1. Classical Indian Dance In Literature and the Arts Kapila Vatsyayan

Barcode

: 9999990344133

Title - Classical Indian Dance In Literature And The Arts Ed. 2nd

Language - english

Author - Vatsyayan, Kapila

Pages - 498

Publication Year - 1977

Barcode EAN.UCC-13

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

KAPILA VATSYAYAN

SANGEET NATAK AKADEMI

RABINDRA BHAVAN FEROZESHAH ROAD NEW DELHI

First Published in 1968

Second Edition Published in 1977

Published by the Sangeet Natak Akademi, New Delhi and Printed by S.N. Guha Ray

at Sree Saraswaty Press Ltd., 32, Acharya Prafulla Chandra Road, Calcutta-700 009

TO MY GURUS

WITH PROFOUND GRATITUDE

CONTENTS

Page

FOREWORD

xix-xx

PREFACE

xxi-xxiv

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION

xxv-xxviii

INTRODUCTION

1-3

CHAPTER I—INDIAN AESTHETICS

5-22

Spiritual and philosophical background of Indian art: theory

of Rasa, 5-7; commentators, 7-8; Rasa as a theory of technique:

Bharata and dramaturgy, 8-10; Rasa theory in relation to music,

10-11; in relation to architecture and sculpture, 12-16; in relation to

painting, 16-17; in relation to dance, 17-19; the inter-relationship

of the arts, 19-21.

CHAPTER II—THEORY AND TECHNIQUE OF CLASSICAL

INDIAN DANCE

23-141

General considerations, 23-25; technique, 25-31;

nrtya or abhinaya, 31-32; theoretical treatises, 32-39; analysis of aṅgas and

upāṅgas:dr̥ṣṭis, 40-43; tārā and bhrū, 39-44; mukhaja abhinaya, 45-60

vakṣa, pārśva, jānu, 54-67; pāda, 67-68; hasta, 69-72; comparative

tables of asamyuta, samyuta and nrtta hasta, 74-88; sthāna, 72-89;

comparative table, 90-91; urits of movement (cāri), 92-97;

karaṇa: detailed analysis and comparison with Cidambaram

sculptures, 98-136.

CHAPTER III—LITERATURE AND DANCING

142-261

General considerations, 142-143;, relationship of dance and

literature, 143-147; dance representation in literature: Ṛgveda, 148-

152; Sāmaveda, 153; Yajurveda, 153-156; Athrvaveda, 157;

Brāhmaṇas, 158; Upaniṣads, 158-160; Grhyasūtrās, 160; Rāmā-

yaṇa, 161-169; Mahābhārata, 169-171; Harivaṁśa Purāṇa, 171-174;

vii

Viṣṇu Purāṇa, 174-175; Śrīmad Bhāgavata Purāṇa, 175-176; codes, commentaries, lexicons: Pāṇini, 176-178; Kautilya, 178-179

Vātsyāyana, 179-180; Śukranītisāra, 180-181; Prabandakośa, 181-182; Amarakośa, 182; Buddhist texts, 182-185; Jaina texts, 186-190;

Kāvya literature, 190-192; Buddhacaritam, 192-194; Raghuvaṃśa, 194-195; Kumārasambhava, 195; Meghadūta and Ṛtusamhāra, 195-199; Kirātārjuniyam, 199-200; Daśakumāracaritam, 200-201;

Harṣacarita, 201-205; Kādambarī, 205-207; Nāṭya literature, 207-208; Bālacaritam Mṛcchakatikam, 208-213; Mālavikāgnimitra, 213-217; Vikramorvaśīya, 217-219; Śākuntala, 220-230; Aṅgikābhinaya

and kakṣā-vibhāga (zonal treatment of stage) in Kālidāsa, 230-236; Ratnāvalī and Priyadarśikā, 237-240; Mālatīmādhava and Uttararāmacarita, 241-244; Veṇīsamhāra, 244-246; Karpūramanjarī, 246-252.

CHAPTER IV—SCULPTURE AND DANCING

262-332

General considerations: māna, sūtra and bhaṅga, 262-270 Mohenjo-dāro and Harappā, 270-271; Śālabhañjikā: Didārganj, Yaksī, 272; Bharhut, 272; Sāñci, 272-273; Bodh Gaya, 274 Mathura, 274-275; Amarāvatī, 275-276; Śālabhañjikā and Yaksī figures: Gudampur, Elurā, Paharpur, Khajurāhō, Bhuvaneśvar, Belur and Hālebīd, Dilwara, Rajasthan and Central India, 276-284;

flying figures, 284-290; dance scenes in sculpture: Khandagiri-Udayagiri, 290-291; Bharhut, 291-294; Sāñci, 294-296; Amarāvatī: Nāgārjunikonda, 296-302; Gandhāra, 302-303; Gupta Art: Gwalior and Deogarh, 303-305; Sarnath, 305-306; Aurangabad and Ajanta, 306-307; Khajurāhō, 308-309; Bhuvaneśvara, 310-311; Mount Abu, 311-312; Rajasthan, 312-313; Kerala, 314; Srisailam: Hampi, 315-316; Cidambaram, 316-319; Ṇṛttamūrtis, 321-328.

CHAPTER V—MUSIC AND DANCING

333-349

General considerations, 333-336; musical accompaniment in Bharatanāṭyam, 336-341; musical accompaniment in Kathakali, 341-344; musical accompaniment in Manipuri, Kathak, Orissi, etc. 344.

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

350-358

INDEX

359-376

viii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure 1 Harappā: Statuette 3000-2000 B.C.

Figure 2 Mohenjo-dāro: Figurine 2500-1500 B.C.

Figure 3 Bharhut: Culakoka devatā 2nd Century B.C.

Figure 4 Bharhut: Sudarśanā Yakṣī 2nd Century B.C.

Figure 5 Sāñcī: Yakṣī, North Gate 1st Century A.D.

Figure 6 Sāñcī: Yakṣī, East Gate 1st Century A.D.

Figure 7 Bodh Gayā: Girl climbing a Tree 1st Century B.C.

Figure 8 Pompeii: Statuette of Girl 1st Century B.C.

Figures 9-12 Mathurā: Railing Figures 2nd and 3rd Centuries A.D.

Figure 13 Amarāvatī: Woman under Tree 2nd and 3rd Centuries A.D.

Figure 14 Manipurī: Female Torso 5th Century A.D.

Figure 15 Elurā, Vakataka: Female Figures, Rāmeśvara Cave 6th Century A.D.

Figure 16 Māmallapuram: Yakṣī 6th Century A.D.

Figures 17-20 Khajurāho: Wall and Bracket Figures from Lakṣmaṇa, Kandariya Mahādeva and Viśvanātha temples 11th Century A.D.

Figure 21 Champa-Tra-Kieu Detail of Pedestal 8th Century A.D.

Figures 22-29 Bhuvaneśvara: Wall figures from Rājā Rānī, Liṅgarāja and Mukteśvara temples 11th Century A.D.

Figures 30-34 Belur and Halebid: Bracket Figures from Cinnakeśava, and Hoyaḷevaśvara temples 12th and 13th Centuries A.D.

Figures 35-36 Palampet: Bracket Figure 13th Century A.D.

Figure 37 Sirohi Mirpur: Wall Figure 13th Century A.D.

Figure 38 Ranakpur: Wall Figure Neminātha temple 14th-15th Century A.D.

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CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

Figure 39 Abu: Bracket Figure, Ādinātha Temple 13th Century A.D.

Flying Figures

Figure 40 Udayagiri: Vidyādhara, Rānī Gumphā 2nd Century B.C.

Figure 41 Gwalior: Flying Gandharva 5th-6th Century A.D.

Figure 42 Deogarh: Scene from the Rāmāyana 5th Century A.D.

Figure 43 Central India: Vidyādhara 5th Century A.D.

Figure 44 Aihole: Flying Gandharva, Duṛga temple 6th Century A.D.

Figure 45 Elurā: Flying Figure, Kailāsa temple 7th Century A.D.

Figure 46 Paṭṭāḍakal: Vidyādhara Virūpākṣa temple 8th Century A.D.

Figure 47 Nālandā: Niche Figure 6th Century A.D.

Figure 48 Sārnāth: Flying Figure 6th Century A.D.

Figure 49 Rajim: Yakaṣ, Rājīvalocana temple 8th Century A.D.

Figures 50-55 Khajurāho: Vidyādhara and Gandharva, Dulahdeo temple 11th Century A.D.

Dance Scenes

Figure 56 Khandagiri-Udayagiri: Frieze of Dancers, Rānī Gumphā 2nd-1st Century B.C.

Figure 57 Bharhut: Panel from Ajātaśatru Pillar 2nd-1st Century B.C.

Figure 58 Bharhut: Panel, South Gate, Prasenajit Pillar 2nd-1st Century B.C.

Figure 59 Mathurā: Dancers and Musicians at Nema's feet 1st Century A.D.

Figure 60 'Sāñcī: Dance Scene, Pillar South Gate 1st Century A.D.

Figure 61 Sāñcī: Dance Scene, West Gate 1st Century A.D.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure 62 Sāñcī: Mallas of Kuśinagara, North Gate 1st Century A.D.

Figure 63 Amarāvatī: Rail Cross-Bar depicting the Mandadhātu Jātaka 2nd Century A.D.

Figure 64 Amarāvatī: Dance Scene, Rail-ing Pillar, Nāga Campaka Jātaka 2nd Century A.D.

Figure 65 Amarāvatī: Medallion, Adoration of the Buddha's Bowl 2nd Century A.D.

Figure 66 Amarāvatī: Internal Face on Intermediate Rails outer face 2nd Century A.D.

Figure 67 Amarāvatī: Medallion–Internal Face of Frieze of outer enclosure 2nd Century A.D.

Figure 68 Amarāvatī—Panel 2nd Century A.D.

Figure 69 Gāndhāra: Dance Scene 3rd-4th Century A.D.

Figure 70 Gāndhāra: Dance Scene 3rd-5th Century A.D.

Figure 71 Pawaiya, Gwalior: Dance Scene 5th Century A.D.

Figure 72 Deogarh: Dance Panel 5th Century A.D.

Figure 73 Deogarh: Dance Panel 5th Century A.D.

Figure 74 Sarnāth: Dance Scene on lintel 5th Century A.D.

Figure 75 Auraṇgābād: Cave VII, Tārā Dancing 7th Century A.D.

Figure 76 Ajantā: Dancer and Musicians 7th Century A.D.

Figures 77-82 Khajurāho: Dance Scenes from Lakṣmaṇa, Kandariya Mahā-deva, Viśvanātha and Jagadambi temples 10th-11th Century A.D.

Figure 83 Bhuvaneśvara: Dance Panel, Par-asurāmeśvara temple 8th Century A.D.

Figure 84 Bhuvaneśvara: Dance Panel, Par-asurāmeśvara temple 9th-10th Century A.D.

Figure 85 Bhuvaneśvara: Reclining Figure, Kapileśvara temple 11th Century A.D.

Figure 86 Bhuvaneśvara: Dancer 11th Century A.D.

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CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

Figure 87 Bhuvaneśvara: Ceiling Panel, Mukteśvara temple 10th Century A.D.

Figure 88 Abu: Dancing Deities, Tejpāl temple, Dilwara 12th-13th Century A.D.

Figure 89 Abu: Dancers with Female Deity, Tejpāl temple, Dilwara 12th Century A.D.

Figure 90 Jodhpur: Frieze of Dancers 10th Century A.D.

Figure 91 Śikar: Musicians and Dancers, Harṣagiri, Purānā Mahādeva temple 10th Century A.D.

Figure 92 Survāya: Ceiling Panel, Viṣṇu Temple 11th-12th Century A.D.

Figure 93 Cālukyan: Śiva and Pārvatī on Nandi with attendants 10th Century A.D.

Figure 94 Survāya: Dance Panel 11th-12th Century A.D.

Figure 95 Markaṇḍa: Dancer 12th-13th Century A.D.

Figure 96 Markaṇḍa: Drummer 12th-13th Century A.D.

Figure 97 Gwalior: Pillar Reliefs, Sasbahu temple 11th Century A.D.

Figure 98 Kerala: Dancer with accompanists, Trivikramaṅgala temple 12th Century A.D.

Figure 99 Kerala: Kudakuttu Dance, Kidangur Temple 11th Century A.D.

Figure 100 Pālampet: Frieze, Musicians and Dancers, Ramappa Temple 13th Century A.D.

Figure 101 Pālampet: Dancer with accompanists, Ramappa temple 13th Century A.D.

Figure 102 Sriśailam: Dancer with accompanists, Śiva temple 13th-14th Century A.D.

Figure 103 Sriśailam: Dance Panel, Śiva temple 13th-14th Century A.D.

Figure 104 Sriśailam: Staff dance, Śiva temple 13th-14th Century A.D.

Figure 105 Hampi: Frieze, Dancers, Throne platform, Hazararam temple 16th Century A.D.

xii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure 106 Vijanagaram: Frieze, Dancers 16th Century A.D.

Cidambaram

Figures 107-121 Dance Reliefs from Amman Walls, Devī temple 14th Century A.D.

Figures 122-124 Karaṇa from East Gopuram, Naṭaraja temple 14th Century A.D.

Nrttamurtis

Figure 125 Bhuvaneśvara: Gaṇeśa Mukteś- vara temple 10th Century A.D.

Figure 126 Halebid: Gaṇeśa Hoyasaleś- vara temple 12th-13th Century A.D.

Figures 127-128 Halebid: Garuḍa with Lakṣmi- Nārāyaṇa 12th-13th Century A.D.

Figure 129 Belur: Sarasvatī, Cinnakeśava temple 12th-13th Century A.D.

Figure 130 Halebid: Sarasvatī, Hoyasaleś- vara temple 12th-13th Century A.D.

Figure 131 Somanathpur: Veṇugopāla 12th-13th Century A.D.

Figure 132 Cola: Bālagopāla 12th Century A.D.

Figure 133 Elurā, Vakataka: Śiva, Cave No. XXII 6th Century A.D.

Figure 134 Elurā, Vakataka: Śiva, Cave No. XV 6th Century A.D.

Figure 135 Gurjar Pratīhāra: Śiva dancing 9th Century A.D.

Figure 136 Alāmapur: Śiva, Western Chālukyan 8th Century A.D.

Figure 137 Aihole Rāvaṇa Phadi: Western Chālukyān Śiva, 7th Century A.D.

Figure 138 Puspagiri: Śiva dancing on Asura 14th Century A.D.

Figure 139 Cola: Śiva dancing 10th Century A.D.

Figure 140 Bhuvaneśvara Eastern Gaṅga: Śiva dancing, Siśireśvara temple 8th Century A.D.

XIII

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

Figure 141 Raichur: Śiva dancing 12th Century A.D.

Figure 142 Halebīd: Śiva dancing, Cinna-keśava temple 12th-13th Century A.D.

Figure 143 Belur: Śiva dancing, Hoyasaleś-vara temple 12th-13th Century A.D.

Figure 144 Paṭṭāḍakal Virūpākṣa: Śiva dan-cing 8th Century A.D.

Figure 145 Pālampet: Śiva dancing, Rama-ppa temple 12th Century A.D.

Figure 146 Cola: Naṭarāja—Bronze 14th Century A.D.

Figure 147 Cola: Naṭarāja—Bronze 11th Century A.D.

Figure 148 Central India: Śiva as Bhairava 11th Century A.D.

Figure 149 Elurā: Śiva as Bhairava, Cave No. XXIX Dhumar Lena 7th Century A.D.

Figure 150 Kumbhakonam: Śiva dancing, Sārangapāṇi temple 14th Century A.D.

Figure 151 Nepal: Viṣṇu, Vikrāntamūrti 7th Century A.D.

Figure 152 Kāñcipuram: Śiva, Kailāsanātha temple 7th Century A.D.

Figure 153 Kāñcipuram: Śiva as Bhairava 12th Century A.D.

Figure 154 Central India: Śiva as Bhairava 12th Century A.D.

Figure 155 Tanjore: Gajasam̉hāramurti 11th-12th Century A.D.

XIV

ABBREVIATIONS

AD

Abhinaya Darpana

ASIR

Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report

ASR

Archaeological Survey Reports

AV

Atharva Veda

NŚII

Gaekwad Oriental Series Second Edition Nāṭyaśāstra

BR

Bālarāmabharatam (Trivandrum Oriental Series)

HLD

Hastalakṣaṇam Dīpikā

HM

Hasta Muktāvalī

JISOA

Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art

MG

Mirror of Gesture (by Coomaraswami and Duggirala)

NŚS

Nāṭyaśāstra Sangraha (Madras Oriental Series)

NŚ

Nāṭyaśāstra

RV

Rg Veda

SBR

Śathpatha Brāhmaṇa

SR

Sangītaratnākara

TL

Tāṇḍavalakṣaṇam

VD

Viṣnudharmottara Purāṇa

YV

Yajur Veda

Fig.

Figure

xv

SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION

Vowels

अ (a) आ (ā) इ (i) ई (ī) उ (u)

ऊ (ū) ऋ (r) ऌ (l̥) ए (e) ऐ (ai)

ओ (o) औ (au)

Consonants

क (k) ख (kh) ग (g) घ (gh) ङ (ṅ)

च (c) छ (ch) ज (j) झ (jh) ञ (ñ)

ट (ṭ) ठ (ṭh) ड (ḍ) ढ (ḍh) ण (ṇ)

त (t) थ (th) द (d) ध (dh) न (n)

प (p) फ (ph) ब (b) भ (bh) म (m)

य (y) र (r) ल (l) व (v)

ष (ṣ) श (ś) स (s) ह (h)

Anusvara (ṁ)

Visarga (ḥ)

xvi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Archaeological Survey of India, Figures 3, 5, 6, 16, 22, 23, 27 to 39, 41,

42, 45 to 47, 58, 60 to 62, 65, 68, 75, 76, 81, 83, 84,, 87 to 89, 91, 92, 94 to 131,

133, 134, 136, 137, 138, 142 to 145, 150, 151, 154, and 155; Baltimore

Museum of Art, Maryland, U.S.A., Figure 70; British Museum, London, U.K.

Figures 63, 64 and 66; Brundage Collection, San Francisco, U.S.A., Figure 148;

Fergusson's Tree and Serpent Worship, Figure 67; Indian Museum, Calcutta,

Figures 4 and 57; Jodhpur Museum, Figure 90; Lucknow Museum, Figures 14

and 59; Madras Museum, Figure 13; National Museum, New Delhi, Figures

1, 2, 9, 10, 11, 44, 72, 73, 139, and 147; Patna Museum, Figure 7; Publications

Division, Government of India, Figures 24 to 26; Sarnath Museum, Figures

48 and 74; William Rockhill Nelson Gallery of Art, Kansas, U.S.A., Cover

photograph, Figures 93, 132 and 146; Shri Vatsyayan, S.H.: Figures 15, 17, 18,

19, 20, 40, 50, 51 to 55, 77 to 79; 82, 85, 86, 140, 141, 149, 152, 153. Musee

Guimet, Paris, Figure 69; Archaeological Museum, Gwalior, Figures 71 and 135;

Museum of Fine Art, Boston, U.S.A., Figure 43.

I should also like to acknowledge with gratitude the willing and unhesi-

tating assistance of Smt. Uma Anand and Sri Shungloo for the pains they have

taken in going through the proofs and seeing the second edition through the press.

xvii

FOREWORD

With India's attainment of independence and of her rightful place in the brotherhood of nations, the world has begun to look at India with new eyes. One consequence of this sudden upsurge of interest has been a glut of books dealing with various aspec s of Indian culture—music, dance, costume, jewellery, art-crafts etc.—generally hastily written and often full of errors and even misinformation.

In this climate of confusion Dr. Kapila Vatsyayan's book on CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS comes as a breath of fresh air, clear, incisive and invigorating. The product of years of diligent study of dance texts, careful research and exploration, patient analysis and long practice with the most revered teachers of the art, supported by a single-minded devotion to the cause of an art-form that had suffered a near-total eclipse at the beginning of the century, the book may be said to represent a singularly happy merging of two traditions of learning—even of two cultures as it were: only in this case both humanist. For Dr. Vatsyayan has not only utilised the repositories of tradition or the able guidance of an erudite scholar like the late Dr. Vasudeva Saran Agarwala (under whose direction she worked for her doctorate in Fine Art at the College of Indology, Banaras Hindu University); she has also brought to bear an analytical approach to the ancestry of dance movement—so integral a part of the evolution of modern dance abroad.

No student of Indian cultural history can fail to notice one special feature of the Indian situation: it was usual for the Indian author, poet, artist, musician or dancer to dedicate his or her creation to a divinity or to a ṛṣi (sage), thus concealing the artist's own identity. The author of the Nāṭyaśāstra was no exception. It is impossible to identify or date him precisely; it continues to be a plausible theory that the text was compiled much later by a disciple in the tradition, to be preserved in the form in which we know it today. The treatise conforms to the tradition in another important aspect; like all other texts it quotes earlier authority. As, however, none of the material thus referred to is available, the Nāṭyaśāstra stands unique in its solitary splendour. While this isolation might have been the result of a natural tendency (particularly when tradition was preserved orally and the strain of memory was consequently always great) to consign older treatises to oblivion in favour of a newer and more comprehensive compendium of the tradition, it undoubtedly enhanced the importance and authority of the Nāṭyaśāstra for successive generations.

Though the Nāṭyaśāstra continues to have its importance for all scholars of the dance and the theatre arts generally, it was inevitable that regional styles should

XIX

develop and that the commentaries should adapt themselves to accommodate and even provide justification for these variations. Some of these commentaries, such as Abhinavagupta's for example, have in course of time themselves attained the status of a source-book of tradition. Thus, frequently, the dance teacher and the serious dancer–while conscientiously following the tradition or a source-book of authority–have in fact been called upon to exercise a meticulous selective judgment: the greatest have met this challenge with conspicuous success, thus enriching the tradition while following it.

Any attempt at reconstructing a history of the classical dance in India, therefore, would rely not only on dance texts and commentaries, down from Bharata's Nātyaśāstra but of necessity delve deep into what was preserved in the practising tradition of preceptors as well as dancers. Furthermore, to correlate material from these two parallel sources into a meaningful pattern, the historian would have to study classical literature for its numerous references to dance and dance practice as well as to its vividly expressive and illuminating use of dance metaphor. Finally, continuous cross reference to sculptural material would be called for not only to establish regional patterns but also to indicate chronological sequences. In other words, a historical study of the art of dance in India would call for a complex inquiry involving several disciplines; it would also call for skills not generally considered necessary equipment for scholarship. It is singularly fortunate that Dr. Kapila Vatsyayan combines these skills with the scholar's rigorous training and the artist's sensitivity and insight. The result is this book: a masterly presentation of the aesthetic as well as the historical aspects of classical Indian dance, rendered with rare authority and fine judgment. That the analysis of certain sculptures in terms of dance movement provides new light for the understanding of classical sculpture also (e.g. the śālabhañjikās and flying figures) is matter for further commendation: it is obvious that this gain is not merely incidental but one of the aims pursued and ably fulfilled by the scholar.

I commend this well-documented and superbly illustrated work without reservation to all scholars and lovers of Indian dance.

RAI KRISHNADASA Honorary Director Bharat Kala Bhavan, Banaras

xx

PREFACE

The present study is the result of some fifteen or more years of labour in a

field which has, perhaps because of its very nature, received inadequate attention

in the past. As a practical student of classical Indian dance forms I had found it

necessary to examine and understand the theoretical bases on which the tradition

of the dance and the traditional techniques had been built. The gurus and masters,

hereditary repositories of what were unquestionably the authentic traditions and

techniques of Indian dancing, could only provide inadequate or unsatisfactory

answers to many of the theoretical questions that arose in my mind. This impelled

me to conduct my own research into the original texts. The relationship of the

arts, I thus observed, and the insights I gained encouraged me to pursue the detailed

study of the field which forms the subject of the present work. I consider it my

good fortune that I should have been led to the subject by what may appear an

indirect route, because without this practical background I would have found it

far more difficult to reach the bridge from the theoretical tenets to the vast and

varied field of their application to dance practice. It is the discovery of such bridges

and the clear demarcation of routes across them that has been my chief purpose in

the present study. I may be permitted to express the belief, in all humility, that the

purpose has been achieved. I trust that the lines of study indicated here will be exten-

ded to other fields which are, as I have attempted to demonstrate, inseparably rela-

ted.

The size and nature of the field was formidable and I had naturally to restrict

myself to what could be spanned by a unified study. Geographically its scope

extended from Manipur to Gujarat and from Mohen-jo-dāro through Khajuraho

to Kerala. It was not only the archaeological sites scattered over this vast area

or the objects recovered from them that had to be surveyed. The different local

traditions of the schools of classical dancing preserved in isolated pockets through-

out the country had also to be studied; and patient solutions found to intricate

problems through personal contact with ageing gurus who represented the precious

oral tradition of classical Indian dancing and who alone could provide the insight

which would illuminate a study of so complex a field.

While the rasa theory is common to all Indian arts, a parallel study of the

different art forms in relation to this theory has not been undertaken before. Indeed,

it may justifiably be said that western scholars and art critics have generally devoted

greater attention to the continuous study of the theoretical foundations of artistic

practice than has been the case in India. Of course, to a large extent, this has resulted

from the very nature of western and Indian artistic theories. In the west, the theoreti-

cian as well as the practising artist in every field of art including literature has

xxi

been actively concerned with "significant form" and has therefore generally studied

several arts together or in relation to one another. In India, however, because of the

emphasis placed by the rasa theory on the evocation of a mood or the attainment of a

'state of being', both the artist and the theoretician have tended to be concerned

primarily with technique. This concern with technique has tended inevitably to

isolate one art from another because techniques are specific and exclusive.

While the present study has, I believe, provided the groundwork for a complete

historical study of classical Indian dancing and the evaluation of its different forms,

the limits within which I have worked must here be clearly stated. I have dealt, in

some degree of detail, with literary and sculptural material upto the medieval

period. It would be logically consistent to continue this study into the beginning of

the modern period, and it is my hope and wish that such a study will be undertaken

in the near future. But it is obvious that this would require the collaboration not

only of a large number of individual workers but also of regional institutions. Since

from the medieval period onwards the unity provided by the Sanskrit texts is no

longer sustained, the study would have to be extended to material in a number of

regional languages. Apart from the difficulty of access to such language material

and the problems of transliteration, translation and interpretation which might well

prove too large for the capacities of any single individual, it is even possible that

the diversity of the material might only blur the outline of the continuity provided by

the Sanskrit tradition.

It has been a part of my good fortune, referred to earlier, that in the course

of practical training in the different dance disciplines, I have been able to establish

contacts with and receive valuable guidance from a number of gurus of dancing

and ustāds or heads of gharānās of music, and I have naturally profited by the

material thus made available. But obviously, a history of the theoretical foundations

of Indian dancing cannot rely on such fortuitous circumstances.

Most of my literary and sculptural source material is known. My purpose

was not so much to bring new material to light as to organise and correlate the

existing material in a pattern of significance for the historical study of the classical

Indian dance. In the field of sculpture particularly it was considered desirable to

refer primarily to known examples in order to facilitate the main argument. An

endeavour has been made to analyse sculptural representations of dance scenes in

terms of dance poses and dance movement and thus to establish the close relation-

ship of the two art forms.

The use of literary material has been more or less analogous. Though I have

considered a number of unpublished manuscripts relating to dance in Indian

libraries and abroad, I have based my argument in the main on published works. I

would have liked to include in my examination some recently published manuscripts,

specially Jayasenāpati's Nrtta Ratnāvali and the Sangitarāja and some other works

published in Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Assam. It was not possible to do so

xxii

because the press copy had already been handed over and the Press was unable to

cope with additions during the years that the book awaited publication.

In the field of music greater emphasis has been laid on practice than on literary

and other evidence; this was considered necessary to bring out the complete inter-

dependence of music and dancing. A detailed analysis of texts of Music was

deliberately left out, on account of the obvious reason, that much valuable work

has already been done on both textual and critical interpretation.

It is hoped that this analytical study will give the reader a clear picture of the

inter-relationship of the Indian art forms and of their common theoretical basis,

and help him to recognise the true character of the Indian dance as the highest

artistic integration of the forms and ideals of literary as well as audio-visual arts.

Work of this nature cannot be undertaken without help and guidance from

many people and I unhesitatingly acknowledge my indebtedness.

Amongst the gurus from whom came my first insights into the great integrating

power of the dance, I remember the late Minakshisundaram Pillai and Bharatham

Narayanaswami Bhagavatar. To late Guru Amobi Singh and Achchan Maharaj, my revered teachers of Manipuri and Kathak dance res-

pectively, I owe my awareness of the vast body of tradition embodied in Indian

dance styles, and the intricacy of thought to which they give visual form. To Sri-

mati S. V. Lalitha and Srī Debendra Shankar, I am grateful for the experience of

Bharatanatyam and Uday Shankai styles. My training in the principles of move-

ment analysis and dance notation with Dr. Juana de Laban, daughter of Dr.

Rudolf von Laban, was not only a stimulating experience but a very fruitful one in

my subsequent studies.

Scholars in the field of Indian studies have guided me in the search for solutions

to many problems that arise in correlating the academic with the oral traditions of

the arts of music and the dance. I recall with gratitude some enlightening discussions

on the content of the dance for which Mahāmahopādhyāya Paṇḍit Gopīnātha

Kavirāja kindly gave me the time. I acknowledge also Dr. V. Raghavan's willing

help and guidance in addition to the benefit derived from his own studies in the field.

Above all I am profoundly indebted to the late Dr. Vasudeva Saran Agarwala, who

as my research supervisor for a doctoral thesis I presented on the subject some of

the material of which forms the basis of the present work, was not only a meti-

culous and exacting critic but also an inspiring guide.

To Shri S. H. Vatsyayan I am indebted in many ways and on many planes. The

first insights into the relationship of word and movement came through many

fruitful discussions. Later, his logical incisive criticism and his unquestioned help

snd support in all aspects of the work were both a source of encouragement and a

challenge.

The Directors of several Museums, and in particular Rai Krishnadasa (Bharat Kala Bhavan, Banaras), and Dr. Moti Chandra (Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay) have given me many valuable suggestions. Association with them and their work has also helped me to pursue many lines of thought to definitive ends.

Dr. A. Ghosh, Director-General of Archaeology (now retired) and officers of his department have been most helpful in providing photographs and other illustrative material. Other sources of photographs have been separately acknowledged.

Dr. Nihar Ranjan Ray and Dr. Vidya Nivas Misra read the manuscript and made many helpful suggestions for which I am grateful.

I thank also the officers of the Sangeet Natak Akademi for their patience in seeing the book through the Press. I am particularly sensible of the compliment implicit in the Akademi's acceptance of the present work as the first in their programme of research publications.

New Delhi,

December 1968.

Kapila Vatsyayan

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION

The need for a second edition of a research publication, which by its very nature was heavy reading requiring patience has been a matter of some gratification and fulfilment.

It would be natural for the readers to expect a second edition, to also be a revised edition with enlargements, and modifications. The author too would have liked to meet these expectations had it not been for the fact that a truly revised edition would tantamount to the writing of three other books. A mere updating of the material would do the subject no justice.

The state of scholarship in the field twenty years ago was rudimentary and materials though known had not attracted the attention of scholars. Over these years, an increasing number of scholars both Indian and foreign have been engaged in serious, systematic research of the traditional performing arts of India. This has resulted in a sizeable body of primary and secondary textual source material coming to light. Also recent archaeological excavations, particularly those conducted in Nagarjunakonda, and Sonkh, Mathura, have laid bare examples of early Indian sculptures which are exceedingly important from the point of view of a study of movement. Besides these, there has been further work on medieval monuments, particularly those of Udayesvara temple in Madhya Pradesh and Konarak in Orissa. A consideration of all this material would have meant a rewriting of the present text, so as to incorporate the findings in the existing framework: it would also demand the extension of the time limitation the original work had set upon itself to a much later period. This would be particularly true of the great wealth of the traditions of mural and miniature paintings which have aroused enthusiastic interest of scholars and art-historians in the two last decades.

The preface to the first edition mentions the Nrttaratnāvalī and the Sangītarāja and some other works which could not be considered. It would have been logical to include analysis of these texts in the second edition. A perusal of these and many others which have since been published convinced the author that a fuller analysis of the material contained in these texts demanded a separate supplementary volume and not an enlargement of the present one. Important amongst these is the Bhoja's Śṛṅgāraprakāśa, Ashokamalla's Nrityādhyāya, Vācanācārya's Sangītopaṇiṣat Sāroddhara, Śubhankara's Hastamuktāvali, Mahāpātra's Abhinaya Chandrika, the disputed text of Govinda lībā vilās from Manipur, Aṭṭaprakaram and Kramadīpikā from Kerala, and many others. Many of these belong to the medieval period and open up a new field of exploration of the deśī traditions which constitute a parallel and complimentary stream to the margi or all that has been considered here. After careful consideration of the material the author came to the conclusion that it would be more profitable to follow the present study with a supplementary volume supported by charts and glossary rather than to revise the present text which seeks to present an unified picture of one stream, over a limited period.

XXV

What is true of the textual material, also holds good for the literary works. Here also a larger body of Sanskrit literature is now available and one can no longer restrict consideration of Sanskrit writing to the 13th century. Dramatic writing continued until 17th century and in some cases later. A comprehensive account of all this would also demand an independent volume and not a revision. Also, current was the evolution of Indian languages, and the developments in theatre, music and dance reflected in these works. The author has attempted to survey these literatures in these years and the results of these in relation to the development of dance and dance drama, dependent primarily on the literatures of these languages have been incorporated in a volume on traditional Dance-drama forms under publication by the National Book Trust. The study takes into account this later Sanskrit drama and the growth of Indian literatures: in this respect it should be considered a supplementary volume which attempts to establish the multiple continuities.

As, has been mentioned above, new evidence of dance and movement in Indian sculpture has come to light. Besides, there has been a substantial increase in a detailed analysis of other monuments of the medieval period. Consideration of this material would demand the enlargement of the present chapter on Sculpture and Dancing manifold. Of particular relevance to the present study would be the study of the sculptural reliefs of the Śāraṅgapāni and Nāgeśvara temple in Kumbhakonam and some others which have cleaned up in Śrīraṅgam and Jagannāth, Puri. Apart from the Indian material, a natural extension would be to take into account the prolific depiction of the movement of the dance in monuments of Asia ranging from Afghanistan to Indonesia and Cambodia. All this could not be contained in the present volume, because it would need the addition of at least another four hundred plates. Thus instead of presenting a few scattered examples the author has already begun working on a comprehensive monograph on Karaṇas which it is hoped will be published by the Department of Archaeology, Tamilnadu. Repeated visits to the three sites of Bṛhadeśvara, Chidambaram and Śāraṅgapāni have convinced the author for the need for a complete reevaluation of the subject, notwithstanding the valuable work of Srī C. Sivaramamurti in his Naṭarāja in Indian Art, Thought and Literature and the unpublished work of the late Sri T. N. Ramachandran.

Separately, papers have been presented in two succeeding International Congresses of Orientalists in Ann Arbor and Paris on the sculpture reliefs relating in Prambanan and Borobudur and those of Cambodia and Burma. These are under publication.

The whole sphere of painting had to be excluded in the first edition on account of the limitation of space and paucity of funds. This time also, it could not be included for these reasons, and another, more significant, what appeared to the author and to her eminent gurus like the late Dr. Vasudeva Saran Agrawala and

XXVI

Dr. Moti Chandra to be scanty material, of mural traditions and the stereo-typed repetition of the stylized pose, in miniature painting has indeed turned out, on deeper digging, to be an unparalleled documentation through line and colour of the history of choreographical patterns, movement and costuming. The author has been able to collect data relating to dance and theatre forms from the earliest pre-historic cave paintings, pottery and ceramics to the company school of the British period. Most significant amongst these is a sizeable body of paintings from the mural paintings of the Vijayanagaram and the Nayak Schools and the documentation in the monuments of Kerala both temples and palaces, which have been cleaned up by the Archaeological Survey of India. Knowledge is no longer restricted to the Mattanacherry and Padamanabhan-puram palaces. Alongside has been the unravelling of many valuable sets of Jaina miniature painting. The three volumes of Jaina Art and Architecture, Moti Chandra and Karl Khandalava's work on New Documents in Indian Painting and the late Dr. Moti Chandalvala's last book on Studies in Early Indian Painting have thrown significant light on these. The evidence relating to dance in these and much else which remains unpublished (but to which the author has had access fortunately) is immense and an analysis of this will no doubt present new facets of the performing arts. Neither the present format of the book, nor the expenses involved would allow the inclusion of this material. Since the field of painting is integral to the basic framework, the Sangeet Natak Akademi plans to bring out a companion volume on the subject.

The chapter on Music and Dancing was considered proportionately brief and inadequate by some critics. While it would be possible to enlarge the scope of the chapter to include earlier and recent publications of musical texts, the author did not consider it necessary to change the basic structure of the book merely to include more textual material much of it adequately dealt with by other scholars. Nevertheless, the author's exploration of the oral-traditions of music as pertinent to dance styles revealed that there was a vast storehouse of regional musical traditions which lay untouched. A consideration of this material would necessitate a technical examination of the compositions, supported by charts, notation of notes and movement, line drawings and the rest. All this work could not be undertaken by the publishers. The author hopes that younger scholars will pursue this line of inquiry and conduct such technical investigations. Indeed, the author is happy to say that two scholars have begun working in the field.

And finally no account of the dance and the Indian performing arts would be complete without taking into account of the variegated and significant living traditions still extant in tribal and rural India. Their contribution in shaping the traditions of the classical arts cannot be overlooked. This distinct though related field had to be investigated: the author has made an attempt at identifying this contribution and the mutual dependence of the two traditions of the literary and the illiterate, the margi and the desi in a publication entitled the traditions of Indian

xxvii

Folk Dance published by the Indian Book Company. Many aspects of the Nātya- śāstra, lost to the classical arts live and vibrate in the tribal and rural dances of India.

The above enumeration will perhaps convince readers that although the author shared their anxiety for a second revised and enlarged edition, the source material was far too vast and immense to commend such a course of action. Thus, instead of rewriting an old book, the author preferred to write supplementary works which would be a natural filling up of the basic framework followed in the original work. Also, the author is of the belief that the original work continues to provide the foundation of an approach to the study of dance and has validity.

This belief has been confirmed and supported by the reception which was received by the original work from scholars from diverse disciplines, ranging from Dr. G. C. Pande, Dr. V. Raghavan, Sri A. Ghosh, Dr. N. R. Ray, Dr. Karl Khandalvala to Reginald Massey, Betty Jones, Renee Renouf and others. Also, it is gratifying to note that scholars and students have begun to follow a metho- dology of research in the Indian Arts which aims at a total (albeit perhaps not a holistic) view rather than a fragmentary and unidimensional approach.

New Delhi 30th June, 1976

Kapila Vatsyayan

xxviii

INTRODUCTION

THE present study is an attempt to investigate the nature and extent of the part played by other arts, especially literature, sculpture and music, in the development of Indian dance and to determine the role of dance in these arts. Since all classical Indian arts accept a common theory, which they faithfully follow, the attempt has necessarily involved a review of the fundamental principles of aesthetics which have governed the practice of these arts for fourteen centuries or so. Thus the scope of this presentation is:

(i) to give a general idea of the aesthetic theory common to literature, poetics, dramaturgy, sculpture, painting, music and dancing;

(ii) (a) to analyze the theory and technique of classical Indian dancing, with particular emphasis on the significance of symbols and symbolization;

(b) to trace the history of the theory of dance as formulated in the Sanskrit texts from the Nāṭyaśāstra to the Bālarāmaḍharatam; and

(c) to analyze the conscious attempts to represent and illustrate dance movements in sculpture, as in the Cidambaram temple;

(iii) (a) to analyze the references to dancing in the creative (kāvya) literature of Sanskrit from the early Vedic texts to the late medieval dramatic works (XIII-XIV cc.);

(b) to identify the general and more particular forms of dancing prevalent in different periods; and

(c) to establish the close relationship between dance and drama and to see how the technique of dance affects the dramatic technique of the classical drama;

(iv) (a) to analyze the treatment of the human body as form in Indian sculpture and dancing;

(b) to interpret the concepts of māna, sūtra and bhaṅga as principles of space, mass and weight manipulation;

(c) to review the Yakṣī and Śālabhañjikā motifs as figures representing dance movement in Indian sculpture; and

(d) to analyze the dance scenes in sculpture in terms of the technical terminology of dance as enunciated by Bharata; and

(v) to trace the history of dance through pictorial evidence from the earliest murals to medieval miniature painting tradition;

(vi) to consider the general principles of Indian musical theory and musical composition in their bearing on classical dance composition.

INTRODUCTION

The sources utilized for this study are the Sanskrit texts from the Rg-vedic period to the fourteenth century and the examples of Indian sculpture from the earliest figurines of the Indus Valley to medieval sculpture in the field as also in collections. No attempt has been made to extend the study to the material available in regional languages.

II

The aesthetic enjoyment of the classical Indian dance is considerably hampered today by the wide gap between the dancer and the spectator. Even the accomplished dancer, in spite of his mastery of technique, may sometimes only be partially initiated in the essential qualities of the dance form and its aesthetic significance. But, in the case of the audience, only the exceptional spectator is acquainted with the language of symbols through which the artist achieves the transformation into the realm of art. The majority are somewhat baffled by a presentation which is obviously contextual and allusive but which derives from traditions to which they have no ready access. Although they are aware that the dance is an invitation, through its musical rhythms, to the world in time and, through its sculpturcsque poses, to the world in space, in which the character portrayed is living, they are unable to identify themselves with him. Far less are they able to attain such identity with the dancer in his portrayal of the particular role.

Even this awareness is, however, a partial and imperfect comprehension of the essential inter-relation of the arts, which is one of the basic assumptions of classical Indian aesthetics. This inter-relation, or rather this integrity, of all the arts is well illustrated by the dialogue between King Vajra and Mārkanḍeya in the Viṣṇu-dharmottara Purāṇa.

King Vajra requests the sage to accept him as his disciple and teach him the art of icon-making, so that he may worship the deities in their proper forms. The sage replies that one cannot understand the principles of image-making without a knowledge of painting. The king wishes for instruction in this art and is told that, unless he is accomplished as a dancer, he cannot grasp even the rudiments of painting. The king requests that he be taught dancing, whereupon the sage replies that, without a keen sense of rhythm or a knowledge of instrumental music, proficiency in dance is impossible. Once again the king requests that he be taught these subjects; to which the sage replies that a mastery of vocal music is necessary before one can be proficient in instrumental music; and so finally the sage takes the king through all these stages before he is taught the art of iconography.

The present study is an attempt to determine the exact part played by these arts in the creation of Indian dance and in turn to ascertain the role of Indian dancing in these arts. Through the history of classical Indian sculpture and lit-

crature, it is possible to put together a fairly continuous social and technical history of dance.

III

The Hindu mind views the creative process as a means of suggesting or re-creating a vision, however fleeting, of a divine truth; and regards art as a means of experiencing a state of bliss akin to the absolute state of ānanda or jīvanmukti (release in life). The spectator must also thus have an inner preparedness to receive this vision and be a potential artist; he is a rasika, a sahrdaya, one who is capable of responding. The training and intiation of this person is almost as important as the training and discipline of the artist himself. All Indian arts, especially the arts of music and dancing, thus demand a trained and initiated spectator. An awareness of the salient features of the vast background of Indian dancing can help formulate some of the demands traditionally made on the spectator. This study will, therefore, naturally concern itself with the basic aesthetic principles shared by all arts and then proceed to examine those aspects of the different Indian arts which have played an important role in the theory, technique and practice of Indian dancing.

If one may be permitted to anticipate the result of the study in general terms, one may suggest that in the technique of Indian dance the wheel of Indian aesthetics seems to have come full circle. Whereas in other arts the human being is the subject of artistic treatment, Indian dance treats the human form as a vehicle of artistic expression and synthesizes in itself the content and form of other arts into one homogeneous, beautiful whole. It is not an accident that the dancing Śiva, Naṭarāja, represents the apotheosis of the spiritual and artistic faith and the striving of people. This image is the supreme symbol of all aspects of life as much as dance itself represents the synthesis of all aspects of creative activity.

I

INDIAN AESTHETICS

FOR the traditional Indian artist, regardless of the field in which he worked artistic creation was the supreme means of realizing the Universal Being. Art was a discipline (sādhanā), a yoga, and a sacrifice (yajña).

Any form of sādhanā is a means of achieving a state of complete harmony (sāmarasya) and thus of total release (svātantrya) from the ‘so-much-ness’ (iyattā) of life; it leads to a recognition of one’s truer self. These were also the ends which the Indian artist, as a sādhaka, pursued.

The spiritual, mental and physical discipline required in the search for complete harmony is yoga. Yoga is adeptness or efficiency in any activity undertaken by the individual: this is the karmasu kauśalam of the Bhagavadgītā. Yoga is the power of withdrawal of mental energy from all activity not directed towards the single end in view; it is also perspicacity of vision which enables one to see the underlying unity of everything.

All activity, inasmuch as it is dedicated activity, is a sacrificial offering: yajña is the offering of the best that one has to the best that one seeks. The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa elaborates the concept of cosmic sacrifice, the counterpart of the idea of perpetual sacrifice treated of in Upaniṣad literature. The artist was also obligated to the offering of his best to his iṣṭadevatā.

Accepting this major concept of Hindu spiritual and philosophical thought, the Indian artist could not possibly regard the problem of art creation as one of giving universal significance to his own subjective experience. He was involved in a discipline for the attainment of the Infinite, the Universal Being, in his individual self. The problem for him was one of suggesting or revealing or recreating this Infinite, Divine Self through finite symbols of stone, line, language, sound and movement. Through this creation he sought to evoke a state of pure joy (ānanda). The artist was indeed like the worshipper who saw again and again the Godhead and who attempted to re-create the ultimate state of his realization through the specific technique of his art. To a person so conditioned, an art creation was a spiritual discipline, in which he had intuitively to know the truth of what he experienced before he gave it a concrete manifestation in art. Physical perception, the imitation of nature, was irrelevant to this belief, and artistic creation could be a success only if it achieved the supreme artistic purpose of creating a state of bliss, second only to the seeker’s ultimate goal of absolute bliss in the Brahman (Brahmā-nanda). The aesthetic experience was considered second only to the supreme experience and was thus termed its twin brother (brahmānandasahodara).

If the above concepts were the fundamental principles of an artistic consciousness, the realm of aesthetics or the artistic experience could obviously not be limited to ideas, conflict and thought. ‘Ideas’ and the problems of suffering, pain

and 'conflict' belonged properly to the realms of philosophy; aesthetics, like religion, was the realm of the spirit. The artist's pre-occupation was with the 'symbol' through which states of being could be suggested or re-created. Subjective personal experience played little or no part, and artistic creation began only when the artist had attained, in his own intuitive mind, the state of calm termed as hṛdayaviśrānti (equilibrium). Having conquered all personal suffering and pain and attained this state of complete detached emotion, he presented through age-old symbols the spectrum of life only to re-create a similar state of being in the reader or spectator, a state in which the latter could experience, however transitorily, the pure bliss (ānanda) of art.

The aesthetic which emerged as a result of these beliefs was the theory of rasa. Since the human being and his subjective emotion were not themes important enough to be portrayed in art, life was seen as a series of states of being which, though diverse, led to one transcendental experience of bliss.

The theory of rasa, as conceived by the Hindu aesthetician and as practised by the artist, has two aspects. The first is the evoked state (rasāvasthā) in which transcendent bliss is experienced; the second is the sentiments, the moods, the permanent and transitory states, which were the object of presentation. The second provided the content of art; the first was its ultimate objective. The configuration of numerous transitory states (vyabhicārī bhāva), involuntary states (saṁtvika bhāva) and dominant moods (sthāyī bhāva) into eight or nine states of being can be understood in the light of these spiritual beliefs. The technique of the arts was directly conditioned by these principles, and the techniques of the Indian arts are the rules of proportion in architecture, in the detailed formulations of the principles of tāla (measurement) and bhaṅga (stance) of Indian sculpture, in the relative disposition and proportion of colour and perspective in painting, in the patterns of division and combination of the movements of the major limbs (aṅga) and the minor limbs (upāṅga) in dancing, and in the use of śruti and svara (notes) in a given mode (rāga) to create a particular mood in Indian music.

It is the aesthetic theory of rasa which provides an underlying unity to the Indian arts. Deriving from this fundamental belief about the nature of the aesthetic experience, they share with one another the principles of technique while maintaining their autonomy. There are numerous points of contact where one art form borrows or even builds upon the achievements and techniques of other forms. Although the theoretical canons of any one art prescribe techniques relating only to that particular art form, the underlying principles are the same and are often taken for granted or referred to only implicitly.

While it is not intended to discuss the theoretical and historical development of the theory of rasa in detail, it is necessary to survey briefly the salient features of this theory which guided the practice of the arts in India through many centuries.

The two aspects of rasa mentioned above, the transcendental experience and the objects of presentation, gave rise to two separate discussions in the critical texts on Indian aesthetics. First, there was the inquiry into the nature of this experience itself; secondly, the discussion bore upon the form and techniques of presentation of the transitory and permanent states of mind through the diverse media of language, mass and volume, sound, movement, etc. The inquiry into the nature of the aesthetic experience was pursued within the framework of recognized schools of philosophic thought, while the study of form and technique resulted in several manuals dealing with different art forms.

The best examples of discussion on the nature of the aesthetic experience are to be found in theoretical treatises on literature, specifically poetics and dramaturgy. Although the earliest formulator of the theory, Bharata, did not himself enter into the metaphysical aspects of the aesthetic experience, the commentators approached the question from the point of view of the different systems of Indian philosophy, nyāya, sāñkhya and vedānta, and the Śaiva doctrine of Kashmir. The discussion is so lively that the history of Indian aesthetics during this period may be considered as merely the history of the interpretation of these discussions on the nature of the aesthetic experience in the context of these philosophies. Significantly, the one point on which all the commentators agreed was the intrinsic difference between aesthetic emotion and emotion in real life. Whether the approach was the nyāya one of Śrīśaṅkuka, or the sāñkhya or vedānta of Bhaṭṭanāyaka, or the Śaiva one of Abhinavagupta, it was unanimously accepted that the aesthetic experience at the highest level was essentially different from any experience in the empirical world. The scholars further agreed that the state of being which this art-experience evoked was a state akin to that of spiritual realization.

According to Abhinavagupta. whose approach was that of Śaiva monism, the duality of subject and object disappeared through intense introversion, and, ultimately, a state was evoked unlike any empirical experience. This state was a transcendental one (alaukika) like the experience of pure bliss (ānanda). His notions of taste (rasikatva), aesthetic susceptibility (sahrdayatva), power of visualization (pratibhā), poetic culture (kāvyānuśīlana), contemplative habit (bhāvanā) and a capacity for identification or ‘becoming’ (tanmayībhavanā-yogyatā) clearly express his belief in the distinct quality of the aesthetic experience.

The artist in turn began with the premisc that his ultimate aim was to attain this perfect state of release and that art was the special instrument through which the artist revealed to the initiated and responsive mind (the sahrdaya, the rasika) the reality of the Universal Being experienced by him.

Such being the beliefs and assumptions shared by the theoretician and the artist, the problem that exercised their minds was that of the technique pertinent to each art. It is precisely this aspect of the arts of poetry, drama, architecture, sculpture, painting, music and dance that is most frequently elaborated upon in

the theoretical treatises, while the spiritual aims and philosophic attitudes are taken for granted. The continuity of tradition in the arts was maintained so long as these principles were accepted as a matter of faith; when the underlying beliefs came to be doubted, the tradition fell into decay or disintegrated altogether.

Rasa as a theory of technique can profitably be applied to all the creative arts in India. The technique of all arts, as enunciated by the theorists and manifested in the creative works, makes it quite clear that it did not permit or condone negation of the established and verified laws of execution.

Once intuitive idea had been grasped by the artist on the spiritual plane, he followed faithfully and rigorously the laws of arrangement of word, line, mass, colour, posture, sound and movement as laid down in the canons. Through all their crowded multiplicity on the plane of execution, he never lost sight of the fact that all these rules were designed to perfect the instrument of expression of the ultimate spiritual fountain-head and the Infinite Spirit: each single detail of technique was significant only in so far as it was a hand-maid to the central intuitive idea and the Absolute State. Had the technique of the Indian arts been merely a collection of technical rules, it would have been difficult for the creative artist to adhere to them so faithfully and so completely over a period of fourteen centuries. Also had the technical laws not allowed freedom of expression, experimentation and innovation, there would have been artistic revolts.

Classical Indian architecture, sculpture, painting, literature (kāvya), music and dancing evolved their own rules conditioned by their respective media, but they shared with one another not only the underlying spiritual beliefs of the Indian religio-philosophic mind but also the procedures by which the relationships of the symbol and the spiritual states were worked out in detail. Each art worked out an elaborate system for the presentation of the different elements of a work of art in a deliberate and well-defined pattern. The different constituents of drama, poetry, architecture, etc., were enunciated to instruct the artist in the manner of and material for presenting them: each constituent had a precise function to perform. The more deeply we penetrate the technique of any Indian art, the more clearly we see that what may seem spontaneous, individual, impulsive and natural to the lay spectator is in reality well-considered, long-inherited, minutely studied and imbued with a highly symbolic significance.

Bharata discusses this aspect of aesthetics in the Nātyaśāstra, and to him the problem of aesthetics is actually one mainly of technique. In fact, it would seem that the sole aim of Bharata was to instruct dramatists, stage managers and actors in the ways and means of producing drama, to tell them of the various methods and techniques by which a particular rasa could be evoked.

The analysis of the plot, character and types of enacting (abhinaya), different modes (vṛtti) of delivery, elaborate conventions (dharmī) of suggestive or realistic

presentation and of zoning (kaksāvibhāga), as well as the rules governing the use of

costumes, colours, ornaments and even coiffure can fully be appreciated only if we

realize that each of these was a vehicle of a greater purpose and had a function to

perform beyond itself. Each element was correlated to the basic state (sthāyi bhāva)

which was to be portrayed through a series of transitory states (vyabhicārī bhāva).

Thus the nature of the rasa and the sthāyī bhāva determined the type of plot, charac-

ter and speech the dramatist was to use; it also determined the nature of the stage

presentation and the proportion of the different types of abhinaya—those relating

to movement (āngika), speech (vācika), internal states (sāttvika), costume and make-

up (āhārya). Bharata also laid down conventions of stage presentation—realistic

(lokadharmī) or suggestive (nātyadharmī)—most appropriate for any particular type

of drama: he prescribed the mode or manner (vrtti) of speech delivery for different

types of action, theme or locale—the graceful (kaiśikī), the energetic (ārabhaṭī), the

verbal (bhāratī) and the grand (sāttvatī). Thus every movement of the body and

each gesture of every limb has been analyzed to correlate it to its particular transi-

tory and basic emotional state; each pattern of rhythm, musical note and speech

has been dissected in order to establish the complex and deliberate design in the

presentation of drama in its totality. There is no scope here for chance and no place

for the personal subjectivity of the artist. The actors of the Hindu drama are thus

master manipulators of gesture within the different conventions of dramatic perfor-

mance, as the puppet-showman is of the limbs of his puppets. The representation

of the emotions of the hero is to be entirely independent of the actor's or dan-

cer's own feelings. Hence he or she can enjoy the transcendental flavour, the rasa,

in the same impersonal way as the audience. The work of art and also the artist

and the actor thus become participants in a ritual where the work of art is the

yantra—the device through which the sādhaka (artist) sees the vision of the Absolute

as much as the audience to whom the work of art is presented.

The same principles guide tne various systems of Indian classical music.

The classification of sound notes (svara) into micro-intervals (śruti) which combine

to form different types of rāga can be understood in terms of the individual emo-

tional content of single entities of sound and their total effect in a composition. The

twenty-two micro-intervals (śrutis) which the theoreticians of Indian music speak of

are like gestures in dance or words in poetry, imbued with a distinct character and

significance. The sentiments or expressions which are indicated by each of the

śrutis have been classified, each śruti being given a name depicting its character;

and in some systems, as in that of Pārśvadeva, these names, were different for each

octave. These expressions were further classified into five main groups (jāti) called

moderate (madhyā), keen (dīptā), large (āyatā), compassionate (karuṇā) and tender

(mrdu)¹. From these twenty-two main intervals (śruti), the seven notes (svara) are

derived. The word svara, accurately translated, is not only the pitch of sound, but a

pitch of sound which is capable of an expression². As defined by Śārṅgadeva,

"sound is first heard as an interval—a śruti, but the resonance that immediately

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

follows, conveying of itself (without external aid) an expression to the mind of the hearer, is called svara—a musical note’3. Every svara stands for a certain definite emotion or mood and has been classified according to its relative importance, and it forms a different part of the “person” of the modal scale (mūrchanā).

“The note Sa (sādja, the tonic) is said to be the soul. Ri (rṣabha) is called the head, Ga (gāndhāra) is the arms, Ma (madhyama) is the chest, Pa (pañcama), the throat, Dha (dhai ata), the lips, Ni (niṣāda), the feet. Such are the seven limbs of the modal scale”1. These notes are also said to correspond with the seven basic elements of the physical body and issue from the seven centres (cakra)5 of the subtle body.

The mathematical classification of sounds as intervals and relative pitches is the basis on which their musical classification as expressive notes is made. Various notes, carefully selected from the twenty-two intervals of the śruti scale, group together to form a mode, a rāga. The essential feature of a rāga is its power of evoking a state of being in the hearer. The different definitions of rāga contained in texts of music point to the state which it arouses by using definite musical notes in a special sequence and combination. Thus Matanga defines rāga “ as a composition of notes (svara) having a peculiar musical significance in their values of duration (sthāyi), ascent (ārohaṇa), descent (avarohana) or movement (sañcāri) and capable of invoking in the human mind particular feelings”, (literally, of colouring the hearts of men)6. The definitions of śruti, svara and rāga given above will indicate the great importance attached to the evocative quality of sound. Each śruti has a definite character; the names mandā, candovati, dayāvatī, rañjanī, raudrī, krodhā, ugrā or kṣobhinī denote their emotional quality which dwells in combination or singly in the notes of the modal scale: thus dayāvatī, rañjanī and ratikā dwell in the gāndhāra and each of the notes (svara) of the scale in its turn has its own kind of expression and distinct psychological or physical effect and can be related to a colour, a mood (rasa or bhāva), a metre, a deity or one of the subtle centres (cakra) of the body7. The correspondences of notes with moods (rasa) and colour are listed in all the important treatises on music. Thus for the śṛngāra (amorous or erotic) and the hāsya (laughter) rasa, the madhyama and the pañcama are used; for the vīra (heroic), raudra (wrathful) and the adbhuta (wondrous), the sādja and the rṣabha; for the bibhatsa (revulsive) and the bhayānaka (fearsome), the dhaivata; and for the karuṇa (compassionate), the niṣāda and the gāndhāra are used8. A similar correspondence with colours is also worked out; then these notes, each with its particular seer (ṛṣi) and rasa, combine in various sequences to form harmonic structures specific to each rāga. The name of each particular rāga thus connotes a scale bearing a distinct relationship of the successive notes (svara) to the invariable ‘tonic’ or drone, with its harmonic structure determined by the vādi (sonant), the samvādi (consonant) and the amśa svara (the chief note). Each rāga in turn suggests a particular state; thus the different rāgas have been categorized according to the emotional effects they produce and linked to different periods in the day-night cycle.

10

The technique of Indian music, like the technique of Indian drama, thus analyzes in detail the uses of each single unit and interval of sound to produce a configuration of a basic emotional state or mood (sthāyī bhāva or rasa). We see thus that the concepts and methods used by the Indian musician are exactly the same as those used by the dramatist: the differences are only modifications due to the change of medium. Just as the Indian poet or dramatist, in order to evoke a certain rasa, presents a single theme with sthāyī bhāva, so also the Indian musician chooses a particular rāga to evoke a particular rasa. The svara, with its variations of komala (flat), tīvra (sharp), śuddha (pure), is analogous to speech with its different types or modes; and the composition of the notes in the different phases of the rāga—the ālāpa, the sthāyī and the antarā (or the pallavī, the anupallavī and the caraṇam of Karnataka music)—correspond to the junctures (sandhi) of drama. The different methods of manipulating them parallel the different types of abhinaya with its components of vibhāva, anubhāva, and vyabhicārī bhāva conditioned by the vṛtti and the particular convention of presentation (dharmī). The multiplicity of the various aspects of poetry and drama, viz., words (alaṁkāra) in poetry and speech, enacting (abhinaya) in drama, give rise to the harmonious oneness of the basic state (sthāyī bhāva). The rāga employs the multiplicity of the svara (note) structures as components which are used in a given sequence with the full realization of the subtle distinctions between the emotional quality of any two notes, and the characteristics of the śruti which dwell in each of these notes—out of sixty-six possible intervals (śruti), twenty-two are chosen on account of the distinctive emotional quality assigned to them—give rise to the main basic mood of the rāga which would in turn evoke the particular rasa9. The principles which each art follows are devised in pursuit of identical aims and have analogous concepts of the structure of artistic composition.

The above, however, is a discussion of the technique of music only from the aesthetic point of view. It is necessary to mention that, like literature, music also has a philosophic and spiritual basis for its aesthetic character. According to the Brahmanāda theory, cosmic sound (nāda) is considered the cause of the material universe and is identified with the Brahman of the Upaniṣads. The structure of music is based only on audible or perceptible sound (āhaṭa nāda) and not on absolute sound (anāhaṭa nāda), which belongs to the sphere of yoga. There is, however, a close relationship between the two; and the choice of the twenty-two from amongst the sixty-six arithmetically possible intervals (śruti) is made on this basis. The relationship between śruti and nāda is visualized as the relationship between the actual and the potential: śruti is the immediate expression of nāda, which leads to the perception of the latter. Because nāda is related to the ultimate exactly as rays are to a gem, and just as an approach to the rays of a gem leads to the attainment of the gem itself, so the apprehension of nāda leads to the realization of the ultimate; and music is the process by which the Absolute can be apprehended through the sensuous medium of śruti and svara and of the rāga10.

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

Turning our attention to Hindu architecture, sculpture and painting, we find that these arts also manifest the principle of multiplicity and unity on the spiritual, philosophic and aesthetic planes. Hindu architecture proves most powerfully that all art reposes on some unity and all its details, whether few and spaing as in the Buddhist stūpa or crowded and full as in the Hindu temple, must go back to that unity and further its significance; otherwise it is not art and has not fulfilled its function. Indian architecture constantly represents the greatest oneness of the self, the cosmic and the infinite in the immensity of its world design. All the special features of this architecture, its starting point of unity in conception, its crowded abundance of mass and design of significant sculpture, ornament and detail, and its return to the oneness, are 'the necessary units of this immense epic poem of the Infinite'. Without going into the technique of architecture which lays down the method by which this infinite multiplicity can fill the ultimate oneness, it is enough for our purpose here to be fully aware of the tremendous unity of purpose and design which Indian architecture symbolizes11.

In terms of aesthetics, since architecture (more accurately the temple) represents heaven on earth, it arouses wonder (vismaya) and leads to the aesthetic experience of adbhuta.

Indian sculpture like Indian architecture springs from a deep spiritual realization of the Divine and the Infinite. As Sri Aurobindo very aptly states, "The divine self in us is its theme, the body made a form of the soul is its idea and its secret."12 Just as Indian architecture reveals the unity through infinite multiplicity, Indian sculpture embodies the spirit and soul of the cosmic Infinite in the form and body of the particular, the impersonal individual which in turn suggests the cosmic and the Infinite. The religious and hieratic aspect of Indian sculpture is also vitally connected with Indian methods of contemplation, where the image is the diagram (yantra) which the artist and the devotee alike contemplate.

Indeed, it may be said that images are to the Hindu worshipper what diagrams are to the geometrician. The image is not a god or a divinity but merely an aspect or hypostasis (avasthā) of God, who is in the last analysis without likeness (amūrta), not determined by form (arūpa), trans-form (pararūpa). The multiplicity of Indian images and their infinite forms have to be understood in the light of their spiritual and philosophic bias. The human form, the particular attitude (bhaṅga, āsana, mudrā), is but the vehicle of a soul-meaning, a concrete embodiment of a great spiritual power and of inmost psychic significance: everything in the figure–face, hands, limbs, postures of every single unit of the human body—has been analyzed with the object of correlating each physical gesture with an inner meaning which will combine to carry out the rhythm of total suggestion. The parts of the human form become the intervals (śruti) of music and the characteristics of these basic units are worked out in great detail in treatises on Indian sculpture. In terms of aesthetics,

thus, Indian sculpture also manifests to the spectator, through the portrayal of a variety of permutations and combinations of single units, an aesthetic configuration of a rasa similar to that aimed at by the poet or the musician. Every inch of the human form, every joint of the human skeleton, is given a significance, for it is not unly the geometrical and physical possibility which is being explored, but its cor-relation to the meaning, to the attitude or the state the whole will evoke. As in music, literature and poetry, so also in sculpture, the Indian artist cannot and does not take the particular, the human or the individual, as his starting point; it is the impersonal emotion, the archetype, divided into its infinitesimal types which he portrays. The aesthetic theory which Indian sculpture thus evolves is a theory of plastic expression based on a correspondence between certain proportions and certain sentiments and qualities, just as the relationships of sound determine the sentiments and moods evoked by a musical melody. Character is thus portrayed through a knowledge of types in which particular qualities predominate, and by a systematic use of the physical postures, movements, turns and thrusts of the body which correspond to the moods. This relationship of the physical gesturc to a mental quality, mood or state gives Indian sculpture its distinctive character. The classification of images according to qualities (guna) into sāttvika, rājasika and tāmasika, the analysis of the human form in terms of measure (tāla and angula), the categorization of types of movement into three bhanga (deflections) and the enumeration of images according to their postures (āsana), have to be understood and evaluated with full realization of the final function which any piece of sculpture was designed to fulfil.

The technique of Hindu sculpture follows faithfully the elaborate and beautiful system of proportions, which it uses constantly to model different types of images: the sculptor combines the basic units of these proportions according to well-defined laws in the same way as the musician combines the basic notes according to an elaborate system which has both an arithmetical validity and an emotional and spiritual significance. The division of the human form into tāla and angula and the relationship of each of these to the different axes (sūtra) is based on precise anatomical rules on the one hand, and laws of measurement on the other. With a set of such rules, the sculptor has at his command a series of devices by which he can depict the character of the image he is modelling. Gods, human beings, dwarfs, etc., can be modelled by employing different types of proportions (what in modern sculpture would be termed 'enlarging' or 'dwarfing' the size and volume of figures); and different aspects and moods of gods can be depicted by employing different types of bhanga (deflections from the vertical axis or sūtra). These laws of proportions thus become symbolic and charged with emotional expressiveness; the smallest detail of anatomy down to the form of the nostrils and nails, the breadth of the navel and relative position of the toes, feet, knees, thighs, waist, hands, arms, etc., has been carefully worked out to indicate clearly their significancc in the whole figure (an attitude or pose). Comparative measurements have been laid down for the respective

images in their various aspects. The full human figure and the gods in their moods

of serenity (śānta) or pleasantness (śṛṅgāra), etc., measure nine or ten units (tāla).

But when other moods such as the heroic (vīra) or the terrible (raudra) have to be

depicted, these figures assume a height of twelve units; in the fierce and the demonic

(bhayānaka), or in aspects of the revulsive (vībhatsa), the height extends to fourteen

tāla units. The goddesses and female figures in their different moods also assume

the height of anything from seven to nine tāla units. Thus all types of characters

can be depicted in terms of one of the five different sets of proportions, viz., the

daśatāla, the navatāla, the aṣṭhatāla, the saptatāla or the pañcatāla. The aṅgula

(like the śruti in music) is the basis of the tāla, and can further be divided and sub-

divided into yava, yūka, likhyā, romāgāra, renu and the anu (ray of the sun) as the

minutest unit. Different texts work out the exact proportions of the human form

in terms of aṅgula and tāla, taking one of the five sets of proportions for the total

height of the image. Śukrācārya works out the exact details of a daśatāla pramāṇa

image, specifying precise measurements for each part of the body from head to foot

in terms of aṅgula. Thus, if the face is 13 aṅgulas, the neck us 5 aṅgulas, and the

measurements from neck to chest, chest to navel and navel to the base of genitals

are 13 aṅgulas each; the thigh and the calf arc 27 aṅgulas cach, the knce and the

ankle are 4 aṅgulas each, tinc total height being 119 aṅgulas13.

The human form is not only divided into tāla on the basis of actual surface

proportions, but also measured along various axes on different planes: the measures

along these different sections guided the Indian sculptor in the making of iinages.

Five principal vertical axes (sūtra) are enumerated by the śilpaśāstra texts. The

brahmasūtra is the vertical axis or the imaginary line passing through the centre

of the image and represents the direction of the pull of gravity. The madhyasūtra

is the medial line drawn from the centre of the crown of the head, through the

centre of the chest, the navel, the knees, down to the inner sides of the feet. The

pārśvasūtra is the vetical drawn from the side of the forehead, the cheek, the side

of the arm, the centre of the thighs, the centre of the knee, and the centre of the

ankle-joint. The kakṣasūtra is drawn from the arm-pit, by the side of the hip and

the calf, and terminates on the fifth toe of the foot. The bāhusūtra is the vertical

drawn from the shoulder-joint to the ground.

The three horizontal axes which are commonly used are the hikkāsūtra (the

line passing through the base of the neck), the bhadrasūtra (passing through the,

navel) and the kaṭisūtra which passes through the hips and the pelvic girdle. The

Mānasāra in Chapter LXVII enumerates as many as eleven sūtras and lays down

the relative distancė of each part of the human figure from each of these lines for

various types of deflected stances (i.e., the bhaṅga, commonly translated as pose).

The sculptor is thus provided with rules both for surface dimensions and for

measurements along different vertical and horizontal planes and sections for every

type of image. The six different sets of mcasurements are termed māna, pramāṇa,

unmāna, parimāṇa upamāna and lambamāna. The māna is the measurement of the length of the body; the pramāna is that along its breadth; the unmāna represents the measurement taken at right angles to the plane in which the māna and the pramāna have been measured, i.e., along the axis of the thickness or depth of the body. The parimāna is the measure of the girth or periphery; the upamāna refers to the position of different limbs in relation to each other, e.g., the measurement of the inter-space between the two feet. The lambamāna is the measurement along the vertical axes14.

With the alphabet of the tāla (literally an unit of time) and the measurement along the different planes, the Indian sculptor models the different poses of the image, employing all the permutations and combinations of movement possible in this given space. Any movement whatsoever can be comprehended into the four deflexions (bhaṅga) i.e., the samabhaṅga, the abhaṅga, the tribhaṅga and the ati-bhaṅga only within the complex structure of the aṅgula, the tāla and the sūtra measures. A pose can contain within itself endless types of plastic composition, of erect, sitting, reclining postures; movement in sculpture has thus to be understood both as a manipulation of balance and weight and as a symbol of the spiritual idea which is embodied in the image. When the śilpaśāstra discusses15 the exact points from which the brahmasūtra has to be drawn in any particular pose and the exact distance of each limb or part of the human figure from this line, it is fully conscious of the corresponding emotion which these deflexions and poses will arouse; thus the samabhaṅga is the pose of perfect poise and balance, the weight and mass of the body being equally divided and the right and left halves of the figure being placed in symmetrical positions. Texts prescribe the distance between the two heels, knees and thighs for this pose.

Since the samabhaṅga is a position of equipoise or perfect balance, it is used to show the calmer, more reposeful moods and attitudes: all the sāttvika mudrās, therefore, whether standing or seated or reclining, are shown in the samabhaṅga pose. The dhyāna images of Śiva, Viṣṇu and Buddha are in the samabhaṅga. The abhaṅga indicates the slight shift of the weight to one side and the vertical is drawn from a different point. The distance of the two big toes and of the knees from the median (madhyasūtra) is also different. The emotional quality of the pose does not suggest complete concentration and poise but, instead, a slight deviation from it. The slightly dynamic, the erotic (śṛṅgāra) and the delicately heroic (vīra) figures are depicted in this pose: Gaurī or Kodaṇḍa Rāma may be cuted as examples. The deflection from the plumb line is relatively slight here; the weight is shifted to show the point of unrest but not of movement. The tribhaṅga and atibhaṅga denote greater deflections from the plumb line and are used to depict the heroic or the demonic moods. These proportions, deflexions, poses and hastamudrās (hand gestures) correspond thus to the character of the deity represented; they complete the exposition of the character otherwise set forth by means of facial expressions,

attributes, costume or gesture. Each aspect, mood or incarnation of the gods in the

pantheon has its particular bhanga, āsana, sthāna, symbolic attribute, hastamudrā,

dress and ornament. The multiplicity of the presentation of the different move-

ments and linear measurements and their fractions, deflexions and deviations of

weight and distance, all coalesce into a single powerful symbol of a unified state or

mood. The pyramidal structure which we have observed in drama and music is

again obvious in sculpture, where the whole reveals itself through a multiplicity of

technique and design only to return to the unity and the oneness of the basic state

or bhāva.

The fascinating and overpowering quality of the most completely conceived

technique is a distinctive feature of all forms of classical Indian art, where the small-

est mathematical fractions and complex combinations of measurements all combine

to suggest a unified experience on the psychical plane.

A study of the alphabets and basic laws of composition of these arts clearly

indicates the parallel techniques followed by them. The various aspects of technique

are the first constituents to which each of these arts reduces itself, but it is the

direction which is given to these constituents that gives Indian art its distinctive,

spiritual and suggestive character. From the multiple base of the constituents a

well-organized process leads up to an apex where each of the constituents of form

has a corresponding spiritual or emotional value. The lines of technique move to

form an artistic whole, corresponding physical and spiritual experiences merging

in one overpowering symbol of an inner state of being.

Indian painting, in spirit, in concept of form, and in its vision, is identical

with the spirit and approach of Indian sculpture. The technique of Indian painting

aims to provide (like the techniques of Indian sculpture, music and literature) the

utmost significance (spiritual or symbolic) to the form and appearance it visually

presents. Like the Indian sculptor, the Indian painter discovered the rule of propor-

tion, arrangement and perspective which preserved the illusion of Nature and yet

suggested an inner vision and communicated a psychic truth which he had ex-

perienced. The basic principles of the technique of painting, according to most

texts,16 are the six limbs (ṣaḍaṅga) which are common to all work in line and colour:

rūpabheda represents the distinction of forms; pramāṇa, the proportion, arrange-

ment of line and mass, perspective and design; bhāva, the emotion or aesthetic

feeling expressed by the form; lāvaṇya represents the infusion of grace into artistic

representation; sādrśya is the principle of co-visibility, the simultaneous apprehen-

sion of the truth of its form and of its suggestion; and finally the varṇikābhaṅga is

the combination and harmony of colours.

