1. BkE-RagasOfHindustan_The-0060

THE THEORY OF INDIAN MUSIC ERRATA,

'AGE COLUMN LINE FOR READ 1 difference differences ing to these hair's-breadth difference, we shall find that in 2 1 1. Indian music is a relic of the world's oldest music. It has much in common with the practice each scale is used in three or four modes only out 8 11 no 8O European and Indian of the seven possible ones. In European music the only 9 ( after ) which wnusic contrasted. musical systems of the Chinese, the 1 12 ( add) are Egyptians, the Assyrians and the Arabs. modes in common use are what are known as the major and

11 below second stave, dha madhya dha tivra It is very probable that the Arabs imported into India parts minor modes. The melodic descending form of the minor of the Greek system and that in this way the Indians were mode is, in just intonation, the same scale as that of the 7 16 turned * termed made acquainted with the low flat* notes and the soft scales Indian raga Jivanpuri ; it is commonly but erroneously 15 1 1 14 shadatva shadavatva founded upon them. Old Indian text-books make no thought of as a modal variant of the just major scale ; if

18 we take both scales in the order of the minor mode and 2 below stave mention of these scales. It is futile to speculate with note not regard to the origin of the art of music. Music as an art, compare them we shall see that there is a hair's-breadth 18 9 11 ag ga by which we mean a rational system founded upon the laws difference in the third interval. We draw attention to this 19 2 ha of nature, is of immense antiquity, being as far as we know as we wish to emphasize the fact that modal music, in which 19 dha 20 as old as any product of human culture. The information category Indian music and all the world's earliest music are 1 1 5 dianotic diatonic 20 we possess points to the conclusion that the earliest music alike included, depends for its very existence on that accuracy 1 below diagram, Jivanpuri add 4 as first sruti interval in all countries was, like the Indian, modal ; out of every of intonation by which alone one parent scale can be dis-

20 2 number the paragraph as parent scale modes were obtained by taking each degree of tinguished from another.

20 the scale in turn as the tonic or predominant tone ; thus 2 last line Sariraga Sriraga every scale had as many forms as it possessed notes, each The main desideratum in the theory of such an art is

25 2 number the paragraph as 14 making its own appeal to the emotions. Even transilient an accurate notation or in default of that an adequate termi-

27 Table, line 1, Col. 1 scales, by which we mean scales of less than seven notes, nology. The Greeks had a perfect alphabetical notation read or shadava or odava scales, to use the Indian appellation, which recognized twenty-one notes in the octave. The 27 1 line 2, Col. I, read had their modal variations. If we take any complete or Indians have always endeavoured to distinguish shades of

27 1 line 4, Col, 2, sampurna scale and examine each of its seven modes difference in intervals by different names. Their earliest read text-books dealt with part only of the material of which 35 shadjapachamabhava shadjapanchamabhava individually, we shall find that some modes are more satisfactory than others ; a hair's-breadth alteration in one their music is composed. For this and other reasons the 41 below stave, line 4 from of the intervals of the parent scale will in every case make old theories are inadequate to the classification of the facts form At p. 18 of the music the clef of raga Jaijaivanti is inverted. all the difference between what is harsh or difficult and what of modern Indian music. Modern text-books have been is satisfying to the ear. If we classify parent scales accord- largely written by pandits whose appreciation of the intervals Herein described as Komaltar, Komaltam ( see p. 9). employed left much to be desired and whose knowledge of

2 THE RAGAS OF HINDUSTAN THE THEORY OF INDIAN MUSIC 3

the science of musical intervals was practically nil. There modes and intonation. At the birth of European music the faint reflection of the modes of ancient Greece but the subtle time for its execution. It will be regular if each such are also in modern India as there have been in all countries modes were reduced to two because the old Greek modes distinction of real modes cannot be expressed in tempered movement is of precisely the same form and description as and in all ages men who are impatient of the application of were forgotten and no one knew how they should be harmo- intonation. the preceding and succeeding movements. The simplest scientific methods to music. Rather than take the trouble nised. Musicians were clamouring for keyed instruments It must not be lightly assumed that European musicians of all vibrations is called pendular from the motion of the to make themselves acquainted with such a difficult subject which were easy to play upon, and the public for musis are so insensible to the beauty of real music that they are bob of a pendulum. The reader may be aware of the way they would cheerfully welcome the merging of the infinite altogether content with equal temperament. The human in which continuous records are taken of the variations in variety of Indian scales in the tempered scale of Europe which was easy to understand and which popular congrega- voice and the violin are not restricted to any one scale. The theories now put forward have been arrived at from a tions could sing without special training. Another influence the height of a barometer by means of a pencil and a drum

point of view from which Indian music has not hitherto which operated to create a system the like of which had We therefore find the singer and violinist departing from of paper made to revolve by clockwork. The motion of

been regarded. never been seen before was the tradition handed down from equal temperament whenever their artistic feeling impels the bob of a pendalum may be traced in a similar manner. ancient Greece of the use of keys and modulation from one them to do so. The notation however applies strictly to A particle of air set in vibratory motion is not usually con- In all systems of music the need has been felt for some- thing more varied than a plain melody. In India this need key into another. The Greeks with their twenty-one notes fined to the limits of one plane. In order to trace its exact

for variety has been satisfied by an extraordinary develop- built up an ingenious system by means of which one could nothing but equal temperament; there are no signs to render shades of meaning which are considered of the motion it would be necessary to consider the problem

ment of the rhythm of drums. In no country has the art change from one tonic or fundamental note to another and utmost importance by the initiated. Thus, European separately with respect to two planes intersecting one an-

of drumming arrived at such a pitch of intricacy. But in thus vary the pitch of the mode. In Indian phraseology we music is poor in modes, poor and uncertain in intonation other at right angles at the point of rest of the particle. might explain the process by saying that the singer in the and represented by a notation which applies exactly to However it is sufficient for our purpose to confine ourselves the accompaniment of the sarangi (specially favoured by mautch girls ) one has a glimpse of an entirely different course of his song took some other note of the scale as sc. artificial and not to real music. to movement in one plane only. In speaking of the path and for the sake of variety made a digression into a raga Indian music lacks explicit harmony and cannot vie of a particle of air in vibratory motion, we conceive of a method of satisfying the craving for variety. The sarangi based upon the new sa. The tradition of this system of with the European art in instrumentation. It is however record similar to the barometric one showing the movement player follows the voice, but during pauses and sometimes keys and modulation survived although the old Greek modes rich in modes and variety of intonation. In these days of of the particle in relation to time above and below a line while the song continues he indulges in florid passages of his own. This kind of accompaniment, known as hetero- were handed down in a very imperfect manner. We there- popular education, it needs for its very preservation a com- which represents the position of the particle when at rest. fore find in the Europe of the sixteenth and seventeenth prehensive and exact notation capable of expressing the If the vibration were pendular our chart would show a phony, was studied and methodically practised by the centuries a widespread desire for a simple keyboard together. hair's-breadth differences which distinguish one raga from regular zigzag with rounded points. We use the word ancient Greeks as their principal means of adding interest to a song. What is known in European music as counter- with facilities for rendering the same scales at different. another. When the musicians of India come into line and note as equivalent to the Sanskrit svara ; the correct word is tone but that word has become ambiguous owing to its point is the art of combining two or more different melodies. pitches. After two centuries of diseussion and experiment accept such a notation they may take pride in the fact that

The heterophony of the Greeks, which is dimly suggested these tendencies resulted in the adoption of equal tempera- their music is distinguished by those very qualities which being used to designate an interval as well. The first law

by the sarangi player's methods, was therefore an anticipation ment in all keyed instruments such as organs, pianos, flutes, European music lacks. we are concerned with is this,-that a sound gives the

of the great system of counterpoint and its offshoot harmony clarionets. Equal temperament divides the octave into twelve 2. We all know that sound is produced by vibrations mentai impression of a note or svara when its vibration is exactly equal parts. This division cannot reproduce real regular and periodic. If the chart shows any diversity of which have been developed to the highest pitch by the of the air. If we study the behaviour music or give any idea of the minute differences of scale The science of of a particle of air under the influence shape between one wave and another the curve is irregular musicians of Europe. musical notes and in- tervals. Rich though it is, beyond all previous experience, in which distinguish the Indian ragas one from another. It of vibrations of different kinds we shall and does not belong to a note. If the wave-lengths, that is,

harmony and in the science of instrumentation, European does however give a rough approximation to the major and find that its motion may be periodic or non-periodic, regular the distances between successive points where the line is

music is poorer than any other form of the art in variety of minor scales at twelve different pitches. In what are sor irregular, simple or complex. It will be periodic if each crossed in the same direction, are unequal, then also it known as the Church modes European music possesses a «complete movement to and fro takes the same fraction of does not represent a note, for unequal wave-lengths mean

THE RAGAS OF HINDUSTAN

want of periodicity. If the waves are all the same shape The note emitted by the tuning-fork is one of the few and equal in every respect, we have a note the pitch of which examples there are of a pure or simple note. Its form of is determined by the rate of vibration. A musical note is vibration is pendular. In mental effect it is poor and thin. therefore described as being of so many vibrations a second. Musical notes are generally speaking richer in quality ; and The number of vibrations is known as the vibration-number that is because their form of vibration is complex. Their- or pitch-number of the note. charts would show a series of waves all exactly equal and. We now come to a more subtle distinction, that bet- identical in shape, but a great deal more diversified than the ween pure and compound notes. Here, it will be necessary rounded zigzag of the pendular curve. There are soientific- to explain what is meant by the compounding of curves by instruments by means of which our sensation of richness of algebraical addition. If we place a cork in a pool of water quality may be analysed and split up into its component and agitate the surface by throwing stones into the water, parts. There are mathematical processes which can resolve- we perceive that each stone has its effect and that the any complex curve so long as it is regular and periodic resultant motion of the cork is compounded of the distur- into a series of pendular curves varying in amplitude ( by bances caused by all the stones thrown. If we imagine which the degree of loudness is determined ) and wave- two stones to be thrown which agitate the water to length ( by which we know the pitch is governed ). Now, precisely the same degree but in such a way that the crests both these processes, the physical and the mathematical, of the waves caused by the one meet the troughs of the lead to one and the same result, which is that the ordinary waves caused by the other then the cork will remain at note is not one pure sound but a series of sounds of which rest ; similarly if the crests and troughs coincide the effect the lowest in pitch is the one the ear recognizes as the of the two waves will be exactly double that of one. If we prime note. This series is called the harmonic series or the- regard movement above the line of rest as positive and series of partial tones. If x represent the prime note the movement below it as negative the addition of contrary series is 2x, 3x, 4x, 5x, 6x, 7x, 8x, 9x, 10x, 11x, 12x, movements will be in reality subtraction of one from the 13x, 14x, 15x, 16x, and so on. If any note not in thise other. Addition in this sense is known as algebraical addi- series is combined with the note x the result is a mixture- tion. We may compound together any number of curves and not what we regard as a single note. If the curves are- by ascertaining at each moment of time the positive or added together in the manner above described it will be- negative value of each curve and adding them all together seen also that the waves in that case would be irregular. algebraically. A practical example is given by the vibra- Every musical note does not contain the whole series of tions caused by the two prongs of a tuning-fork. Both partials. The higher ones are generally the fainter, and prongs should be struck and the fork revolved close to the after a certain pitch is reached they are no longer discernible, ear. It will be found that at four points in its revolution even with the aid of resonators which magnify particular- there is a maximum of sound and at four others complete sounds. If the attention of the ear is drawn to any partial silence, with all gradations of strength between. not too remote from the prime it can be heard without other-

H. H. Sir Sayajirao Gaikawad, Baroda. llis Highness gave a donation of one thousand Rupees to the Society's fund in 1916; but for this the publication of this book would have been considerably delayed.

