1. Dependence of Yoga Sutras on the Samkhya Karikas Judith G. Sugg (Thesis)

DEPENDENCE OF THE YOGA SŪTRAS ON THE SĀMKHYA KĀRIKĀS

A dissertation presented to

the Faculty of Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Psychology

by

Judith G. Sugg

San Francisco, CA September 2007

UMI Number: 3295010

Copyright 2007 by Sugg, Judith G.

All rights reserved.

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C 2007 by Judith G. Sugg

Approval of the Dissertation

DEPENDENCE OF THE YOGA SŪTRAS ON THE SĀMKHYA KĀRIKĀS

This dissertation by Judith G. Sugg has been approved by the committee members below, who recommend it be accepted by the faculty of Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology

Dissertation Committee:

Eugene Taylor, Ph.D., Chair Date

Jeanne Achterberg, Ph.D. Date

Allan Combs, Ph.D. Date

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Abstract

DEPENDENCE OF THE YOGA SŪTRAS ON THE SĀMKHYA KĀRIKĀS

Judith G. Sugg

Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center

Techniques that guide the transformation of consciousness always exist within a

philosophical framework that elucidates their intent and results. Yoga is no exception. In

the West, the psychology embedded in Yoga has often been viewed through the lens of

Vedanta whose monism fuses more easily with Western Judeo-Christian monistic

theology. However, classical Yoga philosophy may actually be more closely aligned with

Sāmkhya, a dualistic, possibly pre-Vedic, philosophy (Taylor & Sugg, 2008).

The purpose of this dissertation is to establish the dependence of yoga psychology

on Sāmkhya and to interpret the implications. Key texts, the Sāmkhya Kārikās of

Īśvarakrishna and the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali, were compared using methods of

historical scholarship derived from Comparative Religions and adapted to archival

investigation in the history of psychology and psychiatry by Taylor (1988, 2003). The

texts were analyzed in multiple translations, and comparisons were made at a detailed

conceptual level. The author's psychological commentary follows the analysis.

The study revealed considerable overlap in purpose and foundational concepts,

and differences in terminology, method, and emphasis. However, key concepts, such as

the dualistic principles (purusa and prakrti), the transformation of consciousness realized

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through the discernment of these principles, the mirror image of evolution and involution,

the assertion of the reality of the world resulting from the interplay of gunas, and the lack

of commitment to monistic theology and a central creator god, displayed much similarity.

Some differences would not be surprising since Yoga and Sāmkhya are separate schools,

and some similarities reflect a common cultural heritage. However, the extent of the

overlap in this analysis confirms an alignment of the two texts and suggests that

knowledge of one complements knowledge of the other.

A cross-cultural study of this type demands a depth of understanding of history

and culture in order to respectfully approach the topic. As American psychology

continues to explore techniques of transformation from other cultures, it seems important

to acknowledge their cultural intent and grounding. Yoga is not a subset of Western

psychology, and an enriched understanding of its goals and history can positively

influence our exploration of its methods.

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Table of Contents

List of Figures vi

CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE OF THE STUDY .1 Introduction. 1 How this Topic was Chosen 3 A History of Yoga in the United States .5 Description of the Study 9 Structure of the Study 10 This Study within the Field of Psychology 11 Limitations of the Study 12

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 16 An Existential-Humanistic and Transpersonally Oriented Depth Psychology 16 Humanistic, Existential, and Transpersonal Psychology .. 17 Depth Psychology and Jung's Approach to Eastern Practices. 21 Summary of this Section .. 24 Background and History of Samkhya and Yoga .. 25 Harappan Culture (3500-1900 B.C.E.) and Indus Valley Civilization. 25 The Vedic Period (2000 to 600 B.C.E.). 27 The Epic Period (500-600 B.C.E. to 200 C.E.) 29 The Traditional Philosophical Systems in India 30 History and Description of the Sāmkhya Kārikās of Īśvarakrishna. .33 History and Description of the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali 41 Discussion of the Relationship of Sāmkhya and Yoga .48 The Inclusion of Isvara in Yoga. 54 Hatha Yoga 57 Points of Contact between Yoga and Modern Psychology .. 59 Mechanism of Mind 60 The Unconscious .62 Stilling the Mind .63 Personality. 64 Methods from Comparative Religions and Application to the History of Psychology. 65 Philosophical Influence on the Study of Religion and History. 67 Hermeneutics .70 The Lineage of the Chicago School of Comparative Religions and Joachim Wach .73 Mircea Eliade (1907-1986) .74 Frederick Streng (1933-1993). .77 Eugene Taylor 80 Summary of Review of Methods in Comparative Religions 84

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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY .86 Introduction. .86 Method of Textual Analysis 86 Translations .... 87 Preparing the Data. 88 Categories of Matching 89

CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION OF ANALYSIS 91 Analysis of the Texts . 91 Comparable, Partial, and Related Categories 91 Summary of Results 93 Comparison of the Sāmkhya Kārikās and Yoga Sūtras .93 Yoga Sutras in Relation to the Sāmkhya Kārikās 133

CHAPTER 5: PSYCHOLOGICAL COMMENTARY 175 Roots of Human Suffering. 175 Foundation of Knowledge. 176 Method of Relieving Suffering. 177 Samādhi and Liberation 183 The Principles of Evolution and Involution 186 Workings of the Mind, Ego, Memory, and Traits. 188 Īśvara 190

CHAPTER 6: EPILOGUE 192 Overview. 192 Reflections on the Study 192 Why is the Connection Between the Two Texts Important? 192 Why Would Patañjali Describe Yoga in Dualistic Terms? 194 What is the Importance of Iśvara in Yoga? 197 Is Yoga Psychology? 198 Conclusion . 200

REFERENCES 203

APPENDICES A. Sanskrit - English Glossary. 211 B. Historical Timeline. 217

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List of Figures

Figure 1. Seal from Mohenjo-daro ... 26

Figure 2. The 25 Principles (tattvas) of Classical Sāmkhya. .40

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CHAPTER 1

BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

Introduction

There could be "no more absorbing story than that of the discovery and

interpretation of India by Western consciousness," remarked Mircea Eliade (1973, p. xii)

nearly 50 years ago in his introduction to Yoga: Immortality and Freedom. Since then,

yogic ideas, traditions, and innovations have come alive around the world. As the

practices take seed in other cultures, the teachings and intent have not always remained

intact. Yoga postures and breathing exercises provide a counterbalance to modern stress,

yet yoga is neither physical education nor a psychological technique. Neither is yoga a

religion, although aspects of it are intertwined with Hinduism. Non-Indian eyes and ears

see the physical postures, psychological effects, and Hindu symbolism, and naturally

relate those aspects to known categories in their own culture.

This dissertation assumes that yoga is a philosophy and practice in its own right,

and does not need traditional academic categories to explain it. However, yoga practices

are often used as a type of physical and mental therapy in United States, and are often

divorced from an understanding of its philosophical basis. Many authors, both Indian and

non-Indian, have noted yoga's psychological nature and intent, meaning that the practices

impact cognition, behavior, beliefs, memory, and subtler motivations. American

researchers contend that yoga and meditation help manage stress and relieve anxiety

(Walsh & Shapiro, 2006). How does this connect to the intrinsic aims of yoga? Stress

reduction and mood management are important aspects of modern therapy. Does it matter

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what techniques we use to reduce and manage distress? Are the aims of psychology and

classic yogic philosophy similar?

These types of questions provoked the discussions that led to this dissertation. In

this study, two foundational texts are compared in order to make a statement about the

philosophical underpinnings of classical Yoga. In other words, instead of approaching

yoga from a lens of modern psychology, this study probes the interplay of philosophy and

practices, which produce an effect deemed to be psychological.

From its inception, transpersonal psychology has looked at Eastern practices and

religions for inspiration and understanding. There was a perceived kinship in ultimate

goals and in the methodology of self-discovery. Because exploration into other cultures

was relatively novel, and the boundaries between investigator and practitioner were

blurred, transpersonal writers have sometimes tended towards a personal rather than

academic approach in their exposition of yoga. Given the interest and resources available,

different questions can be raised. What attitudes and methods are most useful when

psychologists approach non-Western systems such as yoga? What type of framework

permits an understanding and a translation of such a system with respect to its depth,

history, and cultural roots? For psychologists with a personal practice rooted in a

different culture, it seems important to address these questions before incorporating these

practices into treatment or research.

This study built on past research in developing a psychological framework for

cross-cultural investigations. For a working foundation, this dissertation looked to a set of

concepts and values that incorporate what Taylor (2006) designated an existential-

humanistic and transpersonally oriented depth psychology. The study also sought to

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reaffirm the value of certain methods and attitudes, common in the study of religion, for

work in the field of psychology. It is hoped that this work will challenge practitioner-

psychologists to more fully understand the epistemology of non-Western spiritual

traditions.

Because the topic of yogic philosophy is somewhat esoteric for American

psychologists, certain background and historical information on yoga, Indian

philosophical concepts and systems, and the two texts are provided in the literature

review, as is the psychological framework for the study and background on the method.

The method and results, including a full comparison of the texts, are found in Chapters 3

and 4, and conclusions and reflections are presented in Chapter 6. Chapter 5 is a

psychological commentary, a comparison of the texts within the framework of an

existential-humanistic and transpersonally oriented depth psychology. Appendix A is a

Sanskrit-English glossary, and Appendix B is a timeline pertaining to the texts with notes

on some of the disputes on dates.

How This Topic Was Chosen

The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali are the culmination of hundreds, perhaps thousands

of years of self-investigation by meditators, written in terse language that assumes a

certain background on the part of the reader (Whicher, 2000). Patañjali's classic work is

often thought to be aligned with an ancient dualistic philosophy called Sāmkhya

(Zimmer, 1974, p. 280). Vedantic thought supplanted Sāmkhya in popularity in India,

and those who introduced yoga to the United States were largely Vedantic teachers

(Taylor & Sugg, 2008). Does it matter which philosophy was assumed by Patañjali? Do

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we need to make a distinction between Sāmkhya, Vedānta, and Buddhist orientations?

Does the philosophy aligned with a particular approach or technique inform the practice?

If it is important, then which theory is referenced in Patañjali? This debate led to fairly

concrete questions: What is the overlap or dependence of Yoga on the Sāmkhya

epistemology, if any? What specifically do the texts have in common? Can the study, at

least in part, confirm or deny this linkage through a methodical analysis of the two main

classical texts?

This study did not seek to answer the broader questions of the relationship of

theory to practice in psychology, although that is an undercurrent in the discussion of the

results. In terms of hatha yoga practice in the United States, there is relatively little

connection with the philosophy. What does it mean to divorce techniques from theory?

Psychology has adapted techniques of meditation for clients and seeks to use the

language of psychology to explain the intent and results. Yet, as Walsh and Shapiro

(2006) note, "few researchers have examined meditation's original purpose as a self-

actualization strategy" (p. 230). They suggest that both researchers and clinicians might

find traditional explanations of meditation useful for understanding the effects of

meditation and its processes.

A more traditional approach for a student in India would be to study intently

under the guidance of a teacher (guru). This training would include practices, lifestyle,

ethics, and study of texts. Desikachar (1999) described his apprenticeship with Sri

Krishnamacharya, one of the great yoga masters of the twentieth century, whose students

included B. K. S. Iyengar, Jean Klein, and Indra Devi. Desikachar learned yoga poses and

breathing techniques, but the focus of his training was on performing service, teaching,

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and studying texts. Texts provided "the content of your practice and [made] what you

[were] doing comprehensible. The study of certain texts was compulsory" (p. xxiv).

What drew me personally to this study was an attempt to integrate practice,

lifestyle, and philosophy. My clinical practice included working with clients with trauma

and later working with clients with addictions, particularly compulsive gambling. For the

last 15 years, I also taught yoga postures and trained new yoga teachers. I observed that

yoga, like therapy, could be a powerful force for growth. When physical, mental, or

emotional negativity griped a student's life, steady practice seemed to bring release. I

entered my doctoral studies expecting to study and perhaps contribute to the literature on

compulsions and addictions. What drew my interest, however, was explosion of yoga-

related practice springing up in the most unlikely places. The time seemed ripe for me to

understand not only its therapeutic impact, but, more importantly, its aim and intent.

A History of Yoga in the United States

Yoga as a comprehensive system of personal transformation has widely

influenced Asian culture and made a significant contribution to world mental health.

Over the last two centuries, aspects of yoga have also been introduced to the United

States. Yoga, particularly yoga postures (āsana), is fashionable today in the United

States, yet the texts, philosophy, history, and intent of yoga are still foreign. While

numerous scholars have noted the linkage between the Sāmkhya conceptual framework

and classical Yoga, the dualistic philosophy of Samkhya is scarcely known by those

interested in yoga (Taylor & Sugg, 2008). In the United States, Vedānta, specifically its

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monistic school, Advaita Vedänta, has existed as a kind of filter through which aspects of

Indian culture are viewed.

In truth, the understanding of yoga in America has much to do with the specifics

of its introduction into the United States. Yoga first appeared in the American literature

in the 1830s through Emerson, Fuller, and Thoreau (Taylor & Sugg, 2008). The founding

of the Theosophical Society 50 years later helped disseminate the ideas of karma,

reincarnation, Vedänta, and Buddhism. Theosophists translated Sanskrit texts, including

the Bhagavad Gīta and the Yoga Sūtras, then published and distributed the texts and

commentaries to a wider audience. An edition of William Q. Judge's translation of the

Yoga Sūtras was published in Bombay in 1885 by Tookeram Tatya, a theosophist. Judge

(1889/1987) republished the work in 1889 in a second edition with his explanatory notes

to help "Western minds unfamiliar with the Hindu modes of expression, ... philosophy and

logic" (p. vi).

Taylor (1999b) pointed out that Americans comprehend Indian philosophy largely

through the lens of the earliest Indian teachers and missionaries in America, most of who

subscribed to Advaita Vedānta. A prime example was Swami Vivekananda, the

charismatic teacher who lectured in America as early as 1893 and established the

Vedanta Societies in America. At the World Parliament of Religions, held in Chicago in

1893, Vivekananda captivated audiences who were, for the first time, hearing about

Asian religions from Asian teachers (Taylor, 1999b). The conference itself spurred much

interfaith discussion and "infused new life into the fledgling academic field of

comparative religions" (p. 188). Miller (1998) concurred that "many modern translations

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and commentaries on the Yoga Sūtras reflect Vivekananda's Vedantic conceptions" (p.

xi).

De Michelis (2005) in her recent book, A History of Modern Yoga, identified two

seminal dates in the introduction of yoga to the West. The first is 1849 when Henry

David Thoreau wrote that he was an adherent of yoga, thus becoming the first recorded

Western practitioner of yoga. The second date was 1896 when Vivekananda published

Raja Yoga, in which he "carried out a major revisitation of yoga history, structures,

beliefs, and practices" (pp. 2-3). She noted the confusion in the West about forms of

Hinduism in which contemporary interpretations, particularly what she called "Neo-

Vedanta", have come to stand for all Hindu tradition for consumers who do not know the

difference. What is termed New Age "has been especially receptive to Neo-Vedantic

teachings, which it has eagerly absorbed and nurtured in its quest to find alternatives to

Western mainstream culture" (p. 12). Vivekananda wa Vivekananda was followed by a succession of Indian teachers, including

Paramahansa Yogananda, Jiddhu Krishnamurti, a teacher originally connected to the

Theosophical Society, Swami Sivananda, Swami Rama, and Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.

The advent of research on meditation and yoga by an Indian graduate student at Yale,

Kovoor T. Behanan, brought an additional perspective. Behanan studied the effects of

yoga in his dissertation, which he later published as Yoga: A Scientific Evaluation (1937).

Meditation and yoga were initially introduced as spiritual and transformative

processes. Over the years, the physical postures have become increasingly well-known to

the general population as aids to fitness and management of stress. While the depth of

knowledge and devotion of many yoga practitioners has increased, most Americans still

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know yoga as an exercise program. For those who continue to practice, āsana practice

has sometimes evolved into a popular psychology that clearly appreciates the physical

and cognitive connection. For those introduced to philosophical or spiritual teachings,

Advaita Vedānta's monistic model of consciousness had enough similarities to be

compatible with the predominant monotheistic culture of America, even if that familiarity

was tacit. Although in its purest aspects, monism teaches one ultimate substance or

reality throughout the universe, in practice it is often associated with devotion to god.

"For the beginner ... the divine superego commonly called "god" is properly and

advisedly the center of pious devotional exercises of self-surrender (bhakti). By ... making

"Him" the center of consciousness, one is enabled to get rid of one's individual ego"

(Zimmer, 1974, p. 426). This approach probably sounded both familiar and compelling to

audiences in America.

The point is that Americans have learned about yoga, and have historically

viewed yoga through Vedänta. Gurus taught their beliefs, their devotional themes, and

their tradition. However, classical Yoga, represented by Patañjali's Yoga Sūtras, has a

different perspective, and part of the rationale of this dissertation is the hypothesis that

the dualistic philosophies of Patañjali and classical Sāmkhya represent a vital element of

indigenous Indian philosophy not usually presented in the United States. Making the

distinction in a cross-cultural, comparative psychological study seems respectful at this

juncture.

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Description of the Study

This study compared two classical Indian philosophical texts, examining their

interdependence, similarities, and differences. The intent was to produce a statement

about philosophical underpinnings of the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali and its relationship to

the Sāmkhya, if any, as an explanation for what happens to consciousness in the process.

Both texts are culminations of centuries of debate, refinement, and experience. Larson

(1987) described the two works as "truly remarkable works by any measure, but

nevertheless reflecting the end products of a process of intellectual formulation rather

than the process itself" (p. 18).

There is a body of literature that assumes that classical works of Yoga and

Sāmkhya are interconnected. Perhaps one of the texts is more theoretical and speaks more

cosmically, and one is more personal and practical, but they are ultimately companion

pieces. Other writers agree, but point out a number of differences in theory, method, and

terminology. Some writers seem to dispute a connection between the systems. These

opinions are reported in the literature review.

A researcher with a historical or religious orientation might be more interested in

the trends and controversies surrounding the two philosophies. A Sanskritist might

examine the various differences in language with more precision. Fortunately, there are

excellent researchers from several fields who have written from these perspectives about

both of these texts. My interest is more in the phenomenology of yoga, the psychological

experience and shifts that accompany the practice. In essence, the Yoga Sūtras of

Patañjali (Woods, 1914/2003) are largely a compilation of the melded experiences of

many accomplished yogis, understood within a certain framework of culture and

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philosophy. While yoga might not be a psychology, its psychological attributes are

acknowledged, as discussed in the following chapter. Many past psychological studies

have investigated the effects and effectiveness of yoga techniques, as reported in the

meta-analysis of Walsh and Shapiro (2006). This study assumes effects are possible. The

purpose of this paper is to acknowledge the larger environs that made these psychological

discoveries inevitable.

Structure of the Study

There are certain questions that led to the crafting of the structure of this study.

The literature review addresses three foundational areas. First, what concepts and

attitudes might aid an American psychologist in studying a system such as yoga? A

framework incorporating an existential-humanistic and transpersonally oriented depth

psychology was used by Starcher (1999) in an earlier study of tantra. The literature

section is a review of this general conceptual framework as a useful and respectful

approach for examining the intent, means, and psychological understandings of systems

such as yoga.

Second, it seems valuable to both honor the breadth of a topic such as yoga and

limit the parameters of the study. General background on Indian philosophy is discussed

in the literature section. It seems equally important to highlight some of the aspects of

yoga which make it an interesting topic for psychologists, and this follows the general

background on yoga. Third, what method or methods are useful in comparing these

ancient texts? The literature review examines methods used by researchers in the

scientific study of religion. It reviews the evolution of hermeneutics as a method and

11

philosophy, and argues for its applicability within the conceptual framework discussed

above.

Why should this comparison be significant to a psychologist? First, in ascribing

psychological changes to yoga practices, there is a danger of treating these techniques as

a pharmaceutical. Before prescribing treatment, it seems important to understand the aim

and intent. Second, how does it alter our understanding of yoga to explore different

philosophical underpinnings? If the texts are interconnected, how does dualistic Sāmkhya

philosophy inform the practice of yoga and psychologists' understanding of it? Third, can

a richer appreciation of another system deemed psychological shed light on our own

system called psychology?

This Study within the Field of Psychology

How does this topic find its home in psychology rather than religion or history?