Even this brief enumeration of principles will make it clear that the theoretician

of Indian painting was correlating at every point the techniques of line and colour

to the feeling or emotion they could recreate. The Citralakṣaṇa states even more

INDIAN AESTHETICS

explicitly the rules by which emotional states and different types of character can be represented. Thus the height of a character is described in terms of the mood he can depict, and the shape of the face is determined by the bhāva it must express.

Without going any further into the details of the artistic technique of painting and its corresponding symbolic and spiritual values, we now pass on to an Indian art form which embodies in its spirit and form the essence of all the arts mentioned above, especially nātya (drama), saṅgīta (music) and śilpa (sculpture).

Through a beautiful and complete language of movement, Indian dance provides the most concrete manifestation of the inner state and vision we have spoken of. Indian dance, like Indian poetry, music and sculpture, seeks to communicate universal, impersonal emotion, and, through the very medium of the human form, it transcends the physical plane: in its technique, it employs the technique of all the Indian arts and it is impossible to comprehend the architectonic structure of this form without being aware of the complex techniques of the other arts which it constantly and faithfully employs and synthesizes. The themes which the Indian dancer portrays are not only the raw material of literature, but are also the finished products of literary creation; the music which seems to accompany the dance is actually the life-breath of its structure and, indeed, dance interprets in movement what music interprets in sound; the postures and the stances it attains are the poses which the Indian sculptor models: all these the dancer imbues with a living spirit of movement in a composition of form which is both sensuous and spiritual.

As was pointed out at the very outset of this study, the inter-relationship of the Indian arts is a significant and rewarding study from the point of view of both spirit and form: in the art of the Indian dance different aspects of spirit and technique merge harmoniously to make a beautiful synthesis.

It is significant that treatises on dance seldom, if ever, discuss the technique of this art form in isolation: both literature (or at least an aspect of it) and music (saṅgīta) are invariably discussed. Conversely, the treatises on sculpture, nātya (drama), music and painting invariably devote a portion either to dance itself or discuss certain elements of the technique of these art forms in terms of the technique of dance (nrtya or nrtta). Thus, treatises on painting discuss the rasa drṣṭi in terms of the glances (drṣṭi) of the Nāṭyaśāstra and treatises on sculpture enumerate in great detail the nrttamūrti (dancing aspects) of the various gods and goddesses and discuss the symbolism of the hastamudrā in terms of the hastābhinaya of the Nāṭyaśāstra.

Indian dancing has two distinct aspects: the nrtta (pure dance) and abhinaya (nrtya, mime, gesticulation). The nrtta portion of dance depends for its lifebreath on the music and rhythm which accompany it: the abhinaya portion depends for its expression on the theme of the narrative or lyrical literary composition

(termed sāhitya by practising dancers) which is sung. This abhinaya portion of

dance was indeed conceived originally by Bharata as an integral part of nāṭya

(drama). In the Nāṭyaśāstra, he discusses it as an aspect of nāṭya which constitutes

dancing also: the human form is analysed from the head to the toe to show, on the

one hand, the various possibilities of movement of each part of the human figure,

and, on the other, the use of these movements to express certain states (bhāva) and

emotions. Throughout the discussion of the aṅga and the upāṅga in the Nāṭyaśāstra,

we find that Bharata first states the movements which are physically possible and

then enumerates the use (viniyoga) to which they can be put in āṅgikābhinaya17 to

represent the dominant and transitory states (sthāyī and vyabhicārī bhāva). In

Chapter VII he discusses the dominant states and shows the way in which each one

of these states can be represented on the stage through speech and movement. In

Chapter VIII18 he analyses the movements of major limbs (aṅga) and minor limbs

(upāṅga) and lays down the methods of using them to express certain sentiments

(rasa) and to represent certain dominant states (sthāyī bhāva) and transitory states

(vyabhicārī bhāva). He first indicates the glances (dr̥ṣṭi) corresponding to the

sentiments (rasa), then the glances (dr̥ṣṭi) according to the dominant states (sthāyī

bhāva), and then the glances corresponding to the transitory states (vyabhicārī

bhāva). The movements of the eyeball (tārā) are analysed in a similar fashion;

wherever it is not done by explicit statement, it is done by implication when he

prescribes the uses (viniyoga) of these movements. Every movement of each single

limb of the human body has a corresponding emotional quality, which is analogous

to the emotional expression of śruti and svara in music. Every gesture and move-

ment of eyes, eyeballs, eyebrows, eyelids, nose, cheeks, lower lips, chin, mouth,

neck, chest, breast, sides (pārśva), belly, waist, thigh, shank, knee, feet, and hands

thus assumes a significance which it would be impossible to imagine ordinarily.

This language of gestures finds its complete articulation in the hastābhinaya, where

practically all the permutations and combinations of the fingers, palm and the

wrist have-been worked out and each hand-pose (hasta) has been employed as

words are in a language. Like nāṭya thus the nr̥tya and abhinaya portion of dancing

employs the entire human form to speak a language of movement through which a

sthāyī bhāva (dominant state) can be presented and a sentiment, a mood (rasa),

evoked. The dance does away completely with the vācikābhinaya (speech enacting)

of the drama proper and employs only music and song, for that purpose. The

process by which it builds the sthāyī bhāva, however, is exactly that by which the

dramatist builds up the sthāyī bhāva through the representation of the deter-

minants (vibhāva), the consequents (anubhāva) and the transitory states (vyabhicārī

bhāva). The emphasis in dancing is on the vyabhicārī bhāva (the transitory states),

termed to this day in all styles of dancing as the sañcārī bhāva; the dominant state

(sthāyī bhāva) is represented by portraying through a series of gestures the transitory

states (vyabhicārī bhāva) of the particular dominant state (sthāyī bhāva).

Again the characters that the Indian dancer depicts are not only the gods

and goddesses and demons of Indian mythology but also the heroes (nāyaka) and heroines (nāyikā) of Indian drama. We find the frequent portrayal of these heroes and heroines in dance; a nāyikā like the abhisārikā often forms the heroine of the Indian dance. Indian dancing also follows all the principles of presentation of the Indian drama (nāṭya). The convention of the nāṭyadharmī is the backbone of the entire presentation of the Indian dance; it shares with Indian drama its deliberate and purposive renunciation of stage scenery and the imitation of life-like gestures, its emphasis on stylization of presentation through gesture of all situations and emotions and its rules of basic representation (sāmānyābhinaya) and special representation (viśeṣa citrābhinaya)10. The dance is a limb of the drama proper in so far as mime or gesture (āṅgikābhinaya), costume and make-up (āhāryā-bhinaya) form a part of drama, and is so far as the kaiśikī vṛtti (the graceful style) belongs as much to dance as to drama, and inasmuch as every aspect of drama has an element of dance which is indistinguishable from the former.

The āṅgikābhinaya of the dance is built on the themes of literature which have been set to music; this music has been conceived to correspond to the dominant state (sthāyī bhāva) and the transitory state (vyabhicārī bhāva) of the literary piece. In order to evoke a particular state, music employs a particular rāga, with its particular notes (swara) in a given order; the dancer in turn creates a whole state where the theme, the song, and the rhythm all contribute to evoke the particular mood or sentiment (rasa). The poses which the dancer utilizes for this purpose are identical with those of Indian sculpture, and very often the one is a visual representation in movement of the static pose of the other. The principles of movement and body manipulation are the same as those used by the śilpaśāstra, and practically all the poses of the nṛtta portion of the Indian dance can be analysed in terms of the four bhaṅgas on the one hand and the different types of āsana and sthāna on the other. For example, the pose used for the representation of the shooting of the arrow is ālīḍha in both the arts. Similarly, many attitudes in Indian sculpture can be analysed in terms of stylized dance movement, even though they may not be poses depicting dancing as such. This identification is not merely the result of the influence of one art upon another, but a reflection of the allegiance of both arts to the same basic rules of movement depiction. Even though the Indian dancer can use space more freely than the Indian sculptor, the emphasis is always on the pose which the dancer attains through a series of movements; and neither in these movements nor in the final pose (karaṇa) does the dancer deviate from the prescribed limitations of the plumb lines (sūtra) and the relative distance of the different parts of the body in a given bhaṅga. So much accurate sculptural representation of the dance was possible only because the two arts were so fundamentally inter-related.

We shall presently explore the valuable part played by Indian dance in the history of Indian sculpture; what must be pointed out here is that the dance

shared the minute analysis of the human figure in Indian sculpure and accepted

the principles underlying its rules for the distance between any two parts of body

in a given tāla and bhañga. In dance also each part of the human body is analysed

in terms of the possibility of its movement, like the cārī and the sthāna, to give

rise to the larger unit of the karana the karana in turn combining to give rise to

a dance sequence of the angahāra. If the Indian dance could not attain the measure-

ments of the different types of figures of the daśatāla and the navatāla in the linear

measurements, it did employ the principle of the horizontal axes (sūtra) of the

hikkā (neck-line), the bhadra (navel) and the kaṭi (hip) when decpicting the move-

ments of the different portions of the human form. The head with its divisions of

the face, eyes, nose, etc., is considered as a separate unit in Indian dance and is

used more extensively than in any other style of dancing. The possibilities of the

pivot joint of the neck are explored in full. The torso, the section of the body

between the hikkā and the bhadra planes, is the next unit dealt with: detailed

analysis of the karana poses will show the importance given to the point of the

navel as the base of all movements of the upper body. The kaṭi sūtra (hip-line)

is similarly utilized to the full as the centre of the movements of the hips, thighs,

knees and feet. Actually, the relationship of the bhañga with these horizontal lines

and with the central vertical axis can be perfectly seen in the movements and poses

of Indian dance. The relationship of the pramāṇa (breadth) to the central vertical

axis (brahmasūtra) is again fully utilized in Indian dance to indicate the compa-

rative violence or calmness of a mood. The distance between the feet is mentioned

in the Nāṭyaśāstra in the description and definition of most movements; this would

not have been necessary if the aim was not to maintain the perfect proportion and

relationship between the vertical axis (the brahmasūtra), the height (māna) and

the breadth of the horizontal plane (pramāṇa). The Indian dancer never errs on

the side of over-extension of legs; the leaps or leg-extensions so characteristic of

Western ballet are comparatively rare in Indian dance. The other technical aspect

common to Indian sculpture and dancing is hand gestures (hastābhinaya). If the

texts of Hindu iconography and texts of Indian dancing do not use quite the same

words, they use the same language and many hand gestures and their symbolic

meanings are common to both the arts20.

A comparison of the technique of the Indian arts has thus shown us that

certain aspects of the Indian arts are integral parts of the technique of Indian

dancing and that it embodies the salient features of each of these arts. Actually,

these arts not only share the common goal of all art and the aim of spiritual fulfil-

ment but do so through similar and occasionally overlapping techniques. All Indian

arts create an illusion of spontaneity which, when examined carefully, is the result

of the perfect and flawless execution of multiple and complex systems of technique.

The technique becomes especially significant because it is the vital vehicle of a

profound vision which the artist has known and which he is seeking to suggest

through his particular medium with the greatest possible concentration of rhythmic

unity. The freedom, the moksa, which the artist attains is through the rigorous discipline which the technique demands of him, in which his undisciplined subjective emotions have no part to play. The work of art truly becomes for the artist and the audience alike a yantra, a diagrammatic image, a symbolic key to a vision of unity, timeless and eternal. The repetition of themes, content and form is then no longer a cramping and delimiting boredom but a source of strength. Contemplation of this yantra, this spiritually as well as aesthetically satisfying symbol, can lead to a state in which bliss (ānanda) and complete release in life (jīvanmukti) may be experienced, however briefly. The concentrated vitality and discipline of the image of Śiva as Naṭarāja symbolizes all these aspects of the spirit and form of Indian art; the complexity of technique gives rise to but 'a single and unified ascension of the spirit' which is embodied in that symbol.

Notes

1. Sangītaratnākara (Adyar), I.43. 27-28.

2. See Brhaddesī (Mataṅga), Trivandrum Sanskrit Series, commentary on I. 63, where the derivation of the word svara is 'that which shines of itself'.

3. Sangītaratnākara (Adyar), I.3. 24-25.

4. Nārada Samhitā, 2. 53-54.

5. See Kallinātha's commentary on Sangītaratnākara, I. 3-23.

6. Mataṅga: Brhaddesī, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series p. 81. For other definitions of rāga, see Somanātha's Rāga Vibodha, 1.4, and Dāmodara Miśra's Sangītadarpana (Calcutta Edition), 2.1. Also see Tagore, S. M.: Hindū Music from Various Authors, p. 27, where many definitions have been collected.

7. See Daniélou, Alain: Northern Indian Music, Vol. I, pp. 58-60, for the relationship of svara and śruti and their classification according to emotional characteristics.

8. See Brhaddesī, I. 84. Sangītaratnākara, I. 3.52 ff., where the exact correspondence of each svara to colour, deity, metre, dynasty, caste, place of origin, Rsi and rasa is worked out, and Kunhan Rāja's translation of Sangītaratnākara, Ch. I, pp. 54 and 64.

9. For a detailed study of the structure of the rāga and its relationship to rasa see Bharata: Nātyasāstra, Ch. XXVIII, XXIX and XXXVIII; Mataṅga: Brhaddesī: Visnudharmottara Purāṇa, Part III, Ch. XVIII-IX; Nārada: Sangītamakaranda: Sāriṅgadeva: Sangītaratnā-kara: Somanātha: Rāga Vibodha and Srikanṭha: Rasa-Kaumudī.

10. For a discussion of these aspects of music see Sangītaratnākara, I. 2.1, 1.2, 140 and I. 3.3.10 and Sangītamakaranda of Nārada.

11. A detailed discussion on architecture is not within the scope of our study. For a full discussion of the principles of architecture, see Vastusāstra and Silpasāstra: Mānasollāsa of Bhaṭṭa Somesvara, Mayamata of Mayamuni, Samarāṅgaṇasutradhāra (two chapters edited by Dr. V. Raghavan JISOA III, pp. 15–32); Mānasāra, edited by P. K. Acharya; Bagchi, P. C. Piṅgalamāpa, Ch. IV—JISOA Vol. XI, pp. 9-37, and Kramrisch, Stella; The Hindu Temple, where the symbolism and form of the Hindu temple are discussed.

12. Śri Aurobindo: The Fundamentals of Indian Culture, p. 261

21

13. There are differences of opinion with regard to the basic unit of measurement in the different

texts of iconography; and angula is thought of as the more ancient basic unit by some authors.

Also different texts of iconography give different measures for the images of the same tāla:

thus the daśatāla image can also be divided into different proportions. For our purpose here,

it is important to know the underlying principle rather than the details of different specifica-

tions. For a detailed discussion on tāla measurements, see the following:

Brhatsamhitā (Ch. LVII-LVIII), (translation by Banerjee, J. N., in his Development of Hindu

Iconography, 2nd edition, pp. 578-89);

Pratimāmānalakṣaṇam—(translation, ibid., pp. 590 ff.);

Mānasāra (specially Ch. LXV);

Ṣamarāṅgaṇa sutrādhāra (of Bhoja), Vol. I,

Ṣukrānītisāra (of Ṣukracārya), IV. 4;

Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa, III. 34;

Matsya Purāṇa, Ch. XLII and CCLVIII-CCLIX;

Rao, Gopinatha: Elements of Hindu Iconography;

Acharya, P. K.: Dictionary of Hindu Architecture, Vol. VII, p. 195 ff.;

Banerjee, J. N.: Development of Hindu Iconography;

Hadaway, W. S.: Some Hindu Śilpaśāstras in Ost Asiatisch Zeitschrift, Vol. II, No. 1, p. 387.

14. This is according to Vaikhānasāgama, quoted by Rao, Gopinatha : Elements of Hindu Icono-

graphy, Vol. I, Part II. Appendix, pp. 4-5.

15. See Mānasāra (edited by Acharya, P. K., Ch. LXVII V. 96 ff.)

16. See Vātsyāyana, Kāmasūtra, Chapter on Citrakalā: Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa, III. 37,

where the drṣṭi in painting is described, and III. 35 where painting is discussed. Ch. LXXXII

of Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra also deals with rasa-drṣṭi.

17. A detailed examination of all these aspects will be taken up in the chapter on 'Theory and

Technique of Classical Indian Dance'.

18. Chapter numbers relate to the Baroda edition of the Nātyaśāstra, unless otherwise indicated.

19. See Nātyaśāstra (Chowkamba Series), Ch. XXII and XXVI.

20. See Chapter II 'Theory and Technique of Classical Indian Dance' where a detailed comparison

has been made (see Table XIII).

22

II

THEORY AND TECHNIQUE OF CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE

THE quest of the classical Indian arts was a pursuit of absolute form, which would

suggest through its flawlessness the ultimate state of being and which would

transcend the transitory, the chaotic, the subjective and the personal in man.

A study of the theory and technique of the Indian arts is, therefore, not only aca-

demically rewarding but essential for both the artist and the spectator. In the

theoretical treatises on the arts, the principles of form in the respective media

have been classified and analyzed to enable the reader to comprehend the absolute

form which is charged with spiritual significance.

Novelty of theme or content is here an irrelevant consideration. The content

of art has also thus been analyzed as the potential material of abstract form.

The dimension of the spirit, which is so often experienced by the sensitive and the

aesthetically trained, and which has been called the twin brother of the mystic

experience, is one which the ancient artist and the theoretician knew well; the

tests only lay down the rules through which the perfect form in art can be suggested

and, in turn, through which a state of supreme bliss, however momentary, can be

experienced.

Indian dance takes the human figure as its basic instrument of expression

and applies the same method of analysis and synthesis in its technique as is seen in

other Indian arts. It synthesizes into itself the technique of other arts and becomes

the most beautiful and significant symbol of the spiritual and artistic approach of

the Hindu mind.

The theory of Indian dancing cannot thus be studied in isolation; it has

always to be comprehended as a complex synthesis of the arts of literature, sculpture

and music. The writer of the Nāṭyaśāstra is fully conscious of the all-embracing

quality of the art of drama (nāṭya, which includes dancing) when he states at the

very beginning of his treatise that "this art will be enriched by the teaching of all

scriptures (śāstra) and will give a review of all arts and crafts"1, and further that

"there is no wise maxim, no learning, no art or craft, no device, no action that is

not found in drama"2, and finally when he asserts: "Hence I have devised the

drama in which meet all the departments of knowledge, different arts and various

actions"3. There are no limitations of theme or content in this art; it depicts the

exploits of gods, asuras, kings and ordinary human beings; its range extends to the

seven divisions of the world (sapta d vīpa); thus, when the limitless range of human

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

nature with its joys and sorrows is depicted by means of representation through dramatic performance (abhinaya)4, it is called drama (nātya).

The theory and technique of Indian dance is an integral part of this conception of drama and cannot be understood without the full realization of the implications of these assertions, which have so aptly been made by Bharata. Without going into the intricate details of the historical development of dancing and the controversy whether dance emerged as an art form before drama proper or vice versa, it is sufficient to point out here that, at a very early stage of development, both these arts fused into one so that, by the time Bharata wrote his treatise, dance was very much a part of drama and at many points of contact both the arts were consciously conceived as one. The Nātyaśāstra thus is neither a treatise on drama alone, as understood by some, nor a treatise on dancing, as believed by quite a few. The technique of Indian dancing has actually to be culled and its principles selected with acute discrimination from the technique of dramaturgy prescribed by Bharata. Once this is done, dance does emerge as an independent art; it continues nevertheless to be an integral part of drama. Indeed, once the most important aspect of what we understand by dance today (what the Sanskrit dramatist understood as āngikābhinaya) is either taken out or ignored, the character of Indian drama is lost.

The principles which govern the technique of Indian dance are the same as those which govern the technique of classical Indian drama. Most theoreticians part of the structure of Indian drama, and that a literary piece can be understood only as a configuration of various aspects of stage presentation. The rules which govern this stage presentation are the manifold conventions of the Sanskrit stage. Thus the principle of the two modes (dharmī) of presentation, nātya (the stylized) or loka (the realistic), the different types of vrtti (style), namely kaiśikī (the graceful), sāttvatī (the grand), ārabhaṭī (the energetic) and bhāratī (the verbal); the full play of the four types of abhinaya (acting), namely, āṅgika (gestures or movement), vācika (the spoken word), āhārya (costume, make-up, stage props, etc.) and sāttvika (relating to state of emotion) are the broad principles which govern the structure of Indian drama and its stage presentation. It is these principles, along with other related ones such as the concept of bāhya (external) and ābhyantara (inner) acting, of pravrtti (local usage), of sāṃānyābhinaya (basic representation) and citrābhinaya (special representation), which govern also the technique of Indian dancing. In fact, on the Indian stage today these principles and conventions are observed in the presentation of compositions of contemporary classical dance styles rather than of contemporary Indian drama. In the Nātyaśāstra these principles have been discussed as a part of dramaturgy and histrionics and not particularly in the context of dance or drama alone5. The later texts, which deal with dance as an independent art, consider these principles in relation to dance only. It is not until we come

24

to the work of Nandikeśvara in the Abhinayadarpana that we find a full and independent treatment of dance from the point of view of the principles enumerated above. He is followed by other writers of treatises on dance. Śārṅgadeva and the authors of the Viṣnudharmottara Purāṇa and the Nāṭyaśāstra Saṅgraha all follow the analysis of Nandikeśvara.

The different aspects of dramaturgy as pertinent to dance are shown in the chart on page 26.

The technique of sāṃānyābhinaya (basic representation), bāhya (external or irregular) and ābhyantara (internal or regular) and citrābhinaya (special representation) is in turn made up by the combination of different elements of the four types of abhinaya. The technique of dance is evolved directly out of the diverse elements of the dharmī, the vrtti and the four types of abhinaya mentioned above. Judging from the divisions which are made in later texts like the Abhinayadarpana, the Saṅgītaratnākara, etc., the technique of dance, as distinct from the technique of drama proper, utilizes drama (nāṭya) as one of its aspects, as much as drama utilizes nrtta (pure dance) and nrtya (dance with mime) as an aspect of its technique.

TECHNIQUE

According to the Abhinayadarpana, the Saṅgītaratnākara and other medieval treatises, dance is divided into three distinct categories, viz., nāṭya, nrtya and nrtta6. Nāṭya here corresponds to drama, nrtya to mime performed to song and nrtta to pure dance where the movements of the body do not express mood (bhāva) or meaning. These texts also characterize dancing as masculine (tāṇḍava) or feminine (lāsya). These terms also occur in the Nāṭyaśāstra, but not explicitly in this sense. The Nāṭyaśāstra uses the word tāṇḍava as a generic term which cannot be interpreted as denoting vigorous dancing or as one performed by men alone. Chapter IV of the Nāṭyaśāstra is entitled Tāṇḍavalakṣaṇam and the term tāṇḍava is used here for the particular dance which Taṇḍu composed by combining the recaka (circular movement of a limb), the aṅgahāra (sequence of movements) and the piṇḍī (grouping) with song and instrumental music7. This dance was to be performed generally for the adoration of the gods, while its gentler aspect (sukumāra prayoga)8 was to be used in the śṛṅgāra rasa (erotic sentiment). The word lāsya is used in later chapters as a synonym for sukumāra nrtya and, in the description of the ten types of drama, lāsya is one of the forms mentioned9. The Abhinaya-darpaṇa and the Saṅgītaratnākara, however, clearly describe tāṇḍava as derived from Taṇḍu and lāsya as derived from Pārvatī who taught it to Ūṣā, the daughter of Vāṇa10.

From the foregoing account, it is clear that the art of dancing has clearly

25

Chart showing different aspects of dramaturgy as pertinent to dance

26

been classified into nrtya, nrtta and nātya, on the one hand, and tāndava and lāsya or sukmāra, on the other. The technique of classical Indian dancing can be broken up into these constituents, which are faithfully followed to this day in all the styles of Indian dancing. The terms nrtta and abhinaya, tāndava and lāsya, are also prevalent amongst practising dancers throughout the country: the dancers speak an identical language of basic technique even though there are significant differences in stylization.

On the basis of the classification given above, we can analyze dance technique under two clear heads, nrtta (pure dance) and nrtya (dance with mime). It would be more appropriate to term the second as just abhinaya, which is also the term popularly used by practising dancers for the mime aspect of dance.

Nrtta Technique

The nrtta technique of dance as discussed in the treatises has to be understood as the laws of human movement. It is generally accepted that Indian dancing has a sculpturesque quality which is rare in the dance styles of the West, for its emphasis is on the pose, the stance, and not on a continuous movement in limitless space, as is the impression given by Western classical ballet. In the nrtta technique, we find that a series of poses, sculpturesque in quality and almost static in impression, are connected by movement in a given metrical cycle. Indian dancing seeks to depict the perfect point or the moment of balance along the brahmasūtra (the vertical median), so much so that all movement emerges from the sama (the point of perfect balance, akin to the samabhañga of sculpture) and comes back to this. It is movement of the human form in direct relation to the pull of gravity that Indian dance conceives, which explains its deliberate avoidance, for the most part, of terrific leaps and gliding movements in the air so characteristic of the Western ballet. In the latter, a position in space where the human form is apparently free from gravity, is emphasized. It is the stages of movement which are depicted in the composition of dance: it strives thus to eliminate space by covering as much of it as possible, whether it is floor-space or space in the air. Space is enveloped in figures of movement in leaps and in intricate floor choreography. The Western dancer is reaching out into space in order to arrest a moment of perfect movement: he strives for spacelessness at a point in time. The Indian dancer's preoccupation is not so much with space as with time, and the dancer is constantly trying to achieve the perfect pose which will convey a sense of timelessness. We find that, except in certain aspects of Kathākali and Mayurbhañja, in none of the other classical Indian dance styles are there any large leaps evident, nor have they been discussed in the treatises. Bharata could have easily analyzed and discussed the possibilities of movement in space, where both hands and feet lose contact with the ground, but he does not do so in any one of the 108 karanas or the thirty-two angahāras, which he discusses in great detail. The system of movement composition

has thus to be understood in the light of this difference in approach and within this broad framework. As much as Indian drama deliberately and purposely avoided certain features of life for depiction, so also Indian dance purposely and with deliberate design emphasized only certain types of movement. It explored the fullest possibilities of movement but within the limitations which it consciously imposed on itself as discipline.

The Indian dancer, like the Indian sculptor, does not lay much emphasis on the muscles of the human body but takes the joints and the fundamental bone-structure as its basis. It enables the dancer to suggest an abstract form without drawing attention to individual features of the muscles. In so far as the whole process of dancing was a yoga, this was inevitable, for the muscles could not suggest absolute form or create abstract geometrical patterns. The different parts of the body and their respective movements have been analyzed with this basic point of view. The knee, hip and shoulder joints constitute the key points from which movement originates in the lower and upper limbs: the neck joint is the pivot joint responsible for the movements of the head. The Nātyaśāstra gives us two types of classification of movements. There is, first, the analysis of different parts of the human body from the point of view of the possibility of movement; thus, in Chapters VIII and IX, it analyzes in great detail the movements of major and minor limbs. In Chapters XII, XIII and IV, there is a discussion on the combinations of these primary movements such as cārī, mandala, karana, angahāra, etc. According to this classification, the head, hands, breast, sides (waist), hips and feet constitute the major limbs (anga), and eyes, eyebrows, nose, lips, chin, mouth, etc., constitute the minor limbs (upānga)11: Bharata uses the words upānga and pratyanga practically as synonyms, but does not classify the neck, arms, abdomen, shanks and knees in either category; texts like the Abhinayadarpana12 and the Sangītaratnākara classify these as pratyanga. The Nātyaśāstra does not also analyze movement of the knee (jānu), the ankles (gulpha) and the toes of the feet which is done by other texts. It does mention wrist movements but does not devote a separate section to them. An attempt is made below at a comparative study of the movements of these major limbs. The hands (hasta) are the only parts of the body the uses of which for nrtta and abhinaya are separately treated. In the case of other parts of the body, the movement of the particular part has been described first, and this is followed by its viniyoga (usage), which constitutes a part of the abhinaya technique. This is, however, more true of the movements of the minor limbs, specially of facial (mukhaja) ones like those of the eyebrow, eyeball, eyelid, chin, nose, lips, etc. The thighs, waist, side and chest have been primarily discussed from the point of view of nrtta.

On the basis of these movements of the separate parts of the human body, Bharata discusses and analyzes the fundamental units of movement. The cārī is the most important single unit of movement in the nrtta technique as enunciated

by Bharata. A movement of the lower part of the body consequent upon a movement of one foot from the sama position of the feet is termed a pāda cārī. Bharata (histrionic representation) is included in the cārī and no part of it can take place without the same."13 Since the cārī is also a part of a system of exercise, its various

forms are related to one another and cannot be considered in isolation. The cārī results from movement with one foot; movements of both the feet produce a karana: (this karana is, however, different from the karana of Chapter IV, which

is described as a complete unit of movement of all the limbs.14) Three karanas in combination form a khaṇḍa and three or four khaṇḍas constitute a maṇḍala15. The maṇḍala is also different from the two types of maṇḍala which arise out of

the cārī.16 In Chapter X, thirty-two kinds of cārī are defined; of these sixteen are termed bhaumī (earthly) and the other sixteen are called ākāśikī (aerial). The difference between the two groups is really one of degree and frequency of movement rather than of quality. The first type of cārī has some seven static positions

of the shank, and the second type indicates movement and utilizes both the feet, even though the main movement involves only one leg or one foot. In Tables XVII and XVIII an attempt has been made to describe these cārīs and relate them to

different parts of the body.

Next in importance to the cārī is the unit of movement called the karana discussed in detail in Chapter IV of the Nāṭyaśāstra, where the 108 types of karana are described. It is necessary to point out, in this context, that it is not possible

to understand Chapter IV or the descriptions of the karana without knowing the movements of the separate parts of the body like the feet, thighs, waist, and the varieties of ṇṛtta hasta, all of which are discussed later, particularly in Chapters

VII, IX, X and XI. In our analysis of the karanas, the relationship of these units of movement to the different parts of the body has been worked out. According to the Nāṭyaśāstra, two karanas constitute a mātrkā; two or three of these in

turn constitute an aṅgahāra. Bharata also says that three karanas will constitute a kalāpaka, four karanas, a saṇḍaka, and five karanas, a saṅghātaka.17 These are no more than terms to us, but it is clear that any of them can combine to form an

aṅgahāra, which is a sequence rather than a unit of movement. Parallel to this composition of movement is the combination of the cārīs to form maṇḍalas, which are described in Chapter XI, where ten aerial maṇḍalas and eight earthly

maṇḍalas18 have been described. The eight earthly maṇḍalas share their names with the cārīs of the same type (i.e., earthly). Of the ten aerial ones four share their names with the cārīs; the other six are derived from cārīs but they share their

names with the karanas. Most of the karanas also derive their names and their movement from the cārīs and this has been pointed out in the detailed discussion of the individual karanas. The maṇḍala and the aṅgahāra, being series of movements

of varying degrees of complexity, can only be analyzed in actual movement demonstration and no attempt has been made to tabulate them.

29

Apart from the cārī, karaṇa, maṇḍala and aṅgahāra, the other important types of movement in the nrtta technique are the movements and compositions indicated by the technical terms recaka, bhramarī and utplavana, and the group composition indicated by the term piṇḍībandha. The Nāṭyaśāstra only defines the recaka and the piṇḍibandha, though the bhramarī (spiral movement) and the utplavana (jump) are mentioned in the context of the karaṇa. The last two, namely the bhramarī and the utplavana, have been discussed in the Abhinayadarpaṇa and the Sangītaratnākara. Nandikeśvara mentions five types of utplavana, namely alaga, kartarī, aśva, moṭita, krpālaga; and seven types of bhramarī, viz., utpluta, cakra, garuḍa, ekapāda kuñcita, ākāśa, and aṅga19. The Abhinayadarpaṇa also enumerates eight types of cārī which have nothing in common with the cārī of the Nāṭyaśāstra and which belong more to the class of movement termed gati by Bharata.

Both the bhramarī of the Abhinayadarpaṇa and the recaka of the Nāṭyaśāstra belong to a class of circular movement and denote turning of one part of the body or the whole body around an axis, which would be termed as spinning or a pirouette (or cakkar as in contemporary Kathak terminology). The Nāṭyaśāstra describes recaka (rotation) of the pāda (feet), kaṭi (waist), hasta (hand) and grīvā (neck). The waist and the neck are capable of complete circular movement and the feet and the hands can achieve only a restricted movement within the limitation of the wrist and the ankle joint, but what Bharata means by pāda and hasta recaka is the complete circular movement of the whole leg or arm, and this is stated clearly in the Nāṭyaśāstra20. The frequent reference to the recaka in literature, in the description of the karaṇas and in the description of the individual movements of the different parts of the body tells us of the great popularity of spiral and spinning movements in the dance of the Nāṭyaśāstra tradition. They seem to have enjoyed the same popularity until the time of Rājaśekhara.

The most important term in the sphere of dance composition found in the Nāṭyaśāstra is the piṇḍībandha.21 Four varieties of piṇḍī are mentioned: piṇḍī, śṛṅkhalā, latābandha, and bhedyaka. The first stands for a collective dance, and the word piṇḍī suggests a gulma (cluster). The entry of the main dancer was, perhaps, followed by that of a group of dancers: the nature of the formation of the group has not been described by the Nāṭyaśāstra, but the name suggests a composition where a closed cluster would be made by the dancers. Another type of composition is the śṛṅkhalā, where a chain formation is suggested and the partners hold hands: latābandha suggests a dance composition where the dancers put their arms around each other. In the bhedyaka dancers break away from the group and perform individual movements. All these are employed in the beginning of a play, and are related to āsārita of various kinds. The piṇḍībandha is thus applied in the first cāsārita (which is the shortest); the śṛṅkhalā is employed at the transition of tempo, the latābandha in the middle āsārita and the bhedyaka

in the longest22. An elaborate system of nrtta technique is thus laid down and

the enumeration above covers most of Bharata's discussion of this technique.

Nrtya or Abhinaya

The miming aspect of nātya termed āngikābhinaya in the Nātyaśāstra is

also an integral part of dancing; the principles which govern the technique of

āngikābhinaya in nātya also govern the technique of nrtya or what is termed as

just abhinaya in dancing.

The dancer employs the body and its limbs for expression; the vācikābhinaya

of nātya, where the actors themselves use speech, is replaced by the music which

accompanies the dance. In the nrtta portion, the musical accompaniment utilizes

melody in a given tāla (metrical cycle) and the improvisations on the basic tāla are

interpreted through movement. In the abhinaya portion the musical accompaniment

mostly consists of poetry, lyrical or narrative, set to music and rhythmi It is this

poetry which is interpreted by the dancer: the interpretation (specially in the

solo dancing of all the classical styles) comprises a portrayal of the various sañ-

cārī bhāvas of the particular sthāyī bhāva. This is achieved through a series of

variations of the āngikābhinaya, each word of the poetry being interpreted in as

many different ways as possible. The principle of nātyadharmi is strictly followed

during the portrayal: here the one dancer assumes different roles, without change

of dress or costume. Bharata, while citing examples of nātyadharmi, tells us that,

if the same actor assumes a different role (in the same play) then it is nātyadharmi23.

He adds further that in any play, where dance-gestures are employed, there is a

predominance of graceful gesticulation, which is the spheie of nātyadharmi. The

whole sphere of dance belongs, indeed, to the nātyadharmi mode of presentation,

for the principle of imitation is nowhere followed and it is, instead, the principle

of suggestion which the dancer is guided by: no attempt is made to present things

as they are, and artistic stylization is implicit in the attempt to show, through

gesture, the entire range of human emotion and experience. The stylization is also

seen in the depiction of those emotions which would ordinarily be the sphere of

sāttvikābhinaya in the drama proper; in the dance abhinaya, even tears, etc., have

to be shown through gesticulation in nātyadharmi. The three types of gesticulation

seen in the abhinaya of drama, are the sūcā, the sākha, and the ankura; of these

the sākha type of āngikābhinaya belongs most to the sphere of dancing, for here

the theme is represented through the use of the head, face, thighs, feet, hands,

etc.24. The vrtti most suitable for the dance is the kaiśiki; it is witnessed both in

the nrtta and the nrtya portions. Bharata tells us that this vrtti is particularly

interesting on account of the dancing and singing which are used for its represen-

tation25. In so far as every vrtti has its corresponding rasa, they are all witnessed

in dancing, specially in the narrative themes and presentation of the sentiments

in a dance style like the Kathākali.

The nrtya or abhinaya portion utlizes for the most part the gesture of the

hands (hastābhinaya) and movements of the face (mukhajābhinaya), specially the drśti, i.e., the movement of the eyes, eyebrows, eyeballs, etc. The movements of the head and vakṣa (chest) are also important, but not to the same degree. Naturally, the movements of the feet cannot be ignored but they are of secondary importance. The hands are of supreme importance in abhinaya. Their movements have been grouped under those of the single hand and those of the combined hands (asamyuta and samyuta). The fingers and the hands have endless possibilities of movement, and most of them have been explored: the hand gestures form a fairly complete alphabet for a language. The hand movements are indeed the focal point around which everything else revolves. It is with this in view that Nandikeśara and the writers after him lay down the famous dictum that "where the hand goes, the eyes follow: where the eye goes, the bhāva (mood) follows and where the mind goes, there arises the rasa26 (sentiment)". The uses of the hands and their movements have not been discussed in the present study. All the primary hand movements, whether of one hand or of both, can be used purely imitatively, or they can be used to represent things, places and human beings, or to convey ideas and emotions; or they can be used as symbols. Through hand gesticulation, thus, the universe can be comprehended; through these hands the seven spheres, the oceans, rivers, planets, human beings, and animals can all be represented. These hand gestures along with the movements of the eyes and eyeballs are employed in the samānyābhinaya (basic representation) and in the citrābhinaya (special representation).

The movements of the different parts of the face and the head, specially eye movements, are almost as important as the hasta in the abhinaya technique of dance; each glance and each movement of the eyeball and eyebrow is related to a corresponding vyabhicārī bhāva, a sthāyī bhāva and a rasa. In the tables an attempt has been made to show the systematic relationship between these movements and the corresponding rasa.

The discussion above will make it clear that the technique of the Indian dance is as complex in nature as the technique of any other art in India and that it grows from the smallest unit of movement into a composite whole by a series of laws applied systematically to evoke a particular state of mind or rasa. This is as true of the nrtta as of the abhinaya technique. The chart on page 33 will give an idea of the inter-relationship and derivations of the different aspects of nrtta and abhinaya.

TEXTS

Texts or manuals on the theory and technique of dancing are innumerable and it is impossible to deal with all of them. Most of them are available only in

Chart showing inter-relationship and derivations of nrtta and abhinaya

3

33

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

manuscript form, and, except for a few, they have not been edited critically, and hardly has any been analyzed from the point of view of the technique of dancing as distinguished from the theory of nāṭya (drama proper) and saṅgīta. We have to draw our material, therefore, from such portions of these texts as deal with nṛtya or nṛtta, whether in the context of nāṭya (drama), saṅgīta (music), citrakalā (painting) or śilpa (sculpture).

The history of the theoretical literature on Indian dancing begins with the Nāṭasūtras referred to by Pāṇini. Śilālin and Kṛśāśva were the authors of these sūtras. Even though we are unable to determine definitely the nature of these works, it is clear that these works contained the first codification of the technique of dance and drama. It can also be fairly definitely established that these sūtras contained sets of rules for performing actors, dancers and pantomimists.

The text of the Nāṭyaśāstra is the earliest extant text on dramaturgy and histrionics in which the techniques of nṛtta (dance) and nṛtya (mime) have been discussed in detail. The compiler of the Nāṭyaśāstra quotes Śiva as his authority, and starts his treatise with a salutation to both Pitāmaha Brahmā and Maheśvara (Śiva); he states that he is going to explain the canons of drama (nāṭyaśāstra) as uttered by Bharata28. The hundred sons of Bharata mentioned in the Nāt-yaśāstra who studied the nāṭyaveda29 have been identified by scholars as the predecessors and contemporaries of Bharata. The compiler of the Nāṭyaśāstra seems to have borrowed freely from earlier writers and often mentions their works. The names of Kohala, Dattila (Dhūrtila), Śāndilya, Vātsya, Śālikarṇa (Śātakarṇi) or Śātakarṇi), Bāḍarāyaṇa, Nakhakuṭṭa and Aśmakuṭṭa are mentioned and, even though their works are not extant today, they are known to be writers on the art of historionics and dramaturgy. Bharata, in Chapter XXXVI, says that all the topics which have not been discussed by him will be discussed by Kohala later30. Bharata also mentions the names of ṛṣis other than Śilālin and Kṛśāśva. From the point of view of the nṛtya technique the works of Pravara and Kaśyapa are considered to be the most significant. Unfortunately, most of these works are lost and the main points of their treatises can only be recreated through the works of other authors who quote from them. Kaśyapa is known to have written a significant treatise on the relationship of rāga and rasa. The work of Kohala, mentioned by Bharata, is also lost to us, and the several manuscripts going by that name seem to be much later compilations31. The great contribution of Kohala seems to be his discussion of the uparūpakas32, the minor dramatic varieties which seem to have developed after Bharata. The uparūpaka was the dance-drama or music-drama which was distinct from the major dramatic form called the rūpaka and the nāṭaka proper.

Dattila (Dhūrtila of the Nāṭyaśāstra) is quoted by Abhinavagupta, and from these quotations it appears that he was a writer on histrionics and music. Dattila

seems to have been a prolific writer, judged from the number of times the Abhi-navabhāratī mentions him in the commentary on the chapter on music. Dattila seems to have enjoyed the reputation of an acknowledged authority.

Sāgaranandin's Nāṭakalakṣaṇaratnakośa quotes from Śātakarṇī and Aśma-kuṭṭa and Bādarāyaṇa: and Viśvanātha quotes from Nakhakuṭṭa leading to the conclusion that they were all authors of works on dramaturgy and, perhaps, also histrionics. Other ancient and medieval writers whose works do not seem to have come down to us, but who have been quoted or mentioned by Abhinavagupta, Śāradātanaya, (the writer of the Bhāvaprakāśa) and Sāgaranandin (the writer of the Nāṭakalakṣaṇa) are Nandī33, Tumburi, Viśākhila34 and Cārāyaṇa35, and Sadā-śiva36, Padmabhū37, Drauhiṇi38, Vyāsa, Ānjaneya Kātyāyana40, Rāhula41, Garga and Śakaligarbha41, and Ghaṇṭaka and Harṣa, the writer of Vārtika42, Mātṛgupta, Subandhu and many more. (All these writers with the exception of Mātṛgupta are but names to us today.) With King Mātṛgupta of Kashmir starts a line of commentators on the Nāṭyaśāstra whose works are valuable aids for the study of the Nāṭyaśāstra. A commentary on the Nāṭyaśāstra, and a dance treatise, is attributed to King Mātṛgupta. King Jayapīḍa of Kashmir is known to have married a dancer, and asked his minister Udbhata to write a commentary on the Nāṭya-śāstra. Following Udbhata many writers wrote commentaries and upākhvānas on the Naṭyaśāstra. Bhaṭṭa Lollaṭa, Śrīśaṅkuka, Bhaṭṭa Nāyaka and Bhaṭṭa Tauta may be mentioned in the context of the particular theories of aesthetics, but no one's work is as monumental or significant from the point of view of nāṭya and nṛtya as Abhinavagupta's. The commentary of Abhinavagupta, in spite of all its obscurities, is the richest and most valuable aid for an understanding of the Nāṭyaśāstra.

Other works on dramaturgy which have any bearing on histrionics and dancing are Bhoja's Śṛṅgāraprakāśa, Sāgaranandin's Nāṭakalakṣaṇaratnakośa, Rāma-candra's Nāṭyadarpaṇa and Śāradātanaya's Bhāvaprakāśa and, of course, the Daśarūpa of Dhananjaya and the Sāhityadarpaṇa of Viśvanātha, both of whom discuss drama proper, rather than the techniques of histrionics and dancing.

The most important works from the point of view of dancing are the Bha-ratabhāṣya of Nānyadeva, King of Mithilā, and the Abhinayadarpaṇa of Nandi-keśvara with all the different recensions and versions. The latter text is by far the most complete text on dance exclusively, which constitutes a discussion of the dance proper (nṛtta) and acting (nṛtya and abhinaya)43. Bharatārnava, the other work attributed to Nandikeśvara, also deals with abhinaya and nṛtya. The next authoritative discussion on dance is contained in the seventh chapter of the Saṅ-gītaratnākara of Śārṅgadeva.

Textual literature on dance is found practically in every province of India

and contemporary styles of classical dancing follow particular texts of the region.

It is worthwhile to remember that there exists a substantial gap between the writing

of the Nāṭyaśāstra and other important texts on dance. Even if the upper limit of

the Abhinayadarpaṇa is taken to be the sixth or seventh century, we still have a gap

of nearly 400 years between the first and the next authoritative texts on dance.

After the appearance of the Abhinayadarpaṇa, and the Sangītaratnākara, we have

a rich and sizable collection of texts and manuals on dance from all parts of India.

All this material, however, belongs to a historical period which is strictly not

within the purview of this study. Any historical re-construction of dance styles

prevalent during the medieval period, that is from the fourteenth to the eighteenth

centuries, would necessarily call for correlation between these texts on the one

hand and material available in historical chronicles and regional literatures on the

other. However, even a superficial glance at these texts convinces us of an extensive

tradition of dance, drama and music in different parts of India.

Following the monumental work of Śārṅgadeva in the Sangītaratnākara

and his comprehensive treatment of dance in the nrtyādhyāya, we find Jayasena's

(1253 c.) important work entitled Nrttaratnāvalī. Vācanācārya Sudhākalaśa's

work the Sangītopanisat Sāroddhāra (1350 A.D.) is a significant contribution

of the Jaina tradition to the literature of music and dance. He devotes two chapters

to dance and we obtain some very interesting insights into dance technique and

its development. There are significant points of departure from the Nāṭyaśāstra

in both the Sangītaratnākara and in Sudhākalaśa's work specially in the treatment

of the karaṇas. From Orissa we have the Abhinayacandrikā (XII-XIII ce.) by

Maheśvara Mahāpātra: later we have the Sangītadāmodara by Raghunātha (XVII

c.) and Sangītanārāyaṇa by Gajapati Nārāyaṇadeva of Khemundi from the same

region. From Assam we have the Hastamuktāvalī by Śubhaṅkara (1650 A.D.)

which has come down in Assamese, Newari and Bengali recensions. Assam and

Bengal follow the treatise closely: indeed the Ojāpallī dance drama of Assam

bases its hand gesture system on the Hastamuktāvalī44. From the same region we

have two other important texts on dance, namely Sangītadāmodara attributed also

to Śubhaṅkar and another on rhythm entitled Vādyapradīpa. All these texts can

be dated about the sixteenth or seventeenth century. From Rajasthan we have

the important work Nrtyaratnakośa by Kumbhakarṇa (1443-1468) dealing with

the dance, as also the Sangītarāja by the same author: from Uttar Pradesh we

have the Nrtyādhyāya in Sangītamallikā of Mohammad Shah (XVI-XVII cc.)

which throws interesting light on the development of Kathak. Commentaries on

the Sangītaratnākara continued to be written in all parts of India and Siṃhabhū-

pāla's and Kallinātha's commentaries are as important for an understanding of

the Sangītaratnākara as Abhinavagupta's commentary is for the understanding

of the Nāṭyaśāstra.

South Indian texts which have found publication are the Bālarāmabharata

of Mahārajā Bāla Rāma Varmā of Kerala (18th c.) and Nrtyādhyāya of the Sangītasārāmrta of the Tanjore Marhatta Tulaja. The Nrtyādhyāya of the Sangītamakaranda by Veda of the court of Sāhāji Rājā (1640 A.D.) has been published serially in the Journal of the Tanjore Saraswati Mahal Library45 edited by Vāsu-deva Śāstrī; the first volume of the Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, a compilation in Marathi script of various texts on the nātya made by one Utake Govindācārya has been published in the Madras Government Oriental Series46. A text of Bharatārnava by Nandikeśvara has also been published in the Tanjore Saraswati Mahal Series. Alain Daienlou has published another text entitled Le Gītalaṅkāra which, he asserts, is earlier than the Nātyaśāstra: however, there is still a great controversy about its date.

A great deal of literature on dance exists only in manuscript form and the critically edited editions of Bharatasenāpatya, Kumāragiri's Vasantarājiva, Vima-bhupāla's Sangītacintāmani and Lakṣminārāyaṇa's Sangītasūryodaya and the commentaries on the Silappadikāram47 would greatly enrich the theoretical literature on dance. Dr. V. Raghavan has done a valuable task of going through most of these texts and bringing them to the modern reading public,48 but there is still a great deal which remains to be done. A close relationship exists between the techniques of dancing discussed here and the technique of movement discussed in the Śilpaśāstras and the treatises on painting: the Agni Purāṇa and the Viṣṇu-dharmottara Purāṇa discuss this relationship and the borrow liberally from the Nāṭ-yaśāstra in their discussion.

For a comparative study of the technique of dancing, as laid down in these manuals, only a few of the published texts have been taken into consideration.

The tables that follow are based on the two principles of nrtta and abhinaya; first, an attempt has been made to compare the primary movements of the aṅgas and the upāṅgas in each of these treatises; secondly, the primary movements have been correlated to their uses (viniyoga) in abhinaya. Where ever it has been possible to correlate the viniyoga to the sañcārī and the sthāyī bhāvas (the transitory and the dominant states) and the rasa (sentiment), it has also been done. The main sources of comparison in the nrtta technique have been the Nātyaśāstra, the two versions of the Abhinayadarpana, the seventh chapter of the Sangītaratnākara, the Nrtyādhyāya of Veda's Sangītamakaranda (as edited by Vāsudeva Śāstrī), the Nātyaśāstra Sangraha and the Balārāmabharata:49 in the treatment of the hastas, the Hastalakṣanadīpikā50, the Hastamuktāvalī and the iconographical texts have also been considered.

For abhinaya and the uses (viniyoga) of the primary movements, all these texts have been taken into account, but the most profitable sources of analysis are the Nātyaśāstra and the Abhinayadarpana; thus a detailed analysis of only these two texts has been made.

Drṣṭi (glances)

The Nāṭyaśāstra describes thirty-six different types of glances (drṣṭi) excluding the eight additional looks (darśana) described in the context of the muscular movements of the eyeballs. Of these thirty-six, eight refer to the rasa (sentiments), another eight to the sthāyī bhāva (the dominant states): the names of the first sixteen can practically be identified with the names of the rasa, and the sthāyī bhāva; the names of the vyabhicārī drṣṭis correspond closely to the names of the vyabhicārī bhāva and are sometimes identical.

The first sixteen glances (drṣṭi) are described in great detail in terms of the muscular movements of the eyeballs, eyelids and the eyebrows and, occasionally, the colour of the eyes. Wherever the movements of the eyeballs, eyelids and the eyebrows have not been mentioned in technical terms, the descriptions indicate the precise movement. The twenty glances of the vyabhicārī bhāvas (transitory states) are more difficult to analyze in terms of the movements of the eyebrows, eyelids and eyeballs. An attempt has been made, therefore, to analyze only the first sixteen and not the last twenty. All the thirty-six glances have to be understood, nevertheless, in the context of the discussion on the representation of vibhāva and anubhāva contained in Chapter VII of the Nāṭyaśāstra.

The Sangitaratnākara51, the Nāṭyaśāstra Sangraha52, the Bālarāmabharata,53 Veda's Sangitamakaranda51 all follow closely the classification of the drṣṭis of the Nāṭyaśāstra. The text used by Coomaraswamy in the Mirror of Gesture54 enumerates forty-four glances, of which some like the sāci drṣṭi are described by Bharata; the others are more or less in accordance with the vyabhicārī drṣṭis of the Nāṭyaśāstra with a few omissions and a few additions, such as the ingita, dūra, etc.55 The twenty glances belonging to the vyabhicārī bhāva can be grouped according to their respective sthāyī bhāva, but since they are used to represent subtle shades of emotion and sentiment, it is best not to regroup them in terms of the sthāyī bhāva. Very often in the description of the drṣṭis of the rasa and the sthāyī bhāva the names of the vyabhicārī drṣṭis are frequently used by Bharata; thus ākekarā and trastā vibhrāntā are frequently used to represent sthāyī bhāva.

The drṣṭis inclusive of the movement of the eyeballs, the iris and the pupil of the eye, the eyelids, and the eyebrows form an important part of the abhinaya technique of Indian dance and drama, and in fact the āngikābhinaya in dancing (where speech is not used) uses for its expression most effectively the muscles of the eye and different parts of the face. The mukhajābhinaya has been given a very significant role in the histrionic technique of Indian dance and drama. Kathākali preserves to a very large extent the principles laid down by Bharata, and the accuracy of expression achieved by the use of face muscles, and movements of the different parts of the eye is impressive.

THEORY AND TECHNIQUE OF CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE

Table I and Table II show the different types of glances (dṛṣṭi) and movements of the eyeballs, eyelids and eyebrows, as also the movements of the different parts of the face in relation to a certain rasa or sthāyī bhāva. An accurate use of these movements would necessarily result in an expression of the face which would represent the particular sthāyī bhāva or rasa. The movements of the major limbs (aṅga) can also be related to the rasa but the correspondence cannot be as accurate as in the case of the face and eye movements, and Bharata does not explicitly relate them to the rasa or the sthāyī bhāva either. (Tables on pages 40-43).

Tāra & Darśana (eyeball)

The movements of the eyeballs have been treated in the texts from two points of view: there are first the eyeball movements without reference to the object of perception which suggest the positions of the eyeball in different parts of the eye, and then there is the classification of the eyeball movements according to the object of perception. Both these are closely connected, and the latter necessarily uses the former except in movements like the calana, samudvṛtta and the bhramana where the eyeball movements are used to express states and sentiments. The Nāṭyaśāstra enumerates nine movements of the first type and eight of the second: the Saṅgītaratnākara, the Nāṭyaśāstra Saṅgraha and the Bālarāmabharata follow this listing. The Abhinayadarpaṇa and the Mirror of Gesture do not mention the eyeball movements, but only mention the second variety under dṛṣṭis: seven out of the eight mentioned have a great deal in common with the darśana of the Saṅgīta-ratnākara and the additional dṛṣṭis of the Nāṭyaśāstra, but the last movement is completely different in the Abhinayadarpaṇa and the Mirror of Gesture. The Mirror of Gesture mentions forty-four other glances on the basis of another text58, but when this list is carefully examined, one finds that it is really a mixture of the rasa dṛṣṭis of the Nāṭyaśāstra and the eyeball movements discussed above and some eyelid movements. Of the forty-four, the following are common to those mentioned by the Nāṭyaśāstra: sama, pravilokita, ālokita, sācī, vilokita, avalokita, anuvṛtta and milītā.

Śṛṅgārā, adbhuta, karuṇa, bhayānaka, vīra, raudra relate to rasa dṛṣṭis and most of the others relate to the vyabhicārī bhāva dṛṣṭis.

The eyeball movements and the darśana can also be regrouped according to the direction of the movement of the eyeball. The sācī, the pralokita, the vivartana (or kaṭākṣa) belong to one category where the pupil moves either to one side, or moves from side to side.

The movements of the eyeballs in the up-down direction form another group; samudvṛtta, sampraveśana, ullokita belong to this category where the pupil is taken either to the top or bottom of the eye.

The circular movements of the eyeball, such as the bhramana form the third

TABLE I

Rasa and Sthāyi Bhāva Dr̥ṣṭi

(1)

Rasa

Śr̥ṅgāra

(Rati)

Bhayānaka

Hāsya

Karuna

(Soka)

Adbhuta

(Vismaya)

(2)

Rasa Dr̥ṣṭi

Kāntā

Bhayānakā

Hāsyā

Karunā

Adbhutā

(3)

Sthāyi Bhāva Dr̥ṣṭi

Snigdhā

Hr̥ṣṭā

Dīnā

Viṣmitā

(4)

Tarā

(pupil)

Vivartana

Prākṛta

Samudr̥ta

Kampita—and

Niṣkrama and

Calana

Praveśana

"

"

(5)

Puta

(eyelid)

Sama

Vivartita

Sphurita

Prasr̥ta

Kuñcita

Pihita

Nimeṣa

Kuñcita

Samudr̥ta

Prasr̥ta

(6)

Bhru

(eyebrow)

Utkṣepa and

Kajalākṣa

Kuñcita

Sahaja

(7)

Darsana

(look)

Niṣkrānta-madhyā dr̥ṣṭi

(a terrified still glance)

Gaze at the tip of the

nose, and very slow

movement of the pupil

Vilokita or Viṣmita

Eyes are flushed

Bhrukuṭi

Utkṣepa

Utphulla drṣṭi

Miliṭā drṣṭi closing and turning away from the object

Sahaja

Pāta

Sahaja

Unmeṣa

Prasṛta

Kuñcita

Nimeṣa

Prākṛta or Samudrita or Bhramaṇa and Valana movement may also be used in certain contexts.

Samudrita or Prākṛta

Sama tārā

Pravesana

Anekarā (sañcāri bhāva drṣṭi)

Kruddhā

Drḍha

Bibhatsā Jugupsitā

Raudrī

Vīrā

Raudra (Krodha)

Vīra (Utsāha)

Bibhatsā Jugupsā

Śānta 86

41

TABLE II

Mukhājabhinaya

(1)37 Rasa

1. Śṛṅgāra

2. Bhayānaka

3. Hāsya

4. Karuṇa

5. Adbhuta

(2) Nāsā (nose)

Sthocchvāsā

Vikṛṣṭā or Mandā

Vikṛṣṭā

Natā or Mandā

Stavāhānikā

(3) Gaṇḍa (cheeks)

Phulla or Sama

Kampita or Kūñcita

Pūrṇa or Phulla

Kṣāma

Sama

(4) Adhara (lips)

Visarga or Samudga

Kampana

Visarga or Vivarṇa

Samudga

Visarga or Sama

(5) Cibuka (chin)

Sama or Khap̣ana

Kuṭṭana or Cinna

Lehana or Cukkita

Sama or Cinna

(6) Mukha (mouth)

Udvāhi or Bhugna or Vivṛta

Vivṛta

Vivṛta or Viniṅṛta

Bhugna or Nirbhugna

Udvāhi

(7) Mukha Rāga (colour of face)

Prasanna or Svābhāvika

Śyāma

Prasanna

Rakta

Prasanna

42

Rakta

Rakta

Śyāma

Viniyṛta

Vidhuta or Udvāhi

Viniyṛta Nirbharangṣa

Daṣṭa

Sama

Chinna or Kuṭṭana

Kampana or Sandāṣṭaka or Viniṣṭhana

Vivarṭana

Pūrṇa or Kampita

Pūrṇa

Kucita

Vikṛṣṭā

Vikṛṣṭā or Svabhāvika

Vikūṇitā

Raudra

Vīra

Bībhatsa

43

category and the diagonal or oblique movements of the eyeballs such as the valana,

vilokita belong to the fourth; the normal or relaxed portions of the eyeball such

as the prākṛta, sama, pāta belong to yet a fifth category.

Bhrū (eyebrows) and Puṭa (eyelids)

The eyelid and eyebrow movements enumerated by the texts show that the

theoretician of the dance had explored the full possibilities of movement of these

parts of the face and from the Nāṭyaśāstra to the Bālarāmabharatā there is an

extensive listing of the eyebrow and eyelid movements.

The seven movements of the eyebrow and the nine movements of the eyelid

take into consideration all movements possible physically: they can be reclassified

according to the directions of movement and the positions of the eyeball, eyelid

and eyebrow. Bharata is fully aware of this when he discusses any one of these

movements, and this pattern which seems so abstract can be understood in its

entirety only by an awareness of the inter-relationships of the movement of

different parts of the eye. The movements of the eyelid and eyebrow along the

veritcal plane are unmeṣa, vivartitā (puṭa), utkṣepa (bhrū), samudvṛtta (tārā),

ullokita (darśana) with an emphasis on an upward movement; nimeṣa (eyelid),

pāta (eyebrow) and sampraveśana (eyeball), avalokita (darśana) have a down-

ward accent. The movements along the horizontal plane (i.e. side to side) are

prasṛta (eyelid), catura (eyebrow), vivartana (eyeball movement), sācī and pralokita

(darśana). The movements along the thickness have also been visualized as in

the niṣkramaṇa movement of the eyeball, which suggests a going out or a bulge

of the eyeball. The circular movements can apply only to the eyebrow and the

eyeball and the recita bhrū and the bhramaṇa (tārā) movements belong to this

category.

Contraction, expansion, and throbbing, corresponding to the tense and

relaxed positions of the other limbs have also been classified. Thus, the kuñcita

eyelid and the kuñcita eyebrow and the bhrūkuṭi eyebrow denote contraction,

and prasṛta eyelid, the sahaja eyebrow, the ālokitā dṛṣṭi or darśana and pāta eye-

ball denote relaxation. The normal positions of these parts have been termed

as sama (eyelid), sahaja (eyebrow), prākṛta (eyeball) and sama (dṛṣṭi), respectively.

In the case of the eyelid the throbbing movement (sphurita) has also been taken

into account.

The nine movements of the eyebrow which the Bālarāmabharata enumerates

are in fact only combinations of the movements described by Bharata and Sārṅga-

deva, and can be reclassified easily under the six basic movements. It will be

observed from the tables that the Abhinayadarpaṇa does not mention either the

eyelid or the eyebrow movements: the Mirror of Gesture mentions only the eye-

brow movements and does not mention the eyelid movements.

Tables III, IV and V show the movements of the different parts of the eye.

Table III shows the relationship of the tārā (eyeball) movements and the additional drṣṭis laid down by the Nāṭyaśāstra; these drṣṭis are termed darśana by the later texts.

Table IV shows the different eyebrow movements according to the Nāṭyaśāstra, Mirror of Gesture, Saṅgītaratnākara and Bālarāmabharata.

Table V shows the movements of the puta (eyelid), eyebrows and eyeballs.

(Tables on pp 46-51)

Mukhajābhinaya (movements of the face)

Movements of the mouth (mukha), nose (nāsā), cheeks (gaṇḍa), chin (cibuka) and lips (adhara) are classified in the Nāṭyaśāstra, the Saṅgītaratnākara, the Nāṭyaśāstra Saṅgraha and the Bālarāmabharata according to the muscular possibilities of movement of these parts of the face.

The Nāṭyaśāstra classfication is followed to a large extent by the other texts.

The Saṅgītaratnākara adds a few more movements in the case of the lips such as udvṛtta, āyata and recita and two more movements, grahaṇa and niṣkarṣaṇa, in the case of the chin (classified as teeth movements).

Most of these movements are important more from the point of view of abhinaya than of nṛtta.

The usage gives them significance in the former aspect of dancing.

The tongue (jihvā) movements are enumerated only by the later texts (i.e., Saṅgītaratnākara, Nāṭyaśāstra Saṅgraha and Bālarāmabharata) and have not been mentioned by Bharata in the Nāṭyaśāstra.

There is scant evidence in the literary works of Sanskrit literature of the popular usage of these movements of the nose, cheeks, chin, etc.; the drṣṭis, the movements of the eyeball (tārā) and the eyebrow (bhrū) are, however, frequently mentioned by the creative writers.

Kathākali alone among dance styles utilizes these classifications of facial muscles etc., for the rest they are known as part of a discipline and training of the dancer, but are not consciously employed in Indian dancing.

The Bālarāma-bharata mentions many more movements of these parts of the face which seem to derive their validity from the oral rather than the academic tradition; nevertheless, most of them can be analyzed in terms of their corresponding vyabhīcārī bhāva etc.

and thus form an integral part of āṅgikābhinaya of classical dancing.

Table VI indicates the correlation of each of these movements of the nose, cheeks, lips, chin, and the mouth to one another.

(Table VI on pp 52-53)

Śirobheda (movements of the head)

The Nāṭyaśāstra mentions thirteen basic movements of the head and discusses the viniyoga (usage) both in terms of abhinaya and nṛtta.

The Abhinayadarpaṇa mentions nine movements of which five are similar to the ones mentioned in the Nāṭyaśāstra: of the other four, three have common names but not the same descriptions as in the Nāṭyaśāstra; the ninth, viz., sama is completely differently defined.

The Saṅgītaratnākara follows the Nāṭyaśāstra closely and repeats the thirteen movements mentioned in the Nāṭyaśāstra, but adds the sama of the Abhinaya-darpaṇa and another five new movements not mentioned in the Nāṭyaśāstra.

TABLE III

Tārā (eyeball movements) and Darsana (glances)

Tārā (eyeball movements)

NŚ, SR & NŚS39

(1) 1. Bhramana (a circular movement of the eyeball)

2. Valana (the oblique or diagonal movement of the eyeball)

As in NŚ BB60

(2) Vilokita (looking at an object behind, turning)

NŚ51

(3) calls them drṣṭis

AD & MG52 Drṣṭis

(4)

SR & NŚS33

(5) As in NŚ, but the movements called darsana; they clearly denote the variations in the positions of the pupils in different kinds of observation and are thus called the objective visayābhimukha tāra etc.

BB44 calls them Drṣṭis which observe objects

(6)

46

47

3. Pāta (a relaxed normal position of the eyeball)

As in NŚ, two types Anuvṛtta (looking at an object care- fully)

are listed: siṅgra and manthar pāta

Anuvṛtta (but the description is a movement of the pupils up and down)

Anuvṛtta (difference in use and definition)

4. Calana (the tremor of the eyeballs)

As in NŚ, two movements are listed: svastḥāna and varacalana

5. Sampraveśana (when the eyeballs are drawn inside so that the pupil is practi- cally invisible)

As in NŚ

Avalokita (looking at an object below but the pupils are re- vealed in the eyelids)

Avalokita (slight difference in definition)

6. Vivartana (the sideways movement with open eyelid is called katāksa also)

As in NŚ

Sāci (the sidelong glance the pupil is taken to the corner of the eye)

Sāci

7. Samudvṛtta (raising of the eyeballs)

Udvṛtta (same as samudvṛtta)

Pralokita (looking at an object from the side)

Pralokita but slight ght difference in definition

Ullokita (taking the pupil up—looking at a high object)

As in NŚ

Avalokana

Pralokana

Ullokana

(Continued)

TABLE III (Contd.)

(1)

8. Nişkramaṇa (the bulging of the eyeballs)

As in NṢ

9. Prākṛta (natural glance)

Prasṛta (cf. prakṛta of the NṢ)

(2)

As in NṢ

(3)

Alokita (the sudden opening of the eyes)

Sama (eye-ball in middle of eye)°

(4)

As in NṢ

As in NṢ nimi-liṭā (half closed eyes)

(5)

(6)

Alokana

Sama

48

TABLE IV

Bhrū (movements of the eyebrow)

NŠ65

(1)

1. Utkeṣaṇa (raising the eyebrow)

2. Pātana (lowering the eyebrow)

3. Bhrūkuti (knitting the eyebrow)

4. Catura (when the eyebrow is pleasantly extended)

5. Kuñcita (contracted)

6. Recita (moving gracefully)

7. Saha ja (natural)

MG96

(2)

Utksipta (raising the eyebrow as in MG

Patita (difference in definition—usage same)

Bhrūkuti—as in NS

Catura

Kuñcita

Recita

Saha ja

SR & NS67

(3)

As in MG

As in MG

As in MG

Nikucita—(slight variation in definition)

As in NS

As in MG

As in MG

BB68

(4)

As in SR & NS

As in MG

As in MG

As in NS

As in NS

As in NS

BB

(5)

Additional movements of Bhrūkuti given by BB

1. Vaitā

2. Calitā

3. Stabdha

4. Āyatā

5. Avakunthitā

6. Vivartitā

7. Natā

8. Vakritā

9. Lalitā

49

TABLE V

Movements of the puṭa (eyelid) and corresponding movements of the bhrū (eyebrow), tāra (eyeball) and darsana (look)

1.NS49

1. Unmesa (opening the eyelids)

2. Nimesa (closing of the eyelids)

3. Prasṛṭa (when the eyelids are well extended)

4. Kuñcita (contracted eyelid)

5. Sama (normal)

2.SR & NS70

As in NS

As in NS

As in NS

As in NS

Sama

3.BB1

As in SR (slight difference in definition)

As in SR

As in SR

As in SR

As in SR

4.NS

Utksepa

Pātana

Catura

Recita Kuñcita

Sahaja

5.NS

Samudrita

Sampraveśana (but with open eyes and not the nime-sa movement of the eyelid)

Vivartana (but with a difference)

Bhramana

Prakṛta pātana

6.NS

Ullokita

Avalokita

Sāci

Sama

50

Vivartana (but eyeballs are moved to one side and not up)

Utkṣepa

Bhrkuṭi

Nivartitā

Udhṛtita-BB names two movements, both upward movement of the eyelids

As in SR

Vihata—as in SR

As in NŚ

As in NŚ but says eyes are to close

Vikalita but description similar

6. Vivartitā (eyelids moved up)

7. Sphurita (throbbing)

8. Piḥita (when fully contracted)

9. Vitāḍita (when the upper eyelid suddenly strikes the lower)

51

TABLE VI

Mukhajābhinaya

NŚ, SR, NŚS & BB14

Mukha (mouth)

(5)

NŚ, SR, NŚS & BB13

Adhara (lips)

(3)

NŚ, SR, NŚS & BB12

Gaṇḍa (cheeks)

(2)

NŚ, SR, NŚS & BB12

Nāśā (nose)

(1)

1. Nirbhugna

2. Bhugna (spread out)

3. Viniyritta

4. Udhāhi (turned up)

5. Chinna (closing the jaws)

6. Kuṭṭana

7. Daśā (lips between the teeth)

8. Cukṣita

9. Vivartana (narrowing)

10. Sansṭaka (biting by teeth)

11. Visarga (spread out)

12. Kṣāma (depressed)

13. Phulla (blown)

14. Pūrṇa (fully expanded)

15. Natā (lobes clinging)

16. Mandā (depressed)

17. Vikṛṣṭā (lobes are blown)

18. Succhvāsā (deep breathing etc.)

52

5. Vikṛtā (contracting)

6. Svābhāvikā (natural)

7. Kuñcata

8. Kampita

9. Sama

10. Saudgaka (contracting)

11. Kampana

12. Viniṅhana

13. Khaṇḍana

14. Sama (lips slightly parted)

15. Lehita

16. Vivṛta

17. Vidhuta

The Mirror of Gesture mentions twenty-four movements of the head of which

the definition of lolita alone differs from the nineteen mentioned in the Sangitarat-

nakara, the other five are new. The Natyasastra Sangraha repeats the movements

listed by the Sangitaratnakara. The Balaramabharata lists eleven movements

of the head to begin with, which correspond to a few movements of the Natya-

sastra and a few others of the Mirror of Gesture's supplementary list. The Bala-

ramabharata also gives us another list of thirteen movements of the head many

of which can be identified with movements enumerated in the Natyasastra; for

example dirghakampita corresponds to the akampita of the Natyasastra; the

sighrakampita corresponds to the kampita of the Natyasastra; the dhuta and

vidhuta are the same movements as in the Natyasastra and udvestita corresponds

to the utksipta of Natyasastra: three movements, namely, calita, kandharamsa

and upavestita are not mentioned by the earlier texts. Further it makes sixteen

groups of eleven to fourteen movements each, which are derived by combining

each of the above-mentioned movements with the other.75 Thus innumerable

varieties of head gestures emerge: however, these remain only theoretical permu-

tations and combinations, for each one of these movements could be reduced

to the basic movements mentioned by the Natyasasstra76. It appears that the

author is exploring the academic possibilities of the head movement; the head

movements enumerated by him are thus interesting only from the point of view of

an hypothetical classification and are not important as movement.

A perusal of Table VII will show similarities and dissimilarities in the different

texts and will also make it clear that the Mirror of Gesture's supplementary list

is utilized freely and profitably by most of the other authors. Tables VII, VIII,

IX pp 55-60)

The various directions of movement have been analyzed in the sirobheda of

the Natyasastra76. If they are regrouped, then the sama movement forms a class

by itself, and the others can be regrouped thus: akampita and kampita form one

category; dhuta, vidhuta, paravrtta and parivahita, a second; adhogata, (adhomukha

of Abhinayadarpana) and avadhuta, a third; udvahita and utksipta, a fourth; ancita

and nihañcita, a fifth; and parilolita, lolita and alolita, a sixth. All other move-

ments are derived from these basic movements. Of the basic thirteen gestures,

six indicate positions and the others movements. The same principle is followed

in movements of the angas and upangas in the Natyasastra.

Vaksa, Uras (chest)

Of the five movements described in the Natyasastra of the uras or vaksa

(chest) we find that four are static postures indicating positions of the chest (torso)

in relation to the brahma sutra (vertical median) and the fifth is a movement indi-

cating trembling shaking, (prakampita). Abhugna88 (slightly bent) is the position

where the torso (i.e., the portion of the body between the hikka sutra (shoulder line)

and the bhadra sutra (navel line)) is slightly bent forward: the position is however

TABLE VII Śirobheda (movements of the head)

NŠ77 (1) 13 movements

1. Akampita (up and down movement)

2. Kampita (a quick movement of the head in a fast tempo)

3. Dhuta (side bend of the head)

4. Vidhuta (side bend of the head)

AD (2) 9 movements

Kampita

Dhuta (slight difference in definition)

Ādhuta

MG38 (3) 9 + 24 movements

As in NŠ

As in AD

Dhuta As in AD

As in NŠ

Ādhuta

SR (4) 19 movements

As in NŠ

As in NŠ

Dhuta as in NŠ

As in NŠ

Ādhuta as in MG

NŠS (5) 19 movements listed

As in NŠ

Kampita as in NŠ

Dhuta NŠ as in NŠ

Vidhuta as in NŠ

Ādhuta as in MG

BB (6) 11 primary movements

As in MG

(Continued)

TABLE VII (Contd.)