A. R P. P.

THE THEORY OF INDIAN MUSIC

aid. Thus if sa in the mandra saptak is played on the that a single red horizontal line was employed to represent tambura and for a moment ga in the tar saptak is played the pitch of a certain note. . Thè note chosen was F; a note on a sarangi or sung so as to give the ear an indication of on the line represented F; one just above it G and just below where to fix the attention, the fifth partial tone (which is it E. After this a yellow line was introduced above the red ga tivra) will be distinctly heard as long as the sa of the one leaving a wide space between. This was known as the tambura continues. Or while a strong bass voice is singing C line; a note just below it represented B, and one halfway the note F in tune with the piano the note A in the treble between it and the red line represented A, while a note just may be lightly struck. The notes of strings are very rich above it represented D. Thus the scale E, F, G, A, B, C, in partial tones ; the ones absent are generally determined D could be shown with complete accuracy with the aid of by the point at which the string is set in vibration. If this two lines. The next step in the growth of the notation point for instance is one-seventh from either end of the was the substitution of letters at the commencement of the string the seventh partial will be absent from the open note lines for the colours which at first denoted the pitch they of the string. Instruments vary considerably in tonal stood for. These letters remain in an ornamental form in quality; some prefer the odd partials and give a sound of the clefs which distinguish the different forms of stave used nasal or metallic quality; some prefer the even ones and in European music. In the tenth century experiments are remarkable for breadth and grandeur. In singing, the were made with systems employing an indefinite number vowel sounds have their origin in a difference unconsciously of lines, some putting all the notes on lines and some put- made in the choice of partial tones. The existence of partial ting them entirely on spaces. In the eleventh century the tones not only explains many facts which would otherwise simpler system of putting the notes of a scale alternately baffle us, but must form the foundation of all theories on the lines and in the spaces came into vogue. It was not regarding the consonance of musical intervals. until the the sixteenth century that the number of lines in 3. In order to show the intimate connexion between a stave was restricted ; since then no staves except those the harmonic series or series of partial with four, five, or six lines have been in use. The four The staff-notation anticipated. tones and the laws which govern musical lined stave was used for plain song the five lined for other intervals we shall have to anticipate vocal music and the six lined for the organ and virginal. some features of our notation. The staff-notation is a system The four lined continues in use for its limited purpose, but of writing music in which the pitch of a note is shown by the six lined is extinct ; practically all music is now written its position on a staff consisting of a certain number of on staves of various clefs consisting of five lines. In lines. The history of the growth of this system in Europe order to show the first ten members of the harmonic series cannot fail to be interesting. About 800 A. D. signs con- we propose using the obsolete Great Staff of eleven lines "sisting of points, hooks and curves showing roughly by their divided into two sections of five with the dividing line ruled position above the words the upward and downward flow of darker than the others. Counting up the lines and spaces the melody came into use. It was not until a century later tells us that it can be made to represent twenty-one notes

6 THE RAGAS OF HINDUSTAN THE THEORY OF INDIAN MUSIC 7

or three octaves. It may be noted that the word octave is as madhya sa) to madhya ni, and the highest or tar saptak fixed notes sa and pa and the tivra notes. Where a note is changed from komal to tivra or there is any other reason ent pitches; the pairs 1 and 2, 2 and 4, 4 and 8, 3 and 6, similar in meaning to the Indian word saptak. The scale proceeds from the tar sa above madhya ni to tar ni. As 5 and 10 are all octaves. They have an obvious common from sa to sá or the interval between s and the next higher or the next lower sa would both be called by the the names imply, a saptak contains seven notes and an to emphasize its character the sign we use for tivra is the octave eight, the eighth note consisting of the upper sa European natural t sign. A sign of this kind used for the property, namely, that the vibration-number of the upper note is always twice that of the lower note. We therefore same name octave. Indian theory divides the compass of which completes the scale. We shall put our mandra sa the human voice into three saptaks: the lowest or mandra on the space below the eleven lines in order to obtain as purpose of showing which variety of a moveable note is intended is called an accidental. say that the ratio which distinguishes the interval of an octave is 2/1. Science tells us that whenever we identify saptak is from mandra sa to mandra ni, the middle or large a compass as possible ; the three saptaks are thus 4. Having now made our notation sufficiently clear a number of intervals at different pitches and call them by madhya saptak is from the sa just above mandra ni (known shown :- for our present purpose we shall proceed tar The Harmonic Series one name, such as octave or twelfth or fifth or major third, and Musical Intervals. ' with our examination of the harmonic to take examples, all those intervals have the same ratio ; if madhya Essee series. First of all it will be observed they are octaves the ratio is 2/1, if they are twelfths it is mandra E= that as the series progresses the notes become nearer and 3/1, if they are fifths it is 3/2 and so on. The harmonic sa re ga I Mandra Saptak pa dha sa re ga ma pa dha ni ga ma pa dha ni sa nearer to one another. The first octave contains two Madhya Saptak sa series therefore teaches us how to classify and measure Tar Saptak notes; the second three, the third five; if we take the series intervals. It also teaches us that if we multiply two ratios We now proceed to show in the same notation the first ten members of the series of partial tones which make up still further we shall find that the fourth octave contains together we obtain the ratio of the sum of the two intervals; the sound of mandra sa as given by the tambura nine. The intervals between consecutive members of the thus the sum of the last two intervals shown is that from sa to ga the ratio of which is given by the fourth and fifth tar series form consonances early in the series and dissonances madhya ae later on ; the interval between the sixth and seventh terms terms of the series, and is therefore 5/4; the ratios of the is generally reckoned as being on the borderland between last two intervals are 9/8 and 10/9, and 9/8x10/9 is equal mandra Notes :- sa sa pa sa ga pa nita* consonance and dissonance ; we prefer to class it as a soft to 5/4. As a corollary we know that the remainder after sa re ga Serial number :- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 subtracting one interval from another is got by dividing the 8 consonance. The order of consonance as determined by 9 10 Vibration number :- x 2x 3x 4x 5x 6x 7x 8x 9x 10x the physicist is as follows :- greater ratio by the less. If we take sa to pa from the

According to ancient practice sa was of fixed pitch ; no but to its pitch in relation to the rest of the scale. In this First group :- The interval between the first and octave we get pa to sa ; 2/1+3/2=4/3. Two intervals the sum of which makes the octave are termed complementary ; standard was kept like the modern European tuning-fork to second terms, known as the octave, that between the first

verify it and prevent divergence from correct pitch but the sense sa and pa are both fixed notes. The remaining notes and third, known as the twelfth, and the double octave, be- one is said to be the complement of the other. Let us now

pitch was regulated roughly from the cry of the peacock. In are moveable ; thus re may be komaltar, komal, tivra just tween the first and fourth. consider how we should set to work to divide the octave

modern India every singer takes the sa which he finds most as the note G may be flat or natural. In the European notation the naturals bear no sign ; thus the notes above Second group :- between second and third, known as into two exactly equal parts. In the piano tuned in equal

convenient. The notation which we adopt gives sa a given are F, F, C, F, A, C, all naturals, then septimal E the fifth ; between third and fourth, known as the fourth. temperament the interval from F to B is identical with

fixed place in the stave corresponding to the F of Europe flat,+ F,G, A, the last three being naturals. In Indian term- Third group :- between third and fifth, the major that from B to F'. What is the ratio of these intervals ?

but leaves its absolute pitch indeterminate. No serious sixth; between fourth and fifth, the major third. What we require is a ratio which makes 2/1 when multiplied

objection can be taken to this course as our notation is only inology they are sa, sa, pa, sa, ga tivra, pa, ni komaltar, sa, re tivra, ga tivra. The notes which bear no sign are the Fourth group :- between fifth and sixth, the minor by itself. That ratio is V 2/1. Here then is a very simple

intended for vocal music. When we speak of sa as a fixed * This sign is formed from an upright and the figure 7. third ; between fifth and eighth, the minor sixth. proof of the unnatural character of the European scale.

or unchangeable note we are referring not to absolute pitch t Intervals and notes connected with the seventh partial are usually If we examine the series a little more closely we shall Let us divide the octave into three equal parts such as the called sepitmal. see that the first ten terms contain several octaves at differ- F A, A C #, C # F of the piano. The ratio will be &2/1.

8 THE RAGAS OF HINDUSTAN THE THEORY OF INDIAN MUSIC 9

The ratio of the fourth parts F Ab, Ab B, B D, D F will 6. We now write the notes or svaras of the madhya upwards but are not so dissimilar that they cannot be classed The order of consonance of these intervals is 4, 3, 1, 6, 5, 2. be ^/2/1. Similarly the ratio of the smallest interval or semitone will be 1/2/1. We can carry on this equal The Classification saptak in the Indian notation, and in the same category. We call the first (8/7, cents 231) Ga komaltar as in Deshi Todi when properly sung forms

of Intervals. number the degrees of the scale to the soft tone, the second (9/8, cents 204) the major tone, with sa of the drone an indescribably rich combination which division of the octave indefinitely in imagination. A facilitate reference. The degrees are and the third (10/9, cents 182) the minor tone. The first, cannot with any justice be classed with the discords. The theoretical division of the octave into twelve hundred equal rough minor third is not by any means unpleasant ; as a parts is of the greatest use in the study of intervals ; this named sâ, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, or in full, shadj, rishabh, added to the soft semitone (21/20, cents 85) gives the same interval as the second added to the true semitone; that matter of fact it is much nearer to the minor third of the pi- minute interval is called a cent and is used for the purpose gandhara, madhyam, pancham, dhaivat, nishad. interval is the minor third described below. If the soft ano than is the true minor third. The European musician of comparing one interval with another. For this purpose tone is added to the small soft semitone (28/27, cents 63), who is not initiated into the higher refinements of his art it is far more useful than the ratio; for instance 9/8 is 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th thinks of this interval as the minor third. Similarly the ditone bigger than 10/9 but it is hard to say without calculation it gives the rough minor third, described below. The two sâ re ga ma pa dha ni varieties of semitone which remain cannot be appropriately is the nearest to the tempered major third. It is sweet in its whether the difference is greater or less than that between (a) The fixed notes :- The intervals given by sa and considered here. We now tabulate the five intervals given way but is restless and cannot be compared in purity of har- 10/9 and 16/15. A simple mathematical process involving pa are the most important of all except the octave. They by sa and re which to be found in the sarigamas, mony with the true major third. The difference between the the use of logarithms turns these ratios into roughly 204, Sa to re komaltam ( ) small soft semitone 28/27 63 cents 182 and 112 cents. When describing intervals we shall are the fifth and its complement the fourth ; it will be seen three minor thirds is well shown in ragas (1) Deshi Todi, (2) that pa being the fifth degree of the scale the interval sa Sa to re komaltar ( ) soft semitone 21/20 85 Bhimpalas or Sindhada, (3) Malkans when properly rendered. give both the ratio and, to the nearest whole number, the to pa is appropriately termed the fifth. The fourth is no Sa to re komal ( b ) semitone 16/15 112 , (d) The fourths :- The fourth shown in the scale content in cents. The plan we shall adopt is to take the named from the interval between the first and fourth degrees Sa to re madhya-tivra ( +) minor tone 10/9 182 „ (k) major tone above is ma tivra ; the interval however is named not from degrees of the scale in order, examining all varieties of (ma komal) in the most common of scales. The measure- Sa to re tivra 9/8 204 „ ma tivra but from ma komal ( ). As above stated its ratio moveable notes. ments of these intervals are,-fifth 3/2, 702 cents ; fourth, The difference between the major tone and minor tone is 4/3, and cents 498. Other forms of ma not infrequently 5. For our notation we shall take the upper section 4/3, 498. They will be more fully dealt with below. must be thoroughly grasped by the student of Indian met with are ma komaltar ( t), ma kaishik ( b ), ma tartivra (+). The first is a soft semitone above ga tivra The Indian staff- of the Great Staff. It is distinguished (b) The tones and semitones :- The interval between musical theory before he proceeds further afield. He will

motation. in this form by what is known as the the first and second degrees of the scale gives several varie- find no difficulty in recognizing these intervals if he re- and consequently a soft minor third above re tivra ; the treble clef. The proper purpose of this ties of what are called semitones and tones. When re is members that the major tone is bright and lively whereas second is a true semitone above ga tivratar. Ma tivra is a

stave is to record melody suitable to the middle compass of komal or komaltar the interval is a semitone ; when it is the minor tone is sad and passive. true semitone below pa. Ma tivratar should really be re- the higher variety of woman's voice; by a well-known con- tivra the interval is a tone. There are five varieties of (c) The thirds :- A somewhat similar difference of presented as pa b, but in deference to Indian tradition we vention the male singer knows that for him the musie is to semitone and three varieties of tone. The principal semi- ethos differentiates the major from the minor thirds. There treat it as part of the fourth degree of the scale. It is

be rendered an octave lower. This stave possesses on the tones are the true semitone and the soft semitone. Sa to are three minor thirds and three major, two of the latter found in raga Marva and is closely related to re komal (b)

whole more advantages than any other single stave ; after re komal gives the true semitone 16/15, cents 112; this being called for convenience ditones. They are as follows: from which it is distant an exact fourth ( 4/3). As pa is much deliberation we have adopted it as the most suitable interval is the defect of the major third from the fourth,- Sa to ga komaltar (#) soft minor third 7/6 267 cents 4/3 + 5/4=16/15. We give the name soft to intervals Sa to ga komal (u) rough minor third 32/27 294 a fourth from re tivra, so would pa komal be a fourth from for Indian song. On a European key-board the music can re komal. Of the intervals between sa and ma, the only be played like any other music; but it must always be derived from the seventh term of the harmonic series, Sa to ga sadharan (b) minor third 6/5 316 important ones are as follows :- remembered that Indian music knows nothing of keys and following the example of the ancient Greeks. Referring Sa to ga tivra (4) major third 5/4 386 Sa to ma komal (₺) fourth 4/3 498

modulation ; the pitch of the music is therefore as we again to the first ten terms of the series, it will be seen that Sa to ga tivratar (+) ditone 81/64 408 (b) false fourth 27/20

remarked above relative and not absolute. (Re komaltar to ma komal ) soft ditone Sa to ma kaishik 520 the last three intervals diminish in size as they proceed 9/7 435 Sa to ma tivra augmented fourth 45/32 590

