great cycle, similar to the Chronicon of the Christians. However, the moleds of these cycles do not return to the same time of the week except in 689,472 years, for the following reason : T. Character of the amall cycle, i.e. the remainder which you get by dividing its number of days by 7, is 2d. 16h. 595H. This fraction is not raised to one whole, except in a number of eycles, which is equal to the number of Halakim of one Nychthemeron, i.e. 25,920. Because

154 ALBİBONİ.

fraetions aro not raised to wholes, exeept when multiplied by a number whioh is equal to the complete number of the eame kind of fractione of one whole (i.e. by the denominator). But as both the number of the Halikim of the Nychthemeron (25,920) and the number of the remainder of the Halakim of the eyelos (595) may be divided by 5, the fractions will be raised to wholos if multiplied by a number of cycles, which is equal to of the Halakim of the Nychthemeron, i.e. 5184. Now, the conjunction (at the heginning of the year) does not retarn to the same time of the week except in a numher of eyeles which is the 10 sevonfold of this number (5184), i.e. 36,288. And this ie the numher of eyolee which represent the above-montioned number of years (vis. 689,472). In general, conjunction and opposition return to the same place (t.e. happen again at the same time of the week) in each 181,440 montha, which is the product of the multiplication of the number of Halakim of one Nychthemeron (25,920) by 7. Comparison between the Jewish Era and the Era of Alexander. -Since it is not possible to use this method for chronological purposes, we have not thought it proper to deviate from the traditional method, 20 inaemuch as it tries to bring near that which is distant, and eimplifies and facilitates that which ie diffcult and intricate. It is eufficient for ue to know the beginnings and the qualities of the years, and the corresponding daye of the Syrian months on which the days of New Year fall, for such & number of yeare as that the student will not require more in the majority of cases. This information we have recorded in throe tablee :- L. The first represents the day of the week on which the year com- mences ; the Tabula Signoum. IL The second, or Tobula Qualitatum, shows the qualities of the years. The letter t (n) designatee an Imperfect year, hecause in their 30 langaage it is called inIDn. The letter (5) means an Intermediate year, because they call it -כסדרן p.161. The letter A (p) means a Perfect year, because they call it '5m III. The Tabula Integritotum et Quantitatum, representing the days on which the Jewish New Year falls, the days of Abh in red ink, the daye of Ilul in black ink. Using these tables you take the Ara Alezandri for the current year, beginning with Tishrin I., which Salls alwaye (a little) later than Tishri. The whole number of years you compare with the vertical column of 40 years; the single years (of the periods of nineteen years) you comparo with the horizontal eolumn of years. Then you find in the square which is common to both, that which you wanted, if God permits! pp.162 [Here follow the three tables, which I have united into one.] -167.

TABLE OF KEDTOTE

1 5 8 17 19 18 17 18 A Tan

L L F

1305 191 4754 177 18 123 80 A 18. 27 A 15 55 998 8I 29 A 241 141 22'i 8 22 111 I

1824 4773 1012 90'I 81 28 A 17 I 67 1247 7 t 5 22 2 11 5: 191 2 18 Y 30 A 28'A 151 28j 31A 1849 1031 20I 9I 82 20 7 6I 5 w 21 4792 28 A 16 28 18 2 22 81'A 181 81 27 A 141 4I 24 12 1 31 A

186 5 2 9I 7F 481] 1050 20T 29 A 161 25 121 29 A 2 m 171 28 A 14 I 28 I 137 1887 2 1 4880 9. 25 I 217 14 I 5 0 10 I 81'A 17 2 M 191 29 1 217 27 A 16 I 22 I 12 I B'I 11069

1400 8- 4849 ! 1088 29'4 7 M 4 7 m 8'1 10 I 15 5 nH 19 20 80 A 26 A

1419 191 8: 17₩ 2 m 4868 1107 17'i 23 1 18 I 5 7 28 I 9 807 19 81 26 A 15 I 4 22 81A 1488 85 7 24 27 5 0 7 m 14 4'1 22 5 m 4887 1126 20 I 8I 28 A 16 1 6 12. 90 10T 29 A 18 28 317

1457 2 4906 1145 20 T 128 A 16 I 51 18 1I 9 80A 171 14 23 31 A ப

1476 5 t 19 55 10 I 29 A 18 2 m 5: 29 A 16 I 121 21 211 6 ה 7 2 m 2 M 4925 1164 9I 23 I 27 A 14T 8I 31A

1495 4944 1183 19 8 16 7 5 5 211 180 A 26 15 23I 11 11

1514 2 x 71 7 5 496 1202 19 I 28 A 16 I 24 I 13'1 17 201 7 m 21 10T 5 30 A 17* 6 27 A 15 I 22 121 131 A

1538 7 s 28 5 5 1221 20I 26 498 18 4 18 16 15 21

1552 3 71 5 2 18 İ 141 55 5001 1240 2 28 17 28 18 21 191 9I 26A LI 21I 10 1 31 A

.1571 7 1259 20I 3 55 502 27A 16 I 7 t 5 M 23 I 2] 18 71 27 A 55 121 10 29 A 141 28 55 30A

-1590 2 m 5 m 3 5089 1278 1971 91 16 21 11I 5 w 30 A 28 I 12 1 307

1609 8 5058 129 8 129A 5 15 I 127 17 2 0 201 10 I 29A 16 1 27 A 1141 20 1 12. 1I 2 世

1628 7 p 5077 1316 18 15' 24 3 18: 1. 20 I 30 A 17 26 A 15 I

1647 7 M 287 12t 2 7 509 1335 128 1 15 I 5 2 120 91 2 M 19 1 18 29 A 18 25 A 141 4I 22 0I B1'A

1666 5 5115 1354 18 I 3 8 2t 27 A 16 j 28 7 ₩ 20I 5 m 21 7 m 9I 29 A 18I 6 A 141 21 11 I 80 A

1985 141 7 m 5 g : 5134 1373 71 28 A 23 T 12 39 f 9129A 17 I 71 211 101 81 A

1704 7 M 5153 55 ק 5 7 m 1392 19 R'I 27 16 201 121 201 :I29 A 17 25 A 13 I 31 22'1 10 30 A

1723 3 -1 5172 1411 28A 21 5 15 22 A 21 28 A 6 26 A 181 21 30 A

1742 2 m 7 m 7 ₩ 3 7 7 m 5191 1430 5 2 1 5 t I8 28 A 16. 31 A 107 29 26 A 14I 3I'A

176 2 g 28 A 14. 8 2 m 23 13: 2 m 5210 1419 4 81 A 119 91 30 A 16 5 26 A I 15 T 21. 11 81 A

1780 17I1 2 2 5220 1468 5; 5- 27 A 161 23 12 19 I 8 .29 A 16 5 257 14: 21 20 I 10I 81 I

2n 20 70 58 1799 3- 7 w 2 1 5248 | 1487 18I 27. 16 22 19 28 A 25 A 13 I 21I 301

1818 17 2n.50 5207 1500 19 71 26. 15 5 23 1I 21I 10I 28 A 27 A 181 21 10T 20 A

OYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, NOLEDS, AND LEAP-MONTHS. 155

The beginnings of the Jewish Months .- Let ne suppose we did p.168. not know by means of the Tabula Quantitahem on what precise date in tho months Abh or Ilul the Jowish New Year falle, but we knew from tho Tabula Signorum on what day of the week it falle, and wo had pre. viously learnt from the Assaying Circle on what date of Abh or Ilnl on an average it falls (no regard being had to the Daliyyoth). In thie case we should be sufficiently informed to know in what way to advance or to poatpone the date of the Syrian month if this day of the week should be incompatible with Rosh-hashshana, so as to get at laet the legitiate LO New-Year's day (lacuna) more particularly as the three festivale are to be found with perfect accuracy in the preceding three tables. (In this way) we obtain a Lnowledge of the eia of the Jewa, of the beginning of their year, and of its complicated natnre. Hence we pre- ceed to learn the beginninge of the single months of their year, either by dietributing over the months their proper portions of daya in con- formity with the two qualities of the year in question (whether it be w, or i or a common or leap year), or by meane of the Tabula Initiorum Mensium. You compare the Rosh-hashshana with the Table of the Signum (week-day) of Tishri; in the table of common ears, if the 20 year be a common year; in the table of leap years, if the year be a leap year. At the side of thie column you find another, which indicates whether the year be imperfect, intermediate, or perfect. After having made out thie, you find in the corresponding squares the beginning of each complete month, and the two beginninge of each incomplete month. For the Jewe assign to each month which ie preceded by a complete month two beginnings (two firat daye), viz. one day which is in reality the beginning of the month, and the preceding day, or the 30th day of the preceding complete month. This you must keep in mind, for it is part of their bewildering terminology. God ie allwiee and almigbty ! 30 TABLE SHOWING ON WHAT DAYS OF THE WREK THE BEOLNNINO OF p.169. THE MONTHS FALLS THEOUCHOUT THE YRAR. Table of Common Yeare.

Quality of the Year. Tébeth, Temmauz. Shebhat. Adbår. Kisl&w. Siwån. Marhesh wan. NisAn. Signum initii Abh, I mensis Tishri.

2 1 VI e 8 IV. 8 7 8V. 4 III. Perfeot .. 9 I. 8 V. 8 II. 1 7 VI. 5 Imperfect 7 .

6 V. $ IL 1 7 VI. 4 ITT. 2 1 VII 6 V. 4 ITE. Perfect . 4 IIL 1 VIL 5 IV. 7 4 III. Imperfeot 40 8 II. 1 7 VI. 4 IIL 1 VIL 5 IV. Intermeiiata 3

2L. 7 6 V. 7 VI. 5 4 IIE. 2 1. 7 VL Perfect . 5

1 VII. 3 6 V. 4 1 7 YL Intarmediate 5

. . .

156 ALBİRONİ.

p.170. Table of Leap Years.

Qualty of the Fear. dus. Marbesh wan. Adhas Prt- 'Adhar Secm menais TiehrL Signam initli / Åbh. Tebeth, Sbebhat,

4 V. 4 5 7 B V. Perfect. . 4 III. 6 IV. 5 4 Imperfect ... 1 VD. & IV. e V 4 ILL Perfect.

d V. 4 3 II 1 7 VL. 5 4 II. Impertect 2 VIL 5 IV. e V. 2 VII. G S IV. Intermediste

4 IIL S 3 1V. 7 VI. 5 7 VL Perfect. 5 10

e V. 4 2 7I. 5 IV. 1 7 VL Imparteut .

p.171. They were induced to assume two Rosh. Hodesk, as I am inclined to think, by the circumstance that originally they counted tbe com- plete month as 29 days pure (ie. without any fraction), and that ie in fact the correct time of the interval between two consecutive conjunc- tions. Into the 30th day, however, Sall the fractions of the synodic month (i.e. the first 12 hours 798 Halakim of the 30th day helong to the preceding month, whilst the latter 1lh. 287H. belong to the following month). Therofore they referred this 30th day to the month that had passed, so that thereby it became in reality complete, and to 20 the incomplete month (jnst commencing), so that this latter one got two beginnings (i.e. the latter llh. 287H. of the 30th day, and the first whole day of the new month). But God knows best what they intended !

Computation of the beginning and middle of the Months according to Jewish and Astronomical Systems .- If we now want to know the time of conjunction at the heginning of a month, or the time of opposition in the middle of the month, according to the eystem of the Jewe, we derive them from the Table of Moleds and Fortnights, where we find the Conjunction opposit the moled of each month, and $0 the Opposition opposite its Fortnight; for tho common year in the column of common years; for the leap yeare in the column of leap years. The number we find we add to the Moled Tiehri, i.e. to the conjunction at the beginning of Tishri; the fractione we convert into wholes, the days into weeks. Iu this way we find what we wanted to kmow.

CTCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP-MONTHS, 157

If we want to learn the same according to the doctrine of the astrono. mere, we make the same calculation with the Tuble of Conjunctions and Oppositions, using the table of common years if the year in question bo a common year, and the table of leap yoars if the year in question be a leap year, and with the conjuuction at the beginning of Tishri as com- puted by the astronomers. In this way we arrive at the knowledge of both conjunctions and oppositions which we wanted. Here follow the tables :-

Pp.172, TABLE OF THE MOLEDS AND FORTNIGHTS. 179.

10 The Moleds CONMON YEAB. Tho Moleda LEAP YBAR.

and Fortoights and Fortnighta of the Months. Dars. Houra Halā- im. of th Blonths. Days, Houra, Halar kim .

Moled Tishrt 0 0 Moled Tishrt . 0 0 0012334566 0 Its fortnight 0 18 3961 Its fortnight 18 3961 Moled Marbesh wan 1 12 793 Moled Marheshwan 12 793 Its fortnigbt 7 1091 Its fortnight 2 7 109₺ Moled Kialew 3 50G Moled Kislew 506 Its fortoight 3 19 9021 Its fortnight 19 9024 Moled Tebeth 4 14 219 Molod Tebeth 4 14 219 20 Its fortnight 8 [ GI5} Its fortnight 5 8 615ł Moled Shobhat 6 -1012 Moled Shebath 6 2 1012 Its fortnight ! 3281 6 21 328} . 6 21 Its fortnight Mfoled 'Adhar 0 15 725 Moled ' Adbar I. 0 15 Ita fortnight 1 10 411 Its fortnight I 10 725 411 Môled Nisao . 4 438 Moled 'Adbar II. 2 4 438 Ita fortnight Its fortnight 22 . Moled 'Iyar 3 I51 Moled Nisan. 17 8311 17 3 151 Ita fortnight 4 11 547 Its fortuight 4 5471 Moled Siw&n . 6 944 Moled 'Iyar 5 6 944 30 Its fortnight 6 0 2601 Ica fortoight 6 0 2601 Moled Tammuz 18 657 Moled Siwao . 18 657 Ita fortaight 0 12 :1053 Its fortnight 0 12 10534 Moled Abb 1 7 : 370 Moted Tammuz 1 370 Its fortnight 2 1 7663 Ita fortnight 2 7663 Mol&d 'E101 20 83 Moled Ahh 2 20 83 Ita fortnight 8 14 4793 Its fortmight 3 14 4791 Moled 'Eld) 4 8 876 Its fortnight . 6 1923

158 ALBİRÔNİ.

p.174, TABLE OF CONJUNCTIONS AND OPPOSITIONS. 175.

COSMON YEAR. LEAP YEAR. The Con- The Con. janstions and Junctions end Oppositions Oppositions of the of tha Months. Months, Hours. Thirds. Minutes. Seconds. Days. Saconda. Fourths. Miootes. Thirds. Daya. Houre. } Fourtha, |

Conjunction of | 0 0 0 0 0 0 Confanotioo of 0 0 0 0 0 Habri Tishrl. Tte fall moon 0 18 1 40 Ita fall moon . 18 I 8 401 10 Conjunction of | 1 19 17 Canjunotion of 1 12 17 21ł Marbesh wan. Ite full moon . 8 26 Its full moon . 7 3 28 11

Confanctlon of 8 1 34 42 Coajanction of 3 1 28 4 34 423 Klaldw. Ite fall moon . 19 49 Ite fall moon . 19 5 43 23 co

Conjunction of 14 19 Conjonetion of 4 12 8 Tebeth Tebeth Ita fall moon . 5 8 443 Ita fall moon . 8 0 45

Conjunction of 58 8 241 Confunction of 2 20 Shebhst. Shebhaf. Ita fall mooD . 18 10 18 51 Ite fall moon . 21 18 10 18 51 Conjunotion of 0 15 40 46 Conjunction of 0 18 40 11 26 46 AdhAr. 'AdhAr L 19 85 20 Tho full moon . 1 10 18 95 281

Conjanction of 24 13 44 Confunetion of 24 18 7} Naận Adbfr II. Its foll moon . 22 48 14 474 Kta foll moon . 23 46 471

Conjnnetion of 8 17 8 18 1 Conjonction of 3 17 8 16 1 282 "LAr. 30 Its full moon. 11 80 17 10 Ita full moon 80 17 10 8

Conjunction of 58 18 18 Conjunetion of 58 18 18 403 CN "Iyar. Ita fall moon . 14 19 37 80 Ita Iull I0oon . 0 1% 13 301

Confunction of 18 86 20 86 10 Conjunction of 18 20 88 101 כס Tummus. Ita full moon . 0 18 88 21 812 Ita fall moan . 0 12 68

Conjunetion of I 20 28 Conjonction of 1 7 20 22 53 83 Abh. Ita tui moon . I 42 25 Tammuz. 18 Ita full moon . 1 24 192 40 Conjonction of 2 90 25 10 Copjunction of Abh. 25 10 EIQL Ita full moon . 8 14 26 26 19 89 Its full moon . 8 14 96 18 339 Confunction of 4 8 48 27 28 141 Its fall moon . 8 10 28 88

CYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP-MONTHS. 159

We aleo find what wo want to know regarding tho Jewish years, by p.176. computing the next opposition (or full moon) after the vernal equinor, occurring in that epace of time within the limits of which the Jewieh passover varies; then we consider on what day within this time it falle, reekoning the day from one sunrise to the next one. If the opposition occurs on one of Dies Licitæ, that day is the day of passover; if, how- ever, it occurs on one of the Dies illicitæ, i.e. the days of the three inferior planets, we postpone paseover to the second (the next following) day. This postponement of passover they call in their language vna Dahf. 10 Then you make the eame computation in order to find the passover of the preceding year. To the Signum (i.e. week-day) of thie latter pass- over you add two, whereby you get the day of the Ist of Tishri that lies in the middle between the two passovers. Then you count the days in- tervening between the two passovere; if they exceed the number of days of a eolar year, that year in which the latter passover liee is a leap year; if they are lees, the year ie a common year. In this chapter you may learn the primary qualities of the year (its heing common or intercalary), but not its secondary qualities (its heing perfect, intermediate, or imperfect). For frequently passover has been 20 postponed, when it ought to have been advanced according to the theory of the Jewe, or it has been advanced when, according to them, it ought to have been postponed. Therefore, you get no exact information as to the quality of the year, whether it be perfect, intermediate, or imperfect. Frequently, even the opposition occurred near to one of the limits of that spacs of time, within which passover variee, whilst each of the places of sun and monn, as made ont from appearance, was at variance with its mean place, on account of the alternate acceleration and retarda- tion of the motion of sun and moon, in conformity with the total sum of their Universal Equations. Therefore, euch an opposition not heing 30 fit to be employed, either the preceding or the following opposition wa9 adopted. For this reason there is a difference between the Jewish computation and this (astronomical) method, to such a degree that frequently according to the Jews the year was a leap year, whilst thie astronomical calculation proves it to have been a common year, and vice versf. Likewise there ie a difference between Jews and Christians regarding the leap year, as we shall explain in the chapter on the Christian Fast, if God permits. If, now, there is a difference between them, and they are willing to accept our decision, we shall consider the two oppositions of 40 their two passovers, and shall say, that that opposition at which the moon moves in ths middle part of Spica or of Cancer, or the sun is about to leavo Aries, ie to be rojeeted according to both systems, whilst the con- trary is to be adopted. To the lover of truth, the correctnesa of these two assertione will be apparent, if the conditione we have mentioned are obeerved.

160 ALBİRONİ.

The Cycles of Yobel and Shabu' .- The Jews have still other cyeles, e.g. the cyole of Yobel and the eycle of Shobu', i.e. of seven years. The first years of both oycles are called "restitution years." For God says, regarding tho eycle of soven years, in the third book of the Thora (Levit. xXv. 2-7): "When yo come into the land of Canaan, ye shall sow and reap and prune your vineyards six vears. But in the seventh year ye shsll not sow nor gather your grapes, but lesve them to your servants and maids, and to those who sojourn with you, and to the enttle and the birda." p.177. Thesame command God repeats in thesecond book of the Thora (Exodus 10 zxiii. 10, 11): "And six years thou shalt sow thy land, and gather in the produce thereof. But the seventh yesr thou shalt let it rest, and shalt leave thy produoe during that year to the poor and the cattle." Likewise their religion and law allow a poor man to sell bis child to a rich man, i.e. to give it in hire to him, to do service unto him; but not for sexnal intercourse, for that requires s marriage-portion and a mar- riage-contract. The child does him service during the cycle of Shabss, and it is set free, unless it doos not choose to be set free. For God says in the second bock of the Thora (Exod. xxi. 2-6): "If anyone of you buy & servant from ameng the Israelites, six yeara he shall serve, but in the 20 ssvsnth year he will go out of his possession, aad will be free to go where he pleases, he and his wife, if he have got one. But if the servant say, I love my master and will not leave his servico, then bis master shall bring him near the door-post, and shall bore his eare with an awl, and shall krep him as a servant as long as he pleases." The cycle of Yobel was wanted on account of the following command of God in the third book of the Thora (Levit. xxv. 8-13): " You shall sow the land seven times seven, which is forty-nine years. Then you shall cause the trumpet to sound thronghout all your land, and yon ehall hallow it for the fiftieth year. You shall not sow nor resp. And in the 30 fiftieth year the restitution shall take place." "The land shall not be sold for ever, for the land is mine and yon are its inhabitants and sojourners with me" (Levit. xxv. 23). " Everything that has been sold is to be restored in the fifticth year. You shall sell according to the number of years," ie. the remaining years of the cycle of Yobel (Levit. xxv. 18-15). In the sams book (Lsvit. xxv. 39, 40), God says : " If thy brother be waxen poor, and be sold unto thee, thou shalt not compel him to serve as a bond servant, bnt as s hired servant and as a sojourner until the year of restitution." Because of the circumstances brought sbout by these regulations they 40

required these two cycles, in order that in their sales the higher and lower prices should always correspond to the remaining number of yeara- of the cycle. There are still other religious regulstions of theirs which rendered them necessary. If, e.g. & servant does not wish to be set free,

OTCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AXD LEAP-MONTHS. 161

and remaina in the condition of a servant during the whole escle of Yobel, he cannot be retained after that period. Now, if you want to know how many sears have elapsed of each of the two cycles (at a certain time), take the vears of tha Era Adami, including the current year, suhtract therefrom 1,010, or add thereto 740; divide the sum by 350, and neglect the quotient. The remaiuder, however, compare with the column of numbers in the Tabula Legum, opposite which you find the statement of the numher of rears which have elapsed in each of the two cyoles. 10 Here follows tho Tabula Legum:

TABULA LEOUM. p.178, 179

Numbers, ShAba. Shabt'. Yobel. Yobil. Numbers. Numbers. Numhers. Yobel. Shabt' Yobrl. Numbere. Columon of the Cycle of Shaba Numbera. Cyele of Yobel. ' Numbers.

1 1 26 26 5 51 1 76 26 1 01 1 26 26 7 151 1 4 .. . 8 27 27 6 52 3 27 1 02 2 027 27 1 153 +

3 3 28 28 59 4 78 28 } 1 03 3 5 128 28 153 8

4 4 4 20 29 1 51 4 5 78 29 2 101 4. 6 129 29 3 15f N

5 5 5 30 55 5 30 3 105 5 7 130 30 155 5 1 |

8 6 8 31 : 81 3.56 6 7 81 81 + 108 6 2 131 31 156 8 1

7 7 32 4: 57 7 1 82 5 107 78 132 32 G 157 7

8: 3 193 . 33 | 7 1 88 . 8 - 20 8. 8 1.93 33 5 8. 33 $ : 108 +

9 6 59 3 94 7 109 134 34 | 1 159 5

19 10 3 35 :35 - 60 10 . 4 85 35 1 110 10 135 35 : 2 . 160. 10

נג: 11 4.88 96 1 1 61 01 5 88 38 2 111 136 38 3 1 61 11 7:

12 : 12 37 :322 : 62 12 6 87 87 11 2 12 7 137 37 : 4 162 12

1 31 3 6 38 38 3 63 13 88 113 13 1 1 38 38 5 163 12 2

14114 7 39 33 4 : 64 14 I 89 39 5 11 414, 2 188 16$ 14

. 1 51 $ 1 40 40 5 65 15 90 40 115 15 3 140 30 7 165 15 4

1 8 16 41 GG 16 3 41 7 116 141 41: 1 16

: 27.17 3 42 42: 7 67 174 92 42 1 117 17 : 142 167 17

30 ! 18, 18 49 43! 1 68 5 83 43 2 11 816 6 113 43 168 18 . 1 9 19 5 41 69 44 3 110 19 7 144 44 269 19 1

20 45 45 95 45 4 120 20 1 14 545 5 1 70 20 P

21 81 7 46 21 96 46 5 131 21 9 1 4648 . 6 1 71 21 . FI

. 22 47 47 5 7 3 28 1 97 47 23 3 147 47 7 172 28

29 29 48 ! 48 8 7 3 23 7 123 4 149.48 1. 173.23

24 | 24 8 49 7.74.24 49 124 24 : 5 149 : 49 : 2 17 4 24

25 | 25 4 5050 1i7 25 5 | 1 00 50 8. 125 25 . 6 1 50 50. 3 175 25. 7

:

11

162 ALBiRÔNİ.

p.180, 181 Shabe', Num hers. Shábú: Yobel Shşbû'. Nunbera. Numbers. YobeL N umbera. YobeL Yoba Sbsbo'. YobEL Nnmbers, Fobel. Numbers. Numbern.

176 26 801 1 61926 .26 6:276 86 3 | 901 : 1 7 320

177 87 @ 209 8 6.227 . 87 : 252 : 8; 7 977 87 902 1 987 27

178 28 $ | 203 3 7 220 28 953 1 278 28. 5 804 328 28 Ca co

178 29 : 4 | 204 4.1 239 | 29 : 5 254: 4: 8 ' 979 29 ; 8 3 | 329 -- 180 80 . 5 ; 205 5. 8.290;80 6 255 - 5 80 i 305 4 1 990 co

|181.81 1 @ | 205 6 3 231 : 31 856' 6 4 281 | 91! 1 908 - 6 5: 991 31

183 89 7 807 ' 7. 4 1 857 ! 32: 907 : 332 93

183 . 33 ! 1 1209 239 33 258 ! A 6 289 3 308. 7 399 99

184 1 34 1 2 200 9 7:280 S09 1 39 5 10 co

185 | 33 9 $10 10 295 35 4 10 1 :285 95 5 810 10 895

188 30 911 1 6 961 8:286 88 6 ' 311 11 36 7

187 : 87 5 212 18 97 S 262 19 287 87 7819 19 99 37 1

188 88 6 913 13 88 7 269 13 4 989 1 $19 19 999 co

189 89 814 14 099 1 14 5 99 8 314 14 999 38

190 40 1 915 5 ' 240 40 265 890 40 3 915 15 40

191 41 8 1 218 18 6 241 $1 260 291 $1 816 18 1 841 41:

192 42 ' $ 817: 17 7 17 1 298 49 $17 17 949 +

183 43 ; 4 | 218 , 18 1 249 . 43 5 208 18 203 : 48 918 18 ₹ 349 1 191 44 219 18 41 6 269 19 294 44 7 319 18 1 20 co

193 45 6 210 - 20 : 3 245 45 970 20 4 835: 45 1 320 20 5.345 45. 3.

196 46 7 221 - 31 4. 946.46 1 871 . 31 5 298 . 48 31 B 316 46 9

187 47 28 . 5 247 1 47 2 297.47 9 828.23 7 947 47 4 193 48 : 8 228. 28 6 , 218 48 278 7 298 48 4 329 23 1 348 48

183 49 : 8 224 24 7 : 249 49 4 1 219 42. 5 924 24 8:949 49 1 200 50 i 4 225 25 | 1 250 50 975 ! 23 8, 525 23 3.550 50 7

p.182 On the Teknfoth or Year-points .- Beeides the cycles we have mentioned, the have cther cycles called Tekiifoth תקופות Tehiifa means with them he commencement of each of the quarters of the year. Therefore 30

the Teknfa of Nisan is the vernal equinox, the Tekiifa of Tammuz, the aummer solstice, the Tekufa of Tishri, the autumnal equinox, and the Tekija of Tebeth, the winter solstice.

The interval between two consecutive Tekufoth they determine equally .at one-fourth of the days of the year, i.e. 91d. 74h. And on this rule they have based their calculations for the dete mination of the Tekufoth,

CTCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP-MONTHS, 163

(which were rendered necessary for this reason, that) the Jewish priests forbade the eemmon people (the laity) to take any food at the bour of the Tekufa, maintaining that this would preve injurious to the hody. This, however, ie nothing but ona of the snares and nets which the Rabhis have laid fer the people, and by which they have managed to catch them and to bring them under their sway. The thing has come to this, that peeple de net start en any undertaking unless ther are guided by Rabbinical epinions and Rabhinical direetiens, without asking any other person's advice, as if the Rabbis were Lords heside the Lord. 10 But God makes his account with them ! The Jews maintain, too, that at the hours of the Meleds ef the months the water becemes turhid; and one Jew, who is censidered a wise and learned mau, told me that he himself had witneseed it. If this he the trnth, it must, of course, be esplained by the results of astronomical ebservation, net hy means of thoir traditional syatsiu ef chrenelogical eomputation. On the whole, we de not deny the abstract possibility of auch a fact. For the etudents of physical scionces maintain that marrow and brain, eggs, and most meist substancee increase and decrease with the increase and decrease of the moonlight; that the wiue in caske and 20 jugs hegins to move so as to get turbid with sedhnent; and that the bleod during the increase of moonbght runs from the interier of tha hody towarde the outer parts, whilat during its decrease it sinks back into the iuterior of the body. The nature of the Lapis Lunc ie still more etrange than all thie; for it is, as Aristotle says, a stone with a yellow det on the surface. This dot increasea together with the increasing meeulight, so as te extend ever the whele surface of the stone when the moon has become full; afterwards it decreases agaiu in the same proportion as the moonlight, The Jew whe told me this is a trustwerthy autherity, te whose account 30 no suapicien attaches. Therefore these appearances, as related by the Jews, are not impoesible in the abstract. The intervals between the Tekufeth, as reckoned by the Jewish scholars, are identical with those of Ptolemy, i.e.,

From the Tekufa of Tishri to the Tekufa of Tebeth=88d. Țebeth Niaan=90a d. Nisân Tammuz=941d. Tammuz Tiahri=92:d.

This givee & aum of 365} daye. In the computatiot of the Tekufoth they do not reckon the year with 40 mathematical accuracy. Fer, as we have already mentioned, if they reckon with mathematival acenraey, they fa he solar yeas at

365 d. 54181 h 11 *

164 ALBİRUNİ.

. 183 Computation of the Distance of the Apogee from the Vernal Point .- If we, now, know the daye of the year-quartere, we knew alao the place of the apogee of the solar sphere. If we want to know the place of the apogee, such as it was at the time of their obeervations, we muat find tho mean motion of the sun for one day. We multiply the fractions of one Nychthemeron,

{.e. 98,496,

which they call the Setar Cycle, by 360; and the product wo divide by the length of the selar yoar, after it has be n converted into the same 10 kind ef fractions,

i.e. 35,975,951,

which number they call the Basis. By this method, as they have described it, you find the mean metion of the sun for one Nychthemeron to be about

0° 59' 2" 17" 7I7. 46Y ..

For one day stands in the same proportion to all the daye of the solar year as that portion of degrees of the sphere, which the eun traversee in one day, to the whole circle. Now we draw the circle a be d, repreecnting the solar sphere as 20 homocentric with the Ecliptic, around the centre h. Then you make

a the heginning of Aries; b the beginning of Cancer; c the beginning of Libra; d the beginning of Capricorn.

Further we draw the two diameters a h'e and b h d. Already bofore, in recording their theory, we have mentioned that the sun requiree more time to traverse the quart - a b than the other quartere. Therefore the centre of the Excentric Sphere must lie in this qnarter, 80 Let = be the eentre of the Ezcentric Sphere. Around it we draw the circle a tfn, touching the homocentric aphere, as a representation of the Excentric Sphere. The point of contact ie E. Then we draw the line ts, the diameter r a m k parallel with the diameter a A e throngh the centre a, and finally the radius Ia, which we prolong as a straight line as far as s, parallel with the diameter b h d. Becauce, now, the sun in his mean motion traverses the half circum-

CYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP-MONTHS, 165

ferenoe a b c, i.e. the sum of the vernal and summer quarters, in 187 days, the section s fn of the Excentric Sphere is equal to 184° 18' 52" 48" 1219.

If wo subtract from this the half circle r t fk, i.e. 180 degrees, we get as a remainder the sum of a r and k n, i.e.

4° 18' 52" 43" 121V.

However, these two (ar and k n) are equal, since the two diameters are parallel Therefore each of them is 29' 26" 21" 86IV ..

10 And the sine of each of them, i.e. the lino z s, is equal to 0'2' 15" 80" 57IV.,

if you take the radius 7 z as 1 degree. Since the sun traverscs the quarter a b in 942 days, the section z t f of the Excentric Spkere is equal to 99° 8' 34" 38"" 44rT ..

And becauses t is the sum of #r, which is known, and of > 7, which is the guarter of a circle, we find, on subtracting & i from 37, lf to be equal to the remainder, i.e.

0° 59' 8" 17"" 8IV ..

20 The sine of Tf according to the eame measure is 0° 1' 1" 55" 35TV.

Thie is the line z m, which is equal to s h. Therefere, in the rectangular triangle a s h, th :wo sides w s and s h are known, whilst the longest side is unknown New, we take the p. 184 squares of each of the two sides æ s and s h and add them together. This givee 287, 704, 466, 674 eighths.

If we take the root of this number, we get 0°2' 28" 59"" 40TV.

80 which is the distance hctween the two centres, equal to the sine of the Groatest Equation. If we look for the correspondirg arc in the Sine Tables, we get

2° 22' 19" 12" 16IV.,

166 ALBiRONİ.

whioh is the Greatest Eguation (lacuna) one degree. For half (D of f'z, meagured by st as I degree, stands in the same proportion to a t as (lacuna). If we, now, want to know how long the line a h is, if mcasured by the line hat as 1 degree, we multiply a h by I degree and divide the eum by A x plus 1 degree. Thereby we find a h, as measured by the line t h, as I degreo. For h a, if meaaured by h : as 1 degree, stands in the same proportion to at as eh, if measured by a t as 1 degree, to the sum of h a plus 1 degree, i.e. a t. 10 In thie way the distance between the two oentres in its proportion to each of tho two diameters, that of the homocentrio and that of the ex- centrio sphere, becomes known. Further we draw the line t u at right angles to the diameter & h c. Now the two triangles t u h and a e h are similar, and their corresponding sides are proportional to each other. Now, ererybody who knows trigonometry knows that in a triangle the side a stands in the same proportion to the side B as the sine of the angle opposite the side a to the sine of the angle opposite the side P. Therefore Aa, which is kown, stands in the same proportion to z 8, 20 which ia also known, as the sine of the right augle & s 7, i.c. At the Sinus Totue, to the sine of the angle eh x, i.e the line t u, which we wanted to find. . Finally we compnte this line, as we compute the unknown number ont of four numbers which stand in proportion to each other. So we get 0° 54' 34" 19" 48IY. 30V ..

The corresponding are is 65° 26' 29" 32"",

which is the line at, or the distance of the apogee from the vernal equinox. And that is what we wanted to demonstrate. 30

Here follows the figure of the circle.

OYOLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP-MONTHS. 167

7

This ie the methed of the ancient astronomers fer the calculatien of the apegee. Modern astronemers, knowing that it is extremely difficult and next to impossible to determine the times of the twe selsticee, pre- ferred in their obaervatiens of the feur points a b c d the middle parte of the yoar-quuriers, i.e., the middle parts of the Firm Bigns (i.e. of Taurus, Leo, Scorpio, Amphera). The method, however, which my master 'Abi-Naşr Mansur b. 'Ali b. 'Trak, a freedman of the 'Amir- almu'minin, has found out for the solution uf the preceding problem, requires the determination of three peinte of the ecliptic, chosen ad 10 Wibitum, and an accurate knowledge of the length of the eolar year. In p. 185 my Kitab-alistishhad bikhtilaf-ala'rsad I have ahown that thie method ie ae much auperior to that of modern astronemers as the method ef the latter is euperior to that of the ancient astronomers. If I plunge into eubjects foreign to the plan of this book, it ie only fer the purpese of leading the reader, as it were, about in the gardene of wisdom, so as to prevent hie mind and eye becoming weary and getting a dislike (to continue the reading of this book). Let me hope that the resder will accept this apology ef mine.

168 ALBİRONt.

Computation of the Takufoth according to the Jewish System. -Now we return to our subject and say : If the Jewe want to find the Jear-quarters, ie. the Tekafuth of some rear, they take the years of the Ero Adami, the current year included, and convert them into Solar Cyolee (dividing them by 28). As for the rmaining years, they take for every eingle year 80 houre, i.e. 1; day. The number of weeke which are contained in this sum they disregard, so as to get finally a number of daye less than seven. These days they count either from the begin- ning of the night of Wednesday, or they increase them by S and count the eum from the beginning of the night of Sunday. This brings them 10 to the Tekufa of Nisan, i.e. the vernal equinox of the year in question. In the preceding we have already explained the interrale betwcen the eingle Tokufoth according to both viewe, the common and the learned one. If, therefore, one of the Tekufoth is known, thereby the other ones are known too. Their counting the sum of days from the beginning of the night of Wednosday is for no other reason but thia, that come of them maintain that the sun was created on Wednesday the 27th of flitl, and that the Tekufa of Tishri (autumnal equinox) took place at the end of the third hour of the day of Wednesday the 5th of Tiehri. Further, they make 20 the sun' traverse the two year-quarters of epring and summer in 182d, 15h., in case they do not reckon with mathematical accuracy, as we have before mentioned. Now, if we convert these 182d. 15h. into weeks, the days disappear, and we get only a remaindor of 18h. If we, further, reckon from the Tekufa of Tishri backward, and we count these hours, we come as far as the beginning of the first hour of the night of Wednesday. And that is the moment whence the computation we bave mentioned starts. Others among the Jewe maintain that the eun was created in the first part of Aries at this same moment whence the computation of the 30 Tekufoth starts; that he was in coujunction with the moon, so as to form the Moled of Nisan, 9h. 642 H. after the creation. The solar year, if not computed with mathematical accuracy, is 3654 daye. If we convert it into weeks, we get as a remainder 1} day, which is the surplus of each Tekofa over the corresponding one of the preceding year (the Character of the Tekhfa). Therefore we take thie Character for each of the remaining years. If we begin (in the computation of the Tekufoth) from the beginning of the Solar Cycle either from the beginning of day or night, we come back at the end of the cycle to the same moment whence we started. 40 According to this mode of calculation we have computed the Tekufoth of & Solar Cycle. Now take the years of the Era Adami, the current 186 year included, convert them into Solar Cyclee which you disregard; the remainder of yeare eompare with the column of the Cycle till you find the corresponding number. Then you find opposite, the interval be-

FYOLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP-MONTES. 169

tween the Tekifi of Nisan and the beginning of the night of Sunday in tha eurrent year in question; there you find, too, the next following threa Tekufoth and the Dominus Hore, i.e. the presiding planet of that hour in which the Tekufa falls. For they mention these Domini together with the Teknfoth and call them " Horoscopes of the Hours." If the houre you get are lees than 12, they are hours of the night; if they are more, they are hours of the day. So you may eubtract therefrom 12 hours, and the remainder represents the corresponding hour of the day.

TABLE OF TEKUFOTH. p. 187 -191

10 The intervals between the Column of the The Months of the Tekůfôth and .The Masters of the hours Solar Cycle. Four Tekufoth. the heginning in which the Tekufoth of the Night of occur. Bunday.

d. h. H 1et year Nisan. 4 18 0 Shabhethaf. Tammuz 5 540 Tishri 0 Şâdeğ. 5 9 20 Tébeth 5 16 540 2nd Fear NisâL. 6 0 0 Ma'adhim. Tammuz 6 54.0 Tishri 6 15 0 Hammô. Tebeth 6 22 540 3rd year Nisân . U 6 Nôgah. Tammuz 0 13 540 Tishrî 0 21 0 Kakhabh HammA. Tebeth 1 4 540 1 4th year Nisân . 1 12 0 Lebhenâ. 30 Tammuz 1 19 540 Tishri 2 0 Shabbethâî. Tebeth 10 540 1 5th year NisAn. 2 18 0 Şedeķ . Tammuz 3 1 540 Tishri 3 9 0 Ma'adhim. Tebeth 3 16 540 6th vear Nisân . 4 0 0 Hammâ. Tammuz 4 540 Tishri 4 15 0 Nôgah. 40 Tebeth 4 22 540 7th year Nisan. 5 6 0 Kökhabh Hammâ. Tammuz 13 540 Tishri 5 21 0 Lebhểnâ. Tebeth 4 540 · 8th year Nisan. Shabhethai. 6 12 0 Tainm ua 6 19 540 Tiahri 0 3 0 Şēdek. . Tebeth 10 540

170 ALRiRtNi.

The intervals hetween the Colamn of the Bolar Cyole. The Months of the Tekufoth and The Masters of the houra Four TekAfsth. tho heginning in which the Tekufoth i of the Night of coour. Sanday.

a. b. chl. 9th year Nisan. 0 18 0 Ma'adhim. Tammus 1 1 540 Tishri 1 9 0 Hammâ. 10 . Tebeth 1 16 540 . 10th year Nisan. 2 0 Nôgab. + Tammuz 540 . Tishri 2 15 0 Kökhabh Hammâ. Tebeth 2 22 540 11th year . Niean . 8 6 0 Lebbenâ. Tammuz 18 540 Tishrt 3 0 Shabbethai. 'Tebeth 4 4 540 12th year Nisan . 4 12 0 20 Tarm ua 4 19 540 Tishri 5 9 0 Ma'aahîm. . Tebeth 5 10 540 13th year Nisân . 18 0 Hammâ. Tammuz 6 1 540 . Tishri 9 0 Nôgah. Tebetb 6 16 540 14th year Nisan . 0 Kôkhabh Hamma. 00 . Tammuz 540 . Tishri 0 15 0 Lebhena. 80 Tebetb 22 540 15th year 0 . Niaan. 6 ShabhethAl. Tammuz 1 13 540 . Tiehri 0 . 1 21 Tebetb 4 540 16th year Nisân. 2 12 0 Ma'adhim. Tammuz 2 19 540 Tishri 3 Hammâ. Tebeth 3 10 540 17th year Nisân. 3 18 0 Nôgah. 1 40 . Tammuz 4 540 Tishrt 4 9 0 Kökhabh Haumâ. Tebeth 4 16 540 18th year Nisân. 5 0 Lebhenâ. Tammuz 5 540 Tiahri 5 15 0 Shabbethaf. Tebeth 5 22 540 19th year NisAn. 6 6 0 Şedeľ. Tammuz 6 13 540 Tishri 6 21 Ma'adhîm. 50 Tsbeth 0 4 540

CYCLES, TKAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP-MONTHS. 171

The intarvale between tho The Masters of the hours Calamn of the The Months of the Teufoth and in whiob the Tekafotb Solar Cyole. Four Tekufoth. the beginning of the Nigbt of occur. Sunday.

20th year Nisân . 0 12 0 Hamma. Tammuz 0 19 540 Tishri 1 0 Nôgah. 10 Tebeth 10 40 21st year Nisan 1 18 0 Kokhabh Hammâ. Tarom uz 1 540 Tishri 2 9 0 Lebhenâ. Têbsth 2 16 540 22nd year Niean . 3 0 Shabbethat. . Tammuz 540 Tishrt 3 15 0 Şêdek. Tebeth 3 22 540 . 23rd ycar Nisan. 4 6 0 Ma'adhim. 20 Tammuz 4 13 540 Tiehri 4 21 0 Ķammâ. Tebeth S 4 540 24th year 0 . Nisan. 12 Nôgah. Tammuz . 5 19 540 Tishri 6 0 Kokhabh Hamma. . Tebeth 6 10 540 . 25th year . Nisân. 6 18 0 Lebhent. Tammuz 1 540 Tishri 9 0 Shabbethât. 30 Tebeth 0 16 540 26th year Nisan. şedeÏ. 1 0 . Tammuz 1 7 540 Tiehri 1 15 0 Ma'adhîm. Tebeth 1 540 27th year Nigan . 6 0 Hammâ. . Taumus 13 540 Tishri 2 0 Nôgah. . Tebeth 3 4 540 . 28th year Nisan. 3 12 0 Kôkhabh Hammâ. 40 Tammuz 3 19 540 Tishri 4 0 Lehhenâ. Tebeth 4 10 540

Names of the Planete and the Signs of the Zodiac .- The names p. 192 of the planete which we have mentioned in the Table of the Teknfith are Hebrew names, in which form they arc used by them. Each nation, however, if they want to mention the planets, must call them by the names of their own language. Therefors here follows a table exhibiting the namee of the planets in various languages. The reader will find here the Hebrew namues which we have mentioned as well as the names 50 in other languages.

172 TABLE

OF THE NAMES OF THE SEVEN PLANETS.

in Arabie Zuhal Almusltari Almirrikh Alshams Alzuhara 'Utarid Alkamar

in Greck Kronos Zeus Ares Helios Aphrodite Hermes Selene ALRÍRONİ. in Persian Kaiwan Hurmuzd Bahrâm Mihr, Khurshid Nahîd Tir Máh

in Syriac اهازا جهب

in Hebrew Shabbethff Șêdeķ Ma'adhim Hammâ Nôgah Kokhab Hamma Lebhena

in Sanscrit Çanaiçcara Vrhaspati Maiigala Âditya Cukra Budha Sôma

in Chorasmian أربعز اخير چیری مراچ

CTCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLLDS, AND LEAP-MONTHS. 179

And now natural relationship (between the planets and the signs of the zodiac) demands, although it is not neceseary in this place of our book, nor is it requisite, that we should de the same with regard to the signs of the zodiac which we have done fer the planets, ie. construct a table containing all that we kuew ef their names in various languages. For ho whe wants this for the planets, wants something of the enme kind for the signs of the sodiac. Here follows the table containing the names of the signs ef the sodiac in various languagee. p. 198

10 Arabio. Greek. Peralan. Byriao. Hebrew. Sansorit. Choras- mian.

Alhamal Κριός Bara טלה i Mêcha Alkahsb

Althaur Taûpos Gâu יׁור Vraha

Aljauza Δίδυμοι Dûpaikar Mithna oi31 תאמים Altan'aman

AlsaratAn Καρκίνος Karzang ! g:oo סרטן Karkața

20 Al'aaad Λέων Shîr ארי Sinha tr

Alsunbula Παρθένος Khôsha בתולה Al'adhra Kanyâ

Almizan Zuyós Tarâzu מוזנים | Tula

Al'akrab Σκορπίος Kazhdum עקרב Vrácika

Alķaue Τυξευτής קשת ڈقیك Alrâmi Nimasp Dhanu

Aljady 'Atyokcpwş | Bahi גדי Makara ٹارئیك

30 Aldalw Υδροχόος Dới Uo? דלי Kumha دور

Alhût 'IxOúes MAh דג Mina كهي Alsamaka

174 ALBİRONİ.

p. 194 The Author criticizesithe Jewish computation of the Tekufoth .- We return to our subject and say : The calculation and tahles, given iu ths preceding, enable the studont to find the week day on which the Tekufa falls; the corresponding day of the Syrian month, however, to which they hring us, differs from real time to an intolerable extent. Let ue e.g. take the Ara Adami for the let of Tishri, the moled of which falle on Sunday the 1st of flul in the year 1311 of Alexander. The number of complete years of the Ara Adami is 4759 or 8 great eycles (8x 592=4256), 26 small cycles (26x19=494), and 9 10 complete years, arranged according to the Ordo Intercalatimis mama Ro that six out of these nine years are common-years and three leap- years. If we convert this sum of cycles and years into days, we get the eum of 1,798,200a. 7h. 258H

Thie is the interval between the moled of the firat year of the Ara Adami and the moled of the present above-mentioned year (A. Adami 4759). We have already stated hefore that according to Jewish dogmia the 20 Tekufoth-Tishri, i.e. the autumnal equiuox, occurred at the heginning of the Era Adami, 5 days and 1 hour after the moled of the year. If we eubtract these 5d. 1h. from the sum we have got, we get as remainder the interval hetween the Tekufath-Tishri of the first year of the era and the moled of the present year. If we divide this interval hy 8651d, wa get

4,758 years and a remainder of 335g days. Till this Solar year is complete, and night and day are again equal, 80 29d. 11h. 827H more are reqnired. If we add this nnmher of days, hours, and Halakim to the moled of the present year, i.e. to Sunday 7h. 253H of daytime, we advance as far as the night of Tuesday 9h. on the let day of the month Tishrin Primue. Now. this Tektfa falla by 14 daye later than the equinox as deter- mined by astronomical observation. Such a difference, even if it be mnch less, is quite intolerable, althongh popular use may be based upon it. This popular use we have illustrated by onr table according to the theory of the Jews. If we, furtber, take this interval between the firet Tekufå and the 40 môled of the present year, i.s. 1,788,195d. 6h. 25BE,

(ICLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP-NONTHS. 175

and multiply it by 98,496, which is the number of fractions of one day of their Selar year (of R. Adda), we get the sum of 171,280,305

(Greal lacuna.)

Methods showing how to find the beginning of a year of any p. 195 era.

TABLE OF THE BEOINNINOS OF THE SYRIAC AND GREEE MONTHS.

10 -

June, Augast. Jaly. March. |September. April. Fobruary. Decomber. May. Leap-years. Tammüz. Haztrân. Nisâu. Crole, Adhar. 'Iyyâr. Âbb, Shubůt. Colamn of the Salar l Tishrin I. | Ootober. KAnun II. | January. Th *n II. |November. KAuân I.

1 : 8 6 2 1 4 7 2 5 2 6 1 4 7 3:5 1 3 6 21 3 2 5 7 3 5 1 4 L 6 4 7 3 1 4 6 2 5 6149 5 7 3 5 4 4 5 7 3 6 49 6 4 6 2 5 1 ! 6 4 7 1 7 7 7 . 6 2 L 7 814 7 5 1 4 6 2 4 7 3 5 4 19 9 5 3 6 5 1 20 10 6 2 4 3 6 4 6 5 11 5 1 5 3 6 4 7 3 4 12 9 7 3 6 6 4 71 2 5 13 3 6 1 4 7 6 14 1 4 7 2 5 1 4 6 2 7 3 15 . 5 3 6 6 6 2 5 16 7 5 1 4 7 5 7 3 6 17 1 4 6 2 6 1 4 7 18 2 6 4 7 2 5 1 3 19 3 6 1 4 1 6 2 ! 7 L Co 20 511 3 6 2 2 5 7 1 A 21 4 3 6 1i 4 6 2 5 22 5 1 4 4 2 5 7 3 6 23 4 6 5 6 4 7 5 1 24 : 3 6 1 4 7 3 6 2 : 25 ! 4 4. 4 7 26 6 5 7 . 4 27 3 4 7 5 7 3 6 28 1 4 6 1 6: 1 4 7 9478149

176 ALRiRtNt.

p.196 If we want tu kuow the same for the Æro Augueti (i.c. to find the week.day on which a jear of this era commences), we take its com- plete ycars and add chereto } of them. To this sum we add 6 and divide the whole by 7. Thereby ws get the Signum (of the week.day) of the Ist of Thôt. To this Signum we add 2 for each complete month that has elapsed hefore the date you want to find, and the sum we divide by 7. Thereby we find the Signum of the month we seek. The leap-years are in this era arcertained in this way, that we add 1 to the numher of the complete years and divids the sum by 4. If 10 therc is a remainder, the onrrent year is not a leap-year; if there is no remainder, it is a leap-year. If ws want to know the same for the Ara Antonini, we increase its complete years by of them, and to the sum we add 4f. Then wo make the same caleulation (as for the Ara Augusti). The leap-years in this era are ascertained iu this way, that we add 3 to its complete years and divide the sum by 4. If there is no remainder, the year is a leap-year; if there is a remainder, it is a common-year. As regards tha Ara Diocletiani, we add toits years } of them, and to tha sum we add 44. With the remainder, and in order to find the be- 20 ginnings of the single months, we reckon in the same way as we have done for the Ara Alerandri according to the Greek system. The leap-year in the Æra Dioeletiani is ascortained in this way, that we add 2 to its complete years and divide the sum hy 4. If there is no remainder, the year is a leap-year; if thers is a remainder, it is a common-year. If we want to learn the beginnings of the years and months of the Era Fugæ by chronological computation, we take its complete years and write them down in three places. The first we multiply by 354 days, the second by 22 minutes, and the third by 1 second. To the number of 30 minutes we add 34 minutes. Then we convert the three sums in the three places into wholes. If the minutes arc more than 15, we add them as one whole; if they are less, we drop them. The sum we get represents the time which has elapsed between the heginning of the Era Fugæ and the heginning of the year in question, consisting of days. We add 5 to them and divide the sum by 7. Now, the rs- mainder of less than 7 is the Signum of Mubarram. If we want to lcarn the Signum of another month, we take for the months, which have clapsed before the month in question, alternately for one month 2 days, for the other I day, and the sum we add to the 40 Signum of Muharram. The whole we divide by 7, and the remainder is the Signum of the month in question, as determined by chronological computation which is hased upon the mean motion of the moon. Ths computation according to the appearance of new-moon is a subject the exposition of which would be both of great length and difficulty and

CTCLES, VEAR-POINTS, MALADS, AND LEAP.MONTHS. 177

weuld require diffieult caleulations and numerous tables. It is suflicient to know what on this subjeet is said in the Canon of Mnhammad h. Jabir Albattani, and in that one of flabash the mathematician. In case of necessity the stndent may consult them. The same prineiple we have esplaiped has been adopted bs the sect who elaim to have esoterie ductrines and represent themselves as the party of the Family (of 'Ali). So they bave produred a caleulation which they maintain to he one of the mysteries of prophees. It is this: p.197. if yon want to kuow the heginning of Ramadan, take the complete 10 years of the Hijra, mnltiply them hy 4 and add to the sum } and : (i.e. ;1) of the number of prars. If in both these portious (in } and } of the year of the Hijm) you get a fraction, add it as one comydete das to the otber days, if one of them or both together are more than half the denominator of either of the two fractions ( and }). Then add to the sum 4 and divide the whole by 7. The remainder beyond 7, which yon get. is the Signun. Ramadoni. This caleulation is based upon what we have mentioned. For if yon divide the days of cach Lunar vear, i.e. 354 days, by 7, you get as remainder 4. If thcrefore the years of the Hijra are multiplied by 20 4, it is the same as if the days of each year and the remainders (i.e. the 4 days which remain, if you divide 354 by 7) were converted into weeks. Further, to take } and } of the sears of the Hijra is the same as if you wonld take } dav and & dny for cach single year. So this method of taking } and & of the vears comes to the same thing as if yon multiplied each year by } and ; day and divided the prodnets by the denominators of the two fractions (i.c. 5x 6=30). If, therefore, the whole is divided by 7 and the remainder is counted from Friday, which is the hegining of the .Em Frgr, we come to 30 the Signum Muharrami. And if we add thereto 6 and count the sum from Sunday, the matter comes to the same result. Further, the reason why those people add 4 is this, that yon get- hy alternately taking 2 dars for one month and 1 dar for the next one- till the beginning of Ramadan the sum of 5 days. If yon add these to the Siguum Muharrami, you get the Siynum Ramod ni. Having already added G for Muhanam aud combiuing with it the 5 dars, which are necessary for the time till Rimidan, sou get a total of 11 days. Sub- traet 7 and you yet as remaioder 4; this is what remains of the sum of the two additions (i.e. the addition of 6 days for the purpose of 40 postponing the epoch of the em from Fridar to Sunday, and the addition of 5 days for the purpose of converting the Signum Mugarrami into the Signum Ramadani). The two' computations, the one which is counted from Friday, the other-mentioned shortly before-which is counted from Thursday, agree with each other, for this reason, that in the former case the 34 minutesare 12

178 ALBTRONf.

summed to one- das, whilst in the latter rase nenc of the fractions are raised to a whole. This and similar modes of computation have been adopted by the followers ef this new theery in this sect, who are known in Khwarizm as the Bughdiidiyya seet, so called from their founder, a Shaikh who lives in Baghdad. I have found that one of their leaders has taken the Jaduv :- Mujarrad (i.e. the pure tahle, divested of any accessory), which was constructed by Habash in his Caran for the purposs of correcting the method ef dating empleyed in astronemical calculatiens. Now this sectariar has added to each uumber ef the table, i.e. the Signum Muharrami, 10 5, for the reason just mentioned; further he hss altered ths shape of the table, giving it-instead of the perpendicular form of a tahle-the form of a screw-like train, similar to a wound-up serpent, as some people in Tabaristan have given it the form of a circle, in which the beginning and the end ef the number meet together. He has also follewed the erample of the people (of the same sect) in cemposing a hook in which he abuses those whe want to find the new. p.198. moon by ohservstion; be attacks them and blames them, saying thut for both Christians and Jewa it is rendered superfluous by their tables to observs new-meon for the determination of their fast-days and the 20 beginnings of their months, whilst Muslims trouble themselves with a subject ef so dubious a character (as the observation of new-meon). But if be had read farther (in the book of Habash) beyond that place where the Jadwal-Mujarrad eccurs, as far as the chapter ef the astrono- mical methods for the observation ef new-meon, if he had acquainted himself with their nature and with the real character of the practices of both Jews and Christians, he weuld have learned that that which they have adepted is obscurity itself. Perhaps he who is acquainted with our preceding explanatiens will find out ths truth of thia. Fer astronomers agree that the assumed S0 measures in the most difficult parts of the practice of the ebservation of new-moon are certain distances which cannot he ascertained except by experiment. Besides, the obscrvations themselves are subject te certain circumstances of a geometricai nature, in consequence of which that which is observed by the eye differs in greatness and smallness. A man who considers astronomical affairs with an unbiassed mind could not decide against the nccessity of the observatien ef mew-meon ner against its possibility, particularly when new-moon eccurs near the end of that distance which bas beeu assumed. Here follews the screw-figure (bere given in the ferm of a common 40 table) which has been transfermed out of the Jadwal Mujarrad.

CYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLADS, AND LEAP-MONTHS. 179

TABLE showing on what WEEK-DAYS the SINGLE YRAES of the UYCLE of 210 LUNAR YEARS commence.

-.

A B A A B A B B A B - on wbich the Stn- gle Years com- meare. 210 Yerrs. 1 of the Cycle of A. The Single Years B. The Weak-Days

1V 31 II 61 VII 91 ! 121 I11 151 181 2 1 32 VI 62 IV 92 11 122 VII 152 1 V 182 1

VI : 33 IV 63 11 93 V 1 111 31 1 VI 91 1V 123 153 III 189 4 61 121 11 151 : VII IV 181 35 155i 185 11 5 VII 65 111 1 125 VI 8 36 I11 05 66 1 06 VI 126 IV , 156 11 186 VII 7 II 87 YII G7 97 127 I 157 187 IV 8 VI : 38 IV 68 II 98 VII 128 159 189 IV 39 T1 69 V 129 159 180 1V 99 VI 10 40 VI 100 11 130 V11 160 1I 190 IIE 11 41 III 71 VI 131 IV 161 191 12 42 72 VI 101 102 IV 132 II 182 19g V 13 VII 43 V 73 103 1 133 VI 163 193 14 V 44 111 74 VI 13 161 VII V 104 I5 II 45 VII 75 105 135 I 165 VI 10 195 IV 16 : . 46 IV 76 11 106 V 16 19€ I 17 TV 1I VTI 107 v 136 47 77 137 16: I v 19 18 I 48 VI 78 IV 108 11 138 VII 168 198 III 19 49 INI 79 1 109 VI IV 139 140 IV II 169 II vn 199 ....

20 : 11 1 60 1 80 200 51 V 110 11 1 170 21 VII 81 VI 171 IV 201 1 22 V . 52 82 1 112 VI 141 i 1-42 IV 172 I1 202 23 II 53 VII 83 V 1II I 173 VI IV 24 VI :54 IV 84 II 113 143 203 114 : VĮI 144 ! 174 204 ! 1 25 IV 55 11 85 VII | 115 . 143 175 205 26 1 : 56 i PI IV 116 146 V11 176 V 206 III 27 ! V 57 III B7 V1 IV 177 $ 207 VII 28 58 1 IV 148 11 178 203 29 III 59 1 V 89 118 VII 119 i 149 179 209 ! II 30 IV 60 : 90 VII 120 V 150 11I 180: I 210 ! VI

In the original Arabic this table is arranged in tha form of a screw. In the Jongitudinal fields of the screw there is a steady progression of both numbers, the numbers of the years rising by 21, the numbers of the week-days rising by 1. For inatance, in tbe feld of the first years the years rise in this was 1- 1.22.43, 64.85. 106. 127. 148. 169. 190. (1. 22. 43. etc.);

and the weak-daya rise in this way :- IV. V. V. VI. VII. VII. I. II. II. III. (IV. V. ate.).

12 *

180 ALBİRtNİ.

Considering that in the Jadual Mujarrad produced by Habash the sage in his canon known as ths Canon Probatus (lacuna). This man whom we bave montioned, transferred thence the screw-figure (into his work), adding five in places where Habssh had sdded the fractions a8 8 whole day to the other days, which he ought not to have done. His method is the sams for the Tabula Mediorum, so that by this he waa preserved from arror. Let him who wants to ascertain the truth of our words compare this scraw-figure-for it is the Jadwal-Mujarrad itsslf, only incressed by 5 so as to represent the Signum Ramadani-with the Corrected Table which 10 we bave computed for the Signum Muharrami. The fractions following after the whols days we havo also noticed, wishing that they should coms under oceular inspection, and so afford a help also for other things. If you use this corrected table, subtract always 210 from the ears of the Hijra, inolnding the enrrent year, if their number bs more than 210. With the ramainder compare the column of the bumbers and take the days and minutes which you find opposite in the corresponding square. Add to the minutes 5 days and 34 minutes, and convert them into whole days. Eliminate the 7, if the number is more than 7, and you 20 get the Signum for tha Ist of Muharram. If you add thereto 5, you get the Signum of Ramadan. The result of this computation compare with the serew-figure. For in some dates there is a difference on account of the conversion of the minntes under 60 into days. It will be clear to the reader why ths tabls bas heen constructed for 210 years, and not for a less or larger number of years, if he studies the subject thoroughly. God is all-wis. He is our sufficiency and our help!

OYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP-MONTHS. 181

THE CORRECTRD TABLE.

-pp.199, 200. tes. anmberg. oumbers. Column of nam bers. numberd. num bers. Colomn of Columa of Minutes. Days. Dara. Minutes. Colomn of Colngan of Duys. Column of Minates. nomobers. Days. Columa of [ Minutes. Days. Minutes. Days.

4 22 31 2 61 5 191 22 191 82 181 IB E3

33 6 92 8 44 128 152 5 180 1

8 33 6 1 69 83 0 123 5 153 3 6 183

4 28 1 :28 ; 64 94 : 4 28 8 28 154 ! 18 5 |28

5 50 35 S 50 1 65 50 95 50 ! 125 6 1 50 155 1 85 SO to

5 18 131 1 18 98 6 | 13 : 126 4 18 1S6 8 181 0 12 8 7 37 0 67 31 67 34 127 1 31 1 57 84 187 4 3t čn co

10 38 50 68 56 8 56 99 58 6 128 5 158 188 1 8

18 39 3 18 69 0 18 99 5 18 1 29 18 159 1 18 189 8 18 co

10 1 40 40 6 40 70 40 1 00 2 40 130 180 5 40 180 40

11 41 4 71 2 101 0 131 5 161 8 181 1

19 1 6 L02 139 2 21 163 192 51

18 46 43 5 73 46 103 1 48 133 6 46 163 4 46 193 46

14 74 8 101 6 16A 194 5 45 8 8 134 8

15 30 45 0 73 30 105 3 185 1 30 165 6 195 4 8 16 52 11 52 46 76 5 108 136 52 166 3 196 52

17 1 47 14 77 0 14 10 5 14 137 11 167 1 14 197 14 4 20 18 1 48 6 30 78 38 1 09 2 96 138 39 168 519: 198 3 86

19 49 4 58 2 199 58 5 79 109 192 160 3 1 58 59

200 5 90 8

50 1 20 80 20 110 20 F 1 40 20 170 0 20

201 49 2n 81 49 111 1 172 13 5 141 43

5 4 52 3 82 1 4 118 4 , 142 4 178 4 202 0

33 8 52 0 98 83 5 28 113 26 1 173 8 26 203 86

6 48 4 48 81 48 114 18 1 44 5 48 174 3 46 204 1 1.8

10 25 4 10 55 10 85 0 10 115 5 10 145 3 10 175 1 205 10

98 1 56 33 9.8 92 116 : 146 0 32 176 5 32 206 3 92

177 207 37 51 117 8 5 57 51 87 1 51 5 co 80 98 18 1 16 88 i 16 118 18 18 178 16 208 5 18 +

0 88 59 118 1 38 149 98 179 98 209 38 8 8 8 Or

60 5 0 80 8 1 180 B 150 4 160 210 0 0

182 ALBİRUNİ.

p.201. Further, I have found with 'Ahmad h. Mnhammad b. Shihab, who was counted among tho leaders of the Haruriyya-sect and one of the greatest of their missionaries, the following table, which, he says, is to be used in this way: Take the complete years of the Era Fuge, add thereto 4 and divide the sum by 8. The remainder under 7 you compare with the column of numbers, and opposite you find the week-day of the beginning of whatevar month you like.

TABZE OF THE MONTEB.

Shawwal. Dht-alņijja. Dho-alks'da. Sha bán, Bamadin. Bafab. Jumad II. Jomad& I. Safar. Nombers. Rabi' I. Rabl' IL Almoharram. Columa of

1 8 6 1 4 7 1 4 10 2 2 3 2 4 5 7 1 3

5 1 7 2 5 6 1

4 2 4 5 7 1 4 6 7 2 3 5

1 2 4 1 3 4 7

4 7 2 3 1 2 4 7

1 6 6 1 4 Co

8 6 1 2 4 5 7 1 4 6 7 2

This table, too, is certainly derived from the Jadwal-Mujarrad. If the student would consider the Octaeteris on which this table is hased, he would find that the new-year-daye of the years of thie cycle return to 20 the same day of the week, that they, however, fall short (of a complete revolution and return to the same day) by a fraction of 4 minutes. Therefore this table doea not differ from the corrected Jadwal-Mujarrad, except when the Octaeteris in the course of time recurs many times. In this case the minus-difference of 4 minutes causes a very disagrecable confusion. Thie same tricketer of a missionary relates that thie table was the work of Ja'far b. Muhammad Algadik at the time when he-so that man eays-explained the difference of opinion and the uncertainty that exista among Muslims regarding the month Ramadan. According to 30 him Ja'far said: "I swear by him who in truth has sent Mubammad >.202. as a prophet, that He (the prophet) did not leave his people, before he had disclosed before our eyes both the past and the future till the end of the world. And the least of this ie the knowledge of fasting for eery year and every day." Further, he is reported to havo eaid:

OYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLEDS, AND LEAP-MONTIS. 183

"Sha'ban has never bcon more-and Ramadan has never been less- than 80 days." This malcfactor has invented tales about that wise Lord, the noblest of the nobles, the wiscat of the Imms-God's hlessing he upon their names !- by making him respousible for something that is inconsistent with the religion of his ancestor (i.e. 'Alf). It has been proved that the contrary of these assertions is the truth. That pious Imam was far from sullying himself by traditions like those, and never dreamt that he would be defiled by their insolence in referring them to his authority 10 -God's blessing be upon him !- There are two methods for the finding of the Signum Muharrami, men- tioned by 'Abu-Ja'far Alkhazin in his Grout Introduction to Astronomy: L. Take for each complete 30 years of the Era Hijre which have elspsed, 5 days. As regards the remainder of less than 30 years, take for sach I0 years Ig days, i.e. 1 day 16 hours. For each 5 years of the further remainder take 20 bours, and for each complete single year take 4 days 8t hours. To the sum you get in this way add 5 or suhtract 2. The remainder divide by 7, and the remainder you get is the Signum Muharrami. 20 This method is correct, and proceeds in the same way ss the before- mentioned inethods. For the days and fraetions of days that are taken for certain numbers of years are the remainders which you get, if you convert those years into days and divide them by 7, as the Corrected Table shows. To the sum we add 5, in order to make the days begin with Suuday, as we have mentioned hefore. It is the ssme wherher you add 5 or subtract 2, i.e. ? minus 5, as long as you use the hebdomadal cycle, which must be adhered to. If you want the Signum of any other month (but Muharram), add to 80 the Signum Muharrami 2 days for cach month whose number in the order of months is an odd one, and 1 day for each month whose number is an even one. Divide the sum by 7, aud the remainder is the Signum of the month in question. IL The second method is this: Take half of the number of years, if it is an even numher; if it is an odd one, subtract I therefrom, and keep in mind for it 4d. 22min. (i.e. make a mental note of it). Then take the half of this remainder of years and put it into two different places. Multiply this number in one place by 3, and divide it by 4. So you get days. In the other place multiply it by 8, and add the sum to the 40 numher of days, with ths addition of 5. From the sum snbtract a number of day-minutes which is equal to half the number of the years. With the remainder combine that which you hare kept in mind (4d. 22.), if the years are without a fraction. But if there is a fraction of more than 30 minutes, count it as a whole; if it is less, omit it. Divide the sum by 7, and the remainder is the Signum Muharrami.

184 ALBİRONİ.

This method, too, is correct, and hased ou the circmustances we have mentioned. That which you keep in mind (4d. 22') is the intercalatory portion of the year which you subtract from the total sum of years, the remainder p.203. which you get after having divided 354d. 22' by 7. To multiply the hslf of the remaining years (i.e. after the sub- traction of 1, in case the numher of ycars be an odd one) hy 8, is the same as to divide the whole by 4. These 4 days are the whole daye

mainder 4). which you get by dividing the Lunar year by 7 (354d. 22': 7, re- 10 Finally you take { and } day, i.e. } or #3 day for cach year. How. ever, the half of (i.e. §) of any number is more than +i (i.e. 1}) of the whole number by a meaeure (a quantity) which amounte for the whole numher to the eame as a corresponding number of sixtieth parte (or minutee) for half the number (i.e. for the whole number x this plue- difference is i5x, which is the same as ', of 1x). If you, therefore, multiply half of the number of years by 3 and divide the product by 4, you get of the number, which is more than }+ (31) of the whole number of years by a number of minutes which is cqual to half the number of yeare. If they, now, are counted in 60th parts, i.e. in minutes, 20 and you subtract them from the sum, you get } and (sd) of tho years. The analogy of the other parts of this calculation with what we have before mentioned is evident. If we want to find the Signum of the new-rear's day of a year of the Era Yazdagirdi, we take the numnber of complete yeara and add thereto alwaye 3. The eum we divide by 7, and the remainder of this division is Signum of Farwardin-Mah. If we want to know the Signum of another month, we take for each of the complete months, that have passed, 2 days, except Aban.Mah, for which we take nothing. The sum we add to the Signum of Farwardin- 30 Mah, and subtract 7, if the numher be more than eeven. The re- mainder is the Signum of the month in question. For the Ara Magorum, the epoch of which is the death of Yazdagird, we add always 5 to the number of complete yeare, and the remainder we compute in the same way as we have done for the preceding era, in case we use for this era the Pereian months. But if we use the monthe of the Sughdiane or Khwarizmians, wc alwaye add 3 to the number of complete years, and divide the sum hy 7. As remainder we get the Signum of Nausard or Nausarji. For each following month we add 2 days to the Signum Nausardi. In thie way we find the Signum of 40 the month in queetion. If we want to know the intercalation, ae practieed hy the Pereiene before the decline of their empire, we take the Persian years from the end of the reign of Yandagird, which event ie the cpoch of the Era Magorum, and add thereto 70, for the reason which we have mentioned

CYCLES, YEAR-POINTS, MOLADS, AND L.EAP-MONTHIS. 185

in the first part of this book. The sum we divide hy 120. 'The qnotient. is the number of intercalations that ought to have been carricd out since the timc when they commienced to neglect intercalation. Now we take for the total sum of the years of the era a number of months corresponding to the number of intercalations. If, then, these months make up complete years, without giviug a remainder, the rear is a leap- year approximately, for there is confusion in their chronology. But p.204. if there is a remainder of months, the year is a common year. There- upon we add the leap-months we bave got to the begiuning of the year 10 in question, and we find Nauroz on that day to which this calculation brings us. So Nauroz comes again to be therc, where it uscd to bs in the time of the Kisras, when it used to coincidc with the summer. solstice as calculated hy their astronomical tables. For the Era of Almu'tadid we find the Signum of Farwardin-Mah by adding to the complete years } of them, aud to the sum 4}. The whole we divide by 7, and the remainder is the Signum of Farwardin.Mah. Knowing the Signum of New-year's day of a year, and wishing to find the Signum of some other month, we add for each month that has passed 2 days, except Ahan-Mah, for which we take 1 in a leap-year and 20 nothing in a common year. The sum we divide by 7, and the remainder is the Signum of the month in question. The leap-years of this era rou find by dividing its complete years hy 4, If there is no remainder the year is a leap-year; if there is a remninder it is a common-ycar. Now we think that this long exposition will be sufficient. Much praigs be unto God, as is due to Him !

186 ALBiRONİ.

CHAPTER VIII.

ON THE BRAS OF THE PSEUDO-PROPHETS AND THEIR COMMUNITIES WHO WARB DELUDED AY THEM, THE CUEBE OF THE LOED EB UPON THEM !

WE sball explain the method of dating the eras by the pseudo-prophets. For in the intervals batween the prophets and kings whom we have mentioned, pseudo-prophets came ferward, the number and history of whem it weuld be impossible to detail in this book. Some of them perished witheut having gained adherents, net leaving anything behind them but a place in history. Whilst ethers were followed by a 10 community who kept up their institutes and used their method of dating. It is necessary, therefore, to mentien the eras ef the most notorieus among them, for this affords a help, also, for the knewledge of their histery. Budhasaf .- The frst mentiened is Budhasaf, who came forward in India after the lst year of Tahmurath. Hs introduced the Persian writing and called peeple to the religion of the Sbians. Whereupon many people followed him. The Peshdadhian kings and seme of the Kaya- nians who resided in Balkh held in great veneration the sun and meon, the planets and the primal elements, and worshipped them as hely 20 beings, until the tims when Zaridusht appeared thirty years aftar the accession of Bishtasf. The remnants of those Shbians are living in Harrin, their name (i.e. Alharraniyya) being derived frem their place. Others derive it from Hariin b. Terab, the brother of Abraham, saying that he ameng their chicfs was the most deeply imbued with their religion and its most 05. tenacious adherent. Ibn Sankili (Syncellus), the Christian, relates in his beok which he, intonding to refute their oreed, stuffed with lies tund

ON THE ERAS OF THE PSEUDO-PROPHETS. 187

futile stories, that Abraham left their community simply beeanse leprosy appeared on his foreskin, and that everybody who snffered from this disease was considered impure, and excluded from all socicty. There- fore he cut off his foreskin, i.e. he eireumeised himself. In this state he entered one of their idol-temples, when he heard a voice speaking to him : "O Abraham, you weut away from us with ono sin, and you return to us with two sins. Go away, and do not agnin come to us." Thereupon Abraham, seized by wrath, broke the idols in pieces, and left their community. But, after having done it, he repented and wished 10 to sacrifice his son to the planet Saturn, it being their custom to sacrifics their ehildren, as that author maintains. Saturn, however, on seeing him truly repentant, let him go free with the sacrifice of n ram. Also 'Abd-almasih b. 'Ishak Alkindf, the Christian, in his reply to the book of 'Abdallah b. 'Ismf'il Alhashimi, relates of them, that they are notorious for their sacrificing human beings, but that at present they are not allowed to do it in public. All, however, we know of them is that they profess monotheism and describe God as erempt from anything that is had, using in their description the Via Negationis, not the Via Positionis. E.g. they say "he is 20 indeierminable, he is invisible, he docs not wrong, he is not unjust." They call him by the Nomina Pulcherrima, but only metaphorically, since a real description of him is exelnded according to them, The rule of the universe they attribute to ihe celestial globe and its bodies, wbich they consider as living, speaking, bearing, and seeing beings. And the fires they hold in grent consideration. One of tbeir monuments is the cupola over the Mikr beside the Makşitra in the great Mesque of Damascus. It was their place of worship as long as Greeks and Romans professed their religion; ufter- wards it passed into the hands of the Jews, who made it their synagogite. 80 Then it wasocenpied by the Christiaus, who used it as their church till the time of the rising of Islam, when the Muslims made it their Mosque. They had temples and images, called by the names of ihe sun, the forms of which are known, aud the like of which are mentioned by 'Abu-Ma'shar Albalkhi in his book on the houses of worship. For instance, the temple of Ba'al-bek was sacred to the idol of the Sun. The eity of Harrin was attributed to the moon, it being built in the shape of the moon like a Tailasan. Closo to llarran there are another place called Selemsin, its ancient name being Nanam-sin, i.e. imago Lunc, ond another village called Tera'-'ux, i.e. Porta Veneris. People say, too, that 40 the Ka'ha and ita imneges originally belonged to them, and tbat the worsbippers of those images belonged to their community, and that Allh was called Zuhal aud Aluz, Alzuham. They have many prophcts, most of whom were Greck philosophers, e.g. Hermes the Egyptian, Agathodomon, Wulis, Pythagoras, Bibu, and Suwar the graudfuther of Plato on the mother's side, and others. Semo

188 ALBİRCNİ

of them did not allow themaelves to eat fiah, fearing it might bo a Silurua Eloctricua, nor chickens because thay are always feverish, nor garlic bccauss it produces headache and burns the blood or tha sperma genitale on which the existence of the world depends, nor peas becauss they atupify and impair the intellect and originally grew in tho skull of man. D.206. Thoy havs thres prayers in writing, ons for the time of sunrias with eight inclinationa, the second immediately hefore the aun leavea tha centre of heaven (the meridian) with five inclinationa, the third at sun- set with five inclinations. Each of the inclinations at their prayer 10 consists of three prostrations. Besides, they have voluntary prayers, ons in the second bour of ths day, another in the niuth hour of the day, and a third one in the third hour of the night. Their prayer is preceded by purification and washing. They also wash themsslvea after a pollutiop. They do not circumcise themselves, not being ordered to do so, as they maintain. Most of their regulations about women and their penal law ars similar to thoes of the Muslims, whilst othera, relating to pollution caused hy touching dead bodies, etc., are similar to those of the Thora. They offer offerings to the stars, their images and temples, and 20 practiss sucrifices carried out hy their prieats and seducers. By this means they elicit the knowledge of the future of the man who offers the offering, and the anawer to his inquiries. Idris, who is mentioned in the Thora as Henokh, they call Hermes, whilst according to others Hermes is identical with Budhasaf. Again, others maintain that the Harranians ars not the real Sabians, but thoas who ara called in the books Heathens and Idolaters. For the Salians are the remnant of the Jewish tribea who remained in Babylonia, when ths other tribes left it for Jerusalem in the daya of Cyrus and Artaxerxes. Those remaining tribes felt themselves at- 80 tracted to the rites of the Magians, and so they inclined (were inclined, i.e. Sabi) towarda the religion of Nebukadnezzar, and adopted a systam mixed np of Magism and Judaiam like that of the Samaritans in Syria The greatest number of them ars settled at Waait, in Sawad-al'irak, in the districts of Jafar, Aljamida, and ths two Nahr-alsila. They pretend to be the deacendants of Enos the son of Seth. They differ from the Harranians, blaming their doctrines and not agreeing with them except in few matters. In praying, even, they turn towards the north pole, whilat the Harranians turn towards tha south pole. Some of thoas to whom God has given a divine code (Jews and 40 Christiana) say that Methuaelah had another son besides Lamech, who called himself Sabi, and that the Sabians derive their name from him. Beforo the first establishment of their rites and the appearance of Budhasaf people were Sapavaiot, inbabiting the eastern part of the world and worshipping idols. The remnants of them are at pre-

ON THE ERAS OF THE PSEUDO-PROPHETS, 189

sent in India, China, and among the Tughazyhar; the people of KhurAsan call them Shamanan. Their monumeuts, the Baheras of their idols, their Farkharas are still to be seen on the frontier countries between Khurasin and India. They believe in the eternity of time and the migration of souls; they think that the globe of the universe is flying in an infinito vacuum, that therefore it has a rotatory inotion, since anything that is round, when thrown off its plece, goes dowuward in a circular motiou, as they sus. But others of them believe that the world has been created (within tie), and maintain that its duratiou is 10 one million of years, which thes divide into fonr periods, the first of four hundred thousand vears, the Aurea Elas.

(Grent lacuno. The end of the chapter ou Budhiasat, the whole chapter on Zaradusht, and the heginning of the chapter on Bardaisan are missing.) So he gets the sum of 8,457. We think they will dispute with us on the astronomical interpretation we propose, for we, as well as themselves, p.207. are familiar with the science of the subject. Therefore any argning on the subject and any interpretation arc altogether devoid of sense. What we have just mentioned regarding the division is a proof in 20 favour of the Egyptians in the matter of the Termini. For aceording to them the dnration of the Terminns of Venns in Pisces is 400 years, whilst Ptolemy reckons it as 266 ycars. We have already said before that the time between Alesander aud Ardashir is longer than 400 years, and have endeavoured to settle this question of chronology. We return now to our snljeet, and go on to state that the Persians adhered to the Magian religion of Zaraidusht, that thes had no schism or dissension in it till the time came when Jesus rose, and his pupils spread through all the world preaching the Gospel. When they thus spread throngh the countries, one of them came to Persia, and both 30 Bardaişan and Marcion were among those who followed his call and heard the word of Jesus. Part they took from bim, part from what they had heard from Zaradusht. So each of them derived from both systems a separate doctrine, containing the dogma of the eternal existence of the two Principia. Each of them produced a gospel, the origin of which he traced back to the Messiah, and declared eversthing else to be a lie. Ibn-Daisan maintained that the Light of God was residing in his own heart. The difference, however, did not go so far as to separate them and 40 their followers from the bulk of the Christians, nor were their gospels in all matters different from that of the Christians; in some regards they contained more, in others less. God knows best! Mani .- After Bardaisan aud Marcion. Miwi the pupil of Fadarun came forward. On having acqnainted himself with the doctrines of the Magians. Christians, and Dualists. he proclaimed himelf to be a

190 ALBiRCNi.

prophet. In the beginning of his hook called Shaburkan, which he composed for Shapur b. Ardashir, he sass: "Wisdom and deeds have alwaye from time to time been brought to mankind by the messengers of God. So in one age they havo been brought by the messenger, called Buddha, to India, in another by Zaradusht to Persia, in another by Jesus to the West. Thereupon this revelation has come down, this prophecy in this last age through me, Mani, the messenger of the God of truth to Babylonia." In his gospel, which he arranged sccording to the twenty-two letters of the alphabet, he saysthat he is the Paraclete annonneed hy Messiah, and that he is the seal of the prophets (i.e. the 10 last of them). His doctrines regarding the existence and the form of the world are con- tradicted by the results of scientific arguments and proofs. He preached of the empime of the worlds of light, of the Ilparos "AvOpurros, and of the spirit of life. He taught that light and darkness are without beginning and end. He absolutely forbade his followers to slaughter animals and to hurt them, to hurt the fire, water, and plants. Ho establisbed laws which are obligatory only for the Siddika, i.e. for the eaints and ascetics among the Manichæans, viz. to prefer poverty to riches, to snppress cupidity and lust, to abandon the world, to be 20 208. abstinent in it, continually to fast, and to give alme as much as possible. He forbade them to acquire any property except food for one day and dress for one year; he further forbade sexual intercourse, and ordered them continually to wander ahout in the world, preaching his doctrines and guiding people into the right path. Other laws he imposed upon the Samma' (laymen), i.e. t.heir followers and adberents who have to do with worldly affairs, viz. to give as alma the tithe of their property, to fast during the eeventh part of life-time, to live in monogamy, to befriend the Siddiks (saints), and to remove overything that troubles and pains them. 30 Some people maintain that he allowed pederasty, if s man felt ni- elined, and as proof of this they relate that every Manichæan used to he accompanied by a young, beardless and hairless servant. I, how- ever, have not found in what I have read of his booke a word indicating anything of this kind. Nay, even hie life provee the contiary of this assertion. Mint was born in a village called Mardinu on the upper canal of Kutha, according to his own statement in his book Shaburkan, in the chapter on the coming of the prophet, in the year 527 of the era of the Babylonian astronomere, i.e. the Era Alerandri, in the 4th year of 40 the king Adharban. He received the firet divine revelation in hie 13th year, Anno Astronomorum Babylonic 539, in the 2nd year of Ardashir, the King of Kings. Thia part of chronology we have already tried to correct in the chapter preceding that of the duration of the rule of the Ashkinians and the Muluk alfawu'if.