(1)

5. Parivāhita (the sideways movement of head)

Parivāhita a side to side movement actually a neck movement

As in NŚ

(2)

6. Udvāhita (when it is lifted up)

Udvāhita

As in AD

(3)

7. Avadhuta (when it is turned down)

Avadhuta as in NŚ

(4)

8. Añcita (when the neck is bent on one side)

As in NŚ, but As in NŚ (difference in definition) defines it as a circular movement like the paralolita of NŚ

(5)

9. Nihañcita (the movement with raised shoulders)

As in NŚ

(6)

10. Parāvrtta (when the face is turned around backward movement)

Parāvrtta

As in NŚ

(7)

11. Utksipta (when the face is turned up with an udvāhita head)

Uksipta (difference in definition. Side and up both in AD)

Akisipta (slight difference in definition) As in NŚ

56

As in AD As in MG As in AD As in MG As in MG

As in AD As in MG As in MG As in MG As in MG As in MG

Adhomukha as in AD As in NŚ, but called lolita As in MG As in MG As in MG As in MG As in MG

As in AD Repeated Lolita Tiryannata Repeated as in AD Skandhānata Āvatrika Pārśvabhimukha Saumya Tiraścina Prakampita Saundarya

12. Adhogata (when face is turned down: cf. with avadhnuta) Adhomukha

13. Parilolita (when the head is turned on all sides) Alolita Sama

57

TATBE VIII

Grīvābheda (neck)

(1)

NṢ80 9 movements

1. Sama

2. Natā (neck bent down

cf. adhogata head movement)

3. Unnatā (cf. udvāhita head

movement: the neck is

thrown up).

4. Tryasrā (neck bent sideways)

Tirascina a gliding movement

to the side

Sundarī (neck moved horizontally without turning

of the face)

As in NṢ

(2)

AD81 4 movements

As in NṢ

As in NṢ

As in NṢ

As in NṢ

(3)

MG82 as in AD

As in AD

As in AD

(4)

SR83 9 movements

As in NṢ

As in NṢ

As in NṢ

As in NṢ

(5)

NṢ84 9 movements

As in NṢ

As in SR

As in NṢ

As in NṢ

(6)

BB85 10 movements

As in NṢ

As in NṢ

As in NṢ

As in NṢ

58

5. Recitā (has something in common with the parilolita head movement)

6. Kuñcitā (cf. avadhuṭa head movement) neck is slightly bent)

7. Añcitā (cf. utkṣipta head thrown back but the neck move-ment indicates an extreme position)

8. Valitā (cf. parivāhitā (but here the move-ment is a circular movement also NŚ dhuta)

9. Vṛittā (the circular movement of the neck in relaxed position)

As in AD Prakampitā a forward and backward movement of the neck

As in NŚ As in NŚ As in NŚ Valita

Nivṛitta cf. with viṛitta of NŚ but this is a taut position and not a relaxed one)

Valita—turned to look ways outside—

As in NŚ As in NŚ Name as in NŚ but the move-ment is more akin to the śutti-dari of AD

Nivṛitta—there is a difference in the movement here as the neck is turned backwards

Parāvrtta turning back of the head

Galita as in SR

As in NŚ As in NŚ As in NŚ Nivṛitta as in SR

TABLE IX

Mukha (the mouth and the face and the corresponding head and neck gestures)

NS Mukha (face)

1. Vidhuta (mouth opened face turned from side to side)

2. Vinivṛtta (in turning the face away)

3. Nirbhugna (lowering the face)

4. Bhugna, vyābhugna (when long drawn)

5. Vivṛta (when the lips are kept apart)

6. Uvāhī (when turned up)

SR & NS Mukha (face)

Vidhuta

Vinivṛtta

Vyābhugna akin to that of NS nirbhugna

Bhugna (when slightly lowered)

Vivṛta

Uvāhī

NS Śira (head)

Vidhuta (a head movement) a violent movement

Parivṛtta

Adhogata

Avadhuta

Nata

Udvāhita

NS Grīva (neck)

Nivṛtta and vivṛtta are variations

60

8

THEORY AND TECHNIQUE OF CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE

one of relaxation, looseness (śithila) and not of tenseness; and thus it can express

viṣāda (despair), lajjā (shyness), etc: there is only a slight curvature of the spine

here and no change of weight takes place. Nirbhugna is the opposite position

where the character of the torso completely changes by the erectness and tautness

of the back; here tension rather than relaxation is emphasized: the difference

between the softer Mathura figures and the later Cola bronzes is this: the depression

of the back so characteristic of the South Indian bronzes is a result of the nirbhugna

position of the uras. Sama is the natural position where perfect balance is main-

tained and no effort at either relaxation or tension is made.

Udvāhita movement has to be considered as a position which results from the

control of breath, rather than through a movement of the muscles: the deep

breathing (dīrgha niśvāsa) which it can express is really the cause of this position

for the chest is not bent down, and instead it is thrown forward, with a deep

breath.

Prakampita is the combination of the udvāhita movement and its opposite

executed in quick succession.

The Abhinavadarpaṇa does not list the movements of the chest: the Sāṅgita-

ratnākara⁹⁹, the Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa⁹⁰, the Nāṭyaśāstra Saṅgraha⁹¹ and the

Bālarāmābharata⁹², all repeat the nomenclature and descriptions of the Nāṭya-

śāstra, with very slight variations in their description of the usage (viniyoga). The

Bālarāmabharata lists two other movements, namely, the calita and the bhramaṇa.

Calita is a slight movement of the chest which can be used for excitement

(romāñca) etc. The bhramaṇa is the right-to-left movement of the chest and seems

to indicate a grotesque movement. In actual practice the bhramaṇa movement of

the chest and the movement of the side (pārśva) overlap; the description of these

movement in the Nāṭyaśāstra is more precise.

Pārśva (side) & Kati (hip)

The Nāṭyaśāstra⁹³ enumerates five movements each of the kati and the pārśva.

The other texts repeat these movements of the pārśva and the kati: the Viṣṇu-

dharmottara Purāṇa⁹⁴, the Sāṅgitaratnakāra⁹⁵, the Nāṭyaśāstra Saṅgraha⁹⁶ and

the Bālarāmabharata⁹⁷—all have identical lists. The Bālarāmabharata, however,

lists nine movements of the kati as against the five of the others: these movements,

are, sama, apavāhita, calita and vivartita⁹⁸. These do not indicate new movements

however and are all variations of the first five movements. Table X (p. 63) indicates

the relative positions of the uras (chest) the pārśva (side) and the kati (hips) accor-

ding to these texts.

Ūrū (thigh)

The movements of the thighs, as enumerated by the Nāṭyaśāstra, indicate the

movements of the leg between the hip joint and the knee joint. These movements

are very closely related to the kati (hip) movements and the shank or calf move-

ment and can be fully understood only in relation to the movements of these

parts of the human body. The five movements of the thighs listed by the Nātya-

śāstra99 are repeated faithfully by the Saṅgītaratnākara100, the Viṣnudharmottara

Purānā101 and the Nātyaśāstra Saṅgraha102: the Abhinayadarpana and the Mīror

of Gesture do not list any movements of the thighs and knees: the Bālarāma-

bharata103 describes nine movements of the ūrū (thigh) of which only two seem

to be in common with the earlier texts. Table XI (p. 64) attempts a classification

of these movements.

Jānu and Jaṅghā (knees and shanks)

The Nātyaśāstra104 lists five positions of the jaṅghā (shanks), which arisc

out of the extension and flexion of the leg, the manipulation of the knee and

the ankle joint and the placing of the feet. We have thus:

Āvartita (turned): here the toes of the feet face each other inwards: naturally

such a position of the feet results in the knees also facing each other. This is

used for the jester’s walking, as this kind of a movement invariably produces

a comic effect.

Nata (bent): in this position, the knees are bent in front; this shank and

knee position is seen very often in Manipuri. Nata is used in several ways, in

sitting, walking and in the various sthānakas.

Kṣipta (throwing out): here the legs are bent and the knees are turned out-

wards. Bharata says quite clearly that it is used in the tāṇḍava dance. This is the

position of the knees which we find in the basic stance of Bharatanāṭyam today.

The shanks form an acute angle with the thighs. It is akin to the demi-plie of

the classical western ballet.

Udvāhita (raised): The knee is raised to hip level, the leg being bent at a

right angle.

Parivartita (turned back): The position is attained when the thigh is stretched

backwards and the leg is bent at a right angle. The Saṅgītaratnākara defines

this as the movement of one who moves along a curved path105. In listing these

movements of the knee Bharata has taken into consideration most of the move-

ments which the knee as a ‘hinge joint’ is capable of.

The Saṅgītaratnākara and the Nātyaśāstra Saṅgraha list these but also men-

tion five additional movements.106 The five additional movements are:

Table X

Related movements of the chest, side and hip

Vakṣa (chest)

Abhugna (front curvature)

Nirbhugna (erect, back depression; indicates a spinal stretch)

Udvāhitā (raised, upright torso)

Prakampitā (trembling)

Sama (natural)

Pārśva (side)

Nata (side bending in the right/left direction)

Unnatā—the opposite position indicates a sideways movement

Prasaritā (sides taken to the extreme point in space right/left direction)

Rocitā—a circular movement from the chinā—turning from the point of bhadra sūtra nivṛtta or vivṛta (turning to the back)

Prasṛta or apaṣṛta (the trika, sacrum, turned around)

Kati (hip)

Udvāhitā (when the hip is slightly raised and brought down)

Prakampitā or Kampitā—the tension and relaxation of the vertical line of the back result in the different types of bends; the torso taken as a unit along the horizontal plane results in

the nāṭa and unnāta positions of the pārśva

Remarks

The possibility of movement of the parts of the body from the shoulder line (Chikkikā sūtra) to the kati sūtra have been analyzed here. The trika (sacrum) is a focal point from which all movements in the round emerge; the tension and relaxation of the vertical line of the back result in the different types of bends; the torso taken as a unit along the horizontal plane results in the nāṭa and unnāta positions of the pārśva

TABLE XI

Uṭṭhita (high)

NŚ SR VD NSS

BB

1. Kampana or kampita (trembling), an up and Vyasta—distance between two feet, These belong to one group

down movement as a result of a repetitive toe—heel movement —where a sideways move-

ment is implied

2. Valana or valita this is really a crossing of the Purahaṣṭhita

thighs even though it is not clearly stated in the NŚ: in the description of the karaṇa the move-

ment is described and this is position is implied

3. Stambhana, stabdha a still motionless position Sama samasta

4. Udvartana or udvartita the thighs implying a raising, and lifting of Samastavṛṣṭakampita

the ground leaving extension without the foot uparikṣipta

5. Vivartana or vivartita in turning round, a circular Vistṛta—(expansion)

movement Vṛitya very similar to the NŚ Vyatyasta movement

Remarks

There is a slight difference between the two

This is a combined movement

THEORY AND TECHNIQUE OF CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE

Nihsṛta: the leg is extended forward high.

Parāṛtta (variation of the parivartita): one leg is stretched backwards while the knee touches the ground. In any one of these positions one leg is bent forward at the hip level and the other is stretched back; the knee of the stretched leg may touch the ground or both the knee and the lower leg may be in contact with the ground.

Tiraścīna: it is one of the positions which the kṣipta movement of the shank can attain; here the knee with an outward sideways bend touches the ground. Such an out-stretched sitting position is frequently seen in Bharatanāṭyam. Two other movements are mentioned, namely, the bāhirgata and the kampita; the latter is accurately described as that by which the sound of the bells is produced by a controlled movement of the knee and the ankle. The Saṅgītaratnākara does not stop at this and lists seven different movements of the knee joint separately,107 namely, samhata, kuñcita, ardhakuñcita, nata, unnata, viṿrta, and sama.

Samhata: it is the position of perfect equilibrium whuch corresponds to the samapāda position of the feet; the kuñcita indicates the cross-legged sitting posture; ardhakuñcita position is a simılar one. Nata is not the nata of the jaṅghā, for this nata indicates the contact of the knee joint with the ground and it corresponds more closely to the position possible by the tiraścīna movement of the jaṅghā mentioned by the Saṅgītaratnākara.

Viṿrta: this position is possible by the bāhirgata movement or the kṣipta movement, i.e., sideways, outward movement of the shanks. The present viṿrta, however, is nearest to what one finds in the basic stance of the Kathākali posture, where both the knees are turned outwards and the feet are well apart. This position would be best attained by placing the side of the foot in the pārśvaga position. The unnata knee is the highest position which the udvāhita position of the jaṅghā (shank) can attain by raising the knee to the chest-level.

Knees are most important in the ṇṛtta technique of Indian dancing; the careful and detailed study of the feet and their contact with the ground, the meticulous perfection of the basic and secondary positions attained by the knees as a consequence give each classical Indian dance style its particular character. The dance which Vikrama does in the fourth act in Vikramorvaśī is one in which knees are most frequently used. The contemporary styles of classical dancing lay particular stress on one or the other of the positions mentioned above; thus we find that, in Kathak, the samhata jānu of the Saṅgītaratnākara is frequently used, and a sama position of the knees is the only relaxation allowed to the knees in the ṇṛtta technique of this dance style. The kṣipta and the bāhirgata movements of the jaṅghā indicating the outward sideways position of the knees is the basic stance of Bharata-

nāṭyam and is seen in practically all the sculptured dance poses after the eighth century. The vivṛta movement of the knees (of the Sangītaratnākara) indicates the basic stance of Kathākali: the nata of the shank, i.e., the relaxed position, where the legs are completely relaxed but bent in front, is used most frequently in Manipuri.

Bālarāmabharata treats the knee and shank movements from different angles: it divides knee movements into six classes by virtue of the formation they result in, and their use in different types of sitting and standing and reclining postures. According to their uses (viniyoga), the jānu movements have been classified as those for the (i) sthānas; (ii) karaṇas; (iii) āsanās; (iv) gati; (v) mandalas; and (vi) śayana. In terms of the movements of the shank possible from the knee joint, two broad categories are made: the first relates to the flexed position of the knee, when it is bent in various directions and at different levels, i.e., front, low, up, and sideways; the second relates to the stretched and extended positions of the lower leg: here the thigh and the shank are considered to be one unit.

In the first category termed as the sthānāngajānu bheda, we have the following positions: samadiṛgha samanata, ekajānnunnata, kuñcita, kuñcitocca, kuñcitoccatara and kuñcitoccatama. The second and third movements denote a front bend of the leg: the fourth is the slight raising of the knee, which is used to denote climbing stairs etc. The last three are the sideways movement of the knee joint, which result in the flexed position of the shank; these indicate the relative positions of raising the shank from the ground and are comparable to the kṣipta and udvāhita positions of the Nāṭyaśāstra, and the bāhirgata position of the Sangītaratnākara. These positions are akin to the seven movements of the knee joint described in the Sangītaratnākara and the Nāṭyaśāstra Sangraha but are not identical. In the second category, the extended positions of the shank and the thigh are enumerated by Bālarāma; thus the front extension and elevation, the sideways extension, the back extension and the sideways extended elevation from the ground are all classified, such as the daṇḍapāda, kṣipta, purahpaścāt, pārśvatah, dīrghaprasāraṇa and sama, etc.108 Each extension is further sub-divided but it is not necessary to go into the details of these classifications here. At the time Bālarāma wrote the Bālarāmabharata, the dancing traditions of different provinces had evolved their individual stylizations and the writer seems to have codified all the varieties prevalent in his region.

The movements of the shanks (jaṅghā) and the movements and positions of the knee joint (jānu) enumerated in the Sangītaratanākara109 and the Nāṭyaśāstra Sangraha110 have to be studied together, as one supplements the other. The ten movements of the jaṅghā (shanks) and the seven movements of the knee joint (jānu) can be reclassified. Nata jaṅghā and the nata positions of the knee (jānu) are variations of a movement in the same direction. The nata jānu is the final position

when the knee touches the ground; the nata janghā is the initial position when the

leg bend begins. The kșipta and the bāhirgata of the janghā and the kuñcita posi-

tion of the jānu are in one class, where the sideways movements of the leg and the

knee are indicated. With the legs being bent and with the knees pointing outwards

the first position is the kșipta, the next is bāhirgata when the distance between

the knees is the greatest. Kuñcita indicates the final position in which the knee

touches the ground as in the sitting āsana positions. The tirasciina shank movement

is the intermediate position where the knee is in contact with the ground but the

thigh is lifted up.

The knces and the shanks play a most significant and vital role in the nrtta

technique of Indian dancing; the varying emphasis on either the nata type of

movement of the kșipta or bāhirgata or the samhata or the vivrta gives each of

these dance styles, be it Bharatanātyam or Kathākali, Manipurī or Kathak a dis-

tinctive character. The kșipta or bāhirgata movement denotes the tāndava dance,

and most sculptural representations of dancing utilize the kșipta or bāhirgata

positions of the Nāṭyaśāstra and the Sangītaratnākara. The other positions of the

shanks such as the back extensions and flexions implied in the parāvrrta move-

ment are seen in the sitting, kneeling, and specially the flying figures of Indian

sculpture.

Pāda (feet)

The feet positions described by the Nāṭyaśāstra, the Sangītaratnākara, the

Nāṭyaśāstra Sangraha and the Bālarāmabharata indicate both the contact of a

particular part of the foot with the ground and the placing of the entire foot in a

particular direction.

The five positions of the feet mentioned in the Nāṭyaśāstra are the basic

positions, and eight others mentioned by the Sangītaratnākara and repeated

by the Nāṭyaśāstra Sangraha are combinations of movement arising out of

these.

When the whole foot is placed on the ground, with the leg in the normal

position, it is called sama; the position where the toe and the ball of the foot touch

the ground is known as the kuñcita: when only the heels touch the ground and the

rest of the foot is lifted up, it is termed as the añcita; and, when only the big toe

touches the ground and the rest of the foot is lifted up as in the Western classical

ballet, it is called the agratalasañcara. When the kuñcita foot is followed by the

sama or the añcita, i.e., when the toes touch the ground first and then the entire

foot touches the ground with the heel striking the ground, it is called the udghaṭ-

ita111 movement: the Tamil name used in Bharatanāṭyam for this is the kuditta-

mitta. Bharata also mentions the sūcī pārśvaga and the tryasra feet, in addition to

the five types of feet movement112, mentioned above. Of these three, the first

two are mentioned by the Saṅgītaratnākara and the Nāṭyaśāstra Saṅgraha under descriptions of the caraṇa bheda; the third occurs in the Nāṭyaśāstra and other texts to denote the oblique placing of the foot. The Saṅgītaratnākara and the Nāṭyaśāstra Saṅgraha mention six other movements which are combinations of the basic positions mentioned by the Nāṭyaśastra. Thus, the clearly distinguishable aṅcita foot followed by the kuñcita (i.e., heel-toe movement) is called the ghaṭṭi-totsedha, which is the opposite of the udghaṭṭita movement. The tāḍita is a variation of the same when the floor is hit hard by the forepart of the toe after the heel has been in contact with the ground. The variation of the agratalasañcara foot is the agraga movement, where walking on tip-toe is indicated.

The opposite movement of the agratalasañcara feet is the ghaṭṭita, when, instead of the tip of the toe touching the ground, the edge of the heel touches the ground, making it a variation of the aṅcita foot. Walking backwards on the heels is the pārśniga movement. In the mardita and pārśvaga movement, the foot is placed sideways. The mardita position of the Saṅgītaratnākara and the Nāṭya-śāstra Saṅgraha is very much akin to the tryśra mentioned by the Nāṭyaśāstra. The placing of the weight of the body on the side of the foot (as in the initial posi-tions of Kathākali) can be identified as the pārśvaga movement, corresponding to the parāvṛtta movement of the shanks. We can thus reclassify these movements as follows: the kuñcita, the sūcī, the agratalasañcara and the agraga, belong to one category where the forepart of the toes of the feet touch the ground. The aṅcita, the ghaṭṭita and the pārśniga belong to the next where the heel touches the ground. The udghaṭṭita, the ghaṭṭitotsedha and the tāḍita belong to the third where toe-heel, heel-toe, and hard hitting is indicated.

The sama mardita and pārśvaga belong to the fourth category where the foot is placed on the ground. When the toes point to the front, it is sama; when they point sideways, it is mardita; and when the side of the foot touches the ground, it is pārśvaga. The Abhinayadarpaṇa does not discuss movements of the feet, but in its discussion of the jumps (utplavana), spiral movements or turns (bhramarī) and the different types of walking (cārī and pādacārī), it utilizes all these positions,113 and indicates fairly clearly whether the toe or the heel or both are to touch the ground in any movement.

The other positions of the feet are discussed in the Nāṭyaśāstra in the context of the sthāna (postures) such as āyata, avahittha114, etc., for women, and vaiṣṇava āliḍha and pratyāliḍha for men. These sthānas indicate the distance of the feet from each other, and the exact direction in which the feet are placed. Since these postures are static positions, they are often accurately depicted in sculpture. Pos-tures such as the āliḍha and the pratyāliḍha and also āyata are frequently seen in sculpture. These will be discussed separately, for they belong to the sphere of poses and posture.

THEORY AND TECHNIQUE OF CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE

Hasta (hands)

Most texts on dancing divide hasta into asamyuta and samyuta; the Nāṭya- śāstra, the Mirror of Gesture, the Sangītaratnākara and the Nāṭyaśāstra Sangraha also enumerate nrtta hasta. The first two varieties belong mostly to the sphere of finger manipulation and indicate static positions, with a few exceptions where they indicate movement; the nrtta hastas indicate movement of the fingers for the most part and invariably suggest an arm movement, too. The Abhinayadarpana and the Nāṭyaśāstra Sangraha enumerate other hastas, which should really be classified amongst the viniyogas or uses of all these primary hand gestures of single (asamyuta) and both hands (samyuta). Thus the Abhinayadarpana lists eleven hands to be used in denoting relationships, such as dampati (couple), mātr (mother), etc.115 Fifteen hands denote the different gods and goddesses such as Brahmā, Viṣṇu, etc.116, ten hand gestures indicate the ten avatāras of Viṣṇu,117 nine hand gestures symbolize the nine planets,118 and four hands denote the four castes.119 The Mirror of Gesture version of the Abhinayadarpana mentions hands for representing famous emperors such as Hariśacandra, Nala, Rāvaṇa, Dharmarāja, etc.: hands for seven oceans, Lavana, Sūra, etc., for rivers like Yamunā, Gaṅgā, etc., for the seven upper worlds and the seven lower worlds, and hands for indicating different trees, like aśvattha, kadalī, etc., and hands for denoting different animals, birds and aquatic beings.

The Nāṭyaśāstra Sangraha further lists hands for the twenty-seven nakṣatras: this listing has been done in accordance with the Bharatnava's enumeration of these hastas,120 but other authorities also seem to have been utilized. The Nāṭya śāstra Sangraha lists hands to denote different rāśis121, and also to represent notes (svara) in music122. Hastas for the seven principal notes have been listed: on the authority of an author called Brhaspati, the Nāṭyaśāstra Sangraha enumerates the hand gestures to represent different rāgas. All the rāga hastas have to be finished with an outward and upward movement of the hands (udveṣṭita). Hand gestures for about forty-eight rāgas have been listed; each rāga can be represented by a asamyuta or a samyuta hasta, or a nrtta or a nakśatra hasta. The author adds that for other rāgas the abhinaya should be improvised in accordance with the name, the characteristics and other particulars of the rāga. For provinces, countries, cities, kings, and in fact for all beings, moving and unmoving, the hastābhinaya has to be conceived in accordance with the nāma, nakśatra and other symbols and characteristics of the object. This, the writer of the Nāṭyaśāstra Sangraha says, is in accordance with the views of Hanumāna123. The Nāṭyaśāstra Sangraha also describes the hand gestures to be employed for the representation of the four classes of women, viv., padminī, cetrinī, saṅkhinī and hastinī.

In movements of the hands, whether for abhinaya or for nrtta, the position and direction of movement of the palm is considered important by all authorities. The movement of the wrist also determines the nature of the hasta and often a different meaning is suggested if the wrist movement and the palm-facing is changed: the sūcī hasta acquires a completely different character if the forefinger is held

upright (tarjanī hasta of iconography) and if the forefinger is used as a pointer on the horizontal plane.

The Nāṭyaśāstra lays down different types of classifications of the hastas (single, double and dance hands) in terms of the plane, direction and area of movement of the palm, fingers, wrists and arms. This classification is a scientific analysis of the different ways in which each hand may be used with a full awareness of the different areas of movement of which the arms and hands are capable in relation to the body. Bharata also speaks of three positions of the palm, viz., uttāna (palms facing up), adhastala (facing down) and facing side ways obliquely (tryaśra). When the fingers point up in the vertical plane and move forward away from the body, it is a agraja; and, when they point downwards and move downwards, it is adhomukha. Abhinavagupta explains this lucidly in his commentary.123 Thus, the uttāna and the agraha, the adhomukha and the adhastala, and the tryśra and pārśvagata, make three distinct classes, indicating the upward outward, downward, oblique and sideways direction of the palm and the fingers.

Four other categories are determined by the wrist joint and Bharata terms them as hasta karaṇa. All movements of the hands can be classified under these four karaṇas which indicate the ways in which the fingers can be manipulated with the palm facing up (uttāna) and the palm facing down (adhomukha). Thus, if the fingers beginning with the forefinger point inwards gradually, the palm naturally faces downwards; this is called the āveśṭita (karaṇa) movement. If the palm faces upwards and the fingers beginning with forefinger move (open) outwards (away from the body), then it is the udveśṭita karaṇa movement of the hand. The opposite movements beginning with the little finger are termed vyāvartita and parivartita: in the former the palm faces upwards (uttāna) and the hand closes beginning with the little finger pointing towards the body; in the latter the hand gradually opens beginning with the little finger pointing outwards (away from the body) and palm gradually faces either downwards (adhomukha) or sideways (tryaśra).124

Śārṅgadeva in the Saṅgītaratnākara lists fifteen positions of the hands in terms of planes, dimensions and direction of the palms and fingers: he also repeats the four different circular movements of the wrists listed by Bharata in the Nāṭyaśāstra.

On the vertical plane, the palm can either face the body or be turned away from it: the fingers can point either up or down; on the horizontal plane the palm can either face up or down, and the fingers can point either out (away from the body) or in (towards the body). This then gives us four basic positions of the palms and four directions of the fingers. On the horizontal plane, thus, when the palm faces upwards, it is termed as the uttāna124 (lifted up); when it faces down (towards the ground), it is called the adhomukha. On the vertical plane, when

THEORY AND TECHNIQUE OF CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE

the palm faces outwards (away from the body) and the fingers point upward, then it is called the parāñmukha (away from oneself) and, when the palm faces the body, then it is the svasammukhatala (palm facing oneself). When the fingers point downwards on the vertical plane then it is adhovadana; when the fingers point upwards, whether the palm is parāñmukha or savsammukha, then the hand is called ūrdhvamukha. Thus the up-down, high and low positions of the palm and the fingers are indicated: the back-front and right-left side positions in space are also indicated in the various oblique positions of the palms and fingers: the pārśvagata, pārśvamukha and agratastala indicate these positions. The tryaśra (oblique) position of the Nātyaśāstra and the pārśvagata position of the Sangīta-ratnākara are almost identical when the palm faces either to the right or to the left: when the fingers point to the front and there is a forward movement, then it is the agraga position. To these ten positions are added the five directional movements, and the next five terms relate to these, viz., ūrdhvaga (going upwards), adhogata (going downwards), pārśvagata (going sideways at any high, low or middle level), agraga (going forward at a high, low or middle level) sammukhāgata (coming towards oneself, i.e., right-back, or left-back, or high-back, or down-back). The last five movements have to be understood in terms of not only the palms and the fingers but also the arm movements and the relative stretched and flexed position of the upper and the forearm. In this manner, all the eight main directions in space can be covered by these fifteen movements. We can classify the fifteen into five distinct types: uttāna, ūrdhvamukha and ūrdhvaga belong to one type: adho-mukha, adhovadana and adhogata belong to the second; pārśvagata, pārśvamukha and agratastala, parāñmukha and agraga to the third; and svasammukhatala, sammukha and sammukhāgata to the fifth, by virtue of the varying emphasis on the upward, downward, sideways, forward and backward direction of movement.125

Closely connected with the movements of the hastas are the movement of the arms. Bharata lists twelve movements of the arms, each indicating the level and range of the movement, and the relative position of the upper and the forearm. Abhinavagupta126 explains some of the positions, but mostly we have to reconstruct these movements from the terminology of Bharata. Tiryak is the middle level and the range is from side to side; ūrdhvagata indicates the upward movement at the level of the head; adhomukha is the lowering of the arms to the range of the lower limbs and to the ground; āviddha, apaviddha and mandala indicate the different circular patterns of movement in space; svastika indicates the crossing of arms at any level of the body; añcita and kuñcita relate to the position of the extended and flexed forearm when the hands extend out at the level of the chest and return to the area of the chest. The prasārita prșṭhaga indicates the movement of the arms in relation to the thickness of the body, where the arms are stretched out in front and are then taken to the back—either over the shoulders or otherwise. The slightly arched positions of the arms are suggested by the namra, sarala and

utsārita movements mentioned by the Sangītaratnākara and the Nāṭyaśāstra.127

The swinging of the arms is indicated by the āndolita and cālaka movements. The ten movements of the arm of the Nāṭyaśāstra and the additional six of the Sangīta-ratnākara and the Nāṭyaśāstra Sangraha give us a comprehensive treatment of the arm in relation to space.

The Nāṭyaśāstra does not mention the movements of the wrist separately, even though they are implied in Bharata’s treatment of the different types of movements of the palms and the fingers discussed above. The Sangītaratnākara128, the Nāṭyaśāstra Sangraha and the Bālarāmabharata classify the wrist movement under maṇibandha, and the Sangītaratnākara enumerates five types of wrist movements, which are repeated by the Nāṭyaśāstra Sangraha. The nikuñcita movement suggests an outward bend at the wrist; the akuñcita is the opposite movement when the wrist is bent inwards; the combination of the outward and inward movement is called cala; and the rotative movement is termed as bhrāmita, and the normal position is known as sama.129

The only other part of the upper limbs which has not been dealt with by Bharata is the shoulder. The Sangītaratnākara, the Nāṭya-śāstra Sangraha and the Bālarāmabharata describe movements of the shoulder also. The Sangītaratnākara lists five movements of the shoulders (skandha): these can also be classified into the front-back, up-down, and rotating movements. When the shoulder is pushed in front, it is termed karnalagna; when it is pushed back with tension, it is called ekocca; when it is lifted up, it is ucchrita; and, when it is hung down, it is called srasta; and when rotated in a circular movement, it is lolita.130

The entire arm from the shoulder to the tip of the fingers has been analyzed fully. Indeed the hastābhinaya, which forms a comprehensive gesture language, can be fully understood in the light of these related movements of the wrists, arms, and the shoulders, and the manipulation of the fingers and the palms. The classification of the movements of the shoulder (skanda), arms (bāhū), wrists (maṇi), hands (hasta) and their karanas forms an important aspect of the technique of Indian dancing. (See Tables XII-XIV Pp 74-88)

Sthāna (postures)

After an analysis of the movements of the individual limbs, Bharata discusses postures and movements of the entire body. The important subject of sthāna is discussed under the category of postures. The cārī provides the link between the static positions indicated by the term sthāna and cadences of movement denoted by the term karaṇa.

Bharata lays an emphasis on the position of the lower limbs in his description of the sthānas. He divides them into two categories, i.e., for men and for women. When analyzed, one finds that these sthānas indicate static poses for the most

part, i.e. postures which can suggest a particular mood or deity. In keeping with the laws of human anatomy, these associations are worked out on the basis of the distribution of weight and the distance of the feet from each other. Thus Brahmā is the presiding deity of the samapāda sthāna where weight is equally divided and all limbs are in the natural position. The extreme opposite in the sthānas is the pratyālīḍha where a full leg extension is indicated: appropriately the sthāna is recommended for suggesting the release of weapons etc. It is also a sthāna which is frequently seen in sculpture. The sthānas for women, according to Bharata, are only three and they indicate standing positions. An analysis of these sthānas has been attempted in Tables XV and XVI. (pp 90-91)

Apart from the postures (sthāna) seen in Tables XV and XVI, the Saṅgītarat­nākara mentions four others for women not mentioned in the Nāṭyaśāstra, namely, gatāgata, valita, moṭita and vinivartita. These are derived from the cārīs and some sthānas as women. The gatāgata is a movement rather than a position: this is used by a dancer in proceeding forward: the second, in expressing desire, and the third, in denoting a state of love. Vinivartita is the same as the moṭita but with the feet position reversed.

The Abhinayadarpana does not classify the cārīs, maṇḍalas and sthānas, according to the Nāṭyaśāstra and the Saṅgītaratnākara. It follows a different system of classification. The static positions are termed maṇḍala in the Abhinayadarpana and some of the names correspond with the names of sthāna listed by the Nāṭya­śāstra. The postures which it lists under the sthānas are not mentioned in the Nāṭyaśāstra and have something in common with some of the bhūmi (earthly) cārīs enumerated by the Nāṭyaśāstra. Āyata, ālīḍha, pratyālīḍha131 are mentioned as maṇḍalas; the description of the last two appear to be the same postures as those mentioned in the Nāṭyaśāstra. The first, however, has nothing in common with the āyata position mentioned in the Nāṭyaśāstra. In the Abhinayadarpana, there is a distance of two and a half tālas between the two feet and the posture is caturśra (wide open) and the knees are bent: in the Nāṭyaśāstra there is no distance between the two feet and one foot is placed in tryaśra. The following postures of the Abhinayadarpana are not found in the Nāṭyaśāstra: (a) sthānaka, prerita, svastika, moṭita, samasūcī and pārśvasūcī maṇḍala: of these svastika and samasūcī can be identified with the sthitāvarta cārī and the sūcī cārī of the Nāṭyaśāstra but with a slight difference in definition. Moṭita and pārśvasūcī along with the other two of the Nāṭyaśāstra are listed in the Saṅgītaratnākara under the deśīsthānakas; (b) samapāda, ekapāda, nāgabandha, aindra, garuḍa and brahma sthānakas of the Abhinayadarpana are not mentioned by the Nāṭyaśāstra either. Except for aindra. the Saṅgītaratnākara lists all of them under its deśīsthānakas. Aindra sthānaka has little in common with the description of the maṇḍala sthāna in the Nāṭyaśāstra even though both these are used to depict the king or Indra.

Table

Asaṃyuta hastas

No. Nāṭyaśāstra NŠ

Abhinayadarpana AD

Mirror of Gesture MG

Nāṭyaśāstra Saṅgraha NŠS

1. Patākā Patākā Patākā Patākā

2. Tripatākā Tripatākā Ardhapatākā (the little finger of the tripatākā is bent) Tripatākā Ardhapatākā (but quoted separately: not in the main group)

3. Kartarīmukha Kartarīmukha but derived from the ardhapatākā Kartarīmukha but derived from the ardhapatākā Kartarīmukhu

4. Ardhacandra (all fingers bent to make a bow) Ardhacandra derived from the patākā by stretching the thumb As in AD Ardhacandra as in AD

5. Arāla Arāla As in AD As in NŠ

6. Śukatunda derived from the arāla Śukatunda derived from the arāla of AD As in AD As in NŠ

7. Muṣṭi As in NŠ slight variation As in AD As in NŠ

8. Śikhara As in NŠ As in NŠ As in NŠ

74

XII

(single hands)

Hastalakṣṇa Dīpikā HLD Hastamuktāvali HM Saṅgītaratnākara SR Bālarāmabharata BB in Iconography

Tripatākā Patākā Patākā Patākā As abhaya and vara- da mudrā

Patākā Kapittha (except for the thumb position) Tripatākā No, but the variation of the kartarīmukha is the kapittha of the HM Tripatākā Tripatākā Used in sculpture specially later South Indian bronzes Ardhapatākā Frequently used specially where implements are held

Śikhara — but the thumb posi- tion is different Kartarīmukha two varieties are described: one is derived from tripatākā Kartarīmukha Kartarīmukha derived from the tripatākā Kartarīhasta occurs often in South In- dian bronzes and is mentioned in South Indian texts

Hamsapakṣa as in AD Ardhacandra as in NŚ a variation also given which is the ardhacandra of the HLD As in NŚ As in AD Both types seen; AD type seen in the abhaya and varada mudrās; also, the other in the holding of agni etc.

Bhramara As in AD As in NŚ As in AD The NŚ arāla is fairly common

As in AD As in NŚ As in AD Used but not fre- quently

Same and its variant kaṭakā- mukha where thumb position is different As in AD As in AD Used often though the fingers are not so closely fisted

Does not occur As in NŚ As in NŚ As in NŚ Hand used for hold- ing weapons (Continued)

75

No. NŚ AD MG NŚS

9. Kapittha As in NŚ As in NŚ As in NŚ but position of forefinger different

10. Katakāmukha As in NŚ but Bharatanāṭyam practice different and finger position varies Katakāmukha but made by the forefinger and the middle finger touching the thumb As in NŚ

11. Sūcīmukha As in NŚ but with variation Derived from its own katakāmukha by raising the forefinger As in NŚ

12. Padmakośa As in NŚ As in NŚ As in NŚ

13. Sarpaśiras As in NŚ As in NŚ As in NŚ derived from the patākā

14. Mrgaśīrṣa As in NŚ Simhamukh As in NŚ As in AD As in NŚ derived from sarpaśiras As in AD but quoted separately

15. Kāṅgula Derived from the padmakośa by bending third finger Tāṅgula as in AD a variation similar to kāṅgula of NŚ also described As in NŚ

16. Alapadma (alapallava) Alapadma Solapadma, alapadma and alapallava all three names used Alapallava for the outward movement and alapadma for the inward movement of the fingers

76

XII (Contd.)

HLD HM SR BB in Iconography

Not mentioned As in NŠ As in NŠ As in NŠ Occurs but as a va-in the HLD but variation deriv- riant of the muṣṭioccasionally ed from the tri-linga hasta

Kaṭaka: the Same as in MG As in NŠ As in NŠ Kaṭaka or siṃha-position of the with slight va- derived from the karana hasta but thumb and the riations of the kapittha, slight more like the kaṭaka forefinger va- fingers difference in and kapittha of NŠ ries: the ring finger and the little finger same

Sūcimukha Same with vari- Similar to the Derived Common and used but position of the ation of the po- NŠ hasta des- from the sikhara and with the same name; ring finger and sition of the ring cription slightly and little fingers which are sp- different used in Bharat-read out here nāt yam etc. also known as tar-jani hasta

As in NŠ As in NŠ As in NŠ As in NŠ Very rarely

Not listed Mrgaśirṣa As in NŠ As in NŠ Simhāsya but Rarelyalso mukura a varia- but not derived from the śirṣas Krṣṇasāramukha tion by chang- from the sarpa- ūrṇanābha is the simhamu-ing the thumb śirasas kha of the AD

Not mentioned No: the kāṅkula As in NŠ As gāṅgula Rarelyof HM is the which is derived haṃsāsya of NŠ from the haṃ-sāsya

Does not occur Alapadma Alapallava Alapallava oc- Seen oftenin HLD but curs often and fairly common is derived from in Kathākali the padmakośa; slight difference in finger position

(Continued)

77

No. NŠ AD MG NŠS

17. Catura Catura Catura Two variations, one is the catura of the NŠ, the other is derived from the sarpaśiras hasta

18. Bhramara Bhramara Bhramara As in NŠ but with the slight variations of the position of the thumb and middle fingers

19. Hamsāsya Found in a variation of the AD katakā-mukha the hamsāsya of NŠ Two variations-one is the mudrākhya of HLD, the other is same as in NŠ, with slight variation of the positions of the second and third fingers which are extended here Hamsāsya as in NŠ

20. Hamsapakṣa Hamsapakṣa As in NŠ but derived from the sarpaśiras As in NŠ but with slight variation of the finger positions

21. Sandamśa derived from arāla Sandamśa as in MG hamsāsya; also with variation of the forefinger position Sandamśa—but quite different from the NŠ; the fingers of the padmakośa opened and closed; also see hamsāsya of AD All the three NŠ positions listed

22. Mukula Mukula Mukula Mukula

23. Ūrṇanābha Does not occur Ūrṇanābha Ūrṇanābha

24. Tāmracūḍa two variations-first a variation of bhramara, the second derived from the muṣṭi Tāmracūḍa variety Tāmracūḍa derived from the mukula-with no definite thumb position given; occurs also as bāṇa, with slight variation Two varieties mentioned, second akin to the MG bāṇa

78

XII (Contd.)

HLD HM SR BB in Iconography

Pallava which is Catura Catura Catura but derived from the mrgaśirṣa Occurs often in the a variation of catura dhyāna mudra

Not mentioned Calanmadhukara As in NŚ Bhramara but Occurs often and the bhramara of HM: the position of the third and has the forefinger extended little finger varies—it is derived from the padamkoṣa

Hamsāsya Kāṅgula As in NŚ As in NŚ but Occurs often where derived from the simhāsya hands hold attributes

Kartarimukha As in NŚ with As in NŚ, slight As in MG derived Rarely slight variations variation and from the sarpaśiras

Mudrākhya, Sandamsa as in As in NŚ; all As in NŚ but Occurs often slight difference NŚ; only one three variations derived from in position of variation are hamsāsya fingers as arāla derived from arāla and vardhamāna

Mukula Mukula Mukula Mukula Occurs often Urṇanābha Urṇanāāha Urṇanābha Urṇanābha Occurs when round objects like the ball etc. are held

Śukatunda Tāmracūḍa As in NŚ with Tāmracūḍa but Rarely derived from varieties listed, the little finger derived from the kṅgula of the BB like the first variety of NŚ the muṣṭi; the finger positions differ; also occurs as ankuśa position in the second variation differs from NŚ

Appendix to Table XII

Asaṃiyuta hastas in the Abhinayadarpana, the Nāṭyaśāstra Saṅgraha, the Bālarāmabharata, etc., but not mentioned in the Nāṭyaśāstra

Abhinayadarpana and Mirror of Gesture

Hastālakṣaṇa Dīpikā

Hastamuktāvalī

Nāṭyaśāstra Saṅgraha and Bālarāma-bharata

Mayūra

Not in HLD but occurs in Kathākali

Mayūra

Candrakalā

Ardhacandra

Candrakalā as in AD

Triśūla

No: but occurs in Kathākali

In NSS same as in AD; in BB as puronnata hasta

Vyāghra Ardhasūcī

Simihāsya ghronika vatiation of padmakośa tantrimukha

Tantrimukha

The Bālarāmabharata mentions the following asaṃyuta hastas which are not mentioned by another authority:

1. Kuṭilahasta derived from the kapittha

2. Bālacandrahasta derived from the sūcī

3. Nirīkṣaṇa hasta derived from the bāṇa (see AD bāṇa)

4. Pralamba hasta derived from the bālacandra, and becomes a variation of the mayūra of the AD

5. Caturunnata hasta derived from the patākā

6. Pūrṇacandra hasta variation of the caturunnata also derived from the patākā

7. Śilīmukha hasta similar to the AD sandamśa but with difference in finger position

8. Udeṣṭita derived from the alapallava

9. Apaveṣṭita variation of the candrakalā of AD but 8, 9 of BB refer to directions really

10. Bhadrahasta derived from the simhamukha hasta

80

TABLE XIII Samyuta hasta (both hands)

Nātyaśāstra NS

Abhinayadarpaṇa AD

Mirror of Gesture MG

Hastamuktā-valī HM

Sañgītarā-makara SR

Bālarāma-bhārata BB

1. Añjali

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

2. Kapota

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ but derived from the sarpaśirṣa

3. Karkata

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

Karkata: but derived from its pūrṇacandra

As in AD with variation

4. Svastika (two arāla hands crossing)

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ but mentions the AD version; also gives the svastikā and tri-patākā

As in NŚ

Svastika but crossing of patākā hastas

5. Katakāvardha-mukha

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ but arthakṣa and dhanpatākā

As in NŚ

Same name but made from AD katakā

As in AD with slight variation

Hands as in NŚ but calls it katakāvardha

6. Utsanga (from arāla hastas mrgaśīrṣa hastas placed on opposite shoulders

As in SR: from sarpaśīrṣa hasta

As in NŚ; As in NŚ but with difference in placement of hands

As in NŚ but also gives the sarpaśya variety of SR

Tāḍanapatākā comes nearest to samyuta hasta the NŚ niṣadha

(Continued)

6 81

TABLE XIII (Contd.)

(1)

8. Dola (movement and position both)

As in NŠ but hands positions different

9. Puspaputa

from sarpaśirṣa hasta

As in NŠ

10. Makara with patākī hasta

As in NŠ but the little fingers clasp

Called damatsya

As in AD also gives makara with ardhacandra hastas

11. Gajadanta—

from sarpaśirṣa

As in NŠ but made from ardhacandra

Not mentioned

12. Avahitha from śikaṇḍha hastas

As in NŠ

As in NŠ also mentions other variety

Not mentioned

13. Vardhamāna

i) mukula hand clasped by kapittha ii) hamsapakṣa hastas

As in NŠ (ii) and derived from svardhamāṇa-mrgasīrṣa NŠS (ii), vardhamāṇa is nisedha of māna of NŠ (ii), ardhardha-mrgasīrṣa hastas as in NŠ (ii), but with svastika position of hasta

Not listed

Of these, numbers 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9 and 13 often occur in Iconography.

82

Samyuta hastas not mentioned in NŚ

AD and MG

NŚS

BB

1. Śivalinga

As in AD

2. Kartarisvastika

Mentions it in a supple. mentary list

As in AD

3. Śakaṭa

As in AD

4. Śaṅkha

As in AD

5. Cakra

As in AD tilaka hasta (tripatākā on forehead and chest)

6. Samputa

As in AD kalaśa when ardhacandra hastas are brought together

7. Pāśa

As in AD

8. Kilaka

As in AD

Śubhaśa but derived from the muṣṭi; the posi- tion of the little finger same

9. Matsya

As in AD: also called makara

BB mentions the following extra samyuta hastas: upa- cara hasta, abhayavarada hasta, bhāratī hasta, kalaha hasta, padmamukha hasta, mallayuddha hasta, gajā- danta and samyuta pallava

10. Kūrma

As in AD

11. Varāha

As in AD

12. Garuḍa

AD garuḍa hasta and also vaiṣṇava hasta

13. Nāgabandha

As in AD

14. Khaṭva

15. Bheruṇḍa

83

Appendix to Table XIII

Samyuta hasta

The samyuta hastas as listed in the Nātyaśāstra, the Abhinayadarpana, the Mirror of Gesture, the Hastāmuktāvali, the Sangītaratnākara, the Nātyśāstra Sangraha and the Bālarāmabharata have a great deal in common with each other; the Hastalakṣaṇa Dīpikā has a different basis of analyzing the samyuta hastas; this has not been discussed here. In tne Nātyaśāstra, the Abhinayadarpana, the Sangītaratnākara, etc. each asamyyuta hasta has its samyuta hasta and its usage (viniyoga) is discusscd. There is also some overlapping between the samyuta hastas and the nrtta hastas. Some of the hastas appearing as samyuta hastas in some texts are listed as nrtta hastas in the Nātyaśāstra. Tables XIII and XIV give an idea of the samyuta and nrtta hastas.

84

TABLE XII

Nṛtta hastas

NāṭyaśāstraNŚ

(1)

1. Caturaśra

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ from hamsa-pakṣa

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

2. Udiŕtta

As in NŚ slight variation

As in NŚ variation in position

As in NŚ

As in NŚ from hamsa-pakṣa

Viprakirṇa

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

Śūcimukha derived from sarpa-śīrṣa hastas

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

3. Talamukha

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ from hamsa-pakṣa

Viprakirṇa

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

4. Svastika

As in NŚ but made from tripatākā

As in NŚ

As in NŚ from hamsa-pakṣa

Viprakirṇa

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

Called śūci-mukha as in NŚ but derived from sarpasiŕṣa hastas

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

5. Arālaketakamukha

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

Aviddhavaktra

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

Śūcāsya as in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

6. Śūcimukha (in some versions the hasta is from sarpaśirṣa)

Often, specially the alapadma open hands position

Seen occasionally

Suchmukha with its varieties seen often: asamyuta hastas also

7. Śūcimukha

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

8. Recita

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

9. Ardharecita

Slight variations

Mirror of Gesture(does not list them as nṛtta hastas but they are mentioned)

(2)

NāṭyaśāstraSaṅgīgahaNSS

(3)

SaṅgītaratnākaraSR

(4)

• Balarāma-bharataBB

(5)

** in Iconography

(6)

Found in dance poses of sculpture

(Continued)

TABLE XIV (Contd.)

(1)

10. Unduwaicitā

1

As in NŚ

(2)

11. Pallava

1

Nitamba

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

(3)

12. Nitamba

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

(4)

13. Keśabandha

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ with tripatākā and kaṭakamukha

As in NŚ

(5)

14. Latā

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ

As in NŚ as garuḍa-pakṣa

(also an asamyuta hasta of the MG derived from tripatākā)

(6)

15. Karihasta

1

See dola hasta

occurs often as lola hasta and as katav-alambita hasta

Represented very often in dance sculpture

16. Pakṣavañcitā

As in NŚ

17. Pakṣapradyotaka

As in NŚ

Occurs as daṇḍa-hasta but the patākā and akṣa hasta is utilized

18. Daṇḍapakṣa

First position of some-times

19. Ūrdhvamaṇḍali

As in NŚ

20. Pārśvamaṇḍali

As in NŚ

21. Uromañḍali

As in NŚ

22. Urahpārśva- maṇḍali

As in NŚ but termed in NŚ as urohpārśva- hasta

23. Muṣṭikasvastika

As in NŚ svastika but can be made from muṣṭi and kaṭakā- ārāla or alapallava with kaṭakāmukha, muṣ- ṭi and kapittha

24. Nalinipadma- kośa

As in NŚ

25. Alapallava

As in NŚ alapallava

26. Lalita

As in NŚ

87

(Continued)

27. Valita

As in NŚ jñāna-hasta

As in NŚnikuñcita abhaya and varada iconography also mentioned

TABLE XIV (Contd.)

• BB divides the earlier samaśyuta and samyuta hastas into Pullinga (masculine), Srillinga (feminine) and Napunsakalinga (neuter) but does not enumerate the nrtta hastas and lays down like the AD that the two types of hastus can be used for nrtta hastas also.

**The iconographical vismayahasta, the nidrita hasta, the karai hasta and the dhanuhast hasta not mentioned in the NŚ.

The Sangītaratnākara follows the Nātyaśāstra closely in the names and description of cārīs and sthānas, but indicates one other type of classification of the latter which is not found in the Nātyaśāstra, even though most of the movements and postures described can be found in the descriptions of different types of gaits described in the Nātyaśāstra in Chapter XII. Śārṅgadeva makes three categories, viz., the deśīsthānaka, upviṣṭasthānaka and suptasthānaka. He lists twenty-three postures in the first category, nine in the second and six in the third.

Of the twenty-three of the first category, about eight are in common with either the maṇḍala or the sthānakas of the Abhinayadarpaṇa; these have been mentioned above; the other fifteen with the exception of the caturaśra are not found either in the Nāṭyaśāstra or the Abhinayadarpaṇa: the caturaśra sthānaka of the Saṅgīta-ratnākara is the same as described by Bharata, when he speaks of the sauṣṭhava and caturaśra of the body.132 The other fourteen are133 vardhamāna, nandyāvarta, saṃhaṭa, prṣṭhottānatala, pārśnividdha, pārśnipārśvagata, ekapārśvagata, ekajānu-nata, parāvṛtta, viṣamasūci, khaṇḍasūci, śaiva, kūrmāsana and vṛṣabhāsana.

The nine sitting postures correspond closely to the sitting postures (āsana) described by the Nāṭyaśāstra,134 but the latter does not give them any specific names. The nine types of sitting postures relate both to the moods they must represent and to the position of the limbs. Thus, svastika, jānu-gata, mukta-jānu and vimukta denote the limb position, and madālāsā, krānta, viṣkambhita, utkaṭa and srastālasa relate to the mood, and are used for representing sorrow, intoxication, offering libation, dhyāna yoga, state of fainting, etc., respectively. In the last five, the position of all the limbs, such as the chest, waist, eyes, is described; in the first, only the position and movement of the lower limbs is described.

The sleeping or reclining postures described in the Saṅgītaratnākara under the suptasthāna are faithful repetitions from the Nāṭvaśāstra, where also six reclining postures are described.135 They are ākuñcita, sama, prasārita, viśrtita, udvāhita and nata.

TABLE XV Sthāna (postures for men)136

Sthāna

1. Vaiṣṇava

2. Samapāda

3. Vaisā̄kha

4. Mandala

5. Āliḍha

6. Pratyāliḍha

Feet

Samāpada (i) samāpada (ii) in tryaśra position. Two tālas apart

Samāpada (i) but both feet in tryaśra with toes pointing sideways, and two tālas and a half apart

Kati and jānu in natural position

The left knee slightly bent Rudra presiding deity. To be used in vira and bhayānaka-rasa: dīḍha and āgahāra derived from this

Samāpada feet in tryaśra, but left foot drawn five tālas apart, i.e., complete extension of one leg

One knee in kṣipta position

Used in throwing weapons etc. commonly represented in sculp-ture

Other limbs

Shank bent in nata, the term śrngāra and vira rasa: is used for śrngāra Viṣṇu presiding deity.

Presiding deity Brahmā deity.

Skanda presiding deity. Vaiśākha reca, karaṇa and āgahāra derived from this position

Indra presiding deity. Mandala karaṇa svastika derived from this

The thighs motionless in stambhāna.

The verse also suggests an open leap off the ground

Samāpada feet or placed in tryaśra (pointing sideways) but four tālas apart

Samāpada feet in tryaśra placing one foot is in kuñcita

Associated deity and karaṇa

Two types: is used for śrngāra and vira rasa. Viṣṇu presiding deity.

90

TABLE XV

Sthāna (postures for women)137

Other limbs

Feet and position etc.

Sthāna

1. Āyata

2. Avahittha

3. Āśvakrānta

Samapāda (i) and (ii), but second and foot placed in tryaśra; no distance between the feet. Right foot samapāda; left according to SR tryaśra

As in āyata left side raised in unnata

Left foot samapāda and right foot in tryaśra position; the reverse of positions in the āyata

Samapāda (i) sūci (ii) also agralaśāñcāra: the second foot is lifted up, thus the knee is bent

Associated karana or deity etc.

Used in dance often: frequently referred to in literature and seen in sculpture

Presiding deity is Durga

Used for catching hold of a branch of a tree, plucking a cluster of flowers, etc., seen often in sculpture. Bhārati is presiding deity

91

TABLE XVII

Bhaumi cārī138

(earthly)

Bhaumi (earthly)

(1)

1. Samapādā

(2)

Pada (foot)

(i)

Samapāda

"

(ii)

"

(i)

Agratasaṃcāra-

saṃcāra

(ii)

saṃcāra-

sañcāra

(1)

2. Sthitāvarā

(2)

3. Śakatāsyā

(i)

Samapādā

(ii)

Agratalasañcāra-

sañcara-

(3)

Position and distance of the lower limbs

Close together, toes facing front (posture)

(4)

Knees or Thighs (ūrū) and shanks (jānu) and jaṅghā etc.

Svastika (crossing) with no distance (posture)

(i)

Jānu also cross

(5)

(ii)

The agratalasañcāra of foot put forward at a distance of about 2 tālas (posture)

Uthhita (chest movement)

(6)

Associated karaṇa and/or maṇḍala

Semnakha AD; samapāda sthāna similar

The AD svastika maṇḍala—similar

Śakatāsyākaraṇa and maṇḍala

Adhyardha maṇḍala

Cāṣṣati maṇḍala

(i)

Tāla and a half apart: side-ways direction: a movement is indicated

(ii)

Ṇata

(i)

Samapādā

(ii)

Añcitāḍa

4. Adhyardhikā

(i)

Samapādā

(ii)

"

5. Cāṣṣati

A slight jump; first right foot moved front and back and then left foot back and front (one tāla distance) (movement)

92

6. Vicyavā

7. Elakākridita karana

Used in several

8. Baddhā

Svastika karaṇas

9. Ūrūdr̥ttā karaṇa

Udbhartanā (rising up,

tentse posit-

ion but no

lack of con-

tact with

ground)

10. Aditā maṇḍala

11. Utsyandita karaṇa

12. Janitā

(Continued)

The description indicates a

movement: a jump from the

samapāda feet is suggested,

the feet touch the ground in

the final position as kuñcita

Utplavana—jumping on toes

(movement)

Svastika

position of the

shanks and thighs

Agratalasañcāra foot point-

ing sideways at a little dis-

tance from the other foot

Añcita

or

nata

Agratala-

sañcāra

foot rubs

against the side

of the

samapāda foot

Moving sideways in a

criss-cross

manner

rekaṇa

(movement)

Feet two tālas apart

(i)

Samapāda

(ii)

''

(i)

Agratala-

sañcara-

(ii)

''

(i)

Samapāda

(ii)

''

(i)

Agratala-

sañcara

(ii)

''

93

TABLE XVII (Contd.)

(1)

13. Syanditā

14. Apasyanditā

15. Samotsarita-mattalli

16. Mattali

(2)

Samapāda

(i)

"

Samapāda

(ii)

"

Agratalasañcara

(i)

"

Agratalasañcara

(ii)

"

(3)

Five tālas apart both feet used for various sthānas like ālīḍaka, pratyaḍḍha (posture)

Reverse of the spandita

Circular movement of the Nata lifted leg and a movement indicating going back

(4)

Tense position

Svastika and going back in half crossing

a circular movement without lifting of the lower legs and then proceeding backwards

(5)

Hands

udveṣṭita

(6)

Askandiṭa maṇḍala

Samotsarita maṇḍala

Mattali (karaṇa)

TABLE XVIII Ākāśiki cāris

(1)

Ākāśiki cāris

(2)

Pada (foot)

(i)

Samapāda

(ii)

Kunicita

(i)

Samapāda

(ii)

Kunicita

(i)

Samapāda

(ii)

Kunicita

(i)

Samapāda

(ii)

Kunicita

(3)

Position, movement and distance

Kuñcita foot taken up to the knee level approximately and then placed forward four tālas (movement)

From the valana of the thighs kuñcita foot taken sideways. Derived from the baddha-cāri (movement)

The kuñcita foot is lifted with the knees pointing sideways: the foot is brought to the thigh and then dropped to the ground, with the heel touching the floor

The kuñcita foot is lifted as in pārśvakrānta but higher, both knees lifted and the movement is repeated by both feet

(4)

Knees and thighs

Nata jānu

Valana of thighs (ūru)

Ksipta position

Ksipta

(5)

Other limbs

(6)

Associated karaṇas

Atikrānta karaṇa and maṇḍala, used in several karaṇas

1. Atikrānta

2. Apakrānta

3. Pārśvakrānta

4. Ūrdhvajānu

95

(Continued)

TABLE XVIII (Contd.)

(1)

5. Sūci

(2)

Sama-pāda

Kuñcita

Añcita

Sama-pāda

Kuñcita

Kuñcita

Añcita

Sama-pāda

Kuñcita

and añcita

(i)

(ii)

(i)

(ii)

(i)

(ii)

(i)

(ii)

(3)

Kuñcita foot lifted in front

and brought to knee level,

that level and then is stretched at

the foot is lowered and then goes again

touch the floor

Udhāhita jaṅghā

An añcita foot is lifted and

then taken to the back of

the opposite thigh and finally

the toes touch the ground

or parivartita

Kuñcita foot lifted to its

own side, moved and then

touching the ground as an

añcita foot: tālus

difference approximately.

(4)

Udhāhita

Udvāhita

or kṣipta

Kṣipta (knees)

A kuñcita foot is lifted and

then crosses the other leg

and in the final position an

añcita foot is placed three

tālas apart

Udvāhita

or parivṛtta

Initial position svas-tika: the

kuñcita foot lifted from this

position, stretched and

touches the ground

añcita in final position on

its own side

(5)

Sūci, ardhasūci and

sūcividham karaṇa and sūcividddha

maṇḍala

(6)

Nūpura

Dolāpada

Svastika

Aksipta and ākṣipta

re-cita karaṇas and

also an uṅgana by

the same name

6. Nūpurapadikā

7. Dolapādā

8. Akṣiptā

9. Aviddhā

96

10. Udṛttā

Udṛtta karaṇa;

Vidyubhrānta karaṇa;

also an aṅgahāra by

the same name

Ālātaka karaṇa and

aṅgahāra

also by the same name

Bhujangaṅcita,

bhujanga

trāsiṅcita,

trāsta-recita

karaṇa;

Hariṇapluta

karaṇa;

SR names it

miṭa

pluta

Daṇḍapāda,

daṇḍaka

recita

karaṇa and

daṇḍapāda

maṇḍala

Bhramara karaṇa and

maṇḍala

aṅgahāra

bhramara

Derived from the

āviddha

cārī,

its kuñcita foot is stret-

ched and

ūru

and

udvāhita

jaṅghā

Sama of

the lifted foot taken back

on flexed position

it

touches the hips and then

the head etc. Thus the move-

ment is in all directions

Parivartitā

jaṅghā

Stretching of a

leg with the

aṅcita foot, backwards: the

foot is lowered on its own

side and the heels

touch

the floor first

Vivartitā

Lifted but sideways turning

of the waist also:

cita foot is lifted

the

kuñ-

cita

and the

knee of this leg touches the

other knee

Kṣipta of

the

ati-

krāntā

cārī,

jump and

side-ways movement

of

the knees

Kṣipta

and

udvāhita

Initial position of the

ātkr-

rāntaka

cārī,

the leg

is then

stretched and the foot

is

rupāḍika

cārī

brought down

Udvāhita

Jaṅghā

Initial position of the

ānt-

cārī,

foot lifted

and the

entire body turned around

(bhramarī)

(i)

Samapādā

(ii)

Kuñcitā

(i)

Samapādā

(ii)

Kuñcitā or

samapādā

(i)

Samapādā

(ii)

Añcitā

(i)

Samapādā

(ii)

Kuñcitā

(i)

Samapādā

(ii)

Añcitā

Udṛttā

Vidyubhrantā

Ālātā

Bhujangātrastā

Hariṇaplutā

Daṇḍapādā

Bhramari

97

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

Karana

The karana as a unit of movement is perhaps the most important subject discussed in the Nāṭyaśāstra in the nrtta technique of dance. Indeed many contem-

porary scholars have restricted their discussion of the nrtta technique to a discussion of the 108 karanas. Since these karanas have also been represented sculpturally in

the Cidambaram and the Bṛhadeśvara temple in Tanjore, and since inscriptions of Bharata's verses are found in the Cidambaram temple, it has often been taken for

granted or implied that the descriptions of karanas in the Nāṭyaśāstra are descriptions of static poses. It has rarely been stated that what Bharata describes as a

karana is a unit of movement, indeed, a cadence of movement culminating in a pose. It has not been clearly understood that, when a unit of movement is broken

up into the successive positions that constitute it, several poses can result at different points in time. This being so, any sculptural representation or a description of

movement in language can be a sculptural representation of an arrested moment in a movement sequence.

The effort of most scholars has been to identify the sculptured karanas of the Cidambaram temple with the verses of Chapter IV of the Nāṭyaśāstra, and to see whether

the correct inscription has been indicated with the sculptured karana. The history of analysis of the sculptured karanas has been a history of the correct

numbering of the karanas and the inscriptions. More recently, this has also been done with the sculptural representation of the karanas in the Bṛhadeśvara temple

in Tanjore. The main attempts made to identify the sculptured karanas of the Cidambaram temple with the correct verse of Chapter IV of the Nāṭyaśāstra have

been by Sri B.N.V. Naidu in the Tāṇḍavalakṣaṇam and by the respective editors of the first and second editions of the Nāṭyaśāstra published by the Gaekwad Oriental

Series, Baroda. All these authorities have used the woodcuts of the Epigraphical Department of the Government of Madras, first published in the Epigraphical

Report of 1914. Sri Ramaswami Sastri in the second edition of the Nāṭyaśāstra in the Gaekwad Oriental Series has, however, selected a few figures from the temple

walls, which he thinks correspond to the definitions in the text and the inscriptions.140 The first edition of the Nāṭyaśāstra, as also the Epigraphical Report, published

only 93 woodcuts: the editors of the Tāṇḍavalakṣaṇam and the editor of the second edition of the Nāṭyaśāstra (Gaekwad Oriental Series) have incorporated the re-

maining fifteen. So far as the first fifty-three figures are concerned, there is unanimity amongst these authors. There is, however, a great divergence of opinion

regarding the remaining 55 karanas. According to Sri Ramaswami Sastri, "these dancing poses have been set up strictly in accordance with the descriptions found

in the verses of the fourth chapter of the Nāṭyaśāstra and the correct corresponding verse has been inscribed below each pose so that it may be known to the public

that the pose is the illustration of the particular karana defined in the verse".141 He has also stated the reasons for the confusion by previous authors, and has given us a

very valuable chart of the karanas 54-108 as found in the different compartments

of the four towers of the Cidambaram temple and has compared the names and numbers of his order with the previous publications142. He has also indicated in this table the karanas which according to him have been displayed in each of the gopurams of the Cidambaram temple. This comparative study has been a valuable guide in resolving some of the problems which faced scholars regarding the correct order of the karanas and their placement in the gopurams of the Cidambaram temple. However, he, too, like other scholars, has assumed that the definitions of karanas in the Nātyaśāstra are descriptions of static poses, and that the sculptors of the Cidambaram temple could and did depict an entire sequence of movement through sculptural representation.

If the order stated by Sri Sastri is accepted as correct, the problem of indicating whether or not the sculptural representation depicts the initial, intermediary or final position of the movement described by the text remains.

Our attempt, therefore, is to interpret these karanas as units of movement and not as static poses. Since this unit of movement is built up by successive positions of the different limbs, such as the hands, feet, legs and primary movements of the cārīs, the sthānas, etc., it is important to take into consideration the movements of the different limbs. Indeed, the fourth chapter of the Nātyaśāstra cannot be understood without reference to the subsequent chapters of the Nātyaśāstra, specially Chapters VII, IX, X and XII, where the individual movements of the major and minor limbs (aṅga and upāṅga) have been described. In analyzing the karana as a unit of movement, the cadence has to be broken up into its constituents of movement of the major limbs (aṅga) and minor limbs (upāṅga). This breaking up of the karana into the primary movements that each karana employs leads to a reclassification of the karanas from the point of view of the most distinctive feature of the karana. Most of the names of the karanas are also derived from particular movements of the major and minor limbs. Thus some karanas take their names from the nṛtta hastas, some from movements of the hip or waist or side; others take their names from the feet position. Many derive their names from the nature of the leg extension, like the vṛścika and others from the cārī or the sthāna they employ. The names of a few suggest the type of movement, crossing or whirling or pirouetting like the svastika or recita or bhramari. The karanas can be reclassified thus in terms of their most distinctive or principal movement into nine categories. Once this is done, the problem of identification of the sculptured karana also becomes the problem of indicating whether or not the sculptural representation captures this distinctive feature.

An attempt has been made here to reclassify the karanas in terms of the distinctive feature on the one hand, and to indicate whether or not the sculptural representation illustrates the initial, intermediary or final position of the karana as described by Bharata, on the other. An attempt has also been made to indicate the exact

chapter and verse of the Nāṭyaśāstra, where movements of the individual limbs as relevant to the particular karana have been described. In the tables which follow, the first column states the most important and distinctive feature of the karana, the second column indicates the movements of the related limbs, and the third column gives the textual references to these movements in different chapters of the Nāṭyaśāstra.

This is followed by a comparison of the karana as sculpturally illustrated in the gopurams of the Cidambaram temple with the description of the karana in the Nāṭyaśāstra. The discrepancies and a few inaccuracies of identification between the editors of the Tāṇḍavalakṣaṇam and the second edition of the Nāṭyaśāstra (Gaekwad Oriental Series) have also been pointed out.

On the basis of what has been stated above, the karaṇas can be reclassified into the following categories:

(a) Sama karaṇas : those which indicate stable positions, nos. 5, 6.

(b) Hasta karaṇas : those which take their names after or have the nṛtta hasta movement as the most important feature, nos. 1, 2, 9, 10, 31, 32, 33, 39, 54, 68, 69, 75, 87.

(c) Svastika karaṇas : those that take their names from the svastika—crossed position of either the hands, or the feet or the thighs, nos. 7, 8, 13, 15, 16, 17, 22, 49, 106.

(d) Recita karaṇas : those which take their names from the recita or recika of either the hands or feet or kaṭi or neck etc. nos. 12, 14, 20, 29, 37, 101.

(e) Vṛścika karaṇas : those which make an arch of the leg like a scorpion's, and utilize a back-flexed position of the leg, nos. 26, 42, 44, 46, 47, 50, 80, 90.

(f) Sthāna karaṇas : those which derive their names from the sthānas or utilize the Nāṭyaśāstra sthānas, nos. 48, 96, 105.

(g) Cārī karaṇas : those which are derived from the cārīs: often the name suggests it, but where it does not the definition describes it; nos. 4, 18, 24, 25, 27, 28, 34, 35, 36, 38, 40, 41, 51, 53, 55, 60, 62, 63, 65, 66, 73, 76, 77, 78, 79, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 104, 107, 108.

(h) Kaṭi karaṇas : those which derive their names from the positions of the kaṭi, nos. 11, 19, 43, 45.

100

(i) Pāda karanas : those which take their name from the position and movements of the feet, nos. 21, 23, 30, 56, 57, 58, 59, 70, 71, 74, 81, 88, 102, 103.

(j) Ūrū, pārśva, etc. : those which derive their movements from important movements of other parts of the body, nos. 3, 52, 61, 62, 64, 67, 72.

Karana (sama)

No. Karana (sama positions) Hasta NŚ Verse No. and sculptural representation in Cidambaram

5. Samanakha1; the natural position Feet are samapāda and the hands hang naturally in latā2; the body is in svā-bhāvika position

6. IV—65 2. IX—198 Sculptural representation accurate

7. Līna3; feet are in sama-pāda; there is no bend of the knees The hands are moved and brought together in añjali1 samyuta hastas. The head is slightly bent in nihañcita5

8. IV—66a-67a 4 IX—128 5 VIII—32 The sculpture represents the final position

Karana (hasta)

No. Karana and hasta Pāda (feet) and jānu (knees) etc. NŚ Verse No.

1. Talapuṣpaputa1 Puṣpaputahasta2 Feet in agratalasañcara3, pārśva (side) in sannata4 limbs in sauṣṭhava5

2. IV—61 2. IX—150 3 IX—273 4. IX—235 5. X—89

3. Vartita6 : āvartita and parivartita7 of the hands. The initial position is of svastika hands One foot in agratalasañ-cara8 : a svastika of the wrists also mentioned

4. IV—62 7. IX—218 8 IX—273

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

No. Karaṇa and hasta Pāda (feet) and jānu (knees) etc. NŚ Verse No.

9. Nikuṭṭaka9 : the karaṇa could also be classified under the pāda karaṇas

Arms in nikuṭṭaka bent with hands near the shoulders. Feet in udghaṭṭita according to commentary

9. IV—69

10. Ardhanikuṭṭaka10: hands alapallava11

Similar to karaṇa no. 9 but legs do not bend as much

10. IV—70 11. IX—91

11. Valita12

Sūcimukha hasta13: sūcī cārī in initial position and bhra-marī in final position

12. IV—92 13. IX—191

13. Ghūrṇita14: valita of one hand and dola15 of the other

Feet in svastika position, and then the legs are extended

14. IV—92b-93a 15. IX—148

15. Lalita16: from the kari-hasta17 position, one hand and arm moved from side to side in utsārita

Feet in kuṭṭita or nikuṭṭa (i.e., bent knees and tāḍita18 movement of feet)

16. IV—93b-94a 17. IX—199 18. This movement is not mentioned by NŚ but is mentioned by ŚR etc. NŚ only speaks of kuṭṭita as a bent position

17. Catura19: left hand in alapallava20 and right in catura21

Feet movement is udghaṭṭita22; the right shank is bent in nikuṭṭita or kuñcita

19. IV—99b-100a 20 IX—91 21 IX—93 22. IX—266, movement mentioned only in commentary

20. Ūromandala23: derived from ūromandala24 hastas

Svastika position to begin with; later arms open out; resembles the movement of the baddhā cārī25. The commentary also mentions the sthitāvartā cārī26 initial position

23. IV—114b-115a 24. IX—204 25. X—21 26. X—15

102

THEORY AND TECHNIQUE OF CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE

No. Karaṇa and hasta Pāda (feet) and jānu (knees) NŚ Verse No.

68. Gajakrīdita27: name deri- The leg position is of the 27. IV—128b-129a

69. Talasaṁsphoṭita32: tala- mukha33 hands clasped Feet and legs as in atikrān- tā34 cārī. Knees are spread 32. IV—129b-130a

and clapped out in kṣipta35 Compare with karaṇa 93 discussed under the cārī karaṇas

75. Sannata36: with dola37 hasta Feet in svastika in initial 36. IV—135b-136a

76. Karihasta40: from kari- hastas41 Feet are in añcita42 position

Sculptural representation in Cidambaram of karaṇas derived from hastas

1. Talapuṣpaputa : The sculptural representation shows the final position of the hands, but the agratalasañcara feet described by the text are not seen. Also the kṣipta position of the knees is not mentioned in the text. TL and NŚ II agree143.

2. Vartita : The sculptural representation of the vartita karaṇa cannot be said to be accurate, for the two distinctive features of the karaṇa, namely the agratalasañcara foot and the svastika of the wrists (mani), are not seen: however, the karaṇa could represent the final position of the arm movement. The text sug-

103

gests that in the final position the arms hang down with the palms of the patākã hasta facing out.

9. Nikuttaka : The sculptural representation as identified by NŚ II illustrates an intermediary arm position. However, there is no indication in the figure of the udghattita toe-heel movement of the feet or the mandala sthāna mentioned by the text. The alapadma hastas are not seen in the figure either.

10. Ardhanikuttaka144 : In the sculpture indentified by NŚ II as this karana, one hand is near the ear and the other arm is held across the chest. From the sculpture it is not clear whether the hand is alapallava or not. Allapallava hastas are mentioned only by Abhinavagupta in the commentary and not by Bharata. The movement described by NŚ II is a continuous movement and not a static position.

11. Valita : The text mentions the sūcīmukha hasta the sūcīpādā cārī in the initial position and the turning of the trika to perform the bhramarī cārī in the final. The Cidambaram relief depicts one foot in kuñcita and the other in samapāda. One hand is held in patākā, and the other rests on the thigh. The initial position of sūcī cārī is seen in the sculpture; the apaviddha of the arms mentioned by NŚ could be interpreted as in the relief.

12. Ghūrṇita : The karana as seen in Cidambaram represent the dola hasta clearly, but the feet are not in svastika as indicated by the text; one foot is in kuñcita, suggesting a sūcī position rather than a svastika. The valita of the hands or the svastika position of the feet is not captured by the sculpture.

13. Lalita : The hand position of the karihasta in the karana is accurately represented in the sculpture. The feet are difficult to analyze in terms of the text, but the pose of the sculpture seems to be a faithful representation, judging from the fact that this karana has been similarly depicted at other places.