10 THE RAGAS OF HINDUSTAN

The fifths which need to be considered are the comple- the different forms of dha and the fixed note pa ; they ments of the above, that is to say :- will be found to correspond exactly with the intervals bet- The fifth, 3/2, 702. ween sa and re. The false fifth, 40/27, 680. () small soft semitone 2s 63 cents. The diminished fifth, 64/45, 610. pa to dha komaltam pa to dha komaltar () soft semitone 을 85 The fourths and fifths true and false are among the pa to dha komal (b) semitone 1$ 112 most important intervals in music. It is interesting to pa to dha madhya-tivra() minor tone I0 182 note that the augmented fourth and diminished fifth are pa to dha tivra (h) major tone % 204 on the pianq identical in size. This fact was alluded to above. (f) The seventh :- The interval of the seventh

It will be convenient to describe now the two semi- ( between sa and ni ) is of no importance in Indian melody.

tones which were mentioned above but not named. One, The different varieties of ni bear the same relationship to

which we shall call the diminished semitone, is the interval pa that those of ga bear to sa. Ni komaltar is not to be

between the sharpened ga, ga tivratar, and madhyam found in the sarigamas; we therefore omit it. The higher

komal. This interval is 3g, cents 90. It is the nearest komal ni we name kaishik as the term sadharan has

thing in real music to the tempered semitone. The other always been appropriated to ga.

is of no great importance in Indian music. It is the inter- pa to komal ni () rough minor third ? 294 cents.

val between ma komal and ma tivra, and may be termed pa to kaishik ni (b) minor third § 316

the residual semitone. We shall omit it from further con- pa to tivra ni () major third ₹ 386

sideration. pa to tivratar ni (+) ditone 84 408

(e) The sixths :- Of the intervals formed by the The tivratar ni of raga Marva is really sa b (see sixth degree of the scale with sa, the only one of any the description of tivratar ma). It is slightly higher, practical importance is the major sixth ; most ragas which 2 cents higher to be accurate, than the tivratar ni take dha tivra as a predominant note of the melody use which corresponds to tivratar ga. It is a fourth above that form which is consonant with the drone sa. Following tivratar ma. the singer Abdul Karim we call this note madhya-tivra. It is a fifth above re madhya-tivra, a minor tone above pa 7. The distribution of the fourths and fifths in

and a major sixth above sa. The true tivra dha is a major The distribution of various forms of scale should be

tone above pa, and a fifth above re tivra; this note is bright- the intervals above thoroughly mastered by the student of described. Indian intonation. We give a com- er in effect than the other and is dissonant with the drone sa. It will be convenient to tabulate the intervals between plete list of true and false fifths to be found in the scales of the sarigamas. It will be remembered that the fourth * Or briefly madhya. is always the complement of the fifth-

H. H. Sir Shri Shahu Chhatrapati Maharaja of Kolhapur.

A. B. P. P. ]

False fifths

Small soft semitone. True fifths

Minor Tone. Semitone.

5-6- We add examples of other important intervals- dha madhya ga tivra dha madhya ga tivra

pa re tivra

pa re madhya pa

re tivra dha tivra

re tivra 1010 dba madhya ga tivra ni tivra

ga tivratar ni tivra ma komal s&

ma kaishik ni komal ma komal

Soft semitone. THE THEORY OF INDIAN MUSIC

ni kaishik ma komal re madhya dha madhya

ga komal ni komal

ga sadharan ni komal ga sadharan ni kaishik

dhakomal ga komal dha komal ga sadharan

ni kaishik ma kaishik

re komal dha komal

Diminished semitone. ma tivratar re komal

ni tivratar ma tivratar

re komaltar dha komaltar

dha komaltam ga komaltar

re komaltam TOTO dha komaltam 11

12 THE RAGAS OF HINDUSTAN THE THEORY OF INDIAN MUSIC 13 Major Tone. concerned with the ancient vikrits as the modern system of fore as follows :- tuning is different, but it may be useful to know that the Shadi wire upon which the melody was played was not tuned to Grama

Soft Minor Third. ma as it is nowadays but to ri 4. The frets however Als S Srutis= 18 3 112 204 Soft Tone. Intervals Cents= 204 204 18 began to broaden out into the shuddh scale from the note 112

sa (in the octave above) just as they do now. The shuddh 1st Method.

scale was called the shadj grama and was described as fol- Madhyam =

Rough Minor Third. lows :- Grama S Srutis= Intervals 3 2 Cents= 182 204 204 182 112 204 4, 4, 3, 2,4." " In the shadj grama the srutis are so arranged-3, 2, 2nd Method.

Major Third. The sruti-system is the basis of ancient theory. The Minor Third sruti is the smallest perceptible difference of pitch. The octave is conceived as the sum of twenty-two such inter- 182 204 112 204 182 3 4 2 2 4

vals. Thirteen of them and nine of them form two con- Another method employed (besides the use of antara 112 204

Ditone. Soft Ditone. sonant intervals. Notes separated by these intervals are turned vadi and samvadi. These intervals can be no other ga) to change the character of the scale was to shift the ni

than the fifth and its complement the fourth. The dif- fret a distance of ' two srutis.' This was known as the use of kakali ni, kakali ni being ni tt, just as antara ga is ga tt. ference between them is the major tone which must, there- Lastly we give for convenience of reference a list of 8. Before proceeding to classify the scales of the fore, contain four srutis. We are also told that if the inter- If we take the shadj and madhyam gramas (1) without the antara and kakali (2) with the antara and kakali, we obtain the svaras used in the sarigamas sarigamas we shall advert briefly to the val between ma and pa is reduced to three srutis the grama four scales, which may be represented briefly by their sruti komaltam # [ komaltar Ancient: Indian Theory." oldest known systematic treatise on is changed into the madhyam grama. The same result is komaltar V Indian music, namely the Natya Shas- arrived at by changing the order of intervals from figures. komal $ (1) 3244324 sa, re < komal b madhya (or madhya-tivra)$ ga < sadharan tra of Bharata. The author of that text-book like most 3244324to3424324, (2) 3424324 tivra by substituting the vikrit called antara ga for the shuddh (3) 3424342 tivra # tivratar Indian writers on music treats the subject from the point of view of the vina player. The kind of vina contemplated (4) 3442342 komaltar komaltam ga. We are also told in Bharata's commentary that the

komal komaltar i is one like the satar with moveable frets. In such an in- following are consonant intervals :- Gramas and their derivatives are parent-scales from ma { kaishik b pa, dha 3 komal b strument the frets give a series of semitones up to a certain In the shadj grama, sa pa, re dha, ga ni, ma sa'. which modes are derived by choosing notes for the various | tivra # madhya * In the madhyam grama, re dha, ga ni, ma sa', pa re'. functions upon which Indian melody depends. The only tivratar tivra # point and then a scale of tones and semitones. The latter From these several indications it is a necessary in- essential property of a grama is the order of intervals. In komal scale in the normal position of the frets was known as the kaishik b shuddh scale, and the notes it comprised were called the ference that the gramas are scales of tones, major and minor, the modern Hindustani school of music the scale taught to al tivra # shuddh svaras. A note obtained by moving the frets from and semitones, and that in the shadj grama there is a false ratar the normal position was called vikrit. We are not much fifth between pa and re', while in the madhyam grama there beginners as a foundation is one in which the order of in- tervals is :- is a false fifth between sa and pa. The gramas are there- tone, tone, semitone, tone, tone, tone, semitone. tiv 2

THE RAGAS OF HINDUSTAN THE THEORY OF INDIAN MUSIC 15 14

In order that the above scales may be understood we apparent interest for us. Ancient Indian theory stops short at this point. We have no hint as to whether the soft raga Bhairavi is in the ga jati of the madhyam grama as therefore take the intervals in this familiar order. Thereby shown in the fourth column of the table because the inter- divergent accompaniment for lyres or auloi to both solos

we make no change whatever in the scales themselves. intervals were employed. It seems certain from the jatis (1) 432443 2 (modern shadj grama) and grama-ragas described in Bharata and Sarangdev's vals of the raga from sa to sa' correspond to the intervals and choruses. The evidence which proves the existence

from ga to ga' in the modern form of the madhyam grama. of this rudimentary system of harmony has been collected

(2) 43243 4 2 (modern madhyam grama) Sangit Ratnakar that chromatic scales were in use, but by Westphal ( Greek Harmonic and Melopœa, Leipsic,

(3) 3 4 2 4 3 4 2 (Aeolian Harmony)" there is no hint of soft scales and no theory given applica- The question of modes is a very intricate one as there are 1886 ), and the question may now be said to be free from (4) 3 4 23 4 4 2 ( Dorian Harmony )* ble to chromatic scales. We now turn for a moment to the jatis. The jatis so many functions of notes to consider. Sarangdev for doubt. Greek writers use the words harmoniai and tropoi Remembering that 2 stands for a semitone, 3 for a instance names thirteen criteria for the determination of the for scales. There appears to be a distinct difference of minor tone, and 4 for a major tone, we build up these corresponded to the Greek tropoi or modes. Every parent scale was susceptible of as many modal variations as it pos- jati of a musical composition. They are :- (1) graha, the note it begins with, (2) vadi, the meaning between them. The 'harmonies' were originally scales from the intervals set out in the section above :- I Shadj grama ( false fourth, ga dha ). sessed notes. Whatever the form of a Greek scale, whether scales which differed not only in the order in which they hard diatonic, soft diatonic, chromatic or enharmonic its modes were named on the same plan. The seven names predominant note, (3) nyas, the final, (4) tar, the highest note, (5) mandra, the lowest note, (6) (7) (8) the apan- took their tones and half-tones but in the arrangement of

allocated to modes intimately connected with the several major and minor tones. The word harmonia therefore

204 182 112 204 204 182 112 degrees of the complete scale were Lydian, Phrygian, yas, sannyas, vinyas, which are probably the notes used in connoted a grama as well as a mode. The subtle grama-

II Madhyam grama ( false fifth re dha ). Dorian, Hypolydian, Hypophrygian, Hypodorian, Mixoly- the middle endings or cadences, (9) bahulatva, frequency, differences were kept up by the expert musician for many dian. In the Indian phraseology the corresponding names (10) alpatva, infrequency, (11) shadatva, the property of centuries but the Stage carried out a sweeping innovation were Naishadi, Shadji, Arshabhi, Gandhari, Madhyama, Panchama, Dhaivati; but the use of these names was having six notes in the scale, (12) odavatva, having five 204 182 112 204 182 204 112 restricted within much smaller limits. In modern India notes, (13) antarmarg, evidently what Mahommedan sin- by treating all the well-known modes as excerpts from one scale. The scale they chose was that one which was con-

III Aeolian Harmony ( false fourth, re pa ). no one speaks of jatis. The nearest expression is that. gers call the chalan or distinctive flow of the melody. The sidered as essentially national, namely the Dorian. This A that means a scale employing certain intervals in a certain order from sa to sa. To show the connection classification of melodies according to mode or jati is there- scale has never been properly identified in Europe for the between the that and the jati we give the following corres- fore an almost superhuman task. What we shall endeavour simple reason that most writers on ancient Greek musie 182 204 112 204 182 204 112 pondencies :- to do in the first instance is to determine our parent scales consider a knowledge of tempered music a sufficient equip- IV Dorian Harmony (false fifth, sa pa). Name of ancient in what Name of Jati and then place the scales of the ragas from sa to sa' under ment for their investigations. Being unconscious of the That Jati grama in modern form immense antiquity of the musical art and ignorant of the of grama their respective parent scales in their several degrees. We

182 204 112 182 204 204 112 Yaman Gandhari Madhyam ma. shall then see whether a simpler method cannot be devised. Kalyan (with ma ) Naishadi Shad sa. We shall name the degrees as above suggested, sa jati, re complexity of the world's earliest music they have arrived at the most absurd and unwarranted conclusions. West- It will readily be perceived that these scales bear a sa. jati etc. Before proceeding with this undertaking we have family resemblance to one another. Each of them contains Bilaval like Naishadi but in Madhyam phal admits that the Greek enharmonic scale is 'absolutely

two semitones, two minor tones, three major tones; and the wrong grama incomprehensible,' but in spite of his ignorance of this the semitones are separated in one direction by a fifth and Jivanpuri like Panchama but in Aeolian Harmony dha. a few observations to make with regard to ancient Greek music. It is our opinion that the student of Indian music basic feature of their music asserts that equal temperament in the other by a fourth. Borrowing from the terminology was well-known to the Greeks. This conclusion is arrived No Bhairavi the wrong parent-scale like Arshabhi but in ga. may with advantage extend his researches in this direction. of the Greeks we class them as hard diatonic scales .* Madhyam 9. The earliest Greek music we read of was vocal, at by treating as scientifically accurate the primitive theo- other scales of this class can be obtained from the gramas; Kafi the wrong grama other scales got by the use of the antara alone or the kakali Shadji Shadj re. The music of ancient either song or chorus, with an accom- ries of Aristoxenus. One might just as well assert that in alone belong to a different category and one which has no If the word jati is to be resuscitated we would recom- mend that such expressions as ga jati, ma jati etc. be used Greece. paniment played on the lyre or a kind the time of Bharata the Indians divided their octave into

• See next section for the explanation of these namrs instead of Gandhari jati, Madhyama jati, with a wider and of clarinet or sanai called the aulos. twenty-two equal parts and sang music which was not art, * The Greek word actually use ctually used mean 'high'; 'hard' is a better slightly altered connotation. Thus we would say that the It was the practice even as far back as 800 B. C. to add a being entirely divorced from nature. Another writer word to use in contrast with ' soft'.

