CRITICAL AND COMPARATIVE STUDY

F VYASA-BHASYA AND BHOJA-VRTTI

ON PATANJALA-YOGASUTRA S

Thesis sumitted to The University of Mysore For the Award of The Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

MYSORE UNIVERSITY LIBRAR: MYSORE - 570 008

By VATHSALA, G. B. Mysore University Research Fellow Department of Post-Graduate Studies and Research in Sanskrit, Manasagangotri

MYSORE : 1986

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this entire Thesis entitled "A CRITICAL AND COMPARATIVE STUDY OF VYASA-BHASYA AND BHOJA-VRTII ON PĀTANJALA YOGA- SÜTRA" is the result of my own study earried out as mysore University Research Fellow (1981-84) under the guidance of Dr.R.S.Shivaganesha Murthy, M.A.,Ph.D., Reader, Department of Sanskrit , Manasa .Gangotri,Mysore, and that the same has not been submitted in part or full ror any Dipioma or Begree of this or any other University.

Place: Mysore Vathsala GB. Date: 9-6-1986 (Vathsala G.B.)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Vathsala ,G.B. carried out

research work as a mysore University Research

Feilow (1981-84) and has herself produced this

Thesis entitled " A CRITICAL AND CCMPARA TIVE STUDY

OF VYASA-BHASYA AND BHOJA-VRTTI ON PATANJALA

YOGA-SUTRA" under my guidance and that the thesis

has not been submitted in part or full for any

Degree of Diploma of any University.

Place: Mysore

Date: 9-6-1y86 Dr. R. S Shivaganesha Murthy, Reader M.A .. PA. D., Department of P. G. Studies & Research in Sanskrit, University of Mysore, MYSORE-6.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is my bounden duty to. place on record

my sincere gratitude to Dr.R.S.Shivaganesha Murthy, M.A., Ph.D., Reader ,Department of Sanskrit, manasa Gangothri, Mysore, who accepted to guide me in my research work and whole-heartedly extended all help to complete the same. His advice and suggestions all through, at every stage, were of immense value. + have no words to express my indebtedness to him

for his patience and encouragement.

I owe my gratitude to Vidwan Dr.H.P. Malledevaru, M.A.,Ph.D., Proressor and Head of

Department of Sanskrit, who accepted me as a Research rellow in the Department and provided all iacilities ior my work. 1 must also remember late Dr.G.Marulasiadaiah, who was the Professor and Head of wepartment, when I reported myself as University

Research Fellow. He haa evinced keen interest in

my work.

I would be railing in my duty if I do not ofter my respectiul thanks to my teachers in the Department of Sanskrit, Manasa Gangothri, Mysore.

-2-

The Librarian and his staff of the Mysore

University Library and the Director and the library

staff of the Oriental Research Institute were very

courteous to me and have provided me with all

necessary books and journals and other materials.

I am highly grateful to them.

Even as a student of M.A., I had a desire to

do some work on Vyasa-Bhasya. The Mysore University

Fellowship gave me a chance to conduct research

studies on Yoga-Sutra and ita commentaries.

sincerely express my thankfulness to the authorities

of the University of mysore for awarding me the

Mysore University Fellowship during the years 1981

to 1984.

I wish to acknowledge here my indebtedness

to all those authors and publishers whose publica-

tions have been used by me in preparing the essay.

Place: Mysore

Date: 9. 6-19$6 (Vathsala G.B.)

CONTENTS

CHAPTER page

I GENERAL INTRODUCTION :

What is Philosophy ? --- Vedic Period --

A brief Survey of Upanishads --- Teaching

of Upanishads --- Post-Vedic Period ---

Buddhism --- Jainism. The Systems :

Carvaka, Nyāya, vaišesika , Mimamsā, Vedanta,

Sańknya ,Yoga.

II.A. INTRODUCTION TO YOGADARSANA : 42

Beginnings of Yoga --- Yoga in Epics and

Puranas --- the place of Yoga in Indian

Philosophy --- Types of Yoga --- Yoga thought,

a Historical rerspective.

II B. THE YOGA-SUTRA, THE BHASYA, THE VRTTI: 56

The Yoga -Sutra e -- contents of Yoga-Sutra --

identity and date of Patanjali --- Com-

mentaries on Yoga-Sūtra --- Date of vyasa ---

Bhoja, nis life and date; Commentary :

Derinition and Nature. Necessity of a com-

mentary. Vyasa-Bhasya, its nature ;

Bhoja vrtti, its nature.

CHAPTER Page

III VYASA-BHASYA: A CRITICAL STUDY: 83

(a) Yoga: Its definition

(b) Ontology : Prakrti --- Evolution -- Puruga- Īsvara --- Dravya --- Karya,kāraņa,bhāva ---

kata --- reality of the objective world;

(c) Cosmology.

(d) Epistemology: Nature of citta ---

citta a drsya --- cittabhumi -- cittavrtti

(e) Practical Teachings: kleśas --- Theory

of karma --- Vasana --- samskaras --- Duhkha ---

Types of Duhkha --- Samyoga --- Kaivalya ---

citta-parināma --- Abhyasa and Vairāgya --

citta-viksepa --- cittaparikarma -- astānga yoga --- samprajnāta -samādhi -- asamprajňāta-

samadhi --- prāntabhūmi -prajna --- dharmamegha- Sa madhi. (f) Types of Yogis and Siddhis.

Miscellaneous.

IV BHOJA-VRTTI: A CRITICAL STUDY: 193

(a) Yoga:Its definition.

(b) Ontology: Prakrti and its evolutes ---

purusa -- Isvara -- dravya -- kārya-kārana-bhāva --

kala --- reality of the objective wortd;

CHAPTER Page

(c) Epistemology: Nature of citta ---

puruga --- the drasta --- cittabhumi ---

--- cittavrtti --- nature of atman -- views

of other thinkers

(d) Practical teachings: klesas --- theory

of karma --- types of karma --- karma-

va sana --- duhkha --- types of duḥkha --

samyoga ---- kaivalya --- hanopaya --- citta

viksepa --- cittaparikarma --- kriyāyoga ---

astanga -yoga -- sampra jnata -samadhi ---

a sampra jnata - samadhi --- moods of psyche in

advanced stage --- prāntabhūmi-prajha ---

dharmamegha-samadhi

(e) Types of Yogis and Siddhis.

V VYASA-BHASYA AND BHOJA-VRTTI: A COMPARATIVE STUDY. 273

NOTES AND REFERENCES 290

QUOTATIONS IN VYASA-BHĀŞYA 316

BIBLIOGRAPHY 323

1

CHAPTER - I

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

What is Philosophy ?

Philosophy is the quest of human beings regarding ultimate nature of physical universe in- cluding human beings.

Our daily experience shows that it is beset with pleasures and pains. An object of pleasure may not be pleasurable all the time and so also an object of pain may not be painful all the time. This might make a thinking mind to con- ceive of a state where there is neither pleasure nor pain in the ordinary sense of the terms. Certain experiences like deep sleep might also help in arriving at the conception that one might try to gain a state which is trouble-free. That neces- sitates the knowledge of the cause of ways of plea- sures and pains of the world. For this a system of ways of knowing is formed. In accordance with the theory of knowledge, a theory of the objective world emerges. with a knowledge of these two branches, one proceeds on the path to reach the aim. Again for this purpose a course of practical discipline is chalked out.

2

These aspects together are called

Philosophy. There is epistemology or the theory

of knowledge, ontology or the theory about the

objective world and ethics or the practical code

of conduct.

The aim of philosophy is to arrive at

the ultimate reality of human existence. In India

philosophy is rightly called 'Darsana'. It is a

means of observation, vision, experience. "Drsyate

anena iti darsanam" It involves the psychic

and physical aspects of life. Indian philosophy

is notonly an academic exercise but also a way of

life. This nature of philosophy can be seen in

all the systems of Indian Philosophy.

The philosophic mind of India finds that

life is beset with all kinds of misery. From

the deeper needs of spiritual life, to get reliev-

ed and to avoid the inevitable miseries of life,

arose philosophic outlook.

The fundamental concepts of Indian Philo-

sophy such as Brahman, Atman, Maya, Karman, Purusa,

Prakrti, Pramana, etc., can be found in the very

early texts. Of these the word, Brahman is as old

3 as Rgveda and often occurs there in the sense of sacred entity. In the evolution of thought the primeval source of the universe, i.e., Brahman was identified with the inner-most essence, atman. The identification is the

final stage of the evolution or thought and is expressed in the well-known sayings of the Upanishads: 'That thou art' 'This self is Brahman'.1 Pnilosophy in India is based on Vedic doctrines, particularly, Upanishads. VEDIC PERIOD:

The Vedic literature is classified into two broad sections, Karmakanda and Jhanakanda. The Karma- kanda deals with performance of sacrificial rituals, worship, etc. The Jhanakanda confines itselr to the expounding perfect knowledge of the ultimate reality and the means of attaining it. The Samhitas and the Brahmanas come under Karmakanda and the Upanishads under Jhanakānda. The Vedic Samhitas give evidence for the different phases of religious thought paving the way for philosophical speculations. In the Rgveda we find the development of thought in several stages, viz. theism, polytheism, henotheism, monotheism and monism.

Theism (in modern thougnt ) is a view of reality that postulates a supreme personal deity as creator, sustainer and destroyer or the universe .< The different

powers of nature are personified and adored as Gods in

Rgveda, .The Rgvedic Gods are often invoked and worshipped in groups.

4

Sometimes two, three or many more gods are grouped together and invoked. For example, Mitrā-varunā, Agnāvisnū, Indra-visnu, Maruts etc. In a few cases all the gods are worshipped together, Visvedevah, for instance, when the Gods are implicitly believed to be partial aspects of one Supreme God. This phase of religious thought is called organised polytheism.

Henotheism means the belief in indivi- dual God alternately regarded as the highest God for the time being, when the God is being

worshipped. Here a God is identified with other Gods and treated as superior to them. This

type of religious thought is a step from polythe- : ism to monotheism.

The tendency towards extolling one . God as the greatest and the highest gradually developed. This approach is cailed monotheism. A supreme Lord of all beings was conceived of in Prajapati. The term "Prajapati" was originally an epithet applicable to several deities. Later

it was recognised as a separate deity, the highest and the greatest. It is clearly said in Rgveda:

5

hiranya-garbhah samavartatagre

bhūtasya jātasya patir eka asīt;

sa dadhāra prthivim dyam utemam

kasmai devāya havisā vidhema. (X.121-1)

The creator is not only described as one

God above all Gods, but also is said to embrace all

the creatures. This idea of pantheism developed

through the later Vedic literature, till it assumed

its final shape in the Upanisads. The clearest

expression of the pantheistic point of view is found

in the celebrated hymn to purusa (.90). The

interpretation of the hymn itself is pantheistic.

In Mac Donell's opinion purusa-sūkta is

the starting point of the pantheistic philosophy of

India.

Monism is the belief in one reality which

is impersonal. The reduction of many Gods to one is

a higher conception of unity and further reduction to

one entity is still higher. The whole existence is

traced to a single source. The monistic thought was

clear later in the Upanishads in their identification

of Atman with Brahman. The monism adumbrated in the

Rgveda developed into the idealistic monism in Upanishads.

6

The hymns of the Rgveda are simple and are in the form of adoring Gods to provide them with all the benefits of life. These hymns show clearly the development of thought from polytheism to monism. The monistic idea is however well diseussed in the Upanisads. The Nasadiya-Sukta (X.129) brings out in: vivid terms the monism of Rgveda.

nāsad asin no sad āslt tadānim, nāsīd rajo na vyoma paro yat; kim avarivaņ kuha kasya śarman ambhaḥ kimasīd gahanam gabhiram. (x.129.1) Another well-known mantra is:

Indram mitram agnim ahūh, atho divyah sa suparno garutmān; ekam sad vipra banudhā vadanti, agnim yamam matariśvnam ahuḥ (1.164.46) Another feature of the Rgvedic philosophy is the comception of Rta. The Rta, as moral law, is a dominant idea in the Rgveda. It represents an eternal cosmic order. The whole universe is founded on Bta and moves in it. The conception of Rta paved the way for monotheism which later led to monism. The period of the Brahmanas following the Samhitas marks a certain stage in the religious evolution which has permanently affected the religious

7

history of India. The religion of the Brahmanas was purely formal. The Brahmanas set out the important ceremenies of various sacrifices and explain the application of the Vedic mantras and formulae therein. The mutual relation of the sacred texts and the symbolic meanings of all the

ceremonies are also brought forth. The explana-

tions are often supported by legends, exegesis,

philological and philosophical speculations, so as to impress the efficacy of the mantras on the performer for a better practical life.

The Brahmanas do not directly deal with

any philosophical problem but we do find the philo-

sophical ideas expressed encidentally in its various contexts.> Inspite of the numerous rituals the effort of the sages as embodied in the samhitas, to achieve their fimal aim, is found to continue

even in the Brahmanas. A universal entity viz., Prajapati found its way into the speculations through the Brähmanas. The development of the concept of Brahman, the highest goal, however, is not achieved until the Upanishads.

8 A BRIEF SURVEY OF THE UPANISHADS:

Upanishads are the later portions of the

Veda. They are also called Vedanta, 'end of the

Veda'. The word Vedanta indicates not only its

textual position but also its supreme importance as

it crown the vedic knowledge. The Upanishads con-

tain ideas which form the first definite sketches

of philosophical though t.

The Rgveda represents the earliest phase,

namely, the objective phase in the evolution of

religion. On the other hand, Upanishads mark the

subjective phase of religion. There are no hymns

to any god or goddess in the Upanishads . But

there is a scientific search for the substratum

underlying the phenomenal forces of Nature. The

real philosophical conception of Rgveda passing

through the Brahmana period was to gather force

at the beginning of the Upanishads period . From

the psychological point of view the Rgveda may be

regarded as a great work of emotion and imagination.

The Upanishads may be regarded as work of thought

and reason. In these texts we have the intellectual

search after the ultimate reality. During the

period from Vedic to Upanishadic age there is a

process of transference of interest from God to

self, from prayer to philosophy, from hymnology to

reflection, from henotheistic polytheism to mysticism. 4

9

The spirit of the Upanisads is entirely against the sacrificial doctrine of the Brahmanas. The attitude of the Mundaka in regard to the efficacy of the ritualism is an exception to the Upanishadic reaction in favour of philosophic thought against the Brahmana literature. The Mundaka tells us that the only way towards securing the goal of human life consists in simply following the routine of sacrificial rituals en joined by the Veda.

tad etat satyam mantresu karmāņi kavayo yany apasyams tani tretayam bahudha santatani; tāny ācarata niyatam satyakāmā esavah panthāh sukrtasya loke. (Mund. 1.2.1.)

The Upanisads which stand for knowledge as against the Erahmanical philosophy of work, very rarely exhibit this kind of favourable attitude towards ritualism to be met with in the Mundaka-upanisad. The Brahmanical idea of sacrifice came to he modulated in the days of the Upanishads so as ultimately to be an entire transformation into a new conception of sacririce altogether, viz., that of a mental sacrifice which is helpful to the process of acquisition of spiritual knowledge, The Upanisads sought to square a growing idealistic philosophy with the settled terminology of religion.

10

The Samhitas, the Brahmanas and the Upani- shads have been recognised from ancient times as Śruti

or Revelation. The real meaning of Revelation is the divine springing from the result of inspiration through God-intoxication. We may say that under the divine inspiration the Vedic seers composed the hymns and the Upanishadic philosophers set forth the intellectual arguments.

The Brhadaranyaka-upanisad (2.4.10) tells us that the Rgveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda, all of them were breathed forth by the great premeval being, likewise also all mythology, all sciences.

"etad yad rgvedo yajurveda sāmavedo 'tharvangirase itihāsah purāņam vidyā upanisadah ślokāh sūtrāņi anuvyākhyānāni vyākhayānān1, asyaivaitāni sarvāni niņsvasitāni.

The Vedas and the Upanisads are said to be

apauruseya in the sense that they were inspired by God. "purusa-prayatnam vina prādurbhutam". The word 'apauru- seya' comes quite close to the word, 'revelation', ,5

The fixation of the date of the Upanishads

is quite difficult. They come after Aranyakas and are

anterior to the rise of Buddhism. The principal Upa-

nishads, however, are all pre-Buddhistic. The language

style, vocabulary and the grammatical peculiarities are

11

also taken into consideratipn for the determination

of the age of Upanishads. Modern criticism is gene- rally agreed that they belong to the 8th and 7th

centuries B.C .: According to some scholars a date be-

tween 1200 and 600 B.C. is assigned to them.D

Traditionally the number is one hundred and

eight. The Muktika-Upanisad states that one can attain salvation by the study of one hundred and eight Upanishads. But there are more than two hundred Upanishads. Only a few of them are considered as of the Vedic period.

Upanishads may be arranged in a chronologi-

cal order onthe basis of their authenticity and of higher cticism. The Upanishads which are closely associated with the parts of the Samhitas , the Brahmanas and the Aranyakas are the oldest, the others being later ones. . The determination of the exact chronological sequence is however not possible as the number of treatises is

very large. The various reasons are put forth for the chronology of the Upanishads. For example, some scho- lars opine that the oldest Upanishads are those which

are in prose and the others which followed were written

in verse. But being in prose or verse is not a suffi-

cient criteria for the chronological difference. The

oldest Upanishads are in lucid style while the later ones are composed in almost complex style.

12

The principul Upanishads are generally said to be ten in number. Sankara, the earliest available commentator of Upanishads, wrote comment- aries on these ten Upanishads: Īsa, Kena, Katha, Praśna, Mundaka, Māndūkya, TaittirIya, Aitareya, Chandogya and Brhadaranyaka. The other important Upanishads are KausĪtakī, Śvetāśvatara, Jābāla, Mahanārayanīya, MaitrayanI and Pingala. The other Upanishads are more religious than philosophical.8

The early exponents of doctrines are referred to as 'sages' like, Āruņi, Yājnavalkya, Balāk1, Śvetaketu, Sandilya. The teachings were developed in spiritual retreats where pupils and teachers discussed and defined the different views and thoughts. Some of the early Upanishads are in prose and others are metrical. Sometimes verses are interspersed in prose. They possess a musical quality of their own. The Upanishads are generally in the form of dialogues. The language is often symbolic and elliptical.

Teaching of the Upanishads

The topics dealt with in the Upanishads are the doctrine of creation, metaphysics, ethics,

13

psychology, eschatology, practice of yoga, theory of liberation and such others.

. The Upanishads in the main, teach the ultimate reality of the individual and the cosmic soul. The aim of the Upanishads is to rise from the unreal to

real, from darkness to light and from mortality to

immortality. The Upanishad teaching is that the

ultimate reality is one and without a second. On

the whole, they are monistic and absolutistic in their

approach. but the doctrines of the Upanishads are not homogeneous. Some thoughts are developed in detail and they are monistic and idealistic views.

Some statements insist on the unity in diversity, eg. "There is no variety here", (neha nānāsti kiňcana); 'All that is Brahma' (Sarvam khalv idam Brahma).

Dualistic and other views are also found here and

there.

The ethics of the Upanishads is metaphy-

sical and spiritual. The Upanishads affirm that hu-

man life can be graded into a period of studentship, house-holdership and retirement from active particip- ationin worldly life as a preparation for the realis-

ation of Brahman. The spiritual experience is open only to those endowed with tranquility of mind, self -.

control, freedom from compulsive activities, fortitude,

14

faith in ideal and power of concentration of mind.9

The ultimate aim of human life is the attainment of Mukti or Moksa. But this cannot be attained unless the spiritual knowledge is gained. The attainment of the knowledge results in salvation. The spiritual attainment is the root of all knowledge, Brahma-Vidya is the basis of all kinds of knowledge as stated by Mundaka-Upanişad (1.1.1.).

The Upanishadic terms for ultimate reality are two: Brahman and Atman. These two are described as the two pillars on which rests the whole edifice of Indian philosophy.10

The word Brahman, first meant prayer. It is derived from the root. Brh, to grow. Later it acquired the philosophical significance which it bears in Upanishads as primary cause of universe. It is described, for instance, as 'satyam jnanam anantam (T.U. 1.1.1.). This seems to be the root for the later Vedantic term "Saccidananda".

The Brahman, the ultimate reality is infinite, eternal, omnipresent, omniscient and pure spirit. It is non-dual, non-spatial and non-causal, but it is impersonal and transcendental, attributeless and higher, acosmic i,e., "Parabrahma", also called Nirgunabrahma,

15

Sometimes Brahman is personal, determinate aparabrahma, also cosmic,Saguna i.e., Isyara who is the creator, preserver and destroyer of the worid. Thus the Upanishads, speak of two kinds of Brahman, Para and Apara. The former is the higher

one. It is beyond the spatio-temporal order governed by causality. It is the goal of higher knowledge, parävidya, while Aparabrahman is the goal of lower

knowledge. Higher knowledge is intellectual and discus- sive. The Brahman is the eternal principle realised as the whole world. Atman is the innermost essence of

one's self. The identification of these two consti- tutes the essential teachings of Upanishads.

The spiritual unitary character of absolute

reality is well expressed in Upanishads. The classical

phrase "Saccidananda" indicates the state of unity. This phrase has three terms, sat, cit, ananda. 'Sat'

means being 'Cit' means pure consciousness and 'Ānanda!

means peace or bliss, which indicates unity. The

all-embracing character of Saccidananda is the highest

bliss. This shows the significance of the spiritual

reality, ie., Brahman. It is the source of the whole

universe and is the first and supreme principle.

The Upanishadic philosophy is an attempt to

16

achieve the human values by knowing the essential truth

of the entire cosmos. The Brahman is an expression for the supreme power of universe.

The Upanishads describe the explicit identi- :fication of the unitary principle to the world and to the individual selves. The establishment of the spiri- tual character of the principle and the removal of uncertainty about the existence are both the accomplish- ments of this identification with Atman or the self. The whole universe, according to this view, actually. emerges from Brahman and therefore necessarily partakes of its character. The richness of its contents indi- cates that Brahman, its source, is complex. This signifies creation and dissolution. The distinction made here between a latent and manirest stage or universe implies the dynamic character of ultimate real- ity. The view is described as Brahmaparinamavada, the doctrine of self-evolving Brahma.

Brahman is the source from which the universe with all its organic and inorganic aspects come into being. First it gives rise to the five elements, each of which has its own quality. This classification has been accepted by nearly all the later Indian philosophers.

17

The pre-supposition of most of the acti -

vities of life is that one thing is different from another. The Wpaninishads express that each object has its own form,etc, but if monism is the truth, no part of this diversity can be ultimate. 4. POST-VEDIC PERIOD:

After Upanisadic age, what is remarkable is the rise and growth of Buddhism. There was no sudden change in the intellectual life of the country. When the social change took place, it deeply disturbed the Brahmanical society.

In later Upanisads we can notice that there was a tendency to revert to sacrificial worship as taught in the Brahmanas. It gave rise to the religious systems like Buddhism and Jainism directly or indirectly. .The new systems rejected the Vedic tradition and the rituals of Brahmanas and offered other means for knowing the truth. The means of knowledge came to occupy an important place in all their investigations and discussions. They tended to be empiricists appealing to experience as the primary source of know- ledge and to be in touch with scientific thinking. The 6th century B.C. witnessed a great spiri- tual unrest and remarkahle intellectual ferment. During this age, though there prevailed in society a general unrest, there was spiritual awakening and

18

consequently reformers raised their vo ce against the

existing religious order and endeavoured to reconstruct

it on a new basis. It was an age when people were

disgusted with old philosophical and religious dogmas

and were striving for simple and easier means of escape

from the ills of this mundane existence. New ideas

of thought and religion sprang into vigorous, activity

and gave a new orientation to life in the late centuries.

before christ. It was an era of revolt, against the

old order of things. The ultimate aim of this revolt

was not materialistic but spiritual, not the socialise-

ution but the spiritualisation of life. The spirit

of times expressed itself in a number of reforming

movements. The life was regarded not as an end but as

a means and an idea for spiritualisation. 12 The

thinkers of the new movements were pure intellectualists,

philosophers and conceived life as a philosophy of

power and knowledge. The spiritual leadership passed

from the hands of priestly theologians and sacrificers

to ascetics and wanderers (śramanas and parivrājakas)

who laid the greatest emphasis on the cessation of crav-

ing for things of the world. These ascetics rejected

the authority of the Vedas, denounced the sacrifices

of the Brahmanic cult and also denied the existence of

god. They declared that right conduct was the only

19

way of getting out of the meshc of karma and samsāra.

The leading ascetics of tne period were the two Kshatriya

princes, Gautama Buddha and Vardhamana Mahaveera.

The tendency of Buddhism and Jainism were

not anything new. The trend had already appeared in

the Upanishads. The anti-ritualistic spirit of the

Upanishadic period were developed by the Buddha and

Mahaveera.

In the Vedic tradition also there was a

re-thinking, new religious ideas arose. We find the

worship of personal deity like Siva, Visnu. This is

evidenced in the early Bhāgavata Sampradaya and the

thought embodied in the Mahabharata especially in the Bhagavad-Gita13

5. =

The suddha was torn in 563 B.C. . The

sigzts of major miseries to which the human being is

sucject in a werld of decay and dissolution agonised the

young prince. He left home and tried several modes of

spiritual realisation. After enlightenment, he was

called "Gautama Buddha".

The basic doctrines as preached by the

Buddha have their evidence in the pre-existing philosophy

of the Sankhya, the Yoga and the later Upanishads. The

Buddha made use of all the previous experience and the

resulting set of instructions and he taught a spiritual

20

practical course. viz., the Noble Eight-fold path, the Ārya-Astāngamārga. This eight-fold path is a system of training the mind and the whole human personality for the final achievement of emancipation called Nirvana. The aim of the path was to prepare the individual for transce- nding the miseries of life. This was done in atages which include unselfish behaviour, impersonal thinking and deep states of meditations in which the individual personality is left behind. The eight-fold path consisted of: Right thinking, Right viewing, Right acting, Right speech, Right livelihood, Right effort, Right mindedness, and Right absorption. The Bucdha did not altogether concern himself with the coneeption of self as embodied in the Upanishads. But the belief in the Karma doctrine found in Buddhism serves as the clearest proof of its connect- ion with the Upanishadic thought. The Buddhists also believe that all souls are existing from the beginning of a cycle: but they hold that their end is Nirvana. Buddha's teachings were more religion than philosophy. Those were collected in the 'pitakas'. 'Early Buddhism was pessimistic, positivistic and pragmatic' as Brof. Hiriyanna writes.4 The later thinkers wrote: philosophical treatises, when

21

Buddhism developed into two major schools of religion:

Hinayana and Mahāyana.

6. JAINISM:

Jainism is an independent system, and resem- nbles Buddhism in many aspects like the repudiation of the Vedas, pessimistic outlook on life and disbelief in a supreme god. The differences are equally noticeable, such as its recognition of permanent entities like the

self and matter. The founder of this system, Vardnamana Mahaveera of the 8th century B.C., like the

Buddha, was a member of the ruling class. He also

left his home and practised severe penance and attained

perfection. He become a Kevalin, a TIrthankara. The

system lays great stress on ascetic discipline and

severe moral training as necessary for spiritual reali-

sation. The teachings of early Jainism are compiled

in the 'Agamas'. Mahaveera advocated a very highly

ethical and elevating code of life, a severe asceticism and extreme penance for the attainment of the Nirvana

or the highest spiritual state.

According to Jainism: "The whole universe

of beings consisting of mental and material factors,

has existed from all eternity undergoing an infinite

22

number of revolutions, produced by the power of nature

without the intervention of any external deity. The

diversities of the world are traced to the five co-oper-

ating conditions of time, nature, necessity, activity and desire to be and act" 15 There is an intrinsic

equality among all selves whether they are born

of earth, water, vegetation, insects, animals or human beings.

The world consists of two uncreated co- existing but independent, categories namely, the conscious, JĪva and the unconscious, Ajiva. The JIva correspondes to the soul. This system does not

believe in a god. The highest endeavour is to get freedom from this cycle of birth and death, to get salvation from the worldly bondage by attaining the

highest knowledge, Kevalajnana, through a profound meditation. According to Jain philosophy a soul has to pass fourteen stages of spiritual development to

attain Kevala-jhana. The soul has to struggle hard through these stages by controlling passions, subduing desires and then it gets gradually spiritual powers. In this connection, Jainism speaks of three jewels Ratna- Traya: Right knowledge, Right faith and Right Conduct.

The central point in tne Jaina view of

Reality is that it is multiple in character. there is a

23

celebrated epistemological doctrine in Jainism which 1s

unique in Indian philosophical thought . It is known as Sapta-BhangI, also called Syād-Vāda or Anekāntavāda.

The special feature and excellence of Jainism is its

advocacy of a stern ethical life and its doctrine of

Ahimsa in its two aspects: Negative and Positive. 16

Buddhism and Jainism were the great move-

ments which came into existence because of the domi-

nance of blind ritualism of Brahminism. Buddhism

proved to be one of the greatest civilising forces

which India gave to the world. Buddhism broke the

isolation of India and established an intimate con-

tact between India and other countries, particularly,

the East. It was India's greatest gift to the world.

Unlike Buddhism, Jainism neither became

the dominant religion in India nor spread abroad,

but has ever remained quite powerful in the country.

Both have stood the test of time. They have carried

the spiritual truth and message of love to one and

all , and have enriched Indian culture by using the

artistic expression of religion.

THE SYSTEMS:

The anti-Vedic stir opened the eyes of

the followers of Vedic tradition. They were compelled

24

to take stock of their beliefs if they only wanted to

guard their ow neritage. Again the Upanishadic

thought came to their rescue in this task. The phi-

losophical ferver as found in the Upanishads was

diligently cultivated. This intellectual activity

gave rise to the several systems of thought. called

'Darsanas'. There are six systems which accepted

the authority of the Veda in some way or the other.

We should not forget to take note of one more school, the materialistic, which happens to be the very start-

ing point of philosophical enquiry.

Each of the systems posits that the

universe as it appears has a conscious element called

'JIva' or 'Atma' and a non-conscious element. Some-

times a third element called 'Iśvara' is added.

All systems believe that the jIva as it appears is

in bondage, in misery and the aim of all inquiry is

to understand the cause. of that misery, thereby the

true nature of the self, jiva, which is the means

of its release from bondage. In other wprds, jIva

has to realise its own nature. This is called 'moksa !.

Of course, between the intellectual understanding of

the true nature and realisation of the same, there is

a course of exercisès which each Darsana prescribes.

25

The philosophical ideals of the systems have in-

fluenced the themes of all aspects of Indian culture,

ethics , dharma , etc.,

Though the aim, the methodology of inquiry

etc. of the different systems of Indian Philosophy

are the same, the difference is the result of varied

perspective on the same spiritual experience.

9. CĀRVĀKA:

The Carvaka School of Philosophy repre-

sents the Indian pattern of Atheism and Materialism.

It is not a dogmatic statement of ppinion but an orga-

nised and reasoned system of materialism. It believes

in perception as the only means of knowledge and that there is nothing beyond matter. Everything observed

is only a form of modification of matter.

Tradition attributes the origin of the

system to Brhaspati. There is no systematic writing of the School available. The theories and opinions

of Carvakas , however, can be gathered from the pürva- paksa statements interspersed in all other Darśana texts. The chief spirit of the system is not to

accept anything blindly but to view them with a cri- tical sense. The Carvaka is sceptical of the traditionally

26

accepted values. The system gives a materialistic interpretátion of reality in terms of matter and that in terms of the four elements, i.e., earth , water, fire and air. It does not admit the existence

of soul. For the same reason,it does not discuss emancipation, who is to be emancipated at all? Death is the end. There is no difference between mind and matter for the Carvakas. Consciousness is only a

by-product.

The Carvaka School is anti-Vedic and anti-ritualistic. The Carvaka iis also anti-religious. Sarvaka denies God,morality, order,plan and purpose in the universe. It does not believe in the law.of causation. Agnosticism and sceptism are the chief characteristics of Carvaka Philospphy.

b.) NYA YA SYSTEM:

Among the six systems of Indian Philo- sophy the two systems,miz.,Nyaya and Vaisesika are allied. The Nyaya system examines logic, the crite- rion of Truth and falsehood, the nature and function of knowledge, its instruments, their limits, defects and problems relating to the validity of knowledge. The Ontology and scheme of categories of Vaiśesika are accepted by Nyāya.

27

This system was founded by Aksapada Gautama in his

Nyāya-Sūtra and was able commented by Vātsyāyana.

. The Nyaya stand-point is logical. The

system has as many as sixteen categories. Of these

fourteen are logical ones, the other two are the

objects of knowledge, i.e., prameya and moksa. The

sixteen categoeies are: samsaya, prayojana, drstānta, siddhānta, avayava, tarka, ninaya, vāda, vitandā, hetvabhasa, cchala, jāti, nigrahasthana, pramāna, prameya . and moksa.

The system has liberation as the final goal.

As in the other aystems, moksa results from the true

knowledge of reality pursued with proper instruments.

Among the philosophical systems of India, Nyaya system

is the first to lay stress on the importance of logic

and epistemology. The system specialises in

giving a clear idea of the ways of knowing. It has

given an elaborate theory for understanding the art

of controversy and has developed it for centuries

into a science. It has given the finest vada-vidya.

By its powerful logic and powers of argumentation, it

successfully attacked the three important doctrines

of Buddnism: the doctrine of soullessness

(nairatmya), scepticism and refuation of God.

28

The Nyaya system is described as realistic

and pluralistic. This system believes in the existence

of a number of independent reals. For the Naiyāyika

whatever is experienced is real in its existential

aspect. The knowledge is generated in the soul of man.

It is not the nature of the soul but is an adventi-

tious product produced an the Atman. All things are

knowable and nameable. It admits that to know a thing

three factors are needed: Pramata, Prameya and Pramāna.

There are four instruments of knowledge , the Pramanas.

Among them, perception (pratyaksa) is the primary one.

It gives us immediate knowledge of an object. Accord,-

ing to Nyaya, the atman, i.e, the soul, establishes

its contact with the manas that contacts the sense-

organs and they, in their turn, contact objects.

Then only knowledge arises. Inference (anumana)

is the most important instrument of knowledge described

and elaborated by the Nyaya System. The knowledge

derived, from perception is limited to the here and

now. To extend knowledge we have to make use of infe-

rence. Nyaya system names the different constituents

of inference. Various types of anumäna are also des -

cribed. Besides inferences, Nyäya accepts two other

instruments of knowledge, viz., śabda and upamana.

29

Among the systems of Indian Philosophy,

Nyaya system alone stands out as an example of natu-

ral theology, the exponent of Nyaya Philosophy, makes

a mighty and unique attempt to establish the existence

of God with an array of reasoning and not on the autho-

rity of any text. Mokaa or apavarga is the immediate

realisation of the real nature of self. The scheme

of Nyaya thepry of knowledge and methodology of argu-

mentation have been adopted by all other systems of

philosophy. 18

c) VAISESIKA: SYSTEM:

The Vaisesika system is presented in the

Vaiśesika-Sūtra by Kanāda Aulukya. Prasastapāda-

Bhäsya on the Sutras forms the basic text along with

Sūtra.

The system is realistic and pluralistic.

Its specific field is Prameya. It outlines the scheme

of the ontological categories and describes their

nature, the origination and the schemes of the disso-

lution of the world. Its logic and theory of know-

ledge are not very much different from those of Nyāya

system.

The scheme of categories comprises of

six padārthas: dravya, guņa, karma, sāmānya, višeșa

30

and samavaya. The four dravyas by which the world of

things are made up of, can be reduced to their minutest

and indivisible parts called atoms or Paramanus.

The atoms are the most unitary, indivisible entities and

are infinite in number. They have no parts, hence in-

destructible. The atom of one dravya differs from

that of another because of their quality, 'guna'. It

is also explained how these atoms act to fashion the

physical world. The combination of atoms is described

vividly and in great detail in this system. All com-

posite objects are composed of atoms. Two atoms go to

make a idvyaņuka, 'dyad', #he combination of three

dyads is a 'tryanuka'. The tryanuka is alone visible

and not its components, atoms or dyads. They are im-

perceptible to the human eye. All things exist in

space, time and ether which are all-pervading, and non-

atomic substances. Kanāda was the first to speak

of the atoms as being the roots of things. The atomic

theory is a special contribution of Vaisesika to the

world of knowledge.

According to Vaisesika system, one of the

prime functions of God is the allocation of appropriate

bodies to souls by the proper combination of atoms

according to the moral merit or otherwise, of souls .

31

The souls in this system are many and they are all-

pervasive and non-atomic. Mind, 'manas' is atomic

and each soul has a mind. The system is a type of

proto-science and discloses a daring analytical inte-

rest in reducing things to their ultimate limits.

The Nyaya and Vaisesika syncretised

in 10th century. The scheme of sapta-padarthas including Abhava was adopted in tne Nyaya-Vaisesika

system. The great philosophical contribution of the

system, however, is its theory of knowledge and not

its onotogical categories, the system is an example

of ultra-realistic and pluralistic system of philo- sophy upholding the doctrine of radical difference.9

'd) MIMĀMSĀ SYSTEM:

The mImamsa system is based on authority

of the Vedas and their inspiration. The word 'MImamga'

means an enquiry. The effort is to determine the

import of all the Vedic statements which seemingly contradict each other. For this purpose, principles

of interpretation are formulated.

Jaimini formulated the principles of

interpretation in his pūrva-MImamsā -- sutras. The system of Jaimini came to be called pūrva-mImamsa in. contrast with the Uttara-mimamsa of Badarayana as Jaimini concentrated on the Brahmana. portions earlier to Upanishads dealt with by Bādarāyans.

32

The PurvamImamsa-sutra was commented by

the celebrated Šabarasvami. This Bhasya was

explained by Prabhakara and Kumarila Bhatta. These

two so differed on some fundamental issues that two

schools have emerged in their names. The Sutras do

not discuss any philosophy as such. It was Śabara

who developed some views on ontology and epistemology

different from other systems. It was further developed

by the Guru (Prabhakara) and Bhatta in the cuurse of

their commentaries.

The significant contribution of Pūrvamimamsa

is in formulating the principles of interpretation and

the establishment of the authority of the Vedas with

cogent arguments. The contention of this school is

. that Dharma is in the form of a command which cannot

be known through perception or inference. It can only

be revealed by the Vedas in the form of categorical

orders. They are the ultimate authority on moral and

spiritual matters. The Mimamsa system upholds the

supremacy of Karma in the form of sacrifices. The duties

ordained in the Vedas have to be performed meticulously.

This system recognises neither creation nor dissolution of

universe as a whole.

33

This school is realistic and pluralistic in nature. It believes in the plurality of infinite and eternal souls, the law of Karma and re-birth, heaven and hell and the efficacy of the sacrifice. It accepts six instruments of knowledge: pratyaksa, anumāna, śabda, upamana, arthāpatti and abhava. Knowledge for them is an activity of the self and not a quality of

the self as in the Nyaya system. The soul is the en -.

joyer and agent of Karma. It is not atomic. Though it is all pervasive, it is limited by the body. The Mimamsa system is utilitarian and is hedonistic in its appeal. The system in its early stages did not envisage the concept of Moksa as a value. Its ideal of liberation consists: in the soul

realising its true nature. In the state of moksa, the soul is bereft of all adjuncts which are its character- 1stics. The school has an activistic epistemology and holds the self as producing knowledge.20

e). VEDANTA SYSTEM:

The Vedanta is the crown of all the systems of Indian philosophy. The different schools of Vedanta have grown from the difference in the interpretation of the prasthan-traya viz., the Upanishads, the

34

BhagavadgIta and the Brahma-Sūtra or Vedantasūtra,

particularly the last. The Brahmasutra have been

commented upon by many celebrated Ācāryas like Śańkara. This has given rise to different schools of

Vedänta. Each school of Vedanta strives for supe .-

riority by attempting to establish its own interpre-

tation over others.

The Vedanta system is also described as

Uttara-MImamsa. The Upanishads are the concluding

portions of the Vedas. The Gita is a part of the

great epic, the Mahabharata. Its authority rests on

that it is the direct message of Lord Krishna to

Arjuna. The Brahmasutra is the composition of Bāda-

rayana or Vedavyasa. The Sutra tries to arrive at the

teachings of the Upanishads by interpretation of the

statements apparently contradictory.

All the schools of Vedanta system exhibit

certain general characteristics. They believe in

the infallible authority of the Vedas as the reveal-

.ed truth and in the existence of the supreme reality,

Le., Brahma and that it is omnipotent, omnipresent,

immanent and transcendental. All the schools agree

that the soul is uncreated, eternal and infinite,

35

Each :school of Vedanta has its own

ontology and theory of knowledge. The Vedantic scheols

xxits believe in the moral law of Karmas as accounting

for the inequality among human beings in all respects.

Śankara commented on the Vedanta-sutra.

His philosophy is called advaita because all things

ie., world and the existence of the souls are inclu-

ded in a single category Brahman, the real one and

secondless (advitIya). Advaita is not merely

philosophy, and religion, but it is metaphysics and

spiritual discipline as well. It is monistic and

all other major schools are dualistic and theistic in their approach.21

f) SAMKHYA SYSTEM:

According to the historians of Indian

philosophy, the Samkhya thought is the oldest among

the philosophical thoughts of India. There are re-

ferences to Samkhya in the Upanishads, the Gita and

the Mahabharata. The word Samkhya' means knowledge

and number. Kapila is said to be the originator

of this darsana in the development of which two

clear stages can be marked. The pre-classical

Samkhya, prior to Iśvara-Krishna which was theistic.

The classical Samkhya which is realistic, pluralistic

and atheistic.

36

The greatest contribution of the Samkhya

system to human thought and the world of philosophy, is its conception of prakrti. The system posits two entirely independent philosophical categories, viz., Prakrti and Purusa. Thus it is dualistic and also

admits the plurality of purusa as self-existent real- ities. It is partly idealistic in its outlook.