14. Catura : The sculpture shows the dola arm, crossing the body; and one hand seems to be in alapallava but it may be in patākā: the text does not mention the placing of the arms; thus, there was freedom for the sculptor to depict them as he wished. The catura hand is also not seen in the sculpture. The feet cannot be said to be in udghattita: one of them is in kuñcita. Kuṭṭita or udghattita are movements of the feet and thus difficult to represent in sculpture.

15. Ūromandala : TL and the second edition of NŚ do not agree about this karana. Ramaswami Sastri gives a drawing of the viṣkambha karana of TL and calls it ūromandala. The svastika position of the legs mentioned in the text and reiterated in the commentary is, however, not seen in the figures identified by NŚ II or TL: the

ūromandala of the arms is a movement and can, therefore, take either the position seen in the NŚ II karana 54 or the NŚ1 karana 54. The uromandala hastas could not have the hands and arms of the figure identified as this karana by TL. The feet position of all the three figures do not accord with the textual description. The figure identified by NŚ II represents at best the initial position of the arm movement.

68. Gajakrīdita : The karana identified by Ramaswami Sastri in NŚ II represents the position described by the text accurately. The legs are in dolapāda and one hand is in latā and the other is held near the ear. The TL figure is incorrect. The dola pāda and latā hasta are both seen in the figure identified by NŚ II.

69. Talasamsphoṭita : The sculptural representation of the karana as identified by NŚ II clearly indicates the hand position described in the text. TL identifies a different figure which does not correspond with the definition. However, the feet position described in the text are not seen in the NŚ II figure either. Also, neither the atikrāntā cārī nor the dandapādā feet are seen in the sculpture. The NŚ II figure could at best be the final position of the movement where both the hands meet and the feet are struck.

70. Sannata : The figures identified as the sannata karana are different in NŚ II and TL : the figure identified by Sastri represents the final position of the sannata karana where the feet are in svastika position after a jump in hariṇaplutā cārī : the hands, however, are held near the chest and this does not accord with the text. The figure identified as the sannata karana by TL and NŚ I represents the dola hastas but not the svastika of the feet. It could, however, represent the jumping in the hariṇaplutā cārī but the action indicated seems more violent than the description of the karana. We can only conclude that the karana is inaccurately represented in both the figures identified. even though some features are common : no other figure in Cidambaram seems to fit the description totally.

71. Karihasta : It is fairly accurately represented in the sculptured figure: we see clearly the karihasta and the aṅcita position of the feet: both NŚ II and TL agree. The extension of the side alone does not accord with the definition, but the arm extension and the foot position without doubt make this figure a representation of the karihasta karana of NŚ II.

105

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

Karaṇa (svastika)

No. Karaṇa Other limbs, pāda (feet) and hastas (hands) NŚ Verse No.

7. Svastika recitā1: recita2 of the hands with arms in āviddha3 (turning inwards), the commentary adds many other movements of the hands

Svastika of the feet. The first position of the hands is in caturaśra and in the final position they are in hamsapākṣa

1. IV—76b-68a

2. IX—193

3. IX—190 and 220

4. Maṇḍala svastika4

Svastika positions of feet and hands are derived from the maṇḍala sthāna5

4. IV—68b-69a

5. X—65

6. Vaksahsvastika recita6: hands in svastika; the chest is bent in nikuncita. The commentary identifies this as the abhugna7 chest movement

Feet are in svastika and are alternately opened and crossed

6. IV—73b-74a

7. IX—224

8. Svastika8, hands and feet both in svastika

Static position

8. IV—75b-76a

9. Prṣthasvastika9: arms and hands in svastika, but completely turned, so that back faces audience

Feet and legs as in apakrānta cārī10 and ardhasūcī cārī11

9. IV—76b-77a

10. X—3

X—34

17. Diksvāstika12: hands and feet in svastika

One continuous movement front and sideways of crossed feet and hands

12. IV—77b-78a

13. Ardhasvastika13: right hand in karihasta14; the left hand relaxed on chest

Svastika of the feet

13. IV—82b-83

14. IX—199

15. Pārśvanikuṭṭaka15

Hands are in svastika; feet and legs in nikuṭṭita

15. IV—109b-110a

16. Nāgāpasarpita16: hands in recita and head in parivāhita17

Release of one leg from svastika position of feet

16. IV—166b-167a

17. VIII—27

106

THEORY AND TECHNIQUE OF CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE

Sculptural representation in Cidambaram of svastika karanas

7. Svastika recita : Both TL and NŚ II identify the same figure as the svastika

recita karana. The sculpture depicts, if anything, the final position described by the

NŚ, for neither the recita movement of the hamsapaksa hastas nor the svastika

position of the feet is seen in the sculpture. The commentary adds that the hands

finally rest on the kati and this is clearly observed in the sculptural representation

of the karana.

8. Mandala svastika : TL and NŚ II agree but the sculpture represents the

svastika of the hands only: it does not also depict the distinctive feature of a four-

tala distance between the two feet described in NŚ.

13. Vaksahsvastika recita : TL and NŚ II agree : the sculpture represents fairly

accurately the svastika of the hands and the feet: the abhugna chest (slightly bent)

as described by the text is not seen in the sculptural representation.

15. Svastika : TL and NŚ II agree : the sculpture represents the final position

of the NŚ karana : the svastika of the hands and feet is seen clearly in the relief.

16. Prsthasvastika : TL and NŚ II agree : the reverse position of karana 15 is

seen in the sculpture and it corresponds to the description in the text. Howeve1, the

movements of the apakrāntā cārī is not depicted in the sculpture; only the final

posterior position is depicted.

17. Diks vastika : TL and NŚ II agree: the sculpture depicts a posture similar

to karana 16, which seems to be a result of the limitations of modelling in relief.

The svastika position of the feet and the hands is clearly observed, and differs

from the textual description only in so far as the diksvastika karana is a continuous

movement of the crossed feet and hands in front and sideways.

22. Ardhasvastika : TL and NŚ II agree: the sculpture depicts the svastika

of the feet but the movement described by the text, specially of the karihasta,

is not seen: the hand is held on the chest in the sculpture.

49. Pārśvanikuṭṭaka : TL and NŚ II agree: the sculpture also corresponds to

the description of the text: the hands are in svastika and the knees are bent. The

sideways movement suggested in the text is, however, not seen in the sculptural

representation.

106. Nāgāpasarpita : NŚ II and TL differ in their identification of the karana.

The figure in the NŚ II identified as the nāgāpasarpita shows practically a sitting

posture; one hand is held clearly in patākā, and the other is near the ear: this is

107

not in accordance with the definition of NŚ. The extension of the legs from the initial svastika position described by the text is also not noticed. The TL and NŚ I figure of karaṇa 106 is equally doubtful, for one leg is here turned back, almost as a vrścika leg, and arms are extended out in front: the general definition of recita could also include this movement. One may conclude that there is no accurate sculptural representation of this karaṇa.

Karaṇa (recita)

No. KaraṇaHasta (hands) and other limbsNŚ Verse No.

12. Ardha recita1

Sūcimukha2 hastas make recita. The side (pārśva) is in nata3 position. The legs are in nikuṭṭita

1. IV—72b-73a2. IX—1913. IX—239-240

2. Unmatta4

The hands are in recita5 and the feet in aṅcita6: there is a turn of the entire body. The commentary also mentions the āviddhā cārī7

4. IV—74b-75a5. IX—1936. IX—274-2757. X—38

5. Ākṣipta recita8

The arm movement is apaviddha9 (circular), the hands are in recita. The knees are in kṣipta10 (spread out) position

8. IV—80b-81a9. IX—22010. X—262-263

9. Recita nikuṭṭita11

Feet in udghaṭṭita12; knees and thighs are bent to form nikuñcita

11. IV—89b-90a12. IX—265

12. Vaiśākha recita13:

Derived from the sthāna14 of that name

hands and feet both in recita

13. IV—97b-98a14. X—61-62

14. Sambhrānta15: the name of the karaṇa is derived from the circular movement it implies. Unlike karaṇas 5 and 6, this is a movement. The cārī used is āviddhā17

The movement of the hands is in parivartita18 and vyāvartita; they rest on the thighs in the final position

15. IV—161b-162a16. IX—217-21817. X—38

THEORY AND TECHNIQUE OF CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE

Sculptural representation of the recita karanas

12. Ardha recita : TL and NS II agree : the sculptural representation accords more or less with an intermediary position described in the text; the sūcimukha hastas cannot be seen clearly in the figure, nor are the katakāmukha hastas mentioned by the commentary clear. The bent position of the legs in the sculpture is nikuṭṭita.

13. Unmatta : TL and NS II agree : the figure represents accurately the recita movement of the hands and arms and also suggests the frenzied quality of the karana : the añcita feet are, however, not visible.

20 Ākṣipta recita : TL and NS II agree : the clearly defined kṣipta position of the knees is seen in the figure. The arm and hand positions are more difficult to identify in terms of the text. In the sculpture one hand is in patākã near the chest and the other rests on the thigh. The sculpture illustrates the final position of the karana.

29. Recita nikuṭṭita : TL and NS II agree : the sculptural representation is fairly faithful and depicts the recita and the dola hasta clearly; the foot does not show the udghaṭṭita movement but the toe of the kuñcita foot is so placed that it can easily lead to the udghaṭṭita movement.

30. Vaiśākha recita : TL and NS II agree : the figure in the sculpture, however, does not show the distance of three and a half tālas between the two feet as mentioned by the text. The feet and hands can be said to be in recita but the sculpture does not conform accurately to the description. There is no suggestion of the uplifted foot in the text. The most distinctive feature of the karana is the vaiśākha sthāna in the initial position and this is not seen in the sculptural representation. The feet in the sculpture indicate the intermediary position of the karana, viz., the nūpura pāda.

31. Sambhrānta : Neither the figure identified by NS II nor the one identified by TL accord with the textual description. There is no indication in the sculpture of either the āviddhā cārī or the vyāvarṭita or parivartita movements of the hands. The karana is a continuous movement and not a static position, and does not lend itself to a faithful sculptural representation.

109

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

Karaṇas with legs in vṛścika position

No. Karaṇa Hastas (hands) and other limbs NŚ Verse No.

26. Nikuñcita1: one leg in vṛścika One hand across the chest the other touches tip of the nose. One hand is in arāla 1. IV—86b-87a

27. Vṛścika kuṭṭila2: one leg in vṛścika taken back The arms bent in nikuñcita: alapallava hands are held in the shoulder region 2. IV—102b-103a

28. Latā vṛścika3: one leg in vṛścika Hands in latā 3. IV—104b-105a

29. Vṛścika recita4 Viprakīrṇa nṛtta hastas in recita are suggested 4. IV—106b-107a and IX—187

30. Vṛścika5: one leg bent in front; the other turned back and elevated Two hands in kuñcita held over the shoulders 5. IV—107b-108a

31. Lalāṭatilaka6: also belongs to the vṛścika variety: the vṛścika leg is taken to its extreme position when the toe touches the forehead The hand of the uplifted leg is in patākā, the other holds the uplifted toe in the forehead region 6. IV—110b-111a

32. Majūralalita7: vṛścika of legs, but with crossed thighs Hands in recita and moved freely. Trika is in vivartita IV—140b-141a

33. Simhākarṣita8 (vṛścika of one leg) Arms bent in nikuñcita, hands padmakoṣa or ūrnanābha 8. IV—150b-151a

Sculptural representation of the vṛścika karaṇas

26. Nikuñcita : TL and NŚ II agree : the sculptural relief accurately accords with the description in the text: one foot is in samapāda with a nata (bent) knee, the other is taken back and lifted up to form an arch: the arm positions also conform to the description in the text, the arāla hand however, cannot be seen in the sculpture; the karihasta is not specifically mentioned by NŚ.

42. Vrścika kuṭṭila : TL and NŚ II agree : the sculpture has the same feet and knee position as karana 26: the hands and arms differ. According to the text, they should be in alapadma and in recita: this is not depicted by the sculpture. The hands are, however, seen in the shoulder region in the sculpture and this conforms to the description in the commentary.

43. Latā vrścika: TL and NŚ II agree: the feet and leg positions of this karana are similar to those of karanas 26 and 42: the latā hasta is depicted in the sculpture by an extended arm: the other hand is in patākã held near the chest.

44. Vrścika recita : TL and NŚ II agree : the sculptural representation has the vrścika leg lifted high with the toe touching the back of the head. The recita of the hands and arms is shown by the complete extension of both the arms. The chest is slightly bent forward in the sculptural representation, which is not prescribed by the NŚ. The final position of the karana is depicted by the sculpture.

45. Vrścika : TL and NŚ II agree : the sculptural representation is accurate, so far as the legs are concerned, but the karihasta prescribed by the commentary is not seen in the sculpture.

46. Lalāṭatiluka: TL and NŚ II agree: the vrścika leg is depicted in its extreme position where the calf and the thighs are in a straight line again and there is no bending of the knee. The hand clasping the toe above the head is clearly seen in the figure. The other hand is in patākã. The sculpture is a faithful definition of the final position.

47. Mayūralalita : TL and NŚ II identify different figures: the TL figure of karana 99 is figure 80 of NŚ II145: the latter figure is nearer the description of NŚ. The sacrum is turned round and the hands and arms are openly stretched out: one leg is in vrścika but not in such an extreme position as in karana 46 or karana 60: this is more akin to the leg position of karanas 26 and 42: however, the turning of the trika and the crossing of the thighs produce a different impression. The karana identified by NŚ II is closer to the textual description.

48. Simhākarṣita : TL and NŚ II identify different figures. The figure identified as karana 90 by NŚ II is karana 106 of TL. The NŚ II figure is closer to the description in the text: yet it is not an accurate depiction. The vrścika of one leg is seen, but the ūrṇanābha and padmakośa hastas mentioned in the commentary are not seen in the relief; the arms and hands suggest the dandapakṣa hastas instead.

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

Karaṇas from sthānas146

No. Karaṇa

Hastas (hands) and other limbs

NŚ Verse No.

48. Vyaṃsita1

Derived from āliḍha sthāna2: arms in recita and hands in viprakīrṇa nṛtta3 hasta, in an udveṣṭita movement4

1. IV—108b-109a

2. X—67

3. IX—187

4. IX—216

5. Niveśa5

From maṇḍala sthāna6: hands on chest, the chest is in nir-bhugna7 and the sides are in unnata8.

5. IV—156b-157a

6. X—65-66

7. IX—226

8. IX—236-238

9. Lolita9

From vaiṣṇava sthāna10: the arms are in recita and the hands in aṅcita; the head is lolita11

9. IV—165b-166a

10. X—52-53

11. VIII—37

Sculptural representation of karaṇas derived from sthānas

48. Vyaṃsita : TL and NŚ II agree: the figure depicts the āliḍha sthāna, no doubt, but it is rather a clumsy representation and, considering that the āliḍha sthāna has been beautifully sculptured as early as in the Rāṇigumphā caves, this is indeed a poor depiction. The feet are not quite five tālas apart and the stretched leg is not sufficiently extended out. The hands are accurately depicted as being on the chest where they may casily form a svastika.

49. Niveśa: TL and NŚ II identify different figure as the niveśa karaṇa, but neither of the figures corresponds to the description of the text. The TL figure identified as karaṇa 96 has nothing in common with the NŚ description: but in fact none of the karaṇas derived from the sthānas have been accurately represented in the Cidambaram temple. In the NŚ II figure the hands are on the chest and this accords with the description; but the feet are not shown four tālas apart. There is nothing in the chest and side (pārśva) position either to show a slight bending and stiffening of the torso. Nor is there any other figure which conforms to the definition in the Nātyaśāstra.

50. Lolita : TL and NŚ II do not agree regarding the figure, nor do the figures identified by either accord with the description in NŚ. Neither the TL nor the NŚ II figure depicts the vaiṣṇava sthāna which is the most distinctive figure of the karaṇa. The feet of the figure identified by NŚ II are in svastika and the hands are near the chest. It would have been difficult to represent the recita of the arms, mentioned by NŚ, sculpturally.

112

THEORY AND TECHNIQUE OF CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE

Karaṇas from cārīs

No. Karaṇa Hastas (hands) and other limbs NŚ Verse No.

4. Apaviddha1: derived from the baddhā cārī; a movement of the arms is also termed apaviddha (IX—220)

The hands mentioned are śukatunda and kaṭakāmukha2; a crossing of the thighs as in the baddhā cārī is mentioned in the text

1. IV—64b-65a

2. IX—60-62

3. Alāta3: initial position of alātā cārī;4 final position of ūrdhvajānu cārī5: a turn and the uplifted sideways movement of the knees are important points of the cadence

Initial position of the hands is at the level of the shoulders; in the final position they extend down

IV—78b

X—41

X—33

24. Bhujangatrāsita6 : derived from the cārī7 of that name: one kuñcita8 foot lifted up, the thighs in vivartana9 (also compare karaṇas 35 and 40 which are similar)

There is an oblique turning of the entire body specially knees, thighs and waist: the hand positions are not indicated; one arm is in karihasta10

6. IV—84-85a

7. X—42

8. IX—275

9. IX—255-256

10. IX—199

11. Ūrdhvajānu11: the leg positions are exactly the same as in the cārī12 of that name

Hand and arm movement not specified

11. IV—85b-86a

12. X—33

13. Mattalli13: leg movement as in the cārī14: here the circular movement is emphasized

Arms in apaviddha, and the hands perform an udveṣṭita15 movement

13. IV—87b-88a

14. X—28

15. IX—216

16. Ardhamattalli16: derived from the mattalli17 cārī but the closing and extending of the feet is emphasized

Recita nṛtta hasta extended and the left hand is placed on hip

16. IV—88b-89a

17. X—28

18. Daṇḍapakṣa18: the karaṇa is derived from the ūrdhvajānu cārī19: compare karaṇa 25 above, also compare karaṇa 82

The hand position is that of the daṇḍapakṣa nṛtta hastas20; the feet and hands together give the impression of a staff: the arms are latā hastas21 here

18. IV—95b-96a

19. X—33

20. IX—202

21. IX—198

113

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

No. Karaṇa Hastas (hands) and other limbs NŚ Verse No.

35. Bhujangḁtrāsita recita22: derived from the cārī of that name and karaṇa 24. The karaṇa can also fall into the category of the recita karaṇas for the circular movement is emphasized here. Also compare karaṇa 40

Hand positions are clearly indicated as recita in initial position: in the final one they rest on one side as in karaṇa 24

22. IV—95b-96a

23. Nūpura23: initial position bhramarī cārī,24 final position of nūpurapādikā cārī25

The hastas in latā recita but both arms are above shoulder level; a turn is suggested after the first position

23. IV—96b-97a

24. X—45

25. X—35

26. Bhramara26: from the bhramarī cārī27; this is a movement where the knees and the feet continue to be in the initial ākṣipta28 and svas-tika positions

The hands are in udveṣ-ṭita29 when the fingers beginning with the forefinger open outwards. Only the trika is turned and thighs are in the valana position

26. IV—98b-99a

27. X—45

28. X—37

29. IX—216

30. Bhujangañcita30 : from karaṇa 24 above and the cārī of that name: the kuñ-cita foot crosses at the thigh level

Right hand is in recita and left hand latā. No crossing of arm to the other side as in karaṇas 24 and 35

30. IV—100b-101a

31. Daṇḍakarecita31: derived from the second or final position of the daṇḍapādacārī32. One knee is in kṣipta and the other leg is stretched out like a staff

The arms and hands are in daṇḍapakṣa and are moved in recita

31. IV—101b-102a

32. X—

33. Krāntaka33: derived from the atikrāntā cārī34 where one kuñcita foot is lifted up, put forward and extended. Also compare karaṇa 82, where a similar leg position is indicated

The hands are described as ākṣipta in the text, but commentary adds that, in the initial position, the hands move in the vyāva-rtita35 movement; in the intermediary position they are in parivartita36; they are finally held in kata-kāmukha37 in the chest region

33. IV—111b-112a

34. X—30

35. IX—217

36. IX—218

37. IX—60-63

114

No. Karana Hastas (hands) and other limbs NŚ Verse No.

53. Cakramandala38 : from the adḍitā cāri39, but the definition seems incomplete

The hands are in uromanḍala40: the name cakra- maṇḍala really gives a clue to the karaṇa, for this is an acrobatic position in which the arms pass between the thighs to touch the ground. It is rarely seen in dancing, except in a style like odissī

38. IV—113b-114a 39. X—23 40. IX—204

39. Ākṣipta41: derived from the cāri42 of the name but the final position of svas- tika feet in the cāri is not indicated in the karaṇa

Hands and arms also extended but no precise position indicated. The commentary adds that the hands are in kata- kamukha placed slightly on the side

41. IV—115b-116a 42. X—37

42. Dolāpāda43: from the cāri44 of that name; one kuñcita foot swung from side to side ending in an aṅcita foot: weight of the body is on the samapāda foot

Hands accord with the feet, and are also in dola45

43. IV—120b-121a 44. X—36 45. IX—148

44. Vinivrtta46: derived from the sūcī cāri47: feet are placed in sūcī cāri in the initial position and are moved to a svastika posi- tion in the final position

The trika is turned round, i.e., the side (pārśva) is in the vivartana48 movement. The two haṃsapakṣa49 hastas move in a fast tempo in recita

46. IV—122b-123a 47. X—34 48. IX—236-238 49. IX—193

47. Pārśvakrānta50: feet as in the pārśvakrāntā cāri51

Hands to accord with the feet which are moved in front

50. IV—123b-124a 51. X—32

51. Vidyudbhrānta52: feet as in the cāri53: one leg is taken back and extended high so that the foot touches the forehead: the other foot is in samapāda: weight of the body is on the sama- pāda foot

The arm movement is given as maṇḍalāvidddha, i.e., maṇḍala (circular) movement and āviddha54 movement when the hands are turned inward towards the body from an outer point in space

IV—125b-126a X—40 IX—220-221

115

No. Karana Hastas (hands) and other limbs NŚ Verse No.

66. Atikrānta55: from the cārī56 of that name: kuñcita foot is lifted forward No specific hands are described

67. IV—126b-127a 56. X—30

68. Pārśvajānu57: feet as in the parśvakrāntā cārī58: but this is an extreme position of the infolded leg One hand rests on the thigh and the other is held in muști on chest. The commentary adds that the resting hand is in ardhacandra

69. IV—133b-134a 58. X—32

70. Sūcī59: feet as in the cārī60; the kuñcita foot is lifted forward and placed forward in the initial position it touches the knee of the stationary leg, in the final toe touches the samaṗāda foot No specific hands prescribed

71. IV—136b-137a 60. X—34

72. Ardhasūcī61: only the final position of the sūcī cārī is used when the right foot is in kuñcita and is placed on the side of the stationary foot Alapadma hands are held near the head

73. IV—137b-138a

74. Sūcīviddha62: this is the extreme position of the sūcī cārī; the kuñcita foot pierces into the heel of the other foot. (Compare karana 96 and 77 above; three variations of the same movement have been described) Hands are on the hips and the chest: the commentary adds that the hand on the hip is ardhacandra and the one on the chest is kaṭakāmukha

75. IV—138b-139a

76. Apakrānta63: derived from the thigh position of the cārī64, i.e., valana65 of thighs and then a kuñcita foot is raised No specific hands prescribed

77. IV—139b-140a 64. X—31 65. IX—255-256

116

THEORY AND TECHNIQUE OF CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE

No. Karana Hastas (hands) and other limbs NŚ Verse No.

82. Daṇḍapāda66: initial position of the nūpura cārī67 (i.e., crossed position of feet): in the final position one leg is extended to its own side so as to make a staff. Compare karaṇa 100 and karaṇa 34—which are derived from the īrdhva-jañu cārī—and have daṇḍa-pakṣa hastas. This karaṇa ends in the daṇḍapādā cārī68

The arm movement is in āviddha69 where the hand is moved inwards from an outer position

66. IV—142b-143a 67. X—35 68. X—44 69. IX—220

67. Hariṇapluta70: like the cārī71 of the name: it is derived from the initial position of the atikrāntā cārī72· there is a jump and then an añcita foot is placed at the side

The knees are spread out in kṣipta in the final position. No hands are specified

70. IV—143b-144a 71. X—43 72 X—30

71. Preñkholita73: derived from the dolapādā cārī74. Initial position of the dolapādā is continued into the bhrama-rī cārī75 with a jump. Compare karaṇa 60

The trika is turned round, i.e., the sides are in a vivartita76 movement

73. IV—144b-145a 74. X—36 75. X—45 76. IX—236-238

74. Nitamba77: derived from the baddhā cārī78: svastika position of the feet

The arms are lifted high in the initial position and then the fingers and palms move in vyāvartita karaṇa79 of the hands: palms face the chest gradually and are finally in patākā; this is the complete movement of the nitamba80 hands

IV—145b-146a 78. X—21 79. IX—217 80. IX—196

86. Skhalita karaṇa81: derived from the dolapādāi carī82. Compare karaṇas 60 and 84 above

The hands follow the feet recita and ghūrṇita hands are used: in the initial position the haṃśapakṣa recita83 hands are used

81. IV—146b-147a 82. X—36 83. IX—193

117

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

No. Karaṇa Hastas (hands) and other limbs NŚ Verse No.

89. Simhavikrīḍita84: derived from the alātā cārī85. Movement similar to the alāta karaṇa, but is performed in a quick tempo; compare karaṇa 18

No hands specified

84. IV—149b-150a

85. X—41

86. Udvṛtta86: the movement of the karaṇa is identical with the movement described in the cārī87 of that name: the violent movement important, the final ākṣipta leg position emphasized

The entire body is spread out and raised. The hands are not specified, but they are perhaps in udvṛtta88

86. IV—151b-152a

87. X—39

88. IX—185

89. Upasṛta89: from the ākṣipta cārī90. Compare karaṇa 55 above

The commentary adds that the movement of the left hand is in vyāvarṭita91 and the right hand is held in arāla92

89. IV—152b-153a

90. X—37

91. IX—217

92. IX—46

93. Talasaṅghaṭṭita93: is derived from the dolapādā cārī94: the distance between the two feet in the final position is two tālas: compare karaṇa 84 and 86 above

The hands come together and clap and are released in recita movement

93. IV—153b-154a

94. X—36

95. Janita95: derived from janitā cārī96, where one foot is in agratalasañcara97

One hand is held in muṣṭi near the chest and the other is hung in latā hasta

95. IV—154b-155a

X—25

97. IX—274-275

98. Avahitthaka98: from the janitā cārī99

The hands are gradually lowered from a high position above the head towards the chest. The hands are also in avahittha100

IV—155b-156a

X—25

100. IX—156

101. Elakākriḍita101: from the cārī102 of that name: jumping with talasañcara feet

The torso is slightly bent and twisted

101. IV—157b-158a

102. X—20

118

THEORY AND TECHNIQUE OF CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE

No. Karana Hastas (hands) and other limbs NŚ Verse No.

98. Ūrūdvrtta103: derived from the cārī104 of that name: the knees are bent in nata and the thighs are udvar-tana105.

Hands move in vyāvartita and then rest on hips in the final position

99. Madaskhalita106: derived from the āviddhā cārī107: initial position of feet in svastika

The head moves in the parivāhita108, and the arms hang down

100. Viṣnukrānta109: the leg is extended out high on its own side without a knee bend: this is an extreme position of the daṇḍapāda cārī110, where the foot is lifted from the ground to the level of the waist

The two hands are in recita

104. Vrṣabhakrīdita111: from the alātā cārī112 like karaṇa 18 and 89

The arms move in recita with a vyāvartita movement of the hands

107. Śakaṭāsya113: derived from the cārī114 of this name: it also uses the agratala-sañcara115 foot and the udvāhita116 chest. The karaṇa, however, seems to be an acrobatic one like the cakramandala, judging from the sculpture in Cidambaram

The katakāmukha hands are in front at the chest level

108. Gaṅgāvataraṇa117: is also an acrobatic karaṇa rarely seen in dancing

Hands are in tripatākā, the feet and the heels are lifted up and weight of the body rests on the hands

Sculptural representation of karanas derived from cārīs

4. Apaviddha: TL and NŚII agree: the arm positions are accurately depicted in the karaṇa but the crossing of the thighs is not seen in the sculpture. However,

neither the śukatunda hands nor the katakāmukha hastas are clearly discernible in the sculpture.

18. Alāta: TL and NSII agree: the final position of the legs, i.e., of the ūrdhvajānu cārī is seen in the sculpture: the hands are also accurately depicted hanging down.

19. Bhujangatrasita: TL and NSII agree: the leg positions in the sculpture conform to the description closely, and one can see the crossed hips and the uplifted right leg and the karihasta clearly. The karihasta, however, is not mentioned by the text: instead, a dola hasta and a katakāmukha hasta are prescribed. This karana should be compared also with karana 35, viz., bhujaṅgāñcita.

20. Ūrdhvajānu: TL and NSII agree: the sculpture conforms closely to the description in the verse. No hands are specified in the text: in the figure one arm is held in latā, the other is in patākã near the chest.

21. Mattalli: TL and NSII agree: the sculpture shows a movement which is not easy to identify as the mattalli, for the text indicates a crossing of the ankles and a turning: the latter cannot be depicted in sculpture: the apaviddha movement of the arms and the udvestita movement of the hands also cannot be depicted: the sculpture shows a kuñcita foot, one hand near the chest and the other resting on the hip. The sculpture depicts at best an intermediary position and not the initial or final position.

22. Ardhamattalli: TL and NSII agree: there is hardly any difference between the figures of karana 27 and 28: the left foot is in kuñcita instead of the right and the left hand is extended in latā instead of an infolded arm with the hand near the chest seen in karana 27. The relief thus depicts the hands accurately but the closing and the extending of the feet mentioned in the text cannot be seen in the sculpture. The recita of the hands seems to be depicted often as the dola hasta in these sculptures.

23. Dandapaksa: TL and NSII agree: the sculpture accurately depicts the ūrdhvajānu cārī initial position of the knees and the leg but the foot is not uplifted from the ground as in karana 25 above. The hand and arm position is more accurate where both the arms are beautifully extended out like a staff.

24. Bhujangatrasta recita: TL and NSII agree: the sculpture, however, depicts the final position after the recita, for there is no twist of the body and the feet seem to be in samapāda though slightly apart from each other. One of the arms suggests the karihasta, the other is extended in latā hasta on its own side.

36. Nūpura: TL and NŚII agree: the initial position where the añcita right foot is taken to the back of the left foot in the cārī is seen in the sculpture. The arms are clearly seen extended in latā.

37. Bhramara: TL and NŚII agree: the sculpture shows the initial position where the kșipta svastika knees position is attained by a crossing of both the knees and the feet. The hands are in the chest region: the gestures in the sculpture clearly indicate the turning round the trika of the bhramari and akșiptā cārī.

38. Bhujangāñcita: TL and NŚII agree: the figure has a great deal in common with the figure of karana 24, but the waist does not turn to such an extent. The hands are also different: the extended arms of the figure suggest the recita movement mentioned in the text.

39. Dandakarecita: TL and NŚII agree: one leg and both arms are extended like a staff. The final position of the karana is depicted in the sculpture.

40. Krānta: TL and NŚII agree: the final position of the atikrāntā cārī is seen in the figure, but the extended leg has an añcita foot instead of a kuñcita foot mentioned in NŚ. The hands do not show the katakāmukha hands as described by the text: they are instead in patākä with one palm facing out and fingers pointing up, the other facing in.

41. Cakramandala: TL and NŚII agree: the sculpture shows an acrobatic movement and it is only from the sculpture that we can say that the NŚ description may have meant a movement similar to the one sculptured: for otherwise there is little else besides the name to denote exactly such a movement, even though anatomically it is possible to attain this posture from the uromandala hands. The clue to the movement can be obtained only from the text's mentioning that the body is held between the two arms.

42. Ākșipta: TL and NŚII differ: TL identifies a figure as karana 55 which does not come anywhere near the description of the text. The figure which NSII identifies also does not fulfil the description of NŚ. The crossing at the shank level and the lifting of the kuñcita foot is not seen in any of the figures: the svastika karanas like 22 etc. would approximate to the description more closely. The NŚII pose is one which may be attained as a result of an extreme kșipta flexion of the jānu, but the contact with the floor of the shank and the knee of one leg is not mentioned in the text or the commentary. In the figure identified by NŚII, only the placing of the hands in the caturasra accords with the textual description.

43. Dolāpāda: TL and NŚII agree: the sculpture also illustrates the description of the text as far as the leg movement is concerned, but the swung leg does not

have an aúncita foot: it has both the feet in samapāda, instead: both the hands are

also not shown in dola: one is in dola, the other in patākā near the chest. The final

position of the movement seems to have been attempted. In the figure identified by

NṡII as karana 68, of gajakrīōita, a clearer ḍolāpāda is observed.

62. Vinivrtta: TL and NṡII differ: the figure identified as karana 62 by TL

belongs more to the vrśika variety and does not depict the lifting of the kuúncita

foot to the knee level prescribed by the text : the final position of the kuúncita

foot placed on the side of the samapāda foot is seen in the NṡII figure. The recita

of the hands is, however, indicated only in the TL figure, and the latā hasta taken

across the body, as in the NṡII figure, seems to be an inaccurate representation.

NṡI does not illustrate this karana. None of the figures identified accord with the

description in NŞ.

63. Pārśvakrānta: TL and NṡII agree: the final position of the pārśvakrāntā

cārī seems to be depicted in the figure, where the kuúncita foot is brought to the side

of the samapāda foot. The hands are not specified in NŞ; the sculpture shows one

hand near the chest and the other hung in dola hasta towards the knee. The sculp-

tural representation is not very accurate.

65. Vidyudbhrānta: TL and NṡII differ: the TL figure seems to be incorrect

and the NṡII figure is closer to the description of the karana of that name. The

leg is taken right back and uplifted; the foot touches the head, one arm is extended

in latā to its own side and the other hangs in dola in front148.

66. Atikrānta: TL and NṡII differ: neither of the figures represent the descrip-

tion in the text. The figure identified as karana 66 in TL is the karana identified by

NṡII as the argalā (karana 57): the NṡII figure also does not show the movement

and can at best be the final position of the atikrāntā cārī. The figure shows two

samapāda feet, one hand in latā and the other in dola. The figure identified by TL

belongs to the technique of the vyāyāma described in NŞ rather than the nrtta.

73. Pārśvajānu: TL and NṡII differ: the NṡII figure shows the uplifted leg of

the cārī. The hands are, however, neither muşti nor ardhacandra, and rest neither

on the thigh nor on the chest as prescribed by the text. The right hand is in patākā

and the left arm is extended in latā in the sculpture. The TL figure indicates a

sliding movement. There is no indication of the leg being lifted to the chest level.

The NṡII figure is nearer the textual descriptions but it is also not an accurate

illustration.

76. Sūcī: TL and NṡII differ: the sūcī feet can be seen in the figure identified

by NṡII as karana 76. TL seems to be wrong, and the karana identified as sūcī in

TL is really the vidyudbhrānta karana 65. The NṡII figure also does not show the

uplifted foot, but has both the feet in extreme kuñcita position which may be interpreted as sūcī feet in the final position. Both the hands seem to be held in muṣṭi in the chest region in the figure.

77. Ardhasūcī: TL and NŚII differ: the NŚII figure identified as karana 76 is identified as karana 86, viz., skhalita by TL: the NŚII figure of ardhasūcī shows one samapāda foot and one kuñcita foot. The hands accord with the description in the text, and one of them is possibly held in alapadma in the region of the shoulders and the head; the other is placed near the chest in the figure. The figure identified by TL as ardhasūcī is identified by NŚII as karana 99, viz., madaskhalita.

78. Sūcīviddha: TL and NŚII differ: the NŚII figure is nearer the textual description but, even so, the piercing movement of the kuñcita foot into the heel of the other is not observed here. The hands are as described in NŚ: one is held near the chest and the other rests on the hip as indicated by the text. The TL figure of sūcīviddha is a sitting position and is identified by NŚII as karana 55, viz., ākṣipta. The katakāmukha hastas mentioned by the commentary are not seen in either figure identified as the sūcīviddha karana.

79. Apakrānta: TL and NŚII differ: the figures identified as this karana do not meet the description of the text, for the valana of the thighs is not seen in either. The NŚII figure shows one kuñcita foot but this is not uplifted as it should be for the apakrāntā cārī. We can only surmise that the position depicted in the sculpture is either the first initial position or the absolute final position, but it is not a depiction of the movements described by the text. The arm in the NŚII figure is in dola and the other hand is in patākà near the chest. The figure identified by NŚII as apakrānta is identified by TL as karana 65, viz., vidyudbhrānta.

80. Dandapāda: TL and NŚII differ: the figure identified by NŚII resembles the karana 50, lalāṭatilaka and would belong to the vrścika variety in our classification and it is most unlikely that the text was left vague to suggest a similar pose. The nūpurapāda cārī position of the feet or the extended leg of the dandapādā cārī is not seen in the figures identified either by TL or NSII. The āviddha movement of the arms is also not seen in either figure. An intermediary position of the movement of this karana is seen in the figure identified by NŚII as karana 64, nistambhita. The figure identified as krānta karana 51 by TL and NŚII seems to come nearest to depicting the final leg extension. The figure identified by TL as this karana is identified by NŚII as karana 69, namely, talasaṁsphoṭita. There is no other figure which approximates the description of the text of this karana except the illustration of the dolāpāda karana discussed earlier.

81. Hariṇapluta: TL and NŚII do not agree: the figure depicts the uplifted foot of the atikrāntā cārī or the aṅcita foot of the hariṇaplutā cārī: the knee and shank

position of the figure identified in the NSII does have the final kșipta position with a kuñcita foot. The hands of the figure are in karihasta and latā, and these have not been specified in the text. The TL figure belongs to the vrścika type and has a raised leg to the back which does not approximate to the definition in the text at all. The NSII figure identified as this karana is identified by TL as karana 89, viz., simhavikrīdita. The NSII figure identified as this karana depicts at best the initial position of the atikrāntā cārī and no more.

84. Preñkholita: TL and NSII differ: neither of the figures identified as this karana show the dolāpādā cārī position so obvious in the description of karana dolāpāda. The NSII figure has both the feet in kuñcita, but does not indicate that a turn will be taken or that either leg will be extended or swung as in the bhramarī cārī. The movement of the trika and the side (pārśva) is also not observed in either figure: there is instead a straight frontal facing in these figures. We can only conclude that the figure identified by NSII perhaps depicts the initial position of the dolāpādā cārī, judging from the kuñcita feet. The sculptural representation is, however, inaccurate. The figure identified by NSII as this karana is identified by TL as karana 57, viz., argala. The figure identified by TL as preñkholita is identified by NSII as karana 73, viz., pārśvajānu, since the NS karana describes a complete movement. It would be difficult to represent this karana sculpturally.

85. Nitamba: TL and NSII do not agree: the NSII figure identified as this karana does depict the svastika position of the foot. The figures identified by both TL and NSII do illustrate the hand movements: one illustrates the initial position and the other the final position described by the text. The TL figure has the hands in the chest region, not in the shoulder region as mentioned by NS in the description of the nitamba hands: the NSII figure has the hands loosely hanging on the sides in dola hastas, which would be the final position of the hastas prescribed for this karana by NS. The figure identified by NSII could represent the final position of the movement at best.

86. Skhalita: TL and NSII differ: neither of the figures approximate to the text: the dolāpādā cārī position is not seen in either of the figures, though both the figures show one kuñcita foot. The recita of the hands is also not seen in either figure; TL shows one hand near the shoulder and the other spread and curved near the head region: the NSII figure shows one dola hasta and the other in katakāmukha or musti near the chest. Either of them could have been modelled to show an intermediary position of the movement of this karana.

87. Simhavikrīdita: TL and NSII differ: the figure identified by NSII as this karana is very similar to the alāta karana 18: the feet position of the TL figure are also very similar to the feet position of karana 18. The representation of this karana in Cidambaram seems to be imprecise, and none of the figures identified meet the

description. The backwards lifting of the foot is the most distinctive feature of the movement and this is not captured by the sculpture.

91. Udvṛtta: TL and NSII identify different figures as this karaṇa: the TL figure does not approximate to the textual description: the figure identified by NSII also seems to be imprecise if not an incorrect illustration of the text. The initial position of the āviddhā cārī seems to be depicted here, but the valana of the thighs obvious in the figure is not mentioned in the text. The figure identified as karaṇa 91 by NSII belongs to the class of mayūralalita and the elakākrīdita karaṇa where a crossing of the thighs is specifically mentioned. The hands are, however, in udvṛtta in the figure, identified by NSII. The movement described by the text indicates a jump, but the figure identified by NSII suggests a twist rather than a jump.

92. Upasṛta: TL and NSII differ: the NSII figuie seems to depict the last position of the ākṣiptā cārī, where a svastika of the shanks is formed. The arāla hasta mentioned in the commentary is not seen in either figure, and the dola hastas of the NSII figure do not correspond to the vyāvartita movement of the hands described in the text. The figure identified by NSII may indicate the first position of the movement of the karaṇa.

93. Talasaṅghaṭṭita: TL and NSII figures differ slightly, but the dolā pāda position of the cārī is not seen in either figure: the hand position, in which clapping is indicated, is seen in the figure identified by NSII as the karaṇa.

94. Janita: TL and NSII differ completely: the NSII figure does not show the talasañcara foot mentioned by the text: the TL figure does depict this but the crossing at the thigh level of the legs is not mentioned by the text. The muṣṭi hasta is also not seen in either figure, even though the NSII figure does have one hand on the chest and the other extended in latā. The agratalasañcara foot, the most important feature of the janitā cārī, is not seen in the figures identified either by TL or NSII.

95. Avahitthaka: The figures identified as karaṇa 95 by both TL and NSII are inaccurate; the agratalasañcara foot is not seen in either TL or NSII figure. The śukatunda hasta of the avahittha samyuta hasta or the arāla and alapadma hasta mentioned by the commentary are not seen in the sculpture. The only feature which accords with the textual description is the placing of the hands in the final position in the region of the chest.

96. Elakākrīdita: The figure identified as the janita karaṇa by TL is identified as karaṇa 97 by NSII: the latter seems to be a correct identification and the figure identified by NSII illustrates the textual description fairly accurately, although both

the feet are not in talasañcara. Besides, the crossing at the thigh level is emphasized rather than jumping as mentioned in the text. The distance between the feet indicated by the text is accurately depicted by the figure.

98. Ūrūdvṛtta: TL and NŚII identify different figures: TL figure does not meet the description of the text: the figure identified as karaṇa 98 in NŚII is a fairly accurate representation of the textual description. The nata bend of the knees, and the placing of a talasañcara feet so as to have the heels point inwards, naturally lead to the bending of the shank and the corresponding udvartana movement of the thighs. One hand rests on the hip, and the head is turned round.

99. Madaskhalita: TL and NŚII differ: the TL figure identified as this karaṇa belongs to the vṛścika variety and is very much like karaṇa 46, namely, vṛścika recita. The NŚII figure is similar to the karaṇas which are derived from the āviddhā cārī such as karaṇa 14 unmatta and karaṇa 101 sambhṛānta: the figure shows svastika position of the āviddhā cārī: there is also a distinct incline of the head to the side but it cannot be easily identified as the parivāhita gesture of the head. The arms do not hang down in the sculpture as indicated by the text. They are instead placed in caturaśra position near the chest. The svastika feet position mentioned by the text is accurately depicted in the figure identified by NŚII.

100. Viṣṇukrānta: TL and NŚII differ, and this time the TL figure meets the description of the text more closely: the extension of the kuñcita foot pointing towards the sky is not seen in the NŚII figure of this name but it is seen in the figure identified as viṣṇukrānta in TL. The hands and arms also conform more or less to the textual description. The vikṣipta karaṇa (no. 58) also has a stage in the movement which can be identified with the final position of the viṣṇukrānta karaṇa. The NŚII figure is perhaps the first position of the movement described by NŚ.

101. Vṛṣabhakrīḍita: TL and NŚII differ: the figure identified as the vṛṣa-bhakrīḍita in either TL and NŚII does not meet the description of the text. According to the text, the alātā cārī and recita hands are distinctive features of the karaṇa: the figure identified by NŚII does not depict these and is instead a static figure with samapāda feet.

102. Śakatāsya: TL and NŚII agree: the description in NŚ does not state explicitly that the movement is an acrobatic one: it also does not speak of the toes touching the head after being turned backwards and upwards, which would naturally presuppose the belly resting on the ground. The sculptural representation of the karaṇa does not seem to have the talasañcara feet or the kataikāmukha hastas mentioned by NŚ. This illustration has never been questioned and the movement described by NŚ could perhaps be interpreted to include the movement shown by the sculpture: the sculpture seems to follow an oral tradition more than the academic

text. A clue is given by the commentary when it says that the movement is to be employed in showing children's play, and that this suggests a cart-wheel being thrown forward.

108. Gaṅgāvataraṇa: It is another acrobatic karaṇa but this time the description of NŚ suggests such a pose when it speaks of both the feet being lifted up and the tripatākā hands as facing the ground; physically, this could be performed only if the hands were in contact with the ground, and this is accurately presented by the sculpture.

Karaṇas (kaṭi)

No. Karaṇa Hastas, feet etc. NŚ Verse No.

11. Kaṭicchinna1: the kaṭi is in chinna2 position

Hands are pallava3. No feet etc. prescribed. The commentary also mentions the bramarī cārī4 and the maṇḍala sthāna5

1. IV—71b-72a

2. IX—245

3. IX—196

4. X—45

5. X—65

6. Kaṭi sama6 : the kaṭi is in sama position. The commentary mentions the āk-ṣiptā cārī7 and also the vaiṣṇava sthāna8

Feet are to be separated from the svastika position without moving the hip: the chest attains udvāhita9 from the pārśva nata position. Hands are held on the navel in kataḳā-mukha10

6. IV—80b-81a

7. X—37

8. IX—52-53

9. IX—231

10. IX—61

11. Kaṭibhrānta11: there is a recita12 movement of the kaṭi

The feet are in sūcī cārī13; the arms have a circular movement in apaviddha14

11. IV—103b-104a

12. IX—246—247

13. X—34

14. IX—220

15. Chinna15 : the kaṭi is bent in chinna16

The alapadma17 hastas are held on the hip: the feet are in vaiśākha sthāna18

15. IV—105b-106a

16. IX—245

17. IX—91

18. X—61

127

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

Sculptural representation of kaṭi karaṇas

11. Kaṭicchinna: TL and NŚII agree: the sculptural representation, however, does not depict clearly the chinna position of the kaṭi or the leg position of the

bhramarī cārī: the pallava ṇṭṭa hastas are also not clear but there is a space between the feet, and the hands are spread out extended above the shoulder level and the

general impression corresponds to the description of the text, even though in minute details there is some inaccuracy.

19. Kaṭisama: TL and NŚII agree: even though the karaṇa takes its name from the position of the kaṭi, there is little in the description of NŚ which refers

to the movement of the kaṭi. The sculpture portrays the final position described in NŚ, for the hands rest on the hips—perhaps in ardhacandra hastas; the udvāhita

of the chest is quite pronounced. There is nothing in the sculpture to indicate the movements of the ākṣiptā cārī, although the kṣipta position of the knees is quite

clear.

43. Kaṭibhrānta: TL and NŚII agree: but the sculpture does not depict the sūcī cārī position indicated in NŚ: instead, the position of the legs in the sculpture

corresponds more closely to the interpretation of Abhinavagupta in the commentary where he speaks of the sideway movement of the feet. It would be impossible

to depict the recita movement of the waist and the hip, and thus all that the sculpture succeeds in depicting is one point in a continuous movement. The position of

the hands also does not correspond to the description in NŚ.

45. Chinna: TL and NŚII agree: the sculpture is also fairly accurate in portraying the chinna position of the kaṭi; the hands rest on the hip and they may be in

alapadma, although this is not clear in the sculpture.

128

THEORY AND TECHNIQUE OF CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE

Karana (pāda)

No. Karana--Pāda Hastas etc. NŠ Verse No.

21. Vikṣiptākṣipta1: the hands and the feet are both thrown out

One hand in a vyāvaratta movement and the other in catura hasta. The movement is reversed in the final position. Abhinavagupta adds that it should be used for going and coming

1. IV—.82

2. Añcita2: the feet are in añcita3 and then a svastika is performed

Hands move in vyāvaratta and parivartita movement; in the final pose one hand is near the nose

IV 83b-84a IX—.276-278

30. Pādāviddha1: feet are first in sūcīviddhā cārī6 and are then moved to the apakrānta cārī6 position

Hands are in katakā- mukha5 near the navel

1 IV 90b-91a. 5 IX—.279 6. X 34 and X—.31

56. Lalātilāsita7. one leg is extended; the feet position resembles the añcita feet, for the toes are turned up and the soles of the feet are visible

Hands are in patāka which separate and meet as they move from a high position to a low one, palms face down

7 IV—.116b-117a

57. Argala8. one leg is extended backwards; feet are placed two and a half tālas apart

The body is bent in a back convex curve, and both the hands are extended up and back to touch the ground

IV—117b-118a

58. Vikṣipta9 : the knees are in kṣipta10; feet and both hands are in vikṣipta away from the body

The extended outward movement of the hands is emphasized. The commentary mentions the vidyudbhrāntā cārī also

9. IV—118b-119a 10. IX—.257-258

10. Āvarta11: this is really derived from the cāisagati cārī12 (X. 18) even though NŠ mentions that the feet are in āvarta

The commentary adds that the hands move in avestita and udvestita13 movement

IV—.119b-120a X—.18 IX—.216

129

No Karana Pāda Hastas etc. NŚ Verse No.

70. Garuḍapluta14: one leg is stretched back and the foot is in añcita. This karana really belongs to the vrścika variety with a difference: the uplifted leg has an infolded knee and not an arched one as in the other vrścika karaṇas The side is in unnata15: the hands and arms move in latā recita

71. IV—130b-131a IX—236-237

72. Gaṇḍasūcī16: one foot is in sūcīpāda: the other is in samapāda position

The side (pārśva) is bent in nata17: hands are in añcita, and sūcimukha nrtta hastas18 during the movement but in the final position one rests on the chest and the other as a sūcī asamyuta hasta19 on the cheek

16. IV—131b-132a 17. IX—239 18. IX—191 19. IX—67-74

17. Grdhrāvalīinaka20: the feet are in slight añcita, and the knee is bent in the initial position: during the movement the leg moves front and back

The hands and arms are stretched in latā: the side is stretched and extended in prasārita21

20. IV—134b-135a 21 IX—235-256

21. Sarpita22: the feet are in añcita23 and moved apart in semi-circular movement of a snake

The head follows the feet in parivāhita24 movement: the hands and arms move in recita

IV—141b-142a IX—275 VIII—27

88. Prasarpita25: the movement is circular but the feet are in agratalasañcara here

Hands are in latā26 and recita and the head is as in karana 81

IV—148b-149a IX—198

102. Viṣkambha27: knees are bent in nikuṭṭita: feet are in kuñcita: in the final position, one foot is in the sūcīpādā cārī28

According to the commentary, hands are in sūcimukha nrtta hastas.29 One of them is held on the chest

27. IV—162b-163a 28. X—34 29. IX—191

28. Udghaṭṭita30: feet are in udghaṭṭita31, i.e. toe-heel movement

The hands are in talasañ-ghaṭṭa derived from the talamukha nrtta hastas32: they are brought together and released

30. IV—163b-164a 31. IX—266 32. IX—186

120

THEORY AND TECHNIQUE OF CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE

Sculptural representation of karanas derived from foot (pāda) positions

21. Viksipptāksipta: The movement described by NŚ is an alternate throwing out of one leg and one arm. The outward and inward movement of the limbs is suggested by the commentary. The movement is difficult to represent sculpturally and the relief of the karana shows the left hand in musti (may be in catura) and the other extended down in latā. The kñces are in kșipta and the feet are samapāda. This can at best be the initial position implied by the text. Other karanas such as ākșipta recita suggesting throwing out of the limbs which would result in leg extensions etc. have also been sculptured in Cidambaram by merely showing the kșipta samapāda position of the lower limbs.

22. Añcita: TL and NŚ II agree: the sculpture in Cidambaram depicts the movement described by NŚ. The text mentions the svastika position of the feet, and the commentary adds that the arms are to be in karihasta position or latā—both of which are seen in the sculpture; the vyāvartita and parivartita are movements of the fingers, and it is likely that this definition gave enough freedom to the sculptor to interpret the finger positions as he wished. The svastika position of the feet depicted is identical with the svastika position of the other karanas like ardhasvastika and svastika etc., and the hand and arm positions resemble the arm and hand position of the karana 24, bhujangatrāsita, and the karana 87, karihasta: NŚ specifics that one hand should be near the nose; this, however, is not followed and, instead, one patākã hand is seen near the shoulder level while the other is in latā across the body.

23. Pādapaviddha: TL and NŚ II agree: the sculpture shows a sūcī foot resting against the heel of the samapāda foot; yet this is not an accurate presentation of either the sūcīviddhā cārī or the apakrāntā cārī mentioned in the text. The hands are described in the text as being near the navel and in katakāmukha: in the sculpture the hands are at the chest level, and not clearly in katakāmukha. One hand

24. Talavilāsita: TL and NŚ II identify different figures: the leg extension and the visibility of the soles of the feet are the two distinctive features mentioned by NŚ, and neither of the figures accords with this description. The figure identified by NŚ II belongs to the vrścika type of karana and shows an upturned leg, not an extended one: the arms are upturned with the hands near the face: the only karanas which show the añcita foot are the karihasta karana and the vyamsita karana and krāntaka in the Cidambaram sculptures. while many karanas in NŚ mention this foot position. The figure identified by NŚ II can at best represent the final position, where one leg is extended backward and then lifted. The uplifting is mentioned only by the commentary.

131

57. Argala: TL and NS II do not agree: the sculptural representation (according to NSII) makes this karana also of the acrobatic variety like cakramandala, śakatasya and gaigāvaratana rather than one belonging to the sphere of dancing: TL mentions this as atikrānta which is obviously incorrect. The description in NS can be contained within the definition of NS and, therefore, it cannot be said with certainty that the sculptural figure as identified by either TL or NSII is correct.

58. Vikṣipta: TL and NSII differ: the figure which NSII identifies as karana 58 is identified by TL as viṣmukrānta karana: TL vikṣipta is incorrect and cannot be considered as a correct depiction of NS vikṣipta karana. The extension of the leg and the hands is seen in the figure of NSII and the vikṣipta position of the knees and the hands mentioned by the text are also noticed here. The NSII figure depicts an important phase of movement of the vikṣipta karana and the sculptural representation is obviously of this intermediary position of the movement and not of either the initial or final position.

59. Āvarta: TL and NSII agree: the posture seen in the sculpture is the common kṣipta position of the knees with one kuñcita foot; the front-back movement of the cāṣagati cāri mentioned in the commentary is, however, not suggested. The movement of the āvarta karana does not lend itself to sculptural representation, thus only a common position of the legs has been depicted. The udveṣṭita of the hands cannot also be depicted in sculpture, and the Cidambaram figure shows us two muṣṭi hastas at the chest level. The sculpture represents the initial position described by the text and gives no indication of the subsequent movement.

60. Garuḍapluta: TL and NSII agree: the sculpture is an accurate depiction of the movement described by the text; there is hardly any discrepancy between the description and the illustration. NS (1st edition) does not illustrate this figure.

61. Gaṇḍasūcī: TL and NSII differ: the sūcī pāda mentioned by the NS is not seen in the NSII figure: instead, one foot is at the back of another samapāda foot and may be in kuñcita. The feet position of the NSII figure could accord with the description in the commentary where it is mentioned that one foot is to be placed at the back of the other foot. The hands are in the final position mentioned by NS; one hand is on the chest and the other is placed under the chin, although not on the cheek as prescribed by Bharata.

62. Grdhrāvalinaka: TL and NSII identify different figures as karana 74. The TL figure is incorrect when compared with the definition of the karana in NS; the figure identified by NSII accurately portrays the hand position in latā, but the foot position does not correctly illustrate the movement described in the

text, for the trika is turned in the figure -a fact not mentioned by the text. Nevertheless, judging from the kite-like movement implied by the name of the karana, it is quite likely that the NS̱ grdhrāvalīṇaka karaṇa was performed as shown in the NS̱II figure: one knee is definitely bent in the figure as laid down in the text and the other leg is also thrown backwards, even though not ‘extended backwards’ as stated in NS̱. The sculpture represents a near final position of the movement described by the text.

81. Sarpita: TL and NS̱II figures differ, but neither of them seems to follow the description of NS̱: the NS̱II figure is accurate only in so far as the parivāhita head movement and the recita hastas go: the aṅcita foot mentioned in the text is not seen in either figure; instead, the TL figure has both the feet in kuñcita and the NS̱II figure has one foot in kuñcita. The knees are ksipta in both. There is no other karana amongst the Cidambaram gopuram sculptures which approximates to this description. The Cidambaram sculptures seldom illustrate the aṅcita foot accurately, and it is often depicted as the kuñcita foot.

82. Prasarpita: The TL figure seems incorrectly identified; the NS̱II figure depicts the movements of the karana as far as the latā hasta goes, but the coming together of the soles which suggests the talsaṃcara position of the feet is not seen in the sculpture.

83. Viṣkambha: The TL figure is incorrectly identified, and the NS̱II figure identified as karana 82 is correct with regard to the hand positions as described in NS̱; one of them is held on the chest and the other might easily be in the apa-viddha sūcī, though its gesture is not clear and it is held at the chest. The legs and knees are in mukuṭtita and one foot in the NS̱II figure is in sūcī pāda. The figure thus depicts the initial position of the hands and the final position of the feet.

84. Udghaṭtita karana: it is difficult to present in sculpture, for its chief feature is the toe-heel movement of the feet. Nevertheless, the NS̱II figure shows two kuñcita feet which might easily be the initial position of the udghaṭtita feet movement. However, the hands are incorrectly represented in the sculpture, as their position does not indicate that they are ready to beat time, a fact mentioned by the commentary.

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

Karaṇa (from ūru, jānu, etc.)

No. Karaṇa, ūru, jānu and pārsva Hastas etc. NŚ Verse No.

3. Valitoru1: from the valita entwining of thighs Both the hands are in śūkatunda and they make a vyāvartita and pari-vartita movement

4. IV—63

5. Kuñcita2: a half-kneeling position: the leg bent at the back has the knee in contact with the ground and the calf raised; the other leg is bent in front with a samapāda foot on the ground The right hand in a slightly raised position is in alapallava on the left side

6. IV—112b-113a

7. Vivrtta3: this is the extreme position of the ksipta4 rests on the ground. The side (pārśva) is turned-round in vivartita5 movement The arms are extended and move in recita. The commentary also mentions the bhramarī cārī6

8. IV—121b-122a

9. IX—257-258

10. IX—239-240

11. X.

12. Vinivrtta: the name is derived from a movement of the sacrum; the feet positions are as in sūcī carī. Also mentioned in the cārī karaṇas above7 For hand see karaṇa 62 under the cārī karaṇas

13. IV—122b-123a

14. Niṣumbhita8 : derived from the nirbhugna9 position of the chest and the unnata10 of the side (pārśva) A movement of the kuñ-cita feet is indicated; the backward extended leg can also form a vrścika. Hands are in katakāmukha, one of them touching the forehead

15. IV—124b-125a

16. IX—216

10 IX—239-240

67. Vivartita11: name derived from the circular movement of the side and the sacrum (trika) termed The hands are as in karaṇa 62; two ham-sa pakṣa hastas are moved in recita in a fast tempo

68. IV—127b-128a

12 IX—239—240

134

THEORY AND TECHNIQUE OF CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE

No. Karanā, ūru, jānu and pārśva Hastas etc. NŚ Verse No.

vivartita12. The karana is similar to karana 61 men-tioned above; here also the knee and the calf of one leg are in contact with the ground in an outstret-ched position of the thigh

72. Parivrtta13: derives its name from the parivrtta movement of the trika. The movement of the shanks: here a turning round is implied and a vivartana15 movement of the side is indicated. One foot is in sūcī and the movement of the baddhā cārī is per-formed

The movement of the hands is described as ūrdhvāpaveṣṭita11. The commentary describes the karana as being formed by a mix-ture of the sūcī baddhā and the bhramarī cāriś17

IV—132b-133a 11. IX—262b-263a 15. IX—236-238 16. IX—.203 17. X—34, 21 & 45

Sculptural representation of karanas derived from ūru, jānu, etc.

3. Valitoru: The text clearly states that the thighs are so entwined that the knees point inwards; the śukatunda hastas are also mentioned. The sculptural relief, however, does not show any of these features. Neither is there an entwining of the thighs nor are the śukatunda hands seen. Many reliefs in Cidambaram show the common kṣipta position of the knees with some hand movements without illustrating the verse accurately. In this particular karana the movement lent itself to a sculptural representation easily and it is surprising that none of the charac-teristic features have been captured in the relief.

4. Kuñcita: TL and NŚII agree: the sculpture also depicts the karana accu-rately with one nata knee and a samapāda foot in front; the other leg is flexed at the back touching the ground, with the calf lifted. The hands are also in front and may be in alapallava, but this is not clear in the sculptural representation.

5. Vivrtta: TL and NŚII agree: the sculpture depicts the final position. The arms are seen extended in recita and the extreme kṣipta position of one shank is also seen. It is practically a sitting posture.

135

62. Viniyrtla: has been discussed before, and we have noticed the discrepancies between the description in the text and the sculptural representation of the pose. The svastika position mentioned by the text is not seen in the relief.

63. Niśumbhita or nistambhita: The TL and the NSII figures differ, but neither is an accurate depiction of the karana described in NS. The foot is taken to the back and is bent in kuñcita according to NS: in the NSII figure the leg position is like the ūrdhvajānu cārī, and in the TL figure it is like the vidyadhṛīta karana or the lalāṭatilaka karana: the NS description would have resulted in a position akin to that seen in the figure identified as the simhākarṣita karana by NSII. The hands do touch the forehead in the figure although the katakāmukha hand is not clear. The sculptural representation suggests only the initial position of the movement.

64. Vivartita: TL and NSII identify different figures, and neither of them is an accurate representation of the NS description of the karana. The extreme kṣipta position of the knees and shanks is depicted in the figure identified by NSII but the hands and arms position of the figure is something like the karihasta rather than the recita laid down by Bharata. The vivartita movement of the trika would not be possible if the hands were to be in the position of the NSII figure. The twisting around of the waist could not be represented by the sculpture.

65. Parivṛtta: The NSII figure depicts the ūrdhvamaṇḍala haslias described by NS: in TL the same figure is identified as the karana gajakrīdita which seems to be completely inaccurate. The turning round of the shanks in the parivṛtta movement is, however, not noticed even in the NSII figure. The initial position in which one foot is in sūcī is seen in the sculpture, but there is no indication of the baddhā cārī or the twisting of the thighs.

The analysis of the karaṇas as cadences of movement patterns could be profitably extended to an analysis of the aṅgahāras, mandalas, etc. However, this analysis would be meaningful only if the tradition of Bharata was still prevalent in the practice of these arts. This not being the case, such an analysis is not being undertaken here.

THEORY AND TECHNIQUE OF CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE

Notes

1. Nātyaśāstra, Ch I, 14-16 The word used is saṃvaśilpa Also see Ch VI, 5-7, where it is said

that it is impossible to discuss all the arts and crafts connected with drama, for they are mani-

fold in number

2. ibid., Ch. I, 116.

3. ibid., Ch. I, 117-118

4. ibid., Ch. I, 119—abhinaya includes all the four types of abhinaya viz., vācika, āhāraya, sāttvika

and āngika.

5 ibid., Ch. I, 14-15, 106-108, 116-118, etc. for definitions of nātya (drama). Ch. IV, 263-264 and

304, where the use of nrtta (dance) is discussed Ch. V, 150-152, where 'dance' is discussed in

the preliminaries of the play Ch VI, 10-22, where the subjects of Nātyaśāstra are listed, and

23-26, where the two dharmīs, the four vrttis, the four types of abhinaya and the four types of

local usage (pravrttis) are listed.

In Ch. VIII, IX, X and XII the various aspects of āngikābhinaya are discussed.

The pravrttis are discussed in detail in Ch. XII, 27 ff The dharmīs and the styles (vrttis) are

discussed in Ch. XX

Ahārayāhinaya and Sāṃānyābhinaya are discussed in Ch XXI and XXII, respectively; the

graces and histrionic representation etc are also discussed here

Citrābhinaya is discussed in Ch XXV

(Chapters refer to Natyasāstra, G.O.S. edition, Vol. I, Vol. II and Vol. III)

6. ibid., Ch. IV. 261 and 268, where the nature of nrtta is discussed.

Abhinayadarpana, 11-12 and 15-16

Sangītaratnākara, Ch. VII, 4, 16-17 and 26-27.

Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, pp. 29-31 practically repeat the verse of the Sangītaratnākara

7. Nātyaśāstra, Ch. IV, 259-260

8. ibid., Ch. IV, 268-269.

9 Ibid., Ch. XVII, 182 (Kāvyamālā Series) and

ibid., Ch. XIX, 119-129 etc. (G.O.S.)

There have been different interpretations of these verses.

10. Abhinayadarpana, 3-5.

11. Nātyaśāstra, Ch. VII, 12-14.

12 Abhinayadarpana, 42-45.

Sangītaratnākara, Ch. VII, 37-41

Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, pp. 40-42

13. Nātyaśāstra, Ch X, 5

14 ibid., Ch. IV, 30-34

15. ibid., Ch X, 3-4

16. ibid., Ch. XI, 2-5

17 ibid., Ch. IV, 30-34

18. ibid., Ch. XI, 6-9

19. Abhinayadarpana, 282-298.

20. Nātyaśāstra, Ch IV, 248-250, here also the word used for lārya is sukumāraṃtya.

21. ibid., Ch. IV, 250-259 and 287-290

22 ibid., Ch IV, 290 ff. also see Abhinavagupta's interesting commentary on this and Śāradāta-

naya's Bhāvaprakāśa, p. 246

23. Nātyaśāstra, Ch XIII, 78-80; also see Raghavan, V's article entitled Nātyadharmī and

Lokadharmī.

24. ibid., Ch XXIV, 45 (Chowkhamba Series)

25 Ibid., Ch XXI, 47 (Chowkhamba Series)

26. Abhinayadarpana, 35-36. Sangītaratnākara and Nātyavāstra Sangraha repeat the verse

27. The subdivisions of each of these movements with their usage have not been shown in the

chart: the angas and the upāgas are utilized in both the nrtta and the abhinaya techniques

28. Nātyaśāstra, Ch. I, 1.

29. Nātyaveda was compiled from the four Vedas and the Upavedas and is known to be the fifth

Veda.

Nātyaśāstra, Ch. I, 17-18 also see Abhinavagupta's commentary at p. 15 (G.O.S. II) Gan-

dharvaveda was an Upaveda of the Sāmaveda

30 Nātyaśāstra, Ch I, 26-39 for names of the sons of Bharata

Ch. XXXVI (Chowkhamba edition), 63-65 ff.

31. Raghavan, V.: Music in Ancient Indian Drama, Sangeet Natak Akademi Bulletin, December

1956, p. 19.

32. Here he discusses the Uttaratantra of Kohala

Bhoja's Śṛṅgāra Prakāśa, pp. 545-546.

33. Referred to by both Abhinavagupta and Śāradātanaya and can perhaps be identified with

Nandikesvara the author of the Abhinayadarpana.

137

34. Tumburu and Viśakhila mentioned only by Abhinavagupta (Abhinavagupta's commentary on Natyasastra, G. O. S. I., Vol. I, p. 165.

35. Referred to by Sāgaranandin in Natakalakṣaṇa, 363-3.

36. Mentioned by Sāradātanaya in Bhāvaprakaśa, p. 152.

37. ibid., p. 47, 41; ibid, p. 239, 42; ibid. p. 251.

38. Nāṭyaśāstra, Vol. II, pp. 245-246. Also Nāṭakalakṣaṇa, 1484-1485.

39. ibid., Vol. I (G.O.S.I), p. 115 (commentary).

40 ibid., Vol. II, p. 452. Also see Ramakrishna Kavi's interpretation: he thinks this is the same as Udbhaṭa.

41. ibid., Vol. II, p. 436.

42. ibid., Vol. I, p. 172.

43. See the Mirror of Gesture edited by Coomaraswamy and Duggirala Gopalakrishnayya, and the Abhinayadarpaṇa translated and edited by Ghosh, M. M.

44. Journal of the Music Academy: Vol. XXIV, 1953, Parts I-IV, where an edited text by Maheswar Neog has been published.

45 See Tanjore Saraswati Mahal Journal: Vol. IV, 1945, No. 3, pp. 4-8; Vol. V, 1946, No 1 and Vol. VI, 1948, No. 2.

46. Nāṭyaśāstra Saṅgraha edited with translation by Vasudeva Sastri K. and published by S. Gopalan, 1953.

47 The following works are mentioned in the commentaries of the Śilappadikaram :

(i) Ishainudukkum.

(ii) Yamendrava.

(iii) Panca Marabu by Ari Varanava and many more.

48. Raghavan, V.: Later Sangita Literature, Sangeet Natak Akademi Bulletin, December 1956, p. 25.

49. Published in the Trivandrum Sanskrit Series.

50 This is an important text which is followed consistently by the Kathakali dancer.

51. Saṅgītaratnākara, Ch. VIII, 377-429: the Nāṭyaśāstra speaks only of 33 ḍṛṣṭis but they are in fact 36.

52. Nāṭyaśāstra Saṅgraha, p. 482-524.

53 Bālarāmabharata p. 118-120 and 131-135: it also lists some more varicties and a few combinations, but they are essentially the same as those described in the Nāṭyaśāstra

54. Mirror of Gesture, p. 40.

55. ibid., p. 41.

56. Nāṭyaśāstra, Ch. VIII, 41 ff. and 63.

ibid., Ch. VIII, 55.

57. Nāṭyaśāstra, Ch. VIII, 129 ff., specially 136-138, 144-146, 150-153, 156-159 and 162-164

These movements etc. are not descibed by Bharata with reference to the different rāasas and the terms used correspond more to the yābhicārī bhāvas or general expression of moods like anger (krodha), envy (dveṣa), etc., but, ultimately, each sthāyībhāva or rasa has its corresponding movement of the face. These are ofcourse not cut and dried formulae. They have to be used with imagination in particular contexts and are, therefore, sometimes inter-changeable. The charts have been made on the basis of Ch VIII, as also Ch VII; 8 ff., where the representation of the dominant states (sthāyī bhāva) has been discussed.

58. Mirror of Gesture, pp. 41-42.

59. Nāṭyaśāstra, Ch. VIII, 98-101.

Saṅgītaratnākara, Ch. VII, 441 ff

Nāṭyaśāstra Saṅgraha, p. 542 ff.

The last two follow the Nāṭyaśāstra faithfully

60. Bālarāmabharata, p. 140 ff.

61. Nāṭyaśāstra, Ch. VIII, 105-110.

Abhinayadarpaṇa, 77-68.

62 Mirror of Gesture, p. 40. It also lists 44 other glances from another source.

63 Saṅgītaratnākara, Ch. VII, 456-460.

Nāṭyaśāstra Saṅgraha, p. 458-554.

Also see Viṣṇudharmottara Purana, III, 25-50.

64 Bālarāmabharata, pp. 137-139.

65. Nāṭyaśāstra, Ch. VIII, 118-123.

66 Mirror of Gesture, p. 43.

67. Saṅgītaratnākara, Ch. VII, 433-438.

Nāṭyaśāstra Saṅgraha, pp. 525-532.

68. Bālarāmabharata, p. 154 ff.

69. Nāṭyaśāstra, Ch. VIII, 110-114.

70. Saṅgītaratnākara, Ch. VII, 440-445.

Nāṭyaśāstra Saṅgraha, pp. 534-540.

138

71. Bālarāmabharata, pp. 142-143.

72. Nātyaśāstra, Ch. VIII, 130-132.

Sangītaratnākara, Ch. VII, 467-470.

Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, pp. 561-565.

Bālarāmabharata, p. 160 ff.

The Sangīitaranākara and the Nātyasasstra Sangraha follow the Nātyaśāstra closely; the

Bālarāmabharata differs slightly

73. For movement of cheeks, lips, etc., see Nātyaśāstra, Ch. VIII, 136-161.

Sangītaratnākara, Ch. VII, 488 ff.

Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, pp. 565 ff.

Bālarāmabharata, 165 ff.

74. Sangītaratnākara mentions one more movement of the cheek

75. Bālarāmabharata, pp. 34 ff.

76. Nātyaśāstra, Ch. VIII, 18-37.

Sangītaratnākara, Ch. VII, 43-72

Abhinayadarpana, 49-62.

77. Nātyaśāstra, Ch. VIII, 18-37.

Abhinayadarpana, 49-50.

Mirror of Gesture, pp. 36-38.

Sangītaratnākara, Ch. VIII, 49 ff

Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, pp. 45-60.

Bālarāmabharata, pp. 32-38.

78. All the nine movements of the Abhinayadarpana are mentioned and then 24 other movements

are also enumerated. Those common to the Nātyaśāstra and the Abhinayadarpana have been

listed in col. III as repetition. See also Sangītaratnākara, 74-78.

79. The last six movements are enumerated separately, on the authority of another writer, in

both the Sangītaratnākara and the Nātyaśāstra Sangraha

80 Nātyaśāstra, Ch. VII, 171-175.

81. Abhinayadarpana, 79-87.

82. Mirror of Gesture, p. 44.

83. Sangītaratnākara, Ch. VIII, 329-334.

84. Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, pp. 420-427.

85. Bālarāmabharata, pp. 199-202.

86 Nātyaśāstra, Ch. VIII, 153-160.

87. Sangītaratnākara, Ch. VII, 513-516

Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, pp. 611-616.

87a. For a detailed analysis of the movements of the gīvā (neck), see Appendix

88. Nātyaśāstra, Ch. IX, 223 ff.

89. Sangītaratnākara, Ch. VIII, 296 ff.

90. Viṣnudharmottara Purāṇa, III, 24, 24 ff

91. Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, p. 386 ff

92. Bālarāmabharata, p. 91 ff.

93. Nātyaśāstra, Ch. IX, 233-250

94. Viṣnudharmottara Purāṇa, III, 24-30 ff

95. Sangītaratnākara, Ch. VII, 303 ff.

96. Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, p. 392 ff

97. Bālarāmabharata, p. 94 ff.

98. ibid., p. 96, 5-21.

99. Nātyaśāstra, Ch. IX, 250b-256b

100. Sangītaratnākara, Ch. VII, 357-360.

101. Viṣnudharmottara Purāṇa, III, 24 and 43-44

102. Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, pp. 451-455.

103. Bālarāmabharata, pp. 255-257.

104. Nātyaśāstra, Ch. IX, 257-258a and 262b-263a

105. Sangītaratnākara, Ch. VII, 365.

106. ibid., Ch. VII, 362-368.

