1. BkE-BishanSwarup-TheoryofIndianMusic-1933-0010

THEORY

OF

INDIAN MUSIC

BY

RAI BAHADUR BISHAN SWARUP RETIRED CHIEF ENGINEER AND SECRETARY TO TAF GOVERNMENT OF B S O

SWAPUP BPOTHERS MAITHAN AGRA

1988

PREFACE

WHEN the Senate of the Patna University, of which 1 had the honour to be a member, passed the mtroduction of music m the Univer- sity, one of the subjects prescribed was the theory of Indian musie It was then that I thought of writing a book on the subject, althougb I could not make a beginnmng until long after my retiro- ment five years ago I did not realise at the time that it was such a difficult task, there being hardly any Indian book available that dealt with the subject scientifically, not that the broad prmciples of Indian music are not known to the present day music experts, or not found mn any of the books, but how these prmciples came into existence, or why it is necessary to follow them is not to be found anywhere Sbrutis and Gramas, for instance, are common terms in Indian musio, but I have not seen a single book explaining

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clearly and correctly what is meant by thesg terms. An endeavour has been made in these pages to get at how the several principles govern- ing Indian music came to be established and it is a matter of gratification to find that all of them have scientific bases The chief function of music, the expression of sentiments, as also the psychologiea! mterpreta- tion of tunes, 1s altogether absent from the books on Indian music. Sharngdeva in his Sangia Ratnakara no doubt mentions the sentiments expressed by the tunes of his time, but that caan- not be of any use to us, as the tunes, boing some 700 years old, are all obsolete, and the method of interpretation has not been explamed. The art of harmony, which it is universally and perhaps rightly said does not exist m Indian music, but whch was practised in old times as has been shown mn this book, does not find even a mention mn any of the books available.

All this required original mvestigation, and a treatment of the subject altogether different from that found in the existing treatises. An attempt has, however, been made to explamn the subjects dealt with as lucidly and clearly as possible, giving illustrations where necessary.

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I fully reahse the imperfectness of the produe tion, partly due to the subjeot being altogether new, but mostly to my own shortcomings All that is hoped is that it will create a desorved res pect for the principles laid down by the ancient writers, give a start to their scientific applica tion and provide material for further investiga- tion

B SWARUP

CONTENTS B7 .

CHAPTER SOBJECT PAGE No

I INTRODUCTION -Muste a Fine Art 1 comparieon with other Fine Arts, Mosic in Indra separated from Poetry , Subjects included in Musto

II Souvo -Sound Vibrationg Musical 11 Sonnds Pitch Concordaut Sounds, Octave Saptaka Sthana

MUSICAL NOTES -Musical Notes in 17 Harmonic Series Old Names of the Notes Vibrations Intervale Shrutis

IV MUSICAL NOTES (continued) -New 27 names how fixed standardising of Notes, Grama Changes effected, Pre ent day Main Note

V VIKRITA NOTES -Vikrita Notes based 39 on sbratis Comparison of the Notes nsed at different times Reduction of the number a disadvantage

VI SCALES -- Grama and Grr Murebhana Vikrita not from Murchhanas 0 Scales Marga and Deslu nagas

VII NEW SCALES -Grama Ragas in Ourrent 62 music New Vikrita notes obtained from Murchhanas How Shadja and Panchama become Fized notes , New Parent Scales worked out

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER SUBJECT. PAGE No

VIII RELATION OF NOTES WITH EACH OTHFR - 74 Affinty of notes, Samwadıs, Vivadıs eto., Shrutis necessary to determine affinity, Danger in discarding Shrutis.

IX TUNES .- Vakra or obhque notes and 85 tunes Tunes with 7, 6, or 5, notes Murchhanas Possible number of tunes Ample scope for addition of tunes.

X RAGAS OR MELODIOUS TUNrS -Raga 93 defined. Its arrangement Tanss Alankaras Ban on Tivra Madh. yama

XI RHYTEN OR TIMING - Tala defined, 105 Matras and their divisions, differ- ence with European timing; Old Jatı talas, Present talas and their derivation from old talas, Sama and Vishama grabs

XII HARMONY .- Harmony defined, For 127 gotten in India; Three kinds of Harmony in Indian Music

INDIAN RAGAS AND RAGINIS -Ragas 134 and Ragins how differentiated in different periods, Sargams of Ragas or tunes of current Indian Music; Analysis of tunes by Music experts

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER SUBJECT PAGE No

XIV HARMONT -Ragas and their Raginis 156 of the old writers in harmony with each other Repodiation of the theory that Indian Masio had no barmony Method of forming Oon cert music

XV TIIE OF KAGAS -Time determned by 168 the physical and mental condttion of the singer Tivra Madbyams the chief determining note List of tunes according to the time of sing ins

XVI EXPFESSION -Inper meanings of notes 178 Well inv stigated by old writers Expression of each Sbrati note in dicated by its name

XVII SENTIMENTS OR RASAS -Rasas defined 188 Feelings and sentiments classified How feelinge mantfest themselves physically and mentally

XVIII EIPRESSION -Value of the notes in 198 connection with different sentiments The use of Vadı Samvadı and Vivsdı notes Importance of Nyasa Jatı ragas

XIX OOMPOSITION AND INTERPRETATION OF Toves -Method of expressing the 209

several sentiments ib Music, How

CONTENTS.

CHAPTFR, SUBJFCT. PAOF

tunes conld be interpreted, explained by illustrations, Why certnin tunes can have more than one inter pretation.

Xx PERSONIFICATION OP TONES ~De-crip 218 tion of persomfied Ragas and Ragt. nis Meant to erpress sentiments How to interpret them.

XXI GrSTICULATING AND DANCING. -Prac tical playing on instruments, acting and danoing beyond tue scope of this bool, Work of an actor and a dancer in connection with mugic bnefly explmned

XXII NOTATION .- The system of recording 227 music at different times. Advantage of the Indian system of recording notes by their mitials.

THEORY OF INDIAN MUSIC

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Music a Fine Art Comparison with other Fine Arts Music in India separated from Poetry Subjects included in Music

THE Indnn word for music i9 Sangita, which means a churus or a song sung by many voices, and also apphes to singing accompamed by play ing of instruments ind dancing In its vist compass, therefore Indian music includes music in all its forms, vocal, instrumental, choral, together with the allied arts of dancing and gesticulating As in all other advanced countries so in India, music is considered to be a fine art As such it may be defined as an art which employs sounds (not necessarily words), combined so as to be agreeable to the ear, as a medium of expressing one's emotions and perceptions, and of creating mn the hearers the emotions and perceptions desired by the artist It is the finest

among the fine arts. A music artist has a more difficult task to perform than the other artists, sculptors, painters, poets and archtects, because, while the latter present their work to the audience in a tangible shape with feelmngs express- ed, the musician has to stimulate the imagina- tion of his audience and thereby engender in them those feelings to make himself understood. The scene of a lady wailing over the long absence of her lover, for instance, when presented by a sculptor, or a painter, or a poet, can easily produce the desired effect, but it is not so easy to do so by means of mere tunes. Ths is owing to sculpture and painting being percerved through the eye, unlke music, which is perceived through the ear Perceptions, we know, are transformed into emotions through ideas, based on previous ex- perience, which require words to form them, and words have a much closer psychological connec- tion with objects perceived by the eye than with those perceived by the ear A figure or a picture of the lady, or the mere words "lady wailing over the long absence of her lover", will creato the desired emotions in the audience much sooner than the tune Bhúpali, the appropriate tune to

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express and dreate those emotions, is it has first to excite the imagination of the audience to perceive the wailing of the ldy, before any ideas can be formed and the desired emotion produced The name of the tune, viz, "Bhupal", will not create any impression even in the audience who know the tuno, but if i description of the tune is given, it will have some effect as it brings/the scene before the mental vision T'he Raginí (tune) Bhupalf is described as a lady soparated from her lover, wearing a yellow sári (cloth) all her body turned pale due to the fire of separation

Music, being perceptible thiough the er, thus takes time to have its effect on emotions, and it must be admitted that the emotions created are not very definite The help of words in the form of songs or poetry is therefore sought and acting is resorted to for better effect The whole histot y of European music is a history of composition of appropriate songs for different occasions, rather than he evolution of tunes The tunes were kept subordmn sted to the latter The tunes by themselves do not, and it was never perhaps meant that they should, produce partic

[3]

ular emotions, and as such lose the character of a fine art. In India the case has been different Here music was treated quite independently of poetry or songs. At the start when, for instance, the hymns of Samaveda were sung over three thousand years ago, the tunes must have been composed to correspond with the subject-matter of the songs, and, bire iersa, songs composed to describe what the tunes expressed Later, however, music was considered as a subject distinct from poetry.

Ths gave both an advantage and a disadvan- tage to the Indian music. The advantage was that it enabled the various notes to be clearly distinguished from one another; their relations to each other found out, their effect, severally, as well as in combmation, on the human mind determined, in short, it enabled details bemg worked out on a scientific basis All this, and perhaps more, is to be found now in the European music also, but the credit of the scientific analysis must be given to the ancients, and India can easily claim to be the foremost among them

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This scientific treatment of music, as' a subject distmet from postry, enabled the Indians to compose, by suitable combmnations, a variety of tunes, some to express particul u feelings and stimulate particular emotions, some for devotional purposes, some soothing to the br uo and pleasing to the ear and so on, suitable fot different hours of the day ot different seasons of the year Each or these tunes excepting perhaps some recent combin tions has been allotted i name, and can be distinguished by tr unea eirs from others A good Indtan musicrin can sing my song m any of the tunes, ind so can solect his tune for his sougs to smt the pirticulir occasion or the time of the dav f'ins is a great advantage, ralculated to make mu ic effective The disadvantage of ahenating music from poetry has been thit tunes not having been fixed for the particulat pieces of poetry or songs, the latter ire not infrequently sung in tunes quite inappropriate to their subjects One sometimes hears songs with subjects like complants against the frolicsome behaviour of Krishna made by tho Gopkas of Gokul to his mother, sung in highly plamtive tunes like Sohini Many good musicians not of course artists, are found offenders in

this respect; nor are the Hindustani theatres altogether free from this defect Sometimes it is very jarring on the ear when a song 1s unsuited to the subject. To enjoy music, there- fore, it is best, mn such cases not to try to understand the subject of the song The Indian poetry abounds in songs on all subjects, and also there are bundreds of tunes 40 that any feeling can be adequately expressed, but it is a matter of regiet that the proper application i wanting In fact, leaving out the effort made of a revival in recent years, the use of music as a fine art seems to have been lost. Reverting to the comparison between music and other fine arts, we have seen that, mn the matter of expression, musie has to exert itself much more for being effective than the other fine arts Music has, besides, other disadvantages While the other fine arts have prototypes m nature to copy, music has practically none readily available For a sculpture or a painting every phase of emotions can be found in every- day life. Poetry has words by which to express itself But in the case of music, it means evolving of principles by carefully considering the effect of each note and combination of notes.

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Many of the human emotions are, no doubt, expressible by variations mn tone of the voice, but those are difficult to catch and, until very recently, they could not be definnely recorded The subjoct was, notwithstanding the difficulty, thoroughly gone into, ind as has been said above, Indian music possesses tunes representing almost every phase of human emotions As a matter of fact, this subject formed one of tho seven parts of the books on Sangita The seven parts, called "Adhyayas " are (1) Sura thyaya, dealng with different notes, (2) Ragadhyaya, dealing with tunes, (3) Taladhyay i dealing with rhythm and timing, (4) Hastadhyay i dealing with the playing on instruments, (5) Nritya ihyaya on dancing, (6) Bhavadhyaya on gesticulating and acting and (7) Arthadhyaya on the meaning, sense and significa tion of the tunes T'he last part dealt with the subyect Leaving aside the question of expression and producing emotions, if we consider only tho quality of exciting pleasure, or cheering one up when one feels mserable, music surpasses all other fine arts The latter do not even come near musc in this respect The finest sculpture or painting would be passed scantily noticed, oxoapt

by persons specially interested mn those arts. On the contrary, any piece of music, vocal or instru- mental, draws some sort of audience, the number and the nature of the bearers depending on the quality of the music. Its attractiveness may be seen from the fact that almost every entertain- ment has music of some sort on its progiamme.

Music, it has been observed, bas its effeet also upon lower animals. In India, the charming of snakes by playing on flutes (known as Bin) is a frequent experience. It is also said antelopes used to be caught by charming them with music. D'Israel, in his " Curiositics of Literatme", bas given several anecdotes describing the effect of music on anmals, w hich show how horses, doge, hinds, mice, some of the birds, hzards, and even spiders, come out of their way to hear music. The result of a musical experiment made in the London Zoo, described by the Director of the Zoo Society's Aquarmm, may be mteresting. He says (orde the ' Daily Telegraph " copied in the " Englishman" of 25th Apnil, 1927) " The rhmnoceros was found to have no ear for music, and attempted to charge the orchestra, no matter what tune was played

[8]

The sea hons on the other hand, were do- lighted with evervthing put before them with the exception of "jazz" No matter how busy playing m their pond, they paused, and rose to the surface as soon as the orche tra struck up Most of the melodies that had exasperated the rhino delighted them, and they remamed stind ing waist-high out of the witer until the last str uns had died away Thunder storms and war time gunfire have no effect upon the se hons, so that mere noise cannot offer an explanation foi enthusiasm The Zoo's wolves ind jackals responded all too readily to the music offered A tune set in a minor key at once caused them to pomt then noses to the sky and give voice in so vociferous a manner as to drown completely the orchestra The minor key, depressing at all times, had a hke effect upon most of the animals The cheetih thoroughly enjoyed ' I want to be happy," butreg istered discontent ind even alarm when favoured with Gounod s " Funer dl March" The or chestra when playing in the reptile house never failed to bring the crocodile to the surface In fact every pond was emptied the beasts clusterig on the banks and, with heads upraised, evinc-

[ 9]

ing the keenest interest in the performance. In the msect house, the like effect was obtained with the scorpions and certam spiders All birds, strange to say, were m no way attracted. Somo were obviously annoyed. " Music is also said to possess medicmal proper- ties. It is particularly effective in coothing the bram and manv a disease of the bram bas been cured by appropriate mnsic It is also said to cure some nervous and other di-ease-, bnt it 15 doubtful if music can claim as mch

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Chapter II SOUND Sound-vibrations Musical sound, Pitch Concordant sounds Octave Saptaka Sthana MUSIC has been defined as an art of combin ing sounds in such a way as to be agreeable to the ear Sound is generated by the vibratory motion of the particles of a body caused by its getting into a state of tramor due to iny shook or otherwise It is conveyed to the ear through in elastic medium such as air or water If a bell is rung inside a jar from which air has been extracted by means of an air pump, the sound of the bell cannot be heard, so a medium is necessary for hearing a sound The vib-ations may be generated in the medtum itself, as in the case of a flute In all cases, the vibrations are transmitted to the air (or other media) causing undulations, known as accoustic waves, which in turn cause vibrations mn the membranes of the ear These stimulate the anditory nerves, whicb conduct the sound impulses to the bram, and make the sound beard

When a series of vibrations enters the ear at equal intervals of time, rapidly following each other, so that no intermission is perceived, the result is a musical sound. If the intervals are so long thuit the perception of a vibration is lost before the successive one is perceived, or if they are so short that the vibrations cannot be dis- tinctly perceived, the sound ceases to have d musical character In the one case it will hardly be audible, mn the other it will foum a nore Phe minimum and maximum number of vibtatio is for the sounds which can be called musical are 16 and 8192 per second respectively sounds, so far as their effect on the eat is con- cerned, are orstingmshed fiom each other by what are called then pitcb, loudness and umbre Pitch is what makes the sounds known as acute, shrill, high, sharp, grave, deep, low, flat, etc It depends on the rapidity of vibtations of the particles of the an m contact with the car A low number of vibrations in a given time (s9v a second) gives grave or low tones, a high num- ber giving acute or shrill tones; and the higher the number of vibrations, the chriller the tone Pitch is thus directly proportional to the number of vibrations.

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Loudness depends on the violence with which the membranes of the ear nre excited, and there- fore on the extent or amphtude of the vibri tions of the body emitting the sonnd Timbre is the p cularity of impression pro duced on the ear by the tone or sound of the instrument or voice which distinguishes it from a hke tone or sound of another instrument or VOICO It depends on the harmonics co existing with the fundamental tone ind thoir relativo intensities The terms, harmomics and funda mental, will be defned further on

Of the three festures of sonnd, pitcb is by far the most important Sevoral istruments have been designed to measure the pitch or tl o number of vibritions producing a sound The most stmple and convement comparative meagure of the pitch 1s a string stretched over two sup ports, as in a Sitar or Vina On being strnok, the string vibrates and produces sound, the number of vibrations depending on the density and thickness of the string the tension with whch it is stretehed, and the distance between the two supports The hghter the material 18, the more tensely it is stretched, and the smaller

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the distance between the supports, the greater will be the number of vibrations in a given time and mce versa Supposing that the material of the string and the tension in it are uniform, and that the distance between the snpports can be altered at will, the number of vibrations pro- duced by striking the string will be mversely proportional to the length; half the length would give double the number of vibrations, one-third the length three times the number of vibrations, and so on The notes of different pitch following each other or sounding together are more or less pleas- ing to the ear according to the frequency of comci- dences of their vibrations m a given time. Sup- posing, for instance, four notes, P, Q, R, and S, have 400, 500, 600, and 800, vibrations per second res- pectively. Then in each second, the vibrations of P and Q coincide 100 times, of Q and R also 100 times, those of Pand R comcide 200 tumes, and of P and S 400 times. fhe combmnation of P and R will be more pleasing than that of P and Q The relation of P and S is, except for the difference of pitch, the same as would have been with P and another note having 400 vibrations per second. Hence it is said that a note having double the

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number of vibrations in another note is the same as the latter, being only double in pitch It is called Dwiguna (double), Dun or fip of the lower note in Indian music ind octave in European musIc The word octave also denotes the whole ringe of notes from a particular note to its octave In Indian music tlis is called a Saptiki [from the seven intorvals between the mam notes to be mentioned lower downl From the minr mum and maximum number of vibrations mn musical sounds 1t 16 and 8192 it will be seen that the whole range of musical sounds 18 9 oc taves, me 16 vibrations to 32, 32 to 64, 6# to 128, 128 to 256, 256 to 512 512 to 1024, 1024 to 2048, 2048 to 4096 and 4096 to 8192 The human voice extends only to little over three octves, from somewhere in the fourth of the above octaves to the soventh So the Indian Music, which was meant specmlly to deal with sing ing,-playing on instruments being only a subordinate adjunct,-nsually recognises only three octaves or Siptakas These are known as Mandra Sthana Madbys Sthina, and Tar, Sthana corresponding to the terms Bass Middle, and Treble in European music, although

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mot having exactly the same relative value as regards pitch. The notes mn the Madhya (mean- ing middle) Sthana are in the easy natural voice emanating from the throat; the Mandra (low tone) Sthána notes require a httle exertion of the chest or bosom, and the Tara (high or shrill) notes cause some exertion to the head or bram Hence Sharngdeva in his book Sangita Ratnakara says. "In practice of these three, Mandri is expressed in the chesr, Madhya in the throat, and Tára m the head, and thoy are succes ively double of the previous one " The fact that the octave or double of a note is similar to the note itself made the task of fixing other notes relative to a fixed note some- what easier, for when once the necessary or possible notes required for music were fixed for one of the Saptakas, say Madhvasthana, the notes mn the preceding or following Saptakas were to be their halves or doubles respectively.

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Chapter I1I

MUSICAL NOTES Musical Notes in Harmonic Serles , Old Names of the Notes, Vibrations, Interval, Shrutis WHEN a string or wire stretched over two sup ports is struck, it emits a certam sound At the same time, the vibration waves striking the two supports and reflecting from them form nodes, dividing the string into numerous sections emit ting different sounds, all concordant with the orig mal sound of the whole string These subsidiary sounds are called harmonics (the original note being known as the fundamental) because the nodes divide the string in the harmonic series of 1, 4, 3, 4, 6, 6 + ₺, ,1 eto eto Whether the nodes thus generated in strings were observed by the ancients or not is not known So far is however certain, that the ancient Indians knew that the most concordant notes were produced by the divisions of the string in the above harmomc sories So the Danda (as-staff ) of their Vina was divided by frets in

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divisions of 3, , d, ( latterly } by some ) and from the upper support, giving the sounding length of the wire between the frets and the lower support, as 4, %, 2, f and g, or reversing the order to get the lengths for a rismng series of notes as 1, 8, $. 2, 3, 2. The mterval betweon 3 and & being rather big, two notes having 3 the lengths of § and respectively, rie., & and were mtro. duced, making the set of notes in an octavo as 1, $, 4, %, 3, 39, &, %. The relative vibrations of these notes, which are mversely proportional to the length are-taking the original note as having 480 vibrations-480, 540, 600, 640, 720, 810, 900, 960 The last note being double of the first one forms the first note of the next hıgher Saptaka The names given to the above notes in the old days, when chanting of Samaveda Riks was per- haps the only singing, were as follows :- The original note was known as Krishta (meaning pulled or dragged) perhaps because other notes were derived from it. The next four, which were the harmoncs, were known as Prathama (first). Dwitiya (second), Tritiya (third), and Chaturtha (fourth), respectively. The two newly-mtroduced

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notes were called Mandra (low tone) and Atiswarya (having a sharp tone) respectively, the one being lower than the other It appears the name Mandra, being a misnomer as compared with the preceding notes, was later changed to Panchama (fifth) The relation of a note to another is oxpressed by the ratio of their vibrations This ratio Is techmcally called the "interval" between the two notes Thus the intervals between the eight notes (including the octave), in the ascending order, are 540/480, 600/540, 640/600, 720/640, 810/720, 900/310, and 960/900, or 9/8, 10/9, 16/15, 9/8, 9/8, 10/9, and 16/15 The relative number of vibrations in tho sixth note is taken in European music to be 800 instead of 810, so the fifth and sixth intervals are 10/9 and 9/8, respectively, mstead of 9/8 and 10/9 in the Indian music In European music the ratio 9/8 is called a major tone, 10/9 a minor tone, and 16/15 a major semtone Other ratios are known as major or minor seconds, thirds, fourths, etc, and are defined by combinations of these tones or semitones

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In the language of Indian Music these ratio fractions are expressible by the number of Shrutis between the two notes, thus avoiding the cum- brous calculations. Shiutis (from Sanskrit shru, to hear) are fixed notes with the smallest possible intervals compatible with each of them being heard as distmnct fiom its adjacent notes. Besides expressing the intervals between the mam notes of the octave, for which they were specially designed, they also help mn finding out positions of concordant mtermediate notes, as being at certam fixed mtervals, they are them- selves in consonance with the mam notes.

The fraction 9/8 bemg approximately equal to (16/15)º and 10/9 equal to (16/15)3 these in- terval fractions are approximately in the propor- tion of 4, 3, and 2. Hence the interval ratio 9/8 is represented by 4 shrutis, the ratio 10/9 by 3 shrutis, and 16/15 by 2 shrutis. Therefore the whole interval between the first note Krishta and its octave is 4+3+2+4+4+3+ 2 or 22 shrutis. Let us see if by mathematı. cal calculation the numbers of shrutis as taken and making up the total 22, correspond with the intervals.

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Let the notes Krishta eto be denoted by K, I, II, 1II, IV, V, A, and K1 We know that if tho interral botween two notes be divided into a certain number of parts, the numbor of parts between the first note and any intermediate noto varies as the logarithm of the mterval, so that if n be the number of parts and : the interval, n varies as log t or n=e log t (c being a constant) Taking the case K and K1 - n=22, t=2 c=u/log := 22/log 2-22/ 10103=7318

For K and I, n=c log 1=73 08 log 540/180= 374, cay 4

For K and II n=73 08 log 600/480=7 (8, say 7

For K and lfI, n=73 08 log 640/480=9 13, say 9

13 For K and IV, n=73 08log 720/490=12 87, say

For K and V, n=73 08 log 810/490=16 61, say 17 For K and A, ,=73 08 log 900/480=19 95, say 20 For K and Kl, n=22 as taken

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So the number of shrutis, for the mtervals between the notes, works out to 4, 3, 2, 4, 4, 3, 2, as taken by the Indian musicians. This explams why the number of shrutis was taken as 22, and shows that it was based on scientific principles. Any other number than 22 could, no doubt, have been taken, but then the convement number hke 4, 3, 2, could not have been obtamed for the intervals, unless the number was a multiple of 22. As a matter of fact, some musicians of old took 66 shrutis. Kohala writes, "द्राविशतिं के चदुदाहरन्ति श्रुतीः श्रुति ज्ञान विचार दत्ताः। घटू घष्टि भिन्ना: खलु केचिदासामानन्त्यमेव प्रतिपादयन्ति॥" i. e., some experts mn the knowledge of shrutis take 22 sbrutis, others take 66, and some expound that they can be innumerable. The import of the shrutis and their utility have, it seems, long been forgotten, as the writ. ings of many of the present-day authors of works on music show an ignorance of the subject. Chatura Pandita, the author ot the Sanskrita wor k "Laksha Sangitam, " sees it fit to question, the use of Shrutis and asks for the rules about them Some authors make the number 22 as corres- ponding to the 22 Nadis in the body. Others try to show that there could be more than 23 shrutis

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or distinct audible sounds in an octave Sharng- deva, the author of " Ratnakara," has been held in ridicale for making a Vina with 22 strings cor responding to the sounds of the 22 shrutis There seems to be no justification for all this Sangita Darpana gives the following charac teristics of shrutis-नैत्य गीतेपयोगित्ममिज्ञेपतसुश्षम :e, they are fixed (in relation to each other), useful for the purposes of singing, disting- wshable (from the adjacent ones), and m good concordant relations with other notes They were allotted beautiful names, which, as given in Narada's Sangita Makarinda, were as follows Prasund (प्रसूना), Siddha (सिद्धा), Prabhavatf (प्रभावती), Kanti (काना) Suprabha (सुप्भा), Shib ba (शिसा), Diptimati (दीक्षिमतो), Ugra (उप्रा), Hladi (हादी), Nirviri (निर्वीरी), Dird (दिरा), Sar pasaha (adarr), Kshauti (oifa ), Vibhút (विभूति ), Malini (मािनी), Chapala (चपला ), BAl (बाजा), Sarvaratna (सर्वरन्ता), Shanti (शान्ता), Vikal nf (विकलिनी), Hridayonmahini ( छदयोन्मजिनी), and Visarmt ( faamut ) The note Krishta was on Prasúná

These names were later on replaced and the following substituted for which are also givon

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the number of vibrations, on the name datum as taken above for the mamn notes. 0. Kshobhini ( शोभिसी) 490 vibrations.