The Prakrti is comparable to the energy of the physicist. It is a primeval category , but

a composite one constituted of three strands called

Gunas: Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. These three are

the constituents of Prakrti in all its manifestations. The three however are not present in equal proportim in the manifestations. The proportion of Gunas determines the nature of object.

The theory of human personality is based on the concept of the three gunas. The entire system

of animate and inanimate nature is woven out of these

Gunas, which differ in their nature. The sattva

represents light and illumination of the things in

nature. The rajas is ever dynamic, restless and

passionate .. The tamas is static and gross. The

general characteristics of Gunas are pleasure, pain and indolence, respectively.

37

Prakrti is the root cause of all physical and psychical entities in the universe. The three constituents of prakrti interact and the interaction keeps the equilibrium and that is the priginal state of prakrti. Inequilibrium in prakrti makes it evolve. Sämkhya system explains creation as the evolution from a single category, prakrti. It is the potential cause of all manifestations. The effect is contained in a potential form in its cause. The relation between a cause and its effect is only a case of mani- festation of what is already contained in the cause. The effect is pre-existent and is prefigured in the cause. Causation is a process. Hence the doctrine is called Satkaryavada and Pariņamavada. The

Samkhya theory of causation is the corollary of its metaphysics.

All things are in prakrti and their manif- estation is evolution. Twentyfour evolutes are mani- fested in the following order - prakrti, mahat, ahamkāra, five tanmātras, five sense organs, five

motor organs and manas. Out of the five tanmatras, emerge the five elements, earth, fire, water, air and ether. These are the 24 Tattva. Prakrti is active and dynamc and acts not for her own end but for the sake of purusa. The relation between purusa and

38

Prakrti is explained by a simile of the lame and the

blind (Pangu-andha-nyaya). Purusa is lame ie., has no volition of his own. Prakrti is blind ie., it

.cannot act by itself.

While prakrti is jada, matter, purusa is the principle of consciousness. Purusa is the 25th.Tattva, unitary and infinite in number; is

neither an evolute nor an evolvent. The existence

of purusa is established with the help of reason.

The plurality of purusa, Samkhya shows, is borne

out by human experience. Variety in human experience

and diversity in human action are adduced as proofs

for the existence of a plurality of purusa. Classi-

cal Samkhya does not provide any place for God.

Moksa is the realisation that the purusa

is different from prakrti and all experience is due

to prakrti only. Mokşa is termed Kaivalya, aloofness.

Samkhya has its own theory of knowledge, like all other systems of Indian philosophy. The

three pramāņas; pratyaksa, anumāna and śabda, are

accepted. 22

g) YOGA SYSTEM:

Among the systems of Indian philosophy, the Yoga-Darsana is the most widely known and popularly.

39

appreciated system of thought in India and abroad. It is significantly the single source for Indian

psychology.

Historically considered, the Yoga has developed as complementary to the Samkhya. If

Samkhya is theoritical, yoga is practical. Yoga

accepts largely the epistemology and the ontology of Sāmkhya. The only difference of Yoga from later Samkhya is the acceptance of the existence of God, Isvara. The Yoga is often called Sesvara-Sāmkhya

a term which brings forth its identity of the philoso- phic frame work with Samkhya leaving Yoga to. be more a regulated way of life. But this term as applied to

Yoga is an error resulting from the lack of histor-

ical perspective. It is possible to say that there

was a distinct school of thought called Sesvara- Sankhya. 23

Etymologically, the term, 'Yoga' is tra- ced to the root 'Yuj', 'to bind together', 'hold fast', 'yoke' etc. The word yoga serves in general to designate any ascetic technique and any method of med- tation.

Yoga is, in short, the control of Citta, the psychic apparatus, from drifting forth as it likes.

40

Citta gets the knowledge of external world when it assumes any one of the five functions or vrtti viz. pramāņa, .viparyaya, vikalpa, nidra and smrti. As long as the play of Citta is there, the purusa, is condemned to experience the distress of life , the klesass. They are: avidyā, asmitā, rāga, dveșa and abhiniveśa.

The practice of yoga involves a: sound ethical life in a healthy body. A two-fold method to arrest the modifications of Citta is suggested, The first of them is abhyasa and vairāgya, Abhyāsa is explained as the untiring and unremitting repeated effort to control the vrttis of Citta. Vairagya is renunciation. The other method to achieve the objective of the yoga is the discipline of eight steps, Astanga-yoga. The eight steps are: yama, niyama, āsana, prāņāyāma, pratyāhāra, dhāraņā, dhyāna and samädhi. The first five of these 'limbs' of yoga are external aids bahiranga-sadhana, while the last three are internal aids.

Samadhi, the final step in yoga, is intense concentration. There are two types of samadhi, Samprajnata and asamprajnata. The first one is that in which the consciousness of the object meditated upon persists; in the latter such an awareness

41

too will not be present. The first is differentiated

into four stages: vitarka, vicāra, ānanda and asmitā. Asamprajaata-samadhi is not merely another type of samadhi, but the higher and final stage also. In fact

it can be termed as the samadhi proper. The practice of samadhi gives rise to supernatural powers as well.24

42

CHAPTER - II -A.

INTRODUCTION TO YCGA-DARSANA

BEGINNINGS OF YOGA:

The word 'Yoga' occurs in the earliest

literary monument, Rgveda. The meaning there

is one of effecting a connection. In the other

early parts of the Veda, the word is used in the

sense of yoking a horse. In the later literature

it is found used in the meaning of controlling the

senses and the senses themselves are compared with

the uncontrolled spirited horses. 1 On the whole,

yoga is related to the sense of yoking.

The concept of yoga is found clearly for

the first time in the Aranyakas and the Upanishads. In the Kathopanisad we read: Yada pancāvatisthante jňānāni manasā saha;

buddhiśca na vicestati tam ähuh paramām

gatim. (2.3.10)

tam yogam iti manyate sthiram

indriyadhāraņam;

apramattas tadā bhavati, yogo hi prabhava-

pyayam. (2.3.11)

43

Svetāśvatara-upanișaa considers dhyana a necessary exercise in attaining the ultimate reality:

te dhyana-yoganugatā apasyan devātmaśaktim sva-guņair nigūdhām; yah karanāni nikhiļāni kālātmayuktāni adhitisthati ekab. (1.3)

The principles of yoga are much more clearly put forth in the Maiti-upanisade. This Upanishad explains not only the means of controlling the mind (Citta-vasikāropayāh) but also the nature of samadhi, the six'aimbs' (angas) are slao spoken of;

tathā tah prayogakalpati prāņāyāmah pratyāhārahdhyanam dhāraņā tarkaḥ samādhi Sadańga iti ucyate yogah; anena yadā paśyam paśyati. (2|18)

Some of the later Upanishads are chiefly made up of topics relating mainly to yogic techniques uncluding meditation and renunciation. These Upanishads are classified as Yoga-upanishads. Some principle texts of this group are the Brahmabindu, Tejobindu, Brahmavidyā, Nādabindu, Yogašikhā, Yogatattva, Dhyanabindu and Amrtabindu, Garbha, Nārāyana etc.

44

The Garbhopanisad speaks of the Samkhya and Yoga systems as the means of knowing the God. The Yogatattva-upanişad and Yogasikhā-upanisad depict the majesty of Atma. Nārāyaņopanișad has a special significance in relation to the Samkhya and Yoga doctrines.

YOGA IN EPICS AND PURĀNAS:

The Epics and the Puranas speak of the different techniques of yoga here and there. The Mahabharata has several passages especially in the BhagavadgIta and Moksadharma chapter of the Santiparva. The different aspect of yoga.like the practice of yoga, are frequently referred to in the Vanaparva. The observances of yoga are detailed in the Asvamedhaparva which gives explanation of controlling of sense organs.

ahimsam brahmacaryam ca

satyam ārjakam eva ca; akrodhas cānasuya ca

dharme nityam apaisunam. (Aśw. Anugita 4.6).

The Santiparva, the twelfth part of the Mahabharata, has many references relating to the several philosophical systems of India from Samkhya to Vedanta. The chapter 316 clearly enuniciates the

45

principles of Samkhya:

"The prakrtis are eight and their manifes-

tattons are sixteen. The sages said "from this the

prakrtis are manifested and earth, air, ether, water

and sun. These five and mahat, ahańkāra, prakrti, are the eight principles, tanmatras and sense organs are also set forth".2.

The BhagavadGita deals with Karma-yoga,

Bhakti-yoga and Jhana-yoga. The Karma-yoga is like

a plant, the Glta explains, which later grows into

the tree of Jhanayoga. Karma-yoga is the necessary

prelimimary step to Jhanayoga. The following verse (6.3) makes this idea clear:

aruruksor muner. yogam karma karanam ucyate; yogarudhasya tasyatve sāntiņ kāranam ucyate.

In the second chapter, yoga is defined as

'samatva': -'Samatvam yoga ucyate' (2.48) and it is

called purātana, a very old idea, 'yogah proktaḥ puratanaḥ !.

Therefore afriliate yourself to the uni-

tive way of yoga. Yoga is reason in action so that

Karma-yoga is rendered as 'devotion to the discharge

of social obligations', yogan karmasu kauśalam." 3

46

Gita point out that devotion leads to the

supreme state.

vedesu yajnesu tapas saucaiva danesu yat punyaphalam pratistham. ; . anyeti tatsarvam idam viditvā

yogI param sthanam upaiti cadyam. (8.26)

In the puranic period we find ample accounts

of yoga and yogis. Vișnupurāna 4 points out the various aspects of yoga:

atmaprayatna-sāpeksa-višisțāva manogatih; tasya brahmani samyoga yoga ity abhidhiyate.

yogayuktah prathamam yogi puňjňaneti abhidhĪyate; vinispanna-samādhistu param

brahmopalabdhiman.

ete yamas saniyamah paňca panca

kIrtitāh; viśistaphaladah karma niskāmanām

vimuktidah.

The Kurma-purana gives a list of names of

yoga teachers. 5

47

The Adhyatma-Ramayana speaks about the

mantra-yoga as follows: There are many ways of concentration of the mind. Some concentrate by

constantly calling upon name of God unceasingly like a stream of oil.6

Besides these references in the epics and the puranas there are a few contemporary independent texts for example, Gheranda-Samhita. The Śivasam ..... hita too contains a similar tract. These deal with particular aspects of yoga.

THE PLACE OF YOGA IN INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Yoga, as outlined earlier, is a practical course. Tne yoga-darsana precepts mainly fit: the Sāmkhya doctrines. But the principles enunicated, say, for example, the Astanga are so general and sci- entific for the development of one's mental faculties that their principles have been adopted by all the

systems of thought. Even the avaidika-darsanas like Buddhism and Jainism, have had their own yogic methods. Thus the yoga system has a unique position in the

practical application of philosophical thought. In

this respect it is analogous to the Purva-mimamsa. Both the systems originally had nothing to do with

epistemological or ontological problems. If the purvamImamsa concerned itself with language, its use

48

and interpretation, Yoga prepared the aspirants to

develop healthy mind in a healthy body. The pūrva-

mImamsa in the course of its analysis of Vedic syntax

a view to establish their authenticity, formulated

guiding principles of interpretation to arrive at the

argument of a given text. These principles have

been adopted by all the later scholars. It may be

mentioned that even the modern day law-pundits look

towards PurvamImamsa in interpreting, their law books. 7

In the same way, yoga-darsana developed a

procedure to concentrate the mind . It had the

Samkhya metaphysics in view as its basis during the

process. But its principles were so effective that

all thinkers adopted them to their own outlook.

Nyaya-Sutra states that the tattvajnāna,

ascertainment of Truth, which causes emancipation is

to be achieved through special practice of concentra-

tion: "Samadhi-visesābhyasat" (Nyāya-sūtra 4.2.38).

Further, Gautama elucidates that the Atman should

have the Samskäras through yama, niyama and other

precepts as advocated in the Yoga: "tad artham yama

niyamabhyam atmasamskārah yogāc ca adhyātma-vidyo-

pāyaih". (4.2.46).

The Vedanta too adopts the yogic procedures. Some of the precepts are a pre-requisite for taking

49

up vedantic studies. One of the Sadhana-catustaya: spoken of by Sankara in the Brahmasutra-bhasya, namely, śama-damādi-sadhana- sampat includes yama and niyama of the yogangas. Following the upanishads the

advaita also adopts upasanas as aiding one's effort

to gain emancipation. Yoga precepts can be adopted for its own sake also, without any philosophical

connection. It may confer some mental peace bringing turbulance to rest. It is in this respect that yoga today is attracting the attention of people all the

world over, but the emphasis is laid more on one of

its aspects viz., the asana, building a strong body. Of course, the yoga has the motto which is proverbial 'mens sana in carpor sano- a sound mind in a sound body.

TYPES OF YOGA:

The various facets of the yoga were indiv- idually developed later. They all go under the

name of yoga only. For example, Hathayoga, Layayoga, Tantrayoga, Rajayoga, Bhaktiyoga, Karmayoga, Jnanayoga and Dhyanayoga and so on.

The earliest form of yoga was purely spiritual as is evident from the Upanishads, all works on the knowledge of the soul, Ādhyātma-vidya. Weber in his History of Indian Literature (P.156) says that

50 181.452 VAT

"All early Upanishads teach the doctrine of atma

spirit and the later ones deal with yoga meditation to

attain complete union with ätma or the supreme spirit".

'The atma, soul or self and the supreme

spirit of which all other souls partake, is the spir- itual object of meditation (Yoga),' writes MaxMuller. 8

Hathayoga is the re-integration of the body through strength. This yoga deals entirely with the physical training. Health is its primary

aim. Hathayoga has the technical prescriptions and

disciplines by which the body and the vital energies

can be brought under control. This is the step

which suppresses the physical obstacles on the spiri-

tual path. The process of this system is brought MYSORE - 570 068

forth by explaining the significance of the word MYSORE UNIVERSITY LIRAMT

"Hathayoga". The syllable 'Ha' represents the sum and the syllable 'Tha', the Moon and the conjunction (yoga) of the sun and the moon i.e., of the Ida-and

the Pingala-nadis is Hathayoga.

Layayoga is the method by which the mind

merges with the inner source and the soul looses itself.

in the ultimate reality and it also consists in atten-

ding to physical fitness and it is similar to Hathayoga.

299078

51

Tantrayoga is the spiritual knowledge

which is the reintegration through awakening of the

KundalinI, the coiled energy. This is explained in

the Tantra. Tantrayoga is otherwise called

'Kundalin Iyoga' and has Astangayoga as its basis. And

adds seven further steps namely, purification (sodhana)

courage (dhrti), steadiness (sthirata), endurence (dhairya), subtlety (laghava) direct evidence (pratya-

ksa) and nirvikalpa -Samādhi.

Rajayoga is the highest form of yoga while

all other forms are preparatory to this. Rajayoga

cannot be fully achieved without training on the lines

of Hathayoga, by which the subtle objects can be

controlled.

Bhaktiyoga is perhaps the only yoga based

entirely on absolute devotion to a personal God. It

is true that other types of yoga also accept existence

of God called Isvara. But the aspirant who serves

Isvara with undistracted effort of Bhakti crosses

beyond the entanglements of prakrti and attains prin-

cipled identity with Iśvara.

Karmayoga is the path of action. The

Bhagavad-Gita discusses it and its justification seems

to be based on two main ideas. It is suggested that

even when one enters on the spiritual path, it is not .

52

possible to abstain altogether, from the activities

of life and secondly it is argued that action arises

in fact from Brahman, the source of all manifestations.

Thus action is something which one shares with the

divine. The remedy that Karmayoga offers lies in

the renunciation of personal aims while acting.

Jmanayoga is the path of knowledge. In

the last instant the knowledge becomes wisdom or the

final direct realisation of the essential unity of

existence. Gaining the true knowledge leads to

attainment of ultimate reality. True knowledge is

the only way to gain identity. There are four basic

requirements in the Jnanayoga discipline. viz., Viveka

(discrimination between the self and the nonself),

vairagya (dispassionateness in the happiness in this

or the other world) and satsampatti (six preparatory requirements): śama, dama, uparati, titiksā, śraddhā

and samadhana and mumuksutva. The training of the Jňanayoga of the Advaita-Vedanta proceeds generally

through three stages, sravana, manana and nididhyasana. te Dhyanayoga is the path of meditation. The

spiritual path of meditation does not necessarily lead

to withdrawl from engagement. in actions in the world.

The changeless and unmixed thought about pure conscio-

usness leads to Supreme Reality.9

53

YOGA THOUGHT: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Yoga it was stated earlier was developed

as complementary to the Sankhya thought. Tracing the

history of the Sankhya thought, Dr. Ramakrishna Rao

finds that the Sankhya in the Katha- and muņdaka-

Upanisads developed through the BhagvadGIta, Moksadharmaparva, the Śvetāśvatara-Upanișad, the

Şastitantra into the Sānkhya-kārikā of Īśvara-krsņa. The Yogasutra of Patanjali, he points out stands in between the Śvetasvatara and the Sankhya-kārikā. He

also depicts the yoga as contained in the epic Mahābha-

rata and brings out the difference between the epic

yoga and the classical yoga, The pre-classical

Sankhya was theistic but theism of epic yoga was a

pretention. 10

Further quoting a line from Mahābhārata:

pratyaksa-hetavo yogaņ sānkhyā śāstra-viniścayāh, 'Dr.

Rao points out that the yogas argue on the basic of

direct experience or empirical analysis. The Sankhyas do so on the basis of their scriptures.11

But the term 'pratyaksa-hetavah', stands for direct

perception or yogaja-pratyaksa and not for simply

pratyaksa or anumana. In other words, yoga relies

more on the direct knowledge obtained in Samadhi than

on perception or inference which are mediate from the

point of view of the former.

54

Dr. Rao also notes that the Ahirbhudnya-

samhita contains a tract in the form of contents of

yoga which is almost identical with that of Pātanjala-

sutras. Thus the formation of yogic thought is avai-

lable in the later Upanishadic period and the epics.

It is necessary to refer to the teaching

of early Buddhism and early Jainism in this context.

A striking similarity between early Buddhism and yoga

is the concept of Avidya. Avidya in early Buddhism

is not conceived as a cosmic power explaining how the

nisprapanca Brahman shows itself as the empirical world.

But merely on the ground of individual existence as is

shown by the first place assigned to it in the chain

of causation. It is not as in Upanishads, ignorance

of the essential unity of all existence but the failure to recognise the hollowness of the so called self.12

Avidya is the ignorance of the four Arya-

satyas and thereby is the origin of suffering. The

suffering is removed when ignorance is dispelled. In

the Yoga sutra too, 'Avidya' though one of the five

klesas, is the basis of the others; it is the primary

source of suffering or misery. However, Avidya here

is a failure to recognise the distinction of prakrti

and purusa.

55

Another coincidence is in regarding the

way to remove suffering,. Buddha prescribes a

path of self discipline, which is eight-rold. Yogasutra also prescribes a path of eight steps.

Another striking common concept is:In the Jataka stories we find that a person after acquiring tran-

scendent virtues "becomes 'superman', described,

there as 'dharmamegha' 'Cloud of law', when he

receives the excellent rain of true law, himself becomes of cloud of law".13

The Buddhacarita as well as the Buddhist

texts like Milindapanha, inform us that Buddha

underwent training, under many yoga-acaryas like

Arāda Kalama, Ajita Keśakambalin and so on.

So far as early Jainism is concerned we

may note two similarities with the Yogasūtra:

Jainism speaks of ahimsa etc. coming under yama.

Yogasutra speaks of ahimsa etc. when followed abso .-

lutely , as the mahavrata. The state of emancipation

in Jainism is being kevala and it is said that kevala- jhana is the cause of this state and a person who attains this state comes to be cailed 'kevalin'. In Yogasutra, the position of purusa in emancipation is described as kevalatva. These facts go to show that

yoga was well developed around 6th century B.C.

56

CHAPTER- II - B

THE YOGA-SUTRA. THE BHASYA, THE VRITI:

THE YOGA-SUTRA:

The Yoga-Sutra of Patanjali is the system-

atic exposition of Yoga techniques that have been

preserved from ancient times. It forms the basic

text for the Yoga-darsana, Patanjali is considered

neither as the rounder nor as the originator but only

as the formulator of yoga thought in a systematic

fashion. A tradition points out that Hiranyagartha

is the originator of this system. There 1s a

reference in Yajhavalkya-smrti which makes Hiranya-

garbha as the exponent of Yogasastra. Vacaspati

Misra refers to Hranyagarbha as an early teacher of Yogaśástra: "Yoga-sastrasya hairanyagarbha- patanjaladeh."14

The text of cikitsa-sastra discusses its

topics in rour distinct parts as roga, rogahetu,

ārogya, arogyopāya. Similarly Yogasāstra discusses

yoga in four distinct stages: heya, heyahetu, hana,

hanopaya. This world is full of sufferings and pain

is that from which emancipation is sought. The

identification of self with the non-self is the root

cause for samsara, the discrimination between the two

57

is the means of emancipation. The scope of Yogaāstra

extends upto the emancipation which is here called

Kaivalya.

The special feature of Yogasastra is its

emphasis on practical discipline. The system gives

the actual methodology for acquiring maintaining

steadiness of mind. It is maintained that by gain-

ing control over the body and steadiness of mind, it

leads to the ultimate state.

CONTENTS OF YOGA-SUTRA:

The Yogasutra consists of four padas:

Samadhi, Sadhana, Vibhuti and Kaivalya. It has one

hundred and ninetyfive sutras in all. The different

editions differ in the number of sutras; also there

is divergence in readings from edition to edition. 15

The first Samadhi-pada, sets forth defini-

tion of yoga, moods of citta (cittabhumi), functions

of citta, cittavrtti; means of restraining the cittavrtti, particularly abhyāsa and vairāgya. The

types of samadhi, samprajňata and asamprajnata.

. Their subdivisions and means of attaining them, the concept of Iśvara, its nature and scope.

58

The second, Sadhana-pada, explains the

practical course of action which helps in attaining the right knowledge, described as Kriyāyoga. Kriyayoga leads to the final state through annhila-

tion of Klesas and Karmas, whose nature are also

setforth. The first five steps of astangayoga

are also dealt with here.

The third, Vibhuti-pada,discusses the

supreme powers which are acquired by practising the other 'limbs' of yoga namely dhāranā, dhyana and samadhi and describes the ultimate fruit of yoga.

Lastly, the Kaivalya-pada is devoted to the

study of the forms of Kaivalya. The state of mind

which is fit for Kaivalya, the nature of the higher

world and nature of the self, which partakes of the pleasure and pain, and also the Dharmamegha-samadhi

are explained.

IDENTITY AND DATE OF PATANJALI

Traditionally Patanjali is the author of

yoga-sutra. The identity of Patanjali is one of

the ticklish problems. For, we have at least four Patanjalis who wrote works in diverse fields. There

is a Patanjali author of Yogasutra. Patańjali,

author of Mahabhasya, is a calebrated commentator on

59

Pänini's work and a medical work: 1s by one Patanjali.

There is another Patanjali, the author of Nidana-sutra.

We do not know for sure if any two or many

of them are the same or all the four are the same

or different from each other ..

Pataljali is hailed as the expounder of

these three sastras that make for 'trikarana -suddhi':

yogena cittasya padena vācām

malam śarirasya ca vaidyakenas

ya upakarot tam pravaram munInam Pataňjalim praňjalir anato' smi.6

. Bhojadeva, in his vritti on yogasutra agrees

with the above opinion that Patanjali was a reputed

author in the field of grammar, yoga and medicine.

Cakrapanidatta, the commentator on Carakasam-

.hita, states: "patan ja la-mahābhasya-caraka-

pratisamakrtaih ., manovākkaya-dosanam",echoing similar idea of the removal of the three impurities.

So,also Nagesa Bhatta in his Laghu-maňjūsā:

"tad uktam carake patanjalina sendriyam cetanam dravyam

nirindriyam acetanam."

(cidambaram) Mid 1zth century

60

Ramabhadra DIksita of the 17th century,

recounting the life of Patanjali , observes there-

in that Patanjali is Sūtrakara, Bhāsyakāra and Vartikakāra in one, i.e., he composed the Yoga- sastra, Vyākarana-bhasya and tne Vārtika on Vaidya.

"sūtrāni yogasāstre vaidyaśastre ca Vārtikāni tataḥ;

krtvā Patanjalimunih pracārayama sa jagad idam tratum! 18

But these authorities representing the tradition

who recognise only one Patanjali, are far later and

seem to rely more on hearsay than on any reliable

continuous tradition. We may recall here the halo

developed round the grammarian, Patanjali. He

is considered as the incarnation of Adisesa. This

is depicted even in a sculpture. Thus it is but

natural to ascribe the authorship of tne Yogasutra,

too, to this divine personage. in course of time.

But neither identirication can be denied outright

for the evidence to differentiate the Patanjalis

is so meagre or as slippery as there is to identify

them.

Modern scholars are not unanimous in

regard to this problem. There are scholars who

61

support the tradition and there are also those who recognise diiferent Patanjalis. To facilitate the discussion, let us name the author of Yogasutra as Sūtrakara, the author of Mahabhāsya as bhasyakara and Vrttikara would be the author of Vrtti on medi- cal work.

Satapatha Brahmana gives a list of teachers among whom there is one, kāpya Patańjala. Weber tries to connect the Sutrakara with this teacher 9, This attempt of the scholar seems not posssible due to chronological reasons. Scholars 1ike Liebich, Garbe and Dasgupta agree that the Sūtrakara and the shasyakara are one and the same while a few others like Woods do not fall in line with them.

Professor J.H.Woods objects the identity by bringing in the evidence of the divergent concep- tions which the two works at least in regard to the question of dravya and guna. For Keith, too, the Sütrakara and the Bhāsyakara are different.

Das Gupta refutes Woods' statement that

the conception of dravya differed in the two Patan-

jalis. On the contrary, he finds numerous similari-

ties between the Yoga-Sutra and the Maha-Bhasya, e.g. Sphota Doctrine, though it is a doctrine far from

62

prevalence, appears in both the books. Both begin alike: Yoga-Sutraatha Yoganusasanam" ; Mahabhasya; "atha sabdānuasanam". Das Gupta believes that the first three books of the Yogasutra were written by Patenjali, the Grammarian. He considers that the last book is a later addition, as it differs in

terminology from the three books and also it repeats

what has already been said. A.B.Keith does not

accept Das Gupta's position. In his view the Yoga-

sutra as a whole, is the work of a single author.

The argument of Liebich as also of Das

Gupta as regards the doctrine of Shopta, has no weight in deciding the identity of Patanjali. For,

the term, Sphota does not appear in Yogasutra and

it is only employed incidentally in the Mahabhāsya.

Many of the technical terms of the Yoga

including the words like, ca, va are also found in Mahabhasya. On this ground Liebich argues that the

two authors are one and the same. But a complete

examinetion of the common vocabulary confirms that

the words are employed in entirely different conno-

tations in the two works. The series of words like

pratyahāra, upasarga, pratyaya, etc., do appear

in the Yogasutra but with quite different values.

63

H.Jacobi also brings into account certain com-

pounds in Yogasutra which violate the usages

noted by Panin1 (2-2-54). He also shows that

vocabulary differs.

The date of Patanjali depends on his iden- tity with the grammarian. If the Sūtrakara Patanjali

is the same as bhasyakara Patanjali, then the date

of Yogasutra is settled. That is the first or the

second century B.C.

A.A.Macdonell in his History of Sanskrit

Literature, points out that "there seems more over

to be sufficient to doubt the correctness of the

native tradition identifying the founder of the . Yoga

System with the grammarian Patahjali."

Keith finds clear traces of anti-Buddhist

treatment in pada 4 of the Yogasutra whence it

would follow that tthe date of Patanjali san hardly

be earlier than the fifth century B.C. and he

dates him in the second century B.C.

J.H.Woods refers to Professor Jacobi who

has proved that there is the existence of philoso-

phical Yoga system whicn is resting upon logical

references and not upon initiative processes as

early as 300 B.C.

64

However Prof. Jacob1 concludes that the "Yogasutra is later than 450 A.D." But his argu- ments that the Yoga contains the views of the later Buddhistic schools, is mostly b sed on the exposition in the Bhasya. Hence the Sutra itself need not be later than the Buddhistic schools.

Dr. Jwala Prasad examines in detail the arguments of Woods, Jacobi and others and points out the defects in their arguments. 20

There is an interesting piece of evidence in Vyasa-bhasya on 3-44. While elaborating on the definition of dravya, Vyasa dwells on the types of samūha. There he quotes "ayutasiddhavayava- bhedānugata .- samuhah dravyam iti patanjaliņ". Here the name Patanjali is explicitly mentioned without any henoryfic prefixes. There is one occasion when Vyasa refers to the sutrakara. There (4-10), Vyasa employs the term "Acaryah", without any name. Also there is no occasion for Sutrakara to write on a topic like dravya or samuha. Hence we may have to draw the conclusion that the author of the Yogasutra was not Patanjaliy according to Vyasa. But this contradicts the tradition that Patangali is the author of Yogasutra. we have to say that

65

the Yogasutra was attributed to Patanjali at a later

date. However, why Yogasutra came to be ascribed

to a Patanjali remains an open question.

No scholar writing on the Yogasutra has

noted this reference and no commentator or editor

has identified the passage. The attempt to trace

the quotation in the Mahabhasya was in vain. How-

ever under the Vārtika "ekadese dirghagrahanam" on the Siva-Sutra, 'ai-au-c', the Mahabhasya has the

following line which expresses an idea very similar

to that quoted in Vyāsa-bhāsya. "samudaye avayavah; tad yatha vrksah pracalan sahavayavaih pracalati". 21

Kautilya notes the Yoga as a well recognised

independent branch of philosophic enquiry. 22

As pointed out earlier the references to

Buddhist views does not make the Yogasutra to be later

than the Buddhistic schools. On the other hand the

terms like 'Avidya', Klesa, remind of the similar

concepts in early Buddhism, as pointed out earlier.

This makes the Yogasutra nearer to Buddha, if not his

contemporary.

The Nyaya-sutra holds that for the achieve-

ment of 'apavarga' one has to take recourse to the

precepts of yoga. Hence it may be concluded that the

66

Yogasutra was on existence somewhere between fifth century B.C. to third Century B.C.

COMMENTARIES ON YOGA-SUTRA

Aufrechts Catalogus Catalogorum mentions the following nineteen commentaries on the Yogasutra including the commentaries on some of tnem. Of these, the Bhasya by Vyasa, Tattvavaisaradi of Vacaspati Miśra, Yogavārtika by Vijňanabhiksu, Vrtti called Rājamārtanda by Bhojadeva, Yogasūtra-dĪpika by Bhāve- ganesa, Vrtti of Nagojibhatta, Vrtti called Manipra- bhā by Rāmānanda yati, Yogacandrika. by Narayanateer- tha, Yoga-sudhākara by Sadāsivabrahmendra-saraswatī and Yogasutra-bhasya-vivaraņa by Ācārya Sankara are printed.

Other commentaries noted by Aufrecht are: Yogasütrartha-candrika or Yogacandrika or padacandrikā by Ananta, Yogasūdhākara by a pupil of Ānanda, Yogavrtti-samgraha by Udayamkara, another commentary by Umapati Tripāthin, Nyayaratmākara or Navayogakallola by Ksemānanda DIkșita, Yogasūtra- Güdhartha-dyotanika or Yoga-siddhānta-candrikā by Narāyana-bhiksu, commentary by NarayanatIrtha or Nārayanendra-sarasvati of Allahabad, Pātanjall- yabhinava-bhasya by Bhavadeva of Patna, a commentary

67

by Mahadeva, Yogasutrabhāsya by Rāmānuja, a commentary by Vrindavana sukla, a commentary by Sadāšiva, Pātaňjalarahasya by SrIdharanandayati. Of these several commentaries on Yoga-sutra, the Vyāsa-bhāsya

and the Bhoja-vrtti (Rajamārtanda) are selected for

study.

DATE OF VYASA

Vyäsa is the oldest known commentator of

the Yogasūtra of Patanjali. Vyāsa or Vedavyāsa,

according to the tradition, classified the Vedas and

wrote the great epic the Mahabharata as well as the

eighteen Mahapuranas. Vedavyasa is known as more a title than a name and his name is given as SrIkrasbna

Dvaipayana. He is also known as Bādarayana parti-

cularly with reference to Brahmasutra. He is also

credited with the authorship of the Brahmasutra and

some smrti works. Vacaspati Misra in the introdurc-

tion to his commentary, BhamatI, on Brahmasutra-Bhāsya speaks of Vedavyasa as the incarnation of Jnanasakti

of God;

brahmasūtrakrte tasmai Vedavyāsaya vedhase; jňānaakyavatārāya namo bhagavate hareh.

68 .

In Tattavavaisaradī on Yogasūtra-Bhāsya,

Vācaspati refers to the author of Yoga-Bhasya and

Vedavyāsa or Bādarāyana, as one and the same,

Vijñanathiksu also supports the identity of the authors

of Brahmasutra and Yogabhasya in a prefatory verse

of the Yogavartika on Yogasutra-bhāsya:

"śrIpātanjala-bhāsya-dugdhajaladhir

vijňanaratnākaro;

vedavyāsamun Indra-buddhi-khanito yogIndra-

peyamrtah".

Abhinavagupta quotes a few lines here and

there from the Vyasabhasya and also a few lines from

Yogasutra, in his Abhinavatharatf .. Out of six

quotations, in three cases, Abhinavagupta mentiones

the author as 'bhujangavibhunaiva'. In other

instances, he simply introduces with the words:

yathoktam or yacahuh. Wheugh Abhinavagupta is

quoting from Vyasa-bhasya, he ascribes the passages

to Patańjali or Bhagavan bhujangavibhu. 23 Abhinava-

gupta being an erudite and critcal scholar in

philosophy his words carry weight. Chronologically

also he is earlier to Vacaspatimiśra. Hence one

would be inclined to accept Abhinavagupta's views.

69

What we make out from the quotation in Abhinavagupta would be that the Yogasutra as well as the Bhasya was written by a single author and that was Patanjali.

Unfortunately this piece of evidence cannot solve the

authorship of Sutra on Bhasya as the tradition stron-

gly ascribes the Bhasya to Vyasa. The attention may be drawnto a reference noted above to Patanjali by name in Vyāsabhasya (3.44) on which one might argue that Patanjali was not at all the author of Yogasutra.

The question of identifying Vyasa is very difficult. Probably it cannot be solved at all.

Perhaps a comparative study of Vyasabhāsya with the earlier texts in the sister systems might help atleast in chrenologically fixing Vyasabhāsya.

At present the fixation of the date of Vyasa is difficult. A.A. Macdonell says that Vyasa

dates: from the 7th century A.D .. J.H. Woods opines that his date is about the end of 4th century A.D. and that he is not much earlier than 350 A.D.24

The style of the Bhasya points to an early age. The main tenets of Buddhism included the basic principles of the later Buddhists schools. Vyasa refutes those ideas but no where does he mention the the name of any of those schools. The Buddhistic views referred in the Bhasya are nearer to the Pali

70

sources than to the schools. The mention of ksanika-

vadinah under sutra 4-20 or of vaināśkas under sūtra

4-21 does not come in the way. For these terms

can as well refer to the early Buddhists. Vyasa is

not influenced by any sister philosophical system.

His interpretation is close to the sutras. Hence it

may be said that Vyasa wrote his bhasya immediately

after the Sutra was composed. He might have been

even a contemporary of the Sūtrakara. We We conclude

with P.V. Kane-> that Vyasa flourised between 5th

Century B.C. and 2nd Century B.C.

This is also corroborated by the fact that

the analysis of the philosophical problem tnto four

aspects heya, heyahetu, hana, hanopaya, suggested

by sūtrakāra and expounded in clear terms by the Vyasa.

This method of analysis corresponds very closely to

the procedure adopted by Caraka, Vyasa clearly draws

a refereuce to Cikitsāsastra having four Vyuhas namely

roga, rogahetu, arogya and bhaisajya. The Buddha

also considers the problem confronting the world in

these steps. 26

This correspondence of method of analysis

points their chronological proximity. we may also

quote here what Prof. Hiriyanna says in this context:

"It is generally stated that this ignorance is of four

71

Noble Truths (arya-satya), those concerning suffering

its origin, its removal and the way to remove it . It is evident that in formalating this four-fold truth,

Buddha was guided by the medical wiew of the time in

regard to the curing of diseases. Such transference

of the method of current science to philosophy being not at all uncommon in its history.27 There is also

another common idea which brings the Jataka, the

Sutras and the Bhasya into a chronological proximity.

The idea under reference is that of 'dharmamegha'

which is referred to in Yoga-sutra, 4-29. "Thig con-

cept of dharmamegha represents noblest altruism and

transcendent virtues. After acquiring them one becomes

'super-man' described there (Jātaka stories) as dharma-

megha, Cloud of Law," Vyasa speaks at length about

this concept while the concept is forgotten after him. 28

I wish to point out here a curious point:

Though there is a quotation in Vyasa which can be traced

to Mahäbharata, there is not even a single quotation

or reference to the Bhagavadgita. BhagavadGita as

: * well known, is considered as a text in Yogasastra

and there are many views which are identical between

Vyasa-bhasya and Gita. For example, non-satiation of desires by going after them just as fire is not extinguished by pouring bil on it. This lack of

72

reference might prompt that the Vyasa-bhasya was

written at a time when the Gita was not very popular. That is in the last few centuries before Christ.

BHOJA, HIS LIFE & DATE

Bhoja was a King who ruled in Dhāra, the

present Dhar near Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh. He is

spoken of as a very benevolent King and a great

patron of learning. The ruins at Dhar do bear

testimony that the statements about nim are not exa-

ggeration.

Bhoja flourished in about the 11th century

A-D. from Subhuticandra, the Commentator of Amara-

kosa. We learn that Bhojaraja flourished between

1010 A.D. and 1055 A.D. and died at about 1062 A.D.

Bulher opines that Bhoja might have assumed reins

of Government about 1010 A.D. or somewhat later.

Dr.R.G.Bhandarkar also assigns the first half of

the 11th century to Bhoja while S.K.De is more spe-

cific in stating that Bhoja was alive somewhere be-

tween 1010 A.D. and 1055 A.D.

According to Bhojaprabandha, Bhoja reigned

for 55 years. An inscription of Jayasimha who succeed-

ed Bhoja, is dated 1112 Samvat,i.e, 1055 A.D.

There are evidences to show that Bhoja could not

73

have lived at any rate beyond 1084 A.D.29

WORKS OF BHOJA:

A large number of works on various branches

of knowledge are attributed to Bhoja. The two

extensive and voluminous works are. Sarasvati --

Kanthābharana and Śrngāra-Prakaśa. A prefatory verse

in Rajamärtanda tells us that Bhoja wrote works on

grammar, a commentary work and commentary on Patanja la-

Yogasutra and a work on medicine. The medical work

and commentary on Yogasutra have the same title,

Rājamārtanda.

An astronomical work called Rājamrgānka is

also inthe name of Bhoja. Ajada who commented on Sarasvatì -- Kanthābharana, says that Bhoja wrote eighty-

four works.

Sarasvati . Kaņțhābharaņa and Srngāraprakāśa are the works on poetics. His work on grammar is also

called Sarasvati-Kaņthābharana. A work on Šaivāgama, "Tattvaprakasa" is ascribed to Bhoja. He is also said

to have written a prose work called Śrngāramanjari,

Bhupalakrtasamuccaya is the work on Dharmasastra.

Raghunandana mentions in his fithitattva that Bhoja wrote another work called Bhujabala-BhIma.0

74

COMMENTARY: DEFINITION & NATURE

Sanskrit literature has a characteristic

tendency to preserve its achievements from very

early days. This tendency has given rise to many

original-cum-explanatory sets of ltterature.

In the case of every work of poetic art,

there is much difference between the attitudes. of

the poet and the reader. Sometimes the poet's

mental and moral set-up is different from others

either because tne reader is rar removed from

the poet's period of existence or because the reader

is ignorant about the nature of the subject he is

dealing with or because of both. Sometimes the

reader may deviate from the original meaning of the

poet. Then the commenteries help the reader in

.finding out the idea of the poet. Comparatively

the commentators are nearer to the original authors

and tradition. Without the help of the commentaries

it would be difficult to understand and or geasp

the original text. Means like a care translation

of written texts or interpretation from a personal

standpoint may not be of such help in that airection.

Sometimes texts may be incomplete the reading may be

incorrect, then we have to depend on the commentators

75

for explanation, interpretation, amplirication and

reconciliation etc. Hence the commentaries become

indispensaule guide for a correct study of a text.

With reference to Vedic texts A.A, Macdonell points

out that "Indian commentators are invaluable guides

in explaining the theological and ritual texts of

the Brähmanas" and the same holds good in the case

of other Sanskrit texts also. Another advantage

in the study of commentaries is that we will be

able to have an insight into the contemporary litera-

:ture, culture, etc.

NECESSITY OF A COMMENTARY:

For any text, a commentary written or

oral is necessary, It is our common experience too.

An idea of a passage not understood while read by

ourselves becomes clear when a scholar expounds it

to us.

Patanjali in his mahāohasya, speaks of this

use of a commentary like this "Vyākhyanato viśesa pratipattih. na sandehāt alaksanam".31

The origin of the commentorial literature

1.e., the explanatory sets of literature can be.traced

from Vedic period. We find the traces of the

explanatory purpose in the Brahmana and the Vedanga

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texts. These texts help in determining the meaning of Vedic passages. The Vedic texts are peculiar and

profound in the whele of Sanskrit literature. The

noteworthy feature is that they are too brief to be

understaad without the help of some elucidatory

material. The Vedangas which originate as explanca-

tory, have acquiree the status of preservatives; they

are in turn elucidatory also. Further these Vedanga

temts are in the style of Sutras.

A sutra should have the following features.

It should contoin as small a numter of syllables as

possible but should give no room for doubts. It

should bring out the essential point intended and

should have a link with the preceding and the follow-

ing lines, should not contein any meaningless ele-

ments and should be free from all kinds of flaws.