Perhaps the most patent observation is that yoga represents a traditional system in India

comparable to psychology in the United States. In other words, psychology in the United

States might be thought of as an indigenous psychology, but only one among several in

the world. From the standpoint of positivistic science, which views itself as universal, this

might be indefensible (Starcher, 1999, p. 16).

However, within the framework of humanistic psychology, cross-cultural studies

of systems such as yoga are valid. Why? First, and perhaps most basically, humanistic

psychology supports an expanded definition of human personality, a foundational

assumption in Indian philosophy. Secondly, humanistic psychology is more accepting of

qualitative methods such as phenomenology and hermeneutics, and these methods

12

provide a meeting ground for psychology and the study of religions and systems such as

yoga. Hermeneutics, used more widely in the humanities, can help guide psychology's

interpretations in a way quantitative analysis cannot. Psychology in the United States has

not ignored yoga and meditation, as noted earlier. A review of PsycINFO, a database of

psychological literature, resulted in over 2,000 articles pertaining to yoga or meditation,

and almost a third were published in 2006. The vast majority of articles examined the use

and evaluated the effectiveness of yoga as a tool. With this much attention to the topic at

hand, it seems reasonable to consider the origins and teleology of yoga.

Psychologists who are interested in yoga and meditation are often involved in a

practice themselves. The dissertation seeks to challenge practitioner-psychologists to

more fully understand the foundations of their elected traditions. This particular study is

an attempt to step back and understand the origins of a spiritual practice. This requires

knowledge of history and culture, a method for investigation that respects the complexity

of the exploration, and a psychological foundation which accepts experiences of these

traditions as valid and worthy.

Limitations of the Study

There are several important limitations in this study. First, this study can not settle

centuries old debates concerning Yoga and Sāmkhya, nor does it champion a particular

philosophical view of self-realization. In addition, this type of cross-cultural investigation

demands an acknowledgement of the cultural blinders that all writers wear when

examining another worldview. Over 100 years ago, William James cautioned readers

about one's inherent blindness when interacting with someone who is different in some

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way. Acknowledging this tendency might help develop a non-judgmental attitude that

would lead one to:

Tolerate, respect, and indulge those whom we see harmlessly interested and happy in their own ways, however unintelligible these may be to us. Hands off: neither the whole of truth nor the whole of good is revealed to any single observer, although each observer gains a partial superiority of insight for the peculiar position in which he stands. (James, 1962, p. 9, para. 4)

One principal issue with this paper is the use of translations. The relevant texts

were written in Sanskrit, and English translations were used for the analysis. Translators

and commentators bring their own perspective from their own era and heritage. This

difficulty is somewhat ameliorated by the use of multiple translations and commentaries.

In the case of the Yoga Sūtras, many translations (Woods, 1914/2003; Aranya, 1983;

Desikachar, 1999; Feuerstein, 1989; Hartranft, 2003; Hill, D. 2004; Houston, 1995;

Miller, 1998; Mishra, 1973; Prasada, 1989; Satchidananda, 1978; Taimni, 1961) were

examined and compared. In the case of the Sāmkhya Kārikās, fewer translations were

used (Larson, 2001; Larson & Bhattacharya, 1987; Colebrook, 1837).

There are additional complications in reading Sanskrit texts in translation. First,

many of the spiritual or philosophical terms in Sanskrit are used in subtlety different

ways in different texts and systems. Meanings and concepts are interwoven over the

centuries in ways not apparent to novice readers (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1989). For

example, the word purusa appears early on in the Vedas as the personification, the

essence of a person. In the later Upanisads, the Self, the universal principle (Ātman)

appears in the form of the Person, purusa (p. 77). In the Sāmkhya dualistic philosophy,

purușa is the conscious principle, as distinguished from the material world, and it

engenders the evolution of the material world (Zimmer, 1974, p. 242). The Bhagavad

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Gītā, perhaps more properly identified as a Hindu religious text and a blending of many

traditions, tends to equate Samkhya and Yoga, seeing both as monistic, not dualistic,

synthesizing various concepts into devotion. The point is that important concepts and

terms are renamed, reformed, and reused in ways that may not be obvious to a casual

reader.

Secondly, translators may use English words which have meaning in their own

culture, but are ultimately misleading. For example, Radhakrishnan and Moore (1989)

pointed out that ätman became Soul in some English translations, and to avoid

misconceptions and be more precise, they used a combination of ätman and Self (p. 39).

Another example is the collision of Victorian imagination with tantric practices,

described in detail by Urban (1999). James Haughton Woods was certainly aware of this

issue. In his 1914 preface to the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali, he remarked:

A system whose subtleties are not those of Western philosophers suffers disastrously when its characteristic concepts are compelled to masquerade under assumed names, fit enough for our linguistic habits but threadbare even for us by reason of frequent transpositions. Each time that Purusa is rendered by the word 'soul', every psychologist and metaphysician is betrayed. No equivalent is found in our vocabulary. (Woods, 1914/2003, p. x)

Yet another striking and simple example of this confusion is the English word

philosophy. For the most part, Indian and Western philosophy study similar things: logic,

ethics, ontology, epistemology, and aesthetics. However, there are a number of critical

differences. The Indian philosophical systems are not derived solely by rational thought,

"but also of visionary-intuitive processes" (Feuerstein, 2001, p. 72). The different

philosophies are perceived as different perspectives on the truth, truth being ātman,

purușa, Brahman or Iśvara, depending on the philosophical system (p. 72), but also

reflecting the rich interconnections of the systems. In addition, one's spiritual evolution

15

and self-knowledge is more emphasized in Indian philosophy, and is more akin to

religion in this aspect. This self-knowledge implies a set of moral and ethical principles

and actions; in other words, philosophy is meant to guide everyday behavior. So while

there are similarities between the usage of the word philosophy in describing Western

and Indian systems, there are also distinctions. Zimmer (1974) remarked that Indian

philosophy is linked to religion and devotion in the same fashion that Western philosophy

is linked to science and scientific method (p. 50).

Lastly, the timeline of Indian philosophy, history, and religion is vast.

Philosophical works were transmitted orally, often long before they were written down.

Dates attached to various works are usually approximate, and it would be an error to

suppose that a later date denotes a historically later concept or system. This is particularly

true with Yoga and Samkhya, as discussed in the literature review. This makes any

review prone to generalizations for which, in this vast history, there are always counter-

examples.

The complexities noted above also make the study of these texts very rich.

Although the specific task of this study is fairly well-defined, the skills and knowledge

needed to compare the texts span several disciplines. Working within a psychological

framework has disadvantages or limitations in terms of my own limited formal training in

the religions and philosophies of India. However, the psychological framework offers

some extraordinary advantages in its conceptualization of these systems of self-

realization.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter presents literature from three different academic areas, creating a

foundation for the psychological orientation, the topic, and the method. In the first

section, the psychological framework used in this study is examined. The second section

provides background, history, and discussion on Sāmkhya and Yoga. The last section

surveys the evolution of methods and philosophy originally developed in comparative

religions and now applied to psychology.

An Existential-Humanistic and Transpersonally Oriented Depth Psychology

The practices of yoga are steeped in culture, time, and history. Writers in history,

comparative religions, philosophy, and psychology use their particular academic lens to

translate these practices, but each lens is inherently limited. This raises the question of

how a psychologist can best interpret and translate a spiritual practice, while still

retaining the integrity, meaning, and power of the system? How can religious experience

from another culture be translated into a psychotherapeutically useful process of self-

realization in this culture?

This section explores a conceptual framework drawn from Jungian, humanistic,

existential, and transpersonal psychology. What do these streams of psychology have in

common? Each is derived from "an expanded definition of personality, a wider definition

of consciousness, a more complete spectrum of methods of scientific inquiry, and an

epistemology all owing psychology to dialogue with non-Western models of personality

17

and consciousness" (Taylor, 2006, in preparation). Taylor entitled the confluence of these

streams the outline of an existential-humanistic and transpersonally oriented depth

psychology.

Humanistic, Existential, and Transpersonal Psychology

Transpersonal psychologists have shown interest in a wide range of Eastern

religious practices (Scotton, Chinen, & Battista, 1996), and many had personal practices

that inspired their work and motivated their research. Their interior exploration was

informed by psychological expertise, which led them to make connections with

psychological concepts. Some continued this exploration as teachers or therapists, with

students or clients. Kornfield (1993) and Wolinsky (1991) are examples.

Behavioral health professionals looked at meditation, breathing techniques, and

āsana practice as having the potential to positively influence mind-body interactions.

Researchers such as Benson, Beary, and Carol (1974), Kabat-Zinn (2003), and Murphy

and Donovan (1997) have sought to investigate the psychophysiological claims of such

practices using quantitative scientific methods. Although they may or may not have

considered themselves transpersonal psychologists, they provided an accepted scientific

lens with which to view Eastern practices, making the information accessible and usable

to a wide audience. Their work captured the pragmatic and universal nature of these

practices. Although transpersonal psychologists and behavioral health researchers

differed in interests and methods, their fundamental questions were similar: How can

practices such as meditation positively impact lives in United States today? Can we learn

to live more fully in the process of healing ourselves with these practices? Can we, within

18

an environment dominated by the medical model and reductionistic science, transform

rather than fix?

The philosophical roots of these types of questions can be traced to the early

existentialists, the Danish clergyman, Kierkegaard, and the German philosophers,

Nietzsche and Dilthey (Moss, 2001; Wertz, 2001). As a clergyman, Kierkegaard wrestled

with the prevailing notion of reason over faith, believing authentic existence is

constituted from committed faith, as well as the need to choose and direct one's own life.

Nietzsche rejected the idea of God, and rejected human dependence on God for security,

morality, and meaning. The individual is alone, and must take responsibility for decisions

and choices (Smart, 2001; Moss, 2001). Dilthey, an empiricist who avoided the mention

of god, was drawn to the individual's unique experiences and expressions, and also to

consciousness, which he saw as the defining attribute of existence. Twentieth century

existentialists, Sartre, Camus, and Buber, were equally diverse in their orientation, but

similar themes arose in their writings: freedom, choice, and respect for the individual,

responsibility, potential for growth, and a quest for meaning and authentic existence.

For existential psychologists, a link to phenomenological methods was crucial,

since these methods provided the means for studying the inner world of experiences and

meaning for the individual. Phenomenology was a "new language of description as well

as a new method of scientific investigation" (Rychlak, 1981, p. 566). In the combination

of existentialism and phenomenology, humanistic psychology found a philosophical

foundation and a strategy for proceeding (Brennen, 1998).

While American existentialist and humanistic psychology echoed European

existentialist-phenomenological thought, it also had uniquely American roots in Thoreau,

19

Emerson, and William James (Taylor, 1999b), and personality theorists such as Gordon

Allport, Gardner Murphy, and Henry A. Murray. These personality theorists "rejected the

atomism of experimental psychologists ... [and] argued instead for psychology as a

person-centered science" (Taylor & Martin, 2001, p. 22). Psychiatrists and

psychotherapists of the first half of the 20th century, including Binswanger, Freud, Adler,

Frankl, Rank, Reich, as well as the Gestalt psychologists, anticipated and contributed

aspects of practice and theory. Jung is described as a forerunner of transpersonal

psychology (Moss, 2001, p. 14).

By mid-1950s, the American humanistic movement was growing, led by

Abraham Maslow (Moss, 2001). Maslow's passion for exploring human potential and

self-realization combined with Carl Roger's intense understanding of the therapeutic

relationship yielded powerful framework for the new movement. Rogers said that he

"launched" into the therapeutic relationship, not as a scientist or healer, but as a person,

believing that his "understanding of the other person's inner world, will lead to a

significant process of becoming" (Rogers, 1955, p. 311). Humanistic psychology

advocated a model of health based on self-actualization: "This 'self' is not a static object

but ... both an agency for and a renewing product of meaningful change .... This self is by

nature creative, conscious, and dynamically transforming" (Arons & Richards, 2001, p.

128), and this conception of the self contrasted sharply with mainstream psychology's

orientation toward prediction and control. Indeed, the movement was not particularly

unified except, perhaps, in its opposition to the belief that reductionistic science was the

only possible way of knowing. Again, the link to phenomenology was crucial because of

20

its inherent insight into the construction and meaning-making of sciences, as well as its

potential for deep understanding of human experience.

In the late 1960s, Maslow's explorations led him to "possibilities beyond self-

actualization" and into the arena of religion and spirituality (Frager & Fadiman, 2005, p.

361). As this new transpersonal approach developed, one of its imperatives was to devise

a scientific approach to study such experiences, an approach beyond positivistic science,

psychotherapy, and even humanistic psychology. An important aspect of this approach

was the realization that other religions and cultures, particularly Asian cultures, had entire

systems of psychological understanding embedded in their spiritual practices. What was

new in transpersonal psychology was "the task of bringing together ideas from many

different traditions and cultures to form a modern psychological language and scientific

framework" (p. 362). By 1983, Murphy and Donovan (1983) had amassed a list of 776

scientific journal articles and books concerning meditation.

In a similar vein, Alan Watts (1972) pointed out that Westerners find something

more akin to psychology when they examine Asian spiritual practices carefully (p. 15).

Both psychology and these practices seek to change consciousness, and many represent

"critiques of culture, and enduring non-violent revolution" (p. 19), and thus they share

with psychotherapy a resistance to the process of social conditioning. Watts believed that

psychology deteriorated simply into an adjustment to social norms, it became dishonest.

Psychologists who helped individuals find a more holistic, authentic life were "forced

into social criticism" (p. 20). Social conditioning might help make meaning of existence

and give a sense of identity, but it was also the root of inner conflict and suffering. When

21

psychologists helped clients grow beyond conditioning, they strayed beyond the clinical

limits of behavior and cognition and into a search for freedom.

Depth Psychology and Jung's Approach to Eastern Practices

Ellenberger (1970) began his history of dynamic psychiatry by examining the

various types of ancient models of healing and ceremonies, including shamanism. Depth

psychology "derives from primitive medicine, and an uninterrupted continuity can be

demonstrated between exorcism and magnetism, magnetism and hypnotism, and

hypnotism and the modern dynamic schools" (p. 48). Medicine is science, and relies on

scientific findings, and the psychiatrist has become a technician and specialist (p. 47).

Since science is thought to be all-knowing, "it cannot admit the validity of extrascientific

healing-hence, the contempt of 'official' medicine for all kinds of primitive and popular

medicine" (p. 47).

Jung is a particularly important figure in this lineage because of his curiosity

about non-Western epistemologies as well as his extraordinary pursuits in psychology.

By the time Jung was in his mid-thirties and already a well-known psychiatrist, he began

a solitary exploration of his own unconscious images, symbols, and dreams. Over time, a

purpose for Jung's investigation emerged, "the discovery of the most intimate elements

of [the individual's] personality, the self" (Ellenberger, 1970, p. 672). This

transformation "from the unconscious to conscious and from the ego to the self" became

known as individuation (p. 672). Great skill and psychological attitude were necessary to

bring the processes and contents of the psyche to conscious awareness. When

22

individuation manifested, however, the core of the personality reoriented away from the

needs of the ego and towards unity and wholeness (Sachdeva, 1978, p. 84).

Jung was intrigued by other cultures, religions, and non-traditional experiences.

He had a lifelong interest in gnosticism (Ellenberger, 1970), and forays into spiritism and

parapsychology in his early twenties were continued later in life. Jung experimented with

the I Ching, an ancient Chinese philosophy and system of divination, visited Native

Americans in New Mexico, and lived with an African tribe, feeling that traditional

societies could add to his understanding of the unconscious. In 1932, Jung lectured on the

imagery and psychological meaning of kundalinī yoga and the cakra system. In 1937, he

traveled to India and Ceylon. He published a commentary on an ancient Chinese text with

Richard Wilhelm, another on The Tibetan Book of the Dead, a forward to Suzuki's

Introduction to Zen Buddhism, and several essays on meditation, yoga, and India (Jung,

1978).

Jung's investigations into other cultures, and particularly his commentaries on

Chinese, Indian, Tibetan, and Japanese texts, led him to believe Eastern philosophy could

provide a lens for examining the precepts of Western psychology. There were many

similarities between Jung's search for self through exploration of the unconscious and the

goals of Eastern practices. Yoga, for example, systematically attempts to reduce

unconscious content and increase the conscious field, in order to fully realize self and

freedom (Das, 1975). Shamdasani (1933/1996) pointed out that depth psychology in the

West emerged around the time that yogic texts were becoming readily available in

translation. Depth psychologies sought "to develop maps of inner experience grounded in

23

the transformative potential of therapeutic practices" (p. xix) which mirrored the

descriptions found in yogic texts.

Jung's exploration of kundalinī yoga in his 1932 seminar is an attempt to

intermingle yogic concepts with Western psychological methods. In kundalinī, Jung

found something lost or non-existent in the West, an "account of the developmental

phases of higher consciousness" (Shamdasani, 1933/1996, p. xxiv). Although Jung's

explanation of kundalinī and his utilization of the cakra system have been criticized,

Jung's role in the lectures was not to explicate kundalinī yoga, but rather to expound on

the imagery from analysis that seemed to correspond to cakra awakenings. "The Western

'discovery' of the East constituted a critical chapter in the 'discovery' of the collective

unconscious ... kundalinī yoga represented a systemization of inner experience that

spontaneously presented itself in the West" (p. xliv). While kundalinī yoga was rich in

symbolism and exemplified a process of individuation, Jung did not endorse the idea of

Westerners embracing Eastern practices. Jung was interested in the psychology of such

practices, but the experience itself was dependent on the originating culture. In other

words, Jung recognized that more elaborate processes of introversion, like yoga, sprang

from a vast cultural and historical base, and thus adopting these practices verbatim was

not recommended since they were built on understandings indigenous to the culture:

The Indian can forget neither the body nor the mind, while the European is always forgetting either the one or the other. With this capacity to forget he has, for the time being, conquered the world ... [while] knowing astonishingly little of his own nature. ... In the deepest sense ... [yoga means] the final release and detachment of consciousness from all bondage to object and subject. But since one cannot detach oneself from something of which one is unconscious, the European must first learn to know his subject. This, in the West, is what one calls the unconscious. (Jung, 1978, pp. 81-83)

24

Summary of this Section

This section highlighted the components of the conceptual framework for this

study. Humanistic psychology advocates an orientation towards choice, health, creativity,

and growth. It posits multiple possibilities of being in the world and a willingness to

participate, to enter another's world. Transpersonal psychology emphasizes the

possibility and power of the transcendent. It provides models for exploration of self and

of other systems. Depth psychology expanded the European concept of personality.

Jung's approach was characterized by the integration of unconscious elements and a

movement towards wholeness. Jung also approached material and practices from other

cultures creatively, respectfully, and cautiously. Methods in humanistic and depth

psychology extend beyond quantitative and statistical approaches, incorporating

phenomenological and clinical knowledge. This prepares researchers in psychology to

explore other cultures with less imposition of their own biases. It also shifts attention to

different ways of knowing (Taylor, 2006).

The various streams of thought brought together in this section outline an

existential-humanistic and transpersonally oriented depth psychology. This approach

presents psychology with a more complex schema by adding existential concepts, a

phenomenological viewpoint and method, an emphasis on the significance of the

dynamic unconscious, and an avenue to approach the transcendent function of

personality. Existentialism, phenomenology, and depth psychology provide a

sophisticated portal into Asian epistemologies.

25

Background and History of Yoga and Sāmkhya

This section is designed to place Yoga and Sämkhya within the larger framework

of Indian history and philosophy. By necessity, this summary simplifies many of the

complex issues and reduces controversies. It does, however, provide a working

knowledge for discussions of the texts and philosophies. Sanskrit terms and a timeline are

summarized in the appendixes.

Harappan Culture (3500-1900 B.C.E.) and Indus Valley Civilization

The area now known as Pakistan and India has been inhabited for tens of

thousands of years. The pre-historic Indus Valley or Harappan culture, discovered in

1921, thrived until about four thousand years ago, and is noteworthy because of its size

and sophistication (Jha, 2004). Parpola (2005) called it "the most extensive urban culture

of its time" (p. 28). For example, the city is thought to have had about 700 brick wells "so

strong that they have not collapsed in 5000 years" (p. 30). Weiler (1988) put the

population of Harappa at about one million at its peak.

Jha (2004), a professor of history at the University of Delhi, noted that about

1,500 sites have been uncovered since the first excavation in 1924. The largest are the

cities of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, both in modern Pakistan. Harappan script,

recovered largely from the more than 2,000 carved seals, has not been deciphered.