1. Tivra (तीना) 486

2. Kumudvati (बझुद्दती) 506 512 3. Manda (सन्दा) 533

3. Chhandovati (कान्दोवती) 540

4. Dayavati (दयावती) 562 1569 6. Ranjani (रघनी) 576

5. Raktika ( रस्तिका) 600

6. Raudr! (रौद्री) S 607 612 9, Krodhi ( क्रोषी ) 640 JE 10. Vajrika ( वब्रिका) 648

7. Prasarmi (मर्गाखी) S 675 2683 12. Priti (पीतिः) 711 13. Marjani ( सार्जनी) 14. 720 Kshiti ( छितिः) 729

8. Rakta ( रक्ता) 759 767 15 16. Sandipini (संदीपिनी) 800 "

[ 24 ]

17 Alapinl (भालापिनी) 810 vibrationg

18 Madanti (मदन्ती) S44

19 Rohii ( रोदियी) 864

20 Ramya ( रम्या) 900

21 Ugra ( उग्रा ) 911 918

22 Kshobhim in octave (पोभियी) 960

It will be seen that the number of vibrations of Kshobhini is the same as that of the starting note Krichta, of Chhandovati the same as tlat of Prathama Raktika has the same as Dvitiya, Krodhi the sime as Tritiya, Marjani the same as Chaturths Alapmni the same as Panchama, and Ramya the same as Atisvarya The intermediate ones have been calculated by the ratios represent ing 4, 3, or 2, shrutis from one or other of the main notes In some cases, two values have thus come m

From the number of vibrations for the main notes and the shrutis, it will be noticed th it a full Saptaka (of oight notes) could be divided into two equal parts each with four notes, (e g Krishta to Tritiya and Chaturtha to higher Krishta, or

Prathama to Chaturtha and Panchama to higher Prathama) the number of vibrations in the second set being respectively one and a half times those in the first set. The frst set is called Púrvanga (first part) and the second set is called Uttaranga (latter part) of the Saptaka The octave of the European music does not divide itself exactly in this way

[ 26 ]

Chapter IV

MUSICAL NOTES-(continned)

New names how fixed, Standardising of Notes, Orama Changes effected, Present day Maln Notes

IN the previous chapter we have seen how the seven mam notes and their intermediate notes known as Shrutis were fixed They served all right so far as the singing of songs or poetry was concerned But scientific treatment of the subject necessitated that music should bo separated from poetry, which in turn required that it should have its own language This meant thut each note should be expressiblo by a single letter or syllable so that when combiped together to form a tune they might be quickly and easily pronounced The selection fell on the letters a <, , q, a, g and of the alphabet, to be used in the monosyllabic forms of # (sa) f (r), (ma) 4 (pa), fa (n1) (cha) and # (ga) The selection was perhaps the best that could be made for easy and quick

[ 27 ]

pronunciation, the gutturals (excepting " ), the palatals and linguals, as also hard letters (except y), and aspirates (except ), having be n avoided. It was next necessary to find words, begmn- ing with these letters for the names of the notes. Krishta from which the notes started was given the name Nishada (meaning ' seated ') ; Prathama was named Swara (the note), because it was the- first or the chief note Panchama retained its name. Chaturtha was called Madhyama (middle) as being the midway note between the chief note Prathama and its octave. To accommodate the rest of the letters ( R, T, and ), Dwitiya, Tritiya, and Atiswarya, were named Rishabha, Gandhara, end Dhaivata respectively, owing, it appears, to. their position on the Shrutis named Ugra, Nirviri, and Haridayonmaliní (older names). The word 'Ugra 'meaning ' powerful' and ' formidable' and also beig an epithet of God Shiva, suggested ' Rishabha ' meaning ' a bull.' Nirvira, meaning a woman whose husband and children are dead suggested Gandhára, Gandhári being the mother of the hundred Kauravas killed in the great war of Mahabharata. The word Dhaivata seems to have been derived somehow from Dhava (ua),

[ 28 ]

meaning a rogue or a cheat, Hridayonmalna (black hearted) meaning the same The chief note swara was also named Shadja (qga, meaning born of six), the derivation of which has not been satisfactorily establshed One of the explanations defines Shadja as that which is produced by the application together of the nose, throat, bosom, palate, tongue, and teeth These parts of the body are not oxclusively used in sounding the Shadja note, so the explana tion is hardly satisfactory The beautiful names of the notes comed over 2000 years ago are still JD use

[ 29 ]

To recapitulate, the notes of the Indian music with their relative number of vibrations and intervals are noted below :-

of Old names. Later names Intervals vibrations names Number Monowyllabic

Krshta Nishada नि 480 2. 9 or 4 shrutis. Prathama Swara or Shadja स 540

Sg or 3 sbrutis. Dwitíya Rishabha रि 600 15 or 2 shrous, Tritiya Gándhára 640 or 1 shrutis. 19

Chaturtha Madhyana म 720 3g or 4 sbrntis. 9

Panchama Panchama S10 3 9 or 3 shratis. 10

Atıswarya Dharvata 900 216 or 2 shrutis.

Krishta Nisháda नि 960 3 9 or 4 shrutis.

Prathama Swara स 1080

[ 80 ]

The number of vibrations representing the pitch of the notes are, as explamned so far, relative to each otber, bearmg the ratios known as the intervals But, with the improvement of science in the present day, instruments have been devised which can with great accuracy measure the number of vibrations in any note or sound, so that partionlar notes can be stand ardized This has been done, and the treblo c (#in the Tarasthana) is taken to be the note baving 540 vibrations, the number varies slightly in different countries The other notes hive vibrations relatively to this according to their intervals The old Indian music makers also, it appears, thonght of standardizing the main notes, but it was not possible at the time They fixed up animals, generally screaming in the same pitch, whose voices in their opmon corre sponded with the notes mn pitch, not necessarily in the same octave They say पड्ज मयूरो बदति गवास्तु ऋपभ भापिणा अजादि मान्तु गाधार क्राच कणाति मध्यम पुष्प साधारगे काले पिक कुजति पचमम् धैवत हेपते वाजि निपाद घृहिते गज 1e, the poacock cries Shadja, the cow lows in Rishabha, the goats bleat in Gandhara, the heron

[ 31 ]

sounds Madhyama. In spring.time, the Inlian cuckoo cries out Panchama, the horse neighs in Dharvata, and the elephant screams in Nisháda. Sangítá Ratnákara gives the bird Chátaká as uttering Rishabha, and a frog Dhaivata, instead of a cow and horse respectively This is at best a very crude method of fixing the sounds of the notes Nobody has ever tried to see whether the voices of these anmals have the same number of vibrations as the notes they represent have. The voices themselves do not continue in the same pitch.

The above table has been continued up to the higher Shadja (), as being the chief note the octave is generally taken from & to . The octave may be taken from any note to its double. In Egyptian music, the octave was perhaps taken from T to T; mn Grecian music (Dorian) from ft to f. In order however that the notes be concordant, it was considered necessary that the series of the intervals as noted, vre., 4, 3, 2, 4, 4, 3, 2 shrutis of the Indian music, or 4, 3, 2, 4, 3, 4, 2 shrutis of the Europea music, or similar scales should be kept up The series of notes with these intervals was known as the Diatonic scale in the European music and Grama ( rH ) In the Indian

[ 32 ]

The term Grama is now less understood even than the shrutis There are very few persons who know what is meant by Grama and this must be the case, because, when the renl importance of the shrutis is forgotten, a Grama which is 4 particular arrangement of the shrutis cannot surely be understood The old Indian music before the time of Bharata (author of Natya Shastra, Circa, 4th Century A D ) recognised three Gramas, Shad ja grama Madhyama grama, and Gándhára gra m Shadja grama is the scale noted above (ude Table), the other two Gramas are obtamed by having the interval shrutis counted from Madhyama and Gandhara respectively in place of Shadja The three Gramas are shown below, side by side with reference to shrutis -

Semal No Shadja Grama Madhyama Gandbara of Shrutis Grama Grama

0 or 22 Nishada Nishada Nıshada

Shad7a

Shadja Shadja

[ 33 ]

Serial No Mudhyama Gandhara of Shratis Shadja Gráma Gráma Giáma.

5 Rishabba.

6

7 Rishabha Rishabhn

S -

9 Gandhara Gandhara Gandhars

10 -

11

12 - Madhyama.

13 Madhyama Madhyama

14 Panchama.

15

16 Panchama

17 Panchama

Dhaivata Dharvata

19 -

20 Dharvata -

22 Nishada Nıshada Nishada.

[ 34 ]

It will be seen that Madhyane Grama differs from Shadja Grama only in the position of y whioh as one shruti lower, and of y which is two shrutis lewer than in the latter In actual use mn Madh yama Grama, was used at the 20th Sbruti as in Shadja Grama, and was four shrutis from Madya ma Grama 4, but Sharngdeva still took it as a Vikrıta Swara for Madhyama Grama Gandhara Grama however differs very considerably, as excepting A (and of course ") every note Is different, w and a being one shruti lower, f and two shrutis and y three shrutis lower This grama was therofore very inconvemient to sing and was given up by the time Bharata wrote his Natyashastra At the time of Sharngdeva (the author of Sangita Ratnakar, 12th century A D) therefore only the first two gramas were in use Later on, Madhyama Grama was also merged into Shadja Grama, which is the only grama now in use Abont the Grima, Chatur- dandiprak asha says -' Of these gramas, the Gandhára Gráma is not on the surface of the earth It is agreed by all that itis used in Swar galoka (Heaven) With us, even Madhyana grama is not existing, in Madhyama grama Panchama has only three shrutis Sangita

[ 30 ]

Saramrita has the following on the same sub- ject :- " In the Shastra written by Bharata there are two gramas, Shadja and Mahyama, In Shadja grama, Panchama has its position at the 17th shruti, but in this (Madhy ama Grama) it stands at the sixteenth shruti. In the current (r) music, Madbyama Grama is not to be seen, All the mu- sicians sing songs dependent only on Shadja grama which is the chief grama now.' As time went on, the real grama ratios were also not adhered to, piobably because they were forgotten. The notes were flxed by measure- ment on the danda (e=staff) of the Vina. They did not however difter much from the older notes. Sangita Pâryata (by Ahobala Pandita) determines its notes is following manner: "The Tárasthana Shadja is found at the middle pomt of the Víná danda; at the middle of the two Shadjas is Madhyama ; dividmng the Vína in three parts we get Panchama; at the mddle point of Shadja and Panchama stands Gandhara; in the first half of the distance between a and 4 Rishabha is to be fixed ; at the middle of q and # (double) comes Dhaivata; and leaving two parts of the distance (between y and a double) is the position of Nisháda."

[ 3€ ]

This gives the number of vibritions to the different notes taking those of a as 540, as ₹ 648, ₹ 720, 4 810, 920 5, f 9"2 and a (double) -1080 f has not been defimtely fixed It will be seen (Cf table on page 30) that Gándhára, Dhaivata, and Nishada differ from our grima notes, the first and third by one shruti, tho second by rather more The European music follows the grama, except for the slight difference in two intervals (five and six) as noted already One chief diffor ence however is that the first interval of 0/8 (or four shrntis) is taken betweon a and fa instead of between f and a of tho old Indian musio, and the other intervals follow accordingly The num bers of vibrations therefore are # 540, R 607₺, 675, = 720, 4 810, 4 900, fa 10221 end a (double) 1080 Comparing with the notes mn the tablo given on p 30 the notes ft, " and fa, are sharper m the European music The Enghsh letters indicating the seven notes commencing from a are C,D, E, F, G, A, and B The Indian music of the present day has the same notes as the Europera muste with alteration in the fifth and sizth intervals as in the old Indian music, so that the vibrations for (9) come to 9114 [ $7 ]

instead of 900. Why and when the change from. the old notes took place is not known. To con- nect the new notes with shrutis it has been said that Shadja of the present day has been fixed at the first shruti (Tivra) instead of the fourth, (Chbandovati]. This explanation is neither satis- factory nor correct. The change must have taken place very recently, for none of the old Sanskrita books on music recognise this. The change however makes little difference, as all these notes are mcluded among the old notes, either as main or the intermediate ones, so the only effect of the change is that some of the old mam notes are now taken as intermediate notes, and rice versa This will be dealt with in the next chapter. We may conclude this chapter after noting the intervals taken by Pythagoras, the Grecian philosopher, who first attempted the numerical evaluation of musical intervals of European music His mtervals were 9/8, 9/8, 256/243, 9/8, 9/8, 9/8, and 256/243, the first being between Do () and Re ( R ). His number of vibrations, taking those for & as 540, would thus work out to # (540), A (607₺),

and a double (1080).

[ 38 ]

Chapter V VIKRITA NOTES Vikrita Notes based on Shrutis Comparison of the Notes used at different times Reductton of the number a disadvantage WE havo, in tho previons chapters, dis- cussed how the main notes of tho Indinn music, both old and nen, wore fxed These aro known as Shuddha Smaras (ax wn ) or puro notes We have howevor seen that some of tho old Shuddhn Swiris (R, ", v, and fi) aro no more cousidered as Shuddha in the present day Hindustan music in which these notes with a little higher pitch are taken as Shuddha This is not the ense in the music in the South, which almost follows the old notey

The notes which aro not Shuddha are called Vikrita (fagT ), meaning " Modified " but they have to be in concordant rolations with some of the mun notes They are thus defined in Chatura Pandita's La/ sha Sangua , quoting from Sangita Saramrıta

[ 39 ]

स्वरस्तु प्रच्युतः श्रुत्या नियताया यदा भत्ेत्। तदा तत्य विकृतत्वमंगी कुर्वन्ति पसिउतः ॥ ¿. e., when a note falls from its position in such a way as to be controlled by shrutis its Vikritatwa (modification) is accepted by the Panditas. We bave dealt with three Shrutimtervals, viz., 9/8 or four shrutis, 10/9 or three shrutis, and 16/15 or two shrutis. These are otherwise named respectively as Kakalí (arfer ), meaning "sweet"; Sadhárana (TTU ) or "ordinary "; and antara (rar ) or "intermediate ". Men- tion has been made in some of the compara- tively recent Sanskrita books of five shrutis and six shrutis intervals also This will be noted lower down. Sharngdeva mentions twelve Vikrita notes found according to shruti intervals, in the follow- ing manner, thus forming with the seven Shuddha motes, nineteen notes altogether ·

Shuddha Shadja being four shrutis from Nishada, he takes another Shadja (called ga or fallen Shadja) at three shrutis, Then he takes one Vikrita Shadja at two shrutis interval from each of these two (i. e., घ्युत and शुद्ध) shadjas.

[ 40 ]

Vikrita Rishbha has bean taken at four shrutis interval from Shuddha Shadja Gandhara being two shrutis from Rishabha, its Vikritas are taken one at three shrutis from Risha bha, and the other at two shrutis from itself Thee are known as Sidhirana Gaudhara and Antara Gindhara respec'ively Madhyama has, like Shadja, two ViLrita forms being at four shrutis intervals from Sadbarana and Antara Gandbaris respectively Panchama becomes Vikrits mn Madhyma grama by having four shrutis interval, this grama having only % three shrutis interval betweon Madhynma and Panchams

Dhuvata, which is at two shrutis interval from Panchama in Madhyama gráma gets Vikrito at four shratis in that gra na

Nishada, which is at a two shrutis mterval from Dhav ita becomes Vikrita at three and four shrutis, and is known as Kaishika nishada and Kakal nishada respectively The word "Kaish aka " means " fine ", and is applied to a note one shrut luigher than the main note, in the same way as " chyuta ' denotes a note one shruti lower

[ 41 ]

These Vikrita notes wete not all considered necessary by later musicians, who rejected or added notes according to the requirements of music in therr times. Ragavibodha by Somanath Pandita, which has the same Shuddha swaras as Ratnakara, considers only seven Vikuta swaras necessary, me., Chyuta Shadja (called Mridu Shadja), the twe Gandháras, and the two Nisbádas of Ratanákara, together with a Mridu Madhyama and a Mridu Panchama being at three Shrutis from Shuddha Gandhara and Shuddba Madbyama respectively. Swaramela Kalánidhi bas also the same fourteen notes (seven Shuddha and seven Vik- rita) as Rágavibodha. The names of some of the notes bave however been altered according to the usage of the notes atthe time. Chyuta Shadja being allied to Nishada was called Chyuta Shadja Nishada, Mridu Madhyama was called Chyuta Madhyama Gandhara, Mridu Panchama was named Chyuta Panchama Madhyama. In the case of Antara Gandhara bemg treated as Shuddha, the Shuddha Gandhara was called Panchashruti Rshabha, and Sadbárana Gándhára Shatshruti Rishbha, Similarly, according to the position of

[ 42 ]

Nishada, the Shuddha and Kaishika Nishadas were known as Panchashrot and Shatsbrutt Dhaivatas respectively This introduces us to two nen intervals of five shrutis and six shrutis, and at the same time sug- gests that Gandhara and Nishada may be taken as Shuddha at a higber pitcb The new mtervals work out to be -five shrutis=10/9x16/15 -= 32/27, and eix shrutis=9/8 x16/15=6/5 A sıx sbruti interval may also be 10/9 x 10/9 = 100/81 'These are in fact ratios between some of the notes and thoir thirds, as botween a and w, R and H, etc Cbsturadandı prakashika and Sangita Saram- rita recognise only five Vikrita notes, making up, with the seven mun notes twelve notes alto gether These are the two Gandharas and the two Nishadas of Ratnakara, and also its Vikrita Madhyama named in these works as Varah Ma dhyama Hore Shadja and Pinohama aro takon as Achala Swaras [unchangeable notes] AIso Rishabha and Dharvata have no Vikritas Sangita Purijata has a pecuhar way of reckon ing its notes It takes Sbadja and Panchama as Achala, and cach of the remaiing hve notes as-

[ 43 ]

having six degrees of pitch differing by one Shruti. In an ascending scale, the six degrees are named Púrva (first), Komala (soft), Shuddha (pure), Tivra (sharp), Tivratara (sharper), and Tivra. tama (sharpest) The gamut or Saptaka is divided into twenty-two parts or shrutis, and the Shuddha swaras are fixed as in Ratnakara, Komala and Pur- va then precede, and Tivra, Tivratara, and Tivra- tama, follow the Shuddha note. Many of the notes overlap in this way and consequently have two names. The author, Ahobala Pandita, then says that ten notes of these, me , Purva and Tivra Rish- abha, Tivratara and Tivratama Gandhara, Tivra and Tivratama Madhyama, Purva and Tivra Dhar- vata, and Tívratara and Tívratama Madhyama, Púrva and Tivra Dhaivata, and Tivratara and Tívratama Nisháda have to be left out in the then current music. This left only twelve notes. The present-day Indian music also takes notice of only twelve notes, vis, seven Shuddha and five Vikritas. As we have seen, however, the Shuddhas of the notes R, ", u, and fa, now are sharper than those in the old Indian music. Ths is due to the first interval of four shrutis having been taken between & and f mstead of fand a, so that

[ 44 ]

Shuddha R is sharper by one shruti, T by two shrutis # by one shruti and fr by two shrutis The Vikritas are Lomala f, w w and f, at two Shrutis interval from the next lower Shuddha swars a, ft, 4 and respectively, also Tivra # at a two shrutis interval below q, and sometimes tho same interval above Shuddha # These ViLrita notes mntroduce to us one more interval, uiz one shruti interval, t e, the one botween a Vikrita note and the oloser of the two mam notes between which the Vikrita occurs When the interval between the main notes is three shrutis, the value of the one shruti interval is 25/24, and when tho interval is four shrutis it 18 81/80 The former is called a chromatic semi- tone in European music, and is the interval by which the notes are generally sharpened and flattened mn wha is called the chromatic scale The one shruti interval in the Pythagorean scale, we have seen, 18 2 The names of all the notes, according to the different works on music, are given below, sido by side, for the sake of comparison -

[ 45 ]

Notes taken from Notes taken Notes taken

Notes taken Notes taken Notes taken from Chaturadandı from from

from Swarar ela Sangita current

from Ratnakara Ragavibodha Prakashıka and Sangita Paryata. Indian

Kalanıdhı. Saramrita music.

Sbrutis 1 2 3 Chyuta Mridu Shad Chyuta Shad

Shadja. Ja Nishada

[ 46 ] Ja. Shuddha S hud dha Shuddha Shuddha

لىا 4 Shuddha Shuddha

Shadja. Shad ja Shadja. Shadja Shadja Shadja.

5 Kaishıka Shadja. Komala

6 Antara Komila

Shadja Rishabha Rishabha.

7 Shuddha Shuddha Shuddha Shuddba Shuddha

Rıshabha, Rishabha Rishabha. Rishabha. Risbabha or Purva Gandhavra.

8 Vikrıta Shuddha

Rishabha Risbabha

9 Shuddha Shoddha Shudda Shuddha Shuddha

Gandbara Gandhara Gandbara Gandbara Gandharı

or Pancha or Tivratara

Shratı Rishab i

Risbabha

10 Sadbarana Sadharana Sadbarana Sadharana Tivratama Komala

Gandhara Gandhara, Gandhara Gandbata Rishabha Gandbara

or Sh at or Tivra

[ 47 ] shratı Rr Gandhara

shabba

11 Antara Gan Antara Gan Antara Gan Antara Gan Shuddha

dhara dhara dhara dhara Gandbara

12 Mridu Madh Chyuta Ma

yama dhyam Gandhars

13 Shuddha Ma Shuddha Ma | Shuddha Shuddho Shuadla Shuddha

dhayama dhayama Madbyma Vadhyama Madhya Madhyama

Notes taken

Notes taken from Notes taken Notes taken

Notes taken Notes taken from

from fiom from Chaturadandı from

Ragavibodha, Swaramola Prakashıka Sangita current

Ratankara Kalanıdhı and Sangita Parijata, Indian

Saramuta music.

Shrutis 14 K a1s h ıka Madhyama 15 Vıkrıta Varalı Tivra Madh

Madhyama. Madhyama Tiviatara Madhyam.

[ 48 ] yama,

ட 16 Madhyama Mudu Pan- Chy uta Pan

Grama Pan- chama. chama Ma

chama, dhay ama

17 Shuddba Shuddba Shuddha Shuddha Shuddha Shuddha

Panchama Panchama, Panchama Panchama. Panchama Panchama

or Vıkrita M g Pan- chama. 18 Madhyama - - 1

grama Dharvata

19 Komala Komala Dhaivata Dharvata

20 Sbuddba Shuddha Shuddha Shuddba Shoddha

Dhaivata or Dhatvata Dhaivata, Uharvata Dhaivata

Vikrita m or Purva

g Dhaiva Nichodo

ta 21 Shuddba

92 Shuddha Shnddha Sbuddha Dhaivata

Shuddha Shuddha

Niebada Nısbada Nishada Nishado Nishada

or Panch or Tiva

[ 9] asbratı ratara

Dhaivota Dhaivata

1 Kaıshıka Kaishıka Kaıshıka Kmsbıka Tivratama Komal

Nıshada Nishada Nishada or Shatshru Nishada Dhaivata Nishads

or Tivra

t Dhaivata Nishada

2 Kakalı Nı Kakalı Nı Kakalı Nı Kakalı Nı Shuddha N1

shada shada shada ghada shada

3

Going through the comparative table given above, two facts are noticeable : (1) The number of notes has gradually decreased; while it was nineteen at the time Ratnakara was written, it is only twelve at (the present day. (2) There is a tendency of equalising the intervals between the notes. It is doubtful if the reduction in the number of notes has been to any advantage. The higher Indian music, which follows nature generally, requires in most cases that, in going from one note to another, the approach should be gradual, as is noticed in Ragalpana. It is only the light music which approaches its notes in leaps as it were. The reduced number of notes, oiz., twelve, is quite enough for the latter, but hardly for the former. It is true an accomplished singer will not care whether the notes which he utters are in the gamut or not, and will go through all the necessary gradations of sound, but a begin- ner has to go by the notes he learns, and so his production is likely to sound like a series of distinct notes rather than a well-blended piece. We notice a gradual replacement of higher music

[ 50 ]

and flapana by lghter musio, and a growing love for theatrical songs This must, to a certain extent at least, be attributed to , the gradual disappearance of the old Vikrita notes Evon European muste has moro than twelve notes It is s matter for considerstion by the experts whether a few intermediate notes should not be re mtroduced in appropriate placea [ ... aleo Chap VII] The equalisation of intervals is a natoral consequence of the reduction of the number of the Viknta notes The intervals, mn order that there be concordanco, have however to be those already noticed Ths comes in the way of exact equalisation But in the cise of mnstru ments with a Ley board similar to the piano forte, wich can have only a dofmito numbor of notes, it is difficult praotically to main tamn the correct intervals for all tholnotes, and equalisn tion has been effected Harmomums are also constructed on this bisis te, the whole interval between a note and its octave is divided into twelve equal mtervals of about 106/100 Thia is nown as equal tomperament of the notes The musie obtamned from these instruments i8 never

[ 51 ]

agreeably in tune; it is deficient in richness of effect and is generally insipid. So, while har momiums are quite good for beginners to learn musie in its elementary stage, their use should be discarded for advanced stages, as their notes are not in the natural concordant relation to each other. The tempered notes are called enharmonic notes.