ON THE ERAS OF THE PSEODO-PROPRETS. 191

According to Yabya b. Alnu'man, the Cbristian, in his book on the Magians, Mani was called by the Christians Corbicius the son of Patecius. When he camo forward, many people believed in him and followed him. He composed many books, his gospel, the Shaburkan, Kanz-al'ih ya (Thesaurus Revivicationis), the Book of the Giants, the Book of Books, and many treatises. He maintained that be had esplained in extenso what had only heen hinted at by the Messiab. Manichwism inereased by degrees under Ardashir, his son Shipur 10 and Hurmuz b. Shapur, until the time when Bahrim b. Hurmuz aseended the throne. He gave 'orders to search for Mani, and when he bad found him, he said: "This man has come forward calling people to destroy the world. It will be necessary to begin by de- stroying him, before anything of his plans should be realized." It is well known that he killed Manf, stripped off his skin, filled it with grass, and hung it up at the gate of Gnndisapur. which is eren still known as the " Mani-gate." Hnrmuz also killed a number of the Maniehæans. Jibri'il b. Nuh, the Christian, says in his reply to Yazdinbakht's 20 refntation of the Christians, that one of Mani's pupils composed a hook, in which he relates the fate of Mani, that be was pnt in prison on account of a relative of the king who believed that he was possessed by the devil; Mant had promised to cure him, but when he could not effeet it, he was ehained hand and foot, and died in prison. His bead was exposed before the entrance of the royal tent, and his body was thrown into the street, that he should be a warning example to others. p.209. Of his adherents, some remnants that are considered as Manichæan are still extant: they are seattered throughout the world and do not live together in any particular place of Muhammadau countries, exeept 80 the community in Samarkand, knowu by the name of Sabians. As regards non-Muhammadan countries, we have to state that most of the eastern Turks, of the people of China and Thibet and some of the Hindus, adhere still to his law and doctrine. Regarding their prophet Mani they hold two different opinions, one party maintaining that he never worked a mircle, and relating that he only informed people of the signs and wonders indicative of the coming of the Messiah aud his companions, whilst the other party maintains that he in fact worked signs and miracles, and that the king Shapur came to believe in him when he had ascended with him towards 40 heaven, and they had heen standing in the air hetween heaven and earth. Manf, thereby, made him witness a miracle. Besides, they relate that be sometimes used to rise to beaven from among his com- paniona, to atav there for anme days. and then to rdlescend to them. I have heard the Ispahbadh Marzuban hen Rustam say that Shapur banished him out of his empire, faithful to the law of Zaridnsht which

192 ALBÎRONİ.

demands the expulsion of psendo-prophets from the country. Ho imposed upon him the obligation never to return. So Mani went off to India, Chiua, and Thibet, and preached there his gospel. Afterwards h returned, was seized by Babram and killed for having broken the stipulation, as he bad therehy forfcited his life. Mazhdak .- Tbereupon came forward a man called Mozhdak ben Homo- dadan, a native of Nash. He was Maubadhan-Moubadh, i.e. chief-justice during the reign of Kobadh ben Feroz. He preached Dualism aud opposcd Zarhdusbt in many points. He taught that hoth property and women helonged in common to all. So he found innumerable 10 followers. Kobadh, too, helieved in him. But some of the Persians maintain that his adhesion was a compulsory one, since his reign was not safe against the mass of the followers of Mazhdak. According to others, again, this Mazhdak was a cunning sort of man, who managed to concoct this system, and to come forward with it simply hecause he knew that Kohadh was charmed by a woman who was the wife of his cousin; and that for this reason Kohadh hastened to adopt it. Mazhdak ordered him to ahstain from sacrificing cattle before the natural term of their lif: hud come. Kobadh said : " Your enterprise shall not succeed 20 unless you make me master of the mother of Anushirwan, that I may enjoy her." Mazhdak did as he wished, and ordered her to he handed over

(Lacuno. Missing, the end of Mazhdak and beginning of Musailima.) Musailima .- "To Mnhammad the Prophet of God. Greeting unto thee ! etc. God has made me partake with thee in the rule. One half of the earth belongs to us and one half to Kuraish But the Kuraish are evil.doing people." This letter he sent off with two messengers. To these the Prophet said: " What is it you are speaking ?" They 30 answered: "We are speaking just as He spoke." Thereupon the Prophet said : "If it was not the custom net to kill messengers, I should behead botb of you" Then he gave them his answer : "From Muhammad the Prophet of God to Musailima the liar. Greeting unto those who follow the right guidance ! ete. The earth belongs to God, he gives it as an inheritance to whomsoever of his servants he pleases. And the end will he in favour of the pious." The people of Yamama let themselves he deluded by him by such tricks as introducingan egg that bad been soaked in vinegar into a glass- hottle, by fitting together the wings of birds, which be had previously 40 210. cut off, hy means of similar feathers; and hy such-like humhug and swindle. The Band Hanifa kept possession of Yamama until Musailima was killed by Khalid b. Alwalid in the year when 'Abu-Bakr Algiddik

ON THE ERAS OF THE PSEUDO-PROPHETS. 193

succeeded. Then they lamented his death iu versas; ons of the Banu Hanifa saya: "Alas for thes, o' Ahn-Thumams! [Thou wast] like the sun heaming forth from a cloud." Before Musailima in the tims of heathendom the Bant Hanifa had got an idol of Hais (i.e. a mixture of dates, butter, and dried curd), which they worshipped for a long time. But onne, being pressed by hunger, they dovoured it. So a post of the Band Tamim said : "The Bant Hanifa have eaten their Lord for hunger, 10 From which thoy were suffering already a long time, and from want."

A nother said : " The Hanifas have eaten their Lord At the time of want and hunger. They did not guard against the punishment, Which their Lord might inflict upon them." Bahafirid b. Mahferadhin .- Thereupon in the days of 'Abo-Muslim, the founder of the 'Abbaside dynasty, came forward a man called Bahefirid ben Mahfurndhin in Khwaf, one of the districts of Nishapur, in a place called Sirawand, being a native of Zuzan, In the beginning 20 of his career he disappeared and betook himself te China for seven years. Then he returned, and brought with him among other Chinese curiosities a green shirt which, when folded up, could be held in the gmasp of a human hand ; so thin and flexible was it. He went up to a temple during the night, and when he thence descended in the morning, he was observed by & peasant who was plonghing part of bis field. This man he told that he had been in heaven during his absence from them, that heaven and hell had heen shown unto him, that God had inspired him, had dressed him in that shirt, and had sent him down upon earth in that same hour. The peasant believed his so words, and told people that he had witnessed him desceuding from heaven. So he found many adherents among the Magians, when he came forward as a praphet and preached his knew doctrine. Ha differed from the Magians in most rites, but he believed in Zaradusht, and elaimed for his followers all the institutes of Zaradusht. He maintained that he secretly received divine revelations, and he cstahlished seven prayers for his followers, one in praise of the one God, ons relating to the creation of hsaven and earth, one relating to the creatiou of the animals and to their nourishment, one relating to death, one relating to the resurrection and last judgment, one 40 relating to those in heaven and hell and what is prepared for them, and one in praise of tha people of paradise. Hs composed for them a book in Persian. He ordered them to worship the substance of the sun, kueeling on one knee, and in praying 13

194 ALBÎRÛNÎ.

always to turn towards the sun wherever he might be, to let their hair and loaks grow, to give up the Zamzama at dinner, not to sacrifice small cattle except they be alrcady decrepit, not to drink wine, not to cat the fleah of animals that have died a sudden death as not having p.211. heen killed according to prescription, uot to marry their mothers, daugh- ters, sisters, nieces, uot to exceed the eum of four hundred dirhams as dowry. Further, he ordered them to keep roade and bridges in good condition by means of the ssventh part of theh property and of the revenue of their lahour. When 'Abu.Muslim came to Nighapur, the Maubadhs and Herhadhs 10 assembled before him telling him that thie man had infected Islam as well as their own religion. So he sent 'Abdallah b. Shu'ba to fetch him. He caught him in the mountains of Badaghis and brought him before 'Abu-Muslim, who put him to death, and all bis followers of whom he could get hold. His followera, called the Bahafiridiyya, keep still the institutes of their founder and strongly oppose the Zumzamis among the Magians. They maintain that the servant of their prophet had told them that the prophet had ascended into heaven on a common dark-brown horse, and that he will again come down to them in the same way as he 20 ascended and will take vengeance on his enemics. Almukanna' .- Therenpon came forward Hashim b. Hakim, known by the name of Almukanna', in Marw, in a village called Kawakimar. dan. He used to veil himself in green silk, because he had only one eye. He maintained that he was God, and that he had incarnated himself, since hefore incarnation nobody could see God. He passed the river Oxue and went to the districta of Kash and Nasaf. He entered into correspondence with the Khakan and golicited his help. The eect of the Mubayyida and the Turks gathered ronnd him, and the property and women (of his enemies) he delivered up to 30 them, killing everybody who opposed him. He made obligatory for them all the laws and institutes which Mashdak had estahlished. He scattered the armies of Almahdi, and ruled during fourteen yeare, hut finally he was besieged and killed A.H. 169. Being eurrounded on all eides he burned himeelf, that his body might be annibilated, and, in consequence, his followers might see therein a confirmation of his claim of being God. However, he did not succeed in annihilating his hody; it was found in the oven, and his head was cut off and sent to the Khalif Almahdi, who was then in Halab. There is still a sect in Transoxiana who practise hia religion, but 40 only sccretly, whilst in public they profess Islam. The history of Almukanna' I have translated from the Persian into Arabic; the subject has been exhaustively treated in my history of the Mubayyida and the karmatians. Alhallaj .- Thereupon came forward & Sufi of Persian origin, called

ON THE ERAS OF THE PSEUDO-PROPRETS. 195

Albusain ben Mansar Allallij. He was the first to presch the coming of Almahdi, maintaining that he would como from Tilakan in Dailam. They seized upon him and led him into Baghdad, parading him through the streets. Then he was put into prison, but he contrived to get eut of it again. He was a juggler and artful sert of man, mixing himself up with every human being according to bis helicf and his views. Further, he preached that the Holy Ghost was dwelling in him, and he called himself God. His letters to his followers bere the following superscription: " From the He, the aternal, the first He, the henming 10 and shining light, the original erigin, the proof of all proofs, the Lord of the Lords, who raises the clouds, the window frem which the light shines, the Lord of the Mountain (Sinai), who is represented in every shape-to his slave N. N." And his followers began thcir letters to him in thia way : "Praise unto thee, O being of all beings, the parfertion of all delights, O great, O sublime being, I bear witnsss p.212 that thou art the eternal creator, the light-giver, who reveals him- self in every time and age, and in this our time in the figure of Alhusain b. Mansur! Thy slave, thy wretcbed and poor one, who seeks help with thee, who flies for refuge to thee, who hopes for 20 thy mercy, O thou who knowest all mysteries !- speaks thus and thus." He compesed books en the subject ef his preaching, e.g. the Kitab- Nur-Alasl, the Kitab-Jamm- Alakbar and the Kitab-Jamm-APas. ghar. A.H. 301, the Khalif Almuktadir-billah laid hands upon him; he ordered the exeeutioner to give him a thousand lashes, to cut off his hands and feet anu to behead him; then they besprinkled him with nafta and burnt his body, and threw the ashes into the Tigris During the whole exccution he did net utter a syllable nor distort his 30 face nor move his lips. A remnant of his follewers whe are called after him is still extant; they preach the coming of Almahdi, and say that he will issue from Talaan. Of this same Mahdi it is said in the Kitab-Almalahim that he will fill the earth with justice as it heretofore has been filled with injustice. Somewhere in the book it is said that he will be Muhammad b. 'Abdallah, elsewhere that he will he Muhammad b. 'Al. Nay, when Almukhtar b. 'Abi-Ubaid Althakafi called people to rally round Muhammad b. Alhanafiyya, he produced as a testimony an authentic traditien, and maintained that this was the predicted 40 Mahdi. Even in our time people expect the Mahdi to come, believing that he is alive and resides in the mountain Radwa. Likewise the Bant- 'Umayya expect the eoming of Alanfyant who is mentioned in the Maldhim. In that heek it is alse mentiened that Aldajjal, the seducer, will issas frem the district of Isfahan, whilst astrelogers maintain that he will 19 *

196 ALBİRÔNİ.

jasue from the island of Bartu'i7 four hundred and sisty-eix yeare after Yazdagird ben Shahryar. Also in the Gospel you find mentioncd the eigne that will foreshow his coming. In Greek, in Christian booke, he ie called 'Avrixpwros, as we learn from Mar Theodorue, the Bishop of Mopsueete, in his commontary on the Goepel. Histeriane relate that 'Umar ben Alkhattab on entering Syria was met by the Jewe of Damascue. They epoke thue: "Greeting to thee, O Faruk! Thou art the Lord of Ælia. We adjure thee by God, do not return until you conquer it." He aeked them as to Aldajjal, whereupon they anewered: "He will be one of the tribe of Benjamin. By God, 10 you, O nation of the Arabe, yon will kill him at a distance of ten to twenty yards from the gate of Lydda." In the timee after Alhallaj the Karmatiane roee into power. 'Abu- Tihir Sulaimin b. 'Abi-Sa'id Alhasan b. Bahram Aljannabt marched out and reached Makka A.H. 818; Le killed in an atrocione way the people who were paseing round the circuit of the Ka ba, and threw the corpees into the well Zamzam; he carried off the garmente and the golden implements of the Holy House, and deetroyed ite aqueduct; he took away the black stone, smashed it, suspended it afterwardsin the Mosque of Kufa, and thon he retarned home. 20 213. Ibn Abi-Zakariyya .- On the Ist Ramadan A.H. 819 came forward Ion 'Abi-Zakariyya, a native of Tamam, a young man of bad character, a male prostitute. He called upon people to recognise him ae the Lord, and they followed him. He ordered them to cut open the etomachs of the dead, to wash them and to fill them with wine; to cut off the hand of ererybody who extinguished the fire with his hand, the tongue of every- body who extinguiahed it by blowing; to have intercourse with young men,-but with this restriction, ne justo magis penem immitterent. If anybody infringed thie rule, he should be dragged on hie face over a distance of forty yards. Those who would not practise pederasty were 30 killed by the butcher. He ordered them to worship and honour the fires, he cureed all the prophets of former times and their companione, for they were " artfnl deceivers and on the wrong path," and more of that eort, which I have sufficiently related in my hietory of the Mubayyida and the Karmatiane. In such a conditon they remained during eighty daye, till God gave kim into the power of that man who had originally brought bim forward. He alaughtered him, and eo their echemes turned back upon their own necks. If, now, this be the time which Jamasp and Zaradusht meant, they 40 are right as far as chronology ie concerned. For this happened at the end of Ara Alexandri 1242, i.e. 1,500 yeare after Zaradueht. They are wrong, however, as regards the restoration of the empire to the Magians. Likewie 'Aht-'Abdallth Al'Adi has been mistakon, a mau who is etupidly partial to Magiem and who hopee for an age in which

OX THE BRAS OF THE PSEDDO-PROPHETS. 197

Alka'im is to appear. For he has composed a boek on the cyeles and conjunctiens, in which he says that the 18th cenjunction since the birth of Mubammad coincides with the 10th millenuium, which is presided ever by Saturn and Sagittarius. Now he maintains that then a man will come forward whe will restore the rule of Magism; he will eccupy the whole world, will de away with the rule of the Arahe and others, he will unite all mankind in one religion and under one rule; he will de away with all evil, and will rule during 7} con- jurctions. Besides he asserts that ne Arabian priuce will rule afier 10 that one who is ruling in the 17th cenjunction. That time which thie man indicates must of necessity refer to Almuktafi and Almuktadir, but it has net brought abeut these .rents which, according to his prophccies, were to have taken place after their time. People say that the Sasanian rule existed during fiery cenjunctions. New, the rule ever Dailam was seized by 'Al b. Buwaihi called 'Imad- aldaula during fiery conjunctions. This is what people used te pro- mise each other regarding the restoration of the rule to the Persians, although the doings of the Buwaihi fumily were not like those of the 20 ancient kings. I de net know why they preferred the Dailamite dynasty, whilst the fact of the transitus into a fiery Trigonon is the most evident proof indicative of the Abbaside dynasty, who are a Khurasani, an eastern dynasty. Besides, both dynasties (Dailamites as well as Abbasides) are alike far from renewing the rule of the Persians and farther still from restoring their ancient religion. Befere the appearance of that yeuth (Ibn 'Abi Zakariyya) the Karmatians believed in seme dogmas of the Esoterics, and they were p.214. considered as adhcrents of the family of the blessed Heuse (of 30 'Ali). They promised eacb ether the coming of him who ie ex- pected to come during the 7th conjunction under a fiery Trigonon, eo that 'Abe-Tahir Sulaiman b. Alhasan says on f' :; subject: "The mest glerious beneft I bestow on you will be my return to Hajar. Then, after a while, verily the news will reach you. When Mars rises frem Babylonia, When tha Two Stars have left him, then beware, beware! Is it not I whe is mentioned in all the seriptures ? Is it net I whe is descrihed in the Sura Alsumar? 40 I shall rule the people of the earth, east and west, As far as the Kairawan of the Greeks, te the Turks and Chazars. And I shall live until the coming of Jesus the son of Mary. Then he will praise my exploits and approve of what he ordered. Then, ne doubt, my dwelling-place will be in paradise, Whilst the cthers will burn in fire and hell."

.

199 ALBİRUN1.

Thereupon came forward a man called Ion 'Abi-Alasdkir b. 'Alf b. Shalmaghin. He maintained that the Holy Ghost was dwelling in him, and composed a book which he called The 6ih Sense, relating to the abrogation of the rites.

(The end of this chapter and the beginning of the following are missing.)

199

CHAPTER IX.

ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE PERSIANS. p.215

(Farwardin.Mah.) (1. Naurôz.) . . and he divided the cup among hia companions, and said, . " O that we had Nauroz every day !" A philosopher of the Hashwiyya-sebool relates that when Solomon the son of David had lost his seal and his empire, but was reinstated after forty days, he at ouce regained his former majesty, the princes came before 10 him, and the birds were busy in bis service. Then the Persians said, "Nauriz amadh," ie. the new day has come. Therefore that day was called Nauroz. Solomon ordered the wind to carry him, and so it did. Then a swallow met him, and said, "O king, I have got a nest with little eggs in it. Please, turn aside and do not smash them." So Solomon did, and when he again desceuded to carth the swallow came bringing some water in his beak, which he sprinkled hefore tho king, and made him a present of the foot of a locust. This is the cause of the water-sprinkling and of the presents on Nanroz. Persian scholars say that in the day of Nauroz there is an hour in 20 whieh the sphere of Feroz is driven on by the spirits for the purposo of renovating the creation. The happiest hours of this day are the honrs of the sun. On its morning, dawn is the shortest possible, and it is considered as a good omen to look at this dawn. It is a "preferable" day because it is called Hurmuz, which is the uame of God who has created, formed, produeed, and reared the world and its inhabitants, of whose kindness and charity nobody could describe even a part. Said b. Alfadl relates: On the mountain Dama in Ftrs every night of Nauroz there is observed a far-sprcading and strong-shining light.

200 ALBİRÜNİ.

ning, whether the sky be clear or covered with clouds, in every stats of the weather. Still more curious than this are the fircs of alwadht, although one does net feel inclined te believe the thing witheut having seen it. 'Abu-alfaraj Alzanjani, the muthematieian, told me that he had witnessed it together with a number of other people whe went to Kalwadha in that year when 'Adud-aldaula entercd Baghdadh, and that t ere are innnmerable fires and lights which appear on the west side of the Tigris, opposite Kalwadha, in that night with the morning of which Nauroz begins. The Sultan had there pested his guards to find out 10 the truth in order net to be deceived by the Magians. All, however, they found out was this, that as soen as they came nearer to the fires they went farther off, and as soen as they went away the fires came nearer. Now I said te 'Abu-Alfaraj, "The day of Nauroz recedes from its proper place in consequence of tle Persians neglecting intercalation. Why, then, does not this phenomenon remain back behind Nauraz? Or if it is not necessary that it should remain bebind, did it then fall earlier at the time when they practised intercalation?" Upon whieb he could not give a satisfactory answer. 216. The charm-mengers say: He whe thrice sips heney on Nauroz in 20 the morning before speaking, and perfumes his room with three pieces of waz, will hs safe against all diseases. One Persian scholar adduces as the reasen why this day was called Nauroz, the following: viz. that the Sahians arose during the reign of Tahmtrath. When, then, Jamshid succeeded, he renovated the religion, and his work, the date of which was a Nauroz, was called New.Day. Then it was made a feast day, having already hefcre been held in great veneration. Another account of the reason why it was made a feast day is this, that Jamshid, on having obtained the earriage, ascended it on this 80 day, and the Jinns and Dews carried bim in one day through the air from Dabiwand to Babel. Now people made this day a feast day on account ef the wender which they had seen during it, and they amused themselves with swinging in order te imitate Jamshtd. Another report says that Jam was going aboutin the country,-that he, when wishing to enter Adharl aijan, sat ou a golden throne and was thus carried away by the men on their nccks. When, then, the rays of the sun fell on him and people saw him, they did homage to him and wore full of joy and made that day a feast day. On Nauroz it was the custom for people to present cach other sugar. 40 Acceraing to Adharbadh, the Mauladh of BaghdAdh, the reason is this, that the sugar-cane was first discovered during the reign of Jam on the day of Nauroz, having before been unknown. For Jam on seeing a juicy cone which dropped some of its juice, tasted it, and found thut it had an agreenble sweetucss. Theu he ordered the juice of the sugar.

ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHIS OF THE PERSIANS. 201

cane to be pressed ont and sugar to be made thereof. It was ready on the fifth day, and then they mnnde each other presents of sugar. The same was also the custom on Mihrjan. They have adopted the time of the summer-solstice as the beginning of the year for this reason in particular, that the two solstitial-points are casier to be ascertained by the help of instruments and by observa- tion than the equinoetial poiuts, for the former are the beginning of the advance of the sun towards one of the two poles of the universs and of his turning away from the same pole. And if the perpendieular 10 shadow at the summer solstice is ohserved, and the level shadow at the winter-solstiee, in whatsoever place of the carth the observation be made, the observer cannot possibly mistake the day of the sulstice, though ho may be entirely ignorant in geometry and astronomy, becuse a varia- tion of tho level shadow takes place notwithstanding the small amount of declination, if the Height is considerable. On the other hand the two equinoctial days cannot be ascertained, unless you have found beforchand the latitude of the place and the Generul Declination. And this nobody will find out unless he studies astronomy and has profited something thereby, and kuows how to place and how to use the instru- 20 ments of observation. Therefore the solstitial points are better adapted for marking the beginning of the year than the equinoctial points. And as the sunuuer- solstice is nearer to the zenith of the northern countries, peoplo preferred it to the winter-solstice ; for this reason, moreover, that it is the time of the ripening of the corn. Therefere it is more proper to p.217 gather the taxes at this time than at any other. Mauy of the scholars and aages of the Greeks observed the horoseope at the time of the rising of Sirius and commeuced the ycar at that time, not with the vernal cquinox, because the rising of Sirius coineided in 30 bygone times with this solstice, or oceurred very neur it. This day, I mean Nauroz, has receded from its original proper place, so that in our time it coineides with the sun's entering the sign of Aries, which is the heginning of spring. Whence it has become the eustom of the prinees of Khurasan on this day to dress their warriors in spring -and summer-dresses. On the 6th of Farwardin, the day Khurdadh, is the Great Nauroz, for the Persians a fenst of great importance. On this day-they say- God finished the ercation, for it is the last of the six days, mentioned before. On this God created Saturn, therefore its most lueky bours 40 are those of Saturn. On the same day-they say-the Sors Zara- thustre came to hold communion with God, and Kaikhnsrau nscended into the air. On the same day the happy lots ure distribnted among the people of the earth. Therefore the Persiuns call it "the dny ef hope." The charm-mongers say : He who tastes sugar on the morning of

202 ALBiRONi.

this day before spenking, and anoints himself with oil, will keep off all sorts of mishap during the greater part of this same year. On the morning of t! is day, a silent person with a bundle of fragrant flowers in bis hand 's seen on the mountain Bushanj; he is visible for one hour and then dissppears, and does not reappear until tho same time of the next year. Zhdawaibi says that the cause of this was the rising of the sun from the southern region, t.e. Afuhtar. For the cursed 'Iblis had deprived eating and drinking of their beneficial effect, so that people could Dot satisfy their hunger nor gnench their thirst; and he had prevented the 10 wind from blowing. So the trees withered up and the world was near to utter decay. Then came-by the command and under ths guidance of God-Jam to the southern region. . He marched towards the residence of 'Iblis and of his followers, and remained there for some time until he had extinguished that plague. Then people returned into a state of justice and prospority and were freed from that trial. Under such circumstances Jim returned to the world (t.e. Eran) and rose on that day like the sun, the light beaming forth from him, as thongh he shone like the sun, Now people were astonished at the rising of two suns, and all dried-up wood became green. So people said roz-i-nau, 20 i.e. a new day. And everybody planted harley in a vessel or somewhere else, considering it as a good omen. Ever since, it has been the custom on this day to sow around a plate seven kinds of grain on seven columns, and from their growth they drew conelusions regarding the corn of that year, whether it would he good or bad. On the same day Jamshid issued a proclamation to those who were present, and wrote to those who were absent, ordering them to destroy the old temples and not to build a new one on that day. His behaviour towards the people was such as pleased God, who rewarded him by delivering his people from diseases and decrepitude, 30 .218. from envy ard frailty, and sorroa aud disasters. No being was sick or died, as long as he ruled-until the time when Bewarasp, his sister's son, appeared, who killed Jam and snbdned hie realm. In the time of Jam the population inereased at such a rate that the earth could no longer contain them ; therefore God made the earth thrice as large as it had been before. He (Jam) ordered people to wash themselves with water in order to elean themselves of their sins, and to do so cvery year that God might keep them aloof from the calamities of the year. Some people maintain that Jam ordered channels to he dug, and that the water was led into them on this day. Therefore people rejoiced at 40 their prosperity, and washed themselves in the water that was sent them (by the channels), and in this respect the later generations have considered it a good omeu to imitate the former ones. Others, again, maintain that he who let the water into the channels was Zu, after Afrisiab had ruined all the dwellings of Erioshahr.

OY THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTAS OF TRE PERSIANS. 209

Aecording to another view, tho cause of the washing is this-that this day is sered to Harudhi, the angel of the water, who stands in relation to the water. Therefore peoplo rose on this day earls, at the rising of dawn, and went to the water of tho aqueducts and wells. Fregnently, too, they drew running water in a vase, and poured it over themselves, considering this a good omen and a means to keep off hmrt. On the same day pcople sprinkle water over each other, of whieh the canse is said to he the snme as that of the washing. According to another report, the reason was this-that during a long time the rain was with- 10 held from Eraushabr, but that they got copious rain, when Jamshid, having aseended the throne, bronght them the good news of which wo have spoken. Therefore they considered the rain a good omen, and poured it over each other, which bas remained among them as a custom, Acrording to another esplanation, this water-sprinkling simply holds the place of a purification, by which people cleansed their bodies from the smoke of the fire and from the dirt connected with attending to the fires. Besides it serves the purpose of removing from the air that eorruption whieh produces epidemie and other diseases. 20 On the samo day Jam brought forward all kinds of measures; there. fore the linge considered his way of counting as of good omen. On the same day they used to prepare all the neecssary paper and the hides on which their despatches to the provinees of the empire were written, and all the doeuments to which the royal seal was to be applied were sealed. Such a doeument was called Espidanuiiokt. After the time of Jam the kings made this whole month, i.e. Farwardin-Mah, one festival, distributed over its six parte. The first five days were feast days for the princes, the second for the nobility, the third for the servants of the prinees, the fourth for their elients, 30 the fifth for the people, and the sixth for the herdsmen. The man who connected the two Nanroz with each other is said to have been Hormuz ben Shspur the Hero, for he raised to festivals all the days between the two Nauroz. Besides he ordered fires to be kindled on high places, hecause he considered it a good omen, and for the purpose of purifying the air, since they eonsume all unwholesome elements in the air and dissolve and scatter those miasmata that produee corruption. In these five days it was the eustom of the Kisras that the king opened the Nauroz and then proelaimed to all that he would hold a 40 session for them, and bestow benefits upon them. On the second day the session was for men of high rank, and for the members of the great families. On the third day the session was for his warriors, and for the p.219. highest Maubadhs. On the fourth day it was for his family, his re- lations and domostics, and on the fifth day it was for his children and clients. So everybody received the rank and distinction he was en-

204 ALBİRONÌ.

titled to, and obtained those remuneratione and benefits whioh ho had desarved. When the sixth day came aud he had done justice to all of them, hs celobrated Nauroz for himself and conversed only with his epecial friends and thoss who were admitted into his privacy, Then he ordered to ba brought before him the whole amount of presents, arranged aecording to those who had presenterl them. He considered them, distributed of them what he liked, and deposited what he liked in his treasury. The 17th is the day of Serosh, who first ordered the Zamzama, i.c. expressing yourself by wbispering, not by clear speech. For they said 10 prayers, praised and celebrated God, whilst handing to each other tha food; now, speaking not heing allowed during prayer, they express themselves by whispers and signs. Thus I was told hy the geometrician Ådharkhura. According to another authority, tha Zamzama is intanded to prevent the hreath of the mouth from touching the food. This day is a blessed day in ovsry month, becauss Scrosh is tha name of that angel who watches over the night. He is also said to ba Gabriel. He is ths most powerful of all angels against tha Jinns and sorcerers. Thrice in the night he rises ahove the world; then he emites the Jinns and drives off the sorcerers; he makes the night shine 20 brilliantly by his appearance. The air is gettiug cold, tha water sweet ; the cocks begin crowing, and the lust of sexual intercourse begins to burn in all animals. Onc of his three risings is the rising of dawn, whan the plants hegin to thrive, tha flowers to grow, and the birds to sing; when the sick man hegins to rest, and the sorrowful to feel some- what ralieved; when the traveller travels in safety; when the tims is agreeable; when such dreams occur as will be fulfilled one dap; and when all angels and demons enjoy themselves. On the 19th, or Farwardin-Roz, there is a feast called Farwardagan on account of the identity of the name of the day and of the month in 30 which it lies. A similar feast-day they have got in every month.

Ardibahisht-Mah. On the 3rd, or Ardibahisht-Roz, there is a feast, Ardibahishtagan, so called on account of the identity of the name of the month and the day. The word Ardibahisht means " truth ia the best," or according to another explanation, " the utmost of good." Ardibahisht is the genius of fire and light; both elements stand in relation to him. God has ordered bim to watch over these elements; to remove tha weaknesses and diseases by drugs and nourishments; to distinguish truth from falsehood, the true man from the liar, by 50 means of those oaths that are manifest in the Avasta. The 26th, or Ashtadh-Hoz, is the first day of the third Gahanbar; it lasts five davs, the last of which is the last day of the month. In these days God created the earth. This Gahanbar is called Paitishahim-

ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE PERSIANS. 205

Gah. The six Galanbars, each of whieh lasts fiva days, bare been established by Zoroaster. Khurdadh-Mah. p.220. The 6th day, or Khurdadh-Roz, is a feast Khurdadhagin, so called on account of the identity of the name of the month aud the das. The meaning of the nams is " the stability of the creation." Harudhi is the genius instructed to watch over the growth of the creation, of the trees and plauts, and to keep off all impure substances from the water. The 26th, or Ashtidh-Roz, is the first day of the fourth Gahanbar, the 10 last day of which is tha last of the month. During this Gahanbar God created the trees and plants. It is called Ayathrema-Gah. Tir-Mah. On the 6th, or Khurdadh-Roz, there is a feast called Cashn-i-nilifar, considered to be of recent origin. On the 13th, or Tir.Roz, there is a feast Thagan, so called on account of the identity of the name of the month and the day. Of the two causes to which it is traced back, one is this, that Afrasiab after having subdued Eranshahr, and while besieging Minocihr in Tabaristan, asked him some favour. Minocihr complied with his wish, on the condition 20 that he (Afrasifb) should restore to him a part of Eraushahr as long and as broad as an arrow-shot. On that occasion there was a genius present, called Isfandammnadh ; he ordered to be hronght a bow and an arrow of such a size as be himself had indicated to the arrow-maker, in conformity with that which is manifest in the Avasta. Theu he sent for Arish, a noble, pious, and wise man, and ordered him to take the bow and to shoot the arrow. Arish stepped forward, took off his clothes, and said: "O king, and ye others, look at my body. I am free from any wound or discase. I know that when I shoot with this bow and arrow I shall fall to pieces and my life will be gone, but I have deter- 30 mined to sacrifice it for you." Then he applied himself to the work, and bent the bow with all the power God had giveu hiw; then he shot, and fell asunder into pieces. By order of God the wind bore the arrow away from the mountain of Ruyan and brought it to the utmost frontier of Ehurasau between Farghana and Tabaristan; there it hit tha trunk of a nut-tree that was so large that there had never been a tree like it in the world. The distance between the place where the arrow was shot and that where it fell was 1,000 Farsakh, Afrasiab and Minocihr made a treaty on the basis of this shot that was shot ou this day. In consequence people made it a feast.day. 40 During this siege Minocihr snd the people of Eranshahr had been snffering from want, not being able to grind the wheat and to hake the bread because the wheat was late in ripsning; finally they took the wheat and the fruits, unripe as they were, ground them and ate them. Thence it bas become a ruls for this day to cook wheat and fruits.

206 ALBİRÛNİ.

Accordin, te another report, the arrow was shot en this day, i.e. Tir-Roz, and the festival of this day is the small Tiragan; on the ether hand the 14th, er Gosh-Roz, is the great Tiragan, that day on which the naws arrived that the arrow had fallen. On Tir-Roz people break their coeking-vessels and firc-grates, sinco on this day they were liberated from Afrasiab and everybody was free to go to his work. The second cause of the feast Tiragan is the following: The Dakn- fadhiyya, which means "the office of guarding and watching over the world and of reigning in it," and the Dahkana, which means " the office 10 of cultirating the world, of sowing in it, and of distributing it "-these two are twins on whom rest the civilization of the world, and its 221. duration, and the setting right of anything that is wrong in it. The Kitaba (the office ef writer) follows next to them and is connected with both of them. The Dahnfadhiyya was founded by Hoshang, the Dabkans by his brother Waikard. The name of this day is Tir or Mercury, who is the star of the scribes. Now Hoshang spoke in praise of his brother en this same day, and gave to him as his share the Dahkana, which is identical with the Kitiba. Therefore people made this day a feast in 20 praise and henour of him (Waikard). On this day ha (Hoshang) erdered people to dress in tho dreas of the Scribes and Dihsuns. There- fore the princes, Dihkans, Maubadhs, etc., continued to wear the dress of the Seribes until the tims of Gushtasp, in praise and honour ef beth the Kituba and Dakkana. On the same day the Persians used to wash themselres, of wbich the reasen is this-that Kaikhusrau, on returning from the war against Afrasitb, passed on this day threngh the territory of Siwa. He went up the mountain which overbangs the town, and sat down at a fountain quite alene at some distance from his encampment. There an angel 30 appeared unto him, whereby he was so territied that he swooned. About that time Wijan hen Judarz arrived, when the king had already recovered himself; so he sprinkled some of that water on his face, leaned him against a rock, and said mwt i.e. do not be afraid. Therenpon the king ordered .

a town to be built around that fountain, and called it Mandish, which afterwards was altered and mutilated into Andish. Ever since, it has been the eustom of people to wash themselves in this water and in all fountain-waters, this being considered a good omen. The inhabitants of . Amnl go out to the Bahr-alkhazar, play in the water, and make fun, and try to dip each other on this day the whele day long. 40

Murdadh-MAh. On the 7th, er Murdadh.Raz, therc is the feast Murdadhagan, so called on account of the identity of the name ef the menth and the day. The meaning of the word Murdadh is " the everlasting durution of the

ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE PERSIANS. 207

world withont death and destruction." Murdadh is the angel appointed to guard the world and to produco vegetable food and drugs that are remedies against bunger, misery, and discaso. God knows best ! Shabrewar-Mah. On the 7th, or Shahrewar-Roz, is the fenst Shahrewaragan, so called on account of tho identity of the name of the month and the day. Shah- rewar means sperma and love. It is the angel who is appointed to watch over the seven substauces, gold, silver, and the other mstals, on which rests all handicraft, and m consequence all the world and its 10 inhahitants. Zadawaibi relates that this feast was called .Idhar-cashn, i.e. the feast of the fires that are found in the human dwelling-places. It was the be- ginning of winter, therefore people used to make great fires in their houscs, and were deeply engaged iu the worship and praise of God; also they used to assemble for eating and merriment. They maintained that this was done for the purpose of bauishing the cold and dryness that arises in winter-time, and that the spreading of the warmth would keep off the attacks of all that which is ohnoxious to the plants in the world. In all this, their proceeding was that of a man who marehes out P.222. 20 to fight his enemy with a large army. According to the Manbadh, Khnrshed Adhar-cashn was the first day of this mouth, aud only a feast for the nobility. It does, however, uot belong to the fenst-days of the Persians, although it was used in their mouths. For it is one of the feast-days of the people of Tukharistan, and is a custom of thcirs based on the fact that about this time the season altered and winter set in. In this our time the pcople of Khura- sin have made it the beginning of autumn. This day, i.e. Mihr-Roz, is the first day of the fifth Gahaubar, the last of which is Bahram-Roz. During this Gahanbar God created the 30 cattle. It is called Maidkyairim-Gak.

Mihr-MAh. On the 1st of it, or Hurmuzd-Roz, falls the Second Autumn, a feast for the common people, agreeably with what has been before mentioned. On the 16th, or Mihr-Roz, there is a feast of great importance, called Mihrajan. The name of the day is identieal with that of the month; it means " the love of the spirit." According to others, Mihr is the uams of the sun, who is said to have for tue first time appeared to the world on this day; that therefore this day was called Milr. This is indicated by the custom of the Kisras of crowning themselves on this day with a 40 crown on which was worked an image of the sun and of the wbeel on which he rotates. On this day the Persians hold a fair. People maintain that the special veneration in which this day is held is to be traced to the joy of mankind when they heard of Fredun's

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coming forward, after Kabi had attacked Aldabhak Bevarasp, expelled him and called npon people to do homage to Fredun. Kahî ie the same whoee standard the Persian kings adopted, considering it a good omen; it was mads of the skin of a bear, or, as othere say, of that of a lion; it was called Dirafsh-i-Kabiyan, and was in later timee adorned with jewels and gold, On the anme day the angels are said to have come down to help Fredun. In coneequence it has become a custom in the houses of the kings, that at the time of dawn a valiant warrior was posted in tho court of the palace, who called at the highest pitch of his voice: 10 "O ye angele, come down to the world, strike the Dewe and evil-doers and expel them from the world." On the same day, they say, God spread out the earth and created the bodies as mansions for the couls. In a certain hour of this day tho sphere of Ifranjawi breathes fer the purpese of resring the bodies. On the same day God is ssid to have clad the moen in her eplendour and to have illumainated her with her light, after He had created heras & black hall without any light. Therefore, they say, on Mihrajan the moon stande higher than the sun, and the Inckiset hours of the day are those ef the moen. 20 Salman Alfarisi haa said: In Pereian times we used to say that God has created an ornament fer his slaves, of rubies on Nauroz, of emeralds on Mihrajan. Therefore these two days excel all other days in the same way as these two jewels excel all other jewels. AlerAnshabri says: God has made the treaty between Light and Darknese on Nauroz and Mihrajan. Sa'id b. Alfadl used to say : Persian scholars relate, that the top of 23. the mountain Shahin appears always hlack during the whele length of summer, whilst on the morning of Mihrajan it appears white as if covered with snow, whether the aky be clear or clouded, in any weather 30 whatsoever. Alkisrawi relates :- I heard the Maubadh of Almutawakkil say : On the day of Mihrajan the sun rises in HAmin, in the midat between light and darkness. Then the soule die within the bodies; therefore the Peraians called this day Miragan. The charm-mongers say : He who eate on the day of Mibrajan a piece of pomegranate and smells rose-water, will be free from much mishap. The Persian theologians have derived various symbolic interpretations from these days. So they consider Mihrajan as a sign of resurrection and the end of the world, becauss at Mibrajan that which grows reaches 40 its perfection and has no more material for further growth, and because animals cease from sexual intercourse. In the same way they make Nauroz a sign for the beginning of the world, becauee the contrary of all these things happens en Nauroz. Some people have given the preference to Mihrajan by as much as

ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTRS OF THE PERSIANS. 209

they prefer antumn to spring. In their arguments they chisfly rely upon what Aristotle said in reply to Alexander, when he was asked by him regarding them: "O king, in spring the reptiles begin growing, in autumn they begin to die away. From this point of view autumn is preferable." This day uscd in former times to coincids with the beginning of winter. Afterwards it advanced, when people began to neglect inter- calation. Therefors it is still in our time tho custom of the kings of Khurasan, that on this day they dress their warriors in autumn-and 10 winter-dresses. On ths 21st, or Ram-Roz, is the Great Mihrajan in commemoration of Fredun's subduing and binding Al-Dahhak. People say, that when ho was brought bofore Fredun he spoke: "Do not kill me in retaliation for thy ancestor." Upon which Fredno answered, refusing his entreaty, "Do you want to be considered as equal to Jam b. Wijahan in the way of retaliation? By no means. I shall punish you for an or, that was in the house of my ancestor." Thereupon he put him in fetters and imprisoned him in the mountain Dubawand. Thcreby people were freed from his wickedness, and they celebrated this event as a 20 feast. Fredun ordered them to gird themsclves with Kustiks, to uss the Zamzama (speaking in a whispering tone) and to abstain from speaking loud during dinner, as a tribute of thanks to God for having again made them their own masters with regard to their whole behaviour and to the times of their eating and drinking, after they bad been living in fear so long as 1,000 sears. This has come down to posterity as a rule and custom on the day of Mibrajan. All ths Persians agrce that Bevarasp lived 1,000 years, although some of them say that he lived longer and that the 1,000 years are only the time of his rule and tyranny. People think that the Persian mode of 30 salutation, according to which the one wishes the other to live as long as 1,000 years-I mean the words " Hazar sal bazi" comes down from that time, hecanse they thought it was allowed and possible (that a man should live 1,000 years) from what they had seen of Al-Dabbak. God knows best ! Zaradusht has ordered that both Mihrajan and Ram-Roz should be p.224. held in equal veneration. In consequencc, they celebrated both days as feast days, until Hurmuz b. Shapor, the Hero, connected the two days with each other, and raised to feast-days all the days between them, as he had done with the two Nauroz. Afterwards the kings and 40 the people of Eranshabr celebrated as feast-days all the days from Mihrajan till thirty days afterwards, distributing them over the several classes of the population in the same way as we have heretofore ex- plained regarding Nauroz. Each class celebrated its fcast for five days. 14

210 ALBiRONİ.

Ábân. Móh. On the 10th, or Aban-Roz, there is a feast Abdnajan, so called on account of the identity of the name of the month and the day. On this day Zau b. Tahmasp ascended the throne; he ordered the ohannele to be dug and to be kept in good preservation. On the same day the newe reached all the seven kMpara of the world that Fredim had put in fetters Bevarasp; thet he had assumed the royal dignity; that he had ordered people to take possession of their houses, their families and children, and to call themeelves Kadhkhuda, i.e. master of this house ; that he ruled over his family, his children, and 10 hie empire with supreme anthority ; whilst before that, in the time of Bovrasp, they had been in a deserted state, and Dewe and rebels had alternately been haunting their houses, without their being able to keep them off. This institute (that of a Kadhkhuda) has been abolished by Alnasir Alutritsh, who made again the rebele partake of the Kadhkhudadom together with the people. The last five days of thie month, the first of which is Aehtadh, are called Farwardajan. During thie time people put food in the halle of the dead and drink on the roofe of the houses, believing that the spirits of their dead during these daye come out from the placee of their 20 reward or their puniehment, that they go to the dishes laid out for them, imbibe their strength and sock their taste. They fumigate their honsee with juniper, that the dead may enjoy its smell, The spirite of the pious men dwell among their families, children, and relations, and oecupy themselves with their affaire, althongh invisible to them. Regarding these days there has been among the Persiana a contro- versy. According to some they are the last five days of the month Aban, according to othens they are the Andergah, i.e. the five Epagomena which are added between Ahan and Adhar-Mah. When the controversy 30 and diepute increased, they adopted all (ten) daye in order to esta- blieh the matter on a firm basie, as this is one of the chief institutes of their religion, and because they wished to be carefal, eince they were unable to aacertain the real facts of the case. So they called the first five daye the firet Farwardajan, and the following five daye the second Farwardajan; the latter, however, is more important than the former. The frst day of these Epagomenæ is the first day of the sizth Gahanbar, in which God created man. It ie called Hamacpafmaedhaêm. gấh. The reason of the Farwardajan is said to be this-that when Cain 40

had killed Abel, and the parents were lost in grief, they implored God to restore his eoul to him. God did ao on the day Ashtadh of Aban-Mah, and the eoul remained in him for ten days. Abel was sitting erect and

ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE PERSIANS. 211

looking at his parents, but it was not allowed to him to speak. Then his p.225. paronts collected-(Missing, the snd of Aban-Mah). [Adhar-Mah.] [1. Bahar-cashn, the feast of the Riding of Alkausaj. This day was the beginning of apring at the time of the Kisras. Then a thin-bearded (Kausaj) man used to ride about, fanning himself with a fan to exprons his rejoicing at the end of the cold season and the coming of the warm season. This custom is iu Persis still kept up for fun.] Its most lucky hours are those during which Aries is the horoscope. 10 People consider the hour of morning as of good omen-I mean the charm-mongers-and they maintain that everything that is mentioned during this hour exists absolutely. Besides they say that he who tastes a quince and smells an orange in the morning of this day before epeaking will be happy during that same year. According to TAhir b. Tahir, the Persians, in old times, used to drink honey on this day if the moon happened to stand in a fiery station, and to drink water if it stood in a watery station, always adapting them- selves to the character of the stations of the moon. Aleranshahri saye: I heard a number of Armenian learned men relate 20 that on the morning of the For-day there appears on the highest moun- tain, hetween the Interior and the Ezterior country, a white ram that is not seen at any other time of the year except abontthistime of this day. Now the inhabitants of that country infer that the year will be prosperous if the ram bleats; that it will be sterile if he does not bleat. On the morning of the Foz-day the Persians thought it to be a good omen to look at the clouda; and from the fact whether they were clear or dark, thin or dense, they drew conclusions as to whether the year would be prosperous or not, fertile or barren. On the 9th, the day of Adhar, is a feast called Adharcashn, so called 30 on account of the identity of the name of the day and the month. On that day people want to warm themselves by the fire, for this is the end of the winter months, when the cold, at the end of the season, is most biting and the frost is most intense. It is the feast of the fire, and is called by the name of the genius who has to watch over all the fires. Zaradusht has given the law that on this day people should visit the fire-temples, and that they should there offer offerings and deliberate on the affairs of the world. Dai-Mah, also called Kbtr-Mah. The first day of it is called Khurram-Ros. This day and the month an are both called by the name of God, i.e. (Hormuzd), i.e. a wise king, gifted with a creative mind. On this day the king used to descend from the throne of the empire, to dress in white dresses, to sit on white carpets in the plain, to euspend for a time the duties of the chamberlains and all the pomp of royalty, 14 *

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and exelnaively lo give himself up to the consideration of the affairs of the realm and its inhabitants. Whosoever, high or low, wanted to speak to him in any matter, went into his presenceand addressed him, nobody pre- venting him from doing so. Besides, Le held a meeting with tho Dihkâne and agriculturists, eating and drinking with them, and then he used to say: "To-day I am like one of you. I am your brother; for the exist- ence of the world depends upon that culture which ie wrought by your hands, and the existence of thie culture depends upon governmant; the one cannot exist withont the other. This being the case, we are like twin brothers, more particnlarly as this (royalty and agriculture) proceeds 10 from twin hrothers, from Hoshang and Waikard." This day is also called Nuwad-Kox (90 days), and is celebrated as a 226. feaat, becauss there are 90 days between this day and Nauroz. The 8th, 15th, and 28rd days of thie month are feast-days on account of the identity of the namee of these daye with that of the month, as we have heretofore explained. The 11th, or Khur.Roz, ie the first day of the (first?) Gahanbar; its last day is the 15th, or Dai-ba-Mihr. This Gahanbar is called Maidhyo- zaremaya-gah. During it God created heaven. On the 14th, or Gosh-Roz, there is a feast called Sir-eawa, when people 20 eat garlic and drink wine, and cook the vegetables with pieces of meat, by which they intend to protect themselves against the devil. The origina) purpose of the thing was to rid themselvee of their affliction when they were oppressed in consequence of Jamshid's being killed, and were in sorrow and ewore that they would never touch any fat. This has romained as an usage among them. By that dish they cure themselvee of the diseasee which they attrihute to the influence of the evil spirita. The 15th, or Dai-ba-Mihr-Roz, is called (, when they used to make a human-like figure of paste or clay and posted it at the gateways. Thie, . however, was not practised in the houeee of the kings. At present this 30 custom has been abolished on account of its reeemblance to idolatry and heathendom. The night of the 16th, or Mihr-Roz, is called, oleyt, and also Jets. Its origin is thie, that Eranshabr was eeparated and liberated from the country of the Turk, and that they drove their cows, which the enemy had driven away, hack to thcir houses. Further: when Fredtin had put Bevarasp ont of the way, be let out the cows of Athfiyan (Athwyana) that had been hidden in some place during the eiege, whilst Athfiyan defended them. Now they returned to bis house. Athfiyau was a man of high standing and noble character, a benefactor of the poor, 40 busying himself with the affairs of the poor and taking care of them, and liberal towards all who applied to him. When Fredun hsd freed hie property, people celehrated a feast in hope of his gifts and presents. On the same day the weaning of Fredun took place. It was the first day when he rode on the or in a night when the ox appears which dragg

ON THE FENTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE PERSIANS. 213

the carriage of the moon. It is an ox of light, with two golden horus and silver feet, whieh is visible for an hour and then disappears. The wish of him who looks at the ox when it is visible will be fulfilled in the same hour. In the same night there appears on the highest mountain, as they maintain, the spettre of a white ox, that bellows twice if the year is to be fertile, and once (if the year is to be bsrren). (Here follows a lacuna). [23. Feast of the third day, Dai.]

10 Bahman-Mah. [2. Bahmanja. 5. Barsadhak, or Nausadhak. 10. The Night of Alsadhak.J They fumigate their houses to keep off mishap, so that fnally it has hecome one of the customs of the kings to light fires on this night and to make them blaze, to drive wild beasts into them, and to send the birds flying through the flames, and to drink and amuse themselves round the fires. May God take vengeance on all who enjoy causing pain to another 20 being, gifted with sensation and. domg no barm! After the Persians had neglected intercalstion in their months, they hoped that the cold would cease st this time, as they reckoned as the p.227. beginning of winter the 5th of Aban-Mah, and as the end the 10th of Bahman-Mah. The people of Karaj called this day oyf a, i.e. the biting night, on account of its being so cold. Another report accounts for the lighting of the fires during this night in the following way : When Bevarasp had ordered people to provide him evcry day with two men, that he might feed his two serpents with their brains, he commissioned imnediately sfter his arrival a man called 30 Azma'tl to attend to this. Now, this man always used to set free one of the two, giving him food, and ordering him to settle in the western part of mount Dunbawand aud there to build himself some sort of house, whilst he fed the two serpents with the brains of a ram instead of that prisoner whom he had set free, mixing them with the brains of the other victim who was killed. When Fredun had conquered Bevarasp, he ordered AzmA'il to he fetched and punished in revenge for those whom he had killed. Thereupon Azma'il told him the tale of those whom he had sct free, spenking the truth, and asked the king to send out a messenger with him that he migbt show them to him. So the king did, and Azma'fl 40 ordered those whom he had sct free to light fires on the roofs of their houses, in order that their number might be seen. This happened in tbe 10th night of Bahman. Thercfore the messenger

214 ALBİRONİ.

said to Azma'il: "What a number of them thou hast set free! May God give thee a good reward!" He returned to Fredun and brought him his report. Fredun exceedingly rejoiced at the matter, and eet ont himeelf for Dunbawand to sse the thing himself. Thereupon he con- ferred great honour npon Azma'il, he gave him Dunbawand as a fief, made him sit on a golden throne, and called him Masmaghan. Regarding the two serpents of Bevarasp, people say that they came out of his shoulders, feeding upon brains; whilet according to another view, they were two painful wounds which ha besmeared with braine, hoping to get relief from them. 10 The two serpents are ecmething wonderful-poseible, indeed, but hardly likely. For worma are prodnced out of flesh, and in flesh lice and other animale are living. Further, there are other animale that do not entirely leave their birthplace, like that one of which people relate that it, living in India, peeps out of the womb of ite mother to eat grase and then to return, that it does not leave the womb of its mother entirely until it has grown strong and thinka itself able to run faster than its mother, even if the mother should run after it; then it jumpe out and runs away. People say thet the young animal fears the tongue of its mother, which is the roughest thing imaginable. For the mother, 20 if she finde the young one, licke it continually, until the flesh is severed from the bones. And out of the hair of the head that has been torn out together with its white root which originally is fxed in the flesh, enakes grow, in caee the hair falle into water or eome wet place in the midst of eummer, growing within the time of three weeks or lesa. This fact cannot be denied, eince it has been witnessed, and the forma- tion of other animals out of other materials has also been witnessed. 'Abu-'Uthman Aljabiz relates, that he eaw at 'Ukbara a piece of clay, 28. one half of which was a part of the body of a field-mouee, whilet the other half was etill a common and unchanged piece of clay. I have 80 heard this aleo from a number of people in Jurjan who had obeerved something similar in that country. Aljaihani relates that in the Indian Ocean thera are the roots of a tree which epread along the eea-coast in the eand, that the leaf is rolled up and gets separated from the tree, and that it then changes into a king- bee and flies away. The formation of ecorpione out of figs and mountain-balm, that of heee from the flesh of oren, that of waspe from the fleeh of horeea, ie well known to all naturaliets. We ourselvee have obeerved many animals, capable of propagating their epecies, that bad originally grown 40 out of plante and other materials by a clear procese of formation, and who afterwards continued their epecies by eerual intercourse.

The deud, or Bidh-Roz, is called by this name (lacuna).

ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE FERSIANS. 215

On that day certain usages are praetised in Knmm and neighhonrhood that have a likenees to those festive oustoms of drinking and making fun which are practised at Ispahan in the daye of Nauroz, when people hold a fair and celebrate a feast. At Ispahan people call it cegs. How- ever, Badh-Roz is only one day, whilst oss lasts a whole week. The 30th, or Aneran, is called Afrijagan at Ispahan, which means "pouring out the water." Its origin is this: tbat once in the time of Feroz, the grandfather of Anoshirwan, the rain was kept back, and people in Eranshahr suffered from harrenness. Therefore Feroz remitted 10 them the taxes of these years, opened the doors of his storehouses, borrowed money from the properties of the fire-temples, and gave all to the inhabitants of Brinshahr, taking care of his suhjects as a parent does for his children; and the consequence was that during those years nobody died of hunger. Now, Feroz went to the famous fire-temple in Adharkhant in FArs; there he said prayers, prostrated himself, and asked God to remove that trial from the inhabitants of the world. Then he went up to the altar and found there the ministers and priests etanding hefere it. They, however, did not greet him as is due to kinga. So he felt that there was something the matter with the priests. Then he went 20 near the fire, turned his hand and arms round the flame, and preseed it thrice to his hosom, as one friend does with another when asking after cacb other's health; the flame reached his beard, but did not hurt him. Thereupon Feraz spoke : "O my Lord, thy names be blessed ! if the rain ie held back for my sake, for any fault of mine, reveal it to me that I may divest myaelf of my dignity; if something else ia the cause, remove it, and make it known to me and tc the people of the world, and give them copious rain." Then he descended from the altar, left the cupola, and sat dowu on the Ss made of gold, similar to a throne, but smaller. It was a cuetom for a famous fire-temple to have a golden ISes for the 80 purpose that the king should sit upon it when he came to the temple. Now the ministers and priests came near him and greeted him as is due to kings. The king spoke to them: "What has hardened your hearts, what has offended you and made you suspicious, that you did not greet me before?" They replied: "Because we were standing before another king more sublime than you. We wero not allowed to greet you whilst p.229 standing beforehim." The king bclieved them and made them presents. Then be starteu from the town AdharkhurA in the direction of the town Dara. But having come as far as the place where is now the villuge called Kam.Feroz in Fars-it waa at that time an uncultivated plain-a 40 cloud rose and brought such copious rain as had never been witnessed before, till the water ran into all the tents, the royal tent as well as the other ones. Feruz recognized that God had granted his prayer; he praised God, and ordered that on that spot his tents should be pitched. He gave alms, made liberal presents, held assemblies, and was full of joy. He did not leave this pluce before he hil built the famous village which

216 ALBiRONT.

he called Kim Feroz. Feroz is his name, and kam means " wish ;* so it signifies "that he had obtained his wish." In the joy which sverybody felt over this event, they poured the water over each other. In conse- quence this hss become a custom in Eranahahr ever sinco. In svery town they celcbrate this feast on that dsy when thsy got the rain, and the peopls of Ispahan got the rain on this dsy.

Isfandarmadh-Mah. On the 5th, or Isfandarmadh-Roz, there is s feast on account of the idantity of the names of the month and the day. Ths word means "intolligence " and "ripeness of mind." 10 Isfandarmadh is charged with the care of the earth and with that of the good, chaste, and beneficent wife who loves her hushand. In past times this was a special feast of the women, when the men nsed to maks them liberal preseuts. This custom is still flourishing at Ispaban, Rai, and in the other districts of Fahts. In Persian it is called Muzhdgiran. This day is famous for the inscribing of pieces of paper. For on this day common people eat sun-raisins and the kernels of pomegranates un- moistened and not kneaded with water, but pulverized, believing that to ba an antidote against the bite of the scorpions, and, besides, they writa in the tims between dawnrise and sunrise upon square pieces of papar 20 the following charm: "In the name of God the gracious, the merciful- Isfandarmadhmah and Isfandarmadhroz-I have bound (by the charm) the going and coming-below and ahove-except the cows-in the name of the Yazatas and in the nams of Jam and Fredun-in the nama of God-(I swear) by Adam aud Eve, God alone is sufficient unto me!" Three such paper pieces they fix on this day on three walls of the house, whilst they lesve unmarked the wall opposite to the front of the house, believing that if they fix something also on this fourth wall the reptiles get hewildered and do not find an outlet, and raise their heads towarde the window, preparing to leave the house. Sometimes you find places 30 influenced by some charm where scorpions do not bite, as, e.g. Dinar- Razi in Jurjan, ten miles beyond the frontier towards Khorasân. For there you find under every stone a number of large black scorpions, 10. which people touch and play with, and which do not bite. Bnt when they are taken away and brought over the frontier of that district, which is a bridge not farther off than a bowshot, then they bite, causing instantaneous death. In the diatrict of Tus there is said to be a village whers the scorpions do not bite. And 'Abu-alfaraj Alzanjanî has told me that in the city of Zanjan there are scorpions only in one place, called ths "Cemetery of 40 the Tabaristanis," and thst a man when ho goes there st night and gathers some of them in s pot and leaves the pot somewhere else, finds that they hurriedly returu to their former places. Now, as regards these pieces of paper we have mentioned, they are

ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE PERSIANS. 217

ovidently usslese, hecause the power of the incantation cannot affect the ohject of incantation, though its influence be strong, because the plane- tary eyelee do not agree with the Persian year, and because the conditions of talismans are not fulfilled in them. Perhaps we sball speak of the incantatione, charms, and talismane in the Book of physical and technical wonders and curiosities, giving such explanations as will plant certain persuasions in the minds of intelligent men and remove douht from the minde of those who seek for information, if God willmercifully postpone the end of iny life and by His grace remove mental calamities. He has 10 the power to do so. The 11th, or Khur-Roz, is the first day of the second Gahanbar, the last of which is Dai-ba-mibr-Roz. It ie called Maidhyoshema-gah. During thie Gahanbar God created the water. The next following day, the 16th, or Mibr-Roz, is called Miok-i-tuza (fresh musk). The 19th, or Farwardin-Roz, is called Nauros of the rivers and of all running waters, when peeple throw perfumes, rose-water, &r. into them. The Zoroastrians have no fasting at all. He who fasts commits a ein, 20 and muet, by way of expiation, give food to a number ef poor people. They have fairs in the daye of the monthe we have mentioned, but as they differ in different places, we cannot fix them, as little as we can the watercourses of a torrent, it heing im poseible to count them. 'Adud-aldaula has founded twe feast-days, each of which ie called Oashn-i-Kard-i-Fanskhuerau. The one is the day Serosh in Farwardin- Mah, when the water of the agueduct coming from a distance of four farsakh reached the town, which he had built one fareakh below the citadel of Shiraz, and which he had called Kard-i-Fanakhusra. The other is the day Hormuz in Aban-Mah, the day when he commenced 30 huilding that eame town, A. Yazd. 333. On hoth daye people hold fairs of seven daye duration, and they assemble for merriment aud drinking. The Persians divide all the days of the year into preferable and lucky daye and into unlucky and detested ones. Besides they have other daye, bearing names which are common to them in every month, which are festival daye for one clase of the people to the exclusion of the other. Further, they have certain rules regarding the appearance of snakes oc the different days of the month, which we unite in the following Jadulalikhtiyarat (Table of Selections) :-

1, 216 Names of the FAT- Ardiba- Kbar Mordadh- Shahre. Mthr. LsfondAr- What the appraranco days of the wardta- asdh- Å bân- Adhar. Dui- Robman- bicnt- ofs sunhe in one of the months. MAb. MAb. MAb. Mah. war-MAD,I MAb. MAh. Mib. MAb. Mab. days of the month sigoitles.

Hormaz 1 . preferahle, becanse it beare the na me of God Before noon : Sultan. middling middting | middling | middling middling | middling mudding middling middltng middling nnlucky ' middliog Illnere and dieeose. Ardibahisht lucky lacky nulucky lucky middhing lucky Death or aby loss in the :

Shabrewar middling Inoks Incky middling middling fnmily. Something bseful and n help coming from the

middling Inoky prople of hie placo. Isfandt madh 5 Reputetion and pratee. widdling Incky lncky Ebardsdh midaling locky middling lacks ontucky lucky midating A very useful journey. Murdádb Dal-bo-Adhar asddling midaling midaling midoling Ilbess and disease. .Coming to the Sultan. Adhar unlucks lucky luchy uDluck Like the day before. Aban 10 middling middliug midcling ! middling , middling lucky middliog middlio g middtiog Matchmaking aud marry. wfddling Morey witbout ezcrtiou. Sng. preferable, because it bears the name of the moou- Good-till bod- ALBIRUNİ. MAb afterwards. lueky Incky widdling tidditog middiing middiing' middilag. An increase of wealth. middiog midding unlucky middling middling middling Iucry lJuoks Nourishment alone from quadrupeds, Dai-ba Mihr 15. unlneky miodling] middling luoky niness folloned by con- valescence. Mihr . lucky 'lucky middling lucky The acquisition of some : thing you had not got

lucky before. Srosh middling | middling luoEy middling lucky Iucky lucky middlog middling midding midding. Jourbey and return. Journey and Biness Uur- inx it. . Farwardin. lucky middling middling Babrim 20. lucky middting midatiag unucks Incky uniucky unlucky lucky An increase of wealth. OP Some one of the famuily dics. lucky lucky Iucky lucby aitddllag lucky lucky Journey ard victory over

middiing middling middling the adversariee. nnlueky 'middling midating middling unlucky midtliog Sespicion of theft. Dai-be-Din middling lucky tucky middling Illvese nad dlscase. Din lacky middling lucky locky The acquisition of money, Ard 25 midaltog lucky Ashtadh middliug middling lucky midaling middling Bad and blamable. Buuding a sew house. ABmAD : Z&myád Incky lncky midaling Belog accueed of lying. middling middding midaling A calamity in the property aod famly. Mirastand middling A short jourber. Antrio 80 - unlueky Punishmeut forforniestlon.

ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE PERSIANS. 219

The dav Mah they consider to be a preferable day from its heing called p.233. by the namo of the moon, which God created for the purpose of distri- buting what is good and agreeable over the world. Therefore the waters increase, and animals, trees, and plants grow from new-moon till the time when the moon begins to wane. The two days of conjunction and onposition thes hold to be unlacky days. On the day of conjunction the Demons and Satans frel the lust of intermingling viciously with the things in the world. Then madness 10 and epilepsy are hrought about. The seas hegin to ehb, the waters to decrease, the male turtle-doves are suffering from epilepsy. The sperma which on this day settles in the uterus is born as a child of imperfeet structure; bair which is toru out of the body will he replaced only sparsely : eversthing that is planted will only produce scanty fruit, more particularly so if there be an eclipse on the same day. If a hen sits hatching her eggs at new-moon, the eggs will be bad; at new-moon a narcissus is snre to wither. Al-Kindi sass: Conjunetion is detegted beranse then the moon is being burned, who is the guide of all bodies; and therefore people dread de- 20 struction and rnin for them. At the time of opposition, people say, the Ghuls and sorcerers feel the lust to mix with impure spirits. In cousequenee therc is much epilepsy. The seas hegiu to flow, the waters to increase ; tle she-turtle- doves are becoming epileptical. The sperma which settles in the uterus on the day of opposition is born as a child of more than common strue- ture. The hair which is torn ont will he replaced abundantly. All that is planted on this day will prodnce worm-eaten fruits and will be very impure, more particularly so if there be an cclipse on the same day. Al-Kindi says: Full-moon is detested because then the light of the 80 moon requires help from the light of the sun, who is the guide of the spirits. Therefore people fear lest the spirits should leave the bodies.

220 ALRÎRÍNİ.

CHAPTER X.

ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE SUOHDIANS.

THE months of the inhahitants of Sogdiana were likewise distributed over the four quarters of the year. The first day of the Sughdian month Nausard was the first day of summer. There was no difference between them and the Persiaus regarding the beginning of the year and the beginnings of some of the months, but there was a difference regard- ing the place of the five Epagomenæ, as we have hertofore explained. And they did so for no otber reason but this, that they honoured their kings to such a degree that they would not do the same things which the 10 kings did. They preferred to use as new-year that moment when Jam returned suecessful, whilst the kings preferred as new-year that moment when Jam started (set out). Some people maintain that these two different new-years wore to be traced to a difference that was discovered in the astronomical observations. For the ancient Persians used a solar year of 365 days 6 hours 1 minute, and it was their universal practice to reckon these 6 hours plus the 1 4. minute as a unit (i.e. to disregard the 1 minute in reckoning). But afterwarde when Zoroaster appeared and introduced the religion of the Magi, when the kings transferred their residence from Balkh to 20 Persis and Babel and occupied themsalves with the affairs of their reli- gion, they ordered new observations to he made, and then they found that the summer-solstice preceded by five days the beginning of the year, which was the third year after intercalation. In consequence, they gave up their former system and adopted what astronomical observation had taught them, whilst the people of Transoxiana kept the old system and disregarded the state of that same year (i.e. its deviation from real time),

ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE SUGHDIANS. 221

on which their calendar was based. Hence the difference of the begin- nings of the Persien and Sughdian years. Other people maintain that originally both the Persian and Sughdian ears had the same beginning, until the time when Zoroaster appeared. But when after Zoroaster the Persians began to transfer the five Epaga- menæ to ench of the leap-months, as we hare before mentioned, the Sughdians left thom in their original place aud did not trausfer them. So they kept them at the end of the months of their year, whilst the Persians, after they began to ueglect intercalation, retained them at the 10 end of Abau-Mih. God knows best! The Sughdians have many festivals and famous memorial days in the same way as the Persians. What we have learned of them, regarding this snbject, is the following :- Nausard. The Ist day is their Nauroz, which is the Great Nauriz. The 28th is a feast for the Magiang of Bukhara, called Rimuah- Igham. during which they assemble in a fire-tenple in the village Ramush. These Aghams are the most important of their festivals, which they cele- hrate alternately in cach village, assembling iu the house of each chief- tain, eatimg and drinkiug. 20 Jirjin. Nothing mentioned. Nisanaj The 12th is the first Makhiraj. Bashkanaj. The 7th is the Agham, a feast of theirs at Baikand, where they assemble. The 12th is the second Makhtraj. The 15th is the feast one Khwara, when they eat leavened bread after abstaining from eating and drinking end from everything that is tonched by the fire except fruits and regetables. Ashnakhanda. The 18th is the feast Baba-Khwara, also called Bâmî- Khwtra, i.e. drinking the good, pure must. 30 The 26th is Karm-Rhwara. Mazhikhands. The 3rd is the feast Kishmin, when they hold a fair in the village eS. On the 15th they hold a fair in Al-tawAwis. There the merchants of all countries gather and hold a fair of seven days duration. Eaghakan The lst is called Nim-sarda, i.e. the half of the year. The 2nd is a feast called ae o Khwara, when they assemble in their p.235. fire-temples and eat a certain dish which they prepare of the flour of millet, of butter and sugar. Some people put Nim-sarda five daya earlier, i.e. on the lst of Mihr-Mah, to make it agree with the Persian 40 calendar, whilst, in fact, the middle of the year ought to be celebrated when after its beginning 6 months and 21 days have passed. The 9th is the feast . 3 Agham. The 25th is the first day of Karm-Khwara.

222 ALRİRONİ.

Abhanaj. The 9th is the last day of Karm Khwara. Figh. Nothing mentioned. Marsafugh. From the 5th till the 15th of thie month they have a feast. After that the Mubammadans hold a fair of seven days in Alsbargh. Zhimadanaj. The 24th is the Badh-Amghim. Khshum. On the last day of this month the Sughdians ery over those who died in past times, they lament over them and cut their faces. They lay out for them dishes and drinks, as the Persiana do in Farwardajan. For the five days, which are the quepos sxomiuaiat to the Sughdians, they 10 fix at the end of this month, as we hare mentioned before. Besides, they hold fairs in the villages in the districts of Bukhara and Sughd on those days that have only one name in every month (i.e. the 8th, 15th, 23rd, which are called Dast).

228

CHAPTER XI.

ON THE PESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE EHWARIZNIANS.

Tas KhwArizmians agree with the Sughdians regarding the beginnings of the year and the months, and they disagree with the Persians in the same subjects. The causs of this is the same which we have described when speaking of the Sughdians. Thsir usages in their menths are similar to those of the Sughdians. The beginning of their summer was the Ist of Nausarji. They had festivals in their months which they celebrated before the tims of Islam. They maintain that God Almighty 10 ordered them to celebrate thoss festivals. Besides they celebrate other days in commemoration of the deeds of their ancestors. But at the present time there are only very few of the Magians among the Khwa- rizmians left, who do net particularly care for their religion; they know nething of it except its outward forms, and they do not inquire into its spirit and real meaning. In consequence, they regulate their festivals by the knowledge of their distances from each other, not according to their real places which they occupy in the single months. Those, now, of their days and festivals that are not connected with their religion are the following: 20 Nausarjt. The Ist day is the feast of new-year, the new-day, as we have already mentioned. Ardiwisht. Nothing mentioned. p.236. Harhdadh. The Ist day is called oty lst. In ante-Muhammadan times thie day was the time of extreme heat; therefore, they say, it was eriginally called olus -less! which means: the dress will be put off, signi- fying that it was the time for baring and undressing themselves.

In onr time this day coincides with the time of the sowing of sasame and what is sown together with it. So peopla havs come to use it as an epech. Ciri. The 15th is called Ajghar, which means: the frewood and the flame. In bygons times it was the beginning of that season when people felt the nesd of warming themselves at the fire, because the air was changing in autumn. In our time it coincides with the middla of summer. From this day they count 70 days, and then commence sowing the autumn wheat. Hamdidh. Nothing mentioned. 10 IhsharemaT The lst ly is called d; but eriginally, they say, it was called Faghrubah, i.e. tke exitus of the Shah. For ahout this time the kings of Khwariam nsed to march ont, because the heat was then decreasing and tha cold drawing near; then they went into winter- quarters outside their residence, driving away the Ghuzz-Turks from their frontiers and defending the limits of their empire against their inroads. Dm The Ist day is tha feast Asod Kand Khwar, i.e. the day of eating the bread prepared with fat. On that day they sought protection from the cold, and assembled for the purpose of eating the bread prepared 20 with fat, around the burning fire-grates. The 13th is the feast Ciri-Roj, which the Khwarizmians hold in the sama veneration as the Persians their Mihrajan. The 21st ia likewiss a feast, called Ram-Roj. Yanakhun. Nothing mantioned in this month. Adt. Nothing mentioned. Rimaghd The 11th is called Nimkhab. People say that it was originally called Minac Akhib, which was then wrongly altered for the sake of casier pronunciation, as it was fregnently used. It means: the night of Mina. Now, some ef them maintain that Mina was one of their 30 qneens or chieftains, that she left her castle intoxicated, dressed in a silk dress, at spring time. She fell dewn outside the castle and lost all self-control; she fell asleep, was smitten by the cold of the night, and died. Now people were astonished that the cold had killed a human being abent this time in spring. So they used it as an epoch for somo- 237. thing miraculous, extraordinary, that does not happen at its proper time. This day has been advancing heyond its proper time to such a degrec, that now-s-days people consider it as the middle of winter. On this day and about this time the people of Khwarizm uss perfumes 40 and incense, and they make the smells rise up from the dishes which they lay out for tha purpose of keeping off all the injuries of the demons and evil spirits. Thie proceeding is necessary, by way of careful precantien, if some

ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OF THE KHWARIZMIANS. 225

spiritual matters are connected with it. I mean charms, incantatione, and prayers, which the most distinguished philosophers have ucknow- ledged and allowed, after having witnessed their effeets, e.g. Galenus, and others like him, though they are few. These precautions are likewise to be recemmended if people in doing so derive some help from astronomical occurrences, as, e.g. the Tempora Parata and the Tempora Selecta, with the constellations that aro mentioned for such purposes. We cannot help taking notice of those who try to prove that all such precaution ia futile and false by no other arguments hut hy mockery, derision, and 10 sneers. The existence of jinns and demons has been acknowledged by the most famous philosophers and scholars, e.g. by Aristotle, when he de- ecribes them as heings of air and fire and calls them "human beings." Likewise Yahya Grammaticus and others have acknowledged them, describing them as the impure parts of the erring souls, after they have been separated from their bedies, who (the souls) are prevented from reaching their primal origin, because they did not find the knowledge of the truth, hut were living in confusion and stupefaction. Something similar to this is what. Mani indicates in his hooks, although his indica- 20 tione are expressed in subtle words and phrases. Akhamman. Nothing mentioned in this month. Ispandarmaji. The 4th is called Khezh, i.e. the rising. The 10th is a feast called Wakhsh-Angam. Wakhsh is the name of the angel whe has to watch over the water and especially over the river Oxus. The 20th is called doel, which means: houses that are built close together. Besides they have other festivals which they want for the affairs of their religion; they are the following six :- 30 L. The first is called uete on the 11th of NAusarji. Common people call it Nausarjakanik by the month in which it occurs. II. The eecond is called & os. Oe on the lst of Ciri. It is also called Jawardaminik, i.e. al and Ajgharminik, s0 called from the month Ajghar, becanse it falle 15 days before that feast (on the 15th of Ćirî). IIL The third is called obd. on the 15th of Hamdadh. It is .الممرذكائيت also called IV. The fourth is called sojde on the 15th of Umri, also called p.238. .خيرروچكانىك 40 V. The fifth is called (lacuna) on the Ist of Rimazhd, also called

VI. The sixth ie called 4 owt en the lst of Akhamman, also called .ارٹمین دكائيك 15

226 ALBİRONİ.

In the five last days of lepandarmaji and the follewing five Epago- mena they de the same which the Persians do in Farwardajan, i.e. they lay out food in the temples for the epirits of the dead. (The Lunar Stations with the Chorasmians) .- They were in the habit of using the statiens of the meen and deriving from them the rulee of astrology. The names of the statiens in their language they have preserved, but those who made use of them, who knew hew to obeerve them and howto draw conclusions frem them, have died out. Their using tho lunar stations is elearly proved by the fact that in the Rhwarizmi dialect an astronomer is called Akhtar-wenik, i.e. looking to -10 the lunar stationa, for Akhtar means a etation ef the moon. They used to distribute these stations over the twelve signe of the Zodiac, for which they also had special names in their language. They knew them (the signs of Zodiac) even better than the Arabs, as you learn by the fact that their nomenclature of them agrees with the names given to them by the original designer of their figures, whilst the names of the Arahs do not agree, and they represent these signs as quite different figures. For instance, they count Aljauza among the number of the Zodiacal signs instead of Gemini, whilst Aljauza is the figure Orion. The people ef 20 Khwarizm call this sign (Gemini) Adhupackarik, i.e. having two figures, which means the same as Gemini. Further, the Arabs represnt the figure ef Leo as compesed of a number ef figures. In conseqnence, Lee extends in longitude over some- thing more than three signs, not to mention its extension in latitude. For they consider the two heads ef Gemini as his outetretched forefoet, and the nebula, in the feremost part of which is Cancer, I mean Alnathra, as his nose. The breaat ef Virge, I mean Alawwa, they consider as his two loins; the hand of Virgo, I mean Alsimak Al'azal, as ene of his shanks; and Alramih as his other shank. According to thsir opinion, the 80 figure of Leo extends over the signs Cancer, Leo, Virgo, and part of Libra, and a number of constellatiens beth of the nerthern and seuthern hemispheres, whilst in reality the matter is net what they assume. If you, likewise, inquire into the names of the Arabs for the fixed stare, yeu will see that they were very far from an accurate knowledge of the Zodiacal signs and the star-figures, although 'Abu-Mubammad "Abdallah b. Muslim b. Kutaiba Aljabali used to makre a great to-do and to he very verbos in all hia beoks, and epecially in his bock on the superiority of the Arabs over the Persians, maintaining that the Arabs were the beet-informed nation regerding the atars and 40 the times of their rising and setting. I de not know whether he was really ignorant, or only pretended to be ignorant, of what the agriculturists and peasants in every place and district have get in the way of knowledge regarding the beginning of the agricultural werks and other things, and of knowledge of the proper times fer similar

ON THE FESTIVALS IN THE MONTHS OP THE KHWARIZMIAXS. 227

subjects. For he whose roof is hcaven, who has no other cover, over whom the stars continually rise and set in one and the same course, p.239. makes the beginnings of his affairs and his knowledge of time depend upon them. But the Arabs had, moreover, one advantage in which others did not share; this is the perpetuation of what they knew or helieved, right or wrong, praise or blame, by means of their poetry (Kasidas), by Rajaz poems, and by compositions in rhymed prose. These things one generation inherited from the other, so as to remain among them and after them. If you study those traditions in the 'Anwa books, and 10 specially his hook which he called " The Science of the Appearance of the Stars," part of which we have communicated to the reader at the end of this book, you will find that the Arabs had no particular knowledge on this subject begond that which is familiar to the peasants of every country. The man (i.e. 'Abdallah b. Muslim Aljabal), however, is extra- vagant in the subject into which he plunges, and not free from Jabali (i.e. mountainecr) character, as far as obstinacy of opinion is concerned. The style of his book which we have mentioned shows that there must have heen enmities and grudges between him and the Persians. For he is not satisfied at eralting the Arabs at the expense of the Persians, hut 20 he must needs make the Persians the meanest. rilest, and most degraded of all nations, attribute to them even more want of belief and ohstinacy against Islam than God attributes to the Aiab Bedouins in the Sum Altauba (Sura ix. 98), and heap upon them all that is abominablc. If he had only taken a moment's consideration and had called to mind the first period of those whom he preferred to the Persians, he would have givan the lie to himself in most of what he says about both parties from sheer want of moderation and equity. In the following we give the names of the lunar stations in the dia- lect both of the Sughdians and the Khwarizmians. Afterwards we shall 30 describe the constellations in which they appear, when we speak of the times of their rising and setting.

TABLE OF THE LUNAR STATIONS. p.240.

Their Names in Arabio. In Sogdian. In Chorasmian.

1. Aithurayy& Aldabaran Alhaķ'a AJhan'a 5. Aldhira' رشنولد

Ainathra 40 Altart Aljabha خمشریش

Alznbra 15 *

228 ALBİRONİ.

Their Names in Arabio. In Bogdian. In Chorasmian.

10. Alşarfa AlawwA Alsimak Alghafr اعشەرں

Alzuhaniyân فرهك

15. Al'iklil فسوو

AIkalb ڤىوتد المنولة

Alshaula Alna'a'im مغن سدريس 10 Albalda ہثم سردیر

20. Sard aldhabiļ مرحیك

Sa'd hula' Sa'd alau'nd Sa'd al'akhbiya Alfargh almukaddam 25. Alfargh almu'akhkhar فرضى باش مشتوقد

Batn albut برفرشت

Alebaratân Albuțain ټشیش چرو 20

229

CHAPTER XII. p.241

ON KHWARIZM-SHAH'S BEFORM OF THE KHWARIZMIAN FESTLL CALENDAR.

'ABT-SA'ID 'AHMAD b. Muhammad b. Trak followed the example of Almu'tadid-billah regarding the intercalation of the Cuora smian montha. For on having been freed from his fetters at Bukhara, and having re- turned to his residence, he asked the mathematicians at his court regarding the feast Ajghar, whereupon they pointed out to him its place in the calendar. Further, he asked with what day of Tammuz it corre- 10 sponded, and this also they told him. This date he kept in memory, and when seven years later at the same time of the year he again came to think of it, he rejected this sort of caleulation. He was not as yet acquainted with the interealatious and all matters connected with them. Then ho orderod Alkharaji and Alhamdaki and other astronomere of his time to be brought before him, and asked them as to what was the reality of the case. These scholars then gave him a minute explanation and told him how the Persians and Chorasmians had managed their year. Thereupon he said: "This is a system which has become confused and forgotten. The people rely upon these days (i.e. certain feast-days, 20 Ajghar, Nimkhab, etc.), and thereby they find the cardinal points of the four seasons, since they believe that they never change their places in the year; that Ajghar is always the middle of summer, Nimkhab the middle of winter; certain distances from these days they use as the proper times for sowing and ploughing. Something like this (i.e. the deviation of the Chorasmian year from proper time) is not perceived except in the course of many years. And this is one of the reasons why they disagreo among each other regarding the fixing of those distances, so that some main- tain that 60 days after Ajghar is the proper tima for sowing the wheat, whilst others put this time carlier or later. The proper thing would be that we should find some means to fix thoss things uniformly and to

280 ALBİRONİ.

invariable times of the year, so that the proper timea for these thinga should never differ." Now, the scholars told him that the beat way in this matter would be to fix the beginnings of the Chorasmian months on certain days of the Greek and Syrian month :- in the seme way as Almu'tadid had done- and after that to intercalate them as the Greeks and Syrians do. This plan they carried out A. Ales. 1270, and they arranged that the Ist of Nusirji should fall on the third of the Syrian Nisan, so that Ajghar would always fall in the middle of Tammus. And accordingly they regulated the times of agricultural works, e.g. the time of gathering 10 grapes for the purpose of making raisina is 40-50 days after Ajghor; the time of gathering grapes for the purpose of hanging them up, and the time of gathering pears, is 55-65 daya after Ajghar. In the Bame way they fized all the timea for sowing, for the impregnation of the palm-trees, for planting and binding together, etc. If the Greek year is a leap-year, the Epagomenc at the end of Ispandarmaji are eix days. If people had made this reform of Khwarizm-Shah the epoch of an era, we should have added it to the other erss which we have hefore mentioned.

p.242. Regarding the festivale in the non-intercalated monthe of the Egyp- 20 tians, although it is likely that they had similar onea with the other nations, we have not received any information. Likewise we have no information regarding their festivals in the intercalated months which they use now-a-daye, except this, that people say that new-year of the Egyptians is the let of Thoth, and that the water of the Nile begins to swell and to increase on the 16th of Payni, acrording to another report on the 20th of Payni. It is likely that they would celebrate the same feativala as the Greeks and Syrians, becanse Egypt lies in the midst between them and because they all use the same kind of year. Some matters, however, are quite pecnliar to the Egyptians, e.g. their country, 80 Egypt, has certain peculiarities, in which no other country ahares -~ appearances of -the water, the air, the rain, etc. The famous daya of the Greeka and Syrians are of two kinds, one for the affairs of any aort of secular life, for certain aerial appearancea, etc., as we have already mentioned, and another kind for the matters of their religion, which is Christianity. We shall describe in its proper place as mnch as we have learned about both kinds, and as has been reported to us, if God permits!

233

CHAPTER XIII.

ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEE CALENDAR AS KNOWN nOTH ANONG THE GREEKO AND OTHER NATIONS.

THR Greek rear agrees with the solar year; its seasons retain their proper places like ths natural seasons of ths solar year; it revolves parallel with the latter, and its single parts never cease to correspond with those of the latter, except hy that quantity of time (the Portio Intercalationis) which, before it becomes perceptible, is appended to the year and added to it as one whole day (in every fourth year) by means 10 of intercalation. Therefore the Greeks and Syrians and all who follow their example fix and arrange by this kind of year all snnual, consecu- tive cocurrences, and also the meteorological and other qualities of the singls days that experience has taught them in the long run of time, wbich are called 'Amo and Bawurih. Regarding the cause of these 'Anwu, scholars do not agree among each other. Some derive them from the rising and setting of the fixed stars, among them the Arabs. (Some poet says): "Those are my people (a bad set) like the Banat-Na'sh, Who do mot bring rain like the other stars;"

20 i.e. they are good-for-nothing people like the Banat-Na'sh, whose rising and setting do not bring rain. Others, again, derive them from the days themselves, maintaining that they are peculiaritics of them, that such is their nature, at least, on an average, and that besides they are increased or diminished by other causes. They say, for instance: The nature of the season of summer is heat, the nature of the season of winter is cold, sometimes in a higher degree, sometimes less. The excellent Galenus says: " To decide between p.243

232 ALBİRONİ.

these parties is only possible on the basis of experiment and examination. But to examine this difference of opinion is not possible except in a long apace of time, because the motion of the fixed stars is vers little known and heenuse in a short space of time wo find very little difference in their rising and setting." Now, this opinion has filled Sinan h. Thabit b. Kurra with surprise. He says in his book on the'Auwd, which he composed for the Khalif Almu'tadid : "I do not know how Galenus came to make such & mistake, skilled as he was in sstronomy. For the risiug and setting of the stars differ greatly and evidently in differeut countrics. E.g. Suhail rises 10 at Baghdad on the 5th of flul, at Wasit two days later, at Bara somewhat carlier than at Wasit. People say: 'the 'Anu differ in different countries.' But thst is not the case. On the contrary, they occur always on one and the same day (everywhere) ; which proves that the stars and their rising and setting have nothing to do with this matter." Afterwards he has given the lie to himself, though it is correct what be said, viz., that the rising and setting of the stars are not to he con. sidered as forming one of the causes of the 'Anwa, if you limit hie assertion by certain conditions and do not understand it in that generality in which he has proclaimed it. Further he (Sinan h. Thabit) says : " The 'Anwd of the Arabs are mostly 20

correct for Alhijaz and the neighbourhood, those of the Egyptians for Egypt and the coasts of the sea, those of Ptolemy for Greece and the neigh- bouring mountains. If anybody would go to one of those countries and examine them there, he would find correct what Galenus says regarding the difficulty of an esamination of the 'Anvd in a short space of time." In this respect he (Sinan) is right. Galenns mentions and bolieves only what he considers as a truth, resting on certain arguments, and keeps aloof from everything that is beset with doubt and ohscurit. Sinan relates of his father, that he examined the 'Anwe in Irak about 30 thirty years with the view of finding certain principles with which to compare the 'Anw of other countries. But fate overtook him before he could accomplish his plan. Whichever of the two theories may be correct, whether the 'Anwd are to be traced back to the days of the year or to the rising and setting of the Lmar Stations, in any case there is no room for a third theory. To each of these theories, whichever you may hold to Le correct, certain conditions attach, on which the correctness of the ' Anwa depends, i.e. to prognosticate the character of the year, the season, the month, whether it will be dry or moist, whether it will answer to the expectations of 40 people or not, to prognosticate it hy means of the signs and proofs, of which the astronomical books on meteorology are full. For if the 'Anwa agree with those signs and proofs, they are true and will be fulfilled in their entire extent; if they do not agree, something different will occur. Thus the matter stande between these two theories.

ON THE DAYS OF THE OREEK CALENDAR. 233

Sman b. Thabit prescribes that we should take into regard whether the Arabs and Persians agree on a Nau'. If they do agree, its probability is strengthened and it is sure to take place; if they do not agree, the contrary is the case. I shall mention in this book the comprebensive account of Sinan in his book on the 'Anwe and the proper times for secular affairs oceurring in the Greek months. Of the rising and setting of the Lunar Stations I shall speak in a special chapter at the end of this besk. For since the astronomers have found that their rising and setting proceed 10 arcording to one and the same uniform order in these months, they have assigned them to their proper days, in order to unite them and prevent p.244. them from getting into confnsion. God lends support and help !

Tiahrin I. (October.)