Parpola (2005) and other scholars believe the script is related to Dravidian, a language

group now prevalent in Sri Lanka and southern India.

The seals found in the Indus Valley sites probably had several functions,

including marking property. Some are thought to represent deities. One of the images

26

shares symbols later attached to Siva, the god who was also connected with austerities

and yoga (Weiler, 1988; Jha, 2004). Another seal shows a nude male with three faces,

possibly a deity, seated in what appears to be a meditative posture, with bangles and a

headdress with bo (pipal) leaves, as shown in Figure 1. The bo or bodhi tree is considered

sacred. Bodhi means perfected wisdom, and is used in the Jain and Buddhist systems to

designate one who attains enlightenment. It was under the bodhi tree that the meditating

Buddha was enlightened (Monier-Williams, 2002, p. 734).

Figure 1. Seal from Mohenjo-daro.

From Around the Indus in 90 Slides, by J. M. Kenoyer and R. Meadow, 2006, slide 33. Retrieved December 18, 2006, from http://www.harappa.com/indus/33.html. Reprinted with permission

Jha (2004) noted that there is no definitive connection between this pre-Aryan

culture and Hindu or yogic traditions. However, other writers have made a connection

between meditative practices, yoga, and this early culture. Zimmer (1974), for example,

traces aspects of the meditative tradition to a pre-Vedic, pre-Aryan culture. Weiler (1988)

noted that it is at least "possible to distinguish a clearly non-Aryan-which may or may

27

not be pre-Aryan-source for many of the concepts that characterize the religion known

as 'Hinduism' in India today" (p. 4).

The Vedic Period (2000 to 600 B.C.E.)

In the period before 2000 B.C.E., there was both a decline in Harappa culture and

the beginnings of an influx of people from the northwest that continued over several

centuries. These people came to be known as the Aryans, but the nature of their migration

is not fully known (Weiler, 1988; Jha, 2004). Language points to a close association

between Indo-European groups; Sanskrit, Old Iranian, Latin, Greek, Germanic languages,

and Romance languages all belong to the same family (Jha, 2004). Sanskrit and Old

Iranian have the same source language. Weiler (1988) also pointed out that some of the

Vedic gods have mythological counterparts in Iran and Greece (p. 4).

The Vedas are the foundational religious documents of the Aryan culture, and

they became written texts around 1500-800 B.C.E. (Zimmer, 1974, p. 615). They were,

however, composed much earlier (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1987, p. 3). Considered by

Hindus to be sacred, revealed writings (śruti), they embody the revealed wisdom from the

experiences of illumined sages and seers called rsis. There are four collections of verses,

and each collection had a prose manual containing descriptions of sacrifices and

fragments of ancient myths (Campbell, 1974). The oldest text, the Rg Veda, is a

collection of prayers to the Vedic gods, and it develops the foundation for religious

practices based on sacrifice and ritual. The creation of the cosmos is viewed as the self-

sacrifice of the primeval being, purușa (Whicher, 2000, p. 9). From the divided purușa

came the sun and moon, the earth and space, the animals, the four classes of people, and

28

the verses, chants, meters, and formulas of the Vedas. Paradoxically, purusa was both the

sacrifice and receiver of the sacrifice. "The gods, spreading the sacrifice, bound the Man

as the sacrificial beast. With the sacrifice the gods sacrificed to the sacrifice. These were

the first ritual laws" (dharmas) (O'Flaherty, 2000, p. 31). The Yajur Veda and Sāma Veda

are primarily verses from the Rg Veda, compiled for practical use by the priests during

rituals. The Atharva Veda contains a number of charms and incantations for love and

family, as well as hymns and prayers (Zimmer, 1974, p. 146; Jha, 2004).

The Upanisads are texts following or concluding the Vedas, dating from about

800-600 B.C.E. (Campbell, 1974, p. 9). There are 10 major Upanișads, but over 200 texts

in total. Their impact has been immense, and as Radhakrishnan and Moore (1989) noted,

they have "dominated Indian philosophy, religion, and life for nearly three thousand

years" (p. 37). They were the "first reaction to Brahmanical dominance and the

extremely ritualistic later Vedic religion" (Jha, 2004, p. 62). They questioned animal

sacrifice, advocated asceticism, non-violence, and a belief in transmigration of the soul

from which evolved the law of karma, the principle of cause and effect governing

actions.

Like the Vedas, the Upaniads are considered revealed scriptures, yet there is a

decided shift in the Upanisads towards a mystical or philosophical orientation and inward

search for illumination through knowledge. The focus moves from the action of ritual to

its meaning, including greater "awareness of yoga practices and whole process of training

the self. There is a voyage inward into the soul, as well as a voyage outward into the

universe" (Smart, 2001, p. 20).

29

The Epic Period (500-600 B.C.E. to 200 C.E.)

The Ramāyāna and the Mahābhārata are the two epics giving this period its

name. The story of the Ramāyana deals with conflicts between Aryans and pre-Aryan

culture, while the story of the Mahābhārata describes an ancient struggle for political

control. Eighteen chapters of the Mahābhārata form the Bhagavad Gītā (Radhakrishnan,

2002), written between 150 B.C.E. and 250 C.E. It offers an astonishing fusion of

Upanishadic monism, yogic practices, and Samkhya dualism (Radhakrishnan & Moore,

1989; Whicher, 2000). The Bhagavad Gītā was the first text ever translated from Sanskrit

into English, in 1784 (De, 1996, para. 17). Additional translations appeared in the 19th

century, and many 20 century Indian teachers and writers contributed their own English

translations.

It is useful to distinguish between the Yoga Sutras, the main text of the

philosophical school of Yoga, and the more theistic and religious Bhagavad Gītā. The

Bhagavad Gīta tells the story of a critical encounter between a charioteer, Krishna, and

Arjuna, a warrior struggling with indecision about his duty. Krishna is really the avatar of

Vishnu, one of three gods in the Hindu trinity. In his counsel to Arjuna, Krishna

acknowledges the many paths to salvation while emphasizing action without attachment

and devotion (bhakti) to a personal god as the surest route to salvation. Zimmer (1974)

remarked that, in a very few verses, the Bhagavad Gītā was able to reconcile dualist and

monistic thought into simply two aspects of the same reality (p. 393).

The Epic Period also saw the rise of heterodox systems, such as Buddhism and

Jainism, and the orthodox schools of philosophy. The term orthodox is usually reserved

for those schools that accept the authority of the Vedas. Also during the Epic Period,

30

many of the texts that guide ethical and social behavior were compiled. In the later part of

this era, sutras codifying the philosophies appeared (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1989).

While it is difficult to untangle influences, there are many overlaps in ethics and practice.

For example, in discussing Patañjali's stages of consciousness in samādhi, Dasgupta

(2005) noted that this formulation had older roots, which had influenced nascent

Buddhist ideas:

It has often been maintained that Buddha was much indebted to Sāmkhya philosophy, but if that is true to any extent, nowhere does this indebtedness come out in so remarkable a manner as in yoga ethics and practice, fields of enquiry which Yoga can particularly claim as its own as apart from Sāmkhya (p. 342).

The Traditional Philosophical Systems in India

There are six philosophical schools identified as classical or orthodox, meaning

that they are recognized as "valid points of view" by Hindu orthodoxy (Feuerstein, 2001).

They are Sāmkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, Vedānta, Vaisesika, and Nyāya. The schools were

categorized as separate systems around the 6th century B.C.E., but their roots are probably

much older. Although the six schools address different aspects and offer sometimes

conflicting solutions, "they are understood to be complementary projections of the one

truth on various planes of consciousness, valid intuitions from differing points of view"

(Zimmer, 1974, p. 605). The traditions of Jainism and Buddhism, on the other hand,

developed in reaction to Vedic ritualism and sacrifice. They do not accept the absolute

authority of the Vedas and are considered non-orthodox (Feuerstein, 2001).

Sāmkhya and Yoga are considered classical, orthodox systems, although there are

qualifications to this designation by some scholars. For example, Zimmer (1974) took

care to emphasize the non-Vedic origin and traditions. Riepe (1961) noted Sāmkhya's

31

critical or probing attitude toward the absolute authority of the Vedas (p. 177). The

epistemology of Sāmkhya "never denied reliable verbal testimony (śruti) ... but Sāmkhya

clearly gave pride of place in knowing to independent reasoning, even in the area ... of

ultimate truth and the science of liberation" (Larson, 1987, p. 29).

The six schools are often presented in aligned pairs. Sāmkhya and Yoga are

conceived as an allied pair. The second pair incorporates the two schools based on a non-

dualistic principle, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedānta. Purva-Mimamsa presents teachings

based on Vedic rituals, and Vedānta bases its philosophical principles on the Upanisads.

The third pair, Vaishesika and Nyäya, overlaps with aspects of Western philosophy while

retaining an interest in self-realization. Vaisheshika is concerned with categorization of

the basic elements of existence, and Nyaya is concerned with logic and rhetoric (Zimmer,

1974; Feuerstein, 2001).

Vedānta is probably better known in the United States than Sāmkhya and provides

a useful contrast. While Vedanta bases its philosophy on the Upanisads, the mystical

poetry of the Upanișads provides opportunities for multiple interpretations (Smart, 2001

p. 21). Thus, in addition to monistic Advaita Vedānta, there is also a modified non-dual

position, and a dualistic version of Vedānta. Visishtadvaita, or differentiated non-duality,

is theistic and associated with popular devotional (bhakti) sects (Zaehner, 1975, p. 73). It

is linked to the twelfth century sage, Ramanuja, who argued against unqualified monism.

For Ramanuja, the world was real, a "transformation of the subtle body of God" (Smart,

2001, p. 50). Salvation is a product of living in dependence on, and devotion to, God.

There is an element of predestination in this school, and God controls both karma and

salvation.

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The theistic and dualistic school of Vedanta is linked with a 13tn century sage,

Madhva, who proposed a duality between God and souls, and God and the world (Smart,

2001, p. 52). The monistic school of Advaita Vedänta is largely based on the 9th century

work of Sankara. Advaita literally means not two or not dual, referring to the

indivisibility of an ultimate principle (Brahman) and the individual essence (Monier-

Williams, 2002, p. 19). Advaita influenced Hindu culture when it was first presented, and

then experienced a revival of interest, especially among intellectuals, in the nineteenth

century (Smart, 2001).

While both Advaita and Samkhya-Yoga start with the goal of self-realization,

they "radically disagree" on the nature of what is real and eternal (Zaehner, 1975, p. 73).

In Sāmkhya-Yoga, what is eternal is the individual essence, the individual purușas.

Matter or nature (prakrti), however, is equally real and valid. In Advaita, what is eternal

is the one identical reality. To develop this premise, Sankara borrowed the concept of two

levels of truth from Buddhism (Smart, 2001, p. 37). The higher level of truth is

experienced as the individual becomes spiritually liberated, while ordinary truth is felt in

religious devotion and everyday life. Traditional Vedic teachings and a creator god can

not be identical with one reality, thus the need for the concept of illusion or māyā. "In

actual fact the māyā of the Advaita corresponds exactly to the prakrti or Nature of the

Sāmkhya ... but whereas in the Sāmkhya prakrti is a separate principle independent of

soul, māya in the Advaita is a collective hallucination" (Zaehner, 1975, p. 75-76).

Preparation leading to liberation could include classical yogic practices, "critical thought,

as in the Sāmkhya" or other orthodox practices (Zimmer, 1974, p. 416), but the ultimate

realization involved "an act of knowledge, but what is known existentially is that you

33

were Brahman all along. It is not a change of ontological status but a change in the state

of knowledge" (Smart, 2001, p. 40). The two level concept of truth allowed Sankara to

reconcile disparate aspects of the Upanisads, confirm traditional Vedic teachings,

accommodate devotional religion, adopt a very Sāmkhya like cosmology, and still

promote monism (p. 40).

Zimmer (1974) noted an interesting area of overlap between Sāmkhya-Yoga and

Advaita Vedānta:

The unconditioned, illimited state beyond the realm of opposites, as described by Śankara ... reflects, though in a supremely spiritualized form, the state of both the ancient Jaina Kevalin and the absolutely uninvolved Puruşa of the Sāmkhya view ... Niskriyā ('beyond all activities') revives the whole meaning of the antique, non-Aryan, non-Brahman, non-Vedic, aboriginal Indian ideal-though now under the guise of a nondual formulation. (p. 459)

Zimmer continues by wondering if Vedanta, which "pretends, with the most authority" to

describe the true meaning of the Vedas, can be attributed to conceptions of the pre-Vedic

culture. "If so, this points to a most interesting, most ironical, hidden chapter in the

history of Indian philosophy" (p. 459).

History and Description of the Sāmkhya Kārikās of Iśvarakrishna

Sāmkhya, considered the oldest system of philosophy in India (Bernard, 1999),

had considerable influence on not only philosophy, but also many other aspects of Indian

culture. "Philosophy, mythology, theology, law, medicine, art, and the various traditions

of yoga and tantra have all been touched by the categories and basic notions of the

Sāmkhya" (Larson & Bhattacharya, 1987, p. xi). While there have been continuing

controversies over the Samkhya teachings and its dualistic approach, what is conspicuous

is that the basic building blocks for other systems stem from the Sāmkhya, which

34

functioned "almost as a kind of cultural 'code' ... to which intellectuals in every phase of

cultural life in India have felt a need to respond" (p. xi).

The Sāmkhya Kārikās is the earliest extant text of this philosophical system, said

to represent the apex of classical Sāmkhya and a synthesis of various older schools of

Sāmkhya philosophy. There is no date for Kapila, the sage credited with the founding of

the Samkhya school, although he is believed to have lived before the 6th century B.C.E.

(Zimmer, 1974, p. 282), and thus pre-dates Buddhism. Larson and Bhattacharya (1987)

found proto-Sāmkhya thought in the Upanisads, the Bhagavad Gīta, and some of the

earliest texts of Ayurveda, the ancient Indian system of health and medicine.

Authorship of the Sāmkhya Kārikās is ascribed to Iśvarakrishna. Although little is

known about him, he was believed to have been a Brahmin who felt his task was to

mediate among conflicting viewpoints. What he produced was less a standard

philosophical text than "a philosophical poem" (Larson & Bhattacharya, 1987, p. 149).

Dating the Sāmkhya Kārikās has been difficult. There are seven additional teachers of

Sāmkhya from 100 B.C.E to 400 C.E. who appeared to be earlier or contemporaneous

with Iśvarakrishna. The most well established temporal marker for Iśvarakrishna is the

translation of the Sāmkhya Kārikās into Chinese between 557 and 569 C.E. (p. 150). It is

assumed that the text must have been reasonably well known to inspire such an effort.

Given the evidence, Iśvarakrishna was thought to have lived around 350 to 450 C.E.

Sāmkhya literature also included a number of important commentaries, including

several from a revival of Samkhya thought in the 15th to 18th century. Commentators

often reinterpreted Sämkhya from the perspective of their era. For example, the

Sāmkhyasutra tradition of the last 500 years is both a remix of old sutras and new

35

interpretations. Vijñānabhiksu, the major writer in this tradition, transformed the dualistic

principles and the atheistic orientation of Sāmkhya into monistic theism. In other words,

he converted Sāmkhya into a branch of Vedānta. Larson noted that Vijñānabhiksu

handled all of the traditional Indian philosophical schools in the same way, working

toward "a grand Vedānta synthesis [in which] Sāmkhya is assigned its rung (but

interestingly, a very high rung) on a ladder of Indian philosophical truth, the highest rung

of which is the Vedanta philosophy" (Larson & Bhattacharya, 1987, p. 35).

As a living, independent school of philosophy, Sāmkhya has dwindled. Whicher

(2000) concluded that Sāmkhya exists today only as some type of archaic relative of

Yoga. Samkhya terminology, however, is very much a part of most Indian philosophical

systems (Larson & Bhattacharya, 1987). "The Samkhya is said to be the philosophical

foundation of all Oriental culture, the measuring rod of the entire mass of Hindu

literature, the basis for all knowledge of the ancient sages (rsis)" (Bernard, 1999, p. 69).

Compared to the Yoga Sūtras, there are relatively few English translations of the

classical Sāmkhya Kārikās. This study used the translations by Colebrooke (1837) and

Larson (2001). The Colebrooke and Larson translations are about 150 years apart, and

their language reflected this difference. However, compared to the differences in meaning

between the various translations of the Yoga Sūtras, Colebrooke and Larson were

relatively similar.

The Sāmkhya Kārikās are composed of 73 verses covering the scope and purpose

of Sāmkhya, instruments of knowing, cause and effect, manifested and unmanifested

materiality (prakrti), the qualities of prakrti called gunas, pure consciousness (purușa),

the association of prakrti and purușa, basic principles, transmigrations, predispositions,

36

categories of the experienced world, and (individual) liberation (moka and kaivalya).

Spanning both cosmic and individual evolution, the Sāmkhya Kārikās assumed a starting

point in human suffering and a motivation to seek release or salvation through

understanding and discriminative knowledge (vijñāna). Liberation was the true goal of

life, and the purpose of philosophy was to elucidate the truth of the separateness of

purușa and multi-layered prakrti through discrimination (Larson & Bhattacharya, 1987;

Larson, 2001; Colebrook, 1837).

Prakrti is usually translated as materiality or nature. In its unmanifested form,

prakrti is pure potentiality, the "inner principle which causes things into being"

(Jacobsen, 2002, p. 52). Its manifestations, the forms of the world, result from a

disturbance or movement in its three qualities or gunas. Gunas are not substance; they

describe the inherent nature of the substance (Kumar, 1984). The term guna can be

translated as 'cord' or 'strands as of a rope'. Larson and Bhattacharya (1987) described

the gunas as the thread running through everyday experience and the natural world (p.

65). The three gunas or constituents are called sattva, rajas, and tamas. Sattva represents

light, luminosity, intelligence, what is real. It has no motion or action on its own. Rajas is

the guna of activity and force. It impels, moves, works, activates. Tamas, meaning

darkness, is the counter-measure to sattva and rajas. It restrains, binds, resists. It is

inherent in mass and weight and causes inertia (Bernard, 1999). Before manifestation, the

gunas are in a state of constant motion, yet also in perfect balance. The phenomenal

world manifests when the gunas are disturbed and intermingle. One quality or the other

will predominate, giving a certain character to whatever form is produced.

37

Prakrti is the primal cause of both physical matter and thought. Thought is still

characterized by the same qualities (gunas) as matter, and both materiality and thought

exist to serve consciousness. Ancient commentaries described the qualities (gunas) as

either (a) perceived, meaning perceived as material, an element or matter; or as (b)

perceiver, active in the role of thought. "Their only distinction is that one is the

determined and the other is the determiner" (Dasgupta, 1995, pp. 3-4). Mental and

physical states are comparable in the sense that they are simply "two different types of

modifications of the same stuff of reals. There is no intrinsic difference in nature between

the mental and the physical" (p. 4). Nor is there a hierarchy or superiority between the

different manifestations of matter; differences are due to difference stages of evolution

(p. 77). Physical matter changes due to different arrangements of the atoms, and the mind

changes in a similar way.

Purușa is pure consciousness, "not a product of the finite body-mind, much less a

mere brain phenomenon" (Feuerstein, 1997, p. 77). Dasgupta (1995) called it the self-

intelligent principle. Iśvarakrishna described purușa as a witness, possessed of freedom,

indifferent, not attached, and inactive (Larson, 2001, p. 262). It is the true identity of the

individual. Prakrti appears in numerous forms, yet it is essentially one principle

manifested through the world. Each individual, however, has a separate purusa, or

consciousness. Riepe (1961) noted that purușa is not God, nor is purușa the principle or

focus of salvation, although it is an eternal principle and "a medium for consciousness to

manifest itself in matter" (p. 201).

Feuerstein (2001) has disputed the logic of pluralistic purușas. "If countless

Selves are all omnipresent, they must also be infinitely intersecting each

38

other .... Sankara's nondualism is intellectually the most elegant [solution], Ramanuja's

qualified nondualism perhaps best satisfies both reason and intuition" (p. 75). The

question of plurality of consciousness is an important distinction in Sāmkhya. Larson and

Bhattacharya (1987) believed that the Sämkhya rejected the view of the Upanisads and

Vedānta in order to stress "that the awareness of consciousness [in liberation] is an

achievement of the intellect and is a negative discernment of what the intellect is not" (p.