[ 52 ]

Chapter V/ SCALES Grama and Grame Ragas Murchhana, Vikrita notes obtained from Murcthanas, Old Parent scales, Marga and Deshi ragas IN the previons chapters we have seon what musical notes were in use at different poriods from the time of Ratnakars up to the present day These were not fixed in a haphazard manner, but scientifically After determining the concordant series of intervals in the octive of 22 shrutis taken from a to a, the first nttempts were naturally directed towards forming other scales, by putting the different notes surcessively in place of the mamn note a, and the subsequent notes following at the correct intervals This gave the different gramas, of which we have seen three were recognised in the old days, the Shadja, the Madhyama and the Gindhara gramas [uide tablo on page 33-84] Of the other four gramas, Nishada grama worked out to almost the same as Gándhára gráma Rishabha and Dhaivata gramas, which were similas (except

[ 53 ]

for the position of a), altered the position of Nishads, from which all the main scales were supposed to start and were hence not adopted as gramas. Panchama was nearly the same as Shadja gráma. Fixing the three gramas, the next series of soales were formed by placing their main notes #, #, and T, successively in the position of each of the other notes, Thus for each grima there were formed seven scales or twenty-one in all. This process was called Murchhana (= swooning) so called because the main note, as if mn a trance, placed itself in the position of each other note. Each such scale was given a name. Murchhanas for the Shadja grama are given below. From these and the murchhanas of Madhyama gráma all the vikrita notes of Ratnakara, or for the matter of that of the whole Indian music, are obtained. These have been indicated.

[ 54 ]

Murchhane Murchhana Murchhape Murchbana Murchhana Murehhana Morchbana of स of f of TT of of q of of fx

Interval 1 Shrutr स R R (Vikrita स

R or 2 sh # (Sadba R (Viknta

[ ee ] rann ) रि)

H (Kaishı # (Chyota R (Vikrita) स

ka #) प # (Vikrtam (Antara)

नि 4 (2 sh प R (Viknts स or 2 sh

A

Murchhana Murchhans Murchhana Murchhana Murchhana Murchhana Murchbana of स. of रि. of of म. of 4 of घ. of नि.

Shruti Interval स नि (Kaish. भ (4 sh. भ) प म ग (Sadhara रि (Viknita

1ka नि) na ग) रि)

3 नि (Kakah Y (Madhya Ina gramny) म (Antara

स ध

रि नि) ग)

2 नि (Madhya q (Tivra H) म

ग स na gramay)

4

[ 99 ] म स नि प

4 प स नन (Kaishi-घ (IShr. x)

3 6n नि) नि (Kakal1

घ स

2 नि)

नि स

4 स

There were perhaps other methods too of forming scales in old days, but they are not known at present Nor is it possible at this dstant age to say which of the old scales then Lnown as grama ragas (ग्राम रागा) corresponded with the scales noted above except of course Shadja and Madhyama gramas Sharngdeva names 30 grama rágas classified under five classes, uiz 1 Shuddhas or pure-7 mn number, Bhinnas or different, perhaps with a modified series of intervals-5 in number, 3 Gauras perhaps coming from Ghura country-3 in number 4 Vesaras or mxed ones-8 in number, and 5 Sadharana or ordinary, used by the public-7 in number Sharngdwa says they differed from each other in the absence or presence, more or less, of Vakra or turning notes (ss Chapter IX) and Gamakas (tanas and alankaras-Chapter X), in the slow or quick succession of notes, and mn the use of the different Sthanas (Tara, Madhys and Mandra Chapter II) He knew only fifteen of these

[ 57 ]

having been used to form ragas or songs., Some of the names of these gráma rágas still ohtain in the present-day Indian music, e.g, Kukubha and Hindola, but it is difficult to say if the tunes really contmue the same. The old scales have thus only an academic interest. The following facts are however noticeable :- (1) The múr- chhana of Panchama is the same as Madhyama gráma, (2) except mn this múrchhaná, the note Panchama is a fixed one so far as the Shadja gráma is concerned, (3) The múrchhana of Nisháda is the same as the current main scale or Shadja grama of the new Indian music.

The books written after Ratnákara have their own scales called melas ( aen: ) or Janak melas [scales from which ragas are derived, the word Janaka, meanıng "father"). These differed from the old scales in that while the latter were derived from the particular series of intervals by the process of gramas and múrchhanas, and were the producers of the several vikrits notes, the post-Ratnakara scales were formed ifrom the shuddha, and vikrita notes already found out. and hardly followed any fixed series of intervals. In these Janak melas, the following points are

[ 58 7

supposed to have been observed -(1) That they should contain all the seven notes whether in the shuddha or vikrita forms, and (2) that the notes should be nsed in the correct order in both ascent and descent, : e, a, f, , 4, W, fa in ascent and a fa, s, v, #, 1, ft, mn descent

The Indrn terms for ascent and descent are Arobana (ारोइय) or Anuloma (भनुलोम) and Avarohana (अवरोहण) or Viloma (विलोम) respect Ively

Ragavibodha mentions 23 Janak melas, and Swaramela Kalanidhı 20 Chaturadandıprakásha and Sangitasaramrita calculate the possible num ber of Janak melas m the following manner The octave, we have seen (Chapter III) is divisible in two parts called Purvangs and Uttaranga These are taken one from a to # and the other from y to # [double ] For this purpose a, #, and 4 are taken as fixed, only the intermediate notes f and am Purvanga and # and fa mn Uttaranga are taken as changeable From the table on pages 46-48 it will be seen that these works recognise four variations between and #, and four variations between y and a [double] The middle two of these having two [ 59 ]

names in each [vide column 4 of the table]. By taking combinations, we therefore get six combinations for each of the two groups, or 6 x 6 = 36 scales altogether. But this 1s taking a as a fixed note, which is not the case, there being another # called Varali Madh- yama. Hence there can be 36 more scales with this Madhyama, or 72 scales altogether, Names have been allotted to each of these 72 scales. It will be seen from the table referred to that the interval between some of the notes to form these scales would be only one shruti, which is hardly allowable, and the number of the actually usable scales would be much reduced. As a matter of fact, these two works mention only nineteen of these as in use mn their time. Venka- teshwara, who calculated out these scales, himself says that he did so only in academical interest These old scales could not be of much use to us now as their Shuddha R, T, ", and fa, do not find a place on our gamut (vide table page 46-48) and although the names of many of the old scales coincide with the present-day scales, strictly speaking tha two are not the same The latter therefore require a separate treatment,

[ 60 ]

very much on the same lines no doubt This will be done in the next chapter It may be mentioned of the later post- Ratnakara writers, to their great credit, that they tried to release music from the fetters of the old grama conventions, even if it was quite scientifio, and enlarged its scope, so necessary to the development of a fine art No doubt, in India, the general publc has never confined itself to the conventional music, and the songs were from very early times divided into two classes, called Marga (ari) and Deshi ( @mi,, the former strictly following the rules fixed by the old music makers like Bharata and used in worshipp- ing gods and mnvoking their blessings, the - latter being those sung by different people mn different parts of the country according to their taste, thus being more popular and pleasing The present tendency, however, of bamshing shrutis or grama out of our music altogether 1s not very wholesome

[ 61 ]

Chapter VII.

NEW SCALES.

Grama Ragas in Current music; New Vikrita notes obtained from Murchhanas; How Shadja and Panchama become Fixed notes ; New Parent Scales worked out.

OUR present main scale is, we have seen, the Nishada murchhana of the old main scale, and has the following series of intervals between and :- Shadja to Rishabha, 4 shrutis; Rishabha to Gandhara, 3 shrutis; Gandhara to Madhyama, 2 shrutis ; Madhyama to Panchama, 4 shrutis; Panchama to Dhaivata, 4 shrutis; Dhaivata to Nishada, 3 shrutis; and Nishada to Shadja (double), 2 shrutis. From this scale, the process of murchhana as explamed in the previous chapter works out the following seven scales :=

[ 62 ]

Muichhana Murchhana Murchhana Murchbana Murchhana Vurchhana Murcbbans

of म of f of ग of # of q of घ of नि

Shrutt mnterval स रि ग रि ग R (Komala) स

4 प म T (Komala) रि स

घ प # (haishika) f (A aishika) रि

नि प म(Tirva) ग रि

स मि (Komala) प म ग f(Komals)

4

Murchhana Murohhana Murchhana Murchbana Murchhana Murchhana Murchhana

of of f. of FT. of A. of q, of y. of नि.

Sbruti interval. स A (Komala) | म "( Komala)

3 (Chyuta) म

2 f (Chyuta 4 (Tivra H)

Komala) स वि a (Komala)

4

[ +9 ] स fa (Komala)

नि स Old Madh-

uide table, p 33-34 Old Shadja-grama, yama-gráma, tude table, p 33-34.

The following facts are noticeable in the above Múrchhana table -(1) The múrchhana of Rishabha is the old Shadja grama main scale (2) The murchhana of Dharvata is the old Madhyama grama (3) The Murohhanas of Gandhara, Madhyama, and Nishada, give all the Vikrita notes in use 10 the present day music There are two additional modifications of w and #, each a shrut higher than the Shuddha and # They are thus the old Chyuta Madhyama Gandhara and Karshıka Madhyama The Murchhana of Panchama also gives v, and Komala fa, each a shrutt lower These are the old Shuddha Dhaivata and Nishada res pectively Althoagh we do not reoognise these notes (E sharp or Pythagorean E, F sharp, A, and a semitone fatter B of the European music) as separate notes, they give the correot music, and it is a matter for consideration if may of them should not be re introduced We shall come to this later on (4) The note Panchama does not undergo any variation, except in the Madhyama grama and the Murchhana of Nishada where it becomes identical with Tivra Madhyma

[ 65 ]

The fact that a murchhaná of the Shadja gráma could also produce the Madhyama gráma, which was also noticed in the case of the old scales, has helped in the amalgamation of the latter gráma with the former. This, mn turn, made the note Shadja as a fixture, for there can now be no scales or ragas (songs) without this note. In the time of Sharngdeva, when Madhyama grama was in use, in which Madhyama and not Shadja was taken as the chief note, there used to be songs without Shadja. The amalgamation, or rather abolition, of the Madhyama grama, which had variations of Pan- chama also, left this note also as one not under- going any change. Hence, in the present-day music, and T are both fixed notes, the former being indispensable at the same time (5) The Múrchhana of Madhyama associates the tívra madhyama with Panchama, from which it is two shrutis lower, and with other Shuddha swaras the note also occurs in the Múrchhana of Nishada, as a modification of Panchama, where it is two Shrutis higher than the Shuddha w, which Is itself present, and is associated with the other Vikrıta swaras 1ivra #, therefore, suits well

[ 66 ]

with many of the notes, and is almost next toa jn importance Of these Múrchhana scales the main one (that of a) is known as Bilavala (old names Shankarabharana or Shankartbhushana), tho Murchhana of Gandhtra, with a a shruti lower, 18 called Bhairavi that of Madhyamo, with -T a shrutt lower, is called Yamans or Imana Cha tura Pandita prefers to call it Kalyanf which 18 also the old name the other four not being in use now Bhairavi and Kalyant, it may be noted, are the Panchama and Dhaivata múr chhanas respectavely of Madhyam: grams The three sciles, Bilavata Bhairavi, ind Kalyam, of the present day music are therefore gráma rágas Before applying the other process of obtam ing scales, it is better, in order to faciltate writing, to give short names to each of the notes (including Vikritas) the full system of notation will be dealt with later on We shall call Shadja as a (sa) Komala Rishabha as (ra), Shuddha or Tirra Rishabha as (ri), Komal Gandhara as (ga), Shuddha or Tivra Gandhara as iit (gi) Shuddha or Komal Madhyams as # (ma), Tivra Madhyama as at (mi) Pancham as q (pa), Komala

[ 67 ]

Dhaivata as ar (dha), Shuddha or tivra Dhaivata as at (dhi), Komal Nishada as ar (na), and Shud- dha or Tívra Nisbáda as it (ni). These notes, in Mandrasthana will be denoted with a hyphen (-) below, and those in Tarasthana with a hyphen above them, e.g., Panchama in mandrasthana will be 4 (pa), and Shadja double on in Tarasthama as # (sa). The series of notes in a scale or tune is called its sargam ( ara ), the word being composed of the first four notes of the Saptaka. To form the scales, the saptaka is to be considered as consisting of two parts, the púrvánga ( a to # or at) and the Uttaránga ( to «). The parvanga with a can have four variations, viz, (1) स, रा, गा, म, (2) स, रा, गी, म, (3) स, री, गा, स, and (4) स, री, गी, म. Similarly with at, it has also four variations, viz., (5) स, रा, गा, मी, (6) स, रा, गी, मी, (7) स, री, गा, मी, and (8) स, री, गी, मी. The uttaranga can also have four varlations, viz., (I) प, धा, ना, स, (II) प, धा, नी, स, (III) प, धी, ना, स, and IV) प, धी, नी, स. Combining the four varia- tions of the purvánga having # nos. (1) to (4) with those of uttaránga nos. I to IV we get

[ 68 ]

4 X 4 or sixteen scales Of the purvanga with #ft the No (7) is considered a bad combination and is never used, the other three can combine with the varations of uttarango without +7 (which is not used with #ft), t e, nos II and IV So there could be 3 x 2, or six more scales The total number of the paront scales or Janaka melas could therefore be twenty two Of these the following only seem to be

[Combmna Names of the scales Sargam or the arrange tion ment of the notes Number

1 1+I Bharravi (भैरवी) old स रा गा म म धा ना स name Todi

2 + I Vasanta Bharrav1 (बसव भैरवी), alo सर गी म प धा ना स

called Bakulabha rana (बकुलामरय)

2 + II Bhairava (भैरव) ; old स ग गी म प घा नी सं name malava Gauda (मालव गौड) 2+ 111 Vegavahint (बेग वाहिनी,) स रा भी म पधीनास old name

[ 69 ]

Combina- tion Names of the scales. Sargam or the arrange- ment of the notes Number.

5 2+ IVChhayavati (छायावता), स रा गी म प भी नीस old name

6 3 + I savari (आसावरी); सरीगामपथाना स old name, Nata- Bhairavi (नट भैरवी)

7 3 + III Kafi (19i); old स री गा म पधी ना स name, Sri (st) or Haupriya.

8 4 + III Khammach (खम्माच); स री गी म प धीना स old name, Kam- bhou (कांभोजी)

9 4 + IV Bilavala (विलावल) ; स रीगीम प धीनी स old name Shan karabharana (शंकराभरण). 10 5 + II Todı (तोडी); old सरागा मी पधानी स name, Varalı (वराली). 11 6 + II Púrvi (पूर्वी ; fold सरा गी मी पधानी स name, Ramakrıya (रामक्रिया) and Kàm a vá rdhana (कामवर्घन).

[ 70 ]

Combina Sargam or the atrange tion Names of the scalos ment of the notes Number !

12 6 + IV Marvh (मारवा), old स रागी मीपधो नीसे name Gamakakrıya Gamanas hrams (गमफक्रिया, गमनश्रम)

18 |8 + IV Kalyanı (कत्यायो) स रीगी भी प धी भी से or Iman (यमन)

Of these 19 again Nos 2, 1, and 5 are very rarely used, and it is onlv the romaining 10 that are in common use Chatur Pandita and othor mugic masters liko P Vishnu Narayana Bhat- khande, P Vishnu Digambars have therefore fixed upon these 10 janaha melas (parent scales) only It may however be mentioned that noither these 10 scales, nor the 13 mentioned above nor the possible 22 scales, nor even the 72 soales of Venkateshwara, mentioned in Chaturdandı pra- kashıka, can singly be mado to cover all the tunes or rágas now current, for there are a good number of those which require the use of both the gandharas, madhyamas, or mshádas For instance, the tunes Iman Kalyána . Kedara,

[77

Kámoda etc., belonging to the Janaka mela Kalyani, the tunes Kálingrá, Rámakalı, Lalit etc., belonging to Bhairava, and the tunes Púrvi, Parja etc., belonging to Purvi, require both the Madhyamas each; the tunes Soratha, Desha, Jaijaiwanti, etc., belonging to Khammách, and the tunes Pilu, Barwa, Miyan ki Malar etc., belonging to Kafi, each require both the nishádas This could be met by a few alterations or com- bination of two or more scales. As an example, Kalyáni may be replaced by a scale having both the madhyamas, e.g. Iman Kalyana, which tune has both the Madhyamas; Purvi and Bhairva may be combined under the name Kalıngra which, as in use at present, has both the madhya- mas. Similarly, Kafi and Khammach may he blended into one Jaijarvanti which tune, requires both mshádas and both gándbáras, thus combin- ing the two janaka melas with the advantage of the two nishadas. This will further reduce the number of Janaka melas, but the change is not likely to be of any great advantage, as the memory will have to be additionally taxed in the case of the tunes with one madhyama or one nishada only ; for after all the Janaka melas apparently serve no

[ 72 ]

others purpose than helping in remembering what swaras (notes) each tune has The musical mnstruments which require cbanging of stays or frets to form different acales, called Thaths (ats) in this case, have some use for the Janaka melas Sitars and sımılar instruments, like Taus etc, are perhaps the only such mstruments, but they do not confine them selves to the above named ten scales Some works on Sitar recogmise more and somo less number of scales not necessarily corresponding with the above ten Kalyana, Kalmngra, and Jaijaivantı are recognised scales or thaths Desha having two mshadas is also recogmsed The Sitir in faot is designed to have two madhyamas and, in one of the two sthanas (ootaves), two mishadas also as it was realised by the inventor of the mnstrument that there were several tunes with both forms of these notes

[ 73 ]

Chapter VIII.

RELATION OF NOTES WITH EACH OTHER

Affinity of notes; Samvadis Vivadis &c Shruti necessary to determine affinity; Danger in discarding Shrutis In Chapter II, it was noticed that two notes differing in pitch are relatively more or less concordant and pleasing to the ear, according to the freqnency of coincidences of their vibra- tions in a given time. The number of vibra. tions in each note of the present-day Indian music as noted in Chapter IV for the mai notes, and for the vikrita notes, as calculated by the shruti intervals of those notes, from the main notes, noted in Chapter V are as follows: 5- 5-10, रा-576, री-6072े, गा-648, गी-675, म-720. #t-759g or 768 accordingly as it is calculated from प or म, प-810, धा-864, धी-9114, ना -972, -1012} and -1080 The following table shows the number of coincidences in a second, which is the measure of concordance or affimty each note bears with another.

[ 74 ]

TABLE -

Notes स TT गी मी

36

री 68 108 72

[ 75 ] 135 68,

180 144 23 72 451

17 193 152 24 85. 49

270 181 203 16 135 90

108 188 14 2161 144 96 54

34 304 201 34 152 101

108 86 122 394 27 86 12 162 108 61

68 5 203 41 338 23 253! 203 14 101 -

From the table it is evident (1) that aft with all its association with the Komala notes, as was noticed when murchhanas were worked out, has little or no affinity with m and a, and this is per- haps the reason why is never used with m, and the combination सरोगामो has been discarded [vide Chapter VII, page 69]. (2) The highest affinty of the notes is with those at intervals of 13 and 9 shrutis, or express- ing in terms of mamn notes with the 5th and 4th notes. The latter are called Samvádis ( tiatat ), which term will be oxplained lower down,

(3) In the cases of गी and धी, and म and नी, which have the relations of 4th and 5th with each other, the matter is however different, the affinity for the pairs being very low. This is due 'to the fact that the shruti intervals of the two pairs are not 13 and 9, but 12 and 10 in one case and 11 and 11 in the other. # and wit have also the relation of 11-11 and there is little affinity be- tween the two notes It seems necessary that for the first pair, the Dhaivata note should be a shruti flatter than f, i.e., 3 shrutis above Panch- ma, or the same note as the old shuddha Dhaivata of the Indian music, or the note A of the Euro-

[ 76 ]

pean music For the second pair, a new Nishada, a shruti lower than T or 9 ahrutis from # 18 necessary This is the same as our old shuddha Nishada The introduction of these now Vikrita notes was also indicated by the Murchhands [nide Chapter VII] The sharpening of sit and w as noted there would not then be necessary The number of vibrations of tho new Dhaivata, which we shall call dh (s ) would be 900 and its affimty with other notes would bo a 180, mt 225, # 180, 4 90, # 113, and so with the first three it could be asod with a much better advantage than wr or Similarly, the number of vibrations of the new Nishada, which we may call n (= ) would be 960, and its affimty with W and w and si would be 192, 240, and 192 respectively, so that as a samvadi of a and when used with wit would sound much better than the other forms of Nishadn and with at better than For this dofect, in no raga or tune is Nishada ever used with Madhyama as its samvadı althongh the two bear 4th and 5th relations

In respect of their relations and uso in ragas or tunes, Ratnakara mentions four olassı

[ 77 ]

fications of the notes, viz, vádí, samvádí, vívádí, and anuvadí. The note which is frequently used in a raga is called Vadi (aret, meaning a speaker or dictator) because it determines the character of the tune Two notes which have 8 and 12 shrutis between them, t.e, which are at 9th and Iuth shrutis from each other, are mutually called samvadis arat, meaning sımılar or equall. The pairs Nishada Gandhara and Rishabha-Dhaivata are Vivadis (faarat meaning quarrelling) to other Vadı notes and to each other. Vivadis form a sort of opposition, as being the second samvadis to the samvadis of the Vadı note, they can assert themselves against the Vadı note, and may alter the import of the tune. In particular cases, therefore, they have to be avoided, or sparingly and carefully used The rest of the notes are called Anuvadis (a) which help the Vadi and Samvadi notes, as do the servants their masters.

In our present-day music, as also in the later post Ratnakara music, the last two, vize, Vivadı and Anuvadi, have no real significance, although the terms have been preserved The notes left out from a tune, or very sparingly

'1 78 ]

used, are called Vivadis in reference to that tune without any reference to the Vadi note, or giving the reason of their being left out Other terms used for a Vadi note are Ansba ( uar, meaning " the chief part ') aud Jiva (ia = hfe) Vivadı notes are known as Varjita (tina=disallowed) Ananynsta or Astaprayn (eaurer, aew=almost thrown out or absent), and Minaksparsha (HMNw = very httle touched) according to thoir use The following table gives the Samvadı Vivddı notes ete, as defined m Rutnákara -

Vadı Samvadı Viradı Anavadı

रि, ध

fr, * रि, प, ध

ग नि स, म, प

स, ग, म, ध, नि

नि स, रि, म प, घ

रि स, म, प, नि

[ 79 ]

Vadi Samvadı. Vıvadı, Anuvadı.

म रि, ग, प, ध, नि

नि ग, ध स, रि, प

रि ध, ग स, म, नि

स रि, ग, म, ध, नि

नि स, रि, म, प

रि - स, ग, भ, प, नि

वि स स, रि, ग, प, ध

स, म. प

It will be seen that the chief vivadis are the main notes either following or preceding the vádı main notes (the other being only the second samvadı of the same). When these positions are occupied by u, w or y, there is no vivadi, as it is only the fa, , f and that become vivadis according to Ratnákara In the present sense of the term, u and # do become vivadis. However being the main note it has always to be assisted by one or the other of its samvadis # and q,

[ 80 ]

so that there can now be no tune with both # and q being absent at may take the place of # mn certain cases The interval between two adjacent notes 1s, we know, 2, 3, or 4 shratis, and sometimes according to some books 5 or 6 shratis also, but the latter are, in fact, ratios between a note and its third, almost invariably in the case of the 6 shrutis mterval Hence as vivadis form adjacent uotes, we may conclude that intervals of 2, 3, 4, and 5 shrutis do not make for affinity, ie, the pairs with intervals 2 20, 8 19, 4 18, and 5 17 are bad combinations The pair 8 14 i6 also not found a good combination mn prachco, probably because this interval always occurs between a tivra (sharp) and a komala (flat) note (eg, between ft and e, w and if and ait and ar) which combmation, excepting the case of at already noticed, is incong ruous Among the fourths and ffths (samvadis) we have already seen 11 11 and 12 10 are not good combinations, although the latter is not infrequently allowed for want of a correct Dhaivata in the present gamut Hence the pairs of notes having good affinity are those with 9 13, 7 15, and 6 16 intervals This is evident from the affi nity table also

[ 81 ]

The following statement gives the notes in a more convenient form showmg the comparative affinity of each note, main as well as vikrita, with the rest It divides the latter in four parts : (a) are the samvadis, i e., those baving 13-9 shruti mtervals, (b) the anuvadis, with 7-15 and 6-16 shruti intervals, (c) the neutrals which I shall call nirvadis and which mclude vivadıs, and (d) vivadıs separately, which term must, I think, be confined to its origmal sense given in Ratnakura as interpreted and explamned above. These are generally with 4-18 and sometimes 3-19 shruti intervals. Madhyama and Panchana have also been shown here although not taken mn Ratnakara.

Statement showing relations of notes to each other.

Sam- vadıs. Anuvadıs Nirvadıs Vıvadıs.