16 THE RAGAS OF HINDUSTAN

( Macran,-The Harmonics of Aristoxenus, Oxford, 1902) scale of Southern India, that is,-sa, re b, re t, ma , pa says that the major and minor thirds were unknown to dha b, dha #, sa'. Finally, we have a word to say on the the Greeks .* This appears to be the prevailing view ; but much vexed question of the enharmonic genus. We will it is demonstrably wrong. The Greeks were acquainted first give a short example of the enharmonic from one of with the three major and three minor thirds described above. Ptolemy in his Harmonic, (2-i p. 49), actually the few remaining relics of Greek music* :--

gives relative string-lengths of scales which include all these intervals ; that four of them were in common use can also be proved by a critical examination of the Greek II C P &C II P musical notation to be found in the 'Introduction' of Alypius. We think that it is a necessary inference from The letters stand for the notes; in three places they

the notation that the Dorian harmony was in the fourth of have disappeared owing to the ravages of time ; three notes belonging to the scale have been inserted in order to give our gramas. All the seven modes are to be found there in that scale ; some of them are duplicated, but in other an idea of the melody. The interpretation of the notes is

gramas. From this and a passage in Isagoge ( Meibom. of course our own. The dots have reference to the accent;

20. 1. ) we obtain a clue to the other Greek Harmonies, their exact signification can only be guessed; the most rea-

and feel convinced that the third grama above is the Aeolian. sonable view is that a dot above represents the main stress

These two were the chief of the ancient scales and were and a dot at the side a subsidiary one, like the sam and tal

used exclusively by the great lyric poet Pindar for his of Indian music. The exact pitch of the music is unknown;

Odes. We have already stated that the Greeks used the it is very nearly an octave below that which we give. The

term ' soft' to denote a scale derived from septimal har- line above a note indicates its length. Expert Indian sin- mony, that is to say the harmony of the seventh partial gers will recognize in this example a well-known feature of tone. The ditonal scale, which we shall describe below, Indian classical singing. At the Baroda Musical Conference was also known to them, although it is erroneous to of 1916 musicians from different parts of India sang snat- assume that it had any great importance as a vehicle for ches of melody of exactly the same type when the advisa- melody. It appears to have been regarded as little else bility of adopting a notation for writing Indian music was than a convenient standard for the tuning of the lyre. under discussion, and exclaimed triumphantly: how can We gather from Ptolemy that a half-scale or tetrachord that be reduced to notation ? of this variety was sometimes combined with a tetrachord of another species. This is the practice in modern India as In this form of enharmonic music, notes which differ

we shall show. It is interesting to note that one of the in pitch by one sruti are placed in juxtaposition. There is chromatic scales of Greece was the same as the shuddh another form which is inexpressibly beautiful, and which

e The ordinary European musician knows of only one major and was in common use, as a correct interpretation of the an-

one minor third. If he were asked to sing them without accompani- * The song from Orestes (See the supplement to ' Musici Scriptores ment, he would probably sing the ditone and the rough minor third. Graeci', Teubner Series ).

SRIMANT CHINTAMAN RAO alias APPASAHEB PATWARDHAN. CHIEF OF SANGLI. The Chief of Sangli has from the beginning given the Society constant and liberal support.

THE THEORY OF INDIAN MUSIC 17

cient relics would show. The device consisted in interpos- of the two genera. Septimal intervals can be introduced ing one or two notes between the enharmonics. This into either form of scale. We might regard these soft device is implied by the harmony of many European scales as a separate genus. It appears however a better melodies but we are not aware that it has ever been dis- method to treat them as variations of the corresponding covered or appreciated. We give a Greek and a modern hard scales. In like manner we shall class transilient scales, example,- that is to say those which have six notes, (hexatonic), five Hymn to Calliope God save the King notes, (pentatonic), or four notes, (tetratonic), as varieties of the corresponding complete scales. The Diatonic Scale and its subdivisions :-- In the sari- EZ MPC M M gamas we have examples of all four of the gramas above We have not so far found instances of this form of described as well as the ditonal scale, and a fifth scale which enharmonic music in India, but Indian music is so rich and we shall call the gandhara grama following what appears varied that one cannot affirm the non-existence of any species to be the correct interpretation of Sarangdev's description of melody. The drone of Indian music relieves the theorist of that grama. The scale differs from the grama proper in of much difficulty in the matter of scales. Sa is always having its semitones separated by a false fourth and fifth the fundamental note of the drone, and sa is the most instead of a true fourth and fifth. Sa to ma is a false appropriate note, for that very reason, to take as the starting fourth and ma to sa a false fifth. The gandhara gran.' point of every scale. The drone was not in general use in and ditonal scale are as follows :- the music of the Greeks; we therefore find them much (5) Gandhara grama. (6) Ditonal Scale. exercised as to the correct starting point for the scales of the modes. They appear to have been in doubt as to whe- ther they should begin with the lowest note permissible in Cents=204 204 112 182 204 182 112 204 204 90 204 204 204 90 the melody, or be guided by the position of the predo- The six kinds of diatonic scale are therefore (1) the minant note or mese. The latter opinion ultimately pre- shadj grama, (2) the madhyam grama, (3) the Aeolian vailed, and there is reason to believe that the scales of some Harmony, (4) the Dorian Harmony, (5) the gandhara modes were mode to start from the predominant and the grama, (6) the ditonal scale. scales of others from the note a fourth below it. The Chromatic Scale and its subdivisions :- There is 10. Indian scales fall into two broad classes, (I) the reason to believe that the terms Bhinnshadj and Bhinn- diatonic, which contain five tones either pancham were applied to two kinds of chromatic scale in The scientific classifi. cation of Indian Scales major or minor and two semitones olden times, but we have no definite ancient terminology either true or in the diminished form, to guide us. We have therefore analysed the sarigamas and (II) the chromatic which contain more than two semi- in order to find representative names taken from the ragas tones. There are also same ragas founded upon a mixture themselves. The following seven categories exhaust the

THE RAGAS OF HINDUSTAN THE THEORY OF INDIAN MUSIC 19

chromatic scales in use,-Bhairava, Multani, Todi, Jogi, use ma t chromatically. (16) Bhup, pentatonic, is a transi- Pa Jati :- (17) Chintaman Misr's Bibhans, penta- (B) Chromatic Genus: Sriraga, Lalit, Marva. lient variety. (33) Hamir: take ma t chromatically. (40) (I) Bhairava. The seven scales named are as follows :- (1) (2) Multani. Kalyan. (42) Kamod : omits ni being hexatonic. tonic, omitting ma, ni, and (26) Muniarkhan's Deshkar are practically the same. They may be treated either in this Bhairava. Re Jati :- (4) Bagesri. (39) Kafi. (15) The Bhim- class or as a part of the Aeoliau Harmony. (77) Tilang : (1) Ahiri Todi. (9) Pratham Bhairava. (8) Agravale's Bhairava. Chintaman Misr's Bhairava takes the soft re (w). palas of Faiz Mohamad and Chintaman Misr. With chro- Chintaman Misr's scale is complete ; Muniarkhan omits (61) Ramkali has a soft scale with re and dha w. (3) Todi. (4) Jogi. matic ga n, (50) Malgunj and Agravale's Bahar (6); with dha. chromatic ni t, (55) Miyaki Malhar; with both ga and ni t Dha Jati :- (3) Muniarkhan's Asavari Todi. This (II) Multani.

chromatic, (76) Tilak Kamod, and Muniarkhan's Jaijai- raga takes ma b and is therefore in this grama and not in (56) Multani, of Chintaman and Muniarkhan. Abdul-

(6) Lalit. vanti (35). Transilient varieties are,-pentatonic, omitting the Aeolian scale. (29) Abdul Karim's Dhani; hexatonic karim's is soft, with re v. (23) Darbari Todi. (32) Gurjari (5) Sriraga. re, dha, (70) Sindhada; hexatonic, omitting dha, (54) Megh. omits dha. Todi, hexatonic, omits pa.

Pa Jati :- Muniarkhan's Bahar (6); takes ag a chromatic. (III) Aeolian Harmony (III) Todi.

(7 Marva. (36) Jhinjoti ; Muniarkhan's takes ni # and Devjibua's Dha Jati :- (37) Jivanpuri; Muniatkhan's version (5) Bahaduri Todi with ma % chromatic. Chintaman's Todi and Devjibua's Todi. (78) both ni # and ga ta chromatic. (47) Khamaj : takes ni t takes re b also, resembling in this Chintaman Misr's Asavari

The scale actually used in the Jogi sarigama is a soft (64) Sarang, pentatonic, omitting ga, dha. (65) Vrinda- (2). (27) Muniarkhan's Dev Gandhari Todi takes the plain (IV) Jogi.

scale and note the hard scale which we take as the type. vani Sarang, (67) Madhumad Sarang are the same. The scale. (14) Devjibova's Sindh Bhairavi. (IV) Dorian Harmony (53) Jogi, soft form with re, dha # takes ni u, re $8

The Marva scale is hexatonic ; were the scale to be complet- former takes ni t and ma # chromatic. chromatically.

ed by the addition of pancham, it would contain three Dha Jati :- (29) Muniarkhan's Lachari or Dhani, Re Jati :- (68) Abdul Karim's Sarfarda has the scale which is sometimes erroneously supposed to be that of (V) Sriraga. semitones and so conform to our definition of a chromatic hexatonic, omits dha. (7) Abdul Karim's Basant; dha # is chromatic. In scale ; it is for this reason that we include it as a chromatic (II) Madhyam Grama : Kafi, especially in Southern India. Sarfarda takes ni t Muniarkhan's Basant, the scale is like that of Lalit with type. Nothing now remains but to tabulate the scales of Sa Jati :- (19) Bilaval is the chief representative of chromatic. ha b chromatic. (31) Gauri. (60) Purvi; ma , chro- the sarigamas according to our classification. In each case (Y) The Gandhara Grama. matic. ( 73 ) Sriraga : Chintaman uses the full scale; we state whether the scale is transilient, whether it is a soft this class. (20) Alaiyya Bilaval. (63) Laccha Sakh. The following take ni ta chromatic, (22) Kukubh, (46) Chinta- Dha Jati :- ( 15 ) Muniarkhan'e Bhimpalas. (44) man Misr's Kedar and (72) his Sorat, (62) Ram Sakh, (22) Darbari Kanada. (45) Mandrik Kanada. (43) Adana Kanada Muniarkhan and Devjibova omit ga. (74) Dhanasri, scale, and whether any extra notes are chromatically* (75) Jetasri. (57) Paraj ; ma chromatic.

introduced. Chhayanat. Muniarkhan's Sorat (72) and (25) Desh take ( uses ni #t chromatic. ) (24) Deshi Todi (soft scale.) (YI) Lalit. (A) Diatonic Genus: ni and ga t chromatic. His Kedar (46) takes ni t and ma f. (VI) The Ditonal Scale, (7 ) Muniarkhan's Basant; dha and ma chro- (I) Shadj Grama Ga Jati :- (13) Bhairavi ; Muniarkhan's Sinch Bhai- Sa Jati :- Two full scales of this description, one matic. (48) Lalit ; ma t chromatic, (17) Bibhans; penta- Sa Jati :- The two tetratonic ragas may be put in this class ; they are (52) Malsri, (69) Shankara ; both omit ravi (14) is the same with ga t, dha t, ni t, chromatic. starting from sa and the other from ni are combined (51) Malkaus, pentatonic, omits re and pa. together in Abdul Karim's Jaijaivanti (35). Devgiri (28) tonic without ma and ni. This raga does not strictly speak-

re, ma, dha. (14) Bihag : Faiz Mahamad's version is a Ma Jati :-- (41) Abdul Karim's Yaman Kalyan; Gaud Sarang (66), and Durga (30), which is pentatonic, ing belong to this class, as dha is and not t. It seems unnecessary to put it in a class by itself. (59) Puriya; complete scale without chromatic change; the other two takes the soft ma W chromatically. (79) Muniarkhan's take the lower half of the octave only in the ditonal form. hexatonic, omits pa. (71) Sohoni; ma t chromatic. versions omit re and are therefore hexatonic ; they also Yaman ; takes # chromatic. (34) Hindol, pentatonic; Pa Jati :- (49) Lankasri, hexatonic, omitting pa, is (VII) Marva. e That is to say, for the sake of colouring. omits re, pa. derived from the full ditonal scale. (38) Marva.