80). In other words, the intellect (buddhi), through discrimination, becomes aware that it

is not consciousness, and this awareness occurs at the individual level. The line of

reasoning in Sāmkhya was "directed at epistemological concerns rather than ontological

matters" (p. 80). In verse 18, Iśvarakrishna writes that because individuals are born and

die at different times and have different capabilities, and because the differences of birth,

death, and capabilities are accounted for by the constituents of the individual (the

reincarnating aspects), consciousness must be plural because it is the reason that birth,

death, and capabilities occur, individually. William James (1907) described a related idea

called noetic pluralism, which addresses the individual's feeling or experience of unity in

monistic systems that is often so compelling, may differ from individual to individual:

This is the hypothesis of noetic pluralism, which monists consider so absurd. Since we are bound to treat it as respectfully as noetic monism, until the facts shall have tipped the beam, we find that our pragmatism, tho originally nothing but a method, has forced us to be friendly to the pluralistic view .... But this view leads one to the farther hypothesis that the actual world, instead of being complete 'eternally,' as the monists assure us, may be eternally incomplete, and at all times subject to addition or liable to loss. (Lecture V, para. 3)

In classical Samkhya, the first level of individuation is called mahat on a cosmic

level, or buddhi on an individual level. Buddhi or mahat are both expressions of

illumined, sattvic intelligence, beyond common usage of that word in English. From

39

buddhi springs self-identification, or ahamkāra. Although ahamkāra is often translated as

ego, it is more the sense of I-ness, I-do, or individuating principle "responsible for the

limitations, separation, and variety that come out of harmony ... the state of active

consciousness in which the 'I' or illuminating aspect of consciousness identifies itself

with the total 'this'"(Bernard, 1999, p. 78). Riepe (1967) said that ego in this sense means

"consciousness-with-pride" (p. 201), meaning consciousness which perceives itself as

having dominion over what is sensed and known.

The sattvic qualities of ahamkāra, in other words, the purest elements of I-am-

ness, are propelled by the fire of activity, the rajasic influence, to produce mind/intellect

(manas). From mind flows the 10 senses and active instruments. The tamasic qualities,

impelled by the rajasic influence, produce the subtle elements (sound, touch, appearance,

flavor, and odor) and the five gross elements.

Sāmkhya simply means number or enumeration. The philosophy enumerates 25

principles of evolution, as described previously and in Figure 2. "As a neuter noun, the

term comes to refer to a specific system of dualist philosophizing ... , enumerating the

contents of experience and the world for the purpose of attaining radical liberation

(mokşa, kaivalya) from frustration and rebirth" (Larson & Bhattacharya, 1987, p. 3). In

Sāmkhya, the world is real, not illusory as portrayed in Advaita Vedānta. Pure

consciousness exists individually in each life form. The interplay of consciousness with

potentiality creates the world of experience, and the variety of life and experience is

produced by the interweaving of the three qualities of nature. The universe is rational, not

random, and effect results from cause. Because of our ignorance of the true nature of

40

consciousness and nature, we suffer; however, striving toward release from the

frustration and suffering of life is innate.

1. Purușa 2. Prakṛti (pure consciousness) (matter; nature)

2. Buddhi (higher intellect, wisdom)

3. Ahamkāra (egoity, I-ness) Sattvic aspect Tamasic aspect

4. Manas (mind) 6. Hearing 11. Speaking 16. Sound 21. Space 7. Touching 12. Grasping 17. Touch 22. Wind/Air 8. Seeing 13. Moving 18. Form 23. Fire 9. Tasting 14. Procreating 19. Flavor 24. Water 10.Smelling 15. Eliminating 20. Smell 25. Earth

5-15. The 11-fold 16-20. Five 21-25. Five capabilities subtle elements gross elements

Figure 2. The 25 Principles (tattvas) of Classical Sāmkhya.

Adapted from Sāmkhya: A dualist tradition in Indian philosophy by G. J. Larson and R. S. Bhattacharya, 1987, p. 53. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

In Sāmkhya philosophy, materiality was the handmaiden of consciousness.

Prakrti, ever changing and reforming, served purusa, forever unchanging. One of the

most beautiful verses of the Sāmkhya Kārikās described the culmination of this dance:

"Nothing, in my opinion, is more gentle than nature; once aware of having been seen, she

does not again expose herself to the gaze of soul" (Colebrooke, 1837, p. 172). The

41

essential mistake, the ignorance that causes suffering and continued entanglement, lay in

confusing the material self or the ego for the inner, eternal consciousness. In Sāmkhya,

the error was corrected when discrimination accurately identified the eternal from the

transitory.

In this document, Sāmkhya refers to the classical Sāmkhya concepts, as outlined

in the Sāmkhya Kārikās. Both earlier and later elucidations of Sāmkhya incorporated

other viewpoints and terminology.

History and Description of the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali

Yoga as a science of inner exploration long predates the Yoga Stras. The word

yoga means joining, connecting, restraining, harnessing, or yoking together. One

explanation of the term is the analogy of harnessing a runaway mind, like a runaway

horse. In the Katha Upanişads, "He who has not understanding (a-vijñāna), Whose mind

is not constantly held firm -- His senses are uncontrolled, like the vicious horses of a

chariot-driver" (Hume, 2002, p. 351). The Taittiriya Upanishad contains references to

yoga as contemplation, and to the "man of the Ancient Yoga (Pracinayogya)" (p. 279).

Through uttering the mystic sounds, man "attains heaven, conquers his mind; becomes

master of speech, sight, hearing, knowledge ... becomes Spirit itself ... there he is peaceful,

merry, immortal (Purohit & Yeats, 2003, p. 66).

Dating the Yoga Sutras is even more controversial than dating the Sāmkhya

Kārikās. Some researchers regarded the last (fourth) chapter as a later addition. Most

writers proposed a date of 3rd to 5th century C.E. for Patañjali, although a few, including

Zimmer (1974), ascribed a 2nd century B.C.E. date for the first three chapters. Larson and

42

Bhattacharya (1987), who dated Iśvarakrishna at 350 to 450 C.E., dated Patañjali at

approximately the same time, 400 to 500 C.E. This is later than many writers, and much

later than others. It is simply not known for sure which text came first. The issue of

whether the actual encoding of the Yoga Sūtras is later than the Sāmkhya Kārikās, or visa

versa, is less important than understanding that these two texts were both the products of

thousands of years of development. Zimmer (1974) believed that the two were of

different origin and related to Jainism, which he traced "to a remote, aboriginal, non-

Vedic, Indian antiquity. The fundamental ideas of Sāmkhya and Yoga, therefore, must be

immensely old" (p. 281).

In addition, very little is known about Patañjali. Dasgupta (2005) pointed out that

there is one rather rare theory (sphota) about language that is common to both the Yoga

Sutras and the work of Patajali, the grammarian (pp. 270-271). This suggests they may be

the same person, although most scholars do not agree.

There are easily a hundred English translations of the Yoga Sūtras for sale today,

and the translations are quite varied, so selection of the appropriate one for this study was

critical. The two primary translations used in this study are Woods (1914/2003) and

Houston (1995). Woods, a professor of philosophy at Harvard University, included two

well-known commentaries in his 1914 translation, and his work provides great depth and

understanding of original Sanskrit. Vyaas Houston is the founder of the American

Sanskrit Institute, and his sparse translation is a word-by-word account from Sanskrit to

English.

Many translations of the Yoga Sūtras are quite recent, reflecting the growing

interest in Yoga because of a practice of posture (āsana). Since āsana has become almost

43

synonymous with yoga in United States, it is useful to make some distinctions and clarify

terminology. The Yoga Sūtras are considered the seminal text of yogic philosophy. In the

Yoga Sūtras, Patañjali briefly mentions āsana as a stable seat for meditation so that the

yogi can stay motionless without effort, eliminate physical reactions, and remain neutral,

unaffected by swings between pain and pleasure, hot and cold, happy and sad (Danielou,

1955, p. 25). Kriyā yoga is the term used in the Yoga Sūtras to describe the elements of

Patañjali's intense spiritual practice. Kriyā means act or rite, and the word overlaps

karma or karman, also meaning action (Feuerstein, 1997, p. 159). Since Patañjali also

outlines eight aspects of yoga practice, the term astānga, sometimes given as ashtanga,

meaning eight limbs, is also used. The eight limbs are ethical principles (yama and

niyama), postures (āsana), breathing or energetic control (prāņāyāma), concentration

(dhāraņa), sustained concentration or meditation (dhyāna), and full absorption

(samādhi). Eliade (1973) used the term stasis for samādhi, implying a static balance at

the point where object and observer merge (p. 77).

The Yoga Sutras are divided into four chapters. The first chapter describes the

essence of yoga as the concentration (samadhi) that stills the whirling of the mind

(Woods, 1914/2003; Miller, 1998). The second chapter delineates the practices

themselves. The third chapter describes the supernatural powers possible to advanced

yogis. The last chapter unravels the final steps in kaivalya, or full liberation. Given the

scope, brevity, and preciseness, it is likely that Patañjali wrote for an informed reader.

The first chapter gave a vision of where yoga would take a devoted practitioner.

The aim of the practices was to still the citta. Mind is a common, but inadequate

translation for citta which incorporates the aspect of higher self, defining ego, and mental

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processes. When the citta is stilled, what is left is the realization of the true self, the Seer,

pure consciousness. What stops this realization is the fluctuating, ever moving mind,

darting about from pain to pleasure. What stops the fluctuations are the practices outlined

in the Yoga Sūtras and the practice of unattachment or dispassion. Many blocks and

disruptions, such as lethargy, doubt, and depression, can stop or hinder steady practice. In

daily behavior, Patañjali advocated cultivating friendliness, kindness, compassion, and

neutrality. Whatever the advice, it contributed in some way to quieting the citta.

The unification of meditator and object of meditation was called samāpatti and

"denote[s] the proficiency, accomplishment, and transmutation of citta that takes place in

samādhi ... the insight (prajñā) thus gained" (Whicher, 2000, p. 216) as the mind unified

with the object of meditation and discovered its essence or innermost nature. With

practice, samāpatti was experienced without the disruption of memory traces, and thus

became intuitive and reflective. The object of contemplation eventually became a subtle

form rather than a concrete form. Beyond subtle reflection was samadhi without seed or

object. "It is acognitive in that there is no longer any cognition of authentic identity

(purușa) as existing in prakrti, no longer misidentification" (Whicher, 1997, p. 1). At this

stage insight (prajña) can stop the formation of new conditioning in the mind, so that the

mind eventually ceases; even prajña ceases (Woods, 1914/2003, pp. 96-99).

In the second chapter, Patañjali outlined the disciplines or spiritual practices

(sādhana). Practice required intensity and ascetic heat (tapas), learning (svādhyāya) and

alignment with īśvara. Devotion to īśvara is subject to a number of interpretations,

discussed in the section The Inclusion of Iśvara in Yoga. In sum, these practices not only

supported development of the ability to meditate, but they simultaneously weakened the

45

causes of pain (kleśa). Kleśa "denotes anything which, adhering to man's nature, restricts

or impairs its manifestation of its true essence" (Zimmer, 1974, p. 294) such as ignorance

of one's true nature, egotism, attachments, aversions, and clinging to life. Attachments

and aversions are the duality at the root of emotions, reactions, and opinion which create

the drama and agitation (p. 295). They are the source of the mind's fluctuations, human

action, and the cycle of rebirth.

Patañjali emphasizes that the material world, the Seen, prakrti, exists for two

purposes: experience (bhoga) and liberation (kaivalya). For the ignorant, there was an

apparent merging of the Seen and Seer. Ignorance was ended through discrimination

(viveka), insightful knowing that Seer and Seen are not the same. In other words, the

tendency of the human mind is to identify with the experiences and feelings resulting

from attachment and aversion, and yoga promoted a disassociation of the apparent self

from real self, resulting in the "cessation of all the psychological experiences" (Dasgupta,

2005, p. 314). An enlightened yogi would still exist in the material world, but in a point

of detachment beyond confusion, fulfilling an "innate tendency" towards freedom (p.

315).

In the second chapter, Patañjali outlined the eight limbs (ashtanga) of yoga. The

very first steps delineate ethical behavior (yama and niyama). These principles are non-

violence, truth, non-stealing, appropriate use or restraint of sexual energy, non-grasping,

cleanliness, contentment, fiery devotion to the practice, self-study, and devotion to

īśvara. Non-violence (ahimsā) was considered the ground for the other moral precepts

(Dasgupta, 2005, p. 302). Riepe (1961) noted that the more intellectual Sāmkhya lacked

compelling standards of behavior and understanding of emotional aspects which might

46

lead "the follower of Sāmkhya metaphysics to search for a more monumental ethics ... in

Yoga, since it is closely allied to Sāmkhya in its metaphysics" (p. 212).

How are ethics related to self-realization? The idea of self-realization in the

Upanișads assumed perfection in ethical duties (Dasgupta, 2005, p. 293), and this is

mirrored in the models from the epics in the forms of Arjuna and Rama. Spiritual

ignorance (avidyā) resulted in egotism, and egotism is expressed mentally and

behaviorally in a desire for pleasure, an avoidance of pain, and a clinging to life (p. 296).

Our particular conditions, tendencies, and traits are a result of past karma, and these

tendencies, both positive and negative, are strengthened by habitual thoughts and actions.

Thus, "to be moral therefore means to form a moral habit, to avail oneself of the moral

emotion, will, and thoughts, and to habituate the mind to them" (p. 299). Since the

ultimate moral conduct is self-realization, moral precepts are an aide in preparing the

mind-strengthening resolve. The practice of ahimsa or non-violence is supported by

cultivating an attitude of friendliness toward those who are happy, compassion toward the

virtuous, and indifference towards vice. These approaches relieve the emotions that

inspire violence, such as envy, anger, jealousy, and impatience (pp. 305-306).

The third limb was āsana, or posture. In Patañjali's Yoga, āsana was a

comfortable seat or posture to facilitate meditation, although physical perfection was also

an attainment (siddhi). The fourth limb was prānāyama, or mastery of life force and

breath. The fifth limb was pratyāhāra, a turning of the senses inward in preparation for

the last three limbs, all related to meditation. Dhārana was beginning concentration;

dhyāna was sustained concentration or meditation, and samādhi was the state or states of

absorption described in the first chapter.

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The third chapter of the Yoga Sūtras described the supernormal powers that arose

from perfected internal practice of fixed attention, concentration, and absorption

(samyama). Yogis developed powers or attainments (siddhis) such as the knowledge of

the past and past lives, the knowledge of others' thoughts, foreknowledge of death, great

strength, great friendship and compassion, knowledge of the subtleties of the mind,

knowledge of the cosmos, the ability to reduce hunger and thirst, and intuition which

leads to knowledge of all. From samyama, mastery of the physical world arose creating

extraordinary powers for the body of the yogi, such as divine hearing and a fiery

radiance. Bodily perfection grew; senses were mastered, and power over any state of

existence was reached. Given the greatness of these powers, it would be easy for the yogi

to experience harmful attachment and pride. Patañjali warned that these powers are by-

products to be acknowledged, but not sought after lest they lead the practitioner astray.

Freedom lies in dispassion towards even the greatest of these powers.

Some writers dismiss the powers delineated in third chapter as silliness, magic, or,

"pure delusion" (Zaehner, 1980, p. 128), and Patañjali's warning not to be distracted by

these attainments is oft repeated. In one sense, the powers are merely signposts along the

way, yet they were important enough to fill a whole chapter. Zimmer (1974) offered

insight into this anomaly, and in doing so he provides an interesting comment on varying

perceptions of human personality. For Zimmer, the powers were "not extras-miraculous

additions bestowed on the perfected saint-but man's original property. They are

portions of the human heritage, ... faculties that always had belonged to him in his heritage, character as Man" (pp. 307-308).

48

The fourth chapter reiterates much of the earlier material, and because of that and

its shorter length, some writers have proposed that it was written at a different time

(Zimmer, 1974, pp. 282-283). This chapter contains a description of the mechanisms of

thought and memory, and how conditioning is slowed and eventually reversed by

samādhi. It also reinforces the idea that the world is real and independent of thought,

although thought creates changes in perception. Miller (1998) noted that this section was

probably written in response to lack of objective reality in Buddhist thought. Thought is

ultimately prakrti, not purusa, and therefore an object of perception. Thought cannot

illuminate itself, but when the mind is still, the highest, most sattvic form of the mind's

intelligence (buddhi) can grasp its reality apart from pure consciousness, purușa. From

that point, no karmic impressions would be formed. The buddhi perceived the separation

of materiality and consciousness, and even the most intelligent, insightful aspect of mind,

buddhi, would be distinguished from pure consciousness. This liberation from confusion

reversed the usual structure and meaning of the world, and the yogi found the workings of

the world irrelevant since the yogi existed in a state of true knowing and identity.

Discussion of the Relationship of Sāmkhya and Yoga

In what way are these philosophies alike? How important are the differences?

This section presents several viewpoints from scholars who have examined both

philosophies.

Zimmer (1974) considered Sāmkhya and Yoga as systems nurtured from "the

thinking of the non-Aryan peoples of India, who were overcome and despised by the

Brahmans, but nevertheless could boast of extremely subtle traditions of their own" (p.

49

60). Sāmkhya and Yoga were treated "as twins, the two aspects of a single discipline" (p.

280), and helped pave the way for Buddhism in the 6th century B.C.E. Bernard (1999)

described Sāmkhya as the metaphysical doctrine, and Yoga as "the metaphysical doctrine

in relation to the individual" (p. vii). In other words, the texts were companion pieces,

one containing more theoretical material; the other was more a description of techniques

or practices and their results.

Eliade (1973) stated that Yoga and Sāmkhya are "so much alike that most of the

affirmations made by the one are valid for the other" (p. 7). He also pointed out the

simple differences, namely the atheism of Sāmkhya, although Yoga does not accord

īśvara "very much importance" (p. 29), and the emphasis on metaphysical knowledge

instead of meditation. Eliade's teacher, Dasgupta (2005), defined Yoga philosophy by

highlighting its differences with the other major philosophical schools. Dasgupta started

with the premise that Yoga has had great influence, but its distinctions and philosophy

had not been fully explicated. He hypothesized that Yoga was developed independently

of Sāmkhya, which explained differences such as the inclusion of īśvara. Later Yoga was

absorbed by Sāmkhya, its practices harmonizing easily with the Sāmkhya principles (p.

246). While Yoga and Samkhya developed from the same "original stock" and "are

fundamentally the same in their general metaphysical positions, yet they hold quite

different views on many points of philosophical, ethical and practical interest" (p. 2).

Dasgupta's careful analysis was designed to delineate Yoga's position as a system and

protect it from becoming a "branch of occultism, magic, or nervous exercise" (p. 3).

Feuerstein (1996) passionately defended the separation of classical Yoga from

Sāmkhya, calling the implication that Yoga is a version (Spielart) of Sāmkhya "inveterate

50

and damaging" (p. 109). He took aim at a series of notable scholars, both Indian and

Western, who make "inept statements" including Colebrook, Monier-Williams, Muller,

Garbe, Radhakrishnan, Eliade, and Smart (p. 111). Dasgupta is somewhat exonerated

because of his attempt to describe the complex historical influences. Classical Yoga is not

derived from classical Sāmkhya, and Pantajali and Iśvarakrishna were separate

developments from the same "pool of ideas" (p. 111). It does not seem that the writers he

criticized would argue with him on this point, and, it is clear that the two systems were

accorded equal and separate status.

Feuerstein (1996) pointed out three categories of differences between Yoga and

Sāmkhya: method, doctrine, and terminology. First, in terms of method, Sāmkhya relied

on rational argument and intellectual discrimination. "Vijñāna is by no means

synonymous with prajña or Gnostic insight as acquired in samādhi; rather, it is an

intellectual act ... applied in the most rationalistic manner possible" (p. 115). While

Feuerstein acknowledged that the Sämkhya method might eventually "induce altered

states of awareness" for some, it is clearly inadequate compared to Yoga's method. While

the two schools have the same goal, the methods were "executed on a level entirely

different" (p. 115).

The history is enlightening. Dasgupta (2005) traced the seeds of the split between

dualistic and monistic philosophies, Sāmkhya and Vedānta, to the Upanișads. The

disciplines of Yoga, he believed, may have developed separately and only later aligned

with, or grafted upon Sāmkhya. In the Maitrayani Upanisad, this merged version of

Sāmkhya-Yoga existed, and there was no distinction between the Sāmkhya method and

the Yoga method. The addition by Patañjali of ethical guidelines and physical postures in

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his eight limbs of Yoga demonstrated the divergence of methods by that point in history.