प, म ध, गी, गा, धा ना, री, नो, रा, धी, मी री, न धा, मी धी, स, न गा, स, जा, प, गी, नी गा, नी घी, प नी, मी, ना स, गौ, गा, म, धा गी 4 4 |Notes. (nearly)

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dam vadıs Anuvadıs Nirvadıs Vıvadı

गा ना धा| प, स रा, म री नी, मी धी रा गी नी, ध स, प मी, री, म, धी, धा, ना, रा मी, री # 3 Notes

म न, स ध,धा, रा प, गा मो गी, री, ना, नी धो (nearly) प मो नी, रा न, री, धी घा, गी, प म, गा स, ना गी घा प स, री नी, गा, ना, गी,धी म, घा, मी रा म, धी धा रा म, स ना, मी, प, गी री, नो मी, ना धी री रा, मी प, नी, ना स गी,गा म प गा प, री गी, मी री, प स, धा, घी, रा म, गी, मी घा नी घी, स, गा म, धा, रा ध रा

From the above statement it would be evident how defective it is to take the samvadis as 4th or 5th notes from the Vadi note, without any reference to the interval, but this has to be done after discarding shrutis, which is tho present day tendency For instance, taking Panchama as a samvadı of rishabha when the latter is komala will surely be incorrect but yet it is shown as such Chatura Pandita in his Laksha Sanqua and Md Nawabalı Khan in his Maarfun Nagmat do so in the case of the tunes Gauri (stf) and Shriraga श्रीराग) which are included in the Purvi

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mela, and have komala rishabha (i.e., ₹). The ridiculous portion of the thing is that the latter book while mentioning v as samvádi gives a Lachchhan gita (a song showing the characteristics of a tune, from auw meanmng peculiarities or characteristics) of Gnuri which has no q in its notes. The notes acting as samvádi in these tunes are ef and aft and these are at the intervals of 13 and 9 sbrutis from ₹. This demonstrates the folly of discarding shrutis or grama of the old Indian music, on which we have seen so far the whole structure of music is founded, If the foundation is discard- ed, the structure is bound to be unstable and to fall. Dissensions and differences of opimon would arise, which it would not be possible to settle, as there would be nothing to guide us, and in fact all scientific investigation would be impossible if the really scientific foundations laid by our old music-makers are ridiculed and discarded.

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Ghapter IX

TUNES

Vakra or oblique notes and tunes Tunes with 7 6 or 5 notes Murchhanas Possible number of tunes Ample scope for addition of tunes

IN Chapter VII we have found ont the possible number of scales known as Janaka melas from which ragas aro derived or, to say more correctly, the notes of which form the basis of the several ragas or tunes We have seen there could be 22 janaka melas If we substitute a for T in the uttarangas to be used with the purvan gas contaming ait, which it was shown in Chapter VIII has good affinity for # and none for aT, we could have three more such scales with the uttaranga प धा न स प घी न स is not admissible as the interval between t and a is only one shruti In this chapter it is intended to determine the possible number of tunes, and that in practical use

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The process by which tunes are derived is agamn called Murchhana (aa), although here it has a somewhat different meaning from what it had been given when the process was used to obtam Vikrita swaras, and original melas or scales [ride Chapter VI] Here it simply means modulation or raismg and lowering of sounds in music so as to form melody. The rise or successive ascent of notes (ì.e, going from a note of lower pitch to one of a higher pitch) is, as we have seen, called A'rohana, and the fall or descent (t.e., going the other way) is known as Avarohana in Indian music Every tune can be divided mn two parts, one ascending and the other descending It may happen that before reaching the extreme limit we may have one or more turns, e.g. स री स गी म धी नी धी स. T'his makes the tune tortuous and it is called Vakra [as mean- ing crooked or tortuous]. The note which gives the turn ( and #f in the above example) is also called Vakra, and it is conventionally held that the turning note belongs to the portion of the tune (Aroha or Avaroha) which follows it. and , here, belong to Avarohana or descent por- tion because they each precede a lower note. Some of the notes may be left out in a tune,

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either in ascent or in descent, or in both, as q in the above example Such notes are called Var jita [meaning left out] It is almost universally accepted that to form a tune thore must be at least five no es, although two tunes, Shri ( sft ) and Malashri ( wrasit ) are sometimes sung with four and three notes only, also Hindola (ft cia) has only four notes in Arobana There cannot, therefore, be more than two varjita notes in a tune or properly spoaking in each of the two parts of a tune as it is possiblo the Aro hana of a tune may have one set left out and the Avarohana mother A tune or part of a tune hav ing all the seven notes (either Shuddhs or Vikrita) is called Sampurna (agu, meaning complete), that with only six notes is called Shadava (qrsa from qg or w merning " six"), and that with only five notes is called Audava [ औडय, from उटुब, meaniog sky or Akasha which, being the fifth of the five divisions of matter stands for the number five] The process of evolving tunes from the Janaka melas by employing the full or a smaller number of notes, as above, in both the Arobana and Avarohana portions is called Murchhana It divides itself into the following nine classes -

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No. 1 .- Sampurna-Sampurna (संपूर्य संपुर्ण), i.e., having all the seven notes in both ascent and descent ; No. 2 .- Sampúrna-Shadva ( . mea ), having seven notes in ascent and six in descent ; No. 3 .- Samp-Audava (सं. सौठन), having seven notes in aecent and fve mn descent; No 4 .- Shádava Sampúrna (vea tiqr), hav- ng six notes in ascent and seven in descont ; No 5 .- Shad Shadva (4-a9) with six notes in ascent and six in descent; No. 6 .- Shád Audava (m-ataa) with six notes in ascent and five in descent : No. 7 .- Audava Sampurna (शौधव संपूर्य) with five notes in ascent and seven in descent ; No. 8-Audava-Shadava (शौढव पाढव) with five notes in ascent and six mn descent ; and No. 9 .- Audava Audava (ओी ोडव) with five notes in ascent and five in descent Not taking into account the vakra or oblique tunes that may be formed, these nine classes of Murchhanas can evolve the following number of tunes from each of the Janaka melas [parent scales] :

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No 1 Murchhana will give one tune No 2 will give six, as a cannot be left out No 8 When two notes are left out they almost invariably form 4 Samvadı pair There are a few exceptions which need not be considered in this general calculation Leaving those with a, we have only five Samvadı pairs, Rishabha Dharvata, Rishabha Panchama, Gánđhára Dhaivata, Gandhára Nisháda and Madhyama Nishada This murchhana there fore gives five tunes No 4 will give six tunes, like No 2 No 5 Arohana has six varrations and each can have three corresponding variations in Avrohana (e, one identical note and two samvadis) oxcept 4 and # which can have only two, because # one of their Samvadis can not be left out lhere can therefore be 6x32 or 16 tunes under this murchhann

No 6 As sud under No 3, Avarohana can have only five purs, and for each pair there can be two varjita notes in Arohana Hence tins murchhana gives 5 x 2 or 10 tunes No 7 gives five tunes, like No 3

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No. 8 gives ten tunes, lıke No. 6. No. 9. There bemg five pairs of samvádis in each of the two parts, this murchhana will give 5 x 5 or 25 tunes By this process of murchhanas we thus get 84 tunes for each Janaka mela, or say 90 tunes taking into account vakra or oblique tunes and those not covered by the data above As we have 25 possible scales, including the three formed by introducing a new note #, the total number of tunes comes to 90 x 25 or 2,250. The 25 scales differ from each other very slghtly, so there will be a lot of overlapping of the tunes For instance, mn the case of scales 1 and 2 (vide statement on page 69) which differ only in Gandhara the tunes without this note Gàndhàra will all be common. We can not therefore count upon more than say 2,000 tunes in all. This number is capable of mcrease to a certamn extent, as different tunes are formed by adopting different Vadi notes, although the gene- ral scale may remain the sime. On the other hand, tunes for being melodious require appro- priate notes following each other, and any and every combination will not do. There is besides

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another factor which tends to reduce the number considerably The character of a tune is gene rally distinguishable in the Arohana (ascent) and tho Avarohana portion only supplements or em bellishes it A Sampurna arohana does not there fore generally admt of a Shadava or Audavs avarohana, which means that there are very few, if any, tunes coming under the classes Sampurna Shadava and Sampurn Audav Sımilarly Shadava arobana miy have a Sampurna or a Shadava avarohani, but hardly an Audava avar ohana This almost nullifies the murchhanas Nos 2, 3 and 6, or takes away about 1 of the total number of tunes, thus leaving only about 1,500, tunes in all It is rather strange that Cha tura Pandita in his Laksha Sangita, ignoring all the restrictions and overlappings noted above, and taking the old 72 scales of Vonkateshwara, gives the number of possible tunes as 84,848 He however says tho number of good ragas 1s limited by the fact that they have to be pleasng Tho number of tunes in Hindustam music at present in use is near about 200 Wo could not expect inything better after centuries of neglect of the art by the intelligentsia, which

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art, since the later Mohammedan period till very recently, has been entirely in the hands gener- ally of illterate professionals. It may however be said to their credit that most of the tunes and essentials of the system have been well preserved by them, even though the principles leading to those essentials have been forgotten An endeavour has been made in this treatise to estabhsh these principles, in order that the essen- tials of the system preserved so far may not be discarded as baseless and disregarded in any additions that may be made in this direction. We have seen there is still a lot of room for any number of new tunes being added, The conduct of life is fast changing in India, new perceptions, new emotions and new ideas, amalgamating East and West, are displacing the old perceptions, emotions and ideas, Music will also have to shape itself to conform to the new state of things. It will be seen that our foundations are wide enough to take the new structure, without any change in the system.

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Chapter X

RAGAS OR MELODIOUS TUNES

Raga defined Its arrangement. Tanas Alankaras Ban on Tivra Madbyama THE word used for a tune in Indian music I8 Raga (T) A raga is thus defined in Sangita Darpana 'थोय धर्वनि विशेषस्तु स्वर वर्ग विभूपित । इजको जन चिताना स राग कथ्यते युधै।।" 16, a raga is spoken of by learned men as that which is embellished with the colour of musical notes, has its separate tune and import, and is pleasing to the mind Any and every tune cannot therefore be called a raga, which must have the following distinctive features (i) The notes composing it should be so arranged as to be melodious , (z) any adjanct to it e g, a drone or a subordmate mnsical accom paniment, either mstrumental or vocal, must be in harmony with it, (ut) it should be clearly

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distinguishable from other ragas. In Indian music, each rága has been given a name; (in1 Its tune may be capable of conveying a particular emotion or idea ; (v) It should be sung at z time when the state of mind conforms with its import, as otherwise it will not be pleasing. There is another thing which is very essen- tial for music, although not indispensible for ragas, as distinct from songs. It is the rhythm or keeping time. known as Tála (arr ) in Indian music Coming first to the melodious arrangement of notes, we have m Chapter VIII mvestigated what affinity each note bears with the others. We have seen that Samvadis and Anuvadis are more concordant than others, and also have found out which of the pairs form good combinations and which not. The bad combinations noted there cannot be used when the component parts are meant to be sounded together, but there is no objection to using them as adjacent notes, as parts of a bigger scheme because they do bear concordant relations with oach other For adjacent couples the bigger the intervals the more vigorous the combination, e. q;

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shruti interval is more vigorous than a 6 shrutr one 6 shrutr better than 5 shrnti, and so on We cannot however have the aame mterval repeated successtvely as it will be monotonous, and it is better to rise or fall with easy steps Smaller and bigger intervals bave therofore to be mixed up to make a tune melodious The inter vals in the sargams of the following common tunes will illustrate the pomt -

Bhairavg- Intervals between Hnnd 2, 4 3 4 2 4 3=2' Sbrutis Bhairva- Intervals between & and ₩ 2, 5 2 4 2 5, 9m22 Shrutts

Malakosba -

Intervals between & and # 6 3 6 4 3 -22 Shrotig Samvadis (9-13 ghrutis) or octaves (22 shrutis) are also used as adjacent notes occasionally, but not very often (the latter less often than the former) as Indian music appronches its notes by easier steps, not by leaps This is done only in the way of reltef from successive shorter intervals It is known as 'Obhuts" () meaning release or reliet An 8 shruti interval is bad and rarely used, except that # # is sometimes used, but surely # v # would

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be better, and it is due to the absence of a from our present gamut that # t w has been allowed. The whole character of a tune cannot very well be depicted in all cases in one stretch from W to w, and one or more turns have to be taken, which pioduce Vakra notes and make the tune itself more or less Vakra, as noticed already in the previous chapter. This is offected by intro- ducing what is called a Tána [arr ]. Tana (from the root aT, to spread) is defined as that which is used to expand a rága, and consists of a certain number of the notes put in different orders. It is one of the things about which there seems to be a muddle, Every one of the writers on music seems to consider it of great importance to give the possble number of Tánas, i.e, L7 or 5040 for seven notes, L6 or 720 for six notes, L5 or 120 for five, L4 or 24 for four, L3 or 6 for three, 2 for two notes and 1 for one note for each múrchhaná, without any consideration whatever for over. lappings and to explain how they could be worked out. And yet the real use of so many tánas has been admitted as not beig quite clear. It has been said in one place that out of these only 84 are used for expansion of murchhanas or ragas.

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Tanas are of two kinds, Shuddha and Kńta [{-Illusive, not straight] A Shuddha tana has all its notes in the natural order, either in ascent or in descent, as fma and #R are Shuddha tanas of the three notes, ft, n, and R A Kúta tana has not got its notes in the correct ordor Raw Ra, wAR, indaRn, are Kita tanas of the same three notes Sarraya : Ithrat, an Urdu book written mn 1874, says that a tana consists of only four notes or lese, and that any greater namber of notes will take it to the category of a raga This view seoms to be correot The book gives the pumber of Kúta tanas as 52, but not how the fignre was arrived at Tanasen recogmised 49 Knta tanas

The actual number of tanas between y ind a from combmnations of 2, 3 and 4 notos comes, after eliminating the overlappings, to 60 altogether, divided as follows. Shuddha tanas original múrchbana, 1, two- note combinations, 5, three note combmations, 4, four note combinations 3 Kúta tánas three note combinations, 8, four note com binations, 39 From the defimition there can be no Kuta tanas for two note combinations, and for ordinary purposes of forming ragas, tanas of moro than four notes are not reqwired 7

The tanas of two and three notes give Vakra swaras, and those of three and four notes Vakra ragas However a taga is not generally called so, unless almost the whole of its Arohana or Avarohana takes a tortuous character For embellishment, repetitions of the notes that enhance the melodionsness of a rága are mtroduced. This is generalls done thiough the tanas, both Shuddha and Kúta. The repeti- tion is effected by the processos known as (1) Sphurana ( w = quiveung, or using the notes twice, (2) Tupu ( fag ) or using them thrice; (3) Kampana (4=tremblmng or shaking), mn which the notes are repeated several times but with shorter duration=, (4) Andolana ( अन्दोलन= swinging), in which notes are repeated so that one ot a longer duration comes between those of shorter durations, e.g., स ससास, मपाप, मगा ग; (5) Ahat (tefa =rolling), m which similar tanas of ascending notes follow in succession, e.g , सरिग, रिगम, गमप ; and (6) Pratyahati (प्रत्याइति), in which similar tanas of descending notes follow in succession, eg,, स नि, निघ, धप, The tanas used in ths way are called alankaras ( nR := an ornament) in Indian music. A good number {over 60) of these bas been composed and men tioned in the old books, and each given a name.

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Alankaras were considered a necessity, as they are at present also, for good musio Bharata says, "a song without an alankwa is hke a might without moon, a river without water, a creeper without flowers, and a woman without ornsments" A few simple ones are noted below with their names, tho full number can bo seen in any of the old granthas (#T ), Singita Paryatal or Sanoita Dorpana for instance or in the Urdu book Maar fun Nagmat by Mohammed Nawab Alı Khan Sabib of Sitapur Bhadra-स रिस, रिगरि ग म ग,- anda-स स रिरि सस, रिरिग ग दिरि, - Jita- स ग रिस, रि मग रि, Bhala-सग रिम म ग रिस, रिम ग पप मगरि Bindu-सस स रि, रिरिरिग,- - Trivarna-स रिग गग, रिगम म म, - Akshepa -- स रिग, रिग म, ग म प, Krama-स रिरिगगम, रिगगममप Kokila-स रिगस रिगम, रिगम रिग म प, Mahavajra-स रिग रिस रिग म, रिग मगरिम मप, MandradI-स रिग म म ग रिस स रिगरिस रिगम, रिगमपपमगरिरिगसगरिगमप, According to the ascent or descent of the notes Alankaras are divided into four classes called Varnas [ qut ] When the notes are ascend ing, the Alankara is called Arohi Varna, when descending it is called Avarohi Varna , when the notes are both ascending and descending, it 18

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called Sanchari (iar = changeable); when the notes return to the original note from which the start was made or when there are repetitions the Alankara is called Sthai Varna [em= standing] The Alankaras have shuddha or vikrita swaras according to the ragas they are usedum Also the Varjita swaras mn a raga must be left out in its alankara also. In the present-day music, these alankaras are called Palta, Tana or Tora when played on a musical instrument, when sung with the mitials of the notes (H, R, T etc.) they are called Sargams (or Tanas of the Sargam) ; and when only the sound of the notes is uttered, leav- ing out the mnitials, they form what is called an alapam (भालापम्) The last two are pecuhar to the Indian music, and make the rága very pleas- ing and highly artistic Each rága is supposed to have its vádí and samvadí notes, which mostly determine its import. These are either more frequently used than other notes, or used in such a way as to be prominent. Next to these, are their Anuvadis, and then the Nirvadis. Vivadís are to be the least employed and, if likely to affect the character of the tune, to be altogether avoided. If used at all they might come in Avarohana, not in Arohana. The Samvádís, Anuvádís etc. for each note have been worked out in Chapter VIII.

It would not be out of place to note down a tune to illustrate what has been said above, and to show how music masters arrange their com- positions It has beon taken from a song, in the tune known as Hansa Narayan (ra "Taga) mn Purvi mela, composed by Chatura Pandita, the author of Laksha Sangtta, and given'in Ma arifun Nagmat

गो Notes-स रा गी मी प प प प मी गो मी प मी गी रा स Intervals- 2 5 4 2 - - - 2 4 4 2 2 4 5 2 shrutis

Notes -- स रा गी रा स स प प मी गी मी रा गी रा रा म

Intervals- 2 5 5 2 - 13 - 2 + - 2 shrutis.

The following things may be noted - (1) Intervals from 2 to 5 shrutis have been 'mixed up (2) These bave been relieved in two places by introducing samv idi intervals of 13 and 9 shru tıs (8) There is no mnterval of 8 shrutis nor any couple of adjcent intorv ils aggregating to 8 shrutis (4) There is t umformity in diversity mn both the parts of tho song noted above The bogmn ning and end in each onse are reversals of each other (5) रा गी रा, मी गी मी, स रा गी रा स are the alanbaras introduced (6) Hand q ire noted in the book as Vadı and Samvadi but the way in which a has been used does hardly warrant for it the character of a Vadi 4 too although used rather profusely does not peculiarise the tune, which is, as will be seen done by aft and lhe tune Bansa Narayana 1s Audava shijava, in which ur is entirely to be left out and t used in avarohana only #T, and f are not vividis of either a or q but are their anu vadis They are Vivadis of sfland # It therofore appears more correct to take aft and a as Vadi

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and Samvadi in the tune Hansa Narayana than taking # and 4. There seems to be a reluctance on the part of the post-Ratnákara musicians to make it as Vádí due perhaps to the fact that & 18 now the chief note and aft is not in good concord- ant relation with it; but this is not a good reason, for tis not in good relation with either, but there is no objection to taking it as Vádí. For the same reason perhaps af, which is & samvadi of ait has also been banned. This is a matter again for the experts to look into. The campaign agamst untouchabilty should also be extended to music to increase the utility of the banned swaras like मी, नी, etc. In depriving mfof its Vadism, it is necessary to get the Vadi-place taken by some other note, and, for this purpose, in the tunes which partic- ularly require the use of #ft, H and 4 or and # are prolonged in their use. This is perhapg the case with the tune Hansa Narayan too.

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Chapter XI

RHYTHM OR TIMING

Tala defined, Matras and their divisions, difference with European timing Old Jati talas, Present talas and their derivation from old talas Sama and Vishama grabs THE element of time is as essential to music as to any other affair of the world As a regular succession of sound vibrations is necessary to male the sound mustcal, as a regular comcidence of the vibrations of musical notes makes these notes concordant , as an appropriate blending of concordant notes at proper intervals is required to create melody , so for good musie it is essential that the component melodious pieces should follow each other at regular and appropriato intervals of time This keeping of time was effected in India by clapping of the hands, and was hence called Tala [ata clapping of hands, from aa a palm of the hand] The practice 1s still in vogue The instruments in use for the purpose are Pakhavaja Mridanga, Tabla ete, which not only keep time but their sweet sounds, and parans and

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Gamaks (tánas) enhance the quality of music. Their basıs of play however, is the origmal tála, the rules of which govern them also. The interval between two claps or strokes, which is termed a laghu (g=small), is governed by two considerations. (1) The smallest interval should be such that the hand may not get tired m the course of one rága or song, and (2) the other extremity should be mn conformity with its function of keeping time, for if the interval be too big, the object would be lost. For the first, it was thought that the time taken by a beat of the pulse of a fairly-healthy man is the proper smallest interval and, for the second, abont three times this interval. These hmits cannot evidently be very hard and fast. The interval is also considered in another way, viz., in terms of syllabie instants, called mátrás [ aat] A matra is taken as the shortest time in which a syllable could be properly pronounced It was taken and perhaps correctly. that about three syllables could well be pronounced during one beat of the pulse Therefore a laghu ranges from 3 to 9 matras. Its usual value, unless specifically mentioned otherwise, is taken as 4 mátrás, and as such the following are its sub-divisions and multiples.

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8 Kshanas (sw)=1 lava aa, 8 lavas=1 Kashtba pr 8 Kashthas=I nimisha (Aafa), 8 nimishas = 1 Kala (smn),4 kalas == nnudruta (agra) or anu or virama (famn), 2 anus=1 druta (xa), 2 drutas=1 laghu ragi 2 laghos == 1 guru (gs), 3 laghus=1 pluta (a) and 4 laghus = 1 Kakapada [STva) An anu or virama is thus equal to one matra and dencted by the sign U, a druta=2 matras with its sign O , n laghu=4 matras (urless speci fically mentioned to have other values) and has the uign=1 4 guru =8 matras with its sign S , a pluta =12 matras with sign =, and a kakapada=16 matras with sign+ Ihree matras are denoted by a combmation of Virama and druta as s, and 5 matras by a combination of Vir ima and laghn asf As is natural there is lot of difference of opnons as to the time of a matra, but the exact time is not of any great consequence and need not worry us What is necessary to understand is the values of laghu with reference to matras as noted above On the time taken by a matra however, dopends the qmck or slow singing of a song which is denoted by the term Laya [aq=motion, from the root ag to move] Whon quick, it is called Druta laya [za = quick], when slow it is called Vilambita laya (Aaafaa == retarded) , the ordinary one being known as Madhya Laya [ == middle]

The approximate European equivalent to a mátrá is half a crotchet, which makes the ordin- ary laghu as equal to a minim, the European sub- divisions being as follows, 1 semibreve,=2 minims =4 crotchets=8 quavers=16 semiquavers=32 demi-sem-quavers. There is in this respect a little difference in the European and Indian systems. While the European semibreve and its sub-divi- sions represent the time for which a particular note is sounded, the Indian laghu etc show the interval between two strokes of the tala, without any reference to the notes. The notes may of course be fitted in as desired by the singer within the interval, but the tala has been treated by the Indian musicians independently of notes and tunes. As has been said above the convenient interval between tàla strokes is a laghu ranging from 3 to 9 mátrás, Smaller intervals of one and two mátrás and bigger ones of more than 9 mátras were also in vogue in the old music, but generally mixed up with the standard laghu interval. These were used in the playing of pakhavaja. In the current Indian music a two matra interval is the only exception. Several intervals, either of similar or different durations combine to form what is called a tàla or measure for the songs or parts thereof In re- ference to the rhythmic instru ments, pakhavaja,

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tabla eto the measure is called theka [aar=a fixed arrangement] The combinations are written mn the notations of the intervals given above For instance, OIU represents a tala of 7 matras con taining three strokes, the first of 2 matras the second of 4 and the third of one matra The notation is known as Anga (w) or body of the tala as it shows its composition The old music mikers devised seven talis known as Jatt talas (sfa=clisa or species) from which all the other talas were derived These are as follows

Names of Nota No of matras tion or taking laghu of 4 Possible modt the talas Anga matras fications strokes No of

Ekatala 1 I 4 | Number

3 Rupaka 0I 2+4-6 2 IO

3 Jhampa 4+142=7 3

4 Trpata 442+3-8 3 001 0I0 [farga]

5 Mathya In order IOI 4+2+4=10 IIO IIO

[मठ्य]

[ 109 ]

Names of Nota No of matrag tion or taking laghu of 4 Posmible modi the talas Anga matras fications No. of strokes. Number

6 Atha 1I004+4+242=12 4 1001, 00I1, 0IIO

hrnva IOII 4+2+4+4=14 4 OIH, IUO,

By changing the value of laghu to 3, 5, 4, end 9 mátrás 28 more tálas were obtained. Ench of these 35 talas was given a name The laghu was not given the value 6 or 8 matras perbaps because these were doubles ot 3 and 4. Some talas wero also obtamed by rope:ting one or the other of the small talas. The longest tala that could be obtuned from these Jati Talas without repetition was of 29 matras, i.e dhruva with the laghu of 9 matias but ordmnarily talas of more than 16 mátras were perhaps of rare use In the time of Sharngdeva, however, we find talas of much greater length, reaching as much as 60 or 70 matras but these were all meant for pakbavaja its parans and tanas and not for keeping time with hands. The following table gives talas up to 16 mátrás as worked out from the usual forms of Játi tálas.

[ 1]0 ]

Table of Talas Jatt talas with notation Repetitions

I 1V V VII IX

Ek Rupal a Jhampa Iriputa Mathy a Atha Dhtuv

talq 1 01 100 1(0 11 11 0 1011

74 3 times 4 times

Twice

Tala Matras

INo -

[ 111 ] 3

2 4

3 5 213

4 6 +4 3+1+2 No 1

5 7 4+1+A 3+242 1

6 8 5+1+2 4+2+9 3+243 1 No 2

7 9 9 9+7 J+2+3

10 No 3 11

8 74142 4+2+4 3+3+2+2

Jati tálas with notation. Repetitions.