20 THE RAGAS OF HINDUSTAN

(C) Scales of Mixed Genera. It can hardly be disputed that the above classification ( 12 ) Shivamat Bhairava is a mixture of Jivanpuri is logical and complete. It is also of ( diatonic ) and the soft form of Bhairava ( chromatic ) A Simpler Classifi- cation. more than passing interest as it estab-

with re v. ( 58 ) Faiz Mohamad's Pilu is half Bhairavi lishes that there is hardly a known ( dianotic ) with re # chromatic, and half Bhairava scale which cannot be found in Indian Music. It is how- ( chromatic ). Muniarkhan's Pilu is half Jivanpuri and ever hardly suitable for the teaching of music in its ele- half Bhairava, with ni b, ma # chromatic. ( 10) Pratham mentary stages. To the beginner the fact that the Yaman Bhairava Bahar is a mixture of Bahar ( diatonic ) and and Bihag scales are in different gramas is less apparent Bhairava ( chromatic ). ( 11 ) Mangal Bhairava is similar than the fact that one is changed to the other by a simple

but has the soft note re . alteration in the fourth degree of the scale. Bilaval, to take

-10 :- another example, is changed to Khamaj by substituting ni

To assist those who find difficulty in understanding b for ni t. This close resemblance is more patent than

the derivation of Jatis we give three examples showing by the difference of grama. These considerations impel us to

transposition how the Jati is determined. We transpose put forward another and a simpler classification of diatonic

every diatonic scale so as to obtain two tones and a semitone scales, based not upon the bare skeleton but upon obvious

in order from sa, and a semitone between ni and sa. This resemblances of scale and melody.

at once gives the parent scale. Under the Kalyan type of scale we shall put all those

Jivanpuri Jivanpuri transposed ragas which take dha #, and ma either or #. This class will therefore include the sa jati, shadj grama, and ma jati, madhyam grama. The next class will include all the re jati, shadj grama and dha jati, gandhara grama. We 3 2 4 Scut intervals 3 4 2 4 3 propose to name it the Kafi type. Some of the ragas Aeolian Harmony included 'take the antara' to borrow the ancient expression.

Sarfarda Sarfarda transposed Others flatten the dha to dha b. The distinguishing feature of the next type, Bilaval is the use of dha 4. It includes. ragas like Khamaj which take ni t and therefore, like the

$ 4 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 4 2 first two types, is not confined to one grama. Then follows 2 Dorian Harmony the Asavari class In which we include ragas with all notes

Bhairavi Transposed. komal like Bhairavi and those which take ri t. Another Bhairavi variety of scale taking ma b will be included, also Sarfarda which might almost form a class in itself. The ditonal class will remain as before. We reduce the chromatic 2 4 3 2 4 % classes to four by combining Multani with Todi, and Lalit Madhyam Grama. with Sariraga, and adding Jogi to the mixed genus.

Shrimant Annasaheb Patwardhan, Chief of Kurundwad (Senior). The Chief of Kurundwad Senior has from the beginning supported the Society by liberal donations and acted as Chairman during Mr. Clements' absence on leave.

THE THEORY OF INDIAN MUSIC 21

Genus and Species. Raga. Prominent notes. Chromatic notes used. Notes omitted.

I. Diatonic.

(1) Kalyan Bihag Kalyan ga by some composers ma # Some composers re

with ma Hamir ga by some composers ma t

Kamod re, dha

Bhup pa, re

Malsri ga, pa ma, ni

Shankara ga, ni re, ma, dha re, ma, dha Yaman ga, ni re, dha by some composers ma à with ma # Yaman-Kalyan Hindol pa by Abdul Karim ma ga re, pa

{2) Kafi Kafi Miyaki Malhar re, ni ma, re Muniarkhan's Jaijaivanti ni # re Megh ga #, ni # re dha Bagesri Malgunj ma, ni Kafi scale proper Agrevale's Bahar ma, ni

Bhimpalas ma, ni ga #

Tilak Kamod pa, sa

Chintaman Misr's Bhimpalas pa, sa ga #, ni n

Sindhada ga ₺ ga ₺ re, dha

( Tilang by Muniarkhan dha with ga # Deshkar ma, ni

Chintaman Misr's Bibhans re, dha đha, re ga, ni ga, ni

Muniarkhan's Bhimpalas pa, sa

with dha b Adana Kanada Darbari Kanada ni, ma dha, ga ni #

Mandrik Kanada dha, ga

Soft scales Agravale's Darbari Kana da dha , ga R Deshi Todi pa, sa

THE THEORY OF INDIAN MUSIC 23

22 THE RAGAS OF HINDUSTAN

Notes omitted. Raga Prominent notes. Notes omitted. Genus and Species. Raga Prominent notes. Chromatic notes used. Genus and Species Chromatic notes used.

Ahiri Todi ga, ni II. Chromatic Chintaman Misr's Bhairava (3) Bilaval Bilaval ga, dha Laccha Sakh ga, pa (1) Bhairava Agravale's Bhairava pa, sa. pa, sa. Alaiyya Bilaval sa, pa Pratham Bhairava pa, sa. Kukubh sa, pa ni b Ramkali (soft with rev, dhav) ga, n

with ni # Rama Sakh ma, sa By Abdulkarim re b Kedar ma, sa S by Chintaman Misr, ni & ni k {2) Todi Multani Darbari Todi ga, pa ga dha by Muniarkhan, ni a, ga a with ga b Gurjari Todi ma, n p&

Sorat re, dha ma v re, pa by Chintaman Misr, ni ₺ by Muniarkhan, ni b, ga n Bahaduri Todi with ga ₺ Chintaman Misr's Todi ga ( Chhayanat re, pa ni & Devjibova's Todi Abdul Karim's Basant ga x Desh Jhinjoti ma ni #, ga ₺ ga, ni dha t ga, dha ni # Gauri dha, r Khamaj dha, ga ni # Purv (3) Sriraga pa, re b by Muniarkhan, with ni Muniarkhan's Bahar ma, ni Sriraga ga, ni ma v

Sarang ni t, ga ₺

Brindavani Sarang re, pa ma #, ni # ga, dha with re b, dha b Dhanasri ga Jetasr ga, ni

Madhumad Sarang re, pa ga, dha pa, ga re, pa ga, dha Paraj ga, ni ma 4 (4) Asavari ( Bhairavi Muniarkhan's Sindh Bhairavi sa, ma with re b dha, re ga tt, dha ti, ni tt re, pa Muniarkhan's Basant Lalit ga, ni dha Malkans sa, ma with re b, dha # Puriye ga, ni pa

Bibhans ni, ga with re # Devjibova's Sindh Bhairavi dha, ga by Muniarkhan, re b ga, ni Jivanpuri dha Sohoni ma Asavari dha, ga re t with re b, dha $ dha * ma, ni Dev Gandhari Todi pa, re S Asavari Todi ( soft scale ) re b, dha t (4) Marva Marva ma +, re b pa with ma b Abdulkarim's Dhani dha III. Miscellaneous with dha # and re ti Sarfarda ni # Name of Raga. Description

(5) Ditonal Devgiri ga, pa Pratham Bhairava Main scale Bhairava; chroma- lower half scale| ga, pa Bahar sa, ma re , dha Ss ni ditonal ; Gaud Sarang Mangal Bhairava tic notes taken from Bahar Main scale Bhairava with re b sa, ma re 4, ga upper half Bihag ( Durga (modern form ) ma pa Shivamat Bhairava dha, ma re n, ga b, ni b Jogi Full scale ; Faiz Mohamad's Pilu Soft form of Bhairava, with ni ta Do

Bhairavi with ni # ma re $, ni # sa, pa Khamaj type Lankasri ga, dha pa Muniarkhan's Pilu Jivanpuri with chromatic notes sa, pa re b, ga t, matt, ni nl

24 THE RAGAS OF HINDUSTAN

We give the typical scales of the first four species of Hindol, Malsri. If it is found to blend without perceptible- diatonic putting the notes of the chief sub-species in harshness or quavering ( known to musicians as "beats" ) brackets ; chromatic and ditonal scales have already been with the drone sa, it must form the interval 5/4 with that. fully dealt with :- note. Once that interval is conceded, the major and Kalyan minor tones follow as a matter of course. The contrast between the bright major tone and dull minor tone may be studied to advantage in the re of Hamir, Yaman,. Kaf Sorat, Sarang, on the one hand, and Deshkar, Megh, Kafi on the other. The same difference in the dha may be Bilaval discovered between Hamir, Yaman which take dha t and. Deshkar, Bilaval, Khamaj, Jhinjoti, Bibhans, which take dha %. The difference in the case of dha is easier to Asavari distinguish as dha * is in harmony with the sa of the drone- while dha t is discordant. The close connexion of samvaditva between ga I and ni t may be seen in Malsri, The scales of all the sarigamas have been determined Shankara, and in several of the chromatic ragas such as. 12 Verification. as far as opportunity allowed, and to Ahiri Todi, Ramkali, Basant, Purvi, Dhanasri, Paraj, Lalit the best of our ability. We invite Puriya, Sohoni. With the exception of Hindol, it is the those interested in the subject to verify them. We cannot chromatic ragas which show most clearly how ma # is re- hope that they will all escape criticism, but feel convinced lated to ni t. Reference may be made to Gurjari Todi, that the broad outlines of our classification of Hindustani Basant, Dhanasri, Lalit, Paraj, Puriya. The same tie bet- scales are unassailable. We add a few remarks upon in- dividual ragas to assist the ordinary reader to discover and ween the ma and ni of Bagesri, Malgunj, Bahar, Tilang establishes the latter note as ni t. The rough interval ga appreciate the subtle distinctions between Indian scales. Needless to say the interval sa to pa is beyond criticism ; W to sa may be studied in Bhimpalas, Sindhada. This

it is tuned with meticulous accuracy by all Indian instru- should then be compared with the consonant ga b of

mentalists. Those pandits who write bulky volumes to Asavari, Sindh Bhairavi, Multani; the student will then be enabled to perceive the difference between ni and ni b. prove that it is the flattened fifth of equal temperament and not the true fifth are dealing in theory divorced from Lastly the rich soft effect of the septimal intervals should

fact, and are hardly likely to have a strong following. Ma be studied in Deshi Todi, Ramkali, Asavari Todi.

komal is also an exact fourth above sa ; ma kaishik which We had occasion at the outset to state that the Euro-

is very seldom used is slightly sharper. Ga tivra is the next pean musician was driven by his musi- 13 Natural intonation cal instincts to depart from the scale important note. It should be studied in Bihag, Bhup, in European Music. of equal temperament whenever free to

SRIMANT BHAVAN RAO alias BALASAHEB PANT PRATINIDHI. CHIEF OF AUNDH. The Society was founded in 1912 at Satara, The Chief of Aundh was one of its earliest supporters and has remained a staunch friend.