1. People expect rain (Euctemon and Philippus); tnrbid air (Egyp- tians and Callippus). 2. Turbid winterly air (Callippus, Egyptians, and Euetemon); rain, (Eudoxus and Metrodorus). S. Nothing mentioned. 4. Wearing wind (Eudoxus); wiuterly air (Egyptians). 20 5. Winterly air (Demoeritus) ; heginning of the time of sowing. 6. North wind (Egyptians). 7. South wind (Hipparchus). 8. Nothing mentioned. Winterly air, according to Sinan. 9. 'Emoipawe (Eudorus); east wind (Hiprar hus); west wind (Egyp- tians). 10. Nothing mentioned. 11. Episemasia (Eudoxus and Dosithens). 12. Rain (the Egyptians). 13. Unsteady wind, Episemasia, thunder, and rain (Callippus); north S0 wind or south wind (Eudoxus and Dositheus). Sinan attests that this is frequently true. On this day the waves of the sea are snre to be in great commotion. 14. Episemasia and north wind (Eudexus). 15. Change of the winds (Eudoxus). 16. Nothing mentioned. 17. Rain and Episemasia (Dositheus); west wind cr south wind (Egyptians). 18. Nothing mentioned. 19. Rain and Episemasia (Dosithens); west wind or south wind 40 (Egyptians). 20, 21. Nothing mentioned. 22. Unsteady, changing winds (Egyptians). On this day the air hegins to get cold. It is no longer time for drinking medicine and for

284 ALBİRONİ.

phlsbotomy except in oass of need. For the Favourable Times for suoh things are always then, when you intend thereby to preserve the health of ths body. For if you are compelled to uss such means, you cannot wait for a night or day, for heat or oold, for a lucky or unluoky day. On tho contrary, you uss it as aoon as possible, hsfore the evil takes root, when it would be diffioult to eradicate it. 23. Epissmasia (Eudoxus); north wind or south wind (Casar). 24. Episemaaia (Callippus and Egyptians). 25. Episemasia (Metrodorus) ; change in the air (Callippus and Eucte- mon). 10 26. Nothing mentioned. 48 27. Winterly air (Egyptians). 28. Nothing mentioned. It is a favourable day for taking a warm hath and for eating things that are of a sharp, biting taste, nothing that is salt or hitter. 29. Hail or frost (Democritus) ; continual south wind (Hipparchus); tempest and winterly air (Egyptians). 30. Heavy wind (Euctemon and Philippus). The kites, the white carrion-vultures (vultur percnonterus), and the swallows migrate to the lowlands, and the ants go into their nest. 31. Violent winds (Callippus and Euctemon); wind and winterly air 20

(Metrodorus and Casar); eouth wind (Egyptians). God knowe best!

Tishrin II. (November.)

1. Clear (it. unmixed) winda (Eudoxus and Conon). 2. Clear air with cold north wind and south wind. 3. South wind blows (Ptolemsus); west wind (Egyptians); north or south wind (Eudoxus); rain (Euctemon, Philippus, and Hipparchus). 4. Episemasia (Enctemon); rain (Philipps). 5. Winterly air and rain (Egyptians). 6. South or west wind (Egyptians) ; winterly air (Dositheus). Sinan 80 says that this is horne out by practical experience. 7. Rain with whirlwind (Meton); cold wind (Hipparchus). This is the first day of the rainy scason, when the sun enters the 21at degree of Cancer. Astrologers take the horoscope of this time and derive there- from an indication as to whether the year will have much rain er little. Herein they rely upon the condition of Venus at the times of her rising and setting, I believe, however, that this is only peculiar to the climate of Trak and Syria, not to other countries, for very frequently it rains with us in Khwarizm even before this time. 'Abu-alkasim 'Ubaid-Allah b. 'Abd- allâh b. Khurdadhhih relates in his Kitab-almasalik walmamalik that in 40 Hijaz and Yaman it mins during Haziran, Tammuz, and part of flul. I myeclf have been dwelling in Jurjan during the summer months, but there never passed ten consecutive days during which the sky was clear and

ON THE DAYS OF THE OREEK CALENDAR. 235

free from eleuds, and whan it did not rain. It is a rainy country. Poeplo relate that one of the khalifs, I think it was Ahna'miu, stayed there during forty days whilst it rainsd without any interruptien. So he said: "Lead us out of this pissing, splashing country !" The nearor a district is to Taharistan, the more its air is moist, ths more rainy it is. The air of the mountains of Tabaristan is so moist that if people break and pound garlic on the tops of tho mountains, rain is sure to set in. Ae the cause of this subject, the vice-judge, Alîmili, the author of the Kitib-Alghurra, mentions this, that the air of the 10 ceuntry is moist and dense with stagnant vapoura. If, now, the smell of p.246. garlic spreads among these vapours, it dissolves the vapeurs by its sharp- ness and compressos the density of the air, in consequence of which rain follows. Granted, new, that this be the cause of this appearance produced by the pounding of garlic, how do you, then, account for the famous well in the mountains ef Farghana, where it begins te rain as soon as you throw something dirty into this well ? And how de you account fer the place called " the shop of Solomon the son of David," in the cave called Ispahbadhan in the mountain of Tak 20 in Tabaristin, where heaven becomes cloudy as soon as you defile it by filth or by milk, and where it rains until you elean it again? And hew do you account for the mountain in the country of tbe Turks? For if the sheep pass over it, peeple wrap their feet in wool to prevent their touching the rock of the mountain. For if they touch it, beavy rain immediately follows. Pieces of this rock the Turks carry about, and contrive to defend themselves thereby against all evil coming from the enemy, if they are surrounded by them. Now, those who are not aware of these facts consider this as a bit of sorcery on the part of the Turks. 30 Of a similar character is a fountain called " the pure one" in Egypt in the lowest part of a mountain which adjoins a church. Into this fountain aweet, nicely-smelling water is flowing out of a source in the bottom of the mountain. If, now, an individual that is impure through pollution or menstruation touches the water, it begins at once to stink, and dces not coase until you pour out the water ef the fountain and clean it; then it regains its nice smell. Further, there is a mountain between HerAt and Sijistan, in a sandy country, somewhat distant from the road, where yeu hear a clear murmur and & deep sound as soen as it is defiled by human excrements or urine. 40 These things are natural peculiarities of the created beings, the causes of which are to he traced back to the simple elements and to the begin- ning of all compesition and creation. And there is ne pessibility that our knowledge should ever penetrats te suhjects of this descriptien. There are other districts of quite another character from that of the mountains of Tabaristin, eg. Fustat in Egynt, and the adjacent parts, fer

236 ALBİRONİ.

there it mains very seldom. And if it mina, the air is infected, hecomss pestilential and hurts hoth animals and plants. Such things (i.e. such climatical differences) dopend upon the nature of the placo and its situation, whethor it liss in the mountains or on the sea, whether it is a place of great elevation or a low country; further, upon the degree of northern or southern latitude of the place. & Rain and winterly air (Euctemon); winterly air and whirlwinde (Metrodorus); south wind or evpos, i.e. south-faat wind (Euctemon) ; east wind (Egyptians). 9. Nothing mentioned. 10. Winterly air and wbirlwinds (Enctemon and Philippus) ; north 10

wind, or cold sonth wind and rain (Hipparchns). 11. Episemasia (Callippus, Conon, and Metrodorus). Sinan saye that thia is borne ont by experience. 12. Winterly air (Eudorus and Dositheus). 13. Episemasia (Eudoxus); winterly air on land and sea (Democritns). Ships that are at sea on this day put in to chore, and ravigation to Persia and Alexandriaia suspended. For the sea has certain days when 47. it is in nproar, when the air is turbid, the waves roll, and thick darkness lies over it. Therefore navigation is impracticable. People say that at 20 this time there arisee the wind at the hottom of the sen that puts the sea in motion. This they conclude from the appearance of a certain sort of fishes which then swim in the upper regions of the sea and on its surface, showing thereby that this storm is blowing at the bottom, Frequently, people say, this submarine storm rises a day earlier. Every sailor recognizes this by certain marks in bis special sea. For instance, in the Chinese sea this submarine storm is recognized by the fishing-nets rising of themselves from the hottom of the sea to ita surface. On the contrary, they conelude that the sea bottom is quiet if a certain bird sits hatching her eggs-for they hatch in a bundle of 30 chips and wood on the sea, if they do not go on land nor sit down there. They lay their eggs only at that time when the sea is quiet. Further, people maintain that any wood which is cut on this day doos not get worm-eaten, and that the whits ant does not attack it. This peculiarity perhaps stands in connection with the nature of the mixture of the air on this special day. 14. Winterly air (Cæsar) ; south wind or Eurns, i.e. sonth-east wind (Egyptians). 15. Nothing mentioned. 16. Winterly air (Cæsar). 40 17. Rain (Eudoxus); winterly air (Cesar); north wind during night and day (Cæsar). 18. Nothing registered. 19. Sharp winterly air (Eadorus). 20. North wind (Eudorus); esvere winterly air (Egyptians). People say

ON THE DAYS OF THE OREER CALENDAR. 237

that on this day af animals that have no bones perish. This, however, is different in different countries. For I used to bo molested by the gnats, i.e. animals without bones, in Jurjan, whilst the sun was moving in the sign of Capricorn. 21. Winterly air and rain (Euctemon and Dositheus). 22. Very winterly air (Eudoxus). On this day people forbid to drink cold water during the night, for fear of tho Yellow Water. 23. Rain (Philippus); winterly air (Eudoxus and Conon) ; continual south wind (Hipparchus and Egyptians). On this day falls the feast uf 10 gathering the olives, and the fresh olive-oil is pressed. 24. Light rain (Egyptians). 25, 26. Nothing mentioned. 27. In most cases a disturbance of the air on land and sea (Demo. critos) ; Episemasia (Dositheus); south wind and rain (Egyptians). 28. Nothing mentioned. People say that on this day the waves of the sea roll heavily and that there is very little fishing. 29. Winterly air (Eudoxus and Conon); west or south wind and rain (Egyptians). 30. Nothing mentioned by the authorities hitherto quoted, nor Ly 20 others.

Kânan I. (Decemher.) p.248.

1. Winterly air (Callippus, Eudoxus, and Cesar). On this day people hold a fair in Damascus, which is called " the fair of the cutting of the ben-nut," ie. Nue unguentaria. 2. Pure winds (lit. not mixed) (Euctemon and Philippus); sharp, winterly air (Metrodorus). 3. Winterly air (Conon and Cæsar); light rain (Egyptians). 4. (Missing.)

30 by Sinân. 5. Winterly air (Democritus and Dositheus). The same is confirmed

6. Winterly air (Eudoxus); vehement north wind (Hipparchus). 8. Nothing mentioned. 9. Winterly air and rain (Callippue, Euctemon, and Eudorus). 10. Sharp winterly air (Callippus, Euctemon and Metrodorus); thunder and lightning, wind and rain (Democritus). 11. South wind and Episemasia (Callippus); winterly air and rain (Eudoxus and Egyptians). According to Sinan this is borne out by practical experience. Continued sexual intercourss on this day is objected to, which I do not quite understand. For sexual intercourse is not ap- 40 proved of in autumn, in the beginning of winter, and at the times of epidemic disease; on the contrary, at such times it is most noxious and pernicious to the body. Although we must eav that the conditions of eszual intercourse depend upon a great many other things, as, e.g. age,

:238 ALBiROxt.

time, place, eustom, character, nourishment, the fulness or emptiness of the stomach, the desire, the fcmale genitale, eto. 12. Winterly air (Egyptians). 13. Vebement south wiad or north wind (Hipparchus). 14. Winterly air (Eudoxus); rain and wind (Egyptians). 15. Cold north wind or south wind and min (Egyptians). 16. Winterly air (Cwgar). 17. Nothing mentioned. People forbid on this day to take of the flesh of cows, of oranges, and mountain balm, to drink water after yon lie down to sleep, to smear the camels with Nuro (a depilatory unguent 10 made of arsenio and quick-lime), and to bleed anybody except him whose blood is feverish. The reason of all this is the cold and the moistness of the season. This day people call the " Great Birth," meaning the winter-solstice. People say that on this day the light leaves those limits within which it decreases, and enters those limite within which it in- creases, that human beinge begin growing and increasing, whilst the demons begin withering and perishing. Ka'b the Rabbi relates that on this day the sun was kept back for Yosua the son of Nun during three hours on & clouded day. The same story is told hy the simpletons among the Shi'a regarding the prince of 20 the believers, 'Ali b. 'Abt Talib. Whether, now, this story hare any foundation or not, we must romark that those who are beset by calamity find ite duration to be very long and think that the moment of liberation is very slow in coming. So, e.g. 'Alt b. Aljahm said in a sleopless night, when he had gone out to war against the Greeks, oppressed by wounds and fatigue:

p.249. " Has a stream swept away the morning, Or has another night been added to the night?"

Afterwards on being released he indulged in hallucinations and lying reports. Something similar frequently happens on fast-days, if heaven during 30

the latter part of them be clouded and dark; then people break their fast, whilst shortly afterwards, when the sky or part of it clears up, the sun appoars etill .standing above the horizon, having not yet get. The charm-mongers say that it is a good omen on thie day to rise from sleeping on the right side, and to fomigate with frankincense in the morning before speaking. It is alao considered desirable to walk twelve consecutive steps towards the east at the moment of sunriee. Yahya b. 'Al, the Christian writer of 'Anbar, says that the rising-place of the sun at the time of the winter-solstice is the true east, that he 40 rises from the very midst of paradise ; that on this day the sages lay the foundatione of the altars. It was the belicf of this man that paradise is situated in the southern regions. But he had no knowledge of the

ON TAE DAYS OF TRE .GRREK OALENDAR. 239

difference of the zaniths. Besides, the dogma of his own religion proves his theory to be erroneous, for their law orders them to turn in praying towards the east (i.e. the rising-place of the sun), whilst he told them that . the sun rises in paradise (i.e. in the south according to his theory). Therefore the Christians turn to no other rising-place but to that one of the equator, and they fix the direction of thoir churches accordingly. This theory is not more curious than his view of the sun. For be maintains that ths degrees through which the sun ascends and descends are 360 in number, corresponding to the days of the vear; that during 10 the 5 days which are the complement of the year the sun is ueither ascending nor descending. Those are 21 days of Haziran and 22 days of Kanun I. A. similar idea hovered in the mind of 'Abu-alabbas Alimuli when he aaid in his book On the Proofs for the Kibla that the sun has 177 rising and setting places, thinking evidently that. the solar year has got 354 days. He, however, who undertakes what he does not understand, incurs ignominy. Those crotchets of his are brought inte connection with the argument regarding the 5 supernumerary days of the solar year and the 6 deficient days of the lunar year, of which we have already 20 spoken. 18. Nothing mentioned. 19. South wind (Eudoxus, Dositheus, and Egyptians). 20. Winterly air (Eudorus). 21. Episemasia (Egyptians). 22. Nothing mentioned. 23. Nothing mentiored. 24. Winterly air (Cæsar and Egyptians) ; Episemasia and rain (Hip- parchus and Meton). 25. Middling winterly air (Democritus). 80 26. (Missing.) 27. Nothing mentioned. 28. Winterly air (Dositheus). 29. Episemasia (Callippus, Euctemon, and Democritus). People forbid p.250. on this day the drinking cold water after rising from sleep. They say that the demons vomit into tho water, and that therefore he who drinks of it is affected by stupidity and phlegm. This scrves as a warning to people against that which ther dread most. The cause of all this is the coldness and moistore of the air. 30. Winterly air on the sea (Egyptians). 40 31. Winterly air (Euctemon).

Kanun M. (January.) 1. Nothing mentioned hy the Parapegmatists. 2. Episemasia (Dositheus). Some people say that wood which is cut on this day will not soon get dry.

240 ALBİRÔNİ.

3. Changeable air (Egyptiane). 4. Episemasia (Egyptians); south wind (Democritus), which observa- tion is confirmed by Sinan. 5, 6. Nothing montioned. People say that on the 6th there is an hour during which all salt water of the earth is getting sweet. All the qualities oceurring in the water depend oxclusively upon the nature of that soil by which the water is enclosed, if it be standing, or over which the water flows, if it be running. Those qualities are of a stahle nature, net to be altered except by a process of transformation from degree to degree by means of certain media. Therefore this statement of the 10 waters getting sweet in this one hour is entirely unfounded. Continual and leisuroly experimentation will show to any one the futility of thie assertion For if the water were sweet it would remain sweet for some space of time. Nay, if you would place-in this hour or any other-in a well of salt water some pounde of pure dry wax, possibly the saltisbnese of the water would diminish. This has been mentioned hy the experimenters, who go so far as to maintain that if you make a thin vase of wax and placo it in sea water, eo that the mouth ef the vase emerges above the water, those drops of water which eplash over into the vase become sweet. If all salt water were mixed with so much sweet water as would over- 20 power ite nature, in that caso their theory would be realized (i.e. all salt watere would become sweet). An erample of this process is afforded by the lake of Tinnis, the water of which is eweet in autumn and winter in consequence of the great admirture of the water of the Nile, whilst at the other seasons it is salt, because there is very little edmixture of Nile water. 7. Winterly air (Euderus and Hipparchus). 8. South wind (Callippus, Euctemon, Philippus, and Metrodorus); south wind and west wind and winterly air on the eea (Egyptians). 9. Violent eouth wind and rain (Endoxus and Egyptians). 80 The authors of taliamans say that if yen draw the figuree of grapes on a table, between the 9th and the 16th of the month, and place it among the vines as a sert of offering jat the time of the setting of the Tortoise, i.e. Alnasr Alwaki, the fruit will not be injured by anything. 1. 10. Violent south wind and Episemasia (Cusar and Egyptians). 11. South wind (Eudoxus and Dositheus); mired winds (Hipparchus). 12. Nothing mentioned. 13. Wintorly air (Hipparchus); & nerth wind or a south wind blows (Ptolemy). 14. Nothing mentioned. 40 15. East wind (Hipparchus). 16. Nothing mentioned. 17. Violent wind (Cmsar). 18. Winterly air (Euctemon and Philippus) ; cbange of the air (Metro- dorus).

ON THE DAYS OF TRE GREEK CALENDAR. 241

19. Winterly air (Eudoxus and Cæsar); suffocating air (Egyptians). 20. Clear sky (Euctemou and Democritus); uorth wind (Hipparchus) winterly air and rain (Egyptians). 21. Middling winterly air (Eudoxus). 22. Episemasia (Hipparchus); rain (Egyptians). 23. Nothing mentioned. On this day people do not smear the camels with Nura (a depilatory unguent of arsenic and quieklime), nor bleed any body sxcept in cases of special need. 24. Clear sky (Callippus and Euctemon); middling winterly air (Demo- 10 critus). Besides, the rule of the preceding day as regards the use of Nura and phlebotomy refers also to this day. 25. East wind (Hipparchus). 26. Rain (Eudorus and Metrodorus); winterly air (Dositheus). 27. Severe winter (Egyptians). 28. South wind blows and Episemasia (Ptolemy). 29. Nothing mentioned. 30. South wind (Hipparchus). 81. Nothing mentioned.

Shubât. (February.)

20 It is the leap-month. It appears to me that the following is the reason -but God knows best !- why people have shortened this month in parti- cular so that it has only 28 days, and why it has not had assigned to it 29 or 30 or 31 days: If it were assigned 29 days and were then to be increased by the leap-day, it would have 30 days and would no longer be distinguishable from the other months in a leap-year. The same would be the case if it had 30 days, whether the year be a leap-year or not. Likewise if it had 31 days, the same similarity with the other months iu all sorts of years would exist. For this reason the leap-month has been assigned 28 days, that it might he distinguished from the other months 80 both in leap and common years. For the same reason it was necessary that in the Greek jear two months of more than 30 days should follow each other. For at the beginning they intentionally gave to each month 30 days and took away 2 from Shubat. So they got 7 supernumerary days (i.e. the 5 Epago- menæ and the 2 days of Shubat), which they had to distribute over 11 months, because Shubat had to be left out. Now, it was not possible te p.252 distribute the complete months of 30 days so as to fall each of them between two months of 31 days, for the latter (i.e. the months of 31 days) are more in number than the former. Therefore it was necessary 40 to let several months of more than 30 days follow each other. But the most important subject of their deliberation was to add them in the places which would bs the most suitable to them, so that the sum of the days of both spring and summer is more than the sum of the days of

. 242 ALRİR ONİ.

autumn and winter, a fact which is the result of both ancientand modern obsarvations. Further, their menths are propertional to each other in mest cases; I mean to say : the sum of each month and of the seventh following one is 61 days, which is nearly equal to tha time of the sun's mean motion through two signs of the zodiac. However, the sum of the days of Ab and Shubat is 59 days. This could not have been otherwise, for the reason we havs mentioned for Shubat. For if Ab bad been assigned . more than 31 daya, it would have been different from all the other menths, and peeple weuld have thought that this in particular was the 10 leap-month. As for Tammuz and Kanun the Last, the sum of their days is 62. This, again, was necessary, because the number of the n. mntha of more than 30 days is greater than that of the months of 80 days. Wherever the snpernumerary day is placed the circumstancee are always the sams. And, further, intercalation has heen applied to Shubat to the axclusion of the other months only for this reason, that Adhar L, which is the leap-month in the Jewish leap-year, falls on Shubat and near it. 1. Rain (Eudoxus). The celd decreases a little. 2. West wind or south wind intermixed with bail (Egvptians). Sinan 20 says that this is frequently the case. S. Clear sky and frequently the west wind blows (Eudoxus). 4. Clear sky and frequently the west wind hlows (Desitheus); severe winterly air, rain and unmired winds (Egyptians). 5. Nothing mentioned. People say that the four winds are in uproar.

(Democritus). 6. Rain (Cæsar); winds (Egyptians); the west wind begins blowing

7. Beginning of the blowing of the west wind, frequently the air is winterly (Eudexus and Egyptians). On this day the first Coal falls, called the minor ons. 80 8. The time of the blowing of the west wind (Callippus, Metrodorus, and Hipparchus); rain (Eudoxus and Egyptians). This is confirmed by Sinan aa borne out by his observationg. 9, 10. Nothing mentioned. 11. Winterly air (Philippas and Metrodorus); west wind (Eudoxus and Egyptians) 12. North and east wind (Hipparchus) ; east wind alons (Egyptiaus). 18, 14. Nothing mentioned. On the 14th falls the second Coal, called >253. the middle one. As the poet says : " When Christmas has passed and Epiphany after it, And ten days and ten days and fiva complete days, 40

And five days and sir and four of Shubat, Then, ne doubt, the greatest cold vanishes. That is the time of the falling of the twro Coals; afterwards The cold rotaine only a few nights."

ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 243

15. Winterly air (Euctemon, Philippus, and Dositheus); changing wind (Egyptians); south wiud (Hipparchus). Thie day is cold (Arabs), during which the coal is kindled. The Persians say: "The Summer has put his hands into the water." On this day the moisture of the wood is flowing from the lowest parts of the trees to the highest, and the froge begin croaking. 16. A change in the winds and rain (Egyptians). People say that on this day the interior of the earth is getting warm. In Syrin the mush- rooms are coming forth; those which stand near the root of the olive-tree 10 are deadly poison, as people maintain. This may he true, for it is not approved of to take much of the mushroom and fungus, nor of that which is prapared from them. Its pharmaco'ogical treatment ie mentioned in most of the medical compilations in the chapter of preparing poieons from these materials. 17. Nothing mentioned. 18. Weat wind, and hail falle, or rain (Egyptians). 19. Cold north wind (Hipparchus). 20. Winde (Egyptians). 21. Nothing mentioned. On thie day the third Coal falla, called the 20 great one. Between the falling of cach of the two Coals there is an interval of one complete week. They were called Cools because they are days characterised by the spreading of the heat from the interior of the earth to the surface, according to those who hold this theory. According to those who hold the opposite view, this change is brought ahout hy the air's receiving heat instead of cold from the body of the sun, for the body of the sun and the near approach of a column of rays are the first cause of the heat. With this subject also the question is connected why the earthen jars or pipes of which subterranean channels are formed, and the water of wells, are warm in the winter and cold in the 30 summer. Between 'Abu-Bakr b. Zakariyya Alrazi and 'Abi-Bakr Husain Altammar several questions and answers, expostulations and refutations have been exchanged that will satisfy the curiosity of the reader and inform him of the truth. The Arabs used theee three days (the eo-called Coals) in their months until they got into confusion, as we have mentioned, and theac days no longer fell at their proper times. Thereupon they were transferred into (i.e. fixed on certain days of) the Greck months which keep always their proper places. On the first day, people say, the Ist and 2nd kAipara are 40 getting warm, on the second the 3rd and 4th, on the third the remaining KAiuara. Further, they say that on the Coal-days vapours are rising p.254 from the earth which warm the earth on the let Coal-day, the water on the Ond, and the trees on the 3rd. According to another view, they are daye noticeable for the rising of Lunar Stations, or some special parte of them; whilet other subtle paople

244 ALBİRONİ.

maintain that they are the termini of the celd iu winter, and serve to denote the differences in the beginning of heat and cold as known in the different countries. Some inconsiderate and over-zealeus people of our ancestors have introduced these Coal-days into Khwarizm, so that the first fell en the 21st of Shnbat, the second a week later, and the third twe weeks sfter the second one. 22. A cold north-east wind hegins blowing and the swallows appear (Enctemon and Hipparchus). 23. Winds are blowing and the swallows appear (Callippus, Philippus, and the Egyptians); rain st the time of the appearance of the swallows, 10 north-east wind during four days (Endoxus, Cenon, Callippus, and Philippus). 24. Celd north wind and west wind (Hipparchus); nerth-east wind with other winds (Egyptiuns); days with changeable air (Democritus). 25. Winterly air (Cesar and Dosithens). 26, 27. Nothing mentioned. 28. Celd nerth wind (Hipparchus). In this month fall the Days of the Old Woman, i.e. seven consecutive days beginning with the 26th; if the year is a leap-year, four days fall into Shubat and thres into Adhar; if it is a common year, three fall 20 into Shuhat and four into Adbar. They are called by the Arabs by special names; the Ist is called Al-sinn, i.e. theseverity of the cold, the 2nd is called Al-sinnabr, i.e. a man who leaves things as Sanbara, Le. a8 sometbing that is coarse and thick. The Nun in this werd is not radical, the sams as in balansa, the plural of eses balapus. The third istheir brother 4l-wabr, so called from the verb 35, i.e. he followed the trace of these days. The 4th is called Alamir (commanding), because he commands people to beware ef him. The 5th is Almu'tamir, i.s. he has an impulee of deing harm to mankind. The 6th is Al-mu'allil, i.e. be diverte people by some relief which he affords. The 7th is Mutf'-aljamr (the extinguisher of ceals), the most severe of them, when the coals used te be extinguished. It is also called Mukfi-alkidr (who turns the kettle upside down) in congequence of the cold wind of this day. Some peet has connected these names in a versus memorialis in this way : "The winter is clesed by seven dusty (days), Our Old Woman's .Days of the month; When her days erme te an end, Sinn, Sinnabr, and Wabr, Åmir, and his brother Mu'tamir, Mu'allil, and Mutfi'-aljamr, 40

p.255. Then the cold retires, passing away with the end of the month, And a burning (wind) comes to thee from the beginning of the next month,"

ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 245

The 6th day is also called Shoibin, and the 7th Mihin. These duys are scarcaly ever free from cold and winds, the sky being dark and variously ooloured. Mostly during theso days the cold is most vehement, because it is about to turn away (i.e. to cesse). And hence the Lunar Station Alsarfa has got its namc, because its setting occurs about this time. Nobody need be astonished at the fact that the cold towards its end, when it is abont to cease, is the most severe and vehement. Quite the eame is the case with the hest, as we shall mention hereafter. Similar 10 observations you may make in quite common physical appearances. E.g. if the lamp is near the moment of extinction, becsuse there is no more oil, it burns with an intense light, and flickers repeatedly, like the quivering (of human limbs). Sick people furnish another example, specially those who perish hy hectic fever or consumption, or the disease of the belly, or similar diseases. For they regain power when they are near death; then thoss who are not familiar with these things gain new hope, whilst those who know them from experience despair. I have seen a treatise of Yakub b. 'Ishak Alkindi on the cause of this appearance in these days (i.e. of the vehemence of the cold during them). 20 His whols argument comes to this, that the sun then reaches the quadra- ture of his apogee, which is the place of all changes, and that the sun's influence upon the atmosphere is grater thau that of anything else. In thst case it would be necessary that that change which the sun effects in ita own sphere should be proportional to that one which it effects in the atmosphere, and that this effect should on an average continue as long as the moon stands in that quarter (of her own course) in whic' the effect commenced, and in that quarter ef the sun in which the effect took place. I have heen told that 'Abdallab b. 'Ali, the muth eruatician, in Bukhara, 30 on hsving become acquainted with this treatise of Alkindi, transferred thess days into the calendar of his people in conformity with the amount of the progression of the apogee. Therefore they were called the Days of the Old Woman of *Abdallth.

[Zacuna.j Regarding the reason why these days were called the Days of the Old Woman, the ancients relate the following: They are the days which God mentions in his Book (Stra lxix. 7), " seven nights and eight days, unlueky ones," and the people of 'Ad perished by their cold wind, their whirlwinds, and the other terrors which happened during them. Of all of them only 40 one old woman remained, lamenting the fate of her nation. Her story is well known. Therefore these days are said to have heen called the Days of the Uld Woman. People say that the wind which destroved them was s west wind, for the prophet says : "I have been assisted by the east wind-riz. on the

246 ALBİRONİ.

Yaum-alkhandak-and 'Ad has been destroyed by the west wind." poet saye : "The west wind has dostroyed the sandy tracts of 'Ad; So they perished, thrown down like the trunks of palm-trees." Further, people say that the unlucty doys mentioned in the Coran (Sura xli. 15) coincide, each set of four of them, with a day of tho month in the date of which there is a 4, i.s. the 4th, or the 14th, or the 24th from beginning or end of the month. ,256. Some peopls maintain that the Days of the Old Woman received their nams from this, that an old woman, thinking that it was warm, threw 10 off her Mihsha' (a sort of garment) and perished in the cold of these day s. Some Arabs maintain that the Days of the Old Woman (Al'ajis) were given thie name because tbey are the 'Ajus, i.e. pars postica, of the winter. We find that the Arabs have names for the five Epagomenæ between Aban-Mah and Adhar-Mah like those of the Days of the Old Woman. Ths let is called Hinnabr, the 2nd Hinsabr, hoth words meaning the injury from cold ; the 8rd is called Kalib-alfihr (i.e. turning the braying- stone npside down), viz. through the vehemence of the wind; the 4th, 20 Halit-altufr (i.e. cutting the nail), for they mean that the wind is so sharp as s.g. to cut the nail; the 5th is called Mudabrij-alba'r (whirling about the dung), viz. in the plains, so that the vehemence of the wind carries it to human habitations. Somebody hae brought them into a vereo in this way:

"The first of them is Hinnabr, an excessive day, After him comes Hinzabr, one who strikes with the fore-foot, Striking till he cones who exercises jnstice. And Kolib-alihr is justly called thus; And Halis-aliufr who evidently cuts 30 And splits the rocks hy the cold. After them the last of them, the fifth, Mudahrij-alba'r, the biting and licking one. There is no sixth name after it."

Adhâr.

1. Nothing mentioned by the Parapegmatiste. People say that on this day the locusts and all creeping animals come forth, and that the heat of heaven and the heat of the eorth meet onch other. This ia a somewhat hyperbolical expression for the beginning of the heat, its increase and spreading, and for the air's preparing itself for the reception of the 40 heat. For the heat is nothing bnt the rays of the sun detached from

ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 247

the body of the sun towards the earth or from the warm hody which touches the insids of ths Lunar sphere, which is called Fire. Regarding the rays of the sun many theories have been brought for- ward. Some eay that they are fiery particles similar to the essenes of the sun, going out from his body. Others ssy that the air is getting warm by ita being situated opposite to the sun, in the asme way as the sir is getting warm by heing opposite to the fire. This ia the theory of those who maintain that the sun is s hot, fiery subatanco. Others, again, say thut the sir is getting waru by the rapid motion of 10 the rays in the air, which is so rapid as toseem timeless, i.e. without time ("seitlos"). This is the theory of those who maintain that the nature of the sun has nothing in common with the natures of the four elements. Further, there is a difference of opinion regarding the motion of the rays. Some say this motion is timeless, since the rays are not bodies. Others say this motion proceeds in very short time; that, however, there is nothing more rapid in existence by which you might measure the degree of its rapidity. E.,. the motion of the sound in the air is not so fast as the motion of the rays; therefore the former has heen compared with the latter, and therehy ita time (i.e. the degree of its rapidity) has 20 been determined. As the reason of the lcat which exists in the rays of the sun, people assign the acuteness of the angles of their reflexiou. This, however, is not the case. On the contrary, the heat exists in the rays (is inherent in them). Regarding the body that touches the inside of the sphere, i.e. the fire, people maintain that is a simple elcment like earth, water, and air, and that it is of a globular form. According to my opinion, the warmth of the sir is the result of the friction and violent contact betweeu the sphere, moving rapidly, and his body, and that its shape is like s body p.257. 30 r ich you get by making a crescent-like figure revolve around ita chord. This explanation is in conformity with the theory, viz. that none of the existing bodies is in its natural place, that all of them are where they are only in consequence of some force beiug employed, and that force must of necesgity have had a beginning. On this subject I have spoken in a more suitable place than this book is, specially in my correspondence with the youth 'Abu-'Ali Alhusain b. 'Abdallah b. Sina, consisting of diecussions on this suhjert. Both sorts of heat are brought to hear upon the earth in an equal manner during the four seasons. The heat of the earth consiate either of the 40 solar rays that are reflected from its surface, or of the vapours that sre produced-according to one theory-by the heat of the interior of the earth, or-according to another-by that heat which accidentally comes to the earth from outside, for the motion of the vapours in the air causes them to get warm. The heat of the fire (i.e. the body touching the ingide of the sphere)

248 ALBİRÔNİ.

remnins always at the same distance (from us, i.e. is alwaya of the same degree), because the rotation of the oelestial aphere proceeds always at the same rate. And the reflected rays are not to be referred to the earth (i.e. the earth is not to he considered as their source), and the vapours reach only to a cortain limit which they do not go beyond. The author of this theory, I think, must believe that within the earth heat ie contained which procceds from the interior to the outaide, whilst the air has hecome warm through tho rays of the sun. Thus the two sorts of keat meet each other. This, at all eventa, ie a theory, if there is any; one muat accopt it. 10 2. Cold north wind (Hipparcbus) ; south wind and fall of hail (Egyptians). 3. Nothing mentioned. 4. Cold north wind (Euctemon). Sinan saye that this is mostly true. 5. Winterly air (Egyptians). Beginning of the Xelidoviat (Casar) : they blow during ten daye. 6. Troubled air (Egyptiane). Beginning of the cold opufiat, which blow during nine days (Democritus). 7. Nothing mentioned. Some people say that a change of the violent winds takes place. 20 8. Episemasia and cold north wind (Euctemon, Philippus, and Metro. dorus); swallowe and kites appear (Eudoxus). On the same day is the feast of the Small Lake of Alerandria. 9. North wind (Euctemon and Metrodorus) ; violent south wind (Hip- parchus); light rain (Egyptians) ; the kites appear (Dositheus). 10. Nothing mentioned. 11. The anciente do not mention an apparent change on this day. Sinan says that there is frequently winterly air. 12. Moderate north wind (Callippne). People say that on this day the traces of the winter disappear, and that phlebotomy is advisable. 80 58. 13. 'OpviBiar begin blowing; the kite appears (Euctemon and Philippus). 14. Cold north wind (Euctemon and Hipparchus); west or south wind (Egyptians); oprefiat begin blowing (Eudoxus). 15. Cold north wind (Euctemon and Egyptiane). 16. North wind (Callippus). This Sinan confirms from his er. perience. 17. Nothing mentioned. People say that on this day it is agreeable to go out on the sea. The snakes open their eyes, for daring the cold season, as I have found them myself in Khwarizm, they gather in the 40 interior of the earth and roll themselves up ono round the other so that the greatest part of them is visible, and they look like a ball. In this condition they remain during the winter until this time. On this day (the 17th) in a leap-year, and on the 18th in a common year, takes place the equinoz, called the first equinox. It is the firet day

ON TBE DATS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 249

of the Persian spring and of the Chineso autumn, as we have mentioned. Thie, however, ie impossible, for epring and autumn or winter and summer cannot at one and the same time alternately exchange their places except in countries north or south of the equator. And China, having only few degrees of latitude, does not lie south, but north of the equator, in the farthest end of the inhabited world towards the east. The country eouth of the Line ie not known, for the equatorial part of the earth is too much burned to be inhabitable. Parts of the inhabited world do not reach nesrer the equator than to a distanco of several daye' 10 journey. There the water of the sea ie denee, because the sun so intensely vaporises the emall particles of the water, that fishes and other animale keep away from it. Neither we nor any of those who care for those thinge have ever beard that any one has reached the Line or oven pasecd the Line to the south. Somo people have been beguiled by the expressione " Eguator Diei" and "Linea Equitatis," so as to think that there the air is egual (moderate), juet as day and night there are equal. So they have made the equator the basis of their fictions, descrihing it as a sort of paradise and as being inhabited by crestures like angele. 20 Ae to the country beyond the Line, someone maintaine that it ie not inhabitable, hecause the sun, when reaching the pcrigee of his eccentric ephere, stands nearly in its utmost southern declination, and then burns all the countries over which he culminates, whilst all the countries of 65 degrees of southern latitude have the climate of the middle zone of the north. From that degree of latitude to the pole the world ie again inhabitable. But the author of thie theory must not represent this s8 neceseary, because excessive beat and cold are not alone the causes which render a country uninhabitable, for they do not exist in the eecond quarter of the two northern quarters, and still thst part of the world ie 30 not inhabited. So the mstter is (and will be), because the spogee and perigee of the eccentric ephere, the eun's greater and less distance from the earth, are necessitated exclusively by the difference in the sun'e rotation. 'Ahu-Ja'far has designed a figure different from the eccentric ephere p.259 and the epicycle, in which the eun'e distance from the earth, notwith- standing the difference of its rotation, is alwaye identical. Thereby he

beat and cold. gets two regions, a northern and a southern one, equal to each other in

The day of the equinox, as calculated by the Hindus according to their 40 Canon,-of which they are impudent enough to pretend that it is eternal, without beginning and end, whilst all tho other Canons are derived therefrom,-is their Nauroz, a great feast among them. In the first hour of the day they worship the sun and pray for bappiness and hliss to the spirits (of the deceased). In the middle of the day they worship the sun again, and pray for the resurrection and the other world. At the

250 ALBİRONİ.

end of the day they worship the sun again, and pray for health and happiuess for their bodies. On the same day they make presente to each other, consisting of preoious objeots and domestio animals. They maintain

mankind. tbat the winds blowing on this day are spiritusl beings of great use for Aud the people in heaven and hell look at each other affectionately, and light and darkness are equal to each other. In the hour of the equinox they light fires in sacred places. The omina of this day are the following, viz. : to rise from sleep lying on the back, the tree Salia Agyptia and to fumigate with its wood before speaking. For he who performs this will he free from all sosts of 10 pain. People say that a man who has no children, on looking to the star Al-Suhd in the night of this day and then having intercourse with his wife, will get children. Muhammad b. Mityar maiotains that in the hour when this day begins to decline, (i.e. after noon,) the shadow of everything is half its size. This, however, is only partially the case, not in general. It is true only for such places of which the latitudo is about 27 degrees. On this day the crocodile i Egypt is thought to be dangerous. The crocodile is said to be the water-lizard when it has grown up. It is an 20 obnosious animal peculiar to the Nile, as the thesking is peculiar to other rivers. People say that iu the mountains of Fustat there was a talisman made for that district. Around thie talisman the crocodile could not do any harm. On the contrary, when it came within ite limita, it turned round and lay on its back, so that the children could play with it. But on reaching the frontier of the district it got up again and carried all it could get hold of away to the water. But this talisman, they say, has been broken and lost its power. 18. Winterly air and cold winds (Democritus and the Egyptians). 19. North wind (Hipparchus); winda, and cold in the morning 30 (Egyptians). 20. North wind (Cæsar). 21. North wind (Eudoxus). 22. Nothing mentioned. 23. North wind (Cæear); rain (Hipparchus). 24. Rain and miezle (Callippus, Euctemon, and Philippus); Episemasia (Hipparchus); thunder and Episemasia (Egyptians). On this day people like to purify the children by circumcision. The fecundating winde are said to blow. 160. 25. North wind (Eudoxus); Episemasia (Meton, Cor n, and the 40 Egyptians). 26. Rain and enow.storm (Callippus); wind (Egyptinns). 27. Rain (Callippus, Eudoxus, and Meton). Of the rest of the month nothing is mentioned. Sinan says that the 30th frequently brings an Episemasia. God knows best!

ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEE CALENDAB. 251

Nisan.

1. Rain (Callippus, Euctemon, Meton, and Mtrodorus). 2. Nothing mentioned. 9. Wind (Eudorus); rain (Egyptians and Conon). 4. West wind or south wind; hail falle. Sinan says that this is frequently the case. 5. South wind and changing winds (Hipparchus). 6. Episemasia (Hipparchus and Dositheus). This is confirmed by Sinan. 10 7. Nothing mantioned. 8. Rain (Eudorus); south wind (Egyptians). 9. Rain (Hipparchus) ; unmired winds (Egyptians). 10. Unmixed winds (Euctemon and Philippus); rain (Hipparchus and Egyptians). The raining is confirmed by the experience of Sinan. 11. West wind and mizzle (Endorus). 12. Nothing mentioned. 13. Rain (Cæsar and Dositheus). 14. South wind, rain, thunder, and mizzle (Egyptians). Sinan says that this is frequently the case. 20 15. Rain and hail (Euctemon and Eudorus); unmixed winds (Egyptians). 16. West wind (Euctemon and Philippus); hail falling (Metrodorus). 17. West wind and rain (Eudoxus and Cæsar) ; hail falling (Conon and Egyptians). 18. Winda and mizzle (Egyptians). 19. Nothing mentioned. 20. Wind, south wind or another one, the air unmixed (Ptolemy). 21, Cold south wind (Hipparchus). Sinan maintains that this is freqnently the case. The water begine to increass. 30 22. Rain (Eudoxus); winterly air (Cesar and Egyptians). People fear for the ships at sea. 23. South wind and rain (Egyptians). People hold a fair at Dair- 'Ayyub. 'Abu-Yahya b. Kunasa says that the Pleiades disappear under the rays of the aun during 40 days, and this fair is held when the Pleiades appear. So the Syrians make them rise 15 days earlier than in reality thsy rise, becauae they are in a hurry to settle their affairs. This fair laste 7 days. Then they count 70 days until the fair of Bugra. Throngh these fairs, that are held alternately in certain places, the com- p.261. merce of tho poople of these countries bas been promoted and their 40 wealth been increased. They have proved profitable to the people, to both buyers and sellers. 24. Frequently hail falls (Callippus and Metrodorus) ; Episemasia (Democritus); south wind, or a wind akin to it, and rain (Egyptians). The Euphrates begins to rise.

252 ALBİRONİ.

25. Mizzte and rain (Eudoxus and Egyptians). 26. Rain and frequently hail (Callippus and Enotemon); Episemasia and west wind (Egyptians). 27. Dew and moisture (Cwsar); winds (Egyptiane). 28. Wind (Egyptians); rain (Eudoxus). Sinfn confirms the rain from his own observations. On this, they say, the south wind blows, and then the streams and rivers begin to rise. This increase of tha water, however, does not apply to all streams and rivers uniformly; on ths contrary, they greatly differ from each other in thia respect. E.g. the Orus has high water when there is little water in the Tigris, Euphrates, 10 and other rivers. . The fact is this, that those rivsrs the sources of which are situated in cold places, have more water in summer and less in winter. For the greatest part of ths ordinary volume of their water is gathered from aprings, and an increase and decrease of them exelnsively depend upon the fall of dew in those mounteins where the rivers originata or through which they flow; thereupon the aprings pour their volumes into the rivers. Now it is well known that dew-fall is more freqnent in winter and heginning of spring than at any other seeson. In the countries far up to the north, where the cold is intenss, this dew.water freezes at those eeasons. But when the air is getting warm and the snow melte, at that 20 time the Oxus rises. As for the water of the Tigris and Euphrates, their sources are not so high up in the north. Therefore they have high water in winter and spring, hecause the dew that falls flowa instantaneously into the rivers, and that portion of water that may have heen frozen melts away in the beginning of spring. The Nile, again, has high water when thereis low water in both Tigris and Enphrates, because its source lies in the Mons Lunc, as has hasn said, beyond the Abyssiuian city Assuan in the southern region, coming either exactly from the eqrator or from countries south of the equator. 30 This is, however, a matter of doubt, because the equatorial sone is not inhabited, as we have before mentioned. It is evidant that in those regions thers is no freezing of moist anbatances at all. If, therefore, the high water of the Niie is cansed by falling dew, it ia evident that the dew does not stay where it has fallen, but that it directly flows off to the Nile. But if the high water is cansed by the springs, theso have the most abundant water in spring. Therefore the Nile has high water in summer, for when the sun is near us and our zenith, it is far distant from the zenith of those places whence the Nile originates, and which in consequence have winter. As to the question why the springs have the most copious water in 40

winter, we must obssrve: the all-wise and almighty Creator, in creating the mountains, destined them for various purposes and uses. Some of them have been mentioned by Thabit b. Kurra in his hook on the reason why the mountains were created. It is the same caues which

ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 253

renders complete the intention (of the Creator) which he had in making the sea-water salt. Evidently more wet falls in winter than in summer, in the mountains more than in the plains. When, now, the wet falls and part of it flows away in the torrents, the remaining part sinks down into the channels in the mountain caves, and there it is stored up. Afterwards it begins to flow out through the holes, called springs. Therefore the springs have the most copious water in winter, because the substance by which they are nourished is then most copious. If, further, these mountain caves 10 are elean and pure, the water flows out just as it is, i.e. sweet. If that is not the case, the water acguires different qualities and peculiarities, the causes of which are not known to us. The bnbbling of the fountains and the rising of the water to a certain height are to he explained in this way, that their reservoirs lie higher than thay themselves, as is the case with artificial well-springs, for this is the only reason why water rises upward. Many people who attribute to God's wisdom all they do not know of physical sciences (i.e. who excuse their ignorance by saving " Allah ia all-wise!"), have argued with me on this suhject. In support of their 20 viaw they relate that they have observed the water rise in rivers and other watercourses, that the water the more it flows away (from its source) the more it rises. This they assert in complete ignorance of the physical canses and becauss they do not sufficiently distinguish hetwean the higher and lower situations (of the springs of rivers and of ths rivers themselves). The matter is this, that they observed water flowing in mountain streamlets, the bed of which was going downward at the rate of 50-100 yards and more for the distance of one mile. If the peasants dig a channel somewhere in this terrain, and this channel is made to incline a little towards the country (i.e. if the channel is rising), 30 at first the water flows only very little, until it rises to an enormous height above the water of the river; (then it commences to flow strongly). If, now, a man who has no training in these things believes that the natural direction of the river is to flow in a horizontal line or with a emall inclination (upwards), he must of necessity imagine that the river is rising in height. It is impossihle to free their mind from this illusion unless they acquaint themselves with the instruments by which pieces of soil are weighed and determined, and by which rivers are dug and excavated-for if they weigh the earth through which the wuter flows, 40 the reverse of what they believe becomes cvident to them ;- or unless they study physical sciences, and learn that the water moves towards the centre of the earth and to any placs which is nearest to the centre Thers is no doubt that the water may rise to any place where you want to have it, even if it were to the tops of the mountains, if previously it descends to a place which is lower than its maximum of ascent (which it

254 ALBİRÔNİ.

ultimately reachee), and if you keep away from it any aubstance which might occupy the place instead of the water when it finde the place empty. Now, the water in its natural function ie only assieted by the co-operation of sometbing forcible which acts like an instrument, and that ie the air. This has frequontly been carried out in canals, in the midst of which there were mouniains which it was impoasible to perforate. An illuetration of thia principle is the instrument called Water-thief, kActoopa. For if you fill it with water and put both its ends into two .263. vessels, in both of which the water reaches to the same level, then the 10 water in the xAahidpa standa still even for a long time, not flowing off into either of the two vessela. For the one vessel is not nearer (to the water) than the other, and it is impossible that the watershould flow off equally into hoth vessela, for in that case the inetrument would get empty. Now, emptiness is either a non-ens, as most philosophers suppoee, or it is an ens which attracts bodies, as others believe. If, now, the vacuum cannot exist, the matter is impossible, or if it ie something which attracta bodies, it keeps back the water and doee not let it flow off, except its place he occupied by some other hody. But if you then place the one end of the xdehidpa a little lower (than the other), the water 20 flows immediately off into that direction. For if ita place has once become lower, it hae come nearer to the centre of the earth, and eo it flows towards it, flowing continually in consequence of the adhesion and connection of the water-atoms amongst each other. It flows s0 long until the water of that vessel, whence the water ia drawn, is finiahed, or until the level of the water in the veeeel where it flows is equal to the level of the water in the vessel whence it is drawn. So the question returns to ita original condition. On this principle people have proceeded in the monntains. Sometimes even the water risee in artificial fountaine out of welle, in 30 case they have got epringing water. For one sort of wall-water, whichis gathered from droppings from the sides, does not rise at all; it ie taken from neighbouring maseee of water, and the level of the water which is gathered in this way is parallel to the level of those waters by which it ie nourished. On the other hand there ia one kind of water which bubbles (springe) already at the bottom. Of this water people hope that it may riae to the earth and flow on orer ita eurfaes. This latter kind of water is mostly found in countrirs near to mountains, in the midat of which there are no lakes or rivers with deep water. If the source of auch water is a reeervoir much above the level of the 40 earth, the water rises springing, if it is confined (to a narrow hed or channel); but if ita reservoir be lower, the water does not auccecd in rising to the oarth. Frequently the reservoir is higher by thousanda of yarde in the mountaine; in that case the water may rise up to the castles, and, eg., to the tope of the minarets,

ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 255

I have been told that people in Yaman often dig until they come to a certain rock under which they know that there is water. Then they knock upon this rock, and by the sound of ths knocking they ascertain the quantity of the water. Then they boro a small hole and examine it; if it is all right, they let the water bubble out and flow where it likes. But if they have some fear about the hole, they hasten to stop it up with gypeum and quicklime and to close it over ropcatedly. For frequently they fear that from such a bole a spring similar to the Torrent of Al'arim might originate. 10 As to the water on tbe top of the mountain betwcen Ahrashabr and Țua, a small lake of one farsang in circnmference, called Sabzarid, one of the following three things must be the case: 1. Either its material is derived from a reservoir much higher than the lake itself, although it may be far distant, and the water flows inte it in such a quantity as corresponde to that which the sun absorbs and vaporises. Therefore the water of the lake remaine in the same condition, quietly standing. 2. Or its material is derived from a reservoir which lies on the same level with the lake, and therefore the water of the lake does not rise 20 above that er the reservoir. 3. Or, lastly, the conditien of its sources in some way resembles that of the water of the instrument called Al-dahj, and the self-feeding lamp. p.264 The case is this: You take a water-jug, or an oil-vase; in sevcral places of the edge or lip of the vaae you mako fine splits, and you bore a narrow hole in it deeper than the mouth by so much aa you wish the water to remain in the jug and the oil in the vaae (i.e. the hole is to represent the line to which people wish the water or oil to risc). Thereupon you turn the jug upside down in the cup and the vase in the lamp. Then both water and oil flow out through the splits, until they $0 reach the level of the hole. When, then, se much has been consumed as the holc allows to pass, then comes forth that which lies next to the hole. In this way both oil and water kecp the same level. Similar to this little lake is a sweet-water well in the district of the Knnak in a mountain called Mankur, as large as a great shield. The surface of its water is alwaye on a level with ite margin. Frequently a whole army drinks out of this well, and still it does not decrease as much as the hreadth of a finger. Close to this well there are the traces of the foot, two hands with the fingers, and two knces of a man who had been wershipping there; also the traces of the foot of a child, and of the hoofs 40 of an ass The Ghuzzi Turks wership those traces when tbey see them. Moreover, similar to this is a small lake in the mountains of Bamiyan, one mile equare, on the top of the mountain. The water of the village which lies on the slope of the mountain comes down from that lake through a small hole in such a quantity as they require; but they are not able to make it flow more copiously.

ALBIRONİ.

Frequently the springing (rising of water) occure aleo in a plain country which gets its water from a reservoir in a high situation. If the rising power of the water wore kept down by an obstaclo, and then this obetacle is removed, the water begins at once to epring (riee). E.g. Aljaihani has mentioncd a village between Bukhara and Alkarya Alhaditha, where there is a hill that was perforated by diggers for hidden treasures, Suddenly they hit upon water which thcy were unable to keep back, and it has been flowing ever since till this day. If you are inclined to wonder, you may well wonder at a place called Filawan (Failawan) in the neighbourhood of Almilirjan. This place is 10 like & portico dug out in the mountain, from the roof of which water is always dropping. If the air gets cold, the water freezes and hangs down in long icicles. I have heard the people of Almihrjan maintain that they frequently knock the place with pickaxes, and that in consequence the spot which they knock becomes dry; but the water never increased, whilet reason would demand that it should alwaye remain in the same condition if it does not increase. More wonderful even than this ie what Aljaihani relates in his Kitnb.Almamalik wal-mesdlit of the two columne in the grand mosque of Kairawan, the material of which people do not know. People main- 20 tain that on every Friday before sunrise they drop water. It is curious that this should take place juat on a Friday. If it occurred on any week-day in general, it would be combined with the moon's reaching such and such a place of the sun's orbit, or with the like of it. This, however, is not admissible, since Friday is a conditio sine qua non of thie occurrence. The Greek king is said to have sent to bny them. He said: " It is better for the Muslims to utilize their prize than to have two stones in the moaque." But the people of Kairawan refused, saying: "We shall not let them pass out of the bouse of God into that of the devil." 30 Still more marvellous than this ia the self-moving column in Alķaira- 15. wan. For it inclines towarde one side. People put something under- neath when it inclines, and this you cau no longer take away if the column again stande erect; if glass ia put underneath, you hear the sound of breaking and crushing. This is no doubt a got-up piece of artifce, as also the place where the column siands seems to indicate. We return to our subject, and say : 29. Winterly air (Cæsar); winds, or moisture of the ground, and rain (Egyptiana). 80. Episemasia (Egyptians); winds and dew, moisture and mizzle 40 (Callippus and Euctemon). Ayyar. 1. Mizzle (Egyptiane). 2. Nothing montioned, 3. Wind, mizzle, dew, moisture, and thunder (Egyptians).

ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 257

4. Rain (Eudorus), mizale (Egyptians). 5. Rain (Dositheus). Sinan says that this is frequently the cass and that it hrings a strong episemasia. 6. Wind (Egyptians), rain (Eudosus), mizzle and episcmasia. (Lacuna.) Some people extend the rainy season as far as this day. It is tho time when the sun passes the (first) 20 degrces of Leo. In this respect the matter stands aa we have explained it at the beginning of the rainy season, when the sun moves in Cancer. 7. Winds (Egyptians). Sinan says that this is frequently the case, 10 more particularly so if on the preceding day heaven has a rainy appearanco. 8. Gushes of rain (Eudoxus and Dositheus), rain (Egyptians). 9. Rain (Egyptians). 10. Episemasia and wind (Callippus and Euctemon), rain (Egyp- tians). 11. Episemasia (Dositheus). Sinan says that it is true. 12. Episemasia (Eudoxus, Metrodorus, and Hipparchus); rain (Casar); west-wind (Egyptians). People say that on this and the following day there is no fear of frost doing harm to the fruita. This 20 remark can, however, only apply to one particular place; it cannot he meant in general. 13. Rain (Eudorus); north wind and hail (Egyptians). 14. Episemasia (Callippus, Euctemon, and Egyptians). 15. Rain (Cæsar). 16. Episcmasia (Casar). People say that on this day the first Somum is hlowing. 17. South wind or east wind and rain (Hipparchus and Egyptians). 18. Episemasia (Eudoxus); rain and thunder (Egyptians). 19. Episemasia and mizzle (Hipparchus and Egyptians). 20. Nothing mentioned. 21. Epissmasia (Cæsar); south wind (Dositheus), west wind (Egyp- tians). 22, 23. Nothing mentioned. 24. Episemasia (Callippus, Euctemon, and Philippus); winds (Egyp- p.266. tians). 25. Episemasia (Euctemon, Philippus, and Hipparchus). 26. Episemasia (Callippus and Euctemon); cold north wind (Egyp- tiana). 27. Dew and moisture (Callippus and Euctemon) ; episemasia 40 (Egyptians). 28. Rain (Mctrodorus aud Egyptians). 29. South wind or west wind (Hipparchus). 30. South wind (Cresar). 31. Nothing mentioned.

17

258 ALBiRONt

Haziran.

1. Dew and moisture (Endoxus and Dositheus); weet wind (Egyptians). 2. West wind (Egyptiane). 9. Wind and mizzle (Egyptians), and thunder. 4. Rain (Cæsar). 5. Mizsle (Egyptians). Cenfirmed by Sinan. 6, 7, 8. Nothing mentioned. 9. West wind and thunder (Egyptians). 10, 11, 12. Nothing mentioned. The 11th is the Nauroz of the Ihalif, 10 when people in Baghdad splash in the water, strew about dust, and play other games, as is well known. 12. Sinan saye that frequently a change of the weather takes place. 13. West wind and mizzle (Egyptians). 14. Nothing mentioned. 15. Mizzlo (Egyptians). 16. Nothing mentioned. People say that on this day the water sinke into the earth, whilst the Nile hegins to rise. The reason of thie is, as we have mentioned bafore, the difference of their sources and of other cireumstances, those of the Nile etanding in direct opposition to those of 20 all other rivers, On this day in a leap-year, and on the 17th in a commen year, the Plenitudo Mazima takes place, which is celebrated by Arabs and Persians. They eall it Mirin, which means th. Sun's getting full, i.e. the summer-solstice. On this day lightsubdues darkness. The light of the sun is falling into the wells, as Mubammad b. Mityar mentions; but this is only possible in countries the latitude of which is like the greatest declination, over which, therefore, the sun culminates. The Hayawaniyya-soct maintains that on this day the sun takes breath in the midst of heaven ; that, therefore, the epirite recognise each 80 other in the greatest heat. It is considered as a good omen to look into the intense heat. People eat pomegranates before having eatenanything else, and Hippocrates is said to have tanght that he whe eats & pome- granate on this day hefore having eaten anything else, enlightens hie constitution and bis xuos is pare during forty mornings. People relate, on the authority of Hanna the Hindh, that Kisra Psrwiz has said : "Sleeping in the shadow of a pomegranate cures a man of had diseaae and makes him safe from the demons." It belongs to the omine ef this day to rise in the morning f m eleep on the left side, and to fumigate with eaffron hefore speaking. 267. 17. Episemasia (Dositheus); heat (Egyptiaus). 40

2. West wind and heat (Egyptians). 19. Rein (Egyptians).

ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 259

20. West wind, main, and thunder (Egyptians). 21. Nothing mentioned 22. Episemasia (Democritus). 23. South wind or west wind (Hipparchus). 24. Nothing mentioned. People say that on this day the Sumumte begin blowing during fifty-one days. The Oxus rises aud froquently injnres the shores and their inhahitants. 25. West wind and heat (Egyptians). 26. West wind (Democritus and Egyptians). 10 27. Nothing mentioned. 28. Episemssia (Eudoxns); west wind and south wind and rein (Democritus) ; then the north wind hegins to blow during seven days. 29. Nothing mentioned. People sar that practical obrervers examine on this day the dew; if it is copious, the Nile rises ; if it is not copious, the Nile does not rise, and they get a barren year. 30. Winds (Egyptians) and unmixed air. 31. Nothing mentioned.

Tammúz.

1, 2. Nothing mentioned by our suthorities. 20 3. South wind and heat (Cæsar and Egsptians). 4. Wind (Egyptians) ; frequently it rains in their country. 5. South wind (Callippus, Metrodorus, and Hipparchus); west wind and thunder (Egyptians). 6. South wind (Callippus and Metrodorus); west wind and thunder (Egyptians). 7. Episemasia (Ptolemy). According to Sinan the weather frequently changes. 8. Dew and moisture, according to Meton, in bis conntry. 3. Dew (Euctemon and Philippus); west-by-weat wind (Egyptians). 80 10. Bad air (Egyptians). On this day they begin to hold the fair of Bugra during 25 dara; in the time of the Bann-'Umayya this fair used to last 30-40 davs. 11. Nothing mentioned. 12. West wind (Metrodorus); winds (Egyptians). 13. Unmixed winds (Hipparchus). According to Sinan the weather frequently changes. 14. Heavy wind (Cæsar); the north wind begins to blow (Hipparchus); heat (Egyptians). 15. Nothing mentioned. 40 16. Frequently it rains in rainy countries (Ptolery); rain and whirl- p.268. winds (Democritus); heavy wind (Egyptians). 17. Dew and heat (Dositheus and Egyptians). 18. The Etesian winds (Iryaiat) begin to blow (Hipparchus). Ac- cording to the general conscnt of seamen and peasants, and all those who 17 *

260 ALBIRCNt.

haro expcrience in this subject, this is the first day of the dog-days, i.e. seren conspeutive days, the last of which is the 24th of this month. On each of these deys they drow conclusions from certain changes of the weather regarding the months of the autumn and winter and part of spring; these changes mostly occur iu the evening and morning. People maintain that these days are to the year what the critical days are to acuto diseases,-when their criteria appear, in consequence of which people conceive either hope or fear as to the end in which they will issue. Both words bihur and tuhrun in the Greek and Syriac languages are derived from a word which means the decision of the 10 rulers (v. kpiois and xpimiuas huepa). According to another view, buhran ie derived from bahr (the Arabio for sea), because the critical state ef a sick person resembles the motion of the sea, called ebb and flow. This derivation ie very likely correct, because of both appearances the metiona of the meon, her cycles and phases, are the cause, whother the moon revolves in a Great Circle, as it is in the case of the flow, fer the fiow sats in when the meon reaches the western and eastern peint of tho horizon. The same is the case with the ebb, for it sets in when the moon reaches the sphere of the meridian of noon and miduight. Or whether it be that the moon revolves from one certain point of her cycle hack to the 20 same, or from the sun to that point. So the flow is the strengest in the first half of the lunar month, the wcakest in the secend half. Besides, also, the sun has an influence upon this. It is curious what people relate of the Western Sea, viz. that there ie flow from the side of Andalusia always at sunset, that then the sea deereascs at the rate of nbout 5-6 farsang in one hour and then it ebbe. And this appearance takes plnce always precisely at this time. If on the evening of the 18th there is a cloud on the horizon, peeple oxpect cold and rain at the beginning of Tishrin L If the same ie the case at midnight, the cold and rain will come in the middle of Tishrin I,; 30 and if it is the case towurds morning, the same will come in the end of that month. The matter is the same, if you observe a cloud on the horizon during daytime; however, the changes of the sky in the night are more evident. And if you observe those changes on all feursides of the cempass, the same, too, will occur in Tiehrin I. Herein the nighte are counted after the days, as we ha. ntioned i the heginning of thie boek, in censequence of which thos : whe count the nights before the days think that the night of the 18th is the 19th; therefore they consider the 19th as the first of the dog-days and the 25th as the last of them. 40 The Ist of these seven days servee to prognosticate the character of Tishrin I., the 2nd that of Tishrin II., the 3rd that of Kanun I., etc. etc., and lastly, the 7th, thai of Nisan. Practical observers prescribe the following: Take a plate some time before the dog-days, sow upen it all sorte of seeds and plants, and let it

ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENHAR. 261

stand until the 25th night of Tammuz, i.e. the last night of the dog- p.269. days; then put the plate semewhere outside at the time when the stars rise and set, and exposo it uncovered to the epen air. All seeds, then, that will grow in the year will be yellow in the morning, and all whose growth will not prosper will remain green. This esperiment the Egyptisns used to make, Practical ebservers have produced many contrivances for the purpuse of pregnosticating the character of the sear hy help of these (the dog) days; they havc evengone as far as to use ineantations and charms. So 10 some people maintain that if you take the leaves of twelve different olive- trees, and write upon each leaf the name of some Syrian month, if you then put them, in the night we have mentioued, somewhere in a wet place, you will find that, if a leaf has dried up in this night, the month which was written upen it will be rainless. According to others, you learn whether the year will have much rain or little, by this method: You look out for a level place, around whieh there is nothing that might keep off the dew, wind, and light rain; then you take two yards of a cotten dress, you weigh it and keep in mind its weight. Then you spread it over that plare and leave it there during 20 the first feur hours of the night. Therenpon you weigh it a secend timc ; then each Mithkat which it weighs more the second time than the first time signifies one rainy day in that month which stands in relation with this particular dog-day of which we have heretofore spoken. These dog-days are the time of the rising of Sirins (Ralb-aljabbar er Alshi'ra Alyamaniya Alabur). Hippecrates, in his hook of the seasons, forbids taking hot drugs and bleeding twenty days hefore and after the rising ef this star, because it is the hottest time of summer and the heat reaches its maximum, and because summer time hy itself warms, dissolves, and takes awar all moist substances. However, Hippocrates SO does not forbid those things if yon take but very little of them. After- wards, when autumn comes with its cold and dryness, you cannot be sure whether the natural warmth may not be entirely estingnished. Some people who have no practice iu physieal sciences and no knowledge of the percapa, thin': that the influence we have mentioncd must he attributed to the Lody of this star, to its risiug and revolution. They go even as far as to make people imagine that the air is warmed by its great mass; that, therefore, it is necessary to indicate and to explain its proper place and to determine the time of its rising. The same opinion is indicated by the verse of 'Abn-Nu'as:

40 " Îlal has gone and the hot night-wind passed away, And Sirius has extinguished his fire."

For this reason 'Ali b. 'Ali, the Christian secretary, maintains that the first ef the deg-days is the 22nd of Tammuz, suggesting that the dog-

262 ALBTRONt.

days have chauged their place along with the stsr itself, whilet I maintain that Sirius always revolves during the whole ycar in one and the same orbit parallel to the equator. Hippocrates, however, mesnt by this time tbe central portion of the summer, the period when the heat is greatest 0. in conscquence of the sun's being near to our zenith, whilst heat the same time begin. in his eccentric sphere to descend from the apogee of his orbit. And this event was in the time of Hippocrates contemporaneons with the rising of Sirius. Therefore he has only said in general at the time ehen Sirius rises, knowing that uo scientific man could misunder- stand the trnth. For if Sirius chauged its place so as to advsnce 10 even as far ss the beginning of Capricorn or Aries, the time during which he forhids taking drugs wonld not therefore advance in the same way. Sinan says in his Kitab-alanwni that the shepherds have seven special days of their own, beginning with the Ist of Tammuz, which they uss like the dog-days, drawing from them conclusions regarding the eingle winter months. They are known as " the dog-ddays of the shepherds." The weather of these days is always different from that of the time immediately preceding and following. During all or at least some of them heaven is hever free from a speck of clouds. 20 19. West wind or hent (Egyptians). The water dogs are getting strong and do mnch damage. 20. West wind or a similar one (Egyptians). Practical observers say that on this day frequent cases of inflammstion of the eyes occur. 21. The Etesian winds are blowing (Euctemon); the heat begins (Callippus, Euctemon, and Metrodorus). 22. Bad air (Euctemon) ; beginning of the heat (Hipparchus); west wind and heat (Egyptians). 23. Winterly air on sea, winds (Philippus and Metrodorus); beginning of the blowing of the Etesian winds (Egyptians). On this day 'Aht- S0 Ja'far Almangur began to build Baghdad, that part which is called Mansur's-town, on the western side of the Tigris in the present Baghdad. This was A. Alexandri, 1074. Astrologers are obliged to know dstes like this, and must date from such an epoch by means of their knowledge of the Permutationes, Terminationes, Cycles, and Dircctiones, until they find the horoscopes of those people who were born at those times. It wa8 Naubakht who determined the time (for the commencement of building). The constellation which heaven showed at the time, and the stations of the planeta which sppeared on heaven, were such as are indicated in the following figure.

ON THE DAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 263

Capricornite Arvitenens p.271 Ascendens Scorpio Libra Caput Draconit 25. Jupiter Moor 19.10 Ampho a Viryo Pisces Crnda Draconis Mars 2.50 Sun Leo Venns 29-0 Mercurius 257

Tanrus Gemini Aries Cancer

24. Winds (Philippus and Metrodorus): the Etesisn winds blow (Hipparchus). 25. South wind (Eudoxua and Casar) ; west or south wind (Egyptians). Sexual intereonrss and all exertion are forbidden, because it is tbe tims of the greatest heat. The river Orus hegins to rise. 26. South wind and heat (Philippus, Meton, Metrodorus, Democritus, and Hipparchus). 27. Dew and wet, and oppressive air (Enctemon and Dosithens). This oppressive air mostly occurs when heaven is covered and the air is in 10 perfect repose. But often, too, this is peculiar to a place whers this causs doss not exist, e.g. to the region beyond that bridge which, according to Aljaihani, was in old times built by the Chiness, reaching from the top of one mountain to that of another on the road that leads from Khotan to the region of the residence of the Khakan. For these who paas this bridge come into an air which makes breathing difficult and the tongue heavy, in consequence of wbich many travellers perish there, whilst others are saved. The Tibetans call it the "poison- mountain." 28. Nothing mentioned. 20 29. Beginning of the Etesian winds (Dositheus) ; heat (Egyptians). They hold the fair of Busra for a whole month, and that of Salamiyys p.272. for two weeks. 30. The Eteaian winds blow (Eudoxus): west wind aud heat (Egyptians). 31. South wind (Cæsar). Åb. 1. Heat (Hipparchus). 2. Nothing mentioned. 3. Dew falls (Eudorus and Dositheus); episemasia (Cæsar). 30 4. Great heat (Eudorus). 5. Hest, still and oppressive air, then blowing of winds (Dositheus

264 ALBiR ONt.

and Egyptians). Thay hold a fair at 'Adhri'ht during ffteen days, also in Al'urdunn, and in several districts of Palestine. 6, 7. Nothing mentioned. 8. The air is etill and oppressive (Callippus); wind, and intense heat (Egyptiens). According to Sinan, frequently there occure a change of the air. 9. Heat and still air (Euctemon and Cæsar) ; south wind and turbid air (Egyptiane). 10. Heat and still air (Eudorus, Metrodorus, and Dositheue); episemasia (Democritus). At this time the heat is very intenes. 10 11. The northerly winds cease to blow (Callippus, Euctemon, and Philippus); heavy wind (Eudoxus); different winds blow together (Hipparchus) ; thunder (Egyptians). According to Sinin there is always a change of the weather on this dey. He says : I do not know whether we, I and all those who make meteorological obssrvations, are correct in describing a day like this. On this day there is almost always & change of the weathcr for the better. It is the firat day when the air of Al'irak begins to be agreeable. Sometimes this change is most evident, whilst at other times itis only slightly perceptible. But that the day should be free from such a change, almost never occurs. 20 Some of the ancients coneider thia day as the heginning of the antumnal air, whilst others take as such the following day. Sinan says: Thabit used to say : If in a rare year that which we have descrihed does not take place on this dav it is not likely to take place on the 18th or 14th, but rather in the middle of Ab. If it takes place on the 11th, a season of agresable air is sure to return about the middle of the month, though it may only be ehort. 12. Heat (Euctemon and Egyptians). 13. Episemasia and still air (Casar). Sinan mays that on thia day an isreguiar change of the air freguently occurs. 14, 15. Nothing mentioned. 16. Episemasia (Cæesar). 17. Episemasia (Eudorus). 18. Nothing mentioned. The Samums are said to cease 19. Episcmasia, ruin, and wind (Democritus); west wind (Egyptians). 173. 20. Episemasia (Dositheus); heat and density in the air (Egyptians). 21. Nothing mentioned. 22. West wind and thunder (Eudoxus); episemasis and bad air (Cæsar and Egyptians). 28. West wind (Egyptians). 40 24. Episemasia (Eudoxus and Metrodorus). The heat relaxes a little at the time when the sun passee the firat 6 degrees of Virgo. 25. Episemasia (Eudoxue); eonth wind (Hipparchns); heat (Egyp- tians). 26. Rotating winde (Hipparchus). Between this day and the first of

ON THE DAYS OF THE GREER CALENDAR. 265

the Days of the Old Woman (i.e. 26 Shubat) lies one balf of a cemplete year. On thia day the heat, at the time when it is about to disappear, returns onca more with renewed force, as does alsothe cold at the tima when it is abont to disappear. It is a time of saven days, the last of which is the lat of flul, called by the Arabs Wakdat-Suhail (i.e. the hurning of Suhail). It is the time of the winda that accompany the rising of Aljabha (Frons Leonis, the 10th Lunar Station), hut as Suhail rises in ita neighbourhood, it has become the prevailing use to call the time hy Suhail and not by Aljabha. The heat of these days is more 10 intense than at any time before or afterwards. But after this time the nights bagin to he agreeable. This is an occurrence generally known among people, which scarcely ever fails. Muhammad h. 'Abd-almalik Alzayyât says: "The water had become cold and the night long, And the wine was found to be sweet; Haztran had left you, and Tammuz and Ah." 27. Episemasia (Philippus). 28. Weat wind (Egyptiana). 29. Rain and thunder; the Etesian winda are about te cease (Eudexue 20 and Hipparchus). 30. Episemasia (Hipparchus). 31. The Eteaian winds are about to ceass (Ptolemæus); changing winds (Eudoxus) ; winde, rain, and thunder (Cæsar) ; east wind (Hipparchus).

1. Episemasia and the Etesian winds are getting qniet (Callippus). A fair is held at Manbij (Mabbug) 2. Density in the air (Metrodorue). Conon eaye that on this day the Etesian winds cease. 30 3. Wind, thunder, and density in the air (Eudoxus); wet and dew (Hipparchus) ; fog, heat, rain, and thunder (Egyptians). On this day people hegin to light their fires in cold countries. 4. Dense and changing air (Callippus, Euctemon, Philippus, and Metrodorus); rain, thunder, and hungiog wind (Eudoxus). 5. Changing winds and rain, and the Etcsian winds are getting quiet (Casar); raine and winverly air at sea, and south wind (Egy ptians). On this day midsummer ends, and a time comes which ie good for bleeding p.274 and for taking drugs during forty daye. 6. West wind (Egyptians). 40 7. Density in the air (Philippus); episemasia (Doeitheus). 8. West wind and episemasia (Egyptiane). 9. Nething mentioned. 10. The air is not tronbled (mixed) (Desitheus).

266 ALBİRONİ.

11. The north winds are ceasing (Cæsar). 12. South wind (Eudoxus). 13. Episemasia (Callippus and Conon). 14. The north winds are ceasing (Eudoxus); episemasia (Demooritus and Metrodorus). After this time no swallow is seen. 15. Wet and dew (Dositheus); rains and episemasia (Egyptians). 16. Density in the air, and rain at sea (Hipparchus). On the 16th in a common year and on the 17th in a leap-year occurs the second equinox, which is the first day of the Persian autumn and the Chinese spring, as people maintain. But we have already explained 10 thst this is impossible. The winds, now, blowing on this day are said to be of a psychical nature. To look towards the clouds that rise on this day emaciates the body and affects the soul with disease. I think the reason of this is that people conceive fear on account of the cold and the disappearance of the agreeable time of the year. It is one of the omina of this day to rise from sleep in a worshipping attitude, and to fumigate with tamarisks hefore speaking. People say that if a woman who is sterile looks on this day at the star Alsuha and then haa intercourse with her husband, she is sure to 20 conceive. Further, they say, that in the night of this day the waters are getting eweet. We have already heretofore shown the impossibility of such s thing. This second equinox is, according to the Canon Sindhind, a great festival with the Hindus, like the Mibrjan with the Persians. People mahe each other presents of all sorts of valuable objects and of precious stones. They assemble in their temples and places of worship until noon. Then they go out to their pleasure-grounds, and there they assemble in parties, showing their devotiou to the (Deity of) Time and 30 humbling themselves before God Almighty. 17. Rain at sea and density in the air (Metrodorus). 18. West, then cast wind (Egyptians). 19. Wet and dew (Eudoxns) ; west wind, mizzle, and rain (Egyptians). On this day the water returns from the upper parts of the treee to the roots. 20, 21. (Miseing.) 22. Nothing mentiousd. 23. Rain (Eudoxus); west wind or south wind (Hipparchus). 24. Nothing mentioned. On this day the fair of Thu'fliba is held. 40 Practical obeervers say that people mark on this day what wind is con- stantly hlowing itil night or until the time when the sun begins to decline; for this will be the most constant of all the winds of the year. This day they called the Turning of the winds. The white-aud- black crows appear on this day in most countries.

ON THE PAYS OF THE GREEK CALENDAR. 267

25. Episemasia (Hipparchus and Eudoxus); weat wind or south wind p.275. (Egyptians). 26, 27, 28. (Missing.) 29. Episemasia (Euctemon and Eudoxus); west wind or south wind (Hipparchus). 30. Nothing mentioned by theancients, either about the air or anything else.

This, now, is the calendar used by the Greeks, to which we have added all that Sinan has mentioned in his Kitab-alanwa. This is the concise 10 summary of his book. We hare not kept back anything which we have learned regarding the days of the calendar. We quote them by the names of the Syrians (i.e. as the Ist of Tishrin, Kanun, etc.) only, because they are generally known among people, and because thie serves the same purpose (as if we were to call them by the Greek names). Next we shall speak of the memorable days in the months of the Jews, if God Almighty permits!

268 ALBİRONİ.

CHAPTER XIV.

OF THE FESTIVALS AND FAST-DAYS IN THE MONTHS OF THE JEWS.

AFTER having explained the method bow to learn the beginning of the year of the Jews, and its character,-after having solved this problem by the help hoth of computation and tables,-after having shown the arrangement of the months according to their beginnings and to the number of their days,-we hold it now to be necessary to explain their festivals and memorabls days. For getting acquainted with them we shall at the same time learn the reason why they, even New-Year's Day itself, are not allowed to fall on certain days of the week. We begin 10 with the first month, i.e.

Tishri. It has 30 days and only one Rosh-Hodesh. As we have explained before, the Ist Tiehri cannot fall on a Sunday, Wednesday, or Friday Y7N. When, according to calculation, it ought to fall on one of these days, it is disregarded, and New-Year's Day is either the fc'lowing day, if it is a Dies licita, or the preceding day, in cass ths following ons is not a Dies licita according to the conditions that have been laid down in the Tabula Terminorum in the first part of this book. This proceeding of theirs they call j77. The Ist is the feast of New.Year, when they blow 20 the trumpets and trombones, which are rams-horns. All work ceases on this day as on Sabbath. On this day, the, maintain, Abraham offered his son Isaac, but then Isaac was ransomed by means of a ram. According to Jews and Christians, the person offered was Isaac, whilst there is a passage in the Coran in the Sura Wel-saffat (Stra xxxvii. 99- 113), showing that it was Ishmael. And, according to tradition, the Prophet is reported to have said: "I am the son of the two sacrificed ones," meaning 'Ahdallah b. Almuttalib and Ishmacl However, the discussion of this question is a subject of great extent. God knows best ! 30

FESTtYALS AND FASTS OF THE JEWS. 262

S. Fasting of Gedalya b. 'Ahikam, the governor of Nebucadnezar over Jerusalem. On this day he was killed, together with eighty-two p.276. people, in a eistern in which the water collected until it rose above their heads. In consequence the Israclites were stricken with sorrow, and have ever since fasted on the dav of his death. 5. Faating of 'Akibha. People wanted to compel him to worship the idol; he, however, did not suhmit. So they put him iuto a cage where he died of hunger, surrounded by twenty fellow prisoners. 7. Fasting of punishment. Its origin is this, that David, on having 10 counted the Israelites, rejoiced in their number, and people themselves were puffed up on account of their great uumber, so as to go astray. Therefore God hecame angry with them, and sent the prophet Nathan to David and the assembly of the tribes to threaten them with the sword, with famine, and sudden death. His threatening was fulfilled. So they were stricken with fright, and have ever since fasted on this day. On the same day the Israelites killed each other on account of the worship of the calf. They say that it was Aaron who made the calf, and o it is related in the Thora. The Jew Ya kub h. Musa Alnikrisi (i.e. the physician) told me in 20 Jurjan the following : Moses wanted to leave Egypt together with the Israelites, but Joseph the prophet bad ordered that they should take his coffin along with them. As he, however, was buried in the bottom of the Nile and the water flowed over him, Moses could uot get him away. Now, Moses took a piece of a paper and cut it into the figure of a fish; over this he recited some sentence, hreathed npon it, wrote something upon it, and threw it into the Nile. Waiting for the result he stayed there, following the course of the river, but nothing appeared. So Moses took another piece of paper and cut it into the figure of a calf, wrote upon it, recited over it, breathed upon it, but then, 80 when he was just about to throw it into the water, as he had done the first time, the coflin appearcd. So he threw away the figure of the calf which he just held in his hand, but it was taken up by one of the bystanders. Afterwards, when Moses disappeared on the mountain to speak with the Lord, and when the Israelites hecame anxious at his staying there s0 long, they pressed Aaron and demanded of him that he should give them & viceregent instead of Moses. Aaron, uo doubt, did not know what to do; so he said : " Bring me all the precious ornaments of your womcn." So he spoke in order to gain time, knowing that the women would not be in a hurry to part with their ornaments. Possibly Moses might return 40 bcfore that. But it happened that the women gave up their ornaments most speedily. They fetehed Aaron and he melted the ornaments and poured them into a mould; but the result was nothing but broken pieces of iugels. The same work he repeated in a hurry, hoping for the return of Moses and for news of him. Now he happened to have with himself the figure of that calf (which Moses had cut out of paper). So

270 ALBİRONİ.

he said to himsslf: "By the figure of the fish once a wonderful miracle has been wrought. Now, let me see what the figure of the calf will produca !" He took the figure and threw it into the molten gold; when then the liquid maas was ponred into a mould, it was formed into a calf which roared. Thereby the people were at that time seduced from ths true helief without Aaron's having intended it. p.277. 10. Fasting of Kippur, also called Alashitra. This faat-day is obligatory, whilst all other ones are voluntary. Kippur-fasting begins half an hour befors sunset of the 9th and lasts until half an hour after sunset of ths 10th during 25 houre. In this way, too, all the voluntery 10 fast-days are held. Therefore it is impossible that two of their fast. days should immediately follow each other, because one hour would belong to both of them in common, and because there would be no possibility of breaking ths fast between them. Yakub, however, main- tains that this is a peculiarity only of this fast-day, whilst in the case of all the other fast-days it is allowed to fast in the same way (i.e. the same length of time) that the Muslims do. On this day God addressed Moses the son of Amram. The fasting of this day is an atonement for all sins that are committed by mistake. The Jewish law orders everybody to be killed who does not .ast on this 20 day. They recite five prayers on this day, prostrating themselves upon the earth, which is not the custom on the other festivals. 15. The feast of Tabernactes, lasting seven consecutive days, during which they rest under ths shadow of willows and reeds and other branches on the roofs of their houses. This is obligatory only for him who dwells at home, not for the traveller. On these days all work ceases, as God says in the third book of the Thom (Levit. xxiii. 34-43): "And on ths fifteenth of the seventh month is the feast of Tahernacles. Then yon shall not work during seven days. You shall celebrate a feast before God anu you shall sit in the tente, the whole house of Israel, during seven 30 days, that your (future) generations should know that it waa I who made the Israelites dwell in tabernacles, when I led them out of Egypt." This feast is celebrated by ths whole Jewish nation, whilst 'Abu-'Isa Alwarrak says in his Kitab-almakalat of the Samaritans that they do not celebrate it. The last or seventh day of the feast of Tabernacles, the 2Ist of the month, is called 'Arabha. On this day the clouds stood over the beads of the Israelites in the desert Altih. On the same day is the foast of the Congregation, when the Jews assemble in Harhara of Jerusalem, carrying around in procession the 40 Ark of the Covenant, which in their synagogues is like the pulpit (Minbar) in a mosque. 22. Ths feast of Benediction, by which this feast-time is completed. All work ceases. They maintain that on this day the communication of the Thora was finished, and that the Thora was handed over to their

FESTIVALS AND FASTS OF TAE JEWS. 271

ohiefs to be deposited in their synagogues. On this day they take the Thora out of its shrine, they bless themselves by it, and try to derive auguries from unfolding and reading it.

Marhesh wan. It has always two Rosh-Hodesh, and it has 30 days in a Perfect year and 29 days in an Intermediate year or in an Imperfect one. On these two Rosh Hodesh there is no feast. 6. Fasting of Zedekia. Its origin is this, that Nebukadnezar killed the children of Zedekia, whilst he stood before them, patient and enduring, 10 not weeping nor manifesting any sign of despair. Theu both his eyes p.278. were pnt out. Therefore the Israelites were stricken with sorrow, and have ever since fasted on this day. Differing herefrom, other people fix this fast-day on the Monday falling between the 8th and the 13th of this month. This, howcver, is not like a method suitable to Jewish ways; it is rather like Christian theoriss. The generality of Jews fir their fast-days on certain dates in the months, not on week-days.

Kislew. It has only one Rosh-Hodesh in a Perfect year. It has 30 days in a 20 Perfect and Intermediate year; 29 iu an Imperfect year. 8. A fast-day. Its origin is this, that Yehoyakim burned the papers, called mu i.e. the Lamentations. They centained a promise of God, and were brought by the prophet Jeremia. They treated of the condition of the Israelites in future times and of the calamities that would befall them. Jeremia sent the book through Barukh b. Neriyya, but Yehoyakim threw it into the fire, and therefore there arose marifold lamentations. Other peopte fir this fasting on the Thursday falling between the 19th and the 25th of this month. 25. Beginning of the feast Hanukka, i.e. purification. It lasts eight 30 days, during which they light lamps at the door of the hall; on the first night one lamp for each inhabitant of the honse, on the second night two lamps, in the third 'three, etc. etc., and finally eight lamps on the eigbth night, by which they mean to express that they incrcase their thanks towards God from day to day by the purification and sanctification of Jerusalem. The origin is this: Antiochus, the king of the Greeks, had subdued and maltreated them during a long period. It was bis custom to violate the women, before they were led to their spouses, in a subterranean vault. From this vault two cords led outside, where two bells were fired at their ends. When, now, he wanted a woman, he rung 40 the right hell, and the woman entered; when he had done with her, he rung the left bell and dismissed her. Further, there was an Israelite who had eight sons, and one daughter whom another Israelite had demanded in marriage. Now, wanting to marry her, the father of his

272 ALBİRONİ.

bride said: "Give mo time; for I mand between two things. If we lead my daughter to you, sbe will be dishonoured by the oureed tyrant, and she then is no longer a lawful wife for yon. And if sbe dees not eubmit te bim, he will male me perish." Fer this state of things he blamed and reviled hie sons, whe became greatly excited and angry. But the joungeet of tham jumped up, dressed like a woman, hid a daggor in his garmente, and went to the gate of the king, behaving like the whores. Now, the tyrant rang the right bell, and he was uehered into hie presence; there, being alone with him, he killed bim and out eff his head ; then he rang the left bell and wue let out, and atuck up the 10 bead (semewhere). Therefore the Israelites celebrate a feast on that and the fellowing days (i.e. seven daye), corresponding tc the number of the brothers ef this jouth. Ged knowe hest!