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

Ek- Rupaka, Jhampa. Triputa, Mathya. Atha. Dhruva

tala. 1 01 1U0 100 101 1100 1011 3 times. 4 times

Twice

Tala matras.

No. 9 11 2+9 7+2+2 3+2+3+3 1

• No.4 No.2 No.1

10 12 9+1+2 - 5+2+5 4+4+2+2

11 9+2+2 -

13 - - -

1

12 No.5 -

14 5+5+2+2 1+2+4+4

13 15 No

• 3 -

14 16 17+27 No 6 No.2

Each tala had, as is the case now also, one of the strokes on which more stress was given than the others, and for the sake of contrast to make it more prommnent the stroke, or more correctly speaking the matra, directly opposite was givon the least stress The stroko following the stress ed stroke is also sometimes treated mn the same way to give prommnence to the latter The stress thus brought on a stroke was falso now called Sama [aw meaning composure after agitation] The strokes with little or no stress are now k nown as Khali (empty), the old name for which was Nishabda [A : rz-without sound], all the other strokes being called cashabda [with sound] In pakbavaja, tabla, etc, the mishabd .stroke is with ont a stroke on the left-hand side of the instru ment which gives the full or dhun sound In some cases the instruments cease to play for a nishabda stroke, the player keeping the time in bis mind only In the present day music, tála strokes of more than four matras or less than two matras are not generally nsed, co the longer strokes of the old talas have been split up in many cases, the second part being given a Khili and the old one matra stroke is joined to the preceding or the following stroke 8 [ 118 ]

The followmg table gives the important tálag in current use, with their com position and the corresponding old jati talas from n hich they have been derived The sama and kbalı pomts have- also been mndicated

[ 114 )

No of strokes with matras (orresponding old showing the Sama marked old jatr tala with

No Vame of the Tala X showing the h hal marl ed O and other stroke its inga and name I emarks loference given to marked (1), (2) (3) Le table p 11i 11 )

1 F Atalo x 0 (2) 0 (3) (£) 1 ktals (1) of two Hore the laghn b1v

2+2+34 424 2 nt atra laghu call been taken of two

[ 116 ] = 13 Matras rd Lktala by matras which was

Sharngdeva re not contemplated in peited sx times fatis talas but >harngdeya tl en it in this ease t be last stroke bas not been gie # Khal to give greater stre s to the

(2) ama

2 Dadra 3 - 6 Matras 'Atala (1) of 3 matras called shud dba talt repeated twice x o.de [4 VII )

Number of strokes with matras Corresponding showing the Sama marked old jatı tala

No. Name of the x, the Khalı with its anga

marked O, and other and name. Remarks

Tala, strokes marked Reference given

(1), (2), (3), etc. to table p. 111, 112

× (2)0(3)

3 Khemtá 3+3+3+3=12 Vatras, Ektala(1)of three matras called shnddhs tala repeated four times [10x ]

x (2)

4 Kaharvu 4+4=8 Matras. Ektala (1) of four matras, called Manatala taken twice, [6VII].] v'de

× (3) 0(1)

5 - 1+4+4+4-16 Mntras htala (1) of four matras call

ed Manatala ropeated foul times [14X]

6 Talwfra Do Samo as Titala

1 differing only

מו etrokes of the Tabla

[ 117 ] PunjAbi theka Do Do

(1) (2) x

8 Ropaka 94243-7 Matras Ropakatala, (01) The five matra

of seven matras callod kala laghu has been split np the

tala, tado [5]I] second pait of threo matras al thongh baving the Sams 18 played as Khal 1 0 Pakbavajo and Tabla.

Number of strokes with matras! Corresponding

Name of the showing the Sama marked X, old jatı tala

No. Tala. sbowing the Khalı marked with its anga

O, and other strokes and name, Remarks,

marked (1), (2), Reference given to

(3) etc. table p. 111-112

x (2) 0 (3)

Jhaptálá ... 2+3+2+3=10 Matrac Jhampa tala The (OIU) of ten seven-matra laghu has been matras, known Swaratala, spht up into

as 3+2+2, a n d virama c o m- bmned with the last two matras to give three matras. It conld also ba taken as the Rupaka of five matras [3 II] taken twice.

(1) x (3)0

10 Jhumra 4+3+443-14 Matras Jhampa tala(100] Ibe viramn has of soven matras been amalçamat called midhara tala taken twico ed with the fol uile [12 VIII lowing d r u t a and the combin ed strol o given sama in one case aud khal in tho other

11 Obachar Do- Same as Jhumra

[ 119 ] differing only in tabla strokes and played a bit quicker

(1) (2) x

12 Tivra 2+243-7 Matras Tripata tala (001) of seven matra called shankha !! tála tide [5IV]

No. of strokes with matras. Name of showing the same mark. Corresponding old

No. ed x, Khalı mark- jatt tala with its

Tala. ed O, and others anga and name. Remarks.

strokes marked Reference given

(1) (2), etc. to table p. 111-112

× (2) (3)

13 Same as Tıvra,

[ 120 ] Pashtu 3 +2+2=7 Matras Triputa tàla(100) of geven Mat- differing only in ras, called. Shan the tabla strokes kha tala, vide and played moro

[5 IV]. Filambita

× 0(2) 0 (3)

14 Sul or Sùl Mathya tála(110) The two laghns

Fakhta 2+2+2+2+2=10 Matras of ten Matras, have been spht known as Sama up to supply tàla, vide [8V] Khalis.

15 Dhamár x 0 (2) 0 (3) (4) ... 3 +2+3+2+2+2=14 Matras Atha tala (1100) of fourteen mat- The two laghus of five matras bavo

ras called Vo datala vrde been epht ap to

[13 VI] supply Khals The last drota 18 played as Khol in tabla

ChautAls or x 0 (2) 0 (3) (4)

16 The two laghns

Dhrupuda 1+242+24242-12 Matras Atha tala (IIOO) | of twelvs Matrag have been spht up

called Lokhn tala, trde [10 V1] to supply khalis

[ 121 ]1 X (2) 0(3) 0 (4)

17 Arh Chantala 2+2+2+2+244=11 Matras Dhrova tain Tiro of the laghos (Ofll) of foør have beon spht teen Matrof knonn as Shi up to provide khalıs khar tals este [12 VII]

NOTE. - It appears the names of Nos. 16 and 17 have been inter-changed, as the dervative Jati talas suggest Ara for No 16 and Dhruva for 17

From the Jati talas it will be seen that only four strokes were origmally comtemplated, and it was by sphtting some of the strokes that mn the piesent music we have more than fonr strokes, but in these ca.es the excess goes as Khal. Below are given a few talas which have more than four strokes. These were devised by old mu-ic-makers like Sharngdeva and others, and are still used, though rarely.

Name of TIa Anga or strol es with Matras Remorke

1 Gaja Jhamph S000U=15 Matras In the present musie the Gurn iabroken

tála up into 441 and tho viramn ndded to tho preceding drota so that the present anga 19 x 0(3) (3) (4)

[ 123 ] 4+1+24243

2 Chakra tála 1000100101 =98 Matras The Sarra is on the first lagl n and Khalt on the last

3 Chandra She khara or She 011001001I=30 Matra This tale a bit modified is known as

khara tála Savara or Savan in the present muste its anga le ng 8+ +846

4 Farodast 10001=14 Matras The preeent anga 18 X 0 (9) (3) (4) o 24242- 242+4 It is aid to have bren devised by Amir h husro

The strokes of pakhavaja or tabla are fitted m accordance with the strokes of the tála as noted above. Tánas have also been composed for these instruments which, however lengthy, must in the end come to the particular tála, the samas of the two coinciding. The comcidence is known as Graha ( nC= grasp, or perhaps the softoned prákrita form of =a tie or knot] Whon the two samas comcide regularly, it 18 called a sama graha (aa=equal), otherwise it is a Vishama graha (faH=irregular l. The latter is of two kinds : (1) Atita in which the sama of the instrument comes after that of the real tala, and (2) anagata, in which it precedes the sama of the tala. In the one case, the speed of the instrument has to be quickened, and in the other it is to be slackened in order that the next samas may coincide with the sama of the tála. The rágas or songs, except in very special cases when emotions have to be expressed, have to follow one or the other of the tálas In order that a raga may be vigorous and pleasing, the position of its sama should be occupied by the vádı or samvadi swaras, and these should form a sama graha with the sama of the tala. When tánas are taken, the graha may sometimes be

[ 124 ]

vishama to coicide later as explamed above But it is not always considered necessary to have this comoidence in which cases howover the distanoes must remam umform thronghout In some cases more tales than one are used , partioularly, in the old Indian music, two or three talas were mixed up mn the sort of songs known as Prabandha To go from due tala to another partienlar care had to bo taken so that the point of change might not be distinguished as abrupt Ths could be effected by quickening or slackening the layas of the adjacent talas so as to get them blended togethet The laya of a raga or song i8 determmned by ats subject and import, a grave and solomn or plaintive raga requires Vilambita lnya that ex pressing sport, ridicule, or merriment, requires Druta laya, the Madhya laya beig nsed for ordinary songs Below is given a ragi, by way of illustration, to show its tala and the corresponding tabla strokes The tune is Imane with sama on the

Chautála first syllable, or rather druta, the tala bemg

Song - भज।मा्। थीह् ।रा आा। म ना। आा म। सुस्।सम्। प ति ।ए ए ।क धा। य म।

[ 1'5 ]

Tune, Imana-नीधी। प सी। गीसी।पप।मीगी।गी गी। गोरी। गीसी। प सी।रीगी। री नी ।रीस।

x (₹ ) (₹ ) (* ) Tála Chautálá -? 1 ₹ 1 ₹ 1 - Tablà Strokes-I dhá dha I tm na t kit dhát dhın ná ı kıt tik 1 gıd gın ı

If the song be sung in the tunc Bhairaci, the notes will be as below -

प प । धाप। गागा। म म । गा ग । स स।

नास। गागा। म म । नाधा । प घा। प गा।

The sama in this case shifts to the seventh syl- lable or fourth druta, so the sama of the tabla stroke (dha-dhá) must be brought here to have the sama graha, otherwise the graha will be vishama, and not quite pleasant.

L 126 ]

Chapter XII HARMONY Harmony defined Porgotten in India Three kinds of Harmony in Indian Mustc WHEN two or more comordant notes are sounded together, they form what is called Harmony The Indian werd for harmony is Laya (qy = union, fusion, from the root at=to adhere, to vanish) being in this sense different from the word laya, used for the slow or quick motion of a tune in the previous chapter In chapter VIII the relation of each note with othere was investi gated and it was found that puirs of notes with 9-1> shruti intervals, known as samvadis and 6-16 and 7-15 shruti intervals, : e, anuvadis, were concordant An octave of a note is of course concordant to the latter In European music the notes with 5-17 shruti intervals are also taken as concordant

For barm mny, when a tune is played, its salent and promment points are supplemented by sound ing the harmomical notes as mentioned above, whereoy the sweetness of musio is largely en

[ 1"7 ]

hanced. The latter notes form a tune in them- selves which the ear is capable of hearing dis- tinctly separately from the mam tune, as also at the same time in combination with it so that the effect is exceedingly pleasing. It is not neces- sary that each note of the harmony tune should be concordant with the corresponding notes of the mam tune Discords are sometimes introduced, as a contrast, to increase the value of the con- cords The harmony tune is generally played in a lower octave or sthana. The art of harmony was well developed by the old Indian musicians, but it has become almost extinct at the present day All that we see of it is the sounding with music of drones representing the main note, shadja and its fifth, which provide harmony of a sort The chief instrument for this purpose is the Tambura, which has three wires representing Shadja, and one representing Pan- chama. The Vina, the Sitar, the Sarangi, and other similar instruments have also extra wires or strings tuned to Shadja, Panchama etc, which resonate and enhance the volume of music. The Tabla is also tuned with Shadja, or sometimes with other notes if desired by the smger. Three kinds of harmony seem to have been practised in India, viz., Swara laya (47 T),

[ 128 ]

Ansha laya (wa == s part) and Anyonya laya [ry=mutual] Swara laya is the harmony pro vided by the individual notes as in the case of drones and their samvádí and anuváda swaras I he arrangement of the uttaranga beig exnctly the fifth of the purvanga in the Indian scale of music has the pecuhar advantage of providing harmony if desired, for a tune may be played m the ordmary manner and it may, at the same time, be played on the uttaranga of a lower sthana, and the two will be in exact harmony They will have what may be called shadja pan chams bhava [ma=state] In Indian music the sthai (wng=anything permanent) of a song or raga, waich shows its full tuno with all tho necessary notes correctly arranged, is generally divided into two or more parts or ansha These are in the same tala and used to be in the compositions of music masters, generally so arranged that if played together they were in harmony with each other Thus 1f one mstrument plays the raga from the beginning and the other at the same time starts from say the second part m a lower octave the two instru ments will be playing in harmony This 18 Ansha laya As one part will be following the other without actually overtaking it, it may be 9 [ 129 ]

termed Brahmosha Bháva [ann+1, i.e, the state of the sun following the dawn without being able to catch it]. It is called a fugue in European music. The sthai of the tune Hansa Narayana given in Chapter X (page 101) and those of the tunes Iman and Bhairavi given in the last chap- ter will be found with their parts to form fugues very nearly. This is shown below :-

[ 130 ]

(1) Hansa Nara स मी मी मी

yan lst part ₹T गी $$

2nd part स मो गी मी रा गी xt

4

Relation of the notes m Shrutis 0/22

4/18

9/13 0/22 0/22 11/11 5/17

0/22 9/13 4/22 022

0/29 0/'2

C/22

0/22 9/13

Concord or dig cord Concord Discord Concord

(-) Iman lst part नी। मी मी मी गी

2nd part री गी मी मी गी नी it

4

Relation of Shruti 9/13 9/13 6/10 0/22 | 6/16 | 0/22 | 9/13 6/16 | 7/15 9/13 3/19 7/15

Concord or Dis cord Concord Discord Concord

(3) Bhairavi, Ist पृ गा गा म म गा TT स

part 2nd part. ना TTT ना वा प घा गा

Relation of notes 3/19

mn Shrutis 6/16 9/13 9/13 7/15 3/19 10/12 6/16 7/15 9/13 9/13 6/16

Concoid or Dıs- cord. Concord. Discord. Concord.

[ 132 ]

The third Lind of harmony (Anyonya laya, अन्पोन्य जय) obtains between two ragas of different tunes This is known as counterpoint in Euro pean music and is o difficult composition The tunes must, of course be sung or played on the same tala The salient points of ench of the tunes have to be concordant with those of the other The two tunes are heard separately, as also blended into one They have what may be called Pitipatm Bhava [vfa=husband, vaft == wife] In India, for several rágas five or six such tunes as would harmonse with them were composed These latter were given feminine names and were Anown as wives or raginis of the former, wlch were called ragas The subject will be further treated in a subsequent chapter As has been said above, tho art of harmony has been lost or given up, so that the ragas and ragmnis former- ly connected m harmony are treated now as alto gether separate tnnes They have gradually undergone changes and alterations, and in many cases do not harmonise as they did before

[ 133 ]

Chapter XIII. INDIAN RAGAS AND RAGINIS. Ragas and Raginis how differenfiated in different periods, Sargams of Ragas or tunes of current Indian music. Analysis of tunes by Music Experts.

WE shall now come to the different tunes mn Indian music, and see how they are differenti- ated from each other. The points of difference, we have seen, are :- (1) The Janaka mela to which the tune belongs, vide Chapter VII. (2) The particular murchhana of that mela, vide Chapter IX. (3) The existence or otherwise of vakra notes, uide Chapter X, and (4) The Vadı and Samvadì swaras, There were a few other points observed in the old music, e.g. Graha (HE) or the note from vhich a tune commenced ; Nyása (aTa) or the note on which a tune ended; Tára, the note to which the tune extended in the tárasthána; Mandra, the note to which the tune descended in

[ 134 ]

the Mandrasthana , Bahutwa (qga) or mention of the note whioh was used most mn a tune, and Alpatwra (weva) or mention of the note which was used the least or was left out In the current music none of these, ocept the last and sometimes the frst and second, is taken any notice of

One very important point of difference is the portion of the Saptaka, purvanga or nttaranga, that is more impressive in a raga Some of the ragas show themselves mn purvánga (# to a) and some in thetr uttaranga [4 to a] Also some are plessing in their ascent (arobana) and some mn descent [avarohans] The Púrvánga ragas are generally so in ascent and the Uttaranga ones in descent

The arrangement of the tunes has been different in different periods The oldest, and perhaps tbe natural one, was taking the gráma ragas first with their five divisions, Shuddha, Bhinna, Gauda, Vesara, and Sadharana, as already noticed, mde Chapter VI, end numbering 30 These being rather abstract scales had Bháshás ("NT = speech or exposition), Vibhashas and Antarbhashas (alternatives) which were the tunes that showed them in a more praotical way Thon

[ 135 ]

there were other ragas and uparagas and a lot of connected tunes known as rágángas, upángas, bhashangas, etc. Out of these ragas, bhashas, and angas, Sharngdeva, the author of Sanoita Ratnakara mentioned 264, mcluding the old tunes as well as those current in his time. Among the post-Ratnakar writers there are some who take six ragas with five or six ragmnis to each, ascribing the arrangement to older music- makers like Someshwara (or God Shiva), Bharata, and Hanumat. They go so far as to mention sons and daughters-mn-law of each of the six rágas, which include almost all the tunes current in their time. It is not impossible that the old music-masters had some ragas for which they found out tunes allied to them in some way and called them their wives, but that all the rágas of Indian music could be included within groups of only six families is inconcervable, and a lot more of tunes must have been known to the old writers like Bharata etc. The ragas and their raginis are not all the same with the different schools above, which shows that the tunes, although they retained the names, underwent many alterations in the course of time. These rágas and raginis have been ascribed forms of men and women in different attitudes

[ 136 ]

and states of mind This no doubt had reference to the sentiments expressed by the different tunes, but as this aspect of musio has long been lost, it is simply taken as poetic imagery and no heed is taken of it The tunes have now got modibed and a lot of unauthomsed mnter polations has also been probably introduced, so that the descriptions given of the rágims can hardly be indicated by their tunes The subject will be dealt with further later on The rest of the post Ratnakara writers divide the ragas of their time under the several Janak melas (parent scales) whose notes form the basis of those ragas They are different in cases of different writers, showing the ohange that as was natural, went on gradually It is unneces sary to mention the janaka melas or tunes of these old writors as their notes are not, we have seen, all similar to ours Their shuddhe rishabha and shuddha dhaivata are not, for instance, represented by any of our present notes, and but for the difference mn these notes our scale Bhairava would have been the same as the old Hejujn The classification of the rágas at the present day is also done in the same way, te, under tho sseveral janaka melas The Sanskrita book Laksha

[ 137 ]

Sangitam (a=current) of Chatura Pandita treats the subject very well giving almost all the impor- tant ragas and ragins of the current Hindustani music with their points of difference and com- cidence. Chatura Pandita has also composed Hindı songs, known as Lakshana gita, which are sung m the specific tunes, and give their special features, vadis, varjita swaras etc. The latter are also given in the small Sanskrita book Raga Chandrika Every part of the country has in fact books, in its own dialect, on the subject, showing the particular notes used m each raga or rágini, its vadı, vivadı swaras etc. It is not therefore necessary to have all the matter repeated here, and only a few common current tunes are noted below under the different janaka. melas with their sargams and some important. features.

[ 138 ]

Murchbana, Vames of the tunes Sargams of the tones Remarke

ranga

melas Vadi and Samvadt

Names of Jauaka Purvanga or Utta

} Bhairavi Sam Sam Bharrayi स, ना धा प, म, गा रा स ना स, गा म, प, घा ना स or घा गा

Aud \nd Malakogh ना सगा म धाना स,स, ना 12 म स ₹7 and g are

घा म गाम, गास left out.

2 Vasanta Basonta सरा गी म, प धा ना स

Bbatravı Sam Sam Mukbarı घा रा

स धा प, ना धा प, घा प म, गी रा स

3 Bbairayal Do Bharrava रा स, धा नी स, गी मप,घा, घा रा T i8 woak In

प, म गो रा स Arobı

Murohha na Names of the Sargams of the tunes, Remarks.

tunes ranga.

melas. Vadı and Samvadı

Purvanga or Utta

Names of Janaka Bhairava Sam Sam Prabháta म गी, रा स, घा नी स, गी, भ स Both Madhy.

(contd ) मधाप म, म गी रा गी amas used

म मी and close to. gether.

Sam Sam Kalıngrà नी स, रा गी म, गी म प धा, गी नी

पधानीधाप, गोम, गीरास

Aud Sam Gauri रा, स, नी स, गी रा, म गी p रा घा गी and धा left

रा, स, म, प, धाधा प,धा, in Arohi

प, म, गी रा स

Aud Kba Jogiyá स र म, प धा, म, म रा स, at left ont al-

समपधा, रा स, नी धा स भ together and

पधा म, म रा स Et in Arohi,

4 Asamarı Sam Sam Sındbu प गारी गा, स री ना स, धा Bhairayı सप

प, या स, ना धा प प or गा ना

Do Adáná म पस, धा ना, स, ध ना प, स प Kanmn portion

म प, गा म री स ism Purranga

Sam Kha Darbarı ना स, री, म प, धा ना स, री P रो प

Kanhra स, ना प, गा गा, म, री स

[ 141 ] Aud Sam Asavarı रो, म प, ना धा, प, धा स, घा गा

ना घा, प, म प, गा सी स

5 Ka6 Sam Sam Kaf ना स, रीगा, म प, धी ना स, p प स

स ॥धी, प, म गा, री स left out mn

Kha Sam BA gesh warı स, नाधीनास, मपगा P म धी ना धी, म गा री स Arohı

Sbahana ना घी प, म प, स, ना प म प ut left ont in

Do गा म, प गा, म, री स Aroh!

Muichbana Names of the tunes Sargams of the tunes. Remarks.

ranga

melas Vadı and Samvadı.

Puryanga or Utta-

Names of Janaka री म, रा स, ना प नी स, री

Megha स प धो left out गा

Kha Kha मरी, प, ना, प नी स, ना Used sparing

प, री म री स ly,

Aud Sam Sındhvı or सरी, म, री, मप, धो. म, and an left

Sındura p पधीरीस, स ना धी प म oľ Out mn Arohi

गा री म गा, गा री स धी री

Do Dhanáshrı ना स, गा मप, धो प, ना धी p प स री and भी loft

प, गा, प गा, री स mn Arol

Do. Bhimapalásı नासम, गाम, प, ना स, ना म स Do

धोपम, गा री स p

Do Baiwa सरीम प धी प, धी म पं, aT and lett

नी स, स ना, धी प, धी म, oat in Aroht

गा री, गा, स

Aud kha Saranga स, रीमरी, प मीप, धीप री प

मरी, मप, नीस, री नी VT left ou t

स, ना प म री स and धी in

Arohı

Aud Aud Dhan ना स गा म प, ना स, स ना पा ना at and eft left

प, म गा स oat

[ 143 ] 6 Khaw Sam Sam

mach Jhtoghoti घीस, रीमगो, प, मगी, री स, मी धी प p गा धी

Kha Sam Khammach री स, नी स, गी म प, नी स, p गी नी left out in

सना धी, म प, धो म गो Arobana

Aud Sam Deaha री, म प, ना सी प, प धी प म, प री

गी री गो, स

Kha Sam Tilaka प नी ख री गी, स, री, प म P री प ो loft oat in

Kamodo गौ, स, री गी, स, नी Arobans ना sparingly us ed

Murchhana Names of the Saigams of the tunes, Remarks.

tunes. ranga

melas. Purvanga or Utta- Vadi and Samvadı

Name of Janaka Aud kha Soratha म री, म प, नी, स, स न धो, p री धो sit left out al-

मप, धीमरी, together, and f i Aroha. na only.

7 Bılàvala Sam Sam Bilavala स धी प स गी, म, री स प #weak in

गी, री गी प, नी स, Arohona, धो

नी, धोप, मगो at, also taken as Vadı Sam- vadı s o mo- times.

Do Manda स, स, घी, म, मप, नी, प धी, स म

स, म, म प म, धी, प म, Tho timo 19 Va- kra through

म प गी, री स, गी स ont,

गो, री, गी प, धी नी स, स नी # loft out in

Kho Sam Alabıa घी,ना धीप, म गी,म री,स धी गी Arohana

10 Kha LhA Shankarı or स नी प, नी घी, स, नी प गी नी laft out and

Shankard # rery spa

bbarana गीप, गीस प नी स, गी प, री धी स ringly dsed in Avarbha na only

[ 140 ] Aud Sam Bihàga नी स, गी म प, गो म गी, सो गो नी fand e left

"स, गी म प नी स, नी धी out m Aro

प, गी म, गी नी स hana and apa nngly nsed m Avaro hana

Aud Aud Deshakara सं, धो प, गी प घी स, रीस धो री # and eff left out

धो, घीप गीप, गी रीस

8 Todt Sam Sam Tod! धा पी स रागा, रा, स, मी घा गा

प, घा प, मीगा, रा स

Murchhana Name of the Sargams of the tunes Remarks

tunes, ranga

melas Vadi and Samvadı. Purvanga or Utta-

Names of Janaka Aud Sam Multan1 नी स, मीगा, पसीधाप, p नी मी eT ETT left ont

नो स, नी धा प, मी, प गा, in Arobana

[ 146 ] रा स e and a are given as Va- di Samvadı in books, but see Chapter X, in this connection.