There is an interesting quote that Dasgupta used to describe the two methods:

Thus, Vidyaranya says in Citradipa: Those whose minds are engaged in diverse things cannot attain philosophic knowledge through discussion. The Yoga method is therefore important for them as destroying the pride of intellect. But for those clearer minds which are merely clouded with a thin veil of darkness, the discussion known as the Sāmkhya brings immediate emancipation. (p. 40)

In terms of doctrine, Feuerstein (1996) compared the formalized, rational

ontological model of Sāmkhya with Yoga's psychological guideposts to samādhi (pp.

117-118). Patañjali really did not adopt the Sāmkhya metaphysics; rather he developed a

"quite self-reliant formulation which, moreover, is more appealing theoretically than its

Sāmkhya duplicate" (Feuerstein, 1989, pp. 14-15). The inclusion of īśvara is discussed

below. Lastly, Feuerstein (1996) pointed to differences in terminology. He believed that

Yoga's use of the term citta is evidence of Patañjali's more "holistic approach" to

personality in contrast to the categories of Sāmkhya (p. 118). He also gave a list of terms

that separate Yoga from Sämkhya. Out of the eight Sanskrit terms that he listed, six are

readily translated by Dasgupta (2005) into Sāmkhya terminology in his text devoted to

distinguishing Yoga. The other two terms deal directly with activity of the mind.

Whicher's (2000) well-researched book, The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana,

advanced the idea that classical Yoga is not a withdrawal from the world, but a way of

transforming the personality to live enlightened life in the world. He did not deny the

overlap with Samkhya, in fact, he pointed out the many connections. However, his

theory, which lies between "an historical and a hermeneutic-praxis ... orientation" (p. 3),

sets forth to counter interpretations of a "radical dualism" which trivialize the system (p.

289), keeping yoga from taking a more prominent religious and cultural role (p. 305). His

52

argument is that although Patañjali does propose a radical dualism, "there is no proof"

that there is nothing beyond isolation. Whicher suggested that beyond kaivalya, there is a

reengagement of purusa with the material world, a realignment since the confusion is

now dispelled, and a realization of the fact of one's authentic identity (p. 4). According to

Whicher, there is no proof that this is not what Patañjali had in mind and the dualism is

inconsistent with Indian philosophy and Hinduism. Although it is true, there is very little

in the Yoga Sūtras pertaining to life after liberation, the argument of no proof seems

rather weak. Also, there are other dualist schools in Indian philosophy besides Yoga. In

spite of his discomfort with dualism of Samkhya and what he perceived is the

misconstrued dualism of Yoga, Whicher acknowledged Yoga's connection with Sāmkhya

and their many overlaps.

Whicher (2000) emphasized that Yoga is no subset of Sāmkhya, and its practices

do not exclude developing philosophical insight. Patañjali codified an approach that

"unites theory and practice, bridging and healing any rifts between thinking and acting,

metaphysics and ethics" (p. 46). The Yoga Sūtras were thus a unifying force between

practice and theory, not simply a cookbook. The chief difference between Sāmkhya and

Yoga is in method, Whicher pointed out. The discrimination of Sāmkhya is inadequate

compared to samādhi, a cognitive process in Yoga. The Sāmkhya cosmology is imposed

on the individual, whereas Yoga's interior map results from experience. Citta in Yoga is

a psychological concept, not the reincarnating subtle body of Sāmkhya, and Patañjali

streamlined the concept of mind to give it full psychological force. A similar distinction

arises with Yoga's psychologically empowered process of dispassion or unattachment

(vairāgya) which Whicher viewed as much more potent than Sāmkhya's version (p. 180).

53

In reply to Whicher, it might be pointed out that Yoga is not usually treated as a subset of

Sāmkhya. There is indication that there is more than theory in Sāmkhya, and it would

seem strange to assume that Samkhya survived centuries as a system of liberation without

some type of praxis. Developing spiritual knowledge, reflective reasoning, studying, and

encouraging an open yet disciplined character, are real, not merely platitudes (Larson,

2001).

Whicher's main discomfort seems to be with the isolation and disengagement that

comes with liberation. His comments reminded me of the commentary on Sāmkhya by

the 16th century Vijñānabhiksu. Although he was a Vedantin, Vijñānabhiksu had "little

patience" with Advaita Vedānta and the idea of māyā (Larson, 1987, p. 376). At the end

of one of his Sämkhya commentaries, he described the liberated-while-living person as

one who transcends confusion, has steady insight, neither rejoices or hates, has an even,

calm mind, is unattached to ways of the world, and introspective. While living an

ordinary life, the individual is blissful in his or her understanding (pp. 411-412). This

sounds much like where Whicher is going with his comments.

Modern translators from a more Vedantic or Buddhist perspective have

sometimes minimized the aspects of Sāmkhya in the Yoga Sūtras. Hartranft (2003)

attempted to conflate yogic and Buddhist thought in his translation and commentary. He

argued that the sections of the Yoga Sutras that described how the world works were out

of synch with scientific evidence and should be ignored by modern practitioners.

54

The Inclusion of Iśvara in Yoga

There is one difference between the two texts that is often highlighted as a key

distinction: the inclusion of īśvara in the Yoga Sūtras. Sāmkhya studiously avoids any

mention of a god or īśvara. Is it atheistic? Or is it simply non-committal on the topic of

god (Larson, 2001, pp. 124-125; Riepe, 1961, p. 179)? There is considerable debate, and

no consensus about whether nirīśvara Sāmkhya is to be taken literally as no-god

Sāmkhya. Riepe noted that classical Sāmkhya provides for only two principles, purusa

and prakrti. If god were prakrti, god would have karmic associations and thus be

unliberated. As purușa, god would have no desire to create. In neither instance would

īśvara be a creator-god (Riepe, 1961, pp. 210-211).

In contrast, the Yoga Sūtras included several references to īśvara and prescribed

devotion to īśvara as part of the praxis. Dasgupta (2005) pointed out that this difference

has spurred centuries of debate and comparison, often overshadowing other important

points (p. 248). In tracing the history of these two systems, he believed that Sāmkhya

ignored the theism of the Upanisads, at least partially because it was not a strong doctrine

at the time (p. 37). Yoga, however, seized the concept, and accorded īśvara a select place

in its views.

First, how is īśvara to be understood? Its meaning is subtlety different depending

on where or how it is used. In discussing Hinduism, Vedānta, and the Bhagavad Gītā,

Zimmer (1974) translated īśvara as the Divine Lord or Lord of the Universe. Dasgupta

(2005) noted that īśvara appears in the later Upanișads and is undifferentiated from

Brahman in that context. Radhakrishnan and Moore (1989) defined Brahman as the

absolute reality, and īśvara as the personal God, and noted the distinction in the

55

Upanişads between Brahman, the "pure Absolute" and Brahman or īśvara as manifest in

the world or in individual selves (p. 38). Zaehner (1975) noted that īśvara is like an

individual purușa, eternal and unlimited, but unlike other puruas, īśvara is untouched by

nature or prakrti. Contemplation on īśvara is useful because it helps the individual

become more like īśvara, but it does not have the meaning of becoming or merging into

īśvara. Zaehner emphasized that spiritual liberation in the Sāmkhya-Yoga tradition

means a process of becoming like īśvara "in his timeless unity, it does not mean to

participate in him in any way. The goal is isolation, not union or fusion as in the

Upanishadic concept of merging into Brahman" (p. 71).

How does Patañjali speak about īśvara? Iśvara is the ultimate seer and teacher of

the ancients. Untouched by experiences and actions which feed the cycle of rebirth,

īśvara has always been liberated. In īśvara, "the germ of the omniscient is at its utmost

excellence" (Woods, 1914/2003, p. 55). Chanting the sound of īśvara, OM, is a

purification practice and one pathway to liberation for the yogi.

According to Dasgupta (2005), Sāmkhya deserves acknowledgement for

"producing a systematic philosophy competent to do away with the hypothesis of an

īśvara as the ruler of the universe," (p. 239). There is no creator or cosmic master in

Sāmkhya. Prakrti, by definition, is not conscious. Yet there exists in prakrti a

predisposition, a mechanism that abides within the law of cause and effect (karma).

"Teleology is here the end and mechanism the means subserving to that" (p. 241). Yoga

also denies that purusa is active, which immediately places Yoga in conflict with any

understanding of īśvara as a creator or ruler god.

56

Instead, Dasgupta (2005) thought that the inclusion of īśvara in Yoga is a part of

its ancient history and tradition (p. 245). The practical implication of īśvara is that

devotion is developed through chanting, itself a form of meditation. OM, the expression

of īśvara, is the primary, universal sound. Patañjali said that repetition of OM is the

method for removing obstacles, and then he moves on to defining these obstacles in the

sutras.

Zaehner (1980) refered to the concept of "the deity of your choice" (p. 127) in

discussing the idea of īśvara. When Patañjali introduces īśvara into the text, it was

"doubtless borrowed from one of the current theistic systems" and offered only as an aid

in the practice. Iśvara offers a focus for meditation, and when the "purpose has been

served, the god is discarded" (p. 127). Later in the Yoga Sutras, in describing the 10

ethical precepts, Patañjali added that as a result of study, "there is communication with

the chosen deity" and as a result of devotion to iśvara, concentration is perfected (Woods,

1914/2003, pp. 190-191). Whicher (2001) confirmed the practical qualities of the

inclusion of īśvara. "It should not be overlooked that īśvara might have met primarily

psychological and pedagogical needs rather than providing a purely ontological

category .... [It] was used by Patañjali largely to account for certain yogic experiences" (p.

63). In any event, neither Yoga nor Sāmkhya conceived of a creator god such as

Brahman in Vedantic traditions. Whicher's point is important, since it has been easy to

categorize Yoga as theistic and Sāmkhya as atheistic, which seems to move them into

different camps despite the many similarities.

For those with strong beliefs about god in any form, there may be relief or dismay

at Patañjali's reference to īśvara. It seems clear, however, that Patañjali was careful to

57

discuss devotion to īśvara from the perspective of practice. In other words, it was part of

the pathway, but not the centerpiece.

Hatha Yoga

Much of what is taught in the United States as yoga concerns the physical body

and health. Patañjali addressed the physical body only briefly. However, specific

postures, gestures, muscular holdings, the exploration of energy centers (cakras) and

divine energy (kundalinī), and the mastery of the breath or vital energy (prānāyāma) are

the heart of hatha yoga. Besides filling the pages of modern yoga books, there is a body

of Sanskrit texts which relate to hatha yoga. The development of hatha yoga as a distinct

practice is attributed to tantric teachers (Feuerstein, 2001). Although it is difficult to

summarize a topic as vast as tantra, it seems important to make a distinction between

Patañjali's philosophical system and a different, yet related, orientation to yoga.

Tantric texts began appearing after 300 C.E., and tantric teachings and sects

spread throughout India, influencing Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism (Eliade, 1973, p.

200). The teachings were generally hidden from the uninitiated, coded in a secret

language "in which a state of consciousness is expressed by an erotic term and the

vocabulary of mythology or cosmology is charged with Hatha-yogic or sexual means" (p.

249). Teachings revealed the conversations between Siva and his female consort, Sakti,

the divine energy of the cosmos. The union of the god and goddess was the union of

eternity and time, "the mystery of creation" (Campbell, 1974, p. 62). "For the first time in

the spiritual history of Aryan India, the Great Goddess acquires a predominant

position ... Sakti, the 'cosmic force,' is raised to the rank of a Divine Mother" (Eliade,

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1973, p. 202). The emphasis on the feminine energy and the focus on Siva, the god most

aligned with yoga, suggested that tantra had "its roots in the non-Aryan, pre-Aryan,

Dravidian soil" (Campbell, 1974, p. 62). Eliade (1973) believed the "irresistible Tantric

advance also implie[d] a new victory for the pre-Aryan popular strata" (p. 202).

Practices differed from the asceticism of earlier teachings. Tantric teachings

acknowledged an esoteric physiology, and included extensive use of mystical sounds

(mantra), visual patterns for meditation (mandala), and symbolic gestures (mudrā). "In

practice, both yoga and tantra have the same aim, the transcendence of the material

world .... However, in many ways their methods are very different and often seemingly

contradictory" (Satyananda Saraswati, 2000, p. 96). For example, classical Yoga

advocated sublimation of sexual energy, while tantra advocated using the power and

awareness of sexuality in tandem with spirituality. Feuerstein (2001) described the tantric

revolution as connecting to both old and new concepts, more practical than theoretical. It

was a reaction to the abstractness of Advaita Vedänta, and it was a movement which

rejected the hierarchy of the caste system by including teachers and initiates from every

social stratum (p. 343).

In hatha yoga, the importance of the body as a tool for liberation was emphasized.

The tantric practices advocated mastery and perfection of the body, transforming the

body into something divine (Eliade, 1973, p. 229). It is interesting to compare this view

with the siddhi, or attainment, described by Patañjali (Woods, 1914/2003) in which the

body became powerful, graceful, and "compact as the thunderbolt" (p. 280). Yet in

Patañjali, these amazing attainments were only a signpost along the way, a potential

distraction.

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Points of Contact between Yoga and Modern Psychology

It is both interesting and not too difficult to dissect Sāmkhya-Yoga into

categories that match modern psychological concepts. The intricacies of the unconscious

mind in yoga rival many psychological theories of motivation, memory, and decision-

making. Yet this dissection destroys some of the coherent, integrated nature of the system

since, with the exception of Jung's theory of the collective unconscious, psychological

models are bounded by one lifetime. Yoga and Sämkhya view the unconscious over the

course of lifetimes, and their psychology is embedded in this larger, implicit system.

Each new life is cast from the fruit of some previous life, and motivations are rooted in

past struggles, not necessarily in this lifetime, which predispose us to a way of thinking

and reacting in the world. There is always a moment of choice in thought and action, and

that choice has weight since it may mark or color the unconscious for lifetimes.

Writers have frequently pointed out the psychological nature of yoga, and this

section points out some of the areas of contact between yoga and modern psychology.

Zimmer (1974), who described yoga as a practice that exposed planes of experience in

order to transcend them, called yoga "a doctrine of psychological functionalism" (p. 316)

in the sense of revealing the inner workings of conditioning and personality through the

teleological practices leading to freedom. Patañjali's vision encompassed all the

preparatory work to sculpt specific mental states. In another analysis, Dasgupta (1995)

included all "philosophical, psychological, cosmological, ethical, (and) religious" aspects

of the practice (p. ix), noting the intense examination of subjective consciousness existed

in all yoga metaphysics. Akhilananda (1948) simply called Patañjali the father of Hindu

psychology (p. 12).

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Mechanisms of mind. What are the mechanisms of mind and memory in yoga?

Patañjali uses the term citta for a combination of cognitive mind, higher or spiritual

intellect, and sense of self-identity and ego, replacing Sāmkhya terms, buddhi, manas,

and ahamkāra (Larson & Bhattacharya, 1987, p. 27). In Sāmkhya, these three, together

with the five senses, five action capabilities, and five subtleties of sound, contact, form,

taste, and smell formed a subtle-body, or linga-sarīra. The subtle body was that which

reincarnated. In Patañjali, citta absorbed this role, although its constituents did not

include the additional 15 elements. Citta was considered pervasive, meaning it was that

which is reborn through the eons.

Citta encompassed all aspects of intelligence, from everyday computation, to

spiritual insight, to the essence of what creates the individual personality through

unconscious activation of effects of actions over lifetimes. Mental activity included pain

or pleasure from actions, imbedded unconscious traces of past actions, a moment-to-

moment changeability in the stream of thoughts, the life force of the breath, autonomic

functioning, and locomotion. It also included the possibility of thoughtless mind. Citta

held the predispositions that create the circumstances and response tendencies in this

lifetime. Even in its most pure aspect, however, citta was ultimately mental activity and

could not illuminate itself.

The continual churning of unconscious stuff into conscious states was called the

"flame of consciousness" (Dasgupta, 2005, pp. 286-287). The senses provided a constant

flow of material to fuel this flame. Dasgupta noted that a "never-ending train of images,

memories, and ideas keeps emerging into the light" and found this an apt comparison to

William James's descriptions of consciousness (p. 286). Taylor (1996) noted that James

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identified transitions in consciousness obscured in waking consciousness, concepts and

images that become "dissected and objectified through linguistic constructs and mental

categories" (p. 144). To truly realize the subtlety of consciousness would require

attention to experience prior to objectification, a focus on immediate experience rather

than interpretation. That focus would enlighten psychology's understanding of the

unconscious, and elucidate pathological, trance, traumatic, or religious and mystical

states.

Parallels could also be drawn between the emergence of depth psychology,

particularly in Jung's work, and the desire to explore the layers of consciousness in yoga.

Depth psychologies strived to "develop maps of inner experience grounded in the

transformative potential of therapeutic practices. A similar alignment of 'theory' and

'practice' seemed to be embodied in the yogic texts that moreover had developed

independently of the bindings of Western thought" (Shamdasani, 1933/1996, p. xix).

Emotions appeared based on the frequency and strength of the past emotion or

idea which spawned the emotion. The eruption of emotion strengthened karmic stimulus.

In other words, the reaction produced by conditioning strengthened the conditioning. An

emotion is increased by similar emotions. Joy increased happiness. Irritation increased

anger. Opposite emotions checked the growth of feelings. Ultimately, the gunas were

"but feeling materials" (Dasgupta, 2005, p. 278), and every state had feelings of pleasure,

pain and ignorance at the same time, with pain predominating. Even with pleasure there

was pain, since there would be anticipation of the ending of pleasure.

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The unconscious. The exploration of the unconscious in yoga was motivated by a

desire to remove the obstacles to transcendent states, to master or control the states of

consciousness. What yoga called samskāra and vāsana translates readily into the

language of depth psychology as the contents and structures of the unconscious. But

knowing the mechanisms of the mind constituted only an initial step. "It was not knowing

them that mattered, but mastering them; if the contents of the unconscious were worked

upon, it was in order to 'burn' them" (Eliade, 1973, p. xvii).

The fluctuations of the citta included both conscious ideation and unconscious

material that could be inferred. The internal practices of yoga exposed and analyzed

unconscious motivations, behaviors, and thoughts. However, the source of unconscious

material was not primarily rooted in childhood events, nor was there a mechanism that

repressed certain phenomena. In yoga, unconscious material was predetermined by the

actions and thoughts of the past, including past lifetimes (karma). Karmic seeds

(samskāra), meaning traces of past decisions, thoughts, and actions, were triggered by

related events in the current life. Samskāras were registered in this lifetime. The

accumulation or linking of these tendencies over many lifetimes was called vāsana.

Vāsana resided in the citta "like knots of a fishing net" (Dasgupta, 2005, p. 324) and as

the forces or conditioning that created the individual character of a man.

There is no exact Sanskrit duplicate for the concept of the unconscious in yogic

texts, if only because the concept of the unconscious in Western psychology is usually

limited to the contents of the current lifetime of the individual, except, perhaps, in Jung.

The concept of unconscious was implied, however, since few individuals realized that

their thoughts and actions were due to samskāra and vāsana (Feuerstein, 1997).

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Awareness of the connections, attachments, and conditioning came only through a

slowing or calming process that allows time for examination and awareness. The

culmination of yoga practice was an emptying of citta of these karmic activators so that

there was nothing left to compel further thought, word, or deed.

Stilling the mind. What was meant by stilling or ceasing (nirodha) the mind? This

is a particularly important concept for psychologists since it relates to the effectiveness of

yoga in reducing stress in both body and mind. Nirodha is not blocking, suppressing, or

disregarding the mind's contents (Taylor, 1978), all of which have an aggressiveness

about them that is counter to the detached calm of nirodha. Reactive thinking is not

stimulated by sensory data. Coster (1998) described it as a stilling of the personal

consciousness, and as the stillness continues, attention becomes increasingly one-pointed.

While the aim of meditation is focus and absorption, in practice, meditation will

likely produce a stream of unbidden thoughts, feelings, memories, distractions, and

fantasies, what Patañjali called vrtti and what might also be called unconscious material.

When the material presented to consciousness is particularly compelling, little

concentration will remain. Some of the material may result in psychological insight; in

yoga, however, the churned-up material is treated as practice for non-attachment, and

overtime, the yogi's mind becomes less frantic and less susceptible to these unbidden

thoughts. Spiritual insight, however, was nurtured through exquisite attention. Just prior

to enlightenment, a yogi resided in a cycle of inner calm fostering insight, which

increased the calm and produced more insight. While depth psychology held insight in

great esteem as a healthy, therapeutic outcome and stimulus for growth (Taylor, 1978. p.