279. TebetE. It has ene Rosh-Hodesh in an Imperfect year, two in a Perfect and Intermediate year. It has 29 days. 5. First appearance of darkness. Ptolemy, the king ef the Greeks, had asked them for the Thora, compelled them te translate it into Greek, and deposited it in his treasury. They maintain that this ie the versien of the Seventy. In consequence darknees spread over the werld during 20 three daye and nights. 8. A fast-day, the last of the three Dark daye, eo called for the resson just mentiened. 9. A fast-day which they are erdered to keep, the origin of which they are ignerant of. 10. A fast-day, the day on which Nehuladnezar arrived befere Jerusalem and laid wiege to it.

Shebst. It has only one Rosh-Hodesh and 30 days. 5. A fast-day on acconnt of the death of the saints in the time ef 30 Jeaua b. Nun. Other people fix thie fast-day on the Menday between the 10th and 15th of this month. 23. Fasting of the Rebellion. Its erigin is this: The trihe of Benjamin were a godless and lawless set of peeple, whe behaved like the people of Lot. Now, there came a man whe wanted to pase through their country with his wife and maid-servant, making bis pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Some countryman of his received him in his house; but scarcely had darknese fallen when the people of the place surrounded the deor of his heuse, demanding his guest fer their lust. Now, the master of the heuse offered to them his own daughter; but they said: "We de net 40 want her." Then he gave up to them the servant-girl ef his guest, and then they raped her the whole night. The girl erpired tow :ds dawn. Then her master cut her inte pieces (12) accerding to the number of the

FESTIVALS AND FASTS OF THE JEWS. 278

tribes of Israol; and to each tribe he sent one of her limbs, in order to rouse their wrath. Now, they acsembled and made war upon that tribe, but thoy could not conquer them. Thereupon they fasted on this day and humiliated thomselves before God. Finally He gave them vietory over Benjamin; forty thousand men of this tribe were killed and seventy thousand of the others. Adhar I.

It is tbe leap-month in the leap-ycar. It does not exist in common yaare, and is not counted among their months. It has two Rosh-Hodesb 10 and 30 days. Thers is not fast or feast day in this month.

Adhar II.

Thie is the original Adhar, which is called so in general (without the addition of I. or II.) in common years. There cannot be any ambiguity about what wa just mentioned, speaking of another Adhar preceding this one (because this only relates to leap-yeare). It has two Rosh-Hodesb and 29 diys. 7. A ast-day, because on this day Moses b. Amram died, and because with his death the manna and the quails ceased to appear. 9. A fast day which the Israelites established for themselves at the 20 time when the war between the people of Shammai and of Hillel took p.280. place, in which twenty-eight thonsand men were killed. Others fix this fast-day on the Monday hetween the 10th and 15th of this month. 13. The fasting of Albtiri (Purim), i.e. casting lots. Its origin is this : Once & man called Haman, a man of no importance, travelled to Tustar in order to undertake some office. But on the way thither he met with an obstacle which prevented him from reaching the end of his journey, and this happened on the identical day ou which the offices (in Tustar) were bestowed. So he missed this opportunity and fell into utter distress. 80 Now, he took his seat near the temples and demanded for every dead body (that was to be buried) 3} dirhams. This went on until the daughter of King Ahashwerosh died. When people came with her body, he demanded something from the bearers, and on being refused he did not allow them to pase, until they yielded and were willing to pay him what be asked for. But then he was not content with bis first demand; he asked for more and more, and they paid him more and more, till at last it reached an enormous sum. The king was informed of the matter, and he ordered them to grant him his desire. But after a week he ordered bim into hie presence, and asked him: "Who invested 40 you with such an office?" But Haman simply answered this: "And who forbade me to do so?" When the king repeated his question, Haman said: " If I am now forbidden to do so, I shall cease and give it up, and I shall give you with the greatest pleasure so and so many ten 18

411 ALBIRUNI.

thousands of denars." The king was astonished at the great sum of meney which he mentioned, because he with all bis snpreme power had nething like it. Se he said : " A man whe gathered so much money from the rule ever the dead, is worthy to be made wazir and counciller." So he entrusted him with all his affairs, and ordered his subjeets to obey him. This Haman wae an enemy of the Jews. He asked the Haruspices and Augures which was the most unlucky time fer the Jews. They sud: "In Adhar their master Musa died, and the most unlucky time of this month is the 14th and 15th." New Haman wrote to all parts of the empire, 10 ordering peeple on that day to seize upon the Jews and to kill them. The Jews of the empire prostrated themselves befere him, and appeared before him, cressing their hands upon their breasts, except one man, Merdekhai, the brether ef Ester, the king'e wife. Haman hated her, and planned her destruction on that day; but the king's wife understood him. Now she reuurved (in her palace) the king and his wazir, enter- taining them during three days. On the fourth day she asked the king permission to lay befere him her wishes. And then she asked him to spare her life and that of her brother. The king said: "And who dares to attempt anything against you both?" She pointed to Haman, Now 20 the king rose from his eeat in great wrath; Haman dashed towards the queen, prostrating himself befero her, and then kissing her head, but she pushed him back. Now the king got the impressien that he wanted to seduce her; so he turned towards him and said: "Hast thou in thy im- pudence come so far as to raise thy desire to ber?" Se the king ordered him to be killed, and Ester asked him to have him crueified on the same tree which he had prepared for her brother. So the king did, and wrote to all parts of the empire te kill the partisane of Haman. Se they were killed on the same day on which he had intended to kill tho Jews, i.e. en .

thie day. the 14th. Therefore there is great joy over the death ef Haman on so

This feast ie also called the Feast of Megilla, and further Haman.Sur. 281. For on this day they make figuree which they beat and then burn, imitating the burning of Hamin. The same they practise on the 15th.

Miisan.

It has only ons Rosh-Hodesh and 30 daye. I. Fasting over the death of Nadab and Abihu, the sor.s of Aaron, who died hecause they introduced foreign fire into the temple of God. 10. Fasting over the death of Maryam, the daughter of Amram, and ever the sinking and disappearing of the water, a miracle which occurred 40 on account of her death, as the manna and the quails ceased to appear in consequence of the death of Moses b. Amram. Seme people fix this day on Monday between the 5th and the 10th ef the month. 15. Passover-feast, of which we have already treated at euch length

FESTIVALS AND FASTS OF THE JEWS. 275

that there is no neceasity for a repctition. This day is the fire of the Days of Unleavened Bread, during which they are not allowed to eat leavened bread. For euch is the command of God in the third book of the Thora (Levit. xxiii. 6), where He says: "Ou tho fifteenth of this month is the feast of the unleavened bresd unto God. Then yon shall eat un- leavened bread during soven daye, and you shall not work during them." These daye end with eunset of the 21at. On thie day God drowned Pharao; it is aleo called KAt.

Iyar.

10 It haa two Rosh-Hodesh and 29 daye. 10. Fasting over the Ark. It ie the day when the Iaraelites were deprived of the ark, and wheu thirty men of them were killed. The priest Eli then managed their affairs. Hie gall-bladder split, and he fell dead from his seat, when he heard the news. Others fix thia fasting on the Thursday between the 6th and 11th of the month. 28. Fasting, hecause on thie day the prophet Samuel died.

Siwan.

It has only one Rosh-Hodesh and 30 days. 6. The Foast of the Congregation, a great festival, and one of the 20 Dun of the Israelites. On this day their elders were preeent at Mount Sinai, where they heard the voice of God from the mountain speaking to Moses, ordering and forbidding, promising and threatening. They were ordered to celebrate a feast on this day as a thanksgiving to God forhaving preserved them from all mishap in their country, and their erope from thunder, cold, and rain. God eays in the second hook of the Thora: "And you shall make a pilgrimage to me thrice in every year: first, at the time of the unleavened bread; secondly, when the Thora was sent down, this is the pilgrimage of the Feast of the Congregation ; and the third time, at the end of the year, when yon bring in your fruit S0 from the fields. Your feasting and your devotion to God shall be in sacred houees." On this day they offer the first-fruita. Then they read prayere over them and invoke the blessing of God upon them. Between the firet of the Days of the Unleavened Bread and the Feast of the Congregation there are fifty days, These are the celebrated weeke during which they received their commandmente, when their law was completed, and they were tanght all knowledge relating to God. Fasting on the Monday between the 9th and 14th. 23. Fasting. They say that on this day Jeroheam b. Nebat ordered the p.282.

40 ten tribea to worship two golden ealves, and that they oboyed him. HTie children ruled over them about two hundred and fifty years, until Salman 18 *

270 ALBiRtNi.

Al'a'shar, the king of Mosul, conquered them and led thoin into cap- tivity. Then they were united with the other tribes in ths time of Hizkia. Yerobeam b. Nebat was one of the slaves of Solomon, the son of David; he fled from his master, and the Israelites made him their king. Then he kept them from making pilgrimages to Jerusalem by the worship of these two calves, knowing that if they wen. to Jerusalem they would come to consider why they had made him their king; they would learn the reality of his case, and would depose and kill him. 25. Fasting over the death of Simeon, Samuel, and Hananya. 10 2'. Fasting, for this reason: one of the Greek kings wanted to force Rabba Hananya b. Teradhyon to worship the idol; he, however, did not yield. Therefore the king ordered a Thora to be wrapped round him, and him to be burned in it. Besides he put in prison Rabba 'Akiha, and forbade people to follow him, and he strove to abolish the Sahbath.

Tammuz.

It has two Rosh-Hodesh and 29 days. It has no feast. 17. Fasting, for on this day Moses broke the tables, and the fortifica- tione of Jerusalem began to he destroyed at the time when Nehukadnezar besieged them. Furtber, on this day they put up an idol for worship in 20 Jeruealem, and placed it in the altar-place of the temple, from eheer in- solence and rebellion against God. On this day the Thora was burned, and the sacrificee ceased to be practised.

AbL.

It has only one Rosh-Hodesh and 30 days. 1. Fasting, becauee on this day Aaron h. Amram died, and the eloud was raised as a miracle in his honour. 9. Fasting, because on this day they were told in the desert that they should not enter Jerusalem, and were sorry in consequence. On this day Jerusalem was conquered and entered by Nebukadnezar, who destroyed 30 it by fire. On this day it was destroyed the second time, and its soil ploughed over. 25. Fasting, because the fire was tinguished in the temple. On this day Nehukadnezar left Jerusalem, and the conflagration of its storehousce and temples was put an end to. 28. Fasting, because the lamp of the temple was ertinguished in the days of the prophet Ahas, which was a sign of God's wrath against them.

It has two Rosh-Hodesh and 29 days, but no feast. 40

FESTIVALS AND FASTS OF THR JENS. 277

7. Fasting of the Spies. Ou this day tho spies returned to Moses, nnd bronght him the report of the giants. Therefore tho Israelites were sorry, hut Josva b. Nun refured them. For this reasou ths fast-day was p.283. estahlished. Other Jews, however, place this fast-day on the Mouday or Thursday which falls within the last seven days before the beginning of the next şear. (On the nvTT of the Jewish Calendar.) -- The reason why they did not allow that-

10 The first of Tishr should ever he y7N (I. IV. VI. days of the week), Kippur be ,(. I. III. VI ) אגר Purin or Haman Sar בדז (II. IV. VII.), Passover ,(. II. IV. VI ) בלו 'Agereth T2 (III. V. VII.),

was this, that they wanted to preveut a day for any work falliug on a Sahhath ; for in that case they wonld not have been able to celebrate it, since they are not allowed to work ou a Sabhath. For God says in the second hook (Erod, xxxv. 2):"He who works ou a Sabbath shall be killed." And in tbe fourth book (Num. Xv. 32-36) it is related that they found a 20 man of the Israelites in the desert working on a Sabbath and gathering wood. He was hrought before Moses and Aarou, and they put him in prison. But God said to Moscs, " Kill him," and so he was stoned to death. A second reason (why they did not allow the feasts to fall on the days mentioned) was this, that they wished to prevent a Sabbath aud anotber day on which all work ceases following each other. As for Sunday, N, they did not allow it to heNew.Year's Day, because God says in the third book (Levit. xxii. 24-25): " On the first day of the seventh month you shall have rest, and s memorial of blowing of trumpets. 30 Then you shall not work on that day, but yon shall offer sacrifices." If, now, this day follows a Sabbath, the Jew gets two consceutive days of rest; the means of his maintenance are gettiug scanty, and he is brought to a condition in wbich it is difficult for him to make good the deficiency. In this case, 'Ardbhi falls on a Sabhath, and almsgiving, and the other works prescribed for this das, could not be carried out. For the same reason Kippir could not fall on a Tues lay, nor the preceding Passover on & Friday, nor the preceding 'Asereth on a Sabbath, because if this were the case the Ist of Tishri would fall on a Suuday. The reason why they do not allow New-Year's Day to be a Wednesday 40 (-), is that God sass in the third book (Levit. xxid. 27-32) : "On the tenth day of theseventh month shall be remission. On this day you shall not do the lesst work from the evening of the ninth of the month till the (next) evening." Therefore all work is suspended on Kippur (the 10th,

278 ALBİRONİ.

in this case a Friday), and the following Sabbath is likewise a day of rest. So Kippur cannot fall ou a Friday, nor the preceding Passover on a Monday, nor the preceding 'Asereth on a Tuesday. The reason why they do not allow New-Year's Day to fall on a Friday () is thia, that Friday is followed by Sabbath, and becanse in that case Kippur would fall on & Sunday, following upon & Sabbath, and the Fenat of Benediction would fall on a Friday preceding a Sabhath, an order of days which is forbidden by the law. For the same reaeon Kippur cannot fall on a Sunday, nor the preceding Passover on a Wednesday, nor the preceding 'Asereth on & Thursday, because all this would necessitate 10 4. New-Year's Day being a Friday, and thence would result those con- eequences which we have mentioned. Therefore people endeavoured to constrnet the calendar in snch & way as to prevent two daye of rest following each other, and 'Arabha falling on a Sabbath, because on this day they must give alms and must make & pilgrimage around the pulpit, which they call 'Aron, mN, or Kilwadh. Further, they had to prevent Purim falling on & Sabbath, which would keep them from burning Heman and uttering their joy thereat. And lastly, they had to prevent 'Asereth falling on & Sabbath, because in that case they could not bring their seeds and their first-fruits, and other 20 things that are preecribed for this day. 'Abu-'Isa Alwarrak speaks in his Kitib-Almakdldt of & Jewish sect called the Maghribis, who maintain that the feasts are not legal unless the moon rises in Palcetine as a full moon in the night of Wednesday, which fcllows after the day of Tuesdsy, st the time cf sunset. Such is their New-Year's Day. From this point the days and months are counted, snd here begina the rotation of the annual festivals. For God created the two great lights on a Wednesday. Likewise they do not allow Passover to fall on any otber day except on Wednesday. And the obligations and rites prescribed for Passover they do not hold to be 30 necessary, except for those who dwell in the country of the Israclites. All this etands in opposition to the custom of the majority of the Jews, end to the prescriptions of the Thora. The Ananites fix the heginning of the months by the observation of the appearance of new moon, and settle intercalation by that eort of prognos- tication which we have mentioned. They do not mind on what days of the week the feasts fall, except as regards Sabhath. For in this case they postpone the feasts to the following Sunday. This postponement they call Nyjr. On a Sabbath they do not touch any work whatsoever; even the circumcision of the children they postpone till the following 40 day, in opposition to the practice of the Rabbanites. With the euspensiou of work on a Sabbath certain curious affairs are connected. In the tirat instance God says in the Coran (Stra vii. 163): "Then their fishee appearing on the surface of the water come to them on the day when they celebrate Sabbath; but or a day on which they

FESTIVALS AND FASTS OF THE JEWS. 279

do not celebrate Sabbath the fishes do not come to them." Furthsr, AljaihAni relates in his Liber Regnorum el Viarum, that eastward of Tiberias lics the city of Balinas (Apollonias?), where the Jordan has its souree. There the rivor drives mille, that stand still on a Sabbath and do not work, hecauss the water disappears beneath the carth until ths end of Sabbath. For this oceurrence I am unable to find a physical ex- planation, because its repetition and revolution is based upen the days of the weok. Annual occurrences are accounted for by the suu and hisrays, monthly occurrences by the moon and her light, as e.g. the altar in Greece 10 which of itself burned the sacrifices on one certain day of the year, under the influence of the reflected solar rays which were concentrated on a certain spot of the alta. etc. 'Abu-'Isa Alwarrak relates in his Kitob-Almakalat that a Jewish sect, the Alfaniyya (Millenarit), reject the whole of the Jewish feasts, aud p.285. maintain that they cannot be learned except through a prophet, and that they keep no other feast-day but Sabbath. The following table, the Tabula Argumentationis, illustrates what we have stated bcfore regarding the feasts, aud shows that New-Year's Day cannot fall on the days mentioned, i.e. the days of the sun, of Mereury 20 and Venus. The red ink indicates a Dies illicita, the black ink a Dies licita. If, now, the transversal line of numbers which correspond to the feasts mentioned at the tops of the single columus is black from begin- ning to end, all these numbers signify Dies licitæ; if, however, some of those numbers, or all of them, are writteu in redink, those some or all of them are Dies illicite. Opposite the numbers we have placed a special column ior the terms " Necessary," " Possible," and " Impossible." The terms necessary and impossible do not ueed an explanation. The term possible means that if New-Year's Day falls on a Dieslicifa, but some of the numbers indicating the single feast-dsys in the transversal line are 30 written in red ink, those days ar Dies illicite in commou years, whilst they are Dies licite in a leap-year of the same quality, and vice versd. This table shows clearly why some of the (three) kinds of Jewish years can follow each other, whilst others cannot, as we have meutioned before. For if Rosh-hashshanai of a year following after a year of a certain quality ( or w) is such as could not be the heginning of a year of another quality, these two kinds may follow each other; in any other case they cannot follow each other. From this rule, however, we must except the Imperfect years (I), because the fact that two years n cannot follow each other rests on another ground; hercof we have 40 already spoken in the preceding part.

280 ALBİRON !.

TABULA ARGUMENTATIONIS I." 1. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Adhst. Nissn Stwan. Tisbrt TiahrL! ties. ties. Ist of Tiabrt. following year, feaats depend. which the other 'Asereth, 6th of "rAbha, 21st of" Kippur, 10th of Passorer, 15th of Beginning of the Purtm, 14th of Secondary qnali- Primary quali- Divisions. f1st of Tisbri, npon

Imperfect . Imposmble I. III. VIL VIL II. II. IV.

Necessary 2 4 1 1 4 5

Impossible 5 II. IV. V. VI. co to

Im possible IV. VI. 5 6 7 co

Possible 5 4 IV. VI. VIF I.

Impossible VI. 5 5 7 1 2

Necessary 2 6 6 1 10

Intermediate Impossible I. 4 5

Impossible 2 5 1 IL IV. V. VI.

Necessary 3 4 2 5 6 co

Impossible IV. VI 9 IV. VI. iVII. L

Possible 5 7 4 5 1 2

Impossible VI. I. 5 6 1 2 3 Common yearg.

Impossible 7 6 VIL. II. IV.

Ferfect Impossible I. VII. II. IV !V. VI.

Necessary 2 4 1 3 5 6

Possible 3 5 2 IV. VL VII. L. 20

Impossible IV. VI 3 5 7 1 2

Necessary 5 4 6 1 2

Impossible VI. I. 5 VII. VI. III. Iv.

Necessary 7 6 1 4

The Dins Licita, in the Arabic original written in black ink, are here written in Arabic numerals, whilst the Dies Iicitm, written in the original in red ink, are bers written in Latin numersla.

FESTIVALS AND FASTS OF THE JEWS. 281

TABULA ARGUMENTATIONIS IL. 1. 2 3. 4. 5. 6. 7 8. 9. 10. p.287.

Siwan A dhar. Tishri. NipaD. ties. ties. Tishri. Ist of Tiabrt. following year, which the other feasts depend. Beginning of the 'Agpreth, 6th of Passover, 15thof Purim, 14th of Divisions. 'Artbha, 21st of Kippur, 10th of Secondary quali. lst of Tishrt, apon 1 Primary gnali.

Imperfect - Impossible I. v. VI.

Necessary . 2 4 1 3 5 6 7

Impossible 3 5 IV VI. VII. I.

Impossible IV VI. 3 5 7 1 9

Possible 5 4 6 1 3

Impossible : VI. I. : 5 VII. II. III. IV.

10 Necessary 7 2 6 1 3 4 5

Intermediate Impossible III. V 3 5 6 7 H

Impossible . 4 1 IV. VI VI. I.

Necessary i 3 5 5 7 1

Impossible IV. VL 3 6 1 2 3

Possible 5 7 4 VII. II. IV Leap-years.

Impossible VI. I. 5 3 4 5

Impossible 7 2 6 IL IV. V. VI.

Perfect Impossible I. III. VII. IV. VI. VII. I.

Necessary 4: 1 5 1 2

20 Possible 3 5 2 6 1 2 3

Impossible IV. VI. VII .! IV. CO

Necessary 5 4 1 3 4 . 5 - Impossible VI. 5 IV. V. VI

Necessary 7 2 6 3 ! 5 6 7

282 ALBÎRÛNÎ.

CHAPTER XV.

88. ON THE FESTIVALS AND MEMORABLE DAVS OF THE BYRIAN CALENDAR, CELEBRATED BY THE MELAITE CHRISTIANS.

THe Christians are divided into various sects. The first of them are the Melkites (Royalists), i.c. the Greeks, so called because the Greek king is of their persuasion. In Greece there is no other Christian sect beside them. The second sect are the Nestorians, so called after Nestorius, who brought forward their doctrine between A. Alex. 720 and 730. The third sect are the Jacobites. These are their principal sects. They differ among each other on the 10

dogmas of their faith, as e.g. on the persons (rà mpocwra in Christ), on the divine nature, the human nature, and their unicn (Ewois). There is another sect of them, the Ariani, whose theory regarding Chriet comes more near that of the Muslims, whilst it is moat different from that of the generality of Christians. Besides there are many other sects, but this is not the place to enumerate them. This subject has heen ex- haustively treated and followed up into its moat recondite details in the books treating of philoscphical and religious categories and doctrines, and which at the same time refute those sects. The most numerous of them are the Melkites and Nestorians, because 20

Greecs and the adjacent countrios are all inhabited by Melkites, whilst the majority of the inhabitants of Syria, 'Irak and Khurasun are Nestorians. The Jacobites mostly live in Egypt and around it. Certain days of the Syrian months are celebrated among them; on some of them they agme, on others they differ. The reason of their agreeing is this, that those days were spread through the Christian world before the schism in their doctrines was brought about. The reason of the difference is this, that some daya belong to one sect and to one provincs in particular. 30

THE FESTIVALS, ETC. OF THE SYRIAN OALENDAR. 283

Besides they have other days dopending upon their Great Fast, and weeks dspending upon tho most famous days. On this category of days, as on the foriner, thoy partly agree, partly disagree. I shall now snumerate tho calendar days of the Melkites in Khwarizm according to the Syrian calendar. You find very rarely that the Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians in different countries agree among each other in the use of festivals and memorial days. Only regarding ths greatest and most famous feasts they agrec, whilst generally on all others they diffor. 10 Secondly, I shall apeak of their fasting, and all the days connected with it, on which the various sects agree. Lastly, I shall treat of the feasts and memorable days of the Nestorians, if God permits !

Tishrin I.

I. Commemoration (uriun) of the bishop and martyr Ananias, the pupil of St. Paul. It is a Christian custom on these commemoration days to celebrate the memory of the saint to whom the day is dedicated; they pray to God for him, and praise him, and humble themselves before God in his name. To every child which is born on this day or later, 20 until the next commemoration day, they give the name of the saint of the day. Frequently, too, they give cach other the names of two eommemo- rations, so as to say x, also called N fromi the commemoration of the saint N. When this commemoration comes, people assemble in his house, and he receives them as his guests, and gives them a repast. 2. Arethas (Harith) of Najrin, martyr with the other martyrs. 3. Mary the nun, who wore man's dress; she lived like a monk, and p.289. concealed her sex before the monks. Being accused of fornication with a woman, she bore this wrong patiently, and her sex did not beeome known before her death. When they, then, wanted to wash her body, 30 and saw the genitals, they found out the reality of the casc, and-her innocence. 4. Dionysius, the hishop and astronomer, the pupil of St. Paul. These titles (like bishop, ete.) indicate clerical degrees, of which they in their religion have nine :- 1. Cantor, valrys. 2. Reader, Lopo 8. Hypodiacontis. 4 Diaconus, in Arabic Shammas. 5. Preshyter, in Aralic Kass. 40 6. Bishop, in Arabic 'Vakuf. He stands under the metropolita. 7. Metropolita, who stands under the catholicus. The residence of the metropolita of the Melkites in Khurasin is Marw. 8. Cathrlicue, in Arahic Jathelk. The residence of the catholicua of

284 ALBİRONİ.

the Mslkites in Muhammadan countries is Baghdad. He stands under the Patriarch of Antiochia. The Nestorian catholicus is appointed by the Kualif on tho presentation of tho Nestorian community. 9. Patriarch, in Arabic Batrik. This dignity exists only among the Melkites, not among the Nestorians. There are always four patriarchs in Christendom ; as soon as one dies, at oncea successor is created, bsing chosen hy the remaining patriarchs, the catholici, and hy the other dignitaries of the Church. One patriarch resides in Constantinople, another in Rome, the third in Alerandria, and tho fourth in Antiochia. These towns ars called Opovot. 10 There is no degree beyond that of the patriarch, and none below that of the cantor. Frequently they count only from the diaconus upwards, and do not reckon the singers and altar-servants among the officials of the Church. To each degree attach certain rules, usagus, and conditions, on which this is not ths proper place to enlarge. 'Abu-Alhusain 'Ahmad b. Alhusain Al'ahwizi, the secretary, reports in his Book of the Sciences of the Grecks, what he himself has learned in Con- stantinopls of the degrees of the service both of Church and State. His report is this :- I. Patriarch, highest Church dignitary, supreme authority throughout 20 the empire. IL Xwoxs (?) the prefect of the greatest monaatery. III. 'Erwokonos, i.e. bishop. IV. Myrponohirns, i.e. the governor [or ruler]. V. 'Hyouuevos, prefect of a monastery, highly revered by them. VI. Kaoynpos. His degree comes near to that of the Hegoumenos. VII. nanas, in Arabie Kass. VIII. Ardkovos, in Arabie Shummas.

However, the more trustworthy account of the matter is the one given above. Because 'Abu-Alhusain has mired up with the men of the official 30 degrecs other people, who, although important personages, are not exactly dignitaries of such and such degrec; or perhaps they belong to one of those degrecs, but then his description does not fit. The laic degrees cf the State service are the following :- I. Baoikes, ie. Casar, king of the Greeks. 10. II. Aoyoberys, his vazir and dragoman. III. Hapakouudpevos, the first of the chamlerlning IV. AoueoTikos, commauder of the army. V. Akotors (P), a man iu the king's speciul confidence in the army, similar to the domesticus, both being of the same rank. 40 VI. Apxvraxv (?), the head of the narpiniot, VII. Harpirios, in Arabic batrik. Thesc batriks are in the army some- thing like chief.commander, nof to he coufounded with ths

THE FESTIVALS, ETL, OF THE SYRIAN CALENDAR. 285

batriks whom we have mentioned as clerical dignitaries. Those who fear the ambiguity of the words call the clerical dignitary batrak. VIII. 'Poyarwp, who has to review the army and to pay the stipends of the soldiers. ΙΧ. Στράτηγος. his rank is half that of a Πατρίκως. X. Dpwroo rafapios, a man in the king's confidence in the army of the Harp xios, whom the narpikeos consults in every affair. Xl. Mayla,Girys, the officer of the royal whip (Prafectus lictorum). 10 XII. "Etapyos, an officer over 1,000 men. XIII. 'Exarovrap:os, a commander of 100 men. XIV. Hevrykovrepios, a cuimander of 50. XV. Teocapaxovrapios, a commander of 40. XVI. Τριαντάριος, a commander of 30. XVIL 'Etxoorrapios, a commander of 20. ΧVIII. Δέκαρχος, a commander of 10.

Now we return to our subjeet. 5. Commemoration of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, wbo are men- tioned in the Corar. The Khalif Almu'tasim had sent along with bis 20 amhassador another person who saw the place of the Seven Slecpers with his own cyes, and tonched them with his own hands. This report is known to everyhody. We must, however, observe that he who touched them, i.e. Muhammad b. Masa b. Shakir bimself, makes the reader rather doubt whether they are really the corpses of those seven youths or other people,-in fact, some sort of deception. 'Alf b. Yabyi, the astronomer, relates that on returning from his expedition, he entered that identical place, a small mountain, the diamcter of which at the bottom is a little less than one thousand yards. At the outside you see a subterrancan cbamel which goes into the interior of 30 the mountain, and passes through a decp cave in the carth for a distance of three hundred pces. Then the chaunel runs out into a sort of half- open hall in the mountain, the roof being supported by perforated columns. And in this hall there is a number of sepamte compartments. There, he says, he saw thirteen people, wmong them a beardless youth, dressed iu woollen coats and other woullen garments, in boots and shoes. He touched s me hairs on the forehead of one of them, and tried to flatten them, but they did not yield. That their number is more than scven, which is the Mubammadan, and moro than cight, which is the Christian tradition, is perhaps to be explained in this way, thut some 40 monks have been added who died there in the same spot. For the corpses of monks last partienlarly long, because they torture themselves to such a degree that finally all their moist substances perish, and hetween hones and skin only very little flesh remnins. And therefore their life is ex- tinguished like a lamp when it has no moro oil Frequently they remain

286 ALBÍRONİ.

for generations in the samo posture, leaning on their eticke. Such a thing you may witness in regione where monks livo. According to the Christians these youths slept in their cave thres bun- dred and seventy-two years; according to us (Muslims) three hundred solar years, as God says in the Coran in the chapter which specially treate of their history (i.e. Sura xviii.). As for the addition of nine years (Sra xviii. 24: "And they remained in their cave three hundred years and nine years more"), we explain them as those nine yeare which you must add if you change the three hundred solar years into lunar years. To epeak accuratoly, thie addition would be 10

9 years, 75 days, 16 hours.

However, according to the way in which people reckoned at that time, 291. they counted the 300 years as 15 Minor Cycles (of 19 yeare) plus 15 years of the 16th cycle. The number of months that were to be intercalated for such a space of time was 110 according to anyone of the Ordines Intercalationis which they may have applied to the rest of the (15) years. And 110 months amoont to 9 years and 2 months. Such fractione, however, (ae 2 monthe or ¿ year) are neglected in a historical account. 7. Commemoration of Sergiue and Bacchus. 10. Commemoration of the prophet Zacharias. On this dey the angels 20 announced to him the birth of his son John, as it is mentioned in the Coran, and in greater detail in the Gospel. 11. Cyprianus, the bishop, the martyr. 14. Gregory of Nyssa, the bishop. 17. Coemas and Damianus, the physicians, the martyrs. 18. Lucaa, author of tho third Gospel, 23. Anastasia, the marty :. 26. Commemoration of the sepulture of the head of John the son of Zacharias ..

Tishrin IL. 30

1. Cornutus, martyr. 11. Menas (Myvas), martyr. 15. Samonas, Gurias, and Abibos, the martyrs. 16. Beginning of the fasting for the nativity of Jesus, the son of Mary, Messiah. People fast forty consecutive daye before Christmas (16 Nov .- 25 Dec.). 17. Gregorius Thaumaturgos. 18. Romanus, the martyr. 20. Isaac, and his pupil Abraham, the martyrs. 25. Petrue, bishop in Alerandria. 40 27. Jacob, who wae cut to pieces. 30. Andreas, martyr, and Andreas the apostle.

THE FESTIVALS, ETC. OF THE SYRIAN CALENDAR. 287

Kânun I.

1. Jacob, the first bishop of Ælia. 3. Johannes, the Father, who colleeted iu a book the rites and laws of Christianity. To address a mon by the title of " Father," is with them the highest mark of veneration, because thereupon (upon the veneration towards their spiritual fathers?) their degmas are based. There is no original legislation in Christianity ; their laws are derived and developed by their moat venerated men from the canonical sayings of Messiah and the apostles. So they represent ths matter themselves 10 4. Barhara and Julisna, the martyrs. 5. Saba, abbot of the mouastery in Jerusalem. 6. Nicolaus, patriarch of Antiochia. 13. The five martyrs, 17. Modestus, patriarch of Ælia .. 18. Sisin, the catholicns of Khurasân. 20. Ignatius, third patriarch of Antiochia. p.292. 22. Joseph of Arimathia o Boulevrys, who buried the body of the Messiab in a grave which he had prepered for himself, as is related towards the end of all four Gospels. Alma'mun b. Ahmad Alsalami 20 Alharawi maintains that he bas seen it in the Church of the Resurrection in Jerusalem, in a vault as a grave cut into the rock in a gibbous form, and inlaid with gold. To this grave attaches a curious story, which we shall mention when speaking of the Christian Lent. People say that the king does not allow the Greeks to visit the grave. 23. Gelasius, martyr. 25. In the night after the 25th of this month, i.e. in the night of the 25th according to ths Greek system, is the feast of the Nativity ()), the birth of the Messiah, which took place on a Thursday night. Most people helieve that this Thursday was tho 25th, but that is a mistake; it 30 was the 26th. If anybody wants to make the calculation for this year by means of the methods mentioned in the preceding part, he may do so. For the 1st of Kanun I. in that year was a Sunday. 26. David, the prophet, and Jacob, the bishop of Alia. 27. Stephanus, head of the deacons. 28. Herodes killed the chilren and infants of Bethlehem, searching for the Messiah, and hoping to kill Himamong the others, as is related in the beginning of the Gospel. 29. Antonius, martyr. Christians believe him to be identical with 'Abit-Rih, the cousin of Harun Alraahid. He left Islam, and became a 40 convert to the Christian Church, wherefore Harun crucified bim. They tell a long and miraculous tale about him, the like of which we never heard nor read in any history or chronicle. Christians, however, on the whole are vory much inclined to accept and to give credit to such things, mnore particularly if they relate to their crceds, not at all endeavouring by

288 ALDiRONİ.

the means at their disposal to criticise hietorical traditiona, and to find out the truth of bygone times.

KAnun II.

1. Basilius, also feast of the Calendw (Calendas). Calendas means "may it be good" (kaxor plue?). On this day the Christian ehildren assemble and go round through the houses, crying with the highest voice and some sort of melody "Calendas." Therefore they receive in every house something to cat, and a cup of wine to drink. As the reason of this custom some poople assert that thie is the Greek New-Year's Day, i.e. one week after Mary had given birth to Christ. Others relate 10 as ita reason the following story: Arius on having come forward with his theory, and having found adherents, took poseeesion of one of the Chria- tian churches, but the people of that church protested against it. Finally they arranged with each other, and cams to this agreement : That thay would shut the door of the church for three days; then they wonld pro- ceed together to the church, and read before it alternately. That party, then, to whom the door would open of iteelf, should be its legal owner. So they did. The church door did not open of itself to Ariue, but it opened to the other party. So they say. Therefore their children do 293. such things in imitation of the lucky message which they received at that 20 time. 2. Silvester, the metropolitan, through whom the people of Constan- tinople became chrietianized. 5. Fasting for the feast of Epiphany. 6. Epiphany (lai?) iteelf, the day of baptism, when John, the son of Zacharias, baptized Meesiah, and mads him dive under the baptismal water of the river Jordan, when the Messiah was thirty years of age. The Holy Ghost came over him in the form of a dove that descendad from heaven, according to the relation of the Gospel. The eame, now, Christians practise with their children when they are 30 thres or four years of age. For their biehops and preebyters fill a vessel with water and read over it, and then they make the cbild dive into it. Thie being done, the child is christened. This is what our Prophet says: "Every child is born in the state of original purity, but then its parente make it a Jew, or Christian, or Magian." 'Abo-Alhusain Al'ahwazi describes in his hook of the Sciences of the Greeks the process of christening. First they read prayere for the child in the church during seven days, early and late; on the seventh day it is undressed, and ita whole body anointed with oil. Then they pour warm water inwo a marble vessel which stands in the middle of the chureh. On 40 the snrface of the water the priest makes five dote with oil in the figure of a cross, four dote and ons in the middle. Then the cbild ie raised, ite feet are placed so as completely to cover the dot in the middle, and it is put into the water. Then the priest takes a handful of water from one

THE FESTIVALS, ETC. OF THE SYRJAN CALENDAR. 289

side, and pours it over the bead of the child. This he does four times, taking the water successively from all four sides corresponding to the four sides of the cross. Then the priest steps backward, and that person comes who wants to take the child out of the water, the same who has placed it there. Then tho priest washes it, while the whole congregation of the church is prajing. Then it is definitively taken out of the water, is adorned with a shirt, and carried awny to prevent its fcet from touch- ing the ground, whilst the whole church eries seven times: kupte denoov, i.e. "O Lord, have mercy upon us!" Then the child is completely dressed, 10 always being borne in the arms; then it is put down. Thereafter either it remains in the church, or it goes there again and again during seven days. Ou the seventh day the priest washes it again, but this time without oil, and not in the baptismal vessel. 11. Theodosius, the monk, who tortured himself, and loaded himself with chains. 18. Eud of the feast of Epiphany. On this day the noble saints on Mount Sinai were killed. 15. Petrus, Patriarch of Damascus. 17. Antonius, the first of the monks, and their head. 20 20. Euthymius, the monk, the tracher. 21. Maximns, the anchorite. 22. Cosmas, author of Christian canons and la ws. 25. Polyearpue, the bishop, the martyr, who was hurned with fire. 25. Johannes, called Chrysostomus. 'Jwavvys is the Gresk form for p.294.

John. 31. Johannes and Cyrns, the martyrs.

Shubat.

1. Ephraem, the teacher. 2. Wax Feast, in recollection of Mary's bringing Jesus to the temple of 30 Jerusalem, when he was forty days of age. This is a Jacobite feast, beld in great veneration among them. People say that on this dar the Jens introduce their children into the temples, and make them read the Thora. If this is the case, it is in Shebat (the Jewish formn of the name) not in Shuhat (the Syrian form), since the Jews do not use the Syrian names. Betweer the 2nd Shubat and the 8th Adhar the heginning of their Lent varies, of which we shall speak bereafter. When fasting they never celebrate the commemoration-dava we mention, except those that fall on a Sabbath ; those and only those are celebrated. 3. Belesys, martyr, killed hy the Magians. 40 5. Sis Catholicus, who first brought Christianity down to Khurasan. 14. Commemoration in recollection of the finding of the head of the Baptist, i.e. John, the son of Zacharias.

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290 ALBiRONİ.

Adbir.

9. The forty martyrs who were tortured to death by fire, cold, and frost. 11. Sophroniue, Patriarch of Jerusalem. 25. Annuntiatio Sanctisaime Deipara. Gabriel came to Mary an- nouncing to her the Messiah. From this day until the day of His birth is a little more than 9 months and 5 days, which is the natural space of time for a child's sojourn in the mother's womb. Jesus, though he had no human father, and though supported by the Holy Ghost, was in His earthly life eubject to the laws of nature. And so it is only proper that 10 also His sojourn in the womh of His mother should have been in agreement with nature. Tho mean placo of the moon at noon of this day, Monday the 25th Adhar A. Alex. 303, for Jernsalem, was about 50 minutes in the first degree of Taurus. Those, now, who follow in the matter of the Numu- dhar (i.e. a certain method of investigation for the purpose of fiuding the ascendens or horoscope under which a child ie born) the theory of Hermes the Egyptian, must assume the last part of Aries aud the heginning of Taurus as the aacendens of the Messiah. However, Arien and Taurus were ascending at the time Christ was born, during the day- 20 time, because the meau place of the sun for Jerusalem for noon of Thursday following after the night in which Christ wan born, is about 2 degrees and 20 minutes of Capricorn. The ahove-mentioned time of 95. Christ's sojourning in His mother's womb (9 months 5 days) is, according to their theory, a conditio sine qii non for every child that is born in the night of Christmas, when the moon is standing under the earth at a distance of ,5 circumfereuce from the degree of the horoscope. Now, knowing so much ahout the moon's place on the day of the Annuncia- tion, we find that the horoscope (of the hour of Christ's birth) was near 24 degrees of Pisces. And if we compute the mean place of the moon 30 for the 25th of Kanun I. for the time when she stands under the earth at the distance of s circumference, we find the horoscope to have been nearly 20 degrees in Aries. Both calculations, however, (that of the aatrologers and Alhiruni's own) are worthless, because those who relate the birth of Christ relate that it occurred at night, whilst our calculations would lead to the assumption that it occurred in the day. This ie one of ths considera- tions which clearly show the worthlessnees of the Numudhars. We shall dedicate a special book to the genera and species of the Numttdhara, where we shall exhaust the eubject and not conceal the truth, if God permits 40 me to live so long as that, and if He by His mercy delivers me from the remainder of pain and illness.

THE FESTIVALS, ETC. OF THE SFRIAN CALENDAR, 291

Nisân.

1. Mary ths Egyptian, who fasted 40 consecutivs days without any in- terruption. As a rule, this commemoration-day is celebrated on the first F:iday after breaking fast; therefore, Friday being a conditio sine qua non, it falls on the lat of Nisan only four times in a Solar Cycle, viz. in the 4th, 10th, 15th, and 21st years, if you count the eycles from the baginning of the Era Alerandri, the current yarr included. 15. The 150 martyrs. 21. The six synods. Synod means a meting of their wise men, of 10 their priests, bishops, and other chureh dignit tries, for the purpose of anathematizing some innovation, aul for something like eursing each other, or for the consideratioo of some important religious subject. Such synods are not convoked exeapt at long intervals, and if one takes place, people keep its date in memory and frequently celebrate the day, hoping to obtain a blessing thereby, and wanting to show their devotion. 1. The first of the six synods was that of tho 318 bishops at Nicana, A.n. 325, under the king Constantine, convoked on account of Arius, who opposed them iu the question of the Persons, and for the purpose of per- petuating the dogmna which they all agrced upon regarding the two 20 Persons of the Father and the Son, and their agreemeut regarding this subject that Fosi-breoking shonld always fall on Sunday after the re- surrection of the Messiah; for there had coine forward some peopls proposing to break the fast on the 14th of the Jewish Passover month (Τεσσαρεσκαιδεκατίται, or Quartodecimani). 2. Synod of the 150 lishops in Constantinople, A.D. 381, under ths king Theodosius, son of Arcadius the Elder, convoked on account of a man called "cnemy of the Spirit" (rvevparouayos), because he opposed the Catholie Church in the description of the Holy Ghost, and for ths purpose of perpetuating their dogma regarding this Third Person. 30 S. Synod of the 200 at Ephesus, A.D. 431, under the king Theodosiua Junior, convoked on account of Nestorius, the Patriarch of Constantinople, p.296. the founder of Nestorian Christianity, hecause he opposed the Catholic Church regarding the Person of the Son. 4. Synod of the 630 at Chalcedon, A.D. 451, under the king Marcianus, on account of Eutyches, becanse he taught that the body of the Lord Jesus consisted, before the ivuris, of two natures, afterwards only of one nature. 5. Synod under Justinian I., A.D. 553, convoked for ths purpose of condemning the bishops of Mopsuestia, of Edessa, and others, who 40 opposed the Church in its fundamental dogmas. 6. Synod of 187 bishops in Constautinople, A.D. 680, under Constan- tins (Pogonatus) the Beliover, convoked on account of Cyrus and Simon Magus.

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292 ALBİRONİ.

28. MAr Georgios, the martyr, tortured repeatedly and by various tortures, till he died. 24. Marcus, author of the second Gospel. 25. Elias, Catholicus of Khurasan. 27. Christophorus. 30. Simeon b. Sabba'& Catholicus, killed in Khuzistan, together with other Christians,

Ayyâr. 1. Jeremia, the prophet. 2 Athanasius, the patriarch. 10 3. The Feast of Roses according to the ancient rite, as it is celebrated in Khwarizm. On this day they bring Juri-roses to the churches, the reason of which is this, that Mary presented on this day the first roses to Elizabeth, the motber of John, 6. Hiob, the prophet. 7. Feast of the Apparition of the Cross in Heaven. Christian scholars relate :- In the time of Constantine the Victorious there sppeared in heaven the likeness of a cross of fire or light. Now people said to the king Constantine, "Make this sign your emblem, and thereby you will conquer the kings who surround you." He followed their advice, he 20 conquered, and therefore becams a Christian. His mother Helena ha sent to Jerusalem to search for the wood of the Cross. She found it, but together with the two crosses on which, as they maintain, the two robbera had been crucified. Now they were uncertain, and did not know how to find ont which was the wood of the Cross of Christ. Finally they placed each cross upon a dead body: when, then, it was touched by the wood of the Cross of Christ, the dead man became alive again. Thereby, of course, Helena knew that this cross was the right one. Other Christians, who are not lcarned people, speak of the cross in the constellation of the Dolphin, which the Arabs call Ka'ud (riding- 30 camel), i.e. four stara close to Alnasr Alwaki", the situation of which is like the angles of a quadrangle. They ssy that at that time this cross in the Dolphin appeared opposite that place where Messiah had been crucified. Now, it is very strange that those people should not reflect s little and find out that there are nations in ths world who consider it as their business to observe the stars and to eramine everything connected with the stars for ages and ages, one generation inheriting from the 397. other at least this knowledge, that the stars of the Dolphin are fired stars, which in this quality of theirs had long ago been recognized by their ancestors who cared for euch things. And more than this. This Christian sect indulges in mujorem Crucis 40

gloriam in all sorts of tricks and hallucinations, e.g. God ordered the Israelites to make & serpent of brase and to hang it on a beam, which was to be erected, for the purpose of keeping off the injury done by the

THE FESTIVALS, ETC. OF THE SYRIAN CALENDAR. 293

serpents when they had becoms very numerous among them in the desort. Now from this fact they infer and maintain that it was a prophecy and a hint indicative of the Cross (of Christ). Further thsy say that the sign of Moses (i.e. the divine gift by which he wrought miracles) was his staff, and a staff is a longitudinal line. Now when Christ came, He threw His staff over such & liue, and a cross was formed, whieh is to he indicative of the fact that the law of Moses was completed (finished) by Christ. But I should think that that which is perfect iu itself does not admit of any increase or decrease, which you 10 might prove in this way, that if you threw a third staff over the cross, from whatever side you like, you get the lines of the word X (no), which means no increase and ne decrease. This is certainly the same sort of hallucination frequently occurring among those Muslims who try to derive mystical wisdom from the com- parison of the name of Muhammad () with ths human figure. According to them the Mim is like his head, the Ha liks his body, the second Mim like his belly, and the Dal like his two feot. These people seem to he completely ignorant of lineaments, if they compare the mea- sure of the head and the belly (both expressed hy the same letter Mim) 20 and the quantity of tha limbs which project out of the mass of the body, forgetting at the sams time the means for the perpetuation of our race. Perhaps, howover, they meant individuals of the feminine, not of the masculine sex. I shonld like to know what they would say of such names as in their outward form, but for the addition or orission of one letter, resemble the form of the name of Mnhammad, for instauce, 4sD or 44 (Hamid or Majid), and others If you would compare some of them according to their method, the matter would simply hecome ridicu- lous and ludicrous. More curious still than this is the fact that this Christian acct, in the 30 matter of the Cross and its verification, refers to the wood of Poonia. For, if you cut this wood, you observe in the plans of the cut lineaments which resemble a cross. They go even so far as to maintain that this fact originated at the tim. when Christ was crucified. This wood is frequently used in this way, that a piece of it is attached to a man who suffers from cpilepsy, heing considered as a symbol of the resurrection of the dead. Now, I should like to know whether they never study medical books and never hear of those authors who lived long before Christ, and on whose authority the excellent Galenus gives the descrip- tion of this wood. Those who use the works of soul and nature as 40 arguments regarding physical appearances, from whatever theury they start, and how widely soever discordant their theories may he, will always manage to find that the starting-point of their argument agrees with that which they maintain, and that their first seutence resemhlas that at which they aim. However, such arguments can never be accepted, unless there he a reason which properly connects that which is

294 ALBİRONİ.

measured with that by which you measure, the proef with that which is to be proved. There exist, e.g. double formations or correlations in things opposite to each other (e.g. black and white, &c.), triple formations in many leaves of plants and in their kernels, quadruplications in the motions of the stars and in the fever days, quintuplications in the bells of the flowars and in tha leaves of most of their blossoms, and in their veins; ssxtuplications ars a natural ferm of cycles, and occur also in bee- p.298. hives and snow-flakes. | So all numbers are found in physical appear- ances of the works of soul and life, and specially in flowers and blessomo. For the leaves of each blossom, their bells and veins, show in their 10 formation certain numbers (numerical relations) peculiar to each species of them. Now, if anybody wants to snpport his theory by referring to one ef thesa species, hs can do so (i.e. there is material enough for doing so), but who will believe him ? Alao in minerals yon find sometimes wenderful physical peculiarities. People relate, e.g. that in the Makpura (altar.place) of the Mosque in Jerusalem there is a whits stone, with a nearly-obliterated inscription to this effect: "Muhammad is the prophet of God, may God be merciful to him!" And behind the Kibla there is another white stone with this abliterated inscription: "In the name ef God the clement, the merciful! 20 Mubammad is the propbet of God, Hamza is bis help." Further, stones for rings, with the name 'Ali, the Prince of the Believers, are of frequent occurrence, becauss the figure of the nams 'Ali is frequently found in the veins of mountains. To this category, too, belong certain forgeries, e.g. some Shi'a preacher once asked me to toach him something which he might utilize. Se I produced to him from the Kitab allalwih of Alkindt the recipe of (an information how to make) an ink composed of various pungent materials. Thia ink you drop upon an agate and writs with it; if you then hold the stone near the fire the writing npen ths stone becomes apparent in white 30 coleur. Now, in this manner he wrote (upon stones) the names Mu- hammad, 'Ali, etc., even without doing the thing very carefully or under- standing it particularly well, and then he proclaimed that these stones were fermations of natnre and had come from such and such a place. And for such forgeries he got much money from the Shi'a people. Among ths peculiarities of the flowers there is one really astonisbing fact, viz. the number of their leaves, the tops of which form a circle when they begin to open, is in most cases conformable to the laws of geometry. In most cases they agree with the chords that have heen found by the lawe of geometry, not with conic sections. You scarcely 40 ever find a flower of 7 er 9 leaves, for you cannot construct them according to ths laws of geometry in a cirele as isoscela (triangles). The number of their leaves is alwaya 8 or 4 or 5 or 6 or 18. This is a matter of frequent occurrence. Pessibly one may find one day some species of flowers with 7 or 9 leaves, or one may find among the species hitherto

THE FESTIVALS, ETC. OF THE SYRIAN CALENDAR. 295

known such a number of leaves; but, on the whole, one muet say nature preserves its genera and species such as they are. For if you would, e.g. count ths numher of seeds of one of the (many) pomegranates of a tree, you would find that all the other pomegranates conrain the same number of seeds as that one the sceds of which you have counted first. So, too, nature preceeds in all other matters. Frequently, however, yon find in the functions (actions) of nature which it is her oflice to fulfil, some fault (some irregularity), but thie only serves to show that the Creator who had designed something deviating from the general tenor of things, 10 ie infinitely sublime beyond cverything which we poor sinnere may coneeive and predicate of Him.

Now we return to our suhject. 8. Commemoration of John, anthor of the fourth Goepel, and of Arsenius, the monk. 9. Iesaia, the prophet. Dadhishu', in his commentary on the Gospel, p.299. calle him bat. God knows best (which is the right form). 10. Dionysius, the bishop. 12. Epiphamius, the archLishop. 13. Julianus, martyr. 20 15. Feast of Roses according to the new rite, (postponed to this date) hecause on the 4th the roses are etill very scarce. On the same date it is celebrated in Kburasan, net on the original date. 16. Zacharias, the prophet. 20. Cyriacus, the anchorite. 22, Constantine the Victorious. He was the first king who reeided in Byzantium and surrounded it with walls. The town was after him called Constantinople; it is the residence of his successors. 24. Simeon, the monk, who wrought a great miraclc.

Haziran. 30 1. Foast of Ears, wheu people bring ears of the wheat of their fields, read prayere over them, and invoke the blessing of God for them. On the eaine day commemoration of John the son of Zakaria, through which they purpose gaining the favour of God for their wheat. Thie feast they celebrate inatead of the Jewish 'Azereth. 3. Commemoration of Nebukadnezar's burning the children, 'Azarya, Hananya, and Michael. Also commemoration of the renovation of the temple. 5. Athanasius, the patriarch. 8. Cyrillus, the patriarch, who drove Nestorius, the author of 40 Nestorianism out of the Church, and excommunicated him. 12. Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, the four evangelists. 18. Leontius, martyr.

296 ALBİRONİ.

21. Berekhya, the presbyter, who brought Christianity to Marw about two hundred vears after Christ. 22. Gabriel and Michael, the archangels. Their commemoration they consider as a means to gain the favour of God, and they ask God to protect the creation from any injury done by the heat. 25. Birth of John b. Zachariah. Between the annuncistion of his birth and his birth itself there elspsed 258 days, i.e. 8 months and 18 days. 26. Febronia, the martyr, who was tortured to death. 29. Death of Paul, the teacher, the apostle of Christianity. 10 30. Peter, i.e. Simeon Kephas, the head of the messengers, ie. apostles.

Tammuz.

1. The twelve apostles, the pupils of Christ. 2. Thomas, the apostle, who did not balieve in Christ when he had returned after His crucifixion, untit he touched the rihs of His side. There he felt the trace of the wound, where the Jews had pierced Him. He is the same apostle through whom India was Christianized. DO. 5. Dometius, martyr. 7. Procopius, martyr. 8. Martha, the mother of Simeon Thaumaturgus. 20 9. Commemoration of Nehukadnezar's burning the three children. They assert that, if they did not keep this commemoration, they would suffer from the beat of Tammuz. 10. The forty-five martyrs. 11. Phocas, martyr. 13. Thuthael, martyr. 14. John of Marw, the younger, who was killed in our time. 15. Cyricus, and his mother, Julitta. Cyricus is said to have argued, when a child of three years, with decisive arguments against some king. Through him fourteen thousand men wers converted to Christisnity. 30 20. Feast of the Grapes, when they hring the first grapes, and pray to God that He may give blessing and increase, rich thriving and growing. 21. Paphnutius, martyr. 26. Panteleemon, martyr, the physician. 27. Simeon Stylites, the mouk. 30. The seventy-two disciples of Christ.

Âb.

1. Fasting on account of the illness of Mary, the mother of Christ; it lasts fifteen days, and the last day is the day of her death. On the same day, commemorstion of Solom onis the Makkabean. The 40 magians killed her seveu children, and roasted them in roasting-pans.

THE FESTIVALS, ETC. OF THE SYRIAN CALEXDAR. 297

5. Moses, the son of Amram. 6. Feast of Mount Tabor, regarding which the Gospel relates that onee the prophets, Moses, the son of Amram, and Elias, appeared to Christ on Mount Tabor, when three of His diseipdes, Simeon, Jacob, and Jolin, were with Him, but slept. Wheu they awoke and saw this, they were frighteued, and spoke: "May our Lord, ie. Messiao, permit us to build fhree tents, one for Thee, and the other two for Moses and Elias." They had not vet finished speaking when three clouds standing high ahove them eovered them with their shadow; then Moses and Elas entered the cloud and 10 disappeared. Moses was dead already a long time before that, whilst Elias was alive, and is still living, ns they say; but he does not show himself to mankiud, hidiug bimself froru their eyes. 7. Elias, the ever.living, whom we meutioned jnst now. 8. Elisha, the prophet, disciple of Elias. 9. Rabula, the bishop. 10. Mamas, martyr. 15. Feast in commemoration of the death of Mary. The Christians make a differenee hetween " Commemoration" and " Feast" ; the latter is an affair of more importance than the former. 20 16. Iesaia, Jeremia, Zakaria, and Hezekiel, the prophets. 17. The martyrs Seleueus and his bride Stratouice. p.301. 20. Samuel, the prophet. 21. Lucius, martyr. 26. Saba, the monk, weak from age. 29. Decapitation of John. Alma'mun b. 'Abmad Alsalami Alharawi relates that he saw in Jerusalem some heaps of stones at a gate, ealled Gate of the Column; they had been gathered so as to form something like hills and mountains. Now people said that those were thrown over the blood of Joln the son of Zacharias, but that the blood rose over 30 them, boiling and bubbling. This went on till Nebukadnezar killed the people, and made their blood flow over it; then it was quiet. Of this story there is nothing in the Gospel, and I do not kuow what I am to say of it. For Nebukadnezar came to Jerusalem nenrly four handred and forty-five years before the death of Johu; and the seeond destruetion was the work of the Greek kings, Vespasiau and Titus. But it seems that the people of Jerusalem eall everyhody who destroyed their towD Nebukaduezar,; for I have heard some historian say that in this case is meant Jadarz h. Shapur b. Afkurshal, one of the Ashkanian kings. 40 30. Commemoration of all the prophets.

6. Festum corona anni. They pray aud invoke God's blessing for the end of the year, and the begiming of the new one hecanse with this mnonth tho year reaches its end.

298 ALBİRONİ.

3. Commemoration of the esven martyrs killsd in Nishapur. 8. Hanna, mother of Mary, and Joyakim, the father of Mary. 13. Feast of the renovation of the temple, with prayers. On this day they renovate their churches. 14. Feast in recollection of Constantine and Helena his mother finding the Cross, which they seized out of the hande of the Jews It wae buried in Jerusalem, but on this subject we have spokeu alrendy. 15. Commemoration of the Six Synods. 16. Euphemia, martyr. 20. The martyrs Eustathius, his wife, and mother. 10 23. Vitellius, martyr. 24. Thecla, martyr, who was burned to death. On the same day, tha feast of the Church of the Sweepinga (i.e. Church of Resurrection) in Jerusalem. 25. Ths martyrs Sabinianus, Paulus, and Tatta. 28. Chariton, the monk. 29. Gregorius, the bishop, the apostle of the Armenians. This, now, is all we know of the commemorations and feasts of the Melkites, in some of which they agree with the Nestorians. Of these we 302. shall treat in a special chapter, but first we shall give an explanation of 20 Lent as something which lies in the midst between both eects, being common to both of them.

299

CHAPTER XVI.

ON THE CHRISTIAN LENT, AND ON THOSE FEASTS AND FESTIVE DAYS WHICH DEPEND UPON LENT AND EEVOLVE PARALLEL WITH IT THROUOH THE YEAR, EEGAEDING WHICH ALL CHRISTIAN SECT8 AOBEE AMONG EACH OTHEE.

HEEETOFOEE we have explained in such a manner as will suffice for every want, and more than that, all the particulars relating to the Passover of the Jews, its conditions, the mods in which it is calculated, and the reason on which this calculation rests. Christian Lent is one of the 10 institutions dependent on Passover, and is in more than ons way eon- neeted with it. We now present sueh infermation regarding Lent as corresponds to the purpose for which the practices of Lent ars intended -by the help of God and His merey. Christian Lent always lasts forty-eight days, beginning on a Monday and ending on a Sunday, the forty-ninth day after its beginning. The last Sunday before the end of Lent (or Fast-breaking), is that one which they call Sa'fnin (i.e. Hosanna or Palm Sunday). Now, one of the eonditions which they have established is this, that Paesover (Enster) must always fall in the time betwcen Palm Sunday 20 and Fast-brenking, i.e. in the last weel: of Lent. It cannot fall earlier than Palm Sunday, nor later than the last day of Lont. The limits within which the Jewish Passover revolves, we have already heretofore mentioned. Regarding these the Cbristians do not agree with them, nor regarding the beginning of the cyelcs (Gigal). The word Jijal, or cycle, is an Arabized Syriac word. in Syriac Gigal. n caning the same as the Jewish Mahzor. But it is only proper that we should mention the Termini peculinr to each nation. So they call the Great Cycle, Indictio (sic); but as it is troublesome to pronounce this word so

300 ALBİRONİ.

frequently in our diacourae, we ahall ase the term Great Jijal (i.o. Great Cycle). The difference regarding the cycles has this origin: According to the Jews the first yesr of the Æra Alezandri is the tenth year of the Cycle (Enneadecateris), whilat according to the Christians it is the 18th year. For some of them count the interval betwen Adam and Alezander as 5069 years, others as 5180 years. The majority uses the latter nnmber; it is also well known among scholars (of other nations). It occurs e.g. in the following vemes of Khalid b. Yazid b. Mn'awiya h. 'Abi-Sufyan, who was the first philosopher in Ialam; people say even 10 that the source of his wisdom was that learning which Daniel had derived from the Treaaure-Cave, the asme one where Adam the father of mankind had deposited his knowledge.

"When 10 years had elapsed besides other $ complete yeara, And further 100 single years, which were joined in right order to 6 timea 1000, He manifested the religion of his lord, Ielam, and it was consolidated and established by the Flight (Hijra); " i.e. Anno Adami 6113.

p.308. The Hijra occurred A. Alexandri 933. If you aubtract this from the just mentioned 6113 years of the Era Mundi, you get as remainder 20

5180 years

(as the interval between Adam and Alexander). Now they converted this number of years into Small Cyctes, and got as remainder

12 years,

i.e. at the bsginning of the Dra Alezandri 12 years of the current Enneadecateris had already elapaed. Further they arranged the years of the Ennoadecaterisaccording to the Ordo Intercalationis man7 (i.e. 2. 5. 7. 10. 13. 16. 18.), because this arrangement stands by itself, as not requiring you to subtract anytbing from the years of the era. In the first year of the cycle they fized Passover on the 25th of Adhar, 30

because in the year when Christ was crucified it must have fallen on this date. Starting from this point they arranged the Passovers of all the other years. Its earliest date is the 21st Adhar, its latest date the 18th Nisan. So the Terminus Paschalis extends over 28 days. Therefore the earliest date of Passover falls always by two days later than the vernal equinox as obaerved hy eye-sight (i.c. the 19th Adhar). And this is to serve as a help and precaution againat that which is men- tioned in the 7th Canon of the Canones Apostolo,um : " Whatever bishop, or prosbyter, or diaconus celebrates the feast of Passover befors the 40 equinox together with the Jewe, shall be deponed from his rank."

UN THE CHRISTIAN LENT. 301

If the Fast-breaking (Fitr) of the Christians were identical with their Passover, or if it fell always at one and ths same invariable distance from Passover, both would revolve through the years either on the samo days, or parallel with each other on eorresponding days. Since, however, Fast-breaking can never precede Passover, its earliest possible date falls by one day later than the earliest possible date of Passover, i.e. on the 22nd Adhar (the 21st Adhar beiug the earliest date of Passover). And the latest date of Fast-breaking falls by one week later than the latest date of Passover; because if one and the same day should happen (to be 10 Fast-breaking and Passover, i.e. a Sunday), Fast. breaking would fall on the next following Sunday. In this case it would fall by one week later than Passover. If, therefore, Passover falls on its latest possible date (18th Nisan), Fast-brenking also falls on its latest possible date, i.c. on the 25th Nisan. Therefore the days within which Fast.breaking varies are 35. And for the same renson the beginning of fasting varies parallel with Fast- breaking on the corresponding days, the earliest being the 2nd Shubat, the latest the 8th Adhar. Accordingly ths greatest interval between the beginning of Lent and Passover is 49 days, the smallest interval 20 42 days. Between the full moon of Passover and the new moon of Adhar in a common year, of Adhar Secundus in a leap-year, is an interval of

44 days, 7 hours, 6 minutes.

This new moon falls always between the beginning of the smallest in- terval and the greatest interval (between the beginning of Lent and Passover), and falls ncar the beginning of Lent. And this new moon p.304. has been made the hasis of the whole calcuiation in this way: You observe the new moon of Shubat and consider which Monday is the nearest to it, the preveding oue or the following. If this Monday lies 30 within the Terminus Jejunii, i.e. between the 2nd Shubat and the 8th Adhar, it is the beginning of Lent. If, howcver, this Monday does not reach the Terminus Jejunii, and lies in the time before it, that new moon is disregarded, and you repeat the same consideration with the following new moon. In this way you find the beginning of Lent. As we have mentioned already, Passover may proceed towards the beginning of the year as far as the 21st Adhar, which is its earliest possible date. If full moon falls on this day and it is a Sabbath, the year is a common year, the new moon by which you calculate falls on the 4th Shuhat and the prereding Monday, which is the nearest Monday 40 to this date, and therefore the beginning of the Terminus Jejunii is the Ist Shubat, if the year be a leap-year, bnt the 2nd Shubat if the year is a common year. This date lies within the Terminus Jejuni, and so it is the begiuning of Lent.

302 ALBİRUNİ.

The latest pessible date of Passover is the 18th of Nis&s. If full moon falls on this day, and it is a Sunday, the year is a leap-year, the new moon by which you oalculate, i.e. the new moon of Adhar Secundus, falls on the 5th of the Syrian Adhar, and the 8th of the same month is that Monday which follows after this new moon and falls the nearest to it, because in this case the 1st of the Syrian Adhar is a Monday. There- fore the beginning of Leut is the 8th Adhar, which is at tho same time the latest possible date for the beginning of the Terminus Jejunii. If we wers to go back upon the new moon of Adhar Primus, we should find that it falls on the 5th Shubat in a common year, whilst the 1et Shubat 10 is a Sunday. In that case the preceding Monday wonld be nearest to it (the 2nd Shubat), which is the beginning of tbe Terminus Jejunit. Now, this day would he euitable to he the beginning of Lent, if it also corre- sponded to all the other conditions (hut that is not the case); viz. if we make this day the beginning of Lent, Fast-breaking would fall about one month earlier than Paseover; and this is not permitted, according to a dogma of theirs. And if the year were a leap-year, new moon would fall on the 4th Shubat, and then the preceding Monday, being the nearest to it, would be the 1st Shubat, and this date does not lie within the Terminus Jejuni (2nd Shubat-8th Adhar). Therefore we must 20 disregard this new moon and fall back upon the following one. The followers of Christ wanted to know before-hand the Passover of the Jewe, in order to derive thence the beginning of their Lent. So they consulted the Jews, and asked them regarding this subject, but the Jews, guided by the enmity which erists between the two parties, teld them p.805. lies in order to lead them astray. And besides, the eras of both parties differed. Finally, many of the Christian mathematiciane took the work in hand and made calculations with the varioua cycles and different methods. Now, that method which they at last agreed to adopt, is the table called Xponxov, of which they maintain that it was calculated by 80 Eusebius, Bishop of Caeares, and the 818 bishops of the Synod of Nicsa.

ON THE CHRISTIAN LENT. 303

THE Chronicon OF THE CHRISTIANS.

11 | 12 18 17 | 18 | 18 | pp.80 Lanar Cycle.| 1 1 9 1 s 1 4 : s1g 7 ! 8 19:10 18 ' 14 | 15 307.

Shubat. Adhår. Shubat. Shabit A dhir. Sbubit. Shubát Shubå! Adbar. Shubit. Shubat. Adhr. Saubit. Shubåt. Sbubss. Shubit. Shubst Adhar. Sbubât. Shubat. Leap-years. Solar Crele. Shnbat.

11 25 18 ' 4.25 11 25. 11 4 18 25 18 4 25 11 4:18 +

10 17 9 24 17 3 121 10 17 1024 17 24 10 9 : 24

1 16 16 8.03 9 1 1 16 9 23 18

7 7 14 : 28 21 7 28 7 21 21 28 7 28 14 21 14 14 7

27 28 27 13 6 20 13. 27 20 27 12 6 27 13 6 20

26 19 12 ! 5 i 10 26 12 5 19 8 19 5 20 18 5 5 26 19 5 1 00 10 11 18 . 25 25 11 3 18 11 95 18 4 25 11 25

16 23 16 23 8 16 9 03 16 2 3! 9 2 16 9 2 B 10

1 15 15 23 15 1 8 8 ! 23 15 8 8 1 8

10 28 14 144 28 14 21 14 28 21 7 28 14 21

11 13 27 8 5 20 13 20 6 27 20 6 27 19 27

12 11 25 18 425 11 4 25 18 11 25 18 25 11 18 .. -.

15 10 17, 3 24 17 10 9 17 ! 10 21 : 17 2 10 9 24

14 16 9 93 18 2 23 9 16 3 2,16 2.23 16 23 8 .. L. 15 15 8 29, 15 7.22 15 22 8 89 . 15 22 15 ..

18 27 20 , 6 27 13. 6 20 13 27 20 27 1 19 8.27 13 6 20 ... ... 20 17 19 28 19 5 26 12. 3 19 18 5 19 S : 26, 19 5 26 12 5 19

18 25 18 | 4 25 : 111 4.25 11 4 18 25 18 $ 125 11 4: 18 . L. 19 10 17 10 24 17 2 | 24. 10 | 9 17 10 i 2 17 3 24 17 2 24

8 1 15 22 15 22 : 8 8 15 15 1 20 8 8 1 22 1 22 B

81 7 28 14 7 28 14 7 21 : 14 28 21 7 28 14 21 14

23 20 6 13 8:20 13 27 20 8 13 13 6 27 27 620

L. 13 26 19 26 2נ 4:28 12 4 19 19 28 19 5 26 19 4:19

24 10 17 84 17 9 : 24 10 17 10 24 17 24 10 B

16 29 18 9 18 16 2 23 16 2!23 25 2 9

26 8 1 15 15 8 1 20 1 15 8 22 15 H

80 27 28 21 7 28 14 ' 8 81 1 14 28 21 7 28 14 28 14 6 21 7 4

28 18 19 5 38 12 | 19 19 5 19 28 19 26 12 $ . 19 : -

304 ALRiReNf.

p.308. Festivals depending upon Lent. [Lacuna.] to give up their religion. Then they fled one night and perished to the last of them. This Friday they call also The Small Hosanna. The first Suuday after Fast.breaking is called the New Sunday, on which day Messiah dressed in whito. They use it as the commencement of all kinds of work, and as a date for commercial agreements and written contracts. For it is, as it wore, the first Sunday, because the preceding one is specially known by a more famous name, i.e. Fast- breaking. 10 All Sundays are highly celebrated by the Christians, because Hosanna and Resurrection fall on Sundays. Likewise the Sabbeths are celebrated by the Jews because, as is said in the Thora, God restrd ou this day on having finished the creation. And, according to some scholars, Muslims celebrate their Friday because on that day the Creator finished the creation of the world and breathed His spirit into Adam. According to the astrologers, in all religions certain week-days are celebrated, because the horoscopes of their prophets and the constellations indicative of their coming stood under the influence of the planets that reign over these respective days. 20 Forty days after Fast-breaking is the feast of Ascension, always fai.ng on a Thursday. On this day Messiah ascended to heaven from the Mount of Olives, and He ordered His disciples to stay in that room where He had celebrated Passover in Jerusalem, until He should send them the Paraclete, i.e. the Holy Ghost. Ten days after Ascension is Whilaun Day, always on a Sunday. It is the day when the Paraclete came down and Messiah rerealed Himself to His disciples, i.e. the Apostles. Then they began to speak different tongues ; they separated from each other, and each party of them went to that country with the language of which they were inspired and 30 which they were able to speak. On the evening of this day the Christians prostrate themselves upon the earth, which they do not do betwoen Fast-breaking and this day, for during this time they say their prayers standing erect, all in conse. quence of some biblical commandment to this effect. The same (pros- tration) is proclaimed for all the (other) Sundays by the last Canon of the first Synod. The beginning of the Fasting of the Apostles, according to the Melkites, is a Wednesday, ten days after Whitsunday. It is broken always on a Sunday, 46 days after its beginning, The third day of this fasting, a Fridny, is called the Golden Friday. 40

For on this day the Apostles passed a lame man in Jerusalem, who asked people for a gift. He invoked the name of God, asking them for alms. They answered: " We have neither gold nor vilver. However,

ON THE CHRISTIAN LENT. 305

rise, carry awny 3our bed, and go to your business. That is the best we can do for you." The man rose, free from pain, carried away his bed, and went te his business. Most of these festivals are mentioned in the Table of Fasting, which is arranged in seven columns. If you find Fasting by this table, yon find at the same time these festivals-if God permits!

20

306 ALBİRONİ.

p.309. CHAPTER XVII.

ON THE FESTIVALS OF THE NESTORIAN CHRISTIANS, THEIE MEMORIAL AND FANT DAYB.

NESTORIUS, from whom this sect derives its origin and name, opposed the Melkites and brought forward a theory on the dogmas of Chris- tianity which necessitated a schism between them. For he instigated people to examine and to investigate for themselves, to use the means of logic, syllogism, and analogy for the purpose of being prepared to oppose their adversaries, and to argue with them; in fact, to give up the Jurare in verba magiatri. This was the method of Nestorius himself. 10 He established as laws for his adhereuts those things in which he differed from ths Melkites, differences to which hs had been led by his investigation and unwearying study. Now I shall proceed to propound all I have been able to learn regarding thein festivals and memorial-days. Nestorians and Melkites agree among each other regarding some memorial-days, whilst they disagree regarding others. Those days, regarding which they differ, are of two kinds: 1. Days altogether abolished by the Nestorians. 2. Days not abolished by them, but celebrated at a time and in a 20 manner different from that of the Melkites.

Further, such Nestorian festivals, not celebrated by the Melkites, which are derived from the feast-times common to both sects (Lent, Christmas, Epiphany). Besides, there is a fourth class of Nestorian feast-days, not used by the Melkites, which are not derived from the (common) feast-times also used by the Melkites.

A. Feaste regardir ? which Nestorians and Melkites agree among each other: Christmas, Epiphany, the Feast of War, the beginning of the

THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF THE NESTORIAN OURISTIANS. 307

Fasting, the Great Hosanna, the Washing of the Feet. of the Apostles, the Paseover of the Messiah, the Friday of Crucifisiou, Resurrection, Fast-breaking, the New Sunday, Ascensien, and Whitsunday, the fasting of Our Lady Mary, and some of the memorial-days which we have mentioned hcretofore.

B. Feasts common to both sscts, but celebrated hy the Nestorians at a time and in a manner different from that of the Melkites :- 1, Ma'al'tht (Ingressus). On thie feast they wander from the naves of the churches up to their roofs, in commemoration of the returning of 10 the Israelites to Jerusalem. It is also called 14,5 oD (Sanctification of the Church). It is celebrated on the first Sunday of Tishrin II., if the lst of this month falls on a Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, or Sunday ; but if it falls on a Monday or Tuesday, the feast is celehrated on the last Sunday of Tishrin I. The characteristic mark of the day, as I have heard John the Teacher say, is this, that it is the Sunday falling hatween the 30th of Tishrin I. and the 5th of Tishrin II. 2. Subbar (Annuntiatio), Feast of the annunciation to Mary that she wae pregnant with the Messiah, celebrated on the first Sunday in Kanun L, if the first of the month falls on a Friday, Saturday, or Sun- 20 day; but if it falls on a Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thureday, the feast is celebrated on the last Sunday of Tishrin II. In every case it is the 5th Sunday after the Sunday of Ma'altha. In the year when the Messiah was born, the let of Kanun I. was a Sunday. Between this day and that of Hie birth there are 25 days. Now, Christiane say : Messiah differs from mankind in so far as He has not originated through au act of begetting; likewise the period of p.310. His sojourning in the womb of His mother is contrary to the ways of human nature. The annnnciation (of the pregnancy) may already have occurred at a time when the embrye (or growing child) was already 80 aettled in the womb; it may also have occurred earlier or later. I have been told that the Jacobites celebrate Subbar on the 10th of the Jewish Nisan; this day fell, in the year preceding the year of Christ'e birth, on the 16th of the Syrian Adhar. 3. The Fusting of Our Lady Mary. It begins on Menday after the Sunday of Subbar, and it ends on Christmas-day.

the 24th of Ab. 4. The Decollation of John the Baptist. The Nestorians celebrate it on

5. Commemoration of Simeon b. Sabbi'e, i.e. son of the dyers, on the 17th Ab. 40 6. The Feast of the Cress, colehrated by the Neatorians on the 13th Îlul. Fer on this day Helena found the Cross, and she showed it to the people on the following day, the 14th. Therefore the Christiane came to an agreement among each other, the Nestorians adopting the day of the finding, the othere the day when it was shown to the people. 20 *

906 ALBİRONİ.

C. Feasts celshrated by the Melkites only, and fized by tham on cortain dates of their own, are, e.g. :- 1. Commemoration of John of Kashkar, on the Ist Tishrin I. 2. Commamoration of MAr Phetion, on the 25th of Tishrin I. 3. The fsast of tho Monaatery of John, on the 6th of Kanun I.

Kânun II. 4. Tho feast of the Church of Mary in Jerusalem, on the 7th of

5. Commemoration of Mar wiy, on the 25th of Haziran. 6. Beginning of ths Feast of Revelation, on the 6th of Ab; it is the last day on which Christ appeared to men. On the same day the feast 10 of Dair-Alnas. The and of the Feast of Revelation is on the 16th Ab. 7. Feast of Mar Mart, on the 12th Ah 8. Commemoration of Orispinus and Crispinianus, on the 3rd 1ll.

D. Feasta fixed by the Nestorians on certain week-days, regarding which the two sects havs nothing in common. For instance :- 1. Cotmsmoration of the monk Kuta or Mar Sergius, on the 7th Tishrin I., if the lst of the month is a Sunday; in any other cass it is postponed to the Sunday following next after the 7th. 2. Commemoration of Solomonis, on the following Sunday, according to the practice of the Christians of Baghdad. 20 3. The Feast of Dair-Abi Khalid, on the first Friday in Tishrin II.

Tisbrin II. 4. Feast of the Monastery of Alkadisiyya, on the third Friday of

5. Feast of Dair-Alkabhai, on the fourth Friday of Tishrin II. 6. Commemoration of la- (Mar Saba ?), on the last Sunday of flAl. 7. Feast of Dair-Altha'alib, on the laet Sabbath of flul; but if the Ist of Tishrin I. of the next year be a Sunday, the feast is postponed to this day, and falls no longer in flal. In that case the feast does not at all occur in the year in qnestion, whilst it occurs twice in the following year, once at tha beginning and once at tha end. 30

p.311. E. Of thosc feasts, depending on certain days, which are common to both sects, there are three classes :- I. Those depending on the Lent or Fast-breaking. II. Those depending on Christmas. DI Thoss depending on Epiphany. I. Feasta depending on the beinning or end of Lent are, e.g .:- 1. The Friday of jolel, the 12th day after heginning of Lent. 2. Alfaruga, i.e. liberation, on Thursday, the 24th day after baginning of fasting. 3. Commsmoration of Mar Ley and commemoration of Mar Cyriacus, 40 the Child who preferred death to apostasy, on Friday the 20th day after Faet-breaking.

THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF THE NESTORIAN CHRISTIANS. 309

4. Commemomtion of Shrin and Duran the Armeniaoa, who were killed by tho king Shapur, on Sunday the 29th day after Fast-breaking. 5. Fasting of the Apostles, according to the Nestorians, always heginning on Monday, seven wecks after the Great Fast.breaking following after Whitsunday. It lasts during 46 days, and it is hroken always on a Friday. 6. Commemoration of Mar Abda, the pupil of Mar Mari, on Thnrsday, the 14th day after the end of the Fasting of the Apostles, which again depends on the Great Fast-breaking. 10 7. Commemoration of Mar Mari on Friday, the 15th day after the end of the Fasting of the Apostles. 8. Fasting of Elias, beginning on Monday, 21 weeka after the Great Fast-breaking; it lasts during 48 days, and it enda on a Sunday. Fasting of Ninive, on Monday, 22 days before the heginning of Lent, lasting three days. Tradition says that the people of the prophet Jona, after pnnishment had come upon them, and after God had again released them and they were in safety, fasted these three days. 10. The Night of Almushush (the spy) is the night of a Friday, in which -- as people say-they seck Messiah. There is, however, a diffe- 20 rence; according to some it is the night of Friday, the 19th day after the Fasting of Elias; according to others it is the Friday on which Christ was erncifed, called Alsalabat; according to others it is the Friday of the Martyrs, one week after Alsalabat. The preference we give to the first of these three opinions. If, now, you know the beginning of Lent of a year in qu .tion, com- pare the column of the common year, if the year be a comumon year, or the column of the leap-year, if the year he a leap-year, and opposite, in the table of the feasts depending on Lent, you will find the date of overy feast in question, and also the date of the Fasting of Ninive, 90 which precedes Lent. Here follows the table.

310 ALBİRONİ.

p.812, is. TABLE OF THR FRASTS DEPENDING ON LENT.

II. 1I, VI. V. VI IV. II VI. V. VI. II. VI. IL. IL common

in a year, and MAr Cyriacus. in a leap-year. Duran. tles uccording to the Melkites. Beginning of Lent Mar Mari. tles according to Mar 'Abda, Beginning of Lent the Nestorians. .أحادر Friday of Com. of Suren and Fast of the Apos- Alfárika Commemoratiouof Fast of the Apos- Golden Friday. preceding Lent. Com, of Mar Ly Commemorationef Night of the Spy. Fast of Eilan. Fast of Moses,

Shubaf- Shnbát. Shobat. Shnbat. Nisan, Apyår. Ab. Ayyor, Tammoz. ammtı, Ayyar. Kantn IT The Ninive - Fast Tishrin I. Nisin.

14 26 27 527 19

16 28 29

har. 15 16 10 17 18 19 18 23 20 30

20 81 17 18 27 i Ha- 19 20 18 25' 9 26 10 90 29 I Ay :1 Ha- 20 15 23 28 24 24 25 16 126 Far. ziran. e1

27 20 2 22 23

hår 20 :15 27 6 2A 29 8 29 30 10 30 29 20 30 81 31 1 Shu- 28 5 18 30 31 11 29 30 1Tish- 1 båţ. 30

19 1Ay- 10 10 1 Ha+ 12 30 31 95 rin IL ztran. 7 3 20 21 11 19 12 2 13 29 13 19 4 14 1 Ab. 1 Åb

15 10 27 5 14 28 5 4 14 15 15 5 16 4 90 G 25 7 17 11

18 12 30 7 7 13 1Tiah-' 8 8 8 40 113 8 17 8

10 18 17 18 10

10 19 10 20 6 14 10 15 10 9 10 20 20 29 16 4 11 12 8 j17 21 21 11 10 10 11 17 11 28 18 5 18

13 18 12 F18 10 28 24 29 12 14 14 15 13 14 12 14 15 8 16 15 18

THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF THE NESTORIAN CHRISTIANS. 311

II. The feasts depending on Christmas aro these :- The Feast of the p.314. Temple on Sunday after Christmas; the Commemoration of Our Lady Mary, Lit. Mart Maryam-Mirt means mulier nobilis, domina-on Friday after Christmas. If, however, Christmas falls on Thursday, it is post- poned uctil the second Friday, for this purpose, that Christmas and this Commemoration should not follow ench otber immediately. For onls the night of Tanrsday lies in the middle between the day of Thursday and the day of Fridas (not one complete dar). IIL. Feasts depending on Epiphany :- The Fast of the Virgins on 10 Monday after Epiphany ; it lasts three days, and is broken on Thnrsday. It is also in use among the 'Ibadites and the Arab Christians, who relate this story: Once the King of Al-hura, hefore the time of Islam, chose a number of women from among the virgins of the 'Ibadites, whom he wanted to take for bimself. Now, they fasted thre days without any interruption, and at the end of them the king Gied without having touched them. According to another report, this fast was kept hy the Christian virgins among the Arahs as a thanksgiving to God for the victory which the Arabs gained over the Persians on the das of Dhu Kar. So they 20 were delivered from the Persians, who did not get into their power the virgin Al'ankafir, the daughter of Alnu'man. Frequently this fast is connected with the Ninive-Fast. For if Lent falls on its earliest date, the Monday after Epipbauy is the Fast of the Virgins. Then there are twenty-two days hetween this fast and Lent. In that case this day is also the beginning of the Fast of Ninive. Both fasts (Jejunium Virginum et Jejunium Niniriticum) last three days. Thereupon they celebrate the Commemoration of Mar Johannes on Friday after Epipbany. The Commemoration of Peter and Paul on the second Friday after 80 Epiphany, that one whieb follows after the Commemoratiou of Mar Johannes. Paulus was a Jew. Now, they maintain that Messiab worked a miracle in blinding his eyes aud making them see again, whereupon he believed in Him. Then Messiah sent bim as an apostle to the nations. Petrus is the same as Simeon Kephas. The Commemoratien of the Four Evangelists, on the third Friday. The Cominemoration of Stephanus, martyr, on the fourth Friday. Some people place it on Thursday, one day earlier. The Commemoration of the Syrian Fathers, on the fifth Friday. The Cemmemeration of the Greek Fathers, i.e. Diodorus, Theodorus, 40 and Nestorius, the bishops, on the sixth Friday. The Commemoration of Mar Abha Catholicus, on the seventh Friday. The Commemoration of the Children of Adam, i.e. of all mankind thai have died np to that date, on the cighth Friday. But if there are not enough Fridays, and Lent is near, they drop the Commemoration of the Syrian Fathers, and celebrate instcad the Commemoration of Mar

312 ALBİRUNİ.

Abba Catholicus, and then they proceed according to ths original order. During Lent they drop the Fridays, and on the evening of every Friday they have a Kuddas, i.e. worship. They have constructed for the days depending on Christmas and Epiphany and the week days in question a tahle, indicating their dates in the Syrian months. If you want to use it, take the years of tho Æra 15. Alerandri, including tho current year, and change them into solar cycles. With the remainder compare the Column of Numbers in the table of the Nestorian festivals. There you find opposite the number each festival; if in red ink, its date in the month written in red ink at the 10 top of the column; if in black ink, the date in the month written in black ink at the top of the column. Over the whole you find the week- day on which the feast always falls. If we knew ths system of ths Jacobite Christians, w should explain it, as we have explained thoss of the other Christians. However, we never met with a man who belonged to their sect or knew their dogmas. Here follows the table.

318 THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF THE XESTORIAN CHRISTIANS.

1. I. 1. VI. VI. VI. 1. 11. 1. Y1. 1. VI. VI. VI. III. VI. VI. V1. VI. VI. I. VI pp.316, 317.

Adhuir. Kinim 11. Stnbát. Kánân 11. Sunon 31. Kinimn 11. Tiırin I. Kuoún 11. KiHitn T. Ki uớn 1. Tisbrin II. KAnmn YI, Khuun I. Kanun II. Tisbrio I. Tishrin I. "ishrin II. Tisbrin II. Tishrin f. Tixhria II.

tbe Bar the of Mur of of the

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314 ALBİRUNİ.

p.818. CHAPTER XVIII.