2. Pùrvi Sam Sam Purvi ... नी, सरा गी, म गी, मी प, P गो नी

धा प, मो गी, म गी, रा स

Sam Sam Parjs स, नी धा प, मीपथा, 4, weak mn

गी मगी, सा स नी स, गी स प Arobana

भी प धा नी स

hha Sam Baganta नी स, मी गी, मी धा स, Ste Chapter X,

-नी धा, प, मी गी, रा स रा रा मी q left out mn Arobann

And Sam Shrirt a स रा, स मीप, धा प, नी स, p रा मी Sce Chapter

नी धाप, मीगारा स VIIJ, I and

[ 147 ] WT left out 10 Arobana

10 VAravá! Khá khá Puria गी नी रा स, धी गि, मी p गी नी q left out

गो, मी धी रास, मी गा, रा स

Do Fanchama मा धी, स नी धी, मीधी, मी री | q left ou

मी गी, मी गी, रा स, स म, की, मी धी, नी धी, नी मी धी

Muichhana Names of Sargams of the tunes Remarks

tnnes, 5 ranga

melas Vadı and Samvadı,

Purvanga or Utto-

Names of Janaka Kha Kha Sohmı गी, मी धी, नी धी की q left out

17

घो, नी स,गी रा स, नी भी, नी घी मी गी

11. Kalyanı Sam Sam Iman नो घी, प, मी गी मी, प, भी P गी वी

..

or Kalyana. गी, रीगी, पसी गी, री, नी री, स

Do. Iman नी धी, प, सी प, गी, गी मरी, p /गी नी Both Madbyams

Kalyana गी री, गी प, गीरीख, नी nsed.

स, श्रीनी स, री, गी, री गी प, गी री स 41

l1 Kalya Sem Sam | Hamira स री स, गो म धी, नी धी स, p l प स Both Madbyama

-continued नी घी, प, मी, प धी प, or used

गी म री स भी री

Do Kidara स, म, प, घी प, म, री स p सभ Do

मपसीप,धीप मगीम, री स री स, स धी स री स नीधी प म, पधीप, मर्शस

Do Gauda Sn गो, री, े स, गी री, म गी p गी घा Do

[ 149 ] ranga प म मी प, घी, प म गी, री, म गी, प, री स

Do Chhaya Nata घी प री गो म, प, म गी स p री प

गे सस, घो, प, री, गी मप, गी मरीस

Aud Aud Bhupâlı गी, री, स धी, स री गो, प गो घी प गी, री स p गी धी गी and ी lolt out

Do Hindola गी स धी सो धी स गी मी धी नी घी, जो गी स गी धी f and q left ont altogether ant at 1n Arohans

Names of the Sargams of the tunes. Remarks.

tunes.

Melas ranga p or u, Vadı and Samvadı.

Purvranga or Utta-

Murcbhana

Names of Janaka 12. Mixed Sam Sam Pilu नी, स, (गा, रीस, नी स, री p

melas. स, नी घा प), नी ख, गा मप, गा न गा, री स ()

Do Jaraivantı री गा री स, न भी प, री, गी p रे प Both gandharas

म प, म. री गा री, नी स and Nishads nsed.

Do Khata स नील मगाम, प, पाघा स। धा गा Both f, r and

ना स्ा प, म गा न, ना आा fि are nsed

प, म गा, रा स in this raga.

Do Ghára धी नौ स, री, गी, म, गी री ... p री घी Both Gandharas

गी, सनीस, नो रीस, धी and Nishads

नी घी, प म गी, म प स्ी, nsed

स, नी स

The Sargams given above show how the tunes differ from each other It is however unavoid able that portions of different tunes should coin- cide In cases of these portions being promi nent ones, the tunes are said to be containing the others, or made up of two or more tunes Indian music masters analysed a lot of tunes and endeav- oured to fnd out their component tunes It is however diffioult to follow them, and more often than not they differ in their opimons, probably becnuse the common points considered were dif- ferent by different men The tunes also perhaps got altered as time went on It is not of muoh use therefore to note all these down here Only a few of the common tunes are noted below by way of illustration Statement showing the analysis of tunes -

Lomtorent tulies

Vame of tunes Roga mala Matla al- Sarmaya Hindı writfen ulum Per 18n, 1 Ishrat I0 1706 writteb In Urda writ 184/ ten in 1874 Kemarks

Shnddb : Iilaka Gand Gond Kalyana and homoda hamod and lanka

[ l0] ]

Component tunes

Names of tunes. Raga mala Matlo-ul ulum Sarmsya.I- Hmdı, fersian. Ishrat, Urdu, written in written in writien in 1798 1847 1874 Remarks

Bilávald - Kalyàna and Kıdarà,

Kidára Knkuhha. Púrvi and Bilávala

Kuknb'a .. Bılavala, Pur- vi, Kedara and Deogirı

Iman Kedia, Kıdara Kalyana, Kalyana, and and Bılavala Bilavala.

Hamira ... Kıdera Kidara. Kalyana, Kalyana, and Iman, and Iman.

Shankará- bharana. K dara Kıdara and Kidara and and Bilavala. Bılavala Bı avala

Shama Kal- Kıdara yana and Shuddhanata

[ 152'7

Component tones.

Names of tnnes Raga Maln. Vatla ul olom Sarmaya 1 Hindı Perdtan Ishrat Ordo fritten in written 1D written in 1798 1847 1874 Remarks

MalaloshA Hindola Purvi, Sham Batanta Kalyan and Jhinghott Todı and Ponchama

Hidola - Bilaval Maogala, Lalta Vibhasa. and Panchamo Bararı Pora and Blarrava

Bhairava Hindola - Shudha nata Kanbra and Puria

Shri raga Badbansa Badbansa Tankn and Tanks and Ganrl Gauri, also Aolyana Gamn and Deahkara

Megha Nalyana Kamoda and Satanta (Sa range and Malar)

[ 15% ]

Component tunes.

Names of Matle-ul ulum, Sarmaya-1- tunes Raga Mala, Hmdı Pcisian. Ishrat, Urdu wrilten mn written in written in 1874. Remarks. 1798. 1847.

Ganri Jhinjhoti, Shriraga. ... - Asavari, Rama kalı Gujar So- and Gajarı ratha, Bilava. l& and Gonda

Kamoda .. - Bilavala and Bilavala and Gonda, Gauri

Saranga Devagiı Devagırı Natanara- and and yana, Shan Malara Malara, karabharana and Bılavala,

Gauds Sa- Saronga and Saranga Malakosh ans ranga. Todı, and Gauri or Tribenı Saranga and Gaurá [Gaur]-Nata -Tribeni]

Sindhavi or Sındhura Asavari and Asavarı Ahırı. and A hıri. Soratha . Bhairavn, Bhairava, Pancham&, Panchama, Gujari, Gujarı, Ben- Bengali and 'galı and Gan Gandhara dhara,

[ 154 ]

Component toneg

Names of tunes l aga Mala Matlo ul Sarmaya

Hindı written ulam Persian 1 Iahrat in 1794 written 10 Urdu writ 1847 ten mn 1814 Remark

Adana 1 hırı (Desb Malar and Kanbra akar and Kanhra Deo akh and Gman) Dhanashrı Kanhra

From i study of the above table it will be clear that the ides of analysing the tunes was to find out the coinciding pomts out of the different tunes, and not, as 18 mentioned in several books, that the tunes were really composed by combin ing two are more tunes as notod The tunos particularly composed by combming two or more tunes bear names showing the composition, e g, Iman and Bilavalacombine and form Imanı Bilavala, Iman and Bilavala and Shuddhn Kalyana form iman Kalyans, Nata and Bilavala form Nata Bilavalı Jaitashrı and Shuddba Kalyana form duta Kalyana, and so on

[ 155 ]

Chapter XIV

HARMONY "Ragas and their Raginis of the old writers in harmony with cach other Repadiation of the theory that Indian Music had no harmony Method of forming Concert Music. IN the previous chapter it was mentioned that the old writers, Bbarata, Hanumat, etc., had divided some of the tunes of their time mto several gioups of ragas, ragmis, their sons [called putras, =son] and daughters-m-law (called Bharyas a7 *= wife, i.c, of the sons). Sanoita Ratnakara and several other standard works written after it do not take notice of these groups, and the present tendency is to discard the system al- together, without, it is regrettable, any investiga- tion as to the purpose which the eminent music- makers had in view in this grouping. It will be shown m this chapter that the grouping was not without meaning, and that the several ragas mentioned were in harmony with their raginis, forming what has been described in Chapter XII as Anyonya Laya. The grouping differs to a

[ 156 ]

oertain oxtent among the different writorg, of whomithere are four Someshwara or God Shiva, the origmator of music in Iudin, had, it is said, ait ragas, r , Shri, Vasanta Panobama, Bhairava, Megha and and Natandrayan with sis ragimis and eight putras to each 2 Bharata, the anthor of Natyashastra 18 also said to have had sic ragas, three of whicb were different from those of Someshwara They were Bhairava, Malakosha, Hindola, Dipaka Shrf, and Megha each of which had five raginis, eght putras and cight bharyas 3 Kallinatha takes the six ragas of Som eshwara, with stx ragimis and oight putrs to each,, his ragims being different from thoso of Someshwara

4 Hanumat or Hanwanta has the same six ragas as Bbarata but his raginis (also five to each raga) are different Ho has also eight putras, but no Bharyas The change in the names and conneotions of the tunes show how the Indian mustc has under- gone considerable alterations The first three systems, viz, Someshwara, Bharata and Kallt natha, are now long obsolete For the fourth or

f[ 167 ]

the Hanumat systom, it is said that the present- day Indian music follows that system This 18 however questioned by some of the present-day wrters, not on very good grounds though. That there have been certain changes is natural and undoubted, but there is not much to show that the ragas etc. of Hanumat school were very different from those used now. The Hmdı book Ragamala of Gangadhara, written in 1798, takes the ragas and ragmís of Hanumat school, and at the same time seems to be paying homage to Tanasen, which shows that the famous grand musician represeuted the Hanumat School. As "anasen's ragas are still taken as standard mn Hmdustan music, it is not incorrect to assume that the present Hindustam music follows the Hanumat School generally.

The six ragas with their raginis and a few putras of the Hanumat School are noted below :

(1) Bharrava. Ragims-Bhairaví, mdhaví Bangalí, Baratf, and Madhumádhaví -Putras Purià, Panchama.

(2) Lalakosha or Kaushıka. Ragmıs-Todı, Khambávatí, Gaurí, Gunakalí and Kukubha. Putras-Badhansa, Maru.

[ 158 ]

(8) Hmdola Ragmnis-Bilavalf, Lalta, Rama Lalf, Devasakha, and Patmanjarí Putras Vibhása, Gauri (4) Dı paka Ragıms-Kanhrá, Kamodı, De shi, Aidara and Nata (5) Shr Ragims -- Basanta, D h a n a shr, Malasbri, Asavari and Marava Putras-Sindhn Gonda, Sankara, Bıhagra (6) Megha Ragıms-Tanka, Gujari, Malar Bhupalf and Deshakara Putras-Saranga, Kal yana, Sohána Let us non see if as mentioned above the 1 igas are in harmony with their raginis Inking the raga Bhairivi and its ragini Bariti or Bararı the sargama of the latter is (मीरा गौरास प प नीधी प प मीगी रा स सर गीर स) To this sargama let us fit mn the samvadis ind anuvadis of the different notes having of course an view, as fai as possible, to introduce the notes of the raga Bharrava We find the notes (रा रा स धा नी ससगी रा ससरासधाधा प मगी रा स) which make up a perfect sargam of Bharava fit m exaetly as shown below -

[ 109 ]

[ 160 ] Relationg of notes Harmonising tune, Concord or discord. Concord Discord, in shruti interval. Sargama of Bararı Bhairava, 3 मो रा गी रा स प प नी जी प श रा स धा नी 81/6 7/15 zzło 2/20

8t/6 9/13 9/13 गीव स 9/13 7/15 9/13 सद स क़ प्ा 8t/6 Concord. 7/15 8T/6 9/13 7/15 स रा गी र स म म गी स स 9/13 7/15 0/22 78/0 0/22-

A few more sargamas of the ragas with those of their ragimes are noted down below to show the harmony The sargamas have necess arily to be adjusted, so as to give an equal number of notes to the two tunes in each pair, neither of course losing its specific arrangement of the notes

[ 161 ] 11

Málakosha and Kukubha, धी

Sargama of Kuku- स स री पम ना गी स

bha वी

Harmonising tune, ना घा म म गा स ना म

' Malakosha.' म धा ना स

[ 89I ] Relations of notes in shruti mter- 9/13 9/13 9/13

10/12

8/14 6/16

9/13 9/13

7/15 9/13 6/16 7/15

7/15 9/13

vals. l 7/15 7/15

Concord or discord. Concord. Concord.

Discord.

Discord. Concord. 3

[ 691 ] Concord or discord Harmoniging tune, Relations of notos Sargama of Bila in shruti inter vals vala ! Hindola गी स धी मी धो 7/15 Conoord 0/22 घी धी प गी म रो स स स गीरी गो प 0/22 t 6/16 Hindola and Bilávala Disoord 4/18 Concord 7/15 स गीमीधीसे Discord 2/20 Concord 7/15 Ducord 5/17 0/22 Concord 0/22 स नी धी भी गो 9/13 9/13 Discord 4/18 6/16 मी गो स स स 9/13 नी स नी प गी Concord 7/15 स ची म 0/22 9/13 9/13

[ V9I ] Concord or discord. Relation of notes Harmonising tune, Sargama of Desha ' Megha.' in shrutis inter- vals kara. 0/22 सधी धीससरी स 9/13 9/13 9/13 Megha and Deshakara. 9/13 Concord. 0/22 7/15 गोप प धी प प स 6/16 ना प 0/22 9/13 री री स 9/13 9/13 ,9/13 धी घी प प छी प Discord. 5/17 स f 7,15 नी स री म 9/13 9/13 री 9/13 Concord. गो गी प गीरीस 6/16 म प प ना प नी स 6/16 6/16 6/16 6/16 l 0/22

From the above it will be amply olear that the grouping of the ragas and raginis by the ancient music makers was meant to provide tunes that could be played together as in s concert It enables us to compose concert music, by pomting out the direction in which to proceed to get harmomising or melodious tunes, as such bunes will generally be found within the family An example may be useful The following is the Sargama of a song in the tune Shankara, sung mn Bilavala mela, for which a harmonising tune is required Shankara belongs to the Shri group, so a tune is sure to be found in that group Let us select Asávarı for the purpose Acting on this datum and with the help of the table showing the relations of the notes in Ch VIII, the tune shown below the given tune can be eastly formed

[ 166 ]

Tune ' Shankara,' स स नी नी भी स नी पृ प गी प गी गी स स

Harmonising tunc, स म ना पु स ना

' Asavarı,' म गी री री छा प

[ 99I ] Relations of notes in shruti inter- vals 0/22

6/16

6/16 7/15

9/13 9/13 2/20 9/13

7/15 9/13

6/16 6/16 7/15

Concord or discord. Concord- Concord. Concord, Concord,

₹ 7/15 Discord. 8/14

Discord.

Discord, 8/14

Ths ingemous grouping finally repudiates the statement made by some Europeans and Indians that Indian musio had no harmony That the art was neglocted for some reason or other, and by this time has been altogethor forgotten, cannot be gamsaid The above also proves incidentally that the present day Hidustam musio follows the Hanumat school for if the ragas and ragims had under gone any considerable altorations they would no more have been in harmony as we find them

[ 167 ]

CHAPTER XV.

TIME OF RAGAS.

Time determined by the physical and mental condition of the sınger. Tivra Madhyama the chief determining note, List of tunes according to time of singing. IN chapter X it was said that a rága to be attractive must be sung at a time when it pleases the mind, i.e., when its tune or import is in conformity with the state of mind of the singer, or the hearers, or both. The Indian music- masters have fixed times of the day for all the ragas (raginis are included in the word). Opinions differ in a few cases, but not widely. It is intended in this chapter to investigate the principles which govern the problem of time for the different tunes. Here we enter in a way to deal with the relation of mind and music. The following three things have to be con- sidered in this connection :- (1) The general inclination of the singer to sing and of the hearers to hear, ne., what strain they are capable of bearing physically at any particular time.

[ 168 ]

(2) The general mental condition of the singers and hearers, te , whether happy and composed, or worried and in anxiety (3) The particular emotion that has to be expressed by the singer or desired to be engend ered in the andience

The last, or expression of sentiments, can not evidently be confined to any particular time, and no time can be fixed for ragas when they are meant to express emotions Time can be fixed for them on the first two considerations only

For the first, the day and night may bedivided into four periods, uiz, daybreak to mid day, mid-day to evening, evening to midnight, and midmght to day break Of these, mid-day to evening is the pemod when a man feels mo=t tired and sluggish and can bear the least strain On the other hand, from midmight to morning one feels the most brisk and smart and, unless troubled by sleep, can exert one's self much better than in any other period The other two periods are midway between them, morning to mid day being perhaps a bit better than from evening to midmight

Now as regards strain in singing, the komala or flat swaras are easier than tivra onee, also the

[ 169 ]

purvanga (a to a) easier than the uttaranga (9 to a). Hence it may be taken as a rough general rule that the purvanga ragas with komala swaras should be sung in the period mid-day to evening ; púrvánga rágas with tívra swaras from evening to midnight; uttaranga ragas with tivra swaras from midnight to day- break; and uttaranga ragas with Komala swaras from the daybreak to mid-day. For the same reason, ragas sung in Tárasthána are more pleas- ing after midnght. The above rough rule 18 mentioned mn other words as that in the first part of the might purvanga notes are more pleasing, while in the latter part the uttaranga ones are better, and that the order is reversed in the day-time. This of course does not take account of the tivra and komala swaras. To proceed on the second consideration, it 1s necessary to consider the daily routine in old days of an average Indian, in fair health and having no extraordmnary troubles. He woke up at about 4 o'clock in the morning, said his prayers, then getting up and taking bis bath performed his worship. After this he went out to work for his living and came back at about mid-day for his meals. After perhaps a

[ 170 ]

little nap he went out agam to oarn his living, from which he returned rather fagged at about sunset After ablutions he had his sandhyn prayers and, taking the ovening meals, was free to have a chat with friends or members of tho family He went to sleep at about midnight, to ge. up agam before dawn It will be seen that the hours whon he was worried most were the afternoon hours when he had to work for his livmng, probably hard There was a lttle worry (not so much as mn the afternoon) in the morning also for the samo causo Also there must be some in the earl, morning hours before finally waking up Ths found expression in music by the use frequent or otherwise, of tivri madhyama (#t) This note, having good afilmty with many of tho other notes, both komals and tivr, is next in im portance only to Shadja (a), but being 11 shrutis from it bas an almost opposite effect, its anuvadis being vivadis of shadja and vice versa Whilo therefore shadje sounds composure and pence, tivra madhyama sounds excitement and worry, hence its use as mentioned Also as one cannot pass on from worry to composure without going through mtermediate stages, so the elimination of aft is done gradually, so that while the note

[ 171 ]

itself is left out, its samvadis and anuvadis are kept on, which are mn turn gradually replaced Sometimes, as mn the case of Kalyaní mela komala madhyama () is introduced along with #t, and the latter is ultimately left out. The following list gives the janaka melas in the order of their association with tivra madhyama :-

Janaka melas मी Samvadıs of Anuvadıs of मो मी Number.

रा नी 1 Máravá सी धी 1

2 and 3 Todì and Pùravì. मी रा नी

4 Bhairava रा नी - -

5 Kalyána * मी नी री धो

6 Bılávala - नी री ध

Bhairavi - रा -

8 and 9. Kàfi and Kham. री घा mách.

10 Asávarí री

• In Kalyani, मो 18 rather sparingly used, hence its position below Bhairava.

[ 172 ]

The natural order of the Janaka melas to be used during the course of a whole day and nght will therefore be something like what is shown on the following circle where the shaded portion indicates the periods of worry

MORNING DAYBREAK BIL AVALA BHAIR AVI BHAIRAVT KALYANI ASAVARI BHAIRAVA BIL AVALA PURAVI TOO! MARAVA BILAVALA BILAVALA ASAVARI KAFI NOON KHAMMACH KAFI KAPI RAFI .JIDOKIGHT ASAVARI KALYANI KAFI BHAIRAVI MARAVA BILAVALA KALYANI TOOI PURAVI BNAIA AVA

EVENING

tice This is very nearly the case in actual prao It will be seen that the Janaka mela whioh starts the abandonment of ii is Bharrava, which has komala rishabha and dhaivata, and tivra gandbara and mshada, 1 e two samvadis, and two vivadis of aft This combination of notes, : e

[ 178 ]

रा गी धा नौ, does therefore indicate Sandhipra- kásha ragas Sandhi ti=junction, i.e. of af and or, as it happens at the time of night and day). Similarly, the approach towards at from the influence of starts with the mela Kafi which has Komala gándhára and nisháda, and tívra rishabha and dhaivata. This combination (a m ef T) being rather a reversal of the above (the Sandhi one) or as it were at the pitch of the swing rightly occurs almost mid-way, t.e. at about mid-day and midnight. The mtermediate timing is determined by the interchange of the notes of these two combinations, consistent with the positions of af as mentioned above.

[ 174 ]

The following is a list of rigas and raginis with the time prescribed for them -

Time Names of the tone Janala mela

Dawn to early Bhairavs Bhatravo worning Ran n Kalı Vibbá a Hindola Kalyant Malkosha Bhatravı Bhairavi

Earlter part of | Deshkara Brlavala the morning Khata Asayarı etc Gunkah Bilavala Bilavala Alahira Bangalt

Latter part of Todı Todı the morning Gujarı Jaunpuri Asavarı Pevagırı Bilavala Asavarı Asavarr Gandharı Do Deshı Do

Mid đay Suhá Kafi Sughraf Do Saranga Do Brindabam Saranga Do Madhomadha Do Gauda Saranga Kalyanı

[ 175 ]

Tıme. Names of the tanes Janaka mela

Earlier part of Bhimpalásí Kaf afternoon. Dhánı Do, Dhanashri Do Malashrı Kalyanı Jaitashrı Purvi

batter part of Multání Todı afternoon. Barári Marava POriá Do Máravá Do. Shri rága Purvı Purvi Do.

Evening, dusk Gaurı Purvi or Bharrava Earher part of Kámoda Kalyani evening Iman kalyani Iman Kalyana Do. Bhupalı Do. Shuddha Kalyana Do.

Shama Kalyana Do. Ganda Sáranga Do. Hamíra Do, Chháyánata Do.

Latter part of Kidárà Do. the evening, Natanarayana Bılavala Khammách Khammach Ghára Do. Sındura Kafi Jhinjhotı Khammach

[ 176 ]

Time Names of the tones JanaLa Mola

Latter part of Káfi Ka6 the evening Darban Kanhra Asavarı Bagesbri Kaf Husaim Naıkı Tilanga Khammach Tilika Ka nod a Shaban6 Kaf Adan Asavarı

Midnight Malar Khammach Mian Ly Malar Ka6 Mey ba Nata A bammach Gooda Soratha Desha Jaijaivantı

After midnight Barvá Maod Bilavals

Late after mid Shankara Bilhvala nıgbt Bıbage hakubha Malgaura Marava Bhikara Sohinı Panchama Basanta Porvi Parja Kalıngra Bhaira ya Lalıta Jog1a

No time fized Pilu Kaf

12 [ 177 ]

Chapter XVI.

EXPRESSION.

Inner meanings of notes Well-investigated by old writers. Expression of each Shruti note indicated by its name VVE come now to the psychological study of music, to know its effect on the mind. For this it is necessary to investigate the inner meanings of the notes, and how by suitable combi- nations they can be made to express the desired feelings and generate the desired emotions. The subject was well-investigated by the ancient Indian music-makers like Bharata ; the impression created by each musical note was determined, and the feeling each tune gave expression to was specified. This was later on done by personifying the tune, and picturing them with particular feelings or emotions. After the time of Sharng- deva, however, the matter was entirely neglected. Although, as already mentioned in Chapter XIII, some of the books copied out the old description of the personified tunes, the real object was lost. The beautiful description of the ragas (tunes with masculine names) and ráginís (tunes with femin-

[ 178 ]

ine names) were considered mere poetie imagery, without any real meaning, and it is most likely that additions and alterations were made to original deseriptions Muste as a fine art almost censed to be oultivated in India

Except perhaps in a very small oirole this state of things still obtains Of the small circle, I may mention Mr H P Krishna Rao (Hend master of the Mysore Institute for the Deaf, Mute, and the Blind), who has tried in his book " Psy chology of Musio", to work out the mnner mean ings of the notes I have, however, to note with the greatest regret that, like so many other English eduoated Indians, Mr Rao, a great ad- mirer as he is of the Indian music and its psychologic il effect, discards all the old carefully worked out notions on the subject, evidently without giving them the proper study they deserved He does not find any use for the shrutis and deprecates the idea of 22 shrutis, and in the matter of inner meanings of notes denounces the old writers Bharata and Sharngdeva as ignorant of the properties, physioal as well as msthetio, of even the fundamental note # [Sa] We have seen that for the correct study of Indian music, shrutis are indispensable and their depre cation does only show an ignorance of the sub

[ 179 ]

ject, Similarly, without studying their works, to call the ancient music-makers as ignorant of the properties oi the fundamental note is simply intolerable. Mr. Rao's indictment of these writers is based on a single shloka (zaT# verse) giving the chief notes used in the expression of different senti- ments, The shloka is as follows : सरी वीरेऽन्द्र ते रौढे गो वीमतसे नयानके। करुणे च छनी कायों हास िंगारयोरसपै।।। It means-In the sentiments expressing heroism and marvellousness, # and f used; mn anger, T; in sentiments exciting disgust, fear and pity, and fa ; and in those of humour and love, " and y are used. In the printed edition of San- gita Ratnákara, has been shown in place of ", and oice versu which seoms to be a copying mıstake Mr. Rao's first objection is that it is impossi- ble that a musical note can express the ascribed emotion by itself but the shloka does not say this, Mr Rao's interpretation of the shloka that the notes by themselves express the several sentiments is not correct, Another objection of Mr. Rao's is based on the supposition that the emotions expressed by a note and its samvadi must agree with each

[ 180 ]

other So he says that with the emotions men tioned m the shloka « and q can never agree ns valour and love are unlike emotions Apart from the fact that valonr ind love are not ontagomstio to each other, his very premise that samvadis must agree in their expressions 18 wrong He forgets that each note bas two samvadis, and his supposition will lead to the absmrd conoluse ion that a agrees with q 4 with R, ft with 4, w with w with f and f with a, or that all the notes must express the same sentiment. He actually comes to the conclusion that without embellshments music can express only one sentiment, that of tenderness growing by de grees to pam , and this is not at all surprising with the mistaken supposition The Sanskrita words Vira, Shringara, Hnsa, etc, expressing the sentiments cannot also be very well interproted by single Enghsh words For instance, Vira cannot be iterpreted by merely heroism or valour, or shringta by sexual love It is clear therefore that the defect hes not with the author of the shloka, but mn the mcorrect interpretation of it and wrong supposi tions As will be seen later, the use of tho several notes recommended by the shloka was determined by a careful analysis of their sounds.