THE THEORY OF INDIAN MUSIC 25

do so. As a rule he does not favour the exact thirds. Like grama, E b will be in the Aeolian Harmony and B b in the the Greeks of old he is not fond of sugary music. The Dorian Harmony ditone and rough minor third are to him sufficiently As already stated, we use spaces and lines alternately sweet. His education leads him to regard the diminished for the notes whatever sruti they may semitone also as a natural interval. Thus he is not usually 12 The Indian Staff notation resumed correspond to. The lowest space re- bothered with major and minor tones and has no fault to presents sa of the madhya saptak, the find with the ditonal scale. But his system of harmony second space ga, the third pa, and the fourth ni. The deals with chords which are not generally improved by lines represent respectively ni (mandra) re, ma, dha, sharpening the tempered major third into the ditone, or (madhya) and sa ( tar ). flattening the tempered into the rough minor third. In Svaras below and above these are represented by the interpreting the discords of modern harmony, his feeling necessary number of leger lines. The three saptaks are impels him, circumstances permitting, to use the soft in- thus shown :- tervals whenever they effect a marked improvement in the body of tone. This is noticeable in the treatment of the Mandra Madhya

minor ninth by singers or violinists when it forms part of sa re ga ma pa dha ni

a discord. The seventh in essential discords is also fre- quently flattened into a soft interval. No better example sa re ga ma pa dha ni 10 could be chosen than the first cadence in the song " La Tar

Paloma. " We give the music to the first line, as it would be rendered by the expert violinist. sa re ga ma pa dha ni sa The advantage of the staff notation is that it shows at a glance the relative pitch of a svara, its time-value and

The difference between the gramas can be brought its position in the melody. We use the word 'relative'

home to the European musician in a simple manner. Let advisedly as in our form of notation the sa may be taken

a harmonium be so tuned as to give the following exact at any pitch which suits the singer's voice.

consonances in the keys C and D b ,- The pitch is shown by the position of the note verti-

Accidentals. cally, that is with respect to the lines and spaces and by a sign called an ac-

In this system of tuning, the major keys C and D b cidental placed in front of the note. The accidentals cor-

will be in the shadj grama, A b will be in the madhyam responding to the srutis used in the sarigamas are the signs given in section 7. The accidental should be placed like In our notation the A is A the note itself on the line or space to which it belongs. 3

THE THEORY OF INDIAN MUSIC 27 26 THE RAGAS OF HINDUSTAN relative values of notes and rests and their equivalents in played as one note of the combined value of the two, thus : To avoid a multiplicity of accidentals the following | The time value of a svara is indicated by the shape of matras af madhya time are as above shown. The direction

The Raga Signature method has been adopted. In Indian the note. Silence ( vishranti ) is M = or M = at the beginning of a composition shows = 2 matras ; d= 2} matras; = 1} matras;

modern notations it is usual to begin Time. shown by signs called rests and their the value of the matra. e = 1} matras; = 1 matra. thus: " this raga takes ri and dha komal, ga and ni tivra, time-value is similarly indicated. Smaller notes and rests still may be obtained by add- ma tivra and komal, pa and sa shuddh. When ma is tivra ing more hooks to the stem. A note sounded partly before the sam or tal and

such and such a sign will be used". We follow a similar A dot after a note makes it half as long again. The partly after such accent is for convenience represented in Not Corresponding Indian equiva- English name. lent in matras in plan. We set out in a raga signature the accidentals of all rest. moderate time. use of dots with rests is not recommended. Two dots this way as two notes connected by a tie.

svaras except sa and pa, denoting by the sign O that any Breve make a note 1 +₺ + or 1& the length. Thus :- The grouping of notes is a guide to the accent, the

particular svara is omitted. Where any svara is a double 8 The grouping of Notes first note of the group being generally

one, we put one form of it in the signature, and use an ac- more accented than the following ones.

cidental for the other, whenever it occurs. Otherwise ac- semibreve 4 Note Corresponding rests Indian equivalent in It is also, when used with a fignre and slur, a means of 4 matras cidentals are dispensed with, the srutis being governed by showing the division of the matra ( or other larger or

the signature. minim 2 smaller unit of dnration ) into a number of equal parts 2 33 Specimens of Raga signatures which is not a multiple of two. Grouping is effected by 1 Bhairavi Kafi crotchet joining the hooks of notes, thus . Grouping to show -- 0 3 a division of the time unit into equal parts is effected in quaver the following manner :- 12 Kalyan Malkans (1) means 3 notes equal in duration to 2. semiquaver i. e. each 2/3 matra.

Note that the accidentals and signs of the signature 1 号 (2 are always to be written in the same order, ma, ni, ga, dha, demisemiquaver two notes of z matra each.

re, pa. Unless pa is 'varj' or omitted it will have no place in the signature as it is always shuddh. semidemisemi- (3)

Thus we dispense to a large extent with accidentals, quaver 1/16 three notes of 1/3 matra each.

as the raga signature placed at the commencement governs (4) four notes of 4 matra each. all the svaras. It is assumed that a svara which has appear- There are three degrees of speed in Indian music ; ed already in the same avarta and is repeated is to be sung the same as before. If the sruti therefore is changed again vilambit or slow, madhya, or moderate, and druta or fast. (5) five notes of 1/5 matra each. before the sam the fact must be noted by means of an Whatever the speed is, each measure ( avarta) consists of Just as rests are combined to make up the value re-

a fixed number of units of duration called matras. The quired, notes may be combined where it is necessary or

accidental e. g. matra in madhya time will be represented by the note more convenient to do so in order to make the phrasing or

known as the crochet ( ) In slow time it will be the grouping of notes clearer. In this case the tie or bind is (6) six notes of 1/6 matra each.

minim (), and in fast time the quaver (). The used. Two notes of the same pitch joined by a tie are

28 THE RAGAS OF HINDUSTAN

(7) Below each note is written its matra-value,rests being seven notes of 1/7 matra each. shown in brackets. The manner in which the four demi-

(8) eight notes of g matra each. semiquavers are grouped with the three following quavers should be noted. A more cumbrous way of writing this

(9) passage would be-

nine notes of 1/9 matra each, In No. 6 the accent comes on the first, third and fifth notes of the group. If two accents only are desired, the grouping is effected thus :- It is clear that the last note of a phrase must be cut

(6) off or detached from what follows ; hence the use of a slur

Here each group totals à matra. implies a short rest. The rule above stated as to the time

8 3 value of such rests is founded on the practice of Indian It will be noticed that the same number of hooks is singers. retained from one multiple of two in the dividend of the Sometimes notes which do not come at the end of a fraction which shows what proportion each note bears to Staccato legato phrase are played in a detached the unit, to the next multiple of two. One hook is used manner. This is called staccato. There for half matra and third matras; two hooks for fourths, are three degrees of staccato, shown by (1) a slur and fifths, sixths, sevenths; three hooks for eighths, ninths etc. dots above or beneath the notes, (2) by dots alone, (3) by To avoid an unnecessary multiplicity of small rests dashes. The effect of each is here shown in the same man- ner as above by writing the laya or matra-values in Grouping by slurs. it is laid down that the last note of a phrase grouped by a slur is to be play- fractions. ed as if of half the length shown, the remaining half being a rest. This rule applies where the note is a hooked one; in the case of longer notes, it is better to show the exact amont of rest desired. Grouping by slurs may extend over We now come to the position of a svara in the melody. any passage of melody; it means that the passage covered by the slur is to be played legato, i. e. smoothly, as one The Avarta Music set to time is divided into avartas *which are marked off by up-

phrase. The curved line similar to a tie used in the right lines or bars. The measure consists of a stated groupings below is what is known as a slur. number of matras with accents occurring at regular in- tervals. Accents are : strong (sam), medium(tal), or weak (khal). The strong accent follows immediately after the * We take the acarta as extending from sam to sam. This is the most convenient use of the word.

Shrimant Dada Saheb Heblikar.

THE THEORY OF INDIAN MCSIC 29

bar; the medium accent follows the subsidiary bar; and The sign cresc. means louder and dim. softer. A the weak accent follows the subsidiary half bar. Subsidiary gradual increase of intensity is shown by the sign and bars are only given in the first complete avarta. This is a gradual decrease by sufficient to show where the accents fall throughout the composition. In succeeding avartas tho accent is further A double bar =H- is used to mark the end of a com-

emphasized by appropriate grouping of the notes. In one The use of the double position or of any section thereof, such species of time ( the rupak ) the bar marks the tal, as the bar. as the astai or antara. It may occurat sam coincides with the khal. The khal or 'empty beat,' the end of or at any place in a measure

in marking time, is shown by parting the hands, while the or avarta. When used with the sign which is known as the

tal and sam are shown by clapping them together. The / pause, thus it signifes the end of the whole com- sam marks the point where voice, accompaniment and drums meet together in the accent however much they position. A double bar with dots E is a direction may be in conflict through the avarta. that the composition is to be repeated up to that point, Emphasis or accent is sometimes shown by grouping ; either (a) from the beginning, or (b) where the double bar Intensity. it also follows from the nature of the measure. Where a special emphasis is in this form #E has been previously encountered, from

required apart from that which comes from the phrasing that point. Double bars should be so arranged that the or the measure, the sign > is placed above or below the integrity of the measures is preserved .* In the following note to be emphasised. When very strong emphasis is re- example, the first and third bars together form in the quired the letters Sf. are used. repeat one whole bar of eight matras. It is necessary to adopt terms and signs which will M =

show the intensity or degree of loudness or softness of a composition. The following terms are in general use in European music ; they represen, fixed degrees of intensity.

Sign Term Rendering Occasionally the last bar before the repeat sign is

pp pianissimo changed after the repetition, so as to lead to the next sec- very soft piano tion. This is shown by the use of the numerals 1 and 2. p soft mp mezzo-piano moderately soft The portion marked 1 is to be performed the first time, mf mezzo-forte moderately loud and at each repetition except the last. The part marked f forte loud fortissimo very loud The beginner is apt to forget this. No incomplete bar shonld ever ff oceur except at the beginning or end of a compoaition. Muaic mugt be written so as to read without a break.

30 TIE RAGAS OF HINDUSTAN THE THEORY OF INDIAN MUSIC 31

2 is to be performed at the last repetition in substitution the svara which they adorn. These svaras are sometimes There need be no difficulty as to whatfis known as for 1, which is omitted. For instance, the last portion of taken from the scale of the raga, and are sometimes what Name of Measure. Number of matras to |Reference to example Ueeharan. uccharan. It consists of a prolonga- tho avarta. in sarigamas. the above example might be written as follows :- are generally spoken of as quarter tones. Some may be tion by repetition of a vowel sound. Tintal 2 represented by the actual svaras and in the actual time by 8 Ektal 55 means of the signs and notes already defined. Others may The repetition must be shown by a separate note, and the 6 Chautal 12 be represented hy grace notes. A single grace note fact that no new word is uttered will be seen from the Rupak 6 14 has its hook cut through as shown below ; grace notes are warna or words of the song. Zhampa 10 written very small and generally in quavers or semi- Surphakta 10 51 quavers or shorter notes ; no specified time is allotted to For the common forms of avarta we refer by Adachautal 14 6 10 them. Other ornaments will require special signs. Such Zhumbra 14 In the next example no change is made :- 14 38 are the mend and ghasit for which the following signs are Common Indian time- numbers to the sarigamas them- Dhamar measures. 14 24 simple and appropriate :- selves. Dipchandi Tevra 7 7 9 60 Mend Ghasit Mattatal

E. CLEMENTS. It is convenient to write such words as astai and antara at the beginning of the appropriate sections. Such The following passage which occurs in a previous directions as " repeat astai once or twice ", when used with example may be written with grace notes if the time is a double bar, will be easily understood and will save writ- druta. Here the use of the slur shows that the accent of ing preceding sections again in full. the group is on the first grace note, so that the time comes If it is required to repeat a composition from the out of the following passage. Without the slur, the time beginning or from a certain point and this cannot be con- would be taken out of the preceding phrase. veniently indicated by a double bar and dots, the directions ' repeat from beginning " and the sign & may be used res- A pectively, the sign being also placed over the point from which the repeat is to commence. The sign .placed over a svara denotes the nyas svara or note upon which the B composition finally comes to a close after all repetitions are completed. B would be Embellishments or ornaments are much used in Indian interpreted

Embellishments. music. With the exception of the thus :

mend and ghasit, they consist chiefly Putting the stems of grace-notes the reverse way to of short svaras the time of which is taken out of that of that of following notes conduces to clearness.