Viṣnudharmottara Purāṇa, III, 24-51 ff

Also Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, pp. 458-461.

107. Sangītaratnākara, Ch. VII, 372-376.

Viṣnudharmottara Purāṇa, III, 3, 24-56 ff.

Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, p. 471 ff and v. 27.

108. Bālarāmabharata, Ch. p. 261.

109. Sangītaratnākara, Ch. VII, 362-368 and 372-376.

110. Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, pp. 456-465 and 471-477.

111. Nātyaśāstra, Ch. IX, 265-278.

139

Sañgītaratnākara, VII, 316-325.

Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, p. 402 ff

112. See Nātyaśāstra, Ch. IX, 265b-266a

113. See Abhinayadarpana, 259-260 ff

114. See Nātyaśāstra (G.O.S.). Ch. X, 159-160 ff.

115. See Abhinayadarpana, p. 330 ff., 231-243

Mirror of Gesture, p. 64 ff.

Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, p. 278, 339-350

116 Abhinayadarpana, p. 26, 204-215 ff

Mirror of Gesture, p. 65.

Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, pp. 252-264 the ivāna hasta mentioned only by the Nātyaśāstra

Sangraha.

117 Abhinayadarpana, pp. 28, 216-225

Mirror of Gesture, p. 66

Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, pp. 264-273.

Nātyaśāstra Sangraha hands for Navumhavatāra and Kalkı differ from those piescribed by

the Abhinayadarpana.

118 Abhinayadarpana, p. 33, 250-258

Mirror of Gesture, p. 65.

Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, pp. 320-329: but names of the planets in the Nātyaśāstra Samgraha

differ in some cases from those in the Abhinayadarpana and the Mirror of Gesture

119 Abhinayadarpana, p. 30, 226-230.

Mirror of Gesture, p 66.

Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, pp. 274-276.

120. Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, pp. 288-311.

121 ibid., pp. 312-321. twelve rāśi hastas have been enumerated

122. ibid., pp. 331-335.

123. ibid., pp. 337-367.

124. See Nātyaśāstra (G.O.S.) Vol. II, p. 70, 182-183 and commentary where Abhinavagupta

quotes Bhatta Udbhata and also gives examples of the different areas of movement of the

different hand gestures.

124. See Nātyaśāstra, Ch. IV, 215: the inward and the outward (abhyantara and bahımukha)

movements of the fingers have been emphasized here; we have tried to relate them to the

movements of the palm, fingers and wrist.

124 ibid., IX, 215

125 Sangītaratnākara, p. 182 ff., Ch VII, 532-536 Also see the commentary of Sudhākara and

Kallinātha on each of these movements of the hands and palms Also see Sangītaratnākara,

543-545, where other actions of the hands are listed

126 Nātvaśāstra (G.O.S ), Vol II, Ch IX, 220-222, and Abhinavagupta's commentary on p. 81

127. Sangītaratnākara, Ch VII, 335-347

Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, pp. 430-442

Bālarāmabharata has made a different classification of the aim movements in terms of

directions, which has little in common with the one in the earliet text See pp 202-220 and

229-231.

128. Sangītaratnākara, Ch VII, 369-372

129 ibid., Ch. VII, 369-371.

Nātyaśāstra Sangraha, pp 466-470

Bālarāmabharata gives a different classıfication in teims of sthıra and asthıra wıst move

ments, which total up to 25: all these movements are of course combinations of the five basic

movements of the Sangītaratnākara

130 Sangītaratnākara, Ch. VII, 326-329

Nātyaśāstra Sangıaha, p 416

131 Abhinayadarpana, 259-289

132 Nātyaśāstra, Ch. X. 89-95.

133. Sangītaratnākara, Ch VII, 1073-1094

134. Nātyaśāstra, Ch. XII, 228-235

Sangītaratnākara, Ch. VII, 1106-1110

135 Nātyaśāstra, Ch. XII, 228-235.

Sangītaratnākara, Ch. VII, 1106-1110

136. Nātyaśāstra, Ch. X, 51 ff.

Sangītaratnākara, Ch. VII 1019 ff. and 1034-1054

137. Nātyaśāstra, Ch. XII, 159-178.

Sangītaratnākara, Ch. VII, 1056-1068 (Advar edition)

138. Nātyaśāstra, Ch. X, 14-28.

Sangītaratnākara, Ch. VI, 917-941.

139. Nātyaśāstra, Ch. X, 14-50.

Also see Nātyaśāstra, Ch. XI, 3-5 etc., for maṇḍala and Ch. IV for karaṇa Saṅgītaratnākara,

Ch. VII, 942-965.

140. Nātyaśāstra (G.O.S.II) Preface, p. 39.

141. ibid., p. 38

142. ibid., pp. 40–49.

143. TL stands for Tāṇḍavalakṣaṇam and NS II for the Nāṭyaśāstra (Gaekwad Oriental Series,

second edition): figures of karaṇa 51 are identical in both 'Thus their agreement has not been

specifically mentioned in some cases· the numbers relate to the numbers of the karaṇas

144. Karaṇas 9 and 10 are not illustrated in the first edition of the Nāṭyaśāstra in the Gaekwad

Oriental Series.

145. Nātyaśāstra (G.O.S.I) also identifies karaṇa 80 as karaṇa 99 called madaskhalita.

146. Karaṇas 8 and 37 mentioned earlier, i.e., maṇḍala svastika and vaiśākha recita are also derived

from sthānaś.

147 See Nāṭyaśāstra (G.O.S.II), p. 42, where it is pointed out that the temple places this figure in

the 89th compartment

III

LITERATURE AND DANCING

It is significant that Bharata should have visualized Indian drama as emerging

from the four Vedas. According to him, drama originated from Brahmā,

the Creator, at the request of Indra and other deities who wanted from Him

(Brahmā) a fifth Veda in addition to the four Vedas already existent: the Creator

then went into a deep yogic trance and meditated on the essence of the four Vedas

–the result of this was the fifth Veda, which took words from the Rgveda, ges-

tures from the Yajus, music and chanting from the Sāma and sentiments and

emotions from the Atharvaveda. Unlike the other Vedas, this Veda was not taboo

to the Śūdras and its main purpose was to provide pleasure and delight both to the

ear and the eye irrespective of caste. Bharata in attributing to dance and drama

this divine origin was stating in formalized language a conception which must

have already taken hold of the people's mind.

We may not regard this theory of the origin of dancing as a historical fact,

but we cannot deny that it could have been conceived only in a society where

dance must have enjoyed prestige and honour. Through this theory Bharata

attributes to dancing a divine origin, a literary and religious heritage both in thought

and technique, and an aesthetic secular purpose. The story of the handing over of

this art by Śiva to Taṇḍu and then to Bharata asserts the religious, literary, and

secular aspect of this art.

We have only to look at the contemporary forms of classical Indian dancing to

be convinced of the implications of this theory of the origin of dance and drama,

Nowhere are we made so aware of the rich religious background, the vast literary

heritage and yet the entirely aesthetic purpose of an art form, as we are in a classical

dance performance, whether it is Bharatanāṭyam or Kathakali or Manipuri, Odissi or

Kathak. The artist of this dance never seeks to express personal human emotions

or subjective states of mind; he or she is constantly representing themes relating

to gods and goddesses–Śiva and Pārvatī, Krṣṇa and Rādhā, and the apsarās–

and the pangs and yearnings of these supernatural beings who pine more than the

human beings. If the human or the subjective is represented at all, it is only the

devotees' love for the One, the Almighty, not the separation of the mortal lover

from the beloved. The themes of dance in whichever style invariably relate to the

lives of divine beings, their battles and epic conflicts; never are they the socio-

logical problems of the day. And yet all through this performance, so imbued

with religious spirit and epic grandeur, there is no didactic purpose; instead, there

is an aesthetic delight in art creation.

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It is this apparent paradox of the artistic creation, this merging of the religious, the spiritual and the symbolic with the aesthetic and the secular, that gives Indian dancing its singular place among the Indian arts. It is also a feature which is common to other Indian arts. It manifests an integrated attitude to life which the philosophic works of our country state and preach and which the literary works at their best embody within themselves. It is the full-throated ease of living that is manifest here. This continues to be true today, even though the essential spirit of the traditional Indian aesthetics has declined in most art forms.

SĀHITYA OF DANCING

But the integration is not achieved in isolation or through denial; it is instead the direct outcome of the same inspiration as moved the classical writers. Indeed, the classical Indian dance would be but a dead technique, with meaningless flourishes and claborations, without the rich sāhitya that forms the basis of this dance The sāhitya lends it gravity and dignity of purpose and, when it is presented by a truly inspired and dedicated dancer, it is imbued with a new and profound significance. As the dancer performs, a distinct religious, literary tradition comes alive he or she portrays through movement what the writer has sought to express through words and poetry. The epic narrative method of a Kathākali performance, the lyrical manner of a Bharatanāṭyam recital, the soft renderings of Vidyāpati's Padā-valī, the aṣṭapadis of Jayadeva's Gīta Govinda in Manipuri and Odissī, and the gata-bhāvas of a Kathak demonstration are results of this contribution of literature to classical Indian dancing. A good performance in any of these styles will convince us of this fact. The superficial quality of the calssical dancer of modern India is due mostly to the lack of literary and cultural background: the difference between a good and a bad performance is that the spark of literature shines in one and the lack of it makes the other dead.

Just as the part played by literature (sāhitya) in dancing cannot be over-estimated, so also the part played by Indian dancing in Vedic and classical Sanskrit literature cannot be over-emphasized. Dance has not only provided these writers with a subject for pleasure, for beauty, and for poetic ornamentation in a nebulous way but has also influenced them in a way that they are sensitive to the minutest technical details and exhibit a knowledge of the art incomparable to any reference to it found in other literatures of the world. More important than this has been the impact of dance on the spiritual and religious thinkers of our country: through dance they have communicated abstract theories, and not a small part of our mythology, religion and spiritual thought is closely related to or symbolized in this art form.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DANCE AND LITERATURE

When we trace the history of Indian literature, we find references to dancing from the very earliest times. From the vague inspiration that the dancer provides to

the imaginative poet to the symbolism that dance provides to the mythology writer,

there is an abundance of material on dancing in our religious, theoiogical, socio-

logical and literary works. Through them we can re-create a history of this art,

when no written history exists, and in them we find descriptions of dancing as

it must have been at varying periods of history. Beginning with non-specialized

references in the earlier texts, we go on to discover specific references to technique;

and from the common performer of a simple community, we go on to observe

the classical artist, who exercised a profound influence on various levels of thought

in a complex society.

Through these channels of literature, aesthetic or religious, we can trace the

development of this art along three different directions. In pre-historic times dancing

must have existed as an elemental spontaneous force in the life of man. However,

from pre-historic times to the first evidence of an organized society, a great change

occurred in the attitude of man to this art: as society grew, this art form became

a vocation (śilpa). Thus if man danced for pleasure, he also danced for a living and

made it a vocation as good as any other. This development in society gave dance a

different impetus, and very early the secular dance both for professional and

social purposes became an established fact. Actually, the earliest references to

dancing found in the written Indian texts are the ones which indicate the secular

position of this art. Here it is an amusement, an entertainment at its best, and an

instrument of indiscipline, temptation and vice at its worst. This sociological

aspect of dance acquaint us not only with the manners and styles of dance but also

with the social prestige and honour enjoyed by dancers at various stages of history.

The chronicles and literary historical works provide us with revealing evidence of

this aspect of the art of dancing.

There is then the second direction of development, a direction which is at a

higher level of culture and civilization than the desire of man to express his sense

of fun through dancing. Here dancing is the most important feature in the ritua-

listic practices of our faith. The germs of this aspect, too we find in our literature.

Not only has man known that the mortal form can express joy and sorrow through

movement, but he has also realized that this movement must have discrimination

and selection and, just as he must organize society to transcend the selfishness

of the personal man on the horizontal plane, he must formalize movement to tran-

scend himself along the vertical plane and devote himself to a being higher than

himself, a power which he evokes and to whom he dedicates himself body and

soul. And what could be a more beautiful manner of dedication than dance ?

This direction of growth is most important for our purpose as it is this instinct

for sublimation, for transcendence, that gives true fibre and character to classical

dance. As early as the Ṛgveda and more visibly by the time of the Yajurveda, man

is over-wrought by the significance of physical gestures and, as the literature of

our country develops, greater and more significant references to this art of ges-

144

tures are found. It need hardly be added here that these are more than specula-

tions, for they are occurrences in the life of a people, and the literary and religious

works of our country are records of these occurrences in history from the earliest

times. That there were temple dancers and that dancing was and is an essential

feature of the Hindu temple is not a casual happening. It results directly from a

continuous process of thought and living: this ritualistic dancing, both in its

religious and classical richness, ascends and descends, grows and declines, with the

other sociological processes of history.

There is then the highly sophisticated and abstract aspect of dancing which

manifests itself in these works. From the devotee who dances before the god, the

Indian mind goes on to the concept of the gods themselves dancing. From Indra,

who has been called the leader of dancers in the Ṛgveda, the thinkers go on to

explain natural phenomena in terms of dancing, problems of the world through the

symbolism of dancing and the particular pose, answer questions of Ātman and the

Jīvātman in terms of dancing, as in the Śrimad Bhāgavata. The roots of these con-

cepts are contemporaneous with the earlier two aspects and it is not to be believed

that the concept of the dancing aspect of gods was a later development. All the

same, the full maturity of this aspect finds its culmination in the concept of the

trinity where both Śiva and Viṣṇu assume various dancing forms. The idea of

dance as a symbol so captured the Indian mind that, in its most exquisite state-

ment of the truth of the world, it saw Lord Naṭarāja dancing the cosmic dance.

This is an all-powerful symbol and more the thought one gives to it, the greater

is the stature it assumes; this is no mean achievement of the Hindu mind. It is an

incomparable tribute to the art of dancing. This motif of the cosmic dance repre-

senting the five activities of the Lord has given the Indian mind a vision, an image,

a symbol, which has evoked response from every heart and devotion from every

soul.

We can trace through our literary and religious texts the development of these

trends in Indian dancing. For purposes of analysis, we may divide these references

into categories even though each one of these categories merges into the other and

cannot easily be distinguished. It is not our main purpose here to trace the socio-

logical aspect of dance as found in these texts, nor is it to go into the symbolic

significance of the conceptions of the dances of the gods. These tasks, valuable in

themselves, are strictly the realm of the social historian and the philosopher. We

are concerned here with the technical growth of this art form as a fully stylized

technique and the references to this technique in the literary works of ancient and

medieval Sanskrit literatures. To us, therefore, the purely literary works are of

greater importance than the vast number of religious and sociological texts. The

'creative literature' gives dance its themes, and, conversely, dance finds an impor-

tant place in the imagination of the poet and the dramatist. Wherever technical

references to dancing occur in 'non-literary and non-creative' works, i.e., other than

kāvya and drama, we shall attempt to treat a few, but the major works of our

analysis will be literary works of art. The sources of this analysis will thus be (a)

the Vedic and post-Vedic literature, the Ṛgveda, a few Upaniṣads and the Sūtras,

(b) Epic poetry and the Purāṇas, (c) kāvya, lyrical and narrative poetry, and (d)

the nāṭya or the drama proper.

From these sources the different types of relationship between literature and

dancing can be established. The categories made for this purpose are:

(i) Divine and human beings in the literary texts from the earliest times are

found dancing at some stage or the other. There are characters in Hindu

mythology who have been given the attributes of a dancer; there are

others who are conceived mainly as dancers. These characters include

the personifications we find in literature, personifications which assume

the character of terrestrial or celestial gods. There are then human beings

who are the heroes and heroines of these works, who dance and who are

seen as professional dancers in society.

(ii) Closely related to this faculty of mind which sees the phenomenal world

personified in terms of human beings is the other habit of mind which

seeks to compare things in nature and the world in terms of the 'dancing

image'. Here we find that the poet is fascinated by the form of the dancer,

her technical accomplishments, her bells, her rhythm, `the poses she

attains; and compares non-human movement in terms of the move-

ment of the dance. Sanskrit literature utilizes dance in its rich fund of

metaphor and simile. These two principles, of personification on the one

hand and of comparison in single or sustained similes and metaphors

on the other, are complementary in nature.

(iii) There are then specific dance recitals and performances described in

these works. In the kāvya and dramatic literature of Sanskrit, this is a

frequent theme; either a full dance performance is described or a portion

of this recital is referred to. These references give us some idea of the

essential features of the types of dancing, both social and classical, that

must have been prevalent. Through these references we can determine

the place of dancing in the society at large and can have an idea of the

aesthetic principles underlying these dances. Our major sources for this

type of reference are the later kāvyas and the literary drama.

(iv) But the most important relationship between literature and dancing is an

aspect of Sanskrit dramatic literature, which is the direct result of dancing

and which can completely be identified with it. The beginnings of this we

find in the first references to gesticulations in the Vedic texts, but it as-

sumes a shape so large in the literary drama of the classical period that

146

the true beauty of this drama cannot be comprehended until we take into consideration the fact that the nāṭya of Sanskrit literature was not only the dialogue on stage but an integrated representation of the four types of abhinaya, namely, āṅgika, vācika, sāttvika and āhārika. This particular aspect of the literary drama of Sanskrit distinguishes it from the drama of other countries as the stage directions here are not only helpful hints to acting but also constitute an important and indispensable part of the drama. This evidence of āṅgikābhinaya in literary drama is witnessed in the abhinaya portions of contemporary classical dance in India: indeed, it is the only survival of ancient Indian drama. Here the two arts become one and inseparable and, if drama becomes more pantomimic in character, dance becomes more literary.

From the different types of relationship that exist between the two arts of literature and drama, the directions of growth and development of these arts are self-evident. In the direction of thought-development, the earliest dancing gods and goddesses of our mythology grow to assume the religious significance embodied in the symbolic concept of the dances of Śiva or Viṣṇu, the full-fledged gods of our trinity: in the direction of secular and social development, the spontaneous dancing becomes the social and folk dancing of our country where every festival and important event of life is expressed through collective community dancing and where the dancer is an important limb of a good and happy society: and in the direction of technique development, the religious ritual assumes symbolic, codified and imitative significance to become an elaborate technique of gesticulation and abhinaya. The earlier dialogues also develop to assume the form of the literary drama proper. Thus the wheel has come full circle here, and the growth of Indian literature and dancing is a simultaneous development of content, thought and technique, and of subject-matter and form. Matter and style, the idea and the manifestation of it in form, go on merging into one another and the one cannot be separated from the other. We shall see the undertones and overtones of the development of this thought and technique in the course of our detailed analysis of these works; suffice it to say here that the art of dancing emerges from all these references and evidences as an all-powerful influence in the cultural history of our country, and at the very moment of its being a source of amusement and pleasure, used either for healthy purposes or exploited for base instincts in man, it is a source of spiritual uplift, moral elevation and intellectual sādhana of the highest type. When it deteriorates, it is the art of the sorcerer, the sole instrument of temptation; when it ascends and develops, it is the voice and movement of God. These tendencies take time to be formulated but, by the time Bharata writes his treatise on dramaturgy, these concepts take a definite shape. It is this process of the growth of matter, manner and purpose of dancing that he has in mind when he attributes to dancing a divine origin, a religious and literary background, and an aesthetic and secular purpose.

In the pre-Bharata period, these trends are visible but they have not found an individuality and distinctive personality. The categories of our analysis are thus applicable to the pre-Bharata literature, as his terminology is applicable to the sculpture depicting dancing, but it is really the post-Bharata literature that gives us a picture of these easily discernible qualities. We shall thus treat these categories together in the pre-Bharata period and shall trace them separately in the post-Bharata period.

Rgveda

We find the beginnings of all these aspects in the earliest record of our literature. Rgveda stands supreme before our eyes as a work of religion, philosophy, mythology and poetry. In this work, we discover an insight into natural phenomena, into the life around man which has scarcely been surpassed. The delight and ease with which poetry blooms forth from these hymns is indicative of the incomparable perception of the beautiful of these poets: the mental life of the poet manifests itself through a child-like simplicity full of freshness and delicacy of feeling on the one hand, and a highly complex and intricate process of thought reflected in metaphor and mythology on the other.

The gods that arise before our eyes in these pages are personifications no doubt of natural phenomena on the celestial and terrestrial planes; but they are lovable beings, too, heroic and supernatural in character, who can inspire the mortal but who have not yet acquired divine shapes and forms distant enough to be prayed to and feared. The gods and goddesses of this pantheon are numerous: they are fighters, singers, life-givers, and are vigorous and impetuous. They ride on cars across the skies and are glorified human beings, inspired with human motives and passions, born like men but immortal. These representatives of the phenomena and agencies of nature are seen dancing and singing like their earthly counterparts who dance and sing both at weddings and funerary ceremonies in the hymns of the Rgveda.

Indra is the greatest of them all: he has been conceived primarily as a thunder-god and a god of battle who assumes most beautiful forms at will (X. 112. iii), is armed with bows and arrows (VIII. 45. iv), is borne on a car which is golden (VI. 29. ii), and is swifter than thought (X. 112. ii). To this Indra are applied the epithets of the car-fighter (rathesthā), the soma-drinker (somapāvan) (VIII. 2. iv), and the leader of dancers—the dancer Indra—and one who makes others dance. More than a dozen hymns utilize these epithets of dancing for him. In I. 130, the entire hymn refers to him as a dancer in battle who has destroyed ninety cities: here the vocative of nrtu is used and thus we have the word nrta. He is the dancer who has destroyed ninety cities and has destroyed them with his thunder-bolt (vajra) (I. 130. vii)1. In another hymn, he is evoked as he who makes others dance and delight (II. 22. iv), whose first act is for the good of man and who is victor of

148

the rain2. In VIII. 24. ix and xii, these epithets are used for him again3. Here he is

addressed as he who causes to dance. In VIII. 92. iii, the word nrtuh (equal to

nartayitā) is used. A similar epithet for Indra as the dancer is used in II. 22. iv: he

is dancer, the giver of plenteous food and is prayed to for bringing riches.

The close associates of Indra, the Maruts and the Aśvins, are also dancers.

Marut is often called by the name dancer (nrtu). In a most beautiful hymn translated

by Max Mueller the Maruts dance around the well, desirous of water: “In the

measured steps and wildly shouting, the gleemen have danced towards the well.

They who appeared one by one like thieves were helpers to me to see the light”.

They are really the gay dancers, the kīrino nrtuh (V. 52. 12)4, who are the invokers

and the leaders of the dance. The verse is the first specific description of dancing in

literature where more than an epithet has been used. In another hymn, too, the

Maruts are invoked as dancers and the form nrtavah is employed for them: in this

they are called out for care and friendship, “Oh ye dancers with golden ornaments

on your chest, even a mortal comes to ask for your brotherhood: take care of us

ye Maruts, for your friendship lasts for ever” (VIII. 20. xxii).5 The Maruts are here

addressed in the plural as a troupe or a company of dancers.

The Aśvins are the twin gods to whom singing and dancing are attributed.

They, too, are called out as dancers (nrtu): they are addressed in the plural—who

dance in association with the daughter of the Sun, Surya6. They are addressed as the

twin Aśvins and the hosts of Maruts.

Indra, the Maruts and the Aśvins are given these epithets after they have

been visualized in their human form, and dancing is one of their accomplishments.

In these epithets, we have the first germs of the concept which was to develop later

into Naṭarāja, the dancing Śiva.

In the Ṛgveda, closely related to the concept of the dancing Indra, the Maruts

and the Aśvins, is the concept of the apsarās. They are the consorts of the gan-

dharvas and smile at their lovers in the highest heavens (X. 123. v). Vaśistha is

born of the apsarās (VII. 33. xii) and lives close to them (VII. 33. ix). The apsarās

of the sea are described as flowing to soma (IX. 78. iii): the long-haired ascetic

with semi-divine powers is spoken of as being able to move on the path of the

apsarās and the gandharvas (X. 136. vi) and, finally, there is a reference to the

story of Urvaśi and Pururavā in a beautiful hymn (X. 95. vii. ff.). Besides these,

there are very few references to the apsarās and we learn little else about their

character from the Ṛgveda. Nonetheless, we are introduced to a concept which later

became a popular feature of our mythology. The apsarās do not belong to the

category of gods and are listed amongst the lower deities; when Indra assumes the

character of a king with a court, they become his favourite dancers and musicians.

In the Atharvaveda these forms play a prominent part and become the divine

courtesans of the celestial gods: the arts of music and dancing become their indis-

pensable accomplishments and soon they come to stand for both the joy and the

pleasure of heaven, as also for the supernatural instruments of fate. They entice,

tempt and test the human sage from time to time: their sphere of action enlarges,

and they move freely from earth to heaven. They alone, of the deified beings, are

in love with the mortals and are punished occasionally by their lord King Indra.

Behind the concept of the apsara must have existed the reality of the beautiful

courtesan of the Rg-Vedic and Atharva-Vedic periods. The general references to the

dancing apsarās and the particular one to Urvaśī in the Rgveda are a clear indication

of the existence of the professional dancer during the period.

From the characters and themes related to dancing in the earliest text, we

move on to another important reference to dancing in the Rgveda. Now it is not

the dramatic character who dances; instead, it is the poet who sees natural pheno-

menon in terms of a dancer. The well-known reference to Uṣas as a dancer is not

merely an adjective for the rising dawn; it is one of the first examples in poetry

where dancing is used by the poet in a beautiful sustained image. Through all the

twenty hymns celebrating Uṣas, the goddess is but slightly personified. She is ever

ancient, and ever young, the elder sister of night. She is the cira purānī (purānī and

yuvatī), the maiden who awakes in the world again and again (I. 123, ii), who also

awakens creatures that have feet, and who makes the birds fly up (I. 48. v). She

awakes everything into motion (I. 92. ix). She is the life and breath of everything

(I. 49. iii). This dawn was the most beautiful of all phenomena to the early gazer

of the skies: in this first dawn he asked his first questions, and in her he saw an

image of the world anew, and while everything else changed, she remained

constant, never stooping, never withering, but emerging fresh and glorious

every morning. Through this riddle of all riddles man composed his most

exquisite poetry.

It is this goddess of dawn Uṣas that the Rg-Vedic poet loads with adjectives

and epithets, one more beautiful than the other—and it is this Uṣas whom he com-

pares to a dancer. She is like a dancer (nrtūriva) who “adorns herself with rich

ornament like a maiden whom her mother has decked out, the valiant one with a

gracious smile who displays her charms to the adorer and brings forth treasures

breaking forth the gates of darkness.”7 (I. 92. iv). The poetry in the hymn is ex-

quisite and we are silent in admiration and wonder at the conception: through it,

too, we find the poet's knowledge of the dancer and her charms. Dancing as an

accomplished art must have existed for the poet to paint such a picture. The pro-

fession of dancing as a recognized vocation of girls, too, must have existed before

the poet could speak of Uṣas as displaying her charms by unveiling herself. The

professional dancer, with all her boldness and forthright frankness, is seen here:

the descriptions of her dress throw light on the modes of costuming. No further

conclusion with regard to the art of dancing can be drawn from this image in the

Rgveda, but the sensitivity of the poet to dance is evident enough.

We find other examples of similes in these hymns. There is one in which the

birth of Aditi is related; here the joy of the gods is described. 'Thence as of dancers

from your feet, a thickening cloud of dust arose.'8 (X. 72. vii). From this reference

it may be concluded that dancing took place in the open and was perhaps performed

collectively in circles.

From these images we may also conclude that both the solo and the collective

forms of dancing were in vogue.

We come next to the direct description of dancing in the life of the ordinary

people. Secular poetry in the Rgveda gives us a fairly clear picture of the part

played by dancing in society. Occasion for it was provided by marriages, funerals,

harvest festivals, sacrifices and communal gatherings, when the inner music of the

soul of the crowd following any happy occurrence demanded expression in the

happy rhythmic movements of the limbs; men and women of the community

participated in this carnival of mirth. Funeral Hymn X. 18 asks the survivors and

relatives of the deceased, after he had been laid to rest, to go forth to sing, dance

and laugh and prolong their own span of existence:

"The living from the dead are separated

The sacred rite today has prepared for us

And we are here prepared for mirth and dancing

Prolonging still the span of our existence."9

(X. 18. iii)

Laughter (hasāya) and dance (nrtaye)10 are associated with each other at a

moment of sorrow, and such is the continuity of Hindu culture that we find even

today, when an aged man dies without leaving a widow or the old lady predeceases

her husband, the funeral march is accompanied by music and dancing. Among the

Aiyyars of the South, only the women take part in it and the dancers circle around

a lamp blazing its many tongues of light. Dances have formed an important feature

of the funeral rites of the Hindus since Rg-Vedic times.

In X. 94. iv, we have a bold description of yet another type of community

dance, where it is said, "with the sisters they have danced embraced by them making

the earth re-echo with the sounding tread". Griffiths translates it as, "They cry aloud

with strong exhilarating drink, calling on Indra now, for they have found the

madhu. Bold with their sisters they have danced embraced by them" (X. 94. iv).

The hymn brings before us a vivid picture of a dance in all its vigour and

vivacity: the atmosphere resounds with the cries of the dancers. The humming sound of this dance and song is called nyūnkha: this sound was perhaps like the oṅkāras cadence of the Nāgā dancing. According to Kātyāyana (I. 8. 18), it consisted of sixteen such oṅkāras.

The description is significant for more reasons than one: the three or four verses read together bring to us a description of a type of couple dancing, which we do not often come across in Sanskrit literature: they hold their sisters, and each couple dances in this vast group of hundreds and thousands. The couple formations of this collective social dance also call for embracing each other, and the movement of their dance is so fast that the earth resounds with humming sound.

The next verse indicates a gliding movement (X. 94. v) of the dance, and the swiftness of the dance is suggested by either interpretation of the verse11.

The direct descendants of group dancing, where couple formations predominate, are the rāsa dances of India, which extend from Vṛndāvana in the North to Tamilnād in the South; from Manipur in the East to the coasts of Gujarāt and Mālābār in the South-West.

Here is a picture of a happy society where once work is finished people sit together over a drink. Their wives and maidens attired in gay robes set forth to the joyful fetes: boys and girls hasten to the meadow, when forest and field are clothed in fresh verdure, to take part in dancing. Cymbals sound, and, seizing each other by the arm, men and women whirl around until the ground vibrates and clouds of dust envelope the gaily moving throng. The meeting place for all this collective festivity is the samana. This word is used in many senses, including that of an assembly for festivity: women go to it to enjoy themselves (X. 55. v); young women also go there to seek their husbands, and courtesans go to make profit by the occasion12. Whatever the nature of these dances, and however popular and folk in character these assemblies might have been, it is evident, through references to meeting places such as these, that the dancer and the courtesan were an essential part of this festivity.

In the Ṛg-Vedic hymns, the beginnings of dramatic literature are also seen. The existence of the professional dancer (nṛtu) in the Vedic society is established by the foregoing references: he is the precursor of the classical actor, dancer and singer. The dialogues between Indra and Marut (I. 7 or I. 165), between Yama and Yami (X. 10) and between Purūravā and Urvaśī (X. 95) in the Ṛgveda are the predecessors of the drama proper.

As one surveys the Ṛg-Vedic hymns, one finds that there is indeed material here for different types of development. On the secular plane we find social dancing

and rejoincing; on the religious and symbolic plane we find that dancing has been

attributed to the gods. The beginnings of the professional dancer are seen here,

the professional dancer who was to give India a rich theatrical tradition. We also

see here the nucleus of the written literary drama. The only aspect we have not

spoken of is the ritualistic or the art of gesticulation found in the Rgveda. There is

little reference to stylized gesticulation in this text, but in this sphere there is ample

proof of the poet's consciousness of human movement. Raising of hands, moving of

feet and descriptions of physical movement are frequent throughout the Rgveda:

but nowhere are these descriptions of physical movement indicative of mental

states, nor are they used in any codified sense, either symbolic or dramatic. Thus

their significance is slight but even in these we find the germs of the later full-fledged

and stylized, āṅgikābhinaya, which the written drama of Sanskrit was to employ

so perfectly and so powerfully.

The other three Vedas and their Saṃhitās also constantly refer to this art.

Dance continues to be mentioned in the following contexts: (1) mythical and legen-

dary gods who continue to feature in these works; occasionally the art of dance

is attributed to them; (2) images concerning dancing are frequent; (3) there is then

an evidence of the place of a dancer in society; the actor and the dancer are men-

tioned here in important sacrifices; and (4) finally, there is in these Vedas the most

significant of all evidence, namely that of the ritualistic practices: in these practices

we find the beginnings of the gesture language of the Indian dancing. Without doubt

the symbolic physical gestures must have fascinated the sensitive artist, who must

have absorbed them as a part of his technique.

Sāmaveda

In the Sāmaveda, references to dancing, other than those already mentioned

in the Rgveda, are few, but this Veda contributes greatly to this art by stating the

concept of the Mārgi and Deśī types of music and dancing. This is the first con-

scious distinction between what was to be termed classical and popular in years

to come.

Yajurveda

The Yajurveda stands as an important treatise in the history of Indian thought.

The basic conceptions of the Rgveda continue to manifest themselves here, but the

deities of this age can more easily be distinguished and have thus found a more

definite place in the Hindu pantheon than in the Rgveda. The ritual practices of this

Veda are a living testimony to man's desire to annihilate himself in offering to the

higher powers. Man here offers himself body and soul to the god: through the

body he offers his soul, and through the consecration of the human form he is able

to attain the Universal Self. Were it not for the reverence and sanctity of the human

body, the gestures and the symbols would be but hollow elaborate acting without

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

meaning and significance. It is not, therefore, surprising that the artist absorbed into his being all these forms and practices for purely artistic purposes.

Of the deities we find that Indra, Rudra, Urvaśī and the other apsarās are repeatedly mentioned in the Yajurveda, but hardly anywhere is dancing attributed to them. In the White Yajurveda (Vājaṡaneyī Saṃhitā), Indra is the Yita-slayer, the king of gods, the deliverer (sūtramāna) (X. 31) and the all-powerful; he is no longer one who causes to dance of the leader of the dancers or a dancer himself. His companions, the Aśvins the twin light gods, the heralders of dawn, do dance and represent the sustaining and vivifying power of the dawn: they are full of the pleasantness of dance in the Aśvina Graha; they are here honey-lovers, their whip is like distilling honey; and the whip is compared to an expert female dancer, sūnṛtāvatī (VII. 11); and it is to them that the cup of libation is offered (Aśvina Graha). These Aśvins are the healers of Indra (XIX. 12), helpers in killing the son of the asura Namuci (X. 33). The storm gods, the Maruts, continue to be the singers of hymns (gāyata maruta) (XX. 30), and several offerings are made to them but seldom do they dance.

Among the lower deities, the apsarās are more frequently found in the White Yajurveda than in the Ṛgveda, but they do not dance and are not associated with dance as such. They are for the most part water nymphs. Urvaśī and Menakā are mentioned here (XV. 15-19), also Sahajanya, who represent portions of the sky, heaven or earth. They are the consorts of the gandharvas and are swift moving (XVIII. 39): they are also mentioned in the Puruṣamedha Yajña (XXX. 8)—but they do not dance. Dance seems to have been attributed to them much later.

Examined socially or on the secular plane, we can conclude that actors and dancers must have been accepted as members of society. In the Puruṣamedha Yajña we find two references to this: śailūṣa is included as one of the victims here (XXX. 6). Among the victims, the harlots, the amorous women, as also the apsarās and the gandharvas, are mentioned: “For dance a stable Master (sūtam) and for song an actor, performer (naṭa)”. Who this performer (naṭa) is and what his exact activities are we are not told, but it is evident that he plays an important part in all these sacrifices. A similar reference to dance and to the one who gives rhythm (tāla) is found in the verses relating to the Puruṣamedha Yajña. We have “A tāla man, a lutist these for the Dance” (XXX. 20). From this it is evident that the dancer must have been accompanied by the lutist on the one side and the drummer on the other: the basic accompaniment of dance, as observed in the sculptures of the earliest times, also consists of two accompanists. We see here that a distinction between a dancer and a public actor is made—for the two words nṛtū and śailūṣa are easily distinguishable.

We come next to the important feature in the Vājaṡaneyī Saṃhitā mentioned

154

earlier, namely, the gesticulation with the hands and the body, which forms an integral part of the ritual18. The awareness of the different parts of the body is impressive throughout these descriptions. There are many images in which the aṅgas of the human body are employed for purposes of similes and metaphors.

Ritual is invariably accompanied by gestures, and in it we find the seeds of abhinaya as it was to develop later. The ritual practices of the Yajurveda must have provided the actor and the dancer with unique material which was as profound as it was symbolic, as beautiful as it was stylized and technical. The mantras of these rituals were sung to special rhythm and tone and the geatures of the body denoted the meaning and significance of the verses. What closer relationship could we wish between the abhinaya in dance and drama than this? In all these sacrifices the punctiliousness with which hands and feet are placed in different directions, or fingers are used, are indicative of a sense of perfection and conciousness of an artist and a mathematician combined. In one of the earlier sacrifices, where Agni is the hotar (Book II), the sacrificer offers to the gods butter and says "Let me not with my foot offend thee, Viṣṇu" (II. 8) and, saying this, he must step to the southern side of the altar with the left foot in advance of the right, and return with the right foot before the left"14. This careful stepping could hardly have been un-beautiful if it was intended to be significant and awe-inspiring. In such verses we have the supreme examples of man's consciousness to utilize movement and gesture as a language and to use it symbolically for ritual. Similarly, the strides of Viṣṇu are represented symbolically by taking three Viṣṇu-strides: These strides and their symbolism is enriched further when the verse continues with the words "By the metre in the sky strode Viṣṇu . . . . . By triṣṭup metre in the air strode Viṣṇu" (II. 25).

The mention of these metres here and elsewhere in the same strain is significant both for its absolute symbolic value and for the hint it must have given to the performer of these rites about the rhythm of movement.15

Again, the performer lifts his entire body to offer obeisance to the elements: the Brāhmaṇa sounds one of the seventeen drums before beginning the sacrifice (IX. 11). Subsequently, other drums are also sounded simultaneously and the Vājapeya, in course of performance, speaks the words and raises his arms to complete the invoking.16

"In us be your great might and many vigour . . . . .

Obeisance to our Mother Earth! Obeisance to our Mother Earth!

This is my sovereignty: Thou art the ruler thou art controller, thou art firm and steadfast.

Thee for land culture, thee for peace and quiet, . . . . ." (IX. 22)

155

And as he says these words, "He looks towards the four quarters of the sky and their intermediate points and addresses the text to them. In obeisance (namo mātre prthivyāi), he looks to the ground. Then he points to a seat of udumbara wood on which he spreads a goat-skin.... ."17 As the ceremony was repeated time and again, a set of gestures must have evolved to signify the sky, the earth and the spheres: conversely, when these gestures were used, the words and concepts for which they stood must have been clear, and a finished language of gestures was thus born out of these rituals.

In the ceremony related to the Aśvamedha Yajña we come to a ritualistic practice very near to actual dancing itself. Here, when the horse has been brought back, the queen and the other consorts perform several ceremonies like entwining its mane, and, after a series of recitations, the three queens walk nine times around the horse, reciting verses: the chief queen then begins another ceremony for the birth of a son.18 (XXIII. 8 and XXII. 18). In this ceremony there is a development of ritual, for the queens perform symbolic rites individually as well as in unison. In the visual beauty of a well-performed ceremony in India even today we are aware of this gesticulation. A Vedic marriage ceremony even today tells us of the nature of the symbolic ritual.

In the Śautrāmaṇi, there is an exquisite example of this type of ritual: the whole performance is voluble with meaning and is significant even today: the physical plays an important part again. Indeed, it is this reverence for the physical form as an instrument of sacrifice, of worship, that gives Indian dancing its sanctified character, where the performer identifies herself or himself with universal truths through the medium of dance and desires total annihilation. The sacrificer touches the various parts of his body one after another and recites the following benedictory formula:

"My head be grace, my mouth be My hair be brilliant sheen. My breath be King and deathlessness, mine eye sole Lord, mine ear the Prince My tongue be bliss, my voice be might, my mind be wrath, my rage self Lord! Joys be my fingers and delight my members, conquering strength my friend!"19

(XX. 5-8)

And with these wishes and prayers he offers himself in obeisance. The underlying principles of this ritual are so true that age after age they have found new meaning and deep significance. If it has been said in the English language that ‘Face is the index of Man', in the Vedic language one might say that ‘The human Body is the Man itself, for the soul and the body are not twain'; the body is not a snare to be shunned but one through which the eternal can be found.

Atharvaveda

By the time of the Atharvaveda we find that the attitudes have changed and much of the spontaneity and simplicity of the Rgveda has been lost. Fear and superstition have entered man's mind: instead of offering sacrifices as in the Yajurveda, he is concerned more with casting spells. Indra himself has become a king (III. 3); the Maruts and the Aśvins are gods meant only to be worshipped and are no longer playful and joyous.

The concept of the apsarās, however, has developed: they live in the waters (samudra) whence they come and whither they go, appear on earth and are lost again (II. 2. iii). The goddesses accompany the gandharvas and are present in the clouds, lightning and stars (II. 2. iv); they are the wives of gandharvas (gandharva patnī). They dwell with rivers (IV. 37. iii), with plants and trees in the waters (IV. 37. iv), with peacocks and the arjuna trees (IV. 37. v) and where the great drums resound (IV. 37. v); here these apsarās dance with the gandharvas (IV. 37. vii); the form ānrtyatah is used here; locks of hair are indicated by the adjective śikhandin. Several references to gandharvas and apsarās throw interesting light on the modes of dress and coiffure attributed to them in different ages. For the first time we meet these celestial nymphs in their modified character in that they have started dancing. It is not till the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, however, that we find them actively engaged in dance, music, play and acting as instruments of seduction (II. 6. 1).

Men and women also sing and dance even amidst the disease and pestilence they fear. They gather in assembly halls (VII. 12.ii), and the sabhā is the recognized place of meeting where social entertainments including music and dance abound The long cosmogonic hymn (Prthivīṣūkta) addressed to the earth, the finest in this Veda, is indicative of a joyous life on various planes, where mortals sing and dance:

"The earth, on whom, with clamour loud

Men that are mortal sing and dance

On whom they fight in battle fierce

This earth shall drive away from us our foemen "23

(XII. 1. 41).

There is another beautiful metaphor in the Atharvaveda where the heart of the worshipper is the sea, where Vaśā imbibing the Sāmaveda dances with delight. (X. 10. 104).

Atharavaveda abounds in references to gandharvas and apsarās dancing, and from all these references in the Vedic literature, we can esily re-create a picture of the society where dancing and music is an integral part of man's day-to-day living, whether in joy or in sorrow, as a profession or as an important communal activity.

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Brāhmaṇas

As time passed, the Vedas ceased to be clear; their language became incomprehensible and the tradition and the cult propounded by them was in danger of being lost. Accordingly, the expert in ritual created the Brāhmaṇas to explain to the officiator the relationship between the formulae he murmured or the hymns he sang and the various ritual acts and consecrated gestures he performed. These are mystifying texts full of an age of sacrificial liturgy. The viniyoga or liturgical applications of the hymns with the utmost correctness is of supreme importance, and the form of the sacrifice becomes important for its own sake. The mysteries of these ritual mantras can perhaps be solved if the terms of gestures are clearly comprehended, but our object here is merely to indicate that the gesture language was in a process of change and growth, becoming more stylized and symbolic, however confined and monopolized it might have been at the hands of priests of the time.

On the general thematic plane, there is enough evidence in the Brāhmaṇas (in their narrative lengendary gāthā section) to show that there was a flourishing tradition of music and dancing in those times.

Both the Aitareya and the Kauṣītaki of the Ṛgveda contain references to dancing: the Sāmaveda Brāhmaṇas are important for their samans and the various kinds of celestial and terrestrial beings referred to. In the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇas, śailūṣa naṭa (actor) is again mentioned (III. 4. 21); other words like sabhāpati in the sense of the lord of the assembly occur in the Taittirīya Samhitā (IV. 53. 2). This may be contrasted with the word sabhāvin in the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa (III. 4. 16. 1), which, according to commentator Sāyaṇa, means 'the keeper of the gambling hall': these halls still do not have dancing in them, but the social assmeblies of the saman on the one hand and the general sabhā on the other were to give rise to the proper nātyaśālās of the Mahābhārata.

The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa contains the legend of Purūravā and Urvaśī, and like the echo of a melancholy song, it is the continuation of the tenderly told dialogue between Urvaśī and Purūravā in the Ṛgveda (X. 95). The story in the Brāhmaṇa differs from the Ṛgveda but has the same undertone of pathos in it. (Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, II. 5. 1). Several other Brāhmaṇas mention general aesthetic principles which are also pertinent to a study of the development of music and dancing.

Upaniṣads

Upaniṣads also mention the two words ṇṛtta and naṭa: these works often utilize dance or music to elucidate discussions on abstract philosophic concepts. Sometimes, music and dance are instruments of temptation, and once or twice these arts are listed amongst the subjects of study.

In the Kaṭha Upaniṣad we find Naciketā being tempted by Yama to accept

"fair ones of heaven sitting in ornamental chariots, playing harps". The players

on the tūrya, and the like, are not to be gained by men.22 In the Kena Upaniṣad,

the relationship of the body and the soul, and the interdependence of each, is

explained in terms of the five sense organs.23 Dancing as an art, however, is not

directly referred to in these texts. All the same there is a significant reference to

gandharvaloka as a stage in the development of the mind (Bṛhadāraṇyaka, III. 7. 1).

In the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, we find that, among the arts listed, there is one

called devajñana vidyā which includes the arts of music, dancing, mythology, and

perfume-making (Chāndogya Upaniṣad, VII. 1. 2)21 and this list is repeated several

times.25 The inclusion of these arts as branches of learning indicates the classical

nature of these arts: the social and the purely secular type of folk arts have not

been included in the list.

The study of Upaniṣads is important for our purpose, not so much for the

concrete references to the technique and practice of the arts of music and dancing

as for the aesthetic implications of the philosophic principles stated in these works.

In the texts of the Indian arts, there is very little discussion on the philosophy of

art or aesthetics; they confine themselves mostly to discussions on technique. The

Upaniṣads provide the essential background and the basic principles on which

these theories are built and propounded.

From this point of view, the Kaṭha, the Chāndogya and the Bṛhadāraṇyaka

Upaniṣads are important texts. It cannot perhaps be said that any aesthetic theory

is explicitly set forth in these Upaniṣads, but the ideas and terminology of the aes-

thetic theory are easily recognizable here. In the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, for

example in I. 4. 7, the word is said to be differentiated or known in plurality only

by means of name and aspect, idea and image (nāmarūpa); Elsewhere, "voice (vāka)

is apprehender (graha); it is seized by idea (nāma) as over-apprehender as indeed

by voice (vāk) one utters thoughts (nāmāni)"; and, similarly, "sight (cakṣu) is an

apprehender; it is seized by aspect (rūpa) as an over-apprehender as indeed by the

eye (cakṣu) one sees things (rūpāṇi)" (III. 2. 3 and 5). Actual objects (rūpāṇi) seen

in space are really seen not as such but as only coloured areas, the concept of space

being altogether mental and conventional.28

The ideas of sādrśya (visual correspondence), which do not imply naturalism

in Indian art but which come nearer to the philosophic concept of pramāṇa (criterion

of truth), are all ideas contained in the Upaniṣads and have direct bearing on the

theories of aesthetics. Terms of aesthetics like sahrdaya (having heart) equivalent

to rasika, pramātra, etc., are very near the notion of the "space in the heart" and

"the lotus of the heart in which Heaven and Earth are contained" mentioned in

the Upaniṣads.27

The significant elements of this theory (which conceives of the aesthetic experience as an ecstasy, in itself inscrutable, a delight of the reason; which believes that the work of art, which serves as the stimulus to the release of the spirit from all inhibitions of vision, can come into being only as a thing ordered to specific ends; which affirms that Heaven and Earth are united in the analogy of art; and which, finally, asserts that art tends towards an ultimate perfection in which the seer perceives all things imaged in himself) are found in the Upaniṣads. The fundamentals of this philosophic background give profundity to the elaborate technique of the Indian arts. As one surveys references to the technique and practice of these arts in the works of religion, law and literature, one must always bear in mind that the technique is significant only on account of its spiritual and metaphysical background and not on account of its minute and over-ornate classification.

Grhya Sūtras

In the Grhya Sūtras the arts of music and dancing are diligently cultivated, and, at every stage of domestic life, they play an important part. That dance and music formed an important part of a marriage ceremony is clear from the Āśvalāyana Grhya Sūtra where, after the prospective bride is bathed and the high priest offers a sacrifice, a dance of four or eight women (not widows) takes place as part of Indrāṇī Karma; instrumental music is mentioned in Sīmātonnayana ceremony (parting of the woman's hair in the middle during the fourth or seventh month of pregnancy), where the wife is asked to sing a song. The very interdiction that the snātaka is not to practise or enjoy a programme of dance or instrumental music goes to show the wide prevalence of these arts and their popularity. Life in this age is so thoroughly ritualized that in all these highly elaborate sacraments the gestures and their significance must have easily been understood and practised. From birth to death at every stage dance is associated with the important ceremonies.28

But these Sūtras important in themselves are, strictly speaking, not in the realm of creative literature and thus beyond the scope of our study. However, the evidence we gather from these Sūtras is valuable in re-creating a social history of customs and manners of this period, many of which are preserved to this day; but little can be discerned here about the technique of classical dancing.

In Pāṇini's grammar there is a whole sūtra devoted to the rules for an actor; and the natasūtra (IV. 3. 110–111) is attributed to Śilālin.

Vātsyāyana's Kāmasūtra of a later date also falls in the category of works describing the social arts. Its sections on dance are indicative of the part played by this art in society.

Epics and Purāṇas

The actual history of classical Indian dancing begins with the epics and the

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Purāṇas of the Sanskrit literature. By the time we come to these works, we find that dancing as an art has two definite aspects, the classical and the popular. It is also an art which is considered an essential accomplishment of a prince, a young girl and a true courtesan (gaṇikā). The authors of the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata are fully conversant with the technical details of this art. The Purāṇas contain valuable material on the art both in myth and reality the trinity is an accepted concept and the dances of Śiva and Viṣṇu are gradually but clearly formulated. Theories about dancing and technical terms in relation to it are found in abundance in the Purāṇas, some of them being post-Bharata.

Rāmāyana

We find dancing mentioned in the Rāmāyaṇa on several planes.

(a) There are mythological characters who dance; the apsarās are specially attributed the art at various places: they take the role of dancers before sages in order to tempt them: they are bestowers of gifts, too.

(b) Dancing is one of the arts taught to princes; both Rāma and Rāvaṇa are spoken of as being proficient in it. Actors and professional dancers are popular and the gaṇikā is an important member of society where she is honoured and her presence is considered auspicious. The people of the town dance in joy and in sorrow.

(c) Images relating to dance, where objects of nature are compared to dancing and dancers, are frequent.

(d) Specific types of dancing are mentioned in the Sundarakāṇḍa where the qualities of Rāvaṇa are described. This is one of the first references to the art concerning its actual technique. Also, the epic exhibits the author's great sensitivity to physical movements and gestures.

The apsarās feature throughout the Rāmāyaṇa. Indra sends Rambhā to entice Viśvāmitra (I. 6. 4. 10) through music (gīta), but, of course, the ṛṣi suspects treachery and curses her; thus conquering all interruptions, he attains the status of the great ṛṣi. The apsarās are, however, not mere enticers; they rejoice over mortal conquests and shower benediction, sing and dance before Rāma's rājyābhiṣeka. Rāma himself is adept in the various branches of knowledge including the gandharva vidyā, suggesting here the arts of music and dancing. (AK, 2. 35). That these arts are attributed to Rāma is a significant fact. He is often addressed as the gandharvarāja. (AK, 3. 27). When he returns to Ayodhyā after his long exile, the populace that gathered in balconics to welcome him home is itself like a throng of the gandharvas. Rāvaṇa, his opponent, is also described as dancer of no mean calibre.

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11

The people of these two kingdoms are keenly dance-minded. The art occupies an important place in the social life of the time and the epic is replete with references to and descriptions of this noble art. Our very first picture of Ayodhyā as a city full of prosperity, peace and satisfaction is a picture where the entertainments are a sign of the general prosperity of the rule. For, here amongst other beauties of roads, trees, bowers and gardens, there is no dearth of musicians and dancers, and we see that the nātakaśālā for the brides is also provided (BK, 5. 12 ff.). In such a city so complete with the variety of life, which has sages, kings, learned men and siddha puruṣas, there are actors, too. The naṭa, the nartaka and the ganikā are important members of this society and nothing ceremonial can take place without them. In the story of Ṛṣyaśṛṅga, the ganikās, through their dance and music and decorated forms, call the ṛṣi to a town which has been threatened by drought and famine: here they are almost supernatural instruments of goodness who can coax through these arts the most austere of sages (I. 10.). King Daśaratha sends specially for these heralds of joy before the yajña takes place. Men of all vocations— craftsmen, carpenters, masons—are sent for, and the list also includes the naṭa, the nartaka and the ganikā; the followers of these three professions are mentioned separately (I. 13. 7-8). The distinction of these categories indicates the separate existence of the art of theatre and the art of dancing besides the profession of the courtesan (ganikā). After Rāma’s marriage, the same congregation watches amidst excitement and eagerness the entry of the wedded couple (BK, I. 77).

In the Ayodhyākāṇḍa, the naṭa, the nartaka, the ganikā and the gāyikā add an extra touch of gaiety and form, as if they were the centre of popular jubilation preceding the proclamation of Rāma as the yuvarāja. (AK, II. 1. 13-14). And it is this Ayodhyā, so expectant with hope, which is suddenly deprived of its dance and music, when Bharata enters it after his father’s death and brother’s exile. He can neither hear music nor the rhythm of drums in this town. These symbols of auspiciousness have disappeared from this city of woe where neither the sound of song nor that of instruments is to be heard; nor is to be found the scent of sandal wood (candana) or incense (aguru) (AK, 114. 19-20). And now this city is the symbol of pestilence, of anarchy—a city without a king. Vaśishṭha says in another context, “In such a city neither the actor (naṭa) nor the dancer (nartaka) is happy and satisfied”. (AK, 67. 15). And it is this city to which, amidst preparations of jubilation, festivity, music and dance, Rāma returns after the long years of exile. Bharata goes to meet him in a procession which consists not only of the queens and the queen mothers, the citizens, the chief priests and the brāhmaṇas but also the courtesans: they consecrate the beloved king with flowers, incense, and their añjali hastas seem to be full-blown lotuses. And then the blessings that are bestowed on the king are equally significant. “May he awaken and sleep with the sound of high drums and tinkling bells (nūpura) and so blessed may he rule this world, till the earth would be, and till the sun continues to shine in the heavens” (UK, I and II). And so touching and exciting is the beautiful ceremony of the consecration and

coronation of this king that the apsarās themselves start dancing (UK, II. 11 ff.). The word lāsya is used here for dancing.

Dancing in this society is a simple entertainment and a happy pastime. It is in this context that we find dancing associated with Bharata. He has had a dream and is superstitious: his uncle does all that he can to amuse him. Many friends come from the assembly to divert his attention from the mood of dejection; instruments are played; dances are performed; dramas of different types are created. Humorous plays are enacted and stories told but Bharata is not amused or entertained. (AK, 69. 4-5). From these instances we learn of the various types of dramatic performance in vogue at that time. From another description, we also gather that a courtesan danced the lāsya for him.

The elaborate feast of dance and music that Ṛṣi Bharadvāja entertains Bharata with is incomparable to any festivity of the same grandeur in literature. Nārada sings for Bharata; the apsarās—Miśrakeshi, Pundrikā and Vāmanā—dance for him, the very trees of pīpala move in the rhythm of dance and other trees take the shapes of dwarfs and hunch-backs to present plays for Bharata's entertainment. So elaborate is the preparation and so successful is the performance that the soldiers of Bharata, completely infected with this spirit of festivity, also start dancing (AK, 91. 25-62). The words ṇṛtta and laya are used in this context. Dancing forms an integral part not only of the festivities and rejoicings of the people of Ayodhyā but also plays an important part in their funerary and mourning rites. One such description of gesticulation we find after the death of King Daśaratha, when the queens assemble to mourn the death of their lord and master. The pāṇivādaka comes here to narrate the deeds of the dead king; this pāṇivādaka must have been equivalent to the pāṇighna of the Vājasaneyī Saṃhitā and was perhaps a professional musician who gave rhythm with his hands. The pāṇi-tāla is also referred to in the Mahābhārata as a measure of music. At these functions, all classes of society are thus represented and women of noble birth and eunuchs come to sing the 'praises of the demised king (AK, 65. 2-4 ff.).

These arts are as honoured and respected in this kingdom of the sūryavaṁśis as they are in the vāṇara and rākṣasa kingdoms. Sometimes, they are also used for debasement and decadence of mind and are associated with wine and drunkenness along with their purely artistic counterparts.

In the Kiṣkindhākāṇḍa, we find that the kingdom of the Vānaras resounds with the sounds of music and dance: the very leaves, plants and trees of the forest dance: the birds and animals keep time to this harmony and the entire natural scenic description is full of images drawn from dance. As the brothers go up the hill after the coronation of Sugrīva, they hear the sound of the mṛdaṅga and the music of the Kiṣkindhā: they can also hear the thunders of the vāṇaras (KK, 27.27).

The city itself, as also the path to it, is beautiful, where the apsarās themselves dwell,—and the sound of ornaments, music and the mrdaṅga is heard far and wide (KK, 13.22). Later, Lakṣmaṇa proceeds to the palace of Sugrīva and hears the sounds of vīṇā: the verses recited by women are full of rhythm, (semtāla yukta). The king himself is engrossed deeply in the sweet, languorous sound of music and the intoxication of women who have sung and danced around him; from this bower, Lakṣmaṇa appears to shake off the king's lethargy and stirs him to action. The vāṇara king is naturally ashamed and cmbarrassed at Lakṣmaṇa's appearance at such a moment (KK, 30. 24-27).

In the golden city of Laṅkā, pleasure and sensation are connected with this art in every line of the first few cantos of the Sundarakāṇḍa. This city made by the heavenly architect Viśvakarmā is full of beautiful beings: if there are guards outside the palace, then far within concealed from view are the female retinue, whose tinkling armlets make a sound like the music of the sea. Inside the palace, music rises and falls, and the sounds of drum (mrdaṅga) and conch (śaṅkha) can be heard. Vānara Hanumāna, for whom the gandharvas and the vidyādharas have prayed, arrives here and he is so stunned by the beauty of the city that he mistakes it for gandharvanagara, for Indrapurī (SK, 4. 6-11). He hears the sound of music and the rhythmic sound (niṇāda) of anklets (nūpura): the music emerges from the head, the heart and the throat (SK, 4. 7). As he moves from the city gates to the palace and from the palace to the ladies' bower (rāni-vāsa) in the interior, we have a vivid picture of the sights he sees and the sounds he hears. The sound of anklets is familiar and the sound of the mrdaṅga resounds in every room of the palace: there is dancing to the mrdaṅga with perfect rhythm (tāla) (SK, 5). The women of the palace have sung and danced till they are weary and asleep in graceful attitudes (SK, 10. 29-53). Then follows a vivid description of a court of musicians and dancers who have sung and danced till the early hours of dawn and who, with the instruments on their laps, against their breasts, in their arms, have just slumbered off—and amidst them sleeps Rāvaṇa. The instruments themselves dance. A type of vīṇa known as the ripaṅcī has been played, and we notice that the word nrtyaśālinī has been used here for a vīṇā (SK, 10. 41). All the queens of the king are proficient in the arts of music and dancing, nrtyavaditrākuśalā (SK, 10. 31). Tired of dancing, they slumber wherever they can, but even in sleep their attitudes are those which might represent the bhāvas of dancing (SK, 10. 36): the word aṅgahāra is used in this context. The poses they attain are a testimony to the awareness of poses in dancing. In these verses we have a very precise description of the various musical instruments common in those days; we have as many as five different percussion instruments mentioned here, as also flutes and lutes of all variety29. It is with this music and dance that Rāvaṇa tempts Sītā: wooing her, he offers her all his riches, and all the festive joys of his court, the music, the dance and the song (gīta, nrtya and vādya, V. 20, 10). Actually, according to a later Indian tradition, Rāvaṇa was not only a great composer, an accomplished musician, an adept at playing the

drum and the Indian lute but was also one of the cleverest dancers. It is said that

his music and dance pleased Śiva so much that the three-eyed god presented him

with a sword called Candrahāsa, (i.e., laughter of the moon) and adopted him as

one of his foremost devotees. Sanskrit devotional literature preserves till today

the text of the dance music which he is said to have composed and interpreted in

gesture language and to which he danced before Śiva. He is said to have performed

some of the most intricate and difficult of the god's own tāṇḍava steps.

The grotesque and the ritual kālī dances also find their beginnings here in the

dance of the rākṣasis who promise to dance before Nikumbhilā, the image of

Bhadra Kālī, after having threatened and tortured Sītā to an intolerable degree.

(SK, 24. 44). That this terrific dance was to form a significant ritual in an aspect of

our religion is clear as early as these epics. This is, perhaps, the beginning of the

virile ārabhaṭī style which later becomes an integral part of dancing.

From the foregoing instances, we can gather that dancing in this culture is

associated with both heroism and feminine grace. It is an essential accomplish-

ment but is liable to misuse in a degenerated society ritual and death dances are

also not unknown.

Besides these direct references to dancing, the most beautiful descriptions in

the Rāmāyaṇa are seen in the poetic imagery born of dancing. Very fine pictures

of dancing can be drawn through these images where the objects of nature constitute

full orchestra. When Bharata goes to seek Rāma in Citrakūṭa, the feast at the

Rṣi Bharadvāja's gives us a fine evidence of the orchestration of the time. The

rhythm that the trees use is sampa30, and they perform it in proper tempo (laya);

the percussion instrument used is the mṛdaṅga; the lute is the musical instrument

(AK, 91. 21 ff.). The simile is elaborately and delicately worked out: to this accomp-

paniment of music there is not only the solo dance of the pīpala tree but also a

detailed description of the dances of other trees; a few others take the parts of

dwarfs; the creepers take the feminine roles. All of them dance to entertain Bharata.

Beautiful images are found in the Kiṣkindhākānḍa. In Canto I of this Kānḍa,

Rāma's poignant description of the pampā tāla is as touching as it is moving. The

quiet tone of pathos and of the pangs of separation, which runs through this

canto, has made it one of the finest pieces of lyrical beauty in Sanskrit poetry. As

we read this canto we are aware of the great sensitivity of this hero, in each image,

dancing stands as a symbol of re-union and rejoicing. He sees the trees, the breezes

and the bees dancing and is aware of his own separation; the peacocks who dance

and play in union with each other seem to mock at him. In a beautiful metaphor,

he talks of breezes (vāyu) as the evoker of dance in the trees. The breeze plays with

every floweret on the spray whether floating in the air or on the ground. The breeze

shakes the gay boughs of flowery trees, bears the humming throng of bees and

produces the ṣaṭpadī song: the humming of these bees is the song that vāyu hears: again vāyu springs from the mountain caves and teaches the trees to dance; the kokilās too are mad with the delight of song (KK, 1. 13-16). This breeze is, as it were, the teacher of dance. The scents of this atmosphere soothe the fatigued Rāma: but the calls of birds, the music of bees, and the dance of trees only make the separated Rāma long for Sītā all the more. This dance of the trees is closely akin to the dance of the peacock, which is mentioned again and again in this canto. The dance of the peacock is the dance of those who are happy and joyous in love and thus this dance of the pair only intensifies the hero's longing (verses 36, 40, etc.). We find that dance is a symbol of love and re-union; in later literature the peacock's dance becomes a stock image of such a reunion. When the rains come to indicate the re-union of the heaven and the earth, then peacocks dance, and it is this re-union during monsoon that the hero longs for in these stanzas.

In Canto 28, we come across another beautiful description. Rāma describes the rains. The fleecy clouds heave sighs like Rāma himself; the odorous shrubs in rain drops weep; the great sky like a mighty steed groans at each call to speed; the humming of bees is like the sound of the vīṇā; the frogs provide the rhythm (tāla) with their throats, and the clouds thunder as if they were playing on the mrdaṅga, and to this orchestration the peacock dances. The king of the forest is joyous, with smell, scent, sound and movement, and the peacock stands as the supreme symbol of beauty and joy of the monsoon (KK, 28. 35-37). This image of the clouds playing the mrdaṅga or being the mrdaṅga and the bees as the vīṇā becomes one of the most stylized images in Sanskrit poetry. Whenever the beauty of the monsoon is spoken of, the music of these forms of nature constitute the orchestration.

There are other minor and less significant images of this kind used throughout the Rāmāyaṇa: through these and other references to social and court dancing discussed earlier, we can easily form an idea of the classical dance as it must have been practised during the period. Although it is not yet stylized, it is an art which has come to have its categories, varieties and differentiations in technique. The technique of dancing which can be gathered from this evidence may be summed up as follows:

Nrta was distinguished from nātaka: the nata and the nartaka formed two different classes of actors. The natas were perhaps general actors of drama and the nartakas, the specialized people in the field. Lāsya was identified with nrtya and was a special sphere of the gaṇikā as is clear from references in the Ayodhyākāṇḍa (69. 4.). Different types of theatrical performances were known including those constituting the funny and humorous characters like the dwarfs, the eunuchs, and the like (AK, 91). In the dance proper, tāla (rhythm) was an integral part of dance: every time a dance was performed, rhythm was an essential feature of it (KK, 28. 35-36, etc.). There was also a consciousness of laya (tempo) as a desired

quality of dance (KK, 91.27). The basic accompaniments of dance were the vīṇā

and the mṛdaṅga: these instruments were essential and basic and others constituted

the rest of orchestration. Several percussion instruments were known to the queens

of Rāvaṇa (SK, 10).

Besides these examples, there are words which assume technical meanings in

Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra: the añjali is a gesture of honour and respect but the deri-

vative use of it is rarely seen here: the samyutahasta añjali of the Nāṭyaśāstra

must have evolved from usage such as this. The aṅgahāra, a highly technical phrase

in the Nāṭyaśāstra, is used here generally to indicate the posture of the sleeping

queens of Rāvaṇa. The words aṅga and upāṅga (BK, 55. V. 10) are used here only

in the context of the art of the bow and arrow; in the Nāṭyaśāstra they are used in

a highly technical sense.

The naṭa, the nartaka and the gaṇikā are professional actors and dancers

who occupy an important place in society in many ways. They are specially en-

gaged on auspicious occasions to share the activities of society. The word śailūṣa

occurs for one of the five gandharva ghapatis in the Kiṣkindhākānḍa, but one is

not sure whether it has any connexion with the Vedic śailūṣa of the Puruṣamedha

Yajña (KK, 41. 43). We find here a reference also to the kauśika land, from which

Bharata later derives the kaiśikī vrtti in the Nāṭyaśāstra.

In education dancing is considered essential for the prince; and people of royal

descent are familiar with this art.

The ritual of household ceremonies continues to provide material to the dan-

cer; a full-fledged technique of gesticulation is subsequently evolved from it.

The mythological legends continue to have dancers as characters. In the

Rāmāyaṇa, the apsarās are the most important mythological characters who dance

and perform both in heaven and on earth.

The following words connected with music and dance frequently occur in the

Rāmāyaṇa:

Śailūṣa .. For a class of people; also for the dancing master of the

maidens of the royal courts (AK, 83.15 and AK, 30.8)

Naṭa .. For the professional actor (UK, 64.3 and AK, 67.15)

Nartaka .. For the professional dancer (UK, 64.3. and AK, 67.15)

Gaṇikā .. For the professional courtesan, whose main vocation

was singing and music (AK, 15.8 and AK, 3.16, etc.)

Pāṇivādaka .. The rhythm players or the drum-players, thereby show-

ing us the very important role played by rhythm.

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CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

Gāyikā

.. Songstress (AK, 6. 14)

Tālāpacara

.. Akin to the pāṇivādakas—musicians who kept time

Gandharva-ttatva

.. Used for the principles of music and dancing (BK, 4. 10 and UK, 23. 51)

Nrtya and Gīta

.. Frequently mentioned together,—whether in the court of Rāma or in the court of Rāvaṇa or Sugrīva (BK, 32. 12; UK, 2. 11; UK, 42. 20 ff; SK, 10. 32, ff; also KK, 27. 26 and KK, 33. 20)

Nrtta

.. For dancing (AK, 91. 25 and KK, 20. 10)

Lāsya

.. For dancing and nrtta, (AK, 69. 4)

Añgahāra

.. For pose as a generic term (SK, 10. 36)

Nāṭaka

.. For drama proper (AK, 69. 4)

Nūpura and kiṅkiṇi

.. For the tinkling bells of the dancer, as also for ornaments of the feet (KK, 33. 25)

Tāla

.. For rhythm, both in general and technical sense

Laya

.. For tempo, used several times in a technical sense in the context of music and dance. Three types of tempo are known to them (BK, 4. 8; AK, 91. 27 and also KK, 28. 35 ff.)

Mārgī

.. Used in the context of singing: this is the same as the mārgī and deśī styles mentioned by the Sāmaveda (BK, 4. 29)

Rasa

.. Six rasas are listed (BK, 4. 8 ff.)

The following instruments are mentioned as essential accompaniments to dance: there is always a lute, a vīṇā, and a percussion instrument, besides the vocal gīta. The percussion instruments mentioned specially in this context are:

Madduka

.. (SK, 10. 38)

Mrdanga

.. (YK, 50. 16)

Muraja

.. (AK, 39. 41 and UK, 11. 5)

Paṇava

.. (YK, 59. 8)

Pāṭakā

.. (YK, 96. 35)

The instruments mentioned in connexion with war are:

Bheri

(YK, 50. 60)

Dundubhi

(YK, 51. 28 and YK, 32. 45)

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The earthen musical instrument kaaśī (SK, 10. 46) and the metallic ghanṭā

(YK, 124, 120 ff) are also mentioned.

Various types of tūrya, wind-instruments, are frequently referred to in the

Rāmāyaṇa in connexion with dance recitals. Viṇā is by far the most favourite

lute. The vipañcī viṇā (YK, 24. 42, ff.) and the tantrī viṇā (BK, 4. 8) find a mention

in the Bālakāṇḍa.

In the Rāmāyaṇa we have thus the real beginnings of both the classical and the

folk forms of dancing. We come to know from this work how dancing was both

worship and entertainment, meant both for the professional dancer and the lay-

man. The social, ritualistic and classical tendencies which we noticed in the Vedic

literature have their first flowerings in this great epic of creative literature.

The gaṇikās of the kāvyas, the apsarās of Kālidāsa, and the natas and nartakas

of Sanskrit drama, take their cues from their predecessors in the Rāmāyaṇa. By

the time of the Rāmāyaṇa the character of the classical dance is almost set, and we

are left with no doubt about the nature and character of the Indian dance in the

religious or social milieu.

Mahābhārata

There are numerous allusions to and descriptions of dancing in the Mahā-

bhārata. The celestial characters who dance in this epic and the legends in which

dancing plays a significant part really deserve a separate study. As in the

Rāmāyaṇa, so also in the Mahābhārata, we see a society where music and

dancing were major arts to be enjoyed and practised. We have examples of

both solo and group dancing; there are also many instances of stage performances

with high technical skill.

The retinue of Indra's apsarās increases considerably by the time of the Mahā-

bhārata: they descend upon earth to allure, to tempt ard to be friendly with man.

Urvaśī and Menakā descended upon earth for Pururavā and Viśvāmitra. Tilot-

tamā is created not to allure in the same way as Urvaśī and Menakā but comes

to destroy through her charms Sund and Upasund : she is described as being adept in

the art of music and dancing.

Arjuna's association with each of these nymphs and celestial dancers is seen

throughout the Mahābhārata. He is drawn down to the depths of the waters by

Uḍūpi and is carried to the heavens by the apsarās of Indra's court. In life on earth,

he is fascinated by the dancers of Kāmarūpa, is charmed by the dancing of Subhā-

drā and her friends in the Yādava land, Dvārakā: but above all, he is carried into

Indra's court in the Vana parva, and it is here that he learns music and dancing:

and we know in what good stead these arts stand him when he has to teach dancing,

disguised as Bṛhannalā, in the Virāṭa parva.

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

We do not find any references to the techniques of dancing in the section dealing with lessons given to Arjuna by the apsarās of Indra's court. The gandharvas and the apsarās entertain him with both music and dancing: the gandharvas headed by Tamburu are skilled in music, dancing and chanting. The apsarās—Ghṛtācī, Menakā, Rambhā, Svayamaprabhā, Urvaśī and Miśrakeśī—danced for him. The description that follows gives us no indication of the type of dance they danced, for the glances they cast, the hips they move, and the movements of their bosoms are descriptions which might be of any dance: (mahakāṭi katākṣa kampamānaih payodharaih)31. It is after this that Indra suggests that Arjuna learn music and dancing from Citrasenā. He asks Arjuna to learn instrumental music etc. (vāditra), which is not known to the mortals. And then Citrasenā instructs him in gīta, vādya and nṛtya (song, instrumental music, and dance): when his friendship ripens he learns the dance and music of the gandharvas and becomes an expert in different types of dance and diverse genres of music, both vocal and instrumental. From this description, it is clear that music, dancing, and instrumental music are always considered together and seldom in isolation; the mutual dependence of these arts and their inter-relationship is also recognized. It is also clear that by the time of the Mahābhārata the arts of music and dance were considered essential for the education of princes. They must have also developed sufficient content, form and style to be taught in a systematic manner. The training also seems to be elaborate with well-defined rules and regulations.

In the next section of the same parva we have the exquisite desuription of Urvaśī going to the abode of Arjuna.32 The sculptor, the poet, and the painter have all been inspired by this apsarā, and to the dancer she symbolizes even today the ideal form, but Arjuna, the self-disciplined man, is not tempted by her, and his replies to her advances are full of gravity and sanctity. It is then that Urvaśī curses eunuch Bṛhannalā. From allusions in the Virāṭa parva, it is clear that dancing was an essential art, a part of educational and cultural training of a young girl: there was for this purpose a special hall (nartanāśālā), where training was imparted. Apparently, the courtiers of King Virāta's court are connoisseurs; the interview of Arjuna for the post is interesting from this point of view. Arjuna presents his full credentials, mentions his past employment with the Pāṇḍavas, and it is after the king is convinced of his capabilities, and the queen of his character, and the court advisers approve of him as Bṛhannalā that Arjuna is appointed as a dance teacher33. He stresses at his interview that he is an expert in all the three aspects of this art, namely, gīta, vādya and nṛtya.