ON THE FEASTS OF THE ANCIENT MAGIANe AND ON THE PAST AND FEAST DAYS OF THE 8ABIANB.

THE ancient Magians existed already before the timo of Zoroastor, but now there is no pure, unmixed portion of them who do not practise the religion of Zoroaster. In fact, tbey belong now eithor to the Zoroastrians or to the Shamsiyya scct (sun-worshippers). Still, they have some ancient traditions and institutes, which they trace back to their original creed; but in reality those things have heen derived from the laws of the sun-worshippers and the ancient people of Harran. 10 As regarde the Sabians, we have already explained that this namo applies to the real Sabians, i.e. to the remnants of the captive Jews in Babylonia, whom Nebuladnezar had transferred from Jerusalem to thst country. After having freely moved about in Babylonia, and having acclimatized themselves to the country, they found it inconvenient to return to Syria; therefore they preferred to stay in Babylonia. Their religion wanted a certain solid foundation, in consequence of which they listened to the doctrines of the Magiane, and inclined towards some of them. So their religion became a mixture of Magian and Jewish elements like that of the so-called Samaritans who were transferred from 20 Babylonia to Syria. The greatest part of this sect is living in Sawad-al-Irak. These are the real Sabians. They live, however, very much scattered and nowhere in places that belong exclusively to them alone. Besides, they do not agree among themselves on any subject, wanting a solid ground upon which to base their religion, such as a direct or indirect divine revelation or the like. Genealogically they trace themselves back to Enos, the son of Seth, the son of Adam. The same name is also applied to the Harranians, who are the remaing ot the followers of the ancient religion of the West, separated (cut off) 30 from it, since the Ionian Greeks (i.s. the ancient Greeks, not the Pupaiot or Byzantine Greeks) adopted Christianity. Ther derive their system

THE FE \STS AND FASTS OF THE MAGIANS AND SABIANS. 315

from Aghadhimun (Agathodæmon), Hermes, Wilis, Maba, Sawar. Thos beljeve that these mon and other sages like them were prophets. This sect is much more known by the namo of Sabians than the others, although they themselves did not adopt this name Lefore A. H. 228 under Abbaside ruie, solely for the purpse of being reckoned among those from whom the duties of Dhimma (pEToLKia) are accepted, and tomsrds whom the laws of Dbimma are observed. Before that time they were called heathens, idolaters, and Harrinians. They call tho months by the Syrian names and use them in a similar 10 way to the Jews, whom they imitate, the Jews being the more ancient and having a greater claim to originality. To the names of the months they add the word Hiuil (new moon), so they say Hilil Tishrin I., Hilel Tishrin the Last, etc. Their New Year is Hilal Kanun the Last, but in ceunting the mouths they hegin with Hilal Tishrin I. p.319. Their day begins with sunrise, whilstall others, who use lunar months, make it begin with sunset. Their lunar month begins with the second day after conjunction (new moon). If, now, conjunction preeedes sunrise only by one minute, the 20 third following day is tbe beginning of the month. But if conjunetion cuincides with sunrise or falls only a little later, the second day after conjunction is the beginning of the month. When in the course of three years, one mouth and some days bavs summed up, they add this time as one month to their months after Hilal Shubat and call it Hilil Adhar I. Muhammad b. 'Abd-Alaziz Alhashimi has given in his Canon called Allaimit a short notice of the feasts of the Sabians, simply relating the facts withont investigating and criticising their origin and causes. His report I have transferred into this chapter, adding thereto whatever 30 I have learned from other sources. Regarding the more external part of this feast-calendar (i.e. the purely chronological part) I have made com- putations on my own aecount, only by way of induction, since I have not the same means to investigate this subject which I had for the others. God helps to what is right!

HAAl Tishrin I. 6. Feast of Al-Dhahbâna. 7. Beginning of the celebration of the fenst. 13. Feast of Fudi Iaht. 14. Feast of IlAti Fidi. 40 15. Feast of the Lots (Festum Sortium).

Hilil Tishrin II. 1. The Great Bakht (i.e. Fatmm). 2. Mâr Shelâma.

316 ALBİRONİ.

5. Feast of Le yls for the shaving of the head. 9. ty ths idol of Venns. 17. Feast of luy (TarsA). On the same day they go out of town to Batnæ. 18. Feast of Sarug; it is the day of ths renswal of the dresses. According to 'Abu-alfarag Alzanjan, they celebrate the Feast of Tents in this month, beginning with the 4th and ending on the 18th.

Hit Kanon I. 7. Feast of the addressing (-lbs) to gl the idol of Venns. 10. Feast of the idols for Mars. 10 20. Feast of the Demons. 21. Beginning of the first fast, whieh is broken on the next following day of conjunction (nsw-moon's day). During this time thsy are not allowed to eat mest. At the time when they break their fast thay are wont to practise almegiving and charitable work. 28. Feast of the invocation of the Demons. 29. Feast of the Fata for the Demons. 80. Feast of consultation. p.320. According to 'Ahu-alfaraj Alzanjani they celshrate on the 24th of this month the feast of the Nativity. 20

Hiil Kanun 1I. All the invocations, fast and feast days of this month are eacred to the Demons. 1. Feast of New-Year's Day, like the calendar of the Greeks. 4. Feast of Dair-aljabal, and the feast of Balti, i.e. Venus. 8. Faat of seven daye: it is broken on the 15th. 12. Invocation of lyy. 20. They pray to the Bel of Harrin. 25. Feast of the idol of Tirrathi (Tiratha, Atergatis). 26. Feast of the nuptials (wedding) of the year. 30

Erlal Shubât. 9. Beginning of the minor fast; it lasts seven daye and is broken on the 16th. During that time they do not taste any fat, nor anything of the feast-mcals or what is taken from them. 10. Feast of the House of the Bridegroom for the Sun. 22. Feast of obw for the Sun. 24. Feast of the Venerable Old Man, i.e. Saturn. 25. Feast of the nuptials of bile.

Hilal Adhar. 1. Fast of sl; it lasts three daye, and is broken on the dth. 40 7. Feast of Hermes Mercury.

THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF TIE MAGIANS AND SARIANS. 317

8. Beginning of the Great Fast, during which only meat is forbidden. Its Signm is this, that they begin to lament on a day of this month, when the sun stands in the sign of Pisees (and the moon ?- lacuna). They continue their lamentations nntil the 31st day, when the sun stands in the sign of Aries, and the moon in the sigu of Cancer, bth standing in the same degret. The former day is the heginning of the fast, tho latter is its breaking. Frequeutly this fast lasts only 29 days, when Hilal Adhar has less than 30 days. 10. Weaning of the ehildren.

10 Hilal Nisan. 2. Feast of Damis. 3. Feast of the Stibium. 4. Celebration of IMovros. 5. Feast of oL4, tho idol of Venus. 6. Feast of u and of the Living Being of the Moon. On tho same day is the feast of Dair-kadht. 8. The breaking of the Great Fast falls in most eases on the 8th of this month. On the same das is the feast of the birth of the spirits. 9. Feast of the Lords of the Hours. 20 15. Feast of the mysteries of Alsimnk (Spica). 20. Feast of the assembly at Dair-Kadhi. p.321. 28. Feast of Dair-Sini.

Eha Ayyar. 2. Feast of Salugha, prince of the Satans. 3. Feast of s Baghdadian honso. 4. Feast of the vows. 3. Feast of elest, or feast of bantism, 7. Feast of Dabdak, the idol of the Moon. 11. Feast of Dahdak and bsye. 80 12. Feast of Loe. 13. Feast of Barkhushyh. 15. Feast of BarkhnrushyA. 17. Feast of Bib-altibn (the straw-gate). 20. Feast of perfeetion for Dahdak, a blind idol. On the same das the feast of Tera uz. Hilal Haziran. 7. Commemoration of Tammuza with lamentation and weeping. 24. Feast of Alkurmis or feast of genuflection. 27. Feast of the bntcher's house.

40 Ahal Tammuz. 15. Feast of the yonths. 17. Feast of the nuptials of the elements.

318 ALBİRONİ.

18. Fenst of the olemonts. 19. Also feast of the elements.

HiIAI Ab. 3. Feast of Dailafatan, the idol of Venus. 7. Aleo feast of Dailafatan. 24. Feast of bathing in the Thermee of Serny. 26. Another feast. 28. Feast of Kepharmisa. 30. End of tho feast of bathing in the Therm ef Serug.

10 19. Feast of the Column of our Houses for the women, the end of a fasting. 14. Fasting of Vas. 24. Feast of the Lords of tho coming forth of the New Moons. 25. Feast of the candle on the hill of Harran.

In each of thess months thero is a fast of certain days which is obli- gatory for their priests. I think, either it lasts 14 days of each month, or it falls on the 14th. I cannot make out the truth. One of thoss who record their doctrines says, that on the 17th of each month they celebrate a feast, the reason of which is the beginning 20 of tue deluge on the 17th of the month [lacuna]; further, that the days of the equinoxes and solstices aro festivals with them, and that the winter-solstice is the beginning of their year. p.322. This is all that Alhashimt and others have related. We have collected these materials as we found them, simply transcribing the names as they were written. When we shall be in a position to hear these things from the people themselves (the Harranians), and to distinguish between what is peculiar to the Sabians, the Hartanians, and the ancient Magians, we shall follow in this chapter the satnc method which we have followed clsewhere, if God permits ! 30 (The author tries to form his information regarding the Harranian calendar into a system.)-Because their great fasting falls into the first phase (quadrature) of Hilal Adhar, whilst sun and moon stand in two double-bolied signs (Pisces and Gemini?), and because the end of the fasting falls into the first phase of Hilal Nisan, whilst sun and moon stand in certain two inclining signs (Aries and Cancer), their months must of necessity revolve in the solar year in a similar way to the Jewish months, that is to say: on an average. And between the causes of each of these two things thera in a ernnection. For the Jewish Passover demands that sun 40 and moon should stand in the firet opposition in two signs of the sguinoxes-for they may stand in opposition, and not only once, but

THE FEASTS AND FASTS OF THE MAGIAXS AND SABIANS, 319

twice and the Harranian fast-breaking demands that which we have mentioned (in Hilfl Adhar). Heuce follows that the phass (qnadrature) nest preceding tho Jowish Passover is the fast.breaking ef the Harra. mians, and that the conjunction which falls next to the autumnal equinox is tho heginning of their year, never falliug heyend flal. If wo compute these alsments for a cycle of 19 years, we get a rough sort of computation, but only a rough one, for thcy themselves try to correot it by means of the time of the conjunction, as we have men- tioned. 10 The methods of heth Jews and Christians for the computatiull of Passover are based upon such motions of the Inminaries, of which we have found out that they remain back behind real time, especially as regards the sun (the precession of the equinoxes having been neglected). If we examine the oppositious according to the motions that havc been found by recent observations, we ind that some of them precede the Daster-limit according to both Jewish and Christian systems; they, how- ever, disregard this precession, whilst it is really the case, and we find that others of them (the eppositions) fall near the snd of the Easter- limit; thess latter oppositions they adopt and rely upon them, whilst 20 they are utterly wrong; for the real time (or opposition) precedes that time already by oue month. Now, since it has been our object hitherto to point out scientific truth, to mediate between the two parties (Jews and Christians), and to adjust their differences, we have pui forward the methods of each of the twe sects accerding to their own theory as well as that of ethers, so as to show to each of them the prc and the contra of the casc. And from our side we have proved that we candidly adopt their tradition and lean upon their theory, in order to make the truth elcar to them. In all of which we are guided by the wish that both parties should dis- 30 miss from their minds the suspicion that we are partial to any side or try to mystify them; that their minds should not shrink back from our opposition, when we pass in review the (chronological) canons which they produce. For if they are left such as they are, they are not free from confusion and mistakes, most of which we have already pointed out. Now we shall assume as the carliest date of the Terminus Paschalis the 16th of Adhar; we shall let tha day of opposition in reality fall into the twe signs of the equinoxes; upon this basis we shall arrange the Fassovers of the cycle that none of them precedes this terminus, and 40 that each of them falls se that sun and moon stand in opposition to each other in the manner prescribed; the end of the terminus is to p.323 be the 13th Nisan, and within this space the sun must once have stood in opposition to the moon, although the aun may also after this terminns still stand in Aries without standing in opposition to the moon.

320 ALBÎRUNİ.

From theee corrected Passovere we shall then derive the fast-breaking of the Sabians, and thence the beginning of the year, i.e. the conjunc- tion in Hilal Tishrin I. All thia we have done and arranged in a table. Now if you take the years of the ro Alerandri-tho vurrent year included-for the begin- ning of Tishrin I., whioh followe after the conjunetion of their New Year, and add thereto 16 or subtract therefrom 3; if you divide the sum by 19, if you neglect the quotient and compare the remainder with the column of the numbers in the Table of the Corrected Cycles, you find opposite their New Year, the end of their Great Fasting, the corrected 10 Pasaovor, and, hence derived, the mean fasting of the Christiana, all fired on the corresponding daye of the Syrian months. Here followa the Table of the Corrected Cycle.

p.324. TABLE OF THE CORREOTED CYOLE.

which the Great in which after this Passover. of Tistrte talls. Cotrected Passover, fasting falls. tans as derived from the Peted Bassover tollg. Fast-bn Sablans The month in which the let The frst of Tishrtn fo lowing The month in which the cor- The month in which the mean The correoted Fassover. in fdl and Tiabrta Date of the Sabisn New Tear The mont Colamn of the Nummbers. The Great Fast-breaking of the Leap-sears of the Cycle. The mean fasting of the Carls-

28 1 Nisa D 8 NiBAn 20 18 L. 17 21 Adbår 28 Adhår Shubat 7 8 9 18 Adhår 28 Kanun LI. 28 Ãb 25 29 Adhâr 4 Nisân 18 Shub&t 14 L. 14 17 Adhår 24 Adhâr 6 Shub&t 2 5 Ni&n 12 Nisân 24 Shub&t 20 22 L. 21 25 Adhår 1 Nisân 18 8hnb&t 11 8 10 I8 Nisân 21 Adhar 31 Ab 29 Nisân 9 21 Shub&t 19 10 L. 18 22 Adbår 29 10 8bnb&t 8 7 10 Nia&n Adbar 11 18 Adhår 30 Kouân II. 28 Âb 12 28 30 Adh&r 6 Nisân 18 · Shnbât 16 13 15 19 Adbår 28 Adhar 8hnbat 14 4 Nisân 16 Adhår 27 Kanun II. 25 15 27 Adhâr 3 Nisâu 15 I Sbub&t 13 30 15 L. 1 16 Adhar 23 Adh&r 17 1 4 11 Ntaân 28 8hub&t 8hub&t 21 18 L. 20 24 Adhâr 81 Adhår 19 9 20 Adhår 8hnb&t 10 19 12 Niaân 1 8hnb&t 80 Ab

1 8 5 5 6 8 10 11

321

CHAPTER XIX. p.325.

ON THE FESTIVALS OF THE ARABS IN THE TIME OF HEATHENDOM.

WE have already mentioned that the Arabs had 12 months, that they used to iutercalate them so as to make them revolve with the solar year in ons and the same order, that the significations of the namies of the months seem to indicate the reasons why they agreed among each other regarding this order, some of them indicating the corresponding times of the year, others indicating what the people did during them. We have already given the theory of some etymologists and historians 10 of the Arabs regarding them ; wa shall now add another theory. Al-Muharram, so called because four of their mouths were Hurum, i.e. aacred ones, one a separate one, i.e. Rajah, and three consecutive ones, i.e. Dhu-alka'da, Dhu-alhijja and Almubarram, during which fighting was forbidden. Safar, so called on account of a contagious disease that used to befall them, when they became ill and their colour became yellow. Rabr Primus et Postremus ; they fell iuto the season of autumn, which the ancient Arabs called Rabt. Jumada Prima et Postrema, the time when the cold mornings, rime 20 and hoar frost appeared, and when the water hegan to freeze,-the season of winter. Rajab, so called because then people said irjabit, i.e. abstain from fighting and warlike expeditions, because it was a. sacred month. Accord- ing to others, so called because people immediately before it made haste, being afraid of it; for you say rajibtuhu, i.e. I was afraid of him. Shaban, so called because then people dispersed to their camps and went out in search of booty. Ramadan, the time when the heat commenced and the soil was burning hot. This month was held in high veneration in heathendom 30 Shawwal, so called because then people said shaunvili, i.e. break up; according to another view : becauss about that time the she-camels throto about their tails, wanting to ba eovered. Therefore the Arnbs did not like to marry their children in this mouth. 21

322 ALBİRONİ.

Dhi alka da, heenuso then people said, sit dorn and a bstain from fighting. Dhu alhijja, so called because in this month they used to hold their pilgrimages. (The seasons with different nations.)-Their months were dis- tributed over the four seasons, beginning with autumn, which they called Rabr'; then winter; then spring, called Saif, or by others Rabt Sccundus; then summer, called Kait. This nomenclature, however, has altogether been dropped and forgotten. Of the way in which thsy divided the ses:ns, we know only so much that the heginning of Rabr or autumn fell on tbe 3rd Ilal, the heginning of winter on 10 tho rd Kanun L, the beginning of Saif or spring on the 5th Adhar, and the beginning of Kais or summer on the 4th Haziran. This you learn by the way in which they distribute the risings and settinga of the lunar stations over the seasons. Regarding the beginnings of these four seasons there has been a con- troversy. Ptolemy says, in his Introduction to the Spherical Art, that the ancient Greeks fixed their beginnings on the moments when the sun p.326. cnters the equinoctial and solstitial points, whilst the Chaldeans ars said to have commenced the scasons 8 degrees after the equinoxee and solstices. The reason of this is, as it seems to me, that the computations 20 in the Chaldean canons are back hehind the computations to which the observations and canons of the ancicnt Greeks have led, and that just 8 degrecs were assumed as the measure of this difference because they fon nduch a difference in the progressive and retrograde motion of the sphere, the greatest extent of which is 8 degrees. But God knows best what they meant! The explanation of this motion you find in the Zi- alsafa'ih of Abi-Jafar Alkhazin, and in the Book of the Motions of the Sun by Ibrahim h. Sinan, the hest and most appropriate explanation possible. The Byzantine Greeks and Syrians fixed the beginnings of the seasons earlier, onc half sign (i.e. 15 degrees) before the equinoctial and solstitial 30 pointa. In consequince, their seasons commence when the sun enters the middle of the signs that lie before the year-points. Therefore these signs wero called the corporeal ones (Gemini, Virgo, Arcitenens, Pisces). Sinan hen Thabit relates two theories on this suhject on the authority of the Egyptians and of Hipparchns, both nearly to this effect, that they fix the beginnings of the seasons one whole sign before the four year-points. The radicals among physical scholars make them precede the year-points by one sign and a half, and those of them who more than all daviate from the truth fix them on the times when the sun stands towards the equator at the half of his total inclination (15° Am. 40 phora, 15° Taurus, 15° Leo, 15° Scorpio). Such a division stands in direct opposition to common usage of mankind, and is in no way to be harmonized with the significations of the names of the seasons. These theories in all their varieties are represented in the following table.

p.327. TABLE OF THE SEASONS ACCORDING TO THE DIFFERENT THEORIES.

The Byzan- The extreme THE FESTIVALS OF THE HEATHEN ARABS. tine Greeke, The ancient The Arabs The Egyp- Hipparchns Tho natnral The The Chaldeans natural different the Syrinns, Greeks according tians

and the according according philoeophere philoeoplers who theoriee. according to Ptolemy. to the according to to Sinan b. who majority of Sinân b. most of all to Ptolemy. 'Anwd-books. ThAbit. Thabit. deviate from deviate from Astronomere. reality. renlity.

Months. Moaths. Dates. Monthe. Deteg. Months. Mouths. Dates. Months. Soasons. Datas. Dates. Dates. Da'es. | Months. : - Montha. i Dates.

Spring 1 Adhar 15 Adhâr 23 Adhar 5 Adhâr 7 Shubât 11 Shubat 1 Shubât 15 | KAnun II .!

Summer 1 Hazirin 16 Hazirân 24 Hazîrân 4 Hazirin 10 Ayyfr 12 Ayyâr 1 Ayyâr 15 Nisn.

Ỵḿɲ^utumn I Îlůl 17 25 3 15 Âb 16 Âb 17 Tammuz

Winter 1 Kanun I. 15 KantnI. 23 Kanun I. 3 Kanin I. 1l Tishrin D. 11 | Tishrin II. 1 Tishrin II. 17 Tishrin I.

323

324 ALBİRÔNİ.

p.328. (On the fairs of the ancient Arabs.)-The Arabs used to hold faire in certain placee and on certain dates of their monthe which were inter. calated so as to agree with the solar year. Some of them have been mentioned by Abu-Ja far Muhammad hen Hahib Albaghdadi in the Kitab-Almujir. He eays: The fair of Dumat-aljandal was beld from tbe Ist of Rabi' L till the middle of the month. There a bargain was concluded by the throwing of a stone, viz. if people gathered round an article of merchandiso, he who liked to have it threw a stone. Now, frequently several people gathered around the eame article, then the owner had to sell it to that 10 man who threw the stone. The fair of Almuehakkar commenced on the lat of Jumada IL There the touching was the mode of hargaining, viz. only to hint and to whisper, which they did for fear of ewearing and lying. The fair of Subar, from the 10th till 15th of Rajab. The fair of Daba, on the last of Rajab. There the mode of bargaining was Almustwama (i.e. chaffering). The fair of Al.shihr, in the middle of Sha'ban. There the mode of hargaining was the throwing of a stone. The fair of 'Adan, from the 1st till 10th of Ramadan. Tle fair of San'a, from the middle of Ramadan till the end. 20

The faire of Alrabiya in Hadramaut, and of 'Ukaż in the highest part of Alnajd, not far from 'Arafat, fell on the same day, viz, the middle of Dhu-alka da. The fair of ' Ukaz was one of the most important, heing frequented hy the tribes Kuraish, Hawazin, Ghatafan, 'Aslam, 'Ukail, Almuştalik, the 'Ahahieh, and hy a motley crowd of other people. The fair wae held from the middle of Dhu-alka'da till the end. As soon as the now moon of Dhu-albijja was observed, people went to Dhu-almajaz, a place in the neighhourhood of 'Ukaż. Then they held there a fair until the day of Altarwiya (the 8th of Dhu-alhijja). Then they went up 30 to Minf. The fair of Natt in Khaibar and that of Hajr in Alyamama were held from the lat till the 10th of Almuharram. Since God has sent Islam, moet of these customs have heen abandoned.

325

CHAPTER XX.

ON THE FESTITALS OF THE MOSLINS.

MUsLIMs use the mouths of the Arabs without any intercalation, for a reason which we have heretofore mcutioned. They declared the four sacred months as sacro-sanct in consequence of the divine word (Sura ix. 36): "Four of them are sacred ones (such is the right law). Therefore you shall not wrong yourselves in them." The months Shawwal, Dhu-alka'da, and the first ten days of Dhû- albijja they call the Months of Pilgrimage, of which God says (Sura ii. 10 193): " Pilgrimage lasts for certaiu months. Therefore those on whom He has imposed the duty of pilgrimage shall not speak indecently, nor commit any wrong, nor guarrel during pilgrimage." They were called the Months of Pilgrimage because before this time the pilgrim is uot allowed to enter the holy precincts. There are controversies regarding them between the lawyers of the four orthodox law-schools; they belong, however, to the science of law, and would awell this book too much if p.329. wa were to propound them. These (two and one-third) months are named with the Pluralis Paucitatis (not dual), because the fraction, i.e. the third of a month, is added to the other months as one complete 20 month. The Months of the Treaty, which God describes in the following words (Stra ix. 2): "Thercfore ye shall go about on earth duriug four mouths," are the time from the Day of Sacrifice (the 10th of Dhi-Alhijja) till the 10th of Rabi II., for the Prince of the Believers ('Ali) recited this Sura to the people (as a messenger of the Prephet) on the Dies mactationis (i.e. the 10th of Dhu-Albijja) on the fair. The Arabe celebrate the following days of their calendar.

Almuharram. The 1st is celebrated because it is the beginning and opening of the 30 year.

326 ALRİRONY.

The 9th is called Tasu'a, & word like 'Ashire. It is a day on which the devotees of the Shi'a say prayers. The 10th is called 'Ashura, a most distinguished day. The Prophet is roported to have said: "O ye men, hasten to do good works on this day, for it is a grand and blessed day, on which God had mercy on Adam." Peopls celcbrated this day until tho murder of Alhusain b. 'Alf b. 'Ahi-Talib occurred on it, when he and his adherents were treated in such a way as never in the whole world the worat criminals beve been treated. They were killed by hunger and thirst, through the sword; they wers burned and their heads roasted, and horses were made to 10 trample ovar their bodies. Therefors people cams to consider this day as an unlucky one. On the contrary, the Bano 'Umsyya dressed themselves on this day in naw garments, with varivus kinds of ornaments, and painted their eyes with stibium; they celebrated & feast, and gave banquets and parties, eating sweetmeats and various kinds of confiseries. Such was the custom in the nation during the rule of the Banu 'Umayya, and so it has remained also after the downfall of this dynasty. The Shi'a people, however, lament and weep on this day, mourning over the protamartyr (Alhusain) in prblic, as, e.g. in Baghdad and in 20 other cities and villages; and they make a pilgrimsge to the blessed soil (the tomb of Alhusain) in Karbala. As this is a mourning-day, their common people have an avergion to renewing the vessels and utensils of the household on this day. When the news of the murder of Alhusain reached Medina, the daughter of 'Akil b. Abi-Talib came forward and said : "Whst will you ssy, if ouce the Prophet speaks to you: . What hsve you done, you, the last of all nations, With my next relations and my family, if I inquire for them?' One half of them are prisoners and one half tinged with blood. It was not the proper reward for the advice I gave you, 30

That you, in playing the part of my snccessors, should bring woe over those who had sprung from my loins." On the same day Ibrahim b. Alashtar, the helper of the Prophet's family, was killed. Peopls ssy thst on this day God took compassion on Adam, thst the ark of Noah stood still on the mountain Aljadi, that Jesus was born, thst Moses was ssved (from Pharao), and Abrabam (from tbe firs of Nebukadnezar), that the fire around bim (which was to burn him) became cold. Further, on this day Jacob regained his eye-sight, Joseph 40 was drswn out of the ditch, Solomon was invested with the royal power, the punishment was taken away from the people of Jona, Hiob was freed from his plague, the prayer of Zachsrias was granted and John wa8 given to him.

THE FESTIVALS OF THE MCSLIMS. 327

People maintain that the Dies ornationis, which is the time for the p.330. rendezvous of the sorcerers of Pharao, is this day 'Ashura, especially the time after noon. Although it be possible that all these eveuts should hare occurred on this day, we must state that all this rests ooly on the authority of popular story-tellers, who do not draw upou learned sourees Dor upon tho agreement between the owners of a divine writ (i.e. Jews and Christians). Some people say that 'Ashura is an Arabized Hebrew word, viz. 'Ashur, i.e. the 10th of the Jewish month Tishri, in which falls the fasting 10 Kippur; that the date of this fasting was compared with the months of the Arabs, and that it was fixed on the 10th das of their first month, as it with the Jews falls on the 10th of their first month. The Prophet gave orders to fast on this day in the first 3 ear of the Hijra, but afterwards this law was abrogated by the other law, to fast during ths month of Ramadan, which falls later in the scar. People relats that the Prophet of God on arriving in Medina saw the Jews fasting 'Ashura. On inquiring of them, he was told that this was the day on which God had drowned Pharao and his people and had saved Moses and the Israclites. Then the Prophet said: " We have a nearer claim to 20 Moscs than they." In conseqnence he fasted on that day and ordered his followers to do the same. But when he afterwards issued the law regarding the fasting of Ramadan, he no louger ordered them to fast on 'Ashura, bnt neither did he forbid them. This tradition, however, is not correct, sinco scientitie examination proves against it. For the Ist of Mubarram in the year of the Hijra was a Friday, the 16th Tammuz, A. Alexandri 933. But if we compute the Jewish New.Year's Day for the same year, it was a Sunday, the 12th of Elul, corresponding to the 29th of Safar. Therefore the fasting 'Ashura fell on Tuesday, the 9th of Rahf' I., and the flight of the 30 Prophet occurred in the first half of Rabi I. When the Prophet was asked regarding the fasting of Monday, hs said : "On this day I was born, I reccived my prophetical mission and divine revelation, and on this day I fled." Further, it is a question ou ichich Monday ths flight oceurred. Ae- cording to some, it was the 2nd of Rabf I., according to others the 8th, according to others the 12th of Rabt I. However, according to the generally-ndopted view, it was the 8th of Rabi' 1. Both the 2nd aud the 12th are excluded, since they were not Mondays, because the lst of Rabt' I. of this sear was a Monday (in consequence the 2nd was a 40 Tucsday and the 12th a Friday). Now, for this reason the arrival of the Prophet in Medina (on Monday, the 8th of Rabf' I.) falls ons day before the JJewish 'Ashura (on Tuesday, the 9th of Rabi I.), and 'Ashura did not fall in Muharram, except at the time 3-10 years before ths year of the flight, or 20-30 years after tho year of the flight. Thsrsfore you could not maiutain that the Prophet fasted 'Ashura on

328 ALBYRONİ.

account of its coinciding with the 10th in this year, unlsss you transfer Ashura from the first of the Jewish months to the first of the Arabian mouths, so as to make them fall together. (In the first year of the flight the Ist of Muharram was a Friday, and therefore ths 10th or 'Ashura, Monday). Also in ths second year of the flight the Jewish 'Ashura and the date of Muhammad's arrival in Medina cannot have coincided. The assertion of the Jews that on this day God drowned Pharno is rofuted by the Thora itself. For this took place on the 21st of Nishn, p.381. ths ssventh of the days of unlcavened bread. Now, the beginning of ths Jewish Passover after the arrival of the Prophet in Medioa was a 10 Tussday, ths 22nd AdbAr, A. Alsx. 993, coinoiding with the 17th Ramadan, and the day on which God drowued Pharao was ths 23rd Ramadan. Therefore this tradition is altogether unfounded. The 16th, Jerusalsm was made the Kibla of the Muslims. The 17th, the Companione of the Elephants (Ethiopians from the south of Arabia) arrived bofore Mekka.

Safar.

1. The head of Alhusain was brought to Damascus. Then he (Yazld b. Mu'awiya) placed it before himself, and with a stick in his hand he struck out the fore-teeth (the central four incisors), reciting these verses: 20 "I am pot a descendant of Khindif, if I do not revenge On ths sons of Ahmad what he has done. O that my chieftains in the battle of Badr had witnesgod The pain of Khazraj, caused hy the hitting of the spears. They would have praised God, and their faces would have beamsd with joy, And then they would say: 'O Yanid, do not ask for anything more! We have killed the generation of their chieftains ; We have tried to take vengeance on him for Badr, and we have 30 got it.'"

On this day the Imam Zaid h. 'Ali wae killed and crucified on the border of the Euphrates; then his body was burned, and the ashes thrown into the water. 16. First appearance of the illness in the P .phet. This was the illness in which he died. 20. The head of Albusain was again laid to the body, and both wero buried together. On this day the pilgrimage of the forty men occurred, when they entered the holy district after their return from Syria. 40 23. Alma'niun b. Alrashid (the Abbaside Khalif) gave up again the green dress, after he had dressed in it during five and a half months.

THE FESTIVALS OF THE MCSLIMS. 329

He agaiv adopted the blaek colonrs, the colours of the Abbaside parts, after they had become exeited against him. 24. Muhammad left Mekka and concealed bimself in a eave together with Abi-Bakr.

Rabr I.

1. Death of the Prophot. 8. The Pruphet arrives in Medina ou the flight. 12. The Prophet is born on a Monday in the Year of the Elephants.

Rabi II.

10 3. The Ka ba was burned at the timo when Alhajjaj besieged 'Ahd- allah h. Zubair. 15. Birth of 'Ali b. Abl.TAlib.

Jumádt I.

3. Tbe Battle of the Camel in Bagra with 'A'isha, Talha, and Alzubair. 8. The death of the virgin Fitimm, the Prephet's daughter.

Jumadi II. 2. Death of Abu-Bakr. 4. Fatima was bern of Khadijn bint Khuwailid.

Rajab.

20 4. 'Alf and Mu'awiya meet at Siffin. 26. Gud made Muhammad His Prophet to all maukiud. 27. Night of Aecension and the night-journey to Jerusalem.

Sha bin. 3. Birth of Alhusain b. 'Alf. 15. The great Liberation-night, also ealled Lailat-alsakk. 15. The Kaba was made the Kibla instead of Jerusalem. The Harranians turn in praying towards the south pole, the Sabians towards the north pole. I believe that the Manichwans, too, turn towarda the north pole, becanee this is, according to them, the middle of the dome of 30 heaven and its highest place. I find, however, that the anthor of the Book on Marriage, who is a Manichæan and one of their missionaries, repreaches the peuple of the three religions with turning to one direction to the exclusion of anuther. With this he reproaches them, besides other thinge, and he seems to indicate that a man who prays to God does not need any Kibla at all.

380 ALBÍRONİ.

Ramadan, the month of the obligators fasting. .399. 6. Birth of Albusain b. 'Ali uccording to all authorities except Alealamt. 7. Alma'mun adopted the green colonrs. 10. Death of Khadija. 17. The cursed 'Abd-alrahmio b. Muljim Almurâdi struck 'Ali b. Abi- Țalih on the head so as to injure the brain. On tho morning of the 17th the battle of Badr vecurred; nccording to another report, it occurred on the 19th. But this is nut correct, because 10 there is au uuinterrnpted tradition saying that it uccurred on a Mooday in the eccond year of the flight. If we compnte tho 1st of Ramadan for this year, wo find that it wes a Saturday, and the Monday in question falle upon the 17th. 19. Mekka was conquered. The Prophet did not perform the pilgrimage, because the Arabian months were back behiod real timo in coneequenco of the Nasi' (postponement of certain monthe in the times of henthendom). Therefore he waited till the months returued to their proper placea, and then he performed the farewell-pilgrimage, and forbade to use the Nasi'. 21. Death of the Prince of the Believers, 'Ali b. Abi-Talih ; also death 20

of 'Ali-Alrida Ibo Mush Alkazim b. Jafar Alsadis b. Muhammad Albaķir b. 'Al Alsajjud Zain-al abidin b. Allusain, the protomartyr, son of tho Priuco of tho Believers 'Ali b. Abi-Talil. According to others, his death (that of 'Ali-Alrida) occurred on the 23rd Dhu-Alka'da. 22. Birth of 'Ali b. Ali-Talib, according to Alsalami. 25. 'Abu-Muslim 'Abd-alrebmin b. Muslim first raised the etandard of the 'Abbasides in Khurfsin. 26. Revolt of Alburku'i in Bagra; according to some, he was 'Ali b. Muhammad b. 'Ahmad b. 'Îsa b. Zaid b. 'Ali b. Alhusain b 'Alt b. Abi- 30 Talib; according to others, he was 'Ali b. Muhammad b. 'Abd-alrahim b. Abd-alkais. There is a report saving that Alhasan b. Zaid, the Prince of Tabaristên, wrote to him at the time when he came forward iu Başra, asking for his genealogy, in order to learn the truth of the matter, whereupon he received this answer: "Do you mind my business as much as I mind yours (i.e. as little). My complimente." A wonderfully short and cutting answer, very much like that which Wali-aldaula 'Abu- 'Ahmad Khalaf b. 'Ahmad, the Prince of Sijistan, gavo, when Nah b. Mansur, the Prince of Khurasan, had written to him threatening him with various things. He answered : " O Nub, yon have quarrelled with us 40 a great deal. Now carry out that with which you threaten us, if Jou are a true-speaking man." C.ice 27. The night of this day is called Lailat-alkadtr (Night of Fate), of which God saye (Sura xcvii. 3) that it is better than a thousand months.

THE FESTIVALS OF THE MULIMS. 331

The date of this night rests on universal agreement, because its real date is not known. People sas : "See, this night is the night of tho 17th or the 19th, for t was between these two nights that the battle of Badr oeenrred, the conquest of Mekka, the desrending of the angels as a help, marked with certain baiges (Sora ii. 121)." This may bo correct, for God says (Shra xcvii. 4): "The angels descend and the Spirit. There is freedom from erersthing in that night by the permission of their Lord." People say that oo the following days the holy books were communicated 10 to the Prophet- on the Ist of Ramadin, the leares to Abraham, the 6th the Thura to Moses, p.888.

the 12th the Psalms to David, the 18th the Gospel to Jesus, and the 24th the Furkiin to Muhaminad.

As regards the Coran, God says (Sura ii. 181): "The month of Ramadan in which the Coran was sent down." Thereby we learn that it was revealed in this month. Some people quote besides the passage (Sura viii. 42): "And that which we have sent down npon our servant 20 on the day of the deeision (Alfurkan), on the day when the trro hosts met," inferring from this passage that the Coran was revealed on ths 17th of Romadan, hecause on this day the two hosts (that of Muhammad and his opponents) met at Badr. But God knows best! Regarding the Thorn, we have already mentioned that it was revealed on the 6th of Siwan, on the fenst of congreyation ('Azereth). If, at that time, Ramadin coineided with Siwan, the matter is so as has bren said. But there is no possibility of settling this question, bceause the year in whieh the Thora was revealed is not known; if it were known, we should inquire into ths subject by chronologienl computations. The report 30 regarding the Gospel is the saying of a man who does not know its character, nor arrangement, nor eomposition, and the revelation of the ether hooks is altogether unknown and eanuot be foud out. God knows hest!

Shawwdl.

1. Feast of fast-breaking, also called the day of mercy. God seleeted Gabric' as the bearer of His revelatier. He inspired the bees and taught them how to make honey (Sura xvi. 70). People maiotain that on this day God ereated Paradise. But why do tbey mention in their reprt such e tbing witb all that it may be 4) supposed to indicate and that may hie inferred therefrom? They go even so far as to attrihute to Him an ugly anthropumorphism-as te say that on this day He planted the tree Thba with His owu hand. And this

932 ALBİRONİ.

they have net tried to explain iu any way ; ou the contrary, they believe it jnst as it standa, from sheer ignorance. 2. Beginning of a voluntary fasting of six conseoutive days. 4. Muhsunnad and the Christisns of Najran argued with each other. Muhammad installed Hasan and Husain in tho right of sons of his, and FAtima in the right ef his wives, and 'Ali h. 'Abi-Talib he made hia intimate friend, complying with the order of God in the verse of the curging. 17. Battle of 'Uhud; according to others, it occurred in the middle of the month. In this battle Hamza was killed, and Muhammad lamented 10 over his loss. 19. Death of Abu-Talib. 28. On thia day, they say, Yonas was devoured by the fish.

Dhu-Alka'da.

5. The Ka'ba was sent dowp. God took compassion on Adam. Abraham and Ishmael raised the bases of the temple of Mekka. 14. Jonss, they any, came forth from the belly of the fish. Accorling to this view he must have stayed there twenty-two days, whilst according to the Christians he stared only three days, a8 is mentioned in the Gospel. 29. On this day, they say, the tree Yaktin grew Over Yonas, 20

Dhit-Allijja. 1. The Prophet of God married his daughter Fatima to his cousin, p.334. 'Ali b. Abl-Talib. The first 10 days of this month are also called Dies noti and Dies sacri. According to some, they are the time by which God completed the time which He had promised to Moses, saying (Sura vii. 188): " And we have promised Moses thirty nights-which are the nights of Dhu-alka'da-aud we bave completed their number by ten "- which are the Dies sacri. 8. This day is called Attarwiya, hecause the pilgrim's-well in the hols o mosque of Mekka used to be full of water about this season in the time of both heathendom and lalam, and the pilgrims drank from it so much as to guench their thiret. Accerding to anether view, it was called se because they used to carry the water from Mekka on Rawaya, i.e. camels which are used to draw water from a well. According to a third opinion, bscause God made spring forth for Ishmael the well Zamzam, from which he drank so much as to quench his thirst. According to a fourth opinion, because en this day God revealed Himself to the mountain, as has been mentioned in the history of Moses. 9. This day is called 'Arafa, the day of the great pilgrimage on 40 'Arafat. It is so called hecauss on that day people recognise each other at the time when they assemble for the performance of the ritea of

TRE FESTIVALS OF THE MUSLIMS. 333

pilgrimage, or, because Adam and Ere recognised each other after they had been driven out of Paradise in the place where peopde assembled. i.e. in shafat. On this day God selected Abrahinm as a friend (Khalit). It is slso called the day of forgiving. 10. It is called the day of the rictims, also Dies mactationis, because on this day the animals, that had been brought to Mekka to be sacrificed, were slaughtered. It is the last day of the days of thepilgrimage. On this day Isank was ransomed with the ram. On this day, too, the Road 10 (via atrata) to the Last Jndyment is said to have heen ereated. 11. The day of sojourning, beenuse on this day people sojourn in MinA. 12. The day of going away, becanse on this day people go away from the holy distriet hurrying. 11, 12, 13. The days of Tashrik, so called because on these days the meat of the sacrificed animals was eut to pieees and exposed to the suD for drying. The name is also derived from the saying, " 'Ashrik thabir kaimn nughir" (i.e. Shinc forth, O mountain Thabir, that we may break up). According to Ibn-Al'a'rabi they were so called because the victims 20 (hostir) wero not killed before the sun had riser. These are the days wbieb God means in His words (Sura i. 199) : "And ye shall remember God on certain eounted days." In the time immediately hefore and after these days people say Allah . akbar after epry pmayer. Among the theologians there.are. differences regarding the beginning, the eud, and the limits of the prayer of Takbir (i.e. Allah akbar), differences peculiar to their science. 17. 'Uthman b. 'Affan the Khalif was killed. 18. It is called Ghadir Khumm, which was the name of a station on the road.side where Mubamnmad alighted when returning from the fare- 80 well pilgrimage. He gave orders to collect the saddles and all the riding- instruments into one heap; this he ascended, supported by the arm of 'Ali b. 'Abi-Talih, and said: " O men, am I not nearer to you than you yourselves?" They answered, " Yes." Then he said: " To evers man whose friend I am, also 'Ali is a frieod. O God, befriend bim who befriends 'Ali, and oppose bim who opposes 'Ali, help bim who helps 'Ali, and desert him who deserts 'Ali. Let truth go about with him wherever he goes." Then he is said to have raised his head towards heaven and said

(Lacuna.)

40 24. 'Ali gave away bis seal-ring as alms, in praying. 25. 'Umar h. Alkhattah was killed, and the Sora Hal 'Ata (Sura p.335

Ixzvi.) was revealed. 26. David was inspired to ask for pardon (Shra xxxviii. 23).

334 ATBİRÔNİ.

29. Battle of AMarra, in which the Bana-'Umayya killed the people of Medina, when the honour of the Muhajiran (companione of the flight of Muhammad) and of the 'Ansdr (hie partisans in Medina) was stained and their wives were given up to the enemies. Therefore may God curse all those whom His Prophet cursed, of thoee who rebelled in Medina againet the law of God, and may He let us belong to those who do not like wickednese on earth, God is the beet Helper, and infinite thanke are His due !

335

CHAPTER XXI. p.336.

ON THE LUNAR STATIONS, THEIE RISINO AND SETTING, AND ON THEIR IMAOES.

Ir is now time for us to finish, after we have, as best we could, fulfilled our promiss in explaining the science of that subject which our friends wanted to know, and in relating all we know regarding it. But above every knowing man there is God all-wise! To complets the representation of this science, only one more chapter is required, that of the rising of the Lunar Stations in the days of the solar year. For 10 this science is practised on account of its general usefulness for the purpose of prognosticating all meteorological occurrences which revolve together with the Lunar Stations. Thcrefore we shall now proceed to explain this subject both at Jarge and in detail, and we shall add some of the proverbial sayings relating to them, which we gather from the literature of this kind, e.g. from the hook of Alkulthumi, that of Ibra- him b. Alsarri Alzajjaj, that of Yabya h. Kunasa, of Abu-Hanifa Aldi- nawari on the 'Anan, the book of 'Aha-Mubammad Aljahali on the science of the configurations of the stars, the book of Abu-Albusain on the fixed stars, and from other books. 20 The Hindus divided the globe, in conformity with their 27 Lunar Stations, into 27 parts, each Station occuping nearly 131 degrees of the echiptic. From the stars entering these Stations, which are called Jufur, they derived their astrological dogmas as required for every subject and circumstance in particular. The description of thesc Astrologoumena would entail a long explication of things, foreign to our purposs, all of which may be found in- and learned from-the books on Astrologou- mena. The Arabs divided the celestial globe into 28 parts, so that each Station

996 ALBİRONİ.

occupies nearly 12 degrees of the scliptic, and each zodiacal sign con- tains 2} Stations. Some poet says : "Their number is, if you want to count them, Twenty stars, and a number 8 after thew. In sach of the zodiacal signs there are Two Stations and one complate third of a Station. A peculiar system of computation belongs to them, and they have their heliacal risings and ssttings, Which are the reason that winter and summer revolve."

The Arabs used the Lunar Stations in another way than the Hindus, 10 as it was their object to learn thereby all meteorological changes in the seasons of the year. But the Arahs, being illiterate people, could not recognize ths Lunar Stations except by certsin marks, visible to the 337. sye. Therefore they marked the Stations by thoss fixed stars which lie within them, And the rising of the fixed stare in the east early after the rise of dawn they considered as a sigu of the sun's entering some one of the Stations, and so they could do, since the stars do not recede from their places except after the lapse of long spaces of time, and, besides, ths Arabs were not educated enough to notice such a variation. Further, thsy composed verses and rhymed poetry, so that theas things 20 could easily be remembered by illiterate people, and recorded therein the annual physical influences which, according to their ohservation and experience, coincided with the rising of each particular Station. These sayings and verses they use to indicate certain circumstances of theirs, e.g. : "When the moon joins (i.e. stands in conjunction with) the Pleiades, In a third night (of a month), then the winter is gone." For the Pleiades occupy the place from 10° of Tourus till about 15° of Taurus. When, therefore, the moon joins the Pleiades in the 3rd night 30 of a month, the distance between sun and moon is abont 40 degrees. Then the sun stands in the first part of Aries. Further: "When full-moon is complete and stands with the Pleiades, Then you get the heginning of the cold season, the winter." For when the moon stands in opposition to ths Pleiades, the sun stands in the middle of Scorpio, and that time is the beginning of the cold season. Further: " When full-moon joins Aldabaran In the 14th night of a month, Then winter encircles the whole earth, 40 Being like riders who ride abont, telling people to warm thein- selves,

ON THE LUNAR STATIONS. 337

And full moon rises iu heaven high overhead, so that The shadow of the tent-poles disappears, When the night has reached its iniddle And tho air is free from dark clouds."

For at that time the suu stauds iu Scorpio close to Alkalb (the 18th Lunar Statiou); it is the time of cold and of morning frosts. The moon stands in some degree of nerthern declinatiou, and frequently she stands in such a latitude froiu the ecliptie towards the direetion of the declinatien, tbat she eulminates (stands right) over the heads of ths 10 Arabs. In eonsequence, the sharows of all bodies disappear at the tims when she reaches the middle of heaven, ic. at the time of miduight. Further:

" When the new moon of a mouth first appears To the eyes of people at the beginning of a night, standing in Alna'aim, Then you get cold winds from every side, And you find it agreeable a little before dawn to wrap a turban round the head."

For at that timo the sun stands in the first part of Sagittarius. 20 Forthar: "The complete night, with all that belougs to it, has become cold, And the sun stands in the Station of Alorun." For the stars of Alawwa Ghe 18th Lunar Station) lie. around the p.338. vernal equinox, as the table of the Lunar Stations will show. However, if I were to commnnicate to the reader all the verses and sayings in rhymed prose which relate to the rising of each Lunar Station, I should also have to interpret their meanings, and to explain ths rare words that occur in them. This, however, we muy omit, since it has heen sufficiently done by the authors of the books of' Anmt, whom 30 we mentioned above. Since the Arabs attribute all meteorological changes to the inffuence of the risiug and setting of the stars, in consequence of their ignorance of physical sciences, thinking that all changes of the kind depend upon the hodies of the stars and their risiug, not upen certain parts of the celestial globe and the sun's marching therein, they believe a great many things similar to that which we have mentioned of the Sirius Jemenicus, during the rising of which Hippoerates in his time forbade taking hot drugs and phlebotomizing. And this suhject remiuds me of au occurrence in my life which serves 40 to confirm the verses of Ahmad h. Furis:

" A wise man of by-gone times lus said : 'Tue importance of a man lies in bis two smallest things." 22

838 ALBİRONİ.

I on my part also epeak like a wise man, saying: 'The importance of a man lies only in his two dirhams.' If ha has not his two dirhams with him, His bride does not care for him. In consequenco of his poverty he is despissd, So that people's cats piss at him."

For when I was separated from the court of His Highneas, and was bsreft of the happiness of the royal service, I met a man in Rai (Rhage) who was counted among the learned aatronomers. He had studied the conjunctions of the stars which form the Lunar Stations, and he had 10 commanced to collect them in order to dcrive certain sentences (astrolo- goumena) from the Stations and their single parta, and thereby to prog- nosticate all changes of the air. Now, I told him that the truth is the very reverse of his theory, that the nature and peculiarities which are attributed to the first Station, and all that which the Hindus relate of the connection of this Station with othera, are peculiar to the first part of Aries, and never leave this place, although the star (or stars which form the Lunar Station) may leave it. In a similar way, all that is peculiar. to Aries does not move away from the placs of Aries, although the constel- lation of Aries does move away. But then tha man became very haughty, 20 and treated me slightingly, though he waa inferior to me in all his kuowledge. He told me my theory was a lie, and behaved very rudely to me, being very lengthy about the difference between us in wealth and poverty, which changes subjects for glory into subjcete for blama. For at that time I was in a miserablo condition, tried (trvnbled) on all sides; afterwards, however, when my troubles had subsided (ceased) to some axtent, he chose to hehave in a friendly way towards me. It is avident that, if the science of meteorology were to depend upon the rising of the bodies of the stars, as ohserved by eye-sight, the times and seasons of the Metoora would differ in the same proportion as the 80 stars change their places ; besides, thsy would be different in different p.339. countriss, and we should require for them as well as for the appearing and disappearing of the plancts various kinds of tiresome methoda of calculations. In reality the rising of tha Lunar Stations means this, that the sun on entering one of them covers it and the preceding one too, whilst the third one, according to the inverted order of the zodiacal signs, rises between the rise of dawn and that of the sun, at that timo which Ibn Alrakka' describes in the following verses : "The observers saw Sirius distinctly, 40 As he turned away, when the morning pruyer approached. I recognize Sirius shining red, whilst the morning is becoming white. The night, fading away, has risen and left him.

ON THE LONAR TATIOYS. 339

The night is uot afraid to lose him, since he follows her, But the night is not willing to acknowledge that he belongs to the night."

The rising of a Lunar Station they called its Nau', i.e. rising. The influence of the rising they called Baril, the influence of the sctting they called again Nan'. The interval between the risings of two con- secutive Lunar Stations is 13 davs, exccpt the intervalbetween therising of Aljabhu (the 10th Station) and of the following Station, whieh is 14 days. So the following verses:

10 " All time, you must kuow, consists of fonrths. And each fourth eonsists of sevenths. A complete scventh belongs to the rising of a star, And to the influence (Nau') of a star setting in the west. Between the rising of each star And that of the following star there are four nights And nine nights more."

There is a difference of opinion regarding the ' Anmu. Some maintain that each influence (of a Lunar Station) is brought abont between the risings of two consecutive Stations, that therefore the influcnce is attri- 20 Inted to the former of these two Stations. According to others, a certain space of time is peculiar to the rising aud setting of ench Lunar Station, and everything that occurs in this tiure is attributed to the Station in question; occurrences which fall after the end of this space of time are no longer attributed to it. The last view is the generally adopted one. Besides, there are differeuces about the length of these spnees of tims, which we shall afterwards describe. When the infinenee of some Station bas been found out and is known, and nothing happens at its time, people say: the star was empty; or: 30 the Station was empty, i.e. the time of its Nan' has gone by without thers being any rain, or heat, or cold, or wind. (On the Winds.)-Regarding the directions of the winds, the planes over which they hlow, and their number, there am different opinions. Some maintain that the directions of the wind are six, as Il Kunhsa relates, on the authority of 'Abu.Muhammad Ja'far b. Sa'd b. Samura b. Jundub Alfazari, whilst, according to most others, there are only four, as Khihd b. Safwin relates; the latter is the opinion of most nations, althongh they differ regarding the planes of the blowing of the winds. Both these opinions of the Arabs are comprised in the following two 40 circles; the former vicw is represented in the inner cirele, the latter in p.340. the outer cirele. There you also find tho names of the winds and the direetious of their plaues. Here follows the cirele.

22 *

340 ALBÍRONİ.

South

Plane of the west wind South wind Malara

Fast of the winter West of the winter

Past East of the spring West of the opring Westof the Summor West Faat wind Plane of the sonth wind. Bast of the eummer

North/

In the first theory the author (Ibn Kunasa) places the wind Mahwoa near the south wind, whilst it is well known that Mahwa is the north wind, hecause it eztinguishes (destroys) the clouds when they are empty, after the south wind has driven them on, full of rain. In the same theory he assigns a separate plane to the wind Nakba, whilst it is well known that Nakba is every wind, the plane of which lies between the planes of any two other winds of the four cardinal winds. Dho-alrumma mentions the winds, Nabka included, in this wav :

" Heavy rain-showers of some Anmt and the two Haif (south wind and west wind), 10 Which drove the sand-masses of ths dusty-coloured mountains away over the house. And a third wind, blowing from the side of Syria, a cold one, Blowing with whirlwinds along its road over the sand. And a fourth wind coming from the rising-place of the sun, driving The fine dust of Almi'n and of Kurikir over the house.

ON THE LONAR STATIONS. 3441

The side winds, carrying along the dnst, oxcited it (the cast wind) to still greater vehemence, Se that it frequently roared like the she-camels in the tenth month of their pregnancy, when the throes arc near." The twe Haif are the south wind and west wind; the wiud blowing from Syria is the north wind; the wind ceming from the rising-place of the sun is the east wind. The planes of the winds with the Persians are the same as with the ancient Greeks, and all physical scholars; their ceutres correspond to the 10 four directions. They are represented iu the following cirele:

South

Nimroz

East Khurasân Khurbaran or the planc of the couttuwind

or the centre of the eaat wind or the plane of the west wind/ West

Ådharbadhakân' ar the plane of the north winde North

Any wind that lies between the centres of the planes of two other winds ie referred to that centre which is the nearest (and receives its name therefrom). Other people refer an intermediate wind to the rising and setting places of the sun at the time ef the solstices, and call it by & Greck name. (Method for finding the time of the Nau' and Barih of a Lunar Station.)-The following is a good method to find the times of the

342 ALBfRONt.

intiuences (imanpaoie) ef the rising and the settiug of the Lunar Stations: Take the time from the lat of Ilul till that day the nature of which you want to find out, and divide the aum of days by 13. If there is no remainder, proceed in this way : If tho moon stands opposito the sun or in ono of her quadratures, you get rain, if it is the season for min, or somo change of tho air in consequence of wind, or heat, or cold. For if there ia no remainder (as in this case), it is the time of the rising of one Lunar Station and the setting of the opposite Station. On the 1st of Ilul falle the Baris (influence of tho rising) of Algarfa (the 12th Station) and the Nau' (influenco of the setting) of Sa'd-al'akhbiya (the 10 25th Station). From this date you begin counting, for this special reason, that it is the first of a month and the beginning of autumn. If, besides, the moon bappens to be in one of her Foundations, the influence (of the Lunar Station) will come out very strong. Abu-Ma'ahar says : "We have tried this method A. H. 279in Shawwal 841. st the time of full moon. We counted the daya from the lat Ilul till thia full moon. They were 130 days; dividing them by 13 you get no re- mainder, and the Ascendens of the full moon (or opposition) was Amphora. So we got rain on that day, and when the moon stood in her right quad- rature, also on that day we had rain." 20 Further, he saya: "We tried it alao in the following year. We counted the days from the 1st fldl till Thuraday the 13th of Kantn I .; the sum of daya we divided by 13, and there was no remainder; the distance between aun and moon was as much as balf a zodincal sign (i.e. 15 degrees), the moon had turned away from the hexagon of Mars and stood in conjunction with Veuus. At that very time we got rain." Now, this is a testimony of Abo-Ma'shar, showing that through this method you obtain correct results. If, besides, you take to help'the mansions (the places of the Lunar Stations) of the Hindus and their single parta, you are pretty sure in your calculation to come near the so truth. People relate that among the Arabs the Banu-Mariys b. Kalb and the Bant-Murra b. Hammam b. Shaiban bad the moat accurate knowledge of the configurationa of the stars. In enumerating the Nujum-afakkdk, i.e. the Lunar Stations, the Arabs commenced with Alsharatan, since in their time they atood in the firet part of Aries. Otber nations begin with the Pleiadea. I do not know whether they do this because the Pleiadea are more easily und clearly visible without any atudy or research than the other Stations, or because, &a I have found in some books of Hermes, the vernal equinox coincides 40 with the rising of the Pleiades. This statement must have been made about three thousand and more years before Alerander. God knows Lest what they intended! We shall adopt the Arabian system in ennmerating the Lunar Stations, aud shall begin, as they do, with

ON THE LONAR STATIONS. 348

1. Alsharatan (6, y Arietis), i.e. the two signs. They are called so for the same reasen that the soldiers of the bedy-guard of a prince are culled Sharat, since they mark themselvos by some sign, by the black colour, or something else. It oensists of two stars Lelonging to Aries (8 and y). Sometimes, also, a third star neur them is added, and then this Station is called Alashrat (plural instead of the dual Sharatan). Batween the two stars, when standing in the middle of heaven, there is an interval of two yards according to aya-sight; one of them belongs to the nerthern half, the 10 other to the southern. All msasures of distances botweeu the stars according to ere-sight are to he understood only for that time when they stand in the middle of heaven, for these distances appear greater near the horizon in consequence of the intense refraction of the ray of light in the watery capours that surround the earth. This has been explaincd in the books on the geo- metrical cenfigurations (of the stars). Further, the distance between twe stars increases in the direction from north towards the south; frequently, too, when the stars march towards the horizon, it increases in the direction from east to west, or pretty nearly in the direction of one 20 of the eycles of altitude. The reason of this is that the spheres declins frem the perpendicular direction which they have on the equator. The Station Al'ashrat is also called Alnath (i.e. horn), because the two Sharat are placed on the root of the two horns of Aries. The meteoro- logical influences of this Station are peculiar to the first (i.e. original) position of Aries, and in no way depend upon the stars from which the Station has got its nams. These stars have migrated from their original place (in consequence of the precession of the equinoxes) and have in our time come to oceupy a second pesition (different from the fermer). p.342

2. Atbutain (e, 8, x Arietis). 30 It consists of three stars at the end of the wemb of Arics, forming an isosceles triangle. The word is the diminutive of Bata, so as to mean the littte womb, so called in comparison with Bafu-athat (the womb of the fish), which is the 28th Station.

3. Althurayyâ (Pleiades) consists of six stars closs to each other, very similar to a cluster of grapes. According to the Arabs they form the clunis of Aries, but that is wrong, because they stand on the hump of Taurus. The word is a diminutive of Tharwa, which is originally identical with Tharwa, i.e. a collection and great number of something. Some people 40 maintain they were called so hecauss the rain, which is brought by their

844 ALDİRCNi.

Nun', produces Tharww, i.c. almdance. They are alse called Alnajm (i.a. The Elar). Plolemy mentions onls four stars of the Pleindes, since ho had not observed more of them, hecauso to eye-sight they sesm to lie quita closo together. The forty days during which this Station disappears under tha rays of the snn, are, acoordiog te the Arabs, the worst and most unhealthy of the whola ear. Al'asadi says: " Althurasy Dever rises Dor sets unless bringing some harm." And one of their medical men says: " Warrout me the time betwcen the disappearing and the rising of Althuraysa, and 10 I shall warrant you all the remainder of the vear." The Prophet is ralated to havs said : " When the Star rises, all harm (mishap) rises from the enrth ;" and aecording to another tradition: " When the Star rises, all mishap is raised from every place."

4. Aldabaran (a Tauri),

a bright red star, so called hecause it follows afler the Pleiades, standing over the southern eye of Taurus. It is also called Alfanit, t.e. a great camel-stallion (not serving for riding), because they call the stars around it Kilaf, i.e. young she-camels (serving for riding). Other names of it are " The folloxer of the Star," because io rising and setting it follows 20 immedintely after the Pleiades, and Almukhdi (i.e. a she-camel giving birth to a young one of imperfect formation).

5. Allaka (A, $',(" Orionis)

consists of three small stars close to each ether, looking like so many dots impressed upon the earth by the thumb, the fore-finger, and the middle-finger, the fingers being closely pressed together. They were so called because they were compared with a eircle of buirs on the side of the herse at the joint of the foot; such a horse is called Malki'. They are also called Altaht'i (or Altogtyi). Ptolemy considers them as une cloudy star, and calls them the nebula on the head of Aljabbar, i.e. 30 Aljauzâ {Orion).

6. Alhan'a (y, Geminorum)

consists of two bright stars in the Milky Way between Orion and the head of Gemini, distant from each other as far as the length of a whip. The one is called Zirr (buttop), the other Maisan (walking along proudly); they stand ou the foot of the second twin. Arcording to Alzajjaj, Han'a is derived from the verh Hana'a, i.e. to wind and twine one thing round the other, as if cach of them were winding and twining round the other. Aceording to others, this name is to be understood of a third star, standing behind their middle, which gives 40

ON THE LUNAR STATIONS, 345

thom the appearnce of an incliued ueck. The Arabs consider Allmn'a and six other stars as the bow of Orion, with which he shoots at the p.343. Lion,

7. Aldhint (, B Geminornm)

consists of two stars, one yard distant from each other. The one is the blenr-eyed Sirius or Sirius Syriacus, according to the Arbs, the out- stretched arm of Leo; the other is Sirius 'Aber or Sirins Yemenicus, the arm of Leo which is not stretebed ont. According to the astrouomers, the outstretched arm is the head of Gemiui, and the ether arm belougs to 10 the stars of Allalb Almntakaddim (Procyon). But people differ greatls regarding these stars and produer various futde traditions and stories in support of the names which they give them. The risiug of Ghameis (the blear-eyed Sirius) in the sear 1300 of Alexander took place ou the 10th Tammaz, and that of Sirius Yemenicus on tho 23rd Tammiz.

8. Alnatara (Præsepe (e) et duo Aselli (y, 8) Cancri)

is the place between the month and the nostrils of the Lion. It is also enlled Allahi (the uvulu), and cousists of ton stars, between which there is a nebula, tho whole helouging to the figme of Cancer

9. Altarf, 20 the eye of Leo, two stars close to cuch other, vue helonging to Leo, the other to the stars outside the figure of Caucer. In frout of them there are stars called Alashfur, i.c. the eyebrows of Iwo.

10. Aljabha (t, y, w, u Leonis), the front of Leo, four stars, each star distant from the other hy the length of a whip, lsing athwart from rorth to south in a curve, not in a straight line. According to astronomers, they stand ou the mane of Leo. The most southern star of them they call the Heart of the Royul Lion; it rises when Subail rises in Alhijaz. Subail is the 4ith star of Argo Navis, standing over its var. Its latitude is 75 degrees iu the southeru so half. Therefore it does not rise very bigh ahove the horizon, in conse- quence of which it has something unsteady for the eye. People say that a man, if his eye falls on this star, dies, as they also relate that on the island of Ramin, belouging to Corion, there is an animal the sight of which kills a mau withio forty duys afterwards. The most curious instance of the conncetion betweeu animal life aud its material influcuce is the fish called Siturus Electriens. For the haud of the fisherman who bas canght it takes care not to touch it as long as it is in the uet still living. If you take a reed and tottch the hving fish with one eud aud kcep the other end in your hand, the band becomes feeble and drops the reed.

346 ALBÍRONİ.

Further, the worms in Raghad, ons of tha districts of eastern Jurjan. For there you find in certain places small worms; if a man carrying wnter treads upon them, the water bacomes bad and fonl; if he docs not trend upon them, the water remains good and keeps its nice odour and swest taste. The death of a mnn bitten by a panther, when a field-mouse pissss at him-

[Lacuna.]

944. 11. Alsubra (8, 0 Loenis),

i.e. the shoulder of the Lien, the place where the neck bagins. Accordiug 10 to Alzajjaj, it is the place of the mane on his neck, hecause the mane bristles up when he is in wrath. According to Alna'ib Alamuli, Zubra is a piece of iron hy which tha two sheulder-hlades of a lion are imitated. This statien consists of twe stars, distant frem each ether by tho length ofa whip. They are also called the Two Khurt, i.e. heles, as if sach of them were penetrating into the interior of the Lion, but in reality they stand upon the shank of the Lion, one of them on the roet of the tail. When thay rise, Suhail is seen in Alirak.

12. Alsarfa (8 Leonis),

a bright star near to some very dim ones, called the Clow of the Lion. 20 It stands ou the end of the Lion's tail, and is called so becanse the heat turne away when it rises, and the celd turas away when it disappears.

13. Alawwd (8, n, Y, 8, € Virginis)

consiste ef five stars in a line, the end of which is turned. And there- fere the Eutien is called so hecause tha varb 'Awa means to turn. Alzajjaj says: "I do net know of anybedy else besides me who has explained the word in this way. These who say that these stare are degs running bebind the Lion and barking are wrong." They stand on the breast and wing of Virgo.

14. Alsimak Al a'eal (Spica). 30

It is also called the Calf of the Lion, and Alsimak Alramip is his other calf. This Simak is called 'A'zal (i.e. bare), because whilst the other Simak Alramib (the shoeter) is accompanied by a star, said to ha his lance, this one has no such accessory, and is therefere said to be bars of weapons.

ON TRE LUNAR STATIONS. 347

According to Sibnwaihi, Simak is called so on acrount of its rising high, or, according to others, because the moon does not enter this Station. But if that were the case, Alsimak Ala'sal would not deserve the name of a Lunar Station, for, of course, the moon enters it and frequently covera it (so as to make it disappear). It is a brilliant star on the left palm of Virgo, which some peoplo call Sunbula (the ear). Bnt this is wrong, because the Ear (Spica) ie Alhudba (i.e. hog's bristle), which Ptolemy calls Aldafira, i.e. Crines plezi. Thie is a numiber of small stars bebind the tail of the Great Bear, vary 10 much liko the leaf of Lublib, i.e. helxine. The whole zodiacal sign is aleo called so (i.e. Spica). According to the Arabs, Alhulba (the hog's bristle) standa on the end of the Lion's tail, being the small hairs on the end of the tail.

15. Alghafr (t, K, Virginis) consista of three not very brilliant stars on the train and the left foot of Virgo. According to the Arabs, it is the best of the Lunar Statione, because it etande behind Leo and before Scorpio. The evil of the Liou lies in hia teeth and claws, the evil of the Scorpion lies in ita venom and the sting of its tail. A Rajaz poet says: 20 " The best night for ever Liee between Alzubana and Al'asad (Leo)."

People say that the horoscopes of all the prophets lie in this Station; but this does not seem to be true except in the casc of Messiah, the Prophet who keeps off all mishap. The hirth of Moses-according to the report of tho Jews-must have coincided with the rising of the tooth of Leo and the moon's entering tbe claws of Leo. It is called Ghafr, becanse the light of its stars is imperfect, from the p.345.

verb Ghafara, i.e. to cover a thing, or, because it rises above the claws of Scorpio and becomes to it like a Mighfar (i.e. coat of mail). According 30 to Alzajjaj, the name is derived froin Ghafar, i.e. tbe bair on the end of the Lion'e tail.

16. Alzubina (a, B Libra)

consista of two brilliant stars, separated from each other as far as five yards, and standing in a place where the two claws of Scorpio might be; they belong, however, to Libra. The word is also derived from zabana (i.e. to push), as if the one of them were being pushed away from the other, not united with it.

17. Aliktit (6, 8, « Scorpii) ia the bead of Scorpio, consisting of three stars which form one lino. 40 Ibn-Algufi declares this to be impossible, and maintaine that it consists

348 ALBİRONİ.

of the 8th atas of Libra and the 6th one of the etars outeide Libra, as also Ptolemy has it in hie Almagest. According to Ibn-Alsnfi, those who conaider the tbreo bright etare in one line as Aliklil are mistaken, for he eaye that the Crown, (i.e. Al'iklil) could not be anywhere but upon the head. However, the general view of the Arabs in opposition to that of Ibn-Aleufi-ia thie, that the three stars in one line are Aliklil. The Arabs have a proverb applicable to this eubject, saying: "The two contending parties were content, but the judge declined to give a judgment."

[18. Alķalb (a Scorpii) 10

is a red star behind Al'iklil and between two stara called Alniyat (prmcordia).]

19. Alehaula (A, v Scorpii)

is the sting of Scorpio, so called becauee it is alwaye mushdla, i.s. raised. It consists of two bright stars near each other on the top of the tail of Scorpio.

20. Amna'a'im (y, 8, 6, n, 0, 0, T, { Sagittarii)

coneiste of eight etars, four of them lying in the Milky Way in a square, which are the Descending Ostriches, desoending to the water, which is the Milky Way ; and four of them lying outside the Milky Way, also in a 20 equare, which are the Ascending Ostriches, ascending and returning from the water. Alzajjaj reade the word Alnu'd'im, ie. the beame placed above the mouth of a well, where the sheaves of the pulley and the buckets are fired (attached). The stars were compared to ostriches, as if four of them were descending, four ascending. The Descending Ostriches stand on the bow and arrow of Sagittarius, and the Aacending Ostrichea stand on his shoulder and breast.

21. Abbalda 30

is a deeert district of heaven witheut any stare, at the side of the Horee, belonging to Sagittarius. According to Alzajjaj, this station was com- pared to the interstice between the two eyebrows, which are not connected with each other. You say ofa man'abtod, which means that his eyebrows do not run into each othar.

ON THE LUNAR STATIONS. 349

22. Sa'd-Aldhabi (a, f Capricorni)

consists of two stars, the ons to the north, the other to the south, distant from each other ahout one yard. Close to the northern ons there is & p.346. small star, considered as the sheep which he (Sa'd) slaughters. The two stare stand on tho horn of Capricorn.

23. Sa'd-Bula' (u, v, < Aquarii)

consists of two stars with a third and hardly visible one between them, which looks as if one of them bad devoured it, so that it ghded down from the throat to the breast. According to others, it was called 10 so because Sa'd is considered as be who devoured the middle atar, robled it of its light and concealed it. According to Abu.Yahya b. Kunasa, this Station was called so hecause it rose at the time when God said: "O earth, devour thy water" (Sura xi. 46). This is a rather subtle derivation. These stars stand on the left hand of Aquarius or Amphora.

24. Sa'd Aleu'nd (8, $ Aquarii)

consists of three stars, one of which is more bright than the two others. It is called so hecause people consider its rising as a lucky omen, because it rises when the cold decreases, when the winter is past and the season of the continuous rains sets in. Two of these stars stand on the 20 left shoulder of Aquarius; the third one stands on the tail of Capricorn.

25. Sa'd-Alakhbiya (y, (, ", n Aqnarii)

consists of four stars, three forming an acute-angled trigone, and one standing in the middle, as it were the centre of a circumaeribed eirele. The central star is Sa'd, and the three surrounding stars are his fents. According to others, this Station was called so because at the time when it rises all reptiles that had been kiddeu in the carth come forth. These stars stand on the right hand of Aquarius. God is all-wise!

26. Alfargh Al'awual (a, ß Pegasi),

also called the Upper Handle (of the bucket), and the First Two who 30 move the Bucket in the Well (in order to fill it). It consists of two bright stars, separated from each other, standing on the spine and shoulders of Pegasus.

350 ATBiRONİ.

27. Alfargh Alhant (y Pegasi and a Andromeda), also called the Lower Handle (of tho buoket), and the Later Two who move the Bucket in the Well (in order to fill it). It consiata of twe stars similar to Alfargh Alamval. According to the Arabs Amphora consists of these four stars.

28. Batn Alhit (8 Andromadw), also called Kalb-Alhtit, is a bright star in the one half of the womb of a fieh (a star) called Ritbon, which must not be confounded with the Two Fishes, one (the 12th) of the zodiacal signs. These stars atand above Lihm and belong to Andromeda (lit. the chained wife who had 10 not seen a husband).

The preceding notes we have condensed and have added thereto other notes relating to Lunar Stations; this we have arranged in the form of a table, showing the nature of the Lunar Stationa according to the difforent theories. We bave also noted the rising of the stars of the Stations for the year 1300 of Alexander according to menn calculation; this we have also deposited in a table of the conditions of the stars of the Lonar Stations. If you look into these two tables you will find that the superscriptions at the top of each column render it superfluous to consult anybody beforehand as to their ase. Here follow the two 20 tables.

Whother Names of they portend Whether they On what days On what days of the of the tbe Lunar Stations. luck indlente Syrian months OF Syrian months misfor ary or wet weather. they rise. they set. real placos of the cion no regard Arieg and thot of escb Station, ao- being had of the cording to caleule. the beginning of tune. Distances betwesn Kubasa. Hanita Aldinawrart. (influence of the Betting of & Stetion) lasts-according lasts, according to Abu- most Anwa-booka, How many days cach Nau' to most Anwa-books finfuence of the riaing of a How many daya each Now Station) lasts-according to How many days cach Bárth |How many daye each Nou' Beconds. by the setting of the Lanar Minutes.

Al sharat&n 0 0 0 | Miadling Intermediate Nisto . 10 Tishrin I. (10 Degreea.

1 Zodiacslf i The seasone as dotarmined 0 Al-botaio 0 12 51 26 Lcky Dry 23 3 25 42 52 Lacky Modorato 8 7 Al-thurayya 0 ( 5 Al-dabarân . 1 8 84 18 Unlacky Moist 'Iyyar . 10 1 Tishrin I1. 13 1 1 21 25 44 Unlacky Moist 1 1 1 6 Al-hak'a Al-han'a Intermediate Haxirân 14 Kånân I. 3 Antumn.

2 4 17 10 | Lucky 3 3 Stotioua of

Al-dbirdf 2 17 8 35 Lucky Moint 27 1 ( 27 5 3 Б Al-nathra 3 0 0 0 Mixed Intermediato Tammùx 10 1 ( 9 1 Al-tart 61 26 Culacks Dry 2 23 Kindn 11. 7 12 1 6 7 . 10 ALjahha 25 $2 52 Locky Moist Âb . . 5 Bhubt 17 4 7 8 At-zubra 84 18 Lucky Intermediato . 10 . . 11 8 3 Winter. Stations of 12 Al-sarfo 4 21 25 41 Unlucky Moist 5 1101. 1 3 3 3 4 17 10 Lucky Intermedinte . 14 1 Adhur. .3 15 1 1 -- . 18 Al-awwa Al.simak 6 17 8 35 Middling Moist, Intermodinto 27 (28 4 14 4 . 0 3 15 Al-ghafr 6 1 0 0 Unlacky Moist, Modorato Tishrin I. 51 Unlucky Moist 10 3 ( 10 16 Al-zabana . 12 26 23 . 3 'SKOLVIS NYNOT AHL KO 17 Al.ikMI 6 25 52 Unlneky Moist 5 Lucky Dry Tishrin 11. 18 *lyyår . 6 6 4 4 8 3.1 119 1 18 Al-kalb 18 1 1 25 41 Moist 1 Bpring. .- 19 Unlucky 1 Stationa of Al-shaala 21 Huzirân 1 1 20 Al-na'd'im 8 4 17 10 Unlucky Kauun 1. 11 1 8 17 35 Mixel Moist Moist 27 1 ( 27 1 3 3 Al-bnlda 22 0 0 0 Lacky Middhios Moist 9 1 ( 10 1 1 1 18181ABEA1NA454ww9www ' lasts, according to Yabyå b. 0 12 61 A littio moist 1 Tunimuz . 1 1 8a'd-Bula' 62 1 24 Sa'd-alsu'ha 26 42 26 1 23 9 Unlucky 18 Mixed Inte.modiate : Dry, Modernte Shubst 1 17 i Âb . . 1 1 8a'd-al'akhıbiya . 10 8 .)19 1 1 Summ er, 25 Statious uf

26 Alfargh Almukad- 10 41 3 3 co dom 21 25 Lacky Drs 1 27 Alfargh .Almu'akh. Adhar. 1101. . klar 4 17 10 Mixed Moist 15 1 14 28 11 Lucky Moist 28 1 Bntu-alhut . 27 17 8 HA 196 Autumn. Stariousof

$52 pp. 349, 350. TABLE OF THE STARS OF THE LUNAR STATIONS.

The names Ou what days of The different constellations, of the the Syrian montbn On whnt days of

Lunar Stations. of A. Alex. 1800 the Syr'an montas The ditterest costellations,

of A. Alex. 1300 renresented by the stors of the Lunar

tbey set. Stations according to ths represented hy the stars of the Lanar

they rise. Astronomers. Stationa according to the Arabs. stATa The nam- ! berot thelr

1. Ai-sharatân. 2 22 Tisbrin I 22 Tbo two horns of Aries Tbe twe horns of Aries 2. Al-bațain 3 3. Al-tburayy& 6 *Iyyår {18 Tishrin II. 5 4 17 Clanis Arictis The hunch of Taunis | The belly of Arise

2. Al.dabarån . 30 | The oye of Taurus Clonis Arietis (s1 + 5. Al-hak's 3 Hazirân (13 Kanun I. 18 Tbe liend of Orion The ofe of Taurae The head of Orion 6. AJ-hao'a 26 The two reet of the ssooad twin Tammûz ( 9 8. AJ.nethra 22 Kanun II. Tho hond of the twing Tho bow of Orion 7. Al-dhirl' 2 The oot stretrhed fore.leg of Leo 21 Cancer

17 Shubat ₹ 3 The nose of Leo 2 Tho two oyes of Lco ALBiRON ?. 4 Âb Tho neck of the Lion 10. Al-jabha 16 The meno and beart of the Lion Tho front of Leo 11. Al-zubra 2 The root of the tail of Lco The withers of Leo 12. Al-şarfa 18. Al-awwd 1 4 11a1 A dhâr 14: The end of the fank of Leo The tail of Lco 26 (27 i The broast of Virgo The hip of Leo 14. Al-simåk The hand of Virge 3 Tishrin f. Nigân The ealf of Len 15. Al-ghafr 22 222 The train of Virgo The coat uf mail of Heorpio 16. Al-zubânâ 4 ( 5. Tho scale of tho Balanos The two stings of Scorpio 17. Al-'ikltl 2 8 Tiahrtn 1L 17 18 The front of Scorpio Tho bead of Scorpio 18. Al-kalb .30 ( 31 | The beart of Seorpio The beart of Seorpio 19. Al.shaola 2 13 20. Al-na'd'im KJnao l. 26 Hazirao 18 : The tongue of Scorpio The tongoe of Scorpio . 8 ₹ 26 The bow of Sagitturios The Ostriches . 21. Al-balda 0 22. Sa'd-aldh&bib KADÔn IJ. ( 8 Tammuz 6 9 Tho body of Sagittarius A district withoot stars 2 21 23. Sa'd-bula' Tho horu of Capricorn 2 Shnbât ( 3 The loft hand of Aquarius Not belonging to any constellation Tho snme 24. Sa'd-alsa'Qd 3 )16 25. Sa'd-al'nkhbiya Âb 17 The left shoulder of Aquarias (81 i The right arm of Aquarins Tho ssmc 4 The sauio 26. Alfargl almakad- 18 | Ths sboulder nad right fore-leg of 2 21 dam . 27. Alfargh slma'akb- Adhâr 14 The apper cross-bar of Ampbora Pegasus kbar . 27 28 Tho wing and navol of Pegasas Tho lower cross-bar of Amphora 28. Batn-alhut Nisân Tishrin The flank of Andromoda Tho womb of Piseos.

ON THE LUNAR STATIONS. 353

(On the interstices between the Lunar Stations.)-The moon's p.351. standing in conjunetion with a star or with stars which give the name to a Lunar Station and belong toit, is called her Mukilaho ; it is disliked as foreboding evil. If the moon, accelerating her course, passes by (beyond) a Station, or if her course is slackened and sho has not yet reached the Station, so that she is seen standing, as it were, in an interstice between two Lnnar Stations, this is called the moon's 'Udil; and this phase is liked as fore- boding something good. 10 Some of these interstices are called by spccial names, e.g. the interstice betwoen the Pleiades and Aldabarin is called Aldaika. This interstice they consider as a bad omen, foreboding evit. It is called Daika, because it sets very rapidly, for between the degree of the setting of tho Pleiades and the degree of the setting of Aldabaran there are sir degrees on the ccliptic, and nearly seven degrees ou the cquator. According to some authors of 'Anwa-books Duika consists of the 21st and 22nd stars of Taurus, which the Arabs cali the Doy of Atdabarau, bnt this is not correet. Sometimes the moon, not reaching Alhan'a stands in Al-tahagi, i.e. the 20 24th, 25th, and 26th of the stars of Gemini. According to others Alta- Adyt is identical with Alhok'a; whilst others again maintain that it is neither the one nor the other. Sometimes the moon, not reaching Alsimak (Spica), stands in her throne of Alsimak, which some Arahs call the Backside of the Lion, i.e. the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 7th of the stars of Alghurab (Corvus). Sometimes, not reaching Alshaula (Aculeus Scorpii), the moon stands among tho Kharastt, i.e. the vertebive of the tail of Scorpins. Further, not reaching Albalda, the moon stands in Alkibidu (Monile), also called Aludhiyy (Nidns Strnthiocameli) i.e. the 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th, 30 13th, 14th, of the stars of Sagittarins. Some people take these stars to be the bow, but they are the head of Sagittarins and ltis two locks. Sometimes, not reaching Sa'd-alsu'id, the moou stands in Sa'd-Nashira, i.e. the 23rd and 24th of the stars of Capricornus. Sometimes, not reaching Alfargh Althanf, the moon stands in Allarab, which means the place where the two cross-woods of the bueket meet, where the string is fastened, i.e. the 5th and 7th of the stars of the Great Horse (Pegasus). Or (not reaching Alfargh Althani), the moon stands in the Balda of the Fox, ie. an empty starless region between Alfargh Althauf and Alsamaka (Pisces). 40 Some one of the authors of 'Anwa-beoks thinks that Al'aniain, i.e. the lst and 2nd of the stars of the Triangnlum, stand between Buta-alhnt and Alsharatan, where he saw them setting after Alsharatan ; therefore be main- tains that the moon, not reaching Alsharatau, stands in Al'unisin. But this is wrong, for Al'anisan stands in Aries more westward (lit. at more degrees) then Alsharatan. However, the retardation of the setting of Al'anisan 23

354 ALBİRONİ.

(that they set after Alsharatin) was caused by their northern latitude. For it is peculiar to the stars that those which have much northern lati- tude rise earlier than those that have leas, that in consequeuce the former aet earlier than the latter, and vice versd in the south. Because, now, the fixed stara which give the forme and names to the p.352. Lunar Stations move on in one and the same slow motion, you mustadd one day to the days of their rising and setting in every 66 solar yeare, since iu such a period they move on one degree. We have represented in a table the places of the stara of the Lunar Stations for A. Alex. 1300, along with the names given to them by the astronomers, with their lougitudes 10 and latitudes, and the six degrces of magnitude to which each atar belongs. Now, if the reader wants to know the reality abont the Lunar Stations, he must correct their places for his time according to the pro- gression we have mentioned, i.e. adding one degree for every 66 years. Further, as to their disappearing in the rays (of the sun) and their coming out of the rays, he uses the rules mentioned in the Canons. The demonstration of these things is found in the Almagest. The eastward and westward motions of the Lunar Stations differ at the same rate as the latitudes ef the countries, further according to the six classes of magnitude to which the stars belong, and according to their distances 20 frem the ecliptic. In so doing he will arrive at certain astonishing facts when he has to do with high degrees of latitude north of the ecliptic; e.g. when Venns stands in conjunction with the sun in the sign of Pieces, the time of its being concealed under the rays is one day or nearly two days, whilst it is nearly 16 days when she stands in conjunc- tion with the sun in the sign of Virgo. Mercury ia observed in the sign of Scorpius in the mornings as pro- gressing towards the aun, whilst the interstice between them is as muah as #ths of a sign (i.e. 24), and receding from the sun, whilst he is not at all seen in the evenings. The rererse of this takes place when he 30 moves in the sigu of Taurus, for then he is observed in the evenings progressing towards the sun and receding from him, whilst he is not seen in the mernings. All these particulare are explained and accounted for in Ptolemy's Almagest. Here follows the table of the places of tho stars of the Lunar Stationg.

pp. 353, 354.

Longitnde. Letitude. Of

Newes of Which places in the 48 constellations the singie stars of the the Lunar Stations. Lunar Stations oceupy. SigoR the singlecon- stellationg. the stars latitude. ern or southern alhusain Alsufl. The sizes ac. The patabers of Zodiacal Degrees. cordingto Aba- Degrees. Minutes. Whether north.

Alsharatin. The foremost of the two stars which are the horns of Arios 20 The following ooe 18 18

The star on the root of the backside of Aries 19 uorth

4 20 borth

Albnțain The foremost of the three stars in the baskside of Aries 50 north 1 The etar on the second thigh of Aries . 40 north

The northern end of the foremost rib of Althnrayya in Taurus 10 borth 13 The southern end of tho foremost rib 29 30 porth

The second end of Althumyya, the narrowest place in the constellation 3 40 nortb Altbarayya. The emall star outside Althureyya to the north 15 13 20 I nortb 0 uorth Two surs not meationed by Ptotemy, or by any astronomer before him or ufter liim not determined uorth 4

Aldaborin The star on the sonthern eye of Tanrus by servution uorth 19 Albar'e The bebula on the heud of Orion. Ptolemy counte the middle of the Triangle as one star 24 5 10 south 4

The star on the left foot of the second Twin 3 13 50 : south neittla Alhan'a The star on the right feot of the second Twin 7 30 borth

The star on the bead of the foremost Twin 28 18 10 uorth 4 Aldbirb' The star on the bend of the sccond Twin 4

The ceutre of the nebular cluinter iu the breast of Cancer 8 uotth 15

Tue most northern of the following two stars 22 20 north Albatbra 21 nebula 40 The most sonthern of them north

One of the four stars outside Caucer, following after the oud of the sonthern sting 10 Dorth Altart . Tue star ou tbe cheek of Leo. sout h 4

The most northern of tle three sture ou the neck of Leo 11 43 11 Hort!