[ 181 ]

Mr. Rao, with his imposed limitations, takes it that # and 4 are tranquil notes, T and er indicate disturbance, and eft indicate perception, m and disagreeableness mand at enquiry, # optimism or egoism, and at degradation. On this basis he interprets the emotions expressed by a few of the tunes. The result does not seem to be cor- rect, at least in the case of 'Bhupali,' which according to him is a tune having no sorrow or pam, but which as we know is just the reverse in expression. The defect hes not in the method of mterpretation but in the values taken for the several notes.

In European music the tonic (a) is taken to be the firm or strong note, the second (f) the rous- ing note, the third (aft) the calm or peaceful note, the fourth (#) the solemn or awe-inspiring note, the fifth (v) the clear or trumpet note, the sixth () the sad or melancholy note, and the seventh (t) the piercing note, The above meanings given to the notes, by the tonic solfaists, for the European music, or Mr. Rao for the Indian music, are too general and rather vague to be ot much use in the mnterpreta- tion of tunes, or the composition of music to express particular emotions. These certainly

[ 182 ]

require 'closer investigation of the details and and mceties of sound

The old Indian music makers realised this They did not consider it onough to fit values, by Fome arbitrary method, merely for the seven notes or some of their modifications, but carefully weighed sounds at shorter intervals vis, of one shrut For this purpose, Vinas were construoted with twentv two strings which were tuned to the twenty two shratis to factlitate comparison The mnner meaning which the sound of ench shruti indı cated was determmed mn reference to the mamn note #, which being the natural note uttered withoat any exertion, represented a state of mind,' peaceful and generous, and free from perturba tion or extraneous influences

The result thus obtained has been preserved m the newer names of the shrutis themselves, which new names bave meanings indicated by their sounds The following is a hst of the shru tis, commenoig from Chhandovati, on which the chiof note a has been fixed with their meinings and derivation of the names -

Chhandovati -from Chhandas ( ) == free will, independent conduct-indicates peace of mind, independence, heroism, generosity

[ ('83 ]

Dayavati: from Daya ( दया) = compassion, sympath y,-indicates pity, sympathy, tenderness, a ffection.

Ranjanı: from Ranjan ((s )=colour, plea- sing,-indicates pleasure, delght, appreciation. Raktıka: from Rakti (रक्ति) = pleasingness, attachment,-indicates charm, marvellousness, devotion, appreciation, state of getting impass- ioned,

Raudri : from Raudra ( An )=heat, wrath,- mndicates heat, warmth, enthusiasm, anger. Krodhi: trom Krodha (i ) = anger,-indi- cates anger, cursing. Vajrika : from Vajra (a )=steel, -indicates severe language, abusing, cursing. Prasarin : from Prasarana (sanw )=expand- ng, diffusing,-indicates enquiry, explanation. Príti : ( mfa: ) means and indicates joy, happi- ness, satisfaction, favour, affection. Marjan: Marjana (a )=cleaning, purify- ing, effacing,-indcates clearing one's breast, affection, joking, ridicule, egoism. Kshiti : from Kshi (fa)= to decay, to rule- mndicates egoism, complaint of loss.

[ 184 ]

Rakta from Ranj (aa)- to be coloured or attached, to be affected or excited-indicates attachment, dovotion, excitement, worry Sandípım Sandipana (qs) =i n fl aming. kindlıng, exciting-indicates kindling of the flames of love, excitement due to same Alápmm from Lap (ag)= to talk-mdicates conversation or talk between lovers, expressions of love, affection, entreaty, sympathy Madantı from Mada (#a), indicates ardent passion, affection, intoxication, madness, sexual love, arrogance, anger due to jealousy Rohim from Ruh (<a)= to grow-mdicates dovelopment of pleasure, pain, or other feelings. The word also means a girl just grown up, and indicates hopes and fears of early life , solitary musings Ramya from Ram (t)= to rest, to remamn quiet-indicates quiet, solitude, musings, apathy, carelesaness towards outward show Ugra (37)= powerful, formidable, sbarp- sharpens feelings, also expresses formidableness awe, fear Kshobhim from Kshubh (aw)= to tremblo, to be agitated-indicates disturbance, agitation, trembling, uunervedness, pitiableness, extreme worry

[ 185 ]

Tivra: (MET) means and indicates sharpness, acuteness, violence, heat. Kumudvati : from Kumud (u@)= unfriendly; indicates unkmndness, criticism, complaint, enmity, avarice. Kumud also means a lotus or water-lily and the shruti may express inward pleasure. Manda : from manda (ni)=slow, apathetic, cold-indicates idleness, inaction, apathy, want of pleasure or enthusiasm. These twenty-two shrutis were divided by the old music-makers into five categories, known as (1) Díptá (ur), expressing excitement or stimula- tion ; (2) Ayatá (maar). showing diffusiveness, prolixity or expansion ; (3) Karuna (sau), express- ing compassion and pity ; (4) Mridu (5), show- ing tenderness of feeling ; (5) Madhyá (HeT). be- ing neutral and giving expression to feelings not mcluded in the first four. The sbrutis coming under each of these categories are as under :- . Diptà :- Tívrá, Raudrí, Vajriká, Ugrá. Ayatá -Kumudvatı, Krodhı, Prasárini, San- dípinı, Rohını Karuna :- Dayavatı, Alapinı, Madantı. Mridu .- Mandá, Raktıká, Príti, Kshitı. Madhya :- Chhandovatı, Ranjanı, Marjini, Raktá, Ramyá, Kshobhını.

T 186 1

With this analysis of sounds at small inter vals it would be easier to find out what senti ment each tune gives expression to or which tune should be used to express a particular feeling Before coming to this, however, it is nocessary to have a olear idea of the several sentiments and the feolings thoy produce in the mind This will be dealt with briefly in the noxt chapter

[ 187 ]

SHAPTER XVII.

SENTIMENTS OR RASAS.

Rasas defined. Feelings and sentiments classified- How feelings manifest themselves, physically and mentally.

IN this chapter it is intended to describe the different sentiments and feelings recognised in the Indian rhetorics and poetry, and to explain briefly how they are produced or affected. The word for feeling or the state of mind at any time is Bháva (ma) from the root q= to be, to exist. Distinction is made between a lasting feeling, or that which pervades the mind during the time under consideration, and those which are transi- tory, being excited by circumstances and then subsiding, The former is known as a Sthai bhava (5=enduring, permament from n to stand). The latter are called Vyabhichari bhavas [व्यभिचारिन =irregular, unfaithfull. The condition or circumstance which alters the existing one or excites a particular state of mind or body is called Vibhava [fanra). The sudden appearance of a poisonous snake, or some-

[ 188 ]

body's sudden calling out that there was a enake, which will generate the feeling of fear is Vibbava Meeting or hearing about one's beloved or rec ollection of sweet old memories about him or her, which may excite the feeling of love is Vibhava Vibhava 18 of two kinds, Alambana and Uddipana The former (wieras=supporting) is that (person or thmg) with reference to which a sentiment arises, the latter (attoa = exciting) ropresents the causes which enhance its depth In the case, for instance, of the feeling of sorrow over the death of somebody, the person dead 1s the Alambana of the sentiment, and the attending circumstances which aggravate sorrow are its Uddipana Vibhivas Alambana or Uddipana may happen in three ways oz, Darshana re, by see ing Shravana or by hearing, and Smarina or by iecollection , as in the examples cited above When a feeling is excited m the mind, it usually finds manifestation in some part of the body The symptoms which thus indicate the feeling outwardly are called Anubhavas Palpita- tion of the heart or drying of the mouth due to the feeling of fear is Anubhava The pleasure expressed on the face of the lovers whon they meet and the sadness when they long to meet but cannot, are Anubhavas of the feeling of love

[ 189 ]

The different feelings or bhávas excited by the appropriate Vibhavas and accompanied by their Anubhavas give rise to what are called Rasas. Rasas (T) which means taste, essence or senti* ment is a comprehensive term for an aggregate resultant emotion, Rasaprabodha (रस प्रबोध), a Hindı book written by S. Ghulam Nabi of Bil- gram mn 1741 A D., describes Rasa in a very fine simile. It says: The human mind is the soil where Rasa has got its seeds; Stháibhava 1s the sprout which irrigated with the water of Vibhava grows into a plant called Anubhava according to the environments Vyabhichárí- bbavas are the flowers, blossoming at frequent intervals and in consonance with the Sthai. These combined produce the honey called Rasa, which is collected by the poet acting as a bee.

The task of the artist hes in depicting the particular Rasas, i.e., giving expression in his work to the sentiments desired to be expressed. The poet (including an orater) does it by means of suitable words with proper accents ; the paint- er and the sculptor by their pictures and sculp- ture expressing the particular sentiments, and the musician by combining suitable notes to form appropriate tunes. It is clear the poet has- the greatest advantage; the painter and the

[ 190 ]

sonlptor come next as they get the advantage of the Annbbavas which have been determmed for each bhava or sentiment The task of the musi- cian is rather difficult, but if he can combine poetry with music in his songs and take help of the Anubhavas in his gestioulations, his per formance will surely surpass that of the others Hence the necessity of suitable songs for music and the utility of proper gesticulating The feelings which give riso to sentiments are grouped into mine, enumerated in the following shloka of Sahity- Darpina रनिर्हासरच शोकश् क्रोघोत्साही भय तथा जुगुप्सा विस्मयश्चेष्थमष्टी प्रोक्त शमोSपिच॥ te, (1) Ratı (ia)=pleasure, amusement, love, affection, sexual pleasuro or passion , (4) Hasa (eTer)=laughter, merriment, ridicule , (3) Shoka (is) =sorrow, grief, pitiableness (4) Krodha (s)=anger, wrath , (5) Utsah (aar)=effort, determination, perseverince, firmness, fortitude , (6) Bhaya (4)=fear alarm, terior , (7) Jugupsa (sywt)=censure, dıslike disgust (8) Vismaya (faty)=wonder, surprise, admiration , and (9) Shama (wa)=tranquilty, rest, absence of passion, restruint of senses The last has been put in the shloka as if outside the catogory, because it is in fact absence of a real feoling It has not been

[ 191 ]

recogmsed by Bharata, the author of Natya- shastra, as a feeling giving rise to a sentiment. The Rasas (a: ) which arise from the above feelmgs or bhávas are rospecnvely known as (1) Shringára (sivne), (2) Hása (3) Karuna (7= sorrow). (4) Raudia (ia=wrathful, terrible), (5) Vira (ai), (6) Bhayanaka (tas=terror), (7) Bi- bhatsa (बीमत्स=disgust), (8) Adbhuta (भद्भुत= marvellous), and (9) Shanta (r=undisturbed) The last as said above, is not recogmsed m the Natyashastra On the other hand, there are otber writers who recogmise two extra rasas, Vatsalya ((a) or affection, especially for one's offspring, and Bhakti (ifs) or worship and devotion. These are surely included m Shringara, Vira, Adbhuta, and Shánti. Shringara, the sentiment of love, is so called because it is the most important of the rasas [from shringa i=peak of a mountain]. It 1s also therefore known as Rasaraja. It is of two kinds, urz., (1) Sambhoga Shringara («uta), when the lovers enjoy each other's company, and (2) Vipralambha Shringara (विप्रलंस) when there 1s separation due to any cause. Vira, which is the sentiment of heroism is fourfold, v12, (1) Dána Víra (T4), 1,e., heroism based on liberality or the sentiment of enthusiast-

[ 192 ]

10 liberality (2) Dharma Vira (va) te., heroism based on piety and righteousness, or the sentt- ment of enthusiastio piety , (3) Daya Vira (e1), te heroism based on compassion, or the senti ment of chivalrous compassion, and (4) Yuddba Vira (ga) or heroism in battle No further comments are needed m respect of the other rasas The nine bhavas noted above are Sthai when they are the pervading feelings of a partioular Rasa, but when they come and go strengthening the pervading feelng, they are Vyabhicharı The latter are known as (1) Tanu Vyabbicharı whon affecting the body (ag=body) and giving rise to Anubhavas, and (4) Mana Vyablnchari whon affecting the mind [aaq == mind] The former manifests itself in eight ways, Dis (1) Sweda (#4) == sweating, (2) Stambha (uanr) = motonlessness (3) Romancha (tale)=hor ripilation or erection of hair (4) Swara bhanga (rm)= broken articulation, (5) Kampa (#4) = trembhng, (6) Vivarna (faed)= change of colour (7) Ashru (wg)= tears , and (8) Pralapa (a4)=prattlng talkmg nonsen Jrimbha (amar) or yawning is also included in this by some The latter (Mana Vyabhichari) has thirty three manifestations, oiz, (1) Nirvoda (fraa)= mn- 18 [ 193 ]

difference to worldly objects, self-humiliation ; (2) Glám (Ir,= exhaustion, fatigue; (3) Shanká (xका)= fear, misgiving ; (4) Alasya (आलस्य = want of energy ; (5) Asuya (snqn)=envy, jeal- ousy ; (6) Shrama (s)= exertion, wearmess ; (7) Mada (n4)= conceit ; (8) Dainya (èax)= mis- erable state, low-spiritedness ; (9) Chintà (farar) = anxiety ; (10) Moba (arg) = perplexity : (11) Smiriti (रभृति) = recollection ; (12) Dhriti (धति)= contentment. (13) Vrídà (Est) = shame, bash- fulness; (14) Harsha (a4) = joy ; (15) Cbapalata (qar)= swiftness, fickleness, unsteadmness; (16) Jadatá (aear) = dullness ; (17) Garva (Ta) = prides arrogance, (18) Visbada (fauta)= dis- appomtment; (19) Avega (man)= agitation, flurry ; (20) Utkantha (EcchaT) = longing for a beloved person or thing ; (21) Nidra (faaT) = sleepiness ; (22) Swapna (aW)= dreaming; (23) Apasmára (HT) = epilepsy (this manifests itself more as a tanu vyabhichari) ; (24) Avabitthà (सवहित्या) = concealment of an inward feeling; (25) Amarsha ()=anger due to disrespect etc., intolerance; (26) Ugrata (aaa1)=ferociousness ; (27) Vyádhi (snfa)=ailment, sickness; (28) Mati (भति)=under stauding; (29) Unmada (उन्माद)= madness; (30) Marana (T)=death due to extreme grief, shame or fear ; (31) Vibodha

[ 194 ]

(fara)=becoming conscious, (33) Trasd (ma)= fear, alarm, and (33) Vitarka (faas)=reasoning, doubt Each of these bhavas bas its particular vibha- vas and physical mamfestations, but to mention all these is beyond the scope of this book Only the rasas with their sthai bhavas are repested in the statement below, which also gives the connected vyablncharis, both bodily and men- tal

[ 190 J

Statement showing the Rasas with their Bhavas. Connected anu-

No. Names of Rasas. Bhavas. bhavas or Tanu Connected Mana Vyabhicharis, Vyabhicharıs.

1 Shringára Rati

(1) Sambhoga Sweda, Stam- Gláni, Mada, Dhritı, Haisha, Chapa. bha, Romancha, lata, Gaiva, Avega, Nidra, Unmada.

Ashru

(2) Vıpralam- Sweda, Stam- Nırveda, Shanka, Alasya, Asuya

[ 196 ] bha. bha, Swara Shrama, Mada, Vainya, C hinta, bhanga, Vivar- Smritı, Jadatà, Visháda, Avega, na, Asbru, Pra- Utkanthá, Nidrá, Swipna, Avahittbá,

lapa, Amarsha, Vyadhı, Unmada, Marana, Trása, Vıtaıka

Hása, Hasa Vivarna, Hasa, Mada, Smritı, Harcha, Chapalata Swara bhanga, Garva, Avega, Matı, Vıtarka.

Karuna. Shoka Sweda, Stam- Shanka, Alasya, Asúyà, Shrama,

3 bha, Swara Dainya, Chinta, Smriti, Vridá, Vi- bhanga, Vivar- sháda, Utkanthá, Swapna, Avahittha, na, Ashrn. Vyadh, Marana, Trasa.

4 Raudra Krodha Sweda Ro Asuyh Mada, Smritı Garva, Avega,

máncha 8wara Amarsha, Ugratà Unmada

boanga Kampa Virarna, Pralopa

5 Vıra Utsába Sweda Roman Mada Smrtı, Dhriti Harsha Garva,

cha Vivarna Avega Amarsha Ugrata Mati, Vibo

Ashrd, dhe, Vitarko

6 Bhayabakn Bhaya Sweda S ta m Shanka Slrama Dainya Chintá

bha Romancba Smritı Vrida, Vishada, Avega, Apss Swara bhanga mara, Irása Kampa Vivarna

[ 197 ] Ashro Pralapa

Bíbhatsa Jugupsa Románeba, Pra Mada, Garva Avega Amarsha, Ug

lápa rat Vyadht

8 Adbbuta Vismaya. Sweda Stambha Asuyh Damya, Chinta, Harsba,

Romfncha Jadato, Avega Matı Swara bhango Kampa, Vivarng

9 Shanta Sha ma Stambba Ro Nirveda Dainya Smrib Dhritt

mancha, Swars Harsba Utkantba, Nıdra, Matı, Vi bhanga, Asbru bodha.

CHAPTER XVIII. EXPRESSON. Value of the notes in connection with different sentiments. The use of Vadi, Samvadi and Vivadı notes. Importance of Nyasa Jatı ragas KNOWING the different sentiments and the way they find expression as explamned briefly in the previous chapter, and the expression given by each Sbruti, as shown in the chapter pre- ceding, it would be easy to assign values to each of the notes m the matter of expression, as also to their combmnations in the different tunes. An endeavour will be made mn this and the following chapters to do this. Let us in the first mstance see if the shloka, giving the chief notes for the different Rasas (sentiments), quoted in Chapter XVI, and to which an exception has been taken by Mr. Rao, conforms with the analysis. According to the old writers (Sharngdeva and others) Shadja comprises the shrutis Manda, Chandovatı, Dayavatı, and Ranjani. These clear- ly indicate Vira Rasa, so sa () is correctly noted as being the chief note of that sentiment. Risha- bha takes Raktika and Raudrí, and is not in-

[ 198 ]

correctly taken as the note for Adbhuta Rasa Gandhara comprises Krodhi Vajrika and Pris- ármf and aptly indiestes Raudrs or seatunent of anger Madhyamt and Pmchams extend over Priti, Marjani Kshıtı, Rakta Sandipim and Al apiní, and hence these two notes tike up the sentiments Hasa and Shuingara Madanti, Rohni Ramya, Ugra Kshobhint Tivra, and Kumudvatf go to Dhaivata and Nishada which hiva there for been correctly mentioned as being used in Bibhatsa Bhayanaka and Karuna rasas It will thus be seen that the ancient music makers did not fix any haphazard values to the notes, but fixed them in a most scientific way With the old Indian music, comprising 19 notes, most of the emotions could be expressed What could not be done was accomplished by the expert singers by lowering or raising their voices in smaller intervils than provided by the notes In stringed instruments, like Vina and Sitar, this was done by stretching the string or wire over the frets to produce a sharper note This is called Mid and known as quarter half eto, according to the sharpness required, the full Mid giving the next higher note The presont day music having a smaller humber of notes-only 12 against the 19 of

[ 199 ]

the old music-can express the sentiments very partially, and the musician must strive much harder to produce the real effect The reduction m the number of notes has m this respect been to our great disadvantage, and has perhaps largely contributed to the disappearance of the science of expression, comprising the old Arthadhyaya, from Indian music.

The twelve notes of the present-day Indian music are fixed at the shrutis noted agamst them and can mn a composition express the emotions indicated by the shrutis, nnless the notes are sharpened or flattened: -Chhandovati, ₹- Ran- janı, -Raudni, m-Vajriká, ft-Prasárini, #- Márjani, at-Raktá, -Alapını, -Robiní, - Ugrá, -Tívrá, and -Kumudvati.

The twelve notes of the barmonium which, as has been noticed before, bave equalised intervals. represent very nearly the same shrutis as above, excepting that a is nearer Krodhi than Vajrika, and r nearer Kshobhini than Tívra. Here no Mid Is possible and mtermediate sounds are attempted by sounding two adjacent notes closely following each other with short-intervalled repe- titions. It cannot however produce the correct note wanted, although the effect is pleasing.

[ 200 ]

Ths is also done in Sitdr and is known as Zamzama or Gitkirí, The following list of the mino rasas gives chef notes of the present Indian music, whch are approximately appropriate for each rasa, according to the value of the shrutis given by the old writers, the Mid noted boing half 1 Víra Adbhuta #, a with Mid, t, H, 4 2 , , W with Mid, Raudra t, it with Mid, m, sit 4 Hása a, t, t with Mid, ", # mith Mid 5 Shringára H, t mf with Mid, H, ait, st with Mid 4, v with Mid, ut, wt with

6 Bibhatsa-# with Mid, at ot with Mid, Míd

घी, ना नी, 7 Bbayanaka-, vt, vt with Mid, Tr, = 8 Karuna-स, गी, मी, प, घा, धा with Mid, घी, घी with Mid, नी, नो with Aid 9 Shanto-a, a with Mid, w with Mid, ", भो घा with did नी with id The notes as showa above have to be used moro frequently than others, as Vadis or Samvadis, and in the form of tanas and Alankaras, so that the particular rasas may bo expressed

[ 201 ]

It will be seen from the list, as also from the shrutis representing the notes, that the notes it, mts t, and i, do each represent two or more different sentiments and with suitable anuvadis are capa- ble of changing the import of a tune meant to be expressed by its Vadi and Samvadı. Hence they have been takon by old writers as taking the roll of Vivádis and, as such, they have to be avoided or cautiously used To illustrate the difference caused by differ- ent Vádi notes, two tunes Deshakara and Bhù- pálí may be taken as examples. Both these have the same notes, स री, गो, प and धी, having म and नो left out. Their Sargams are as follows :-

Deshakara-घो, प, गी,प, धी स, री स, धी प, गी, री, स, with et and i as Vadi and Samvadi, respectively. Bhupal-गी, री, सधी, स री गी, प गी, धी प गी, री, स with uft and af as Vadi and Samvadı, respectively. Now taking the tune Deshakara, its Vadi eft representing Bibhatsa and Karuna rasas suggests a feeling of disgust, distress, and fear, while the Samvadi expresses admiration, which with brings consolation. 4 with seems to offer an explanation ; also its existence and the absence

[-202 ]

of e eliminate all bitterness 'of feeling The tane, therefore, expresses worry and distress over one's shortconungs which cannot it appears, be helped There is a hope from' the magnamimity of the addressce, or the person refetred'to, of pardon, which gives consolation The tune may well be used in a prayer 1 t 1

In the case of Bhupalt, t is Vadi whch shows anger, and it Samvadi showing worry and q noar m excite admiration and love and soften down the anger, while a brings calmness Here also tbere is no bitterness as sit is absent The tune therefore expresses sorrow and anger at the separation, or perhaps the mattention, of one's beloved, hut love and admiration get the better of anger and cool it down leavmng the lover reconciled to his or her rather pitiable lot The difference m the import of the two tunes due to the different Vadi notes is apparont It is also worth noucing how in the tune Bhupdlf the sentiment of anger has been alleviated by the use of the note it, which is a Vivadi of tho Vadı note u's The use of necessery notes as Nyasa or Apannaysa, (ie, at the end of a tune or the [ 203']

different parts of it) is also important in the matter of expression, for the note at the end of a tune leaves an impression, which the mnter- mediate notes do not. As noted in Chapter XIII, this is not unfortunately taken mnto consider- ation mn the present-day musio. In the old Indian music, much importance was laid on this point. Tunes were divided into eighteen catego- ries, called Játi rágas, according to their Nyása (note at the end of a tune), and their Vádis, Vivadis, etc., determined. Some of them are given below as examples. The value of the notes meant has been noted in the remarks column in terms of our present notes.

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Statement showing some of the old Jatr Ragas Name of Ansha or Remarks as to the

No Jati Nya Vadı Apannyas notes Varjıta

tune nete notes if any value of the notes meant

1 Shádjf स स गमपध ग प नि Notes as in Kalyanı mela with aft shar pened a shratı

2 Arsbabhi रि रिधनि रिघ्वनि सप Notes as in Khammoah

[ 205 ] mela with धी and ना flattened

Gándhárí स ग म प नि सप रि ध Notes as in Bhairavi mela using मी for प and ar flattened

4 Rakta, Gán Do Do Notes as ın Kalıyanı

dharı mela

5 Madhyama स रिमपध सरिमपथ ग नि Do

6 Panchaon 4 रि प रि पनि ग नि Do

Name of

No Nyàsa Ansha or Remarks as to the

Jàti Vádı Apannyas notes. Varjita,

tune. note notes. if any value of the notes meant.