The nṛtyaśālā or nartanāśālā is the venue of Kīcaka's vadha later in the same parva. From the references here it seems that the nartanāśālā was a place for practice and training, and not one for performance. No one appears to be in this hall at night and Kīcaka can conveniently be invited to this nāṭya or nartanāśālā.

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Other allusions to dance, music, and drama in the Mahābhārata confirm our views regarding the vital role of music and dancing in society. Celestial dancers, professional dancers, and amateur dancers are all known to this society; and dancing is associated with heroes, heroines, celestial beings and rākṣasas alike. There are other important references to the nature of the stage and the auditorium in the Rājasūya Yajña parva, but, since they relate to the construction and nature of the prekṣāgrha and not to the technique of dancing, a detailed analysis of these is not being undertaken.

It is material from the Mahābhārata that the Purāṇas adopt for their purpose; and in them we find the full flowering of certain aspects of music and dancing which are seen only in their nascent state in the Mahābhārata.

Purāṇas

Harivaṁśa

The Harivaṁśa, the supplement to the Mahābhārata, has often been studied and analyzed as a rich source of dance and drama. We are not concerned here with the evidence which the Harivaṁśa provides to support theories of the religious origin of drama; our chief concern is with the evidence relating to dance. The work is significant, for in it we find the earliest elaborate reference to the rāsa dance of Śrī Kṛṣṇa.

In the Harivaṁśa, the sport of Kṛṣṇa with the gopīs in Vṛndāvana is graphically described (II. 20) without being named. In the colophon to the chapter, however, the word hallīsaka occurs. In another place the words hallīsaka, rāsa and chālikya occur (II. 89). From an analysis of this verse, we can draw some important conclusions about dance. In this sport of Kṛṣṇa, Nārada, Balarāma, the celestial courtesans, all take part: "the courtesans begin the rāṇa (equated to song by Nīl-kanṭha, the commentator) by using the language, dress and movement befitting the occasion." Balarāma and Kṛṣṇa join the dance in the company of Revatī and Satyabhāmā.

Arjuna and Nārada. the sage, are present as guests. Arjuna, in the company of Subhadrā, and Nārada, with dishevelled hair, dances among the Yādavas, Nārada is so frenzied that he becomes the leader of the rāsa.

A feast follows. After being fully refreshed, the Yādavas in the company of women begin to sing in concert. It is nightfall. Kṛṣṇa desires that the chālikya opera be set in tune. Then Nārada takes up the viṇā, Kṛṣṇa leads the hallīsaka, and Arjuna and the courtesans play upon the mṛdaṅga. Rambhā, Urvaśī, Menakā and other heavenly courtesans sing and act to the full satisfaction of Kṛṣṇa.

According to the text, the chālikya opera was brought down from "heaven by Krṣṇa for the delight of men and put to application by Pradyumna, the son of Rukmiṇi. Only five artists could practise it—Krṣṇa, Balarāma, Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Sāmba. This chālikya was the gift of Krṣṇa to the Yādavas for the benefit of men."33

From the foregoing account, it appears that the rāsa and the hallīsaka were mixed entertainments: of both these singing and dancing were the main features, and the chālikya was a special kind of an operatic performance, which consisted of song, instrumental music and dance.

In the light of this reference, we can analyze the earlier reference (II. 20) where the rāsa dance is described but not named: it is called hallīsaka-krīdā nrtya, gīta krīdā (ibid, verse 27).

The dance is held on a full-moon night of the autumn season. The gopīs, as if under a spell, come out to dance with the lord. They form a circle and move with hands interlocked. The nymphs of the cowherds form pairs in a chain and sing the praises of Krṣṇa (Harivamśa, II. 20). Nīlakanṭha in his commentary uses the terms hallīsaka and rāsa and describes them thus: "the sporting of one man with several women is called rāsa sport" (ekasya puruṣo bahubhih stribhih vrdanam saha rāsakrdā): and "the circular dance formation of the gopīs is called hallīsaka" (gopinām mandalī-nrtam bandhane hallīsakam viduh). Commenting on the pankti, Nīlakanṭha says, "Pankti here stands for mandala or ring: the couples imply that Krṣṇa was between every two gopīs." He quotes some other Vaiṣṇava work which says, "Between each two damsels was Mādhava and between each two Mādhavas was a nymph: and the son of Devakī played the venu (flute)."34 In fact, Krṣṇa does not only dance with each gopī but is also by himself in the centre." The commentator cites a passage from the Rgveda (III. LV. 14)35 to support this view of the 'One' participating and yet standing apart.

Nīlakanṭha, elucidating further on the histrionic features of the sport, quotes a verse from some unnamed source: "Driving a stout round and smooth spike of the measure of a vitasti into the earth, and then moving towards one another with the feet and rotating of the hands—this is rāsa."

It is said that the gopīs recite laudatory verses in praise of Krṣṇa. They form a circle around Krṣṇa, and this dance with the circle formation is called rāsa (according to Nīlakanṭha). Here, Krṣṇa introduces a novel feature by being present between each two damsels: the circle formation is thus not only a simple single file circle formation with interlocked hands (śrṅkhalā)36 but a more complicated one where each couple is by itself and yet is in the circle formation. This suggests a choreography of concentric circles in pairs. The driving of a spike into the ground

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and dancing around it introduces a new feature hitherto unnoticed and reduces the rāsa dance to the rank of a fertility dance.

Of the nature of the rāsa dance we learn little more than circle formations: the nature of the circle formation was either simple where the women only joined hands with each other or somewhat more complicated where couples stood together to form two circles. Clapping (tāla with the hands) also seems an essential feature of this dance.

Without going into the philosophic interpretation of the rāsa dance, we may here only point out that, from Nīlakanṭha's characterization of the rāsa dance around a stout circular spike, it would not be too far-fetched to conclude that the original rāsa dance was performed by men and women in couples round a spike, which perhaps represented the phallus.37 It was performed both by women alone, and by men and women together.

Circular dance formation is by far the most common dance formation of all nations, and the present rāsa dance in terms of 'dance-choreography' does not come to us as anything new; the circle however acquires a special symbolic significance in the Krṣṇa legend.

Krṣṇa is the supreme dancer throughout the Purāṇas. the Yādavas are often described as artists. Natas are called to entertain the rṣis: Subhadrā, a famous actor, is called for this purpose once. The race celebrates each occasion with music, dance and a revelry unique to the Hindu Purāṇic literature. They play on instruments of the sky and the waters: their women sing to the music of the jaladardura: the chālikya is their favourite composition of music and opera, and Nārada joins with his vīṇā of six svaras (notes), on which he plays different rāgas: the apsarās join in with nrtya and abhīnaya, and the mrdaṅga forms the constant accompaniment of these operas, songs and dances (II. 90–60 ff.).

The Yādavas use these arts to conquer demons: that is why Krṣṇa organizes a party of dancers and actors to enter into the enemy Vajraṭabha's city. Pradyumna leads this party and a special naṭa bhadra is created for this purpose. The Yādavas take several roles in the dramas presented by this group. Pradyumna is the hero (nāyaka), Śamba is the clown (vidūṣaka) and Śurvira Gadā is the naṭa who accompanies the sūtradhāra.

The group is complete, with orchestration, musicians, major character actors and minor chorus dancers: they have a large repertoire of dance dramas: one is based on the Rāmāyaṇa; another is called Rambhīsara; and a third is based on Kubera (II. 93, 59 ff.). The Rāmāyaṇa brings Daśaratha, Rāma, Lakṣmaṇa all on the stage: in the Rambhīsara, Śura plays the part of Rāvaṇa and Manovaṭi enacts

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the role of Rambhā: Pradyumna becomes Nalakubera and Sāmba his vidūṣaka.

The performance follows a very definite sequence. The play begins with the sound

of musical instruments, tuned perfectly with the tantrī (vīnā). The saṅsuṣira, the

muraja and the aṅka are followed by vocal music in the devagandhāra: the composi-

the actual play begins; these movements were obviously not meant for the entire

audience. Soon after the nāndi, another musical instrument, sounds. It is only

when the nāndi has (II. 93, 27 ff.) sounded that the actual play starts and the charac-

ters come on to the stage to perform.

From the description of the actual performance, we gather that nrtya and

abhinaya are clearly distinguished; laya and tāla play an important part; vocal

and instrumental music with percussion instruments is an intergral part of the

visual performance (II. 93). The plays the Yādavas stage are termed as nāṭakas

but the performance itself is always referred to as dancing: (nrtya or nrtta are the

words used).

The above example is significant for the minute details, with which the sequence

of the performance is described and for what it tells us of the various components

of the drama. It is also worth noting that the dramatized version of the Rāmāyaṇa

was by this time an accepted number of the theatrical repertorie.

There is hardly a Purāṇa which does not treat of the rāsa dance. We may

look into the dances described in only three Purāṇas, namely, the Viṣṇu Purāṇa,

the Śrīmad Bhāgavata and the Brahma Vaivarta Purāṇa. They describe many

types of rāsa dances: some of the descriptions are elaborations or descriptions in

the Harivaṃśa38.

Viṣṇu Purāṇa

The Viṣṇu Purāṇa describes an elaborate rāsa dance. In the words of Wilson39,

"Kṛṣṇa observing the clear sky bright with autumnal moon and the air perfumed

with fragrance of the wild water lily, felt inclined to join the gopīs in sport. Accord-

ingly, he and Rāma started singing sweet and low strains in various measures.

Thus surrounded by the gopīs, Kṛṣṇa thought the lovely moonlight of autumn

propitious for the rāsa dance. Many gopīs imitated different actions of Kṛṣṇa

and in his absence wandered through Vṛndāvana."40

"I am Kṛṣṇa, see the elegance of my movements". "I am Kṛṣṇa, listen to my

song." Thus the various actions of Kṛṣṇa the gopīs imitated.41 Then Mādhava, coming

amongst them, conciliated some with soft speeches, some with gentle looks (bhru-

bhaṅga viksita)41 and some he took by the hand: the illustrious deity sported with

them in the joy of the dance. Since each of the gopīs attempted to keep in one place

so as to be close to Kṛṣṇa, the circle of the dance could not be constructed, and

he therefore took each by the hand and when their eyelids were shut by the effect

of his touch the circle was formed." This is rather an inexplicit statement, and

Wilson rightly points out that the commentary makes it clear. "Kṛṣṇa, it is said,

in order to form the circle, takes each damsel by the hand and leads her to her

place. There he quits her: but the effect of the contact is such that it deprives her

of the power of perception and she contentedly takes the hand of her female neigh-

bour thinking it to be Kṛṣṇa's."42

From this account, Nilkanṭha's explanation of the rāsa dance is confirmed,

namely, that the rāsa was a circular formation of women around one man: but the

important thing to note here, too, is that the interlocking of the hands was an

essential feature and the sṛnkhalā (chain) was absolutely imperative. It is, however,

not clear whether the dance was really of women alone, or of men and women in

couples, as suggested by Nilkanṭha in another portion of his commentary on the

Harivaṁśa. This dance of the Viṣṇu Purāṇa continues "to the music of the clashing

bracelets and songs that celebrated them in suitable strain the charms of the autumnal

season. Kṛṣṇa sang the praises of the moon and the gopīs the praises of Kṛṣṇa.

At times, one of them, wearied of the revolving dance, threw her arms round

Kṛṣṇa. Kṛṣṇa sang the strain that was appropriate to the dance. The gopīs re-

peatedly exclaimed 'dhanya Krsna' to his song. He led and they followed; and

whether he went forwards or backwards they ever attended to his footsteps."

Although these descriptions do not provide us with any technical data about the

dance, they tell us, nevertheless, a great deal about the beginning of rāsa dances.

Rāsa dance took varying shapes and forms in the different provinces of India;

they are prevalent today as dances of men only, of women only and of women

dancing around one man or couples dancing in a circle. The circle as the basic

choreographical motif is common to them all. Perhaps the most direct descendants

of the rāsa dances described in the Purāṇas are the rāsa dances of Vṛndāvan and

far off in Manipur.

Srimad Bhāgavata

The Srimad Bhāgavata describes another well-known and elaborate rāsa

dance43: the word rāsakrīdā is mentioned here. In this dance Kṛṣṇa multiplied

himself and actually stood between two women: the ring (maṇḍala) was thus

formed with one man and one woman (i.e., one gopī and one Kṛṣṇa).

In this rāsamaṇḍala each gopī was dancing with her beloved (Kṛṣṇa): the type

of rāsa suggested here is most definitely of couples, and is not a circle of women

around one man.

The graphic description of the couples dancing in a circle tells us that the

circle (maṇḍala) formation is the first requisite: it is a vigorous dance demanding

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of the gopīs practice and stamina: their feet sometimes fast, sometimes slow,

their eyebrows are raised (bhruvilāsa) to attract. To an appropriate song, the gopīs

gesticulate with their hands and arms to express various sentiments (Śrīmad Bhāga-

vata, X, 8). This is the only suggestion of abhinaya in the description of the rāsa

dances. The various forms of Kṛṣṇa are compared to the circle of clouds and the

gopīs to lightning. The Bhāgavata uses the words, kṛīdā, nrtya and nrtta frequently

in this context. There is another masterly description of the mahārāsa; and the

contemporary maharasa in Manipur till today is danced to these verses of the

Bhāgavata.

A very much later Purāṇa, the Brahma Vaivarta, also devotes a section to the

rāsa dance, (Kṛṣṇa Janama Khaṇḍa, XXVII). In the rāsamaṇḍala of the Brahma

Vaivarta, Rādhā is accompanied by thirty-six of her special friends amongst the

gopīs: but each of them is attended by thousands of inferior personages: and each

is accompanied by a male multiple of Kṛṣṇa.

In the meditation upon Kṛṣṇa, which is enjoined in the Brahma Vaivarta, he

is to be contemplated with his favourite Rādhā. According to Wilson,11 the maṇ-

ḍala described in that work is "not a ring of dancers, but a circle of definite space,

at Vrndāvana within which Kṛṣṇa, Rādhā and gopīs divert themselves, not very

decorously."

CODES, COMMENTARIES, LEXICONS. ETC.

Pāṇini

The Aṣṭādhyayī provides us with a fund of information on the music and

dance known to Pāṇini. We have music and dance terms listed here, and we also

learn from these sūtras of many theoretical texts of these arts.

The Nata-sūtra, attributed to Śilālin by Pāṇini, clearly shows that a dance

text on the subject was prevalent. Pāṇini was familiar with the works of both

Śilālin and Kśāśva, the two authors of the Nata-sūtras (IV. iii. 110-11, 129 respec-

tively). (Perhaps these names stood for two schools of dramaturgy). It has often

been asserted that the Śilālin of Pāṇini was a close relation of the Śailuśa of the

Yajurveda, and the former's students formed the school of dancing known as

Śailālinah Naṭāḥ (IV. 3. 110). Bharata in the Nāṭyaśāstra refers to the nāṭas as

śailālakas: this is a corresponding term for Pāṇini's śailālinah naṭaḥ. It seems

that Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra was the product of the dramatic school of Śilālin

which originated in the Ṛg-Vedic caraña founded by a teacher who was also the

author of a Brāhmaṇa work called Śailāli Brāhmaṇa, cited in the Āpastamba Śrauta

Sūtra (VI. 4. 7).

The students of dramaturgy, śailālinah, are nevertheless to be distinguished

from the śailālāh mentioned in the Brāhmaṇas. In the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa (XIII.

5. 3. 3. the term is used for a ritual teacher. The Jaiminīya Upaniṣad Brahmaṇa

(I. 2. 3. II. 4. 6) and the Āpastamba Śrauta Sūtra also use the term śailānāh.45 It

is, however, clear that both these schools of thought are derived from the Rg-Veda:

the śailālakas were originally a Rg-Vedic caraṇa with their own Brāhmaṇa cited

as the Śailālaka Brāhmaṇa in the Āpastamba Brāhmaṇa mentioned above. Kātyā-

yana also knows of this Vedic school of śailālah (VI. 4. 144), and this school was

undoubtedly concerned with Vedic and ritualistic study; the school of Śailālin of

the Nāṭa sūtras was closely connected with it and it must have been started under

the auspices of the Vedic school; it was perhaps a different branch of study al-

though founded by the same teacher; it was distinct also from the strictly orthodox

school of Vedic studies.

Patañjali mentions the word śobhanika (actors) and does not make any distinc-

tion between naṭa and nartakas (III. 1. 26 and VI. 3. 43). Levi renders the meaning

of śobhanika as "those who teach actors".46 Patañjali also often refers to the

profession of naṭas (III. 2. 127) but the term naṭa is a generic and is applicable to

anyone in the field of the theatre. Pāṇini's definition of the naṭa approximates

more closely to the description of a professional dancer than Patañjali's. From

the Mahābhāṣya we only learn that the training of the naṭa was important and

that he was by no means an untrained street singer, dancer or actor; he was, how-

ever, greedy and hungry as the dancing peacock (Mahābhāṣya, III. 2. 127 and

IV. 1. 3. etc.). Patañjali does know of naṭa teachers (ākhāṭā) and of dance novices

(ārambhakāḥ) in the art, who taught their art not through texts (granthārtha) but

by direct methods of practice (I. 4. 29; I. 3. 29). This instruction was not considered

an upayoga to be used strictly only for the approved religious system of teachers

and initiated pupils. In all this discussion, the term naṭa is used connoting all forms

of stage craft.

Pāṇini himself quite clearly distinguishes between nartaka and nāṭya,—even

though he does not clearly make a distinction between a naṭa and a nartaka. Dance

was also considered as one of the śilpas by Pāṇini, the synonym for the sippa of

the Jātakas. Saṅgīta comprised of nrtya, gīta and vāditra and sometimes nāṭya.

The Aṣṭādhyāyī refers to a dancer as nartaka (III. 1. 145), and to stage acting as

nāṭya (IV. 3. 129).47 Pāṇini also knew of a festivity termed sammada and pramada.

Sammada, as interpreted by Dr. V. S. Agarwala,48 must have been an opera like

the saṭṭaka which is seen in the sculptures of Bharhut. The opera comprised music

and dance and was performed on festive occasions.49 The musical instruments

for this dance are the lute (vīṇā), the percussion instruments, maddūka (a small

tabor) (IV. 4. 56), dardura, mrdaṅga and the paṇava. The metal instrument jhar-

jhara (a pair of cymbals) is also mentioned.

The idea of a concert of different instrumentalists is termed as the tūrya50 and

the individual members as tūryāṅga (II. 4. 2). Tūrya is a collective noun denoting

the grouping of two allied instruments. We have thus the term mārdaṅgikapāṇa-

vikam for a set of players on the mṛdaṅga and the paṇava. Pāṇini also mentions

the parivādaka in Sūtra III. 2. 146 without stating its meaning, but on Patañjali's

authority we learn that the term stands for a lute-player.51 Keeping tāla (rhythm)

with the hands is known as paṇigha and tālagha (III. 2. 55).

Other related terms mentioned in Pāṇini concern vocal and instrumental

music. Thus gīti (III. 3. 95) and gaya (III. 4. 68) are used for song: gāthaka (III.

1. 46. and gāyana (III. 1. 147) for a vocal singer, gāthikā and gāyanī for a song-

stress: the term upaviṇayati is used for singing with the viṇā,—and the term apa-

viṇam (VI. 2. 187) is used for singing without the viṇā (VI. 2. 187). The musical

notes from the lute are known as nikvana or nikvāṇa (III. 3. 65).

Kautilya's Arthasāstra

Treatises like Kautilya's Arthasāstra throw considerable light on the social

status of dancers and actors and the facilities for their training provided by the state.

Kautilya states quite clearly that "those who teach prostitutes, female slaves and

actresses, arts such as singing (gīta), playing on musical instruments (vādya), reading

(pāṭhya), dancing (nartana), acting (nāṭyam), writing (akṣara), painting (citra),

playing on viṇā, flute (venu), drum (mṛdaṅga) shall be maintained by the State."52

The ladies trained by these masters were noted for their beauty, youth and

accomplishment: the rules that governed the practice of the profession of the

dancer, the courtesan and the prostitute were strict. Kautilya says, "The prostitute

(gaṇikā) must supply to the superintendent as to the amount of her daily fees

(bhoga) and her future income (āyati)"; further "the same rules shall apply to an

actor (naṭa), to a dancer (nartaka), to a singer (gāyaka), to a player of musical

instruments (vādaka), a buffoon (vāgajīvana), to a music player (kuśilava), a rope-

dancer (plavaka), a juggler (śaubhika), a wandering bard (caraṇa)...."53 The visiting

professional dancer, singer would have to pay a fee of five paṇas as licence fee for

his performance.

From the above account we know that the professional dancer achieved a

definite status in society: the arts were no longer mere hobbies; the professional

dancer was clearly distinguished from the professional actor54 and the professional

singer, although all of them were classed together. The Arthasāstra does treat gīta,

vādya, nrtya and nāṭya as parts of saṅgīta like Pāṇini and Patañjali.

In the list of artists the nartaka is the classical dancer while the kuśilava is the

comparatively popular musician. Performances of the kuśilavas are forbidden in

the rainy season according to Kautilya. They cannot wander about and must stay

at one place.55

Kauṭilya also mentions devadāsīs in another chapter: they are connected with temples and are studiously taught the arts of music and dancing.56

The demarcation between the classical dancer, who performs for the god, and the classical dancer, who performs on the stage is very definitely maintained. The tradition of the devotee dancing to the god and the tradition of the classical dancer of the stage were contemporaneous but distinct: at a later stage in history they merged into one another. Whatever may have been the differences in approach to the art form between the secular nartakī and the religious devadāsī, we cannot doubt the rigorous training of either: the gaṇikās and the devadāsīs have been responsible for preserving the rich tradition of the classical Indian dance through many centuries.

A look at the treatises on law convinces us of the important role played by the gaṇikā and the devadāsī in ancient and medieval Indian society. Dancing was, however, not the sole monopoly of these women. As we have seen earlier, too, it was an important accomplishment and was considered indispensabie for the princes', noblemen's and the princesses' education. Thus, according to Kauṭilya, most citizens should co-operate in preparing for a public play. "And if a man who has not co-operated in preparing for a public play or spectacle is found witnessing it, he shall be compelled to pay double the value of the aid due from him." That such shows were regularly held and produced follows quite clearly from innumerable references to professional actors in Sanskrit and Pali literature.57

From these works we also gather that prostitution was recognized in this country from very early times but was frequently regarded with great disfavour. Since music and dancing were associated with prostitutes, these arts too started to be regarded with disfavour and thus Manu enjoins the prince to refrain from singing, dancing and music (VII. 46-47). He also asks the Brāhmaṇa to keep away from the courtesans (Manu, IV, 209). He does not look upon either the art or the profession with great favour (VIII, 65); he is indeed very sceptical of the statements of musicians and dancers.58 So far, except for one or two uncomplimentary remarks in the Mahābhaṣya, we do not come across any derogatory statements: however, by the time of Manu, attitudes changed and music, dance and theatre began to be looked down upon.

Vātsyāyana and Śukrācārya

Dancing (in the context of education) is listed in the Kāmasūtra, Śukranītisāra, Prabandhakośa, Lalitavistara and a host of other similar lexicons. These authors give us long lists of fine arts which include anything from dancing and singing to the art of making garlands. The number of arts listed varies, but the most common number is sixty-four. The works in which these references are found are: Rāmāyaṇa (I. 9. 5), Bhāgavata Purāṇa (X. 45. 36), Mahābhāṣya (I. 1. 57), Daśakumāracarita

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(II. 21), Kādambarī, Kāmasūtra and the works of Vāmana, Māgha, Bhavabhūti and others. Some of the other works which contain these lists are: Lalitavistara, Jātakamālā, Kalpasūtra, Aupapātika Sūtra or Praśnavyākaraṇa Sūtra. Of these the Lalitavistara gives the number as 86 and the Jaina works as 72, the others mention 64. It is noticed that in all these lexicons—the sixty-four or seventy-two or eighty-six—kalās or śilpas include all that would be included in the very general term "art and craft" in Europe. The Indian works hardly make a distinction within the arts according to differences in psychological approach or the functionality of the art form; instead the distinctions which are made are in regard to the social status of the artist. We do have, nevertheless, a distinction made between the śilpas or vocational arts, and the kalās or avocational arts (accomplishment). It is nowhere conceived that a śilpa can be acquired without training under a master (ācārya) or can be practised other than as àn hereditary profession. The Kāmasūtra and the Śukranītisāra are the most interesting amongst this category of lexicons.

Kāmasūtra

Book I, Chapter III, of the Kāmasūtra is entirely devoted to the discussion of the sixty-four arts: of these eight arts belong to the sphere of music and dancing. The first three singing (gītam), instrumental music (vādyam) and dancing (nrtyam) are simple and straightforward; the other three arts are connected with stage technique, histrionic representation. Art sixteen nepathya-prayoga is very near the āharikābhinaya of the Nāṭyaśāstra, and deals with the varied crafts of the green room. Kalā thirty-two, the knowledge of histrionic and scenic representation, demands talent and concentration from both the audience and the actor. The last of these vyāyāmikānām-vidyām is related to dancing only in so far as physical exercise and fitness of the body is necessary for the dancer. Kāmasūtra also mentions the vīṇā and the damaruka in its list. Vātsyāyana also mentions these arts in his discussion of the education of courtesans. The courtesans should be able to hold discussions on the arts: the training of a daughter of the naṭa is discussed and we are told that she should be given to 'the one who would train her in the arts of dancing and singing'.

These arts are not confined to the courtesan: the citizen performs, participates and witnesses dances very often. The samāja and the goṣṭhī are the two social institutions where discussions and demonstrations on the arts are held and witnessed.

The words that Vātsyāyana used for dancing throughout are nrtya and nartana. The naṭas are the professional actors and dancers, and dancing plays an important part in society at all levels.

Śukranītisāra

Śukrācārya's Śukranītisāra presents another list of sixty-four arts (kalās):

here gītam, vādyam and nrtyam are not listed separately as in the Kāmasūtra: in-

stead, two general subjects are mentioned: both of these are self-explanatory

'hāvabhāvādisamyuktam nartanām', i.e., dancing with emotion, grace, etc., and the

second 'anekavādyavikṛtau tadvādane.jñānam', i.e., the knowledge and ability to

play various musical instruments.

The dancing that Sukranītisāra refers to is dancing proper which is accom-

panied by suitable expressions of the face, movements of the arms, etc., and, in

short, all that we mean by āṅgikābhinaya.

On the whole Śukrācārya gives a very high place to the art of dancing. He

often talks of the wealth of learning and at one place says, "The man who does

not find pleasure in teaching, learning, preceptors, gods, arts, music, dancing and

literature is either a man who has attained salvation or beast in the form of man."63

While mentioning the ordinary political and administrative functions of the

state, Śukrācārya does not forget the educational activities of the state: regarding

encouragement to cultural activities he says, "The king should always take such

steps as may advance the arts and sciences of the country. He should train up the

officers appointed with salaries (bhūti positam) in the cultivation of all the arts and,

having seen that they have finished their studies, should appoint them in special

fields. He should also honour those every year who are very high in arts

and science."64

This clearly implies that the king should maintain students with scholarships

for the study of various branches of learning and, after they have been sufficiently

educated, should appoint them to their proper posts.

Prabandhakośa

The Prabandhakośa also mentions nrtyam as one of the arts in its list of the

'seventy-two arts: the allied arts of singing (gītam) and instrumental music (vādyam)

are also mentioned.65

One of the chapters of Rājatarangiṇī mentions thirty-two modes of dancing

and calls the whole vādyam-nṛtyam (dancing to the accompaniment of instrumental

music).

It is significant that none of these works mentions the art of tāla (rhythm)

separately, even though in the kāvyas we come across the phrase samatālam very

early.

From all this we can easily conclude that dancing was performed to the accom-

paniment of song and instrumental music: also that tāla (or rhythm) which forms

such an important feature of Indian music was certainly existent but was not considered a separate art. However, from the number and variety of percussion instruments mentioned and the importance attached to rhythm, we can easily conclude that it was as highly developed and intricate as the other aspects of music and dance. It was certainly an integral part of both the training of a musician and a dancer. Since tāla (rhythm) was considered indispensable, it was perhaps not listed as a separate kalā.

Amarakośa

The Amarakośa, a later but an important lexicon, mentions several terms of music, dancing and rhythm. It devotes one complete varga (sub-chapter) to the subject of dramatics. It lists five categories of dancing, viz., tāṇḍava, natāakam nāṭyam, lāsyam, nṛtya and nartana. This is a comprehensive list including all the categories of dancing (I. 7. 10). It also mentions the combined art of singing, instrumental music and dancing (nrtyagītam-vādyam); it is called tauryatrika.66 The lady who performs the lāsya is called the lāsikā (I. 7. 8), and the courtesan who dances in the dramas is called ajjukā. It also refers to men who dance in the dress of women (I. 7. 10): bhrūkuṃsa is the word used for them. The following terms of rhythm are included: laya, tāla, vilambita, druta and madhya-laya and ekatāla. The following musical instruments are listed: vīṇā (I. 7. 3), vallakī, vīṇāicī, parivādinī (a vīṇā with seven strings), vaṃśi muraja, kānsya-tāla, ghana, three types of mrdaṅga, namely, aṅkya, āliṅgya and ūrdhvaka;87 yaśa paṭaka (a type of drum—nagādā), ḍakka, āṇaka, paṭaka, ḍamaru, maḍḍu, ḍiṇḍima, jharjhara (a kind of cymbals), marḍala, paṇava, are the percussion instruments mentioned.

The various parts of the vīṇā are mentioned: (i) the striker is called koṇa, (ii) the lower part of the vīṇā is called prasevaka, (iii) kolambaka (a vīṇā without its strings), and the point where the strings of the vīṇā are tied it is called the up-anāha and nibandhana.

In the sphere of abhinaya besides mentioning ten types of rāsa (śānta and vātsalya included) and the bhāvas and anubhāvas, it lists the following terms of āṅgikābhinaya: (i) aṅgahāra, (ii) aṅgavikṣepa, (iii) nirta bhru, (iv) āṅgikābhinaya, and (v) sāttvikābhinaya.68

Buddhist Literature

Buddhist literature and Buddhist canons frequently mention the arts of music and dancing. For the most part, these arts are spoken of in an appreciative manner and are considered as sophisticated arts to be learnt and mastered. There is, however, also evidence in these texts which would easily convince us of the base ends to which music and dancing were employed. These works provide sufficient data to convince us of the existence of an attitude of mind which considered the arts of

Buddhist and Jaina Works

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music and dancing as a snare and temptation to be resisted and overcome. Nonetheless we occasionally come across some highly technical references to dancing and music.

Without attempting to analyze each work in the Buddhist literature, we shall consider here only a few significant examples from some of the Jātakas and the other Buddhist canons.

In the Jātakas dancing peacocks often occur. Jātaka No. 32 tells the fable of a dancing peacock, which, by its impudent dance, forfeits its bride, the daughter of the bird king. Another story tells us of queen Rohini who was jealous of the dancing girl.69 Another tells of a monk who was once a mime (naṭa).70 Other Jātaka legends also abound with references to naṭa and nāṭaka.

In Book XX, No. 531 (Kuśajātaka), we find the expression: “Detu nāṭakāni lepattha passāma—Bhaddhe puttassa te rajjam”, i.e., “Lady in making over the kingdom to your son you should institute dramatic festivities.” In Part IV, 67 (Udaya Jātaka) Book XI, No. 458 occurs—“Rāja puttam abhisincitva nāṭakāni”, i.e. “The king desired to make his son king with the solemn sprinkling and to arrange plays for his pleasure.”

Nāṭakāni in the above passages means plays and dramatic performances. The Jātakas also speak about actors. Part VI, 102 (Book XXII, No. 543) reads “Nāgas look at a crowd to see whether any actor is near.” Jātaka (Book III, 287) has the following sentence: “Of the four who gain, one is that who has the actor’s tricks”. The most important mention of dramatic acts occurs in the Kaṇavera Jātaka (Book IV, part iii) where the Bodhisattva was a robber: the expressions—naṭa, samāja, samāja-maṇḍali are frequently used here.

In the other Jātakas we have frequent mention of the arts as part of the royal -entertainment. Thus the Khantivādi Jātaka mentions four branches of music and dancing together as constituting a part of a royal entertainment, i.e., gīta, vādya, nrtta and nāṭya: (gīta-vādita nacchesu cekā nāṭakitthiyo gītādini payojayimsu) (Jātaku, III. 40). From the same Jātaka we also learn that the vīṇā formed part of an orchestral band (vīnādini tūriyāni, Jātaka, III. 40). The clapper of the hands (one who beats time) is known as the paṇissava (Vidhurapaṇḍita Jātaka, VI. 267).

Women dancers are also referred to in the Jātakas: they are accomplished in dancing and music (naccagīta vāditakuśala or nācagīta vāditakuśala).71

In the Jātakas there is also a frequent reference to students who were sent at the king’s expense to study at Banaras: music and dancing formed subjects of that study.72

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In the Mahāvastu, dancing is an important feature of the court life of king Śuddhodana: the prince hears the sound of song, dance, drum, tabor, lyre, flute and cymbals in the palace and yet there is melancholy in his heart.73 The Bodhi-sattva remains unattracted by all this and wishes to give up this play of recurrent life: he leaves the palace, and the description of the women asleep tells us a great deal of their musical training and accomplishments: one was clasping a vīṇā, another a veṇu, another a nakula, another sughoṣa, another tūṇaka, another a vallakī, and yet another a paṇava, etc.74

The Mahāvastu refers to the musical accompaniment of the apsarās, of the playing of the pipes by the kinnaris at several places.75 In all these references, singing is more important and the idea of the pañcaganika tūryāni recurs very many times. The word tūrya is used as a collective noun for an entire orchestra, consisting of all the five types of musical instruments, namely, ātata, vitata, ātata-vitata, ghana and suṣira.

Courtesans, such as Ambapāli and Sālavati, are well-known in Buddhist legends: their fee for dancing was high,—the tradition of dancing and music in a classical form was preserved by them. They are known to be experts in singing, dancing and lute-playing.76

The Lalitavistara lists many subjects to be studied: out of the eighty-six arts mentioned, four deal with music and dance: vīṇā vādyanṛtyam, lāsyam and nāṭyam are mentioned.77 We see that nṛtyam or dancing with interpretation and tāla is coupled with instrumental music vādya.

The Lalitavistara78 also mentions the following musical instruments,—vīṇā, veṇu, nakula, sughoṣa, tūnava, candisaka, sanbharīka, a mahatī vipañcikā (a vīṇā)79, dhakka, paṭaka, vallakī, nukunda, paṇava, jharjharikā, āliṅgya and perivādini. We find that the Lalitavistara mentions all the instruments listed by the Mahāvastu and a few more.

In the Lalitavistara, these arts are mentioned in other places. Gautama wants a wife well-versed in the arts: “I shall need the maiden who is accomplished in , writing and in composing poetry, who is endowed with good qualities and well-versed in the rules of the śāstras.”80

In the Lalitavistara dance and drama are mentioned elsewhere,—“In Rājagṛha, his disciples Maudgalāyana and Upatisya showed their dramatic skill in several exhibitions of spectacle and shows.” We also learn that, under the direction of Gautama (the Buddha), a drama was staged at Rājagṛha. Kauvalyā was at that time the most charming actress who had acquired great reputation in dramatics. As, however, she seduced some monks, she was transformed by Lord Buddha into a hideous woman.

These and other references found in the Buddhist legends leave no doubt in our minds about the widespread knowledge and practice of the arts. The scupltural evidence reinforces it strongly and Bharahut, Sāñci and Amaravati are the living testimonies to it.

Milinda Panha gives a list of the tradition, secular law, arithmetic, music and military art, but dance is conspicuously absent from this list.81

Very early in the history of Buddhism, the Buddhist monastic order had given up its highly antagonistic attitude towards the theatre and even went so far as to make use of the stage as a means of propaganda for the teachings of Buddhism: nor had the Buddhists any hesitation in allowing the Buddha to appear on the stage impersonated by the ordinary actor. The allegorical plays also became very common.

One of the palm-leaf Turfan manuscripts of the dramas of Aśvaghośa, discovered by Luder, contains a scene in which allegorical figures of wisdom, endurance and fame (buddhī, dhrti and kīrti) appear to"glorify the Buddha.82

From the Avadānaśataka83 (Avadāna No. 75), we learn that a Buddha drama was enacted by the actors of the Deccan in the city of Śobhāvatī at the bidding of Krakucanda in which the director himself appeared as the Buddha.

Prof. Sylvain Levi has also referred to another story found in the Kanhgyur. An actor from the Deccan composed a drama containing the story of the Buddha up to his attainment of Bodhi and performed it before king Bimbisāra.84

From Takakusu's account,85 we learn that Harṣa had his drama Nāgānanda (based on the story of Bodhisattva Jimutavāhana surrendering himself in place of a Nāga) set to music and performed by a group; it was accompanied by dancing and acting. Harṣa also had Candradāsa's Viśvāntara and Aśvaghoṣa's Buddhacarita versified and set to music and dancing.86

Professional actors are mentioned throughout Sanskrit and Pāli literature, and from all these references a fairly accurate social history of the life of the actors can be re-created.87

The evidence provided by these texts leads us to the conclusion that acting existed as a flourishing profession: dancing (nrtya) was distinguished from the general and more popular art of dramatics and mime practised by the naṭas. The dances described in the Lalitavistara and the Mahāvastu are the only references to the solo-classical dance we come across here.

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CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

Jaina Works

Dancing is frequently mentioned in the Jaina canons88: the most important and significant for our purposes is the Rāyapaseniya. Thirty-two types of dances are mentioned. Their names indicate that they were dance dramas: only a few seem to be the names of pure dance numbers:

(1) The first dance drama was presented to the accompaniment of orchestral music: it represented the eight symbols, sotthiya (svastika), siri vaccha (śrīvatsa), naidyāvatta (naidyāvarta), vaddhamānaga (vardhamānaka), bhaddāsana (bhadrasana), kalasa (pūrnakalaśa), maccha and dappana (darpana). This was like an auspicious prelude, an invocation.

(2) In this dance-drama, other artistic motifs were represented through dance: āvada (āvarta), paccāvada (pratyavarta), sedhi (śrenī), paseḍhi (praśrenī), sotthiya (svastika), sovatthiya (sauvastika), pūsa, māṇavaka (puṣyamānaka), vaddhamānaga (vardhamānaka), machaṇḍa (matsyānḍaka), magaraṇḍa (makarāṇḍaka), phullāvali (puṣpavalī), paumapatta (padma-patra), sāgarataraṅga, vasantalatā (vasantalatā), and paumalayā (padma-latā): this representation is called bhakticitra.

(3) In this bhakticitra, the following were represented through abhinaya: īhāmiga (īhāmṛga), usabha (vṛṣabha), turaga, nara, magara (makara), vihaga, vālaga (vyāla), kinnara, ruru, sarabha, camara, kuñjara, vaṇalayā (vanalatā), and paumalayā (padmalatā).

(4) In this variety, abhinaya is not predominant; instead, nāṭya and nrtya are important. The terms mentioned here indicate dance formations of circles and maṇḍalas. Egao vaṅka, egao cakkavāla, duhao cakkavāla, cakkaddhacakkavāla, all indicate circle formations—both single circle formations and concentric circle formations. Such circle formations and choreography are found in the Jaina sculptures of Gujarat.

(5) The fifth variety is called āvali and various types of āvalis are represented: candāvali (candrāvali), sūryāvali (sūryāvali), valiyāvali, haṃsāvali, egāvali (ekāvali), tārāvali, muttāvali (muktāvali), kaṇagāvali (kanakāvali), rayanāvali (ratnāvali), etc.

The next three varieties represented the rising of the sun and the moon and other movements of these planets: these were surely short dance-dramas.

(6) Here the rise of the sun and the moon were presented: the numbers are termed suruggamaṇa and canduggamaṇa.

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(7) The ascending movements of the sun and the moon are depicted in the dance-dramas known as sūragamana and candāgamana.

(8) The solar or the lunar eclipse was portrayed in numbers known as sūravarana and candāvarana.

(9) Finally, the dances of the setting of the sun and the moon were known as sūratthamana (suryastamana) and candatthamana (candrāstamana).

(10) The candamandala, sūramandala, nāgamandala, jakkhamandala (yakṣa), bhūtamandala, rakkhasamandala, mahoragamandala and gandharvamandala: all denote group formations of divine and evil beings.

(11) The next variety depicted different types of gaits: ṛṣabhalalita, simhalalita, hayavilambiya, gajavilambiya, hayavilasiya, gayavilasiya, mattagajavilasiya, mattahayavasiya, mattagajavilambiya, mattahayavilambiya: the whole sequence was called the druta-vilambita dance.

(12) Another variety presented dances known as sāgarapavibhatti and nāgarapavibhatti.

(13) A drama named after two creepers called Nandā and Campā is the thirteenth variety.

(14) In the next variety were the dances known as macchandala-pavibhatti, maya-randakapavibhatti, jārapavibhatti and mārapavibhatti.

(15) Letters from ‘ka’ to ‘na’, i.e., kavarga, were represented through movement. The dance sequence was termed as ‘kavarga’.

(16) Another dance sequence was named after ‘cavarga’.

(17) Similarly another represented ‘ṭavarga’.

(18) And another represented the ‘tavarga’.

(19) And yet another took its name after the ‘pavarga’.

(20) A dance sequence represented the different types of leaves, namely: asoyapallava (aśokapallava), ambapallava (āmra), jambupallava, kośambapallava.

(21) Another variety showed the pravibhaktis (movements) of the following

creepers: paumalayā (padmalatā), nāgalatā, asogalatā (aśokalatā), campakalatā, amba (amralatā), vanalatā, vāsanti, kundalatā, atimuttaya (atimuktalatā) and śāmalayā (śyāmalatā).

The next ten varieties were nṛtya performances; the names suggest the types of dance, and their characteristics are indicated by words such as druta, vilambita, mostly indicating tempo.

(22) Druta nṛtya

(23) Vilambita nṛtya

(24) Druta vilambita nṛtya

(25) Añciya (añcita) nṛtya

(26) Ribhita nṛtya

(27) Añcita-ribhita nṛtya

(28) Arabhada (ārabhaṭa) nṛtya

(29) Bhasola nṛtya

(30) Ārbhada-bhasola nṛtya or ārbhada-bhesda nṛtya

(31) Uppayanivayapavatta (utpāta and nitpāta), saṅkunciya(saṅkucita), pasāriya (prasārita), rayāraiya (khecarita), bhānta (bhrānta) and sambhānta (sambhrānta) nṛtya

(32) This drama depicted the story of Mahāvira's early life, his conception, exchange of foetus, birth, boyhood, youth, renunciation, attainment of kevala-hood (kaivalya-jñana), the propagation of his message, and his nirvāna.89

From the above we gather some very interesting details about the types of dances and the vast repertoire of the dance compositions. In these thirty-two categories, we have abhinaya, nṛtya, nāṭya and nṛtta proper. Many of these terms do not seem to indicate complete dance-dramas, as has been suggested. The first variety is merely the representation of the auspicious symbols (māṅgalika): it could have been done by showing all these māṅgalika symbols through hastābhinaya or by making different actors represent the different symbols: the second variety seems to suggest dance formations, as also names of themes on which dances were com-

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posed, such as the phullāvali and vasantalatā: the terms vardhamānaka and padma latā seem to have nothing in common with Bharata's use of the same terms. The third variety similarly suggests names of animals, kinnaras, etc., on which the dance was based and no more. The fourth variety alone gives us some idea of the nature of the dance: the circle formations are quite clearly indicated, and the names suggest pure dance (nrtta). The sixth, seventh, eighth and ninth varieties suggest a complete dance-drama based on the movement of the sun and the moon, and the tenth suggests circle formations and dance compositions to represent planets, supernatural beings and the rest. In spite of the fact that the word mandala is used, they have nothing at all in common with the mandalas of the Nātyaśāstra.90 The same is true of the eleventh variety where the gaits of various animals like the horse, elephant, etc., are represented. Even though the Nātyaśāstra talks of the representation of the gaits of the animals (NŚ, XII. 107 ff.), it is not in the same sense. In the Rāyapaśeniya the walking, prancing and jumping of the gaja and haya are described, and all these are represented in both the druta and the vilambita tempo. The twenty-second, twenty-third and twenty-fourth varieties also indicate just laya and not specific dances. The añcita is not a dance of any specific kind and this term might indicate anything from the añcita gesture of any part of the body, from the head to the foot, to the añcita karana (NŚ, IV. 84), and bhramara of the Nātvaśāstra can hardly be identified with the present bhasola.91

The evidence in the text is interesting, but obscure; the names of the dances give some clue but the dances cannot be re-created from these descriptions. The author was not basing the list on the Nātyaśāstra. If the terms contained here are technical, then they most certainly belong to a tradition of the classical dance other than the Nātyaśāstra tradition. If the terms are descriptive of the theme and the execution, then it is not a technical enumeration, but only a literary one. Scholars of Jaina literature could perhaps throw more light on them than has hitherto been done. We may only conclude here that the present classification does not base itself 'on the classification and terminology of the Nātyaśāstra. However, some connexions can be established between this tradition and that of the Nātyaśāstra. A few terms and concepts are common. If an attempt is made to translate these terms into the language of the Nātyaśāstra, then perhaps one can say that numbers one, two and three belong to the pūrva-ranga; numbers four, five and ten describe formation; six, seven, eight and nine belong to the variety of nrtya where the circular formations plus some abhinaya is suggested. Eleven shows the gaits (cāris) of various kinds. Numbers twelve to twenty-one are small bhāva representations, whether the usual representation of the alphabet or some small episodes. One could also reasonably conclude that numbers fourteen to twenty were viniyogas of samyuta hastas. Numbers twenty-one to thirty-two belong to the nrtta variety and where the nomenclature denotes the tempo (laya) used, the dance poses formed, the exact variety and character of the dance and the choreographical patterns.92

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

Besides the thirty-two dances mentioned above, the Jaina texts mention various types of musical instruments.93 Of the sixty-four varieties mentioned here, very few are new: they are all classified under the categories of tata, vitata, ānaddha and ghana instruments.

Generally, music and dancing are referred to at several places, and festival dances are mentioned throughout the text. Courtesans accomplished in the arts of music and dancing are also mentioned in the Jaina texts. The Vayadhammakahā refers to a rich courtesan (ganikā), Campā. Famous courtesans adept in the arts are Kośa, Upakośa, Devadatta, etc. They are mentioned in the Brhatkalpa, the Bhagavati, etc. The Brhatkalpa Bhāṣya also mentions naṭṭiya (dancing girls) apart from ganikās.91

The Jaina texts on the whole are a very rich source of knowing the social status of artists, the ways in which some of the original characteristics of the arts were being modified; but we find very little technical reference which adheres strictly to the tradition of the Nāṭyaśāstra.

KĀVYA LITERATURE

From the kāvya literature we obtain a clear picture of the classical dance. The descriptions of and references to dancing in this literature are, however, not on the same plane as in the Vedas and the epics. The Vedic writer was conscious of its movements and was sensitive to its beauties. The writers of the epics used the technical terminology for the first time. The authors of the kāvyas are aware of the rich heritage and are also fully conversant with the codification made in the Nāṭyaśāstra. The description of dance in these works are seldom those of a layman; instead, they suggest a discerning eye and an acquaintance with the technique of the classical dance. It must be remembered that the tradition which resulted in the codification of the arts in the Nāṭyaśāstra was a tradition which considered dance and poetry not as members of the same family but as limbs of the same human form. In drama (drśya-kāvya), thus, we find a body of stage technique which is none other than the āṅgikābhinaya of the classical Indian dance. In subject-matter, in themes and in fundamental philosophic concepts, the writer of the kāvya literature continues to follow the Vedic and the Epic tradition. The characters he chooses are supernatural beings: they are either the gods of the earlier pantheon with modified attributes or the heroes akin to those of the epics. The apsarās and the ganikās appear on the same stage with gods and heroes who contract friendships with these supernatural or half-supernatural beings: seldom do they appear as the instruments of Fate or Nemesis of the Greek drama. The supreme god that the classical writer invokes thus is Śiva whose Cosmic Dance symbolizes the activity of the universe in its manifold aspects.

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The philosophic and metaphysical assumptions underlying this drama give it a technique which can be clearly distinguished from the drama of the West. The writer sees no intellectual conflict, moral or social. The ideas of sin, incest, etc., never form a motif. Moral flaws play little or no part at all: the state of Beauty is one, which is to be achieved through a state of Being, of emotion, of feeling, rather than one of thought and suffering. The total absence of conflict, of the development and growth of character through external and internal suffering, invariably results in the absence of 'action' in the Aristotelian sense: there is never the impression of 'Man's answer to Fate that crushes him' and 'gods who kill us for their sport', but, instead, there is an impression of Heaven and the gods descending upon earth to sport joyously with human beings. The characters of this drama are differently conceived and the 'action' that occurs is not on the level of certain values counterpoised against certain other values. The vehicle of expression of this thought-process is naturally very different, and we must not look in it for the values of Western drama, nor must this drama be judged by those standards. The state of 'being', of 'emotion', that the Indian classical writers seek to portray can best be expressed in terms of lyricism, and, what is more, in terms of human movement-an instrument of expression already made available through the ritualistic, religious and social practices of the earlier period. 'Dance' or abhinaya enters into the body of this drama, not as an intruder or an interloper, not to amuse the audience while the 'main action' of the plot of the drama is held up; it is on the contrary an integral part of the drama and anyone who sees classical Sanskrit drama as just the spoken word does injustice to himself by missing the subtle beauties of its elaborate stage-craft. The inclusion of āṅgikābhinaya in this drama is so completely integrated with the spoken language (vācikābhinaya) that, devoid of it, Sanskrit drama becomes no more than a chain of beautiful lyrics. The easy flow of this drama is achieved through dance movement, through the ability of the artist to carry us across seas, oceans and mountains, to bring before us visions of lions, deers and horses, to invoke thunder and lightning not only through the spoken word but also through a well-formulated language of gesture or pantomime. The total impression of this drama, then, is like that of total theatre in the modern sense, or more truly, of dance-drama with song, spoken word, and gesture-all combined. It is not drama embellished with song, diction, dance, etc., but drama constituted by song, dance (inclusive of nṛtta and abhinaya), gesture, etc. Instead of the powerful intellectual impact of western drama we have here an initiation into a 'state of being' created by a swift, fluent, light-footed quality of highly cultivated feeling.

The basic approach of this drama is 'idealistic': an elaborate stage convention (nāṭyadharmī), meticulous to the last detail, dispenses with the need of realistic presentation (lokadharmī) or portraiture. While analyzing the stage directions of this drama, we shall observe how the principle of nāṭyadharmī works and how far the gesture language is an instrument in executing this aim. The characters, as mentioned earlier, are beings who can easily be carried into the supernatural world

with the slightest touch of the imaginative wand: the heroines are invariably the

apsarās or the ganikās, always adept in the art of dancing. Śakuntalā is the daughter

of the celestial Menakā, Urvaśī, the finest of dancers, Mālavikā, a princess trained

flawlessly in the art, and Vasantasenā is a courtesan, dancer par excellence of the

town. It is obvious that the actors who depicted these heroes and heroines, who are

accomplished dancers, must have been masters of the four types of abhinaya, since

lack of training in either āṅgika or vācikābhinaya would have proved fatal to the

performance.

Characters in Sanskrit drama and narrative poetry witness dances and dance-

dramas like their predecessors in the Vedas and the epics. The description of

dance recitals in the Sanskrit kāvya is, usually, in highly technical terms; physical

movement more often than not uses the phraseology of Bharata. Before, therefore,

analyzing and commenting on such portions of these dramas which are āṅgikābhi-

naya and almost indistinguishable from the abhinaya of the contemporary classical

dance, it would be profitable to look at the descriptions of such dance recitals in

both the kāvya and the nāṭya literatures. We shall first enumerate the non-technical

and then the technical95 references in the kāvya and the nāṭya literatures. From

an examination of this evidence a fairly clear picture of the dance and the dance

styles as prevalent then will emerge.

The Kāvyas

Buddhacarita

In the Buddhacarita of Aśvaghoṣa, we have the first evidence of the techni-

cal language of the dance. It is still in a rather unrefined stage, but there is an

obvious trend towards the stylized dance of the later days. The poet gives us vivid

descriptions of facial expressions, of a few hastas (mudrās), and a long list of

musical instruments. Sometimes the terms are used merely descriptively and not

in a technical sense.

The musical instruments referred to in the palace are:

Tūrya— (I. 45; II. 29)

Mṛdaṅga—(I. 45; II. 30; V. 50)

Viṇā— (I. 45; V. 48)

Mukunda—(I. 45)

Muraja— (I. 45)

Veṇu— (V. 49)

Vamśī— (VIII. 53)

Dundubhi—

Later the Buddha himself listens to the splendid musical instruments (Canto

II. 29). The tūrya is mentioned again and in Canto II. 30 we find that the mṛdaṅga

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is ornamented with golden bands (cāmīkarabuddha kuksaih) and is played by women 'with the foreparts of the hands' (nārīkarāgrabhīrāhataih). The ladies of the palace hold different musical instruments in their laps: the Bodhisattva watches them thus and then walks out of the palace.96 Later Gautamī while waiting, compares the voice of the Buddha to the musical sound of the thundering clouds (ghana dundubhi) (VIII. 53).

Aśvaghoṣa describes vividly some movements of the women: the ladies of the palace allure the prince by their talk and amorous gestures (lalita bhāva); their eyebrows are arched (bhrūvañcitaih) and they cast on him half-shut, half-stolen glances (II. 31). None of these words is used in the technical meaning given to them by the Nāṭyaśāstra; lalita bhāva97 does not occur in the Nāṭyaśāstra but the lalita glance (drṣṭi) is used for love (NŚ, VIII. 74). Similarly, añcita bhrū does not occur in the Nāṭyaśāstra, but it is related to the two movements of the eyebrow, viz., both kuñcita and reṭita (NŚ, VIII. 122-123a), the latter being used specially for amorowness. The side-long glance (ardha nirikṣita) finds no equivalent in the Nāṭyaśāstra, but the commentary98 explains it as kaṭākṣa. The kaṭākṣa so frequently mentioned in Sanskrit literature, is in reality a movement of the eyeball and the name for it in the Nāṭyaśāstra is vivartana (turning the eyeballs sideways, a movement used in expressing the erotic sentiment) (NŚ, VIII. 98b-100a).

Again in Canto IV. 2, we observe that, when the prince is taken out to the grove and women come out to greet him, there is wonder in the eyes of women (vismayotphulla99 locanāh) and they pay him homage with padmakośa hands.

The vismita glance of the Nāṭyaśāstra used on such occasions is also not very different (NŚ, VIII. 60); but the first appearance of a real hastābhinaya term besides the aṅjali which is found earlier, too, is the padmakośa hasta. According to the Nāṭyaśāstra, this asamyukta hasta is employed to represent offering pūjā to a deity, carrying a casket, etc. (NŚ, IX. 82). These women then try and charm the prince not only with their natural grace but also with their accomplishments in music and dance: one of them looks at him and then sings a song with abhinaya (sābhi-nayagītam) (IV. 37). The āṅgikābhinaya is quite clearly suggested: the song is the vācikäbhinaya to the accompaniment of which she must have performed the āṅgikābhinaya, perhaps, as it is done in the contemporary Bharatanāṭyam padams. Earlier, in the palace, women had entertained him with nṛtta proper, for then the accompaniment was not song, but drums (mṛdaṅga) played by the soft fingers of women; their dances were like those of the heavenly nymphs and the palace of the king shone like mount Kailāśa (II. 30).

This beautiful dancing of women in the palace and the mango-grove is soon replaced by the odious dancing of Māra and his retinue: now the dancing is no longer lalita, nor are the glances lalita and prekṣita (NŚ, VIII. 90-92) and the

eyebrows are not recita; instead, there is the bhrkuṭi, which is used for dazzling light and for objects of anger (NŚ, VIII. 123b-126) (Buddhacarita, XIII. 25). The dancing itself is done with weapons such as the trident, and thus the whole atmosphere changes. Both types of dancing, with their different implications and impressions, are depicted here. It is not rarely that the Sanskrit poet utilizes the different styles of dancing to depict different moods, states of mind and feelings.

Kālidāsa

The evidence of dance and music obtained from Kālidāsa's works is overwhelming. Kālidāsa's knowledge of the technique of nrtya and saṅgīta is no less than his skill in poetry: his sensitivity to the movements of the dancer is indeed so great that he constantly describes natural phenomena in terms of dance movements.

From the kāvyas we can gather references, both general and technical. While these descriptions are on a different level from those found in his dramas, we observe that in these, too, he displays an intimate knowledge of the art of dancing. These references can help us reconstruct certain aspects of dance. We have in his works references to social dancing, the dance of the courtesan and dancing in education. All these references tell us of the prevalence of the Bharata's phraseology as well as of various styles of dancing.

Raghuvamśa

In the Raghuvamśa, on the occasion of Raghu's birth (III. 19), everyone rejoices and the courtesans dance. The joy of this occasion spreads to the heaven itself. Here we have two significant words: maṅgalatūrya (the tūrya is the heralder of auspicious occasions) and pramoda nrtya, i.e., delightful dancing.

The apsarās are here truly the temptresses of the sages. Indra sends five apsarās to ṛṣi Sātakarṇī to tempt him with music and dancing. Now and again Indra makes them dance for him; they sing and play on the mrdaṅga (XII. 40). The apsarās who come to entice ṛṣi Sutīkṣṇa, however, employ other methods: theirs is the method of glances, of physical grace called vibhrama100 (XII. 42) which is inclusive of gesture, speech, dress, make-up and the rest. The voluptuary, King Agnivarṇa, has in his court music and dancing of every kind. The women of his court woo him, attract him and allure him: they are trained dancers and courtesans who seek the love of the king. Canto XIX of the Raghuvamśa is an elaborate description of their performances. The king's palace resounded with the sounds of the mrdaṅga (mrdaṅganādiṣū, XIX. 5) and he spent all his time in festivity of this kind.101 Here we find that the nartakī, the professional dancer, is an important member of the society.

Besides the court dancer, we also find that dancing is an essential part of the

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education of kings and queens. Indumatī, Aja's beautiful queen, is mourned by

the king in an exquisite verse in which he calls her 'his wife, his comrade, his

confidante' and, above all, 'his dear pupil in the fine arts' (VIII. 67). In the Raghu

dynasty, dancing is an essential part of royal education, but music and dancing

cease to have a place in Ayodhyā102 in Kuśsa's reign. Later, he re-establishes

Ayodhyā as his capital and re-initiates the water sports. The enchanting sound

fills the ears, the sound of women singing and the water mrdanga (vāri-mrdanga)

accompanying, which the peacocks on the banks hail with their outspread plum-

age.103 Agnivarṇa, however, is the lover, the teacher of the graceful dance.

But it is not only the graceful dance that we see. In the fight of Aja with his

opponents, we are told of a dance of death, where the killed heroes of the battle

watch their own trunks dancing in the battle field. A wilder type of dance must

have been known to the poet for him to describe this dance (Raghuvamśa, VII. 51).

Kumārasambhava

The Kumārasambhava has for its hero the creator and originator of the dance.

Naturally, there is a mention of the sukumāra dance of Pārvatī, the graceful abhi-

naya of the trees, etc., the dance of the peacocks, as also the grotesque dance

of Bhrṅgi on the occasion of the marriage of Śiva and Pārvatī (IX. 48). Kālikā

dances with a garland of skulls for the couple (IX. 49). Pārvatī describes the dance

of the Lord to the Brahmacārī who enters into conversation with her: 'his ashes

shed as he dances'; she uses the phrase ṇtyābhinaya kriyā rather than tāndava,

the usual description (V. 79).

The graceful dancing of the earlier cantos of the Kumārasambhava is replaced

in the later cantos by the dance of swords and men and decapitated trunks in

the context of Kārtikeya's fight with the demon Tārakāsura (XVI. 48-49). The

swords covered with blood dance like lightning in the battle field (XVI. 15), and

soon there is nothing but the dance of headless trunks of soldiers which the spirits

of the soldiers watch from above.

Meghadūta and Ṛtusaṃhāra

In the Meghadūta and the Ṛtusaṃhāra, Kālidāsa's similes invariably use

the image of the dance. As the moods change in the Ṛtusaṃhāra, the types of

physical movement also cliange. The peacock is the supreme symbol of the simple

joy in life,101 and its dancing gives us significant details about dancing. In the

Meghadūta, the women of Ujjain dance (Pūrva Megha, 40), the women of Alakā-

purī are exceedingly graceful (Uttara Megha, 2), and the peacocks dance to the

sound of thunder. The pictures Kālidāsa draws for us in these verses are richly

infused with the language of abhinaya of the dance. His women are invariably

the nāyikās of Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra, their movements are the āṅgika and sāttvikā-

bhinaya of the Nāṭyaśāstra and there is hardly a description of movement, facial

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or otherwise, which is in a non-technical language. Through his similes, too,

we have a glimpse of the nature and character of the classical dance and in all of

them we can see a beautiful picture of the dance and its styles. The following

evidence of such references will throw considerable light on both the dance of the

day and Kālidāsa's knowledge of it.

In the Ṛtusaṃhāra, in the rainy season, the entire forest rejoices. The branches

of trees dance as if gesticulating with their hands (II. 24). Here the word sucibhih

is important for our purpose: it occurs again in Mālavikāgnimitra where the dance

of Mālavikā is described Bharata defines sūcī abhinaya as that in which the meaning

of the sentence or song is indicated first by gesticulation and then by words (NŚ,

Kāvyamālā, 1894 edition, XXII. 43). But in the Ṛtusaṃhāra, Kalidāsa refers to

the asam yukta hasta sūcī.

Later the wind personified (pavana) makes the trees dance and wave about

(lāsakapādapānāmī) (RS, II. 27); lāsaka is not a technical term here but we may

recall that it is one of the names of Śiva in the dancing mudrā.105 The dance here

is of the feet and not of the hands and is obviously of the nrtta variety.

In the Raghuvaṃśa perceivers are compared to the gesticulating fingers of a

dancer (IX. 35), the humming of bees is their music and they dance to it, keeping

time, as it were, by clapping their hands. (Kisalayaih salayairiva pāṇibhilih): the

branches of the mango trees, too, wave as if they had just started to learn abhinaya

(IX.53). In the former case, we have a very clear indication of gīta, vādya and

nrtya and the hands move gracefully to this music. In the latter case, it is not

dancing but abhinaya: the mango branches respond spontaneously to the touch of

the malaya breeze.

In the Meghadūta it is nrtta that the cloud-messenger will see. The women

of Ujjain will be practising dance; to them the cloud will bring a few drops of

rain and they will respond with appreciative glances. Here padanyāsaih refers to

dancing in which foot-work predominates. The katākṣa with which they will

look at the cloud is the vivartana (side-long) movement of the cyeball.106 The

cloud is then not only to watch the nrtta of Śiva in the evening (Pūrva Megha,

40), but is to become itself an accompanist to this evening dance by contributing

his own thunder. This thunder will be the drum (muraja) to which the Lord will

dance:107 thus the orchestra will be complete, for the rustling of the wind through

the bamboos will be the instrumental music and the song of kinnaris and women,

the vocal accompaniment. The sustained simile makes it clear that both instrumen-

tal, and vocal music, set to the rhythm of a percussion instrument, was considered

the essential accompaniment to this dance (Pūrva Megha, 60). The sound of the

thundering cloud is always the muraja drum, the accompaniment to saṅgīta:

in Alakāpurī the muraja sounds to music (Uttara Megha, 1).108

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The Yakṣa's beloved makes the peacock dance while she beats time for him (tāla) (UM, 19): the idea of rhythm is very firmly established by this time, and we get frequent references to clapping and beating time with the hands.

Agnivarṇa accompanying the maidens also beats time to the abhinaya of the court dancers when he plays the puṣkara; then they forget their abhinaya and perhaps tāla, too (Raghuvamśa, XIX. 12).

The apsarās in the Kumārasambhava, however, do not dance to the mṛdaṅga but to three other instruments of the tūrya type: the aṅkva, the āliṅgya and the īrdhvaka (XI. 36). Their recital is complete with song and instrumental music; and rasa and bhāva are perfectly represented. Their dance has a beautiful, well-planned sequence and words such as susandhi, rasa and bhāva tell us of the perfectly executed dance.

From these kāvyas we get an idea also of the qualities of this dance. The dance primarily as performance, as prayoga, is the accepted conception: rigorous practice is considered an essential feature of the art. In the Ritusamihāra, Kāmadeva leaves the peacocks to go to the swans: the peacocks he leaves are those who have given up their practice of the dance (ṛtyaprayoga-rahitā).

In the Raghuvamśa, Agnivarṇa is called prayoganipuṇa109 and he teaches the three types of abhinaya to the girls, viz., āṅgika, sāttvika and vācika. He makes them practise endlessly till they are exhausted and sweating (XIX. 36).110 His favourite are the dances in kaiśiki vṛtti.111

When Śiva and Pārvatī are married (in the Kumārasambhava), Sarasvatī sings praises of the divine couple; and thereafter, they witness a drama, complete with different junctures (sandhis), styles (vṛttis), rāgas set in the appropriate rasa (Kumārasambhava, VIII. 91), and aṅgahāras appropriate to the śṛṅgāra rasa (lalita). Even if this passage is not penned by Kālidāsa, as some contend, whoever wrote it was fully aware of the aesthetic beauties of the art, as also the theoretical terms of Bharata. The theatrical production is here called prayoga.112 Thus in one verse we have the terms, prayoga, sandhī, the displayed styles (vṛttis), the well-composed rāgas (pratibaddha rāgam), dance movements (aṅgahāra)113 described as of the graceful type (lalita). The prevalence of these terms, and their acceptance in the technique, is evident.

Besides these Kālidāsa mentions the different hastas: the descriptions of women abound in details of facial expression and, frequently, the different types of nāyikās are mentioned in his works.

Añjali is the most common samyukta hasta mentioned in literature. We have seen it occur both in the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata.

In the Kumārasambhava Śiva comes to tempt Pārvatī, disguised as a Brahma-cārī. She is adamant and chooses to ignore him first but then answers with the rosary in her mukulīkrta hands (V. 63). Mukula is Bharata's asamyukta hasta (NŚ, IX. 117) where 'the fingers bent and close to each other meet': it is used 'for worshipping a deity, a lotus bud, etc.' (NŚ, IX. 118 ff.). Kāldāsa has thus punctiliously described the way in which Pārvatī held the rosary. Elsewhere, names of the samyukta hastas, sampuṭa, karkata and kapota often occur both in their literal and in their technical senses. The great prevalence of these terms, as also the frequent play upon them, show their popularity. The average reader and spectator obviously grasped their meanings, technical as well as literal.114

The grace of women is Kālidāsa's favourite theme, and we find him engrossed in their beauty. Pārvatī is taught her gait by the royal swans themselves and they are anxious to learn from her the sweet sounds of her anklets115 (I. 34). Her training in beautiful gait, her natural grace of vilāsa and her vilola (the loving glance) -she gives up during her penance; then she renounces everything, including the natural alaṅkāras of women (NŚ, Kāvyamālā, 1894 edition, XXII. 14).

But this Pārvatī, who has given up all emotion and gesticulation, is roused to anger at the approaches of the disguised Śiva: her lips quiver, her eyes grow red, and her eyebrows become arched in kuñcita. Here we have an interesting example of Kālidāsa's divergence from the Nātyaśāstra, for in the text the kuñcita eyebrows movement is used for the manifestation of affection, while the kuñcita eyelid movement is prescribed when the object seen is unwanted or unwelcome. Kālidāsa talks of the kuñcita bhrū (eyebrow) rather than the kuñcita eyelid (NŚ, VIII. 114b-118b and VIII. 123b-126).

Princess Indumati is the other paragon of beauty in Kāldāsa. She is the much desired woman and kings and princes of all lands come to woo her. In a mildly satirical tone Kālidāsa describes their movements: one of them employs śṛṅgāra movements (śṛṅgāra ceṣṭā) (Raghuvamśa, VI. 12), the other uses the lotus as a symbol to tell her of his love (ibid., VI. 13) and a third one bends his body obliquely (sācīkrta) to adjust his shawl. In nearly ten verses Kālidāsa describes these ludicrous movements of the princes, studiously avoiding the use of a single technical dance term: doubtless, his intention is to suggest obliquely that none of them was an accomplished dancer. Kālidāsa's avoidance of the use of the technical knowledge at his command is with a specific aim. It is suggestive of the fact that the discriminating reader or theatre-goer was familiar with Bharata's terminology and that the absence of technically correct or prescribed movements would arouse laughter.

The eyebrows and their movement form an important part of the description of facial expressions: thus the women of Ujjain have large eyes (cakita netra) and

through graceful movements they allure the cloud-messenger (Pūrva Megha, 29).

They are unlike the women described earlier (ibid., 16), who do not know how

to use their eyebrows for amorous purposes (bhrū vilāsa). The cloud can have a

drink from the river Vetravatī: she is compared to a woman with beautiful, attrac-

tive eyebrows (Pūrva Megha, 26). The maidens of Daśapura have dark eyebrows

(Pūrva Megha, 51). The favourites of Agnivarṇa are of course adept in the use of

eyebrows (Raghuvamiśa, XIX. 17).

The bhṛkuṭi and the katākṣa are two very common movements: the first is

an eyebrow movement and the second an eyeball movement.

The nāyikās are mentioned in a beautiful description of the spring in Canto

IX of the Raghuvamiśa: the cuckoo is like the mugdhā vadhū and the night is the

khaṇḍitā nāyikā.116 The nāyikās appear amongst the ladies of Agnivarṇa's court in

the Raghuvamiśa: each one of the dancers described above comes like one or other

of the nāyikās and is loved by him in turn: one comes as the vipralabdhā nāyikā

(ibid., XIX. 18), another as a khaṇḍitā nāyikā; all of them are taught the three

types of abhinaya, which they are made to perform before the gurus of dancing

(ibid., XIX. 36).

From these kāvyas emerges a picture of the arts of music and dancing,

which knows orchestration of various kinds and conceives dancing as both nṛtta

and abhinaya. It also tells us that dance was considered as an essential part of

education for all and that it demanded regular practice and performance (prayoga).

The art enjoys high prestige in contemporary society, though libertines like

King Agnivarṇa may debase it by their irresponsibility and moral laxness.

Bhāravi

In Bhāravi's (7th century A.D.) Kīrātārjunīyam we find very little evidence use-

ful for our purpose. The women here have klānta eyes (klānta vilocana):117 the

ganikās try to tempt Arjuna with their dance (IV. 17). But Arjuna is not tempted

by this dancing, which is called abhiprayanṛtta and which has both gesticulation

• and nṛtta in it. At another place, the lotuses dance (as in the Raghuvamiśa): the

simile here is elaborate, for the dance that the lotuses perform is complete with

the movements of eyebrows and the gait (bhrūkuṭi kuṭila). The wind (vāyu) is the

instigator of the dance, for its movement makes the lotuses do the vilāsaśāli nṛtya,

the beautiful amorous dance (V. 32).

'The women who bathe in the Gaṅgā are aroused by the sound of the mṛdaṅga

at a distance: their bosoms tremble as if dancing in tāla to the mṛdaṅga. Their

dance is the beautiful manorama nṛtya (VIII. 43).

The gandharvas play the vīṇā (vallaki) and the mṛdaṅga (X. 18) and show

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the six seasons simultaneously while the apsarās get ready to allure and entice Arjuna. Their efforts fail and they call for Vasanta to help them. Vasantalakṣmī descends holding the new sprouts of trees: the hummings of bees are the anklets (nūpura), which herald her steps.

The dance appears in its full glory only once, when the apsarās come to display their talents before Arjuna. They commence their abhinaya according to the rules, but their hands, adorned with beautiful fingers fit for abhinaya, and their eyes, which should move with the movements of the limbs, forget their discipline the moment they set eyes on Arjuna (X. 41).118 We have here a dance of the hands, of the feet, of the eyes that move in accordance with the rule, 'the eyes follow the hand', and in the dance all these limbs move in accordance with rules of the presentation of a particular rasa and bhāva. In a short and simple verse, we have thus a beautiful description of both the aim and technique of the art. Looking at Arjuna, the apsarās forget the use of their limbs and err against many rules. These apsarās are called dancers (nartakī), those who are particular about abhinaya (abhinayamanasah) (X. 43) and those who are accomplished in the graces (lalitābhinaya). They portray different nāyikās also.

Besides this there is little of value to the present study in the Kirātārjunīyam. Even the verses referred to do not tell us anything new or extraordinary.

Daṇḍin

Daṇḍin's Daśakumāracaritam is a work different from the poetry of Kālidāsa and Bhāravi. From this prose work we get some very interesting material on the education of princes and the social status of ganikās.

The young princes were taught arts and crafts of various kinds: ritual, astronomy, literature, horse riding, and the arts of music, dancing, instrumental music (Pūrva-piṭhikā, I. 80). Nrtya is not mentioned here, but vīnā, saṅgīta and sāhitya are. At another place, queen Kalpasundarī, 'who is herself well-versed in the arts of music and dancing' (III. 10) wishes for a young man who will be perfect in all the arts and will be a painter (Uttarapiṭhikā, III. 12).

Nartakīs and ganikās abound in this work. We have the famous Kāmamañjarī (Uttarapīthikā, II. 4 ff.) whose mother gives a long list of the subjects in which a courtesan must be perfect. Rāgamañjarī, the sister of Kāmamañjarī, presents a dance recital in the assembly of learned men of the court (Uttarapīthikā, II. 30). Vikata Varma, the husband of Kalpasundarī, is an ignoramus, who knows nothing, is not acquainted with the sixty-four arts or with drama, is a liar, and is not faithful to his wife: he falls in love with a dancer called Ramayantikā (Utta-rapīthikā, III. 15).

The mother of Kāmamañjarī and Rāgamañjarī is a teacher of the courtesans, and in her list she enumerates the Kāmaśāstra (anaṅgavidyā), nrtya, gīta, vādya, nātya, citrakalā and the rest. A courtesan must know abhinaya and the mother of a courtesan must see to it that she is separated from her father after the fifth year of her birth (Uttarapīṭhikā, II. 6). Kāmamañjarī goes to a sage for refuge119 and the mother arrives to say that her only fault has been that she has taught her daughter all the arts of a courtesan. From her statement we learn not only of the arts that a courtesan must know but also the mental attitude she must have if she is to succeed in her profession. Later she laments the waste that her education has been on the second daughter Rāgamañjarī. The latter does not wish to sell herself for money, and wishes to get married· her mother, Mādhavasenā, and her sister, Kāmamañjarī, both go to the king and plead before him, "she who was our hope, and whom we have taught all the arts, is today wanting to renounce the duties of a courtesan and to become a woman of the family (kulāṅganā)"120.