Aljabha The following star, the uiiddle one of the three The most sotthern obe of them 13 12 8 north 30 portb

The star on the heurt of Leo, ilso enlled Regtus (Reyulus) 13 50 corth . 'SXOLLYIS AVNAT AHL NO

Of the two stars on the lelly of Leo the following one 0 nortb Alenbra The northern stur of the two stars on the upper parts of the haunches of Leo 25 10 43 40 bortu 9 aorti Alsarta The star on the eud of the tnil of Leo . The star on the eud of the left wing of Virgo 10 FT 50 north 0 10 uorth 23 Al'nw wa Tle following etar The next following etar 19 24 10 { north

The most northern of tha three stars in the right wing, the Prorindemiator 50 porth 10 The star on the left palm of Virgo The middle one of the three stury on tbe traia of Virgo 14 $3 porth # | Alsimik 2 soutb

The southern one of them 18 18 morth The star on the lelt, the sonthern foot of Virgo 5 0 serth portb 1

| G.ntinued on nect parge.]

pp. 355, 856. [Continued from previous page.] 996 Longitudo. Latitude.

Names of Which places in the 48 coustellationa the single atars of the the Lunar Stations occapy. the singie con- Sigus. the stars of stelintions. The nambers of Degrees. cording to Aba- The sizes ac. allusain Alsufi. Minutes- latitude. Minutes. Whether north- : Degrees. eruor southeru The most brilliant of the two stars on the end of the sonthern sting, is. on the southern AlzobanA . The most brilliant of the twostass on the end of the northern sting, is. on the oorthero scslo of Libra 29 33 0 40 bortb 3

| The most northern of the thres heilliaot stars on tha torsbend of Scorplus scale 43

The middle one of them 53 8 50 [ north

13 80 borth

Alpalb The moat southern of them sont h

The beart of Scorplus 17 Of the two stars In the sting of Scorpius, the folowing one 13 3 13 0 nouth Alshinla 'rbe preceding one 13 18 33 20 Bouth .

The star on the top of the ArTOw of Sagitlerlus 8 3 south ALBİRONİ. Aine'am Alwirid The star in the handle of the left hand The star on the southere sida of the bow 8 13 south south

The star on the foremost right ankle 19 33 10 25 13 13 Bouth

The star on the left shoulder of Sagittaring 18 0 couth 53 Bouth Alna'Am A'g&dir The preceding atar, c.a the arTow 10 The star on the neck, the middle one of the three stars on the baok south

Albalda That one of thess three stars which stands ander th umhole 29 13

A space witbout stars, lying in the south near the llta and 12th stars of Sagittarins. 45 south south

Ba'd Aldhthih The moet northern of the three stars in the second horn of Capricorn The most southera of them 18 53 20 The middle one of the thres sturs ou the left hand of Aquarius 18 53 5 Dortb Dorth Sa'd Bula' . The preceding one of them 0 26 43 13 borth The star on the lert shoulder of Aqrarlue 40 north

Sa'd Alsu ud The star ander it on the bac, stanling as it were ander tbe armhole 8 8 8 north

The star on the end of the tail of Carricorn 53 Dorth

The star in the right arm of Aquarius 10 18 8 20 north

Sa'd Al'ekhbiga.3 The most northern of the three stars in the right paim of Aquarius 21 north

The forsmost of the two other stara 13 10 45

The nert following one to the eouth 9 nort h north

Alfargh Almo. The star on the right ehoulder of Pegasus and on the root of his iont 8 80 Dorth

taddam The etar on the back of Pegasus between the two choulder htades The stas on the nsval of Pegasos, belonging in common to Pegasus and to the head of 13 18 0 north 40 bortb Alfargh *okhthar. Andromeda 23 26 0 Dortb

Bata alhat . The star o the back and the ond of the wing The most southern of the three stars above the drawers of Andrumedo 12 30 north north

ON THE LUNAR STATIONS. 357

(On projection, and the construction of star-maps.)-I bave p.357. followed in this book a method which the student of this scienee will not disapprovs, treating in each ebapter the snbjecl. as fully as pos- sible, and not referring the reader to other books until I had myself nearly exhausted the subject. Now, I must add to tho book another chapter on the representatiou of the Luar Statious and of other constellations on even planes, for the bumau mind, onec knowing at what different times the different stars rise, forms au idea as to the positions whieh they oeeupy in the eeliptic. Our remarks iu the pre- 10 ceding pages will enable the student to reeognise the stars of the Lunar Stations by eye-sight, and to point them out. However, uot everrone who requires these things knows the positions of the eeliptie. Besides, the representation of the Lunar Stations as well as the other stars comprehended by the 48 constellations (ou au even plane), offers many convenienees in common to all elasses of scholars. The same applies to the representation of countries, cities, aud what else there is on carth, on an even plane. Therefore, not knowing any sperial treatise on this subject, I shall treat it myself, mentioning whatever ocenrs to my mind. The reader, I hope, will excuse ! 20 The projection of great and small cireles aud points on globes may he done in this way, that you make one of the two poles the top of . cones, ths envelopes of which pass tlough them (the eircles and points), and eut a certain plaus whieh is assumed. For the parts (lines or points) which are common to this plano and the envelopes of these cones if they pass through cireles, or common to this plane and the lines (of this cone) if they pass through points, aro their projections on this even plane. This is the method of the astrolabe (stereographic polar projection), for in the north the southern pole is made the top of the coues, aud 30 in the south the northern pole is made the top of the cones, and the plane which we want to find (the plane of projectiou) is one of the planes parallel with the plane of the equator. Then they (ie. the coner) repre- sent themselves as eireles and straight lines. 'Abu-Hamid Algaghant has transferred the tops of the cones from the two poles, and has placed them inside or outside the globe in a straight line with the axis. In eonsequeuce the cones represent themselves as straight lines and eircles, as ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas, as he (Abu-Hamid) wants to have them. However, people have not beeu in a hurry to adopt such a eurious plane. (This is the eeutral projce- 40 tion, or the general perspective projeetion.) Another kind of projeetion is what I have called the cylindrical pro- juolion (othographie projeetion), whieh I do not find mentioned by any former matLematician. Tt is earried vut in this way: You dmw through the eircles and lines of the globe lines and planes parallel to the axis. So you get in the day-plane straight lines, cireles, and ellipses

358 ALBIRUNI.

(no parabolas and hyperbolas). All this is explained in my book, which gives a complete representation of all possible methods of the construc- tion of the astrolabe. However, lines, circles, and points do not represent themselves in the same way on a plane as on a globe; for the distances which are equal on a globe differ greatly in a plane, especially if some of them are near to the one pole and others to the other pole. But it is not the purpose of the astrolabe to represent them (the lines, circles, points) as agreeing with eye-sight, but to let some of them revolve whilst the p.358. others are at rest, so that the result of this process agrees with the 10 appearances in heaven, including the difference of time. On the other hand, the purpose of the representation of the stars and countries (on even planes) is this, to make them correspond with their position in heaven and earth, so that in looking at them you may form an idea of their situation, always keeping in mind that the straight lines are not like the revolving (circular) lines, and that the spherical planes have no likeness to the even planes that are equal among each other. We must give an illustration to make the reader familiar with these methods. One way serving for this purpose is the construction of the 20 flat astrolabe. Draw a circle as you like it, the greater the better. Divide it into four parts by two diameters which cut each other at right angles. Divide one of the radii into 90 equal parts. Then we make the centre of the circle a new centre, and describe round it circles with the distances of cach of the 90 parts. These circles will be parallel to each other, and will be at equal distances from each other. Divide the circumference of the greatest circle into the (360) parts of a circle, and connect each part of them and the centre by straight lines. In doing this we imagine the periphery of this first circle to be the 30 ecliptic, and its centre to be one of the poles of the ecliptic. On the ecliptic we mark a point as the beginning of Aries. Then we fix the places of the stars according to Almagest, or to the Canon of Muhammad b. Jabir Albattani, or to the Book of Fixed Stars, by 'Abu-Alhusain Alsufî, taking into account the amount of precession up to our time, and changing accordingly the places of the stars as determined by our pre- decessors. Take one of the stars of that half (of heaven) for which you have constructed this circle, and count from this assumed point (the beginning of Aries), proceeding from right to left, as many degrees as the star is distant from Aries. That place where you arrive is the 40 degree of this star in longitude. Further count, from the same point in a straight line which extends to che centre, the corresponding number of the star's latitude in the 90 circles. Then the place you arrive at is the place of the body of the stars (i.e. the point determined by both the degrecs of longitude and

ON THE LUNAR STATIONS. 359

latitude). There you make a dot of yellow or white colour, according to the class of magnitude and brillianey to which iu the six classes the star may belong. The same proeess you repeat with every star the latitnde of which lies in the same direction, till you hare finished all the stars of this direetion. The same you centinue to do with the stars of another diree- tien, until you have fixed the stars of the whole sphere in two cireles. We mark these cireles with the hlno of lapis lazuli, in order to distin- guish them from the stars, and we dmaw round the stars of each con- 10 stellation the image whieh the stars are believed to represent, after having fixed all the stars in their proper positions. In this way the ohject we bad in view is realized. This method, however, we do not like, berause the fgures on the ecliptic canuot completely be represented, siuce some parts of them fall into this half, some into the other half. If you drew round the circle p,359. of the eeliptic, outside of it, 90 eircles, parllel to and distant from each other as far as in the former construetion, in the same way as is done with the flat astrolabe, the matter would evidently proceed in the same order. Further, we de not like this methed, as the places of the 20 stars in heaven and those in the design (dmwing) greatly differ from oach other. For the more sonthern the stars are, the distances between them whieh appear equal to the ere are the greater and wider in the figure, if its centre be the north pole, till at last they assume quite intolerable dimeusions. The same applies to the method of hiur who wants to represent the stars in the plane of a eircle which passes through the two poles of the ecliptic, in those peints where the straight lines of their heights touch the plane (i.e. the foot-points of the verticals), which method is similar to the astrolabie projeetion; for then the figures of the stars are in an undue manner compressed towards the periphery, and 30 they hecome too large about the ceutre. We shall now try to find another method, which is free frou the in- conveniences of the proeess just meutioued. We draw a eircle, divide it into four parts (by two diameters cutting each otber at right angles), aud upwn the points of the four parts (i.e. where the diameters touch the peripbery) we write the names of the directions (i.e. north, west, south, east). We continue the two diameters that divide the circle into fourths, straight on in their directions in infinitum. Each radius we divide into 90 equal parts, and the periphery into 360 40 parts. Next we try to find on the line of the cast and west the centres of cirelea, each of which passes through one of the parts (degrees) of the diameter and through both the north and south poles. Wheu these centres have been fixed, and we draw all the possible cireles round them within that first (and largest) cirele, we get 180 arcs,

360 ALBiRONt.

which divide the diameter into equal parts, and which out cach other at each of the two points, the north and aouth pointe. These cirolee are the circles of longitude. Then we return to that line which proceede from tho north point as the straight continnation of the diameter. On this line we try to find the centre of a circle, paseing through those points of the periphery which are distant from the east and west points 1 degree, 2 degrees, etc. until 90 degrees, and through those points of the diameter which are distant from the centre 1 degree, 2 degreee, etc. until 90 degrees. The eame we do in the southern half, on the line which proceeds from 10 the south point as the atraight continuation of the diameter. The circlee we get in this way are the circles of latitude, 180 in numhor, which divide each of the circles of longitude into 180 parts. Further, wo assume the west point to he the beginning of Arine, and the line frm east to west to he the ecliptic. From the hegirning of Aries we count the distance of each atar; ao we fiud its degree (of longitude). Then we count the latitude of the star in the proper direction on the cirele of longitude. Thereby we find the place of the star. We make another figure aimilar to the firet one, whero we assume tho 20 west point to be the beginning of Libra In this way we can give a complete map of all the stars in the two figuree. Lastly, in representing the aingle star-groupe or constellations, we draw those images which we have heretofore described. If we want to make a map of the earth, we construct & similar figure as deecribed in the preceding. We count the assumed longitude of a place from the weet point, and then we count the degrees of latitude of 360. the place on the cirele of longitude. So we find the pesition of the place. The same we continue to do with other places. This ia the technical (graphic) meihod for the solution of thia 90 problem.

Ae some pcople have a predilecticn for caleulationa, and like to arrange them in tahles, and prefer them to technical (graphic) metnode, we shall also have to show how we may find, by calculation, the dia- meters of the circles of longitude and latitudc, and the distancea of their centres from the centre of the (great) circle. And with that w shall finish our work. We draw tue circle ABCD round the centre H, and divide it into four parte by meana of the two diametera AHC and BHD.

A is to be the weet. 40 B south. C east. D north.

ON THE LUNAR STATIONS. 361

The radii we divide into 90 parts, and the whole circle into 360 parts. Now, e.g. we want te find tho radius of the circlo BZD, which is one of the circles of longitude, and the distance of its centre (from tho centro H). Now, it is evident that HZ is known, being determined by the degrecs, of which tho radius HC as well as the radii BH and HD hold 90. The multipliention of HZ, which is known, hy the unknown sum of 10 HK+KZ, which is the diamoter we want to find, minus ZH, is equal to

the multiplication of HB by HD, i.e. the syuaro of one of them. We take the square of HB, i.e. 8,100, and divide it by ZH, which is known. Thereby we get the sum of HK+KZ. To this we add ZH, and take the half of the whole sum. That is ZK, the radius of that circie to which BZD belongs. Now, after having found out so much, we open the compasses to such an extent as the new-found radius is loug; one of the legs of the com- passes we place on tho point Z, which is known, and the other leg we 20 place on the continuation of the line HA, to whatever point it reaches. The latter point is the centre of the cirele, i.e. K. In this way we can dispense with the knowledge of the distance between tho two centres.

(In the following the text is corrupt.)

This is the solution of the problem hy means of calculation. If you want to find the distance of the passage, i.e. that point on the periphery of the circle where the line which conneeta the two points B and K cuta the periphery, viz. the are AT, draw the line BK which cuts the periphery in T, draw the vertical (i.e. Loth-Linie, the line which 30 represents the height of a trapeza or cone) TS upon BD, and draw the line TD. Because, now, in the triangle BHK the sides are known according to the parts, of which the radius counts 90, we change each side into that measure, according to which the radins counts 60 degrees, i.e. we multiply it by 60 and divide it by 90. So it is changed into the sexage- p.361. simal system. The triangles BHK and BTD and BST are similar to each other. Therefore we multiply KH by BD, and the product we divide by KB. So we get DT' as the quotient. 40 Next we multiply DT by HK, and divide the product by KB. So we get DS as quotient (changed into that measure, according to which DT holds 60 parts).

862 ALBİRUNİ.

If we take the corresponding are in the table of sinee and eubtract the are from 90, we get AT as remainder. If we want to find the paseage (T) by an easier method, we change the triangle BHK, the sidee of which are known, into that measure according to which the radius of the cirole ABCD containe 60 parte. Then the angle TDB in the first figure, and the angle TBD in the eecond figure, is that which determines the whole distance of the passage (from A), as a chord determines the distance between the two ende of an arc. If we want to change each side of this triangle into the measnre according to which BK holds 60 parts, we multiply it by 60 and 10 divide the preduct by BK, according to the meaeure of which the radius holde 60 parts. So we find what we wanted to find. If we, then, kmow the side HK according to this messuro, we take the corresponding arc from the table of eines. So we get the are DT. So, by whatever method we solve the problem, the end we aim at is the eame, and also the reeults. Here follow Figuree I. and II.

B

C 2

ON THE LUNAR STATIONS. 363

II.

2

D B

A

Lot us again construct the eame figure to show the eame thing for the circles of latitude. The circle of which we want to find the mdius ie that one to which MQL belongs. AM as well as HQ and CL are to correepond in number (i.e. to hold the same number of parte). We draw the vertical (Loth-Linie) MX, which is the sine of DM, which ie known, and we draw HX, i.e. the sine of AM, which is aleo known. Then we aubtract HQ from HX, after we have changed it from the 10 nonagesimal eyetem into the sexagesimal syetem. The remmiuder we get is QX By this we divide the square of MK, and add QX to ths product. Of this sum we take the half, which is QK, the radius of the circle to

364 ALBÍRŪNİ.

which MQL belongs, according to the measure of which the radius of the circle ABCD holde 60 parts. If we want to find the dietance of the passage (T) from A, we draw the line AK, which cute the periphory of the oirele in T.

TS upon AC. Further, we draw the line TC and draw the vertical (Loth-Linie)

Thon we multiply AC by HK and divide the product by AK. Thereby we get TC. If we multiply this divieor by HK, and divido tho product by AK, we get SC. 10 Multiply it by AS, and the root of the product is TS, which is the sine of the are of the passage (i.e. of the aro AT). Likewise, if we change AH into the measure according to which AK holds 120 parte, and we take the are from the tablee of whole chords, we get the arc AT, i.e. the distance of the passage (from A). This method applies in the same way to the direction of C as to the direction of A, to that of B as to that of D, without the slightest difference. And here ends my work. Here follows Figure IIL.

62. (Conclusion.)-Now I have fulfilled my promise, and I have compre- 20 bended in my exposition all the parte of this science, agreeably to the wishes of my friendd, exerting myself to the best of my capabilit). Every man acts according to his fashion, and the value of a man lies in that which he understands. I hope that the elemente which I have laid down are sufficient to train the mind of the etudent, and to lead him to

ON THE LUNAR STATION3. 365

a correct consideration of the origines of mankind, sufficient to lay open all that is doubtful in the eras of prophets and kings, and to give a cor- rect idea of thair own system to thoss of the Jews and Christians who ars led astray. If the reader be liks me (in knowledge), he will thank me for the task I have carried out; if he be superior to me (in knowledge), he will be so kind as to eerrect my errors and to pardon whatever mistakes I may haremade. If hs be inferior to me in knowledge, he will not do me auy harm, because he will either acquiesce in being led by me for the purpose 10 of his instruetion, or, in case he opposes me, he will offer opposition to things which he has not the power of mind to handle suecessfully. But why should I mind-or be afraid of-the enmity of any adversary, since my badge is, wherever I am, the power of our lord, the noble prince, the glorious and victorious, the benefactor, Shams-alma'ali-may God give long duration to his power! Its firm eolumn is my trust; from the fact that it spreads sacretly and openly I derive strength; its hrilliant light is the guide of my path; his undisturbed happiness is my trust and my hepe. May Ged teach me aud all Muslims to be truly thankful for his henefits by fulfilling all the duties of ohedience as preacribed hy 20 the law, and by continually praying to God that He may reward him according tu His mercy and grace. Let ue finish our beek with the praise of God, who afforded me help and guidance, and who taught me to distinguish the path of truth from the path of blinduess. "Let those who want to perish (as infidels, idolaters,) perish, after a clear proof (of the true religion) has been pre- sented to them, and on the strength of it, and let those who want to live (the life ef the irue religion) live, after a clear preof (of the true religion) hss been presented to them, and en the strength of it." (Ceran, S. viii. 44), 30 The mercy and hlessing of God he in all eternity upon the Prophct who was sent to the best of natiens, and upon his holy family!

367

ANNOTATIONS.

p. 1, 1. 25. Shams-almo'tili. This prince, Kabus ben Washmgir ben Mardawij, who had received from the Khalif the honorary name of Shams-alma'ali, i.e. Sun of the Heights, belonged to the family of the Banu-Ziyad, who ruled over Jurjan (Hyrcania), Tabaristan, and other countries south of the Caspian Sea during 155 years, viz. A.H. 815-470. Kabus, after having reigned A.H. 366-371, was driven away and fled into the dominions of the Samanian dynasty, whcre he lived as an exilo, whilst his country was occupied by a prince of the family of Buwaihi A.H. 371-388. To thie period tho author alludes, p. 94,, I. 19 ("at the time of the Sahib (i.e. Sabib Ton-'Abbad the Vazir of the Buyide prince) and when the family of Buwaili held the country under their sway"). Kahus returned to the throne A.H. 388, and was killed 403. This book was dedicated to him according to all probability 4.H. 390 or 891 =A.D. 1000. The history of this prince is found in Schir-eddin'e "Ge- schichte von Tabaristan," etc., ed. Dorn, pp. 185-198.

p. 2, 1. 27. Wading. Although all three M8S. have w, I think it would have been more idiomatic to read w. The eecond form occurs r1, 17; r, 7; P, 19.

p. 3, 1. 14. Which have come doun from them. The words poe Jlpt are very bad Arabic, next to impossible. It seems rather likely that between them a word has fallen out, e.g. Sole, or some eynonym of

p. 5, 1. 15. Nychthemeron. To meet the inconvenience that the word day means the totality of day aud night as well as the light half aloue, I have ventured to adopt for the former meaning the word Nychthemeron, for which 1 beg the reader's pardou.

368 ANNOTATIONS.

p. 6, 1. 37. Canon of Shahriyaran Alshah. The word Canon (o I translate the word Zaj) means a collection or handbook of astronomical tables of varions kinds. They were alwaye the depositories of the latest discoveries of Eastern astronomy. For more information on these Canons I refer to the excellent work of L. A. Stdillot,"Prolégomènesdea Tables Astronomiques d'Olough-Beg," Paris, 1847, p. viii. ff. (Table verifiee, etc) A Canon of Shahriyaran Alshdh is not known to me. However, there is a Zij-i-Shahrydr and a Zij-Alshah, witb either of which this Canon may be identical. The former was of Persian origin, and was tranelated into Arahic by Altamimi, vide "Hamza Iepahaneusis Annalium," libri x-, p. r", and "Kitab-alfihrist," od. Flugel, p. 241, 244, and notes. The second, with several other caucus, was composed by the famous mathematician and astronomer, a native of Marw, Habash ('Ahmad ben 'Abd-Allab), who lived in Bagdad, end of the eecond and beginning of the third century. Cpr. Sedillot, "Prolegomenes," p. I., note 3, and the "Kitab-Alfihrist," ed. hy G. Flugel, p. tve, and the annotations.

p. 6, 1. 42. A variation which auring the eclipses, etc. I have not been able to ascortain what relationship between the eclipses and the different length of the days is meant by the author in this passage.

p. 7, 1. 39. Except one Mualim lawyer. The following discussion is of more interest to a Mubammadan theologian than to na. The canonical time of fast was from the rise of dawn till sunset, and some too pious people mistook this day of fast for the astronomical day.

p. 8, line 22. Lnkowise it had beon forbidden, ete. This passage refers to a custom which existed among the Muslims in the time before the verse Sura IL, 183, was pronounced by Muhammad. We learn from the commentaries of Alzamakhshari and Albaidawt that the time of fast extended over the whole Nychthemeron, except tho time from eunset till the eecond or laat night-prayer, i.e. about midnight, or till a man fell asleep, during which eating and drinking and women were allowed. Omar onco had intercourse with one of his wives after he had said the last night-prayer; this breach of the custom made him feel penitent, and he apnlogized to tho Prophet. Thereupou the Prophet abolished the old custom, and pronounced the verse in question, allowing his people to eat and drink and have intercourse with their women not only from sunset till the second night-prayer, but also farther till the rise of dawn, ie. nearly the whole night. For the traditiona concerning this subjoct vide "Bokhari," ed. Krehl, I., Pvv, PvA. In my translation, p. 8, 1. 23, read " after the last night-prayer" instead of "after night-prayer."

ANNOTATIONS. 369

p. 9, 1. 14, Tradition which relates, etc. It is not quite char to what tradition the nuthor refors in this passage. Prof. L. Krehl kindy direeted my attention to a tradition which occurs several times iu Albokhart ("Recueil des Traditions Mahometanes," publie par L. Krehl), e.g. i. 149, ji, 50, stc. Hsre Muhammad compares Jewa, Christians, and Muslims to workmen. The Jews work from sunriss to noou, and reccive one KirAt as wages. Ths Christians work from noon till the afternoou- prayer, yoaht sle and receive one Kirit. The Muslims work from the afternoon-prayer till sunset, and reccive two Kirnt. So the Muslims receive twice the wages of the Jews, whilst they only work balf the time. To a similar tradition ths author seems to refer. He cal's the Mus- lins "those who hasten to the mosque on a Fridey." thereby distinguishing them from Jews and Christians. In any cass this tradition must have proved, according to the author, that Muhammad represented the day, whether it be short or long, as divided into twelve equal parts, the so-called upar kaupuai.

p. 9, 1. 36. What is he, etc. Ths reading of the MSS. get, I have ehanged into eet. It seems preferable, Lowever, to read ogU, as Prof. Fleischer suggests.

p. 9, 1. 46. The prayer of the day is silent (or, rather, mute). Ths two prayers of the night (At s. and slesh s.) are ser i.e. these prayers are spoken with a, clear audible voice. The two prayeis of ths day (hh S and yohl ade) are eier ie. these prayers are not spoken with an audible voice or whisper; the lips move, but no sound is prodnced Therefore they are called elugat i.e. the tuo silent or mute ones, which name is derived from the tradition quoted hy the author. This division does not comprehend the moruing-prayer adt sl. But it can bs proved from tradition that this prayer is to be spoken with an audible voice. In the Muwatta' of Malik ben 'Anas (published with the commentary of AlzurkAni at Bnlak, A.H. 1279, tom. i. p. 10), Alfurâfişa ben 'Umair Albanafi relates that be learued the Surat-Yasuf, Le. Sura xii. hy hearing it from Omar, who recited it repeatedly as his morning prayer. The anthor wanta to prove that the gedt &l is not a day-prayer. because it is spoken at the rise of dawn, i.c. before the beginning of the duy. According to holy tradition the prayer of the day is sileut (or mate), whilst the morning prayer is not. 24

370 ALBİRONİ.

p. 10, 1. 1. The " firat" prayer, etc. The five canonical prayers of the Nychthemeron are thess : (ماوة العشاء الأولى or صلوة المغرب ملوة العشاء الاخرة or صلوة العشاء Prayera of the night. ملوة الصح { ملوة الفهر صاوة العمر Prayers of the day.

Tho author's argument is this, that aadt &. or morning-prayer is not a prayer of the day, because the yeht 51 is called the first, i.e. the firat of the two day-prayers, and because the yot g- is called the middle prayer, i.e. the middle between the first day-prayor and the first night-prayer. If the eadt 5l belonged to the day-prayera, the spo yodt would not be the asact middle in the way we have described, for in that case the ollt &l- as well as the yodi s- would be in the midst between the first day-prayer and the first night-prayer.

p. 11, 1. 12. Sindhind. An astronomical hand-book of Indian origin, edited the first time by Alfazari, A.H. 154, and a second time by Albe- runi's famous countryman Muhammad ben Musa Alkhwarizmt. Alberuni wrote a book (commertary ?) ou the Sindhind with the title syryl aotye For the literature on this subject I refer to .لحواطر الهنود فى حساب التنجيم Flugel's " KitAb-alfibrist," p. 274, noteg. The word Sindhind is supposed to be the Sanskrit Siddhenta. I must, however, observe that Alberuni writes this word in the more correct form of wtoa e.g. in the title of his book, "On the mathematical methods of .ترجمة ما فى براهم مدهائد من طرق الحساب ", the Brahmasiddhanta

p. 11, 1. 15. The four seasons. Read M instead of &t.

p. 12, 1. 38. The quotation of Theon refers to the introduction of his Ipoxapot kavoves, where he speaks of the Julian year of the people of Alexandria, of the Egyptian year of 865 days, and of the Sothis period of 1460 years; vide " Commentaire de Theon d'Alerandrie sur les tables manuelles astronomigues de Ptolemve," par M. l'Abbe Halma; Paris, 1822, p. 30. On the Sothis period, ride R. Lepsius, "Chronologie der Aegypter," Berlin, 1849, p. 165 ff.

p. 12, 1. 40. On the year of the Persians, cf. a short treatise of A. v. Gutschmid, Ueber das iranische Jahr, "Sitzungsberichte der Egl. Sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften," 1862, 1 July.

p. 18, 1. 22. The Hebrews, Jews, and all the Israelites. It is difficult to explain what differences the author meant to express by these three words, which to us mean all the same. Perhaps he meant by Hebrews ths ancient Jews, Samaritans, and other kindred nations; by Jews, the

ANNOTATIONS. 371

monotheistic people in particular ; and by all the Bani-Israel, the totalits of the Jewish sects, Rabbanites, 'Auauites (Karier), and others. Vide a similar exprassion on p. 62, 1l. 16, 17.

p. 13, 1. 34. In a similar rary the heathen Arabs, ete. Cf. with Albe- runi's theory, the description of ancient Arabic ehronology by A, Sprenger, "Leben und Lehre des Mohammad," iii. p. 530 ff., and "Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft," tom. xiii. p. 194, and tom. xxxi. p. 552.

p. 18, 1. 42. The gencalogy of the Kalamis occurs also, but with some differences, in Ion Hisham, " Life of Muhammad," ed. Wustenfeld, i. pp. 29, 30.

p. 14, 1. 16. The text of this verse is incorrect, for, according to the context, it does not contain a description of Fukaim, but of 'Abu Thu- mama; and, secondly, the metre is disturbed, for 1 do not think that the licentia poetica allowed a poet to distort the word twlat into Ldet.

p.15, 1. 13. The leap-year they call Adhimasa. According to the double construction of the rerb , the Indian word may eitber hs &lode or &ules. It seems preferable to read &tst, and to explain abesi. as Adhimusa, although it must he observed that this means "intercalary month," not " intercalary year," as the author maintains. Cf. Reinaud, "Memoire sur I'Inde," p. 352.

p. 15, 1. 15. And their subdivisions. Read toys (as depending ou roust S), ie. the Jufar of the Lunar Stations. Our dictionaries do uot explain the meaning which the word Jafr, pl. Jufur, has in this passage. It is a term peculiar to the Indian system of astrology (Utarid ben Muuammad wrote a book On the Indian Jafr, s't it wl, vide " Kitab-alfihrist," p. 278), and it meaus something connected with the Lunar Stations, perhapa certain subdicisions (but this translation of mine is entirely conjectural). The word occurs in four other placcs in this book :- p. 336, 1. 9. The Indians derive their dorpodoyouuera from the fact of the stars entering the Ribafat (i.e. resting-places, road-side inns) of the Lunar Stations. These Ribatut are called Jufar, and cach of them is thought to refer to some special matter or event (life, death, travelling, victory, defeat, ote.). Their number must have been very great, he- canse the author says that he will refrain from enumerating them, as this would dstain him too long from the subject of his book. p. 338, 1. 14: The author, speaking of the same subject, mentions the Ribatat and the Jufur of the Lunar Stations sids by side; also, p. 341, 1. 7. On p. 347, both words occur in the superscription of column 5,

372 ALBÍRÛNİ.

but here the writing of the manuscript is such a bad scrawl that 1 do not fcel sure of having made out a correct tert. As the subject-matter seems to be of Indian origin, one may presume that the word also is derived from the same source.

p. 15, 1. 17. Ab Muhammad Alna'ib Alamuli (i.e. a nativo either of Amul in Tabaristan or of Amul or Amu on the Oxus), ths author of & Kitab-alghurra is mentioned four timcs, vide p. 53, 1. 34; p. 235, 1. 8; p. 344, 1. 2. He is not known to me from other sources. p. 16,1. 14. Cannot be dispensed with. Read Si instead of ge (Fleischer). p. 17,1. 6. A tradition for which, etc. Instead of & &A4- (\P, 4), read gae or d &h4. (Fleischer). p. 17, 1. 8. Perhaps we shall facilitate the understanding of the following pages, if we state the order of the author's arguments. A. Notions of the Persians regarding the Era of Creation, p. 17, 1. 8. B. Notions of the Jews on the eame suhject, p. 18, 1. 5. C. Notions of the Christians, p. 19, 1. 10. D. Refutation of the Jewish theory, p. 19, 1. 41. E. Refutation of the Christian theory, p. 21, 1. 5, and Bihlical pro- phecies relating to Muhammad, p. 22, 1. 17. F. On the Thora of Jews, Christians, and Samaritane, p. 24, 1. 1. G. On the differeuce of the Gospels, p. 25, 1. 36. H. On sectarian Gospels, p. 27, 1. 9.

p. 17, 1. 9. For the Persians, ete. Cf. with the following traditions, chapter xxxiv. of Bundehesch, ed. F. Justi, 1868. p. 18, 1. 5. The Jews and Christians differ, etc. An extract of the following by Almakrizi has been published by S. de Sacy, "Chresto- mathie Arabe," tom. i. p. 284.

p. 18, 1. 16. By Hisab-aljummal the author understands the notation of the numerals hy means of the letters of the Arabic alphahet, ar :. nged according to the sequence of thc Hebrew alphabet. p. 18, ll. 19, 20. Alra'i, Aba- Isa Alisfahani. Of these two pseudo-Mes- sials the latter is well known. For his history, vide H. Graetz, "Geschichte der Juden," 2nd edition, tom. v. p. 167 and p. 498. Of the former name there is no pseudo-Messiah known in Jewish history. However, Graetz reports of a pseudo-Messiah (loc. cit. p. 162), whom he calls Berene. The oldest Hebrew report concerning this man

וששאלתם בשביל מטעה שעמד בגלותינו ושריע שמו והיה begins :

אומר רגר

ANNOTATIONS. 373

" What you have asked regarding tho deceiver (or hcretic) who has risen in our exile, and whose name is yrn," ete. Whether this name has any connection with the Arabic eti, whether the reading y is to be changed into wh, students of Jewish history may decide. Certainly a later Latin chronicle calls him Sercnus (Graetz, Joc. cit p. 434 ff.) A pseudo-Prophet, Rti, in Tibcrias, is also mentioned by Al-Jaubari in "Zeitscbrift der Dentschen Morgenlandischen Gesell- schaft," xx. 400.

p. 18, 1. 25. The author's translitcration of Hebrew words resembles very much the present pronunciation of the Jews of Galizia. Betweeo the words Dim and o15 the Arabic has the signs ote,, and the last word Mi i is written feote for both of which rariations I am unable to account.

p. 18, 1. 35. Since the time when. The Arabic translation of this passage is not quite corrcet, and next to unintelligible. It. betrays a certain likeness to the translation of the Syriac Bible (Peshita), wherc this passage is rendered by-

"And from the time when the sacrifice passes away, impurity will be given to destruction." Accordingly I read the Arabie text : منذ الوقت الذى يجوز القربان قصير النجاسة الى الفساد although I am aware that this is bad and ungrammatical Arabic. On p. \e, I. 20, read y.4 with PL instead of y.4.

p. 19, 1.12. Sum of 1335. Read وثلشين instead of وثلثين يوما oد p٪. !٦, 1. 8.

p. 19, 1. 22. Urishlim, i.e. Jerusalem, etc. The author gives to this pro- phecy of Daniel a wrong datc. It falls into the first year of Darins, v. Dan. ix. 1, not in the time some years aftes the accession of Cyrus to the throne. This latter date the author has taken from Dan. x, 1 ("in the third year of Cyrus," ete.), and Dan. x. 4. Perhaps in the Arabic text (p. 11, 1. 11) the werd has fallen out .سنين and مهى bet ween the words

1. 19, p. 31. And before this, etc. This is a blunder of the auther's. It onght te be, " And after this," etc.

2. 20, p. 43. Jerusalem. Here, p. 17, 1. 21, aud in all other passages (p. 16, 11. 1, 13, ete.) the eorrect reading is oruadtew according to Yâķut,

374 ALBİRONİ.

"Geographisches Worterbuch," iv. 590, not dt ew. In the follow. ing line, p. 18, 1. 1, read sut instead of A (Fleischer).

p. 22, 1. 17. For Muhammad, ete. Read sasd instead of disw on p. 19, 1. 3. J. 22, 1. 40. Almathna. Read Gtosh instead of u; and in the following line read dd instead of d oe (p. 19, 1. 13).

p. 23, 1. 16. Legions of saints who, ete. This passage is of Koranic origin, and formed upon the pattern of Sura iii. 121. The idea of war- riors wearing cortain hadges (as a.g. the cross of the Crusaders) occurs also in a tradition, vide Albaidawi ad Sara ini. 121, and Lane, Arabic .قوم .0. Dict. s

p. 24, 1. 5. After Nebukadnezar had conguered, ete. The last source of this traditien regarding the origin of the version of the Seventy is the letter of Aristeas, well kuown to Biblical scholars, and now gunerally admitted to be apochryphal, vide De Wetto, " Lehrbuch der historisch. kritischen Einleitung," edited by E. Schrader, part i. p. 92.

p. 24, 1. 28. And each couple, etc. Road "and every one of them had got a servant to take care of him." And in the Arabic, r, 2, read Je, instead of ods, ais instead of pots, and 1. 3, lecey instead of auay. On the same page, 1. 6, road Jaf instead of Jsk.

p. 25, 1. 2. Allamasasiyya. This name is derived from the expression rlw. y (" do not touch "), in Stra xx. 97 ; vide S. de Sacy, " Chrestomathie Arabe," i. pp. 339, 342, 344. It ia identical with 'Aoiyyavot tho Groek name of a heretical sect, vide Du Cange, "Lexicon infima Græcitatis," and " Etymologicum Magnum," ed. Gaisford.

p. 25, 1. 25. Anianus. The Arabic manuscripts give the name ofeot i.e. Athenous; bnt the well-known Athensus cannot he meant here. I prefer to read ydl, Anianus. This anthor, an Egyptian monk, con- temporary of Panodorus, is known as a chronographer; he is quoted in the fragmentary chronology of Elias Nisibenus, cf. Forshall, " Cata- logue of the Syriac MSS. of the British Museum," p. 86, col. 2, no. 5.

p. 25, 1. 28. Ibn-albazyar, from whose Kitab-alkiranst the author haa taken the statement of Anianus, was a pupil of Habash, and lived in the 9th century, vide "Kitab-alfihrist, p. 276.

p. 26, 1. 30. But ne male children, etc. Read ooy y instead of or y, p. tr, 20.

ANNOTATIONS. 375

p. 27, 1. 5. Now Joseph and Mary, etc. Read 3U instead of bu, on p. IT, 6, and lab instend of gob, 1. 15 (Fleischer). p. 28, 1. 11. It is related that Tahmurath, etc. The last sonrce of this roport is the Book on the Differences of the Canons (astronomical hand- hooks), by Abu-Ma's.u.r, cf. "Kitab-alfihrist," p. 240, and also "Hamza Ispahanensis / nalium," libri x. ed. Gottwaldt, p. 197. The word ede in this report, p. 24, 1. 9, means scientific books, as also in the "Kitab-alfibrist," p. 240, 1. 28: "And he ordered a great quantity of scientific books (LaS bede) to be transported from his storchouses to that place."

p. 28, 1. 16. Least erposed, etc. Read lau instead of dee, on p. 24, 1. 10.

p. 28, 1. 23. That Gayomarth was not, etc. The same tradition occurs in the chronicle of Ibu-Alathir, ed. Tornherg, i. p. 34, 1. 5.

p. 28, 1. 34. Some gencalogists make the Lud of Genesis x. (in Arabic ) the father of the Persians, Hyrcanians, of Tasm and Amalek, etc. (Tbn-Alathir, i 56). The Arabs have mistaken the Hebrew D'ON (Emaei, the original inhahitants of the country of Moab) for a singular, and for the name of a man ('Amim ben Lud, Ibn-Alathir, i. 56).

p. 29, 1. 4. Aba-Ma'shar, a native of Balkh, one of the fathers of astrology among tho Arabs. He wrote numerous books on all branches of astrology, many of which are still extant in the libraries of Europe. He livsd in Bagdad, was a contemporary of Alkindi, and died A.H. 272, at Wasit. Cf. " Kitab-alfihrist," p. ww and notes ; Otto Loth, " Alkindi als Astroloz," p. 265. In the middle ages he was well known aiso in Europe as Albumaser, and many of his works have been translated into Latin; whilst modern philology has hitherto scarcely taken any notice of him. Wherever Albertni quotes him, he w.ges war against him, and, to judge by the quotations from his books which our author gives, it seems that the literary work of Abu-Ma'shar does not rest on scientific bases.

p. 29, 1. 18. On the star-cycles, cf. J. Narrien, " Historical account of the Origin and Progress of Astronomy," London, 1833, p. 112.

p. 29, 1. 28. Days of Arjabhas and days of Arkand. According to Reinaud, "Memoire sur l'Inde," p. 322, the correct form of the former name would be Aryabhatta, and the latter would be the Sanskrit alryane. Alberunf made a new edition of the Days of Arkand, putting it into clearer words and more idiomatic Arahic, since the then existing trans- lation was unintelligible, and followed too closely the Sanskrit original, vide my " Einleitung," p. xl., in the edition of the Arabic text.

376 ALBİRÔNİ.

p. 29, 1. 31. Mubammed ben Iehik ben Ustadh Bundadh Alsarakhsi, and Abi-alwafa Mubammad ben Muhammad Albuzjani. The latter was born at Buzjan in the district of Nishapur, A.u. 328, he settled in 'Irak, A.H. 348, and died 387. Cf. Sedillot, "Prolegomènes," p. 58; "Kitab-alfihrist," p. 283 ; Ibn-Al'athir. ix. v, 9. The former scholar is not known to me.

p. 81, 1. 15. In Hebrew, "Ncbukadnezar." In the Arabic, wv, 3, read jldeyw instead of jlddey (De Gosje, Noeldeks).

p. 31, 1. 35. Callippus was one of the number, etc. Behind the words dngs or ons there seems to lurk a gross blunder of the copyists.

p. 32, 1. 16. Zoroaster, who belonged to the sect, ete. The passage, u l hs yty M, 2, seems hopelessly corrupt. My tranelation is entirely conjectural (dto so)). p. 32, 1. 22. Philip the father of Alerander. This is a mistake of the author's. He ought to have said : Philip the brother of Alezander. The source of this statement regarding the era of Pbilippus Arridæus is Theon Alezandrinus, Ipoxepos kavoves, ed. Halma, p. 26; cf. L. Ideler, " Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie," ii. 630.

p. 33, 1. 8. Habib ben Bihris, metropolitan of Mosul, is known as one of those scholars who translated Greek books into Arabic at the time of the Khalif Alma'mun (A.H. 198-218). Cf. "Kitab-alfihrist," p. 244, 1. 7; p. 248, 1. 27; p. 249, 1. 4.

p. 33. 1. 18. 'Ahmad ben Sahl. This man of Sasanian origin was a Dihkan (i.e. great landholder) in the district of Marw. He played a great sole in the history of his time, and was commander-in-chief to several princes of the house of Saman. His history is related by Ibn- Alathir, viii. 86; "Histoire des Samanides," par M. Defremery, Paris, 1845, p. 134.

p. 33. 1. 28. It was Augustue who, etc. On the origin of the Æra Augusti, cf. Theon Alexandrinus, Hpoxetpor Kavoves, ed. Halma, p. 30, 1 92; Ideler, "Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chrono. logie," i. 153 ff.

p. 33, 1. 84. Plolemy corrected, etc. The source of this information is Ptolemy, panpary oirratis, book vii. ch. 4 (ed. Halma, tom, ii. p. 30).

p. 33, 1. 44. The prognostics, Jfi., are questions relating to the decrees of the stars (rst pet ). The books on this subject con- tain the astrological answers to all sorts of questions, and the methods by which these answers are found.

ANNOTATIONS. 377

p. 34, 1. 7. Maimin ben Mihran, a dealer in cloths and stuffs of linen and cotton, was at the head of the administration of tho taxes of Northern Mesopotamia (Aljazira) under the Khalif Omar ben 'Abd- al'aziz, and died A.H. 117; vide Ibn-Kutaiba, "Kitab-alma'frif" ed. Wüs- tenfeld, p. 228.

p. 34, 1. 26. Alsha'bt, i.a 'Amir ben Sharahil ben 'Ahd Alsha bi, of South-Arabian origin, was born in the second year of the reign of 'Uth- min; he waa secrotary to several great men of hie time, e.g. to 'Abdallab ben Yasid, the governor of \lkufa, for the Khalif Ibn-alzubair, and died A.H. 105 or 104; vide Ibn-Kutaiba, "Kitab-alma'arif," p. 229. p. 36, 1. 10. Reform of the calendar by the Khalif Almu'tadid. Cf. Ibn-Alathir, vii. p. 325. p. 36, 1. 14. Abu-Bakr Alşuli, i.e. Muhammad ben Yahya ben 'Abdal- lah ben Alabbas, most famous as a chess-player in hie time, the com- panion of soveral Khalifs, died A.H. 335 or 336, at Başra. In hia Kitab- alaurdt he related the history of the Khalifs, and gave a colleetion of their poems and thoee of other princea and great men. Cf. Ibn- Khallikan, ed. Wustenfeld, nr. 659, and " Kitab-alfihrist," p. 150. p. 36, 1. 19. 'Ubaid-allah ben Yabya ben Khakan was made the Vazir of the Khalif Almutawakkil, A.H. 236 (Ibn-Alathir, vii. 37), and died A.H. 263 (loc. cit. p. 215). p. 36, l. 42. Khalid ben 'Abdallah Alkaeri was made governor of Alirak by the Khalif Hieham ben 'Abd-almalik A.H. 105 (Ibn-Alathir, v. 93), and held this office during 15 years, till A.H. 120, (loc. cit. p. 167). Cf. Ibn-Ķutaiba, "Kitab-alma'arif," p. 203. p. 37, 1. 6. The Barmak family were accueed of adhering eecretly to the religion of Zoroaster, cf. " Kitab-alfihriet," p. 338, 1. 14. p. 37, 1. 9. Ibrahim ben Alabbas Alstli, an uncle of the father of Abu-Bakr Alguli (on p. 36, 1. 14), a most famous poet and high official of the Khalif in Surra-man-ra'a, died A.H. 243. The family of Stli, a family of poeta, of eloquent and learned men, of whom several acquired a great famne, deecended from a princely house of Hyrcania. Aecording to our author, p. 109, 1. 44, the princes of Dahistan were called Stl. Fer the biography of Ibrahim and the history of his family, vide Ibn-Khalli- kân, ur. 10 (ed. Wüstenfeld). p. 37, 1. 19. These verses of Albuhturf form part of a larger poem in the poet's diwan which exiats in the Imperial Court-Library at Vienna (Mixt. 125 f. 293, 294), vide Flügcl'e Catalogue, i. 486. p. 38, 1. 5. 'Ali ben Yahya was famous in his time as an astro- nomer and poet, and as a friend of several Khalife. He died A.R. 275 at Surra-man-ra'a. Ibn-Khallikan, nr. 479. He was onc of a whole fsmily

378 ALBÎRONİ.

of distinguiehed poets and scholars who traced their origin back to Yazdagird, the last Sasanian kiug. Cf. " KitAb-alfihrist," p. 143. p. 89, 1. 16. On these mythological traditions, cf. L. Krebl, " Die Religion der Vorislamischen Araber," Leipzig, 1863, p. 83; Almas'udi, "Prairies d'or," ed. B. de Meynard, iv. 46; Ibn-Alathir, ed. Tornberg, n. 80.

p. 39, 1. 33. Band-Kuraish. In the Arabic, p. 34, 1. 12, read Ayad inetead of uthal; and p. 34, line 13, read ges instead of ey (Fleischer). p. 39, 1. 34. The following famous battle-days of the ancient Arabe are well knowa to Arab hietorians. For more detailed information I refer to the chronicle of Ibn-Alathir, of which nearly one half of tom. i. (p. 320 ff.) is dedicated to this subject. Cf. also Ibn Kutaiba,' "Kitab- alma'frif," p. 298; "Arabum Proverbia," ed. Freytag, tom, iii. p. 553 ff. The pronunciation of the word Alfadd (p. 39, 1. 44) seems doubtful Yabtt, iii. 804, mentions Alghada, a place in the district of the Banu- Kilab, where once a battle took place. Therefore it would perhaps be preferable to read " The day of Alghada."

p. 40, 1. 26. On thie war of Alfjar, in which Mubammad took part, cf. A. Sprenger," Das Leben und die Lebre des Mobammad," i. 351, 423.

p. 40, 1. 35. Notwithstanding, we have stated, etc. This passage proves that there is a lacune m the order of the chronological tables, such as exhibited by the mannscripte. According to the author, his work con- tained alao the tables of the princes of South-Arabia and of Alhta, but no anch tables are found in the manuseripte. Their proper place would have been between the Sasanians and the Khalifs (after p. 128), bnt the table of the Khalife is lost, too. I am inclined to believe that the anthor had ecarcely any other in- formation but that of Hamza Alisfahani (transl. by Gottwaldt, pp. 73 and 96). The manuscript of the University Library of Leyden proves & considerable help for the emendation of Hamza'e work, but more manu- scripts will be wanted before a reliable and clear text can be made out.

p. 40, 1. 89. For the following report on the antiquities of Chorasmia I refer to my trestiso, Zur Geschichte und Chronologie von Khwarim I., published in the "Sitzungsberichte der Kais. Academie de Wisaen- schaften in Wien," Philosophiach-historische Clasae, 1873, p. 471 ff.

p. 41,1. 7. Ou the name of Afrigh, vida my treatise Conjectur eu Ven- didad, i. 34, in " Zeitsohrift der Deutachen Morgenlandischen Gesell- gchaft," xxviii. p. 450.

ANNOTATIONS. 379

p. 41, 1. 23. Piece by pisce. Read teths instead of lethi (text, p. 35, 1. 16 (Fleischer),

also p. 42, 1. 26. p. 41, 11. 33, 41. I prefer to read Askakhwdr instead of Azkajawar;

p. 48, 1, 24. The chief source of all information of eastern authors ragarding Alexander is the book of Pseudo-Callisthenes (edited by C. Muller, Paris, 1846, Didot). The book has bsen treated with the same liberty both in east and west, and it seems that the eastern transla- tions have not lese differed from ench other thar the varioue Greek manuscripts of the book. The passage p. 44, 1. 30 ff. does not occur so in the Greek original, but something like it, ef. book ii. ch. 20, p. 77. The murderer of Darius, p. 44, 1. 8, has a Sasanian name (Nau- juahanss), whilst in tho original there are two murderers, Bessus and Artabarzanee (ii. 20). That Nebukadnezar is introduced into the tale, occurs aleo elsewhere-Mas'udi, "Prairies d'or," ii. 247; Tabari (Zoten- berg), i. 516. That Alexander was origiually a eon of Darius, is the tradition of the Shahnama of Firdausi, vide also Tabari, i. 512; Ibn- Alathir, i. 199, 1. Fer more information I refer to Fr. Spiegel, " Dio Alexandersage bei den Orientalen," Leipzig, 1851.

p. 45, 1. 8. Ibn-'Abd-Alramak Altust. A man of this name, i.e. Ibn 'Abd-alrazzak is mentioned in the hiatory of the Buyide prince Rukn- aldanla, by Ibn-al'athir, viii. p. 396, among the events of A.R. 349.

p. 45, 1. 5. Abu-Ishak Ibrahim ben Hilal, the Sabian, was the secre- tary of the Buyide prince Izs-aldaula Bakhtiyar, famous as an eloquent writer in prose and verse. He died A.H. 384, or, according to another statement, before A.H. 380. Cf. "Kitab-alfibrist," p. 134; Ibn-Khallikan, nr. 14; F. Wilken, Mirchord's " Geschichte der Sultane aus dem Ge- echlechte Bujeh," Berlin, 1835, p. 105. The title of his book (p. 45, 1.6) read Allaji instead of Altij. On the pedigree of the family of Buwaihi, cf. Ibn-Kutaiba, " Kitâh- alma'trif," p. 36; Ibn-Alathir, viii. 197; F. Wustenfeld, Genealogische Tabellen T. 10 and Register, p. 152. Most of the names which occur in this pedigree are also found in Sehir-eddin's "Geschichte von Tabaristan, Rnjan und Mazandaran," ed. Dorn, p. 101, and the whole pedigree, loe. cit. p. 175.

p. 45, 1. 9. Read gyslu instead of yst (text, p. 38, 1. 8).

p. 45, 1. 22. Abu-Mubammad Alhasan ben 'Ali ben Nana, mentioned as the author of a history of the Buyide princes, is not known to me.

380 ALBİRUNİ.

p. 46, 1. 8. Read J-4 instead of J-u (tert, p. 38, 1. 10); and J-4 .(1.1 ,38 م) بمّى instead of حمسمّى p.38, 1.]1).Read ) باسل instead of

p. 46, 1. 12. The names of LAht and Layahaj (p. 15) are unknowo te me; perhaps they have some sort of relation with the word Lahijan, olpol, which is the name of ono of the two capitale of Ghilan, cf. Dorn, "Sehir-eddin's Geschichte von Tabaristan," etc. Vorwort, p. 11, nota 1.

p. 47, 1. 23. Ghilan. Read Jll instead of Jant (text, p. 39, 1. 5).

p. 47, 1. 25. Aefar ben Shirawaihi. Under the Khalifate of Almuk- tadir (A.H. 295-920) the party of the Alid. , tried to occupy the countries south ef the Caspian Sea, Tabaristan, Dailam, Ghilan and Jurjan, fighting against the troope of the Samanian princes of Khurasan and those of the Khalif. The first Alide whose efforts were crowned with . success was Hasan ben 'Ali, called Alnasir Al'utrush, about A.B. 302, Seon, however, the generale of the Alide princes, Laila ben Alnu'man, MAkin ben Kaki, Asfar ben Shirawaibi, were more enccessful than they themselves. The latter, Asfar, who abandoned the party of the Alidee, succeeded, A.H. 315, in occupying Tebariatan, and in rendering himself an independent ruler. He did not long enjoy the fruits of his labours. After having made himself thoroughly unpopular, he was killed by his generals, at the head of whom was Mardawij, A.H. 316. Mardawij was now the ruler of Tabaristan and Jurjan, and tried to extend his sway over the neighbouring countries. He was the founder of a dynasty who held the gupreme power in thoee countries during one hundred and fifty years. He abandoned the party of the Alides, and adopted the black colour of the Abbasides. To the Khalif he made himself so formidable that he wae inveeted and proclaimed as the legitimate governer of all the provinces which hie sword had conquered. Cf. Weil, " Geschichte der Khalifen," ii. 613-621. A history of this man and of his descendants is found in Sehir-eddin's "Geschichte von Tabaristan, Rujan und Mazandaran," ed. by Dorn, 1850, on pp. 171-201 and 322. Mardawij was a e, Le. native of Ghilan (not cke, native of Aljabal or Media). The name of his father is written jt and sl, and I have not heen able to make out which ferm is the correct one. In Sehir- eddin'a chronicle, the name is always written ,4j. In the text, 59, 6, rend Jest instead of Jft. Between the worde d, and t (line 6), there seeme to be a lacuna which I have no means of filling up. This lacuna is the roason why the following worda do not offer & clear meaning. It is not clear who was the son of Wardinshuh who instigated Mardiwij to freo the people from the tyranny of Asftr.

ANNOTATIONS. 381

p. 47, 1. 29. Khurdsan. Read olbe, ra, 8, instead of oleys.

The nams Farkhwirjirshah may possibly ba identical with that name which Anoshirwan is said to have had as the governor of Tabaristan in the lifetime of his father, Hamza Isfahani, ed. Gottwaldt, 1, 3, 4. Cf. s stey and sle s atyyt in Sehir-eddin's "Chronik von Tabaristan," ed. Dorn, pp. 19, 81, 42; P. de Lagarde, "Beitrage zur Baktrischen Lexiko- graphie," p. 50 ff.

p. 47,1. 30. In the tert on p. 39, read l'st instead of ltst, 1. 9; .(Fleischer) 1.19, العلرية instead of العلوية and ;1.18 ,كبثل instead of كيثر

p. 47, 1. 32. The Ispahbad Rustam, the uncle of Shams-alma'ali is also mentioned by Ibn-Al'athir, viii. 506. To a son of this Rustam, Marzuban ben Rustam, the Ispahbad of Jiljilan, our author has dedi- cated one of his books, vide my edition of the text, Einleitung, p. xl. nr. 7. The bistory of the ancestors of the Ispahbad Rustam is related in Sahir-eddin's " Geschichte von Tabaristan," etc., ed. Dern, pp. 201-210, 270, 322. They are called "the family of Bawand." In p. 47, 1l. 34 and 38, read oey instead of out. Cf. Yakût, " Geo- graphisches Worterbuch," iii. 283.

p. 48, 1. 5. The same pedigree of the house of Stman is also given by Ibn-al'athir, vii. 192, and in the geography of Ibn-Haukal, pp. 344, 345.

p. 48, 1. 16. The Shahs of Shirwan. According to Kazwini, " Âthâr- albilad," p. 403, Shirwan was first colonized by Kisra Anoshirwan. The kings of the country were called ots st. Anoshirwan is said to have installed the first governor and prince of Shirwan, a rclative of his family. Cf. Dorn, "Versuch ciner Geschichte der ShirwinshAhe," p. 12 and 25. Mas'tdi, " Prairies d'or," ii. 4, makes the Shirwanshah of his time descend from Bahrim-Gûr.

p. 48, 1. 24. Tbaid-Allih, etc., founded the empire of the Fatimide dynasty in Kairawan and Egypt, A.R. 296. He pretended te be a descendant of 'Alf ben Abt-Talib. Cf. Ibn-Al'athtr, viii. 27; Ibn- Kutaiba, "Kitub-alma'irif," p. 57; Weil, " Geschichte der Chalifen," ij. 598. That prince of this dynasty who ruled at the time of our author, Abtt- 'Alt ben Nizar, etc. (p. 48, I. 31) was Khalif of Egypt, A.E. 386-411, and is batter known under the name of Alhakim, cf. Ibn-Al'athir, ix. 83, 2; 82, 14; 221, 14.

$82 ALBİBÔNİ.

p. 48, 1. 41. I feel inclined to suppose that in this pedigree there is a lacuna between odk and oyeyw, that out the son of Noah was ori- ginally the end of the frst pedigree, and that the second commenced with Alesander ben Barka, ete. This opinion is eupported by Mas'udi, "Prairies d'or," ii. 248, and Spiegel, "Alexandersage," p. 60. However, I must state that the pedigree-such as it is given by Alberunf-also occura in Mas'udi, ii. 293, 294, and Ibn-Alathir, i. 200, 5-9. If, there- fore, there is a lacuna, as I suppose, it is a hlnnder of older date, and must have ocourred already in the source whence all, Mas'udi, Albe. runi, and Ibn-al'athir have drawn. Some of the names of this pedigree exhibit rather snepicious forms. II. syoe, perhape mrs Egyptus? Cf. Ibn-Alathir, i p. 200, 1.6. VI. نيطى. Read ى Latinus. XV. stolt is a corruption of ing. Genesis, xxxvi. 11, 15; vide Ascoli, "Zeitschrift der Dentschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft," xv. 143.

p. 49, L 22. The combination of Dhu-alkarnain with Almundhir ben Imru'alkais, vide Hamzu Isfahani, translated by Gottwaldt, p. 82.

p. 49, 1. 26. 'Abdallah ben Hilal. On this famous juggler, vide "Kitab-alfhrist," p. 310, and note.

p. 49, 1. 87. On the supposed South.Arahian origin of Dhe-alkarnain, vide Mas'hdi, "Prairies d'or," ii. 244, 249; A. v. Kremer,"Budarabische Sage," pp. 70-75; Hamza, transl. p. 100. p. 49, 1. 41. The name Subaih occurs also in Ion-Hiahdm. The life of Muhammad, i. 486. It seoms to be the diminutive of est 'Asbah (Ibn-Duraid, " Kitab-alishtikak," p. 41), as Nu'aim ov is the diminu- tiveof' An'am est according to Ibn-Duraid, loc. cit. p. 85, 1. 14. Another name of the same root is che in Hamza, ed. Gottwaldt, p. 182. The spelling of the name Athammal, 1. 34, is uncertain. For the spelling of the name Tan'um, vide Ibn-Duraid, loc. cit. p. 84

p. 50, 1. 4. Fever-water. Read muddy water. Read be instead of (text, p. 41, L. 8), and reod peit instead of yes3t (toxt, p. 41, 1. 5) (Flei- scher).

p. 50, 1. 7. The following reasoning occurs already in Hamza, tranal. p. 100. p. 50, 1. 26. Ibn-Khurdadhbih was postmaster in Media, and wrote about the middle of the third century of tho Flight (between 240-260). Hie geographical work has been edited and translated by B. de Mey- nard, "Journal Asiatique," 1865.

ANNOTATIONS. 383

p. 51, 1. 1. Sawtr. This nation ie mentioned hy Byzantine authore under the name of Zaßipot.

p. 52, 1. 24. Abt-Sa'id 'Aumad hen Muhammad, a native of Sijistan, is not known to me from any other eource.

p. 53, 1.81. The same names occur in Mas'udt, iii, 415. These days have also Arabie names (loc. cit. p. 416, and thie hook, p. 246, 1. 16).

p. 53, 1. 34. Read SWl inetead of oqtat (text, p. 43, 1. 22).

p. 53, 1. 37. Zidawaihi ben Shahawaihi, a native of Isfahan, is men- tioned in "Kitab-alfihrist," p. 245, as one of those who translated Per- sian works into Arahie. He is also mentioned on p. 202, 1.7, and p. 207, 1. 11.

p.54, 1.1. Aht-alfaraj Ahmad ben Khalaf Alzanjanf; "Kitib-alfihrist," p. 284, mentions an Ahmad b. Khalaf among those who made astrono- mical and other instruments ; also mentioned p. 118, 1. 31.

p. 54, 1. 4. Abu-alhasan Adharkhur ben Yazdankhasis is not known to me from any other source; vide p. 107, 1. 40 and p. 204, 1, 14. Read o asyJT instead of slyydT (text, p. 44, 1. 6).

p. 54, 1, 29. Read glf, instead of Stt, (text, p. 44, 1. 15).

p. 54, 1. 39. The reason why the Persians did not like to inerease the numher of days of the year was, according to Mas'udi, iii. 416, that thereby the established sequence of lucky and unlucky days wonld have been disturbed.

p. 55, 1. 3. The words 1. 5-27 do not in the lcaat harmonize with the preceding, which makes me believo that after the word Adhar.Miik thero ie a gap, although the manuseripts do not indicate it. The explanation which is cemmenced 'n ll. 3, 4, ie continued in 1. 28 ff.

p. 56, 1. 7. Yazdajiri Allizart is also mentioned by Yikat, "Geogra- phiaches Worterbuch," iv. 970. Yakut may bave drawn hie information from this book.

p. 56, 1. 22. As these namee, the scanty remuants of a long-loet Eranian dislect, are of consideralle philological interest, 1 shall add the rendinga of the Canon Masudicus of Alberunf according to two manu- scripte, MS. Elliot (now the property of the Britiel Museum, dated

384 ALBİRONİ.

Bagdad, A.H. 570, Rabt I.), and MS. Berlin (the property of the Royal Library, aco. ms. 10, 311, or MSS. Orr. 8°. 275). MS. Elliot, f. 14a. MS. Berlin.

حياك يساك اصناعىدا

معكان نعکاں

مسائوع

عشوص Whosver wants to esplain thess names will also have to consult tbe six manuscripts of the Kitab-altafhim of our anthor, and the most ancient copy of the Canon Masudicus in the Bodleian Library. In this hook Alberan does not mention the months of the Armenians, but I have found them in a copy of the "Kitab-altafhim" (MS. of the Bodleian Library) in the following form (p. 165): (!) زجانى أريك مهيكن اراتس (كالموتس read) كاغرس درى سهمى هورى فالمسولى (هرود ... M8) هرودتمس (ماركائمس read) ماركاس ساربرى Cf. E. Dulavrier, "Recherchcs sur la chronologie Armenienne," p. 2.

p. 57, 1. 17. I am sorry to state that there are no tables of these Chorasmian names in the Canon Masudicus, nor in the "Kitb- altafhi." The form owat (p. 57, 1. 2) reminds one of the Cappadocian name Ouuar, vide Benfey und Stern, "Teber die Monatsnamen einiger alter Völker," Berlin, 1886, pp. 110-113. The nams ,Js (nams of the 8th, 15th, and 23rd days) is, like the Persian Dai, to be retraced to Dadhvao (Benfey and Stern, ib. pp. 109, 110). The corresponding Sogdian name (p. 56) is written wwd, which is, perhaps, a metathesis for coe, which would be equal to Dathusho, the genitive of Dadhudo, and would resemble the Cappadocian Aafourra (Ben- fey und Stern, ib. p. 79). The reader will casily recognize the relationship hetween the Sogdian and Chorasmian namco of the days of the month and the Persian names; this is more difficult in the case of some of the names of the months.

ANNOTATIONS. 385

p. 58, 1. 10. And relied, ete. Read odia instead of orsa (toxt, p. 48, 1. 14).

p. 58, 1. 16. Dai, vide note ad p. 57, 1. 17.

p. 58, 1. 33. It is not known that the Egyptians called the singlo days of the month by special names.

p. 59, 1. 3. On the names of tho Egyptian months, their forms and meanings, vide R. Lepsius, "Chronologie der Aegypter," pp. 134-142.

p. 59, 1. 22. The small month. The Coptie name for the Epagomena is p abot n kouji, "the small month," ef. R. Lepsius, "Chronologie der Aegypter," p. 145; and this book, p. 137, 1. 22. On the Egyptian names of the 5 Epagomena, cf. R. Lepsius, loc. cit. pp. 146, 147.

p. 59, 1. 25. Ladt. It seems, one must read this word hat, since the Coptie word for leap-year is TATOKTr, i.e. Emury, as Mr. L. Stern kindly informed me. In that case the author was wrong in translating the word by &lc e. signum.

p. 59, I. 26. Abu alabbas Alamuli, the author of a book on the Kibla, is montioned by Haji Khalifa, iii. p. 236. His full name is Abů- al'abbas 'Ahmad b. Abi-'Abmad Altabari Alamuli, known as Ibn-alkuss, and be died A.H. 335. The months which this author ascribes to the People of the West are our names of months in forms which can hardly be traced back to a Latin source (ancient Spanish ?). I suppose that by the Poople of the West he means the inhabitants of Spain.

p. 60, 1. 21. Kitab-ma'khadh almawaki. Thia book is not known to me.

p. 61, 1. 1. Twenty-four houre are = 86,400 seconds, which, divided by 729, givo a quotient of 118915.

p. 61, 1. 13. Read pdasn instead of Aaadt (text, p. 51, 1. 17).

p. 61, 1. 45. Thabit ben Kurra was born A.H. 221 and died 288 ; vide " Kitab-alfihrist," p. 272, and notes. On his astronomical theories, vide Delambre, "Hietoire de l'astronomie du moyen age," p. 73. On the iamily of the Banh-Mish vide " Kitab-alfihrist," p. 271. Mu- hammad died A.E. 259.

r. 62, 1. 16. The Hebrews and all the Jews. The word 'Ibrani=Hebrew, was a learned name, known only to scholars; it meant that people of 26

386 ALBİRONİ.

antiquity who spoke the Hebrew tongue and who lived in Syria under the law of Moses. Jew is & popular name which means the descen- dants of that people, who no lenger live in Syria, but are scattered anl over the world, who no longer epeak Hebrew, but who still live under the law of Moses.

p. 62, 1. 18. The names of tho montbs of the Jews occur also in Assyrian, cf. E. Norris, " Assyrian Dictionary," p. 50. Part of the following chapter bas been edited by S. de Bacy, "Chresto- mathie Arabe" i. p. M (taken from Almakrizî).

p. 62, 1. 40. " Remember the day," etc. This quotation is an extract from Exodus xiii. 3, 4 (Deut. xvi. 1). The words in that month when the trees blossom are the rendering of the Hebrew Nh tin. The month 'Abib has always been identified with Niean by the whole exego- tical tradition of both Jewa and Christians, but I do not see for what roason.

p. 63, 1. 15. This view, that Adhir II. ie the leap-month, was held by the Karaeana, according to Eliab ben Mose in Selden, "Dissertatio de .(היו מעברין אותו אדר שני) 166 . civili anno Judaico," cap. v. p

p. 63, 1. 31. On the invention of the Octaeteris by Cleostratos of Tenedos (about 500 B.c.) vide Ideler, " Handbnch der matlematischen und technischen Chronologie," i. 605. The cycle of 19 years is the cycle of Meton, invented about 432 B.c., vide Ideler, loc. cit. i. 297 ff. The cycle of 76 years is the improvement of the Metonian cycle by Callippue of Cyzicus (abont 330 B.c.), Ideler, loc. cit. i. 299, 344. The cycle of 95 years (5x 19) has been used by Cyrillus for the com- pntation of Easter, vide Ideler, loc. cit. p. 259. The cycle of 532 (=19x28) was invented by the Egyptian monk Anianus, vide Ideler, loc. cit. pp. 277, 451.

p. 63, 1. 37. In the author's statement regarding the 4th cycle of 95 years there is a mistake: we must read 1,175 months instead of 1,176 months. The synodical month or one lunation is=29 d. 12b. 793 H. 1,176 lunations=34,727 d. 23 h. 528 H=900,149,208 H. If wo divide this sum by the length of the solar year, i.e. 365 d. 19% h .= 9,467,190 H, we get as quotient 95 (years), and a remainder of 29 d. 13 h. 438 H, i.e. 1 lunation plus 725 Hl., i.e. one lunstion too much. If we reckon 1,175 lunations, we get as the remainder 725 H., and

ANNOTATIONS. 387

this result is correot, becauso it is five times the remninder of the eyole of 19 years, of which this cycle is a five times multiplication. 95 years 5×19 1,175 lunatione 5 x 235 35 leap-months = 5x7 725 H.remainder= 5 x 145

This remainder representa the difference between the rotations of the sun and the moon at the end of the cycle.

p. 64, 1. S. Halak, as I have written, according to the Arabic, is the Hohrew word pn7, which in ths Canon Masndicus is sometimce rendered by so. Of the still smaller division of time, of the D'ya? (one Rega' =76 Halak), I have not found any trace in the works of Alberuni. For the convenience of these who want to examine the following computations, I give a comparison between the Halaks and the other measures of time:

L. 1 hour = 1,080 H. 1 minute= 18 H. 1 n. = 1 H.

1 Iv. 1 v. II. 1 Halak = Ts7 hour. 1 H. 1 H. S 1s minute.

1 H. = 2} eeconds.

1 H. = 12,000 IV. 1 H. = 720,000 v. III. 1,080 Halaks= 1 hour. 1 Halak = roso h. 1 Rêga' = mảno h.

In Jewish chronology there occur two kinds of years, the Julian year (in the calculation of R. Samuel), and a scientific year dcrived from the researehes of Hipparchus, which is the basis of the calculation of R. 'Adda har 'Ahaba. The year which Alberunt mentions, consisting of 365 d. 5A181 h., is the year of R. 'Adda, equal to

365 d. 5 h. 997 H. 48 Reg.

Cf. Lazarus Bendavid, "Zur Berechnung und Geschiehte des Judischen Kalenders," Berlin, 1817, p. 32. Regarding the origin of this year there cannot be any doubt. The

888 ALBiRONS.

Jewish chronelogista found it by dividing by 19 the Enneadecateris of Meten, which consiate of 235 Hipparchical synodical months (i.e. 6,999 d. 16 h. 595 H.). It will not be superfluous for the valuation of the following calcu- lations to point out the differenco between tho ancient Greek astrono- mers and the Tewish Rabbis who constructed the Jewish calendar. Tha elamenta for the comparison of the rotations of sun and moon are two measures: that of the length of the synodical month and that of the length of the solar year. When Meton and Callippus con- stracted their oycles, these two measures had not yet been defined with a great degree of accuracy. Hencs the deficiencies of their eycles. Centuriee later, when the sagacity of Hipparchus had defincd these two measures in such a way that medern astronomy has feund rery little to correct, comparisone hetween the rotatiens of sun and moon could be carried out with a much higher degree of accuracy. Thereby the Jewish chronolegists ware much better situated than Mcton and Callippus, and the following calculations prove that they availed them- aslves of this advantage.

p. 64, 1. 10. Computation of the Octaoteris and Enneadecateris. I. Octaeteris.

The ancisnt Greeks counted the solar year as 365} day. (i.e. too long), and the synodical month as 291 days (i.e. too short). The Jews counted-

the solar year as 365 a. 5:781 h. and the synodical menth as 29 d. 12 b. 783 H. The 99 lunations of the Octaeteris, each lunation at 29 d. 12 h. 783 H., give the sum of- 2,923 d. 12 h. 747 H.

which is equal to the sum of- 75,777,867 ļ. If we divide this sum by the length of the solar year, i.e. 365 d. 53'81 h .= 9,467,190 H., we get as quotient 8 (years) and a remainder of-

1 d. 13 h. 387 H.

Thia would be the difference between the rotatiens of the eun and moon at the end of the first Octaeteris, i.e. the moon reached the end of her 99th rotation, when the sun had atill to march during 1 d. 13 b. 387 H., till he reached the end of his 8th rotation. According to the calculations of the ancient Greels, thie difference

ANNOTATIONS. 389

was less, viz. 1} daye. Cf. L. Idoler, "Haudbuch der mathe.natischen und teohnischon Chronologie," i. p. 294 ff. As the suthor says, 987 Halaks do not oorrespond to 31 h. with mathe- matical nccuracy (p. 64, 11. 24, 25). There is a differenco of 71. b., for

whilet

1& h. = Tro h.

IL. Enneadecateris.

Meton discovered that 235 synodical monthe pretty nearly correspond to 19 solar years. In constructing his cycle of 19 years, he reckoned the solar year at 365- d., i.e. by 7a d. longer than it had heen reckoned in the Octaeteris (s mistake which afterwards Callippns strove to retriovo). More correct was the following Jewish calculation with Hip- parchic measures : 235 lunstione, each = 29 d. 12 h. 799 H., givo tho sum of- 6,999 d. 16, 484 h. = 179,876,755 H. If we divide thie sum of Halaks by the length of the solar year of- 365 d. 53181 h. = 9,467,190 H., we get as quotient 19 (years), and a remainder of only 145 H. According to this computation, the difference between the rotations of sun and moon at the end of the first Enneadecaterie would not be more than 145 H., or 1 h., i.e. a littlo more than + h., or than rts d., whilst, according to Callippns, this difference was greater, viz. + d. =1 d. This reform of the Metonic Enneadecateris enahled the Jews to dispense with the 76 years cycle of Callippus, which he constructed of four-timee the Enneadecaterie with the omission of one day. The Jewish calculation is more correct than that of Callippus, who reckoned the solar year too long.

p. 64, 1. 33. On the meaning of the word mhrma ef. an interesting chapter in the nn hD of Ahraham Bar Chyiah, edited by HI. .(בפירוש שם המחזו) Filipowki London, 181,bo i.i At the beginning of this exposition (p. 64, 1.31, text, p. 55, 1. 8) there seeme to be a lacuna. It is not likely that the author should intro- duce a technical foreign work (like Mahzor) without having previouz'y explained what it means (and this is not the case).

p. 65. The difference of the Ordines intercalationis ie caused and accounted for by the difference of the beginning of the Jewish Æra Mundi.

390 ALBİRÔNİ.

The world was created at the time of the vernal equinox, i.e. the Tekufat-Nisan. But the year as reokoned by tho Jewish chronologiate does not commence at the time of the vernal equinox, hnt at that of the antumnal equinor, i.e. the Tekufat-Tiohri. Now, the question whence to begin the firat year of the Ære Mundi, has been answered in various ways. Some commenco with the vernal equinox preceding the creation of the world, others with the first vernal oquinox following after the creation of the world. Some counted the year in the middle of which the creation took place as the first, others counted the following ספר העבור . geara the irat yearof the firat Enneadecateris. Cf of Abrabam bar Chyiah, iii. 7, p. 96. In conformity with this diffe- rence alao the order of the leap-yeara within the Enneadecateris has been fixed differontly. The Ordo intercalationis 01, which reckons the second (complete) Jear of the creation as the first year of the first Enneadecateris, occors also in the valuable Teshubhd (Responsum) of R. Hai Gaon ben Sheriri, a contemporary of the author, vide Abraham bar Chyiah, p. 97, L. 36. The Ordo intercalationis UTTNma which has become canonical eince and through Maimonides, is not mentioned by Alberuni. The three Ordines intercalationis which the anthor has united in the creular figure, are constructed upon this principle: Of the seven intervals between each two leap-years, there are five intervals each of 2 years, and two intervals each of 1 year. p. 66,1 7. The solar cycle ( מחזור לחמה ) of 28 years consists of Julian years of 365} days. At the end of this cycle time returns to the same day of the week. Cf. L. Ideler, "Handbuch," ete., i. 72. p. 66, 1. 23. Of the five Deniyyoth of the Jewish calendar ITN "M . . which are certain rolee ordering a date, e.g בותקפט־גטרד-יח אדו New-year's-day, to be transferred from one week-day to another, our author mentions only the first one, viz. "TN, i.e. the rule that New- year'e-day can never be a Sunday or a Wedneeday or a Friday. The words thot Paseover by which the beginning of Nisan is reguloted I understand in this way, that Passover, i.e. the 15th Nisan, and the let Nisan always fall on the same week-day. The rule YTh is connected with the rule 172 i.e. that Passover shall never fall on a Monday, Wednesday, or Friday, in the following way : Paseover must be the 168rd day from the end of the year. The divi- sion of 163 by 7 gives the remainder of 2. If New-year's-day wero a Sunday, the last day of the preceding year would be a Saturday, and the 163rd day from the end would be a Fridoy. If New-year's-day were a Wedneday, the 163rd day from the end would be a Monday.

ANNOTATIONS. 391

If New-year's-day were a Friday, the 168rd day from the end would be & Wednesday. Cf. Lewisohn, "Geschichte und System des Judischen Kalenderwesens," Leipzig, 1856, § 92, § 127. On the correspondence betweon the four days that can be New.year'a. days (called אדבעה שערים ) and Passover, cf. Abraham bar Chyiah, ii. ch. 9.

p. 67, n. 28, 35. I should prefer to read Jhqhl inetead of Jat and .(21 text, p.57, 11. 18 and ) من حابهم عن instend of فى حابهم من p. 68,1.4. On the calculation of the are of uision קשת הראיה i.e. that part of the moen's rotation between conjunction and the moment of her becoming visible at some place, vide Selden, "Disssrtatio de anno civili Judaico," cap. xiii .; Lazarus Bendavid, " Zur Geschichte und Berechnung dee Judischen Kalenders," § 36. The mean motion of the moon is called in Hebrow מהלך אמצאי , the seal metion מהלך אמתי ,uide Maimonides, קדוש החרש , vi. 1; xi. 15.

p. 68, 1. 32. Partah cy is a Biblical name, vide 1 Kings iv. 17.

p. 68, 1. 35. If the Mtladitee commenced the month with themoment of the conjunction, they differed from the Rabbanites in thia, that tha latter made the beginning of the month (e.g. the heginning of the firet month or New-year's-day) depend not alone upon conjunction, but also upon certain ether conditione, e.g. the condition i (Lazarus Bendavid, § 36). Th Rabbanites tried in everything to assimilate their calendar, based npon tbe astronomical determination of conjunctien, to the more ancient calendar wich had been based npon the observatien of New Moon. The conservative tendency of this reform of the Jewish calendar is pointed out by A. Schwarz, "Der Judische Kalender," pp. 59-61. Cf. also Abraham bar Chyah יספר העבור p. 68, 1.6; p.69, 21

p. 68, 1. 36. Read ofan instead of efant as plural of U (tert, p. 58, 1. 17).

p. 69, 1. 5. 'Anân, the founder of the great echism in the Jowish world, lived in Palestine in the secend half ef the 8th century. For his history, vide Graetz, "Geschichte der Juden." ii. ed., tom. v. p. 174; fer 'Ânan's reform of the calendar, . p. 454. The pedigree of 'Anan has been the subject ef much discussion, vide Graetz, ib. pp. 417, 418, and J. Triglandii, "Notitia Karacorum," Ham- burg, 1714, p. 46.

p. 69, 1. 25. Read ial inst ad of faf (toxt, p. 59, 1. 9).

p. 70, 1. 16. Read instead of 3 (text, p. 60, 1. 4, after e or).

392 ALBİRÔNİ.

p. 72, 1. 36. Isma'R ben 'Abbad, born A.H. 326, was Vazir to tho Buyide princes Mu'ayyid-aldaula, and afterwarde to Fakhr aldaula. Ho died A.E. 385. Cf. Ibn-Ai'athir, ix. p. 77. The same man is quoted by Alberuni as the Sahib, p. 94, 1. 19. On this title, vide Hammer, "Lander- vorwaltung unter dem Khalifat," pp. 34, 35; " Abulfede Annales Mos- lemici," ii. p. 586.

p. 74, 1.7. The farewell pilgrimage ie described by A. Sprenger, "Leben und Lehre des Mohammad," iii. p. 515 ff. On Muhammad's prohibiting intercalation, eto., ib. p. 534 ff. Read &po instead of dge (tozt, p. 63, 1l. 1, 3). (Fleischer.)

p. 74, 1. 15. Ibn-Daraid, a famous philologist of the school of Başra, died A.H. 321, in Bagdad. Cf. G. Flugel, " Grammatische Schulen der Araber," p. 101.

p. 74, 1. 25. Abu-Sahl 'Lsa ben Yahya Almasibi, a Christian physician, was a contemporary of Alberuni, who lived at tbe court of 'Ali beu Ma'mun and Ma'mun ben Me'mun, princes of Khwarizm. The year of his death is not known; probably he died bstween A.H. 400-403. Cpr. Wustenfeld, " Geschichte der Arabischen Aerzte und Naturfor- scher," p. 59, nr. 118.

p. 75, 1. 26. Read lot instead of (text, p. 64, 1. 6, +4!1 .)

p. 76, 1. 36. Abu-'Abdallab Ja'far ben Muhammad Alşadik is one of the twelve Imams of the Shia. He was born A.H. 80, and died A.H. 146. On the sect who derived their name from him, vide Shahristani, ed. Cureton, p. 124. Cf. also Wüstenfeld, " Geschichte der Arabischon Aerzte und Naturforscher," nr. 24.

p. 77, 1. 4. This tradition occure in Bukhari, " Recueil des traditions Mahometanes," ed. L. Krehl, i. p. 474. The other traditions to which the anthor refers in the course of his discussion (p. 78) are also men- tioned by Bukhari, i. 476 ff. Cf. the Muwatfa' of Malik ben 'Anas, ed. Bulak, ii. chap. 84.

p. 77, 1. 22. Read &Ct, instead of SyuOt, (text, p. 65, 1. 14), and 3) instead of ist (p. 65, L 15) (Fleischer.)

p. 80, L 4. Read js, instead of Jhe, (text, p. 67, I. 17).

p. 80, L 5. The same fact is related by Ibn-Al'athir, vi. p. 3. In con- sequence of his killing 'Abd-alkarim, the governor of Kefa, Muhammad was removed from his office A.H. 155 (or 153). The story shows that the

ANNOTATIONS. 393

falsifieation of tradition has at certaiu times been practised whelesale in the Muslim world. Ibn-'abi-al'auja, alse mentioned in "Kitab-alfihrist," p. 338, 1. 9. p. 80, 1. 27. Read and its origin instend of and of its original, ete. Read dlot, instead of alot, (text, p. 68, 1. 4). (Fleischer.)

p. 80, 1. 84. Read whey' instead of ehey (text, p. 68, 1.6), and s dass-gwl, (text, p. 68, 11. 9, 10), as in the manuscripts. p. 82, col. 1. Kuba was the second largest town of Farghana, not far from Shash. It is described by Ibn-Haukal, p. 394; Yakut, iv. 24. The word ebl (te) I have not been able to explain hitherto. Perbape the word bears seme relation to blas i.e. Bukhara.

p. 82, coll. 1, 8. Ths names ef col. 1 are in usc among the eastern Torks (of Kaohghar and Yarkaud), vide R. B. Shaw, " A Sketch of the Turki Language as spoken in Eastern Turkistan," Lahere, 1875, p. 77; J. Grave, " Epoch celebriores," London, 1650, p. 5. The names of col 8 seem te bs in disorder; they mean: The Great Month, the Small Month, the First Menth, the Second Month, the Sirth Month, the Fifth Menth, the Eighth Menth, the Ninth Menth, the Tenth Month, the Fourth Month, the Third Month, the Seventh Month. Cf. Shaw, "Sbetch," etc., p. 75. Both columns are of particular interest in so far as they exhibit the most ancient specimen of the Turkish language. p. 82, col. 5. Octombrius. Perhaps it weuld be better to read Octombrius, in conformity with Octembre, which occurs in Provençal beside Octobre, vide Reynouard, "Lexique Roman ou dictionnaire de la langue des troubadours," tom vi. p. 390. p. 86, 1. 13. The 210 years for the stay of the Jews i Egypt are found in this way : Interval between the birth ef Abraham and that of Mosee 420 ycars. Mosee wae 80 years of age when he left Egypt 80

Interval between the birth of Abraham and the Exodus . 500 Forther: Abraham was 100 yeare of age when Isaak was born 100 Igaak was 60 years of age when Jacob was bern 60 Jacob entered Egypt when he was 130 years ef age 130

Interral :between the birth of Abraham and Jacob'e entering Egypt . 290 27

394 ALBİRONİ.

Now, the difference between the two numbers (500-290), i.e. 210 years, represente the time daring which the Jews stayed in Egypt.

p. 87, 1. 11. Read &l instead of &sU (text, p. 75, 1. 1). (Fleischer.) p. 87, 1. 13. The Seder-'Olam, i.e. Ordo Mundi, is a well known He- brew book on the Chronology of Jewish history, carrying it down as far as 22 years after the destruction of the Temple by Titus. It is the סרר עולם זויא to which our author refers, not the סדר עולם רבא Cf. " Chronicon Hebrworum Majus et Minus," ed. Joh. Meyer, Am- stelodami, 1699. I am, however, bound to state that some of the numbers which Alberuni quotes on the authority of this book are not found in-or do not agree with-the text as given in the edition of Meyer.

pp. 88, 89. In these tables there are three blunders in the addition. The last thres numbers in the addition of the years of the Seder- 'Olâm onght to be 460, 500, 503 (on p. 88); and in the same column on p. 89 the eleven last numbers of the addition ought to be: 781, 810, 865, 867, 898, 909, 920, 990, 1080, 1563, 2163.

p. 90, 1. 18. On Kushân, vide Judges, iii. 8, 10.

p. 90, 1. 35. Hashwiyya and Dahriyya. The Hashwiyya or Hasha- wiyya are a heterodox sect of Muslim philosophers who adhere to an exoterio interpretation of the divine revelation, and consider God as a bodily being, vide " Dictionary of Technical Terms," i. p. 396. The word Dahr seems nearly to correspond to the Zrvanem akerenem (" endless time") of the Avasta. Ths Dahriyya are a heathenish school of philosophers who believe the Dahr (time) to be eternal, and who trace everything to the Dabr as last cause, vide "Dictionary of Technical Terms," i. p. 480.

p. 90, 1. 44. In the following the author attacks 'Abu-Ma'shar, the author of the hook De nativitatibus (p. 92, 1. 2; p. 91, 1. 31; p. 94, 1. 44; p. 96, 1. 1). Cf. note ad p. 29, 1. 4. The subject of the discussion is the Dona astrorum (vide Delambre, "Histoiro de l'astronomie ancienne," ii. 546), i.e. the question how long a man may live, if at the moment of his birth the planets occupy such places and atand in such relations to each other as are considered the most favourable. For a detailed explication of the astrological terms which occur in the following, and all of which are of Greek origin, I refer to the Dictionary of the Technical Terms used in the Sciences of the Musalmans, Calcutta, I862. The Materfamilias (tas) is the indicium corporis, the Paterfamilias, the indicium anima (p. 90, I. 45).