Those typically conforming with the definition of

sutra are the sutras af Panini. in which the method

of concise presentation reached its perfection.

Thus the commentorial literature had its

origin in the Vedic period itself in the Brahmanas

and the Vedanga texts. Gradually there was greater

need for such literature and that was met through

77

commentaries or several types, such has Bhasya, Värtika, vrtti, Vyakhyāna, TIka, Tippani and so on and so, forth, each having its own characteristic features so far as explanations and method involved in them are concerned.

A Vartika being that which takes note of what is said, unsaid and ill-said. These vartikas did not perhaps serve the purpose fully. So it

gave rise to a method known as Bhāsya. A Bhasya is defined as that writing in which the meaning of the sutra is explained closely following the wordings of the Sutras, and one's own views are explained as well. The sutra-bhasya method of presentation was followed by all systems of philosophy in the early period.

Vrtti means brief explanation. It is less technical but systematic than the other types. It is lucid and may be written on even another commentary.

Vykhyana 1s less technical than the above said ones and is simple. The characteristic of Vyākhyana is to split up words, to give their meaning, to resolve the compound words, to give construction of sentences and to clear the doubts that may arise to a beginner.

78

Generally commentaries too begin with a mangala-śloka and the authors speak about themselves

before taking up a text for elucidation.

VYĀSA-BHAŞYA: Its Nature

The Vyasa-Bhasya conforms to the definition

of Bhasya. The pratikas are not given to the Sutras.

The significance of the Sutra and its words are

explained in detail. Vyasa does not bother himself

in giving grammatical notes on the words and also

he does not bring us too many quotations to establish

his views. These are about 35 quotations in all

in his work including the one from an Upanishad.

His language is quite simple and does not write

long sentences. His mode of argument is defending his stand is not complex. We do not see any influ-

' ence of other philosophical systems like Nyaya or the Vedanta on him.

Another feature of Vyasa's exposition is that he illustrates with very common instances to drive home nis point:

To illustrate that it is possible to avoid

what harms, in the context of showing the misery of

the world is avoidable, Vyasa writes: the sole of

foot is vulnerable to thorn which has the nature of

79

pricking, The pricking by the thorn can be avoided by the use of slippers.

That the changes are only in the attributes

is illustrated by taking a statement from common

panlance: Devadatta is getting poorer and it is shown that Devadatta's becoming poorer is not due to anything in Devadatta himself but in the loss of

something belonging to him, say, cows.

Explaining the courses of Kleśas as found

in life, Vyasa gives this illustration: Supposing Caitra is in love with a lady, this does not mean

says Vyasa, that Caitra has no love towards other

women; his love towards others is either dormant

or enfeebled or arrested.

Vyasa provides a variety of information in

the course of his Bhasya. While commenting on the

various siddhis, for instance, Vyasa takes occasion to speak about the object of contemplation which give those siddhis. Thus we get Vyasa's ideas about the

universe and its inhabitants, the nature of words and

meaning and so on.

Vyāsa straight away begins his commentary neither has he any benedictory verse at the beginning

nor does he speak about himself.

80

`BHOJA-VRTTI: Its Nature

Ra jamārtanda the commentary on yoga-sutra by Bhoja, conforms to the definition of Vrtti. It

is a short commentary giving a simple interpretation of the Sutra without going into much of technical

details. Whenever Patangali brings an important point, Bhoja afier giving the word-meanings, summarises the

idea of Patanjali in one or two sentences with the

preface 'ayam arthah' or 'etad uktam bhavati'. At

the end of every pada, Bhoja succintly puts forth the

arguments of the pada. Following this method, the entire Sastra position is putforth in,nut-shell at

the end of the work.

Though Bhoja does not enter into any philo-

sophical discussion in the course of his Vrtti he takes occasion to point out the inconsistancy regardang the nature of Atman as setforth in the other darsanas.

It may be noted here that he also refers to the

Pratyabhijna-darsana therein.

Probably because of the chronological

position of Bhoja, he is influenced by the other

darsanas particularly Sankhya and Vedanta. He emp .-

loys the terma antahkarana and Ātman very freely, even

as he does not give currency to the terms in the

Sutra text.

81

True to being a Vrtti the language of

Bhoja flows freely.

Bhoja eften explains the significance of

terms of the Sutra etymologically also. He dwells

on the derivation of the words. For example:

(1) panca-tayyah: avayava-bhūta-vrttayas tad apeksayā

tayyap-pratyayah.

(2) Kleśa: 'Kliśnantiti, kleśah':

(3) the term Iśvara: Iśvara IśanasIlam iccha-mātreņa

sakala-jagad-uddharaņa-ksamah.

Vyāsa and Bhoja:

Compratively speaking-Vyāsa is nearer to

yoga-sutra tradition and therefore he is an authority

as acknowledged by later writers. He provides a

variety of information as related to the yoga-darsana.

But one may not be able to follow easily the meanings

of the words of the Sütra.

Bhoja is helpful in understanding the meaning

of the words of the Sutra and thereby grasp Patanjali's

thoughts. His summaries are ably done and the aspirant

can recapitulate the message of yoga.

Bhoja begins his Vrtti with salutations to

Śiva (two verses), Patańjali (two verses). Then the

works of Rana-Rangamalla-Nrpati i.e., Bhoja nimself

82

'in three fields, are referred to and glorified. Finally he writes about the need for writing this Vrtti (two verses).

83

CHAPTER III VYASA-BHĀSYA :- A CRITICAL STUDY

An attempt is made in this Chapter to present the philosophical stand-point of the Yoga-Darsana in a logical sequence, putting together Vyasa's statements in different contexts. (a) "YOGA"- Its definition:

While explaining the phrase, 'Yoganusasanam', in the very first sutra, Vyasa clarifies what he means by the term Yoga. For Vyasa, Yoga is Samadhi. Samadhi means concentration and it is a characteristic of psyche. In the course of the work, the term Yoga is also employed in the sense of practical discipline leading to Samadhi. Even then it does not contra- dict Vyasa's idea Yoga. It may be said that Vyasa identified the cause of Samadhi, i.e., Yoga, with the effect. Thus he provides the key-note that any one desirous of enjoying Samadh1 must take recourse to Yoga, the practical discipline.

By understanding the term, 'atha' in the first Sutra, in the sense of simple beginning of a study, Vyasa seems to say that the study of Yoga does not require any prerequisite qualification.

84

(b) ONTOLOGY

Prakrti:

The entire physical world is considered as

the evolution of a basic entity, 'Prakrti'. Prakrti

is constituted of three Gunas: Sattva, Rajas and

Tamas. The three Gunas which are always found together

are in equilibrium in the state of Prakrti. But in

the course of evolution, the three Gunas will not be

in equal and same proportion. It is this variation

in the proportion cf the constituent Gunas that differ-

entiates the objects of the Universe. Though the

three Gunas are always found conjointed, they retain

their individual nature and they are interdependent.

Guņas are so called because it is ta cate-

gory subordinated to Purusa .. Prakrti only ministers to it. 2

The Gunas are related with all characteristics

and are eternal, i.e., they do neither go out of

existence nor come into existence afresh. Due to

the guna-related manifestations (vyaktibhih)' of the

past and future, coming and going, the Gunas seem to

have the characteristics of coming into existence and

diaappearing. In other words, while the manifesta-

tions have the nature of going to the past and being

in the stage of yet-to-come, the Gunas seem to appear

and disappear because of the'r relations with them.

85

A common experience is cited as illustration: A

person, Devadatta, is getting poorer; the reason

for this may be, say, his cows are dying. It is clear that dying of cows is imposed on Devadatta.

Thus Devadatta's poverty is only due to the loss of

cows, an atttibute and not due to anything in regard to Devadatta himself.4 There is no 'loss' or

poverty in the person Devadatta.

Evolution:

Evolution starts when the equilibrium of

Prakrti is disturbed. The cause of disturbance is

given as the proximity of Purusa. 5 Vyāsa does

not state clearly how the prakrti gets disturbed

and starts evolving. He only says that the evo-

lution of prakrti is for the sake of purusa and that the modificatirn is going on and on, and has no beginning.6 The modifications of the prakrti into

tattvas is only the variaticn in the dominance of

any one of the constituents, , namely, Triguņas.

The Yogabhasya postuletes that the prakrti

evolves into the wahat which in turn evolv=s into

Ahamkara and Tanmatras. These two evolutes are

called Aviśesas (non-particularised ). That Tanmatras

evolve direct from wahat along with Ahamkara is

rather peculiar to Yoga-bhasya. The Ahamkara evolves

86

into the five organs of cognition and five organs of

volition and Manas (mind). The Tanmatras which

are five, namely: Sabda, sparśa, rūpa, rasa and gandha,

respectively evolve into five elements (bhutas):

Ākasa,Vāyu, Agni, Jala and Prthvi. These evolutes

are called Visesas, the particularised. The entire

universe is covered by these twenty three tattvas only.

There is no tattva beyond the vasesas and therefore

they do not evolve further, i.e., the five great

elements do not evolve as entity, having distinct

feature of its own. The visesas are the basis of

the visible universe. All the manifestations in the

universe are only permutaticn and combination of the

five elements. Hence these cannot be called Tattvas

as there is no modification in the constitutent

Trigunas.

Mahat, the lingmatra, forms itself in alinga

and then separates from it. So also the six viseses

are found in lingamatra and evolve from it. Similarly

from avisesas is the evolution of bhutas and indriyas. There is no tattva beyond the visesas.7

The penultimate source of the diverse universe

in the reverse propagation , is mahat and so it is

called Lińgamātra. This has a further step and that

PRAKRTI (ALINGA) - Mahat / Buddhi (Lingamatra)

AHANKARA TANMATRAS

-AVISESA- -- - -----

Jhana- Karma- manas

stndriyas indriyas

(5) (7) ! ! ! !

Sabda Sparsa Rupa Ra sa Gandha 87

! ! ! !

Aka sba Vayu Agni Jala Prthvi

VISESA- PANCABHUTAS

88

is the state of equilibrium, Prakrti, which is there-

fore called alińga, avyakta and pradhāna.

Lingamatra is the primary evolute because

it has not got any definite forms or characteristics.

It is in the Ahamkara, the next evolute, that the

evolution rises into a further point of distinction.

Of all the bhutas, Vyasa finds occasion to refer to

some details of Akasa. The basis of all sounds is

the mark of ether and it is said to be coverless.

Similarly because of coverlessness, ether has also

been affirmed as omnipresent. Therefore the sense

of hearing alone is related to the sphere of sound.

This is concluded on the basis that a deaf person

cannot hear and a non-deaf person can. The Akaśa

also provides 'space' for the body.8

Vyasa makes it explicit that the several

tattvas are gross and subtle. Then gandha-tanmatra

etc., are the subtle forms and their gross forms

are prthvi, etc., respectively.

Purusa:

Purusa is pure consciousness without any

tinge of visesas. He has no modifications. He

stands aloof and apart from prakrti. The inert

prakrti becomes activated by the proximity of Purusa.

89

all modifications of the prakrti occur due to the presence of purusa.

The purusa who is pure and has only the form of consciousness, is entirely different from the sattva which undergoes tranformation. Though purusa by himself has no experience, there is exper- ience as a result of the comprehension of nondiffere- nce between purusa and sattva who are completely distinct from each other.9

The Yoga system recognises an entity called 'Isvara' who is described as Purusavisesa. (see below, Īśvara).

The system accepts plurality of purusa. This can be inferred on the basis of the statement that drsya, objective world, is no longer seen with reference to the particular purusa for whom the drsya has completed its task and it remains as such towards those purusas who have not yet realised the Truth. IŚVARA:

Unlike Sankhya, Yoga affirms the existance of God, Iśvara. Iśvara has the nature of conscious- ness. Pataňjali refers more sepecially to the gaining concentration by devotion to Isvara who helps the Yogin in the effort.11 Pataňjali describes Īśvara as purușa-višesa. He is untouched by any experience, afflictions or

90

karma or its fruition or by any latent impression. This indicates that Isvara is free from the three

types of entanglements. Isvara has the power of dif- ferent manifestations according to their distinctive

functions. He is the purusa in whom the omniscient

germ has developed to the highest excellence. while

this general aspect of levara can be established

through reasoning, the special characterisation like

name, etc., are to be learnt from the Agamas, says Vyasa. Isvara has no personal involvement in the

creation or dissolution of the universe. The uni-

verse is there by itself. This makes the yoga to have a 'pretended theism' 12 Isvara, out of compas- sion, helps the purusas in bondage to get released

by imparting necessary instructions, though of course, he has nothing to achieve for himself. This is

corroborated by the statement: "The first wise being, the all-powerful , the great sage entered into the psyche Himself and out of compassion, taught thd science to Asuri who wanted to know it.13 It denotes that

the spiritual science is like a hidden treasure, revealed by Isvara, the first preceptor, beyond the

limitations of time and space. 14

The Yoga Sutra tells that Pranava signifies Isvara.15.

91

Dravya:

The substance (dravya) is an aggregate of ordinary and extra-ordinary forms. The aggregate (samudäya) is of two kinds: (i) the aggregate in which the differences of components are hidden (suppressed). for example, the body, a tree, a herd, a forest.

Here the components that make up a body, a tree, a

herd, a forest, etc., are not specified; (ii) the

aggregate in which the differences of components are

specified in words, Fer example, 'both divine and

human beings'. This means there are divine beings

as well as human beings and these are specified in

the expression. Again, the components may be

distinctly mentioned or not. For example, 'garden

of mango treest, 'association of Brahmins', or

'mango garden', 'Brahmin association'.

Further there are two types of aggregate (samuha): (i) that whose components can also be

found outside the group, yutasiddha, e.g., a forest,

an association; (ii) those whose components have no

existence outside the assemblage, Ayutasiddha, evg.

a body, a tree, an atom. Vyasa notes that Patanjali

means that Dravya is an assemblage of different

components which are not found independently outside

the assemblage. 16.

92

The objects in the world are distinguished as on the basis of genus, special features and spatial relation. .

Five forms of Dravya are set forth (3. 44) :- The gross form of the bhutas is the first form of the dravyas. The general form of the respective bhutas like the smell of the earth, viscosity of the water, etc., is the second form of the dravyas. The third form is the Tanmatras which are causes of the bhutas (elements). Each of these are composed of atoms which are the same in ordinary and extra-ordinary forms and are assembltes with integral components. The fourth form of the bhutas, the anvaya, is the attri- butes of nature of form, luminosity, activity, exis- tence which follow the nature of action. The fifth form is arthvattva, usefulness. The purpose of experience and emancipation are related with the Gunas which are in turn related with the. tanmatras, physical elements and physical objects. All these are

purposeful.

Karya-Karana-Bhava:

Each system of thought has its own theory of

causation that is in kueping with its ontological

stand. Vyasa-Bhasya deals with this problem in its own

way.

According to Vyasa-bhasya the causes are of nine kinds: vizt.,Utpatti, sthiti, abhivyakti, vikāra, 17

pratyaya, prapti, viyoga, anyatva or bahutva and dhrti. (1) Utpatti-Karana :- Criginating cause : the cause from which an effect oripinates, eg., the manas (mind) is the originating couse of knowledge.

(2) Sthiti: -- Karaņa :- The sustaining cause: The cause that sustains the effect. The purusa's interest is the cause of the continuance of the mind. Food is the sustaining cause of the body. The condi- tion of the body increases or decreases according to the quality and quantity of the food supplied to it.

(3) Abhivyakti-Kārana: The manifesting cause: The cause that manifeste the effect. The light and the knowledge of colour are the causes of the manifes- tation of colour.

(4) Vikara-Karana: Modifying cause: The cause that modifies the other, e.g., variation of the objects of mind. Fire modifying the thing that is being cooked.

(5) Prapti- -Karaņa: Uniting cause: The cause that unites two objects. e.g., the practice of the angas of yoga is the cause for the realisation of Truth when the yogins are united with Truth.

(6) Pratyaya-Karana: Cognising cause: The

cause that helps cognition of another thing, e.g., knowledge of smoke which is the cause of knowledge of fire.

94

(7) Viyoga-Karana: Disuniting cause: The cause that disunites two objects. The practice of Yogangas is the cause for disuniting of the aspirant from impurities.

(8) Anyatva-Karana: Altering cause: The cause that changes the form of an object. When the goldsmith changes the shape of gold, he is the cause of change. For a single cognition, say, woman, Avidya is the cause of taking her as mudha (ignorant). Aversion is the cause of considering her as misery attachment for treating her as pleasure. For neutra- lity towards her, the cause will be philosophical knowledge. Thus avidya and others are anyatva-kāraņas for the varieties of cognition regarding woman.

(9) Dhrti-karana: Supporting cause: The cause that supports an object. The body supports the senses and vice versa.

Change or transformation is the appearance of a characteristic in an existing substratum even as its another characteristic gives way.

But the change is actually of characteristics in the substratum and is not a substantial one. The

characteristics change in their features (bhāva)

95

in past, future amd present paths. It is like a golden ornament of one pattern changed into a dif- ferent ormament of a different pattern. Here the material itself did not change; it remains gold only. 18 If there should be any such material change, then the substance could not be recognised.

An objection is raised (3.13): the substance is not over and above the characteristics because it does not go beyond its earlier phase (tattva) when it remains the same in the earlier and later stages then it should be related to both states. It pervades like the kutastha, the changeless basic aspect. But this is not a problem. For the sub- .stance, as such is not considered eternal in this system of thought. Hence the world shall disappear but not destroyed. At the time of dissolution, it becomes subtle, i.e, ,it loses itself in its origin. As such, it is not perceived.

When the characteristics undergo a change of phase from being in the present path, the manifested, it will not sever its connection with the yet-to- manifest and present and so in the other two situa- tions. It is like a man in love with one lady, not cutting off his association with another woman."

96

An objection can be raised by others in this case that there would be a confusion of the paths due to the intermixture of all phases. (3,13)

But the objection holds no water because the characteristic cannot be brought to existence as such, afresh. Once the there is dharmatva, the difference of the phase must also be considered. This is not confined to the present time only. If it were to be so, then phyche would have had the feeling of attachm- ent at the time of anger, which is not proper.

Of course, there is no simultaneous occurance of the three phases in any one individual case of wani- festation. The manifestative cause can only be there gradually. Similar attitudes towards two particular objects cannot co-exist. An attitude in a particular way in an object can co-exist with an attitude in a. general way with reference to other objects. For example: If one has attachment with one object, it cannot be said that the person has no such relation with any other object. For it will be in the general form in respect of other objects; similarly the phase.

97

It is the characteristics and not the sub-

stratum that has the three paths ( af time ). The characteristics being observed and unobserved, get into different states and the various objects are named after their states and not because of

any change in the substratum. It is just like a digit that gets the value according to its position in a number whether it is in unit's place, tenth's place or hundredth's' place, or it is like the one and the same lady being called a mother, a daughter

as well as a sister at the same time.2

Some raise a point : If the transformations

are to the states only then all (viz., substratum, form, phase and state) are changeless for they are

separated by the functions of the paths (time). When the characteristic does not function, it is

yet-to-come. When it does, it is present; when it sets after function, it is past. Thus the substratum,

characteristics and phase and states, all will have

to be considered as having no transformation, a

position which &s not acceptable.

But it is not defective because though the

one endowed with gunas is changeless , the inter-

action of the gunas is multifarious. Just as the

organisation (samsthana) is the first characteristic

98

of gabda, etc., which are eternal and non-eternal, the linga, evolutiondess, is the first character- istic of sattva and other gunas when they appear and disappear. It is technically called vikāra (transformation).21

Here is an example: A ball of mud having the characteristic of being a lump undergoes a charac- ceristic transformation, the fonm of a pot. The form of pot gives up its phase of yet-to-come and assumes the phase of present .. This is the transformation of phase. The pot, being new and old every moment, has the change of state. Bven for the characterised, the change in characteristic is a state and for the characteristics too the change of phase is a state, thus both have the same transformation of the substratum; but each has a different form.

En other worda, changes of the characteristies, phase and state should not transgress the very form of the characterised. As such, only one transforma- tion floods all. Transformation is after all the emergence of a different characteristicsat the dis-

appearance of the erstwhile characteristics.

Characterisitic (dharma) of a substratum is only the ability (sakti) of the substratum, delimited

39

by capability (yogyata).22 Its presence can be

inferred on the basis of the outcome of various

results and there may be many characteristics in

a single substratum. The dharma which is func-

tioning at a given time (present) differs from

those which have set down (santa, past) and which

are unmanifemt ( avyapadesya, yet-to-come). But

when the substratum gets related with all time.in

general then there is nothing that differs from

anything else as the substratum exists in its own

form.

The santa characteristics are those which

have rested after functioning; uditas are those

which are functioning and follow the phase yet-

to-come. Following the present is the past (santa).

The reverse of this does not happen, since there is no sequence from past to present.23

Those which are Avyapadesya, yet-to-come,

are everything in the form of everything. Vyasa

quotes a text in this connection: Rasa and

others which evolve from water, (jala) and

earth (bhumI) are founa in the immov@able ones.

Thus evolved characteristics of immoveables are

100

found in moveables and vice versa however they retain their specific genus.23

The characterisites do not manifest at the same time due to apabandha (limitations) of time, place, form and purpose.That which is found-related all through these manifest and unmamifest charac- teristics and is of general and specific phase (gross-subtle) is dharmi, the substratum.

For the thinker,yogacara, as identified by Vacaspati, who accpets only the characteristtcs with reference to a substratum, there can be no experience. For, how can the act of one cognition (vijhana) be the object of experience of another ? Also there is recollection: one cannot recollect or recognise what has been observed by another. It is only through recognising the substance as related with its characteristic changing.

The change of the substratum through stages in the sequential order causes evolution, €.g., with reference to pot (ghata); the sequential order could be loose earth, ball (1ump) of mud, earthen pot, pot sherd, earth particles.24. Here the

transformation of characteristics would be, say, the ball of mud disappears as the pot comes into being. The yet-to- come pot comimg into being(present)

101

or the disappearance of mud ball which was present, is the change of nature. But there is no saquence after past; only the yet-to-come and present have transformation.

Similarly is the order of transformation

of state. At the appearance of the newness of the

pot, its oldness comes to be know gradually; following the successive sequence of moments, it

manifests fully. This parinama, the transformation, is endowed with form and phase.25.

These gequences come into being if only there is difference between the attribute and the

substratum. Even an attribute may be the substra-

tum with reference to another attribute. When the

substratum is in reality and has indication of

identity with the attributes and if the same

attribute is referred to them, sequence appears as one only.26

The past and the future exist in their own

real form. The difference is on account of the

difference of paths of the attributes.

That which is yet-to-come is to manifest

in future. That which has been experienced is the

102

past and that which is enjoyed in its operation is

the present. These three are the cognisable objects of cognition. If these were not real,

then cogniticn would have had no object. So the

agency bringing about. the effects of actions, either .

of enjoyment or of isolation, were a non-entity, then the endeavour of the wise with that end in

view or caused by it would be inexplicable. The

cause is capable only in bringing the already

existing to the present time and not in creating a

new entity. The established cause only helps

the effect in a particular way; but does not pro-

duce anything new. 27

Substratum is endowed with a number of attri-

butes, the properties organised in accordance with different paths (adhvas)28. The present being

· related to a certain individual exists materially

but the same cannot be said with regard to the

past and the yet-to-come in its manifestable form ..

The yet-to-come in its own form to be. mani-

fested and the past in its own experienced form.

It is only in the path of the present that there is

manifestation of form and not in the past path or in

path yet-to-come. But at the time of one path, the .

103

substratum will have the two other paths also. For none of the three paths can exist without the first appearing.29

These attributes having three paths which are present, past and yet-to-come, are subtle and six non-special (aviseșas) are general forms. Ultimately all these are special situations of

In this context Vyasa quotes an authority: "The ultima te form of the gunas does not come within the range of vision, whatever that comes within the visual range is altogether insignifi- cant like Maya."30 (4.13)

If the nature of a thing is not destroyed in spite of its transformations such a thing is called nitya, eternal, because both remain as such, both are nitya. In the attributes of gunas like buddhi, etc., the succession has an end. It 1s

known at the end of transformation. In the case of substratum, the gunas, it has not an end and so it is not known in the end; with regard to the kutastha-nityas, too, i.e., liberated purusas, being only in thein own form, the nature of their

104

existence is known in succession. Thus even

here the succession has no end but posited on the

basis of the use of the word "is" ,31 (4,33)

Kala (Time):

Ksana, moment, is the lowest measure of time

(even as atom, paramanu, is the smallest part of

dravya). It is described as the time taken by an

atom to move from one point to another. The conti-

nuous flow of movement of the atom is ksana (sequence)

There is no objective correlation between a moment

and its sequences. The terms like muhurta, day,

night, etc., are only posited by the buddhi.

Time has no form. It is created by the buddhi and

made known by words. But the ordinary people who

see only the outward, perceive time ias having

a form. The moment with reference to an object follows an order.32

The sequence of ksana is called kala by

yogis. No two moments occur simultaneously.

Therefore there is only :the present moment. So

there is no contact between them. The moments yet-

to-come and past are transformed ones. In one

moment the whole workd undergoes transformation

and it is the basis of attributes.

105

Reality of the Objective World:

There is no object which is not accompanied by thought. Any object may occur in thought such as imagined in a dream and the like. Thus idaalists refute the reality of the form of the object. They assert that the object is only posited by the crea- tion of the idea like those seen in a dream and it does not exist in reality. It is quite clear that this argument is irrelevant because the object which is there in its own might is denied of its reality on the strength of the cognition which is chang- Ing (vikalpa) and therefore not valid.33

The object is the same though the psyches are different. So they (cognition and object) are dif- ferent. A single thing will be the common object to many psyches. This object is neither imagined by a single psyche nor by many psyches; it exists in itself, because even in the diversity of psyche,the object is the same. Even though the object is one and the same, the psyche has the idea of pleasure through merit and the ideas of misery through demerit. From the same, the psyche will have the idea of delusions due to avidya and the idea of indifference due to right knowledge. The object created by one psyche should not affect another psyche.

106

Therefore the object and the idea are distinct from each other on account of their respective character- ising, viz., known and the knowledge. There is not the slightest tinge of any confusion between these two.

According to Sankhya, "the object is endowed with three gunas, the nature of which is to be mobile. Therefore the object is related to the psyche through the instrumentality of merit and the rest and through its different forms, it becomes the cause of the different cognitions appearing in accordance with afore- said instruments.

Some others argue: An object is coeval with knowledge because it is experienced like pleasure, etc. On this very basis the commonness of object is object- ed to and in the earlier and later moments, the form of the object is derived.

This argument is not valid. Supposing the object depends upon one psyche and the psyche is otherwise engaged (vyagra) or is arrested. Then how should the thing be there without having a form of its own, unobserved by the psyche, not being the object any other psyche, having no means of being known and its nature being not grasped or known by any psyche. And then if it is related with the psyche where from does it originate?

107

Also it cannot be said that all those

parts of the object that are not presented in the

psyche, do not exist, E.g., if the hind part of a cow is obscured, then the cow may be taken to have

no abdomen. Therefore objects are independent and

common to all purugas, the psyches too function

independently with reference to every purusa through

the relation of psyche and object; there is cog- nition which is purusa's experience.35

If the overlord purusa is also liable to

mutation like psyche, then its object in the shape

of functions of psyche too become known and un-

known like śabda, etc .. But constant perceptibility

of manas leads to the inference of the constant character of purusa and its presiding spirit.30

(c) COSMOLOGY:

Vyasa gives description of the universe in

the context of Samyama(3.26).

The Worlds: There are seven worlds. From AvIci

to Meru, it is the earth, Bhuloka. From Meru to the polar star is the Antariksa- Loka and is occupied

by the planets and stars. Above this region is the

five-fold celestial region. The Mähendra is the

third one, the fourth is Prajapatya, Maharloka.

The region of Brahma is three-fold: Janaloka,Tapo-

loka and Satyaloka.

108

Above Avici are the six great Hellish regions: Mahākala, AmbarĪs. Raurava, Mahāraurava, Kālasūtra and Andhatamisra, respectively consist of Ghana, Salila, Anala, Anila, Akasa and Tamas. There are several creatures born with long leases of life which have acquired the experience of pain from

their own deeds.

Under these regions are the seven under-worlds: Mahatala, Rasatala, Atala, Sutala, Vitala, Talatala and Pätala. The earth is the eighth one which is consisting of the seven continents.

In the centre of this is the Lord of the Mountains, the Golden Meru. The peaks of this mountain are of silver, emerald, rock -crystal, gold and jewels. The southern region of the sky is of the colour of the blue lotus through the colour of. the emerald peak. The eastern region is white, the western region is clear, the northern region is golden. On the southern side is the Jambu (tree). So this continent is called Jambudvipa. By the movement of the sun it is always touched by day and night. To the north of this are the three mountains two thousand (yojanas) high, having blue and white peaks. Within the mountain ranges there are three v rsas each of nine thousand yojanas, viz., Ramanaka,

109

Hiranmaya and Uttarakuru. In the southern range are the mountains , Nisadha, Hemakura and Hima, extend- ing over two thousand yojanas Within these ranges there are three varsas each of nine thousand yojanas: Harivarsa, Kimpurusa and Bharata.

To the east of Meru are the Dhadraśva Moun- tains extending upto Malyavat mountains and.to the west upto Gandhamädana is the Ketumala mountain range. In the centre of these is the Ilavrta-Varsa.

The Jambudvipa has an area of a hundred thousand (yojanas) and is surrounded by salt ocean which is twice the size of Jambudvipa. The other dvĪpas surrounding it are Šāka, Kuša, Kraunca, Salmala, Gomedha and Puskara, each of them is twice the size of its preceding. They are like heaps of mustard interspersed by several mountains; each of these dvIpas is surrounded in order by oceans of sugar,cane juice, wine, clarified butter, curds, milk and sweet water. These continents or dvipas surrounded by the seven oceans and together with Lokaloka mountains has an extent of fifty crores (yojanas). All this is contained in the 'Anda' which is fixed. 'Anda' is an atom of Prakrti and appears like a firefly in the aky.37

110 JAMBU DWIPA OF THE PURĀNAS DIAGRAMATIC

SALT-OCEAN UTTARA - KURU

ŚRŃGAVAN HIRANMAYA

V T A R A M A N A K A

N A

KETUMALA ILAV MERU RATA BHADRAVARSA MALYAVATA

N S A D H A ZIGANDHAMADANAL A R V A R S A

H E M A U A X K 1 M P R S A

1 M L A y

BHĀRATA

FROM ALI S. M. GEOGRAPHY OF THE PURANAS P. 64 - 65

111

This description of the universe agrees more

oe less with the puranic accounts of the same. le.38 Inhabitant beings; 39. In the region of Patala,

oceans, mountains etc., there are Suras, Gandharvas,

Kinnaras, Kimpurusas, Yaksas,, Rāksasas, bhutas,

pretas, piśācas, apasmārakas, apsaras,

brahmarāksasas, kusmandas, and vinayakas. In all

continents, the Gods and human beings are there. The 'Sumeru' is the garden of Goddesses. There

are the gardens like Miśranandana, Caitraratha,

Sumanasa. Sudharma is the meeting place of Gods,

the Sudarsana is their city and Vaijayanta is the

name of the palace.

The six groups of Divine Beings that live in

Mahandra-Loka are: Tridasas, Agnisvattaş, Yamas,

Tuşitas, Aparinirmitavasavartins and Parinirmita-

vaśavartims. These groups of Gods have the

wealth Anima, etc, by samkalpa-siddhi. The duratim

of life span of the above groups is one kalpa. They

have enjoyment of sex and are endowed with bodies

born without any intercourse. They are having the

noble families of Apsaras.

The five groups of divine beings, viz.,

Kumudas, Rbhus, Pratardanas,, Anjanābhas and

112

Pracitābhas are in Prajapati-Loka. The Mahabhutas

(great elements) are controlled by the above five

divine groups.

Brahmapurohita, Brahma-kayakas, Brahmamaha- "

kayakas and Ajaramaras are the four divine groups

in the Janaloka, the first Brahmaloka and having

twice the life-span than the preceding groups, and- Mahabhutas and Indriyas are controlled by them. ...

The three divine groups Abhasvaras, Maha-

bhasvaras and Satyamahabhasvaras are in Tapoloka,

the second Brahmaloka. They are controlling the

bhutas, indriyas and prakrti and having double

the life span than their preceding ones.

the third Brahmaloka is the Satyaloka. The four divine groups are in this region, viz.,

Acyutas, Śuddanivāsas, Satyābhās, Samjnā-Samjřis.

they haveno residence of their own. They live

one above the other and control the prakrti.

Their life span is upto the functioning of Prakrti.

Of these, Acyutas enjoy the meditation of Savitarka, Suddķanivāsas are in meditation of savicăra, Satyabhas are in meditation of Ananda

only, and Samjna-Samjhis are enjoying meditation

113

of Asmitā only. These groups are in the centre of

Trailoka, Videhas and Prakrtilayas are in the

state of emancipation. So they have no place in

any of the lokas.

(d) EPISTEMOLOGY:

Nature of Citta :

Buddhi is counted as a tattva.in Samkya

and it comes between Prakrti and Ahamkara. In

Vyasa's writings this word is conspicupusly less

frequent. On the other hand another concept , viz.,

citta, is very frequently dealt with. To which of

the tattvas does citta correspond is a problem.

Sometimes it appears to be Buddhi, sometimes Manas

(mind). But mostly it stands as such and is not

explained, and its relation with manas or 'antahkarana'

is not set forth. The term 'antahkarana' however,

stands for the unit of Budahi, Ahamkara and Manas

(see Sankhya-Karika 29). Advaita has also the

concept of antaḥkaraņa but with a different

connotation. Citta is clearly an evolute of prakrti

and therefore is constituted of the three gunas:

sattva, rajas and tamas and has prakhya, pravrtti

and sthiti: respectively. 40. While sattva predomi-

nates because if is the seat of consciousness,

sometimes rajas and tamas also raise their heads

effecting a corresponding modification in the

citta.4 41 This nature of citta makes it over and

114

abpve manas. On the basis of the statements in the Yoga-Bhasya,we can only say that citta is

that evolute of prakrti, having predominance of

sattva . guna and is therefore, able to have within

it the purusa. In other words, the unit of

prakrti and purusa is citta. The term, 'psyche'

is used in this thesis as standing for citta.

The psyche will have the cognition of

the objects through the organs. Cognitions

create impressions on the psyche and the impressions

go on accumulating. Even the various karmas will

produce impressions which also go on accumulating

in the psyche. These impressions of the karmas

have definite fruits and they appear to bear

fruit at appropriate situations. Such impressions

dormant till the fruition are called latent impres-

sions (vasanas or karmaśaya).

Psyche has two attributes, perceivable

and non-perceivable. Those that are connected with

cognition (pratyaya) are called perceivable. The

non-perceivable are only existing and their exis-

tence is known through inference .. They are seven

in number restraing merit (including non-merit),

impression, transformation, life(jIvana) ,activity

and power." 41

115

Other philosophers (jains) are of the opinion that the psyche can expand or contract itself in accordance with the location like the light of a lamp kept in a jar or in a mansion. That is, the psyche is of the same form as that of the body in which it exists. This would explain its existence in the interim between death and rebirth.

However, according to the Ācarya (Patahjali), the psyche is omnipresent only, its vrtti can expand itself or contract and this is dependent on factors such as virtue and the like. 42

There are two kinds of such factors: external and spiritual. The former is due to body and such other means. &g;, stuti, dana and abhivandana. The latter adhyatmika, sraddha and such, depend on the psyche alone. It is said maitrI etc., the pastime of yogis, do not be dependent on external means to bring about the highest virtues. Of these two factors, the spiritual is stronger 43 because, as Vyasa asks: "What can supercede jhana and vairagya ? who can render the Dandaka forest bare by physical action without mental strength and who can drink up the ocean as Agastya did ?"

116

Citta- a Drsya:

Purusa reflected in Buddhi is called Drastā. Drsyas are the characteristics imposed on the sattva aspect of buddhi. Though being the object affected by msre proximity like a magnet, the drsya becomes the object and process of experiences. Again the drsya which is independent in its original form is subservient to purwsa be-

cause it has assumed a different form for the

sake of purusa. This beginningless purposeful contact is the cause: of misery.44

Vyasa elaborates what is succintly put forth by Patanjali. The Sūtra 2-18 says Drsya consisting of five elements and senses, has the

nature of three gunas and works for the enjoy- ment and release of purusa. The gunas combine with each other and influence one another. Their

characteristics are clinging to or going away from purusa. Each of the gunas in association

with the other two, gives rise to concrete

forms and retains its own individual characteris-

tics whatever may be its role in combination.

The gunas are capable to the extent

of carrying out the needs of the purusa and

are affected by its mere presence like a magnet.

117

They will have some vrtti even if there is no

external stimulus (pratyaya). The constitution

of the three gunas comes to be known as pradhana. 45

Bhoga is a state in which the gunas are

not distinguished from purusa and is determined by

the ma ture of favourabte and unfavourable gunas.

Apavarga is the state in which the nature of the

enjoyer, the purusa, is confirmed.

Both bhoga and apavarga are from the

point of buddhi only. Still it is spoken of as

the bhoga or apavarga of purusa. It is like the

victory or defeat of the soldiers in a war

which is attributed to their leader. In the same

manner, the bondage or liberation is attributed to

purusa who is least concerned with either." 46

Thus it is established that grahana ,

dharaņa, uhāpoha, tattvajnāna and abhiniveśa

which are present in the buddhi are imposed on

the purusa because purusa is the experiencer of the fruits of all these.47 CITTA -- BHUMI: The psyche has several moods. Five of them are pointed out. They are :ksipta, mudha,

viksipta, ekāgra and niruddha. Vyasa does not

118

say anything about ksipta and mudha because the

psyche in those moods are so much distracted that

they cannot be brought to concentration by any normal effort.

The psyche in other moods can be

trained to have concentration with or without

some support.

In the viksipta mood, the psyche will have the concentration sparingly; it does not

endure but it is subject to oscillation. In the ekagra mood, the psyche will have the ex- .

perience of samadhi but the realisation is yet-to-

be conditioned and is called samprajnata-samādhi.

In the last mood , i.e, niruddha, there is ces=

.sation of all the vrttis of psyche and there

is super-conscious samadhi. This is called

asamprajnata-samadhi, the final goal of Yoga." 48

Citta-vrttis:

The psyche assumes certain modifi-

cations in order to gain knowledge of the world

or the object. They are five , viz., pramāna, viparyaya, vikalpa, nidrā and smrti. These may be either klista or aklista. The functions which

bring in misery in the form of mortal cycle or

119

which help in that direction are called, klista and those that help in putting a stop to the activity of prakrti, are called aklista. These functions have no beginning nor end normally. It is like a wheel but it is possible to stop this wheel and the functions could be brought to an end. That happens when concentration is attained.49 The whole of yoga-darsana is devoted for this.

This classification of functions of psyche into five is a peculiar one and it does not show any sign of influence of any other philo -. sophical system.

'Vrtti is also sometimes designated ' jhana,49a

Pramāna: The term 'pramana' means source of valid knowledge. Pramana as a vrtti also means a function of the psyche by which there arises the valid cognition. The Sankhya and Yoga systems accept three pramanas as source of valid knowledge, viz., pratyaksa, anumāna and agama.

The Sankhya and yoga systems also define pratyaksa (perception) in terms of sense- stimulation. According to Sankhya, perception is

120

in terms of direct cognition of an object by a sense when the two come in contact with each other ..

The Yoga System holds the same view while emphasising that perception is especially a cognition of the particularity of an object. For it, perception is a mental modificaticn pro- duced by sense impressions and mainly related to the specific character entering into the nature of the individual object of perception.

(i) Pratyaksa or Perception: Vyasa gives the following definition of perception: Perception is a function which deter- mines the special fcatures of an object which has both general and special features by having con- tact with that external object through the path of the sense organs." 50

(i1) Anumana or Inference:

Inference is a function which deter- mines general features about an object to be inferred, whose features haye a concomitant rela- tion with those having the same features and have no concomitence with those of different features. For example, the moon and the stars are inferred

121

to have movement by their occupying different posi- tions in space in different times like caitra, who moves and occupies different positions and not like Vindhya which has no movement and therefore does mot occupy different positions .: 51

(ii1) Āgama or Verbal Testimony:

Āgama is verbal testimony. This is particularly useful in learning the special chara- cteristics of Iśvara. This pramana refers specifi- cally to the knowledge obtained from the Vedas.

The Sūtra, 1-27 , 'tasya vācakah pranavah' gives occasion to Vyasa to speak of the relation between the word 'vacaka' and its mean- ing, 'vacya'. The relation of signifier and sighified can be conventional or eternal. Vyasa agrees with the latter proposition. The convention

only exposes the meaning like the relation between flame and its light. The relation that exists

always is expressed or brought to experience by the statement like, 'This is his father,, this is his son .! All the words are capable of meaning intended, in any creaticn on the basis of the con-

vention fixed by Iśvara. Because the tradition

is eternally continuing the relation of word and meaning is also eterna1.52

122

Language:

Language (vak) is meaningful only be-

cause of phonemes. The effect of sound is the

object of only the ear. A word is a group of sounds put together by the intellect (buddhi)53

Since phonemes cannot be coeval, they

cannot support each other. Being uttered one after

another, they appear and disappear and so them-

selves do not constitute the word. However each

phoneme has the nature of the word (padatma).

It is powerful enough to express variation of

meanings. Being related with another. phoneme,

it is endowed as though with all forms. Each

phoneme has a special relation with the following

and vice versa. Thus a group of phonemes in a

particular order though capable of giving all

meanings is limited to one meaning through con-

vention. Thus, the phonemes, 'g, au, h' indicate

the idea 'cow', which is flashed in the intellect

(buddhi) by those groups of particular sequence

of phonemes limited to a conventional idea called

'the word' (pada). It is also called väcaka and is

conventionally associated with the meaning , vacya.