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42), the yogi would view this type of insight as a marker of progress, not the ultimate

transcendence of citta.

The highest plane of meditation (asamprajñāta-samādhi) implied a

deconstruction of the mind complex as well as a suspension of karma-creating thought

and action. When the deep unconscious memory was purified in meditation beyond

thought, the knowledge of the object of concentration shined alone, without name, form,

or qualities. "Such a feat is accomplished by simply focusing not on the content of

realizations themselves, but on the consciousness that is aware of those realizations!

[This leads not to] unconsciousness, but purified consciousness" (Taylor, 1978, p. 44).

Personality. Is there personality in yoga? The term in psychology usually implies

an enduring set of characteristics, behavioral and emotional habits, predictable reactions

within a social role, and long-lasting cognitive patterns. This, however, is only a

piecemeal understanding since yoga requires the larger context of a "spiritual principle"

that responds "to the environment in ways peculiar to its own for the experience (bhoga)

and realization (apavarga) .... Action (karma) is the expression ... the measuring-rod of

personality" (Das, 1975, p. 153). How is karma manifest as personality patterns? Citta

keeps the memories or impressions distilled from experience alive through samskāra and

vāsana, a certain amount of which will surface in any one lifetime. Karmic events are

mitigated by practices such as yoga, done in service of self-realization.

Rao (2002) wrote that vasana is "the force behind our world urges, sensuous

passions, desires, and cravings. ... [the] deeper and more potent layers of the unconscious"

(p. 205). These karmic traces are impelled into consciousness, and over one or more

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lifetimes, they play out in the distinctive traits or character of a life. If this is reminiscent

of traits and characteristics that psychology has used to describe personality, then a

distinction should be drawn. The citta has traits and characteristics which define a life,

but the essence of personality is the purusa, the Seer in the yogic system.

Dasgupta (2005) distilled three principles in the psychology of yoga. First, the

mind complex is always in a state of transformation, perceiving, representing, and

responding with feelings and usually pain. Second, through concentration, a state of mind

can be developed which is strong and steady. Third, this practice of concentration allows

the citta to dissolve into its true, still essence. Within the system of yoga, there exists a

well-tested theory that addresses the unconscious, drives and motivation, memory,

behavioral change, stress management, ethics, meaning, choice, and freedom, all terms

that have meaning in psychology. The yogic system demands accountability for each

thought and action through the workings of karma. That accountability translates into

integration and alignment of values, beliefs, thoughts, actions, and identity. Yoga affirms

the experience of practitioners discerning what is real experientially, and adjusting to

each new revelation with increasing depth.

Methods from Comparative Religions and Application to the History of Psychology

Humans have been evaluating and critiquing other religions for hundreds of

years, often with a predetermined aim of elevating a particular religion. Historians,

theologians, and philosophers approached the academic study of religions from their own

conceptual framework. Subtly or not, their orientation colored the presentation.

66

The writers and researchers in the history of religions discussed in this section

identified important criteria for examining another worldview: Knowledge of the history,

culture, mythology, symbolism, a mind-set which allows for multiple possibilities of

being in the world, a phenomenological attitude, a willingness to participate to some

extent as well as document, and the ability to return, after all is done, to self-reflect upon

the understandings gained. Inherent in their writings was a sense of respect and wonder at

many ways that humans engage in the sacred.

The attempt to establish a more systematic method for the comparative study of

religion was termed the science of religion, or Religionswissenschaft, a designation in use

by the end of the 19th century (Religion, 2006). Wach (1898-1955), a German historian of

religions, brought Religionswissenschaft to the United States, and Mircea Eliade (1907-

1986. became his successor at the University of Chicago. Eliade elaborated on Wach's

work, developing his own creative hermeneutics, and their work founded what became

known as the Chicago school of comparative religions. Frederick Streng (1933-1993) and

Eugene Taylor are part of this lineage.

Investigators in the phenomenology of religion originally focused on the

classification of religious experience in order to compare them across cultures. However,

the term was broadened to include the analysis of the underlying structure of the

experience and to uncover the essence of the experience. Hermeneutics in a narrow sense

was associated with methods and rules used to interpret sacred texts, particularly Biblical

texts, and it is still used today in that context. Dilthey and others, as discussed below,

significantly broadened the scope of the term to incorporate an understanding of

behavior, experience, and culture.

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This section is offered as a foundation for the textual analysis presented in this

study. A brief summary of philosophical influences and hermeneutics is given, followed

by a review of key writers from the lineage of the Chicago School, including Joachim

Wach, Mircea Eliade, Frederick Streng, and Eugene Taylor. Taylor represents the

application of the techniques of historical scholarship in comparative religions to

psychology, thus providing the linkage to the textual analysis of this dissertation within

the field of humanistic and transpersonal psychology.

Philosophical Influence on the Study of Religion and History

The study of religions is interwoven with philosophy, theology, history, and even

psychology and sociology. This creates a complex interaction given the differing aims of

these disciplines (Wach, 1961). Van Der Leeuw (1963) traced the history of the study of

religion to the period of Enlightenment. Not only was there much interest in the variety

and forms of god and religion in the 18 century, there was also great tolerance (p. 689).

There were efforts in the Romantic period to understand myth and religion

phenomenologically. Hegel was the first philosopher to treat the history of religion

seriously, and his "phenomenology provides not merely a theory of knowledge and a

philosophy of history, but a psychology of comprehension also" (p. 692). Nineteenth

century historians of religion, turning towards philology and social science to examine

sources more precisely, produced a wealth of data. One of the leading figures of this

period, Max Müller (1823-1900), a German Orientalist, is credited with developing the

science of religion as a distinct field (Religion, 2006). Initially, the Romantic ideal of the

universality of religious expression inspired researchers.

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Twentieth century writers in the study of religion were influenced by psychology

and phenomenology (Van Der Leeuw, 1963, p. 694), and understanding the religious

experience and the complex interaction of the experience became crucial for the

researcher. Phenomenology, as developed by the German philosopher Husserl (1859-

1938), was in part an attempt to "purify introspection" (Smart, 2001, p. 269) through the

practice of suspending beliefs and judgment in the examination of the contents of

consciousness. Brennerman, Yarian, and Olson (1982) pointed out that Husserl's goal

was "to release philosophy from the death grip of the scientific-biological world view so

that it might regain its own autonomy and once again practice authentic philosophy" (p.

20). Although Husserl anticipated that phenomenology would become the foundation

underlying all science, it made an impact primarily on the social, not physical sciences.

His work strongly influenced existentialists, particularly Sartre and Heidegger.

Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911), a German philosopher slightly earlier than Husserl,

extended the role of hermeneutics beyond textual interpretations. Dilthey was an

empiricist who avoided the notion of the divine or god in his philosophy, but he also

argued that human science was qualitatively different from natural sciences and needed a

different approach. His interest in the creation of meaning led him to investigate the

philosophies of history, religion, and law (Smart, 2001, p. 269). A hundred years ago,

most Biblical studies followed a deductive approach, meaning rules were set out as

theoretical, theological guidelines and applied to the texts. This was challenged by those

advocating an inductive approach, including Dilthey. Understanding happened because

the interpreter shared "common structures of human experience" with the authors of the

texts (Brennerman et al., 1982, p. 2). Dilthey "brought existential principles to

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psychological perspective" (Brennen, 1998, p. 292) and urged science to explore

consciousness and the differences between individuals. Historians were hampered by

their own biases, so it was necessary to learn to enter the point of view of a different age,

culture, and system of beliefs, all of which demanded significant knowledge of the

culture and period. Dilthey's work influenced the sociologist Max Weber and the

historian and philosopher R. G. Collingwood.

R. G. Collingwood (1889-1943) was an English historian, archeologist, and

philosopher. Like Dilthey, he believed that examination of a historical or philosophical

stance first required considerable knowledge of the historical context. In The Idea of

History (1994), a posthumously published and edited work on the nature of history,

Collingwood described the intersection of his view with Dilthey as the point at which the

historian took the evidence and, using richness of his own mind, started to relive history

and "infuse life into the dead materials" (p. 172). True historical knowledge was defined

by an inner experience; science understood phenomena externally. "This conception of

the historian as living in his object, or rather making his object live in him, is a great

advance" (p. 172).

Collingwood (1994), however, went on to question Dilthey's reliance on reliving

the past in his own mind by "enlarging his own personality, incorporating in his own

experience the experience of others in the past" (p. 173). In other words, it did not appear

as if Dilthey could shake free of a belief in natural science as the only perspective, and

Collingwood thought that he "surrender[ed] to positivism" by relying too much on

psychological structures to explain his thesis. Ultimately, Collingwood was asking: Is the

only kind of knowledge scientific? For Collingwood, the historical process involved self-

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knowing, the mind that reflects back on itself, "understands itself, criticises itself, values

itself, and so forth" (p. 175). For the positivists, history always remained an object of

study, and the task of history is done by standing outside of the historical process. This

positivistic "misconception" of history was really:

The study of successive events lying in a dead past, events to be understood as the scientist understands natural events; by classifying them and establishing relations between the classes thus define .... So far as historians yield to it, they neglect their proper task of penetrating to the thought of the agents they are studying .... Statistical research is for the historian a good servant but a bad master. It profits him nothing to make statistical generalizations, unless he can thereby detect the thought behind the facts. (p. 228)

Hermeneutics

Hermeneutics is the art and theory of understanding and interpreting human

expression in situations in which meaning is obscured, and "encompasses both the alien

that we strive to understand and the familiar world that we already understand" (Linge,

1977, p. xii). The term finds a home in philosophy, religion, art, history, and now

psychology, and its own history is long and complex, dating back to Plato and Aristotle.

The idea of applying a method to the interpretation of texts to discover the overt

and concealed meaning achieved importance in the early centuries of the Christian era.

Augustine, in the 4th to 5th century, claimed that interpreting sacred texts involved self-

examination and insight (Ramburg & Gjesdal, 2005). The rise of modern hermeneutics is

attributed to Martin Luther (1483-1546) who questioned traditional interpretations and

emphasized the obligation of the individual reader to uncover the scriptural truth (para.

6). In the 18th century, Giambattisto Vico asserted that thinking is rooted in culture,

which is rooted in history and language. Understanding involves "the genealogy of one's

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own intellectual horizon. This grants a new urgency to the historical sciences. Moreover,

it offers a model of truth and objectivity that differs from ... natural sciences" (para. 7). A

hundred years later, Dilthey would struggle with similar distinctions.

Spinoza (1632-1677) introduced the idea of the hermeneutic circle, meaning the

interpreter must not stop at examining the history and language of the text, but must

move from the parts back to a sense of the whole (Ramburg & Gjesdal, 2005).

For the interpreter to 'perform' the text, he must 'understand' it: he must preunderstand the subject and the situation before he can enter the horizon of its meaning. Only when he can step into the magic circle of its horizon can the interpreter understand its meaning. This is that mysterious 'hermeneutical circle' without which the meaning of the text cannot emerge. (Palmer, 1988, p. 25)

Johann Martin Chladenius (1710-1759) is credited with the first defined method

of hermeneutics based on the idea that interpretation requires an examination of the tacit

assumptions which create the author's point of view. In the 19th century, Friedrich

Schleiermacher became an important figure in the field with his development of universal

hermeneutics, the interpretation of all linguistic expression. Before Schleiermacher, the

focus was on understanding a text; what Schleiermacher brought was an exacting

discipline to reconstructing the original situation and expanded the work beyond texts

(Linge, 1977, p. xiii). Schleiermacher argued that understanding other cultures requires

openness, an acknowledgement of one's own prejudices, and awareness that what looks

familiar may actually be quite unknown.

Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) transformed hermeneutics in the 20th century

(Ramburg & Gjesdal, 2005, p. 5). No longer was hermeneutics solely about linguistics,

textual analysis, or even providing a method for human sciences, it was ontology.

Understanding in its broadest sense is a way of being in the world; the world is "tacitly

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intelligible to us" (p. 5). The hermeneutic circle transformed the interaction between self-

understanding and understanding of the world, an "existential task with which each of us

is confronted" (p. 5). Heidegger's student, Hans-Georg Gadamer, built on the ontological

understanding of hermeneutics: "Language is the fundamental mode of operation of our

being-in-the-world and the all-embracing form of the constitution of the world"

(Gadamer, 1977, p. 3). As such, understanding comes through an appreciation of one's

situation in a "linguistically mediated, historical culture" (Linge, 1977, p. 6). Historical

work can never truly be known because interpretations of the past obfuscate the original

context. However, this presents an opportunity for self-understanding. It is not we who

address historical texts, but texts that address us: "In the fusion of horizons, the initial

appearance of distance and alienness does itself emerge as a function of the limitations of

our own initial point of departure" (p. 6). Truth is something greater than one's own

perspective, and the hermeneutic circle is really co-creation between what is studied and

who studies it.

The past has a truly pervasive power .... What Gadamer asks us to see is that the dominant ideal of knowledge ... is itself a powerful prejudice that has controlled philosophy since Descartes. By ignoring the intrinsic temporality of human being it also ignores the temporal character of interpretation. (Linge, 1977, pp. xv-xvi)

What is the implication of using hermeneutics within the field of psychology?

Woolfolk, Sass, and Messer (1990) suggest part of its value is in the attitude advanced

towards empirical research (p. 24). Most researchers truly believe they amass neutral

facts "in a value free, transhistorical, epistemological arena" (p. 24-25). Such methods

can be valuable, but they are also blind to the interweaving of theory and fact, language

use, researchers' biases, and the influence of history and culture. On the other hand,

hermeneutics endorses an interdisciplinary style. "Dialogue among disciples is necessary

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to promote the sophistication required to comprehend the complexity of the contextual

features that complicate, but at the same time enrich, psychological inquiry" (p. 25).

The Lineage of the Chicago School of Comparative Religion and Joachim Wach

Wach was born in 1898 in Germany, and was a professor in Leipzig when the

Nazis gained power. Through friends in the United States, he gained an appointment at

Brown University, moving later to the University of Chicago, where he became chairman

of the History of Religions department. Wach acknowledged the value of traditional

scholarship in religion, but felt it was too culturally rooted (Kitagawa, 1961). For

example, Western academics seemed to ask Western questions about Eastern religions,

and expected answers that were meaningful to Westerners. Religious experiences were

funneled through Western preconceptions. This prompted Wach to ask what it meant to

really understand another culture. What was the process and experience of

understanding?

For Wach (1961), the science of religion encompassed hermeneutics, the study of

religious experience, and the sociology of religion (p. xxiii). It was a descriptive science,

whose principles were based on the examination and analysis of experience. The

experiences of different cultures were best understood as different responses, different

ways of ordering reality (p. xxv), and humans were best explained by looking at their

mythologies, in the broadest sense of that word. The science of religion was concerned

with an individual's experience of religion in the context of their world, while philosophy

was concerned with universal principles, and Wach felt they could be studied separately.

However, the interactions with history and theology were far more complex. Theology

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was concerned with the correct beliefs; the history of religion had been largely a study of

non-Christian religious thought through the critical eyes of Christianity.

Wach (1961) proposed a phenomenological analysis to discern underlying

principles and realities of religion, "to view religious ideas, acts, and institutions with due

consideration to their 'intention,' yet without subscribing to any one philosophical,

theological, metaphysical, or psychological theory" (p. 24). The three tasks of the

phenomenology of religion were to explore the nature of God or the divine, the nature of

revelation, and the religious act. Theology, philosophy, history and psychology all had

agendas that could interfere with this type of investigation.

Wach (1961) inquired into the nature of religious experience and its expression in

thought, action, and community. What qualities must be present in any religious

experience? Wach's criteria included an encounter and intensive response to the ultimate

reality that involves every level of being. Further, the experience is not passive. It must

inspire the individual to act or serve. Myth is the "primary theoretical expression of

religious experience" (p. 65), and provides clues to understand the character of god, the

nature of religious experience, and the consequence of action. Worship is an on-going

confirmation of the individual's understanding of reality and truth, and it often provides

the avenue for inspired action.

Mircea Eliade (1907-1986). He was born in Romania and educated at the

University of Bucharest and the University of Calcutta. In Calcutta he studied Sanskrit

and Indian philosophy, working under the philosopher, Surendranath Dasgupta. After

completing his dissertation on yoga, he taught at the University of Bucharest, and later at

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the Sorbonne, Paris. Eliade's association with Wach brought him to Chicago, and, in

1956, he became a professor, and later chair, of the History of Religions department at

the University of Chicago (Eliade, 2006).

Eliade was well known for his work in religious symbolism and mythology.

Hierophanies was his term for the sacred experience that manifests across time and

cultures (Eliade, 1959). In The Sacred and the Profane, Eliade (1959) concurred with

earlier writers that the sacred was recognizable "as a reality of a wholly different order

from 'natural' realities ... the opposite of profane" (p. 10). The sacred was both rational

and irrational, but irrationality was not the defining feature. When the sacred was

manifest in a living being or an object, it represented something entirely different. The

paradox was that the being/object becomes something entirely different in its sacredness,

and yet it continued to exist as a mundane object or ordinary being (p. 12).

Ancient societies lived in the sacred, close to sacred objects and places. For these

societies, sacred meant power and, ultimately, reality. Sacred and profane were two ways

of being in the world, "two existential situations assumed by man in the course of his

history" (Eliade, 1959, p. 14). The non-religious or profane stance was not well

developed until recently. The modern, nonreligious person "refuses transcendence,

accepts the relativity of 'reality,' and may even come to doubt the meaning of

existence ... Man makes himself .... The sacred is the prime obstacle to his freedom. He

will become himself only when he is totally demysticized" (p. 203). Eliade noted that this

stance was not without existential power. Even now, however, the sacred lives in

superstitions, rituals stripped of religious symbolism, transformed myths, camouflaged

religious behavior, initiations, and taboos. Why do these vestiges of the sacred linger?

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They live because of our unconscious desires and needs; although in modern life, our

private myths and daydreams never accomplished the same feat.

Patterns in Comparative Religion (Eliade, 1996) was a longer, and more

sweeping comparison of the rituals, myths, symbolism, and experiences across religions.

A central theme was that religion cannot be explained by other disciplines; religion must

be described in its own terms, from the essential experience. To attempt an understanding

from any other viewpoint was to miss "the one unique and irreducible element in it-the

element of the sacred" (p. xvii). Yet all that was sacred was also historical. The religious

historian must both understand the experience and form of the expression of the sacred,

the hierophany, as well as trace its history (p. 5). Eliade's method was to understand the

modality of the hierophany, the essential form, and this allows the comparison across

cultures and time. To do this he used any evidence at his disposal, myth, symbol, art,

customs, and rituals, among others. This search led him to look for hierophanies, or the

dimension of sacredness, anywhere in life, be it a social, spiritual, economic, or

psychological context (p. 11). Early cultures found the sacred in any part of their life,

including eating and sex, and these became sacraments and ceremonies. Not so for

modern humanity, for whom eating and sex were physiological. Yet, while the sacred

was debased in modern life, it was never totally banished (p. 434).

Eliade (1959, 1996) saw religious traditions as a source of great insight, although

modern culture was in the process of abandoning religious expression. Symbols, myths,

and rituals permitted a return to the sacred, and hermeneutics provided a pathway for

understanding and reinterpreting these aspects. Hermeneutics was inherently a spiritual

and transformative technique for the interpreter who sought to bracket traditional

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historical attitudes (Brennerman et al., 1982, p. 61). What was Eliade's method? There

was no formula, but first the interpreter needed awareness of the constraints of his or her

own cultural map. In general, Eliade followed a three-step approach beginning with

historical research and documentation (Brennerman, et al., 1982, p. 61). He then

encountered the research using the phenomenological attitude, becoming open to the

possibilities and essence inherent in the material. Lastly, he returned to the historical

documentation with new insight, creating a balance between history and phenomenology.

In The Seeing Eye (Brennerman et al., 1982), dedicated to Mircea Eliade, the

authors sought to apply hermeneutic phenomenology, typically a philosophical inquiry, to

the study of religious material in order to bring interpreters into a reciprocal relationship

with the material (p. 2). The authors aptly compared the process to one of moving to a

foreign culture where the laws and customers are different. The traveler must give up the

automatic reactions and take on new modes of operation, which in turn, subtly change the

traveler. The traveler, or interpreter, shifts between a paradox of unity and separation

from the subject (p. 6). The hermeneutic circle becomes spiral-like when stimulating the

insight of the interpreter (p. 50).