Rāgamañjarī is a woman of rare accomplishments. we have a description of a performance by her which citizens gather to look at with great expectations. She dances in a gathering called the pañcavīra goṣṭhī.121 She is accompanied by both song and instrumental music and the stage on which she dances is called the raṅgapīṭha. Her dance, perfect in bhāva and rasa, is so impressive that the spectator's heart becomes another stage full of the emotions of love (Uttarapīṭhikā, II. 39). She dances with all her limbs (upāṅgas), her eyebrows are recita122 and her drṣṭi is vibhrama (NŚ, VIII. 93 ff.). With these movements she captures the hearts and eyes of the spectators

The ganikās formed an important part of the society of our country for ages. As we go along, we see how well and sometimes how shabbily they were treated by society.

Bāna

It is not till we come to the works of Bāna that we find a detailed description of the technique of dancing. Both in the Harṣacarita123 and the Kādambarī there are vivid descriptions of the music and the dance of the time.

Harṣacarita

The Harṣacarita mentions five types of goṣṭhīs: kāvyagoṣṭhī, galpagoṣṭhī, gītagoṣṭhī, nrtyagoṣṭhī and vādyagoṣṭhī. We learn of various types of dancing in these goṣṭhīs.

There is mention of the tāṇḍava nṛtya, telling us of the prevalence of the concept of Śiva dancing (I. 15).121 In a beautiful simile describing the dust storms

201

in summer, we are told that the rising dust seemed as if dancers were performing

the ārabhaṭī nrtya (II. 48). There are two other references to the ārabhaṭī style

of dancing: from the first, we know that this style was danced in the form of a

rāsa dance, in which the recakas were predominant. We are told further that there

are five characteristics125 of this dance: (1) mandalī nrtya, (2) recaka, (3) rāsa

rasa, (4) rabhasārabdha nartana, and (5) caṭulaśikhānartana.

According to the Nāṭyaśāstra, the ārabhaṭī is a style (vṛtti)126 and not a specific

dance: when the Harṣacarita refers to the ārabhaṭī the reference must be to the

character of the dance and the general impression of the dance and not to a parti-

cular form of dance. The mandalī nrtya which is mentioned is interpreted by

Samiikara as the hallīsaka,127 where a man stands surrounded by women in a

circle: we have a representation of it in the Bagh Caves, where a man stands in

the middle surrounded by women playing with little wooden sticks. The mandalī

nrtya, therefore, represents a social type of dancing and is obviously related

to the hallīsaka nrtya. The recaka is of three types,—kaṭī recaka (waist movement),

hasta recaka (hand movement) and grīvā recaka (neck movement). The words

recaka and recita often occur in the Nāṭyaśāstra, in the movement of the eye-

brows (NŚ, VIII. 119a-123a), in the movement of the neck (NŚ, VIII. 171-175),

in the nrtta hastas (NŚ, IX. 193), and in the movement of the waist (NŚ, IX.

244b-248a).128 The word recaka thus refers to the type of movement generally

used in dance, and Bharata talks of this movement in the context of those aṅgas

and upāṅgas which can be moved in all directions. The eyebrow recita is an excep-

tion, but the eyebrow has a special use in the manifestation of love. The rest,

i.e., the neck, the waist and the hands (or arms, to be more accurate) can have

free movements. These circular movements in the ārabhaṭī style made it very

effective to create a powerful impression. In the rāsarasa, we have again a reference

to the patterns formed, specially the floor patterns, rather than the physical move-

ments of the solo performers. According to Samiikara, the dance consists of the

formation of eight, sixteen, or thirty-two mandalas129 (circles). The circle is the

chief characteristic of the dance, and to this day the rāsa in any part of India

is fascinating for its circle formations of various kinds, e.g., the Gujarati rāsa

and the different types of garbā, as well as the mahārāsa variety of the Manipur

rāsa. We know that the mandalas formed in these group dances are of all the

four types of piṇḍibandha130 (group circle formation). We have, first, circle forma-

tions based on single chains or concentric circles; often they break up into the

latā bandha variety, where a number of radii revolve round a centre forming a

star-like pattern. Or again, a cyclic pattern might consist of several pairs grouped

round a centre holding each other's arms or beating time with sticks, thus evolving

concentric circles: a fine example of this type of piṇḍibandha may be seen in the dān-

dīyā rāsa of Kathiavara even today. The verve and vigour of this dance might

easily make it a dance of the ārabhaṭī style. The rabhasārabdha nartana generally

refers to the frenzied emotion and tempo of the dance.

202

Thus this ārabhaṭī dance to which Bāṇa refers consists of the formation of circles. Distinctly group and collective in character, it utilizes the recakas in its nṛtta portions and expresses vigorous emotion, enthusiasm or dynamism. The dance must have been characterized by a quick springing tempo, fast movements and a choreography of circle and group formations.131

In other descriptions in the Harṣacarita, the couple dancing of brothers and sisters (we have an earlier reference to it in the Ṛgveda) re-occurs: this is also a dancing of the social type. In Chapter IV we have a vivid description of the birth of Harṣa (125 ff.). The old maid servants of the palace dance, the noble ladies come out and perform different types of dance: the young and the old alike dance with mirth and pleasure. Those long out of practice also start dancing but above all the Sūdra maid servants take hold of the favourites of the kings and start dancing with them (IV. 130 ff.). The pratihārīs of the queen's chambers join the maid servants in a dance. The exact nature of this couple dancing is not mentioned and cannot be precisely determined; there is no exact term which is used here for couple dancing, but it is repeatedly said that they took each other by the arm and danced.

The word rāsakaṃandala occurs many times (IV. 130 ff.). This dance lays stress on tāla. It is said that the earth could scarcely bear the excitement and agitation caused by the movements of the feet (tālivacaracarāraṇacarana-kṣobham).

The instruments accompanying the dance are varied: there was the āliṅgya (a form of muraja), the mañjiu flute, the tantrī, the kāhala (a large drum), the pāṭaka, the metal instrument jhallarikā and of course the clapping with the hands. The commentary elucidates that all the four types of instruments,—tata, viṭata, susira and ghana—were used, and that the three types of laya—druta, madhya and vilambita—were also made use of. This indeed is a graphic description of the nṛtta done by the women of the court: they do not present any abhinaya, however, but the impressive description of this dance tells vividly of the different types of āṅgikābhinaya prevalent. The effect of their dance was such that the śṛṅgāra rasa was experienced by the spectators: their arms moved as if they were going to embrace the sun: they danced like the branches of the candana tree (sandalwood tree). Their pādahamsakas (anklet bells) were the tremors of the śṛṅgāra rasa,— and the expression on their faces was like the kumudinī (the water-lily); they evoked the bhāvas of madana, ānanda and portrayed the sentiments of anger (kopa) through the movements of the eyebrows and love through their graceful walking. The description is vivid, but it hardly uses any technical phrases in it, and most of this description of the eyebrows, eyes, shoulders, neck, head, feet, etc., is general where the poet seems to be giving an impression of the dance rather than a technical appreciation of it.

There is also a mention of another type of dance performed only by the ladies of the court with pitchers on their heads: they carry their pitchers round the village singing and dancing: the auspicious significance of pitchers is recognized from very early times, and continues to be accepted to this day.132 In the Yajurvedic ritual connected with the aśvamedha yajña, women carrying pitchers go round the sacrifice, stepping according to elaborate formulae. The mahā-vrata ceremony also had similar ritual.

The Harsaçarita refers to all these people dancing to tāla. This indicates that none of these dances were without rhythm and the basic discipline of tāla in dancing The concept of tāla is already present in the Rgveda: we see how it grows and develops in complexity to form an elaborate system of tāla unknown to many other countries. The women in the Harṣacarita sequence put on anklets (pāda hamsaka) (IV. p. 131) and dance to the mrdaṅga: the use of anklets for purposes of nrtta is mentioned earlier, too, but this is one of the first clear references to it: the word nūpura is used in a general sense in Aśvaghoṣa and Kālidāsa, but no-where does it indicate the use of anklets for purposes of dance: by the time of Bāṇa we find that the complexity of tāla must have given importance to the use of anklets. The use of anklets is also peculiar to the classical dance of our country: the more intricate and elaborate the tāla became, the greater was the necessity for anklets. Earlier, with the stress on abhinaya, anklets do not seem to have been so much in vogue.

Dancers, singers and musicians were not only respected individuals but also formed an essential part of society in Bāṇa's time; only at one place there is a warning against the extreme indulgence in these arts: the crook through music and dance can bring indiscipline and madness to the kingdom (IV. p 138). Bāṇa has a long list of friends, inclusive of ladies, poets, artists, craftsmen of all descrip-tion (Harṣacarita, I. 42 ff.). We learn of three distinct types of dancers. Tāṇdavaika, a young man, is described as a lāsaka133 dancer; the woman Harinikā is a nartakī; śikhaṇḍaka, performer of the bharatanāṭya, is called śailāli. The last name is obviously derived from Śilāli, the author of the nāṭa-sūtras, who is men-tioned by Pāṇini 131 It is probably also related to the śailīṣu of the Rgveda.135 The classical dancer is distinguished here from the nartakī and the lāsaka: the latter were professional dancers, but not perhaps adept in the theory and historical tradition of the dance and drama: the śailāli was the formally trained pupil of the dance. Bāṇa is very particular about making this distinction.

The accompanists of these dancers were the musicians, who were also listed among the friends of Bāṇa. There was the mrdaṅga-player (mārdan்gika), the flute-player (vāṁśika), the darahura-player who played on an earthen percussion instru-ment (ghaṭa vādhya) which must have been similar to the playing on the ghaṭa (pitcher) in the South today. This is a formidable list, but the vīṇā is conspicuous

by its absence here. Other instruments mentioned are the prayānna gūnjā, a marching drum, and various types of conch (śaṅkha). We also learn of a percussion instrument beaten by the hands, called the lambā pataha or tantrīpata-hikā (VIII. 207). Saṁkara interprets this as the tamtā, i.e., tablā,136 but it is hardly likely that it was the tablā in its present shape, for this was unknown to Indian musicians till the Mughals came. It must have been a mrdaṅga of a different variety.

The names lambā pataha or tantrī pataḥukā indicate that these instruments were drums hung round the neck by means of a cord.

The dress of the dancers was tight pajamas of the kind depicted in the dance scenes at Sāranātha and at Deogarh; this garment was called the svasthāna (II).137

Kādambarī

Bāṇa's Kādambarī is an equally rich source of music and dancing. Apsarās, kings, queens, ministers, damsels, courtesans, birds, peacocks, creepers all dance here at one stage or another. Bāṇa gives us a long list of the fourteen types of apsarās,138 tells us of the education of Prince Candrāpīḍa139 and gives us another long list of musical instruments140 and yet another list of the movements of minor limbs,141 besides describing the actual dance performances.

The parrot Vaiśampāyana is introduced as being well versed in the art of dancing and music; he has mastered the twenty-two śrutis of music; he has studied and composed poems, plays, romances (ākhyāna); he is a peerless connoisseur of all the varieties of musical instruments, such as the lute (vīnā), the flute (venu) and the drum (muraja); and he is proficient in the exhibition and critical appreciation of dancing (nṛtta prayogadarśanāmpuna).142

Śukanāsa is a learned man and his intellect has been refined by his having studied all the śāstras and the fine arts.143 Candrāpīḍa's education is most elaborate and he makes the ideal student for the "whole range of arts assembled in his mind as in a pure jewelled mirror." He gained the highest skill in language, logic, law and royal policy; in musical instruments such as the lute (vīnā), the flute (venu) and the drum (muraja); in the cymbals (kānsatāla), in the works and laws of dancing as laid down by Bharata;111 and in the science of music such as that of Nārada.145

The initiated spectator of the dance and the pupil of classical dancing were a recognized feature of this society. From the above references it is quite clear that dancing was not confined to women alone and that it constituted an essential feature of a prince's training. In festivities, dancing played an important part. At the birth of Candrāpīḍa everyone rejoiced and both the young and the old danced.146 This frenzied dancing is preceded and accompanied by the sound of several drums and many other musical instruments like the conch (śaṅkha) and

the dundubhi. The drums mentioned are the kāhala, the aṅkya, the auspicious paṭaha,

and, of course, the mrdaṅga. We have another long list of drums a little later,

where besides the above the mardala is also mentioned.147 In the festivities, not

only do the courtesans dance but also the deaf-mutes in groups; hunch-backs and

dwarfs and the bands who sing also start dancing. The accompaniment, in addi-

tion to the drums, comprises various mouth instruments (vidha mukhavādya).

All this dancing was perhaps not strictly classical in character, and the poet pun-

ctiliously uses the word nrtta rather than lasya or nrtya or its any other variation.

The youth of Candrāpiḍa increased the prince's beauty as 'a peacock's tail,

which is a fit instrument for exhibiting various graceful dances, increases the beauty

of the peacock'.148 Here the word lāsya is used instead of nrtta, and the idea of a

graceful (sukumāra) dancing is indicated. The dancing of peacocks is referred to

in another place,149 where the word used is nrtya and not lāsya.

In similes and metaphors we often find dancing mentioned. The creepers

are given instruction in dancing by the wind, an image we often come across in

Kālidāsa's works.150 King Candrāpiḍa's ear-rings were set to dancing by the

numerous fly-whisks, which were being waved on both sides.151 In a description

of General Śabara, we are told that the Niṣādas (a wild tribe) followed the general

'as the arrangement of notes in the art of music'.152 In another description of the

palace of Candrāpiḍa, the unfurled banners are compared to a dramatic piece

'which is embellished with clearly marked pātakas and aṅkus (episodes and acts).153

Like a music hall (saṅgīta bhavana) it (the palace) had tabors (drums, mrdaṅga)

placed in varıous places for practice.154 As people in the palace took delight in the

performances of actors it looked as if they were the family of Raghu delighted by

the virtues of Rāma's brother Bharata.

Later, there is a beautiful comparison: "In it (the palace) was tasted the plea-

sure of various sounds and sentiments, it was like a musical instrument, the lute

(vīnā), from which is obtained the pleasure of various sounds and melodies." At

another place the wind is the dancing master of the creepers.155

These references in the Kādambarī do not give us an idea of any special style

of dancing: and there is nothing comparable with the mention of the ārabhaṭī dance

in the Harṣacarita. However, eye glances, movements of the eyeballs, and move-

ments of the eyebrows are often described in the terminology of Bharata, besides

the mention of his name several times (p. 88 etc).

Thus viṣādaśūnya drṣṭi156 is here used for fear (NŚ, VIII, 63 and 70). The

movement of the eyebrows is mentioned,157 but this is a more generalized reference.

Smitāvalokita glance and kuñcita eyebrows and glance are also often mentioned.158

We have a reference to lalitahasta also.

We have other phrases like apāñgavikṣepa (p. 275), gītakalāvinyāsa (p. 57), saṅgīta as a comprehensive term including vocal and instrumental music and dancing (p. 15), and nartakengāyati for singing and dancing together (p. 337), and śṛṅgāra nṛtya for expressing feelings of love through āṅgikābhinaya (gesticulation, p. 359) and lalita lāsya for graceful dancing to the accompaniment of mṛdaja, etc. (p. 371).

The whole atmosphere of the Kādamabārī is wrought with the spirit of dancing and graceful movements, but full-fledged classical dance recitals are few. By the time Bāṇa wrote, however, the entire classical tradition of the Nātyaśāstra had become an integral part of the social heritage and the community dancing employed a great deal of the technique of the classical dancing.

Nāṭya Literature

Sanskrit drama has often been severely criticized for its lack of action and for the undue importance it gives to dance and music. Keith thinks that the Sanskrit dramatist used dance for ornamental purposes.159 Today it is generally accepted that Keith misread Sanskrit drama, and that dance and music do form an integral part of this drama. Indeed Sanskrit drama devoid of its dance, its operatic quality, its āṅgikābhinaya (which is none other than the abhinaya of the contemporary classical dance), loses its fundamental character. The dances are not appendages or appurtenances of songs and dances we find interspersed in the social dramas of the contemporary Indian screen. Nor are they introduced to divert the attention of the audience from a serious theme and thus provide relief. They are, instead, rather like the Fool in the Shakespearean drama: like him they continually stress the main theme and, more often than not, a dance recital is a turning point in the plot. Thus it is that the demon appears while Damodara and his cowherds perform the hallīsaka nṛtta in Bhāsa's Bālacarita (Act III). The King in the Māla-vikāgnimitra is able to see Mālavikā only through her dance recital. In the Vikramorvaśīya, Urvaśī's dance recital in the court of Indra and the lapse in her acting results in her descent upon the earth. In the Priyadarśikā, queen Vāsavadattā instructs the supposed daughter of Vindhyaketu in dancing and the other arts but the plot takes a turn when Āraṇyakā plays the part of Vāsavadattā in a play dealing with the love of Vāsavadattā and Vatsarāja (Act III). In the Ratnāvalī it is the painting scene which is a turning point in a similar manner. Examples could be multiplied to show how dance recitals are not mere ornaments, but an essential part of the structure of this drama.

From these dramas, we come to know of many types of dancing, both social and classical. There are group dances and solo recitals; frequently there is an opera of some kind. Often opinions on drama, dance and music are discussed, which are no layman's opinions: they are usually in a technical language, convincing us of the existence of the initiated spectators of these arts. The dances themselves are

performed according to rules prescribed by Bharata and we know of the quality

of the dance through the judgement of other characters. Dance descriptions in

similes and metaphors continue to occur: we have examples of āngikābhinaya,

sometimes, when the abhinaya must have been performed to a verse recited either

by the character himself or herself, but more often in stage directions, which in-

dicate stylized gesticulation of both the āṅgika and the sāttvika kind. Stage direc-

tions where gesticulation is used according to the nātyadharmī convention provides

us with a clue to the āṅgikābhinaya in these dramas, where the language of gestures

more than made up for the absence of scenery and realistic stage property.

In Bhāsa's Bālacarita (Act III) Krṣṇa goes to the woods with his friends,

cowherds and maidens: they perform the hallīsaka dance to the accompaniment

of drums.160 The dance refers to a group formation, again of the rāsa category,

which is vividly described in the Harivaṃśa. The Mahābhārata, too, knows of such

a dance in the festival of Indra Maha (Indramahā) (Ādi Parva, 63.17 and 57.21):

it resembled the may-pole dance,161 and was replaced by Giri Maha (the mountain

worship).162 A similar dance is mentioned in Act II of Bhāsa's Pañcarātra, asso-

ciated no doubt with the ritual dance of the winter solstice in the Mahāvrata rite.

It is also possible that a dance on the occasion of an eclipse is meant 163 In the

Abhiṣekanātaka the gandharvas and the apsarās sing praises of Viṣṇu.

An analysis of the Mṛcchakaṭika shows that the author of this play has made

a great advance on the plays of Bhāsa: it is obvious that stage techniques have

become more defined. The Mṛcchakaṭika is also a remarkable example of the

successful use of both the nātyadharmī and the lokadharmī conventions.161

Dance plays an important part in the play: the heroine is the courtesan par

excellence, praised by all, desired by many. She does not dance during the play,

but from innumerable references we know that she is an artist of great calibre. In

the first act we learn from the Viṭa that Vasantasenā is trained in dancing: she is

skilled in performance (nṛtya prayoga) and her feet swiftly change their position

(I. 17).165 She enters like a frightened deer, with her eyes moving in every direction

and a look of bewilderment on her face: she is being pursued. Vasantasenā's flight,

without the aid of lights and sports could be portrayed only through the actor's

skill in dancing.166

In Act IV,167 the Vidūṣaka enters the place of the courtesan to find the ladies

singing and dancing; these women play on the kānsya tāla cymbals, the mṛdaṅga,

the vaṅśī which sounds like the hum of bees, the vīṇā which is played by the touch

of finger nails. They are being trained in the art of dance and are rehearsing a drama

full of the śṛṅgāra rasa. Here nṛtya and nāṭya are referred to separately: (nartyante

nāṭyam pathyante sasṛṅgāram). We may justifiably conclude that the practice and

learning of dancing was clearly distinguished from that of nāṭya or drama.

208

The palace of the courtesans is not the only place where singing and dancing are witnessed. The hero Cārudatta is also fond of the arts of music and dance: in Act III he has just returned from a musical concert at his friend Rebhila's place: his comment on it is in a highly technical language, indicative of his initiated and critical appreciation of these arts. He is a true rasika and sahrdaya: reminiscing he exclaims: "The song was informed by the moods (bhāvas) now passionate (rakta), now sweet (madhura), now calm (sama), and now languishing and graceful (lalita); it seemed the lovely voice of my hidden love." (III. 4-5). Besides this he uses the following musical terms: low progression (savara-samikrama), the high-pitched crescendo (tāra) of the scales (varna), modes (mūrccchana) deviation from true note (helā)168 and rāga.

Later, in the same Act, Śarvilaka enters Cārudatta's house as a burglar: inside he finds a number of musical instruments. He mentions the mrdaṅga, the dardura, (a kind of flute), the vāṁśi, the panava (a kind of small drum), and the vīṇā. He exclaims: "Oh is this the house of a teacher of music?" The word he uses is nāṭyā-cārya; perhaps, teachers of dance, drama or music were all called nāṭyācāryas, and the three arts were considered allied (III. 18 ff.).169

From the prologue of the drama, we learn that the author knew the Rgveda, the Sāmaveda and the arts practised by the courtesans (vaisikī kalā).170 The social status of the courtesans and the acceptance of their arts by the public are clear from this. The fine arts seem to have definitely passed into the hands of courtesans by this time. These courtesans were looked upon with respect. The learned authors also took training in these arts.

The Mrcchakatika meets the approval of the modern mind and the western critics of drama, precisely because the spoken word is important here, and there is "action" in the modern sense of the word: bhāvas (moods) are not described, and with a few incongruities like the bullock carts appearing on the stage, the play `is easy to adapt to modern stage conditions. Examples of āṅgikābhinaya are, however, by no means lacking in this play; the author of the Mrcchakatika must have been familiar with the rules of āṅgikābhinaya and well acquainted with the Nāṭya-śāstra. He frequently employs the instrument of āṅgikābhinaya to great advantage, even though stage directions for these effects are often missing. We know that the visions of a stormy night, of house being broken into, and of carts chasing each other, could only be produced through the language of gestures.

In Act I, Cārudatta and the Vidūṣaka enter the stage and are supposed to be inside the house: then enters Vasantasenā, followed by Śakāra and the others: the Viṭa and Śakāra go on speaking of Vasantasenā up to Verse 29; the Viṭa continually describes her movements. Her eyes are frightened and her eyeballs move around in katākṣa. She is like a silken garment fluttering in the breeze. Vasantasenā's

LITERATURE AND DANCING

14

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CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

enacting of utter fright and running precedes the Viṭa's commentary on her movements: had she spoken the words herself and had it been in a different mood, it would have become the sucā type of abhinaya (NŚ, XXII. 43). Similarly, Act III, where Śarvilaka breaks into Cārudatta's house by cutting a hole in the wall, is an excellent example in āṅgikābhinaya. It is possible that a wall was depicted here by the use of a stage prop, thus dividing the stage into two, but it is much more likely that through gestures the actor depicted entering the house, seeing the inmates sleeping. He takes the casket of jewels and walks out of the inner zone, thus representing his coming out again: meanwhile the audience can presumably see the inmates sleeping. Cārudatta discovers the theft: they all talk of the hole. It is possible that this hole may not have been actually presented in certain acted versions of the play. In Act IV, Vasantasenā is indoors and looks out of a window, (the window being represented through hand gestures)171 to see Madanikā talking to her lover. Later in the same Act the Vidūṣaka enters the palace of Vasantasenā and of its seven quadrangles is a fine instance of āṅgikābhinaya. With steps and words, he tells us of the transit from one quadrangle to another. In Act V, the atmosphere of a great storm raging is created by means of verses accompanied by suitable action both by Vasantasenā and the Viṭa.

Examples of this kind could be multiplied. But none of these passages, where āṅgikābhinaya supports the vācika, are in the nature of descriptions of poses, postures and dance movements. It is only in Kālidāsa that we come across description of this type. In the Mṛcchakaṭika, a visual image is created through words which must have been supported by appropriate gestures of the hands and other limbs. They, however, do not attain the technical excellence of Kālidāsa's plays, and are comparatively of a simple kind.

There are stage directions in the Mṛcchakaṭika which give us specific instances of āṅgikābhinaya. In Act I, Vasantasenā enacts the taking off of her anklets (nūpura), and the groping with her hands for the wall and door of Cārudatta's house (I. 37ff.). The āṅgikābhinaya for this would be as follows: The night would be indicated by sūcīmukha hands facing each other and held on the right side; the removal of armlets by ardhacandra hastas; the anklets by the same hastas; the door would be indicated by tripatākā hastas and entry into the house with a patākā hasta. The entire scene of Vasantasenā being pursued, her groping along the wall, her finding and entering the door would be a piece of āṅgikābhinaya. The lamp she puts out may actually have been on the stage; if not, then it would have been indicated by haṁsāsya hands.172 The lamp may also have been indicated by the sūcīmukha hasta (NŚ, IX. 67). In Act II, Vasantasenā enters in a love-lorn condition; the lovesickness here is described as utkaṇṭhā: this is equivalent to Bharata's unmāda, one of the stages of love in a woman, and would be represented by a fixed gaze, occasional deep sighs, absent-mindedness.173 Vasantasenā is certainly absent-minded;

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she does not remember what she has said and knits her eyebrows (bhrūksespa) to

answer her friend: this is the utksepa movement of the eyebrows of the Nātyaśāstra

(VIII. 123-24).

In the same Act, the Māthura and the gamester appear pursuing Saṃvāhaka.

Saṃvāhaka after striking several attitudes disguises himself by posing as an idol:

the depth of the stage is utilized wonderfully here, because the Saṃvāhaka enters

the temple walking backwards (II. 2 ff.). Saṃvahaka, who can see his pursuers,

must have adopted a perfect statue-like stance when the two entered. The entrance

must also have been shown by gestures: two kartariṃukha hands would represent

the gopuram of the temple (NŚ, IX. 42) and patākā hastas would be used to denote

entry. The subsequent playing of the dice and the thrashing of Saṃvāhaka must

have been done here realistically and not through gesticulation; for otherwise the

realistic vitality of the play may have been altogether lost. But when the beating

leads to bleeding, the bleeding and the fainting would again be shown by gesticula-

tion.

Saṃvāhaka makes good his escape and the venue shifts from the temple to

Vasantasenā's house, but without a change of act or scene. Vasantasenā is inside

the house, Māthura and the gamester pursuing Saṃvāhaka are outside the house

and Madanikā talking to Saṃvāhaka is also outside the house, where she has been

sent by Vasantasenā, Saṃvāhaka being offered a seat is inside the house; all

these groupings are shown in the same scene The ease with which this is accom-

plished could only be possible on the Sanskrit stage. The actor merely walked from

one part of the stage to another, with hands in the haṃsāsya position to indicate

an exit from a building to the outside or in the patākā position to indicate entry

into a house.171 The house itself is suggested by using samyukta patākā hands.

Even in a play so full of realism as the Mṛcchakatika we see that āṅgikābhinaya and

stage conventions play an important part: any inaccuracy or shoddiness in the

actor's movements would result in ruining a great deal of the visual effect of the

play.

In Act III, Cārudatta's house is suggested in a similar manner. After Cāru-

datta and the Vidūṣaka have enacted sleeping, Sarvilaka enters the stage as he is

outside the house; he indicates the house with outstretched hands; further,

through abhinaya, he depicts the making of a hole in the wall. With gosti-

culation alone he works industriously to make a breach and, having made it,

enters the house. A very skilled and competent actor must have acted this

sequence, for the demands made on the skill of an actor here are, indeed,

exacting. The burglary scene, from the receipt of the casket from the

Viduṣaka after warming his hands to the description of his prowess, swift-

ness and agility to his standing like a pillar, is a characteristic example of

āṅgikābhinaya.

In Act IV, where Vasantasenā calls for a carriage, a chariot may, perhaps, really have appeared on the stage to take Madanikā. The stage direction does not, as would be the case if the carriage was merely suggested, call for gesticulatory action similar to that indicated in other places; instead, it merely indicates 'entrance of servant with carriage' (praveśya sapravāhana). We may presume that the chariot was a piece of stage property. Bharata lays down two stage rules regarding the use of such props on the stage. In the chapter called (Daśarūpalakṣaṇam, i.e., XVIII) he lays down that a chariot, an elephant, a horse or a palace should not be presented on the stage: they should instead be represented or suggested by means of likeness, costume, gait or movements.175 In the chapter dealing with costume, make-up, etc. (ahāryābhinaya), we are told that many kinds of accessories (upakarana) are needed for the theatre and that an imitation of any object which exists in this world full of living beings may be shown on the stage but that "palaces and vehicles, though these are accessories (for the performance) cannot be produced for the stage realistically." (NŚ, Kāvyamālā, XXI. 192). After this general principle

but not in the nāṭyadharmī tradition some of these things may be produced, armours....hills, palaces, elephants, aerial cars and houses should be made with sliced bamboo and then such frames should be covered with painted cloth," palm products may also be used instead of cloth.176 In the Mrcchakatika it is possible that an imitation of a chariot was produced on the stage.

Acts IV and V are full of descriptions, first by the Vidūṣaka who describes the various quadrangles and his transit from one to the other; this he depicts with his hands and gait; and then by Vasantasenā who goes out as an abhisārikā, brilliantly attired, to meet Cārudatta (V. 18ff.). Her descriptions were surely preceded and followed by hand gestures: the expression of her face and gait must also have suited the occasion. It is also possible that some musical sounds suggesting thunder and rain were used177 but these, too, would be implemented by hand gestures and facial expressions. An upward movement of the arm with patākā hasta, palm down and sloping forward slightly, would indicate the wind and storm (NŚ, IX. 23); the sūcīmukha hasta with the fore-finger up would indicate lightning (NŚ, IX. 66); and general movements of svastika hastas would create the atmosphere of clouds, thunder and lightning.

After some trouble Vasantasenā finds her lover. She exhibits the śṛṅgāra bhāva and Cārudatta displays pleasure at her touch (sparśa) (V. 46 ff.). If the play was performed in the nāṭyadharmī tradition, it is hardly likely that the actors embraced each other, for these acts were strictly forbidden on the stage.178 Instead, the touch would be shown by narrowing the eyes, raising the eyebrows, and touching the shoulder and the cheek (NŚ, XXII. 77b-78a). Touch might also be shown by a pair of utsaṅga hands (NŚ, IX. 139) and an embrace suggested by a pair of kaṭakavardhamānaka hastas (NŚ, IX. 136).

In Act VIII, the strangling of Vasantasenā by Śakāra is also portrayed through gesticulation. The Buddhist mendicant suggests the heap of leaves and the removal of the heap by gesticulation: the stage directions here throw considerable light on the theatrical conventions of the day and show how well the language of gesture was understood by the audience.

In Kālidāsa we find a crystallization of these conventions: a close study of the stage technique of his plays and the part played by dancing therein leaves us in no doubt about the character of the Sanskrit theatre.

By the time of Kālidāsa, not only has the technique of words become more polished, chiselled and refined, but taste in drama, dance and music has developed and become more critically rigorous and academically exacting. References to dancing, nrtta and nrtya abhinaya (āṅgika) found in Kālidāsa hardly ever deviate from the rules of Bharata: he is always following the learned tradition of the school-poet, the perfect stage-craftsman, the professionally dramatist rather than merely the poet. His descriptions of dancers and dancing are accurate observations and critical evaluations of the art, and are, therefore, significant.

All Kālidāsa's dramas deal with dancers, but in the Mālavikāgnimitra we have a unique reference, which is most valuable for our purpose. The dance recital we see here is a perfectly executed dance number by Mālavikā; it is classical dance at its best. We are not only told of the different types of nrtya and abhinaya she presents but are also given a critical evaluation of the dance performance by an objective spectator in the person of the Parivrājikā.

The drama opens with Bakulāvalikā's going to guru Gaṇadāsa to enquire how Mālavikā has progressed in learning the dance, 'chalikā': in the subsequent acts we learn more not only about this particular composition, but also about dance in general, and see how accurately this dance training conforms to the theoretical canons of dancing. Gaṇadāsa sets the tone of the academic dancing in his first speech: "Our pride in nāṭya is not false for even the sages regard dancing with veneration; the gods praise it as an agreeable and delightful ritual which satisfies the eye: for the sake of this art Śiva caused the left side of his body to become feminine (i.e., divided himself into two, an oblique reference to the two styles, tāṇḍava and lāsya): it has the three qualities (guṇas) of sattva, raja and tama: its appeal is universal and it gratifies the diverse tastes of people." (I. 4).

The words tāṇḍava and lāsya are not used, but, in the conception of Śiva dividing himself into two, the idea of two categories of dancing is inherent. In stating that dance imitates and displays various emotions and actions of people in different situations, Gaṇadāsa is once again restating the secular and educational aim of dancing and drama. This verse immediately reminds us of Bharata's own

explanation of the truc character and significance of this art stated in the first

chapter of the Nātyaśāstra. Here Brahma tells the dānavas: “This play is not merely

for your pleasure or the pleasure of the devas, but exhibits bhāva (moods) for all

the three worlds” (NŚ, I. 108). Or again, “the drama as I have devised, is an immi-

tation of actions and conducts of people, it is rich in various emotions and it depicts

different situations.” (NŚ, I. 113-14). “Drama is that which accords with the

nature of the world. It consists in movements of the body and the other arts of

expressive gesture (abhinaya). The theatre is such as to afford a means of enter-

tainment in the world and place of audience for the Vedas, for philosophy . . . .and

other matters.” (NŚ, I. 117 ff.).

Ganadāsa's views on dance and drama are those of a learned scholar. He

knows that art is not a commodity to be sold, but a discipline to be attained through

the severest training. He is not afraid of academic discussion, for the profession

of a teacher for him is not merely a means of livelihood (Mālavikāgnimitra, I. 17).

To this learned teacher of dance the good pupil is a source of great joy and satis-

faction. Praising Mālavikā, he says: “She repeats her lessons so well that the role

of the teacher and the taught is reversed.” (I. 5). He is talking specially of her talent

for portraying emotions, for he uses the word bhāva;179 for dancing he uses the

word prayoga. The latter word plays an important part in this demonstration of

dance and gives us a significant clue to the opinions held on the subject. The Pari-

vrājikā says in her observations: “No theoretical discussion will help, for the Nātya-

śāstra is primarily a practical art (prayoga-pradhāna)” (I. 15 ff.).180 Ganadāsa's

pupil is indeed so talented that the master is anxious to make her perform, even

though she has not practised for long. He says later in the act: “When artistic

training is imparted to an apt pupil (supātra), it transforms itself into a triumph of

achievement, just as ordinary water, when it falls into the shell of a pearl oyster in

the ocean, transforms itself into a priceless gem” (Act. I. 6).

After much discussion between the two teachers, Mālavikā is presented on

the stage and the Buddhist nun Parivrājikā becomes the judge. The emphasis is on

the word prayoga, the teachers and the judge again and again assert that nrtya

is a practical art. Ganadāsa humbly submits that he has learnt this art of gesti-

culation from great masters and has also given performances of it. Haradatta

in his turn wishes that his training both in the theory (śāstra) and the practice

(prayoga) should be judged (I. 12 ff.).

The Parivrājikā having given her verdict that an assessment of the art can

only be made by witnessing a performance, the performance of the beautiful

Mālavikā begins. It is prefaced, however, by a few significant remarks by the

Parivrājikā which throw light on the nature of classical dance performances of

the time. She wants the performer to come without excessive make-up and costume,

so that her movements can be clearly seen. She wants to see the movements of

all her limbs, and her abhinaya is to be clear and precise (sarvāṅgasausthava). This

brings out a subtle but important difference between the classical dance, which

became the courtesan's profession and monopoly, and the classical dance, which

continued to be an important part of the educational curricula. The pupil, the

disciple in the art, was not to appear too decked up in tinsel and ornament; she

was to portray the feelings and emotions through āṅgikābhinaya rather than through

the art of make-up and costume (nepathya and āharya). Sausthava of the limbs is

an important technical phrase from Bharata; he refers to sausthava at various

places, and defines it "as the completely natural position of the limbs, when the

person is neither too upright nor bent, and is at ease; when the waist and the ears

as well as the elbow, the shoulder and the head are in their natural positions (sama)

and the chest is slightly raised." Those performing the exercises in ṇṛtta aṅghāras

must be careful of this (NŚ, Kāvyamālā, X. 89b and 91-93). The Parivrājikā's in-

junction to Mālavikā is, therefore, significant. The sausthava of the limbs is indica-

tive of the accuracy of training, and trappings would necessarily conceal it. Even

today, in contemporary classical dance, we can observe that the dance loses its

charm and restraint the moment this sausthava is lost sight of; negligence in this

respect leads to indiscipline in movement, and the body bends where it is not

necessary and desirable. Mālavikā then appears on the stage with all her limbs in

the sausthava position (sarvāṅgasausthava); a dance performance must begin from

this position of pose, complete control and balance. The Parivrājikā, in her evalua-

tion of the two gurus, had already said, that 'the true guru must not only be a

good performer but also be a good teacher' (I. 16). And now the real test of these

gurus is the performance of the pupil: 'Mālavikā must dance the difficult composi-

tion of Sarmisṭhā named the Catuspāda Chalika' (II. 4) The mṛdaṅga (puṣkara)

sounds in the background, the peacocks mistake it for the thundering of the clouds,

and the sound that emerges is the madhurama svara mavūrī. Against this congenial

setting Mālavikā performs her dance.

We are told that she sings an upagāna and then does the abhinaya to the

song. K. V. Ramachandran describes this abhinaya in lyrical and ecstatic terms:

"Mālavikā exteriorizes this inner agitation by a warm gale and listless head lowered

to side, life contracted in pain and a variety of glances tender and pathetic, pupils

languid, lids weary and drooping punctuated by sighs and tears followed by slow

play of eyebrows and the flicker of a smile and opening eyes of wonder and sweet

breath encouraged by the throbbing eye, passing on to the distant eyes of reverie

and vacant ones of perplexity, ending in the unmitigated despair of the final appeal

in the last pada of the verse, gliding from one exquisite posture to another, feet

stepping gently, wrists curling and uncurling like flowers as she gestures, all this

complex ensemble was called abhinava."181

The abhinaya is significant for its perfection and everyone applauds the

performance. The composition and structure of the verse to which she dances is

the catuspāda and the dance ‘chalika’ is described by the commentator Kāṭayavama

as the dance in which the dancer, while acting the part of another, succeeds in

expressing his or her own real feelings.

Mālavikā does the abhinaya according to the proper rasa (yathārasam rasān-

ukūlam abhinayati), which is śṛṅgāra. After a successful performance, she stands

in an exquisitely beautiful pose, called the āyata: the king is irresistibly infatuated

and his description of the pose is not only the lover’s response to the loved one but

also a correct description of a dance pose (II. 6). One hand resting on the hip,

the other relaxed creeper-wise, eyes downcast, toes playing on the ground collect-

ing the scattered flowers, in half or three-fourth profile, she presents a picture

more captivating and beautiful than the full moon. The Nāṭyaśāstra describes the

āyata posture as a sthāna for women: one foot is sama, the other is tryaśra (obli-

quely placed) (NŚ, XII. 159b-160). This posture is used for the first appearance on

the stage, observing carefully, thinking and dissimulation, etc. (NŚ, XII. 163b-164a).

The Parivrājikā’s learned comment follows the king’s ecstatic description.

Mālavikā’s acting was successful, for she was able to replace her own personality

by that of Sarmiṣṭhā’s as though possessed by her; she had thus been able to inject

the audience with her feelings. The Parivrājikā also uses two technical terms śākhā

and sūcī (II. 8). Śākhā was a school of dance that employed certain stylized arm

movements, as seen to this day in some traditions of Bāli and Jāvā. The Nāṭyaśāstra

defines the sūcī as a technique which conveys and foreshadows, through gestures

and temperament, the meaning of a sentence before it is sung or recited (NŚ,

Kāvyamālā, XXII. 43). This kind of representation is done mainly through dance

and song. If the same technique is employed to recapitulate past events, whether

by mere allusion to a past event or by the portrayal of the whole episode through

abhinaya, it is called aṅkura (NŚ, Kāvyamālā, XXII. 44). Kālidāsa often indulges

in word-play with these terms, sūcī aṅkura and śākhā, using their literal and

technical meanings; and we meet them again in Śākuntalā, when Śakuntalā

pauses to beckon Anusuyā in Act I.182 She bends down with the gesture of the

sūcī hands extending down as though to extract the thorn from a sūcī foot and

stretches herself with a toss of the arms as though to disentangle her garment from

imaginary branches : this sequence is an excellent example of sūcī abhinaya eloquent

of the state of her feelings. This sūcī becomes aṅkura when the king in Act II re-

capitulates it. Here, too, there is word-play on these technical terms (II. 12).183

Actually, a great deal of the abhinaya in Sanskrit drama could be classified under

the categories of sūcī śākhā and aṅkura, for the accurate descriptions by characters

of each other and sometimes of themselves are often preceded or followed by

physical gesticulation and are thus like the song accompaniment in contempo-

rary dancing. We shall examine these examples later.

Nor is the Viduṣaka an ignorant spectator; his light-hearted comment on

the priya of the Brāhmaṇas is as academically sound as any of the earlier learned comments on Mālavikā's dance. The Parivrājikā rightly says that 'the question is very appropriate and knowledgeable' (II. 9 ff.).

The Mālavikāgnimitra provides other important examples of space manipulation and zonal treatment of the stage, as also significant stage directions for āṅgikābhinaya. We shall examine them later: for the moment suffice it to say that the dance recital of Mālavikā is the most finished and refined presentation of the classical dance technique. This classical dance was distinctly different from the popular group dances of the time and was rather like contemporary dance performances in which the dancer is a solo performer depicting the emotions of various characters. Further, this dance was a combination of foot work, hand movements, eye movements, expressions, etc., all done to the accompaniment of song and tāla.

Vikramorvaśīya

We have no other instances of specific dance recitals in Kālidāsa comparable with Mālavikā's; nor do we find another instance of such detailed description within the play itself. The Vikramorvaśīya, however, refers to a play in which, at the command of Lord Indra, the heavenly dancer Urvaśī takes part. This command is conveyed to Urvaśī while she sports with the king in the pleasure-garden. The play is described as having the eight rasas. These actresses of Indra's court have been trained by Bharata himself (II. 17). (Later we learn that the theme was the marriage of Lakṣmī.) Incidentally, we gather from this reference that in Kālidāsa's day Bharata was credited with having listed only eight rasas in nāṭya and not nine: presumably the śānta rasa had not yet been accepted as a clearly defined and independent rasa.184 In Act III, from the conversation of the pupils of Bharata, Gālava and Pallava, we learn how the audience reacted to this play, called the Lakṣmī-Svayamvara. The lyrics for this play were composed by Sarasvatī herself and the audience was completely absorbed in the portrayal of different rasas. Urvaśī, in the part of Lakṣmī, gave herself away by the fatal mistake of saying 'Pururava' instead of 'Puruṣottama'—an unforgivable lapse for the actress who must completely annihilate herself and rise above personal emotion. The celestial dancer's fault brings upon her the wrath of the god; to expiate she must descend to earth and bear a child to the king, love for whom caused her to err.

There are no other dance recitals in the plays of Kālidāsa but, as in his poetry, so also in his plays, there are descriptions, similes and metaphors which tell us of the widespread knowledge and popularity of this art in Kālidāsa's time. In the Kumārasambhava, the trees dance with the coming of Vasanta (III. 26), and the aśoka trees blossom with the touch of lovely maidens. In the Vikramor-

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

vaśīya the madness of the love-possessed king makes him see birds, trees and animals dance.

In Act II, the king sees in the wind a lover who makes both the mādhvī and the kundana creepers happy: the breeze (pavana) makes the kundalatā dance. The word Kāldāsa uses here is lāsya (II. 4); it is obviously used as a synonym for nrtya. In Act IV, the demented king goes round asking every natural object and animals asking them if they have seen Urvaśī. The kalpa-tree dances, the bees provide the song (gītam), the cuckoo (kokilā) provides instrumental music like the tūrya and the wind makes the new and tender leaves of these trees vibrate as if dancing in various ways (IV. 12). The idea of orchestration we have observed earlier: we have here another distinct image, one which becomes increasingly common and conventional. The king sees the dark clouds that form overhead and he addresses his question to them. All nature takes part in the magnificent dance performance: the shadow of the clouds is the physical form of the dancer, the waves that rise are the hands and arms moved by the wind: the thunder is the śankha, the hamsas which move are the nūpura of the feet of the dancer; the herds of elephants are the blue garments of the dancer; the blue lotuses are the garlands; and the movement of the waves is the rhythm. Here we have an image of the dance complete with elaborate ornamentation.

Apart from these similes, metaphors and references to dancing in Kālidāsa's dramas, there is an aspect of his art, which is indistinguishable from the abhinaya of the contemporary Indian dancing and which distinguishes it from the tradition of realism on the stage. The result of this technique is the easy flow of movement on the stage and an impression of lyrical fluidity. Act IV of the Vikramorvaśīya provides us with an excellent example of this essential operatic quality.

There is background music and recitation only to enable the actors to conjure up images of mountains, trees and rivers through āṅgikābhinaya. Two friends, Sahajanyā and Citralekhā, enter the stage, wailing over the fate of Urvaśī. The first two verses tell us of their emotional state. In fact, the tone of the entire scene is set by these two verses which must have been sung (IV. 1-2). There is little conversation, and before they depart, the second verse is repeated like a refrain from the background, and the fourth one is recited, to which they make their exit (IV. 4). The friends are the swans, and the king is the elephant longing for his beloved. The king then appears in a love-frenzied state and once again the atmosphere is created by the background verse, which describes the mental state of the king. All this is followed by a lovely bit of aṅkura and sūci abhinaya, when the king addresses clouds, plants and rivers, mistaking them sometimes for demons and sometimes for his beloved. Here is an example of the nātyadharmī convention at its purest: the atmosphere is gradually built up through words and, what is

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more, through movement to give us a vivid impression of the king's emotional frenzy. The stage directions support the verse: the king bends his knees, turns and twists around and addresses sometimes with raised arm the clouds and the heavens; at other times his hands are in anjali hasta: he expresses himself through a series of dance movements These movements are performed to varying metrical forms of poetry set to different melodies, rhythms, and rendered in different tempo. His impassioned state is presented on the stage through movement and static poses and through the recitation of verses from the background183 (IV. 19 and 23 ff ) The stage directions of this act shall be taken up separately, for they are precise and accurate: they tell us of how far he moved and in which direction, where he knelt and where he stood up to portray the meaning of these verses: the background verses coming like refrains go on telling us of the elephant yearning for his beloved.

The Vikramorvasíya, however, still does not give us an insight into the exact nature and quality of āngikābhunava every time this bit has to be re-created, it makes demands on the originality and imagination of the dancer or the director presenting it. The presentation is inconceivable without stylized dancing; the precise nature of the interpretation depends greatly on the talent and calibre of the individual artist.

The play has come down to us in two recensions: the northern and the southern. S. P. Pandit considers the interpretations (Pandit's edition, Preface, pp. 8–9, Kale's edition, notes, p. 92) of the northern edition. The passages referred to are in Apabhramśa and Prākṛta; these passages, however, contain some stage directions which are important for our purpose: they contain references to certain rāgas and lavas and to a number of dance postures. The following musical compositions are referred to: āksiptikā,186 which is a kind of a song sung while an actor is approaching the stage and is accompanied by dancing and the beating of tāla with the hands. Dvipadī is another kind of song, perhaps, based on the Prākṛta dvipadikhanda metre. This metre is of four kinds, viz., śuddha, khanda, mātrā and sampūrṇa.

Jambhālikā is yet another kind of song in which each line is sung twice and no pause is allowed between the chorus and the next line. Khandadhārā is both a kind of dance and a tune in music. Carcarī is both a song and a dance, and we again come across it in the Karṇapurañjari: as a song it is a strain, sung by the actor in an emotional state in a high-pitched voice, in either the fast or the medium laya. The Saṅgītaratnākara also mentions this as a metre and a musical composition (IV. 292–93). Bhinmaka is the name of a particular rāga: khandaka or khandikā is a particular composition sung with gestures.

Carcari as a mode of dance is explained by the Bhāvaprakāśa: it is used specially in the trotaka: khuraka is another kind of dance performed to five cymbals, with a rāga sung in fast and medium tempo.

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Kuṭilikā and mallaghaṭī are two other types of dances. The kuṭilikā is done without rāga or song accompaniment and obviously belongs to the nrtta variety: it is a type of tāṇḍava dancing as it is performed in the ardhamattaḷī. The ardhamattalī is a karaṇa of Bharata (NŚ, IV. 88b-89a) and is described by the commentator somewhat differently from Bharata. In the mallaghaṭī all the three types of laya are used.

Gaḍitaka is yet another type of dance which uses abhinaya and nrtya both. Besides these a number of dance poses and postures etc. are referred to: caturasraka is a sthāna, and so is ardhacaturasraka. We have here a long list of music and dance compositions.

Abhijñāna Śākuntala

In the Abhijñāna Śākuntala a similar atmosphere exists where the flights from earth to heaven occur through the gesture language. At the very beginning, we have Duṣyanta entering the stage as if riding a chariot: dummy chariots were permitted on the stage but from the stage directions we can easily infer that it was through āṅgikābhinaya that the movement of riding the chariot was depicted. The progress of Duṣyanta’s pursuit of the deer is suggested by the charioteer’s verse krṣṇasāre (I. 6): the charioteer’s verse serves as a commentary on the movements of the king depicting the pursuit of the deer: then the king’s verse serves as the commentary on the depiction of the deer’s flight. The verse grivā-bhaṅgābhirāmam is a beautiful description of the movements of the deer, which must have been performed by the actor. The Suta and the king both do the sūcī type of abhinaya here, for the movement expresses the mood first and then words are used. The charioteer portrays the tightening of the reins and then tells the king that he has done so on account of the unevenness of the ground: the car movement is impeded by the uneven ground which is suggested by the Suta’s words āyuṣman udghātinī bhūmiriti, etc. (I. 7 ff.); the reins are again tightened, the slowing of speed is depicted through measured steps and, when the deer escapes again, he is followed by the glances of the hunters, and then follow quicker movements in a faster tempo: the verse mukteṣu raśmīṣu (I. 8) of the Suta and yadāloke sūkṣmam (I. 9) of the king indicate the mad pursuit till finally the illusion of arriving at a point within sight of the prey is produced and then the king enacts the shooting of an arrow. The pose he attained after this lively bit of acting was the ālīdha prescribed by Bharata as a posture (sthāna) for shooting (NŚ, X. 67-68)187. We can re-create from these descriptions a complete picture of this movement sequence: the king enters the stage with simple (cūrṇa) steps (NŚ, XII. 88-92) in a special laya. He starts from the samapāda position and goes on to indicate the riding of the chariot; one hand suggests the pole of the chariot and the other the bow. The deer similarly is represented not by an actual deer but by a dancer wearing a deer mask, furtively peering and frisking in fright: the movement possibly is the harinaṁpluta movement (NŚ, IV. 144): the karaṇa

is derived from atikrāntā cārī (NŚ, X. 42). A pair of katakāmukha hands crossed at the wrist released or taut indicates speed or slow motion of the chariot. This katakāmukha is the katakāmukha of the Nātyaśāstra and not of the Abhinayadarpaṇa and is used for drawing up reins, holding a mirror, etc. (NŚ, XI. 60-63). We have in this scene the minutest data for abhinaya; through technique such as this the venue is easily and plausibly changed into the āśrama without taxing the sense of probability of the spectator. 'The transition is indicated by the king's words nivāraḥ śukārabhakṣyārthaḥ (I. 14) and the wildness of the woods is changed to the orderly nature of the hermitage. While the king enacts through vācika and āṅgikābhinaya, the beauty of the hermitage, its trees and ponds, the charioteer goes on enacting through movement the quickening and subsequent slowing and final stopping of the chariot. The king alights from the chariot with a movement opposite to that prescribed for ascending of chariots (I. 15 ff. and NŚ, XII. 91-92).

After the meeting of Śakuntalā and Duṣyanta a series of stage directions follow which leave no room for doubt regarding the nature of this presentation. Rāghavabhaṭṭa's commentary on these stage directions is the certain proof of the prevalence of the rules of Bharata and their constant use in actual practice.188

In Act IV, when Śakuntalā leaves the āśrama, all the verses demand āṅgikā-bhinaya constantly: a great part of Kaṇva's speeches is full of movement, and the vision of creepers, plants, streams, etc., is built up only through words and abhinaya. The seventh act builds up a vision of the sky and the king and Mātali riding across the sky only through gestures. Bharata prescribes the appropriate gait for moving in the sky and says: "gait of a character moving through the sky is to include the aerial cāris and looking downwards: he is to move from samapāda sthāna with simple steps. The gait of one who descends from the sky is also to be of this kind."189 (NŚ, XII. 92-95).

Examples of this kind could be multiplied: the actor has to walk in a certain way, a special sthāna, cārī or maṇḍala to establish his locale: no signs, symbols or announcements are necessary and once the sūtradhāra has left the stage, it is through stylized movement with precise and stylized use of the space of the stage that the full meaning of drama is communicated to the audience. From these examples in Kālidāsa it is clear that by the time Kālidāsa wrote his dramas, the rules of gesticulation were perfectly understood and practised: the writer needs to offer no explanations for what he is doing; he is following an absolutely known and prevalent convention of the stage.

Among these conventions, second only to the important stage directions of āṅgikābhinaya, was the convention of the zonal (kakṣa) treatment of the stage. The stylized movements and the stylized acting alone could make this zonal

treatment possible: on a realistic stage, the Sanskrit play presents the oddest problems of divisions of scenes and acts, of exits and entries: actors move in and out of houses, palaces, gardens and woods freely and, what is more, they move from heaven to earth in the same act. To try and present all these on a realistic stage with stage decor and scenery necessarily leads the producer of the play either to do away with the scenery and props or to dispense with the division of acts as given in the texts of these dramas. The answer to all these difficulties is only one, namely, that the dramas were written with very specific stage conventions in mind, and, in order to present them successfully, any superimposition of the stage decor and equipment of the realistic stage is to ruin their flow and movement.

In the Mālavikāgnimitra, the Vikramorvasīya and the Abhijñāna Śākuntala, there are many interesting examples of this zonal treatment, which could only be feasible if the actors danced their way across the stage rather than conversed in a matter-of-fact realistic style. In the Mālavikāgnimitra (Act III) we have a fine example of this convention. The act opens with the entry and quick exit of two maids, who converse imparting information about the great love of the king for Mālavikā. The king and the Vidūṣaka enter soon after and we learn of the emotional state of the king. The complications arise now, for the king and the Vidūṣaka are on the stage; they are supposed to have entered the garden first. Mālavikā enters the garden later, and by virtue of this she is still outside the garden bower, and yet can be seen by the king and the Vidūṣaka: she cannot see them. Later the king overhears her laments, sees her being decorated for the aśoka-dohada by Bakulāvalukā, and is charmed by the pose of the śālabhañjikā or the aśoka-dohada she must have assumed to suggest performing of the ceremony: the sthāna she uses for this purpose is the aśvakrānta sthāna (NŚ, XII. 172b-173a). The king watches her and then enters queen Irāvatī who can watch both; the complication arises because the queen can hear the conversation of the king, who is unaware of her presence.

Such a situation could have been made to look natural, only if the stage was divided into levels or if there was an apron stage with a curtain in between. All that did not exist on the Sanskrit stage; instead, all this was indicated only through gestures. Bharata treats of the zones and the local usage in a full chapter. The treatment of the zones is invariably in relation and with reference to the three types of playhouses. Bharata lays down a general principle (NŚ, XIII. 1-10): "The zonal division is to be indicated by going about on the stage. When one is on a particular zone of the stage, it will indicate one locality and place and by moving off it, it will indicate another."

He says further (NŚ, XIII. 4-6) that the "utility of the zonal division lies in the fact that it is from this convention of the zonal division that one is to know (whether the place in which the scene has been laid) is a house, city, garden.... etc.: the zones should be fixed accordingly. The relative location of the place is

indicated by entering the stage earlier or later: according to the convention of

the zonal division, those who have entered the stage earlier should be taken to be

inside (the house, garden) and those entering later are known to be outside it.

He who enters the stage with the intention of seeing the ones who enter earlier

should report turning to the right." (Ghosh, M. M., translation, Nāṭyaśāstra,

p. 239).

From the above it is clear that the zones were clearly demarcated and that it

would be easy for the spectator to understand the transit from one zone to another.

Irāvatī in the present instance must have reported herself to the right before speak-

ing, so that it was clear that she saw those who were already there, but when Mālavikā enters,

neither she nor her friend report to the right. Thus they indicate

entry but also establish not noticing those already on the stage.

An even more complicated situation arises in Act IV, and its swiftness is

possible only through the zonal treatment. We have the king's part of the garden

at the beginning of Act IV, 2 ff. There is the queen Dhāriṇī with her attendants;

then the Vidūṣaka enters pretending to be bitten by a snake. So far it is simple

and we can easily understand the going of the king to the queen with one round

of the stage; at this point, according to modern conventions, there would be

a drop or a change of scene, but none of that occurs here. The king dismisses

the queen and her retinue easily and requests the co-conspirator of the love-

game to take him to the pramodavana; without a change of scene they proceed

to the pramodavana. The Vidūṣaka enters, tells of his success, and the lovers meet

At this point the stage is once again divided into three zones: the one where the

king and Mālavikā are left to themselves, the second where the Vidūṣaka lies

sleeping, and the third where queen Irāvatī and her attendant enter and go around.

It would require careful handling to manipulate these groupings on the stage

and it is clear that the various actors must have utilized only their zone in move-

ment, and would have moved only within these self-imposed limitations. The

complication arises again, because Irāvatī sees them together and they cannot.

The Vidūṣaka does not inform the king of the queen's arrival. It is only when

the king leaves his zone to save the Vidūṣaka when the latter calls out for help

that he notices queen Irāvatī. Mālavikā follows and the two by leaving their

zone and entering into the second and third are noticed by the queen. In Act V

this division of the stage is again indicated and this time the stage was divided

perhaps by the indication of an aśoka tree, and all the characters gather round

this tree for festivity.

In Śākuntala, too, we have similar examples of stage manipulation and zonal

treatment. In Act III the king and the Vidūṣaka enter the stage: the king confides

in the Vidūṣaka, soon after Śakuntalā enters and confides in Anusuyā. The king

is on the stage and can hear Śakuntalā's conversation, but Śakuntalā cannot hear

the king's: the king continually comments on what Śakuntalā says, and it is on the basis of this that he comes forward. In Act IV, the impression of distance, of Anusuyā going from the garden to the āśrama, is all created through this zonal treatment and stylized walking on the stage: the lyrical beauty of this scene would not be possible if a realistic effect had been attempted.

In the Vikramorvaśīya such situations are frequent. The queen appears to see the king with Urvaśī in Act II. Act III is made stageable and the illusion of Urvaśī as invisible is communicated only through this stage convention of the zones and careful grouping.

Stage situations and their treatment is not our main concern at the moment; but these conventions could have been accurately followed according to the laws of Bharata only if the actors were trained most accurately and punctiliously in the laws of movement and āngikābhinaya: the actor trained only in speech could never portray the idea of zones and different moods effectively on the stage. From the dramas of Kālidāsa and the dramas of the later writers, it is clear that these conventions were known not only to the scholar-poets and dramatists but also to the audience, for it is with an eye on these conventions that the Sanskrit dramatist writes and presents his plays. These conventions would be impossible to follow without the medium of dance at the actor's command. The stylization achieved through these conventions is one which dancing, music and imaginative presentation have given to these dramas.

However, once we come to the specific āngikābhinaya of these dramas, everything else seems subsidiary. The gesture language is woven inextricably into the texture of Sanskrit drama. In Kālidāsa we find the finest examples, and, once we look at Kālidāsa carefully, we find that these are repeated by the dramatists who follow him. Indeed, the gesture language becomes stereotype in the later Sanskrit drama.

In Sanskrit drama examples of āngikābhinaya are of two types. The first is the accompaniment of abhinaya to verses in the play: these verses are sometimes sung by the character, sometimes by the other character, whose speech serves as commentary; sometimes they are sung or chanted from the background as in the Vikramorvaśīya. Invariably, the abhinaya in these cases is of the sūcī, aṅkura or śākhā variety, and from the descriptions of places non-existent on the stage and of mental states referred to, one can easily infer that abhinaya formed an essential part of this recitation. The spoken word was only half the acting, the other half being stylized acting through precise and codified movements of the hands, face, etc., and, in short, all that Bharata includes in the viniyoga of the aṅgas and upāṅgas. We have already analyzed examples of this kind in the Abhijñāna Śākuntala and the Vikramorvaśīya. The other type of abhinaya is suggested through the stage

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directions. These stage directions are a help to the reader and the actor, but more than that, they are an essential part of the drama, and the written drama is incomplete without them. From the commentaries on these plays, we can visualize, in certain cases, the exact manner of execution of these stage directions. Rāghavabhaṭṭa's commentary on the Abhijñāna Śākuntala is a valuable source of information for this purpose: he gives us in this commentary exact descriptions of some of these stage directions. The clue to others can be found in the various chapters of Bharata. An attempt will be made here to correlate these stage directions to Bharata, wherever possible. But first let us consider those which Rāghavabhaṭṭa has stated.

In Act I occurs the stage direction Iksasicamanam rūpayati (Act I. 17 ff.). This is performed by making the nalimpadakośa hasta (NŚ, IX. 207): they are taken to the shoulder region, then the avadhūtā head movement (NŚ, VIII. 30) is performed; the body bends gracefully a little, the hands are then brought down and released. Then a pair of śukatunda hands is formed (NŚ, IX. 53–54)190 and they are crossed at the wrist, finger and palms facing down; these hands are lowered, with body bending on one side, and then with a turn of the wrists, they are turned into a pair of up-going padmakosśa hands (NŚ, IX. 79b-80a); they are then taken across the breast to the shoulder region, lowered to the knee region and then released as if watering trees.191

Then a little later comes the stage direction 'Enacts the disturbance by the bee (bhramarabādhām rūpayati) (I. 19). This is shown according to the commentary by the vidhuta head (NŚ, VIII. 24, a quick movement of the head used in panic and fright) and tremulous lips (kuṭṭana movement of the lips, see NŚ, VIII. 144–46, used for pain, cold, fear, etc.) and the patākā hands facing outwards placed near the face: the head is turned quickly across in fright, lips quivering and the patākā hands move quickly in double tempo in different directions protecting the face from the bee.192

Śṛṅgāralajjā rūpayati is the next important stage direction; this bashful love confusion is shown by parāvrtta head (NŚ, VIII. 27) and the lajjita glance (NŚ, VIII. 66).193 The lajjā stage direction often occurs in the first act: in this particular case the words śṛṅgāra lajjā specify the type of bashfulness that Śakuntalā exhibits and also set the mood of the act.

The stage direction junānītakam occurs often and we know from Bharata and other authorities such as the authors of the Dasarūpakam and the Saṅgītaratnākara that it is depicted through the tripatākā hasta.194 Sometimes Kālidāsa gives straightforward directions, which are also in keeping with the terminology of Bharata. The adhomukha head is used in bashfulness etc. Śakuntalā lowers her head in this fashion in response to the king's loving attentions (I. 24 ff.). Bharata's term for this

movement is adhogata and adhomukha (NŚ, VIII. 36), but both are similar movements. On the same plane is the showing of the fore-finger by Śakuntalā asking her friends to keep quiet. The bhrūbhaṅga of the eyebrows is also of this kind and needs no great explanation.

In Act III the pupil enacts 'hearing'195 and looking at the sky: both these stage directions are simple enough and can be easily understood. Rāghavabhaṭṭa gives us further hints as to how they are to be represented: the looking at the sky is a technical term ākāśya used here for addressing Priyamvadā who is at some distance. This mode of address according to Bharata is employed in addressing someone who is at a distance and who does not appear on the stage. According to the Daśarūpakam, it belongs to the nāṭyadharmī convention. The hearing is represented by the head bent to the side and the eyeballs in a motionless state.196

Soon after the king appears in a love-sick state and represents madanaavasthā (Act III, beginning). This love distraction is represented by the lolita head,197 the śūnya dṛṣṭī used in anxiety, indicating motionlessness and dola hastā. Thus the whole state is represented by a circular movement of the head, with vacant staring and shoulders drooping with arms released in the dola hastas: a most appropriate rendering of this state of love-distraction and words come as almost auxiliaries to this physical representation. Rāghavabhaṭṭa198 goes further and tells us exactly how these movements are to be performed: he also mentions an alternative to the dola hastas: the chin rests on the interlocked karkata hastā199 and this indicates the melancholy reveric.

The king is unhappy, he looks around, addresses Kāmadeva, the doer of all this; looks upward to indicate the mid-day sun: for in this heat of the afternoon, Śakuntalā could perhaps be found in the garden bower: the mid-day sun may be indicated according to Bharata by looking upward with half-shut eyes (NŚ, Kāvyamālā, XXV. 8). In this heat he goes to find Śakuntalā: as he moves he represents the touch of breeze through movement. Through his movements, we learn that the king has moved from the heat of the sun to the garden with creepers where the cool breeze blows: the touch of breeze he indicates by slightly narrowing down the eycs, raising the eyebrows and by touching the shoulder and the cheek (NŚ, Kāvyamālā, XXII. 77b-78a): this is perhaps also represented by horripilation, judging by what Bharata says in another chapter (NŚ, Kāvyamālā, XXV. 9) regarding the representation of pleasant objects. Here we have a very interesting example of nāṭyadharmī where, instead of blazing spotlights and subdued lighting and change of scenery, we have it all represented through āṅgikābhinaya. The king starts by looking at the sun upwards with half-shut eyes; perhaps, covers his face to show the hot wind, and then moves around the stage, has a pleasanter expression, enacts the touch of cool breeze and we know that he has moved from one place to another, (parikramā sparśam rūpayati).

Śakuntalā enters with her friends in this bower: she too is sorrowful and dejected, and thus occurs the stage direction (viṣāda nāṭayitvā): she represents this through an enactment of thinking (NŚ, VII. 104 ff.) a loss of energy and the like: the dṛṣṭī she uses for this is the viṣāda used in despair (viṣāda).

The king looks at her longingly, with abhilāṣā,200 and overhears the conversation of this dejected beloved with her friends. Śakuntalā lies on a bed here: it is possible that a real bed was used here, since the stage direction does not specifically mention that Śakuntalā enacts it; but it is probable that the whole scene was shown only through movement; and if the latter be the case then the type of lying down we see here is the naṭa where her shanks are slightly stretched and the hands hang loosely resting, representing fatigue and distress (NŚ, XII. 234). It is in order to address Anusuyā.

The king appears on the stage; she wishes to go; he holds her by the hand, attempts to raise her face; she makes a gesture of aversion. The king's action is portrayed by means of the tripatākā hasta facing up and brought under the chin, the middle-finger and the fore-finger being placed near the chin. Śakuntalā's aversion is depicted by an averting head (parāvṛtta head movement)201 and by folding lower lip in the mouth (viṅgūhana) (NŚ, VIII. 145-46).202 Here, too, we have a characteristic example of the nāṭyadharmī and an exquisite piece of āṅgikābhinaya.

It is not a realistic depiction of advances made by the lover; it is, instead, a delicate suggestion made through hand gestures. The act ends with the king's looking up to the sky–this time to tell us that the clouds are gathering and the evening has come. The evening he possibly203 indicates through two patākā hands raised: these hands make a svastika (NŚ, IX. 135b-137a) and then separate: two arāla hands upturned and held together at the wrists: when these hands are separated from this position and are lowered making a circle, the sky, clouds and other such extensive things are indicated: the head gesture is udvāhita (NŚ, VIII. 29), used for looking up–with appropriate movements of the eye (NŚ, Kāvyamālā, XXV. 2-4).

If one pauses for a moment to see how the āṅgikābhinaya has merged itself into the spoken word of the play, one is amazed at the way it permeates through the entire dramatic action The indication of a change of time, of place, is all represented through gestures: the passage of time is represented through gesture. The mid-day sun changes through movement into the evening sun: the heat turns into cool breeze with gestures and the hero and heroine learn of each other more through gestures than the spoken word.

Act IV begins with friends enacting the picking of the flowers: this is represented through appropriate gestures by hands and arms. The hastas that Bharata prescribes for this is bhramara (NŚ, IX. 101) or the sandamśa which is used for

picking of a flower from the stem (NŚ, IX. 112-16). Rāghavabhaṭṭa, however, does not prescribe these hands in his commentary; according to him, this is to be represented by the left hand in arāla and the right hand in hamsāsya.204

The pupil enters and indicates the time of day through gestures: he has just got up from his sleep and, looking at the sky, tells us of the break of dawn.205

According to Rāghavabhaṭṭa, the falling of leaves is portrayed through the tripatākã hands near the eyes, and the putting of tilaka is also portrayed by the tripatākã hastas.206 They decorate Śakuntalā and the whole decoration is enacted: the sandamśu and bhramara hands are used for portraying decoration with ornaments; the katakāmukha and hamsāsya hands are used for lac painting.207 These hands are not quite in conformity with Bharata’s uses of these hastas, but the rules for the hastas are so flexible that the movements indicated by Rāghavabhaṭṭa would easily fit. According to the Nāṭyaśāstra, the katakāmukha hands are used for putting a necklace or a garland. The sandamśa is used for lac dye etc. (NŚ, IX. 60-63 and 112 ff.). The feet are decorated with the kartarimukha hastas, and in this Rāghavabhaṭṭa follows Bharata.208

The entire representation of decoration is thus a short but lovely piece of mime. The scene has another beautiful example of abhinaya when Śakuntalā is stopped by the pet doe of the āśrama. According to Rāghavabhaṭṭa,209 this is portrayed by the ūrūdvrtta movement: the foot with the heel raised is flanked behind the other foot, and the body is twisted. When Śakuntalā turns back to see, it is in terms of the apakrāntā cārī in which the feet cross, and one foot is in a kuñcita position. The whole movement would indicate stopping; the sudden stop and then the turning around to see the cause of this with appropriate hands represents the doe clinging to her (gatibādhām rūpayati). The Nāṭyaśāstra does not prescribe a movement for this, and what Rāghavabhaṭṭa describes as the ūrūdvrtta movement is perhaps the karaṇa of that name (NŚ, IV. 159).

In Act VI, Sānumatī, the heavenly apsarā, descends from her aerial chariot:210 later she ascends to heaven. She ascends by the bāhyabhramarikā211 and descends by the gaṅgāvataraṇa,212 according to Rāghavabhaṭṭa. The gaṅgāvataraṇa karaṇa is rendered in many ways. It may be done by curling of the leg behind like a scorpion’s sting and tripatākã hastas held down, breast erect and the head lowered; the other way was the viṣṇukrānta karaṇa and tripatākã hastas held over the uplifted foot to show the Gaṅgā flowing: the third way is the acrobatic karaṇa gaṅgā-vataraṇa, as in the sculptures at the Cidambaram temple. Any one of these movements might have been attempted for showing the descending from the celestial chariot. According to Bharata, these karaṇas or a gait might represent the riding of a celestial chariot and the descending from the sky: simple steps are used for this, beginning with the samapāda sthāna, and, when mounting these vehicles,

the body is to be held up and when alighting, the body is to be held down (NŚ, XII. 88-92). In this particular case Sānumatī suggests a descent from the sky through the use of the apaviddha arms and tossing of the ends of her clothes (NŚ, XII. 94-95).

At the end of this scene, the king enacts the mounting of the chariot, and there must have been a difference between this mounting and Sānumati's mounting. Raghavabhaṭṭa, on the authority of the Sangītaratnākara, says that this is protrayed through the ūrdhvajānu cārī.213

In Act VII, the king is seen in a celestial car in heaven: the celestial car may have been represented by a prop on the stage, but it is more likely that the gaits of the king and of Mātali represented their presence in the celestial regions. The gait began with the samapādu sthāna, and constituted the aerial cārīs, and most likely ended in the atikrāntā carī (NŚ, X. 30 ff.). Like the first act, the first part of this act is also an exquisite piece of dancing and abhinaya, where both the āñgika and the vācika are employed: through gestures of the feet they depict their being in heaven, and by the look of the eyes (looking down) they suggest the earth which lies vast and beaūtiful below. The king's words act as commentary on the abhinaya of Mātali and Mātali's words serve as a commentary on the king's abhinaya: they reach Hemakūṭa and alight from the chariot, and this descending from the chariot is also done with a cārī. Mātali draws the reins, depicting it through a pair of katakāmukha hands (NŚ, IX. 61-63).

The enactment of the child's playing with the cub must also be represented through movement: here the cub was, perhaps, represented by a person with a mask, and the speech of the king (VII. 4.) draws our attention to this bit of enacting.

The rest of āñgikābhinaya suggested through stage directions is of the realistic type and appropriately so: the king's embracing the son, his showing of the ring to Śakuntalā, etc., all belong to the naturalistic tradition.

From this analysis of the stage directions, there can be no doubt whatsoever of the character of this play in terms of stage technique: the playwright obviously had the theatrical aspect of the play in mind, and the stage directions tell us of the very important role played by āñgikābhinaya in these dramas. This tradition which manifests itself so clearly in the plays of Kālidāsa continues to the last days of Sanskrit drama. The stage directions go on becoming more stylized and it must have been easy for the early writers of regional languages to extract the purely vācika lyrical portion out of this tradition and also to compose lyrics meant only for acting purposes: the tradition in all the classical styles of Indian dancing, of doing abhinaya to the spoken word, whether lyrical or narrative, finds its origin in the drama proper.

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Kālidāsa is also a master of sāttvikābhinaya, and the drama as it has come down to us, employs the sāttvikābhinaya to a very large extent. The blossoming of Śakuntalā's love is manifested by this type of abhinaya and is an excellent illustration of the bhāvas, anubhāvas and vibhāvas of the Sanskrit dramatic theory. The sāttvikābhinaya we find in the play largely centres round the personality of Śakuntalā and in her person we find the feminine grace at its best. The natural graces (alaṅkāra) of women are many. She is the innocent maiden, the mugdhā in the first act, and with the appearance of the king, her natural modesty turns into an adult bashfulness and desire of response (NŚ, Kāvyamālā, XXII. 23) and with the enquiries of her friends regarding the stranger who has so captured her heart, we have the grace helā (passion) which is manifested in abhinaya such as the śṛṅgāra-lajjā etc. Then we have a beautiful flowering of these graces: she has kānti, a fresh lustre (dipti) and as the love grows the voluntary graces become more predominant and we see their manifestation in graces such as the vibboka (affected coldness), vibhrama (confusion), vilāsa (amorous gestures) and moṭṭāyita (manifestation of affection and being absent-minded due to the lover). It was a continuation of this mood that gave her the dreamy ecstasy of Duṣyanta and the curse of Durvāsā: in Act III she exhibits another grace of sweet reluctance (kuṭṭamitam) towards the king; the capacity to depict these successfully would make the āṅgikābhinaya of the actor significant and beautiful. Bharata devotes an entire chapter to these graces, both feminine and masculine.214

The play Abhijñāna Śākuntala is not only a literary masterpiece but is also a perfect example of the dramatist's understanding and application of Bharata's stage technique. This general pattern is found in the other plays; a mere enumeration of the stage directions in the other plays of Kālidāsa will suffice.