1hus a word related to one precept is made known

by a single effort, 1,e,instantaneous and not gradual.

123

lt has no parts, no sequence. It is different from

the phoneme and the mental phoneme (buddhi). It

is brought forth by the function of the cognition of

the last phoneme (antya-varna-pratyaya-vyāpārah). The word is expressed by the phonemes and heard by

the ears. Its purpose is to communicate with another.

A word is understood by every one's intellect because

it is tied up with the latent impressions of use

of language from time immemorial like something

that is ready-made and known without doubt. (loka-buddhya. siddhavat sampratipattya pratiyate)54

Classifying words according to meaning

is due to the knowledge of convention: This type

of group of these phonemesis expressive of this

idea.' Convention is the super-imposition of the

word over its meaning and vice versa; it is having

the nature of memory. That is, a word reminds one

of its meaning and an idea reminds its related word.>>

The power of sentence exists in all

words. If the word 'tree' is mentioned,the verb

'is' is understood. So also there is no action

without something existing. In the same way,

'pacati' (cooks) suggests all syntactical relations.

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Mentioning Caitra (subject), agni (instrument) and tandula (object) is only to restrict the synta- ctical relations. Single words having the sense of sentence are found in usage, E.g. the word, 'śrotriya' means 'he who studies the Veda (Ba. 5-2-84) or 'jivati' means 'he who breathes'. Words and their meanings are manifested in a sen- tence and then the words are classified and cons- trued- whether it is a verb or a wopd in a syn- tactical relation. Otherwise in the case of words like 'bhavati', 'aśvab', or 'ajapayah', for: instance, it cannot be known whether they are nouns or verbs and they cannot be construed as an action or in a syntactical relation.56

Because the relation is based on recog- nition, the comprehension is one and this is 'sańketa'.

For the meaning of 'white', the object, is the basis of the word, 'white' and its compre- hension. But when the object is undergoing tranformation through its several states, it will not have any relation with either the word or com- prehension. Similarly the word, the meaning and the comprehension are difrerent from each other.57

125

In explaining cittavrtti vikalpa, Vyasa notes that in a sentence something is predicated on another but he also shows that in certain sentences predication is not possible, i.e., it has no factual basis though there are words expressing such a relation.58 Thus Vyasa seems to indicate that in the every day language the words used cannot always be understood literally.

Vyasa states that the knowledge got through the ways of knowing are mediate compared to the direct experiensa of samadhi. He says the pramânas fall in on one side as against the prajha of samadh1.59

Viparyaya:

The viparyaya vrtti is a cognition having no factual correspondence or it is cognising a thing differently, such a knowledge is always set aside by right knowledge or pramana. It is a case of misapprehension and is a matter of expe- rience. Vyasa illustrates with the cognition of 'double moon'. It is wrong cognition and is set aside by subsequential sight of the 'single moon$.50

This is also called 'avidya'. It is five -fold;

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avidyā, asmitā, rāga, dvesa, and abhiniveśa. These five are called 'klesas' afflictions , those that afflict the psyche.

Vikalpa:

The vikalpa vrtti is the mental impres- sion created by verbal ideas without factual cor-

respondence and it does neither take its stand on

pramana (valid cognition) nor on viparyaya (mis- apprehension). Even though it is devoid of factual basis it depends upon the strength of theverbal

idea grasped .. Vyasa gives an example:

Let us take the sentence-'The purusa is nothing other than consciousness', Which is the

attribute here and which is the substratum ?

In a sentence some thing is predicated on another

thing. But in the case of the above sentence

there can be no predication factually. Similarly

purusa has no qualities like movement which

belongs to the prakrti, still the verb pertaining

to the change of time is attributed to purusa.

The purusa has no characteristic of coming into

being (utpatti) still purusa is attributed with the same.61

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Nidra:

Nidra is deep sleep. This function of the

psyche is connected with only manas. In other words

the psyche will be active but will have cognition

of the external objects. Patanjali uses the term

vrtti along with nidra even though there was no

necessity for that because of the context. But he

has a purpose. The state of sleep could be con-

fused with the state of concentration because of

certain similarities. While the psyche will not

have the cognition of the external world in both

the states, the psyche will cease to function

in the state of concentration In the case of deep sleep not only is there the activity of the psyche

but also an awakening; there is a specific sort of.

cognition that comes from the thought such as I had refreshing sleep', 'my mind is cheerful',

' it makes my intelligence clear' or ' I slept

painfully, my mind is sluggish', 'it wanders un-

steady', 'I had dense sleep-my Limbs are heavy and the mind is tired'. Vyāsa speaks of nidra as

a pratyayavisesa, i.e,, a wariety of comprehension. 62

We might note here a point of difference between

the ideq of deep sleep in Yoga from that in Nyaya -

vaiśesika. In Nyāyavaiśesika, sleep is explained

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as a state when the manas conceals itself in

a nadI called 'puritat' and the atman will have no

cognition because of the lack of contact with manas.

Smrti:

According to Vyasa smrti is two-fold:

bhavitasmartavya and abhavitasmartavya. Bhavita-

smartavya appears in dream. It is the remembrance of

imagined objects. It is not so in the abhavita-

smartavya; all are produced from the experiences of

pramaņa, sparyaya, vikalpa and nidrā. 62a

(e) PRACTICAL TEACHING:

Kleśas: Kleśa, affliction, is that which causes

misery, that by which the psyche is caught in the

wheel of births and deaths. They are also called 'perversive cognition'.63 In In the first chapter Patanjali mention s that these afflictions impede the

path of spiritual absorption. When these afflic-

tions are flowing out they make the functions of

gunas more rigid. The afflictions do not allow

the rise of wisdom which cuts at their roots.° 64

The afilictions are spoken of as five-

fold: avidyā, asmitā, rāga, dvesa and abhiniveśa.

Earlier while dealing with the Viparyaya, one of

129

the modifications of the psyche, Vyssa noted that it is not different from avidya which is the fertile field for the reckless growth of the weed of afflic- tions. 65 Thus Vyasa has the equation: Viparyaya= mithya jnana= avidya= kleśa.

Though the afflictions are noted as five, asmita and others are only the off-shoots of avidya, because (1) they are all pervaded by it; (ii) they act with reference to that form which is imposed as a thing by avidya; (iii) they appear when there is perversive cognition; (iv) they /appear with the destruction of avidya. Hence avidya is the prime cause for the chain of afflictions, latent karmas (karmasaya) and their effects.66

Asmita and others present themselves in

four states namely, prasupta, tanu, vicchinna and udara. The prasupta-klesa, i.e., dormant afflict-

ion, exists in the psyche (cetasi) as only a force in the form of seed. It wakes up in response to a stimulus.

Tanuttva (enfeebling) :- The klesa when confronted with their opposition, become enfeebled. Vicchinna-broken: The course of kleśa may be im-

peded by other klesas or by itself, but after the

impediment is removed, it functions agafn. Such

130

kleśas are 'impeded kleśas'. Thus anger is not

seen along with attachment towards the same object. The affliction that is functioning in one direction is called 'udārat, A very homely illustration

is given. If caitra is in love with one girl,

it cannot be assumed that he has no love towards

any other girl. His attachment find its function

fixed in one direction. In the other direction the

function that is yet-to-come,may be dormant, en- feebled or impeded.67

Avidyā:

The nature of avidyā, as Patanjali puts i$, is seeing the permanent , the pure, the pleasant

and the self in the impermanent, the impure, the pain and the non-self respectively.68 Avidya is

the cognition of everlastingness in the transient

phenomena. The earth, the sun, the moon and so on,

are mistakenly taken to be eternal. Likewise, it

is avidya to consider that highly repulsive body

as pure. Vyasa seems to make use of the opportu-

nity to attack the poets who describe a lady as

bewitching as the orb of the crescent moon, whose

limbs are made up of honey, having dark, wide eyes

like the petals of blue lotus, enlivening the living

world through her coquetish looks and questions

131

whether there is any mutual relation in the ideas presented by the poets.69 Vyasa's expo- sition of avidya follows Pataljali's definition. This agrees with the explanation given by Śankara to adhyāsa. Sańkara defines adhyāsa as 'atasmin tadbuddhih' , which is due to avidya,according to him.70 Avidya is not to be understood as nega- tion of knowledge as such but as negation of right knowledge, the condition when the knowledge does not wholly correspond. : to the nature of the object. Vyasa makes some observations: the term avidya, he notes, is similar to amitra or agospada. Amitra means neither 'absence of a friend' nor 'not a particular friend'. It means 'ane who is not a friend',1.e., enemy. Likewise, agospada is not ' the absence of the foot-print of a cow' or 'a particular foot-print of a cow', but 'a place where there is no foot-print of a cow'. Thus avidya is neither the absence of cognition nor a particular cognition, but : is the knowledge of a different object', i.e, ,opposite to the right knowledge.71 Avidyā is viparyaya-jňāna- vasana, dormant impression of wrong cognition. Bccause buddhi is tinged by this dormant impression,

132

it does not attain the end of its function in the

form of right knowledge of purusa, purusakhyati, and so goes ahead with its usual activity.2 When

buddhi attains the final aim of its function, it

ceases to act and due to the lack of cause for

bondage, it cannot continue to act. Indeed it appears

curious that when there is jnana, i.e, when buddhi

is acting,it does notmake the citta realise but does

so when it is no longer there. It is something

like the assurance of an impotent .husband to his

wife who wanted to know why her sister is a mother

while she is not. The husband is said to have itold

her that he would beget a child when he is dead.

When the living husband could not beget a child,

there is little hope that a dead one would.(3

Asmitā: Patanjali defines asmitā as

the apparent identity of the power of pure percep-

tibility and of the perceiving instrument. Vyasa

explains that it is the transformation of purusa

and buddhi respectively, into an apparent identity.

It is because of the ahambhava, the false acceptance

of inseparable powers of the enjoyer and the

enjoyable which are vastly different and extremely

distinct from each other, that mundane experience

133

becomes possible; when each of these two attains its own character, there is emancipation.4

Raga: Raga is being in the experience of pieasume. Vyasa expresses that it is not only direct experience but also longing of a person for pleasure and the means of pleasure (tatsādhana) following the memory of previous enjoyment.75

Dvesa: Aversion is being in the expe- rience of pain similar to raga. Pain extends to the feeling of a person like anger, desire to kill, etc., ensuing upon recollections of pain and its means./6

Abhiniveśa :: The fifth affliction, Abhinivesa, clinging to life is the sentiment that

is natural in every living being not excluding the wise too. Every one wants to live for ever; no one

including the just born wishes to cease to exist. Vyasa concludes that this points to the previous birth, Unless one has experienced death, one cannot think of the self-benediction that one should live

long. Even the just-born worm will have this fear

of death and self-destruction. Such an experience :is

common to both a scholar and a fool. Surely this

134

fear is not based on perception (pratyakga), inference: (anumana)', or verbal testimony (agama). This makes one infer that this fear is based on the pain of death emperienced in the earlier birth.77

THEORY OF KARMA

The afflictions are the root cause of karmāsaya, the repository of karma in the psyche that goes on accumulating. The karmāsaya produces its effects of pain and sorrow as seen in the current birth (drstajanma) as well as in future births. A11 bundles of karma, whether good or evil, are produced by kama, krodha, lobha, or moha. One

cannot escape from experiencing the effects of karma committed by oneself; it may be in that very life in which the karmas are committed (drstajanmavedanIya) or it may be in future life (adrstajanmavedanIya)78 Good karmas like mantrąjapa, tapas, or worship of deities or holy persons, give their effect immediately. Similarly the result of evil karmas like breach of

trust, harming the afflicted or misbehaving in res-

pect of holy persons, are immediate.

The immediate fruition of karmas is il- lustrated by Nandiśvarakumāra, a human being who

135

was transformed into Godhood, through his noble

deeds, But Nahusa, who was elevated to the posi- tion of the ruler of Gods,was changed into a snake by his own evil deeds.79

The karmasaya with immediate effect

(effective in current birth) bears one fruit, viz.,

Bhoga, experience, or two fruits viz., life span

and bhoga. For example in the case of NandIśvara

it was bhoga only; whereas in the case of Nahusa it was both ayus and bhoga 80

In the case of evil doers the karmāśaya

bears no immediate effect and for those whose

afflictions are destroyed there is no experience

of fruits of karmasaya in future births.87

As long as afflictions continue to exist

karmasaya goes on increasing and giving out its

effect. The effects are in the form of birth (jati), longevity (ayus) and experience (bhoga).82

Vyasa has the occasion to examine karma

and its relation to birth. First he takes- up the

quedtions: (1) whether karma is the cause of one

birth or the cause of series of births ? (11) whether

many karmas cauße many births of one birth ? Thus

136

there are four alterniatives for consideration: The first alternative, viz., one karma causing one birth is not sound. Countless karmas have been committed from time immemorial and some more added to it in the current life. Then there will be no settled procedure as to which karma bears fruition and which does not. This makes people lose faith in karma and no wise man accepts the position. The second alternative, too, is not valid. When there are many karmas, if each of them should cause several births, there may remain some karma which cannot at all bear fruit. The third position, viz., many karmas causing many births suffer from the same defect that some karma may remain and again many births cannot be simultaneous; some order has to be assumed. Thus the last alternative is worth consi- dering. Varieties of good and evil productive karma's are committed during the time between birth and death. Among them they have a gradation, primary and secondary. These get together at the time of death and later give rise together to a new body. The life span as well as the fruits that are to be

experienced are determined by the karmas. Vyasa's

theory about Karmasaya is 'Ekabhavika' (giving rise to one birth or life).83

137

Vasanā: The afflictions that are being undergone

and the fruit bearing karma form Vasana. The Vāsana

is the form of mental impressions (samskāra) that are

embedded in the psyche and cause recollection. The

vasanā comes down from countless previous births.

The karmas give rise to one birth; but all karmas

leave their impressions and they continue. The psyche

engulfed by these vasanas (inrused impressions), like

a fishing net with knots all round, appears quite strange.

The karmāsaya may yield a definite fruit or

not. Those of immediate effect will have definite

results. The result of those of mediate effect are of

three types. The karmas committed (1) may be destroyed

without yielding any fruit; (i1) may combine with a

major karma committed, or (iii) may be overcome by a. karma of definite result and continue as latent.85

The first of the three types of karmas: com-

mitted but destroyed before fruition: by the rise of

śukla-karma (merit), the krsna-karma (demerit) is destroyed.96 The second type of karma is that which

confines with a major karma.

The third one continuing after being over-

come by a major karma of definete results:

138

It has already been shown that death is the cause of manifestation of karmas of definite results and mediate effect whereas the karma of indefinite

result, may either get destroyed or merged or

get hidden till the cause of manifestation , i.e., death does not make it result-oriented. The time, place and circumstances of the result cannot be

determined. That is why the course of karma is

striking and difficult to comprehend. There may be exception; but by and large the karmāsaya does pro- duce effect in one birth.87

For a discerning mind everything is

misery: The three gunas of the budchi, viz., prakhya (light) ,Pravrtti (activity) and sthiti (passion) react mutually and give rise to three attitudes, namely, santa, ghora and mudha (calmness, aggressiun and indolence). Because the action of

the gunas is fast, the psyche is also said to be

fast-working. The specialisation of vrttis, viz.,

happiness, pain and wrong apprehension, are e guņas.88 dependent on the gunas.

The seed from which this great multitude

of misery sprouts is avidya. Right knowledge is the cause of its removal.89 Right knowledge is

to understand that the self is eternal. There

139

are two opposing viewshere, namely, the self which

is to get free from the non-self should attain to

original form or there is nothing to get free from.

In the latter altern2ative, the self too gets

destroyed and in former , the reasons are to be

given." 90

Crdinarily happiness is the fruit of

birth etc., which are caused by merit and misery

is the fruit of those that are caused by demerit.

Misery is disfavourable to all, but for a yogi, Vyasa

adds, even happiness from sense object is not

favourable. 91

Samskaras.

There are two types: (i) Vasana, the

impressions which are the causes of recollection

and afflictions; (ii) Dharma and Adharma , those

that cause fruition have the form of merit and demerit.92 They are the impressions received in

the earlier births and are unpeceivable attributes

of the psyche like transformation, volition, rest-

raint, power, characteristics of life (jIvana-dharma)

The experiences of space, time and purpose are

essential in samyama on samskāras to achieve their

direct perception. This enables the yogi to have

140

the knowledge of previous births. By concentrating on the samskaras of other people, a yogi can per- ceive their previous births also. Vyasa refers here to the episode of JaigIsavya who had a direct perception of samskaras and was a witness to the ebb and flow of life in the primary creations.95

Karma which begets life-span is of two types: Sopakrama and Nirupakrama. Sopakrama is the karma which begets a shorter life-span while Nirupa- krama, a longer one.94

Patanjali mentions that the factors that effect the body and organs help their respective effects by infusing through them in accordance with

merit and others. 95

The efficient cause such as merit etc.,

can never be the founder of those intensive causes; it is clear that owing to the beginninglessness of the substratum, its power is also beginningless.

The cause is never generated by the effect. Vyasa

states that the separaticn of the covering comes therefrom as by the farmer. In the same manner,

merit removes demerit which is the covering of

intensive causes. when demerit is separated, then

141

the causes themselves flow over their respective modi-

fications: In other words, merit is not the direct

cause in the transformation of nature. It acts but

as breaker of the obstocles, demerits It is analegous

to the work of a farmer. When the farmer is not

able to transfer the water to the roots of paddy plants

in the same plot of land, he weeds out the mudga,

gavedhuka, šyomaka plents, etc. When they are

weeded out, the juices themselves enter into the ro.ts

of paddy plants. Similarly merit is the cause cnly

for the eradication of demerit; it can never be the

cause for the rise of the intensive cause. Vyasa again gives illustration of Nandisvara and Nehusa

Viewed from the point of human beings, the

karmas are four-fold: sukla, śuklakrsna, aśukla and

akrsna. The first two are with reference to those

who have not tread the path of yoga.

This classification of karma indicates the

means of avoiding the formation of new karma. The

Krsna-karmas depend on the external means. It accu-

mulates the karmåsaya through inflicting pain that

attend to tapas, svādhyāya and dhyana. It depends

only on manas, and eannot be performed by external

means and as such does not result from infliction

142

of pain on cthers. The asuklakrsna belongs to

sanyasis whose kleśas (afflictions) are enfeebled

and who are in the final body (caramadeha) only. It is asukla because the yogi has renounced the

fruits of all actions and is akrsna because of lack

of basis.

Following the three -fold karma latent

impressions beccme manifested corresponding to the

fruits of those karmas, The fruits of divine

action never lead to the manifestation of the latent

impressions of the internal bestial but to that

which are conformable to divinity. The same consi-

deration holds goed in respect of the Naraka (hellish)

tiryak (bestial) and manusa (human) actions.97

There is an immediate succession due to

smrti and samskaras even though they may be sepa- rated by birth, space and time (jati, desa and kala).98

The law of karma is absolute. The effect of

a desire or a tendency must defihitely be reaped

even if if were to be in a different life-time

and under different circumstances. The fruit of karma

in rhe form of taking birth as a cat gets mani- Rested with the help of the karma that manifests it, though the fruit of karma and its manifestation cause are quite spart either by birth, space or time.

143

But is manifested on the bssis of the latent

impressions developed by the fruit experienced

earlier. ' Because dormant impressions are mani-

fested by a peesent karma that is similar to the past one, there is continuity.99

ås the experiences: are, so are the samskaras,

exactly similar theugh separated therefrom by jati,

desa and kala. This smrti again produces samskāras.

Thus these samskaras due to smrti are manifested by

the force of the function of the karmasaya.

Therefore their labha, causal relation, is there

though they are apart, hence there is continuity. The

dormant impressions are beginningless because the

wishes are always there. Every one wishes like 'may I

not die', 'May I live for ever', but this is not some-'

thing natural. For how can an animal just born and

bas not got experience of death, have the fear of

death, caused by hate and sorrow. Anthing narural will

not be in need of any cause . Therefore this citta

plagued by the dormant impressions from an indefinite

past, will have a few dormant impressions in the fore-

front depending upon the nimitta (fruition of some 100 karma) and turns over again for the experience of purusa.

Hetu, phala, āśraya, alambana are beset with

144

dormant impressions. Hetu: Dharma leads to sukha

and adharma to duhkha (misery). Sukha and duhkha in

turn cause love and hate which.set forth effort.

By this the individual acts mentally, vocally and

physically and is helpful to others or inflicts

injury. Then is again the chain of dharma and adharma,

sukha and duhkha , raga and dvesa, the wheel of

samskara of six spokes. For this wheel turning

every moment, avidya is the leader and is the basis

of all afflictions. This is the Hetu, reason.

Phala depends on the existence of dharma and adharma

for nothing is brought forth afresh.

Agraya: The manas engaged in its activity is the

locus of dormant impressions and these dormant

impressions which have completed their task, no longer

stay there. Alambana: the object which stimulates a vāsana, is the support of that vasana.101

DUHKHA: It is common experience that miseries are

avoided and pleasures sought after. But it is also

a matter of experience that what people pursue as

pleasure leads only to misery, in the long run , if

not immediately. This fact of experience might drive

a thoughtful person to seek a pleasure which never

leads to misery. To achieve such a state it is

imperative to investigate the cause of misery.

145

The Yoga-Darsana points out that 'avidya! or

'viparyaya' or 'mithyajnana' is the prime cause

of misery.

Avidya, as has already been explained, is mis-

apprehension or 'not cognising the facts'. The misapprehemsion as causing the misery is inability to

understand that the purusa is absolute, never afflicted

by anything, but is considered as undergoing the

afflictions because of its associaticn with the

prakrti. It is obvious that the duhkha , that can be avoided, is that which is yet-to-come(anagata) 02

Types of Duhkha:

Duhkha is of three types: parinama, tapa and

samskara.

(i) Parinama+duhkha: - Pleasure is satiation

of the senses in respect of their enjoyment. There

can be no satiation if there is greed. Then it is

misery only. The senses cannot be made to lose

yearning or longing by repeatedly resorting to enjoy-

ments.For the repeated enjoyment deepens attachment

and sharpens the keenness of the senses. Therefore

to go after enjoyment is not the way to attain happi-

ness. A person after pleasure will only be caught

in the mire of misery like a person who running away

from a scorpion lands himself in the mouth of a python.

146

This is what is called Parinama-Dhhkha. A person . may seek more and more sweet pleasure but it turns

sour in the long run. 103

(ii) Tapa-Duhkha :- A person in pursuit of the means of pleasure exerts physically, orally and

mentally. These exertions may help or hinder the

people around. This reaction on others may be due to greed, or.indolence(moha). This in turn causes the accumulation of merit and demerit. This is what is called Tapa-Duhkha.104

(iii) Samskara -Duhkha :- The stream of

misery is without beginning; strifes are a part of

life. Ordinarily people are not troubled by misery

to the extent to which they should be. So much en-

grossed in the worldly affairs are they, that they

have no time even to consider it a misery, they

are carried away in the stream as it were. But for

a discerning mind, everything is misery. A yogi

who is 'viprasrta', is upset by it. This is very

aptly illustrated by Vyasa who finds the wise being

similar to the eye-ball. Even a small piece of fibre of a spider's web that may fall into the eye

causes irritation; but the same on any other part of

the body may not cause any sensation even. 105

147

The yogi, observing this continuous flow of karma

carrying away the beings resorts to right knowledge

(internal vision) which forms an end to all miseries." 166

The seed from which this multutude of misery sprouts is avidya. Right knowledge is the cause of its removal.

SAMYOGA:

As noted above, the cause of misery is the

association of prakrti with purusa. It is technically

called 'samyoga'. It is described as beginningless and

therefore there is no discussicn of the cause why the

absolute purusa and the absolute prakrti came together.

The purusa's association is only in its being very clode to prakrti.107 The proximity of the purusa

gives rise to a chain of modifications in the prakrti.

That modification of the prakrti in which the sattva

guņa is dominent will be able to grasp the image of

the purusa and function as an instrument of knowledge.

The purusa, who by himself has not got any object of

knowledge, comes to ha ve knowledge and object when his

image is caught in the sattva-dominated evolute

which is technically called Buddhi. The Buddhi, along

with the image of purusa, within is termed as citta,

psyche, (Psyche is the activated buddhi). The psyche

which is basically an evolute of prakrti and therefire

148

inert, appears as the knower for all practical purposes.Though .. purusa and prakrti are independent . entities by themselves, purusa is called the master and prakrti his property, in the state of samsāra. (sva-svami) .Actually it is the purusa within it that

is the knower. Thus purusa is called the 'drk', thereby establishing the source of knowledge. AS

against this the prakrti in its multifarious modifi-

cations including the buddhi, is drśya, i.e,, the object. From the point of : view of the purusa's

(ark) experiencing through the medium of buddhi,

the purusa is called the bhokta, the experiencer, and the buddhi , the experienced. Here Buddhi re-

presents all experiences because the buddhi feeds the

purusa with every experience, entanglement or emanci-

pation. 108

The unit of purusa and the buddhi called

the psyche, is the abode of the latent Karmas.

There is the misapprehension that the citta itself

is the master .. It is true that the core of psyche ,

i.e., the purusa is the knower and not the Buddhi

which is only an outer shell that is activated by

the purusa. If truth is realieed, the samyoga is put an end to.109 The d The distinction between purusa

and prakrti is established and they no longer affect

149

each other. In other words, neither purusa has any

cognition through buddhi nor the buddhi has any

modification. The purpose of the prakrti to multiply

itself is to achieve the needs of the purusa or to

give him bhoga. It is characterised by the determin-

ing of the favourable and unfavourable of the triple-

guna. From another point of view, it is called 'bandha'

i.e., the process of attending to the needs of the

purusa. Of one of the needs of the purusa, namely,

to remain aloof, is also provided for by the prakrti

by refraining from its activity. This is called moksa.

The state of the purusa remaining by himself is called

apavarga. 110.

Bhoga and apavarga are from the point of

buddhi only. Still it is spoken of as the bhoga or

apavarga of purusa. It is like the victory or defect

of the soldiers in a war which is attributed to

their leader. In the same way, the bondage or liberatinn

is attributed to purusa who is least concerned with

either. Thus it $a established that grahana, dharana, uhapoha, tattvajnana and athiniveśa which are present

in the buddhi, are imposed on the purusa is experien- cer of the fruits of all these.111

Purusa is drk, pure consciousness without

any tinge of visesas. He is reflected in buddhi as

150

drasta, the seer and therefore neither one with buddhi nor different from it. Buddhi is subject to modifications because of its objects, animate and

inanimate, which include both the known and the not

known. But purusa has nothing which is not known ;

hence he has no modifications. If buddhi should be

the object of cognition of purusa, then it cannot be

said that it is cognised or not cognised. And also

the buddhi functions jointly with klesa, kama,

väsana and sense organs for the benefit of another,

i.e., purusa, while purusa's function is for

himself. Again because buddhi is made of the inert

triple guna, purusa is its overseer. Thus purusa is not of the same form or, in other words, is not one

with buddhi.

Though purusa; reflected in buddhi, is different from buddhi, he is not entirely distinct.

Purusa is pure consciousness. But he has cognitions

and the cognitions come through the buddhi. Thus purusa appears to be one with buddhi 112.

Drsya :- Citta, the object of cognition, has a form only to fulfil the needs of puruga. When it is over, drsya ceased tobe drsya, but it is

not destroyed. Drsya is no longer seen with referenee

to the particular purusa for whom drsya has completed

151

its task and it remains as such towards those purusas

who have not yet realised the truth. That is how the

beginningless relation between the 'seer! and the '

'seen' is to be understood. > Because the experience

of sattva is not for itself but for someone else, it

is dršya perceivable.

The conjunction continues till the realisation

dawns. In other words, realisation is the cause of

disjunction and for continuity of congunction, it is

lack of realisation. Moksa, emancipation, is only

negative that is the negation of bondage and it is

not there where the negation of darsana (lack of reali-

sation) is. If one has realisation, then there is

the removal of adarsana which caused bondage.

The purusa who is pure and has only the form of

consciousness is entirely different from the sattva

which undergoes transformation. Purusa's experience

is the result of the comprehension of non-difference

between that purusa and sattva who are completely distinct from each other 114

"To get' irid of this mesh of misery and

attain kaivalya, one should know its cause. It has

been shown above that the non-recognition of the

distinctness of the purusa from the prkrti is the

primary source of misery. Therefore to eradicate

152

misery once and for all, its primary cause, namely, the notion: of identity of purusa with prakrti is to be removed. 15 But the removal of the mis-apprehension

is not so easy as it may appear. It is not mere learn-

ing about it or to repeat any number of times that

purusa is different from prakrti, that can do the

trick. This wisdom should be so deep-rooted as to

put a brake on the activity of the prakrti. In

other words, the activity of the prakrti will have to

be ferminated. This canonly be achieved through a

severe and constant practice.

To proceed on thepath of emancipation

(kaivalya) one must first realise that there is the

experience of misery and misery alone where there is

none of it actually. This leads to the understanding

of the cause of misery and then there is the striving

to eradicate the cause.

The aim of yoga -darsana is to chalk out a

programme for the aspirants to attain emancipation.

Depending upon the qualifications of the aspirants,

two types of programmes are set forth: one type is for

those who are able to have a control over their mental

operations; in other words, for those who could main-

tain mental balance, Another is for those who have no

qualifications whatsoever, except that they know that

they want to transcend misery.

153

KAIVALYA:

Kaivalya is the state of being 'kevala', alone ; to put it differently, if the purusa and the prakrti which are conjoined as the psyche, stand apart independently by themselves, it is called Kaivalya or apavarga. The bandha or samyoga or conjunction , dis- appears on the advent of kaivalya.

This misconception of unity must be made im- potent and then all the dirt of klesas will be cleansed and there shines the Truth .. Moksa is not something to be gained positively. The complete cessation of the activity of the psyche or buddhi itself is moksa. Kaivalya of the seer or aloofness or purusa, is delinking him with gunas.

Vivekakhyati is the knowledge of the separate- ness of purusa from sattva (gunas). This knowledge will not be confirmed unless the mrong knowledge,i.e., misconception is uprooted. Therefore samyag-darsana is the cause of kaivalya. 116

When the right conception of the aloofness of purusa from gunas is finally established in a psyche, " then there will not be any more cognition and the inteļlectual awareness of the wise will have the higher state.

154

Kaivalya is the final aim of Yoga Philosophy. It has been said that isplation , i.e., kaivalya, follows at the end of the process of the work of gunas. In this condition the evolution of triple gunas no longer produce any effect but merge back into their cause. .117 The gunas are in a state of equilibrium apart from purusa who is established in his own true nature, viz., pure consciousness (citisakti). This is the state of isolaticn or kaivalya.

There is no answer to the question whether there is an end to the successionof the-samsara which is in the gunas, in its emistence and movements, The question that has an answer is whether all those

who are born, die and the answer is an affirmative.

The question, will the dead be born again can be

answered partly, , i.e,, it has to be analysed. The

wise in whom the vision has manifested and whose

desires have subsided, is not born again but others do.

Similarly is the question , is the birth as human

being worthy or not, Human birth is worthier than

that of the animals, but less worthier than of

divine beings and the sages.

The question whether the cycle of birth and

death has an end, or is endless, cannot be answered as

such. The question has to be analysed,for it has an

155

end but only with reference to the wise and it is

endless so far as others are concerned. 8

CITTAPARINAKA:

Dynamism is the very nature of gunas, Ti.is

accounts for the three types of change in the gross

arid subtle elements . 119

But in reality, the change is one only. The

characteristics are nothing but the form of the sub-

stratum. The change in the substratum is made known

through the characteristics.

Tse psyche canhave a series or cognitions

which are varied and unconnected with each other.

Then it is said to be in a distracted state. But the

psyche can also have a series of cognitions which

are not dissimilar and having only one object. Then

it is said to be having a concentrated state, techni-

caily the psyche itself is said to undergo the

modifications. It is called 'cittaparināma'.

The creative impressions are a characteristic

of psyche. But they do not have the nature of cog-

nition. Hence they are not affected when the cogni-

tions are subdued. The restraint of the former chara-

cteristics and the appearance of the latter are

156

simultaneous. This goes on one after the other and

finally the restraining impressions emerge victorious.

The calmness of psyche results when the

restraining impressions win over the creative impres-

sions. This is called Nirodha-parinama. 120

Distraction is a characteristic of psyche as

even concentration is. When the latter characteristic

is strong, and the other is relegated, the psyche gains samadhi. This is called' samadhi-parināma:121

ABHYASA ANL VAIRAGYA:

The restraint of vrtti of psyche, requires to be culti vated ; it cannot be attained simply by

knowledge of books. The restraint is accomplished

through brahmacarya, tapas, vairagya with knowledge

of spiritual science and śraddha. In other words

restraint is something which cannot be achieved without

effort by the samskaras.

By the constant practice of restraining of

vrttis and non-attachment (vairagya) towards sense

objects, vrttis cease to function. Vyasa compares

psyche to a river which flows in both the directions.

It flows forwards, i.e., towards good and backwards,

i.e., towards evil. In one direction it flows towards

157

viveka (discrimination),onward to kaivalya (isolation)

and in the other to aviveka (non-discriminiation) and

bandha. The stream flowing towards the object is

controlled by non-attachment (vairägya), so that it

withdraws from it. The practice (abhyasa) in discri-

minative. knowledge, opens the flood gates of discri-

mination. 122

Abhyasa is either virya , steadfastness or

utsahn (enthusiasm). Abhyasa is the course of pro-

ceeding with means for the purpose of attaining the

aim and it becomes confirmed when it is cultivated

continuously for long time without interruption and

with earnest attention. 123

Patanjali defines vairāgya as the consciousness

of a person who does not give himself up for objects

either seen or heard. One who attains the state of

having revelation, thinks that the obtainable has

been obtained and the destroyable has been destroyed

and the strong chain of birth and death has been

broken. Vairagya is indeed the highest state of know-

ledge, because absoluteness follows immediately after

this. It is clear that wherever, there is supreme

knowledge, there must be invariably vairagya. 124

158

Thus the restraining of functions of the

psyche depends on both abhyasa and vairagya. By the

strength of meditation, one finds defects even in the

contact with divine and worldly objects. He whose

intellect is absorbed in' the full reflection of the

purusa's purity caused by the practices of meditation

is termed as *virakta' ( non -- attached) even in res-

pect of aloofness of purusa.

CITTA-VIKSEPA:

The distractions are very strong to contain.

The psyche never permits itself to a programme of con-

centration. It can be compared to a spring that will

be waiting for an opportunity , say, to burst out.

Therefore the aspirant cannot afford to have com-

placence about controlling the modifications of the

psyche. Even after the rigorous practice of the ex-

trinsic courses of yoga, the psyche cannot be said

to have given up its characteristics of modification.

The impediments in the path of enlightenment are called

the distracticn of the psyche. They are nine in

number, viz., vyādhi, styāna, samsaya, pramada, ālasya,

avirati, bhrānti-darśana, alabdhabhūmikatva, and

anavasthitatva. They come into operation only

159

along with functions of psyche. These are also

termed 'yogamala' and 'yogapratipaksa', meaning thereby'that they counter-act yoga. 125

When the psyche is distracted in any one of these nine ways, it will be subjected to duhkha, daurmanasya, angamejayatva, śvāsa-praśvāsa, etc. It must be noted that duhkha etc., do not affect the psyche which is not distracted. These obstacles

which come in the way of samadhi could be set aside. CITTA-PARIKARMA:

The concentration of psyche can be achieved

after arresting the above viksepas, by following the

modes distinguished by Patanjali: these are called 'cittaparikarma' by Vyasa.

Cittaparikarma is the course of friendship,

compassion, joy, and indifference regarding the

spheres of pleasure, pain, virtue, and vice respecti-

vely. That is, cne shauld cultivate friendship tow-

wards those suffering from miseries, joy towards the virtuous and indifference towards the vicious. 26

Under Sütra 1-35, Vyäsa points out that the instructions, of the Sastras and the Ācaryas as well

160

as one's own reasonings give the knowledge about the

reality. but this knowledge being mediate does

not make the psyche firmly grasp the subtlety of

ideas like apavarga uless that kncwledge is at least

partially made part and. parcel of one's own ex-

perience. When the instructions are imsibed, one can

have full faith in all subtle matters like apavarga.

So it is necessary to bring into one's own experience

at least some of the thoughts learnt from the Acarya,

etc. In this effort, too, cittaparikarma is useful.

It makes mediate knowledge immediate. Because the

functions of psyche are constant, the psyche will be

able to perceive the divinity of the object only when

the psyche attains the state of vasikara. In that

state, the psyche has no hindrance in having faith,

power, memory and concentration and does not need

any more parikarma.

Friendship , compassion, joy are also together

called 'bhavanat. They can be made the objects of

special concentration, samyama, when they unfold those

bhavanas in the aspirant to a large extent, and makes

them infallible. The attitude , upeksa (disregard)

is not a bhavana and hence cannot be made the object

of samyama. 127

161

ASTĀNGA-YOGA:

It was pointed out earlier that emancipa-

tion can be attained by following the procedure laid

down by Yoga-darsana. Yoga is attainable by persons

who have the ability to concentrate. But even those

who are unable to fix their mind, can enjoy the bene-

fit of yoga, provided those persons strive for it by

following the methods prescribed for them. The

practice of yoga destroys the impurity of viparyaya or

avidya which is five-fold. The practice of yoga grad-

ually weakens the impurities. As the impurities are

gradually reduced, so the manifestation of knowledge

increases. This knowledge reaches excellence till

it becomes intellective vision. The achievement of

the components of yoga is the disuniting cause; it

cuts away the impurities like an axe but is the

uniting cause as well, it causes the intellective

vision.

The method called 'kriyayoga' consists of

three aspects; (1) tapas, (ii) self-study and (111)

resigning every thing to the Lord. This is pres-

cribed for those aspirants who are capable by main-

taining a balance of mind. 128

The purpose of functional yoga as Pataňjali

puts it, is to rear concentration and weaken the

162

afflictions. Vyasa further elaborates that on the

one hand the weakened afflictions are rendered im-

potent similar to scorched seeds by the fire of know-

ledge. On the other hand as the afflictions, are

weakened the knowledge of discrimination of prakrti

from purusa will be.visualised in samadhi. 129

The aspirants who are not capable of main-

taining balance of mind, will have to undergo certain

preliminary exercises. The entire yoga me thodology

from the point of view of these aspirants consists

of eight steps including the preliminary in one.

They are: yama, niyama, asana, pranāyāma, pratyahāra,

dharana, dhyana and samadhi. These eight limbs of

Yoga are divided into two parts: the first five

ferm one group and the rest another, technically

called 'samyamat. The first five are called

'bahiranga', preparatory steps and the other is 'antaranga'.131

Of the preparatory steps, yama and niyama

eliminate the disturbances which are caused by the

emotions and desires. Āsana and prāņāyama elimi-

nate the disturbances of the physical body.

Pratyähära is withdrawal of the psyche from the

worldly objects. By practising these angas, psyche is

163

compietely isolated from the external world.

Though the angas of yoga are independent of each

other, yet they have a sequential relationship.

1. Yama :-

Yama is the external regulation. It :cons-

ists in the proper chennelling of one's conduct

towards the fellow beings. It will have to be

practised in five different modes. They are:

ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya

(honesty), cranmacarya (celebacy), and aparigraha (non-covetousness). 132

(1) Ahimsa: - Ahimsa is not causing injury

to any living being in any manner at any time at any

place whatsoever. Ahimsa is a primary requisition

for other restrainments ard observances are based

on it and are taken up and observed for achieving it

and making it perfect. It is corroborated by the

statement : 'Therefore he is indeed a Brahmana wh.,

taking upon himself many vows , refrains from heedlessly

giving injury and makes ahimsa , non-violence, perfect.'

Injury, etc., are committed in a variety of ways:

e.g. injury may be committed by a person himself

or another person may be made to commit it or it may

164

ce approved of , i.e., a person might be a wttness

to an injury, The circumstances for each of these may actof

be soverel. It may be anger due to harm caused

earlier, for imstance, or it may be lack of reasoning,

e.g., entertaining the idea that merit accrues through

killing. 133

Greed are other factors will not be of the

same force. It will be of less force or great force

or of medium force. Thus we have 81 types of Himsā:

Further the number of himsa becomes infinite because

these are to be distinguished in respect of restric-

tions, choices and combinations. And the concerned

agents, the beings, which also make for distinction

are innumerable. 134

This enumeration of division should not be

ignored as another instance of hair-splitting atti-

tude of the eminent thinkers. What is to be noted

in this is that a person gets involved in himsa

howsoever it may be remote and this ives an idea

about the vigilance recuired on the part of the aspi-

rant.

(ii) Satya: Satya consists of in having

one's speech and thought correlated to what one has

seen , heard or inferred. One speaks -in order to

communicate one's knowledge to another. Therefore

165

speech should not deceive or mislead or be meaningless to the hearer. The speech is only for the good of living beings and not for injuring them. Vyasa goes to the extent of saying that the test for truthfulness of speech is not in the speaker but in the hearer. Even though the speaker may be sure of being truthful, if it is prone towards injury etc., with reference to the hearer, then it is not satya but only papa, harmful act.