THE THEORY OF INDIAN MUSIC 33

APPENDIX I. High School, Bombay, a pupil of Nathan Khan. The Ahimatkhan has also made practice on the bina. He knows THE COMPOSERS OF THE SARIGAMAS. tricts with selected pupils and has been the recipient of speciality of the music of this branch is precision and Marathi well. He was employed by the Parsi Sangit several medals. Mr. Clements' Introduction to the study absence of random improvisation. Rhythmic movements Company to set their dramas to music. The Philharmonic 1. Devji Bowa. of Indian Music (Longmans Green & Co.) was based and determinate intervals are scrupulously observed, and Society engaged him for some time to assist Muniar Khan Devji Bowa was a well-known sitar player of Northern largely on practical information obtained from Abdul every word of the passage sung is clearly pronounced of Dhulia to compose the sarigamas herein ascribed to the India. He was in the service of the Dhar Darbar. He Karim. The pedigree of the family is given below :- latter.

composed many suravarts or sarigamas, and was specially 3. Faiz Mohamad. Ghagge Khudabax was a great Dhruvpad singer. 6. Muniar Khan. versed in tappa Music. He learnt dhruvpads from the Fateh Mohamad had two sons, Faiz Mohamad His pupil was Nathan Khan who had four sons. Tare Husein Khan was his grandfather. He lived in Chintaman Misr school. His best known pupils are Laljee Bowa now in the Dhar Darbar and Balkrishna Bowa who and Ghasittkhan. Faiz Mohamad is a pensioned gavai of 2 3 4 Alwar ( Rajputana) in the time of Soudan Singh Maharaj the Baroda Darbar. He is 80 years of age. He has no Mohamatkhan Dulle Khan now Seddir Vilayat of Alwar. He came to Jaipur in the time of Ramsingh is in the service of the Inchalkaranji state. The late Bal- children nor has he any disciples of distinction, save Messrs. learning learning Maharaj, and from there he went to Baroda, where he vantrao Bapat, who was a music master in the Government Training College for women at Poona, had also learnt Bhaskar Bowa Bakhale and Nighoskar. He is not only a who is now in in the service of Bombay. the Mysore music. music. taught music to Lal Khan the father of Muniar Khan. Darbar tappas from Devji Bowa. Bapat taught tappas to his son practical musician of the first rank but a composer of note. Lal Khan was married in Barhanpur. After his marriage 5. Ahimatkhan. he returned to Baroda, whence he went to Udaipur and and also to his pupil Mr. Gangaram Achrekar who is now His Highness the Maharaja of Baroda soon after his ac- cession to the Gadi opened a musical school at Baroda, Gwalior. Muniar Khan received instruction in music a music teacher in the Training College for men at Poona. with Faiz Mohamad as Principal. Verses from Sanskrit and Ahimatkhan is the son of Farid Khan who lived in from his father in Gwalior. In 1912 he settled at Barhan- 2. Abdul Karim. Marathi literature from the great works of Waman Pandit, Poona for about 20 years. He was the disciple of Bahiramkhan. The late Rao Bahadur Balvant Ram- pur. At present he is at Dhulia ( West Khandesh ). Abdul Karim gavai was born in Mujpharpur, a town Ramdas, Tukaram and others were specially selected by the late Shankar Moro Ranade B. A., of the Baroda Darbar chandra Sahasrabudhe, B. A., Educational Inspector, was near Patna. Since the days of Akbar, his family has pro- K. B. DEVAL. duced musicians of distinction ; Alla Rakhia Barkhuda was for the new Music School. These were set to music in Faridkhan's pupil. Faridkhan died about 20 years ago.

an expert player on the stringed instruments, sur shringar, different ragas by Faiz Mohamad and taught to the rabab ; tradition reports that he picked up the mysteries of students of this new school. After Faiz Mohamad's re- the bina from Nirmalsha by merely listening to him. tirement the school was closed. His pupil Bakhale left Saheb Khan, a well-known musician in the Hyderabad Baroda and opened a music class in Poona. Nighoskar service, belongs to this family. Abdul Karim sings several is in Baroda and performs Kirtans. pieces in Dhruvpad & Dhamar composed by his great grand- 4. Agravale Mohammadkhan. father. Nature has gifted Abdul Karim with a silvery voice, and an exquisitely fine ear. At present his age is The present representatives of the Agravale family

about 38. He came to the Bombay Presidency in 1902. are the four sons of Nathan Khan, a musician of great.

In 1910 he opened a musical school at Poona, called Arya fame. He was for many years in the service of the-

Sangit Vidyalaya. In it both instrumental and vocal Mysore Darbar as a singer of Hindustani music. He died there about 20 years back. The Agravale Sarigamas were music is taught. He also makes annual tours in the dis- given by Mr. Manerikar, drawing-master, Elphinstone

THE THEORY OF INDIAN MUSIC 35

APPENDIX II. Why should we chop up the octave as though it were tone. Those who know the interval can distinguish it

We feel it necessary to add a brief reply to the ill- from the dull minor tone, or the rough tempered tone of the inconclusive and incomplete. The question whether Indian ancestral Hindu property ? What is gained thereby ? Is informed criticism which our labours have evoked in certain it not pedantry rather than science ? As we have explain- peti. Re and dha are derived from pa by the true shadja- scales are natural or capricious cannot be decided by such. ed, the ancient Greeks had and the nations of modern panchamabhava .* Ga is related to dha by shadjapanchama- quarters. a summary and abortive proceeding. Without the help of the Indian harmonium thie Europe have a system of inter-related keys. It was neces- sary for the Geeeks to make one small compromise to hava using that term in a loose and inaccurate sense. Here The Indian harmonium. This instrument, which the expression when used denotes a false fifth. We men- contains twenty-three notes in the octave, is thought to be colleetion of sarigamas could never have been made. It was designed for research work and has amply fulfilled obtain their keys from a reasonable number of fixed notes, tion the expression shadjapachamabhava because we have identified in some mysterious way with our interpretation and modern Europe has deemed it necessary to adopt equal noticed that certain writers on Indian music use the term in of Sarangdev. Although the instrument is often called all our expectations. tem erament for the same purpose. But Indian music has a sweeping manner so as to include any interval approxi- the sruti harmonium, it is very remotely connected with any Indigenous Indian theories of music, ancient no such system of keys. Whatever raga we sing, what- mating to a just fifth. Thus one modern writer traces the partieular system of srutis. It was constructed so as to and modern. No theory of scales can be a true one which does not ever the vadi and samvadi may be, the key note is always ' tivra' and ' komal' Inotes from sa by what he is pleased give every possible form of natural scale consisting of tones sa. The scales of Indian musie are independent living to call the shadjapanchamabhava. In one direction by this and semitones. Moreover, as two septimal notes are in- take into account the harmonic series. This is the founda- tion of all music and has ever been so. All theories con- organisms and must be studied independently. We can- loose method of tuning he gets pa, re tima, dha tivra, ga cluded, there is hardly any form of soft scale which cannot not make a hotch-pot of them. Sometimes we hear the tivra, ni tivra and in the other ma komal, ni komal, ga be obtained from its keyboard. Our position is this, that structed upon other foundations must be abandoned. The remark that a certain singer sings twenty-seven or some komal, dha komal, re komal. Bharata cannot be accused if any ordinary Indian scale be found which cannot be theory of the Natya Shastra or Sangit Ratnakar is useful only in so far as it can be interpreted in the light of the other number of srutis. The remark may be true, but the of falling into this error. He and Sarangdev distinguish reproduced on the Indian harmonium, that scale must either idea of regarding the srutis independently of the scales between pa of the shadj grama which is samvadi with sa, be ' capricious' to quote from Mr. Ellis ( the translator of harmonic series. they belong to is fallacious and leads to loose reasoning. and chyut pa of the madhyam grama which is samvadi Helmholtz ) or ' tempered.' We believe that in the realm In early times philosophers endeavoured to build up If a certain writer of Southern India had steered clear of with the three-sruti re. They therefore drew a distinction of the art of homophonic music ( to which Indian music an a priori explanation of musical intervals. They regard- this fallacy we should have been spared reams filled with between a just fifth and a false fifth and their complements belongs ) capricious, arbitrary or artificial scales simply do ed the octave as an interval divisible into an infinite harmful doctrines. the fourths. [The intervals corresponding to the ones not exist. We know that individual singers habitually number of smaller divisions. They treated it as one would. Let us now as an example take a very simple scale, mentioned are re tivra, dha tivra in the modern shadj sing wrong notes, and that gramophone records of so-called a straight line. They brought all their scales togetherand grama and ga tivra, dha madhya-tivra in the modern Indian music sung to an accompaniment of tempered har- tried to think out a scheme of dividing the octave into a namely that of Bhup. It contains five notes, sa, re, ga, madhyam grama.] number of equal parts which would satisfy all the scales. pa, dha. We know at the start from the meticulous care moniums have been produced and are even now on sale. All philosophers attacked the question in the same way but of the tambura player that sa and pa are tuned without The shadjapanchamabhara fallacy above outlined has This however is not art. the slightest trace of beats or ronghness. He does not proved attractive to those minds which do not take kindly to We have come across no Indian scale that, when rendered by capable musicians, is not developed from each had his own infallible divisor which would give all the intervals needed. Modern science proves that no equal tune them to the tempered fifth or any other interval got

division of the octave will give the exact notes required by from an equal subdivision of the octave. Intervals of that * This expression means the relationsnip snbsisting in piteh batween sa and pa. simple intervals. The Indian harmonium can reproduce kind give beats. His fifth is the just fifth, ratio 3/2. Let # The notes we call sadharan and kaishik are commonly the notes of all the Indian scales we have met with. any natural scale. However far we take our division we us next listen to the ga of the singer. It will be found to termed komal. The tivra and madhya-tivra notos are both tormed Our opponents loudly contend that the Indian harmo- get not real harmony but an approximation to it .* blend with the drone of the tambura. No roughness or tivra. Some musicians introduce the term shuddh and apply it nium was tested and rejected by the Baroda musical con- * These remarks need not be taken to apply to the sruti system of beats there. It follows inexorably that ga bears the ratio to the notes of the Bilaval Scale. Thesa musicians would call the ivra and madhya-tivra re and dha indiseriminately shuddh just ference of 1916. Our answer is that the so-called test was Bharata which is copied in the Ratnakar. There is a strong body of opinion that this theory did not contemplate an equal division. 5/4 to sa. Re and dha introduce us to the bright major as others call them tivra.

36 THE RAGAS OF HINDUSTAN APPENDIX III.

science and are impatient of hair's-breadth distinetions. It | inology distinguishes twelve notes by name, more than. twelve notes are required by the commonest ragas. For We have often been asked how the ordinary harmo- | Any professional tuner will understand these in- is also the basis of a localised and inconsiderable movement instance there are two tivra re's. Anv one well-acqnainted. nium should be tuned so as to render correctly as many structions.

in Southern India which seeks to force Indian music into the artificial fetters of equal temperament. Outside this with Indian music will admit that re may be sometimes. Indian ragas as possible .- We hope that an instrument with fourteen keys

bright and sometimes sad. It is sung one way in some instead of twelve will eventually drive the twelve-keyed

small movement, there is no theory worth the name. The In order to explain our recommendation we give a peti from the Indian market, as such an instrument typical exponent of the shadjapanchamabhava fallacy ragas, and one way in others; one way in the evening and sketch of the middle of the key-board showing the Euro-

does not pretend to have any definite views of his own. one way in the morning .* The difference in ethos is the ean names of the notes and their place on the staff- would be an invaluable means of preserving correct in-

notation. tonation and teaching beginners the difference between

He is content ' to take the twelve common notes as he finds direct consequence of a difference of one sruti in pitch. If the three sruti and four sristi intervals ( minor and major them'. As there are twelve names he assumes there must we add a semitone to each re, we get two komal ga's which are even more contrasted in ethos. One (ga ) ones). We add a plan of the kind of key-board we would be twelve notes. If he would descend from a priori argu- gives beats with the drone while the other (ga b ) forms a like to see introduced, more especially in schools .- ment to fact, and have a harmonium *tuned by a series of per- fect fifths he would perceive at once that the shadjapancha- clear limpid harmony. One is rough and manly, the other A fat D flat E fat G f B flat D flat

mabhava does not give ' the twelve common notes.' It sweet and peaceful. Our critics do not seem to have no- gives nothing else but the ditonal scale which turns any ticed these peculiarities of their music. common raga such as Bhairavi or Kalyan into a grotesque Want of space prevents our pursuing this subject travesty. The truth is that although the popular term- further. D B 0

We suggest a harmonium not because we have any predilection for * It may be explained that a specified time of the day or night is

the instrument but because it can be tuned with accuracy to any given allotted for the performance of every raga. Generally, the ragas which shold be sung in the evening if they take re tivra take it in the form C B E

scale. D re t while several of the morning ones take re 4.

Our accidentals show the tuning recommended. For the European tuner, it would be necessary to explain that As before the tuning may be inferred from the

the keys of Cand D flat are both tuned as just major keys. accidentals. Tuning instructions for professional tuners: The following series of fifths are dead in tune .- Fifths dead in tune,-

(1) B flat, F, C G, D. (1) Extra Biflat, F, C G, D, A.

( 2 ) G flat, D flat, A flat E flat. (2) G flat, D flat, A flat E flat, B flat.

(3) A, E , B (3) Extra A, E B.