Frederick Streng (1933-1993). Streng's graduate studies at the University of

Chicago under Mircea Eliade and Joseph Kitagawa led to his dissertation and later book

on Nägrjuna, the second century Buddhist philosopher. Streng's teaching career spanned

almost 30 years at Southern Methodist University, and in both his teaching and writing,

he argued for a study of religion comprised of both objective information and subjective,

interior understanding and transformation (Chappell, 1994).

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In Emptiness: A Study in Religious Meaning, Streng (1967) translated and

interpreted two key Buddhist texts, the Mūlamadhyamakakārikās: Fundamentals of the

Middle Way, and Vigrahavyāvartanī: Averting the Arguments. Streng's work

encompassed research and review of the philosophical, religious, and historical elements

related to the texts, as well as a conceptualization of the framework needed to explain the

religious meaning of the works. His foundation included a broad background in early

Indian religion thought, the development of Mahāyāna Buddhism, Abhidharma

philosophy, the life of Nārgarjuna, negation and logic in Buddhist thought, and Eastern

and Western interpretations of Mādhyamika tradition and śūnyatā. Streng's scholarship

allowed him to work both on the level of examining and interpreting specific texts, as

well as illuminating the relationship between religious knowledge, its mental

conceptualization, and its expression in language.

Drawing on the work of Wach, Streng (1967) found that a phenomenological

approach required an understanding of the intention of the act (pp. 170-171). There could

be no "pure religion" (p. 19) because humans used cultural and linguistic conventions of

thought to conceptualize religion. Thought and expression were always historical in

nature, and religious knowledge was intimately linked with "the secular structures of

apprehension that makes it relevant for human life" (p. 20), sometimes making it difficult

to understand from outside the culture.

While most religious symbolism sought to link the individual to some higher

aspect or idea, emptiness (śūnyatā) was intended to do the opposite by disengaging the

mind from its attachment to ideas. What did śūnyatā mean, if it was not a symbol for a

higher reality or not nihilistic (Streng, 1967, pp. 20-21)? Although Nāgārjuna's use of

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emptiness was decidedly unlike most religious expressions, it was religious since its

function was soteriological (p. 178). Streng concluded that students of religion

experience a need to know that similar religious expressions "have different meanings in

different contexts" although this "does not deny common intentions and formal elements

of religious phenomena" (p. 179).

How does Streng (1967) interpret Nāgarjuna's work? Since there are several

overlaps with this study, it is useful to look at some of Streng's analysis. Historically,

śūnyatā was a reaction to a meditative focus on the elements which constituted a human

being, and insight came from reversing these distinctions (pp. 43-44). Nāgārjuna

considered this ineffective, and while it retained practical significance, it was not

transformative. Instead, all constructions are dependent on other constructs, which

devalues the importance of ontological distinctions. Words and labels point to

"something which is there, phenomenally; but on analysis ... that which exists according

to conventional thought does not exist as an absolute entity" (p. 53). Words only mimic

life. The form or object of knowledge, words, and their definitions are dependent on each

other (p. 56; p. 147). Emptiness itself is vacant of any substance and "is neither absolute

monism nor nihilism" (p. 80). It is the "means for dissipating the desire for such an

Absolute" (p. 162).

Concepts and perceptions were created as objects with their naming. This might

be practical, but it was also an illusion (Streng, 1967, pp. 142-143). The misapprehension

or illusion of ontological substance created attachment. Those who understood śūnyatā

may still use the practical aspect of language, but they had a different attitude: "It is

foremost an epistemological difference, which becomes an ontological difference in so

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far as knowledge determines what one becomes" (p. 145). In another place, Streng noted

that the loss of self comes through "emptying of what seemed to be ultimately real" (p.

163).

Sūnyatā created a practice that developed wisdom (prajñā). We become what we

know (Streng, 1967, p. 98). Prajñā "transcend[ed] both logic and mysticism" and used

concepts with the awareness that they were inadequate (p. 159). The Upanishadic idea of

an Ultimate Reality was inadequate, as was liberation in Sāmkhya since it involved

principles identified as real and permanent (p. 145). "The real problem was to overcome

the illusion that there was an eternal, unchangeable, static reality either in the visible or

ideal areas of experience" (p. 38). These metaphysical assertions were not absolutes;

instead "they were mental prods to induce an apprehension which was validated by its

success in putting an end to suffering" (p. 157).

Eugene Taylor. Streng continued the tradition of the Chicago School of

comparative religions in the Department of Religion at Southern Methodist University,

Dallas. Eugene Taylor, a student of both psychology and Asian studies, was influenced

by Streng's teaching while at Southern Methodist University. His work incorporates both

the methods and attitude of the Chicago School of comparative religions, but his

application of these methods has been in the areas of the history of psychology and cross-

cultural investigations into Asian systems of philosophy and psychology. His study of

Sāmkhya and Mahāyāna Buddhist texts under Streng led to an interest in conceptions of

personality and consciousness. Taylor represents an important link between the study of

religion, history, and psychology. He has published numerous books and articles on

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William James, Asian concepts and contributions to psychology, and the application of

historical methods to works in psychology. Taylor is Executive Faculty at Saybrook

Graduate School, San Francisco, and a Lecturer on Psychiatry at Harvard Medical

School.

An example of his work is the 1982 reconstruction of William James's 1896

Lowell Lectures, published as William James on Exceptional Mental States. Taylor

(1999a) described this type of archival research as "both the science and the art of

interpreting primary documents in the description, reconstruction, and corroboration of a

subject" (p. 91). Although the reconstruction was based on a number of discoveries, the

discoveries were made possible by the historical background and understanding to detect

the importance of the clues. The textual foundation was 125 pages of James's

handwritten lecture outline for the eight talks. Clues led to the discovery of many

volumes of James's library which had been dispersed among a much larger collection,

and some of these were found to have James's handwritten annotations. Additional

evidence pointed to dates and names of volumes that James borrowed from the Harvard

Library (Taylor, 1982, pp. ix-x). It is interesting to note that many of the clues and most

of the data had been available for over 50 years, but the significance had not been

recognized.

Understanding of the historical significance of the discoveries required

knowledge of James's history, as well as an intimate knowledge of the chronology of his

work and thought. Following the leads and clues demanded a deep understanding of the

history of American and European psychology of the era, and a broader knowledge of the

age and environs. Each lecture was reconstructed from James's notes, but the notes were

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sometimes cryptic or incomplete, thus requiring a familiarity with James's sources as

well as his handwriting.

There seems to be a creative process that makes a researcher sensitive to the

possibilities and discoveries that others may miss. The texts themselves demand a

different approach. The reconstruction of James's lectures and texts translated by Streng

must speak in their own words and in the voice of their authors, not in the voice of the

researcher or translator. Further insight may be available to the researcher as interpreter,

and this may involve personal insight or insight into the meaning of the material, but the

integrity of the process demands a separation. Taylor accomplished this by indicating,

sometimes within the structure of a single sentence, when James was speaking and when

Taylor was finishing the sentence.

The tools of comparative religions place religious material in the context of the

historical setting, something Taylor (2002) pointed out "is comparable in existential and

phenomenological psychology to treating the single personality as a total gestalt, so that

we may then proceed with the phenomenological examination of the interior life world of

that individual" (para. 3). However, understanding and interpreting the material

psychologically requires that the psychologist gives full credence to the psychology,

history, and culture embedded in the material. This step is crucial when taking a religious

experience from one culture into another time and place (para 4). Taylor (2003) indicated

that the first step of his process - using the methods of history in archival investigation in

psychology - is not new, but it is as powerful in producing psychological data as

experimental science. Furthermore, the historical experience, including client history and

self-evaluation, "can be a force for personality transformation" (p. 19).

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A psychologist using this approach would proceed only after there was sufficient

knowledge of the historical context and a grasp of the historical method to permit the

next step of psychological interpretation. Equipped with knowledge and a

phenomenological attitude, the researcher would then approach the material with

psychological expertise and sensitivity to the worldview that supports the material. In

terms of cross-cultural understanding, Taylor (2003) stated:

[The] reconstruction of concepts of personality and consciousness in psychology from different cultures can create the context for understanding a psychology of personality transformation. This can only be accomplished if we allow those cultures to first speak for themselves, which means not only the application of historical methods but also a kind of phenomenological bracketing, the suspension of judgments made from a Western analytical point of view. (pp. 19- 20).

Some of the most interesting materials for psychologists are also the areas most eas most prone to misinterpretation and confusion by those without a historical attitude and

awareness of their own biases. In 1988, in Asian Contributions to Psychology, Taylor

exposes ten common errors made by researchers and psychologists who attempt to

interpret the Asian literature without formal training. Most of these are historical and

cultural errors, meaning corruption of concepts, misunderstanding of multi-layered

definitions, inadequate translations, a confusion that the orientation of the translator or

teacher stands for the whole tradition, and ignorance of the history and place of the

practices. This is compounded when researchers rely primarily on their personal beliefs,

gurus, or practices.

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Summary of Review of Methods in Comparative Religions

What are the considerations when examining a complex religious system? There

are simplistic ways to approach them, but the thinkers discussed in this section bring

additional resources through their development of historical and psychological methods

that utilize phenomenology and an expanded conception of hermeneutics. They blend a

depth of knowledge of the history, culture, mythology, and symbolism with a

philosophical and psychological mindset. Their methods extended to a willingness to

self-reflect upon their participation in the process, and these writings reflected a sense of

respect and open attitude.

This short survey proceeded from the more exterior examinations of religion to an

internalized, transformative examination. As the process become more interior, it also

became less precise, yet more intense. Traditional hermeneutics, for example, involved

exacting categorizations of the type of document, an analysis of the historical, emotional,

or legal context, an analysis of the concrete relationships between parts, and a decision on

meaning and utility. Collingwood (1994), however, viewed historical knowledge as an

interior experience so that the historian experienced rather than objectified his subject.

The Chicago School of comparative religion, beginning with Wach and his vast

knowledge of philosophy, religion, and the social science, recognized the potential of the

study of religion to become a science of religion. This science of religion utilized a

broader conception of hermeneutics and phenomenological interest in religion, and it

yielded insight beyond historical, psychological, and sociological approaches. Eliade

(1959) advanced this idea, stating that religious phenomenon needed to be studied and

described on its own terms; otherwise the essence of the phenomenon, its sacredness,

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would be diluted. Streng (1967) contended that religious knowledge is transformative.

Religious expressions may be superficially similar, but ultimately represent a different

expression in another culture or environment. It is the underlying soteriological function

or intention that validates the religious knowledge. With his background and orientation,

Taylor (1978, 1982, 1988, 1996, 1999a, 1999b, 2002) sustained the attitudes, scholarship,

and methods of this lineage that he imported into psychology, especially in cross-cultural

studies and his interest in an expanded definition of personality. His methods open a

wealth of data for psychology. However, just as Wach and others built their work on a

foundation of well-researched historical data, the methods as applied to psychology

demand equally thorough examination.

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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

Introduction

Hermeneutics is the art and theory of understanding and interpreting human

expression in situations in which meaning is obscured (Linge, 1977, p. xii). As a method,

it has a long history in the social sciences, and a summary of the evolution of

hermeneutics has been provided in the literature review. The analysis of the two texts, the

Yoga Sūtras and the Sāmkhya Kārikās, is based on the principles of this method as

developed by scholars in comparative religions in the lineage of Wach, Eliade, and

Streng, and in psychology by Taylor. In its expanded form, hermeneutics could be

viewed as both a scholarly method for a project in psychology, as well as a psychological

process in itself.

Method of Textual Analysis

The mission of this research was to track in a detailed manner the extent of any

overlap between the Yoga Sūtras and the Sāmkhya Kārikās. This involved a verse-by-

verse examination of concepts and meanings. This analysis required the selection of a

translation of each text to use as a primary comparison. The two primary translations

(Colebrooke, 1837; Woods, 1914/2003) were selected for their academic and historical

significance.

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Translations

In Chapter 4, two translations of the Sāmkhya Kārikās are given. The first is

Colebrooke's translation dating from 1837. The second is a 1969 translation by Larson,

published in Classical Sāmkhya (2001) and Sāmkhya: A Dualist Tradition in Indian

Philosophy (1987), edited by Larson and Bhattacharya. Larson, who received his Ph.D.

from Columbia with a dissertation on classical Sāmkhya, is a professor emeritus at

Indiana University, Bloomington. The second half of the textual presentation includes

two translations of the Yoga Sūtras. The translation by Woods was done in 1914. Vyaas

Houston's 1995 translation is a word-by-word translation for Sanskrit students.

Houston's book is printed in both Roman and Devanägarī script, which is useful when

dealing with multiple transliteration schemes. Houston is also the founder of the

American Sanskrit Institute.

There are many commentaries on the Yoga Sūtras, and sometimes the lines

between translation, commentary, and personal belief is unclear. Woods (1914/2003)

translated two important, classic commentaries. The first was the ancient commentary of

Vyāsa, the almost mythic figure credited with the writing of the Mahābhārata. Woods

dated this commentary to 650 to 850 C.E. Vācaspati Miśra, a 9tn century scholar, wrote

the second commentary translated by Woods. Väcaspati, who lived after the Advaita

Vedānta philosopher, Sankara, wrote commentaries on many texts and philosophical

systems, including Sāmkhya and Vedānta.

Translators sometimes include the Sanskrit word in parenthesis for clarification,

and this was especially true with Larson and Houston. This was helpful for me; however,

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it makes the translations in this table quite long and cumbersome to read. I have chosen to

include the most used Sanskrit terms. These are italicized and included in Appendix A.

In addition, there are variant spellings in the transliterations from author to author.

The term kleśa is a good example. Kleśa means hindrance, root of suffering, what

restricts or prevents humans from self-realization. The "s" sound in the transliteration is

akin to "sh", and so the word is sometimes written as klesa and sometimes as klesha if

transliteration markings are absent. Another example is cakra, meaning energy center,

which is often spelled as chakra because the Sanskrit letter is similar to a ch sound. There

are sounds in Sanskrit which have no immediate translation to the Roman alphabet.

Writers have not always had access to some of the common markings that denote these

characters. Some of the newer transliteration schemes do not require markings, but their

spellings often include an assortment of capital letters which substitute for the markings,

and this is awkward in a formal document.

Several books were of particular help in the technical analysis, including

Zimmer's (1974) Philosophies of India, first published in 1951 and edited by Joseph

Campbell. Feuerstein's many books, both popular and scholarly, were valuable. He is not

bashful about stating his view, but always careful to point out that it is his opinion.

Larson was an indispensable guide to the intricacies and layers of Sāmkhya. Whicher's

recent books on yoga are scholarly and worthy of note.

Preparing the Data

The data in this research are the translations themselves, accompanied by related

material such as commentaries, the Sanskrit text, and scholarly reviews. This data, like

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raw data in a quantitative study, was not immediately useable without preparation. The

presentation in columns in Chapter 4 was devised as a worksheet to assist in the analysis

and visually display the comparison.

The data is presented in three columns. The first column gives the text, the verse

number, and a short description of the verse. The 73 verses of the Sāmkhya Kārikās (SK)

are designated with SK and a number. The Yoga Sūtras (YS) have 195 verses divided

among four chapters. Thus, the numbering proceeds from YS 1.1 through YS 4.34. There

is some discrepancy in numbering in both texts in various translations, and I tried to use

the most common schema. Following the number of the verse, I included a short

description of the verse which aided in my understanding, analysis, and tracking. The

second column contains the translations described above, and the third column contains

the results of the verse-by-verse analysis.

Categories of Matching

The categories of matching that I devised were based on my study of the texts,

supplemented by other reading. There appeared to be some phrases and concepts that

were almost exact in rendition between the two texts. Sometimes there was a partial

overlap in meaning, and sometimes there were related meanings worth noting, but not

substantial in overlap. In the analysis in Chapter 4, comparable means a close match in

terms of content and meaning. Partial means there is an overlap in meaning and content

that can be identified, but the similarities are less or incomplete. Related means the verses

have a similar topic and orientation, and they often offer clues for further investigation.

However, the overlap is not significant. The additional comments are related information,

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cited authorities, and possibilities for exploration. These categories are developed more

fully in Chapter 4.

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CHAPTER 4

PRESENTATION OF ANALYSIS

Analysis of the Texts

Comparable, Partial, and Related Categories

After examining the data, it became apparent that some of the verses in the two

texts were similar in content, tone, or intent. These similarities were of different levels of

intensity and seemed to fall into three categories. First, there were verses that had a very

close companion in the other text, and these were labeled comparable. The scope of the

verse may be different, but elements and intent were quite similar. An example would be

SK 2, which says that the better method for release of suffering is the discriminative

understanding of the difference between the phenomenal world, the potential or

unmanifested world, and pure witnessing consciousness. A comparable verse is YS 2.26,

which says that the path to liberation is viveka, unceasing discrimination or continuous

knowledge of the isolation of the Seer, or pure witnessing consciousness. These

important verses speak to the teleology of both texts.

Second, there were verses in which part of the text or part of the meaning was

close to a verse or verses in the other text, and these were labeled partial. An example is

SK 21, which describes the association of the two separate principles, purusa and prakrti,

which benefit from the capacities of each other. The proximity of purusa permits prakrti

to evolve into the world we know. The world exists to provide consciousness its content.

Witnessing consciousness exists separately, but allows its proximity to influence the

transformations of the material world. In YS 2.21, Patañjali tells us that the Seen, or

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prakrti, exists solely for the sake of the Seer, or purusa. The verses dovetail in meaning,

but they do not provide sufficient overlap to be considered comparable. The verse, SK

21, provides much more depth in terms of the cosmic implications of the duality, while

Patañjali, in YS 2.21, is leading into a discussion on how this duality applies to the

advanced yogi. However, the data reveals other verses in the YS which are indeed

comparable to SK 21.

Third, there were verses with the same topic or orientation, and these were labeled

related. This does not mean they overlap in meaning, but they provide a pointer for

continued investigation. For example, SK 27 says that the mind is similar to the sense

capacities (hearing, touching, seeing, tasting, smelling) and the action capacities

(speaking, holding, moving, procreating, eliminating) and therefore is also a capacity.

The variety of senses and actions is attributable to the transformations of gunas, the

characteristics of prakrti. There is really nothing in the Yoga Sūtras at this level of detail

about the constituents of prakti. However, because Patañjali is interested in the workings

of the conditioned mind, he is also interested in its components, at least to the extent of

how the components, meaning senses, perceptions, habits, and actions, can be mastered

in yoga. In the third chapter (YS 3.47-3.48), which discusses the supernatural powers of

the accomplished yogi, Patañjali notes that mastery of the senses can be attained, and

when that happens the body can move as quickly as the mind. In other words, samādhi

upon the process of perception and the interconnections of perception with form and I-

am-ness eventually produces a mastery over the senses, and ultimately a mastery over

prakrti. This verse is not the same in content or meaning as SK 27. Yet there is a

relationship in the sense that Patañjali is speaking of the involution of the constituents of

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prakrti, from the five senses up to the original source of the material world (pradhāna).

Thus, in this study, the verses are deemed related. In addition to these three categories,

the following presentation of the texts in Chapter 4 is enhanced by a number of

comments.

Summary of Results

Of the 73 verses of the Sāmkhya Kārikās, over a third (26) had a comparative

verse or verses in the Yoga Sūtras. Two thirds (48) of the verses had comparable and/or

partial matches. There were 15 verses with no matches, although five of these were

ending verses. Another ten were considered related, meaning a weak connection. There

are a total of 195 verses in the Yoga Sutras, and 88 of the verses had some type of

correlation with one or more SK verses. The third chapter, which is primarily devoted to

listing the supernatural powers, had few matches. The section in the second chapter

pertaining to the eight limbs of yoga had few matches, and the section in the first chapter

pertaining to īśvara had no matches. gives the details of the analysis, the translations, and

related notes.