By a fascimile or a mere show of virtue one gets into painful darkness. Hence one should utter the truth carefully keeping in view the benefit of all living beings.135

(iii) Asteya: - Steya is illegally appro- priating or accepting a thing that belongs to others .. Abstention from theft or stealing, having no craving for other's property is 'asteya: 136

(iv) Brahmacarya: - (celebacy) ;- brahmacarya is the restraint of the sexual urge. 37

(v) Aparigraha: - (Non-covetousness) ;- Apari- graha is not to amass anything,for it so painful to gather, preserve , destroy , get attached to, or injure the material prosperity. 138

166

These practices are to be totally exercised for the sake of all living beings, without any limitations of time, space, purpose or caste. Their observance is a 'great vow', a tahavrata', one should not take refuge under any of the above exceptions and consider oneself as having pra- ctised the yogangas because one has not actually practised them in their entirety. 139

Ordinarily, himsa and others attended to under certain conditions are considered ahimsa. E.g., injury inflicted by fishermen upon the fish alone and no others is ahimsa delimited by caste. Similarly ' I will not kill in a holy place', ' I will not kill on the 14th day of the fort- night ', such resolutions have the delimitation with reference to place and time. The resolution ' I will not kill except for the sake of God' etc., the injury inflicted by the ksatriya on a battle field is ahimsa limited by convention. But harm- lessness is to be pursued everywhere in all cases and by all means without any concessions or excep- tion of jāti etc., if ahimsa is to be observed as a step of Yoga, 40 2) Niyama: Niyama is the regulation of personal habits. It consists of internal and external

167

purification. They are śauca (cleanliness), santosa

(contentment), tapas (penance), svadhyaya (seirstudy) and Iśvara-pranidhāna (devotion to Lord).141

(1) Cleanliness is both internal and exter-

nal. By cleansing the psyche off its impurities is

internal. External cleanliness includes not only

washing with water and detergents but also eating

clean food.

(ii) Santosa or contentment is not to go for

more than what one is provided with.

(iii) Austerity (forbearance, penance) :-

consists of enduring the play of pairs of opposites:

hunger and thirst, heat and cold, standing and sitting,

total silence and outward silence. It also compri-

ses of observance of vows of krcchra etc. The Yoga-

sūtras contain four references to the spiritual value

of tapas in pada 2 sūtra 1,32,43 and in the very first

sütra of pada four.

(iv) Svädhyaya: The self-study is either

the study of sciences relating to deliverance from

existence (moksa-sästra) or repetition of the pranava, the syllable 'Om', which signifies Iśvara.

(v) Isvara-Praņidhāna: The total devotion and dedication of all one's actions to the highest

168

preceptor is Iśvara.pranidhana. In this connection

Vyasa says that whether sleeping on a bed or sitting

in a seat or wandering on a road, if one is calm,

with his douhts cleared , the seed of rebirth being

destroyed, one becomes the sharer of immortality.

In spite of practice of regulations, sinful

thoughts do occur during the course of training.

They are to be overcome by dwelling upon their oppe-

sites. If a person on the path of yoga should be

strongly tempted to kill or utter a falsehood,etc.,

then the person should pause and consider their

opposites. Vyasa gives a hint about it: 'When 1

.was caught in the fierce fire of the cycle of

births and deaths, I took refuge in Yoga which

shows compassion to all living beings. If I

succumb to the contrary thoughts which I gave up

earlier, I would be like a dog which enjoys eating

which it has vomitted.' Thinking on these lines

again and again the person can drive away the

tempting thoughts.

Remembering the endlessness of misery caumed

by ahimsa is spoken of as helping the aspirer to

refrain from the distractions. Vyasa gives the

169

details regarding himsa as an example: A person

desiring to kill , say an animal,first makes it

immobile, then hits it with a weapon and causes pain,

#inally it is killed. These three actions result in

three miseries respectively .. The animate and inani-

mate belongings of the agent get enreebled, the

agent aurfers misery in hell or in other births.

Finally even if the agent looks forward for death,

the agent has to pull on because of the necessity

to experience the fruit of his crime. If the agent

has some merit to his credit, then there may be

early death, with a short spell of happiness. 142

3. Asana: - Any steady and c mfortable pos-

ture is called 'asana'. Postures are recommended

to be practised so that one would be able to carry

on meditation in a posture that suits one,for any

length of time without any ache in the body joints. One can be said to have gained mastery over asana, if one can stay in a posture with least effort. Then the yogi is least affected by the pains like

heat and cold.

While Patanjali does not name any asana

type, Vyasa mentions the following eleven asanas by

170

name: Padmāsana, VIrasana, Bhadrāsana, Svastikāsana, Dandāsana, Sopāsrayāsana, Peryańka, Kraunca-nisādana, Hasti-nisadana, Ustrasana, Sama samsthana. 143

The HathaYogic Gheranda-Samhita describes thirtytwo asanas. HathaYoga-Pradipikā defines fif- teen and the Siva-Samhita gives eightyfour. In the scheme of HathaYoga asanas have a very special therapeuttc value. For example, Padmasana cures any kind of sickness (G.S.11-8). Patanjali and Vyasa however speak about asanas only in outline. Āsana is not meant for maintaining health, which is automa- tically achieved by sauca. The purpose of asana as the Sutra and Bhasya make out is only to make the joints feel no fatigue in any posture and for any

length of time. 4) Pranayama: ; Pranāyama (Control of Breath) is the arresting (viccheda) of inhalation and exha- lation (śvāsaprąśvasayoh). This follows the mastery over asana. There are three kinds: (i) arresting exhalation; (ii) arresting inhalation is internal; (iii) arresting both inhalation and exha- lation. This can be accomplished in a single effort. Both movement s of air stop simultaneously like water drops falling on a hot stone.

171

These three are delimited by space, time and number.

. they are connected with a particular space, they

are practised for a defintte time in teems of

seconds and minutes. The first step is inhalation;

the second step is holding the breath and the third,

exhalation. The restriction of number also comes

into play distinguishing prānayama as slow , medium

and fast. The unit for the time duration is one

respiration. The steps are to be practised for the

duration calculated on the basis of the number of

units.

Thus practised, it becomes dirgha, that could be sustained for a long time or sūksma, short.

Vyasa brings together the two under aksipta and

names the third as 'dirgha-sūksma' .

The fourth type of pranayama is the cessation

of respiration arrived at gradually through several

stages. The third type is gained at a single

effort and is not gradual.

By the practice of pranayama, the karma which covers the intellectual vision is destroyed. It

has been said that "the effulgent essence being

covered by the network of the senses full of

172

extreme ignorance make me engaged in vice action

.only." .The veil of karma covering the effulgence

which is the origin of re-birth, becomes feeble

and fades away every moment through the practice of . praņāyāma. There is no other penance higher than

control of breath; the dirts or impurities are

purified and the brilliance of knowledge increases

thereby. The control and regulation of breath se- cures the concentration of mind. 44

6. Pratyahāra: The withdrawal is the turning of the senses

away from their objects when the sense organs do not

have contact with their objects,i.e.,when the func-

tions of psyche are arrested, the sense organs are

also automatically restrained. It does not call for

any other expedience as in the case of other ways of

restraining of sense organs. Because the sense

organs are led by the psyche, if psyche stops its work,

the organs too stop their work. The organs are com-

pared to the honey bees and the psyche to their leader.

Pratyähara is the hignest state of conquering the sense

organs. 145

Indriya-Jaya:

Vyasa records five view points regarding

Indriya-Jaya, mastery over senses :-

173

(a) Not indulging in sense objects. -Indul-

ging makes the wise swerve from the path of prosperty. . (b) Not having contrary experience.

(c) Ability to have contact with the objects

at one's will.

(d) Comprehension of the objects sans happi-

ness or pain as there is no love or hate.

(e) Not cognising anything because of con-

centration of psyche. The vow of Jaigisavya repre-

sents, according to Vyasa, the highest state of

indriya-jaya because it is an inevitable by-product of

pratyāhara. And also strikes at the very root of the

functions of the sense organs. 146

By the practice of these preparatory prescni-

.ptions a person of distracted psyche (asamāhita-citta)

becomes one of balanced psyche (samahita-citta). The

essential nature of a person of balanced psyche is that

he is able to concentrate on any particular target

and does not easily let go one's psyche to go astray.

Now the aspirant is qualified to rise further in achi-

eving samadhi.

As mentioned earlier, the methods described

above are the preparations to qualify oneself for the

intrinsic course for samadhi. The aspirant

174

has to restrain the modifications of the psyche (cittavrtti) by constant practice of controlling the modifications and non-attachment towards sense

objects.

THE LAST THREE ANGAS OF YOGA:

Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi are together called Samyama, when these three have the same aim.' 147

(6) Dharana: - Dharana is the fixing of the psyche on to a target-certain parts of the body like navel, the lotus of the heart, 'light' within the head , the tip of the nose, the tip of the tongue or any other external object like some deity. Vyasa notes that dharana on the lotus of the heart leads to an experience of pure light.148

(7) Dhyãna: - Meditation is an unbroken or

continuous comprehension of the object which is the target of dharana, in other words, the uniform flow of thought untouched by any other cognition is dhyana, a current of unified thought. 149

(8) Samadhi :- In the Yogasutras both samprajnata and the asamprajnata-samadhi are explained in the very first chapter, because

175

achievement of samadhi is the aim of the darsana

and therefore the samadhi types are set forth

at the outset. The means of achieving the goal

are described in the sequel.

Samadhi is the state into which the dhyana

develops. In this state, the object of medita-

tion in the psyche loses its mature of being mere

comprehension and shines in all its glory through

infusion of its own characteristics on the psyche

of aspirant. The extrinsic and intrinsic courses

described earlier enables the psyche to absolve

itself from the objects. Then the distinctness

of the prakrti from the purusa gets established,

leading to the stage when the purusa and prakrti

(in the form of buddhi) though co-existing, do not

mutually affect. This state of aloofness of purusa and prakrti is the highest stage of samadhi.

Before reaching the highest of samadhi, called asam-

prajnata , there is a lower type of samādhi wherein the distinctness is partially observed.

This lower samadni is called samprajnata samadhi.

From another point of view, these two are called NirbIja and sabIja, respectively. With peference to samprajnata-samadhi, the course of sadhana is

176

intrinsic while the other five angas of yoga are

extrinsic. In respect of nirbija samadhi, even this

is external because it is attained when one goes

beyond samyama.

In the samprajnata samādhi there are yet

traces of external objects. Hiriyanna calls it

conscious samadhi. In the higher samadhi there

is no object whatsoever . In fact there is not

even a knower. It is super-conscious samadhi, as Prof.Miriyanna terms it.150

Samprajnata-Samadhi:

The lower samadhi, because d its very nature,

is of four kinds:svitarka, savicāra, sananda and

sasmita. Vitarka is the grossness of cognition,

vicāra is clear vision; ananda is delight; asmita

is the partial cognition of identity of the self.

The samadhi in which any one of these involved is

called after it. These are the le vels to rise gradually towards perfect samadhi. 51 These levels

depend upon the type of samapatti, fusion, involved.

When the functions (vrtti) are eradicated, the

psyche beoomes clear and transparent like a pure

crystal. Such a psyche takes on the form of either

the knower or the instrumentof the knowable with which it comes ihto contact, called samapatti, fusim!

177

Samapatti:

A cognition is not one homogenous unit but it is not recognised normally as such. Vyasa

analyses cognition into the verbal stimulus, its

corresponding object and the process of cognition. These aspects may figure in the state of samapatti

and such a state would be called savitarka,because

of its complex nature. Then the retentive power

is cleansed by the words and when consciousness

in samädhi is purged of the observation of verbal

testimony and inference, the object remains as

such and is cognised as such. This is nirvitarka

samapatti. This is indeed the perception par

excellence and forms the basis on which the verbal

testimony and inference functiom. Nirvitarka is direct cognition and not mediate. 53

Samapatti may have an object, both mind

and matter, which are made up of particular arrange-

ments of atoms and grasped by one psyche. It is

a common characteristic of all subtle elements

that each of the atoms will inherently have the form

of which it constitutes. This becomes explicit by

the states which reveal it and is inferred on the

basis of the revealed phala (result). The object

disappears when another object characterised

178

differently from theoriginal is presented. That characteristic is called avayavi, the organism. This is gross as well as atomic , endowed with touch and activity. This intellective vision is rightly called rtambhara, full of truth, for there is not even a tinge of wrong knowledge. 154

The impressions of the samādhi-prajha sets at rest, the vehicle of distracting impres- sion making them impotent to produce any cognition. This results in samadhi. The cycle goes on re- peating. The well-developed impressions of samadhi prajha do not involve the psyche in any activity because they destroy all klesas and make the psyche cease from its action. The psyche functions till the knowledge of diacrimination arises; when the psyche grasps its separateness.from purusa .it becomes inactive.155

The impressions resulting from restraint of vrtti (functions) stops even the samadhi impres- sions. The samskaras of psyche are three-fold: (1) those at the time of distraction; (2) those at the time of practice of samadhi and (3) those just before kaivalya. Vyasa here notes a different view point according to which the arrangement of atoms

179

is a misnomer and thus subtle reason is not

available for the nirvikalpa. Vyasa's objec-

tions to this is that there is nothing but erroneous

knowledge in such a case because no 'avayava' is

cognised. Whatever is cognised, is cognised as

avayavi only. Therefore the avayavi . which forms

the basis of communication becomes the object of nirvitarka - samapatti.156

Savitarka- and nirvitarka-samapattis have

gross (mahat) object and when subtle (sūksma)

is the object, samapatti is termed as savicara

and nirvicara.

When the nirvicara-samapatti gets purified

i.e., when the shining sattva of buddhi is not

covered by rajas and tamas,then the yogi can per-

ceive things in their proper perspective without

depending on the usual process. The last two are

to be : red from the experience at the time of practice.157 Samskaras put a stop to the activity

of the psyche. Hence the psyche ceases to function.

There arise samskäras leading to kaivalya and the

psyche loses itself. Purusa having lost the

contact of the psyche,reigns supreme in his own

pure and freed state.

180

So far as a person with wisdom is concerned,

the kleśas do not wake up or there is no response

though presented with stimulus because they are

rendered incapacitated. The klesas having germinal

capacity scorched by wisdom are compared to fried

seeds which cannot sprout. Such a wise person in

whom the klesas are subdued, is called 'caramadeha',

one having the last body or in the terminology of

advaita, 'jIvanmukta'. In other words, such a person

is liberated from this cycle of birth and death and

the present body will be the last one.' 158

The action of klesas may be sūksma (in --

capacitated) or sthula. The sthula actions of the

klesas are weakened through kriyayoga and through

meditation. They are incapacitated and they dissolve

along with psyche into the ahamkāra. Vyāsa drives

home this with a very common illustration: When

clothes are washed they are cleared of all the gross

dirts but there may remain here and there stains

or fast dirts. It requires some special effort to

remove them. The afflictions, klesas, do not dis-

appear at once, but gadually. Just as stain in

clothes are not to be disregarded but to be

181

attended to, the weakened vrttis are formidable

and should not be neglected but made further in- capacitated through meditation. 159

Vyasa analyses with another illustration:

A grain of rice : covered with husk is capable of germination. But when the husk is removed or when it is scorched, it loses the power of germination.

Similarly the latent karma will be able to produce effect only if it is entwindled with kleśas and its source is not scorched by the fire of meditation. 60

Asampra inata-Samadhi:

àsamprajnata -Samadhi, in particular, 1s to be achieved with effort of following strict dis- cipline. The divine beings will have this samadhi by virtue of their samskara only. The asamprajnata- samadhi with ceference to the former group is called 'upaya-pratyaya' and with reference to the latter is called 'bhava-pratyaya.(1-19).

When all the vrttis are restrained and only the samskaras remain, it is the asamprajna ta- samadhi or seedless samādhi . Vyasa asserts, para- vairagya, mature detachment, is the only means to achieve this state. Asamprajhata-samadhi is indepen- dent and it is not supported by anything.

182

Through constant practice psyche can pemain without . support. Asamprajnata-Samadhi is attained through faith, energy, recollection and keen awareness. The highest state is reached through sincere efforts,' faith and thus the total practice of faith, etc., with non-attachment leads to asamprajnata-samadh1.161

Faith is the term for conviction that the

truth exists. Vyasa points out that faith is the

serenity of psyche and compares it to a benevolent

mother who carefully tends her children, similarly faith takes care of yogins. 162

When the right conception of aloofness

of purusa from the Triple Guna is firmly established

in a psyche, then there will not be any more cogni- tion and the intellectual awareness of the psyche rises to the higher plane through the seven stages.

Prantabhumipra jna:

There are seven stages leading to the highest samadhi. Each of them ia marked by certain visions. Thus the first four stages in order, have

the following visions: (1)'The avoidable has been

fully understood, nothing more of it is left to be

known.' (2)'The causes that produce the avoidable .

183

have been destroyed completely without any remnant'.

(3.) 'This has been thoroughly supervised by the help

of spiritual absorption'. (4) 'The means of breaking

the bondage has been known'. These four stages

free the intellective vision. The release of the

psyche is due to the next three stages: (5) 'The duty of buddhi has been fulfilled'. (6) 'The gunas devoid

of a base, merge into their cause and disappear and

never rise up again like a stone hurled from a moun-

tain top.' (How apt is the simile) (7) 'Luminous

purusa shines pure and alone going beyond the gunas'. Purusa who is rising higher & higher in these levels of intellectual awareness comes to be called 'kuśala',

adept. Even after the psyche merges back into its

source, the purusa free from psyche is called kuśala

indicating purusa's position beyond the guhas. 163

Kaivalya is final dissociation with the

prakrti. This comes about when the gunas manifesting as karma, kleśa and vipāka become unprocreative after

eampleting their business. Thus purusa will be in

his own form.

Dharma-meghe-Samedhi:

Even the desire for liberation must be

given up, for it is a vrtti as any other desire.

184

With this renunciation, discrimination sets in. "hen

the seeds of all previous samskaras are incapacitated no other comprehension is there. The samadhi at this

juncture is called Dharma-megha.

In such a person as having this samadhi,

the ideas about the state of self rise na turally. It is said due to a defect other than svabhava, people

get interested in different directions and lose interest in arriving at truth. Ideas about the state

of self are: "Who and How was I ? What and How is this world ?. What and How are we going to become ?

These ideas do not occur in one who has the vision of the extra-ordinary. This is indeed a wonderful

transformation of psyche only. When there is no avidya, purusa rematning unsullied by the attributes of psyche, is not touched by these thoughts. 164 Then the psyche which was prone to sensual objects and tending towards jhana, changes and gets directed towards kaivalya, tends towards viveka-jnana.

On attaining dharma-megha-samadhi, the distractions of avidya and the rest are pulled off from their very roots. The good and the bad dormant

karmas also are completely destroyed. On the cessa-

tion of klesakarma the wise one in the very life

185

becomes liberated. No one has ever witnessed the birth of one whose viparyaya has been removed.165

Viparyaya is the cause of birth.

With the removal of all distractions and

impurities that obscure the consciousness, it be-

comes limitless. The jhana-sattva covered by tamas

and sometimes brought out by rajas, is able to

comprehend. When the covering is fully cleared, it

is there with the infinitemess against which the

knowa ble becomes miniscule. It appears like a fire-

fly in the sky. The yogi who has attained

Pharma-megha has no rebirth because there is .no

cause in him to cause his rebirth. If it is insist-

ed, then it will he like a blind man piercing

gems, the fingerless one stringing them into a necklace and praised by the tongueless.166

The three gunas having fulfilled their

purpose which is the process of change cease to function, with the appearance of dharma-megha-samadhi; the purpose of the gunas comes to an end. Because of the fulfilment of purpose of experience ending in liberation, the gunas dare not tarry a moment longer. -167

186

(f) TYPES OF YOGIS AND SIDDHIS ::

• (1) Types of Yogis :- Vyasa mentions that there are nine kinds of yogins: First there are

three types: Mrdūpāya, Madhyopāya and Adhimātropāya, each of which is of three kinds. Under Mrudūpaya, there are: Mrdusamvega, Madhyasamvega and TIvrasamvega.

Here 'vega' indicates the force of non-attachment.

Among them, those who are practising the intense

method of abhyasa and vairagya are first to achieve

(labha) spiritual absorption. The stages of non-

attachment are according to their degrees. The term 'labha' (achievement) shows the action and refers to

samprajnata-samadhi. The phala signifies that asam- prajnata is beyond the sphere of absorption. The

achievement of spiritual absorption and the fruit

thereof becomes nearest to the extremely courageous

who are practising the intense method. That is, who

are practising the intense method to attain the spi-

ritual consci 168

Yogis are of four types according to their achievements: Prathamakalpika, Madhubhumika, prajna- jyotis and Atikranta-bhāvanIya. 169

(1) The first one is the beginner who just has the

glimpse of the divine light.

187

(2) The Madhubhumika has rtambhara prajna. The yogi in this stage is prone to be lured. The yogi then is at cross roads, on the one side there is the path to kaivalya and on the other there is the un- limited excellent divine pleasures. At that junc- ture the yogi must resolve to shun the lure of en- joyment of pleasures and also should not feel proud that there was the possibility of divine pleasures. The yogi at this stage is vulnerable for falling dow. (3) Prajnajyoti has attained mastery over Bhutas and

sense organs. (4) AtikrāntabhāvanIya is one beyond all bhāvanĪya (activity), only thing to be done is dissolution of psyche, This yogi has the seven stages of en- lightenment.

(11) Siddhis :- The practice of samyama brings forth the effulgence of prajna. As one goes deeper in samyama the samadhi-prajna becomes clearer and clearer .. Samyama can be practised only when the lower stages are perfected because without perfecting a lower stage the next stage cannot be achieved. There is no slipping of any stage of samyama here. For a person who has reached the higher stage of samyama by the grace of Isvara, there is no need to

188

apply aresh samyama in connectionwith the efforts of the lower stage of mind-reading because only after passing such lower stages does one come to the top. There is no necessity of any outside agency to direct the yogi in a particular step to rise to the next one. The path itself shows the way. Vyasa quotes a saying in support of this.170

Samyama aimed at particular objects bestows special powers with reference to those objects.171

When the three transformations of attribute

phase and state are made the object of samyama, these are seen as if before one's eyes and this enables the yogi to have the knowledge of what is yet to come and what is past. The yogi who has mastered on the distinction of word and its meaning becomes omniscient.

Concentrating on comprehension (pratyaya)

enacles its direct perception and the yogi will have

the knowledge of the psyche of others. However, the yog1 can only know that another's psyche has such and such comprehension but not on whicn object. The yogi's psyche reaches out to the comprehension of another psyche but not to its object. By concentra- tion on the form of the body, the.power of grasping

189

colour is arrested. When the power of the eye cannot

be employed the yogi becomes invisible. Similarly

the invisibility of objects of other senses can

be achieved.

Samyama on karma enables the yogi to have

the knowledge of death, the end of one life period.

The concentration on the strength of different ani -.

mals enables the yogi to acquire such strength.

By focusing the light of the mind (manas)

on the subtle , hidden and remote , one acquires

knowledge about them. Similarly samyama on the sun

gives the knowledge of the universe.

By practice of samyama come various siddhis

such as knowledge of the position of stars, and polar

star and their motions; knowledge of the systems of.

the body (kāyavyuhajnanam), freedom from hunger and

thirst , Samyama on the kurmanadi bestows the

knowledge of steadiness (sthairya) like snake or cro-

codile; on murdha-jyotis, vision of the perfect ones,

higher power of hearing power or walking through

space. Intuition, knowledge of psyche, are results

of samyama upon the heart. Samyama on the gross, the

subtle, the essential attributes, inherence (anvaya)

and purposiveness (arthavattva) results in the achie-

vement of supremacy over all the elements.

190

Samyama on the five physical elements with

five forms enables the yogi to have a perception of

the form and to gain mastery over them.

Patafjali, referring to the Mahasiddhis, says

that when the yogi has the ability to control the

elemnts he achieves the eight siddhis. They are: be-

coming atomic or infinite (animā-garimā), attaining

weightlessness (laghima) or great weight (mahima).

Präpti is that power of non-frustration of desire,

whereby he sinks in and rises to the surface of the

earth as in water; Isitvam is the power of commanding

every thing or the yogi becomes the seducer of ele-

ments and other objects, weing himself not seduced by

others,-vasitvam; because of supremacy he becomes

the dispenser of the origin and dissolution of the

elements. The fulfilment of desire is the truthful-

ness of cne's determination. Though having the power

the yogi does not change the nature of things deter_

mined by the will of Iśvara.

By samyama on the five forms of indriyas,

the yogi will have mastery over them, leading to

manouevre activity of senses without the need of a

body and victory over prakrti. These siddhis are

together called 'Madhu-Pratika.'

191

when the Buddhi Sattva, cleansed of the

dirt of rajas and tamas, becomes more clear, the

yogi will be in the higher plane of Vasikara , sup-

remacy, and will have well-fixed idea about the

distinctness of sattva and purusa. This enables

the yogi to have command over everything , i.e,,

all forms of gunas, determined objects and determi-

ning principle, all appear before the Lord (ksetrajna).

Omniscience is direct muwwledge born of discrimina-

tion of the gunas which are arranged in the form of

calm, awakened and indeterminate forms. This know-

ledge is called 'viśoka-siddhi'. This siddhi, when

achieved, bestows omniscience and makes the yogi

gain full mastery over oneself with bonds of

karma made very loose. The aspirant yogi, how-

ever, is disinclined towards that also.

(g) MISCELLANECUS: (i) Jivana :- Explaining Sutra 3-39

Vyasa defines jivana, life. It is the fuhctioning

of all indriyas taken together and it has the

features of prana, etc., Its activity is five- fold :prana, samāna,apāna, udāna and vyana. Vyāsa

also notes the areas of activity of prana, etc. in.

the body.Of these prana, which is respiration, is

vital.

192

(1i) Arista :- Commenting on Sūtra 3.22

in which Patanjali says that a fore-knowledge of

death may be had from the samyama on certain types

of karma or the arista, Vyasa notes that the arista,

the symptoms of death, are three-fold: Adhyatmika, Ädhibhautika and Adhidaivika. that relating to the

body and mind is Adhyatmika, that which is caused by

other objects is Adhibhautika and that relating to . superhuman is Ādhidaivika. (i) Adhyatmika is when

one does not hear the sound of one's own body after

clesing one's ears, and does not see light after

closing pne's eyes. (11) Ädhibhautika is when one

sees the controller of death or his . own dead fore-

fathers. (ili) Adhidaivika is when one sees the

heaven or the perfect ones, i.e., Siddhas.

The above is noted here that it may be helpful to the investigators to compare Vyasa's statements

with those found in Caraka.

193

CHAPTER IV

BHOJA VRTTI- A CRITICAL STUDY

The material available for picturing a

philosophy of Yoga-Darsana on the basis of Bhoja-

Vrtti is too scanty. An attempt has been made in

this chapter to bring together all that is found

under different topics.

(a) YOGA-ITS DEFINITION: Yoga is dissolution in one's source in the

inverse propagation. Further on, Bhoja gives another

derinition: Yoga is modification of the psyche in

the form of concentration.

(b) ONTOLOGY:

Prakrti and its Evolutes:

Tne gunas are the basic cause. Though they

are three in number, they function as one only and are

found related in every form. The modification of the

gunas is only in the degree of predominence of one or

two of the constituents at a time.

The three gunas, sattva,rajas and tamas

have their own respective attributes. Purity is the

feature of sattva. Dynamism in the shape of moving

forward is that of the rajas and that of tamas is

being static in the shape of causing obstruction. 2

194

i The state of the gunas before any modification is called

prakrti. When the modification is within the unit of

the three gunas, it is a tattva. Thus twentyfour

tattvas are recognised. These are divided into four

types: (i) visistalińga, (i1) aviśistalińga, (iii) Lińga- matra and (iv) alinga. The elements and the organs

come under the first , the specific; tanmatras and

the internal organ (antahkarana) under the second; the

non-specific; buddhi is lingamatra; pradhana or prakrti stands apart, it is alinga. Linga is that which has a

reference in itself to its cause or in other words, it

is thet which shows itself as an effect. These are

. jada while purusa is ajada."

Attenticn may be drawn here to the use of the

term 'antahkerana'. This is the name of the unit con-

sisting of buddhi, ehamkära and manas, as set forth in

Sānkhya-kārikā(29). The term is also widely used

in Advaita in a slightly different sense. Further in

the above classificatin of Bhoja also includes buddhi

under aviśista.

The gross form of the elements are what are

seen with definite form. The intrinsic form of them

are the effects having the respective form of smell,

viscosity, hearing, pushing and space. The

subtle forms which are organised on the causes

are the tanmatras, gandha, etc., in order. The prakrti

195

and its evolutes are insentient but some of the

evolutes can function as though sentient because of

the proximity of purusa. 4

PURUSA :

As a contrast to prakrti purusa is in- active but pure consciousness only. The word 'matrah''

in the Sutra, Bhoda explains, means'only' eand is

used to emphasise that consciousness is the very

form of the seer and not an attribute only. of the seer as some philosophers hold.5 Jmana is an attri-

bute of atman according to the Nyaya Philosophy.

The purusa has no modification, etc.,

hence established in himself comes to know about the

objects through the prakrti. He sets on by his very proximity, the modification in prakrti and he becomes as if the door by that association when he is called 'bhoktā: 6

The system accepts plurality of purusa.

Bhoja employs the word 'atman' for purusa. It may be

noted that Patanjali does not do so. Purusa is the controller of psyche.7

Though consciousness is the form of puruga,

he has experiences only through the buddhi related

to it. (sva-buddhi-samvedI), hence he does not mingle

196

with anything. Only the gunas which during modi-

fication will have the form of the dominent one or

as the atoms, give rise to the objects in the world.

The consciousness remains the same always through that

modification as it is well ' established and systematic.

In this Dansana, Bhoja points out, the power of

consciousness is two fold: (1) the eternal purusa and (1i) consciousness manifested in the sattva.8

The excellence and partlessness of purusa

may also be set forth like this: The human body

excels the several objects which are mere tamas because

it holds the organs which are of the nature of the body.

Sattva which has the form of illumination is higher

than the organs. The consciousness is the illuminator

of the illuminated sattva and therefore different

from it. That shows purusa is partless.9

ĪŚVARA:

Yoga conceives of a third category called Īvara. Isvara is one of the purusas; but stands

distinctly apart from all tattvas including puruga.

"He is the one untouched by any klesa at any point

of time, past, present and future. Bhoja traces the entymology of Iśvara, : "Īśanaśīlam icchāmātreņa

197

sakala-jagaduddharanaksamah, 'One having the abi-

lity to be the over-lord, one capable of securing the world by his very wish,:10

Isvara is omniscient par excellence and

supreme due to abundance of sattva and these two are

not interdependent. They are beginningless. He 1s --

always like the emancipated souls.' Iśvara is one only.

For is many, they are to be equal. When there may

be differences of opinion leading to suspension ef all ...

activity. If unequal, whoever is superior shall be called Isvara.12

Though Iśvara has no purpose of his own, he ..

effects the associaticn and disassociation of prakrti .... and purusa because of compassion. Favouring the be'-

ings is his purpose. For whatever one likes is one's

purpose. His motto is to free all souls in bondage

during the secondary and the main dissolutions. 13

Iśvara-pranidhana-complete dedication to Iśvara-is the means to attain samadhi leading to

emancipation. 14

DRAV YA:

There are two kinds of objects: (i) Drsta,

experienced on this earth and (ii) Anusravika, that

learnt from the Veda as existing somewhere. >

198

The basis for distinguishing objects in the world are genus, special features and spatial relations (jati, laksana and desa). E.g. a cow can be distin-

guished from a horse, a black cow from a white one.

But two objects of the same size cannot be distingui-

shed, if they are in different locations. So, too, the white atoms of earth in the same location cannot be distinguished ordinarily. 16

KARYA-KĀRAŅABHĀVA:

An effect does not activate a cause.

Diversity of causes cannot yield a single effect; but

a single cause may have diverse effects. Effect is

only a manifestation of the cause. 17 It is not reas-

onable to speak of totally non-existing objects as

coming into existence, because such objects, did not

exist at any point of time, e.g. the horn of a horse.

How can any cause function to produce a totally non-

existing effect? Nobody acts thinking about a non-

existing topic. So also the existing things cannot

tecome non-existent at any point of time. Something

that has an existing form does not assume a non-exist-

ing form. Therefore the existent cannot become non-

existent and vice versa. The substratum will always

be in the same form, the attributes however go on chan-

ging. The attrisutes are three-fold and have three

time phases: They; weing in their modes, do not give

199

up thetr form. Those that are in the present mode only become the objects of experience. Therefore the attributes have the modes past, yet-to-come and present and the causal relation in Yogadarsana is accepted only in those forms. 18

Parinama or modification is only with regard to the three factors: Dharma (attribute), Laksana (Phase) and avastha (condition) which are found in elements-gross and subtle, and the senses. The Yogadarsana considers that the change in an object refers to the above three factors of which the sub- stratum continues without change.

The Dharma-Parinama (modification of attributes) is the change of an attribute in an exis- ting substratum into a different attribute. E.g. the sutstratum mrd, mud,gives up its attribute of being a lump and assumes the attribute of being a pot.

The Laksana-parināma (modification of phase) The substratum in a phase into substratum in a different : phase, E.g. the pot in the last instance, gives up its mode of yet-to-come and assumes the mode of present and again gives up and assumes the mode of

past.

200

The Avastha-Parinama. (modification of condition)- The substratum being the same in the two

successive time phases., e.g. the pot in the pre-

vious instance, being the same in the first tao time

phases, viz., yet-to-come and present. The function

of the gunas are ever dynamic and not even for a moment static. 19

An attribute (dharma)can be defined thus:

The property (sakti) limited by the propriety of the

form of the definite cause and effect. It is of the

form of cause becoming not different respectively in

the three types, viz.,(1) the pacified, those which

have passed into the past mode after doing their work;

(11) the risen, those which have given up yet-to-

come mode and are doing their wprk in the present mode;

(i11) the unidentifiable which are in the latent

(śakti) state.

The substra tum is that which is continu-

ously related to each of the three modes of attributes.

Gbld, for instance, gives up its attribute , sf being

a necklace and takes over another attribute, say,

svastika and yet continues as gold; though the attri-

butes are different, .it appears related in general as the substratum and in particular as the attributes.

201

Through the substratum is one only, there

can be many modifications in it. The order of ever-

changing áttributes points to the modification of

being many. The strict order of the loose earth

becoming a lump of mud, then pot sherds and from

them the pot , shows the variety of modifications.

In that very substratum, pot, the order of the modifi-

cations of modes and phases too indicate the same.

All bhavas change every moment in à

definite programme. There is no doubt in that the

modifications are many. Some of the attributes of

the all-changing categories,psyche, etc., can be perceived, eg ., pleasure etc., and status (samsthana) etc. Some attributes are partly to be inferred, e.g.

attribute, impressions and sakti. Through all these changes, the substratum continues both as identical and as different.21 The attributes and the substratum

are the concrete and subtle modifications of the gunas. For, all individual actions-external and internal-are found united with the three gunas

in the form of sukha and duhkha and moha. Whatever

that is found united with another are only their modifications as the pot united with mud is the modi- fication of the mud.2

'202

XÃ LA:

The smallest unit of time is ksana which

cannot be further divided. They are found in sequence

which can be visualised only through contemplation.">

REALITY OF THE OBJECTIVE WORLD:

It is proper to speak of the object exist-

ing independent of the consciousness as being cne or

many. If the consciousness (vijnana) itself should

be found due to latent karmas, to have cause-effect

relation and appears as the respective object, then

how to emplain the differende of the object and the

consciousness.

Knowledge and object are quite distinct

from each other for, though the object is one, its

cognition may be diverse. Several knowers cognise

the same object severally as pleasure , pain or

delusion. For example, suppose the object is a

belle, the knower with attachment has pleasure, a co-wife may have aversion, a recluse will have pity

(ghrna). Therefore the objects cannot be said to be produced by psyche. If the object had been the product of one psyche, it would have been cognised in the same pattern by all and not diversely.

203

Again if an object is the product of psyche, then

that object should ce non-existent when the psyche

of which that was the product, is engaged in another

object. but that object is not non-existent as it

is perceived by many others.

It cannot be contended that the objects

are severally produced by the different cognisers

for these creations will not be uniform. If it is

pressed that there is uniformity in these creations

then the uniformity of the product incspite of the

diversity of cause has to be accepted leading to the

conception that the universe itself is of one and

the same rorm and it is without a cause. Therefore

there is the knowable object independent of conscious-

ness (vijňana). Also there is cause-effect relation

tetween consciousness (vijhana) and object because both

of them are distinct as there is variety of effect

though the cause is one only.24

(b) EPISTEMOLOGY:

Nature of Citta :- At the very outset it may be

remarked that instead of 'citta', Bhoja uses frequen-

tly the term, 'antahkarana' which is not found in

Patanjali .- > The term antahkarana stands for the

unit of buddhi, ahamkăra and manas as expllained in

Samkhya-Karika (29). So also Bhoja employs the term

'atman' for purusa,in bondage; Patanjali does not do so.

204

Citta is the unit of purusa and buddhi. Citta is that evolute of prakrti in which the power of consciousness gets established. It can modify it- self into a state of concentration. The sattva-

dominated evolute unhindered by rajas and tamas, is

the power of showing (darsana-sakti) in the form of

antahkarana. The power of seeing within it is purusa. Through the function of the sense organs, the psyche gets modified into the form of that object and the

purusa is also considered as having the same form. The charateristics of the reflecting medium is

imposed on the neflected image just as the moon

reflected on a wavy sheet of water appears moving. The internal organ is located inside the inverted small lotus of the heart, hrdaya.25

Even though cognition (jhana) is illuminated · and is often the nature of comprehending and the

object is illumined, and is of the nature of being

comprehended, it does not comprehend

nor recollect all objects simultaneously.

All objects to make them known, need certain

accessories like forming an image, etc., Cognition of blue, for instance, needs an expedient cause, tne image of the obgect formed througn the

205

path of the sense: organ .. Any other object will

not be comprehended along with it because of the

lack of contact. 26

That object which has formed an image will

be taken to the level of communication by that cog-

nition (Jhana), then only that object is spoken of as

known. That whose image is not formed is not said

to be known. When an object whose similarities with

the one known earlier awakens. its impressions then

the earlier object is recollected. Thus there

is neither simultaneous cognition nor sumultaneous recollection of many objects.7 When the knower

purusa has a knowledge, say, of blue, he does not have a knowledge of yellow. But it should not be presumed that purusa also will have modifications in comprehending the image of the psyche whose knower He is. The functions of the psyche viz., pramana,

etc., are known at all times to the purusa who is the lord and knower of psyche, He is of the nature

of consciousness and has no modification. If he had

modifications,because the modifications do/occur not

often., he would not have had the knowledge of the

functions of the psyche, always.

....

206

In other words, purusa is consciousness and is always the controller of psyche. The internal pure sattva is existing always, there is always reflection of consciousness of the object whose image has been formed, knowledge arises oniy after the transference of reflec- tion. There is no question of modificatiin in purusa. 28

If the psyche itself illumines because of the predominance of sattva, then it is possible to show it- self as well as the object. Thus communication circutt is complete. In such a situation a doubt might arise as to the recognition of another knower. But the psyche is not illuminator of itself. It is cognised by purusa, for it is knowable.29

This may be spoken of as 'sadhyasama-hetu' fallacy for the knowability of psyche is to be established first. Also we find functions of having favourable and avoiding the unfavourable along with tne cognition of itself like 'I am angry', 'I am afraid', 'I love this' and so on. These comprehensions would not be had if there were no comprehension of tne buddni. comprehension of an ob- ject is to bring it to the level of communication as having a 'thingness'. The comprehensions of intellect (buddhi) , whidh are either the cause of pleasure or of pain come to be communicated in the form of

pleasure or pain, circumscribed by .I'. Botn these functions, are not coeval at the time of

207

perception of an object as they are opposed

to each cther. Ihat is, toth the object of sense and

'I' are not determined simultanecusly. Hence the

psycce does nct cognise itself. but the psyche is

not asle to comprehend both the results of such

fucction. The psyche comprehends itself only exter-

na:ly as being in the object; the phala, fruit, is dependent on object only and not on itself.30

The buddhi does not comprehend itself.

There is no need to posit another buddhi because

that goes on endless, so it must be accepted that the

object is not comprehended without purusa. If the

comprehension is not comprehended the object cannot

be said to have been comprehended. There will be

mixture (confusion) of recollection. and cognition.

Therefore when the buddhi assumes puruse's

form on his proximity the buddhi becomes as if conscious.

That potency of consciousness reflected in the func-

tion of the buddhi, is comprehended being one with

the function of buddhi. Then only the buddhi is

said to comprehend itself.

The psyche that'knows itself' through the

purusa will be able to carry out all communication.

Omly the psyche appears as if the purusa perceives.

Just as a clean mirror is able to reflect, the sattva

208

unsubdued by the rajas and the tamas, can hold the

reflection of the consciousness.

Because of proximity of consciousness, sentience of the sattva is manifested like the in- duced movement in a piece of iron due to a magnet close by. , 24 i Sattva is ss.close to purusa that it forms an internal organ for purusa's experience. This itself is spoken of as the locus (adhistheya) of purusa, the atman, for experiencing pleasure and pain in accordance with karma by the Samkhyans who believe in 'säntabrahma'.

The Guna-Trio is in constant state of flux every moment one or the other of the three

gaining pre-eminence. It is of the nature of pleasure, pain and delusion and therefore impure. It is in

such a sattva-dcminated . psyche determined by the

karma that cognising ability is brought out. This

on the one hand carries the reflection of purusa and on the other hand its shape is covered by the

impression of the object and though actually bereft

of consciousness, appears to have consciousness by the force of reflection of consciousness and expe-

rience, pleasure and pain. That very experience

is termed as of purusa who is actually not the

209

experiencer, because of close proximity. Similarly writes Vindhyavasi, the torment of the sattva itself is the torment of purusa. Elsewhere he writes the appearance of an image similar to an object in medium is called reflection, so also, infusion is the manifestation of consciousness simi- lar to that of purusa in the sattva.

A reflection of a dirtless object of a definite modification in a shining medium as e.g. face in a mirror can be accepted. But how can there be reflection of the purest, changeless and all- pervading purusa in the most impure sattva. This is not a problem if the nature of reflection is under- stood. The sattva has in it a latent power of cons- ciousness. That is manifested by the proximity of purusa. It is called reflection, the appearance therein of a semblance of the power of consciousness is

puru sa .

The medium need not be clean or even to reflect the purest for we do find the reflection of sun, moon, etc., in a sheet of water, e.g., .far from being clean. Also comparatively wider objects are found reflected in smaller media like the sky in a mirror.