ANNOTATIONS. 395

The house of the Sun is Leo, his altifudo is the 19th degree of Aries. Cardines are four points of the ecliptie: I. Cardo horoscopi, or Cardo primus, that point whieh rises in the east at the moment of the birth. II. Cardo occasus or Cardo septimus, that point which at the same moment sets in the west. III. Cardocoeli or Cardo decimus, the point between the preceding two points, but above the earth. IV. Cardo terræ or Cardo quartus, the point between the points I. and IL, but under the earth. Cf." Dictionary of Technical Terms," i. 465. In a concordant masculine quarter, By quarter I understand the divi- sion of the signs of the Zodiac into four trigones, the trigonum ignenm, trigonum terreum, etc., which are either masculine or feminine. Cf. M. Uhlemann, "Grundzuge der Astronomie und Astrologie der Alten," pp. 66, 67. The term concordant is applied to acy two places of the ecliptic which lie at equal distances from one of the two equinoctial points so as to form with each other the constellations called Tasdis or Tathlith or Mu- kabala. Cf. "Dictionary of Technical Terms," ii. 1392, s. v. w.

p. 91, 1. 10. Have no aspect. The word ba. is the contrary of Ju. There are five aspects : Tasdis, i.e. the planets are distant from each other by 60 degrees. Tarbi', i.e. the distance bet ween them is 90 degrees, Tathlith, i.e. the distance between them is 120 degrees. Muktbala, i.e. the distance between them is 180 degrees. Istikbal, is the Mukihala of Sun and Moon. Any other relation he- tween two planets is called Sukut (i.e. falling out). Cf. "Dictionary of Technical Terms," ii. 1385, s.v. 1.

p. 91, 1. 13. The Caput Draconis is that point of the ecliptic which a planet cuts when moving northward. If sun and moon meet at this point in the same zodiacal sign and degree, they are said to stand within the door EdeurIkol (Ptolemy, " Almagest," vi. cap. 5; limites ecliptiques, vide Delambre, "Histoire de l'astronomie ancieune," ii. 226), and an oclipse takes place. Every eclipse is considered as unlucky.

p. 91, 1. 16.' The elements of this sum (215 years) are not quite clear. If tho Sun givos 120 and 30 years, Moon, Venus, and Jupiter, 25, 8 and 12 years, we get the sum of 195 years. Whence the astrologers derive ths missing 20 years is not stated. They are hardly to he considered as a gift of Saturn or Mars, sincs thoy arc unlucky stars; perhapa they are traced to the influence of Mercury. One may suppose that there is somewhere a lacuna in the text.

396 ALBİRÔNİ.

ى وقت instead of اختلافهم فى وقت العمارة الأولى p. 91, 1. 31. Read .(19 .1 ,78 . text, p ) العمارة الاولى فى اعتلائهم

p. 91, 1. 34. The middle conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter is 240 Jears, the minor conjunction 20 years, the major ct junction 960 years. Cf. O. Loth, "Al-Kindi als Astrolog in Morgenlandischo For. schungen," Leipzig, 1875, p. 268.

p. 93, 1. 10. Thsun was 'Amir.al'umara in Baghdad A.H. 331-334, at the time of the Khalif Almuttaki, whose eyes he put out. He was of Turkish origin, and commander of the Turkish troops who held Baghdad and some other parts of central Mesopotamia.

p. 93, 1. 15. Ghurdr-aldaula. Read 'Izz.aldaula. Mu'izz-aldaula dicd A.H. 356, and Tzz-aldaula died A.H. 367, both princes of the family of Buwaibi.

p. 93, L 23. Nasir-aldaula, prince of Mogul aud the north of Meso- potamia, of the family of Hamdan, died A.H. 358. p. 93, 1. 42. Read st ingtead of es (text, p. 81, 1. 7), agf (p. 81, 1. 9), and plnl, instead of phst, (p. 81, 1. 12). (Fleischer.)

p. 94, 1. 19. Saht. The anthor means 'Isma'il ben 'Abbad, Vazir of the Bnyide prince Fakbr-aldanla. Vide note ad p. 72, 1. 36. The time during which Fakhr-aldaula held the country of Jurjan under his sway WAS A.H. 372-388.

p. 94, 1. 40. 'Abd Sa'id Shadhan is not known to me from other sources. A man called Shadhan is montioned by Yakat, i. p. 204, 1. 20, and Haji Khalifa, v. p. 102.

p. 95, 1. 2. According to " Dictionary of Technical Terms," i. p. 568, retrograde motion is any motion which doee not, like that of tho planets, proceed couformably with the order of the zodiacal eigns. The ecliptic is divided into twelve equal parts, called houses. Tho 12th, 2nd, 6th, and 8th houses are called Domus cadentes,

p. 95, 1. 22. 'Abd-'Işma. A man of this nams was general to tho Khalif Alhadi, and was killed by Haran Alrashid A.H. 170. Cf. Ibn- Al'athir, vi. p. 74. The epithet Sahib alsafar I cannot explain.

p. 96, 1. 12. Read Jos inetoad of JoR (toxt, p. 82, 1. 21), and usstr instead of ot (p. 83, 1. 1).

p. 96, 1, 25. Jamalabadhra, a town in India, is not knowu to me; the word can be read in various ways.

ANNOTATIONS. 397

p. 96, 1. 43. Abf-'Abdallah Alhusain, ote. Alnatili, a nativa of Natila, a town in Tabaristn, is somstimes mentioned as the teacher of *Abu-'Ali ban Sina. He lived in Bukhara, and afterwards at tbe court of the prince Ma'mun ben Muhammad of Khwarizm. Cf. my edition of the toxt, " Einleitung," p. xxxiv.

p. 98, 1. 13. Covering. Read S instead of AL (text, p. 84, 1. 10). (Fleischer.)

p. 98, 1. 22. In some book, Alberuni does not mention the author of the work whence he took the chrenological tables of the kings of Assyria; in any case it must have been derived from the "Chronicon " of Euse- bius. Cf. A .. Schoene, " Eusebii Chronicorum libri duo, Berolini, 1866 and 1875"; vol. i. p. 63, and vol. ii. p. 11 ff.

p. 100, 1. 24. Another table of successors of Nunrod is given by Mas'udi, " Prairies d'or," pp. 96-100. A similar table is alao found in Alberuni's Canon Mas'idicus (MS. Elliot, fol. 28a). Yesra of reign. Anni Adami.

Nimrod 59 2951 Interval after tho confusion of languages and the destruction of the tower 43 2994 85 3079 72 3151 - عرونوس 42 3193 18 8211 Interval . 7 3218

Then follow the Assyrian kings, Beloa, Ninos, ete.

p. 101. Table of the Kings of the Chaldeans. It is the table of Plo. lemy. Cf. "Chronologie de Ptolemee," par l'abhe Halma, Paris, 1819, 2do Partie, pp. 3, 4, and " Gcorgius Syncellus," ed. Dindorf, Bonn, 1839, p. 390 ff.

p. 102. This tablo of kings of Egypt begins with the 20th dynasty of Manetho. Cf. " Eusebii Chronicorum libri duo," vol. i. p. 145; vol. ii. p. 62.

p 103, 1. 13. This table of Ptolemwans is bnaed upon that of Ptolamy. "Chronologio de Ptolemee," par Halma, 2de Partie, p. 4. In 1. 82 read: Cloopatra, till the time when Gajus Julius obtained supreme power in Romo. Reud drge instond of Cd (text, p. 92, 1. 15).

398 ALBİRONİ.

p. 104. The last source of this table of the Roman emperors seems to bo the "Chronicon of Eusehins." Cf. also " Hamza Ispahanensis annalium," libri z., translation, pp. 51, 54. In the addition of the years there is a mistake; the last sum is 313, not 303.

p. 105. Part of this table of Byzantine emperors seemp to have been taken from Hamza Isfahani, translation, p. 52 and 55 f. In this table the sum of the years is 526, not 528. In the text (p. 96, 1. 12), read &i instead of fa (De Goeje).

p. 106. The tradition of the judge Alwakf', see in Hamza Isfabani, translation, p. 57-59. Alwaki' seems to have lived in the first half of the 4th century of the Flight, vide " Kitab-altihrist," p. 114. The addition of the years of this table is in great confusion, and Albe- runi has not made an attempt at correcting it.

In the text (p. 98, 1. 10), read ha. instead of ba -.

p. 107, L 1. The following chapter on Persian chronology bears a elose resemblance to that of Hamza Isfabani, translation, p. 6 ff. The explication of the word Gayomartb, I. 5, see in Hamza, p. 48.

p. 107, 1. 43. Ahu-'Ali Muhammad ben 'Ahmad Alhalkhi, mentioned only in thie place, is not known to me from other sources. Haji Khalifa, iv. p. 13, quotes from Alberuni.

p. 108, 1. 3. The following sourcee of ancient Persian history are also quoted by Hamza, p. 7. 'Abdallah b. Almukaffa' was killed in Albara, probably A.R. 145. Cf. "Kitab-alfibrist," p. 118; Ibn-Khallikan, nr. 186. Muhammad b. Aljahm, of the family of Barmak, lived under the Khalif Almu'tagim (A.H. 218-227). Cf. "Kitab-alfihriat," pp. 81, 245, 277, and notes; Ibn-Khallikan, nr. 31, p. 40. Hisham b. Alkasim and Babram b. Mardanshah, Zoroastrian priest in Shaporstown, in Persis, are mentioned in the " Kitab-alfihrist," p. 245, among those who translated Persian books into Arabie.

p. 108, 1. 19. The manuseripta have khzura. My reading, khrura, is a conjecture. The word may be identical with khrira of the Avasta (vide Justi, "Handbuch der Zendsprache," p. 92), and also with 4y mentioned by Mas'udi, " Prairiee d'or," i. 88, in a very curious chapter, where the author enumerates Ahriman and his son Huriya in a table of kings of the Syrians.

ANNOTATIONS. 399

p. 108, 1. 84. A young man. Intext (p. 100, 1. 7) read LAt instead المحمد t instead of لمقمد and ; يعقر I. 11) instead of ) يستثفر: العراب of (1. 12). (Fleischer.)

p. 109, 1. 14. Similar tables of the words for king, emperor, prince, etc. in various languages are given by several authors, e.g. by Ibn- Kburdadhbih, " Journal Asiatique," 1865, p. 249-257. Tadan. Perhaps we must read Tudun, and compare the following note of the "Etymologicm Magnum," ed. Gaisford, p. 763: Tovdowot: οί τοποτηρηταί παρά Τούρκοις. On Sil, vide note at p. 37, 1. 9. The word Cs Kabbar (p. 110, 1. 1) is supposed by my learned friends P. Lerch, of St. Petersburgh, and W. Tomaschek, of Gratz, to be a mis- spelling fer jwi, i.e. Knaz, Knaer (a derivation from the Teutonic cuninga), a conjecture which I recommend to the students ef Slavonian antiquities. The title Bukhara.Khudak has been found by P. Lerch on the coins of the satraps of Bukhara under Sasanian rule and later (as far as the time ef Almahdi). The coins offer an eriginal writing of Semitic origin; the legend is without any doubt to be read BukMura Khuddat (or Khuddah, Khuddai). A number of these coins are found in the coin- cellection of the Royal Museum of Berlin.

p. 110, 1. 26. The following verses are alse found iu Mas'udi, "Prairies d'or," ii. p. 116.

p. 111. On the pedigree and family relations of the Peshdadhians from Hoshang till Fredun, cf. Bundihish, chap. xxxii. On the chrono- logy of the Peshdadhians and Kayanians, ib. chap. xxxiv. In the text (p. 103, 11. 11, 15), read dug instead of dig.

p. 112. On the descendants of Kawi Kawata or Kaikubadh and their names, cf. Noldeke, "Kayanier im Awesta, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellsehaft," tom. xxxii. p. 570.

p. 113. With this table cempare that of Hamza, tranelation, pp. 9,10.

p. 114, 1. 4. With this table, compare Hamza, pp. 17, 18.

p. 115, 1. 8. A similar table occurs alse in the auther's Canon Masu- dicus (MS. Elliot, fel. 29a).

400 ALBIRON ?.

After the kings of Ausyria and Arbaces tho Median follow the kings of Babylonia und Media. Yeara of roign. Anni Mondi.

Pul Jy, a dencendant of Sardanapal 35 4709 Tiglatplenar Salmanassar (L) ie. Bukbtanas. 35 4744

par I. 14 4758 Sanherih Sargon ur 4767 43 Ezarhaddon per 3 4770 Merodakh Baladan ben Baladan, i.e. Mardokempad - 48 4818 Sanheril Minor 31 4849 Kiniladan yal 17 4866 Nabopolassar the Magian 21 4887 Hie son Nebukadnozar, i.e. Bukhtanas. sar II., who destroyed Jerusalem 43 4930 Evilmerodakh ben Nebukadnezar - 4932 His brother Belteshaşgar 4 4936 Darius the Median [17] [4953] Then follow the kings of the Persians: Cyrus + 9 4962 His son Cambyses 8 4970 Darius the son of Vishtasp - 36 5000 Xerxes, i.e. Xerxes Kiarh b. Darius 20 5026 Artarerxes (cyhy, i.e. Ardashir Longimanus 41 5067 Darius Nothos 18 5085 ذر العدايمر Artaxerres 40 5125 Artaxerxes Ochus, i.e. the blaek 27 5152 Arees ben Ochus - 5156 Darius ben Arsak 5162

Then follow Alesander and the Ptolemsans. In a special column the suthor mentions some contemporary events of Jewish, Egyptian, Greek and Roman history.

p. 115, 1. 45. In the text (p. 112, 1. 4) read pol instead of 5l (Fleischer).

p. 116, 1. 8. Sasd b. Muhummad Aldhuhli is perhaps the same Dhubii with whom Bukhari (died A.H. 256) had a controversy, vide HAjî Khahfa, iii, 172.

p 116, 3. 84. Mah is Media or Aljibil or Aljabal in tho later geogra- phical terminology. Read Jut instead of the misprint Jhert.

ANNOTATIONS. 401

They were one of the families, ete. is a literal translation of the reading of tha mannscripts, but I do not heliere that this reading is correct, nor that Arabie grammar allows such a eoastruction. My conjecture, spl instead of sdel is not satisfactory, as it is not conformahle to the usual construction of this word. Ons might think of reading f1 ("They were the most daring and entarprising of the pettr princes," ete.), but this, too, does not aeem to settle the difficulty. I am sorry to state that 1 have not heen able to find the original npon which the term Mulik-altaut'if, "Petty princes," has been coined. Cf. with this passage Hamza, p. 30; Tabari, ed. Zotenberg, i. 523 ff .; Ibn-Alsthir, i. 208-210, 271, 272; Mas'udi, " Prairies d'or," ii. 136. The pedigree of Ashk is carried back to a son of Siyawush, whose nama I do not know how to pronounce. Another aon of Siywuah is mentioned by 1bn-Alathir, i. 173 (Ferozad jyyd) and Tabari, ed. Zoten- berg, i. 467 (Afroud). For another padigres of Aahk, wide B. Dorn, "Sehir-eddin's Ge- achichte von Tabaristan, Rujen und Mssanderan," p. 152. For the chronology of the Ashkanians, cf. Muhlau-Gutachmid in "Zeitachrift der Deutachen Morgenlandiachen Gesellschaft," tom. xv. p. 664; Blau, ib. tom. xviii. p. 680; Gobiueau, iò. tom. xi. p. 700; Muj- mil-altawarikh in " Journal Asiatique," 1841, p. 164: H. Schnciderwirth, "Dis Parther," Heiligenstadt, 1874.

p. 117, L 9. On ths surnames of the Ashkaniana I offer a few conjectures : Khoshdih, i.e. well-born, de race pure = sctrivahya, ride Gobincau, "Zeitachrift der Dentschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft," tom. xi. p. 702. Zarrin, i.e. golden. Khurun seema to be a miatake for jops i.e. Gotarzes. Gesuwar, i.e. curled, ef. the Peraian word Gesudar=a man of au- thority. Baradih=w dly happy-born. Balad=as S4 high-born; hut scc note at p. 118, 1. 21.

p. 117, 1. 30. See this table in Hamza, translation, p. 10.

p. 118, L 5. Saa this table in Hanza, p. 18.

p. 118, 1. 21. Besides the name Maladhun there occurs a Parthian nama Milad, in Mujmil-sltawarikh, "Journal Asiatique," 1843, pp. 393, 415, 416. Perhapa there is some cornection between ul s. and tha aurname of Feroz ben Bahram, mentioned p. 117, 1. 17 (se). 28

402 ALBÎRÔNÎ.

p. 119, 1. 19. Abi-Mansur 'Ahd-alrazzik is not known to me from other sources.

p. 119, 1. 37. In the text (p. 117, 1. 13) read a be instead of

p. 120, l. 22. In the text (p. 118, 1. 3) read d, instead of des,

p. 121, 1. 6. Shabarkdn. Of this work of Maui's very little is kuown, vide G. Flugel, " Mini, seine Lehre und seiue Schriften," Leipzig, 1862, pp. 365-867.

p. 121, 1. 36. In the tert (p. 119, 1. 5) read Ae witi tho MSS., instead of ule

p. 121, 1. 40. The following caleulation is known in astrology by the name of Taayir ye 3 (Directio). The calculation ie this: 407 x93}=37,9252. If you divide this product by 360, you get a remainder of 1522 degrecs. The meaning of the 93} degrees, the nature of the solar cycle here men- tioned, and the further detaile of the calculation, I do not anders+ .d, and cannot, therefore, guarantee the correctnese of tho text.

p. 122, 1. 14. Mush ben 'Isa Alkisrawi ie also mentioned in the "Kitab-alfhrist," p. 128. His chronological theory is stated by Hanza, translation, pp. 11-16.

p. 122, 1. 32. For the pedigree of Ardashir ben Babak, cf. B. Dorn, "Sehir-eddin's Geschichte von Tabaristan, Rujan und Masanderan," pp. 146, 151.

p. 123. With this table, cf. the history of the Sasanians according to Mirchond, translated by S. de Sacy in Mimoires aur diverses antiquites de la Perse, p. 273 f. Instead of aop read os" Tiridates, eurname of Shapur I. The word ssol. is explained by Mirchond as UAs bienfaisant (Sacy, p. 296). Instead of oste Mirchond has wydöl- Instead of ateotes Mirchond has et.ets Read stsely instend of shjy with " Mujmil-altawfrikh " (see " Journal Asiatique," 1841, p. 265 ; 1843, p. 403). I have to add in thie place that opposite the name of Ardasbir ben Båbak the MSS. have the following note : ويلقب بالجامع لجمعة ملك الفرس وفى زمائة وهع الرد I have not been able to make out the meauing of the la t word. Iu the note which is written opposite the oame of SLipur hen Arda-

ANNOTATIONS. 403

shir, the MSS. bave the reading weyesl which I have altered intu gel as the word de is in the masculine. The surname of Shahrbaraz oley is perhaps to he read glee or to be considered as a corruption of gles He is also called Farkhun. In the toxt (p. 122, 1. 7) read Je, instead of Hey.

p. 124. With this table comparo Hamza, translation, pp. 10, 11.

p. 125. With this table, cf. Hamza, pp. 18, 19.

p. 126, 1. 27. Jushanasptadha or Jushanastadha is the correet reading of the signs & G. Hoffmann read first the beginning of the word as Jushanae or Jushanasp (! as, Armenian form Veshnasp, vide Langlois, "Collection des historiens," etc., ii. p. 345). The sccond part of the compound I read Tada or Tadha (a word of uuknown etymology), and found the whole name in the Armenian form of Vishnasptad (vide Langlois, "Collection des historiens de l'Armenie," tom. ii. p. 387). G. Hoffmann added a further support of this identification by pointing ont the Greek form of the name, viz. l'ovoavaoraons (cf. P. de Lagarde, "Gesammelte Abhandlungen," p. 185).

p. 127, 1. 23. In the text (p. 129, 1. 9), read pelees instead of polit; حتى L14) instead of ) حمن and; حنق instead of (111) بَنقى

p. 128. With this table, cf. Hamza, pp. 14, 15.

p. 129, 1. 16. 'Ahmad b. Altayyib Alsarakbsi, a pupil of Alkindi and companion of the Khalif Almu'tadid, was killed A.H. 286. Cf. " Kitab- alfhrist," pp. 261, 300, and Wustenfeld, " Gescbichte der Arabischen Aerxte und Naturforscher," nr. 80.

p. 129, 1. 19. On the Indian astrologer Kanaka, vide" Kitab-alfihrist," p. 270, and note

p. 129, 1.24. In the text (p.132, 1.10), read المُوائي والمعادى instcad بالادلاء and بُنجِح حاجته l.12) instead of ) يَكجحُ عاجتُه, المَوالى والمعادى of (1. 13) instead of fol (Fleischer).

p. 180. This table contains a number of wostly well-kuowu princes, statesmen, and generals : No. 1 was Vazir to the Khalif Almu'tadid, and died A.H. 291. Cf. Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," iii. pp. 514, 539. His son, 'Amid-aldaula, is not known to me. No. 3-5 are princes of the house of Hamdan in Syria (Mosul). No. 6-11, 13, 14, 17-21, 23, are princes of the house of Buwaihi or Buya, vide the pcdigrec of this family in F. Wilken, "Mirchond's Ge-

404 ALBİRONİ.

schichte der Sultanc aus dem Hanse Bujeh," p. 12; the Turkish chronicle of Munajjim Bashy, ii. pp. 484, 488, 495, 501. No. 12, 15, are two princes of the family of the Ban-Ziyad of Jurjan. No. 16 is not known to me. No. 22, 28, 29, are the two founders of the famous Ghaznawi dynasty. No. 24, 27, 32, belong to the family of Simjur, governor of Khurasan under the Samanide dynasty. Cf. Defremery, " Histoire des Samanides," pp. 261, 169, 188, 201, 203. No. 25. Abu-al'abbas Tash was governor of Nishapur under Sams- nide rul, and died A.R. 379. Cf. Defremery, ib. p. 168. No. 26. Abt-alhasan Alfi'ik, a general of the last Samanide princes, disappears before A.H. 389. Cf. Defremery, b. p. 196. No. 31. Abh-alfawaris Begtusun was governor of Khurasan and Vazir to the last Samanide princes; he seems to have died before A.H. 389. No. 33. Abu-Mangur Alp-Arelan Albalawi was Vazir to the last Samanide prince Muntasir, and was still alive when this book was com- posed. Cf. Defrémery, b. p. 202. p. 131, l. 18. On Bughrakhan, prince of Kashgbar, the conqueror of Transoxians, vide Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," iii. Anhang 1.

p. 131, 1. 23. Here the author speahs of the prince of Jurjan, Kabus ben Washmgir, to whom he has dedicated his book, vide note at p. 1, 1. 25.

p. 131, 1. 41. In the text (p. 135, 1. 6) read V instead of Wdsl (Fleischer). p. 132, 1. 3. Tailasdn. (Cf. p. 152, 1. 34.) By the term twofold (or rodonbled) Tuilasan, the author means an oblong quadrangular field, divided into two equal parts by a diagonal. Tailasan is the name of a piecs of dress, oide Dozy, "Dictionnaire des noms des vetements chez lea Arabes," p. 278, and Lane, " Arabio Dietionary " under this word.

p. 132, 1. 7. The Greek name of the sexagesimal aystem is dEnkoord, vide Delambre, " Histoire de l'astronomie ancienne," ii. pp. 577, 608 (Hexécostades). There is a chapter on the sexagesimal system of calcu- lation in Barlaam's λογιστική άστρονομική (Delambre, ib. i. 320). p. 133. A similar table of intervale between the epochs of the various eras is also given by Delambre, "Histoire de l'astronomie du moyen age," p. 96, on the authority of Ibn-Yanus. In the text of this table I had to correct some mistakes: At notes a, c. PL have the correet reading, 101 4933, guaranteed by she The corresponding sexagesimal numbers 54, 7, 43,4, are wrong in all manuscripts, for they represent the erroneons number 101, 9274.

ANNOTATIONS. 405

I have printed instead of them the sexagesimal numbers which represent the number 101, 4933, i.e. 38, 55, 41, 4. Ai notes b, e, d. The reading of ths manuscripts 123,8523 is wrong, for the addition of the constitent numhere gives the sum of 123,8516. Accordingly also Lewas must be changed into beset, The sexagesimal numbers have also been derived from ths wrong nwber, for 3 (not 43), 2, 44, 5, represent the numher 123,8523, whilet we must read 56, 1, 44, 5 aB representing the number 129,8516. At d, read y t & instead of j $

p. 194. The chapter on the cheee problem 1 have separately edited and explained in the "eitachrift der Deutschen Morgenlandiachen Gesellschaft," tom. xxix. pp. 148-156. Regarding the English terminology of this chapter, I must say a word to justify the use of the word check. If I had used the com- mon expression for a field on the chess-board, i.e. aguare, my tranelation would have hecome very amhiguous, ae frequently in one eentence I should bave had to epeak of a aquare (in the mathematical meaning) and & sguare (a field on a chees.board). Tie aquare (former meaning) of the number of a square (latter meaning) would havs heen intoler- able. To avoid thie ambiguity I have adopted the word check in the commou meaning of aquare, as check seems to he the next aynonymous term, meaning a quadrangular field in a piece of Scotch cloth or tartan plaid.

p. 136, 1. 7. The daye of the epochs of the varione eras according to Ibn-Yunus have been communicated by Delambre, " Histoire de l'as- tronomie du moyen age," p. 96. Albatint'e rules for the comparison of eras hetween each other, gee ib. p. 41.

p 186, 1. 20. The epochal day of the Dra Diluvii is a Friday, vide Idaler, " Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie," ii p. 627.

p. 186, 1. 26. The spochal day of the Bra Nabonassari is a Wod- nesday, that of the Ara Philippi is a Sunday ; Ideler, ib. ii. pp. 627, 628. The correspondence between the L. Tot and the I. Daimah, is also stated by Alfarghant, " Elementa astronomica," ed. Golius, p. 5.

p. 136, 1. 30. The epochal day of the Ara Alerandri is a Monday; Farghânî, p. 6; Ideler, ii. 628.

ALBIRUNI.

p. 137, 1. 9. The Syrian year commences with the 1 Oct., tho Greak year with the 1 January. The interval between these two New Year's Days is 92 days.

p. 137, p. 17. The epochal day of the Era Angusti is & Thureday; Ideler, ii. p. 628. p. 137, 1. 37. The epochal day of the Ara Diocletiani is a Wednesday, see Ideler, ii. 628.

p. 138, 1. 9. The epochal day of the Ere of the Flight is a Thursday ; Ideler, ii. 629.

p. 138, 1. 30. The apochal day of the Era Yasdagirdi ie a Tuesday, see Farghâni, p. 6, and Ideler, i. 629.

p. 139, 1. 7. Read Alnairist inetead of Aibrisi (also in the tevt, p. 142, 1. 22). In the text, p. 142, 1. 21, read otl el inetead of ابا العباس

p. 141, 1. 29. The following lines (till p. 142, 1. 2), are a torso of which I do not know a propor reetoration. It seems the author gave an exposition of the length of the Jewish, the Christian, and the astro- nomical yeare, and pointed out some incongruity between Jewish and ecientific astronomy. Both Jewieh Years, that of R. Samuel (the Julian year), of 365 d. 6 h. and that of R. 'Adda of 365 d. 5 h. 997 H. 48 Reg. are too long, vide Dr. A. Schwarz, "Der Judische Kalender," pp. 65, 120. In the presont etate of the text I am not ablo to say what the 165 daye (p. 142, 1. 2) mean.

p. 142, 1. 12. The subtraction of two yeare in this calculation is neces- eitatod by the Babylonian Ordo intercalationis, 21021, which the author usos in this place. Cf. p. 65, 1. 6. p. 142, 1. 20. The Assaying Circle is based on the assumption that the Enneadecateris corresponds to 19 solar years (whilet there is a dif- ference between them of 145 Halakim, vide p. 64, 1. 16), and that the mean Lunar year has 354 days in a common year end 384 days in a leap year. The former, if compared with the Julian year, is too ehort by 11 days; the latter is too long by 19 days. In the squares of the thirteenth year of the cycle read ftat 7, instead of ftúl 6 (also in the text). No regard has been had of the intercalation of the Julian years.

وست مهرة p. 143, 1. 28. In the text (uot i, lnst line,) read fyou go instead of

p. 144, 1. 5. By the apparent motion the author means that motion

ANNOTATIONS. 407

whioh at any timne is found by astronomical observation, no eqnation or correction being used.

p. 144. 1. 17. This spaco of time, i.e. 2 d. 16 h. 595 H is the so-called Character of the Enneadecateris.

p. 144, 1. 26. The 4 d. 8h. 876 H. are the Character of the Common Year, the 5 d. 21h. 589 H. the Character of the Leap-year. Cf. Lazarus Bendavid, "Zur Geschichte und Berechnung des Judisshen Kalenders," Berlin, 1817, § 32.

p. 144, 1. 30. These 5 d. 14h. are the Moled of the Creation (') i.s. Friday morning, 8 o'clock. Cf. Dr. A. Schwarz, " Der Judische Kalender," p. 50, note 2.

p. 145, 1. 15. With the 12th year of the Æra Alerandri begins a new Enneadecateris of the Jewish Era Adami, the 182 d. one. The Busia, i.e. the Moled of E. Alex. 12 (i.e. E. Adami 3460) has been omitted in the tables of all manuscripts. It is, however, easy to find by the help of the tables on pp. 145-147. 3460 sears are:

a. h. H. 6 Great Cycles 3 20 600 14 Small Cycles 2 15 770 2 singlo years = 3 6 385

9 18 675

Therefore the Moled of the 12th year of Alexander is 2 d. 18 h. 675 l. (cf. the astronomical calculation of this Moled on p. 148, 1. 19).

p. 145, L 30. The numbers of days, hours, and Halakim of this table the reader may check by always adding tbe Character of the Enneade- cateris, i.e. 2 d. 16 h. 595 H., and by subtracting 7, as soon as the addition of the daye gives more than seven days.

p. 146, 1. 20. The number of days, hours, and Halikim the reader may check by always adding for a common year 4 d. 8h. 876 H., for a leap-year 5 d. 21 h. 589 H., and by subtracting 7, as soon as the addition of the days goes beyond this number.

p. 147, 1. I. The Character of the Great Cycle is 5 d. 7 h. 460 H., which you get by multiplying the Character of the Enneadecateris, i.e. 2d. 16 h. 595 H. by 28, dividing the sum by 7, and taking the re- mainder.

p. 147, 1. 42. Times. One time is equal to four minutes.

408 ALBİRONİ.

p. 148, 1. 15. In the following tables these measures have been used : Character of the Enneadecateris 2 d. 16h. 281. 57 II. 57 II. 58 Iv.

Accordingly the length of the Enneadecateris according to the sons of Muss ben Shakir was 6939 d. 16 h. 28 1 57 . 57 II. 53 Iv. The division of this som by the number of the lunstions of the Enea- decateris, i.e. 235, gives the length of the synodical month as assumed by the sons of Masa ban Shakir, i.e. 29 d. 12 h. 44 1. 2 1. 17 II. 21 IV. 10V. Cf. p. 143, L. 28, where the same measure is mentioned, with this dif- ference, that there the number of fifths is stated to be 12. Cf. note at p. 158. The Character of the Common Year is 4d. 8 h. 48 1. 27 II. 28 II. 14 IV. The Character of the Leap-Year is 5 d. 21 h. 32 1. 29 II. 45 m. 35 IV. Tha Chafacter of the Great Cycle is 5 d. 5 h. 81 1. 8 I 0 III 44 Iv.

p. 150, 1. 22. The Limits within which the Moled of a year may fall are determined by the four Dehiyyoth, ie. T YNTr, nl and . Cf. Lazarua Bendavid, "Zur Berechnung und Geschichte des Judischen Kalenders," $$ 35-39. On the relations batween New Year's Day and the character or nature of the year, cf. Lazarus Bendavid, $§ 46-48.

p. 152, 1. 34. Tatlasan, vide note at p. 132, 1. 3. Perhaps it would be hetter to read latyo instead of lolyol (text, p. 159, 1. 1).

p. 153, 1. 4. In this table as it occurs in the MSS. there is a mistake. t and can follow each othar, as the Table of Kebi'oth (at p. 154) plainly shows. Therefore, read in the text, in ths corresponding field, .سمتنح أن توالى instead of سمكن ان تتوالى The thres values of the table give the following six permutations: M+n camnot follow each other. 5+53

can follow aach other.

p. 153, L 14. The Table of Equation, vide pp. 280, 281.

ANNOTATIONS. 409

p. 153, 1. 18. The number of 6,940 days is a round number, for in reality the Enneadecaterie has only 6,989 d. 16h. 595 H. Regurding the preponderance of the Perfect years over the Imperfect ones in the Ennea- decateris, ef. Lewisohn, " Geschichte und Syetem des Jüdischen Kalen- derwesens," Leipzig, 1856, § 90. 125 monthe of 30 daye each, and 110 monthe of 29 daye each, give the sum of 6,940 days.

Table at p. 154. There was a fatal mistake in the first square of this table. The MSS. have the 20th flil instead of the 19th flul (taxt, pp. 166,167). Dr. Schramm, of Vienna, kindly settled the question for me by computing the date in question by means of the formula of Gauss. The New-Year's Day of the Jewish A. Adami 4754 was the 19th hat A. Alex. 1304. However, according to Alberuni, the corresponding Greek year is A. Alex. 1305, not 1304. This difforence is to be cxplained in the following way : The Jewish year 4754 falls together or runa parallel with A. Alez. 1905, with one difference: The New-Year's Day (or 1st Tishri) of A. Adami 4754 was the 19th Ilal A. Alex. 1304. The Jewish New. Ysar'e Day (lst of Tishri) fell 11 days carlier than the Greek New-Year's Day (or let of Tiehrin Primue). Therefore-to epeak accurately-the beginning (i.e. the first 11 days) of the Jewish year 4754 falls into the Greek year 1804, but the whole remainder of the year corresponds with A. Alex. 1305. This seems to be the reason why the author has in this table com- pared tho Jewish year 4754 with the Greek year 1305. The Jewish New-Year always precedes the Greek New-Year by a small number of daye, vide the Assaying Cirele on p. 142. The tabls comprises the years of Alerander 1305-1818, i.e. 532 yeare, or one Great Cycle of 28 Small Cycles. The Ordo Intercalationis in each Small Cycle is 2um7 i.e. the 3rd, 5th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 16th, 19th years of the cycle are leap-years. It is a noteworthy fact that in every 247 years (i.c. 13 Small Cycles) nearly (not accurately) the same Kebi oth return, which the reader will find confirmed if he compares the years 1305 ff. with 1552 ff. and 1799 ff. On this eubject, ef. Lazarue Bendavid, " Zur Berechnung und Geschichte des Judischen Kalendere," § 45.

p. 155, 1. 26. On the two beginnings of a Jewish month, or the two Roeh-Hodesh, cf. Lazarue Bendavid, § 11. In the following tables I bave printed the real 1st of a month in Arabic numerals, and the fictitioue firet of a month, i.e. the last day of the preceding complete month in Latin numerals. 29

410 ALBİRONİ.

p. 137, 1. 10. Tho computation of this table reats on the theory tba: between the Moled of one month and that of the following there is an interval of 29 d. 12 h. 793 H. The half of thie (the Fortnight) ie 14 d. 18 h. 396} H. The Character of the month is 1 d. 12 h. 798 H. i.e. the Moled of a month falle hy 1 d. 12 h. 793 H. lator in the woek than the Moled of the preceding month. The Character of the Fortnight ie 0 d. 18h. 3922 H. The table con- siete of additione of these two values.

p. 158. The checking of thie table gave some difficulty, as in the colutan of the fourths the fractione have been omitted in all the manuscripte of the text, whilst in the computation they have not been disregarded. This table showa that Alberuni reckoned the interval between two con- secutive conjunctions (after the sona of Musa b. Shakir) at 29 d. 12 h. 441. 2 II. 17 IIL 21 1V. 12v. The half of this is 14d. 18h. 2 .: L 1 II. 8 I 4017. 36V. or 14d. 18 h. 22 L ] II. 8 III. 40g IV. With thie measure, cf. my conjecture on p. 143, 1. 28, and note at p. 148, 1. 15. Accordingly the Character of this synodical month is 1 d. 12h. 44L 2 II. 17 I 21 IV. 12V. ie. the beginning of a month falle by so much later in the week than that of the preceding month. The half of thie Character is 0 d. 18 h. 22 L 1 II. 8 III 40% IV. The table consists of additione of these two values.

p. 159, 1. 11. The reason of the following calculation ia thie, that Passover alwaye falle on the 163rd day from the end of the year. The division of 163 by 7 givee 2 as remainder. If, therefore, yon add 2 to the week-day of tho Passover of a year, you get the week-day on which the New-Year's Day of the following yoar falle.

p. 159, 1. 29. The universal equations refer to the varioue inequalitiee in the rotation of both sun and moon, and they serve the purpose of changing their real motion into mean motion,

ANNOTATIONS. 411

p. 160, 1. 6. In the text (p. 176, 1. 21), read batt, instead of tebit,

p. 160, 1. 29. In the text (p. 177, 1. 10), read tyssf instend of yeof

p. 161, 1. 4. The number 350 is the multiplication of the 7 years of the Oycle of Shaot' by the 50 years of the Cycle of Yobel. After this eycle of 350 years the single years of both cycles in question return again in the same order.

p. 168, 1. 20. With sediment. Read ddss instead of &ory (text, p. 182, 1. 12).

p. 163, 1. 38. The solar year of 365} days, i.e. the Julian year, is called the year of Rabbi Samuel, whilst the year of 365 d. 51781 h., the second of the two kinds of solar years which occur in Jewish chronology, is cnlled the year of R.'Adda bar 'Ahabu. Converting this latter space of time into Jewish measures we get 865 d. 5 h. 997 H. 48 Rega'im. This length of the solar year has heen found by dividing by 19 tho Enneadecateris of Meton (6,939 d. 16 h. 595 H.), which comprehends 235 gynodical months of Hipparchus, and which has heen adopted by the Jowish chronologiste. Cf. Dr. Ad. Schwarz, " Der Judische Kalender," p. 65 ff.

p. 164, 1. 1. For an astronomical examination of the following chapter (as far as p. 167), I refer the reader to Eine Berechnung der Entfernung des Sonnen-Apogacum's von dem Frahlingspunkte bei Alberaui Mitgetheilt von Prof. Ed. Sachau und Dr. Joh. Holetschek (p. 19ff), iu the " Sitz- ungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademio der Wisscuschaften in Wien, Phil .- hist. Claase," 1876, February.

p. 167, 1. 7. Abt-Naer Manpur, etc., a mathematician and astronomer, lived in Khwamam and Ghazna and died, as it seems, in the latter place in tho first quarter of the 5th century of the Flight. Cf. the text, " Ein. leitung," p. xxxiii.

p. 168. The Tektfoth are the chronological, not the astronomical year-points. Their calculation is based upon the Julian years of Rabbi Samuel. The following are the olements of this calculation: 1. The year contains four quarters, each of 91d. 7 h. 54011. Dividing this by 7, you get the remainder of 7 h. 540 H., i.c. 7g hours.

412 ALBİRONİ.

2. The (haracter of the Tekufa is 74 hours, which is the amonnt of the precsssion of each year-point within the week. This precession mnounts for one complete year to 80 hours or l1 day. 3. If you multiply 30 hours hy 28 and divide the product by 24, you get no remsinder, which means that after a eycle of 28 such years the year-points fall again on the time within ths week. 4. The question is: whence to begin with this calculation ? with the Tekufi of Tishri or that of Nigan P The anthor fires the Tekufi of Tishri on the 5th Tishri, a Wednes- day, 9 o'olock in the morning, i.e. 4d. 15 h. after the Moled of Tishri. By subtracting herefrom the amount cf tho weekly precession of two Tekufoth (i.e. 15 houra), the author finde the first hour of the night of Wednesday (or, according to our method, Tuesday, 6 o'clock in ths svening,) as the time of the Tekufa of Nisan, i.e. 4d. 0h. after the Moled of Nisan. 5. In the Tuble. of Tekufoth the author has assumed as the beginning of his caleulation the time of noon (of Wednesday), i.e. 4 d. 18 h. instead of the eunsst (of Tuesday) or 4 d. 0 h. On this snbjeet, cf. Dr. Ad. Sehwarz, " Der Judische Kalender," pp. 65-69.

p. 169, 1. 10. Tha names of ths planets as given by the anthor are well known in later Hebrew. As a matter of interest for the history of Hebrew pronunciation, I mention the spalling of =1e1 and ye yis =han abib which reminde one of the pronunciation of the Jews of Galicia.

p. 172. Regarding Oriental names of the planets, I refer the reader to Chwolsohn, "Sabier und Sabigmus," ii. pp. 156-175. In the square of the Syriac names of Venue there occur two other names, which I have not been able to decipher. The one, So is, perhaps, & corruption for dpe

p. 174. The anthor shows that a year-point, as calculated by ths Tekufoth of Rabbi Samnel (i.e. according to the Julian year), in no way agrees with reality, i.e. with a year-point as determined by astronomical observation, and that on tha other hand the Tekufoth, as calculsted by the syetem of Rabbi Adda, come pretty near reality. The proof for this atter assertion has fallen out, as the chapter is a forso. Here (1. 21) the author states that the first Tekufa of Tishri fell 5 d. 1 h. after the Moled of the year, whilst on p. 168, 1. 19, he has said that fell 4d. 15h. after the same Moled. I camnot account for thie divergency.

ANNOTATIONS. 413

p. 174, 1. 16. The constitnent parts of this eum are the following:

d. h. H. 8 Great Cyclee 1,554,490 11 440 26 Small Cyeles = 180,431 22 850 9 years or 111 months 3,277 21 548

Sum . 1,738,200 7 253 -5 1

Remainder . 1,738,195 6 258

This is the interval hetween the Tekufa of Tishri of the fisst yoar of the Dra Adami and the Moled of A. Alex. 1311. The division of this sum by 364} days gives 4,758 Julian years, and a remainder of 3352 d. 253 H. i.e. one year minus 29 d. 11 h. 827 H. Sunday, 7h. 253 H. of daytime ie 0 d. 19 h. 253 H., which, added to 29 d. 11 h. 827 H., gives the sum of 30 a. 7 h. If wo count 30d. 7h. from the heginning of a Sunday (i.e. the pro- ceding eunset), the let of Elal, we come as far ae a Tueeday night, 7 h., the first of Tiehrin Primus.

In l. 38, read 7h. instead of 9 h., and in the text, p. 194, 1. 15, read إلى تع ساعات inetead of إلى سبع ساعات

p. 175, 1. 2. The year of Rabbi Adda contains 365 d. 54781 h. Of this kind of fractions (ie. 4104th parts of an hour) one day contains 98,496 The following is the conversion of 1,788,195 d. 6 h. 255 H into theee fractione: 1,738,195 d .= 171,205,254,720 6 h .= 24,624 258 H .= 961%

Sum - 171,205,280,305g.

Hence it is evident that in the number 171,280,305% (line 5, for so it is to be read) 205 millione have fallen ont. If we divide this sum of 4104th parte of an hour by 85,975,351 (which is the solar year of R. Adda, reduced into the eame kind of fractione), we get as quotient 4,758 years, and a remainder of 850 d. 21-198. h. If we compare this remainder with that of the former calculation, i.e.

414 ALBÎRÔNİ.

385 d. 18 h. 253 H., we get a difference of 15 d. 8 b 19 H., which means that, according to Rabbi Adda, the Tekufa of Tishri of A. Alax. 1311 falls by 15 d. 8h. 18 H. earlier than that of Rabbi Samuel. This difforence shows that the system of Babbi Adda comes pretty near astronomical truth, for, whilst his autumnal equinox foll 15 d. ig h. earlier than that of R. Samuel, the astronomical equinox fell 14 days earlier, as the author says himself on p. 174, 1. 35.

p. 174, 1. 21. Read & dof instead of wsl in the text, p. 194, 1. 9.

p. 175, 1. 5. That part of ths text which is missing in this placo (i.e. between the words bl 3 and olle, in the text, p. 194, 1. 21, not be- tween the number and ,) originally contained rules by which to find the wesk-days on which the years of the eras of the Deluge, Nabonassar, and Philippus commence. Of the chapter relating to the Era of Aler- ander only the end is extant. The table on p. 175 containa a cycls of 28 Julian years, after which the single years begin again on the eame week-days. The reason why the beginning of Tishrin I. in the first year of the oycle is fixed upon 2, i.e. Monday, is this, that Monday is the epochal day of this era. Cf. L. Ideler, " Handbuch," ii. p. 628.

p. 176, 1. 1 ff. Similar rulee for the derivation of the beginnings of the yerrs of the different eras are also given by Delambre, "Histoire do l'astronomie du moyen age," p. 41. The spochal days of the single eras are also given by Delambre, p. 96.

p. 176, 1. 27. This rule for ths derivation of the Signum Muharrami of any year of the Flight is very intricate, and the author does not explain the principle upon which it is baaed. Most poople take Thursday, others Friday, as the epochal day of the era of the Flight. The lunar year of this era is generally reckonod at 85413 d .= 954d. 8h. 48', but in reality the mean lunar year is longer. Idelor ("Handbuch," ii. p. 479) reckons it as 354 d. 8 h, 48' 36", and the author seems to reckon it as 054 J. 22' 1"=354 d. 8h. 48 min. 24 sec. (It must be noticed that in ths formar number minutes are 60th parts of a day, seconds 60th parts of a 60th part of a day, whilst in the sscond number minutes are 60th parts of an hour, seconds 60th parte of a 60th part of an hour.)

ANNOTATIONS. 415

The author does not explain why ho adds 84 to the minutes. To add 5 days and 34 minutes is the same as if you add 6 days. In this case we must assnme Friday (6) as the epochal day of the era, and the addi- tion of 6 days brings us back to Sunday, the heginning of the week in which the Flight occurred (cf. p. 177, 1. 43 ff., and p. 180, 1. 19). Furtber: why docs the author count all minutes above 15 as one hour, whilst, according to the general practice, the minutes below 30 ought to be disregarded, and those abeve 30 to be counted as enc bour? The intricacies of this rule have not revealed to mo the mystery of their matbematical ratio. As it seems, the autbor intended by some contrivance to meet the incorrectness of the common year (of 3541) a.) being too shert.

p. 176, 1. 38. The sum of the days of twe months is 59, which, divided by 7, gives the remainder of 3, i.e. the day on which a month begine, advances in two months as far as 8 days within the week.

p. 177, 1. 2. Mubammad hen Jabir Albattani, a famous astrenomer of Harranian origin, died A.H. 317; vide "Kitab-alfihrist," p. 279. Habash the mathematician, a native of Marw, auther ef famous astro- nemical tables, vide "Kitab-alfihrist," p. 275, and notes, and Haji Khalifa, v. p. 515.

p. 177, 1. 44. Read Jes instead of Je.s in the text, p. 197.1. 15.

p. 179. This table is the invention of the mathematician Habash, indicating the Signa Muharrami for 210 years; but some sectarian has in every place added 5 to the number of days, and thereby changed it into a table indicative of the Signa Ramadani for the cycle of 210 years. In this form the table is given hy Alberuni. The title of the table, as given by me, must be corrected: "Table showing on what week-days the Ramadans of the single years of the eyele of 210 years commence." Accordingly alse the superscription of col. B. is to be altered. For the intercalary ystem of the lunar calendar I refer the reader to L. Ideler, ii. p.479 ff. As the lunar year is reckoued as 354 days, 11 days must be intercalated within 30 years. After the cycle of 30 years the New-Year days do not again fall on the same week daya, as there is a remainder of 5 days. There is no remainder of days if this cycle is repeated seven times, i.e. after a cycle of 210 years the New-Year days fall again on the same week-day. This is the reason why the table was constructed for a period of 210 yeara, cf. p. 180, 1. 26.

416 ALBİRONİ.

Tho following lis the Ordo intercalationis according to which Habash hes constructed his table.

Cyole of 30 Portio Cșole of 30 Portio yeara. interoalanda. yanrg. intercalanda.

d. 1 L. 16 L. 17 18 4 L. 19 L. 5 20 6 L. 21 22 L. 8 29 9 L. 24 10 25 L. 11 26 12 L. 27 L, 18 28 14 29 30 18 15 L.

According to Habash, the following years of the eycle of 30 yeare are leap-years: 2, 5, 8, 11, 18, 16, 19, 21, 24, 27, 80, whilst, according to the common Ordo intercalationis, the following years are leap-jears: 2, 5, 7, 10, 18, 16, 18, 21, 24, 26, 29, or 2, 5, 7, 10, 13, 15, 18, 21, 24, 26, 29. The prineiple of Habash is obrious: He intercalates the portio inter- calanda as one whole day, when the fractior haa risen to more than §g, i.e. Irds of a whole day. Hahash has used Friday as the epochal day, because IV. (Signum Ramadani) minus 5 gives VI. (Friday) as the Signum Muharrami. In the text (vide the serew-figure, p. 198) there are four mistakes: 1. In the first square J (the Signam of the first Ramadan) hes fallen out. 2. The Signum Ramadani for the year 9 has fallen out, viz. s 3. The Signum of the year 25, read s instead of, 4. The Signum of the year 131, read s instead of >

p. 180, 1. 7. Tabula mediorum. The word Wasat or Medium means the corrected or mean motion of any celestial body.

ANNOTATIONS. 417

p. 180, 1. 27. Read Jat instead of st in the toxt, p. 198, 1. 22 (Fleischer).

p. 181. The Correoted Table of the author contains the Characters of the single years of the cycle of 210 yeare, i.e. the remainders which you get if you divido the eum of the days of the years by 7. The addition of 5 d. 34' shows that the table is caloulated for Friday as the epochal-day. It must be kept in mind that in order to find the Signum Muharrami for any year, we must look out in the Corrected Table for the Signum of the preceding year; e.g. to find the Signum Muharrami of A.B. 100, we take tue Signum of the year 99,

viz. 5 d. 18' +5 d. 34'

10 a. 52' -7d.

3 d. 52'=IV. or Wednesday. The author does not erplain what eystem of intercalation he follows.

p. 182, 1. 1. The following passage end table are also found in the Kosmographie of Alkazwini, ed. Wustenfeld, p. 74. The Octaeteris of lunar years is the basis of the Turkish calendar, vide Ideler, ii. p. 564. It roste on the obeervation that the beginnings of conseentive cycles of eight years fall nearly on the same identical time of the week, bnt there is a difference of four minutes, ie. the heginning of one Octaeteris, falls by four minutes later than that of the preceding one. If we rompute the beginnings of the first Octaeteris by the help of the corrected table, we get the following Signa:

Yeara of the Cycle. Bigna Mubarrami.

12345678 1 = 413+6 138+6 5 = 6+6 4 318+6 5 6 =

6 4 = 59+6 1 = 212+6 8 6 6;8+6 30

418 ALBİRUNİ.

I do not see the reaeon why the author orders to be added to the complete years of the Era Fuga (11. 4, 5). The firet Signum Muparrami of the tahle belougs to the aecond year of the Flight. In 1. 7, read under 8 inetead of under 7. 'Abmad ben Muhammad ben Shihab is not known to me from other sources. The " Kitah-alfihrist," p. 282, mentions a mathematician Ahmad ben Muhemmad, a contemporary of Mubammad bon MusA, who died A.H. 259.

p. 183, 1. 12. 'Abu-Ja'far Alkhazin, a famous astrouomer and mathe- matician, vide "Kitab alfibriet," p. 282. He was a contemporury of Abu-Zaid Albalkbf, who died A.R. 822. Cf. " Kitab-alfibrist," p. 138, and G. Flugel, " Grammatieche Schulen der Araber," p. 204.

p. 183, 1. 13. The Characters of 30, 10, 5 years, and of 1 year, as given by the author, will be found to agree with the Cerrected Table, if converted into the sexagesimal eystem.

Character of 30 years=5d. =5d. 0' 10 years=1 d. 16 h .= 1 d. 40' 5 years=0d. 20 h .= 0 d. 50' 1 year=4d. 8g h .= 4 d. 22' The remainder of the rule does not require an ezplanation.

p. 183, 1. 34. The eecond rule of Alkhazin is as correct as the first one, but it is unnecessarily complicated. The character of the lunar year ie 411 d. It is easy to multiply auy number of years by 4 (or half the number by 8), bnt for the multiplica- tion by " Alkhazin has songht for a simplified method. i of a number is nearly equal to f of it, ie. f of a number are more than H of it by Tio of the number, or of half the number, e.g .: &of 60=221 計 of 60=22 The difference between both numbers is , i.e. T1 of 60 (or of 30). If, therefore, we multiply a number of years by (i.e. if we multiply half the number by 3 and divide the product by 4), we must eubtract from the product Ti7 of the number (or - of half the number), in order to get 3 of the same number of years. Example: A.R. 90. The number of complete years is 89, an odd number.

ANNOTATIONS. 419

We subtract 1 year, and write down its character, i.e. 4d. 22', Half of the remainder (88)=44. L) 44x8=352d. II.) 44x 3=132 : 4=33 d.

352 d. 33 d. 6d. (we add 6, taking Friday as epochal day,

sum 391 d. in agreemeut with Wustenfeld's Tables, whilst Alkhazin adds 5, taking Thurs- day as epochal day.) -0 d. 44' (60th parts to the amount of hulf the number.) 390 d. 16' +4d. 22' (character of the one year.)

894 d. 38' (these 38' are counted as one day.)

Therefore 395 : 7=remaindar 3=C. i.e. A.H. 90 commenced on a Tuesday (ef. Wüstenfeld, "Vergleichungs- Tabellen").

p. 184, 1. 24. The same rule for the Ara Yazdagirdi, vide in Delambre, " Histoire de l'astronomie du moyeu age" p. 41.

p. 184, 1. 33. On the Æra Magorum, cf. Ed. Sachau, " Zur Geschichte und Chronologie von Khwarizm I." ("Sitzungsberichte der Kais. Wiener Akademie der Wissenschaften, phil .- hist. Classe," 1873, tom. 93, p. 485). p. 184, 1. 42. The author's report on the intercalation of the ancient Persians, vide on p. 38.

p. 186, 1. 27. Ibn-Sankila (the son of Syncellus?) is not known to me from other sources.

p. 187, 1. 13. 'Abdallah b. 'Isma'il is unknown to me, but 'Ahd- almaath Alkindi seems to he the famous philosopher of this name. As an authority on Sabians he is also quoted by the " Kitab-alfihrist," p. 318, vide also Chwolsol, "Sabier und Sabismus," ii. pp. 3 and 56.

p. 187, 1. 37. Tailasan, name of a piece of dress, cf. note at p. 132, 1. 8.

p. 188, 1. 85. Aljamida was a large village in the district of Wasit, hetween this town and Başra. Yakut, ii. p. 10. A Nahr-alsila in Wasit is mentioned by Yakut, iv. p. 841.

420 ALBİRONİ.

A place, Al-ja'far, I do not know, but Al-ja'farf was a castle in the neighbourhood of Samarri, built by the Khalif Almntawakkil, vide Yāķūt, ii. p. 86.

p. 188, 1. 44. On the Eapavaior, vide a note in " Kitab-alfbrist," p. 345.

p. 189, 1. . Bahar is the Banekrit word vihdra; of Farkhara I do not know the origin. The author eeeme to think of the Buddhistic monu. ments of the Kabul valley.

p. 189, 1. 14. On the secte of Bardesanes and Maroion, of. " Kitab- alfihrist," i. pp. 398, 399, G. Flugal, Mani, "Seine Lebre und eeine Schriften," 1862, pp. 159, 161.

p. 189, 1. 20. The Termini dpo are an astrological term, meaning the division of each zodiacal sign into five parts. These parte etand under the influence of the planets (except Sun and Moon). They are deter- mined differently in different eyetema (that of the Egyptians and that of Ptolemy).

p. 189, 1. 48. The chapter on Mani, cf. with G. Flugel, Mini, " Sein Leben und seine Schriften," Leipzig, 1862.

p. 190, 1. 87. YakAt (iv. p. 317) mentions the canal of KûthA, but he doss not mention the name of Mardint (sic.).

p. 191, 1. 1. Yabya b. Alnn'man, the Christian, is not known to me from other eources.

p. 191, 1. 19. Jibra'il 5. Noh is not known to me. Yasdanbakht was & Manichwan chief in the time of the Khalif Ma'mun, vide Flugel, Mani, pp. 108 and 99, etr.

p. 191, 1. 44. On this prince Marzub&n b. Rustam, vide note at p. 47, 1. 32.

p. 192, 1. 6. The "Kitab-alfihrist " mentions two books on Masdak, one by Ibn-almukafia' (p. 118), and one by 'Aban b. 'Abd-alhamid (p. 163). In the same book, p. 842, a chapter on Mazdak.

p. 192,1. 26. This correepondence took place A.H. 10, cf. Ibn-Hisham, pp. 965. 946; Ibn-al'athir, ii. 227; Ibn-Kutaiba, "Kitab-alma'arif," p. 206.

p. 193, L 8. In a different form this verse is quoted by Ibn-Kutaiba, "Ma'arit," p. 206.

ANNOTATIONS. 421

p. 199, 1. 6. The story of the idol that was eaten by its worshippers is told by many Arab authors. Cf. " Muhit-almuhit," a.v. s.

p. 199, 1. 16. On Babafirid, ef. Shahristani, ed. Cureton, p. 187; " Kitab-alfihrist," p. 344.

ii. p. 486. The villege or town of Sirawand is aleo mentioned by Yakut, a.v. uly

p. 194,1. 12. I do not know an 'Abdallah b. Shu'ba in the early history of the Abbasides. In the " Kitab-alfibrist," p. 344, 1. 24, ons of ths two officers who were eent out in pursuit of Bahsfirid, is called 'Abdallah ben Sa'id, and a man of this name ie known as provincial governor of the Khalifs Harun and 'Amin, vide Ibn-al'athir, vi. pp. 156, 214.

p. 194, 1. 22. Ibn-al'athir, vi. pp. 25, 35, relates the coming forward of Almokanna' under A.A. 159, and hie death under A.A. 161.

p. 194, 1. 45. The history of Alhallaj is told by Ibn-al'athir, viii. pp. 57,92.

p. 195, 1. 33. On the literature of the Kutub-almalahim, cf. M. Stein- echneider, Apobalypsen mit polemischer Tendenz ("2eitschrift der Dentschen Morgenlandischen Gesellechaft," xxviii. p. 627 ff.).

p. 195, 1. 37. On Almukhtar, who was killed A.H. 67, cf. Ibn-Kutaibs, "Ma'&rif," p. 204, and Ibn-al'athir, iv. p. 220.

p. 195, 1. 42. Radwa ie a mountain in Alhijaz, between Yanbu' and Medina, also mentioned by Yakut (ii. p. 790, 1. 20) as the reeidence of Almahdi. Cf. also Allazwini, "Kosmographie," ii. p. 160.

p. 196, 1. 1. On the ieland of Barta'il, cf. Alkazwin, "Kosmographie," i. p. 53.

p. 196, L 13. On the history of the Karmatians, cf. De Goeje, " Me- moire aur lee Carmathes dn Bahrain," Leyde, 1862.

p. 196, 1. 21. Tamam is mentioned by Yakut, iii, p. 547, as a town near Hadramant.

p. 196, 1. 44. Abû-'Abdallah Al'adt is not known to me from other sources. An Abh-Abdallah Alda's (suts) a mistake for etul?) is known in hietory as a chief of the Shi'a in Dailam, vide Ibn-al'athir, viii. p. 424, at A.R. 355, and viii. p. M8.

p. 197, 1. 39. The Sura called Alsumar is Sura 39. These verses were also translated by de Goeje, " Memoire sur lee Carmathes," p. 51.

422 ALBİRÜNİ.

p. 198, 1. 1. Kead slyd Alazakir instead of sityur Alghrrakir, and from Shalmaghan oints o instead of b. Shalmakan otsls (tezt, p. 214, 1. 9). Cf. YAkut, iii. p. 314, and Ibn-al'athir, viii. p. 216. Shal- maghAn wae the name of a district belonging to Waeit.

p. 199, I. 1. An extract from the author'e chapter ou the foetivals of the Persiane ie given by Alkazwint, " Kosmographie," ii. pp. 79-84; see also Alfarghani, " Elementa astronomim," notw, pp. 20-42.

p. 199,1.20. I am unable to tell what the author means by the sphere of Feroz (not Feroza) and by the sphere of Afranjawi (or Ifranjawi) ou p. 208, 1. 15.

p. 199, 1. 28. Safid b. Alfadl (vide also p. 208, 1. 27) is not known to me from other sourcee.

Yakût, ii. p. 584, mentione a place, Dumma helow Baghdad. Per. haps it would be preferable to read " On the mountain of Dumma," etc.

p. 200, 1. 3. Kalwadha, a place not far eouth from Baghdad. Yâkut, iv. 301. The year in which 'Adud-aldaula entered Baghdad was A.H. 364. On Abu-alfaraj Alzanjani, cf. note at p. 54, 1. 1.

p. 201, 1. 4 ff. If popular use may more easily determine the sol- etices than the equinoxee, it is just the reverse for their scientific deter- mination, as the author himeelf observee on p. 167, 1. 2. Cf. Sachau and Holetschek, " Berechnung der Entfernung des Sonnenapogaeums von dem Frühlingspunkt," p. 25.

p. 202, 1. 4. Bashanj. It would be better to translate " on the mioun- tain of Bushanj," as Bushanj is a village in the district of Herat, not far from the road to Nishapur, vide Yakut, i. p. 758.

p. 203, 1. 82. With thie innovation of Shapur the Hero, cf. p. 209, 1. 87.

p. 204, 1. 8. Afahtar. Apâkhtara meane in the Avesta nosth, not south.

p. 204, 1. 51. Manifest in the Avastd (vide also p. 205, 1. 24) is the common mode of quotation in Parsee booke, vide "Bundihish," ed. Justi, Glossary, s.0. wle.

p. 204, 1. 52. On the Gâhanbâre, cf. F. Spiegel, " Avesta," ii. p. c. and p. 4, note 1; on the etymologies of their namee, vide A. Bezzen-

ANNOTATIONS. 423

berger, " Einige Avestische Worter und Formen in Göttinger Gelehrte Anzsigan," 1878, p. 251.

p. 205, 1. 13. Cashn-i-nilifar means the feast of the water-lity.

p. 205, 1. 25. Arish. The older form of tbis name is Arshan, ride Noeldeke, "Zeitsehrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gescllschaft," xxxii. p. 570.

p 206, 1. 28. Suwa was a town half-wav between Rai and Hamadan, vide Yakut, iii. p. 24. A town of the name of Andish or Maudish is not known to me.

p. 207, 1. 11. Here something seems to be missing, viz. that Âdlar- cashn fell on Mihr-Roz, i.e. the 16th of the month.

p. 208, 1. 21. Salman Alfarisi, originally a slave of Persian descent, afterwards one of Muhammad's companions. He died in the beginning of the reign of 'Uthman,

p. 208, 1. 25. Aleranshahri (also p. 211, 1. 19) is not known to me from other sources.

p. 208, 1. 28. Shahin. A mountain of this name is not known to me.

p. 208, 1. 32. Alkisrawi, vide note at p. 122, 1. 14.

p. 208, 1. 33. Hamin. This place seems to be something like the Hamestogan, an intermediate place between heaven and hell, vide West, "Mainyo-i-Khard," Glossary, p. 97.

p. 209, 1. 20. Kustik meane girdle, still an essential part in the costume of a Zoroastrian.

p. 210, 1. 15. Alnaşir Al'utrash was a descendant of Ali, who ruled for some years in Dailam and Tabaristan, and was killed A.H. 304. As a missionary he had endeavoured to spread Islam among the Zoroastrian people of these countries. Weil, "Geschichte der Khalifen," ii. pp. 613-615. In the text, p. 224, 1. 9, read yowdt Alndsir instead of Juh Alnazir.

p. 210, 1. 18. For a description of the feast of Farwardagan, vitle F. Spiegel, " Avesta," ii., " Einleitung," p. ci.

p. 211, 1. 3-8. The lines between brackets have been taken from the Canon Masudicus of Alberunt, MS. Elliot (British Museum), fol. 50A.

p. 211, l. 15. Tahir b. Tihir, unknown to me.

424 ALBİEÔNİ.

p. 212, 1. 28. The name of the feast of the 15th Aban ie alao in the Canon Masudicus (ff. 49a, 50a) written Iw.

p. 212, 1. 99. The second name of this feast ie written in the Canon Masudicus (ff. 49a, 50a) JS,U which ie certainly more correct than Jou. p. 213, ll. 11-13. On these festivals, cf. Canon Masudicus, fol. 50a, ll. 18-22: "On the day of Bahmanja they cook in caldrone all sorta of plante, kernels, blossome, and all eorts of catable meat. They drink the white Bahman-root, mixed with the pureet white milk, maintaining that this helps to preserre the body and to defend it againet evil. "Barsadhak means above sadhak, because it precedes Sadhak by five daye. It is also called Nawsadha, i.e. the new Sadhak. "Sadhak. They eay that on this day the creation of a hundred eouls of the family of Mesha and Meshana had become perfect, and that there- fore the day was called Saddak, i.e. Hundred-day. According to others there is an interval of 100 daye hetween thie day and Nauroz, if you count days and nights separately, and therefore the day was called Hundred day in the same way as Nuwad-Roz " (vide p. 212, 1. 12).

p. 213, 1. 24. Karaj, a town midway between Hamadan and Ispahan, also a village near Rai, and another between Hamadan and Nah&wand. YAkût, iv. p. 251.

p. 214, 1 28. Aht Uthman Aljabit is the well-known zoologist, anthor of & Lber animalium, Kitab-alhayawan, who died at Bagra A.H. 255.

p. 214, 1. 28. 'Ukbara, a village in the district of Dujail, near Sarifin and 'Awana. Yakut, ii. p. 705.

p. 214, 1. 33. Aljeihani, a famoue polyhistor, vezir to the dynasty of the Samanides, beginning of the 4th century of the Flight, vide Reinaud, "Geographie d'Ahonlfeda," i. p. Ixiii.

p. 215, 1. 15. Adharkhura is not mentioned by Yakut, nor does he know anything about Kam-Ferdz (1. 39). Dara (1. 88) ie not known as a place in Persis ; perhape Darahjird was meant. p. 216, 1. 22. In the tert, p. 229, 1. 16, read „ instead of as in the manuscripte. p. 216, 1. 81. Dinar-Razi. The epelling of thie name is not quite certain. It is mentioned by Ibn-Haukal, ed. de Goeje, p. 275, 1. pen. It is a place on the road from Jurjen to Khurdefn.

p. 216, 1. 40. ZanjAn, a town in Modia towarde Adharbaijan, not far from Kazwin, Yakut, ii. p. 948.

ANNOTATIONS. 425

p. 217, 1. 25. On the Feast of Kardfannakhusra, and the city of this name, cf. Yâkût, iv. p. 258.

p. 221, 1. 6. Ramush is mentioned by Yakut, ii. 737, as a village in the district of Buknara.

p. 221, 1. 21. The festivals called Makhiraj fell, according to the author's "Kitab-altafhim" (MS. of the Roysl Lihrary in Berlin, Peterm. 67, fol. 62b.), always on the 13th.

p. 221, 1. 22. Instead of ptel the "Kitab-altafhim " has let i.e. the Agham or feast of Baikand, cf. Ramush-Agham, 1. 15.

p. 221, 1. 32. Al-tawawis, a town in the district of Bukhara, between this place and Samarkand, vide Yakut, ili. 555. aas is not known to me.

p. 222, 1. 5. Shargh ("Kitab-altafhim," fol. 62b), called & by Ibn- Haukal, p. 860, 11. 5, 6, was a large village near Bukhara, vide Yaķut, in. p. 276.

p. 224, 1. 4. According to the "Kitab-altafhim" (fol. 63a) the festival Ajghar fell on the 16th of Ciri.

p. 224, 1. 12. Faghrubah is baga=God, and some derivative from the Toot srp (oh). p. 224, 1. 18. Read Asdd instead of Azad, and cf. Azuiti=fat in the Avesta.

p. 224, 1. 22. Instead of Oiri-Roj the "Kitab-altafhim" has Cir-roz

p. 224, 1. 28. Insteud of Akhtb one may think of reading Ikhshab at= the night (as 1=eh).

p. 225, 1. 14. YabyA Grammaticus, & Jacobite bishop in Egypt who translated from the Greek and wrote philosonhical and polemical books, lived in the first half of the 7th century of our era.

p. 225, 1. 22. Khezh I hold to be a derivative from the same root whence o ls has sprung (ef. yel: y and uzgaczannha in the Avesta).

p. 225, 1. 30. The following Chorasmian names of the Gahanbars are dialect-varieties of the names of the Avesth iu the following order: Paitis-hahya (26-80 Sbabrewar). Maidhyo-shema (11-lo Tir). 31

426 ALBİRÔNİ.

Maidhyairya (16-20 Babroan). Maidhyo-garemaya (11-15 Ardibabisht). Hamacpathmaedaya, whioh is omitted in this place, the five intercalsry days st the end of Spendarmat. Aydthrema (26-30 Mihr).

225, 1. 33. What the suthor means by ot I do not know. means young camels, and sos means relating to gourda (8s).

p. 226, L 10. Whatever the true Chorasmian form may be, Akhar, Akhkhar, or Akhtar, it is cortainly identical with the Persian yiet Akhtar =star.

p. 226, 1. 14. The author's criticisme on the constellations of the single sodiacal signs as represented by Arabians and Chorasmians, may be compared with the book of L. Idsler, "Untersuchungen über den Ursprung und die Bedeutung der Sternnamen," Berlin, 1809.

p. 226, 1. 21. Adhupackarik is a Bahuvribi compound of two words corresponding to tho Persian du =two, and paikar =figure.

p. 226, 1. 87. Abu-Mubammad 'Abdallih b. Maslim b. Ķutaiba Aldi- nawari is in Europs known as Ibn-ntaiba. He was a native of Kufa, and lived as judge in Dinawar. He died A.H. 270. According to " Kitab-alfihrist," p. 77, his books were highly ssteemed, especially in Aljsbal, i.e. Media, and to his Jabali or Median character Alberuni seems to have certain objections (p. 227, 1. 16). That one of his booke which our author quotes is perhaps identical with that .(كتاب التوية بين العرب والعجم) 1.8 ,78 . mentioned by "Kitab.alfihrist," p

p. 227, 1. 23. In Stra ir. v. 98, Muhammad blames the 'A'rab, i.e. ths Arab Bedonins, in the strongest terms: "The 'A'rab are the worst infidels and hypocrites, they do not deserve to learn the laws which God reveals unto His prophet, but God is all-knowing, all-wisc," etc.

p. 227, L 32. Three of the Sogdien names resemble the corresponding Sangkrit names: Proshthapado= wAy (No. 24). Revatt= Ny (No. 26). Maghá= č· (No. 8.) Cf. E. Burgess, Sorya-Siddhanta (" Journal of the American Oriental Society," vol. vi. p. 327 ff.), and A. Weber, "Jenaer Literatur-Zeitung," 1877 (7 April), p. 211.

ANNOTATIONS. 427

The name o in No. 7 is the catavacea of the Avesta; the name a, in No. 20, cf. with the vanant of the Avesta.

p. 229, 1. 3. Ahmad was the last prince but one of the ancient house of the Shabs of Khwarizm, who undertook a reform of the calendar A. Alex 1270=A.D. 959, ie. 13 yeara before the author was horn. Cf. Sachau, Zur Geschichte und Chronologie von Khwarizm I, ("Sitzungsberichte der Wienor Akademic," phil. hist. Classe, 1873, p. 503). A sbort report of this reform is also found in the "Kitab- altafhim," fol. 63.

p. 229, 1. 13. Alkharaji and Alhamdakt are not known to me from other sources.

p. 230, 1. 8. According tothe " Kithb-altafhim " tbe 1st Nausarji was .(فى اليوم الثانى من نيان) fixed so as to fall on the 2nd Nisan

p. 290, 1. 26. According te p. 258, 1. 18, the Nile begins to rise ou the 16th Haziran, i.e. the 16th Payni.

p. 233, 1. 5. Sinan b. Thabit died at Baghdad A.H. 331, and his fatber, Thabit h. Kurra, A.H. 288. They were botb famous as philosophers, mathematiciaus, and physicians, both Harranians, the last representa- tives of ancient Greek learning, through whom Greek sciences were communicated to the illiterate Arabs. Cf. "Kitab-alfibrist," pp. 302, 272. Sinan had made a collection of meteorological observations, called Kitab-aPanwa, compiled from ancient sources, and euriched by the observations of his father and his own. The work of Sinan has been incorporated by Alberunt into his chronology, aud thereby he has pre- served to us the most complete Parapeyma of the ancient Greek world. With the works of Sinan other worke of a similar charucter may be compared : Geminus, 'Ewayerd eis ra dawoueva, the 16th chapter, edited by Halma in " Chronologie de Ptolemée," Paris, 1819, pp. 79-87. (Cf. Boeckh, "Ueber die vierjahrigen Sonnenkreise," p. 22 ff.) Piolemceus, φάσεις άπλανων αστέρων καί συναγωγή έπισημασιών cdited by Halma, "Chronologie de Ptolemee." Johannes Lydus ("Corpus scriptorum Historim Byzantine," Bonn, 1837), De mensibue, cap. iv., and De estentie, in the sama volume, pp. 357-982. For calendaria of more recent times, vide J. Selden, " De synedriis et præfecturis juridicis veterum Ebraorum 1734 (containe three calendaria).

428 ALBİRÔNİ.

Lobstein, " Nachrichten und Aussuge aus den Handechriften der Kgl. Bibliothek in Paris," i pp. 415-424. Vide Hammer, "Geschiehte der Osmanischen Dichtkunst," i. pp. 76-81. Meischer, " Abulfede Historia anteislamica," p. 163 ff. Kazwini, " Kosmograpbie," ii. p. 75 ff. (extract from Alberuni). A calendarium of Spanieh-Arabic origin has been edited by R. Dozy, "Le Calendrier de Cordoue," Leyde, 1873. Regarding the authorities quoted by Hinan, as Euctemon, Eudoxus, Philippas, Metrodorus, Dositheus, Conon, Cæsar, etc., I refer the reader to the excellent work of A. Boeak, "Ueher die vierjahrigen Sonnenkrieae der Alten, vorzuglich den Endoriachon," Berlin, 1863.

p. 233, 1. 9. By Episemasia wonpacia I have translated the word Nau' of. According to Alberuni, p. 839, 1.4, Nau' meana the rising of a Lunar Station. The meteorological influence of thie rising is called Barit; the influence of the sinking of a Lunar Station is called Nau'. Alberuni uses the word Nau' in either of these two meanings. Comparing the conflicting opinione of the Arab philologiste on this word (vide W. Lane, "Zeitechrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft," iii. p. 97 ff.). I am led to believe that Nau' ie an ancient Arabic word, probably much nsed in ante-Mubammadan times, the meaning of which waa no longer fully and distinctly understood by the Muslim Arabe. Afterwarda when the Greek calendars were to bo translated into Arabic, the word Nau' was used to render the Greek emtonpaive, as the comparison of Sinan's compilation with Geminus, Pto- lemy, and Johannes Lydus shows. The single days of these calendars do not correspond with each other, but the technical terms are every- where the same.

p. 234, 1. 40. Ibn-Khurdadhbih, vide note at p. 50, 1. 26.

p. 235, 1. 19. Ispahbadhan, a town in Tabaristan, two miles distant from the Caspian Sea. Further inland in the mountains the castle Tas, with caves and wells in the neighbourhood. Cf. Yakut, iii. pp. 490, 491; Kazwint, ü. p. 270,1. 10 ab inf.

p. 238, I. 24. 'All h. Aljahm was a famous poot at the time of the Khalif Almntawakkil, who died A.H. 249. As he had made satirical verscs on the Khalif, he fled, and way hunted about. At last, after having been wounded in a fight with his pursuers, in the agonies of expiring he is said to have recited this verse. Cf. Ibn- Khallikan, ed Wustenfeld, No. 473.

ANNOTATIONS. 429

p. 298, 1. 39. YahyA b. 'Ali ie not known to me from other sources.

p. 243, 1. 31. Abu.Bakr Husain Altammar, a contemporary of RAzi, who died A.H. 320, is also mentioned by Wustenfeld, "Geschichte der Arabischen Aerzte und Naturforscher," p. 46, 1. 3.

p. 245, 1. 29. 'Abdallah b. 'Ali, a mathematician of Bukhara, ie not known to me.

p. 247, 1. 2. On the fire as a spherical body within the lunar sphere, cf. aleo Kazwini, "Koamographie," ii. p. 90; translated by Dr. Ethe, p. 185.

p. 247, 1. 37. On the correepondence of Alberunf with Ibn-Sinâ, cf. my edition of the text, "Einleitung," p. KIXv.

p. 248, ll. 17, 31, 84. In the text, p. 257, Il. 16, 23, and p. 258, 1. 2, read bs.1 instead of tiy Tho word otd! if a genuine Greck word, might be read in various ways, but I hold it to be a mietake for iny s,t Eudozus.

p. 250, 1. 15. Mnhammad b. Mityâr (also p. 258, 1. 26) is not known to me from other sources.

p. 251, 1. 33. Abu-Yahya b. Kunasa, the author of a famous Kitâb- al'anwa, was born at Kufa A.H. 128, and died at Bagdad A.H. 207; vide " Kitah-alfihrist," p. 70.

p. 252, 1. 6ff. The following diseussion on the circumstances under which water rises, is of a technical nature, the due appreciation of which I muet leave to physical scholars.

p. 255, 1. 23. The word Dahj does not oceur in any Arabie dic- tionary. If the writing ie correct, it is probably a word of foreign origin.

p. 255, 1. 34. Kimak, or Kaimak, a province of the Chinese empire, inhabited by Turkish nomades, vide Kazwini, " Kosmographie," ii. p. 395, and Ibn-Kburdadbih, in "Journal Asiatiqne," 1865, pp. 267- 268.

p. 256, 1. 5. Alkarya Alpaditha ie not known from other eources.

p. 250, 1. 10. Mibrjan was the ancient name of Isfari'in, a village between Jurjan and Nishapur, also the name of a village in the district of Iefara'in and of another village between Ispahan and Tabs. Cf. Yâķût, i. p. 246; iv. p. 699.

430 AZBİRÔNİ.

p. 258, 1. 29. Hayawaniyya-sct, not known to me.

p. 261,1. 39. Abu-Nu'as, the famous poet at the time of the Khalif Htrun, died A.H. 199.

p. 261, 1. 42. 'Ali b. 'Al is not known to me from other sources.

p. 262, 1. 37. Naubakht. If the text is correct, and we must not rather read Ion-Noubakht, thia man may havo been tha father of Abu- Sabl Alfadl b. Naubakht, librarian to the Kualif Harun, and a great astrologer. Cf. "Kitab-alfihrist," p. 274.

p. 263, 1. 21. Salanuiyya, a villaga in the district of Hima, Yskut, iii. p. 129, 1. 18; p. 124, 1. 1.

p. 266, 1. 40. Thu'dliba. This reading may seem doubtful, as no place of this name is mentioned anywhere. The nearest approach is Th'alibat, in Yakut, i. p. 925.

p. 268, 1. 1. As useful material for the explication of the festal calsndar of the Jaws ths following works havs been used: Canon Masudicus, MS. Elliot (British Mussum, ff. 37b-98a). Abulfeda, " Historia anteis)amica," sd. Fleischer, p. 156 ff. Bartolocci, "Bibliotheca Rabbinica" ii. 553 ff. A. G. Wachner, "Antiquitates Ebraeorum," Gottingen, 1742, sect. v. T. C. G. Bodenschats, " Kirchliche Verfassung der heutigen, aonderlich der teutschen Juden," Erlangen, 1748, vol ii. pp. 87, 105. M. Bruck, "Rabbinieche Caeremonialgebrauche," Breslau, 1837. .(. ed. Jo. Mayer, Amstelodami, 1724 (cap. xi מגלת תענית id eet:"Codex Talmndicus de Jejunio, ex Hebrao מסכת תענית Sermone in Latinum versus commentariiaque illustratus a Daniele Lundio Succo." Trajecti ad Rhenum, 1694.

p. 268, 1. 20. Read hg instead of ihg. It is a Hebrew form Jess meaning protrusus, i.o. advanced or postponed; feminine: ir.

p. 269, 1. 1. For the fasting of Gedalya, cf. 2 Kings xxv. 25, and Jerem. xli. 2.

p. 269, 1. 20. The following story in a Hebrew garb is found in J. Zed- nar's " Answahl historischer Stucke aus bebracischen Schriftstellern," Berlin, 1840, pp. 6-11, as was pointed out to ms by Prof. H. Strack.

p. 269, 1. 27. Read "quietly " instead of "following the course of the river."

ANNOTATIONS. 431

p. 270, 1. 29. You shall celebrate a feast, oto. The words l hysoy (text, p. 277, 1. 11), can only he explained as a too literal translation of .41 . in Levit. xxiii רְחַגּוֹתֶם אוֹתוֹ חַג

p. 270, 1. 33. Abu-Isa Alwarrik (also p. 278, 1. 22) is mentioned in "Kitab-alfihrist," p. 338, as one of those who in public professed Islam, but in reality were heretics.

p. 270, 1. 39. On the same day (i.e. the 21st) is the Feast of Congrega- tion. This ie a mistake. Congregation, or hgy falls on the 22nd Tishri, ie the following day. Canon Masudicus gives the following series : ערבח. 21st Tishri עצרת= , 22d حمد التبريك =. , 23rd Cf. Bodenschatz, ii. p. 235. The vord Harhara (1. 40) I cannot explain. The court of the temple is called 7rv;7 and the place where the willows are gathered is called .( Talmud Palestinensis ) ממציא Mishns) or ) מרצא Canon Masudicus (fol. 38a) say8 : وعمد عرابا حج لهم حول المدبع i.e. "The feast of Arabha consists of a procession round the altar." The om! of the text is the Hehrew Tist.

p. 270, 1. 43. The feast of benediction is called inin mimpw, vide Waehner, v. p. 111, and Bodenschatz, ii. p. 245.

p. 271, 1. 14. Betwecn the 8th and 13th of thie month. A.s possihly between the 8th and 13th there is no Monday at all, it may happen that this fast-day does not occur in some year (if the rule is correct).

p. 271, 1. 21. This fast-day falls according to Megillath-Ta'anith on the 7th Kislew, according to Waehner and Bodenschatz on the 28th Kislew. Cf. on the origin of this fusting, Jerem. xxxvi. 27-32.

p. 271, 1. 35. The following story occure also in Abulfede, "Hist, anteislamica," pp. 160-162. Inetead of the eoyutest of the manu- scripts, Canon Masudicus (fol. 38a) has nytbt i.e. Antiochus, and so I have translated. In the text (p. 278, l. 11) the wordB الى ان يكون في الثامية are a rather ahort and incorrect expression for 1 W e s

432 ALBİRONİ.

p. 272, 1. 17. Ptolemy is here called Talmd, as if the initial p were the Coptio artiele. In the Megillath-Ta'anith, which fires this fast.day on the 8th Tbeth, he is called תלמי המלך (cap. 12).

p. 272, 1. 30. According to Megillath-Tafanith, cap. 12, this fast-day falls on the 8th Shnbat.

p. 273, 1. 17. In the text, p. 279, 1. 20, thero is a lucuna, which I have filled up with the help of Canon Masudicus, fol. 37b. and Waehner, v. p. 112.

p. 275, 1. 8. In the "Kitab.altafhim " (Cod. Berolin. fol. 58b), the author saye: u 4 ydl We JA; and in the Canon Masudicus (fol. 38v) he saye: ربقى هذا اليوم الكس وهو الصل بالريانى . In the same work, fol. 37v, the feast is called uO1 e. Accordingly the reading eS seems to be preferable to that of us .. This word Kas seems in some way to be connected with the Syriac Lood which means middle of the month, indicating the 15th, on which this feast falle.

p. 275, 1. 12. Thirty men, a mistake for thirty thousand. The Canon Masudicus (f. 38h) bas correctly Jey ol endf. Cf. 1 8am. iv. 10.

p. 275, 1. 15. Canon Maeudicus (f. 37b) mentions a feast also for the 15th Iyar: عبد الفسح المعیر رهو اپها وفاة اهمويل "The fesst of the Small Passover, also the day of fast in commemo- ration of the death of Samuel."

p. 275, 1. 19. The plural ayse (tert, p. 281, 1. 16) seems to be a form coined by Alberunt from a singular i.e. the Hebrew an, for the pure Arabie word go bas the plural e In the Canon Mosudicts the author gives two days to the Feast of Congregation, the second of which is called &s Wl pyo i.e. Fasting of the Firat-fruit.

p. 275, 1. 26. With this biblical uotation, ef. Erod. xtiii. 14-17; Exod. xcv. 22, 23; Dent, Rvi. 16. The reading of the MS. (tert, p. 281, 1. 20), lae is unintelligible to me. My conjecture fale must be explained as the infinitive of a verb & denominative formation from o=an.

ANNOTATIONS. 433

p. 276, 1. 19. The Megillath-Ta'anith, cap. xii., has the following note on this fast-day : נשרף רבי חנניא בן תרדיון וספר תורה עמו

p. 276, 1. 18. There are two unlucky days in the Jewish calendar, the 17th Tammuz and the 9th Abh. A short review of the disasters that have bappened on these two daya is given in the Massekheth- Ta'anith, p. 55. The text (p. 282, 1. 11) is not quite correct in the manuscripta. With the text as given by me, cf. Canon Masudicus (ff. 37b 38b): صوم أبيداه حصن أورعليم في الانهدام

p. 276, 1. 87. With the story of the lamp, cf. 2 Chron. xxix. 7, and Megillath-Ta'anith, cap, xii. pp. 119, 122. The name of the prophet as given in the manuscript, osel etc., seems to be corropt. There was at that time a prophet 'Oded (2 Chron. xxviii. 9), and Isaia (Isais vii. and viji.), bnt no prophet of such a name. In the Canon Masudicus (f. 39a), the author relates that it was the king Ahaz p jlel who xtinguished the lamp, Therefore I have changed ort into jyt and " Ahaz the prophet" seems to be a mistake for " Ahas the king."

p. 277, 1. 4. There is no lacuna as I have indicated in the text, p. 283, 1. 8. This fast-day is fixed by some on the 7th Elul, by othera on the 17th (vide Bodenschatz, Waehner, and Megillath-Ta'anith). If, therefore, the author says that some people place this fast.day within the last week of the month, I know nothing by which to test this assertion. In later timee there was a faat-day on the last of Elul as an atonement for the sins of the past year, bnt this is an institute of modern times. Cf. Bodenschatz, p. 88, § 2, 1. 1. Alao in the Canon Masudicus the Fasting of the Spies (on the 7th Elal) is the last of the feast- and fast-days of the Jewish year. Therefore the words (text, p. 283, 1. 3) "Lrcke," etc. are to be cancelled.

p. 277, 1 10. To this table of Dehiyyoth may be added that 'Arabha can never be y i.s. Saturday. The reason why the feast-day cannot fall on certain days of the week is this, that they wanted to prevent two non-working days from imme- diately following each other, as this might interfere with the practical welfare of the pcople. Besides, certain feasts cannot fall on a Sabbath, because they require a certain amount of work (e.g. the burning of Haman, etc.).