C is the pitch key ; the other tuning points"A flat and C is the pitch key ; A flat and E are derived from it E are obtained from C by tuning major thirds dead in tune as perfect major thirds without a trace of beats. without a trace of beats. We subjoin two tables showing how a few typical ragas may be rendered on these two instruments.

38 THE RAGAS OF HINDUSTAN THE THEORY OF INDIAN MUSIC 39

( 1 ) The twelve-keyed peti. Some of our readers may be sufficiently interested in 27. Dev Gandhari Todi (I) C, F. the Indian scales to wish to have keyed instruments capa- asterisk means that a close approximation to the scale can be obtained but not absolute accuracy. 28. Devgir (I) F

Name of raga Which key must be taken as Sa in order to give the correct ble of rendering all or at least the majority of the sari- 29. Dhani (I) A, B V, F. intervals. gamas. For them we would recommend an American 1. Ahiri Todi (I) C, F. do (Muniar K.) (I) D, E t, G. organ or harmonium with fourteen keys tuned as above, (I) C, F. Kalyan 2. Asavari 30. Durga (1) (I) C, D b, F. (1) With two ma's. F or G b. F. and in addition one with fifteen keys tuned as follows :- 3. Asavari Todi (II) F. (I) D, E b, G. Durga (2) (I) F (2) With ma f only. Kaf. (1) B flat, F, C , G, D, A. (II) G, F * (I) F. G or A b. G. 4. Bagesri 31. Gauri Tilang. Bilaval 32. Gurjari Todi (I) F. Shuddb O or D b. (2) Bahar 33. (I) D b, F; (II) F. (2) With ni f. C. A flat , E flat, extra B flat, extra F, extra C. 5. Bahaduri Todi (II) G .* (I) A b .* Hamir 6. Asavari. 34. Hindol (I) D b, F, G b; (II) F. Bhairavi. F or E. (3) E do (Agravale) (I) E b. Abdul Karim's Dhani. A or E. B. Jaijaivanti. Impossible. This raga and Lankasri

The above are just fifths. (I) F 35.

Malkans. F or E. 7. Basant 8. Bhairav (I) C, F. being ditonal would require a special instrumente Gaud Sarang. Impossible; B gives the nearest approach to it. (4) A flat C, C E, just major thirds Jaijaivanti (Muniar K.) (II) E b.

Bhairava. 36. Jhinjoti (I) C, A b ; (II) C. Multani. F. or C. (5) E flat, septimal D flat; A flat, septimal G flat, do (Chintaman ) (II) C. 9. Pratham Bhairav (I) C, F. Sriraga. Lalit. just harmonic sevenths tuned without beats like 10. Pratham Bhairav Bahar (II) G .* 37. Jivanpuri (I) C, F. F. the other intervals above. (II)F ** Marva G. 38. Jogi 11. Mangal Bhairav-Impossible. Shivamat Bhirav (II) C. 39. Kafi (I) D, E b, G; (II) G, F #. (2) The fourteen keyed peti. The notes given by this instrument will be :- 12. (I) C, E, F. 40. Kalyan (I) C, D b, F; (II) F. 13. Bhairavi Yamankalyan (II) A b. Name of raga. Which key should be taken as Sa. 41. 14. Sindh Bhairavi (I) C, F. Kamod (I) C, D b, F; (II) F. 15. Bhimpalas (I) D, G; (II) G, F #. 42. 43. Adana Kanda (I) A b ;* (II) G. Kalyan. (1) With two ma's. 16. Bhup (I) C, D b, F, G b; (II) E b, A b. Darbari Kanada (I) A b .* F F, D b (or O if only ma is G C D

required.) 17. Bibhans (I) E b, G, A b; (II) E b, A b 44. A B A flat B fat Extra C (Muniar K.) (I) C, G; (II) G. do (Agravale) (II) F X. Extra B flat Extra F (2) With ma a only. Kafi. F. or G b, or D b. do 45. Mandrik Kanada (I) D, G. Tilang G, or D, or E b. Septimal D flat

G, or E b. 18. Bihag (I) D b, F ; (II) F. 46. (I) A b. Septimal G flat Bilaval. (1) Shuddh. Shuddh Bilaval (I) C, D b, A b; (II) C. Kedar

(2) With ni t. O, or D b, or A b. 19. Khamaj 20. Alaiyya Bilaval 47. (I) C, A b.

Asavari. O, or A b. F, or O or E 21. Kukubh Bilaval (I) C, A ; (II) C. 48. Lali (I) F. Bhairavi. F, or O. E fat

We now give a complete list of the ragas showing 22 Chhayanat 49. Lankasri See Jaijaivanti. Abdul Karim's Dhani. F, or A. Malkans. Gaud Sarang. O or E or F. 23. Darbari Todi (I) F. 50. Malgunj F. which keys in each case may be taken as sa. We desig- (I) E v, G. (I) B, C, E, F. For O 24. Deshi Todi (II) B b. 51 Malkans Bhairava. nate the 14 keyed instrument as (I) and the 15 keyed as Muiltani. F. (II). Thus, to take raga Ahiri Todi as an example, (I) 25. Desh (I) A b. 52 Malsr (I)C, D b, Eb, F,G, Ab; Sriraga Lalit F. F. C, F means that the raga may be correctly rendered if 26. Deshkar (I) E b, G, A v. (II) C, E b, F, A b.

Marva either C or F on the first instrument is taken as sa. An (II) E b, A b. 53. Marva (I) G.

. .. . ...... ... 41 40 THE RAGAS OF HINDUSTAN THE THEORY OF INDIAN MUSIC

54. Megh (I) D, E b, G; (II) F F. (1) Bahaduri Todi (II) G (approximate). Instruments of 14 and 15 keys only have this advan- tage over the Indian harmonium of 23 keys, that they are 55. Miyaki Malhar (I) A b,* E b. 56. Multani (I) F. easier to play upon, and the action and vibrators can be

do (Abdul K.) (II) C .* crammed into one plane, ensuring evenness of tonal

57. Paraj (I) F. The intervals marked by a slur are very nearly a just quality. (I) C, F. For all practical purposes E + is a just fifth from 58. Pilu semitone which is the interval required. A ł. Thus the first two series of fifths are connected. 59 Puriya ( (I) F (2) Bahar (I) A b (approximate). We think it would interest the European musician if The third series is introduced by the major thirds C E, 50. Purvi S 61. Ramkali (II) F we show graphically how the various notes used in the G B etc. The septimal notes also from a separate system sarigamas are correlated. 62. Rama Sakh (I) C, A b; (II) C. connected by harmonic sevenths with E b, A b etc.

58. Laccha Sakh (I) C, D b, A b; (II) C. 64. Sarang (I) C, G, A b. The interval marked by a slur should be the rough 65. Vrindavani Sarang (I) C, A b. minor third, cents 294; it is actually 274 and is therefore 66. Gaud Sarang (I) F. too flat. The same error occurs in Adana Kanada and 67. Madhumad Sarang (I) C, G, A b. Darbari Kanada. 68. Sarfarda (I) C, F. 69. Shankara (I) C, D b, E t, F, G D, A b ; (3) Yaman Kalyan (II) A v.

(II) C, E b, F, A b. 70. Sindhada (I) D, G, E b; (II) F F. 71. Sohoni (I) F (4) Bihag (I) D b. 72. Sorat (I)C, Ab; (II) C. do (Muniar K.) (I) A b .* 73. Sriraga ) 74. Dhanasri (I) F (5) Bhimpalas (I) D. 75. Jetasri 76. Tilak Kamod (I) E b. 77. Tilang (I) E b, G ; (II) G. (6) Bhimpalas (II) F . 78. Todi (I) F do (Chintaman, Devji B.) (II) G . 79. Yaman (I) D b, F ; (II) F. Here sa, ma and pa are raised by one sruti; looked We add for clearness' sake a few representative trans- at from another point of view re b, ga b, dha t, ni b are positions- reduced by one sruti becoming re +, ga k, dha Y, ni w.

APPENDIX IV. APPENDIX V.

• A note on the tuning of the Bina. This is clearly the Dorian Harmony. Thus, curiously Raga names and their meanings. The following are named from places or provinces,- The rest of the ragas bear fanciful names. Ahiri Todi We examined two binas made by a celebrated Satar- enough, the frets of the modern Hindustani form of bina is the Todi of the cottage, and Todi itself means piercing, maker and found that the frets gave the following scales :- give us the two oldest Greek scales. Devgiri ( the sacred mountain ), Gandhari ( in Dev I. Sa and pa with the tivra notes. As most of our readers know, the binkar is not restrict- Gandhari Todi ), Gurjari (Gujarat, in Gurjari Todi ), penetrating; Asavari is the morning raga ( Saveri to be more correct ); of the Sri ragas, Bagesri should be Vaga- ed to the notes given by his frets. By pressing a little Jivanpuri (noted for its attar factory), Kanada or Telanga* sri, the raga of speech, Malsri and Dhanasri ( dhanya ) harder on the wire he can turn ga t, dha +, ni a respectively ( the Karnatic), Khamaj ( Khamach, or the country near are both connected with worldly goods, and Jetasri is into ga b, dha t, ni b. He can also obtain ri + from the sa Cambay ), Lankasri ( Ceylon ; Sri is a termination com- triumphant. Bahar means blossoming and Basant, or more We give the same scale taken from pa ( pa jati ) and fret by mind, that is to say by pulling the wire out to one mon to ragas which are varieties of the raga Sri ), Mal- correctly Vasant, is the spring. Mangal in Mangal Bhairava then transpose this pa jati to sa. side and at the same time pressing it down on the ret. gunj, Multani, Gaud ( in Gaud Sarang ), Sindhada ( i. e. We conclude that the above tuning method was adopted. belonging to Sindh ), and Sorat, which is a corruption of means auspicious; Shivamat Bhairava is named from one (a) pa jati from pa (b) pa jati from sa - of the Mathas or schools of music. Bhup and Hamir both as the most convenient for a performer who wished to in- Saurashtriya, belonging to Surashtra the good country. mean a King. Bibhans ( correctly, vibhas ) is a view, terpret with comparative facility a wide range of scales Other names are connected with deities such as,- Bihag a bird, Sarang a stag, Sohoni an associate, Paraj We thus discover that the tivra notes give a mode of and types of melody. Bhairava and its ragini Bhairavi, derived from one Par- a parasite. Vrindavani Sarang is the Sarang dedicated to the Aeolian Harmony. of the names of Mahadev or Shiva, Durga the tulsi pedestal; Madhumad Sarang is intoxicating. We do not think the bina is altogether a suitable in- vati, literally, hard of access ), Gauri ( Parvati, literally, Chhayanat is made up to resemble the shadow of the raga II. Sa and pa with the komal notes. strument for use in an elementary class-room. A harmo- of the Gaud country ), Kedar ( Shiva, literally, the door of nium properly tuned will give simple scales more distinctly the head ), Malhar ( a corruption of Mallari, Krishna, Nat. Desh and Deshkar both mean local, and Dhani and

and with absolute accuracy. slayer of the giant Malla ), Rama Sakh ( i. e. Rama Sakha Puriya belonging to the town. Lachari is a poor woman, or Sakharam, friend of Rama ), Laccha Sakh ( i. e. Laxman a lady in distress ; Kafi, Sanskrit Kapi, means hale and Sakha, friend of Laxman ), Shankara ( an abbreviation of hearty. Bilawal is a corruption of Velavali, a succession of

Shankarabharan, Mahadev's ornament), Sriraga ( named waves. Kukubh is a point of the compass. Hindol is a

after Sri or Laxmi ). swing, Malkaus a storehouse ( mal-kosh ), Megh a cloud,

Bhimpalas, the meaning of which is not easy to deter- Jogi ( or Yogi ) an ascetic, Kalyan a blessing, while

mine§, and Alaiyya are proper names. Ragas beginning Jhinjoti is a mixture. Jaijaivanti is victorious, Lalit prancing, Marva fragrant, Pilu microscopic. Kamod means with Miyaka or Miyacha ( in Marathi ) are named after the pleasure of the common herd; when qualified by Tilak the great singer Tansen. It is said that by command of Akbar, who preferred the raga Kanada to all others, Tan- ( derived from the sect mark on the forehead ) it is some- sen used to introduce the qualities and phrases of that raga thing more refined. Tilang means anointed. Yaman is one into ragas of different families. Ragas so treated came to be who curbs or restrains. Mandrik Kanada is the low pitched called Miyaki, Miya being the title given to the Court musician, Kanada. Sarfarda seems to be a contraction of svara * One of the Tilang sarigamas may possibly be meant padada the latter word meaning the fret of a stringed for Telanga raga and not Tilang. instrument. Purvi is the prefatory raga. § It may mean the terrible Magadha country.