210

What is said earlier that when the latent

power of consciousness in the sattva-dominated modifi-

cation, Buddhi, becomes potent due to the proximity of

the purusa, the purusa will have experience of pleasure

or pain, is not prcper. For, how does psyche come into

existence if the prakrti does not undergo modification.

The prakrti's business is to provide exper- ience of the world to the purusa. Therefore, it is

but proper that the prakrti should undergo modifications.

It may be questioned how the prakrti can have the

purposeful action of attending on the purusa, unless

the prakrti is sentient. If there is purposeful

action, prakrti can not be inert.

The reply is: - There are two natural

powers: the forward- and backward- modifications.

That itself is spoken of as working for the benefit of

purusa. That power is natural even to the inert

prakrti. The modification from Mahat to Mahabhuta, is forward modification because it is centrifugal and the modification of each entity merging into its cause upto Asmita is backward modificaticn.

In both the ways when the purusa's purpose is fulfilled, the two natural powers of the prakrti are emaciated and prakrti having completed its work does not go through modification again. Thus the

211

prakrti though inert has its part in providing expe -- rience for the purusa.

It may be asked if such a power is natur- ally found in prakrti, then why should any body be

desirous of moksa and put forth effort for attaining

it. And if there is nobody seeking moksa, then the treatises giving instructions to the effect are in

vain.

Reply for this; there is the beginningless relation of experiencer and the experienced between

purusa and prakrti. Prakrti manifesting conscicusness

will have the pride of being the doer and undergoes

misery; then it will certainly have the concern how

there will be release from misery. There is indeed

the necessity for prakrti of instruction of treatises

setting forth the means of obtaining release from

misery. The Sastra also instructs only such

Buddhisattva as is conditioned by the karmas. Even

in other Darśanas, only those having Avidya,

are instructed.

Purusa aided by the instructions of the sastra strives for moksa and attains the same. Any

activity comes into being only when all the related

factors: come together. For the fruit of moksa

that is brought out through the backward modification

of a similar factor is stipulated as there can be no

212

other expedient. As such how can it be without

that factor?

. Thus the fact is, Buddhisattva which is

manifesting the change of conscicusness and impressed

by the objects, carries.out the entire worldly affair. Those who comprehend such a psyche and have the

misconception that the psyche is able to know itself

and that this universe is psyche only and there is nothing other than psyche, are awakened by the sastra.32 PURUŞA, THE LRASTĀ

This idea of psyche carrying out all

affairs shoulo not lead to the consideration that the

seer is accepted without any valid reason.

Whenever we see several factors conjointly evolving an action, the activity will be for the sake of an -

pther like bed, seat etc. The psyche is also a

unit of the triple Guna. Hence all its action will be for another one viz Purusa.

Again, this should not be interpreted to

make purușa also as a unit of several factors as in

the analogy of bed etc. being useful for some body.

If sattva etc., the substratum having peculiar Dharma

is considered then we arrive at the experience

must be different from it.

213

The peculiar formation of fumes on a hillock covered with wood, indicates a fire of wood, different from other types of fire. So also here, if we examine the working for the sake of others, of the peculiar bbject of enjoyment called sattva, we arrive at the other, the enjoyer, who is pure consciousness and indivisible.

If it is agreed that there is the ex- perience of that karma which is executed in accor- dance with the instruction of the Sastrasy then to obtain the favourable and avoid the unfavourable there will be conscious activity (pravrtti). All affairs of the form of rejecting and accepting could come about only by the thought process. As the thought moments are not continupus because of their mutual difference, unless they are connect-

ed, no communication can come about. It has to be

concluded that the atman is the doer , the ex-

periencer and overlord.

In the state of emancipation all commu-

nication consisting of the knower and the known

is absent, only the cognisance (cittam) remains.

That cognisance can be taken to be only in

214

transformation of mere consciousness and not as com- prehending itself. Far the consciousness is able to grasp only tne object and is umable to comprehend it- self. Therefore it remains as consciousness only. Hence it is proper to consider that the atman remains in the form of consciousness only in the state of

emancipation when the guna-trio has completed its task.

In the bound state the same consciousness can very well be the doer, experiencer and cogniser. Along with the bhoga relation with prakrti which is beginningiess, natural and based on tis apprehension, there is in prakrti the powers fuliilling the pur: se of purusa. Due to this there is the evolution into

manat , etc., when there is contact with that, result- ing in occupancy of atman, the ability of the Buddhi- sattva (psyche) to hold the imposed consciousness and the definite consideration of the consciousness-infused budahi (psyche) as being the doer and engoyer can it- selr explain the cobscious activity, there is no need to posit flimsy arguments.33

CITTA-BHUMI

The psyche nas rive moods, viz., ksipta, mūdha, viksipta, ekāgra, and niruadha, basea on the

215

degree of distraction. While ksipta is the most distracted, niruddha is the most restrained.

(1) The KSIPTA is the most dominated by rajas. It is unstable, ,extrovert, involves itself in the activities leading to pleasure and pain. This is the attitude found in the main among the Daityas and Danavas .

(ii) In the MUDHA, tamas takes the leud- ing role. The citta in this would be unable to differentiate right and wrong and indulges in wrong activities due to anger, etc. The Räksas and pisācas have this mode of gitta mostly.

(ii1) In the VIKSIPTA mood, the citta, because of the dominance of sattva, avoids sabda,etc., as the means of misery and associates itself with

them as means of pleasure. In other words, the citta

involves itself in external objects because of rajas,

it becomes prone to inflicting injury to others

due to tamas and sattva makes it experience plea-

sure. Such a form of citta is wholly found in Devas.

Out of the five moods of citta, the

first two namely, ksipta and mudha are not helpful

for the condition of samadhi. The last two , viz.,

.

216

ekagra and niruddha are useful in samadhi as they are stable because of predominance of sattva.

Rajas and tamas are both to be eschewed. Of these

two, rajas is considered earlier because unless in-

volvement is described, there is no point in set-

ting forth 'withdrawal'.

(iv) In the EKĀGRA mood there is restraint

of extravert functions, and

(v) In the NIRUDCHA mood there is the

dissolution of all functions and impressions.

Hence only in these two moods yoga is possible.

For, Yoga is the attainment of citta with a modi-

fication in the form of concentration.

At the dawn of the redeeming wisdorr,

there will be no transferencer of'cit'and thereby

the feeling of self as the doer is removed and the .

buddhi stops its modifications. Then does the

ätman exist in its own form. In the distracted

mood, the purusa experiences pleasure or misery or

delusion in accordance with the nature of vrtti that arises.34.

217 CITTA-VRTTI: The functions of the citta are only its certain modifications. They may either be afflict-

ed or non-afflicted.5>. They are five: Pramāna,

Viparyaya, Vikalpa, Nidra and Smrti.

The cognition whtch is not contradicted is valid 36 They are three: Pratyaksa, anumāna

and sabda. Perception is a function by which the

specific features (form etc.) of a thing having the

general and special features, are determined by

citta because of its contact with that ohject through the sense organ.7

Vedanā, adarsa and vārta are the terms

for tactile , visual and olfactory cognitions in this Tantra-tne Yogasastra.38

The psyche goes out to reach the object through the sense organs from hrdaya.39 Inference is the determination of the

general, something having a mark through the contact with the mark (linga). Verbal testimony is the statement of a reliable person, particularly, it is the knowledge from the spiritual texts.40

WORD AND MEANING:

Bhoja has occasion here to speak about

word and its meaning. Śabda (word) is a definite

218

order of phonemes , grasped by the organ of hear-

ing and, limited by the comprehension of an invariatle

meaning or a dhvani of the form of sphota without

any order of phonemes but understood by the intel-

lect trained in sastras. In both the cases sphota is the form of the word and the sentence because of their ability to convey one meaning.

'Artha' ,meaning, is genus, quality, action

etc., 'Pratyaya' is comprehension, the function of

the intellect that takes the form of the object.

Because of the mutual super-imposition of word,

meaning and comprehension in common pariance and

tecause of the comprehension being the same, though

there is distinctness, there is confusion. This can

te explained tnus: when a person utters 'bring the

cow', the hearer attends to it by taking (1) the

meaning of 'cow' , i.e, a being having dew-lap

and limited by the genus of cowness; (ii) the sig-

nifying word,'cow' and (iii) the process of com-

prehending the same as not different. Nobody makes

in usage any distinction like 'this is signified

by the word cow', 'this is the process that com-

prehends them', In other words, if a common person

in the above context is questioned 'which is the

219

word? which is the meaning ? and which is the cogni- tion here ?', then the answer will be the same for all the three questions. If the comprehension itself was not'one', the answer would not have been the same. However, the words 'meaning and comprehension' are dis- tinct from each other and it is known through contem- plation.51

The relation between a word and its meaning is conventional. The convention only manifests the exact relation between the word and its meaning. The realCation is not created. The relation between a father and a son exists and it is manifested by the expression, 'this is the father', ' a son of thist,etc. The two sources of knowledge, viz., verbal testimony and inference, have genersls and not parti- culars as their objects, for neither of them is able to convey the knowledge of particulars just as a sense organ can. 43

Viparyaya: The function of the citta which arises as different from nature of the objects. Even doubt is wrong knowledge because there is no affirmation of the real form of the object.44 Vika1pa: Vikalpa is the determination not depend- ing on the real nature of the object but only on the

220

meaning of words in a sentence. For instance, "Purusasya caitanyam svarupam"- consciousness is the nature of punusa. Here gendtive case in purusa

is understood as showing difference between purusa and caitanya as in any other use of the gendtive case, eg7, 'rug of Devadatta', when Devadatta and rug are indeed different. Purusa and caitanya, however, are not different.45

Nidra:

-The function without any object in view

and arising from the continuous predominance of tamas, is Nideã. This is also a function because

there is recollection of having had a sound sleep

and there can be no recollecticn without any ex-

perience. 46

Smrti:

Recollection is fixing of objects in the

citta through impressions, experiences of pramana,

etc. The three functions of pramana , viparyaya

and vikalpa bebong to the conscious state. These

functions in the weakest form are found in the

Nidra State. Sleep, however, is lack of cognition 47 of any object. Smrti depends on all the four functiens.

221

MAYPE OF ATHAN: VIE'S OF OTHER THINKERS:

If tce atman is accepted to ve having real

ture of teicg tce doer, toen tce nature of atman will

alss ce havig modification. This makes atman non-

etercal, and tnis strikes at the very root of the natu-

re of ätman. For, at the same time, one and only in

one form cannot experience two mutually contrary states.

That is, if in a state in which the atman is conjoined,

there is pleasure and its experience, there is no

experience of pain in the same state. As the states

are many, the atman having the states being different

from other, must also be many. Being many, is to

have modification. Hence no atma-characteristics nor

eternity. That is why the Sankhyans who advocate 'Santabrahma' agree to the sameness of form of atman

always in bondage as well as in emancipation.

The arguments of Vedäntists who posit moksa of atman who is bliss.conscious, is not consistent.

Bliss is of the form of pleasure which always appears as bing comprehended. Anything comprehended cannot

be thought of being one with comprehension, This

leads one to accept the comprehended and the comprehe-

nsion in the same entity by which non-dual position

falls down as two contradictory factors are to be

attributed to atman.

222

Again the Advaitins speak of two types of atman: Karmatma and paramatma. (Karma-self and absolute self) . Now if the paramatma has the same form as the karmatma who experiences pleasure or

pain, the paramatman, too, should be having modiff cation and misapprehensions. If it is conceded

that the atman will.not have direct experience but

only receives without involvement, what is presented

to it, because of being the occupant, then it is

accepting yoga line of thought as the bliss form has

been annulled above.

Further if atman should have the nature of

misapprehensions, then whom does the sastra instruct

or who is eligible to receive the instructions ?

Such a nature is worthless. Neither paramatman who

is ever free from any bondage nor karmatman who

has misapprehension only, be.eligible for 'instruc-

tion. In either case the exercise of the sastras is

in vain.

Again if it is argued that the universe

is nothing but misapprehension, then whose is this ?

It cannot be of paramatman who is ever unbound.

223

and is only of the nature of right knowledge.

Karmatman is virtually non-existent as hare's horn and so there can ce no relation with avidya.

It may be put forward that the nature of avidya is something beyond explanation (inexplicable); it is that which dissolves because of knowledge

dew. drops touched by the sun's rays.

But this is not proper. An entity which does some work, has to be spoken of as being dif- ferent or not from another entity. Avidya should be accepted as the author of the world activities. If that is called unnamable even though it exists, then any other thing existing can similarly be said inexplicable; even Brahman may be unnamable.

Therefore there is no form of atman

other than being the occupant .. Occupancy is of the form of consciousness only. No other chara- cteristics can be known by any means of knowledge.

Naiyayikas and others speak of atman as being conscious by its association with consci- ousness (cetana) which is only worn with its con- tact with manas. That is, the qualities of desire, cognition, effort, etc., arise in the worldly

224

(vyavahara) state due to the contact of atman

with manas. Because of those very qualities, it

is considered as the knower, doer and experiencer.

In the stage of emancipation, along with misappre-

hension, the defects based on it, too, disappear.

Buddhi and other special qualities of atman are com-

pletely eradicated and the atman remains in its

intrinsic form,

This thinking is not cogent. For side by

side of emancipated atman,akasa and others which

have eternity and all-pervasiveness,are there. Sc

as to distinguish from them, ätman,having the form

of consciousness, should be accepted. The associa-

tion of the genus ' selfness' cannot help the posi-

tion; association of such genus is found every-

where. Atman has to be something more than having

the genus. Atman's occupancy only suits with cons-

ciousness and nothing else.

Mimamsakas arrive at atman who is the

doer and object of action. Their view does not stand on examination. Their proposition is that atman is known ty the coghition of 'j1, In this

cognition, atman is Loth the doer and the object.

225

Ie doer is toe knower and the object is the known.

Tese tue factors teing contradictory, cannot co-exist.

. To say that contrauiction is only between

the dcersocd, tne instrunenthood and not between doer-

hood and otjectnocd does not nelp because the objects

remain unexpiained. Therefore atman cannot be taken as

known by the 'I' cognition but he is the occupant

with conscicusness.

Some others (Jains) by the difference in the synonyms of dravya and bodha, the finite atman is

spoken of as being of the size of the body and of

being subject to mutation. This argument is defeated by itselr. If atman is subject to mutation, it cannot be

consciousness. But consciousness of atman has to be

accepted.

For others, atman is the doer. Only when

an object is presented a cognition of activity arises;

in that comprehension of the object is the fruit.

The cognition shows its form as the illu-

minator, two objects appear, one being known and another atman, as knower. The cause of activity is the doer himself; therefore atman is both doer and

experiencer.

226

Is the doerhood simultaneous with the

cognition or is it in sequence? There cannot be

dperhood if it is sumultaneous or earlier or

later. If :it is in sequential order then atman

cannot have the same form, It should not be said

that atman doerhood will be in the same form, then

all results will be in one and the same form. If

doerhood goes with varied forms, then there is modi-

fication and no consciousness. An inert atman cannot

be direct doer. So the doerhood of eternal cons-

ciousness advocated by Yoga will have to be accepted.

This itself is the argument against those

who put forth that grahakatva of self - luminous

ätman is manifested through the cognition of object.

There are others who opine that atman's conscious-

hess is constituted of vimaráa, 'examination'

(Saiva). Consciousness is only being different

from the world and that cannot hold good unless

explained as vimarśa.

But this view is not tenable because

the form of consideration is that ' this is of this

form only'. This cannot arise without asmita. That

is, the consideration (vimarsa) arising in atman

227

will be comprehended in the form , 'I have become

so, so'. .In this cognition an entity , atman, is

indicated as being different from the one signi-

fied by "I", what is beyond the changing (vikalpa)

form. The change (vikalpa) is an attribute of

buddhi in the form of ascertaining and hot a chara-

cteristic of 'cit' which is unchanging, eternal and

of the same form always. because of its eternal

hature, ahamkara is not there. In speaking about atman, as endowed with consideration (vimarsa) the theprist has only taken buddhi for atman and has

not known the intrinsic nature of the luminous

purusa.

Thus in any darsana no form other than of

being the occupant for atman is completely enunciat- ed. Being occupant means being sentient which is

contrary to inertness. That which is occupied

by consciousness becomes bhogya, only that what

is occupied by cetana, consciousness is fit to

carry out communication. 48

(d) PRACTICAL TEACHING

Kleśa : Bhoga derives the word kleśa: "kliśyanti iti klešāh avidyādayah." 49

228

The afflictions are of five kinds: avidya,

asmita, raga, dvesa and abhinivesa. They give rise

to obstructive distress and hence are called 'afflic-

tions'. They cause distraction of the mind., They operate in the psyche and strengthen the modifica- tions of the tri-guna. They lead an individual to

attend to or to refrain from particular activities.

Such a person will also be responsible for experi- encing the after effects-vipaka -of one's actions."

Klesas do inot have any sway over the soul. Still

these are atributed to it so long as they sur-

round it; even as the victory or defeat of any army is attributed to the king who may not physically take part in a fight.51

The afflictions vary in their capacity in

accordance with their situations. Thus the afflic- tions are; prasupta, vicchinna, tanu or udara.52 (i) The afflictions which are deposited in the psyche and do not give rise to their effects due to lack of stimulus, are called the 'dormant'

(prasupta),eg,in a child the afflictions though existing as latent impressions are not manifested because of the lack of stimulus which awaken them.

(ii) Those arflictions whose power cf producin ; effect are attenuated through one's

229

contemplating on things opposed to them or

those which abide as latent impressions and are

incapable of giving rige to their effects without

ample appauratus of auxilaries are called , tanu,

e.g., afflictions of the Yogi.

(ii1) The afflictions which are inter-

`cepted or over-powered by some other stronger affli-

ctions are the vicchinnas. e.g. love is over-

powered and intercepted in the condition of aver-

sion or vice versa. They cannot co-exist because

they are mutually opposite.

(iv) The afflictions which bring forth

effects when those which help them to be active are

besides them are called operative, Udara,e.g., the afflictions which are adverse to concentration at

all times.

Avidyā: Avidya is: ignorance or neiscience, lack of

right knowledge in general. It is the knowledge

of a thing as what it is not, e.g.,taking non-

eternal as eternal. Similarly comprehending the

impure thinge like body, etc., as pure and the sense

objects which cause misery as causing pleasure as

well as the non-self, body as self, are all cases

of avidya. This can well be extended to any such

misconception, e.g.,virtue for vice, useful for

useless.

230

Avidya is the source of other afflictions, even though it is one of them. For when it is iniperative, others are not found to exist. Also the afflictions are never without the association of avidya. Therefore when avidya is removed by right knowledge, the afflictions never sprout up as their seed is as if scorched. Thus it is ascertained that :ignorance is their basic cause and it is concomitant with them. Hence all afflictions can be termed 'avidya',53

Asmita: The power of seeing is purusa; the power of shtwing in that form of the internal organ is the modification full of sattva unhindered by rajss and tamas. The former is the experiencer and consciousness and the latter is the experienced and inert. But if these two are comprehended as not different, it is the misconception, asmita, egoism. 54

Raga and Bvesa: Attachment or yearnng is that which follows the experience of pleasure,long- ing in the shape of thirst for the instruments of pleasure through the recollection of pleasure by one who has experienced it. In consequence of the remembrance of misery by one who has experienced

231

it, one dislikes such things which cause pain or

misery. the reeling of aisapproval is aversion. 55

Abninivesa :- The aifliction, abhinivesa, is

of the form of fear due to the force of latent impres-

sions of death experienced in the previous births.

This affiiction, called tenacity of lire,prevails in

tne case of every one irom worm to Brahman. This

springs up witnout any cause in the shape of constant clinging to lire, abhorring death.6

Distraction consists of tne affiictions. One

intent on concentration on a single point, ekāgra,

should avoid affiictions in the iirst place. The

afflictions cannot be routed out without knowing their

hature, characteristics, names, sources and divisions

as well as the methods for their removal. 57

The subtle afflictions which are abiding in

the form of latent impressions do not occasion any

modification in the shape of their function. These are

to be abandoned through regressive dissolution. Wnen

the psyche along with the latent impressions having

done their activities merge into their cause, viz.,

egoism, then how would the afflictions deprived of their root, possibly be able to exist ?58

232

The function of the active afflictions

viz, pleasure, misery or indifference are to be

overcome through meditation, i.e., by intense

concentration (ekagra) of psyche .. The.mere

practice of cittaparikarma overcomes them because

of their grossness but subtle ones can be removed

only by more recondite expedients just as coarse

dirt on clothes are removed by mere rinsing in

water while stains are to ge removed by several

expedients like detergents. 59

THEORY OF KARMA:

Karmas are those that are enjoined to be

done, not to be done and mixed. The vipaka is fruit of actions, such as birth, life or whatever

experienced by the mortals. Asaya is what is called

'vasana', the samskara which lies dormant in the

state of psyche (cittabhūmi) till fruition,

The term,'karmasaya'in the Sutra gives the

nature of karma which exists only as latent impres-

sions. The actions, good as well as bad, have only

the afflictions as the root cause. The fruition of

233

them, however, may be what is to be experienced

in the present life or in another.

The meritorious acts such as worship

of Gods, performed with intense impetuosity bear

result even in that very life in the shape of

status, longevity and enjoyment. For example,

NandIśvara, through the strength of his worship

of Mahesvara, secured the distinguished position

tn that very life. So also Visvamitra through

penance acquired long life. In the same manner,

those who do wicked deeds with hot impetuosity get

the evil effect. E.g.,Nahusa was changed into a

viper, Urvasi into a creeper. Status means birth,

say, as human beings. Ayus, longevity, is abid-

ing in a single body for a length of time. The

enjoyment , bhoga, is the sensual experience; it may be pleasure or misery.61

However, for tee wise one who understands

the afflictions with discrimination, all knowable

things, instruments of experience, torment like

poisonous food. One who has become an adept in

yoga, is distressed even by the slightest vexation

even as the eye ball experiences irritation at the mere contact of eyen a thin thread.62

234

Types of Karma:

The karmas of the previous lives that

result in longevity are of two kinds: (i) fast

(sopakrama) , that which stands ready to give its

effect as wet cloths spread in the sun; (ii) slow (nirupakrama) that which is reluctant to produce

the effect like the same wet eloths spread in shade. 63

Karmas are classified from a different

point of view: Sacrifice and such other karmas

which have favourable fruits are dsukla' and those

which have unfavourable fruits are 'krsna'. Some

karmas have mized fruits, they are 'suklakrsna. The f:rst is of the wise persons attending to

benevclence, penance and self-study. The second

is related with demons The third one is related

to ordinary human beings. But the karma of the

yogis who have given up everything is different

from the three types. Because the yogi attends to

the karmas without any fruit in view, his karmas yield no fruit.64

Karma -Vasana:

The latent impressions , samskaras, accu-

mulated in the psyche from time without beginning,

235

gain maturation by degrees and lead to their effects.b9

This is called 'vasanā'. The latent karmas, vāsanā,

are of two types: those that evoke mere recollec-

tions and those that cause birth, longevity and ex-

perience. One type of birth may get repeated after

a long interval. In spite of the long interval,

certain memory-evoking latent karmas will evoke in

one birth, recollections of the experiences of a simi-

lar earlier life, while the other memory-evoking

latent karmas will not be active. The intervals of

time, space and types of birth does not come in the

way of the memory-evoking karmas being active.

They lie latent till the manifesting conditions like

the concerned body, etc., appear. It is possible

because recollection and latent impressions are

not different. 65a

When a karma is attended to, it imparts

an impression that lies latent in the sattva of the

psyche. That may be the seed for heaven or hell

or any other experience. The capability of the

karmas, sacrifice, etc., is their existence as

latent potency and that of the doer is being the

proper experiencer (bhokta). The impressions

236

beget recollections which in turn beget experience

of pleasure and misery. The experience again leaves impressions and thus goes on the cycle.66

In regard to a person whose recollections, impressions etc. are varied, due to lack of conti- nuity, it is hard to find relation of cause and effect between recollection and impression. But ordinarily the experience itself turns into im-

pression and the impression changes into recollec- tion and only one psyche is in tune with them. Hence it is not difficult to find the causal rela- tion among them. The latent impressions may have continuity as well as causal relation and they are beginningless, because wishing good for oneself is always there. Such a wish is the cause of latent impressions. When the cause is there, its effect, experience, impression, etc. cannot be stopped .from coming to fore when the psyche which can con- tract or expand is bound with experience and im-

pressions; it will have modifications of the related fruits in accordance with the manifesting karmas.7

237

DUHKHA :

The function of the three gunas -pleasure, pain and indifference, are opposed to one another, since they are over-powered reciprocally :. These are nothing but grief since they are absolutely in every instance, mixed with grief. For the wise ones, who look forward to the entire and complete cessation of suffering, the object of all the four kinds of causes are miseries. Hence all these exhibit them- selves in the shape of distress only to the wise,68

The afflictions and others are born of avidya, wrong apprehension. This can be removed by right knowledge. Right knowledge is of the form of deciding about the means and about whet are to be adandoned and what are to be acquired. 69

It is only the misery ofthe mortal cycle yet-to-come that can be turned away. For, what is past is over and it is not possible to give up what is being experienced. The seer is the purusa, the consciousness. The seen is the buddhi abounding in sattva. The conjunction of these two in the form of experiencer and the experienced is occa-

238

sioned by the absence of discriminative knowledge and that is the cause of misery, the mortal cycle

in the shape of the modifications of the guņas. The moment they are seperated, the mortal cycle

ceases to revolve.' 70

Types of Duhkha :- (1) Parinama-Duhkha: - As longing increas- es due to the experience of sensual objects, plea- sure or pain resulting from the association or the non-association with the objects, is unavoidable; thus the sensual objects cause more misery. They do not at all have the nature of pleasures all through. This is called parinamaduhkha ,misery

in due course.

(ii) Tapa-Dunkha :- When a set of instru- ments of pleasure is being resorted to, there is always the aversion with regard to those which are hostile to that pleasure. Thus tormenting misery is inescapable even at the time of enjoyment of

pleasure.

(iii) Samskära-Duhkha :- The sense of enjoyment or suffering arises on the contact with object which originates a corresponding 1mpression

239

in one's psyche. Pleasure or pain is again the experience of innumerable impressions.

SAMYOGA :

The conjunction is defined from the view

of the effect (citta and purusa). The conjunction

is the cause of their being called knowable and the

knower and it is not adventitious, i.e., there is

no conjunction other than their essential character.

For both are eternal and all-pervading. Their

nature of being experiencer and the experienced is

beginningless and that is conjunction. And wrong

apprehension is the cause of that.

It is not proper to speak of removal in

regard to samyoga which has no concrete form.

when wisdom appears, the conjunction caused by

wrong knowledge, disappears by itself. Shedding

down conjunction is also the isolation of purusa

who is always aloof. This explains the cause and

effect of conjunction of the drsya with the seer.

In other words, misery may be said to be bondage.

Bondage in the body is the notion (samvit) of

the experiencer and the experienced in respect of

240

atma (purusa) and psyche which are by nature all- pervading but embodied in a body depending on the invariable karma. The cause of the bondage is Dharma, Adharma - merit and demerit.72

KAIVALYA:

Emancipation is the overcoming of the

misery of mortal cycle and it is occasioned by the discriminative knowledge, wisd om.

The knowledge which holds to the truth is

wisdom, the real knowledge, Following the spiritual

clearness, true knowledge dawms. this eliminates

apprehension. when avidya is dissolwed, buddhi es-

chews the egcism of being the doer and the expe-

riencer and is no longer overpowered by the dirt of

rajas and tamss . Then there will be the inward

flow of the flash (chaya) of consciousness. When

this is constant, there will be the cessation of

activity of the drsya resulting in the isolation of purusa. 3

The cognition that arises in the final

tier of samadhi is called Taraka, the Ferrying.

it is so called because it ferries the yogi across

241 the fathomless ocean of mortal cycle. There is nothing that is not the object of this ferrying knowledge. Not only all Tattvas but also the tattvas in all their states are grasped by that intuition. Because the various objects changing into several states are grasped severally, indi- vidually and simultaneously, it is sequenceless. The ferrying intuition makes the sattva and purusa stand apart. Sattva's purity is in its giving up its feeling of doer of everything and in Kord

dissolving back in its cause, the prakrti. The purity of purusa is the shedding of the imposed nature of experiencer. This purity of both sattva and purusa is kaivalya, moksa, emancipation.74 The psyche which was extrovert going in the path of mis-apprehension and experiencing sensual objects : becomes introvert treading the path of wisdom.75 As noted above, wisdom is the comprehension of the distinction between the gunas and the purusa. And that, uninterrupted, is the means of shedding down the misery of the 'seent 76 HÄNOPĂ YA:

Now how does this wisdom bringing about deliverance arise. wisdom arises in a psyche

242

which can concentrate. Concentration can be deve- loped through constant practice by those who are of balancea psyche (samahita citta). But that does not mean that those of distracted psyche (vyutthita) cannot enter this path. Only the latter will have to undergo a rigorous preliminaries. The physical and mental practices help one of distracted psyche to attain yoga. These preliminary steps for yoga are collectively called 'kriyayoga'. In the case of the balanced psyche abhyasa and vatragya are enough.

CITTA-VIKSEPA:

In spite of the practice, i mpediments do occur in the course of the sadhana. The obstacles are nine in number: viz., vyādhi, styāna, samsaya, .pramada, alasya, avirati, bhranti darśana, alabdha- bhumikatva and anavasthitatva. They prevail through the power of rajas and tamas.

These impediments that may be encountered are to be carefully got over. In between the states of samadhi distracting thoughts like 'I', 'mine' might raise their heads from the impres- sion of the earlier cognitions, though enfeebled. They shall get over by routing those thoughts

243

out of antaņkaraņa, Just as klesas mere over- powered,.the impressions are also to be scorched by the fire of knowledge so that they do not sprout again.77

Sickness (vyadhi) is fever caused by dis- orders of the humours; langour (styana) is mind's inactivity. Doubt (samsaya) is wavering between alternatives. Carelessness (pramada) is inattention in the condition of concentration. Heaviness of the body and mind which causes exertion in the state of concentration is laziness (alasya). Avirati is the addiction to the sense objects. Erroneous perception is a mastaken notion as of silver in the oyster shell. Failure in attaining the stage of concentration means the failing for some reason or other to attain a particular state of concentration. Instability is that fickleness of the mind which does not allow it to remain steadily in a state of samadhi. These are the factors which distract the psyche and prevent it from attaining the condition of concen- tration and are therefore called obstacles in the way of samadhi!8

244

Along with each of these obstacles are found : grief, distress, trembling and sighing.

Grief is the effect of rajas and people exert them-

selves for its removal. Distress is wretchedness

of mind arising either from external or internal causes.

Trembling is shaking of the whole body which pre-

vents steadiness in postures and mental poise. Sighing is excessive respiration. These prevail-

ing along with the distractions are to be avoided

by practice and dispassion. .79

The above distractions can be avoided by

practising repeatedly cencentratien on an object of

choice. For the prevention of these ,one should

dwell upon or confine the attention again and again

to the truth by force of which steady concentra-

tion is gained and the distractions quieten them selves 80

GITTA-PARIKARMA:

In overcoming these obstacles the aspirant

is advined certain other practices called 'citta-

parikarma. The practice of fraternity, compassicn,

contentment, disregard towards those subject to

happiness,grief, virtue and vice respectively, makes

the mind pure. One should cultivate friendship,

245

not jealousy, with those who are happy. There should bé compassion to the needy, not neutrality; the virtuous are to be looked upon with joy, not hatred and the vice are to be disregarded and not to be encouraged or hated. By winning over the above state of mental purity, one becomes so capable that one can concentrate at any time , at any place and on an object of one's choice.8

Parikarma is an external activity like Miśraka-vyavahāra in Arithmetic. It is only rāga and dvesa, love and hate, that bring distraction. When these two are pulled off, the root, the mind becomes pure. 32

KRIYĀ-YOGA:

Tapas, (penance), svadhyaya (self-study) and isvarapranidhana (dedication to the Supreme Lord) constitute Kriya-Yoga. Tapas is the practice of con- ceiving energy and directing it towards the goal of yoga or it particularly stands for krcch , cāndrayana and such 'vratas' enjoined in Dharma-Sastras. Obvi- ously, in order to do this, one must exercise self- discipline and control over physical appetites and passions. Svādhyaya means the repetition of the

246

sacred syllables. The dedication of all one's

actions without interest in the fruits thereof,

to the Supreme Lord, is a spiritual exercise of

vital importance, it is called Iśvarapranidhāna.

The best means of Samadhi is devotion to Iśvara through upāsanā, repetition of the mysti-

cal syllable, the name of Iśvara, and contemplation

upon its import. The upasana makes the yogi reach

the inner self. The cetana, the power of cogni:

tion, which withdraws towards its internal organ

because of lack of interest in the sensual objects,

is called 'pratyak-cetana'. Pranidhana is also

interpreted as resigning all activity to Iśvara.

Without seeking any sensual pleasure, all activities

are set at the feet of the teacher par excellence.

Then the mind becomes clear and can concentrate.

Another method for concentration of mind

is the regulation of breath. It is the controlling

of the vital force of the body and is classified

into two types, viz., external and internal. '

Pracchardana is the exhaling of air from lungs regu-

lated by steady intervals. Vidharana is checking

exhalation, regulated by time. This is done in two

ways: (i) taking in air from outside; (i1) restrain- .

247

ing the air within lungs. Thus recaka (exhalation), pūraka (inhalation) and kumbhaka (retention) consti- tute 'pranayama'. The function of all sense organs depends on respiration. By controlling respiration, all senses get controlled and this leads to concentra- tion.

The Āgama speaks about prāņāyāma as setting at naught all defects on which the distracting tenden- cies are founded. Thus pranayama leads to concentra-

tion.

The purpose of such practice is to stabi-

lise meditation. The practice helps the psyche to orient its attention towards concentration and

bring about attenuation of the afflictions . Igno- rance and other afflictions are rendered inert and the

subservients to meditation sustained. These form the

preliminary aspects of yoga and if carefully and sincerely practised, lead to samadhi.83

Abhyāsa and Vairagya:

Vairägya causes the withdrawal of the

citta from the objects by exposing their defects and Abhyasa makes it steadfast by showing the continuous

ilca of peace.

248

The conviction that sense objects are under one's control and one is not subdued by them is called 'vašikara' i' and this is vairāgya. Lower vairagya is. . with reference to objects, higher vairägya is with

reference to the gunas. Thus the psyche is kept

from relapsing to the distracting mind ..

There are various percepts and prectices

which are to be intensely observed in order to clear

the mind of its impurities of afflictions blocking

enlightenment. The light that shines as the sattva

gains the upper hand over the other two gunas, is

wisdom. 84

ASTANGA - YOGA:

The aspirants are required to go

thro ugh eight exercises, viz. ,yama etc., in order to

reach the highest state of samadhi or perfect trance.

These are the phases of yoga which is therefore

called 'astanga yoga'.

Of the eight, some like the sustained

contemplation (dharana) etc., are directly conducive

to samadhi. Some like forbearance etc., are indi-

rectly conducive to samadhi through eradicating all

nesitation about thought and activity opposed to it.

249

Postures and others are also conducive indirectly,

e.g., when one has gained mastery in postures, there is control of breath.85

1: Yama: -

Himsa is the cause of evils. The absence

of this is non-violence. Since violence in all its

forms is to be given up, it is listed first. Veracity

is confirmity of speech and thought with the facts.

Not stealing is not to touch other's property.

Chastity is control over sex. Abstinance is not

indulging in objects of pleasure. These subservients

come under 'yama', forbearance and are laid down as

prelizinary practices conducive to cancentration.

Usually cne may claim to follow the 'yama'

with reference to the conditions of jati, etc.,

Jati means erahmanhood, etc .; place is a sacred spot;

time refers to certain days like the 14th day.

But the practice of yama comes to be called 'maha-

vrata' only when they are practised to tae core and not limited by any condition.96

2. NIYAMA:

Wiyama is cleanliness, both physical and

mental. The external or physical cleanliness (sauca)

250

1s the washing of the body. The internal or mental cleanliness is the removal of impuritie s of mind through friendship, etc. Santosa i. contentment. Tapas, svadhyaya and Iśvarapranidhāna also come under Niyama. 87

Involvement is not limited to the doing of something by oneself but extends even to the cases when one makes another do something or when one approves (or does not object to) another's doing. This exten- sion is mentioned to clarify that one cannot feel safe just because one has not done something oneself. The causes of involvement (vitarka) are covetousness, anger and delusion. Though Patanjali mentions cove- tousness first as a cause of misleading factor (in- volvement), the last one, viz.,delusion is the source of all afflictions 88.

The actions caused by delusion etc., are subdivided into three on the basis of their degree of intensity. They are: mrdu, madhya and adhimatra. Thus the total number of types of misleading thoughts becomes twenty-seven. Further five distinctions are made. The mrdu, etc., may be of three sorts through the distinction of mild, medium and intense. For example, slightly mild , slightly medium and slightly intense.

251

Their effect is unlimited. Misery and apprehension are the two inevitable consequences of the misleading thoughts. The misery is depen- dent on the rajas guna, exhibiting something un-

favourable. All the undesirable tendencies of life

produce an endless series of causes and effects.

The wrong apprehension (ajnana) is in the shape of

doubt and false knowledge. These misleading thoughts whose nature and causes are clearly known

are to be avoided by contemplating on their opposites. 89

By practising the yama on the lines sugges- ted above, they become positive psychological forces

of tremendous power. Thus in the vicinity of a

person practising non-violence even natural enemies

give up their attitude of enmity.

The practice of veracity (satya) brings about

the fruits even without the necessary works being

performed. The practice of asteya makes a yogi to

be in the midst of treasures.

Through brahmacarya one preserves one's

vigour in the body by which the organs and mind

attain a high degree of strength. One who attains

this stege feels disgust for his cwn body. He

never feels any attraction towards the bodies of

252

bthers.The desire and anxiety which accompany attach-

ment are obstacles to knowledge.

By establishing oneself in non-covetousness,

one learns all about 'janmakathanta',i.e., knowledge

of the previous births and all about states every-

thing in regard to questions 'who and what sort of

person was I ?! ,'what was I doing ?! etc.

Covetousness is not limited to the mere

external means of enjoyment but includes the body

since the body is also an instrument of enjoyment ;

as long as it exists, the association with desires

and the energy being directed outwards, no real

knowledge reveals itself. when disinterestedness

develops strongly with reference to the body also,

then one can visualise the past and the future.

In one who practices purification perfect-

ly, there springs up disgust even for one's own body.

Naturally there is a loss of egoism with reference

to the body. Further when a person begins to .eel

one's own body as impure, the person indeed cannot

entertain even a thought of associating with other's

bodies.

253

· Purification leads to another result. A

person who maintains purity of the body will have a

pure sattva (buddhi) , them there will be a peace-

ful mind, concentration and control over the body

and finally the person is qualified for self-reali-

sation.

The practice of cheerfulness bestows on

the yogi unequalled internal happiness. The .

external enjoyment , i.e., sexual pleasure is not

equal to even a part of inward joy.

Practice of austerity brings perfection

of the body and senses through the removal of im-

purities consisting of the afflictions. The practice

of austerities like sandhya, washes out the afflic-

tions. This makes the psyche able to perceive the

hidden and the distant and the power of assuming a

body at will either atomic or of enormous bulk. The practice of self-study attains the highest point

in communion with the favoured deity. Samadhi

becomes perfect by deep devotion to the Lord. The

Lord, pleased by it, drives away the hindrances to samadh1.90

254

3. ĀSANA:

The names of only three asanas , viz., Padmāsana, Dandāsana and Svastikāsana, are given. When the posture is steady, not wavering and com- fortable, it serves the purpose of concentration. Asana must be achieved with least effort. by

perfectness of posture the aspirant is not troubled

by ache of joints that come in the way of trance.

The aspirant is not assailed by the pairs of oppo- sites as hear and cold, thirst and hunger and so

on. The next step of pranayama depends on the steadiness of asana.91

4. PRĀŅĀ YĀMA:

Prāņāyāma or regulation of breath is

cutting short the duration of inspiration and expira- tion. This peculiarised by space, time and number, is termed as long or short. The spatial reference in prānāyāma is to exhale air so as to reach a certain

distance, say a foot, from the nose. Time refers to

the duration of matras , say thirty-six required

for each of the three processes. The number is that

of exhalation and inhalation that make one set, 'udghäta', in which the vital air stirred from below

the navel , fill the head. The fourth operation

is involuntary and natural. It is the kumbhaka,

255

(retention)without any regard to the two spheres,

the cuter and the inner that occur simultaneously like a drop of water on a heated stone.92

5. PRATYAHĀRA:

The psyche becomes enlightened thr ough the

practice of prāņayāma. The cevering , made up of

ignorance, gets dispelled. Then it gains the light

of spiritual wisdom differentiating the real from

the unreal. The mind is freed from its defects by

the several kinds of regulations of breath and it re-

mains fixed and does not suffer any distraction.

The psyche must be restrained from going after objects

of sense to indulge therein.

Withdrawal of the organs from their objects

is pratyahara. The out-going nature of the sense

organs is to be controlled. That is mastery over

the senses. All the senses are observed to follow

obsequiously the mind as the bees follow their leader.

Hence when the mind is restrained from its functions,

the senses become subdued even when they are attract-

ed by the objects. It will result in a means of concentration.93

256 .

6. DHĀRAŅĀ:

Dharana is the fixing of the psyche by

abstracting it from all other objects. The object of dhārana may be external or an internal plexus.94

7. DHYĀNA: Lhyana is a course of uniform and continu-

ous concentration on the object fixed in the Dharana step95

8. SAMĀDHI: Samadhi is the continuation of Dhyāna,

when the object only shines forth prominently or the psyche becomes as if losing itself, 96

Samyama is a technical term in Yogasūtra and includes te three, namely, Dharana, Lhyane and Samädhi, having reference to one and the same object. By practising this well, the yogi attains wisdom.