7 Karmaravı रि पध नि रिपधनि Notes as mn Khammach mela with रे, घी, and at, flattened,

8 Dharvati रि ध रि मध प स Notes, as in Bilávala

[ 206 ] mela.

9 Naisbadi नि स गनि सग नि प स Do.

10 Kaıshıkı ग प नि सगम प ध नि स गम पध नि रिध Notes as in Bhairavi mela --

Each of these Jati ragas represented, it appears, a certain general sontiment accordiog to the Nyasa which was made specific by tho Vadı taken, and the arrangrment of other notes, for any tune mn the group For istance, Shadjf group perhaps stood for Vira rasa and a tune with a as VAdi and omitting w ind fa hike Hema Kalyana, would express Yuddha Vira or heroism in battle Arshabhi group indicated marvellous ness, and a tune with fr as Vadi will express apprecition, but with a as Vadi it will express awe and fear and so on Our present tunes have no dofined Nyáso, and besides, some cf the old notes are no more used, hence they cannot very well be classified under the old Jati ragas which would have facihtated their interpretation to a certain extent The subjeot of Jatt ragas is at present only of an academic importance and need not be pursued here further It however indicates the importance of Nyasa in the interpretation of tunes, wbich is worth looking into by experts when composing tunes for particular senti ments We may conclude this chapter aftor adding that in the matter of expression, the laya of tunes (see Chapter XD), and the Sthana and

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loudness of notes, have also a useful bearing. For subjects of grave and sober nature, for instance, the laya used will be Vilambita, the Sthana of the notes will be Mandra and Madhya, and the tone mild; while for the subjects ex- pressmng love, sport, and merriment, a quicker (druta) laya, and notes in Madhya and Táras- thana will be more suitable. Anger will require a louder tone.

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CHAPTER XIX COMPOSITION AND INTERPRETATION OF TUNES Method of expressing the several sentiments In Mustc How tunes could be interpreted, explained by illustrations Why certatn tunes can have more than one interpretation IN this chapter we shall make an endeavour to illustrate how tunes could be found out or formed to express certain ideas, and vice versa how certain given tunes might be interpreted For the former, let us take, as an illustration, the famous soliloquy of Hamlet in Shakespeare's play of that name [Act III, Scene 1] The soliloquy expresses an utter disgust of the world and great disappointment at the troubles of an outrageous fortune To get rid of them, the Prince considers whether it would be nobler to end his own lfe or to fight against the troubles and end them The former he dismisses as it was not certain what might happen after death, leaving him determinod to take arms against the evils 14 [ 209 ]

The sentiments expressed are therefore grief, disgust, anger, and determination, giving rise to Karuna, Bibhatsa, Raudra and Vira rasas. Appreciation and love are altogether absent, so Shringara and Adbhuta are excluded. The notes to be used would therefore be Shadja, Gandhara, Madhyama, Dhaivata and Nisháda. Gándhára would be komala, z.e., on the shruti Vajriká. Madhyama would be komala to help Shadja in Virá rasa, as also perhaps tívra, because there is worry. Dhaivata would be komala, the subject being one of solitary musings. Nishada would also be komala on the shruti Tivra; perhaps it would be better on the previous shruti Kshobhiní. Raudra and Vira are the Sthai rasas, hence the Vádı must be from &, and # A tune in the Gandharı group (Jatı ragas, pp. 205 and 206)mth , # as Vadı and Samvadı, and f left out, would be appropriate to the sentiments expressed mn the soldloquy. In our present music, the tune Malakosha would approach this very nearly as it has no र or प, and has its force on स, गा, म. It has of course no मी. As another illustration, let us take the senti- ments of Rishı Vishwamitra when the nymph Mainaká presented to him the baby Shakuntalá, the offspring of their umion, as represented mn

[ 210 ]

the famous pioture " Birth of Shakuntala" of Ravi Verma The Rishi is made to recollect how in an unguarded moment he succumbed to the charms of the nymph and lost the fruits of his austere devotion He upbraide and despises himself, hides his face and refuseg to look at the child

Here slso appreciation and love are alto gether absent, and risbabha and panchama have to be excluded The notes to be used aro shadja, gandbara, madhyama, dharvata and mshada There being no valour or Vira rasa, shadja is not to be accompamod by #, there 18 only a lttle determination for not having to do anything with the affair further Ohyuta shadje on the shruti Manda might have done in tlis case but we have no such shudja Tho anger being directed against self, it consisted mostly of rooita- tion of the faults and shortcomings rather than of abuses, hence gandhara will be tivra on the shrutı Prasarmm Madhyama as said cannot be komala , it should be tivra, there being so muoh worry Dhaivata must also be tivra on the shruti Ugra, it was given komala in the previous exam ple as it wasa soliloquy Nishada is also to be tivra on shrati Kumudvati The emphasis is to be on ft,eit and i, so the vadi samvadi and if possible

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Nayasa ought to come from these notes. Among the old Jati ragas, the tune will perhaps be from the Naishád group, with uft, at as vàdi and sam- vadi, and y and f left out. In the current music the tune Hindola will be appropriate. The nymph Mamaka is also not very happy with the result of her union with the Rishi. The child Shakuntala was a human girl and could not be kept in the land of gods, with apsarás and fairies, and separation was unavoidable. Mainaka's sentiments may be analysed as below :- 1. She is worried over the beautiful human child whom she could not keep with her. She argues withmn herself the possibility of her father keeping her and also hopes to that effect. 2. She then approaches Vishwamitra, shows love towards him, describing the child apprecia. tingly, and asks him to keep it with him. 3. On the Rshı refusing to look at the child and to do anything with it, the nymph is greatly disappomted, and there is extreme worry and anger. 4. The girl has to be left to her fate. There must be an abundance of maternal love and extreme grief. The notes to express these sentiments will be as follows :-

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(1) Worry will require the use of eft and sift, the solitary musing and arguments within her own mind mean at, 4, and mft, affeotion towards the child will need the intercession here and there of a and q, and its loveliness will be indicat- ed by , a will be required rather frequently to express hope in the ultimate end of worry The tune Parja would appear to express the sentiment very approximately, its sargama be ing स, नी धा प, मीप, घाप, गोमगी, रास, नीस, गीमीप, भानीस, the vadi being a (2) Here also the notes will bo tho same, but sit will be the chief note, and a and q will be more frequently used, as the chief object is onquiry, which is accompanied by the expression of love zft is not required, it being enough to indicate the inward worry In fact, at might also be used sparingly The appropriate tune seems to be Kalngra, whose Sargama 18 f ft H, , पधा, नीघाप, गीम, गीरा स, and Nyasa and Vad:

(3) The sentiment expressed here is Karona mixed with a little angor, the notes bemg v, , at, and f There is no question of love, so y must be left out Thera will probably be a little, not much, reoitation of the girl's lovelinoss, for which w will be required The tune fitting mn

[ 213 ]

would be Sohint with its Sargama मी धी, नी स, रा स, नी घी नी स, ना घी, गी, and धी गी as Vadi and Samvadi. (4) This is Vatsalya rasa or the expression of maternal love and would require the notes , , # and q. The idea of separation of the child from the mother will need a frequent use of ar on the shruti Rohmi, and of f on shruti Kumudvati, to express the extreme worry. s would be the chief note. It seems Jagiyà Asá- ari will be an appropriate tune, its Sargama being स हा म स प पधा धा स स नी धा प धा धा म प नी प म गीरा with af, ₹7, as Vadi and Samvadı For interpretation of given tunes, the process followed above is to be reversed. This has been done in the previous chapter in mterpreting the tunes Deshakára and Bhupali. A tune or two more may be examined :-

(1) Hamira .- The sargama of Hamria 1s स री स, गी स धी, नी, घी, स, नी धी, प, मी प धी प, गी म री स, with घी, रो, as vadi and samvadi. सरीस indicate enthusiasm and happmness, and गी मधी ridicule and joking. at et together would bring in dıs- gust, but v being vivadı of at and indicating love keeps this sentiment down. With 4, Fit also mndicates devotion and not worry. The tune therefore expresses happiness, merriment, and joy. [ 214 ]

(2) Desha -The sargama of Dasha is f, n v, ना घी प, प धी प म, गी री गी, स, with प and री aB vádı and samvadı and v as nyása q with stands for love, appreciation, and devotion, and et on the shrutis Tivra and Ugra, coming in between, simply enhance the sentiment if on Prasarinı indicates explanation and complamt The tune therefore expresses the sentiment of love or Shringara, perhaps Sambhoga, with some complaints of mattention The import of tbe tunes can surely be slightly moditied by the more or less frequent use of the different notes For the same cause the inter- pretation of a tune by different experts caunot always coicide exactly Some of the tunes, however, can have more than one interpretation It is clear that if a tune could be played on two or more Janaka molas having their notes in the same pitch (or in the octave), it will be capable of more than one interpretation accord ing to the notes or shrutis of the respective Janaka melas This is possible only if the Janaka melas aro on the same grama Among our present Janaka melas, only Bhairavi and Kalyani are on the same grama (Madbyama giama), and so the tunes sung or played on these melas are capable of two interpretations As

an example, the tune Hindola, one mterpretation of which has been given at the beginning of this chapter, may be taken. The notes of Bhairavi Janaka mela are ₹ r r , with shruti intervals of 2, 4, 3, 4, 2, 4, 3. The correspondmg notes of the Kalyáni Janaka mela with the same intervals are नी स री गी मी प धी नी, so that with स having the same pitch in the two cases, a tune belonging to one of these melas will be playable on the other by the slight atteration of at of the latter for a of the former, for &T, for m and so on. The sargama of Hindola on the Kalyaní scale 1s rit, स धी, मी घी स, गी, सी धी नी धी, मी गी स. This, when transferred to Bhairavi, becomes मरा ना पाना रा, म, प ना स ना, प म रा. स being the same in the two cases, a second interpretation is pos- sible with the notes on the Bhairavi mela. ₹T aT and # are chief notes, which indicate an occasion of happiness and enthusiasm that may be a unque one. 4 shows affection towards the object or hero of the occasion, The absence of m and show an absence of anger or misgiving. A great birth or a coronation may well be described in the tune Hindola. It is not suggested here that the rágas pre- scribed under the particular Janaka melas need

[ 216 ]

CHPTER XX.

PERSONIFICATION OP TUNES.

Descriptions of personified Ragas and Raginis. Meant to express sentiments. How to Interpret them. IN Chapters 13 and 16, references were made to the picturesque descriptions, given in several books on music of the different rágas and raginis, which have been personified. Except mn a few cases, the descriptions in the several books do not differ materially. A few are noted below by way of illustration, taken from Rágamálá of Gangádhara and Náda Vinoda of Goswámís Pannalal and Chunnilal. Bhairava-a yogì in the form of God Shiva, having three eyes, trishula (trident) in hand and a garland of human skulls on his neck, engaged in meditation of God. He is wearing white clothes and has bhashma (ashes) rubbed on hıs forehead. This with the moon m his Jata (matted hair) doubles his handsomeness. Bhairavi-a beautiful fair-coloured lady, wear- ing white Sari, and red bodice, engaged in wor-

[ 218 ]

shipping God Shiva on the Kailash mountain with lotus flowers She is holding Vina in her hands Bhupali-a lady, separated from her lover, wearing saffron coloured Sari, and grown pale owing to the fire of separation

Deshakara-a lady with her body bright as gold, her face like the moon, her eyes like lotus, and full of sexual desire, she is playing with her husband

Jogiya Asavarı-a lady with matted hair and her body besmeared with ashes [bhashma] She has Trishula and bowl mn her hands and wears an angry look Also praotising Yoga and Vair agya she gets entranced mn God Hamira-A prince, expert in music, sitting in Mahfil [entertamment hall] Ho is engaged in merriment, and smiling amorously towards his wife thinks of going to bed Kedara-a lady ascetic with matted hair, sor- pent mn her neck, worshipping God Shiva with rapt attention and Vairagya The tune 1s also shown as a male with the same ascetic form Malakosha-a brave warrior sitting amongst warriors He is reddish in colour and has a red stick an his hand, and 18 wearing a garland

[ 219 ]

made of soldiers' skulls. The R'aga is also re- presented as a prince of fair colour, wearing blue garments and a necklace of pearls, and holding a white stick mn his hand. He is sitting among ladies who all love him, Desh-(Desha), a beautiful lady with green clothes, desirous of meeting her husband, whom she is awakening from sleep on different pretexts. As Desha (a rága) the tune is shown as a hand- some, 18.year old, cheerful young man, wearing white clothes engaged in music and thinking of meeting his wife, Parja-a fair-coloured lady, with body bright as gold. She is looking askance or through a corner of the eye. She is an embodiment of Karuna and Shanta rasas. The descriptions, it is clear, are meant mainly to represent certain sentiments, and comparing them with the expressions of some of the tunes worked out in the previous chapter, the two will be found to be showing almost sımılar sentiments. The form, mn which the sentiments have been expressed is not, however, very convemient, and it is a pity we cannot very well utilse the labours of the old writers An admirable endeavour has been made to this end by my friend L. Kannu

[ 220 ]

Mal, M A, in his book 'Sahitya Sangita Nirú- pana," wherein to interpret the sentiments con- tained in the descriptions of the personified ragas and rgainis he takes the aid of the Indian hterature on Rasas or sentiments In the par- ticular portion of this subject, known as " Nayaka and Nayika Bheda ', especially appertaming to Shringara rasa, thore is a description of different sorts of men and women, according to the age. habits, temperaments degree and direction of affection eto, and profuso illustrations have been given to show their feelings and sentiments, and how these feelings and sentiments express themselves, : e, bhavas and anubhavas To find the expression of a certamn raga or ráginf it Is necessary to determine which particular Nayaka or Nayika the description of the tune represents , the sentimeots and anubhavas can then be easily fixed upon Let ug take Kedara raginı as an example It represents a Nayika or lady who is (a) Praudha, or fully grown up, (6) Swakiya or fully devoted to hor husband, and (c) Proshita Bhartrika or Patika, te, whose husband has gone out to another towa or country Her worshipping Shiva is to get victory over Kamadeva (Cupid) as the God had killed Kamadeva The description given in the book

[ 22] ]

" Rasaprabodha " of Praudha Vipralabdha or the lady who missed to find her husband at the appointed place, is interesting in this respect. It says, "Seeing the place vacant, the lady bent her head, as if, feeling the full power of Káma- deva, she was entreating God Shiva." Now the feelings of Swakiyà Praudha Pro- shita patika are expressed in the following terms in " Rasaprabodha "-" In the city of her body separation has come in as a new sort of Kotwal (City Polce-officer), so that, after making her keep up the night, Prána or life-vigour has to leave early in the morning for toil in other directions. Although her eyes are raining day and night the source of supply is not diminished; water from the eyes serves as ghee (clarified butter) to the fire burning in the heart." This then is the expression of the ráginí Kedárá. It stands for Vipralambha Shringara. [See Ch. XVII]. As a male figure the tune will represent Shanta rasa and devotion. So Kedára can be used to express both these rasas. The tune being one belonging to the Janaka mela Kalyání can, we know, have two expressions.

[ 222 ] -

Chapter XXI GESTICULATING AND DANCING

Practical playing on instruments, acting and dancing beyond the scope of this book Work of an actor and a dancer in connection with musie briefly explained

IN chapter I it was noted that Indian music dealt with and divided itself into seven subjects uz, (1) Swara or notes, (2) Raga or tunes, (3) Tala or rhythm, (4) playing on instruments, (5) Artha or meaning of the tunes (6) Bhava or gesticulating, ne, aoting so as to explamn the meaning of the songs and to express the senti ments of the tunes, and (7) Nritya or dancing The subjects 1, 2, 3, and 5, have been dealt with pretty fully in the above pages No 4 or the playing on instruments, No 6 (Bhava) and No 7 (dancing) are subjects mostly practical, and there fore beyond the scope of this work, which deals with theory and pmnciples However, the prinor ples laid down m connection with notes, tunes, their expression and rhythm, are expeoted to be of substantial help in these subjects as wrell

[ 223 ]

Taking the playmng of instruments, for in- stance, the sargams given of the different tunes will enable the player to play those tunes. Knowing the relation of the notes to each other, z.e., the samvádís, anuvadis, and vivádıs of the vádi note he will be able to expand the tunes, keeping vívádis out The theory and principles of harmony which make it possible to prepare orchestral music can particularly be utilised mn instrumental music only. The several talas are as essential for the instrumental as for vocal music. Of course, how each instrument, vína, sítár, piano, harmonium, violin, flute, tablá, or other mnstruments should be played has to be learnt from music-masters or Ustáds, or from the books written for the purpose. Bhava or gesticulating requires action and posture expressive of the meaning and sentiments of a song. It may be taken for granted that the wording of a song and its tune would be express- ing the same feelings. The actor has two duties to perform. He has to explain the important points of the song by the proper motion of his body and hands, as also to indicate the sentiment expressed in the tune, chiefly by means of face, eyes and hands.

[ 224 ]

In chapter XVII, mn which sentiments have been classified, anubhavas or bodily manifesta- tons, as also mental manfestations, of each feel- ing and sentiment have been noted A real actor has to put them in practice For instance m Bhayanaka rasa, with fear as the chief feeling, the anubhavas are sweating, trembling, tears, etc, and these are to be shown by the actor Sweat- ig and tears, if not real, have to be indicated by hand, wiping the forehead and cheeks The Mana vyabhicharis hke shanka, chinta or anxiety etc, are to be expressed in the face and eyes, Dancing is a combmation of Bhava and tala or gesticulating and timing, the latter particular ly in a very high degree, as it has to follow the tanas and paranas of tabla and pakhavaja For this reason, the word Tala (ara) is sometimes taken as a combination of the initial of two words Tandava ( arsa ) and Lasa ( aa ) which were the pecular dances of God Shiva and his consort Parvati, respectively As in showing Bhava, the gestures and postures, assisted by hands and eyes, indicate the meaning of the song and the import of the tune sung The work of a dancer is there fore vory difficult and exacting Nardas " Sangita Makaranda ' gives the following as attributes of a dancer - 15 [ 225 ]

अंगेनाएम्ययेगदीतं इस्तेनाथं प्रदर्शयेत्। नेनाभ्यां भावयेन्नावं पादाभ्यां ताल निर्याय:॥ i.e., by his body he indicates the general import of a song, with his hands he shows its meaning, with his eyes he expresses the teeling and senti- ments, and with his feet he keeps the tála and time,

The old books on the science of dancing give the diferent postures expressive of the different sentiments, as also how talas and their tanas are to be carried out in the dance. How certain things and ideas are to be expressed by hands etc. are also noted. But it is outside the scope of this treatise to go into all these.

[ 226 ]

CHAPTER XXII NOTATION The system of recording muste at different times Advantage of the Indian system of recording notes by their initials THE desire to preserve for posterity the the expe- rience and knowledge gamned, or the result of observations made has been natural for all time This has been the cause of the invention of writ ing and the alphabet In the case of music too, attempts have all along been made by the music masters to record what they or their predecessors or contemporaries had achieved The notation, as the alphabet of this recording of music is called, has been somewhat different in different times In India, the mmtials of the names of the notes, viz «, f, ", etc, have been the basis of this recording from very early times It i8 not known how the notes were recorded before the present names were adopted The following are the chief ttems to be mdr cated in music writing (1) Notes or swaras, (2), thoir pitch, ie, whether Shuddha or Vikrita, (3) their octave, te whether Mandra, Madhya,

[ 227 ]

Or Tárasthána; (4) Sút, in case the notes are meant to be blended together; (5) Andolan or swinging of notes, which in quick succession is called zamzamá; (6) Míd, in stringed instruments, when the wire or string is so much stretched over a fret as to sound another higher note; (7) Tála in case of timed rágas or songs ; (8) Rasa or sentiment indicated by a tune, its time of singing, derivation, or any other mnformation that the writer may like to record. In old days, from the time of Bharata to that of Sharngdeva, the notes were indicated by their initials (, f, ", etc.) and their pitch by mentioning the particular Murchhana which gave the notes of the tune. We know there were seven murchhanas for each grama or fourteen for the two gramas in use. At this time, we also know, several of the notes had more than two forms, so mentioning the murchhana was the best way to show which notes were meant. The higher octave or Tara sthana was indicated by a small vertical line, and the lower octave or Mandrasthana by a dot over the imtials. Andolan is indicated by using dirgha (long) vowels with mitials of the notes [e. g., m7 सा म मनीस नि.] Tála was noted down in cases of timed ràgas, as also other items mentioned above mn No. 8.

[ 228 ]

'The following deseription of Rága Kukubha, taken from Sangita Ratnakara, illustrates the pomt "Kukubha is derived from Madhyama, Pancham and Dhaivati Jatı ragas, Dhaivata 18 its Ansha (Vadi), and graha (starting note), Panchama its ending note (Nyasa), the Murchha na is Dhaivata Murobhana of Shadja grama, Prasanna Madhya arohi varna is the alankars, Rasa (sentiment) oxpressed is Karuna, Yama 14 the presiding god, it is sung in Sharad sesson " Then follows the sargam and alapa of the raga Ragavibodha combined the notes and their pitch, or the swaras and their murchhana values, into one, by giving the shrutis instead of the notes used in a particular tune Later on, on the introduction of Jannka melas, múrchhanas were replaced by Janaka melas, the notes being given in the usual way by their imtials The books on Sitar gave their own scales or Thaths, and for the notes the number of frots counted either from the top or from the bottom Mid and Zamzama were mentioned where requir ed the latter was sometimes indicated by a small line of dots Sut was also noted by a lme above the notes to be blended

f 229 1

In all this notation, however, there was no way to indicate periods of less than one syllable or mátrá. To meet this defect, for some time in recent years, the English system of notation was adopted in some parts of Bengal. This system we know consists of a scale of horizontal lines which with their mtermediate spaces indicate the different notes of the gamut for several octaves, and the period each note is to be used for is indicated by the signs representing crotchets, minims, etc. This dealt all right with small periods of less than a mátrá, but it had the following disadvantages :

(1) It caused a muddle m the Tála, chiefly in the different parts of its anga indicated by strokes, as they could not be easily shown, and (2) the peculiarity of the Indian system of indicating the notes by initials of their names was lost. This method of indicating the notes is superior to other systems in that the short names psychologically bring the real notes at once to the mind of the singer, which the mere horizon- tal lines are mncapable of domg. The use of the Englsh system could not therefore last long. Then came the elaborate and rather cumbrous system introduced by Pandıt Visbnu Digambara Pulaskara, mn which signs have been fixed for

[ 230 ]

multiples and fractions of mátras [:e, 1/', 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, 1/8, 1/6 and 1/12] Those are to be placed under the swara mitinls a, fr, n, ete For pitch of the uotes, the ro are difforent aigns to be placed before the notcs to show whother thoy are shuddba or in a vikrita form However, no signs are given before shuddha notes and those generally used in a Mela (scalo), as for instance in tunes on the Bilavala meln, livra Madhyama if used will be given its sign, while in those on tho Kalyam mela, Shuddha Madhyama will be given one This is not only confusing, but noeds mon tion of the partioular Janaka mela used, which if done tho sevetal sgns become superfluous show the Sthana (octave), the notation consists of three horizontal columns to take the notes mn the three octaves, Tara Madhya and Mandra The difficulty of Tala, as mentioned nbove in the case of Inglish sy stem, remated the samo in this, to meet which Taln strokes are soparately shown by the numbers, 1, 2 and 3, showing the Sama, ordinary strokes and Khah respectively There is no doubt that an endeavour has beon made in this system to molude overgthing in its notation, out being rather cumbersome it cannot, although ourrent, be regarded as n suocess on the whole

[ 231 ]

Another system, which started almost simul- taneously with that of Pandit Vishnu Digambara and is gaining popularity, is that of Pandit Vishnu Narayana Bhatkhande. Here Shuddha swaras in Madhyasthana are shown with ord- inary initials, Komala Swaras have a hyphen underneath, and Tivra Madhyama a small verti- cal line above #. Mandrasthana swaras have a dot below, and Tarasthana swaras a dot above, the initials. In the case of Sút a curved line is given over the notes to be blended to- gether. The method of writing consists of horizontal columns divided by vertical lines, to show the strokes or parts of the anga of the Tála to be used, each stroke or part giving its mátras (two, three, or four) separately. Whether the stroke has a Sama or Khali, or is an ordinary one, 18 also indicated respectively by signs x, o, and the figures 1, 2, 3. etc. In case a mátrá requires more than one note (swara), all the notes re- quired are written together mn the space provided for the matra, Fractions of matras are thus andicated. The exact fractions 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, etc, it is hardly necessary to show. Pandit Bhatkhande's system has all that as ordinarily required and is at the same time

[ 232 7

simple It bas honever the small defect that it cannot work well m seripts which bavo dots on ther letters eg, Urdu or Persiin Beedes, dots and small hyphens are hable to bo ignored in print or in reading So Mvarifun Naghmat, the ercellont Urdu book by Saied Nawab Al Salb, bas added an "a" (I nlif) for Komala swars and an "i" (s ye) for Shudda or tivra oues, the fixed svarns a nud 4 going with the former For Mandra and Tara Sthanns, byphens aro added belor and above the notes rospoctively Tls is s desirable chango and has, with the exception of the fixed notes, been adopted in this book also, ride Chapter VII

Prin ed ot Tne BALVEDERR PRFSS ALLAHABAD hy F Hal!

F 002 7

ERRATA.

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V1 26 XIII as No of the Chapter. in the 18

36 16 रि नि

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40 पणिडता : परिडत :

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44 15 and 16 and Tivratira Dhaivata Gandhara Gandhavra

46 19 Madhyama Madhya,

47 19 Madhyama Madbyam

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87 18 उडव उटुव

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90 10 Bhairavi Bharnva

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113 Comma after bracket

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102 22 Kedara Kdara

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18 Imitials Initial

225 20 Narda s Nardas

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