The Vikramorvaśīya is a rich source of āṅgikābhinaya. In the Act I, King Vikrama like Duṣyanta enters the stage enacting the riding of a chariot: (I. p. 9).215 The king portrays the speed of the chariot by taking a round of the stage in fast speed, and then the apsarās enact descending the mountain (I. p. 12).216 This is performed in the atikrāntā cārī (NŚ, XII. 96-98a); the body is held up; in descending the mountain one foot is in the atikrāntā cārī and the other in an aṅcita position.217 Urvaśī appears seated on the chariot leaning on the arm of the king and the king's descriptions of the earth and its unevenness are supported by their enacting.218 Urvaśī and the king rub against each other as they alight from the chariot and, as they enact this, the charioteer enacts the stopping of the vehicle. The rest of the act has many examples of the chariot's movement—its being stopped, of the characters ascending and descending the chariot (I. p. 23). The apsarās then enact moving in the sky (ākāśotpatanam rūpayanti).219

This moving about in the sky can be shown by any number of cāris such as the atikrāntā, pārśvakrāntā, āviddhā and rest (NŚ, X. 30 ff.). As the dance of the

apsarās proceeds, Urvaśī enacts being hindered by something: the whole movement is significant. Urvaśī starts her dance with the samapāda sthāna and performs a number of aerial cārīs, and then suddenly stops as if entangled by something: her garland has entangled itself with a creeper and Citralekhā helps her to disentangle it.220 The entanglement of the garland with the creeper would then be very similar to the movement of Śakuntalā when the doe stops her, with the difference that Urvaśī enacts the garland and its entanglement by looking back rather than at the doe: the garland is represented by a pair of kataakamukha hastas held near the neck (NŚ, IX. 61-63)221 and the creeper by the sūcimukha hasta (NŚ, IX. 64-71a). The entanglement is shown by a conjured look and a sudden jump, along with a sudden stopping of the cārīs which the apsarās were performing. Menakā disentangles her and her movement starts by first representing the garland and then disentangling it from the creeper.

In Act II, the king describes the spring, and in his description of the spring (II. 7) he must have employed the appropriate gestures; thus spring is represented through enjoyment and rejoicing (NŚ, Kāvyamālā, XXV. 31).

Thinking or cintā is enacted by (II. 7ff.)222 sighing, deep breathing and an expression of absent-mindedness (NŚ, VII. 77-78). Citralekhā and Urvaśī enter soon after and Urvaśī enacts being love-sick (madana-vedanā). This manifestation of love can be represented through lalitābhinaya of various kinds and the natural graces of women, i.e., alañkāra. The two friends converse for some time, and then Urvaśī decides to overhear the king's conversation with the Vidūṣaka: she decides to make herself invisible: she conceals herself with the tiraṡkarinī: by covering the face with this veil both Citralekhā and Urvaśī become invisible and from this we also know that there is no need of their restricting themselves to one zone for fear of being seen by the king. They perhaps do not touch their heads with the arāla hastas raised from the sides, but if they were to be greeted, then the arāla hastas raised from the sides touching the head would indicate greeting invisible persons (NŚ, Kāvyamālā, XXV. 72).

Urvaśī writes a letter to the king—which flies across to him; this letter writing is done by one hand in the patākã hasta showing the paper and the other hand in hamsāsya hasta,223 showing the pen or the brush for writing or painting. This gesture is frequently seen in the contemporary Bharatanāṭyam.

Citralekhā removes her veil first. Urvaśī follows. With the removing of this veil both become visible to the king. These gestures would have to be accurately executed for the audience to understand that a character is invisible or visible on the stage. Urvaśī is called to heaven; now she enacts unhappiness and viṣāda. This is represented by deep breathing (NŚ, VII. 106-7) and by the viṣaṇṇa glance (NŚ,

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

VIII. 89, the glance for viṣāda): she leaves the king, looking at him longingly with both the lalita (NŚ, VIII. 74) and viṣaṇṇa glances (NŚ, VIII. 69).

The bhojapatra has disappeared, and the Vidūṣaka goes looking for it: he moves around the stage with anuvṛtta (NŚ, VIII. 108) glance as if to find something and with parlokita glance (NŚ, VIII. 109); combined with appropriate gestures of the hands and the feet, he gives the impression of looking frantically for the lost bit of paper. The queen has entered, has seen part of the goings-on, and has found the letter: naturally, she is in a rage and has a heated argument with the king. She leaves in great anger: she manifests here the jealous anger through tearful eyes, touching of the chin and the lips, shaking of the head, knitting of the eyebrows (bhrkuṭi), curling of fingers and assuming the āyata sthāna posture (NŚ, Kāvyamālā, XXV. 55b-56a) (kopam nāṭayitvā) (NŚ, VII 24. ff.). In Act III. 5 ff.224, the king and the Vidūṣaka enact ascending the stairs (sopānārohanam nāṭyanti). In ascending the stairs of the palace, the king and the Vidūṣaka move in the atikrāntā cārī, and their bodies are held erect and they put forward their steps as if ascending the stairs (NŚ, XII. 96-98a). The king and the Vidūṣaka have ascended the stairs and can now see the moon emerging out of the darkness: the king looks thus at the moon (III. 7 ff.);225 the looking at the moon and the idea of night are represented by the outstretched ardhacandra hasta (NŚ, IX. 43-45); the eyeballs are moved upwards, and a kuñcita movement of the eyebrows is used to indicate the pleasantness of touch.226 The ardhacandra hastas are prescribed for the crescent moon, but, if the king wished to show the full moon, he would perhaps use the left hand in alapadma hasta and the right in patākā227 The king also enacts worshipping the moon, addresses it in various ways, one of them being, "as one who is ever present on the crest of Śiva." This may be depicted through the ardhacandra hasta, and the worshipping is represented by kneeling on the ground (NŚ, XII. 201 ff.) and a adhogata face movement (NŚ, VIII. 36): the hands are padmakośa (NŚ, IX. 82).

The king sits down hopefully and then enter Urvaśī and Citralekhā, enacting the riding of a celestial chariot. Urvaśī wants Citralekhā to find out what her lover was doing at the moment. Citralekhā meditates to find it out. This meditation (dhyāna) is represented by downcast eyes (avalokita dṛṣṭi) and slightly bent head (kuñcita), the left hand being in sandamśa (NŚ, Kāvyamālā, XXII. 24). Both of them descend from the chariot this time with the atikrāntā cārī and a kuñcita pāda. Urvaśī enacts being distressed (viṣāda), and, on hearing the queen's footsteps, she is again distressed and this time the viṣādabhāva has become a sorrow of a different nature, and she enacts viṣaṇṇa by the appropriate dṛṣṭi (NŚ, VIII. 69). The queen almost repeats the abhinaya of the king described earlier. She, too, looks at the moon228 and enacts worshipping the moonlight with flowers etc. The king repeats the pūjā and then holds his hands in aṅjali hasta. Later in the Act, Urvaśī and Citralekhā again become invisible by wearing the tiraskariṇī and thereafter Urvaśī goes and shuts the eyes of the king: the king enacts recognizing her touch. All

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this by itself sounds simple and a realistic depiction of it is easily possible: but in

this case, it is hardly likely that Urvaśī really touched the king's person: she enacts

it, and then the king in turn enacts the feeling of touch (sparśa rūpayitvā). The

utsaṅga hands (NŚ, IX. 139) represent this feeling of touch.229 This would also be

shown by slightly narrowing the eyes (kuñcita) by raising the eyebrows, and by

slightly touching the shoulder, the cheek, etc. (NŚ, Kāvyamālā. XXII. 77b-78a).

Various vyabhicāri bhāvas, such as viṣāda, śoka and the like, are enacted in

Act IV. Urvaśī sits by the pond, the pond being indicated by the two patākä hastas.230

extended outwards, and the sentiment of śoka she expresses by a copious shedding

of tears, a change of colour, etc. (NŚ, VII. 19 ff.). The king then enters in a state

of love-distraction: he addresses himself to the sky (unmukha): his gait is unsteady,

represented through irregular steps; his body covered with dust and his hair dis-

hevelled. He talks to himself: sometimes he sings and sometimes he laughs: some-

times he dances in joy and sometimes he stands still. Bharata gives an elaborate

description of persons in this state and a reading of Act IV of the Vikramorvaśīya

shows us how perfectly this description fits the king (NŚ, XII. 123-130). He would

move as follows: “After moving in the baddhā cārī (NŚ, X. 21), he is to cross his

feet. Then going round in all the four directions with this cārī, he is to perform

the bhramara mandala (NŚ, XI. 44b-47a) and reach the corner of the stage. Then

turning round the trika gracefully and holding the latā hasta (NŚ, IX. 198) and

with irregular steps he is to move and walk about.”231 In this way he addresses

the sky and talks to himself, and does abhinaya to the verses recited on stage or

sung from the background. He picks up a pebble to throw it into the pond, stops

and enacts the bhāva karunā; to depict this bhāva, he would use the appropriate

glance, i.e., karunā drṣṭi, where the upper eyelid is lowered, the eyeball is at rest,

the gaze is fixed on the tip of the nose, and a tear is held in the eye (NŚ, VIII. 49).

In this distracted state, the king moves on the stage, sometimes walking, at

others pausing, but each of these movements is executed so as to make a neat

choreographical pattern. An artist unacquainted with the accepted conventions

of the stage and the rules applicable in a given situation might have given a general

stage direction and would have left it to the imagination of the actor to interpret

it. Here everything is laid down, and the precise use of these specific movements

alone according to the author evoke the appropriate bhāva. The king moves on

the stage in a state of love-distraction; he places his knee on the ground, takes a

turn, and recites a verse: the formation of this pose on the knee serves as a kind of

a refrain to the rest of his enactment (iti natirtvā jānubhyām, Act IV, 23 ff. and

26 ff.). This dance is performed in the bhramara cārī, which consists mostly of resting

on the knee and moving around the trika. In contemporary practice one finds

the survival of this movement in Braj Rāsa and in Kṛṣṇa's movement in Manipur.

This piece of abhinaya is a beautiful solo dance, full of a variety of poses,

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cārīs, steps (cāranas) and emotions (bhāvas). His steps move in rhythm and he employs various types of abhinaya, using movements of both the angas and upāngas. His eyes and eyelids follow the hands, and Kālidāsa is careful in laying down exact stage directions for all these movements.232 The king delineates the idea of sound, of hearing from the background, and the sound of birds calling by the sācī glance and by putting his hand to the ear (NŚ, Kāvyamālā, XXII. 76b-77a).233

He is tired and faints with exhaustion: this act of fainting murchchita is depicted by closing the eyelids (nimita) (NŚ, VIII. 117), by performing a kuncita movement of the eyebrows (NŚ, VIII. 128-129a); the head is in the ancita position (NŚ, VIII. 32-33) and the hands in dola hastas (NŚ, IX. 148-49): the mouth and face follow other appropriate gestures. Through his words we know that he can see a precious jewel in a cave, and through his enactment we know that he has brought the precious stone out: the words and gesture of the king bring to us the visions of woods, rivers, mountains, creepers, plants, animals, and the rest: the vācika and the āngikābhinaya present such a vivid picture that there is no need left for scenery and stage effects, nor do we miss the absence of deer, peacocks, birds, and other animals on the stage. The act ends on a hopeful note: the king has found his beloved at last and they are seen making an exit.

In Act V, the stage directions of bhāva are common: the agitation (āyega) of the king is represented by rubbing the eyes, hurriedly moving from one place to another. and perhaps by weeping, too (NŚ, VII. 62 ff.). Astonishment (vismaya, Act V, 6 ff., sarvey vismayam rūpayanti) is enacted by opening the eyes wide, without a wink (vismita, NŚ, VIII. 61). The head moves to and fro in the parivāhita movement234 (NŚ, VIII. 28) and horripilation.235

The other stage directions of this act, such as the embracing the child, the child's entering with bow, etc., are like those in the last act of the Abhijñāna Śākuntala, and are performed in the lokadharmī convention. The king's acting of viṣāda and fainting, however, is stylized and thus in nāṭyadharmī: it is similar to what we have described earlier.

We have already discussed the part played by dancing and abhinaya in the Mālavikāgnimitra. Besides the dance of Mālavikā, there are a few significant stage directions. In Act III, Samāhitikā enacts the plucking of blossoms from a tree; this may be represented by the aśvakrānta sthāna (NŚ, XII. 175-176), but the hands would be either katakāmukha or sandamśa (NŚ, IX. 60-63 and 112-116). The king enacts the feeling of touch236 of the air, the representation of which we have mentioned before. Mālavikā enters in a state of anxiety (cintā) and shows this with half-closed eyes, touching the valaya (bangles), the nivi (the navel) and the thighs (NŚ, Kāvyamālā, XXII. 160): this is the second stage of love according to Bharata (NŚ, Kāvyamālā, XXII. 153b-157a), but she soon moves to the third stage of reflection (anusmrti) (NŚ, Kāvyamālā, XII. 161 ff.). The king observes

her and his despair changes into the emotion of joy (saharṣam). This would be represented by the relaxation of the facial muscles and wide-open eyes, with a manifestation of the temperamental states like perspiration, horripilation, tears and the like (NŚ, VII. 92-94 ff.).

In Act III, the enactment of decorating Mālavikā's feet for the aśoka-dohada is represented through the kartarimukha hands (NŚ, IX. 39-41). Queen Irāvatī's state of intoxication would be represented by unsteady steps, a reeling body and staggering feet (NŚ, XII. 121-122). The movement of her head would be reeling in parlolita (NŚ, VIII. 37), and her glance would be madirā drṣṭi (NŚ, VIII. 94).

In Act IV, the king is still in a state of depression because of separation: the Vidūṣaka has thought of a plan and he enters the stage holding his thumb as if a snake had bitten him. The queen, the king and everyone is disturbed. He enacts the effects of poison on him successfully (IV. 4 ff.). The (viṣavega rūpayati) enactment of this is portrayed by throwing out of the hands and feet and other limbs, and the effect of this poison is shown by a quivering action of different parts of the body and by closing of the eyes (NŚ, Kāvyamālā, XXV. 104 and 113). Jaya-sena, an accomplice in the conspiracy, takes the queen's ring to cure the Vidūṣaka of the snake-bite. Cleverly manoeuvred, the king leaves the stage and so does the queen with her attendants. After this, instead of the change of scene the king, along with Jayasena, enacts the going to the pramodvana where he can meet Mālavikā. They take a round of the stage indicating this, but, before they can quite reach the place, they notice queen Irāvatī and her maid gathering flowers

Here the stage is divided automatically into zones: the queen and Candrikā are seen at one end of the stage and the king and the Vidūṣaka on the other. The king, having entered the stage, can see the queen, but the queen is unaware of their presence. The king hides himself and yet can see Mālavikā and Bakulavālikā entering: the king sees her through a window. We have here a very interesting piece of the zonal treatment. The king and the Vidūṣaka take their positions back stage: they indicate a window with their hand gestures: the queen enters from the other side and, since she does not report herself to the right (NŚ, XIII. 10), she continues to be unaware of the king's presence. Mālavikā and Bakulavālikā enter from the side of the king and can see the king, but only after Mālavikā has indicated the opening of the door. Mālavikā represents the door by two tripatākā hastas facing each other (NŚ, IX. 35) and, with one tripatākā hasta and an appropriate step, she indicates entering in (NŚ, IX. 29a). She is angry. First she turns away her face with the parāvṛtta movement of the head (NŚ, VIII. 34) and then feels a little reconciled, goes up to him, feels shy, and enacts bashfulness. The king in turn enacts love-sickness. The Vidūṣaka cleverly whisks Bakulavālikā away to let the lovers be alone. At this point (IV. 13), the groupings on the stage change. The king and Mālavikā are in one zone, the Vidūṣaka in another (Bakulavālikā having made an exit) and the queen in a third, enacting the plu-

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

cking and gathering of flowers. Perhaps, a pillar suggested the divisions of the stage: this belief is confirmed by the statement that the Vidūṣaka is seen dozing against this pillar, while Mālavikā and the king converse. Queen Irāvatī, along with Nipunikā, now enters the stage by taking a round to establish the fact that they are in the area of vision and not away from it. The purely visual effect of this grouping, with characters thus distributed on the floor space indicate the different areas of the stage. The Vidūṣaka babbles in his sleep, perhaps, by speaking indistinctly (NŚ, Kāvyamālā, XXV. 98), thereby drawing the queen's attention. A curtain and a pillar were perhaps used for this scene judging from the fact that the Vidūṣaka mentions it, and Bakulālikā warns the lovers by entering and lifting the curtain in a hurry. With this, and queen Irāvatī's discovery, all the characters now move centre stage and are thus in a common zone.

It is clear from the above that stage manipulations and directions of the kind noticed here could only be possible through a highly stylized technique. The audience, as also the actors, must have completely understood this division of the stage into zones and the gesture language was employed to present such complicated situations. This could perhaps be represented through purely imitative and realistic gestures, but then the distinctive stylized character would be lost. Kālidāsa is aware of these stage conventions and makes the fullest use of them.

In Act V (Mālavikāgnimitra), the dwarf enters the stage with one foot in the agratalasañcara position and the other in the añcita one. The steps are narrow and chequered (NŚ, XIII. 135-36). Mālavikā enacts fear (bhaya) by a tremor of the hands and feet (NŚ, VII. 34 ff.). The glance she uses for this is bhayanvita (NŚ, VIII. 59): the eyeballs move in valana (NŚ, VIII. 102) or niṣkramaṇa and the lips tremble (kampana) (NŚ, VIII. 141-42). The Parivrājikā walks in the sama-pādā cārī (NŚ, XII. 199b-200a) right through; and when in this act she sheds tears, these are represented by the tripatākä hastas (NŚ, IX. 32) and by rubbing of the eyes. Here the Parivrājikā's abhinaya is not merely āngika; it is also sāttvika. Other stage directions such as the enactment of distress, joy, fear, tears and astonishment in the play need not be analyzed again.

With a discussion on these stage directions, we have analyzed all possible sources of the dance in Kālidāsa: through this analysis, we have seen how dancing constitutes an indispensable part of this drama and how the spoken word is but a part of the whole. We have also observed that the character of these plays is determined by the part played by dancing (nrtta) and āñgikābhinaya in them. In the successors of Kālidāsa, this tradition continues, and we find that Harṣa, Bhavabhūti, Viśākhadutta and Rājaśekhara employ dancing on all the four levels mentioned earlier. Through their works and the commentaries, we can trace the history of dance and the part it played in drama.

236

Harṣa

King Harṣa of Kanauja (648 A.D.) was a patron and lover of the fine arts. Bāṇa clearly says that he was a poet237 and learned scholar: "his knowledge cannot find range enough in doctrines to be learned; all the fine arts are too narrow a field for his genius."238 I-tsing tells us that Harṣa "versified the story of the Bodhi-sattva Jīmūtavāhana, who surrendered himself in place of a Nāga",239 and Harṣa had this composition set to music and dance and had it performed by a company. From the same source, we learn that Harṣa also had Candradāsa's Visvantará and Aśvaghoṣa's Buddhacarita versified and set to dancing and music.240 He is also said to have taken part in dramatic performances.241

The sister of Harṣa, Rājyaśrī, "gradually grew up in the daily familiarity with friends, expert in song, dance, etc."242 Her tutor Dīvākaramitra taught her the doctrines of Buddhism and she became distinguished in her knowledge of the Sammatīya doctrine.243

The plays of Harṣa provide rich internal evidence of the author's knowledge of and familiarity with the art and technique of dancing and stage-craft.

In the Priyadarśikā, the captive girl is assigned to the queen: the queen is given the task of arranging for instruction of the maid Āranyakā: she receives training in dancing, music, singing and instrumental music (gīta-nṛtya vādyādiśu) By Act III, she is so accomplished that she is fit enough to act as the heroine of a play written by Sāṅkṛtyāyanī, the aged confidante of the queen. In this play, Āranyakā plays the part of the queen, and Manoramā, her friend, the part of the king. the play has for its theme the love between Vatsarāja and queen Vāsavadattā. Later, when the role of king is realistically played by the king himself, there are complications; and Priyadarśikā is thrown into prison The play within a play is a common device, the divisions of the stage for its presentation here are interesting. In Act IV again, great histrionic powers are called for to portray Āranyakā's poisoning herself: āṅgikābhinaya in the nāṭyadharmi convention could be the only mode of presenting such situations.

In Harṣa's Ratnāvalī, there is a music and dance festival, which Rājaśekhara claborates upon in nis Karpūramañjarī. The play opens with a spring festival. The king sits on one side watching the performance of Madanikā and Cūtalatikā. The Vidūṣaka tells us of the nature of this'dance: they enter the stage dancing the spring-dance (vasantābhinaya nṛtyanti). The maids enter the stage with quick steps, scattering flowers of various kinds, and with very little restraint, as they are supposedly under the power of madana. The king's speeches have told us of the general note of festivity in the entire city; and the sound of song is heard and scenes of men and women dancing are seen everywhere.

The enacting of the two maids gives a visual representation of this festival of spring: they enter and dance the graces of love (madana-līlā) and the song they sing is in the dvipadīkhanda (I. 12-13). This dance belongs to the nrtya variety, for it has in it both nrtta (dancing proper) and abhinaya. It has exactly the same basic structure as the padam in Bharatanāṭyam. The tāla of this dance is determined by the metre of the poem and is directly dependent on it (as it is in contemporary practice, too). In this particular case, it consists of two portions (padas) and each pada has 26 mātrās, being equally divided into 13 mātrās each. This differs, however, from the famous Prākṛta dvipadī, for, according to Piṅgalā, it consists of two padas, each pada being of 28 mātrās. The maids in all probability sang this song and interpreted the words through various saṃcārī bhāvas. We know of the fast tempo of this dance, as also of its intense vehemence, through the description of the king (I. 16). They have danced with such exuberance that their long tresses have loosened and the decorative flowers have fallen off: the Vidūṣaka tries to dance with them, but not knowing that the song is dvipadī and not carcarī, he comes back deflated and ashamed of his ignorance. That the tāla and the character of the dance were directly related to the metre is clear from this evidence: other steps could not have been made to fit it into the song, and the maids familiar with dance naturally make fun of him.

This is the only dance-composition we find in this play, but examples of āṅgikābhinaya are numerous. The Magician in Act IV (v. 10) proposes to display various celestial beings: by making various gesticulations (bahu vidham nāṭya kṛtvā) and by waving the feathers, he produces the vision of Hari, Brahmā, Indra, Siddhas and Vidyādharas dancing in the heavens (v. 10) (vidyādhara vadhusārth nrtyantam). This vision could only be represented through abhinaya of the most perfect kind: through hand gestures and limb movements, the magician must have created this vision; and as he continues with his abhinaya, the king describes the scene as one in which he can see the nymphs dancing in mid-air (iv. 11).

At the end of the act, the impression of the palace on fire and the king jumping into flames is created through flawless and powerful āṅgikābhinaya. The scene actually constitutes a very effective dance-drama on the theme of fire and the rescuing of Ratnāvalī. Through words and abhinaya, this vision is created before our eyes, and the speeches act as commentary on the gesticulation of the characters. This portion is an excellent example of the nivṛtyaṅkura type of abhinaya;244 this particular type of abhinaya we find often in Sanskrit drama, and we have observed other examples of it in the Mṛcchakaṭika.

Stage manipulation in the Ratnāvalī is of the simplest kind and the author simply divides the stage into two. The king and the Vidūṣaka often find a place to overhear the conversation of others; the exits and entrances are so manoeuvred

that there are not more than two sets of characters on the stage. There is hardly anything new here requiring fresh analysis.

The stage directions demanding a knowledge of āngikābhinaya are, however, many: the stage directions relating to bhāvas and sañcārī bhāvas such as astonishment, joy, distress and the rest continu. We may now examine a few stage directions of āngikābhinaya.

Vāsavadattā worships the king with padmakośa or mukula hastas (1. 22 ff.). Sāgarikā's abhinaya of bowing and of scattering flowers is of a similar nature. She holds her hands in the padmakośa to show many flowers, and then a pair of patākä hastas moved separately indicate the scattering of flowers: with the katakā-vardhamāna she bows to the king (NŚ, IX. 137b-138a). The Vidūṣaka accepts the gifts the queen gives him and blesses her: the blessing is indicated by a pair of arāla hastas (NŚ, IX. 47). The acceptance of the gift is portrayed through a pair of haṁśapakṣa hastas (NŚ, IX. 107). In Act II, Sāgarikā wipes her tears with the tripatākā hastas, when her friend notices that she has been weeping in the course of painting a picture (NŚ, IX. 32). Susaṅgatā in Act II brings lotus leaves and makes coils of the long lotus stalks. It is possible that real lotus stalks were used, but, if not, this may have been represented in abhinaya with the bhramara hastas (NŚ, IX. 102) and the nalinīpadmakośa hastas. By holding the sandamśa hastas in front, she could indicate the stems and leaves of these flowers (NŚ, IX. 113a and 116). The lotus petals may be shown by combined catura hastas (NŚ, IX. 69). Sāgarikā's love-lorn state is shown only through mukhābhinaya. The agitation and fear of the two friends caused by the sudden appearance of a monkey is suggested by using a pair of kapota hastas (NŚ, IX. 132a); the vibhrānta drṣṭī would soon be followed by trastā to represent confusion and fear, respectively (NŚ, VIII. 92b and 94b): the vidhūta head (NŚ, VIII. 26) would accompany these movements of the eyes to indicate the acute fear of Sāgarikā and Susaṅgatā. The rest of the act is simple acting, for the painting board (citra phalaka) is carried about and the Vidūṣaka's lack of restraint leads to complications, for it is through this that the queen knows of the love of Sāgarikā for the king.

In Act III, the king and the Vidūṣaka enter the bower: the king is in a love-lorn state and his movements are indicative of it: when he comes to the Mādhavī bower, he smells the sweet scent of flowers. The hand is arāla, the eyelids are in kuñcita (NŚ, VIII. 116a) and the nose is in socchvāsa (NŚ, VIII. 135a) and his drṣṭī is ardhamukulā (NŚ, VIII. 92a). The king with movements of the hands and the face tells us of the Campaka grove, the Bakul row, and various other trees (III. 8). In this act we have a very interesting situation which could be communicated only through āngikābhinaya. Having reached the bower, the king sends off the Vidūṣaka to get Sāgarikā. The king does not leave the stage; he sits in one corner in a thinking mudrā (pose). His hands are in sandamśa and his eyes are śānta

239

and śūnya in anxiety (NŚ, VIII. 65 and 87a). The queen and Kāñcanmālā then

enter while the king holds this pose in a corner. They converse while moving

to the front stage. Since they have not reported to the right, neither the king

has seen them, nor have they seen him. Then enters the Vidūṣaka in the same zone

(NŚ, VIII. 68 and NŚ, VIII. 89a). After taking a round of the stage, as if mak-

ing for the Mādhavī bower, they enter into the zone in which the king is seated

and the rest of the action of the scene now takes place there: the queen throws off

her veil and walks off in a fury. The king continues to be seated even after

much imploring, all according to the rules of the śāstra, and what Bharata would

call the ābhyantara (internal) etiquette of the king towards the angered queen

(NŚ, XXII. Kāvyamālā, 1943, 142b-143a and 144b-145a). After this Sāgarikā,

disguised as Vāsavadattā, enters in a state of anxiety and enacts killing herself.

This sequence is a piece of effective acting: the creepers, the trees

of the noose, and the attempt at suicide are all represented through āṅgikābhinaya,

in accordance with the rules of nātyadharmi.247 The king in turn further enacts

the tearing off the noose from Sāgarikā's neck: recognizing Sāgarikā, his movement

is that of outstretched arms to embrace her. The embracing is presented through

utsṛiṅga hastas and the natta grīvā: and, while he performs this action, the queen

and Kāñcanmālā re-enter, and this time they enact listening to the conversation

by their gesticulation. We must, however, remember that they can only listen and not

see. A creeper noose is the only stage property we know of from the text, and

this is not realistically used.

In Act IV, the most powerful piece of āṅgikābhinaya relates to the rising of

flames in the palace (all through the device of the magician). The king enacts

putting off his cloak (uttariya), rushing into the fire, and being overpowered by

smoke. With quick movements and jumps, the king tells us of his entering the

fire; and then through the quivering movement of the tripatākā hastas he suggests

flames and fire. This sequence is followed by a sharp stroke of the patākā hastas

indicating the warding off the smoke. Ratnāvalī is rescued. She enters the stage

in fetters, is released, and the illusion of fire and everything else is explained by

Yaugandharāyaṇa; and on this note of reconciliation and happiness the play ends.

There is in Sanskrit drama always a situation which depends for its success-

ful portrayal not on the words but on the āṅgikābhinaya, and this situation is

the climax or the turning point of a play. The Sanskrit dramatist never makes

the āṅgikābhinaya an accessory to the vācika; he consciously uses this stylized

technique of āṅgikābhinaya in order to achieve the most effective stage spectacle.

Bhavabhūti

None of Bhavabhuti's (700 A.D.) plays contain dance recitals, nor do they

deal with the śṛṅgāra rasa in the way the plays of Kālidāsa or Harṣa do.

We have an atmosphere full of pathos in the Uttararāmacarita and of intrigue,

love and horror in the Mālatīmādhava. In these plays, no heroines come to dance

on stage; very few characters portray lalitābhinaya. This does not mean, however,

that Bhavabhūti is not acquainted with Bharata and that his dramas give no evi-

dence of his familiarity with dance and knowledge of āngikābhinaya: he frequently

uses technical terms from Bharata in his descriptions; the dances he describes are

those of the gods rather than those of the courtesans.

In the Mālatīmādhava we have an extremely powerful description of Śiva's

and Kālī's dance: in the prologue to the Mālatīmādhava, Bhavabhūti invokes god

Śiva in the aspect of the tāṇḍava: here Śiva is seen dancing to the drum of Nandi.248

In Act V, the kāpālikas bow to the goddess Cāmuṇḍā and worship her in the aspect

of the tāṇḍava dance. In a powerful description, we are told of this dance of destruc-

tion.249 We know of the violence of this dance from the various incidents described

in the verse: in the process of dance, her nails pierce through the moon, and the

nectar that dropped from the moon on the skulls around her neck resulted in a

laughter, horrible and ghastly, from the skulls that revived. Her arms move about

so that the serpents around them emit flames of poison. The third verse describes

her whirls and violent turns, and the fire that emerges from her third eye. The

fourth verse tells us more of the perfectly executed dance. The goddess danced so

perfectly that all the ghoṣts and spirits, vetālas and goblins, began to clap their

hands in tāla and appreciation, and Gauri was so frightened by this noise that she

suddenly embraced Śiva. Excepting for general words like prāṛttā, bhramarī and

samhrāntā, we do not have any technical terms here, but, as a general description

of the tāṇḍava dance, it is powerful.

In the Uttararāmacarita, we have no description of Śiva and Kālī dancing,

but we have reference to the dramatization of the Rāmāyaṇa by Vālamīki. In Act

IV, Lava tells Janaka that Vālamīki has sent a portion of the manuscript of the

Rāmāyaṇa to Bharata Muni: this portion was written for staging according to

the proper rasa and bhāva. Bharata is known here as the teacher of the three arts

of drama, vocal music and instrumental music (nāṭya, gīta and vāḍya). Later,

in Act IV, we learn of Kuśā's returning from the āśrama of Bharata

Muni. In Act VII, we have a glimpse of this dramatized version of the

Rāmāyaṇa. It is enacted on the banks of the Gaṅgā, and Lakṣmaṇa is sent there

by Rāma to supervise the arrangements for the theatre. Vālamīki has gathered

actors and actresses (nāyaka and nāyikā) and the apsarās to act this play.

And then follows a moving spectacle of abhinaya which Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa

watch: from this scene we know of the prevalence of the rules of Bharata in

Bhavabhūti's time, and have certain evidence of the popularity of the theme of

the Rāmāyaṇa in the theatrical repertoire. This performance is not an ignorant

performance of the epic but a learned academic (śāstric) performance, where

Bharata himself has rendered portions of the epic to dance and drama appropriate

CLASSICAL INDIAN DANCE IN LITERATURE AND THE ARTS

to the stage. The tradition of rendering themes, narrative, epic and lyrical, seems to have begun at this stage and becomes increasingly popular. In fact, it is this tradition of the epic, or of the narrative turned into the dramatic dance, which we observe in the contemporary recitals of Kathākali.250 All the dance-drama forms of the South, like the kōthus and the yakṣa-gānas251 of Kannaḍa and the Bhāga-vatmelā of Tamilnad and Kuchipudi of Andhra belong to this tradition, where the epic is rendered into dance-drama. These forms, however, have not remained strictly classical in their existing manifestations, but their origins can be traced back to dramatic recitals of the kind mentioned in the Uttararāmacarita.

Bhavabhūti is familiar with the terms of āṅgikābhinaya more than any of his contemporaries: very often in general descriptions of people, seasons, etc., we see him use terms of āṅgikābhinaya. In the Mālatīmādhava, Makaranda describing Mādhava (1. 17) says, "His gait is languid (ālasam) and his look (drṣṭi) is śūnya (motionless) (NŚ, VIII. 87a). His body has lost its grace (sauṣṭhava). Here śūnya drṣṭi and sauṣṭhava are both definite terms which indicate his state of utter dejection. An absence of the sauṣṭhava252 position of the body would denote his impassioned and love-lorn state. The sighing adds to this state.253

Mādhava, describing Mālatī to Makaranda, tells us of various glances (drṣṭi). According to Jagaddhara, the commentator of the Mālatīmādhava, the following drṣṭis are referred to (I. 27) : (1) abdhuta, used for vismaya, (2) kāntā, used for harṣa, (3) sambhrūprakseiṣa kaṭākṣa for śṛṅgāra, (4) mukulitā, śaṅkitā for fear, and (5) kuñcita drṣṭi. The text itself does not name all these glances, but only gives us the movements of the eyelids, eyeballs and the eyebrows which tell us of the glances: it only mentions the mukulitā and the kuñcita glances. Bharata mentions all these glances: (1) the level (sama) glance where the eyeballs are raised in wonder, and when the eyelashes are just a little curved, it is the abdhuta glance (NŚ, VIII. 51 and.61), (2) the kāntā is the śṛṅgāra rasa drṣṭi; the eyebows are contracted and there is a sideways movement of the eyeballs (vivartana); this is also the kaṭākṣa (NŚ, VIII. 47). (3) In the mukulitā or mukula drṣṭi, the eyelashes tremble and the eyeballs are opened in happiness: it is used in sleeping, dreaming, etc. (NŚ, VIII. 70). (4) The śaṅkitā drṣṭi is used for apprehension (NŚ, VIII. 68). (5) In the kuñcitā, the eyelashes and eyelids are both contracted, and so are the eyeballs (NŚ, VIII. 71).

The next verse also lists a number of eye movements. The manner in which Bhavabhūti catalogues these glances and movements of the eyeballs and the eye-brows, is amazing. In fact he is listing the various types of side-glances (kaṭākṣa), and from this list, as also from Jagaddhara's commentary, we see how elaborations had become fashionable. Jagaddhara describes the different kaṭākṣāvastāḥas and then defines three more drṣṭis, namely, the viṣādinī, the lalitā and the snigdhā.

In Act IV (v. 1 and 2), the author once again parades his theoretical know-

242

ledge of the different glances and puts the speech inappropriately in the mouth

of Kāmandakī. He mentions here the following glances: the śankitā, the jihmā,

of the ardhamukulā, or the kuñcitā and the ekākārā. These descriptions are accu-

rate and he seems to follow the Nātyaśāstra fairly closely.254

In Act VIII (v. 1 ff., lines 48-51), Madayantikā, describing her dream, also talks

of the various movements of the eyes: the movements are called the dance of the

cyes and, surprisingly enough, the word tāṇḍava is used here. We find that the word

lāsya is used as a synonym for the word nrtya very often but tāṇḍava is seldom used.

The peacocks also perform tāṇḍava not merely nrtya (IX. 15): the peacocks who

drown Mādhava's words in their notes also perform the tāṇḍava. It is significant

how the words nrtya and lāsya are replaced here by tāṇḍava. We cannot conclude

from this instance that the distinction between tāṇḍava and lāsya was lost to the

author, but it is clear that little distinction is maintained here between the different

terms. Mālatī's perfect carriage of the body and her movements are described as

beautiful and flawless: her training in these glances and movements has been dic-

tated by a teacher of dancing, who is called the nāṭyācārya here (VII. 120). In the

Uttararāmacarita, Bhavabhūti exercises a little more restraint, and thus we have

fewer discriptions of eyes, eye glances and eyebrows. Rāma addressing a young

peacock in Act III (III. 19) remembers Sītā as making the young peacock dance

by the clapping of her hands: the peacock dances and Sītā gives the tāla with

her hands: her eyebrows move vivaciously (caṭula) and their movements are

like tāṇḍava: the eyeball movements of the peacock are circular and full of

sportiveness. The movement of the eyeballs mentioned here is the bhramaṇa

where the eyeballs move in all directions (NŚ, VIII. 98b) and make a circle.

This is an involved description but what the author seems to refer to is a circular

movement of the eyes in which the eyeball makes a complete circle: the descriptions

of the tāṇḍava of the eyebrows and the dance of the peacock are simpler statements.

Act IX of the Mālatīmādhava resembles Act IV of the Vikramorvaśīya.

The lament of Mādhava, in order to be effectively rendered on the stage, would

demand a dancing ability of a very high order.

In the Uttararāmacarita, we have many examples of these stage conventions

and zonal treatment. In Act III, the two river goddesses Tamasā and Mūrtā enter

the stage followed by Rāma and Sītā. Sītā is invisible; thus, while she can see

Rāma, he can only hear her: she comes near him, lets him rest on her, but to him

it is as if he were seeing a vision: this is depicted through Rāma's holding the arāla

hasta over his head to show that he is addressing an invisible person (NŚ, Kavya-

mālā, XXV. 72 and NŚ, IX. 46-52).

The stage directions in these plays are more or less repetitions of what we

have found in the earlier dramatists. Flowers are plucked and gathered in both the

Mālatīmādhava and the Uttararāmacarita,255 with the katakāmukha or the hamsāsya hastas; shedding of tears and their wiping is common; they are depicted through the tripatākā hastas placed near the eyes.256 Enactment of touch is also common (Uttararāmacarita, III, 39 ff.). Rāma enacts the riding of celestial chariot through an aerial cārī (Uttararāmacarita, II. 9 ff.) (also Act VI) and the appropriate gait. Sumantra enacts the speed of a chariot in Act V (Uttararāmacarita, 6 ff) and characters speak words indicative of the transitory states with appropriate āngikābhinaya.

Terms like saharsaṃ (with joy) and saviṣadam (with distress) continue to play an important part. Very often Bhavabhūti combines more than one expression in his stage directions; thus there are stage directions, where the character looks with joy, pathos and wonder all at the same time (Act VII, etc.). Stage directions such as these are often of no help to the actor and they only confuse the reader. We are led to believe from these examples that the rules and precepts of Bharata were being applied here rather academically: and it would not be possible to depict the three types of transitory states before speaking one sentence. An interesting set of new stage directions occur in the Mālatīmādhava: these relate to the temperamental states (sāttvika bhāva).257

Mālatī enacts paralysis of the tongue (vākstambham jātyati) (VIII. 7 ff., line 15). This is done by enacting a sudden motionlessness and pulling a smiless face with a stiff body (NŚ, VIII. 155). Madayantikā gesticulates perspiration and other emotions (VII. 1 ff). This is enacted by wiping off the face with the arāla hastas or the sūcīmukha walking about nervously and restlessly (NŚ, VII. 156). Change of colour and trembling are also incorporated very often in the stage directions of these plays (VI. 11 ff.). Horripilation may be shown by the hamsapakṣa hastas (NŚ, IX. 108) and by touching the body.

The plays of Bhavabhūti convince us of the author's intimate acquaintance with the śāstric tradition of drama and dance. From the evidence listed above we may also conclude that the author was perhaps trying to make use of his knowledge sometimes aptly, appropriately, but, occasionally, only for the fun of exhibiting it, even though indiscriminately. Even in erring against the tradition of Bharata, we are aware that the tradition continues to live, although ornamentation and departures were becoming common.

Bhaṭṭa Nārāyaṇa

The Venisam̉hāra of Bhaṭṭa Nārāyaṇa hardly calls for any dance recitals or the lyrical āngikābhinaya of the dramas portraying the śṛṅgāra rasa.

The highly declamatory character of the play, half poetic and half dramatic, gives us a few instances of dance recitals, but the author, like other dramatists, is conscious of the art, even though he does not seem to have a detailed technical knowledge of it, like Kālidāsa or Rājaśekhara.

LITERATURE AND DANCING

At the very outset, in the benedictory verses, the author invokes Lord Kṛṣṇa for blessing: the reference to Rādhā in this verse is to one who has lost interest in the rāsa dance on the banks of the Kāliṇdi (Yamunā) and whom the Lord follows (I. 2). This is the solitary reference to the dance in the whole play, even though the words, nrtya, lāsya and śailūṣa occur in the body of the play (Act I, v. 24, v. 25, v. 8, etc.). We also have a demon (rākṣasi) dancing with satisfaction in Act III (v. 1 ff.). In a powerful simile describing the battle field, Bhīmasena tells Draupadi that the sons of Pāṇḍu are skilled enough to move about in the depths of the water of the incomparable ocean of war, where the headless trunks dance to the accompaniment of musical instruments in the form of female jackals, howling inauspiciously during the gathering for drinking profuse blood (I. 24).258

Musical instruments, such as the tūrya, are mentioned in other places (Act I, Prologue v. 8 ff., Act II, v. 12 ff.).

Stage manipulation and division of the style into zones is also seen here. In Act I (v. 14 ff), we have Bhīma and Sahadeva on the stage in one zone, and Draupadi and the maid in the other. The latter group can watch the former, while the former are unaware of their presence (I. 14 ff.). We have a similar situation in Act II, in which king Duryodhana, enacting as though hiding behind the śyāmā creepers, overhears queen Bhānumati's conversation with her attendant. The play on the word 'nakula' produces a misunderstanding between the two. This enacting of hiding behind the śyāmā creepers is surely a piece of āṅgikābhinaya. In the same act, we have an effective piece of dancing almost of the sūci type when all gesticulate the hindering effect of the whirlwind and moving forward with an effort. There is a vivid description by the king (II. 20) which acts as commentary on the queen's enacting; he describes the eyebrows (bhrukuṭi), the movements of her breasts, and the expression of her eyes. The queen covers her face with her arms and walks in chequered steps, executing a difficult piece of mime. After she has taken a round of the stage, the king walks into her zone by enacting entrance, and the queen reaches a place where there is no wind. The king, however, does not use any technical language in describing the movements of the queen.

Among stage directions, no new ones occur. We have stage directions in which the characters look at the sky and speak (ākāśānī datta dṛṣṭī) (Act II, v. 1 ff. and Act VI, v. 18, etc.). There is also the riding of and ascending and descending (V. 26 ff.) from chariots, and once "Duryodhana is lying in a chariot in a swoon". The charioteer enters and takes him away (Act IV, beginning). This could have been enacted either by Duryodhana really coming in a ratha with the charioteer enacting pulling it or by the suggestion of a ratha at the back of the stage; the latter is more likely; then with figure of the swooned king in the background the charioteer does the rest of the abhinaya of looking around, of being confused, etc. (sambhramana). The minor transitory states are enacted throughout and stage

245

directions like "enacts anxiety (cintā, Act II, v. 2 ff.), dejection (viṣāda, Act II, v,

12), anger (krodha, Act I, v. 19 ff.), bashfulness (lajjā, Act II, v. 16), joyfulness

(Act I, 15), are found. All these must, of course, have been enacted according to

the rules of ābhyantara enacting (NŚ, Kāvyamālā, XXII. 72b-73a), laid down by

Bharata.

In the post-Kālidāsa drama, a stock terminology āṅgikābhinaya becomes an

integral part of the spoken drama; each subsequent author, whatever his theme

and whatever the character and rasa of his play, employs it in the same way as he

employs words and language. It is taken for granted that the feelings of touch,

smell, sound, taste, etc., will only be shown through āṅgikābhinaya (NŚ, Kāvyamālā,

XXII. 75b-76a, etc.) and through the rules of 'basic representation' and the 'special

representation' codified by Bharata in Chapters XXII and XXV. The dramatist

does not find it necessary to make new innovations in technique because the instru-

ments provided to him by tradition and by the śāstras fulfil all his needs.

Rājaśekhara

In the Karpūramañjarī, we find interesting material on dance: here are

dances, swing festivals and stage manipulations, where two or more scenes occur

at the same time; pantomime is richly woven into the fabric of the spoken word.

In Act IV, the king and the Vidūṣaka ascend the terrace of the palace and

watch the carcarī. The Vidūṣaka's speech acts as a commentary on this dance;

it serves the purpose of both a commentary on the exact progress of the dance

and is a clever technique which does not let us forget that the king and the jester

are not part of the same scene but are only spectators. From these verses (IV.

10–18)259 we gather many technical details of the dance. The dance is of the lāsya

variety; the word lāsa (lāsya) is used for it (IV. 10a).

The dance is further described as the danda rāsa (Act IV): this dance may

have something to do with the staff-dance of the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa,260 or, per-

haps, the rāsa of the Viṣṇu Purāṇa.281 The latter, however, was in all probability

a mixed dance of men and women, specially if we agree that Kṛṣṇa multiplied

himself several times. The present dance definitely belongs to the rāsa nrtya type,

judging both from its name and description, but it is difficult to ascertain whether

it was exactly like the rāsa of the Viṣṇu Purāṇa, as the latter also had couple forma-

tions in concentric circles: both these details are missing from the present descrip-

tion. This is also to be distinguished from the ārabhaṭi nrtya of Bāṇa,262 for the vrtti

that the present dance follows is obviously kaiśekī and not ārabhaṭī. Judging from

the word danda, we are led to believe that the particular dance was akin to the

contemporary daṇḍiyārāsa of Kāthiyāvara and the kollāṭṭam263 of the South. But

both these dances are performed with sticks, and there is no mention of the

striking of sticks in the present context. It is unlikely that the danda rāsa has some-

thing to do with staff or staffs,264 i.e., either dancing round the staff or holding sticks in hands. It is more likely, judging from the name and the circle formation, that this dance belongs to the rāsa nrtya of the contemporary Manipuri dance,265 and that its name is derived from Bharata's nrtta karanas, nrtta hastas and cārīs of that name. The word danda does not perhaps denote a staff, but the attitude and posture in which the danda hastas or the danda pāda are used.

Bharata mentions a cārī, a nrttahasta of the danda variety. The dandapāda karana or the dandapāda karana or the danda recita karana266 may be the dance movements employed in this dance. In the first, the ūrdhvajānu cārī is used; in the third, the danda pāda cārī is employed; and in the second the nrtta-hasta dandapakṣa are held out like a staff: the first karana also utilizes these hastas (NŚ. IX. 202);267 the cārī dandapāda suggests turning round one foot (NŚ, X. 44). The two characteristics common to all these movements are (a) a position of the hands in which the arms are stretched out diagonally on either side,268 and (b) the feet moving freely and taking turns on one foot. Both these characteristics would suit a rāsa dance of the kind described here. The women stretch their hands out on either side, pirouette and then move jointly in a circle. Another technical term used here makes this clearer: the word bandha denotes the circle formation and may easily be the śṛṅkhalikā or latābandha of Bharata's four piṇḍi bandhas (NŚ, IV. 295b-296a):269 the adjective vicitra qualifies this formation. The number of dancers is thirty-two, and their steps (pāda) follow the beats (tāla) of music. A very vivid picture of the dandarāsa is thus created. We know of the movements of individual dancers and the collective formation of the group. The emphasis all through is on nrtta and the quick laya indicates the fast tempo of the dance.

From the next stanza (IV. 12) we learn of a cālī dance. Here the women arrange themselves in two rows facing each other: their poses are clear and the formation is called a (rekhā) :270 the shoulders, arms and hands are in a natural position (sama). The characteristics of this dance are thus obvious: the women stand in single file, move their hands and feet in the samapāda, samabāhu, etc., facing each other (sāhimuha or sāhimukha), and dance in an appropriate tempo (laya) of the proper metrical cycle (tāla).

The sama position described here is a position from which most dance sequences and dance cadences in India are begun. This natural stance invariably forms the starting point of all Bharata's movements. He, however, does not list a sama position of the arms or the shoulders, both of which are mentioned here. Bharata nevertheless, does mention the sama position for movements of the head and the hands.271 The Saṅgītaratnākara also mentions these positions.272 The latter text also gives us a clue to the cālī dance. The Saṅgītaratnākara (VII. 1215) enumerates ten rustic dances. The first is cālī; it is "not too fast nor too slow", (in the madhya laya) and is characterized by the simultaneity (yauga pādyā) of the movement

of feet, thighs, waist and arms. The same dance performed in a fast tempo with

dancers facing each other is called cālivadā.273 The laya of this dance is according

to the tāla and is in the madhya laya here. This group cālī dance is to be clearly

distinguished from the second cālī mentioned in a subsequent verse (IV. 16); the

first is a group dance consisting of graceful natural movements; the line formations

of women is the most characteristic feature of this dance: the second cālī dance

is apparently a solo dance, which the dancer performs to the beat of a drum called

the ḍāḍakkā and to the music of a flute (veṇu); this is called the cālī or chāllikām

dance. The swaying of the arms (dola) refers, perhaps, to the dola hastas: this dance

is more in the nature of a classical dance, accompanied by drum, madalam and

instrumental music: the swaying of the arms refers definitely to dola hastas (NŚ,

IX. 149). This solo cāllī dance comes nearest to the dance named cālī in the con-

temporary Manipurī dance: the cālī274 of the Manipurī is the first dance taught and is

both performed solo and in a group. In the group, however, two lines facing each

other are formed, and the dance is performed either in a single row or in a circle.

The characteristics of the dance, common to the description found in the Karpūra-

mañjarī, are the graceful movements of arms, the slow (madhya) tempo, and the

more or less natural position of the body. In the contemporary Manipurī cālī dance,

the axis of the body is hardly broken and there are also a few fast movements: it

derives its name also from the tāla of that name, which consists of eight beats and

is done in two distinct tempos (laya). The above description does seem to have

something in common with this contemporary Manipurī cālī dance, but it would

not be correct to identify the dance of the Karpūraman̄jarī completely with the

contemporary cālī of Manipurī. The Assamese Bihu nrtya is the contemporary

dance which comes closest to this description.

There is a third dance mentioned in the festival. It seems to be of a general

nature; it has no name. All we learn from the description is that it is performed

with bells and is accompanied by vocal music (a song) and consists of a graceful

(lalita) movement performed to the proper laya and tāla (IV. 17).

All these dances belong to the nrtta variety. Another scene of pantomime is

also described, where the women enact a cemetery scene (IV. 15).

From these examples, we have a fairly good idea of the dances of the time: group

dances seem frequent, and the idea of laya, tāla and music (instrumental

and vocal) guiding and regulating these dances is also clearly brought out.

Throughout the Karpūraman̄jarī, there are words which relate to dance and

music. There is, however, only one instance of a full-fledged dance scene with three

easily distinguishable dances, viz., the daṇḍa rāsa, the carcarī and the cālī dance.

It is unlikely that all these scenes and dances were presented on the stage at

the same time. It is more likely that a group of dancers entered, performed their respective dances and made their exit; the others followed quickly. Other words relating to dance, dancers and musical instruments are listed below:

(a) Kuśilava—(kuśilava kuśolava) is used for an actor (I. 42). We have come across this word earlier, too (cf. the Rāmāyaṇa etc.);

(b) Āsthanā-(āṭṭhāṇo, āsthaṇo) for assembly room (II. 3a);

(c) Pakhāujja-(pakhāujj, pakshātodh) for drum (mṛdaṅga) (I. 4, line 10). This is one of the earliest mentions of this instrument. The pakhāvaja used in Kathak dancing and North Indian music is, perhaps, derived from this. The performance begins with the sound of this instrument:

(d) Miaṅga-(miaṅga, mṛdaṅga)-This is the mṛdaṅga proper (I. 4, line 9); and

(e) Veṇu—flute (IV. 6a and 18a).

The king and the Vidūṣaka in the Karpūramañjarī witness yet another sequence which is a significant example of abhinaya and the zonal treatment; this is the swing festival. In Act II, the king sees his beloved on the swing. Once again, the stage is divided into two portions, and, while the king and the Vidūṣaka stand on one side of the stage, the abhinaya of the swing is performed by maidens in the other zone (II. 30 ff.). Bharata275 lays down a general rule about the representation of a swing, and we must assume that the abhinaya of the swing was done to a general rendering of the swing movements (imitative in character, rather than suggestive or symbolic): the verses which the king recites act as commentary on the scene. The Vidūṣaka’s beautiful lyrical description of this276 tells us of the movements of these maidens: the terms used here are, however, all general and ’none of them is technical. Words such as vilola are only technical descriptions of these graceful movements, inasmuch as the Nāṭyaśāstra also uses the term vilola, which was perhaps depicted by the āndolita movement of the arms.277 There is no doubt that this representation of the swing was more in the nature of a swing-dance than a crude representation of a swing on the stage with a heroine sitting on it. The words used here for the movement is bhramavata.

There is a mention of dancing in two beautiful similes in the Karpūramañjarī. Describing the coming of spring, the king compares the movements of creepers to the movements of girls dancing: “the festival season of spring—that sets a dancing like dance-girls, the creepers that sway in the breeze”278 (I. 16b ff.). Spring comes to dance and sing; and the creepers that dance are like the dancing girls (not courtesans but any one who dances or, more specifically, the professional

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dancer, nartani). The queen also describes the spring and uses the same words.

The causes and initiators of the dance here are the breezes of Mālābār who "set

a dancing the creepers of the betel" (I. 17). From the text itself the Mālābār breeze

seems less appropriate than malaya. For our purpose, however, the reference

to the 'professional dancer' alone is important.

Stage manipulations and zonal conventions are employed in the Karpūra-

mañjarī to create varied and interesting effects: these effects are hardly possible

without flawless āṅgikābhinaya and a strict adherence to the zonal treatment.

Without going into the details of how these scenes were manipulated, we may only

mention here the acts where these double scenes take place.

In Act II, twice there are situations where the stage is divided into two parts:

in the example mentioned above, the king and the Vidūṣaka are supposedly in

the plantain arbor, while they watch the heroine on the swing.279 Again the king

witnesses the heroine perform the aśoka dohada while he stands in one part of the

garden: the heroine must have shown the aśoka dohada in the aśvakrāntā cārī280

(II. 43-47). Two groups thus act simultaneously (IV. 9 ff.). The king and the

Vidūṣaka have ascended the steps of the palace up to the roof: from there they

witness the colourful festival. The entire dance of the carcarī goes on while the

king and the Vidūṣaka are on the stage, supposedly on the palace roof. Later in

the act the progress of the queen and Karpūramañjarī going up and down from

the garden to the prison room, along the wall through a subterranean passage,

is a bit of a clever and highly specialized acting. The audience would have to under-

stand the quick change of scene and place only through the zonal treatment and

strict adherence to the rules of entrance and exit: with one mistake the whole scene

would fall to pieces. Bharata lays down very clearly the rules of exits and entrances

in his zonal treatment (NŚ, XIII. 12-14). These exits and entrances with proper

abhinaya create the required effect.

Besides these, other stage directions demand stylized āṅgikābhinaya. In Act

I,281 soon after the Prologue, the king enters the stage with the queen, jesters and

attendants; they enter the stage in a proper order and take their seats: here the

king follows the hand-maid, and is surrounded by the Vidūṣaka and others (NŚ,

XIII. 16).

In Act I,282 the jester looks back by turning his neck (valita-grīvā). This valitam

of the neck is the valita movement of the neck, which is used for turning around etc.

(NŚ, VIII. 174-175).

In Act II, the king enacts as if smelling a pleasant odour: this is represent-

ed by slightly narrowing the eyes (the kuñcita movement) and the socchavāsā

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movement of the nose (NŚ, XXII. 79b; VIII. 135b). The hands are in arāla (NŚ, IX. 51).

In Act II, 46, in the aśoka dohada scene, Karpūraman̄jarī represents embracing the tree by ardhacandra hastas which suggest the tree (NŚ, IX. 44a); the vardhamāna hasta represents the grasping of the tree;283 the hitting and holding the tree is represented through the aśvakrānta sthāna (NŚ, XII. 175-176); the cārī used for kicking the tree is presumably the sūci or aviddha cārī (NŚ, X. 33 and 38).

In Act III, Karpūraman̄jarī and Kurangikā are about to enter the stage; the king and the Vidūṣaka gesticulate entering inside, so that they can hear her: this praveśa nātyayata (enacting entrance) would be represented by taking steps backwards and through the use of patākã hands (III. 20 ff.).

The stage direction sparśābhinaya (III. 23) we have discussed earlier (NŚ, XXII. 77a-78b). This is depicted through the utsaṅga hastas (NŚ, IX. 139), the lalitā dṛṣṭi and the utkeśa (lifted) eyebrows (NŚ, VIII. 73, 119, etc.).

In Act IV, the king and the jester enact ascending the terrace before the carcarī begins. This is represented by steps in the atikrāntā cārī (NŚ, XII. 96-98a).

In Act IV, Karpūraman̄jarī gesticulates, making an opening at the mouth of the sanctuary of Cāmundā and enters. The patākã hands raised and stretched, with fingers pointing downwards, indicate darkness; the idea of a tunnel and the door is shown by the tripatākã hands facing each other; one tripatākã hasta with the appropriate step suggests entering: all this abhinaya would, of course, be done in a particular zone, thereby establishing the sanctuary in the rest of the act (IV. 17 ff.).

In Act IV,284 the queen worships with the padmakośa hands; the muṣṭi and the haṁsāsya hasta indicate an exit (NŚ, IX. 55-56 and 105). The queen listens to Karpūraman̄jarī through a sācī glance and the bending of the neck on one side. The scene of the prison room and the sanctuary could be executed effectively only through acute stylization. We notice here that the author carefully indicates the stage directions which provide a clue to the movements of these characters. The queen only enacts the making of an exit. She is as if making an exit and reaching the prison-room; the heroine, Karpūraman̄jarī, on the other hand, makes an actual exit—a real one, and here the stage direction does not use the word nāṭita-kena.

In Act IV,285 the marriage between the king and Karpūraman̄jarī is presented in pantomime. This is portrayed through a pair of arāla hastas moving

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around each other and their fingers meeting to form a svastika (NŚ, IX. 49) and

with the same hastas the king and Karpūramañjari circumambulate round the

fire.286

The glances referred to in the text and in the stage directions are tryśara,

kaṭākṣa and sācī: all these come from Bharata, but it must be pointed out that

Rājaśekhara also uses some of these inaccurately.

Except for a few directions from the codified tradition, and a few inaccuracies

and general statements, the Karpūramañjarī presents before us a kind of drama,

which was very much akin to what is today known as operatic dance-drama.

The literary merits of the play may not be great, but of its significance as a play,

with a very definite technique, there is no doubt. Rājaśekhara himself tells us

that his work is not a plain drama or a nāṭikā; it is a saṭṭaka (I. 4, 6 and 12): it

is defined in the text as the play which “very much resembles a nāṭikā, except

only that praveśakas, viṣkambhakas and aṇkas do not occur” (I. 6). Konow287

in his introduction to the Karpūramañjarī says, “the saṭṭaka in most of its charac-

teristics resembled the nāṭikā, but was classed separately, not only because it

was written in Prākṛta, but also because a distinct kind of dancing was used in

it.” The tradition preserved in this form of play is, perhaps, an older tradition

of a class of plays in which dancing played an essential part. We find the word

saṭṭaka occur in the form of sadaka in the Bharhut sculptures under the scene of

the apsarās dancing.288 This word sāḍika or sāḍikasa289 is interpreted as an irregu-

larly formed equivalent of Sanskrit sāṭika, which stands for a kind of a dramatic

performance and is here applicable to the dance of the apsarās: the dancing and

musical instruments seen on the Bharhut railing may not tell us exactly of a drama-

tic performance, but the association of music with dancing and that of both of

them with dramatic performance is obvious. The type of operatic drama we find

in the-Karpūramañjarī, perhaps, grew out of the music and dance recitals portrayed

in the Bharhut sculptures.

Notes

1. Wilson, H. H., Ṛgveda, Vol. II, p. 34.

2. Ibid., p. 262.

3. For other references to Indra as a dancer see Ṛgveda, VIII, 68. vii., VI. 33. iii, and VIII. 92. iii. etc.

4. Max Müller, Sacred Books of the East, Vol. I, p. 313; see his interpretation of verse V. 52. xii.

5. Max Müller, Sacred Books of the East.

6. VI. 63. v.

7. Macdonald, Hymns from the Ṛgveda, I 92. iv, and Kalgi, A , Ṛg Veda, p 53 for two versions of translations of Hymn I. 92. The epithets and words used for this goddess are untranslatable; the nuances of words like purāṇī, subhāgā, revatī, candrārathā, vājinī are lost in English translation.

8 Griffiths, Vol. II, X, 72, vi. p. 487.

9 Translation by Macdonald.

10 Nrtaye: the infinitive form is used.

11. Griffiths translates this as: “. . . . . eagles have sent forth their cry drift in heaven in the sky’s vault the dark impetuous ones have danced.” Wilson translates this hymn in an entirely different manner. The deities of the hymn are the stones used for bruising the soma plant,—the ṛṣi is Arbuda, the serpent, son of Kedru,—and the descriptions are those of the stones sand men (X. 94, ii), who receive into their mouths the sweet (soma) juice and roar (like the caters of flesh) over the roasted meat. Thus verse four is translated as: “They cry aloud calling upon Indra with the intoxicating effused (soma) they took the sweet juice into their mouth, seized by the sisters the bold stones danced filling the earth with shouts.” And the next verse as: “The well gliding stones made a noise in the firmament; they danced like the black deer in the stall. . . . . .” (Wilson, H. H., Vol. VI, pp. 177-78). It is quite clear from either interpretation that this virile dancing was certainly couple dancing and had vocal music as its accompaniment. From Wilson’s interpretation we may also conclude that there was a circular gliding, swift-footed movement in the dance.

12 Keith and Macdonald, Vedic Index, Vol. II, p. 429, for a detailed discussion on this word.

13. The commentaries of the text are useful as the details of the rituals are described there

14 Griffiths: translation and commentary of Vājavaneyī Saṃhitā, Book II. IX. 22.

15 X. 19; three strides of Viṣṇu are mentioned here, too.

16 This sounding of sixteen or seventeen drums is the beginning of the Nāndi in the Sanskrit drama, where sixteen drums are sounded. To this day such drum beating is seen in the beginning of an orthodox Kathakaḷi performance and in some kinds of Nāga dances.

17. Griffiths’ translation, IX, v. 22, p. 89.

18. See Griffiths, Ṛgveda VII, II, translation, p. 253. He calls this and the subsequent ceremony revolting.

19. Translation by Griffiths.

20. Translation by Macdonell, XII. 1. 41.

21. Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, VI. 27, where the nature of art creation is discussed. Also Aitareya Āraṇyaka, III. 2. 6, where “Prajāpati the year, emanating offspring was disintegrated (vyaśramaṇata) he reintegrated himself (ātmanānam samabodhayat) by means of the metres (chandobhiḥ)” and Jaiminīya Upaniṣad Brāhmaṇa, III, 2, where initiation is called metrical transformation (dikṣitaścandānṛtyeva abhusaṃbharati). In these passages the spiritual significance of the rhythm in art is plainly asserted. Conversely, they are also of interest in connection with the problem of the origins of art, all rhythm corresponding in the last analysis to cosmic rhythm; see Jaiminīya Upaniṣad Brāhmaṇa, I, 35, 7.

22. Kaṭha Upaniṣad, I, 1. 25.

23. Kena Upaniṣad, I, V. 1-3.

24. Devaḥjñāna Vidyā is interpreted by Śaṅkara as the science of making essences, of dancing, singing, music, architecture, etc. Hume translates it as the “Fine Arts”. For further interpretation see Faddegon, B., Acta Orientalia 4. 42-54.

25. In VII.1.3, the difference between Iṭihāsa and Purāṇa is made; Vedic Index discusses this fully.

26. For references in the Upaniṣads, which have a bearing on aesthetic theory of the Hindus, see Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, I. 4. 10, where it is said that the true knowledge of an object is not obtained by merely empirical observation or reflex registration (pratyakṣa) but only when the knower and the known, the seer and the seen meet in an act transcending distinction. . . . etc. This has a direct bearing on the stress on the “state of being” rather than “one of action” in the Indian Arts. See also ibid., III. 3. 32. The conception of god as the supreme artist, as representing the perfection toward which human art tends, has played an important part in Indian aesthetics: the artist consequently slaves in the timeless activity of the god. The idea

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of the necessary disappearance of the perfected being finds its place in all metaphysical

systems. See Chāndogya Upaniṣad, VIII. 13.

27. See also concept of the space in the heart (antarhrdaya ākāśa) (ibid., VIII, 1 and 1-3) —and

Br̥hadāranyaka Upaniṣad, V. 3, etc. For other references to related concepts, see Kauṣītakī

Upaniṣad, I, 3, and Praśna Upaniṣad, VI, 5, for three modes of perception etc. A different

conception is seen in Br̥hadāranyaka Upaniṣad, I, 4, 17. Coomaraswamy has discussed this

aspect fully in many of his studies,—Transformation of Nature in Art in Dance of Śiva and

in the introduction to History of Indian and Indonesian Art.

28. For a detailed enumeration of these customs see Hindu Ritual and Customs, also Dvivedī,

Hazārī Prasad, Prācīna Bhārata ke Kalātmaka Vinoda, where he gives a fine description of

the domestic life of the people.

29. For discussion on musical instruments see Indian Culture, Vol. April 1938—Music Culture

in the Rāmāyaṇa by Dharma P. C.

30. Cf. commentary to Rāmāyaṇa, Tīlaka, p. 295, where laya is used. The sampa tāla is perhaps

the ancient jhampa tāla and modern jhapa tāla.

31. Mahābhārata, Section 43. Indralokagamana Parva, V. 28-32.

32. Mahābhārata, Vana Parva, CH. 44. verses 25-27.

33. Mahābhārata, Virāṭa Parva. CH. 11.

34. Viṣṇu Purāṇa, Vol. IV, p. 323 ff. (footnote to the rāsa dance) (translation by Wilson).

35. In the Rgveda, the dance of Kr̥ṣṇa is not referred to. The passage literally means: “The ‘being’

(One) assumes various bodies: One form stood apart occupying triple observance.”

36. Nātyaśāstra, IV. 293b-294a discussion on types of pinḍis.

37. See Kakati, “The Rāsa dance and the Moon Myth and the Emergence of the Rādhā””, Journal

of the University of Gauhati, Vol. 2. No. 1, 1951, for discussion on the significance of the

rāsa.

38. Also see hallīsa as mentioned in Bhāsa’s Bālacarita.

39. Viṣṇu Purāṇa, Book V, CH. XIII, (Wilson, Vol. IV, p. 323 ff.).

40. Four readings are found of this, and technical phrases that refer to tāla are indicated.

41. Viṣṇu Purāṇa, Book V, CH. XIII and V, 46b.

42. Ibid., p. 328 (footnote).

43. Śrīmad Bhāgavata Purāṇa (X Section XXXIII v, 2 ff.)

44. Wilson’s translation Viṣṇu Purāṇa, Vol. IV.

45. See Keith, Apastamba and Balvrca Brāhmaṇa, Jou rnal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1915,

p. 498. See also Annapada Sūtra,IV, 5, etc. and Weber Indische Studien: 156 Indian Literature,

197,—who compares the naṭa-sūtras of Pāṇini to those in the Brāhmaṇas etc. Also V. S.

Agrawala, India as Known to Pāṇini, p. 338.

46. Cf. also to Kaiyaṭa the commentator of Patañjali and Keith, Sanskrit Drama, pp. 32-33.

Cf. also Rāmāyaṇa, II, 30, 8 and II, 69, 4, and II, 1, 27 where the word Śailūṣa is mentioned.

47. Also see Mahābhāsya, VI. 3. 43, where the dancing of women is described. Also see Purī,

B. N., India in the Time of Patañjali, pp. 110, 218-220.

48. Agrawala, V. S., India as Known to Pāṇini, p. 168.

49. See Bharhut inscription where sadakam and sammadam etc. occur. Also Levi, Sylvain, Le

Theatre Indien, Paris, 1890, II, 5, for origin of the saṭṭaka.

50. Tūrya, according to the Jātakas, consisted of a female lyre player, a hand-clapper, a cym-

balist, a taborer, and a flute player. See Nidāna-Kathā Jātaka, I, 32.

51. See Rāmāyaṇa where the term 'paṇi-vādaka' occurs.

52. Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra, edited by R. Syamasastry, Book II, CH. 27, p. 125: quotation fiom '

Sastry’s translation, pp. 155-56.

53. Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra, R. Syamasastry’s edition, Book II, CH. 27, p. 125, translation,

p. 155.

54. Compare this with Pānini and Patañjali where naṭa is the only word used.

55. Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra, Book IV, CH. I.

56. Kauṭilya Book II, CH. XXIII (Syamasāstry’s translation, p. 140).

57. Milinda Pañha, I, 191; Jātaka II, 12; Jātaka VI, 191; Saddharma Puṇḍarika, CH. III.

Also see Manu III. 155, 158; Manu IV. 214; Manu XII. 45; and Manu X. 22.

Bodhāyana, I. 5. 24; Vaśiṣṭha, III, 3; Viṣṇu, L, 14.

58. Other texts consider dancing as indiscipline and forbid the Brahmacārī to take part in it: see

Gopatha Brāhmaṇa also Hārīta, III, 8; Uśana III, 17, Vyās I. 28. Sāṅkhya III, 12: Viṣṇu

XXVIII. 11, Manu II. 178, He is also asked to avoid singing,—Hārīta III, 8; Uśana III, 20;

Vyās I, 28; Sāṅkhya III, 112; Viṣṇu Purāṇa, XXVIII, 11; Manu II, 178.

59. The Triṣaṣṭiśalākā puruṣacarita, I, 2, 950 ff. (Gaekwar's Oriental Series, L, 1, 152) lists only

five arts (śilpa), viz., “those of the potter, architect, painter, weaver and barber”.

60. Book VI, CH. I, verses 14 ff. Also see Kāmasūtra, Book VII, CH. I, verse 20.

61. Ibid., Book VII, CH. I, 23-24.

62. Ibid., Book I, CH. IV, 35-36.

254

63. Translation by Binoy Kumar Sarkar.

64. Translation by Binoy Kumar Sarkar. The Sukranitisāra also gives us some very definite statements of aesthetic principles in the passages dealing with the making of images (CH. IV, verse 70 ff.). In all these portions the author is propounding a purely scholastic and hieratic conception of what is lovely and beautiful, thereby convincing us that the inspiration of Indian Art really proceeds from a more or less religious scholasticism that implies a traditional classification of types established by convention. The validity of personal and individual taste is hardly ever admitted in any academic discussion of the Arts.

65. For a detailed discussion on the sixty-four arts, see Dr. Venkatasubbiahs scholarly work The Sixty-four Arts and Crafts (Adyar, 1911). Also see Venkatasubbiahs and E. Muller, "The Kalas"; Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1914). Also see, Ganguli, The Sixty Four Arts.

66. Amarakośa I, 7 & 10.

67. Also see Kālidāsa, Raghuvaṃśa, Canto XIX, where these are mentioned.

68. Ibid., I. 7. 16.

69. Buddhist Legends, Burningham, Vol. I, Book XVII, kodha vagga story.

70. Ibid., Book XXVI, story 32.

71. Fausball; Jātaka II, p. 328; V. p. 249.

72. Refer to Jātakas, I, 239; III, 18 and 237 and IV, 237.

73. Mahāvastu, Vol. II, translated by Jones, J. J. P. 139 and p. 148.

74. Ibid., Vol. II, p. 155.

75. Mahāvastu, Vol. I, p. 135 and 183; Vol. II, p. 71 and 156 and 105, etc. (translation by J. J. Jones).

76. Vinaya Texts, Part II, p. 171 and 172. Also see ibid., IV. 6 for classification of śilpa (vocational arts).

77. Lalitavistara; Arts Number, 36, 37, 41 and 42.

78. See Lalitavistara, Mitra R. L.'s edition, p. 252.

79. Also mentioned in the Rāmāyana.

80. Ibid., Mitra. R. L., XII. pp. 199-200. Also see Weber, Dramatic History of the World, where he says, "In the Lalitavistara apropos of the testing of Buddha in the various science, nāṭya, most undoubtedly, is taken in the sense of mimetic art."

81. Milinda Panha, I, 6 (sikkhā . . . etc).

82. Luder's translation of Śāriputra-Prakarana: the last chapter describes a philosophic dialogue between the Buddha and Śāriputra.

83. Translated into Chinese, 3rd century A.D

84. Bimbisāra, the king of the Magadhas, also had a drama performed in honour of a pair of Nāga kings.

85. Takakusu's I-tsing, p 163.

86. Ibid., p. 165.

87. For other references to the professional actor, see Milinda Panha, I, 191, also Jātaka II, 12; Jātaka IV, 191, etc.

88. The following Jaina texts deal with the 72 kulās. Nāyadhammakahā, (N. N. Vaidya's edition, p. 12); Samavāyāṅga (Ahmedabad edition, p. 77a); Ovaiva (Surat second, p. 40); Rāyapa-seniya (Ahmedabad, p. 211); Jamubuddhivapannatti (Santichandra, Bombay, 1920), p. 136 ff. For discussion on these, see the following articles and books; Sen, Amulyachandra, Social Life in Jaina Literature, Calcutta Review, March 1933, p. 364 ff; Bhagavāna Mahāvīra in Dharmakathao, p. 193 ff; Das Gupta, D. C , Jain System of Education, p. 74.