Samyama is to be employed in the several

stages wherein the psyche has functions with refe- rance to gross and subtle elements, unless the yogi is sure of non-self nature cf the one stage, it is in

vain to practise samyama in the next stage. The first five steps of yoga are indirectly useful in samadhi while the last three are integral

257

parts of Yoga as they constitute samprajnata-samadhi. However, even these three are but extrinsic or in- directly useful to the objectless samadhi which is also known as 'contemplation on the śūnya1.97

There are four stages of meditation in the context of contempla tion, referred to as 'Citta- parinama' .:- (i) Distraction,(ii) beginning of Medi- tation, (iii) Concentration and (iv) Restraint. The ksipta and mudha moods (bhumi) come under the first. Viksipta marks the second because of predominance of sattva, The ekagra and niruddha come next under the last two stages ano te impressions are of regressive evolution. The impression born of distraction are destroyed by the impressions of the new stage, and the latter are destroyed by those born of concen - tration. The impressions of niruddha (restraint) des- troy the impressions of concentration themselves, like lead, when melted with impure gold, not only removes the impurity but also burns itself. Śraddha with reference to the Yoga is only the purity of psyche (Samadhi-Ekāgrata). A person with a clean psyche in respect of yoga will yearn for yoga. This reminds him of the experience of earlier states of

258

psyche. The recollection leads to e stablishment

of psyche. Such a person can clearly contemplate

on the object. These are the means of samprajnata- samadhi. By repeatedly resorting to this and

through excellence of vairagya one can achieve a samprajnata.98

Sampra jnata samâdhi

Samprajnata-samädhi is a kind of

'bhavana' (meditating) again and again on the bhāvana

only and eschewing all other objects. Bhavya is of

two types: Isvara and Tattvas. They are further of

two kinds: the twentyfour tattvas which are jada,

non-satient, and purusa, satient. When the form

of bhavya is known correctly and completely, it is

.samprajnata.

There is a method to develop

concentration. This is also the first stage of

samprajnata-samādhi. That is to concentrate on

particular objects like gandha, etc.

By cultivating this visayavati-

pravrtti, one experiences extra-ordinary sense of per-

ception. For example after concentration on the tip

of the nose, there will be perceptien of wenderful

perfumes. This serves as a cause of steadiness of

259

the psyche, Another method is visoka-pravrtti,

Visoka is the tendency that goes beyond pain,

the effect of rajas, due to the presence of sattva.99

'Jyoti' in the Sutra 1-36 , indicates

light of the sattva which is very luminous , abun-

dant and exceeding. When contemplating on the

sattva in the midst of the lotus bud of heart,

bright like the milky ocean with its waves stilled,

there will be the flood light of wisdom and then

all functions cease to operate; this makes the

psyche to have steadiness.

There is yet another method which inci-

dentally points to the subject of samprajhāta-

samadhi. when the psyche abandons all passion

for sensual objects, it will be away from afflic- tions too, such a psyche will have steadiness. 100

Dream is the state when the external

sense organs are not functioning and the atman ,

having experience through the mind (cetas), Con-

centration can be achieved when a psyche has its contemplation supported by dream cr sleep.1

260

The psyche can become steadied as well

when any object of one's preference is pondered

over. The object may be external as the moon or internal as the nadis or the nerve centres (cakl93)

The psyche which has acquired steadiness

through the above means, is agle to concentrate on

subtle objects and this bestows on it unresisted

mastery over even the atoms, i.e, subtle objects,

including the atoms, do not elude the cognisance

of mental insight. Likewise no mental obstacles

arise even when contemplating on the gross objects,

to the extent of infinite magmitude as the ākāsa.

In other words, the yogi has supremacy everywhere!

When all the functions of psyche are sub-

dued, the object contemplated upon, itself gains

the upper hand and pervades the psyche. The

stainless psyche assumes the form of the object of

contemplation because of proximity just as a

crystal of the best variety gets the colour of

thing in its vicinity.

The object of contemplation here is either

the atman (grahItr, perceiver) or perception

(grahana) or the perceived (grähya). Though with

261

regard to these objects of comtemplation, Patanjali has given expression to the order- perceiver, perception and perceivable-the actual order is the reverse of it. For it is only - the external (knowable) object theat can form the object of medi-

tation at first, the n knowledge and last comes

the perceiver only in the form of 'I'-ness for

purusa, .pure and simple, cannot be the object of

any contemplation.

Samāpatti

Accordingly, we have grahya samapatti, grahana samapatti, and grahitr: samāpatti. These three are inter-related with tne four types

of samprajnata-samadhi: the savitrarka and savicara

along with nirvitarka- and nirvicāra-samadhis come

under grāhya-samapatti. The sananda- and sasmita-

samadhis are respectively grahana- and grahitr- samapatti.

Types of sampra jnata-bamadhi:

If all the three, viz., the word,

the meaning and the comprehensicn with reference to

the object of contem plationpresent separately in a

samadhi it is called savitraka; the object con- temp lated appears in the three forms distinctly.

262

On clearing of the memory of the word and its sense

the cognition too recedes back. Then the psyche will have the form of the object clear and bright , and

appears as though it has no form of its own. This

is nirvitarka. Both these are limited to the field

of gross objects and lean on the great elements and

iddriyas. 105

(i1) Savicara and nirvicara> are related to

subtle objects.when the subtle objects as of word,

meaning and vikalpa appear limited by space, time, attiroutes, etc., it is savicara.When awaremess

is of the subtle objects in the form of tanmtras

and as the substratum only bereft of the limitation

of space, time , attributes,etc., is nirvicara. The

subtle things , the objects in the savicara and nirvicāra meditations extend back upto prakrti itself. Katha-Upanisad may be recalled here. 1?1-3),

These four types are termed : grāhyasamapatti, concentration in the grahya, object.

(111) Sananda :- when the sattva of the in-

ternal organ is tinged with rajas and tamas, then the cithsakti too has the form of the gunas and when

the sattva which is of tne nature of pleasure and

263

illumination is being meditated upon, it predominates and that, is' sananda,: 107 This is grahana-samapatti, concentration on the grahana, knowledge.

(iv) Sasmita: The meditation of the pure sattva untouched by even an iota of rajas or tamas is called sasmita. The grähya, i.e, buddhi (antah- karaņa) is subordinated and the citiśakti is predo- minent and has mere existence.

Asmita is different from ahamkāra. when the internal organ causes the knowledge of things with reference to subject, 'I', it is ahamkāra. When the psyche (cetas) with reverse evolution in- ternally loses itself in the prakrti, and when the citiśakti as mere existence, it is asmitā, 108

With reference to those who meditate after knowing purusa, this is called grahltr-samapatti. These alone are dependent absorptions, i.e, sabIja-samadhi. It means the concentration in these types has something to rest upon. Cf the above four types of samadhis, the nirvicara is the best.199

by virtue of the pre-eminent practice of these, the purity or the spiritual clearness occurs following the removal of distractions of the mind

26%

and results in firm steadfastness. The wisdom which comes through the nirvicara and spiritual clearness differs from the ordinary ways of know- ing because the former has a special object. Even the subtle or hidden objects appear very clearly for this (rtambhara) wisdom. Socn after they become steady. and continue by arresting the distracting thoughts, the yogi must strive to make it more intense.110

ASAMPRAJNĀTA-SAMĀDHI: The Asamprajnata-samadhi consists in repu- diating continuously all the functions of the psyche. The asamprajnata has only the impressions leit, there is nothing to be known afresh. It is seedless - (nirbIja) or objectless as it needs no object . When the samprajnata , too, is transcended all the functions of the psyche,resolve into their causes then arises a continuous train of thoughts but each is given up as not useful (neti-neti). -This leads to meditation that needs no support. The soul is then said to abide in its own nature pure, alone and emancipated. 111

265

MCCDS OF PSYCHE IN ADVANCED YOGA STAGE:

When the attributes of the form of dis-

traction off impressions set down and attributes of

the form of restraining impressions rise up, then

though the psyche is related to both, it is compre-

hended as restrained because of its being the sub-

stratum. That is termed as modification of res-

traint. Also this modification is calied steadiness

though there is no static psyche due to the func-

tion of the gunas being always dynamic. Since

all distractions are avoided, the psyche will have

modification in one and the same, the object of

contemplation.' 112

The above is the modification of res-

traint. The modification of samadhi would be as

follows: -

Even as distraction, i.e.,comprehending

varieties of objects due to dynemism is an attitude

of the psyche,so is concentration,i.e.,to have

similar modifications in any one object. The

gradual disappearance of the former and manifestation

of the latter is the modification of samadhi. The

purpose with sattva being predominant,assumes the form of the object of contemplation, 3

266

The difference between the two modifica- tions is : in the first, nirodha-parināma, the distracting impressions become subdued and the restraining impressions dominant. In the other, samadhi-parinama, the distracting impressions being reduced to nought, become a thing of past and the attribute of the form of concentration will be in the present state. The third is ekagrata- parinama, modification of concentration. If the functions of tre psyche -those that pass on to the past and those that come forward to manifest in a psyche in balanced state-have similar form that is called modification of concentration. 114

PRANTA - BHUM1- PRAJNA: An aspårant taking the course of yoga discipline gradually rises up through seven steps. His comprehension grows in width and length. The stages are called 'Pranta-bhum1-Praja'. The seven steps can be divided into two_groups: The first four forming karyavimukti-prajna and the remaining three ,cittavimukti-prajña. (1) Kārya-vimukti :- jneyaśűnya-avasthā, heya sűnya; (ii) cittavimukti: citta-krtārthatā , gunalina-avastha and ātmasthiti-avastha.

267

(1) Karyavimukti-prajna: - The prajna that brings

freedom from the created world, the aspirant

who has risen through these stages, finds that he

has nothing to do with this world. It has four

stages: (a) one becomes sure that one has known

everything and nothing remains further to be known. (b) one becomes confident that the afflictions are destroyed; (c) one comes to know that one has attained the right knowledge; (d) one finds one-

self having wisdom. Evidently at this stage, the yogi has no desires to be achieved. Thus the yogi is liberated from the modifications. (ii) Citta-vimukti-Prajna :- The prajha that liberates from psyche has three stages: (a) one at this state realises the intellect has completed its purpose, i.e., services to the purusa ; (b) the realisation is that the gunas having exhausted their power to give fruit, are unable to regain their positiom like rocks rolling down from the top of a mountain; (c) in the third stage, the gunas will be heading

towards dissolution in their source , because they do not have the base called 'mohe :! Be- cause they do not have any purpose to fulfil, they are unable to procreate. Thus when the

268

transcendance is perfected, the yogi will have the realisation : 'I am established in my own self.'

When the yogi passes through those seven stages of perfecting knowledge, purusa comes to be called albof.115

DHARMA= MEGHA- SAMADHI:

Prasamkhyana signifies the comprehension of the distinguishing features of all tattvas which are well set in a proper order. Even with only that and no further development because of the absence of interrupting thoughts and therefore wisdom in all possible modes only is present, the yogi will have the trance called 'Dharmamegha'. It is so called because it sprinkles (mehati) the excellent dharma, beyond asukla-krsna which is able to beget the most superior purpose of purusa. By this it is to be understood as setting forth their cause of wisdom is the best Dharma.

The afflictions are covers because they put veil round the psyche. They are also termed dirt. By dispelling this veil, the psyche extends far and wide like sky and there is little that it does not comprehend there, 116

269

(f) TYPES OF YOGIS AND SIDDHIS:

(1) Types of Yogis:

(a) The novice carrying out practice.

(b) the one having the rtambhara-prajna

(c) the one who has conquered the elements and organa.

(d) the one who has gone beyond the stage of having one object for samadhi

To be steadfast in trance, the nature of

the various types of yigis are set out.

At the end of the 7th level of prantabhuņi-

praj na, the yogi begins to visualise the madhumati

tier. Then the Gods bewitch the yogi with divine

damsels, etc. The yogi should neither accept the

invitation nor feel proud of one's status. In the

former case the yogi will be caught in the sensual

pleasure and in the latter case the yogi will lose

ferver in samadhi considering oneself as having

attained the highest state. 7

In the sananda stage of samadhi those

who see no other tattva than the prakrti-purusa,

are called videhas because they have no longer

any fandness over their body.

In the sasmita stage of samadhi, because

only the psyche is merged in its cause and yogi is

270

overjoyed but has not realised kaivalya , the

yogi is called 'prakrtilaya'.

The samädhi of the videhas and the pakrtilayas has the samsara as the cause, i.e,, those who are involved in the worldly pleasure will

have such samadhi. Siace there is no realisa-

tion of the Truth, this is only a semblance of

yoga. In other words, one desirous of emancipa- tion will have to strive hard to know about the 118 Truth and contemplate there on.

In the case of those aspirants whose

impressions are very deep, the attainment of

samadhi is quite at hamd. Three expedients , Mrdu, madhya and Adhimatra with each of three types: mrdusamvega,

madhya -samvega and tIvra-samvega. Thus there are nine types of Yogis. The purpose of this division is to emphasise that strenuous effort is behind

the 9th type ,Adhimatra-tIvrasamvega. 119

(11) Siddhis: -

The yogi who is in the advanced stage

of yogic practice can, if he m'inds, gain extra- ordinary powers called 'siddhis'. The siddhis set forth are the effects of birth etc., i.e., these

271

siddhis are manifest through birth etc., on the

basis of- the strength of the samadhi practised

in earlier births. This is explained to clarify

that the samadhi which is to be perfected in

several births does not go in vain in any one

birth; it is sustained, its power is continucus.

But to go after siddhis is a distraction.

Siddhi can be achieved through several

means . Some siddhis are there by birth, e.g.,

the flying of the birds or the self-evident quali- ties like wisdom,etc,, which appear immediately

after birth in case of persons like Sage Kapila

and others. Some other siddhis are the result

of consuming medicines., mantra-japa repetition of mantras-gives certain siddhis like moving through air, Viśvamitra and others achieved

siddhi by tapas. These siddhis are effected by the afflic-

:tions which aere enfeebled in previous births. Therefore as in the case of the siddhis of samādhi, for the other siddhis too, samadhi practised in earlier births is the cause. Mantra- japa etc., are only instruments in manifesting

them.

272

Following Patenjali Bhoja explains the

various siddhis obtainable as a result of

contemplation on different objects. The Yogi

will be able to achieve super-human powers like

omniscience, invisibility of the body, lightness

or heaviness of the body,ability to enter another's

body and so on and so forth. But these achieve-

ments are in the state of psyche prior to com-

plete absorption. Though these siddhis are

impediments in the path of perfect samadhi, they are set forth only as 'arthavada: 120

0

273

CHAPTER- V

VYASA-BHASYA AND BHOJA-VRTTI: A COMPARATIVE STUDY.

At the very outset it must be said that there

is a cnronological gap of nearly ten centuries between

Vyasa and Bhoja. Also the approach of the two commen-

taries is different. while the former is writing a bhasya, an exposition, Bhoja is writing avrtti, a short

commentary. This over-all difference of metnod and providing information on aspects which may not be known directly from the words of thesutra, marks the two

commentaries.

As already pointed out, Vyasa is nearer to the Sutra, as well as to the older tradition of the various systems of thought. There is less probability of Vyasa being influenced by other thinkers and certainly not by

the classical Sahknya. But Bhoja is very much under the influence of

not only Sankhya out also the Vedanta since almost three centuries earlier to him,Sanknya meant the Sānkhya of Iśvara-Krishna only. Even the sankhya referred to in the BhagavadgIta was not considered any thing different

from classical sankhya. Hence in one aspect perhaps vyasa-Bhāsya and Bhoja-Vrtti do not stand any comparison at all. But because both the commentaries are on the same text, we can compare them from the standpoint of their interpre-

274 tative merit in making one understana the idea of Patanjall.

The Yogasutra does not deal with in

detail on the ontological or the epistemological

problem so far as pramānas, their pramanya, nature of

error are concerned. These points are referred

to in different contexts. But Vyasa takes cue from

the Sutra in which the categories etc. are found

referred to and explains in brief some of the points.

Bhoja on the other hand who wants to give only an elucidation of the significance of the Sutra in brief,

does not take those occasions to setforth anything more than what is necessary to understand a gatra in

question. Further Bhoja freely makes use of Sankhya and Vedanta terminology like Antahkarana and Ātman in

the course of his vrtti. At the end of every pāda, Bhoja summarises the salient points made out there in and at the end of the text, he succintly present the

sastra position. Also at the end, he adds a brief comparative note on the nature of atman in other systems of thought vis-a-vis the yoga conception of

purușa. -- On the basis of the individual study of

the commentaries in the previous two chapters, we may now try to compare them and note the differences in

the interpretations wherever they occur.

275

(a) THE TERM YOGA:

Both Vyasa and Ehoja concur that

yoga is samadhı. While Vyasa is explicit Bhoja is

indirect. And the study of yoga does not require

any pre-requisite qualification in their opinion as

they agree that 'atha' in the first sutra conveys only

auspiciousness or a simple beginning of the śastra.

It may also be noted that ihoja names the first pada

as Yoga-pada (it is Samadhi- in others).

(b) ONTOLOGY: PRAKRTI AND ITS EVOLUTES:

Vyāsa gives somewhat a clear picture

of the ontological position of Yoga-darsana in the

course of his bhasya. Bhoja only refers here and

there to the nature of prakrtiand its evolutes and it

is not possible to have an idea of the prakrti, its

constituents and its evolutes from the yoga point of

·view from Bhoja.

The prakrti and its first evolute

Mahat are respectively called 'alinga' and 'lińga-

mātra'. And the next evolutes ahamkāra and tanmātras

are called avisesas, while the ten organs and manas,

and the elements are called viśesas in Vyāsa-bhāsya.

Bhoja employes the terms alinga and lingamatra as in

Vyasa. Regarding the other evolutes he makes use of

the terms avisistalińga and viśista-lińga. Avišistalinga

276

refers to the tanmatras and antahkarana while the latter

refers to the elements and the organs. The difference

so far as Bhoja is concerned, is that Bhoja includes

mahat or Buddhi also under the avisistalinga by use

of the term Antaņkaraņa.

Another noteworthy feature is that Bhoja

as can be seen above, brings in terms antahkarana stand-

ing for a unit of buddhi, ahamkara and manas. This

is a term which is used in this connotation in the

Sankhyakarika and in a special sense in Advaita. The

term is, however, not employed by Vyasa or even Patanjali.

It may be noted that Ahamkāra and Tanmā-

tra are the evolutes of the mahat as Vyasa puts it.

This idea is rether peculiar to Vyāsa-bhäsya, otherwise

the branching starts in Ahamkara. Vyasa also points

out that each of the tanmatras namely śabda, sparsa,

rupa, rasa and gandha contains within itself all the

preceding tanmatras, Thus gandha-tanmatra has all

the five in it while sabda has sabda only. Bhoja

distinguishes the twenty five tattvas into jada and

ajada. The Prakrti and its twentythree evolutes

come under jada and purusa is ajada. He also notes

that Isvara is beyond these tattvas.

277

PURUSA:

There is no difference of opinion between

them. Purusa is pure consciousness without any modi-

fication and he stands aloof, apart from prakrti. The

inert prakrti gets activated by the proximity of the

purusa and has the various modifications. The cause

for the proximity of the purusa is not discussed; it

is spoken of as anādi, beginningless, but Bhoja notes

that "the initial stimulus for evolution comes from God 1 The proximity of purusa is explained as the

reflection of purusa in the buddhi, when the purusa

would be called the seer, the enjoyer and the buddhi

comes to be called drsya and bhogya, the objedt of

experience.

Both Vyasa and Bhoja concur on the plura-

lity of purusa.

In the state of emancipation, the purusa

stands apart from prakrti, Neither Vyasa nor Bhoja

suggest that the emancipated purusas :either merge into one purusa or in Iśvara.2 It may however,hoted

that Bhoja freely makes use of the term Atman to indi-

cate the bounded purusa. But Vyasa nowhere uses the

term in that sense.

278

IŚVARA:

Following Patanjali, both Vyasa and Bhoja speak of Iśvara as a purușavisesa, purusa of a special status. The speciality is in that 'He' is omniscient, omnipresent, and untouched by any modification, experi- ence or afflicction. Hence, he has no karma. Though he has no sway over the purusas or the prakrti, he is compassionate and comes to the rescue of the bound purusa to get his release.

Bhoja however goes a step further and says that Iśvara is also responsible for bringing about the proximity of prakrti and purusa resulting in evolution, though Iśvara has no purpose of his own.

DRAVYA:

Under sūtra 3-44, Vyasa takes the opportu- nity to speak about the nature of Dravya. He says how it is an aggregate of ordinary and extra-ordinary form and also writes about the types. Bhoja does not say anything, special on sutra 3-44 and has nothing to add on 3-53.

KĀRYA-KĀRANA BHĀVA:

While explaining the sūtra 2-28, Vyasa distinguishes nine types of causes; utpatti, sthiti,

279

etc. In another context (3-13), Vyasa elucidates

the nature of change. He shows that the change is

only in the attributes and not in the substratum.

The change of the attribute is only considered as that

of the substratum.' The viewe of the Bauddhas and

other thinkers are also refuted. Bhoja does not

write anything about the types of causes or about the

views of othcr thinkers. However, he notes the

salient points of yoga theory of causation which is

not very different from the Sankhyan parinamavada.

KĀLA:

For both the writers ksana is the smallest ..

unit of time while Vyasa has something to say about

... their succession. Bhoja does not say any such thing.

Neither of the writers consider the place of Kala

*Time', in the frame work of the universe. In Vyasa's

discussion on parinama, cittaparinama in particular, the three divisions of Kala namely Atita, Anagata and

Vartamana which are called as the Adhvas, are together

called Laksana.

The change is from anagata, yet-to-come, to vartamana-present, and from present to Atita-past.

The change does not occur in the reverse order.

280

REALITY OF THE PHYSICAL WORLD:

The sutra 4.15 gives occasion to Vyasa to

estabiish .the reality of the objective world-

standing apart from idea. Vyasa refers to the views

of the other thinkers who did not accept the existence

of the object independent of consciousness. Bhoja

also briefly refers to those views.

Vyasa's references to the Buddhist and

Jaina views seem to be taken from the earlier sources

while those in Bhoja have the well formed schools of

the two philosophies.

(c) COSMOLOGY:

While explaining the word Bhuvanajnana in

sütra 3-26, Vyasa gives a picture of the universe

which mostly agrees with the puranic description of

the same. Bhoja does not go into any such details.

(d) EPISTEMOLOGY: NATURE OF CITTA:

In the sūtras of Patanjali and Vyasa-Bhasya,

psycne has a very prominent position. It is a basic

concept. It may even be said that the sutra and the

Bhasya only examine the behaviour of the psyche.

prescribe certain methods to regulate it so that the

psyche could develop concentration.

281

As already pointed out psyche is the Buddhi together with the image of the purusa reflected therein. Bhoja appears to miss the principle theme of the yoga as noted above. He brings in the terms 'antahkarana' and 'Atman'. The term 'antahkar- ana' is employed by Bhoja for the term citta in the Sutra. The concept of antahkarana, borrowed by Bhoja, is that of the Sankhya-karika. In the 29th kārika, Isvara-krsna states that the buddhi, the ahamkara, and the manas, together constitute the antahkarana. However it cannot be ruled out that the .... concept of psyche in the Stra and the Bhasya was not similar to the concept of antahkarana. But only point that can be made out is Bhoja could have as well made use of the term 'citta' only instead of adopting a term from another sastra. And also he does not try to show that psyche includes the three Tattvas, buddhi, ahamkāra and manas, though he tries to define citta in 1-4. While establishing that the activity to fulfil the purpose of purusa is a natural force in Prakrti, Bhoja seems to suggest that the Prakrti also has an innate consciousness which is manifested by the proximity of the purusa. He writes .... Vyakta- cetanāyah prakrteh kartrtvābhimānāt ... " (4-23).

282

Vyasa on Sūtra 4-10 substantiates 'vi-

thutval,omnipresence of the psyche put forth by Fatanjali by contradicting the theories of other

philosophers.

Both Vyasa and Bhoja following Patanjali

agree that the psyche is an object of cognition of

the power of the seer within it.

Bhoja under the last sutra (4-34) notes

the views of different systems of thought regarding

the nature of Atman and establishes that the concept

developed by.yoga is the most cogent one. Again it

must be pointed out that the term, Atman in Bhoja

refers to purusa. But the former word is not em-

ployed in that sense either in the Sutra or in the

Bhasya.

Both Vyasa and Bhoja concur that psyche

has five moods based on the degree of distractions.

Of these, viksipta, the middle one, is the normal

mood. The earlier two are more distracted and the

latter two are less distracted. Because the psyche

in ksipta and mudha moods is too distracted to be

controlled easily, Vyasa igndres them. Bhoja gives

some points about the nature of ksipta and mudha

moods also.

283

CITTA-VRTTI:

· Patanjali himself speaks of five func-

tions of the psyche : pramāna, viparyaya, vikalpa ,

nidra, and smrti. The two commentators agcee in

their interpretations of the vrttis(functions).

The sutras 1-27 and 3-17 give occasion

to Vyasa to put forth his view on the signification

of the words and sentences and the nature of cogni-

tion through sabda; bhoja does not deal with the

meaning of the words and sentences but briefly

points out the nature of vertal cognition. He does

not differ rrom Vyasa in this respect. The view

expressed is that the word, the meaning and cogni-

tion in a context are dirferent from each other,

but they are mutually super-imposed in the normal

course. but a yogi can concen.rate on these and

can visualise the distinction among the three factors.

Under smrti Vyasa distinguishes two types:

Bhavitasmartavya and Abhāvitasmartavya. Bhoja is

not interested in this.

5 PRACTICAL THINKING:

Kleśas:

Patanjali lists five afflictions:avidya,

asmita , rāga , dvesa, and abhinivesa and states

2S4

that avidya is the germinating field for the other

four afflictions. Vyasa interprets the term avidya.

He says that avidya does not signify lack of knowledge

as such but only negation of right knowledge. He

substantiateshis position by discussing similar

negative compounds, Amitra and Agospada. Bhoja

however does not enter into such nuances. Also we

find the emphasis on avidya as the source of misery

in Vyasa.

THEORY OF KARMA:

Under Sutras 2-12 & 13, Vyasa deals in

detail with the theory of karma. He illustrates

some points like immediate fruition of karmas and

mentions NandĪsvara-Kumāra and Nahusa, ,also examines

the relation of karma and birth- whether karma is

. the cause of one birth or of series of births, whether

many karmas cause many cirths or one birth. He

concludes that the karma results in one birth.

Bhoja agrees with Vyasa in general but doesnot go into any discussion. To the illustrations

of Nandisvara. and :. Nahusa, he adds Visvamitra

and Urvasi,

Regarding the types of karmas are concerned:

Bhoja refers to kusala- and akusala-kurmas. The

285

inevitability of the law of karma is forcefully shown

by Vyasa. The idea of non-germination of scortched

seeds is well made use of by Vyasa. The samadhi-

prajna scortches the seed of karma i.e., Avidya.

Though seed may be there, it does not have the capa-

city of germination. It is made incapacitated, Vyasa

reiterates this time and again and drives it right

into our mind. Viewed from this angle, the word

'karmas' in the statement in Bhagavad-Gita that the fire of knowledge "reduces all karmas to ashes",3

should. be taken to mean'seed of karmas'.

DUHKHA :

Avidya, that is mis-apprehension, the

failure to recognise the absolute distinctness of

purusa and prakrti, is the root cause of all misery.

What is called pieasure in the normal sense

of the term is also observed in life to be misery in

the long run. Duhkha can be distinguished into

various types. There is no difference between the

commentators in this regard.

SAM YOGA :

Vyäsa very clearly brings out the idea of

sattvapurusa-samyoga. The sattvu-dominated evolute

of prakrti is called the Buddhi, also called sattva for

short. When Buddhi, activated by the purusa, functions

it comes to be caileu psyche. The psyche apears

286

as the knower for all practical pur oses, cut actually

it is the purusa within it that is the knower.

That purusa comes to be called 'Drk' and the buddhi,

in contrast, comes to be callec Drsya. From an --

other angle of view, because the Drk purusa, has expe --

rience through the medium of the buddhi, the former is

called the Bhokta, the enjoyer and the Buddhi, Bhogya

the object of enjoyment. The experience that the

Buddhi provides to the purusa has a wide cormotation.

It not only refers to the experience of mundane world

but also the experience of Kaivalya. The Samyoga

is the cause of all modifications.

Bhoja agrees on all these points, Though

both of them also agree with Patanjali that samyoga,

the proximity of prakrti and purusa, is beginningless,

Bhoja remarks that tne proximity is effected be the wish of the lord Isvara, However, this samyoga can

be put an ena to.

KAIVALYA:

Kaivalya is the state of being aloof when

the proximity of purusa and prakrti is broken and

these stand apart as independent entities. This

also makes the complete cessation of misery of

samsara cecause the cause of the misery, aviaya, is

routed out. The commentators do not difier on this

287

point. The writings of the commentators do not

clarify whether a purusa in the emancipated state

retains his indentity. But there is nothing that can

distinguish one purusa from another. As such one

will be inclined to think that the purusas merge

together. But the commentators give us to under-

stand that the purusas maintain independence.

On sutra 2-4, Vyasa speaks of yogins having

'caramadeha', i.e., that the present body of the

yogi in question, is the last one. In other words,

he will not be born again. So a yogi in such a state

is cock-sure of kaivalya, it is as good as having

obtained emancipation. This concept is analogous to

the concept of Jivanmukta, well known in advaita-vedanta.

In fact, Vyasa actually uses the word Jivanmukta to

such a yogi (4-30). Bhoja does not say any such thing.

HĀNOPĀYA:

There is agreement regarding the means of

kaivalya. Kaivalya is attained by taking recourse

to semadhi and perfecting it. Patonjali speaks of

two courses one shorter and another longer. The

former is with reference to those who are able to

balance their pysche by nature. While the latter is

for those who have the viksiptamood. Vyasa and

288

Lhoja gives explanations of the relevant points in in their contexts.

Under the eight stages of yoga, Vyasa

deals in detail with each of them. He shows how

ahimsa and other practises under 'yama' are to be

conducted without any sort of pretext. There must be an absolute observance and then only that could

be styled mahavrata, as Patanjali puts it.

PRANTABHŪMI-PRAJNA:

Vyasa interprets clearly the seven steps

to perfect samadhi, Vyasa and Bhoja explain the two

levels of samadhi, the lower and the higher and the

varieties of lower samadhi in the respective contexts.

SAMADHI: Its types:

While there is no significant difference

in the interpretation of samprajnata or asamprajnata

samadhi, Vyasa high lights the concept of dharma-megha

while Bhoja does not attach any importance to it

Vyasa's regard for dharma-megha is due to his chrono-

logical position.

Regarding the four kinds of samprajnata- samadhi there is difference in interpretation. Vyasa simply says that all these are salambana, that

is having an object for contemplation. Bho ja

clarifies about the object of contemplation.

289

rrom the point of view of understanding

the course of meditation Bhoja points out, four

stages: (1) distraction, under this come ksipta

and mudha moods, (2) next, as one strives in the

path of discipline, one will have "beginning of

meditation". (3) rurther, the aspirant goes on to

have "concentration"and finally , (4) the aspirant

will have complete 'restraint'.

As yogi advances in yogic practices it

is possible, if he minds, to attain extraordinary

powers and that is called siddhi. Patanjali deals

in great detall about various siddhis that can be

achieved. It is warned that to indulge in achiev -

ng siddhis is a distraction and weans the aspirant

away from perfect samadhi. When it is so it has

to be explained why Patanjali devoted a whole chapter

for the purpose. Bhoja comes forward with this

explanation, he says that the delineation is.to

clarigy that the samadhi is to be perfected in

several births and what one has achieved in any

one birth does not go in vain; its power is sustained

and continued. As Bhoja sets limits to himself,

the reader can have clear idea about the varieties

of siddhis. Vyasa adds to our knowledge by dealing

with the objects of contemplation enumerated by the

Sūtrakāra. ***

290

NOTES AND REFERENCES

CHAPTER I

1. Hiriyanna: Outlines of Indian Philosophy, page 57.

2. Ramakrishna Rao; Theism in Pre-classical Sankhya, P.10 3. Shivaganesha Murthy: A study of the Important Lrahmanas. 4. Ranade: A constructive Survey of Upanishadic philosophy, p.3 5. Ibid, p.13 6. Winternitz: History of Indian Literature, Vol.I; Nacdonell:History of Sanskrit Litersture. 7. Ranade: op .cit., p.13. 8. Hanade: op.cit. 9. Ibid 10. Hiriyanna: op.cit. p.54 11. Ibid, p.62 12. Ibid, p.87 13. Ioia 14. Ibid, p.135 15. Redhakrishnan: Indian Philosophy, Vol.I,p.3 33. 16- iriyanna: op.cit. 17. Hiriyanna: op.cit .; Datta and Chatterjee: An Introduction to Indian Philosophy; Nagaraja Rao: Fundam entals of Indian Philosophy: etc."

The carvaka system is also called Lokāyata and was a well-established system of analytical thinking by the late centuries before Christ as evidenced in Kautilya's Arthasāstra (1.1.2) 18. Hiriyanna: op.cit .; Datta et al, op.cit .; Chatterjee : Nyaya Theary of Knowledge; etc.

291

19. Hiriyanna: op.cit. Datta and Chatterjee, op.ctt. 20. . Hiriyanna, op.cit. Datta, et al, op.cit. Jha, G .: The Purvamimamsa System; etc. . 21. hiriyanna: Indian Philosophical Studies and Indian Conception of values, Datta: Six Ways of Knowing ; etc. 22. Hiriyanna: Outlines of Indian Philospphy. Datta: et al, :op.cit. Keith: Sáńkhya System 23. See. Ramakrishna Rao, op.cit. 24. Hiriyanna: op.cit. Datta et al op+cit. Ramakrishna Rao opr cit.

CHAPTER II

1. Dasgupta: Yoga, as Philosophy and Religion; Yoga Psychology;RV VI.91.1, IV.57.8; AV VI.30. 2. Ramakrishna Rad: Theism in Pre-Classical Sankhya 4. Saxkhya. Visnupurāņa, IV 7.3 and VI.7 5. Kūrmapurana, adh. 45. Atmananda Swamy: Four Paths to Spfiritual #ni1ightenment 7. Thadani: Mimamsa Rules of Interpretation as applied to Hindu Law. 8. Max Muller: History of Ancient Sans- krit Literature, p.20, 238.

2. Atmananda Swamy: op.cit. 10. Ramakrishna Rao: op.cit. p.291

3. lbid, p.270 12. Hiriyanna: Outlines of Indian Philosophy, p.148 13. Hiriyanna: indian Conception of Values, p.305.

292

14. Vacaspati miśra: Tattvavaisāradi, Inroduction. 15. See Introduction of Ramashankar Bnattacharya to his edietion of Pātańjala-Yoga Sūtram with Bhoja-Vrtti. 16. Śivarāma's Commentary on vāsavadatta (Biblio- theca Indica Edn.), p.239. 17. Bhoja-Vrtti, Introductiory verses. 18. Ramabhadra DIksıta: Patanjali-caritam,5.35. 19. Weber: History of indian Literature, P,124. 20. Jacobi: Dates of Philosophical Sutras, JAOS Vo1.31, 1911, pp.1ff. Woods: Yoga System of Patangali Macdoneil: History of Sanskrit Literature Keitn: Sänkhya System Jwalaprasad : Date of Yoga Sutras, JRAS 1930, pp.365-66 . Garbe : Sankhya Philosophy 21. Vyakarana mahābhāsya , p.23 22. Kautılya: Arthaāstra: Sānkhyam yogaļ lokāyatam ceti anviksikI. 1.1.2 (Vidyāsamuddeśa) 23. Abhinavabharati: (GOS) Vol.I, p.283, 331, 334, 374. See also Raghavan: Abhinavagupta and the Bhasya on the Yogasutras'in Abhinagupta and his Works. 24. Macdonell: History of Sanskrit Literature., p.24

CHAPTER - III

The references nere are to Yogasutrabhasya unless . otherwise mentioned.