434 ALBİRÔNİ.

p. 877, 1. 29. The worde dall J (text, p. 283, 1. 11) are the rendoring of the bible-worde זכְרוֹן תְרוּעָה מִקְרָא־רֹדֶש . Cf. P. de Lagarde, "Materialien sur Kritik und Geechichte des Pentateuchs," ii. p. 134. The Peshitt& has tranelated taus: ou 11;0⑇⑈

p. 280. In the text, pp. 286, 287, I read the c in the fourth columna, as Jir te impossible. It atands always with t which the MSS. write with black ink. It ought, howover, to have been written with red ink, since a year beginning with t is impoasible. Therefore, in order to indicate what elsowhere is indicated by the red ink, the letter c=J4. has been addad. Impoasible meare that a year beginning on euch a day is & calen- darian impoasibility. Necessary means that in a year beginning on such a day thore is no possibility of a ; TTT, f.e. of poetponing or advancing. Poasble means that a year beginning on such a day is possible, if the year be r (Imperfect) and a common year, whilet it is impossible, if it be jy and a leap-year, and vice vered, The single numbers of the table may easily be checked in this way : 1. The fintervals between New-Year's Day and Kippur, i.e. the 10th Tishri and 'Aribha, ie. the 21st Tishri, are the same in every kind of year. 2. The intervals between New-Year's Day and the other three festivals, Purim, Pesan, and 'Asereth, are different in different years. In a common year- Purin is in i7 the 161st, in the 162nd, in w the 163rd day of the Jear. Pian, in }7 the 191st, in 5 the 192nd, in w the 193rd day. 'Astreth, in i the 241st, in the 242nd, in w the 249rd day. In & leap-year - Pirim is in }7 the 191st, in the 192nd, in w the 193rd day of the year. Pesap, in I the 221st, in the 222nd, in w the 223rd day. 'Ascreth, in i the 271st, in the 272nd, in w the 273rd day. These sums of daye are to be divided by seven, and the remainders represent the distances from New-Yeav'e Day. To this table the author has referred the reader already on p. 153, 1. 15. It shows why two intermediate yearg, i.e. cannot follow each other, in this way : Of the seven years only those two are possible that begin with III. and V. 1. If, now, after a common year beginning with III., another year 5

ANNOTATIONS. 485

were to follow, it would begin with a VII., Saturday, and that is impos- sible, as the table shows. If after a leap-year beginning with III., another year 5 were to follow, it would begin with II., which is again impossible, as the table ehows. 2. If after a year beginning with V. another year 5 were to follow, it would begin with II. in a common year, with IV. in a leap-year; and both cases are impossible, as the table shows.

p. 288, 1. 14 For the emendation of the names of sainte in the following ohapter, I havo used the Menologiun. Grecorum, jussu Basilii Imperatorie olim editum Grace et Latino. Studio et opera Albani. Urbini, 1727.

p. 283, 1. 35. Regarding the degrees of the clergy of the Oriental churchee, ef. Assemani, " Bibliotheca Orientalis," iii. pp. 788-790 ; also Ami Boue, "La Turquie d'Europe," iii. p. 421; Maurer, "Das Grie- chische Volk," Heidelberg, 1835, i. pp. 389, 403, 410.

p. 284, 1. 16. Abu-alhusain 'Ahmad b. Alhnsain Alahwazi. An author of this name is mentioned by Haji Khalifa, iv. p. 81.

p. 284, 1. 20. There are certain Greek names which I have not been able to decipher, Xpvays (1. 22), axowors (1. 39), and some others. The answer to these queatione I must leave to those who are intimately acquainted with the archaology of the Byzantine empire. The word t 3y might be a corruption for oa y xwocriokoros, but in that case the explication which Abu-alhusain gives is not correct. According to the explication, one would expect the word 'Apxyuvdpirys. On sapakouuauevos, vide Du Cange, "Lesicon infima grecitatis," where it is explained as dpxievvouxos, xpalToairos. A word poyarup (p. 285, 1. 4), I do not know. It scems to be a deri- vation from poya present and stipend, vide Du Cange (rogator). On the payhaßirns, cf. Reiske, commentary to "Constantini Porphyro- geniti, De cerimoniis aula," ii. pp. 53-55. On reooapaxorrápios, a soldier who received 40 aurei as stipend, etc. vide Du Cauge.

p. 285, 1. 28. Muhammad b. Misa b. Shakir, the eldest of three brothers, all great echolara in mathematical and technical eciences for whom Greek books were translated into Arabic. Muhammad died A.B. 259, vide "Kitab-alfihriet," p. 271.

p. 285, 1. 26. 'Alf b. Yayâ, cf. note at p. 38, 1. 5.

436 ALBİRÜNİ.

p. 286, 1. 31. The reading Cornutus ie not beyond all doubt. A saint of this name is mentioned in the "Menologium Gracorum," at 12th Bept.

p. 287, 1. 3. Johannes the Father seems to be identical with Johannee Scholasticns, who died A.D. 578, as Patriarch ef Constantinople. Ho had made a new arrangoment of the canones of the church. Cf. K. Hase, "Kirehengeschichte" (8th edition), p. 149.

p. 287, 1. 14. On this Modestus, vide Le Quien, "Oriens Christianus," i. 102 ff. p. 258. He was Patriarch after A.D. 614.

p. 287, 1. 15. The word Sisin is perhaps to be changed into Sis, vide p. 289, 1. 40.

p. 287, 1. 17. The opithet tdl seems to bave been derived from the Syriac Bible, where Joseph is called foao Luke rxii. 51.

p. 287, 1. 19. Alma'mun b. Abmad Alsulam? Alharawi (also p. 297, 1. 25) is unknown to mo.

p. 287, 1. 39. Abu-Rih is not known to me from other sources.

p. 288, 1. 34. Every child is born, etc. On thie well-known tradition, cf. L. Krehl, " Deber die koranische Lehre von der Prwdestination," p. 99 (in "Berichte der Kgl. Sachsischen Geeellschaft der Wissen- schafteu," hist .- phil. Classe, 1870, the 1st July).

p. 289, 1. 39. The reading Belesys is entirely conjectural. The word might also be read Blasius (vide Calendar of Armenian saints, Asse- mani "Bibliotheca Orientalis," iii. 1, p. 645, at 10th Shubat), but Blasius Episcopus was killed by the Romans, not by the Persians.

p. 292, 1. 12. Jart roses, the most famous of the east, so called from Jr, a town in Persis, vide Yakut, ii. p. 147 ; Kazwinf, " Kosmographic," ii 121.

p. 293, 1. 10. The author seems to mean that two straight lines, cutting each other in the middle, and connected at the bottom by another straight line give the Cufc form of ths word no, i.e. X, as it frequently occurs in monumental writing.

p. 293, 1. 80. On the wood Paonia, cf. Karwini, " Kosmographis," i. p. 260.

ANNOTATIONS. 487

p. 295, 1. 15. Dadhishu', author of a cr mmentary on the Gospel, is not known to me from other sources.

p. 295, 1. 25. A Cyriacus anachorsta ie mentioned in the " Menolo. gium Gracorum," et 29th Sopt.

p. 296, 1. 18. Dometius is mentioned in the " Menologium Gracorum," at 7th Ang., and Thuthael (1. 26) ib. at 5th Sept.

p. 297, 1. 29. With his tale regarding the blood of John, cf. Ibn- al'athir, i. pp. 214-216, aleo iv. p. 140.

p. 297, 1. 36. Cf. with this Tabari, traduit par Zotenberg, i. p. 569; Ibn-al'athir, i. pp. 208, 215.

p. 298, 1. 13. Church of the Swsepings &Vat d es ie a corruption of &hah L Church of the Resurrection, invented by Muslim malice. Cf. Farghani, " Elementa astronomia," ed. Golius, p. 138.

p. 298, 1. 15. Among 40 martyrs who were killed by the Persians, Maruthas (Assemani " Bibl. Orisnt." i. pp. 192, 198) mentions Panl, Sabinus (not Sabinianus) and 146. Besides Tatta also the form oA6 Tattan occure, ib. i. p. 190, col. 1.

p. 299. The following chapter contains the computation of Easter, as Alberini had learned it from the Chrietians of his time. The Easter which he means is the πάσχα σταυρωσιμόν, not the πάσχα åvaoraoyóv; cf. Augusti, " Christliche Archaeologie," ii. p. 30. The chief elements of this computation ars the following : 1. Easter depends upon the Jewish Passover, i.e. the full moon of the Jewish month Ntean. 2. Counting 1} lunation, i.e. 44 d. 7 h. 10' backward from the full moon of Nisan, you find the nsw moon of the precsding month. 3. The Monday nearest to this new moon, if it doee not fall earlier than the 2nd Shubat nor later tban the 8th Adhar, is the beginning of Lent. 4. Lent ende on the 49th day from the beginning. It begins on Monday and ende on a Sunday. Easter lies between this Sunday and the preceding Sunday, i.e. Palmarum. To use modern language: The mooxa oravpwotpor was celebrated on some day between Palm Sunday and Easter Sunday, but on what particular day it was celebrated the author does not explain.

438 ALBİRONİ.

p. 299, l. 27. It may seem doubtful whether I have correctly inter- preted the word blyeust (tort, p. 302, 1. 13). Indictio ie certainly not identical with the Great Cycle of 28 years.

p. 300, 1. 4. The Jews count 8,448 years between Adam and Alex- ander. If you divide thie sum by 19, you get 9 as a remainder, i.e. the first year of the Ara Alezandri ie the 10th year of the cyole. The division of 5180 by 19 givee a remainder of 12, i.e. the first year of the Dra Alezandri is, according to the Christians, she 18th year of the cycle.

p. 300, 1. 8. The whole passage, from "it ie also well known," etc. (line 8), till "you get as remainder 5180 years (aa the interval be- tween Adam and Alexander)," in the Arabic text, p. 802, 1. 17 (e ett ,o,) till p. 803, 1. 2 (osls, &l uyf dnds a), eeeme to be a later interpolation.

p. 800, 1. 9. Khilid b. Yazid ie considered as the father of alchemy among the Arabe, oide Haji Khalifa, v. p. 280.

p. 300, 1. 30. The Easter-limite extend over 28 daye, i.e. from 21et Adhar to 18th Nisan. The limits of Lent extend over 48 days, i.e. from the Ond Shubat to 22nd Adhar, or from the 8th Adhar to 25th Nisan. The smallest interval between the beginning of Lent and Easter ie 42 days ; the greatest, 49 days.

p. 801, 1. 23. By 44 d. 7h. 6 min. the author means Ig eynodical month. One synodical month is reckoned at 29 d. 12h. 44.

p. 901, 1. 86. If full moon falls on a Sabbath, the 21st Adhar, count 44d. 7h. 6', t.e. 45 days backward, and you find the new moon of the preceding month, viz. the 4th Shubat, a Wednesday in & common year, a Thursday in a lecp-year. The next Monday is the preceding one, the lst Shubat in a leap- year, the 2nd Shubat in a common yoar. As, however, the let Shubat lies befors the Terminue Jejunii, the year in question must be a common year.

p. 802, 1. 1. If the Jewish Paseover fell into Niean, and the Jewich year was a leap-year, it might seem doubtful to the Chrietians

ANNOTATIONS. 439

whether they were to make the new moen of Adhar I. (i.e. Shubat, February) or that of Adhar IL (i.e. Adhar, March) the basis of their computation of the beginning of Lent. The auther gives the computa- tions for both cases. I. Computation on the basis of the new moon of Adhar II. (Adhar) of a leap-year : If full moon falle on the 18th of Nisan, a Sunday, count 44d. 7h. 6' backward, and you find the new meon of Adhar II., or the Syrian Adhar (Maroh), viz. the 5th Adhar, a Friday. The next Monday is the following one, the 8th Adhar, which is the latest day of the Terminus Jejunii. II. Computation on the basis of the new moon of Adhar I. (Shubat) in a leap-year : If full moon falls on the 18th Nisan, a Sunday, count 22 lunations, i.e. 73 d. 19h. 50' backward, and you find the new moon of Adhâr Primus or Shubat, viz. the 5th Shubat, a Thursday, if the Christian year is a common year. The uert Monday is the preceding one, i.e. the 2nd Shubat. This calculation is impossible, fer the reason which the author states on p. 302, 11. 14-16. If the corresponding Christian year is a leap-year, we find the 4th Shubat, a Thursday, to be the beginning of Lent. The next Monday is the preceding one, i.e. the let Shubat, and this date is impoesible, as being outside the Terminus Jejunii (the 2nd Shubat to 8th Adhar).

p. 302, 1. 30. In the genuine 20 canones of the Synod of Nicea there is no mention of Easter. In the Arabic collection of 84 canones the 21st refers to Easter (vide Mansi, "Collectio nova," ii. p. 1048), but this collection is an invention of later times, vide Hefele, "Theolo- gische Quartalschrift," Tubingen, 1851, p. 41. That, however, the bishops of the Synod of Nicma had handled the Easter-question, is evident from the letter of Constantine, vide "Eusebii vita Constantini," iii. p. 18. To decide the question whether Alberant is right in ascribing the authorship of this Chronicon to Eusebius and the Synod of Nicwa, I must leave to sebolars in Church History.

p. 303. Thie table contains the beginninge of Lent for a period of 532 years (i.e. 19x 28). It resembles the period of Victorins, cf. Ideler, " Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie," ii. p. 278.

p. 304, 1. S. This fragment treats of Still-Friday in the Easter-week. Cf. Augueti, "Christliche Archaoologie," ii. p. 136.

440 ALBIRONf.

p. 304, 1. 5. New Sunday, or Dominica nova, Dominica in albis, also Diee neophytorum, of. Augusti, ii. p. 302.

p. 304, L 33. The canon to whioh the author refers ie this: "Quo- ninm sunt quidam qui in dio Dominioo genufloctunt ot ipsis diebus pentecostes, ut omnia similiter in omni parochis serventur, visum est Sancta Synodo ui stantes Deo orationes effundant." This is the last (the 20th) of the canones of the Synod of Nicma, vide Mansi, " Col- lectio coneiliorum nova," ii. p. 678, § 20. Hence it is evident that Alberuni ussd the ancient and genuine canones of this Synod, not the later spurions collection, vide Hefele, Acten des eraten Concils zu Nicaea, "Theologische Quartalechrift, Tubingen," 1851, p. 41.

p. 304, 1. 98. On the LESa2 Boos and lom2 jAoo;s, cf. Asse- mani, " Bibliotheca orientalie," ii. p. 305, and ii. 2, p. 382; also Aots, iii. 2-8.

p. 305, 1. 4. The Table of Fasting of seven columna, mentioned in this place, is not found iu the manuscripts. It must have fallen out.

p. 306. With the chapter on the festivals of the Nestorians, cf. a similar chapter in Assemani, "Bibiiotheca Orientalis," ii. p. 2, and "Abulfeda Hiatoria anteialamica," p. 162 ff.

p.308, 1. 3. Johannee Cascareneis and Phetion were killed in Hulwan between A.n. 430 and 465, vide Aseemani, "Bibl. Orient." ii. p. 403, col. 1 Phetion Martyr is mentioned by Asseraani, iii. 2, p. 386, on the 25th October; vide also W. Wright, " Catalogue of the Syriac manuscripts of the British Museum," part ii. p. 1134, No. 66. Yikut (u. p. 688) mentions a " Monastery of Phetion" on's J.

p. 308, 1. 8. I have not been able to decipher the name Wy.

p. 808, L 16. The name Kuta is known to me from Yakut, i. p. 689, where a Monastery of Kuta Vss go is mentioned.

p. 308, 1, 19. The Syriac form of the name Solomonis (mother of the Maccabaans) is Josoo, vide W. Wright, "Catalogue," etc. iii. p. 1187, col. 1.

p. 308, 1. 25. I do not know a saint of the name of las or ley.

p. 308, 1. 37. The word julel esems to be a corruption. In the Canon Masudicus (fol. 47a) a Friday of Elieser yjt is mentioned, bnt this Friday falls 40 daye after the beginning of Lent.

ANNOTATIONS. 411

p. 308, 1. 40. The two saints mentiened in this paragraph are not knewn to me. Ly may be boy Beresbya, i.e. Berekhya, and a martyr child, the sen of Cyrus, is mentionod by W. Wright, "Catalogue," etc., iii. p. 1136, col. 2.

p. 309, 1. 1. Two Armenian martyrs of the names ef Ourenius and Surinus are mentioned under the 11th March by Assemani, "Bibl. Orientalis," iii. 2, p. 650. The name Duranus occurs, ib. p. 658, under the 2nd Ootober.

p. 309, 1. 26. The commen year is here callod &r &t (text, p. 311, 1.18). This term the author musthave borrowed from the source whence he took the infermatien of this chapter, fer everywhere else he calls the common year da &

p. 310. This table is basad upon tha beginning ef Lent, which in & commen year falle between the 2nd Shubit -- 8th Adhar; in a leap- year, betwecn the 3rd Shnhat-8th Adhar. The fastivals keep certain invariable distances from thia date. The Latin numerals at the top of the table denote the week-days on which the single festivals fall.

p. 311, 1. 7. The reasen why Christmas and the Cemmemeration of Our Lady Mary should net immediately follow each other seems to be thie, that each twe feaste must he separated net only by a night, but by one complete day. The idea seema to be this, that each feast requires a certain preparation en the preceding day.

p. 311, 1. 11. The 'Ibadites are the Arab tribe to which the poets 'Adi b. Zaid and Zaid b. 'Adî belonged, vide Masudi, "Prairies d'or," iii. p. 205, and Caussin, "Eseai aur l'histoire dee Arabes avant l'Is- lamisme," ii. 148.

p. 311, 1. 18. The expression ef l eysl dee (tert, p. 314, 1. 8) was coined upon the pattern ef a word of the Prophet, vide Ibn-Al'athir, i. p. 852, 1. 16. The name 'Ankafir is mentioned by Freytag and Muhit almuit, not by tbe Turkish Kamus; it occurs also in Hamza Isfabani, text, p. 112, 1. 6; translatien, p. 88.

p. 311, 1. 22. On the Ninive-fast, cf. Assemani, " Bibliotheca Orient." ili. 2, p. 387.

p. 313. This table is based npon the cycle of 28 Julian years, after which every date falls again en the same weekr-day. Ir the Column of the number I have marked the leap-years by a etar. 33

442 ALBİRONİ.

Ae all the festivale of thie table are attaohed to certain week-days, they wander about within the epace of 7 days. In common years each festival falls one day, in leap-yeara two daye, later than in the preceding. The double column of numbers under the head Commemoration of Solomonis, is to be explained in thie way : The first column represente the common computation of this day, whilst the second column represants tho practice of the people of Bagdad, who made it fall a week later. So, according to Canon Ma- sudicus (fol. 46b). The numbers of the column Feast of Dair-altha'dlib are corrupt in the manuseript; I have computed them according to the rule given on p. 308, 11, 26-30. The numbers I. 29, etc., mean that in this year the feast is celebrated twics, on the Ist Tishrin I. and on the 29th fldl, whilet the blank means that in thie year the feast ia not celebrated at all, which is the case if the last Sunday of the year (or the Com- memoration of Bar Safa in the preceding column) falls on the 24th

The Latin numerals at the top of the table denote the week.daye of the single festivals.

p. 314. The following chapter, of which the text in many passages seeme to be corrupt beyond hope, is to be compared with the re- searchee of Prof. Chwolsohn ("Die Sabier und der Sabismous "). It would require a epecial commentary of ite own, and whoaver wants to undertake it must be thoroughly imbued with the knowledge of the last phases of Neo-Platonism and of the popular belief and supersti- tion of the dying Greek heathendom, The author distinguishes between the heathens of Harran and the Mandeans of the south of Babylonia. Hie festal calendar is that of the people of Harran. Thie calendar, on pp. 315-318, the anthor has transferred from a book of Alhaahimt just as it was, with all the mis-spellings, faulta, and lacunas, and eince the time of the author the text has become worse and worse. He expressee the hope (on p. 318) that he will be able one day to correct this ehapter, bnt his hope does not seem to have been fulfilled. It would heve been more cautious not to translate this chapter at all, but I hope that the reader will accept my translation with indulgence as a first essay at unravelling the mysteries of this enigmatic but never- theless most valuable chapter.

p. 314, 1. 7. On the Shamsiyya, vide Chwulsohn, i. pp. 292-295.

p. 315, 1. 4. Chwolsohn, i. p. 140, gives for this event another date, viz. A.H. 215.

ANNOTATIONS. 443

p. 315, 1. 26. Muhammad b. 'Abd-al'aziz Alhashimi is not known to me from other sources. Perhaps he was a son of Abu-Muhammad 'Abd- al'aziz b. Alwsthik, mentioned in " Kitah-alfihrist," p. 39.

p. 315, 1. 96. Dhahbana, s place near Harrân, vide Chwolsohn, i. p. 306, note 6; ii. p. 630; and also YAķut ii. p. 725, e.v. taMt In Syriac the place is called boo, vide Assemani, " Bibliotheen Orientalis," i. p. 278.

p. 317, 1. 1. The text of this passage is very uncertain If ths moon stands on the 31st Adhar in Cancer, it must on the 8th Adhar havs stood in Gemini or in the first degree of Cancer.

p. 917, 1l. 21, 22. On Dair-Kadhî and Dair-Sini, cf. Chwolsohn, ii. pp. 24, 97, 40, 41, 6S0, and 808.

p. 317, 1. 98. I do not know a word Kurmus, hut Turmus o orr Sais means panis in ciners coctus, vide Chwolsohn, i. p. 27 at 15, Tammûz.

p. 318, 1. 4. Dailafatan, an old name of Venus, known as Ackipar from the Greek lexicographers, vide Hesyehius, ed. M. Schmidt : Aclépar o ris 'Alpadirys aovip ino Xa doiw. The name occurs also in Assyrian.

p. 318, 1. 32. From the rules relating to the computation of tha Lent of the Harranians the author infers that their year was not s vague lunar year, running through all the seasons, but a kind of luni-solar year, like that of the Jews, which, though based upon lunar years, ie made to agree with the course of the sun by means of the eyele of 19 years. Further, he infers that the Harranian Fast-breaking depends upon the vernal equinox and their New Year upon the autumnal equinox. The double bodied signe on4 uys tn'l are Gemini, Viryo, Areitenens, Piaces. The inclining signs Haudi Sy'l are Aries, Cancer, Litra, Caper. The stahle signs evl sl sysl are Taurus, Leo, Scorpio, Amphora. In the following we give a survey of what seem to have been the elements of the calendar of Harrân: 1. Ths day begins with sun-rise. 2. The month hegins on the second day after conjunetion. 3. The year begins with KAnan II. or with Tishrin I. (with new moon, the next to the autumnal equinox), or with the winter solstice. 4. Lent hegins the 8th Adhar, when the sun stands in Pisces, and onds after 31 or 29 days, when the sun stands in Aries. The last quad-

444 ALBiRUNt.

rature of the moon before Passover (of the Jews) is the time of their fast-breaking. Hence the luni-eolar oharacter of the calondar. 5. As Terminus Paschalia Alberoni adopts the time between the 16th Adhar and 19th Niean, i.s. 28 days. 6. The difference between the Innar and eolar years (11 d. 5 h. 45', eta) they insert in every fourth month as a leap-month, viz. Rilfl Adhar I. (after Shubat).

p. 320, 1. 14. I am not able to explain thie table in a satisfactory manner; however, I offer a few remarke to which an examination of the nature of thie table has led me: 1. On an average the common year is counted at 354 daye, the leap- year at 884 daye. The one ie 11 daye ehorter, the other 19 days longer, than the Julian year of 365 days. 2. Once, however, in the 19 years of the cycle, the common year hae been counted at 353 days, so that between its beginning and that of the following year there is an interval of 12 days. This enbtraction of one day is perhape to be explained in thie way : 12 commou years, each of 354 daye=4,248 days. 7 leap-years, each of 384 days =2,688 days. - 19 years . =6,996 daye. As, however, 19 eolar years, each of 865 days, give only the sum of 6,995 days, this difference of one day wae to be removed by the sub- traction of one day in one of the 19 years of the cycle. 3. The following are the yeare which are counted at 353 daye : Year 5 i col. 9. Year 4 in col. 4. Year 2 in col. 6. Year 2 in col. 8. Year 2 in col. 10. 4. In the colmnns of the Sabian New-Year and Fast-breaking we find the Ordo intercalationis cypha i.e. the 2nd, 5th, 7th, 10th, 19tb, 16th, 18th yeara are leap-years, whilst in the columne of the Corrected Passover, Mean Fasting of the Christiane, and the 1st of Tisbrin I. of the follow. ing year, we find the Ordo intercalationis hs i.e. the 3rd, 5th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 16th, 19th yeare are leap-years. I cannot say on what principle this difference resta. 5. The NewYear in col. 3 and Fast-breaking in col. 4 are Sabian. The Corrected Paseover in col. 6 is Jowieh. The Mean Fasting and the lst of Tishrin I. of the following year in col. 10 are Christian 6. The computation of the Corrected Passover reete upon an astro-

ANNOTATIONS, 445

nomical computation of the vernal equinos, special regard being had to the precession of the equinoxes which had heen neglected. The author does not communicate this astronomical compntation of bis. 7. The comparieon between col. 3 and col. 10 shows that the Sabian New-Year falls always by one day (in soms caaes by two days) earlier than the Chrietian New-Year. 8. The author gives directions (p. 320, 1. 7), to add 16 to the years of the Era Alexandri, or to subtract S therefrom. This indicates that at the epoch of the era which he uses, already three years of an Ennea- decateris had elapsed. Which era this is, I have not been able to find out. p. 322, 1. 28. Ibrihim b. Sinan, known as an astronomer, of Harra- nian origin, lived about the middle of the 10th century of our era. Cf. Fihrist, p. 272, and Wustenfeld, " Geschichte der Arabischen Aerzte," p. 37. p. 324, 1. 4. Albaghadi died A.H. 204, vide HAji Khalifa, v. p. 411.

p. 324, L. 22. The reading Alrabiya is uncertain, as I do not know a place of thie name in Hadramaut. A place of this name is mentioned by Yakut, iv. p. 391, s.v. oejuh but it cannot be identical with that mentioned by Alberunt. Some of these fairs are also enumerated by Kazwini, "Koamographie," ii. p. 56.

p. 325, 1. 1. A festal calendar of the Muslime is aleo found in Canon Masddicus (fol. 48) and in Kazwint, "Kosmographie," i. p. 67 ff. (taken from Albêruni). p. 326, 1. 27. The same verses occur in Ibn-al'athir, iv. p. 76.

p. 328, 1. 21. Two of these verses occur also in Kazwini, "Kosmo- graphie," i. p. 68. p. 328, 1. 39. On this day the pilgrimage of the forty men, etc. This fact is not mentioned by Canon Masudicus nor hy Kazwini. I have not been able to find ont wbat ie the historical basis of this statement.

p. 929, n. 3-26. This passage is missing in the manuscripts. I have supplied it from the Canon Masudicus. p. 990,1. 4. Alsalami. A poet of thie name of the 4th century of the Flight is mentioned in "Kitab-alfibrist," p. 168. Another author of the same name, author of the " Kitab-nutaf.alturaf " is mentioned by Yakut, iv. p. 203. p. 330, 1. 32. Hasan b. Zaid, the Alide prince of Tabaristan and Jurjan, died A.R. 270, vide Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," i. p. 450.

446 ALBIRON ?.

p. 330, 1. 37. Khalaf b. 'Ahmad ruled over Sijistan at the end of the dtb oentury of the Hijra. It was Mahmud ben Sabuktegin who put an end to his rule. Weil, " Gesohiohte der Khalifen," ii. p. 62.

p. 331, 1 39. The Arabio text of this passage (text, p. 338, 1. 12, i pes ) seems to be corrupt.

p. 332, 1. 7. The veree of the oursing is Sura iii. 54. Muhammad'e negotiations with the Christians of Najrin are related in a special chapter of Ibn-Hish&m, ed. Wustenfeld, p. 401 ff .; vide A. Sprenger, "Leben und Lehre des Mohammed," ii. p. 488 ff.

p. 882, 1. 21. The tree Yaktin is mentioned in the Coran, Sars xxxvii. 146.

p. 383, 1. 17. Thabir is a hill near Mekka, ef. Yskot, i. p. 917, where also this saying is mentioned (line 18). Muhit-almuhit, i. p. 1077, 1. 8 ff.

p. 898, 1 19. Ibn-al'a'ribi, a famous philologist of the school of Kifa, died A.B. 291, vide G. Flugel, "Grammatische Schulen der Araber," p. 148.

p. 384, 1. 1. The battle of Alharra occurred A.D. 68S, the 26th Aug. The troops of the Khalif Yazid b. Mu'awiya stormed Medina under the command of Muslim b. Ukba. Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," i. p. 881.

p. 335, 1. 15. Alkulthumt is not known to me from other sourcee. Ibrahim b. Alaarri Alajjaj, a famous philologist, died A.H. 310, vide "Kitab-alfhrist," p. 61. Ibn-Khallikan, ed. Wustenfeld, No. 12, men- tions his " Kitab-al'anwa." Abu.Yabya b. Kunâsa, vide note at p. 251, 1. 33. Aba-Hanifa Aldinouart, a grammarian and mathematician, died A.H. 150; cf. Ibn-Khallikin, ed. Wustanfeld, No. 775, and "Kitab-alfihrist," pp. 78, 88. Abd-Muhammad Aljabali, better known under the name of Ibn- Kutaiba, vide note at p. 226, 1. 87, and " Kitab-alfihriet," n. 88. Alnt alhusain is 'Abd-alrabmin b. 'Umar Alufi, who died 4.B. 876. His book of fixed stars has been translated by Dr. Sjellerup, St. Petere- burg, 1874. Cf. "Kitab-alfihrist," p. 284, and notes.

p. 335, 1. 22. Jufar, vide note at p. 15, 1. 15.

p. 836, 1. 20. Vorses and rhymed poetry. The author meaus the Kutub-aPanud (vids p. 337, 1. 29), frequently mentioned in the more

ANNOTATION8. 447

anoient Arabie literature. As far as I know, there is no atandard work of this kind in the librariss of Europe, but it ie highly desirable to search for one and to publieb it, since most likely many of the veraes, to the interpretation of whioh these books are dedicated, may claim a mnoh higher antiquity than the Kasidas and Rajaz-poems of the earliest Arab poets.

p. 337, 1. 40. Ahmad ben Furis, a native of Rai, a famous philologist and writer both in prose and verse, died at Rai, A.H. 390. Cf. Ibn- Khallikan, ed. Wustenfeld, No. 48.

p. 338, 1. 7. The author alludee in this passage to certain events in bis own life, but unfortunately in such vague terms that we learn very little for his biography. Was he banished from the court of the prince? Of what kind wers hie troubles, mental or material? At present it is impoesible to give an anewer to these queetions.

p. 338, 1. 39. Ion-alrakkar is not mentioned by Ibn Khallikan, nor by the Fihrist, nor by Haji Khalifa.

p. 339, 1. 85. Abu-Muhammad Ja'far Alfazari is unknown to me. Perhape he was a relative of the two brothers Muhammad and Iphak, the sons of Ibrahim Alfazari, vide "Kithb-alfihrist," p. 164, and Reinaud, "Memoire sur l'Inde," p. 310.

p. 339, 1, 37. Khalid ben Safwan, a famous orator at the time of the first Abbaside Khalif Alsaffab, vide Ibn-Khallikan, ed. Wastenfeld, No. 808 (end), p. 315, and Ibn-Kutaiba, "Ma'arif," p. 206.

p. 341 med. The same division ie mentioned by Reinaud, "Géo- graphie d'Aboulfeds," i. p. 231. Instead of Fsk i.e. Apakhtara, the north is here called by the name of Adharbaijan (Atropatene).

p. 342, 1. 18. Foundations. I do not know the word l& as denoting some particular part of the path of the moon, bat I suppose that the author meane the four Cardines, vide note at p. 90, 1. 44 (on p. 895).

p. 942, 1. 31. Band Mariya ben Kalb and Bant-Murra ben Hammam. Assuming that the writing of the manuscripts ie correct, I must state that these two clane are not known to me from any other eource.

p. 343, 1. 1. With the following description of the Lunar Stations, cf. Ideler, " Untersuchungen über den Ureprung und die Bedeutung der Sternnamen," Berlin, 1810, and Schier, "Globus coelestis cuficue," Dresden, 1866.

448 ALBİRONI.

p. 845, 1. 33. Ramin. I do not know an island of this name. Perhaps the author meant the island Ramant, deecribed by Alkazwint, "Roamographie," i. p. 107. An island Ramt, in the Indian ocean, is mentioned by Yakut, ii. p. 739.

p. 346, 1. 1. Raghad. The reading of this name is conjectural, as I cannot prove it from other sources.

p. 351. The distance between two Stations is not, as the eecond numbor of the table, 18° 51' 26", would have us believe, but 12° 51' 25;", as the reader will find if he examines the addition in the column of eeconds. The author did not think it necessary to note the fractione in this colamn, but he did not disregard them in bis calculation.

p. 357, 1. 1. The following ohapter on the projection of a globe on a plane (est dt ale) is purely mathematical, Dr. H. Bruna, Professor of Mathematics in the University of Berlin, has kindly undertaken the trouble of revising my tranelation of this chapter. For purposee of comparison as regards both the subject matter and the termini technici I rofer the reader to- L. Am. Sedillot, " Memoire sur les instruments astronomiquee dee Arabes," Parie, 1844. B. Dorn, "Drei in der Kaiserlichen offentlichen Bibliothek zu St. Petersburg befindliche astronomische Instrumente" ("Memoires de l'Academie," tom. ix. No. 1) 1865. F. Woepcke, "Ueber ein in der Kgl. Bibliothek zu Berlin hefindliohes Astrolebium" ("Abhandlungen der Kgl. Akademie," eto.), 1858. On pp. 7-10 and 15, vide an explication of the stereographic projection and the graphio method, of other methode, on p. 17.

p. 57, 1. 34, Abu-Hamid 'Ahmad ben Mohammad Alsaghâni, a femous constructor of astronomical instruments in Bagdad, died A.H. 879. Vide L. A. Sédillot, "Prolégomènes des tables astronomiques d'Olongh- Beg," Paris, 1847, Introduction, p. 56, note 1.

p. 858, 1. 1. My book. The author means his syt plet ols الممكنة فى سنعة الامطرلاب i.e. the book in which all possible methode for the construction of the astro -. - labs are comprised, of which there are eeveral copies in Enropean libra- rios, e.g. Royal Library of Ber Sprenger 1869; Bodleian Library, Marah. 701.

INDEX.

'Adan, 324, 20. A. Adhar I., Jewish leap-month, 63, 9.

Aaron, 269, 35 ; 276, 26. Âdbarbåd, Mobed of Baghdad, 200,

Aaron's Golden Calf, 270, 4. Adharban, 121, 14; 190, 41. 41

Mar Abba, catholicus, 311, 41; Adharc'ashn, 207, 11; 211,29.

Banû-'Abbas, 129, 7, 20, 24. 313. Abû-alhasan Âdharkhur (or Ad-

Abu-al-'abbas Al-âmuli, 59, 26; harkhura), son of Yazdankha- sis, geometrician, 54, 4; 107, 239, 13. Mår 'Abda, 309, 7; 310. 40; 204, 14. Adharkhura, fire-temple in Persis, 'Abd-alkarim b. 'Abi-al 'auja, 80, 215, 15, 37. 7. 'Abdallah b. 'Ali, mathematician, 'A dhri'at, 264, 1. Adites, 98, 1. 245, 29. 'Adud-aldaula, 217, 24. 'Abdallah b. Hilal, 49, 26. Alia, 25, 15. 'Abdallah b. Ismail Alhashimt, Equator, 249, 15. 187, 14. Aljabali, 226, 37 ; 335, 17. Era, definition, 16, 4. Ara Adami, 18, 5; 141, 6; 142, 8; 'Abdallah b. Almukaffa, 108, 3. 300, 6, 22. Abi-'AbdallAh Alsadik, 79, 21. 'Abdallah b. Shu'ba, 194, 12. Ar Alexandri, 32, 31 ; 136, 31. 'Abd-almasth b. Ishak Alkindt, Æra Antonini, 33, 33; 137, 30; 187, 13. 176, 13. 'Abd-alrahman b. Muljim Almu- Eræ Arabum ethnicorum, 39, 8. radi, 330, 7. Ibn-'Abdalrazzâk Alțosî, 45, 3. Æra Astronomorum Babylonis, 121, 12, 16; 190, 42. Abraham with the Harrinians, Era Augusti, 33, 11; 137, 17; 187, 1. 176, 1. Abrashahr, 255, 10. Æra Diluvii, 136, 20. 34

Era Dioclatiani, 33, 38; 187, 37; 176, 19. 'Alf b. Yabyn, the astronomer, 38, 5, 15; 285,26. Era Fugw, 33, 45; 74, 5; 188,9; Almagest, 13, 18; 31, 29; 354, 17, 176, 28. Æra Magorum, 138, 35 ; 184, 34. 34; 358,33.

Æra Mundi with the Persiana, 17, 'Amr. b. Rabi'a, 39, 15.

10, 37. 'Amr b. Yahya, 39,16.

Era Almu'tsdid Chalifa, 36, 10; Âmul, 206,89. 'Anin, 63, 41. 138, 40; 230, 5. Era Nabonassari, 31, 13; 136, 26. 'AnAnitea, 68,40; 278,34.

Æra Philippi, 32, 22; 136, 26. Andargab, 53, 25; 210, 29.

Æra Yazdagirdi, 35, 48; 138, 30; Andish, 206, 36.

184, 25 Anianus, 25, 25. 'Ankafir, daughter of Nu'man, 311, Afrasiab, 205, 17. 21. Afrijagan, 215, 6. Âfrigh, 41, 7. Antichrist, 196, 4.

Aghamat, feasts of tha Zorosa- Antonins . Martyr, aliaa Abu-Ruh, 287,38. trians, 221, 17. Apogea, 164, 1; 167, 1. Ahasverus, 273, 32. "Arabha, 270, 37. Ahaz, 276, 37. Abu-Said 'Ahmad b. "Abd-aljalil Ibn-al-'a'râbi, 333,19.

Alsijzt, geometrician, 52, 23. 'Arafit, 332, 40. Aramæans, 93, 24, 43. 'Ahmad b. Faria, 337, 40. Abt-alhuaain 'Ahmad b. Alhusain Arbaces, 100, 8.

Al'ahwazi Alkâtib, 284, 16, Ardashir b. Bibak, 122,81. Ardawan, 121, 14. 30; 288,36. Abu-Said 'Ahmad b. Muhammad Ariana, 282, 14.

b. Trak Khwarizm-Shâh, 229, Arish, 205, 25. Aristoteles, 163, 25; 209, 2; 225, 7. 12. 'Abmad b. Mubammad b. Shihab, 182, 1. Arius, 288, 11; 291,17.

'Ahmad b. Muaa b. Shakir, 61, 43. Arjabhaz, 29, 28.

'Ahmad b. Sahl b. Hashim b. Al- Arkand, 29,28.

walid, 33, 18. Armenia, 211, 19; 298, 17.

'Ahmad b. Altayyib Alsarakhsi, Armanian martyrs, 309, 1.

129, 17. Arpakhshad, 100,30. Artham ukh, b. Buzkar, 41, 28. Ahriman, 107, 18. 'Aķibâ, 269,6; 276, 14. 'Aa'ad b. 'Amr b. Rabi'a, 49, 40. Al'asadi, 344,8. 'Aktl b. 'Abi-Talib, 326, 26. Alexander, 32, 31; 35, 16; 48,38; Al-'asfar b. Elifas b. Eaau, 49, 9.

12?,5. 'Aafâr b. Shirawaihi, 47, 25.

'Alfaniyya, Jewish sect, 279, 14. Ashkaniana, 116, 28; 119.

'Ali b. Abi-Talib, 69, 2; 230, 7, 'Âshûrt, 270, 7; 326,; 327,2. Askajamuk b. Azkskhwir, 41, 40. 21, 26; 294, 22. 'Ali b. 'Ali Alkatib, 261, 42. Assaring-circle, 142; 155, 5.

'Ali b. Al'jahm, 238, 24. Assuân, 252, 29.

'Ali b. Mubammad b. Abmad, etc. Assyrian kinga, 99.

Imâm, 330, 29. Athtiyan, 212, 37.

Ali b. Muhammad b. 'Abd-alrab- Augustua, 58, 34.

mân b. 'Abd-alkais, 330, 31. Aveata, 108, 40; 113, 3; 117, 22;

'Abu-'Alf Ibn Nizar b. Ma'add, 48, 127, 11; 204, 40; 205, 24. Al-'awwa, 246,23; 337, 22.

Ali-alridâ b. MAsa, 330, 22. 82. 'Azereth, 275,19 ; 277,14. Azmâ'fl, 213, 30,

INDEX. 451

Bevarasp, 202, 32; 209, 37; 218, 37. B. Bih-rôz, 53, 41. Bilķis, 49, 25.

Baalbek, 187,35. ; Al-birūni, 12, 4, 11; 29, 35; 80,

Babylonian kings, 100. 29; 92, 6, 9; 134,, 29; 167,

Badhaghes, 194, 13. 11; 194, 42; 196,34; 214, 30;

Badr, date of the battle of Badr, 217, 5; 234, 38, 41; 287, 2;

330, 9. 247, 35; 248, 40; 256, 13;

Albaghdadiyya, religious sect in 269, 19; 290, 38; 294, 26;

Khwarizm, 178, 5. 338, 7; 357, 41. Buddha, 190, 5. Bahafirid b. Mah-Furudhin, 193, : Budhasaf, 186, 15. 16 Babr-almaghrib, 260, 24. Bughrakhan, Shihab-aldaula, 131, 18 Babrâm, ancestor of the Byides, 45, 7, 4l. Al-bubturi, 37, 16.

Bahram, of Herat, 108, 9. Bukhtanassar, 297, 30. Bulgharen, 51, 1. Bahram b. Hurmuz, 191, 10. Bahram Jushanas, Marzuban of Al-burkui, 330, 29. Bushanj, 202, 4. . Âdharba jân, 48, 12. Babram h. Mardanshib, Mobed of : Buạra, 251, 37 ; 259, 31; 263,21.

Shapur, 108, 6. Al-bntain, 343, 29.

Bahram b. Mihran Aliefahani, 108, Buwaihi, house of, 45; 94, 19.

8. Bahram Shubiu, 48, 11. Baikand, 221, 22. Abu-Bakr Alguli, 36, 14. C. Balamis, 27, 17. Albalda, 348, 30. Balķa, 39, 17. Balkh, 100, 12; 186, 19; 220, 20. Cæsar, 33, 12.

Balti, 316, 25. Cæsar, parapegmatist, 234, 7.

Bâmiyân, 255, 41. Calendæ, 288, 4. Calendar, reform of the Calendar Banat-Na'sb, 231, 18. during the Chalifate, 36,10. Banu-al'aşfar, 104, 3. Calendar, reform of the Calendar Band-Hantfa, 193, 19. Banu-Mariya b. Kalb, 342, 92. in Chorasmia, 229, 1. Callippus, parapegmatist, 31, 26; Bant-Murra b. Hammam b. Shai- 233, 15. bân, 842, 33. C'ashn-i-nilufar, 205, 18. Bant-Musa b. Shakir, 147, 26. Catholicus of the Melkites, 283, Bant-yarbu', 39, 23. 43. Baptizing of the Christians, 288, Cath licus of the Nestorians, 284, 2. Bardesanes, 27,9; 189, 30,43. 25. Chaldæans, their seasons, 322, 18; Bariḥ, 339, 5. 323. Bårukb h. Neriyya, 271, 25. Chaldwans=Kayinians, 100, 6, 12. Batn-alhût, 250, 6. Chaldean kings, 101. Batnan, 316, 4. Ibn-AlbAzyar, 25, 27. Chalifate, 129, 13.

Bel of Harran, 316, 8. Chessboard, 132, 14. Children of Adam, feast, 311, 42; Benjamin, 272, 83. 313. Bereshja, apostle of Marw, 296,1. China, 266, 10.

452

Chinese, 249, 1; 268, 12. Chinese sea, 236, 27. Cyriacus Infans, 208, 40; 310,

Chorasmians, 40, 39 ; 57,13; 244, col. 5.

4; 292, 12. Cyrus, 24, 18; 291, 42.

Chorasmian names of the plansts, 172. Chorasmian names of the figures of the sodiac, 178. Chorasmian characters, 42, 7. D.

Chorasmian names of the months,

Christ, 21, 23 ; 25, 42; 83, 28; 287, 57. Daba, 824, 16.

28; 290,20. Al-dabarân, 336, 38 ; 344, 15.

Christiane, their months, 70, 11. Dadhisht, 295, 15.

Christians in Chorasmia, 289, 4; DahAk, 100,3. Al-dahriyya, 90, 35. 292, 12. Christians in Khurasan, 295, 22. Al-dahûfadhiyya, 206, 8.

Christian feasts, 306, 29. Dai, 58, 15.

Christian Arabs, 811, 11. Dair-'Ayyub, 251, 82.

Ohronicon of the Christians, 159, Dair-Kadhi, 317, 16, 21.

32; 303. Dair-Sint, 317, 22.

Chronology of the Persians bafore Al-dajjal, 195, 44; 196,9.

Islam, 38, 22. Dama, mountain in Persis, 199, 28. Cleopatra, 103, 38, Coals, 242, 29, 38,44; 243,3. Damascus, 237, 23.

Commentary to ths Almagest, 139, Dâmdadh, 108, 26. Daniel, 18, 34, 87; 19,18; 20, 20;

Concilia œcumenica, 291, 9. 7. 300, 11.

Confusion of languages, 100, 16. David, 333, 43

Conjunction, middle one, greatest, Day, definition of, 4, 10.

91, 33,41. Day .- Beginning of ths day, 7, 31,

236, 13 Day .- Beginning of the day with 85. Conon, parapegmatist, 234, 24;

Constantinus, 33, 41; 291, 17, 41; the Arabe, 5, 14.

292, 19 ; 295, 25. Day .- Beginning of the day with

Corbicius b. Patecius, 191, 2. the astronomers, 6, 28.

Creation of man according to the Day .- Beginning of the day with

Persians, 17, 20, 43; 107,1. ths Greeke and Persians, 6, 10. Creation of the world and begin- ning of ths year with the Per- Day .- Beginning of the day with the Sabians, 315, 16. ciang, 55,5. Days .- Battle days of the heathen Creation of the world, its horoscope, Arabe, 39, 81. 55,6. Crocodile, 250, 20. Days .- Battle days of the 'Aug

Cross, invention of the, 292, 18. and Khazraj, 39, 48.

Cross, symbol of the, 298, 3, 10. Days .- Battle days of Bakr and

Cycle of 8 years, 63, 81; 64, 20; Taghlib, 40,8.

182,19. Days .- Battle days of the Kuraish,

Oycls of 19 years, 31,35; 63, 88; Days .- Canioular days of the 39, 38.

64, 1; 319,6. Cycle of 76 years, 31,28; 68, 35. shepherds, 202, 17.

Cycle of 95 years, 63,37. Days of bad luck, 245, 87.

Cycle of 582 years, 68,89. Days of the month with the Uho- rasmians, 57, 17.

INDEX. 453

Daya of the month with the Eliazar b. Paruah, 68, 32. Egyptians, 58, 82. Days of the montb with tha Per- Emim b. Lud, 28, 34. Emperors of Byzantium, 106. siana, 53,5. Enos, 314, 27. Daya of the month with the Sog- dians, 56, 34. Epagomena with the Arabs, 246,

Epagoment with the Persians, 53, 13 Days .- Lucky, unlucky, and indif- ferent days, 218. 24 Days of tha Old Lady, 244, 18, 37; Epagomeng with tha Sogdians, 245,33. Saints' days of the Melkites, 289, 57,2; 220,8; 221,5. Ephesus, 285, 18. Al-erAnshabri, 208, 25; 211, 19. Delephat= Venus with the Sabians, $18,3. Esther, 274, 26.

Deluge, 27, 24: 28, 7, 11, 38. Euctemon, parapegmatist, 233, 14.

Democritus, parapegmstist, 233, Endoxos, parapegmatist, 233, 17. Euphrates, 251, 44 ; 252, 22.

Deuteronomium, 22, 40; 23, 5. 20. Eusebius of Cæsarea, 302, 31.

Al-dhirâ, 245, 4. Eutyches, 291, 35. Abu-al'abbas Alfadi b. Hâtim Al- Dhû, 50, 8. Dhû-albijja, 321, 18. nairîzt, 139, 7.

Dhu-alķa da, 321, 13. Dh-kar, 311, 19. Dhû-alķarnain, 43, 5. Dhû-almajaz, 324, 28. F.

Dhu-alrumma, 340, 7. Domini horarum, 317, 19. Dona astrorum, 90, 42; 92, 4. Fabla, 216, 15. Dositheus, parapegmatist, 233, 27. Fairs of the ancient Arabs, 324, 1. Dûmat-aljandal, 324, 6. FanAkhusra, 45, 25. Dunbâvand, 213, 32; 214, 5. Fanakhusrau, 45, 9. Ibn-Duraid, 49, 33. Al-fanfk, 344, 17. Duration of the world, 18, 11. Abû-alfaraj Alzanjani, 54, 1; 118, 31; 120, 38; 126, 1, 7; 200, 5, 14; 216, 39; 316, 6, 19. E. Al-fargh al'awwal, althani, 349, 28.

Easter calculation, 318, 40; 319, 3. Farghâna, 94,85; 235, 16. Farkhwarwic'irshabiyya, 47, 29. Easter time, corracted, 320, cols. 6, Farrukh, 53, 21 Farwardagan, 210, 36. Ecclesiastical degrees, 283, 33; 7. Fasts of the Apostles, 304, 38; 309, 284, 18. Egyptians, ancient, modern, 12, 3; 310.

28, 33; 13, 17; 58,83. Fasts of the Christiana, 299, 2, 3; 320, 14, cols. 8, 9. Egyptiau kings, 102. Egyptians as parapegmatists, 233, Fasta of Elias, 309, 12; 310, col. 12. Fasts of the Ibadites, 313, col. 12. Egyptians, their seasons, 322, 35; 16. Fasts of the Jews, 270, 7; 271, 16.

Eli, the high-priest, 275, 13. 323. Fasta on Monduys, 327, 31.

Elias, catholicua of Khuraaan, 292, 1 Fasts of the Muslims, 7, 41; 77, 1; 327, 18. 4. Fast of Niniveh, 809, 14; 310,

454 INDEX.

Fasts of tha SAbians, 316, 12, 27, 32, 40; 317, 1, 17; 318, 13, 16, 28; 320, 2, 14, cols, 4, 5, G. Fasts of the Spies, 277, 1. Fitima, 392, 6, 28. Gabriel, 331, 36. Feasts of ths Church of St. Mary Gahanbâra, 204, 42; 205, 9; 207, in Jerusalem, 308, 6. 28; 210, 38; 212, 17; 217,11. Feast of the Crown of tha Year, 297, Gihanbars with the Chorasmians, 42. 225, 30 ff. Feast, "Discovery of the Croas," 298, 5. Gajus Julius, 103, 32, 40. Galenus, 225, 3 ; 231, 27; 232, 25, Feast of the Equinos with the Hindus, 249, 39 ; 266,25. 27; 293, 38. GedaljA b. 'AļiķAm, 269, 1. Faast of the Grapea, 296,31. Geometrical progression, 134, 4. Feast, "Harvest-home," 295, 30. Al-ghafr, 347, 14. Feast of Lent-hreaking, 331, 35. GhumdAn, 41, 16. Feast of Mar-MAri, 308, 12. Ibp-Abi-Alghnrakir, 198, 1. Feast of tho MegillA, 274, 32. Faast of Mount Tabor, 297, 2. Ghuzz-Turks, 109, 23 ; 224, 15.

Feasts of the Maslime, 325, 2. GilshAh, 27,38; 107,3.

Feasts of the Persians, 199, 2. Girshah, 107,2; 108, 15. Gomer b. Yapheth, 28, 24. Feast of the Roses, 292, 11; 295, Gospel, 25,39 ; 331, 14, 30.

Feasts of the SAbians, 318,20. 20. Gospels of Bardesanes, Marcion

Feast of Tabernacles, 270, 23. and MAni, 27, 9; 189, 48; 190, 7. Feast of the Temple, $11, 1; 313. Feast of ths Renovation of the Gospel, commentary to the, 295, 15. Temple, 298, 8. Feast of Wax, 289, 29. Gregorius, apostls of the Arme-

Feast of Wax of the Jacobites, nians, 298, 17.

289,29. Greek fathers (Diodorus, Theodo-

Feast of the Virgins, 311,9; 313. rus, Neatorius), 311,99 ; 313. Greek names of the planets, 172. Feroz, grandfather of Noshirwan, Greek names of the figures in the 215,8. zodiac, 173, col. 2." Feroz, 199, 20. Figures in the zodiac, 173. GundisApur, 191, 16.

Al-fir, 41, 10. GushtAsp, 206, 24.

Fire, its natare, 246, 41. Formation of blossoms, 294, 10. Formation of donble organs or H. members in amimals and plants,

Frêdûn, 114, 33; 115, 4; 207, 48; 94, 6.

209,12; 210,7; 212,36,42. Habash, 177,3; 178, 8; '80,4. .. Friday, the golden ons, 310, col. 9. Habib b. Biluiz, Metropoliten of

Friday with the Muslime, 304, 15. Moşul, 33, 8.

Faķaim, 14, 8. Hajr in Yamâma, 324, 32.

Fustât, 235, 45. 1 Alhak'R, 344, 28. AlhAkim, Chalif of Egypt, (Abu- 'Ali ben Nizar), 48,32. Hâmân, 273, 25. HAmân-Sûr, 274, 32. Hemdâdh&n, 192, 6. Hâmin, 208, 33.

INDEX. 455

Hamza b. Alhssan Alisfahani, 36, 15; 61,33;62,12; 106; 112,41; Hlosbang, 108, 41; 206, 16; 212,

114, 1; 117, 22, 30; 118, 2; 11.

122, 14; 124, 1; 125, 1 ; 127, Hours, 9, 18. Hubal, 'Isaf, Na'ila, 39, 17. 6; 128, 2. Hudhaifs b. 'Abd b. Fnķaim, 14, 6. Hamza, 294, 21. Alhan'a, 344, 32. Hulwan, 28, l.

R. Hananja b. Toradjon, 276, 12. Hurmuz b. Shapnr Abhatal. 203,

Abu-Hanifa Aldinawari, 335, 16; 92; 209, 37.

351, col. 13. Buroiuzin, 34, 13, 17.

Hanna the Hindu, 258, 36. Alhusain b. +Ali, 326, 6, 20, 22;

Hanukkâ, 271, 29. 328, 18, 37; $30, 3.

Ål-harra, 334, 1. Abu-Alhusain Alsufi, 335, 18. Abu-Bakr Husain Altammar, 243, Harrân, 186, 23. 31. Harranians, 13, 23; 32, 16; 186, 24; 188, 26; 314, 29; 315, 8; Alm-'Ali Albusain b. 'Abdallith b. Siuft, 247, 36. 329, 27. Abu-Abdallah Allnsain b. Ibra- Harn Alrashia, 287, 39. Al-hasan and Al-husain, 332, 5. him Altabari Alnatili, 96, 43;

Abu-Muhammad Alhasan b. All b. 97,15.

Nâna, 45,22. Alhusain b. Mansur Alhallaj, 195,

Hishim b. Hakim Almukanna', Alhusain b. Zaid, prince of Taba- 1, 18.

194, 22. Alhâshimî, 318, 24. ristan, 330, 32.

Alhashwiyya, 90, 35; 199,7. Alḥara wâniyya, 258, 29. Hebraica, 18,25, 34, 38 ; 19, 6. I. Hebrew names of the figures of the zodiac, 173, col. 5. Hebrew names of the planets, Ibâdites, 311. 11, 13. 172. 'Ibbůr, 63, 11. Helona, mother of Constantine, 292, 21 ; 307, 41. Ibrahim b. Alabbas Alsuli, 37, 9. 'Abu-alfaraj Ibrahim b. Abmad b. Herat, 235, 37. Khalaf Alzanjani (vide Aba- Hermes, 187, 44 ; 188, 24; 290,18; alfaraj), 54, 1; 118, 31 ; 120, 315, 1; 316, 41 ; 342, 40. 38 Hijra, 327, 13. Ibrâhîm b. 'Ashtar, 326, 34. HilAl, 315, 12. Abu-Ishak IbrAhim b. Hilid Algabi, Hillel, 273, 20. Himyarites, 40, 31 ; 94, 34. Ibrahim b. Alsarri Alzajjaj (ride 45, 5.

Hindus, 15, 5 ; 83, col. 2; 96, 19; Alzajjai), 335, 15. 249, 39; 266, 26; 335, 20; IbrAbim b. Siuan, 322, 28. 342, 29. Al-'iklil, 347, 38. Hipparchu8, 233, 22; 322, 35; Ilion, 99, 37.

Hippocrates, 258, 33 ; 261, 25 ; 262, 323. ImAd aldauls 'Ali b. Buwaihi, 129, 22. 3; 337, 37. Indian names of the figures of the Al-Hira, 40, 37. zodisc, 173, col. 6. Hisbam b. 'Abd-&lmalik, 36, 43. Iudian namcs of the plancts, 172. Hisham b. Alkasim, 108, 5. Intercalars cycles of the sucient Hizar, estate in the district of Arabs, 73, 9. Istakbr, 56, 8. Intercalation of Almu'tadid, 81, Homer, 99, 50. 14.

456 INDEX.

Intercalation of the 'Anfnites, 69, ! Abi-Uthmân Aljihiz, 214, 28. 33. Intercalation of the heathen Araba, Jai, 28, 17.

13, 34; 14, 27; 73,9. Aljaihani, 214, 33; 256, 5, 18; 268, 12; 279, 2. Intercalation (of days, months, Jam, 202, 13, 33; 203, 20 ; 220, 11. Jears, eto.) of the Egyptians, 38, 33; 59,1. Jamasp, 196, 40. Jamehedh, 200, 25. Intercalation of the Greeks, 60, 4. Jeremia, 271, 23. Intarcalation of the Hindus, 15, 6. Intercalation of the Jewe, 68, 15. Jerobeam, 87, 3.

Intercalation of the Pergians, 12, Jerusalem, 294, 16.

40; 38, 32; 54, 10; 55, 29; Jews, 19, 22; 14, 28; 62, 16 ; 196,

184, 42 ; 220, 22 Jibrå'il b. Nuh, 191, 19. Intercalation of the Peshdadiape, John of Kashkar, 308, 3.

Intercalation of the Shbiana, 315, 13, 11. Jobn of Dailam, 318, col. 16. John, the teacher, 307, 15. 24 John of Marw, 296, 27. Intercalation of the Syrians, 70, John Baptiat, 297, 25. 19 Jona, 102, 2 ; 309, 16 ; 332, 17, 21. Intercalation of the Zoroastrians, Josua b. Nůn, 272, 31; 277, 3. 55, 29. Joseph of Arimathia, 287, 17. Interval between Alsxander and Judarz b. Sbāpůr b. Afķurshâh, the accession to the throne of 297, 38. the last Yazdagird, 17,30. Judges, their chronology, 88. Ion, eon of Paris, 33, 10. Abu-TaR Al'iafahani, 18, 20. Al-jūdi, 28, 41.

Abt-Sahl 'İsa b. Yahya Almasihi, Jumâdâ, 321, 19. Julius Cæsar, 60, 8.

Abi Taa Alwarrak, 270, 33; 278, 74, 25. Abu-Thumama Junada b. 'Auf, 13,

22; 279, 18. 42.

'Isâf, 39, 18. Isaia, 22, 18, 28, 39. Isfahân, 215, 3, 4. "Iehma'iyya. 68, 36. K.

Abt-Tema, 95, 22, 24. Ismail, 268, 28. Ismi'il b. 'Abbad, 72, 36. Iemail the Samanide, 48, 5. Ka'h Alahhår, 238, 18.

Iepahhadhan, 235, 19. Ka'b b. Loa'yy, 39, 22. :- 2,15. IspandArmadh, 205, 22. 'Izz-aldanla Bakhtiyar, 93, 15. KAhî, :08, 1.

Abu-aljabbar, 80, 13. Kadhbuda (ccodespotes), 95, 1.

Aljabha, 389, 8; 345,28. Alkadhkhudâbivya, 210, 14. Kaikhusrau, 206,27. Kain and Abel, 210, 41.

J. Kairawân, 256, 28, 31. Kalanımas, 13, 40; 14, 16; 73, 20. Kalb-aljabbar (Sirius), 201,28.

Jacohites, 282, 10, 24; 289, 30. KalwAdhâ, 200, 6, 9.

Ja'far b. Muhammad Alşâdik, 76, Kamferoz, 215, 39 ; 216, 1.

36; 182, 28 ; 188, 85. Kapka the Hindu, 129, 19.

Abt-Mahmud Ja'far b. Sa'd Alfa- Karmane (Alkurra'), 68, 36

zâri, 339, 35. Alkaraj, 213, 24 Karbela, 326, 22.

INDEX. 457

Kardfanakhusra, 217, 28. Karmates, 196. 13; 197, 28. Alkarsa Alhsditha, 256, 5. Kayanians, 100, 11, 12; 110, 34; 111; 113, 20; 114, 21. Knyomarth, 107, 2, 5, 7. Labn b. Dailam b. Basil, 46, 12. Khalaf b. 'Ahmad (see Wali- Lake of Alesaodria, 218, 29:

aldaula), 330, 38. Lakhmides, 40, 37. Khilid b. Abd-almasth of Marw. Al-hmashsivra, 25, 2. růdh, 147, 24. Lamp, self-acting, 255, 22. Khalid Alkasri, 36, 43. Leap-mouth, February, 241, 19, 20. Khalid b. Alwalid, 192, 44. Life .- Duration of life, 50, 34. Khalid b. Safwâu, 339, 37. Khalid b. Yazid h. Mu'awiya, 300,

Abu Ja'far Alkhazin, 183, 12 ; 249, 9. M.

34 ; 322, 27. Khindif, 328, 21. Ibn KhurdAdbih, 50, 26. Maghribis (Spaniards), 59, 27.

Kburram-Rôz, 211, 39. Maghribis, Jewish sect, 278, 23.

Khurshedh, Mobed, 207, 21. Mab, Media, 116, 34.

Khnsrau Parwiz, 258, 36. Almahdı, 194, 33, 39.

Khutan, 263, 14. Mah-roz, 34, 15, 18.

Khwâf, 193, 18. Al-mahwa, 340, 1.

KhwArizm-Shahs, 48, 15. Mabzor, 64, 33; 66,22; 146. Maimun b. Mihran, 34, 7. Kibla, 328, 14. Kilwadh, 278, 16. Makbiraj I., 221, 21.

Kimâk, 255, 34. Makhiraj II., 221, 24.

Kinana, 13, 39 ; 14, 13, 20. Ma'mun, 235, 2; 330, 5.323.44

Alkindi (see Ya'kub b. Ishak), Al-ma'mun b. Abmad Alsalami

187, 13; 219, 18, 29; 245, 18; Alharawi, 287, 19; 297, 25, Ma'mun b. Rasbid, 328, 41. 294, 27. Kings of the Jews, 89. Ma'n b. Za'ida, 80,7.

Kippûr, 270, 7 ; 277, 11; 327, 10. Manbij, 265, 27.

Alkisrawi, 127, 2; 208, 32. Mânt, 27, 11; 12], 6; 189, 43;

Klepsydra (water-thief), 254,9. 225, 19.

Koran, 331, 16. Manichæans, 80, 8; 329, 28, 31.

Kosmas, author of Christiancanons, Manichæans of Samarkaud, 191,

289, 22. 27.

Kubh, 82, col. 10. Mini .- Cate of Maoi, 191, 17.

Kubadh b. Feroz, 192, 8. Elankir, a mountain, 255, 34. Avu-Mausur b. 'Abd-alrazzak, 119, Kûfa, 28, 39. Al-Kulthimi, 335, 15. 19; 127, 16.

Ķumm, 215, 1. Aba-Naar Mangur b. 'Ali b. 'Irak,

Ibu-Kunasa (sce Yahya), 339, 34. 167, 7.

Kushan, King of Mesopotamis, 90, Abu-Ja'far Manşur, 80, 5; 262, 30.

Kulaiba L. Muslim Albabil, 41, 18. Marcian, 291, 34.

38; 42, 6; 58, 8. Marcion, 27,9; 189,30. Mard, Mardana, 107, 39. Mardawij, 47, 24. Mare clansum, 236, 17. Mar Mari, 309. 7, 10 ; 310, col. 11. Martyrs of the Melkites, 283. 4. 35

458

Marw, 283, 42; 296, 1. Marw-alsbahi; in, 86, 9. Months of the Syrians, 69, 40;

Marzuban b. Rustam, Ispahhadh, 70, 12: 83, 7.

191,44. Months of the Thamha, 74, 27 ; 82,

Abû-Ma'shar, 29, 4; 31,4; 91,31; 94, 39, 44; 95, 5; 187, 34; Montbs of the Turks, 83, cols. 1, 8. col. 6

Months of the people in the west 842, 15, 27. Masmsghan, 214, 6. (Spaniards?) 59, 26; 83, S.

Al.masrūka, 53, 25. Months of the inhabitants of Kuba,

Mazdak, 192, 6; 194, 32. 82, col. 10.

Medinet.almanaur, 262, 32. Months of the inhabitants of Bu-

Melkites, 282, 5, 21, 22. khurik (?) 82, col. 9.

Melkites of Cnorasmia, 283, 4. Month .- The small month of the

Menoshe'ihr, 205, 19, 40. Egyptians, 59, 28.

MeshA and Meshana, 107, 36 ; 116, Months: beginnings in the oycle of 28 years, 175, 10.

Messia, 18, 16, 49 ; 19, 4, 11, 17. Months of the Pilgrimage, 325, 9.

Meton, 234, 32; 239, 28. Moon, 163, 18; 219, 4,

Metrodorus, parapegmatist, 233, Stations of the moon of the Araba, 226, 29; 335, 28. 17. Stations of the moon, calculations Midian, 98, 10. Mihrjan, 201, 3; 207, 35 ; 208, 29, of their risings and settings,

33, 36, 39, 40, 45; 209, 11, 26, 342,1; 354, 6. Stations of the moon of the Choras. 35, 41. MilAd, Môled, 144, 10. miaus, 226, 4.

Milfdites, Jewish sect, 68, 35. Stations of the moon, distances between them, 358, 1. Milhân. 245, 1. Mina, 324, 31. Stations of the moon of the Sog- dians and Chorasmians, 227,82. Miraghn, 208, 35. Stations of the moon: Mirin, summer-soletice with the tables,

Pergians, 258, 24. 851; 352; 355; 356.

Moled, its caleulation, 147. Moonstone, 168, 24.

Moled-limits, 150, 22. Mordekhai, 274, 14.

Months of the Arahs, 71, 18; 75, Mosque of Salomo, 127, 91.

35 ; 82, cols. 3, 4. Mosque of Damaac, 187, 27. Al-Mubahala, 332, 4. Months of the Chorasmians, 57,13; Muammad, 22, 17; 46, 31; 299, 82, col. 1. Months of the Egyptians, 58, 33; 15 ; 294, 18, 21.

59.1; 83, col. 9. Mnhammad b. 'Abd-al'aziz Alba-

Months of the Greeks, 83, col. 5; sbimi, 315, 26. Muhammad b. "Abd-almalik Alzay- 241, 31. Months of the Hindua, 83, col. 2. yât, 265, 12.

Months of the Jews, 62, 16; 82, Abu-Alf Mubammad b. 'Abmad Albalkbi, 107, 43. col. 5; 143, 19. Months of Almu'tadid, 81, 14. Abu-Abdallah Mubammad b. 'Ah.

Months of the Persians, 52, 12; mad, Khwarizm-Shah, 42, 17. Muhammad b. 'Alf b. Shalmaghan, 82, col. 4. Months of the Romans, 59, 26; Abu-alwafh Mubammad AlhnzA- 198, 1.

83, col. 3. Months of the Saci, 52, 25; 82, jant, 29, 32. Abu-Bakr Mubammad b. Duraid

Months of the Sogdians, 56, 22; col. S. or Ibn Duraid, 74, 15. Abt-Ja'far Mubammad b. Habib 82, col. 2. Albaghdâdî, 824, 4.

459

Muhammad b. Alhanafiyya, 195, Na'ila, 39, 18. 38 Nairanjat, astrologico . dietetical Muhannnad b. Ishak b. Usthdh rules, 200, 20; 201, 45; 208, Buudiulh Als.uakhst, 20, 32. 36; 211. 10; 238, 35. Abu-Muhammad Aljabali, 335, 17. Al-najm, 344, 1. Muhammad b. Jabir Albattâni, Najran, 332, 4. 177, 2; 358, 33. Al-uakba, 340, 5. Muhammad b. Aljahım Albarmakt, Names of the planets, 171, 43. 108, 4. Nasâ, 192, 7. Mubaurmad b. Jarir Altabari, 50, Nasi', 14,39; 73, 25; 930, 17. 20. Naşir-aldaula, 93, 23. Muhammad b. Mityar, 250, 15; Nati, 324, 32. 258, 26. Al-nath, 343, 22. Muhammad b. Mush b. Shakir, 61, Nathan the prophet, 269, 12. 38, 43 ; 285, 23. Al-nathra, 345, 15. Abu-Ja'far Muhammad b. Sulai- Nau', 339, 6. mân, 80, 5, Naubakht, 262, 37. Abû-Bıkr Mubammad b. Zakariyya Naujushauas b. Adharbakht, 44, 8. Alrâzi, 243, 31. Naurôz the great, 201, 36. Muharram, calculstion of the 1st of Muharram, 183, 11 ; 321, Nauroz of the Khalif, 258, 10. Nauroz, myths rel iting to, 199, 1. 11. Nebukadnezar, 272, 26; 276, 19, Mn'izz-aldauls, 93, 15. 30, 34; 314, 13. Mukharrim, 93, 13. Al-mukhtir b. Abi-Ubaid Altha- Nestorians, 282, 8, 21. Nestorius, 282, 8; 291, 31; 306, kafi, 195, 37. 4. Al-multahiyâni, 93, 25. New-year's feast of the Sabians, Mulu k-altawi'if, 17, 32. Almundhir b. Ma-alsama, 49, 22. 316, 24.

Musa b. 'Isa Alkisrawi, 122, 14, 25 ; New-moon, its calculation, 68, 1.

127, 1; 128. New-moon, observed by the Mus- lius, 76, 12, 35. Abu-Musa Al'ash'ari, 34, 26. Musailima, 192, 26. New-moon calculation, introduced

Al-mushakkar, 324, 12. amongst the Jews, 68, 3.

Aba-Muslim, 193, 16; 194, 10; 330, New-mouu, according to the Rab. banites and 'Ananites, 67, 16;

Almm'tadid, his months, 81, 14. 27 69, 20, 33.

Almu'tadid, 12, 29; 229, 5; 230,5; Nights .- Names of several nights with the Arals, 74, 37; 240, 232, 8. Almn'taşizn, 50, 27; 285, 19. 24; 252, 27; 258, 18; 259,

Almutawakkil, 37, 9. 14

Alnat'im, 337, 15; 348, 17. Nile, 230, 25. Nimrad, 100, 20. 25. Nim-sarda, 221, 35, 38. Ninive-faste, 311, 22.

N. Notes from uatural history, pro- portion of numbers in the formation of blossoms, stones,

Nabatæans, 70, 5. etc., 294, 2, 36.

Nabulus, 25, 15. Abu-Nu'as, 261,30.

Nadab and Abihû, 274, 37. Nuļ b. Mansur, prince of Khura-

Al-na'ib Alamuli, Abu-Muhammad, sin, 330, 38.

15, 17; 53,34; 346, 12. Nuwad-roz, 212, 12.

460 INDEX.

Ptolamaus, 11, 10; 33,34; 35, 19; 0. 98, 25, 27; 232, 23 ; 322, 16. Ptolemaus Philadelphus, 24, 15.

Observations of the Hindus, 29, Ptolemæaus, 103. Public offices in Byzantium, 288, 26. Observations of the Persians, 29, Porim, 273, 24; 277, 12. 83.

25. October, first month of tha year Pythagoras, 187, 44.

with the Syrians, 69, 42. Ordo intercalationis, 64, 32; 65,

Orus, 252, 10, 21 ; 259, 6; 263, 5. 1,6. R.

Rabbanites, 67, 16; 68, 21; 278,

P. Rabi', 321, 17. 41.

Alrâbiya, 324, 22.

Pahlavi, 108, 15. Rai, 338, 8.

Paraclete, 190, 9; 304, 25, 27. Alra'i, Jewish pseudo-prophet, 18,

Paradise, 238, 41. 19.

Pârân, 22, 10. Rajab, 321, 12.

Parapagma, 293, 13. Ibn-alrakki, 338, 38.

Passover of the Jews, 66, 29; 141, Ramadān, 77, 10 ; 321, 28.

28: 159, 6 Ramush, 221, 15.

Passover, 274, 44; 277, 13. Eush-Agham, 221, 15.

Patriarch of Antiochia, 284, 2. Euya'il (Barfail?), 196, 1.

Patriarchs, 284, 20. Restoration of the Zoroastrian

Patriarchs of the Bible, 85, 9. creed, 196, 43.

Bt. Paul, 81 4, 29. Resnrrection Church in Jerusalem,

Pentecontarins, 285, 12. 287, 20.

Persians, their æra of creation, 17, Ribas, 107, 36; 108, 27. Roman emperors, 104; 105.

Persian kings, 13,8. 19. Rosh-Gâlutha, 19, 6.

Persian chronology, 107, 1. Rosh-hashshana, 152, 16; 268, 13;

Persian characters, 186, 16. 277, 10, 27, 39; 278, 4.

Persian names of the zodiacal Rosh-Hodesh, 155, 18; 157.

figures, 173, 10, col. 3. Abu-Ruh (see Antonius Martyr),

Persian numes of the planets, 172. 287, 39.

Peshdadh, 116, 17. Ruscam b. Sbirwin, Ispahbad, 47,

Peshdadians, 13, 8; 110,18; 111; 32.

113; 114. Ruyân, 205, 33. Alsa'b b. Albammål Alhimyari, 49, Petrug, 311, 34 Pharao, 275, 8; 327, 18; 328, 12, 34.

Phetion, 308,4. 7.

Pbilippus, parapegmatist, 238, 14. S. Pilgrimage .- Farewell-pilgrimage, 74, 7. Projection, 357, 1. Sabians, J8, 23 ; 186, 23; 188, 26,

Prophets, 347, 22. 42; 814, 11, 28; 322, 27.

Psalter, 331, 13. Sabzarud, 255, 11.

Ptolemæus, parapegmatist, 284, 26. Sa'd-sldhAhih, 349, 1. Sa'd-bula:, 249, 6.

461

Sa'd-alsu'ud, 849, 15. Sa'd-al'akhbiya, 349, 21. ShAbin, 208, 28.

Sa'd-Nashira, 353, 32 Shabiya, 41, 6.

Alşadik (vide Ja'far). 79, 21. Shah :Ama, 108, 1; 121, 2.

Safar, 321, 15. Sbahrazur, 44, 13.

Abu-Hamid AisaghAni, 357, 34. Shaiban, 245, 1.

Said b. Alfadl, 199, 28; 208, 27. Shamanians, 189, 2.

Sa'td b. Muhamuad Aldhuhli, 116, Shamma, 273, 20. Abu-Karib Shammar Yurish, 49,

Abu-Sa'id Shadhan, 91, 40. 8. 35.

Sail-al'arim, 255, 9. Shams-alna'ali, 1, 25; 2, 42; 12,

Alsalâmi, 330, 4. 12; 47, 17; 131, 30; 365,

Salamiyya, 263, 21. 14.

Sallam b. 'Abdaliah b. Sallam, 27, Al-shamsiyya, 314, 7. Shapur, Dhu-al'aktaf, 39, 19.

Salman the Persian, 27, 19; 208, 18 Shapur b. Ardashir, 190, 2. ShApur, 309, 2. 21. Al-eharatin, 343,1. Salmanassar, 275, 41. Al-shargb, 222, 5. 8alomo-Legend, 199, 7. Al-shaula, 348, 13. Samanides, 48, 5. Samaritans, 25, 2 ; 67, 27 ; 270, Shawwal, 321, 30.

314, 20. Shefat, 69, 31.

Bamarkand, 191, 30. Shi'a, 177, 7; 326, 2, 19. Al-shihr, 324, 18. Sâmarra, 99, 10. Sâmirůs, 49,17. Shiraz, 217, 28.

SammA'un with the Manicheans, Shirwan.Shahs, 48, 16.

190, 26. Siamese twins, 93, 23.

8amuel, 275, 16. Sibawaihi, 347, 1.

San'â, 324, 21. Siddikun with the Manichaans,

Ibn-Senkila (Syncellus), 186, 27. 190, 18, 29.

Sarandib, 94, 42 ; 345, 33. Sijistan, 52, 25 ; 235, 37.

Al-şarfa, 346, 19. Alsimâk, 317, 20; 346,30.

Sarůj, 316, 5; 318, 6, 9. Simeon b. Sabba'e, catholicus, 292, 6. Saaanians, 123; 124; 125; 126; Simon Magus, 291, 43.

Siwa, 206, 28. Sinan b. Thabit, 232, 6, 21, 27, 30;

Sawad-al irik, 314, 22. 233, 1, 5; 262, 14; 267, 9; 322,34. Sawar, 51,1. Seasons, table of, 823. Sindbind, 11, 12; 29, 27; 31, 5;

Seasons of the Arabs, 322, 4, 15; 61,31; 266,25.

323, cols. 8,9. Sirius, 261, 24; 337, 36; 338, 40.

Seasens f the Byzantines and Siyamak and Frawak, 108, 40.

Syrians, 322, 29; 323, Siyawush, 40,42. Slavonians, 110, 4. 2, 3. Ssasons of the Greeks, 322, 17; Snake, signitcation of the sppear- ance of &, 218. 323, cols. 4, 5. 8ects, Mubammadan, 76, 16. Solar cycle, 66, 7 ; 164,9.

Seder.'ôlam, 87, 13; 88, col. 4; 90, Solar year, 141, 29. Solar year of the Jews, 64, 1; 143, 29 Septuaginta, 24, 4. 81; 163, 42.

Seven Sleepers, 285, 18. Solar year of Muhammad b. MAsa

Sexagesimal system, 132,1B. and Ahmad b. Musa, 61, 39.

Al-eha bi, 34, 26. Solar year of the Persians, 61, 35; 220, 16.

462 INDER.

Sophists, 96, 14. Thales of Miletus, 31, 45. Spring of th Chinese, 266, 10. Star oyels, 29, 18. Thamad, the names of their

Abu-alhueain Alņufi, 195 7; 855; months, 74, 27.

358, 34. Theodorus of Mopsuestia, 196, 4.

Ibn-alşūff. 347, 40. Theodosius Minor, 291, 30.

Al-suhâ, 250, 13; 266, 20. Theodosius, son of Arcadius, 291,

ŞubAr, 324, 15. 26.

Aba-Tabir Sulaiman Aljannabi, Theon Alexandrinue, 12, 26, 38;

196, 18; 197,32. 82,30

Al-şuli, 36, 14; 37,9. Thora, 331, 12, 24.

Sun, 168, 21, 29. Thora of the Jews, 22, 40; 23,39.

Sunday .- Now Sunday, 304, 5. Thora of the Seventy, 24, 4; 25,

Sun .- Rays of tha snn, 247, 3. 36.

SûristAn, 70, 6. Thora of the Samaritans, 24, 18,

Surnames of the AshkAniane, 117. 27; 29, 8.

Surnames of the Peshdadians and Al-thurayyh, 836, 27, 29, 33; 842,

Kayanians, 111. 37, 98,41 ; 343,34.

Surnames of the Sasaniaus, 123. Tiberias, 279, 3.

Surra-man-ra'a, 98, 7; 99, 11. The tides, 260, 13.

Synodus, 291, 9. Tigrie, 252, 22.

Syriaca, 19, 10. Tinnis, 240, 28.

Syrian names of the planets, 172, TiragâD, 205, 15.

col. 4. Titles of princes, 109, 14.

Syrian fathers, 311, 88; 318. Titles of the Samanides, 131, 9.

Syrian names of the figures in tha Titles of the Vizirs, 11, 1. Titles during the Chalifate, 129, 1. zodiac, 173, col. 4. Titles .- Table of Titles, 180. Tůba, 831, 42. Tarks, their months, 83, cols. 1,8. T. Turtle-doves, 219, 11, 28. Țus, 216, 38.

Țabaristât, 235, 5, 6. Tustar, 273, 25, 28.

A1-tAhir, 235, 30. Tâzûn, 93, 10.

Tâhir h. ȚAhir, 211, 15. Abu-alkisim 'Ubaid-Allah b. 'Abd- Tahmarath, 27, 44; 28, 11. allab b. Khurdadbih, 234, 39.

Tabrif, 28, 27. TAk, 235, 19. Talaķân, 195, 2, 33. U. Abu-Talib, 382, 12. Talisman, 217, 4. "Ubaid-Allth b. Alhasan AlkaddAh, Tall-Harrao, 318, 15. Tammuz, 317,37. Al-tarf, 345, 19. Abt-alkasim Ubaid-Allah b. Sulei- 48,8.

Ta'rikh, 34, 17. mån b. Wahb, 38,4. 'Ubaid-allih b. Yahya, 6, 19. Tieu'a, 826, 1 Al-tawawie, 221, 32. Ukâż, 324, 22.

Tekufoth, their calculation, 162,27; Ukhara, 214, 28.

168, 3, 13, 14; 169; 174, 1. 'Umar b. Alkhattan, 34,7; 49.29;

Terminas paschalis, 300, 35. 196, 6; 338, 41.

Thabir, 333, 18. Umayyades,326,13.

Thabit b. Kurra, 61, 45; 252,44. Al'-'urdunn, 264, 2.

Thabit b, Sinân, 93,6 ; 264, 28. Urishlem, 19,22, 25. | 'Uthmin b. 'Affan, 938, 27.

INDEX. 463

Yazdagird b. ShApûr, 38, 24, 31; V. 56, 5; 121, 25. Yazdanhakbt, 191, 19.

Vacnum, 254, 15. Year, definition, 11, 4; 12, 8. Great years, 91, 2, 20, 24. Small ycars, 91, 7.

W. Solar rear, 12, 26. Year, its beginning in the ryele of 28 vears, 175. Waikard, brother cf Hoshang, 206, Year, its beginning with the Chor- 17: 212, 11. asinians, 184, 37; 223, 1. Wakhsh, 225, 23. Year, its heginning with the Egyp- Wakhsh-Angam, 225, 23. tians, 230, 24. Waki' Alkadi, 106, 3. Year, its beginning with the Jews, Wali-aldaula Ahd-Ahmad Khalaf 66, 10. b. Abmad, prince of Sijistin, Year, its beginning with the Per- 330,37. sians, 201, 4. Wardanshah, 47, 24. Year, its beginning with the SA- Warmth, 246, 41. bians, 815, 14, 18; 316, 24; Waterspout, 253, '6. 318, 22 ; 319, 5; 320, 2, col, 8. Wasit, 188, 34. Year, its beginning with the Sog- Water .- Rising of the water, 253, dians, 184, 37 ; 220, 20. 13. Year of the heathen Arabs, 13, 34. Weatber .- Predieting the Year of Angustns, 103, 3, 5. ther, with the Arabs, 336, 26. Year of the Chorsmians, 13, 5, 20. Week, 58, 21, 32 ; 60, 19, Year of the Christians, 13, 30. Week-days, 75, 33. Yerr of Dioeletianus, 103, 4. Wijan b. Judarz, 206, 32. Years hetween the Flight of Mu- Winds, Etesian, 259, 43 ; 262, 25, hammad and his Death, 35, 28. 30; 339, 32 Years of the Harranians, 318, 32. Winds .- Swallow-winds, 248, 22. Years of the Hindus, 15, 5. Winds .- Bird-winds, 248, 17, 31, Year of the Jews, 62, 25; 158. 34. Kinds of Years with the Jews, 66, 17. Year of the Jews, Sabians, Harra- Y. nians, 13, 22. Year of the Persians, 12, 40; 13,

Yabya b. 'Alf Alkatib Al'anbari, Year of the Peshdadians, 13,8. 19.

238,39. YabyA grammaticus, 225, 14. Year of Philippus, 103, 3, 4.

Yabya 6 Khalid b. Barmak, 37, 4. Years of Restitution, 160, 3.

Abo-Yahya b. Kunasa, 335, 16; Year of the Sogdiana, 13, 5, 20.

339, 35 ; 351, col. 12. Year-quarters, their length with

Yahya b. Alnu'man, 191, 1. the Jews, 163, 34.

Ya'kub b. Ishak Alkindt, 245, 18. Yehoyakim, 271, 21.

Ya'kub b. Musa Alnikrisî, 269, 19; 270, 14. Ya kuh b. Thriķ. 15, 18. Z. Yamâma, 94, 36; 192, 38. Yaman 255, 1. Yazdagird Alhizari, 56, 7. Zacharia the prophet, 19, 29.

Yazdagird b. Shabryar, 120, 16. Zadawaihi, 53, 37; 202, 7; 207, 11, Zaid h. 'Ali' Imâm, 328, 32.

464 INDEX.

Zaidites, 79, 10. Alzajjaj, 344, 37; 346, 11,26; 347, Zoroaster, 17, 12; 55, 29; 186,21; 189, 26; 191; 45; 198, 34; 30; 348, 32. Ibn-Abi-Zakarivyâ, 196, 21. 196,40; 201,40; 205, 2; 209, 35 ; 211, 35; 220, 19; 221, 4, Zamzam, 332, 36. Zamzama, 194, 2; 204, 9, 14; 209, 5; 314, 4, 6.

21 Zoroastrians, 17, 10; 35, 23; 314,

2amzami, 194, 17. 4 ;318, 28.

Zanjân, 216, 40. Zoroastrians in Chorasmia, 223,

Zau b. Tahmâsp, 202, 45; 210, 4. Zedekia, 271, 8. Zoroastrians in Transoxiana, 56, 12

Zoological notes, 92, 42 . 214, 11, 29. Alzubânâ, 347,82. 14.

Alzubra, 346, 9.