1. Yogaḥ samādhih 1.1; Yogaś cittavrtti-nırodhaḥ Y.S. 1.2 2. Hiriyanna: Outlines of indian Philosophy, p .< 71 3. guņāstu sarvadharmānupatino na pratyastam

293

ayante nopajāyante. vyaktibhir eva atītānā- . gatā:vyayagama vatiohirgunavayinIchirupajanar napāyadharmakaive pratyavachāsante ... 2.19. 4. Yathā devadatto daridra iti kasmāt ? Yato'sya mriyante gāva iti gavāmeva maraņāt tasya daridratā na avarūpahānāditi samah samādhiņ. Ibid 5. 2.23, 24. Purusah :Svāmi dršyena swena darśanārtham samyuktah .... buadhi-purusa- samyogabhāva ātyantiko bandhanoparamah ityar- thah. 2.25 6. Tayoh drkdarsana-saktyor anādicrarthakrtaḥ samyoge ... prayojanamurar ikrītya pravartata iti bhogāpavargartham hi taddrsyam purugayeti. 2.17 , also 2.6. 7. ... śabdādayah pancāviesāh sasthaścāviseso 'smitamatra iti- ete., sattāmātrasyatmano mahatah sadavišesaparinamāh na visesebhyah param tatvāntaram astīti višesāņām nāsti tattvāntra-parināmah. 2.19 8. 3.14, 42. ... atyanta-vibhaktayor atyantāsankĪrņayor avibhaga-praptāv iva satyām bhogah kalpate ... 2.6 10. kuśalasya samsāra-krama-parisamāptih netarasya .... 4.33. 11. tadabhidhyanamātrad api yoginadanna tarah samadhilabhah samadhiphalam ca bhavati iti. 1.23 12. Ramakrishna Rao: Theism in Pre-Classical Sankhya, p.291;

294

Proressor Hiriyanna remarks that the sutras relating to Iśvara"stand disconnected with the rest of the work". loc.cit. p. 282 13. See below under Quatations in Vyasabhāsya, No.2 14. purvesam api guruh, kalenavcchedāt, Y.S.1.26 15. tasya vācakah praņavaņ. Ibid 1.27 16. ayutasiddhau avayavabhedānugatah samūhah dravyam iti patańjalih etat svarupam iti uktam. 3.44. Patañjali quoted by name here must be different from the Sūtrakāra. See Chapter II-B. 17 2.28. 18 dharmasya dharmini vartamānasya evādhvasvatī- tānāgata-vartamanesu bhāvanyathatvam bhavati na tu dravyanyathātvam- yathā suvarna -- bhā- janasya bhittvānyatha-kriyamanaāsya bhávany- athatvam bhavati na suvarnānyathatvam-iti . 3.13 19 vartamāna-laksanayukto'tītānāgatābhāyam laksana- bhyām aviyukta iti- yathā purusa ekasyām striyam rakto na esāsu virakto bhavati iti. ibid. 20 na dharmī tryadnvā yathaikā rekhā saCtasthāna šatam, dašasthāne dasatkā caikasthāne, yathā caikstyepi stri matā cocyate duhitā ca svasā ceti. Ibid 21. Yathā samsthānam adimaddharma-mātram sabdā - dinam vinasya - vināšinām evam lińgam admad- dharma-mātram sattvadīnām gunānām vināsya- vināsinām, tasmin vikara-samjheti . Ib1d

295

22 yogyata avicchanna-dharmcinah saktir eva dharmah . 3.14 23 yathā anāgata-vartamānayoh pūrwapaścimatā naivam atitasya tasmān nātītasyāsti sama - nantarah tad anagata eva samanantaro bhavati vartamanasyeti. athāvyapadešyah ke ? sarvam sarvatmakam iti- yatroktam jalabhūmyon parinamikam rasadivaisvarūpyam sthāvaregu drstam. tatha jatyanucchedena sarvam sarvātmakam iti. 1b1d 24. ekasya dharmina eka eva parināma iti prasakte kramanyatvam parinamanyatve hetur bhavatiti. tad yatha curnamrt-pindamrt-ghatamrt-kapalnmrt- Innamrt iti ca kramah. 3.15

25 tathāvasthā-parināma-kramo 'pi ghatasyabhi- navasya prānte purānatā drsyate sā ca kaana- paramparānupātinā krameņābhivyajyamānā parām vyaktimāpadyata įti dharmalaķsanāthyam pariņama iti- fbid 26 yadā tu paramārthotdharminyabhed fopacaras- tadvāreņa sa evābnidhĪyate dharmas tadāyam ekatvenaiva kramaḥ pratyavabbāsate. Ibid. 27 siddham nimittam naimittikasya visesānugraham kurute, napurvam utpadayatiti. 4.12 28 dharmi cänekadharmasvabhavah tasya cādhvabhe- dena dharmāh pračtyavasthitāņ. Ibid 29 ekasya cadhvanaņ samaye dvāvadhvānau dharmi- samanvāgatau bhavata eveti, nābhūtvā bhāvas trayanam adhvanam iti. Ibid 30 See quotations in Vyasa-Bhasya, No. 39. 31 kūțasthanityesu muktapuruşesu svarúpastitā krameņaivānubhūyata iti tatrāpi alabdhaparya-

296

vasanaņ šabda-prstūena astikriyām upādāya kalpita tti- 4.33 32 kanņas tuvastupatitaņ kramāvalambī- 3.52 33. -pratyupasthitam idam svamāhātemyena vastu kathamapramāņātmakena vikalpa-jňānabalena vastusvarūpam ustrjya tadevāpalapantaņ śraddheyavacanab syuh- 4.14 34 4.15 35 4.16 36 sadā jhatatvam tu manasas tatprabho purusasya- pariņāmitvam anumāpayati- 4.18 37 3.26 andam ca pradhānsyānur avayavo yathākāśe khadyota tti- lbid 38 See Ali,s.M eography of the Furanas 39 3.26 40 cittam hi prakhyapravrttisthiti śĺlatvät triguņamdrastr-dršyoparaktam cittam sarvärtham. 1 2

Y.S.4.23 41 prakhārūpam hi citta-sattvam rajastamobhyām samsrstam aisvaryapagam bhavati. Ibid nirodhadnarma -samskāraņ pariņāmo'tha jIvanam; cestāsaktiśca cittasya dharmā darśana-varjitab. 3.15 42 vrttirevasya vibhunaś cittasya sańkoca-vikāsiní ityacaryah- 4.10 43 See under quetations in VyasaBhasya No.38 .. 44 trayor drgdarsana-saktyor anādir artha-krtah sańyogo heyahetur duhkhasya kāraņam ityarthaņ. 217 45 ... pratyayam antareņaikatam asya vrttim anu- vartamānāh pradhāna-sabdavācya bhavanti- 2.18 46 yatha jayah parajayo vā yodhrsu vart-zānah svāmini vyapadisyate, sa hi tatphalasya bhok-

297

teti; evam bandhamokşau buddnāveva vartamānau · puruse vyapadiśyete, sa hi tatphalasya bhoktā. 2.18. 47 etena grahaņa-dhārana-uhāpoha-tattva-jhang- bhinivesa buddau vartamanāh puruşadhyāroOpita- sadbhavah; sa hi tatphalasya bhokteti- Ibid 48 sarvavrtti-nirodhe tu asamprajnātab samādhiņ 1.1 49 tathacjātĪyakāņ samskārā vrttibhireva kriyante samskaraisca vrttayah iti- evam vrtti sańs- kara-cakram+ .. 1.5 49(a) Hiriyanma: loc.cit. p.284. buddhivrttyaviśista hi jhāna-vrttir akhyāyate. 2.20; 4.22 50 ihdriyapraņālikayā cittasya bāhyavastūparāgat tadvişayasāmānyavišesātmanorthasya vieșā- vadharaņa-pradhāna-vrttim pratyaksam pramānam. 1.7 51 yatha desantaraprapter gatimat candratārakam caitravat vindhyaścapräptergatih1bid 52 sańketas tu Iśvarasya sthitam evārtham abni- nayatimsargānyresvapi vācyavacaka-śatyapeksas tathva sańketaņ kriyate 1.27 53 padam punar nādanusamhāra-buadhi-nirgrāhyam iti- 3.17 54 .... śrūyamanaisca śrotrbhiranādivgvyavahāra vāsanānuvidhyā lokabudďhya siddavat sampra- tipattya pratIyate= 3.17 55 3.17 - * ' itaretara : adhyasa-rupah . Ibidv 56 .... anyatha bhavatyasvo'jāpaya ityevamādișu namakhyātasārūpyad anırjnātam katham kriya- yām kārake va vyakriyetetir Ibid

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57 tesam sabdārtha-pratyayanam pravibhagah- ibid 58 vastusūnyatve'pi sabdajnānamāhātamya-niban- dane vyavahära drayate- 1.9 59 1.43- avatārikā; See "samadhi" 60 tad yatha dvicandradarsanam sadvisayenaika- candradarsanena badhyata iti 1.8 61 tathanutpatti-dharma puruşa iti,- utpatti- dharma sya abhavamatram avagamyate, na puru- sanvayl dharmaḥ. 1.9 62 1.10. 62a sarvāscaitāh smrtayaņ pramāņaviparyayavikalpa- nidrā smrtInām anubhavātprabhavanti- 1.11 63 2.3 64 te syandamana gunadhikaram drdhayanti-2.3 65 avidyā kşetram pravava-bhumiņ uttaresam asmitadInam 2.4 66 sarveşv. avidyaiCva abhiplavate yad avidyayā vastcvākāryate tad evānuáerate klešāh viparyasa- pratyaya-kāle upalabhdyante , ksIyamāņam ca ovidyåm anuksIyanta iti. Ibid 67 kim tu tatra rāgo labha-vrttiņ anyathā tu bhavisyad-vrttir iti. sa hi tadā prasupta- tanuvicchinno baavati, lcid 68 anityasuciduņkhānātmasu nitya-šucisukhātma- khyātiravadyā. Y.$.2.5 69 ksya kenäbhisambandhan bhavati caivam au. cau suciviparyasa-pratyaya iti. Ibid 70 Brahmasūtra-bhāsya , Introdution. 71 evam avidyā na pramāņam, na pramaņābhāvah kiatu vidyaviparītam jhanantaram avidyeti. ibid

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72 viparyaya- jhanavasana-vasita,na karyaniştham ca

paruşakhyātim buddhim prāpnoti sādhikarā punarvartate. 2.24 73 The illmstration given is to be understood as indicating the peculiarities of avidya and not literally as made out by the opponent. 74 purusah drkśaktih, buddhir darśanasaktiņ ityetayor, bhoktr-bhogya-śaktyor atyanta vi- bhakCtayor atyanta-sankcIrņayor avidhhāga- prāptāviva satyām bhogah kalpater 2.6 75 2.7 76. 2.8 77 .... krmer api jātamātrasya pratyaksānumānā- gamairasambhāvito maranatrasa ucch@dadrstya- tmakaḥ pūrvajanmānubhūtam maraņaduņknam anu- māpayati --- samānā hi tayoņ kušalākušalayor maraņa duņkhānubhavadīyam vāsaneti= 2.9 78 tatra puņyāpuņya-karmāsayah lobhamoha-krodha prabhavabsa drstajanmavedaniyaś cādrsta-janma- vedanIyas ca- 2.12 . 79 yatha nandIśvarakumāro manysyapariņāmam hitvā devatena pariņatah tathā nahușo 'pi devanām indraņ svkam pariņāmam hitvā tiryaktvena pariņata iti. ibid 80 drstajanma-vedanīyas tu ekavipākārambhī bhoga- hetutvād divipākārambhī vā bhogāyurhetutvăn nandIśvaravanahusavad vetir 2.13 81 tatra nārkāņām nāsti drsta-janmavedanĪyah karmāśayaņ ksīņakleśānām api nastyadrsta- janmavedanIyah karmāśaya 1t1. 2.12 82 sati mūle tadvipāko jātyayur bhogh. Y.S.2.13

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83 , ata ekabhavikah karmāsaya iti. Ibid 84 kleśakarma vipākānubhava-nivartitābnistu vasanābnir anādikālasam mürcchitam idam cittam vicitrīkrtamiva sarvato matgyajālam gran thibhir ivatatam ityetā anekapūrvikā vasanab, Ibid 85 yohyadrstajanmavedanĪyaniyata vipākastasya trayī gatiņ krtavipākasya vināsah pradhāna- karmaņyāvāpagamanam vā niyatavipākapradhā- nakarmaņā-abhibhūtasya vā ciram avasthānam itir Ibid 86 See Quòtations in Vyasa-Bhāsya No. 10. 87 tadvipākasyaiva desakālanimittānavadhāraņā- diyam karmagatir vicitrā durvijnāna ceti.na cotsargasyāpavadānnivrttiriti ekabhavıkaņ karmasayo'nujiāyata iti. Ibid 88 gunav@rtti-vifodhācca duņkhameva sarvam vėvekinah. prakhyapravrtti-sthitirūpa- buddhiguņah paras- parānugraha-tantrībhūtvā šāntam ghoram mūdham vā pratyam triguņameva ārabhante,calam ca guņa-vņttCam iti kşiprapariņāmi cittamuktam. 2.15 89 tadasya mahato duhkha-samudāyasya prabhava- bĪjam avidya tasyaś ca samyagdarsanam abhava- hetuh. @bid 90 tatra hetuh usvarūpamupādeyam vā heyam vā na bhavitam arhati itiş hane tasyoccheda-vada- prasańgah upadāne ca hetu-vadah ... 2.15 91 janmă yurbhoga puņyahetukān sukhaphalā, apuņya. hetukāh duhkhaphalā iti. yathā cedam duhkham ..

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...

pratikūlātmakam evam visayasukha-kālepi duņkhamastyeva pratikūlātmakam yoginaņ. 2.14 92 dvaye khalvami samsķāraḥ smyti kleśahetavo vāsanārupāḥ vipakahetvo dharmadharmarupāḥ. 3.18 93 See quetations in Vyasa-Bhasya No.31 94 ayurvipākam karma dvividham. tatra yathārdra- vastram vitānitam laghīyasa kalena susyet tatha sopaktamam ; yatha ca tad eva sampin- ditam cirena samsuşyed evaņ nirupakramam. 322. 95 jātyantara-parinamah prakrtyapurāt . Y.S.4.2. 96 nahi dharmadi-nimittam tatprayojakam prakrti- nām bhavati.na kāryeņa kāraņam pravartyata ... iti ... yathā ksetrikaņ ... tathā dharmah pra- kṛtInām āvaraņam adharmam bhinatti; tasmin bhinne svayameva prakrtayah svam svam vikāram āplāvayanti na tu prakrti-pravrttiau dharme hetur bhavatIti. 4-3 97 yajjātimasya karmaņo yo vipākastasyānuguņā yā vāsanāh karmavipākam anuerate tāsamevābh1- vyakatiņ. 4.8 98 yathā ca vāsanastatha smrtiriti jātidesakāla- vyavahitebhyah samskärmbhyah smrtiņ. 4.9 99 ... vyavahitānāmapi nimittānimittikabhāvānucchedād .. anantaryam eva siddham iti. ibid 100 na ca svābnāvikam vastu nimittam upādatte. 4.10 101 manastu sāahikāram asrayo vāsamānām ... vypakti tasyām tad ālambanam. 4.11 102 heyam duhkham anagatam. Y.S .. .. 2.16 103 na ca indriyāņām bnogabhyāsena vaitrusņyam kartum śakyam. 2.15

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.sa karmasayo lobhanmohac ca bhavatyesa tāpa tt 104 duhkhatocyate. lbid 105 yatornātanturaksi-pātre nyastaḥ sparsena duḥkhayatı na anyesu gātrāvayavesu ... ibid 106 tadevamanādinā duņkhasrotasā vyūhgamānā tmānam bhūtagramam ca drstvā yogI sarvaduhkhaksaya- kāraņam samyagdarśanam saraņam prapadyata it1. Ibid 107 nātradaršanam moksakāranam adaršanābhāvādeva bandna bhavah sa moksa iti. 2.23 purusasyamisribhavah punassamyogo guair :- ityarthan. 2.25 108 buddhereva purusarthaparisamaptirbandhatadartha- avasāyo monga itt. .2.25 109 darsana-kāryavasānaņ samyoga iti darśanam viyogasya karaņam uktam. 2.23 110 ya tu drastuh svarupopalabdhih sopevargah. 2.23 111 etena grahaņadhāraņaohāpohatattva- pňānābhinivešā buadhau vartamanah purusadnāropita-sadbhāvāh sa hi tatphalasya bhoteti. 2.18

112 sa puruso budohen pratisamvedi ... tadātmakaiva pratyavabhasate. 2.20 113 ataśca drkdaršana -saktyornityatvadanadih samyogo vyākhyāta iti. 2.22 114 See Note 109. 115 sa vivekakhyātir viplava-hānasyopāyaņ. 2-26 116 darsanasya bhave bandhakāraņasya adarsanasya nāsa itģato daršana- jhānam kaivalyakāraņam uktam. 2.23 117 ...... yah pratiprasavaḥ kāryakāraņātmakanam gunānām tat kaivalyam. 4.34

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118 pratyudita khyātih kainatrona kuśalo na jan1- şyata itarastu janisyate. 4.33 119 calam ca cunavrttam etena bhūtendriyesu dharma dharmibhedat trividhah parināmo veditavyah. 3.13 120 vyuttaanasamskara hiyante nirodhasamskara adhiyante. 3.9 121 3.11 122 ..... vivekadrarśanabhyasena vevekasrota udghat- yata iti. ... 1.12 123 1.20 124 jňanasaiva parakastha vairagyam et asyaiva h1 nantariyakam kaivalyam it1. 1.16 125 ete citta viksepa nava yogamala .. yogapratipaksa yogantarasya ityabhidhiyate. 1.30 126 1.33 .. 127 bhawantah samadhiryah sa samyaman tato balany. avadhyaviryani jayante papasilesupeksa na tu bha vana. 3 23. 128 tat ca citta prasadanamabadhamanamanensevyam 2.1 129 samadhibhavanarthah kleśatanukaranarthaņ. Y.S.2.2 130 Y.S. 2.29 131 uktāni panca bahirańgasadanāni. 3.1 132 2.30 133 Ibid

134 2.34 --- 135 tena punyabhasena punyapraptirūpakena ksatam tamah prāpnuyat. 2.30 136 steyamasasrapurvakam dravyāņam paratah svīkara. nam tatpratişedah punarasprharupamasteyam iti. 2.30 137 2.38 ...

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138 aparigrahasthairye janmakathamtā sambodhah mahāvratam. Y.S.2.31 139 jātidesakālasamayānavacchinnāh sārvabhaumā mahavratam. Y.S.2.31 140 sarvabhūmisu sarvavigyeșu sarvathaivāviditavya- bhi cāran sarvabhauma mah@ratamityucyate. Ibid. 141 2.32 142. 2.33 143 2.46 144, 2.52 145 yatha madhukararājam maksikā utpantam anutpanti nivisamanam anunicviśante, tathendriyāņi eitta- nirodhe niruddhānītyesāpratyāhārah. 2.54 146 rāgadvesābhāve sukhaduņkha šunyam sabdādijnānam indriyajaya iti keccit cittaikāgryadapratipattir eveti jaigişavyah. 2.55 147 tad etat dhāraņadnyana-samadni-trayam ekatra samyamah. 3.4 148 3.1 149. 3.2 150 nir.yanna, loc.cit p.296. 151 vitarka vicārānandāsmıtā-rūpānugamāt samprajnātb Y.S.1.17 152 gränyālambanoparaktam cittam grāhyasamapannam grahaņasvarūpakāreņa nirbhāsate. 1.41 153 sampannāsya yogino yo gavadyarthah samadhi prajnayam samārudhah, sa cet sabdārthajfāna- vikalpānuviddha upavartate sa samkirņā sampāttih savitarka ityucyate. 1.42 sa ca nirvitarka samāpattih tat param pratyaksam tac ca srutanumanyor bījam. 1.43 154 tasmin sanahita cittasya ya pratha jayate tasya rtambhara iti samjona bhavati. 1.48

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155 cittam hiļte svaķāryād avasādayantı khyāti- parcyavasanamni cattacestitamiti. 1.50 156 tasmādastyavayavī yo mahattvādivyavahārāpannah samapatternirvitarkyā vișayo bhavati. 1.43 157 nirodna-sthiti-kālakramānubhavena nirodha- cittakrta samskarastitvamanumeyam. 1:51 158 ksiņaklesah kusalah caramadeha ityucyate tatraiva sa dagdhabījabhāvā pancamī klesavasthā nānyatreti. 2.4 ķlesakarmanivrttau jīvanneva vidvān vimukto bhavatı. kasmat ? yasmādviprmayo bhavasya kāranam. 159 4.30 klesānām yā vrttayaņ sthūlāstāņ kriyāyogena tanukritāh satyah prasamkhyanena dhyanena hātavyā yavat sūksmākrta yāvad dagdhabīja- kalpā iti. 2.11 160 satsu kleśesukarmāsayo vipākārambhī bhavati, nocchinna klesamulah. 2.13 161 tasya param vairāgya upāyah. 1.18. * 163 esā catuștayī kāryāvimuktih prajnayah; cittavi. muktistu trayī. etām saptavidhām prantabhumi- prajnam anupasyan puruşaņ kušala ityākhyayate. 2.27 * 162 sraddhā cetasaņ prasādaņ sā hi jananīva kalyānī yoginam pēti. 1.20 164 tętrātmabhāvabhãvena ko nāmā sam, katham aham āsam, kimsvididam, kathamsvididam, ķe bhavișyāmaņ, katham va baavisyamaiti tatosya 'atmabhāvanm- bhāvana kusalasya nivartate iti. 4-25 165 See Note 158.

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166 Quotations in Vyāsa-Bhāsya No.39 167 nahi krtabhogāpavargāņ parisamāpta kramņ kşanamapyastnātvmutsanante . 4.32 168 tĪvrasaňvegānāmā sannah. 1.21 169 catvarah khalvamI yoginah. 3.51 170 Iśvaraprasādajjittottarabnūmikasya ca na adharabhūmişu paracittajnānādişu samyayameh yuktah, kesmātī tadarthasyā nyata evavagatatvāt bhumer asya iyamanantarā bhūmirityatra yoga eva upadhyayah .36See quotations in vyasa-Bhāsya No.27.

170 3. 6 co 49.

CHAPTER -IV

The references here are to Yogasutravrtti unless otherwise mentioned:

1. cittasya nirmalasattva-pariņāma rūpasya yā vrttayan angāngibhāva-parināma-rūpāņ tasām . nirodhe bahirmukhactayā parinati- vicchedādan- tarmukhatayā pratiloma-pariņāmena svakāraņe layo yoga ityakhyayate. 1.2 2, prakāsaņ sattvsya dharmah, kriyā pravrttirūpā rajasah sthtirniyamrupātamasaļ ... 2.18. 3. bhavyam ca dvividhem isvarastatīvāni catānyapi dvividhāni jadājadabhedāt jadānı caturvišatin ajadah purusa. 1.17

2. gunanām pariņāme catvāri parvāņi-višasta- lingam, avistalingam, lingamatram albngam ceti, viśiştalińgam bhūtendriyāņi avišiştalingūtanmā- trantahkaraņāni lińgamātram buddhih, alingam

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pradhanmiti. cnatah param sukamamasti" ityuktam bhavati. 1.45 5. drsta puruşan dršimātraścetanāmātraķ.mātragraha- nam dharma-dharmi nirāsārtham. 2.20 6. jatavisayoparāgāyāmeva buodhau Sannidhimatre- naiva purusasya draștrtvamiti. Ibid 7. drastā cidrupaḥ purusaņ ..... svasaktirdrsyasya svabhavaņ svāmisaktirdrestuņ svarūpam. 2.23 8. ata eva darsane dve ciqsekti nitycdita abhi vyangya ca; 4.11 9. sa cidrūpa eva bhavatīti kutas tasya samhatattvam 4.24 10. īsanašīlam, icchāmātreņa sakala -jagaduddharaņa- kşamaḥ 1.24 11. tasya kevala eva sāttvikaņ pariņāma utkarsavān anādìsambandhena thogyatāya vyavasthitab. ataḥ purusāntaralakşanataya sa eva isvarah. Ibid 12. na ceśvaranāmanekatvam; teşām tulyatve bhinnā- bhi prayatvāt kāryaspivānupapatteņe; utkarsāpkarsa- yuktatve ya evotkrstah sn eveśvarnh tntraiva ... ib. 13. tasya kāruņikatvād bhūtānugranaeva prayojanam kalpapralaya-mahāpralaya nıņšeșām samsārina uddharişyāmIti tasyadyavasāyah yat yasyestam tattasya prayojanamiti. 1.25 14. tatpraņidhānam samahestatphalalābhasya ca prakrusta upayah. 1.23 15. anusrūyate gurumukhādityanusavo vedah/agata anugavikah. 1.15 16 padarthanām bhedahetavo jati-lakşaņa desa bhavanti. 17 ma hi kāryeņa kāraņam pravartate. 4.3

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18 vartamāne 'dvami vyavasthitāh kevalam bhogyatām bhejante tasmāddharmānāmevātītānāgatādyādhva- bhedāt tenaive rūpeņa kāryakāraņa- bhāvo'smin darsane pratipadyatė. 4,12 19 avasthitasya dharmıņah purvadharmanivrttam dharmāntarapattiņ dharmapariņāmaņ yathā. guņa- nivrttirn apariņamamāna kşaņamapyasti. 3.13 20 niyatakārya-kāraņarüpayogyatayā vaccanna saktireveh dharma śabdenabhidnīyate. tam trivi- dhamapi dharmamyo' nupatate anuvartate anvayi- tvena svikaroti sa šantoditāvyapadesyadharma- anupāti dharmiti ucyate. 3.14 21 dharmiņašca bhinnābhinnarūpatayā sarvatrānu- gamah 3.15 22 tatpariņāma-rūpa ityarthaņ. yatan satttvarajastamo bhih. sukha-duņkha moharūpaih sarvāsām bahyā- bahyantara-bheda-bhinnānam bhāvyaktinam anva- yānugama drsyante yathā ghatādayo mrdanvitā mrtparinamapah. 4.13 23. kşanah aarvāntakātāyavayavan yasya kalāhprabna vitum na sakyante. 3.52 24 tasmadvijnana-vyatırekeņāsti grahyārthab tadevam vijnarthayoh #tadātmyavırodhanna kārya- karana- chãvan- 4.15 25 hrdayam sarlmasya pradeśavisesah tasminnadho- mukhasvalpapundarikābhyantan'ntaņkarasat vasya sthanam. 3.34 26 4,17 27 tatah sorthah jnată ucyate. yena cākāro na saman- pitan sa na jňadatveta vyavahriyate. 4,16 28 tasyām satyām siodam janatrttvamiti ma kadācit kācıt pariņamītmāsanvā. Ibid

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29 drśyałca cittam tasmānna svābhāsam. nanu sadhya- vıšışto'am hetuņ drsyatvameva cittasya siddaam kinca svaguddhi-samvedandvārena hitānita- prapti-parihararūpa vrttayo dršyante. 4.19 30 evam vidhanca vyapāradvaya marthapratyakşakale na yugapat kartum sakyam virodhāt .... na cittam svaprakāsakam bhavati. bahırmukhatayaıva svanıştatvena cittasya, svayam vedanarthanı stma. meva pnalam na svanistamisyarthah. Ioid 31 na hi pratitāwaparatētāyāmartnan pratito bhavatı smrti-sańkaraśca prapnoti .. buddhi smrtInānca hvinam yugapadudpatteh . 4.20 32 4.21 53 4.54 34 yadrsya vrttayah sukhaduhkhamohat mikan prādur bhavante tādrgrūpā eva samvedyatevyavahārtwbnih puusal. The three moods ksipta,mudha anu viksipta are together calied vyutthāna. 1.4, 3.9 35 vrttayascitta-parinàmavisesāh kliştāh aklistah klesaotvaksayamana lakşanairakanthah klistah: tadviparitā aklişțah pramāņa-viparyaya-vikalpa nidra-smrtayah 4.5 , 1.6 36 avisamvādijnanam pramanamiti. 1.7. 37 indriyadvāreņa bāhyavastūparagātcittasya tad visaya-sāmānyavišeātmano'rthasya višesāvadhā raņapradhanā vrttiņ pratyaksam. 1.7

38 3,36 39 cittasya ca yo'saupaacrah hrdayapravešādindri- yadvārena vişayātnimukyena prasaray tasya sam- vedanam jnanam 3.38

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40 ğrhītasambandhāt lińgāt lingini samanyādhyay- vaşayo'numanam . sabdah srotrendriyagrāhya.niya -. . . taikarthapratipatyavacchinnaņ yadi vā krama- rahitaspotatma sāstrasamskrūtabuddhigrāhyah. 1.7., 3.17 41 Ibid 42 talośca vacya -vācakalaksnah sambandho nityah, sańketeņa prakāsyate, na tu kenacit kriyate yathā pitāputrayorvidyamānx eva sambandhah .. 1.27 43 1.49. 44. 1.8 45 yata purusasya caitanyam svarupamiti atra deva dattasya kambala iti sabdajanita-jnāne sas/ya yo'dhyavasito bhedah tamihavidyamanamapi samarp pya pravartate'dhyavasāyah · vastutastu caitańya- meva purusah. 1.9 46 ya santatam udriktattvātamasah samastavisaya- parityagena pravartate vrttihsā nidra tasyaśca sukham aham asvāpsam .. smrtescanubhavavyatirekena- nupapattervrttitvam. 1.10 47 nidra tu asamvedîyamānavisaya smttisca pramana-vi- paryaya-vikaipanidrānimittā. 1.11 48 4.33 49 klisnantīti klesa avidyādayo vaksyamanah.1.24 50 2.4 51 yadyapi sarvesāmātmānam klesadisparso nāsti tathapi cittagatastesamupadisyante yatha yoddhr- gato jayacparajayau svaminah, 1.24 52 2.5 53. 2.5 54 drksaktih purusaļ darsanasaktih rajastamobhyā- manabhibhűtaņ satvikah parināme 'ndahkana rupah atyantabhinnarūpayoreķatābhimaninosmitaitucyate 2.6

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55 ?. 7, 8. 56 ... sarvaiva akrmer brahmaparyantam nimittamant- rena pravartamāno 'bhinidesākhyah kleśah. 2.9 57 ... na cajnanatam tesam parinarah kartum sakya iti tajjaanāya tesām uddešam laksnam ksetram vibhagncabhidaya sthūla-sūksmabhedabhinnānām tesām prahanopāua vibhāgamaha. 2.10 58 .... te pratiprasava-pratilamaparinamena heyastyaktavyah svakaržane 'smıtāyam krtārtham sa/va sanam. Ibid 59 yatha vastradau sthula malah praksalana-matre naiva nivartate yastatra sūksmale .. sa taistairupā- yairuttapana -prabhrntfibhireva nivartayıtum śakyate. 2.11 60 ... .. ā phalavipākaccittabhūmau serata ityāsayo vāsanā khya samkaraņ. asrayo buddhih1.24,4.11 61 klesamulan karmasaya drştādrstajanmavedanīyah ... yataņ karmaņām. subhašuonānām klesā eva nimittam ... ayuscirakalam ekasarirasambandhaņ. 2.13 62 vıvekinah parijnatakesadi- vivekasya drsyamātram sakalameva bhogasadhanam savisam svādvannamiva dunkhameva pratikulavedaniyamevetyarthah ... yatha aksipatramOrnatantusparsamatreņaiva mahatim pidamanubhavati netaradangam. 2.15 63 yatha usnapradese prasaritārdravasan sighrameva susyati -ukviviparitam nirupaksamam yatna tade- vārdravasah samvartėtam anusna-pradese cirena susyatı. 5.12 64 yegināntu sanyāsavatam trividha-karmaviparitam yat phalatyaganusandnānenaivanusthanad na kincit pnalamarabhate. 4.7

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65 lha hı dvividhā karmavasanah .... 4.8 smrti samskarayo rekatvāt. 4.9 66 samskarat smrtih smrtes ca sukha duhkhapabhogas- tadanubhavācca punazapi samskarą smrtyadan. 4.9 67 .. .sankoca vikasa dharmi tittam tadtad pari4.10 mamoti abhivyanjaka vipāka . . tat phala müpataya. 68 xupakaya etaduktam bhavati ekantikamatyantikinca duhkhani vrttimiccate vivekin uktarupakarana cutuştayah sarve visaya duhkheripatayaprati bhanti, tasmatcca sarvakerma vipako duhkharupa evetyuktam bhavati. 2.15

69 2.16 70 ... sattvikah parinamah vivekakhyāti paryantan sa tasyah khyater hetun. 2.28 71 samskaraduhkhantu saabhima tanabhimatavı saya sannidhane duhkhsamviccip Jayamanatathavidha meva svaksetre samskaramarabhate samskaracca punastathavidyasamvidanubhava ityaparimita samskārotpattidvarena sarvasaiva dunkhanubhava dunkhatvam. 2.25 72 na hi tayor nityayor vyapakayośca svarüpad atiriktah kascıt samypgah. yad eva bhojyasya bhogyatvam anādi siddham sa eva samyogah 73 .... buddherantarmukha ya cocchayasankrantih sa vıvekakhyatirucyati. 2.26 74 4.24 75 yadaya ajnāna nimnapatham bahirmukham visayo . pabnogapjaļam cittamasit tadidanim vūveļamarga mantarmukham kaivalya prabharam kaivalyapraram bham sampadyate iti. 4.25

313

76 tasyam ca santatatvena pravrttāyām satyam drsyasyadhikāranivrtterbhavatı .eva kaivalyam 2.26 77 vyutthananuthavajebhyah samskārebhyo'ham mamg- Įtyevamrzupaņi ksIyamanebhayo 'pi prabhavanti, antahkaraņāccittidvāreņa tesam hanam. 4,26 ... yatha te jnanagnina plusta dagdhabijalabhante tatha samskara api. 4.27 78 ta ete samadheh ekatatayā yathā-yogam prati- paksatvat antarāya iti ucyate 1.30 79 ta ete viksepaih saha pravartamāna yatha udita- abnyasa-vairagyabhyam nireddhavyā ivi esam upadesah. . 1.31 80 1.32 81. 1.33 82 1bid 83 ... Tadeva recaka-puraka- kumbhaka-bhedena tri- vedhah pranayamaņ.cittasya sthitim ekágrataya nibaahaati .... samasta -doşa. kşayakāriivam ca asya agame sruyate. 2.34 84 1.12 85 tadyatha satyasanajaye pranāyāma-sthairyam.2.29 86 tatra praņaviyogaprayojana .vyapāre himsā.evam satyadisu yathayogyam yojyam. itham niyamikratah samanyenaiva pravrttamahavratam iti ucyate.2.31 87 Y.S. 2.32 88 vitarka himsādayah krta-karita-anymoditā lobha- krodha-moha-purvaka-mrdu madhya-adhimatra-duhkha ajnananantaphala iti.pratipaksa bhāvanam. 2.34 99 Ibid 90. 2.43 90 asansthairye sati tannimittakahprāņāyama-laksane yogāngaviseso nusteyo bhavati. 2.49

314

92 trtiyasmāt kumbhakād ayamasya visesan sa bāhya - bhyantaravisayāu apariyalo cyaiva sahasa tapto- tpala nipalitajala-nyayena yugapat stambhavrttyā nispadyatť ... 2.51 93 yataścittamanuvartamānāni madhukara-rājamiva maksikan sarvanIndriyani pratiyante. 2.54 94 3.1 95. 3.2 96 nyagbhutajnanasvarūpatvena svarupa sunyatām iva apadļyate sa samadhir iti ucyate. 3.3. 97 It is curious that Bhoja calls the objectless samadhi mas sunyabhavana, for as it cannot be concention of the 'void'. cf. Y.S. 1.43 on Nirvitarka ..... svarūpasunyēva ... mirbijasya niralamcanasya sunyachāvana paraparyĀ- yasya samadheretadapi yoganga-trayam bahirangam pārmaparyena upakārakatvāt. 98 tasyathyasat paracca vairgyat bhavati asampra- jnatah. 1.20 99 tidevam tat tat iddriyadvarena tasmin tasmin divya viasye jayamana-samviccittasyeikagratā hetur bhavati. 1.35 100 1.37 101 pratyastamitabāhyendriyavrtter mancmātrena yatra bhoktrtvamatmanah sa svapaah .. tadālam- banam svapnā lambanam nidralambanam va jnaambganak /h nAm

va cetasah sthitim karoti. 1.38 102 1.39 103 evam stholam akasadi paramam mahat - paryantam bhavayato na kvacit cetasah pratighatvopadyate sarvatra svatantryam bhavati ityartnan. 1.40

104 315 1.41 105. 1.42

106 Katha-upan1shad 1.3 107. 1.7

108 Ibid 109. 1.47

110 1.48 111 yasmin sati purusah svarupanişttah suddhah bha vati. 1.51 112 ... nirodha- samsakrarupas cavirbnavati dharmi- rüpataya ca cittam ubhayatranva yitvena avasthitam pratiyatć. 1.39 113 .... cittasya udrikta sattvasya anvayitaya avasthānam samadhi parinamah. 3.11 114 nirodhaņ prakrūstsattvasyangitayā cetasah parinamah ... abhibhave nyagchūta_taya kārfya karana-samarthyena vasthanam pradurbhave vartamāne'dhvani abhivyaktarūpataya va sthânam 3.10 115 tatra karyaviņuktirupā catusprakāra; cittavı- muktih tridhā. 2.27 116 prakrūstfam asuklakrsnam dharmam paramapurusartaa radhakam mehati sincatīti dharmamegah. 4.29 117 3.51 118 ... tesam paratattvādarsanāt yogābhasoyam; ataḥ paratattvajnāne tadbhavana vanica muktikāmena mahanyatno vidheyati etadaetham upadistam. 1.19 119 te pratyekam mrdusamvega-madhya samvega-tivra- samvegachedat iti tadbhedena ca navayogino bhavanti. 1.22 120 aneka- bhava. sauhyasya samädher na ksatir asti iti asvasotpādanāya samadhi-siddhes ca pradhān* yakhyapanartham kaivalya praMogartham ca aha .. mantradini nimittama trani. 4.1 ... napi smayah, smayakarane krūta-krūtyam atmānam manyamanen na samadhau utsahate. 3.51 Chnrter V

1 Hiriyanna, Cutlies, p. 275. 1.2h(Bho}a) 2 The emancirated purusa is called kuśnla, which means he maintans his identity. 2.4 (Vyass) 3 Bhagevadeita 4.37.

316

. QUOTATIONS IN VYĀSA-BHASYA

1. ekam eva darsanam khyātir eva darsanam. 1.4 2. ādividvān nirmāņa cittam achisthāya kāruņyāt bhagavān paramarsir āsuraya jjňāmā samanya tantram provacet1. 1.25 3. svadhyāya-yogamāsĪta yogāo avadnyāyamāsate; sv dhyāya-yoga-sampattyā paramatmā prakarsate. 1.28 (V.P.6.6.2) 4. tamanumāmtran atmānam anuvidyasmica iti evam tāvat samprajmanita iti. 1.36

2. prajā-prasadamāruhya asocyah śocatojanān; bhūmistanIva śailasthah sarvān prājnonupaśati. 1.48.Santi-Parva, 17.20.11 6. agamenanumānena dhayănābhyasarasena ca; rřidhā ppaklpayanprajňām labhate yogamuttamam. 1.48 8. sthānadbijadupastambhānnih syandannidhanādapi kāyamādheyasaucatvat pandita hyasugim vidwh. 2.5 9. vyaktam avyaktam va sattvamatmatvenābhipra- titya tasya sampadamanunandaty ātmasampadam manvānas ntasya : vyapadamanyCsocatyātmavyāpadam manyamanah sa sarvo'pratibudohah iti. 2¥5 10. buddhitaņ param purusamākārasīlavidyādibhir vibhaktamapaśyankuryāttatrātma-buddaim mchena it1. 2.6 11. dve dve havai karmani veditavyė pāpakasąyaiko rāših puņya-krto 'pahanti tadicchąva karmāni sukrtāni kartumihaiva te karma kavayo vedayante. 2.13

317

12 syätsvalpaņ sankarah saparihāraņ sapratya- vamarsah; kušalasya nāpakarasayaiamkasmāt ? kusalam hi me bahvadanyadasti atrāyamāvāpam gataḥ avargepi apakarsamalpam karisyati, . iti. 2.13 13 nanupahatya bhutanyupabhogah sambhatatīti himsakrtopyasti sarirah iti. 2.15 14 tątsamyogahetu-vivarjanātsyādayam atyantiko duhkha pratIkārah. 2.17 15 ayam to khalu trisu gunesu kartrsva kartari ca puruse tuiyatulyajātīye caturthe tatkriya sāksiņy nupanīyamānān sarvabhāvānupapannānanu- pasyan na darśanam anyacchankate iti. 2.18 16 purustät na visesebhyah param tattrāntaram asti. 2.19 .17 aperinaminī hi bhoktr-śaktįrapratisahkramā ca pariņaminya arthe pratisankranteva tadvrttim anupatati tasyasca prapta- caitanyopagraharu- paya buddhivrtteranukārmactataya budddhivrtty * avišıstā hi jňanavrttir ityākhyayatr. 2.20 18 pradhanam sthityaiva vartamanam vikāra-kāraņād apradhānam syāt, tathā gatyaiva vartamānam vikāra- nityatvādapradhānam syāt .... pradhānasyātma- khyāpanārthā pravrttiriti śruteh. 2.23

19 dharminam anadisamyogad dharma-mātranam apy .- anadih samyogah iti 2.22 20 nanu buddhinivrttireva moksahadarsanakāraņā- bhavaa buddhinivrttiņ. tat ca adarsanam bandha- karanam darsanan nivartate. 2.24 21 utpatti-sthityathivyaktı - vikārapratyayāptayaḥ viyoganyatvadhrtanyah kāranam navadha smrtam.2.28

318

22 sa khalvavam brahmaņo yatha yatha vratāni bahūni samaditsate tathā tathā pramadkrtebnyo him #anidānebhyo nivartamānas tāmevāvdātcarūpam ahimam karoti. 2.30 23 sayyasanasthp'tha pathi vrajanva svasthahpari. ksina-vitarkajālah; samsāra-bījassyam Ik samãnah syānnityamukto 'mrta-bhogabhāgI. 2.32 24 yat ca kamasukham loke yac ca divyam mahat sukham; trsnakşaya-sukhasyaite narhatah sodasIm kalām. 2.42 (Mokșadharma-parva 376.6 ) 25 tapo na param prānāyamāt tato visuddhir malanām diptiś ca jnanasyeti. 2.52 26 cittaikāgrągad pratipattirava iti jaigīsavyah. 2.55 27 yogena yogo matavyo yogo yogat pravartate; yorpramattas tu yogena sa yoge romate ciram iti. 3.6 28 dharmān abnyadhıko đharmī pūrvatattvānati- kramāt purvāparāvasthā-bhedam anupatitah kautasthyenaiva parivarteta yadyanvayī syadit1 3.13 29 jalabhūmyoh parinamikam rasādivaiśvarūpyam sthavaresu drotam tathā gthāvarnām jangamesu jańgamănām gthāvaresvėtyevam jātyānucehedena savam sarvātmakamiti desakālmānanan1_mittopa bandhadna khalu samānkatatmānam abhivyaktir it1. 3.14 30 nirodhadharma samakārāh parināmo tatha jīvanam ceșțasaktiśca cittasya dharma darsana vargitāh it1. 3.15 31 atha bhagavān avatyah tanudharas tamuvāca. 3.18 As the quatation is long, an anglish translaticn is given at'the end.

319

32 bráhmastrabhumiko lokah prajapatyastato manān mahendraśca- svarityukto divitārā bhuviprajā- iti. 3.26 33 vijňātārmare kena vijāniyāditi. 3.3€ (Br.Up) 34 tulyadeśaśravanameļadesasrutitvam sarvesam bhaaatiti tat cet akasasya lingam anaveranam coktam. 3.41 35 ekajatisamanvitamesam dnarmamātra avyavrttir iti. 3.43 36 tatah pratipattirvivekajajnaditi katham pūrva malaka sahaksanadesa uttaramalakasahaksanad desad bhinnah] apare tu varnayanti yentya viśesastenyataCpratyaya kurvanti iti. 3.53 37 mūrti vyavadhijātibhedābnāvānnāsti mūlaprthake tvamiti varsaganyah. 3.53 38 ye caite mitrayadayo dhyayinām vihārāste bahya- sādhananiranugrahatmánan prakrstam ... 4.10 39 gunānăm paramam rūpam na drstipathamrcchati yattu darstipatam praptam tanmayaiva sutuc chakam iti. 4.13 40 na pātālam na ca vivaram girīnam naivāndhakāram kuksayo nodadhinam guhā yasyam nihitam brahma sasvatam budhivrttim avisistam kavayo vedayante 4.22 41 svabhāvammuktva dosadyesam purvapakse wcirbna vatarccisma nirnaye bhavati. 4.25 42 andho mamimavidhyatramanguliravayat agrīvastam pratyamyncattamjihve 'bhyapujayad iti 4.31

320

DIALOGUE BETWEEN AVATYA AND JAIGISYA 'AKhyana)

Once phagavan Avatya, assuming the body Spcketo

Bhagavan Jaigisavya who had achieved a direct

perception of the samskaras. He had perceived the

prder of mutation of life. in the major creations.

As a result JaigIsvaya haa gained wisdom born of

discrimination.

Bhagavan Ävatya: Going through tne ten

cheations, sattva part of year buadhi was nbt over=

powered by rajas or tamas; you were born again and

again ampng the Gods and human beings and have well

observed the misery in hell and in the womb of

lower animals as weil. Then what did you experi-

ence , more happiness or misery ?

JaigIsavya: In my journey through the ten creations I consider whatever 1 experienced

was misery oniy.

Avatya: How is it tnat your mastery over

pradhana (prakrti) and the exeellent happiness of contentment are grouped under misery by you ?

Jaigisavya: True, the happiness of con-

tentment is spoken of as excellent; out it is irom

the point of view of sensual plessure only. Com-

pared to the joy of emancipation (kaivalya) it is

321

only misery. That happiness is the attripute of the sattva of buddhi and therefore not beyona the

three-rold gunas. All such comprenensions are

classed under those which are to be exchewed.

Misery is nothing but a threa of greed. when the

agonising misery of greeo is aestroyeo there shines

the joy clear, unnindered and ravourable in every

way.

Note:

. Vyasa introduces the citations like,

'tatha ccktam', 'uktamca', 'tatha ca', 'yetredam uktam' etc. He nowhere quotes the source except in

three instances where he specifically mentions Jaigisavya (2,55) ,Patanjali (3.44) and varsaganya (3.55). In one case (3,26) a sloka is spoken of as

sańgraha śloka.

Of these, 11 quatations (1,4,8,9,12,14, 217, 18,34,40) are identified as of pancasikha by Vācaspati Mišra and vijňānabhiksu. One quotation is attributed to Sastitantra

by the latter commentator. There is an interesting instance of Väcaspati attributing a line (39) to

sastitantra in his Tattvavaisaradi while he speaks

322

of Värsaganya as the source of bhamate, with the remarks: 'ata eva yogasāstram vyutpādita āha sma bhagavan varsaganyan' in the Brahma Sutra.(2.1.3)

Mahabharata is the source of two cita-

tions while another one is traceable to Visnu- puranam. Vyasa quotes a line each from Brhadaran- yaka Upanıshad and Taittariya Āranyaka, too.(1.11.5). Pancasikha and Varsaganya are nailed by Sankhya Yoga acaryas and their names appear in Mahabharata

also. But we do not know any of their works.

De

323

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