Comparison of the Sāmkhya Kārikās and Yoga Sūtras

Verse and number Translation Analysis SK 1 Colebrooke (1837) Related What the text The inquiry is into the means of precluding the YS 2.3-2.5; YS 2.12; addresses: three sorts of pain; for pain is embarrassment: nor YS 1.4 - How to find is the inquiry superfluous because obvious means Kleśa are the root causes permanent relief from of alleviation exist, for absolute and final relief is of pain and the hindrances human suffering by not thereby accomplished. to realization. Ignorance going to the cause, of our true nature (avidyā) the root of suffering, Larson (1987) is the basis of other not just the symptom I. Introductory Verses: The Scope and Task of the hindrances. Ignorance - Suffering arises Sām̧khya arises when we are

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from internal, Because of the affliction occasioned by the confused about what is external, or from three kinds of frustration (explained by all permanent; when the Seer divine condition commentators as internal, external and/or natural, becomes confused with - Common/obvious and divine and/or celestial), there arises in the fluctuations of the remedies only relive experience a desire to know what will eliminate mind. symptoms and are that affliction. temporary. Objection: One might argue that a Related philosophical inquiry into that which will YS 2.16-2.17 eliminate the affliction is useless, since there are Suffering in the future can ordinary remedies (medicines, etc.) available. be avoided by correcting Answer: This is not the case, however, because ignorance of our true all such ordinary remedies are only temporary nature. palliatives that treat the symptoms of the affliction. Such remedies fail to deal with the underlying Comments (JS) cause of the affliction and, hence, provide only In the tradition of most limited and temporary relief. The issue is to Indian sacred texts, both remove the ultimate cause of the affliction and the SK and YS reject thereby provide relief that is permanent and temporary palliatives and complete. This can only be accomplished by seek to explicate philosophical analysis - hence, the occasion for permanent release from the Sāmkhya. suffering. The purpose of both texts is to succinctly set forth a sure path for realization. Both start with a strong statement that implies they are the definitive synthesis of their doctrine. SK 2 Colebrooke (1837) Comparable Even sacred rituals The revealed mode is like the temporal one, YS 1.48; YS 1.49 are temporary relief. ineffectual, for it is impure; and it is defective in Insight from samādhi is They are also impure, some respects, as well as excessive in others. A wholly different than defective, and/or method different from both is preferable, insight gained from excessive. consisting in a discriminative knowledge of traditional study and perceptible principles, and of the imperceptible cognitive inference. The better method is one, and of the thinking soul. discriminative Comparable understanding of the Larson (1987) YS 2.26 difference between Scriptural remedies (as, for example, the The way to liberation is the phenomenal performance of sacred rituals, etc.) are like viveka, unceasing world, the potential ordinary remedies in the sense that they also discrimination or or unmanifest world, provide only limited and temporary relief. This is continuous knowledge (of and pure witnessing so because the scriptural remedies are connected the isolation of the Seer). consciousness. with impurity, destruction, and excess or surpassibility. In contrast to this, a better method In terms of similarities for the elimination of affliction is available, between the two texts, namely, the discriminative understanding of the this verse seems differences between the manifest (vyakta), the especially important. unmanifest (avyakta), and the absolute knower (jña) Comparable YS 2.17 What is to be ended is the correlation between the duality.

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Partial YS 1.3 When the mind is stilled, the Seer (Knower) abides in his own true nature (is known).

Related YS 2.28 By practicing the eight limbs of yoga, impurities decrease, and the light of knowledge or wisdom dawns, leading to viveka, or discrimination.

Related YS 2.1-2.2 Yoga is practice, study, and devotion. These practices weaken kleśa (spiritual ignorance) and culminate in samādhi.

Related YS 2.15 However, to the wise (those that can discriminate), all attachments (whether pleasurable or not) are pain, because of the inherent consequences.

Related YS 2.27-2.28 A diligent practitioner of yoga eventually attains seven stages of insight (prajña) or discriminative knowledge. Commentaries give the seven as: End of desire to know more, end of avoidance, end of new desires, end of desire to do, end of sorrow, fear, and delusion.

Comments (JS) The practice of yoga results in a discrimination of Seer and Seen. Sāmkhya is a discrimination of prakti (both manifest and

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unmanifested source) and purușa. Although prakṛti in its two states (manifested and unmanifest) are identified, the duality is between prakṛti and purușa.

SK 2 notes that religious ritual is flawed and inferior to discrimination. Later commentaries (Colebrook, 1837) more specifically discuss Vedic sacrificial rituals. YS do not refer to these rituals.

YS 1.4 says that as long as the fluctuations (vrtti) of the mind continue, there is ignorance/confusion about one's true nature This means even pramāņa, internal or external sources of valid ideas, are ultimately vrtti (YS 1.6).

Terminology: SK uses prakrti/purușa as the duality. YS uses Seer and Seen as the duality.

Citta in the YS is considered the same as ahamkāra, manas and buddhi (ego, mind, higher mind) in the SK by Larson (1987). All of these are prakrti/Seen, however. According to Larson, citta is all- pervasive, making the notion of a subtle body moot. (The subtle body is the reincarnating aspect.) Some have suggested YS reflect an earlier Sāmkhya view (p. 630). Feuerstein (1997) notes that the concept of subtle body was rejected by at least one commentator as unnecessary to explain rebirth.

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In the YS, samādhi is the primary process of discrimination. In the SK, knowledge (jñāna) is the primary process. SK 64 makes it clear this is not to be confused with simple textual study or intellectual discourse. In that verse, the SK uses the same term as the YS (kaivalya) for the ultimate state (isolation/freedom) (Larson, 2001, p. 204). This seems important since much has been made of Sāmkhya's intellectual approach versus Yoga's experiential approach SK 3 Colebrooke (1837) Partial Unmanifested nature Nature, the root (of all), is no production. Seven YS 1.17; 1.41-1.51; 2.19 (mūlaprakṛti) exists principles, the Great or intellectual one, &c., are These verses as a group without being productions and productive. Sixteen are describe the categories of created. productions (unproductive). Soul is neither a samādhi. Essentially, the production nor productive. layers of samādhi are the From (1) prakṛti inverse of the cosmos of evolves seven Larson (1987) Sāmkhya. In other words, principles which are Primordial materiality (mūlaprakṛti) is samādhi is first focused themselves creative: ungenerated. (That is to say, it subsists by and in on the gross elements, itself.) The seven, namely, the "great one" or then more and more 2. Mahat: Intellect intellect (mahat or buddhi), egoity (ahamkāra), subtle. There are on cosmic level. On and the five subtle elements (tanmātra), are disagreements with details individual level it is generated products as well as generative principles and categories; however, called buddhi. Mahat (prakrti). (That is to say, the seven are there is a general pattern generates ahamkāra. modifications of primordial materiality and, hence, of correspondence. There are derived; but they also in turn generate is a summary of the 3. Ahamkāra: egoity subsequent principles (tattva) and in that sense are distinctions of samādhi or I am-ness. The creative.) Sixteen of the principles are simple and related categories of attribute that derived products, namely, mind (manas), the five gunas from the YS in this individuates humans. sense capacities (buddhindriya), the five action column under YS 1.51. ahamkāra generates capacities (karmendriya), and the five gross mind, five cognitive elements (bhūta). Consciousness (purușa) is Partial senses (buddhīndriyas), and neither a generating principle nor generated. YS 2.18-21 The Seeable/prakrti is a five active result of the interplay of instruments the gunas. Nature's (karmendriyas). purpose is to provide experience leading to 4-8. Five subtle liberation. The gunas elements (tanmātras): have four stages, from Sound, touch, unmanifested to appearance, flavor, manifested. The Seer is odor. These generate pure seeing. the five gross Partial

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elements (bhūtas) YS 2.22 9-24. There are 16 Prakrti ceases for the elements derived liberated man, but is real from above, not and common for others capable of creating (It is real/common to other principles: those who are not 9. Manas (mind) liberated. For the liberated 10-14. Five senses it ceases to be seen (but (jñanendriya): still exists). Hearing, seeing, feeling, tasting, Partial smelling YS 3.14 15-19. Five The underlying substance actions (mūlaprakṛti) is (karmendriya): unchanged, whether Expressing, grasping, before, during or after an moving, excreting, external form is taken. procreating 20-24. Five Related elements YS 1.16 (mahabhūta): Ether, Highest level of non- air, fire, water, earth attachment or vairāgya is non-attachment to the 25. Purușa guņas (witnessing consciousness) Comments (JS) simply exists, neither YS 2.22 speaks to the created nor creating. difference with Advaita Vedānta. The phenomenal world is real, what is illusionary is the confusion between the world and witnessing consciousness.

YS 1.16 speaks to the Sāmkhya definition of prakṛti as made up of three qualities (gunas).

Although the focus of the YS is not on cosmology or cosmic principles, it appears that a cosmology similar to SK is assumed or acknowledged. The SK gives far more details Larson (2001) notes that SK 55 to SK 69 are concerned "solely with the question of salvation. All of the preceding verses dealing with the emergence and functioning of the manifest world serve as a

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kind of prelude or preparation for the doctrine of salvation" (p. 202). SK 4 Colebrooke (1837) Comparable How do we know? Perception, inference, and right affirmation, are YS 1.7 Three irreducible admitted to be threefold proof; for they (are by all There are 5 types of ways: acknowledged, and) comprise every mode of fluctuations (vrtti) of the 1. Perceiving/seeing demonstration. It is from proof that belief of that mind, and one is the valid 2. Inference which is to be proven results. ways of knowing 3. Reliable/right (pramāņa). There are authority Larson (1987) three valid ways to know. II. The Instruments of Knowledge These three are the same

There are three instruments of knowing in YS and SK.

(pramāņa): (a) perception; (b) inference and (c) reliable authority. All other instruments of Comments (JS)

knowing can be reduced to one of these three. YS and SK both list the

(That is to say, other so-called separate same three pramāņa, or

instruments of knowing as put forth by other valid ways of knowing. schools of Indian thought can be reduced to Both present this list early

perception, inference, or reliable authority.) in the texts. Other Indian

Anything that can be known must be demonstrably philosophical schools

established vis-à-vis one of these three reliable present additional

instruments of knowing. categories (Larson, 2001).

Patañjali adds a twist in that he presents pramāņa, or valid sources of knowledge, as one of the vrtti. In other words, he distinguishes valid ways of knowing from fantasy, errors, deep sleep, and memory, but all are aspects of the movement of the citta. Likewise, in the SK, pramāņa is a function of prakrti, not purușa. The cosmology described in the SK is built on this foundation of knowing, and Īśvarakrishna takes care to examine why all three are necessary in SK 6-7. SK 5 Colebrooke (1837) See SK4: Comparable YS Perception is when Perception is ascertainment of particular objects. 1.7 we reflect upon what Inference, which is of three sorts, premises an we have sensed. argument, and (deduces) that which is argued by it. Comments (JS) Right affirmation is true revelation. Addressing the comment Inference is when we in SK 3 above, both SK comprehend a Larson (1987) and YS identify three characteristic that can Perception is the reflective discerning that arises reliable ways of knowing, illuminate or explain through (sense contact with) the particular contents yet even reliable or right

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the underlying of sensing. Inference is of three varieties and is ways of knowing are not source. (Smoke to based on a characteristic mark (linga) and that ultimate knowledge of fire). There are three which bears a mark. Reliable authority is reliable reality. (unexplained) kinds scriptural testimony and/or reliable utterance. of inference. Perceptions may be considered true if they do Knowledge based on not contradict each other; right or reliable inference is correct when authority comes from supported by right trustworthy sources, perception, and testimony such as teachings of is correct when derived sages and scripture. from sacred writings and authorities, based on correct perception and inference (Zimmer, 1974, pp. 289-290). SK 6 Colebrooke (1837) See SK4: First, we know the Sensible objects become known by perception; Comparable YS 1.7 concrete world but it is by inference (or reasoning) that through our senses. acquaintance with things transcending the senses is Then, what is beyond obtained: and a truth which is neither to be directly our senses is inferred perceived, nor to be inferred from reasoning, is through reasoning deduced from revelation. and association or correlation. Lastly, to Larson (1987) know everything else, Knowledge of what is beyond the senses arises we depend on reliable through the variety of inference known as authority. "inference based on general correlation". That which can be known but not established even through this kind of inference is to be established through reliable authority. SK 7 Colebrooke (1837) Partial Sometimes inference From various causes things may be imperceptible YS 1.8 and reliable authority (or unperceived); excessive distance, (extreme) Īśvarakrishna asserts that are needed instead of nearness, defect of the organs, inattention, pramāņa (right perception. Why? minuteness, interposition of objects, predominance knowledge) should be Physically, the object of other matters, and intermixture with the like. used because of the may be too close or inadequacies of too far away. Or, our Larson (1987) senses may be Something that can be known may not be known perception and attention. Patañjali simply contrasts defective. We may through perception for the following reasons: 1 it wrong knowledge as not pay enough is too far away; 2 it is too close; 3 a sense capacity being separate from right attention. Or, the may not be functioning adequately; 4 the mind knowledge. Wrong object may be may be inattentive; 5 the thing is too subtle; 6 it is knowledge (viparyaya) is physically hidden or hidden (as, for example, an object behind a veil or a mistaken idea or false too subtle to notice. wall); 7 it is overpowered by something else (as, As we try to perceive for example, something overcome by darkness or appearance, much like SK 7. the object, our senses overcome by the brightness of the sun, etc.); or 8 it may be overcome by is mixed with similar things (as, for example, a something else, such grain of rice in a heap of rice or a drop of water in as being plunged into darkness. Finally, the the ocean, etc.).

object may be a small part of the whole (a

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drop in the ocean) and seem invisible. SK 8 Prakṛti Colebrooke (1837) Partial (nature/materiality) It is owing to the subtilty (of nature), not to the YS 2.18-19 exists, but it is too non-existence of this original principle, that it is Prakrti arises from the subtle to be directly not apprehended by the senses, but inferred from perceived. However, its effects. Intellect and the rest of the derivative play of the gunas and may

we can infer prakrti principles are effects; (whence it is concluded appear as visible or invisible to the eye, through its effects. as their cause) in some respects analogous, but in manifested or The cosmic others dissimilar. unmanifested. Lingamātra intelligence (mahat) is the primary and individualized Larson (1987) With respect to materiality, it is not perceived not manifestation or intellect intelligence (buddhi) (Monier-Williams, 2002). are among the effects because it does not exist; it is not perceived of prakrti. These and because of its subtlety. Materiality is known Partial other effects are through its effects, namely, the "great one" YS 3.35; YS 3.49 different from (mahat) or intellect (buddhi), etc., whose effects Sattva constituent is primordial nature are both similar to and different in form from different than purușa (and (mūlaprakṛti), but materiality. (That is to say, primordial materiality the advanced yoga they provide a basis is to be established through inference.) practices uncover that for the inference that distinction). In other prakṛti exists. words, higher intellect is still prakṛti.

Partial YS 4.34 At the time of kaivalya or self-realization, there is a reabsorbtion of the gunas into prakrti (returned to the source), the reverse of SK unfolding of prakrti.

Related YS 1.17; YS 1.41-1.51; YS 2.19 These verses as a group describe the categories of samādhi. See SK 3. SK 9 Colebrooke (1837) Partial The effects of prakrti Effect subsists (antecedently to the operation of YS 2.18-19 exist as potential cause); for what exists not, can by no operation of Prakrti arises from the before they are cause be brought into existence. Materials, too, are play of the gunas and may manifested. In other selected which are fit for the purpose: everything appear as visible or words, the effect is not by every means possible: what is capable, invisible to the eye, must arise from a does that to which it is competent; & the like is manifested or cause, a material produced from like. unmanifested. Lingamātra basis. Cause and is the primary effect are related and Larson (1987) manifestation or intellect have a similar nature. III. The notion of preexistent effect (Monier-Williams, 2002). The effect exists or resides in the cause in a potential state or condition prior to the operation of Related the cause for the following reasons: (a) something YS 1.18-1.19

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cannot arise from nothing; (b) any effect requires a Samskāra are residual material basis; (c) anything cannot arise from just effects of past actions and everything; (d) something can only produce what thoughts residing in deep it is capable of producing; and (e) the very nature memory or unconscious. or essence of the cause is nondifferent from the Samskāra become the effect. cause of rebirth.

Related Chapter 3 Special powers are the effect from samyama on certain objects. Samyama on the strength of an elephant helps obtain that strength. Samyama on the moon give knowledge of the stars. In other words, the extraordinary powers are still based in a related cause SK 10 Colebrooke (1837) Related When prakṛti A discrete principle is causable, it is inconstant, YS 4.34 manifests as the unprevading, mutable, multitudinous, supporting, At the stage of kaivalya, world, it has nine mergent, conjunct, governed. The undiscrete one is the manifested becomes characteristics: First, the reverse. unmanifested; the gunas it has a cause or are returned to the source, motivation to exist. Larson (1987) reabsorbed into Also, it is IV. The manifest and unmanifest aspects of mūlaprakṛti. impermanent, materiality nonpervasive (not Materiality as manifest is characterized as (a) Comments (JS) everywhere), having a cause; (b) impermanent; (c) SK 9 and 10 summarize mutable, multiple, the theory that effect lives supported, mergent nonpervasive; (d) mobile; (e) multiple; (f) within the cause, pre- (having evidence), supported; (g) mergent; (h) being made up of

made up of parts, parts; and (i) dependent. Materiality as unmanifest exists in its cause, an understanding common to dependent on another is the reverse (that is to say, uncaused, permanent,

In its unmanifested pervasive, etc.). (Compare commentaries for the samskāra discussion

form, it is the alternative explanations.) in the YS. Larson (2002) believes this was a opposite. relatively new interpretation (pp. 164- 165). SK 11 Colebrooke (1837) Partial Although manifested A discrete principle, as well as the chief (or YS 2.18 and unmanifested undiscrete) one, has the three qualities: it is World arises from the nature (prakrti) have indiscriminative, objective, common, irrational, interplay of the gunas. these differences, prolific. Soul is in these respects, as in those, the Prakṛti and purușa have they are alike in some reverse. different purposes. ways: 1. Both are Larson (1987) Partial comprised of three Although the manifest and unmanifest have these YS 2.19-2.20 qualities called gunas contrary characteristics, nevertheless, they are Nature (prakrti) exists in (triguņa) alike in the sense that they share certain common different forms 2. Manifested and characteristics, namely, (a) both are constituted by (unmanifested, unmanifested prakṛti the tripartite constituent process (triguna); (b) subtle/atomic, latent, and

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are ultimately neither can be clearly distinguished from the other manifested). purușa is indistinguishable in the a final sense; (c) both are objects of pure, without categories. from each other objective; (d) both are general (that is to say 3. Both are of the capable of objective apprehension either by Partial world perceptions or inference); (e) both are non- YS 4.13-4.14 4. They can either be conscious ; and (f) both are productive. With Whatever our experience perceived or inferred respect to these common characteristics of the of a form, the form is 5. Both are manifest and unmanifest, consciousness (purușa, composed of the gunas. unconscious or the specific term used here, pums) is the reverse The reality of a form is 6. Both are of these characteristics. It should be noted, due to a unique interplay inherently productive however, that consciousness shares certain of the guņas. purușa is the characteristics with the unmanifest - specifically, opposite. those characteristics as set forth in verse 10 (see Related above). YS 1.16 First mention of guna in YS. Non-attachment means non-attachment towards characteristics that form the world.

Related YS 4.16 Forms are real, of the world, and not dependent on perception or knowing.

Related YS 1.2 The fluctuations of the citta are the interplay of the three gunas (Ramakrishna & Moore, 1989, p. 454.

Comments (JS) Purușa is not triguņa, not unconscious, not productive, etc. (these are the opposites in verse 12), but it is permanent, without cause, pervasive, independent, etc. (like unmanifested prakṛti, mūlaprakṛti). SK 12 Colebrooke (1837) Partial The three qualities, or The qualities respectively consist in pleasure, pain, YS 2.18 guņas, determine our and dullness; are adapted to manifestation, Prakrti arises from the interpretation of activity, and restraint; mutually domineer; rest on interplay of the gunas experiences as each other; produce each other; consort together; (intelligence, activity, and pleasurable or painful and are reciprocally present. inertia) inherent in the or dull/oppressive elements and senses. The Larson (1987) purpose of the world is to The gunas may V. The three constituents illuminate, or The constituents or constituent processes (guna) provide experience and enjoyment for purușa, and

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activate, or restrain. are experiences as agreeable, disagreeable, and also to provide a route for They interact with oppressive. Moreover, these constituents have as liberation. each other, and each their purpose illumination, activity, and restriction. may dominate, Finally, with respect to the operation of the Partial support, or activate constituents, they mutually and successively YS 4.13 the other two. dominate, support, activate, and interact with one Our experience of these another. forms/objects is derived from the interplay of the guņas. SK 13 Colebrooke (1837) Partial The three gunas are Goodness is considered to be alleviating and YS 2.18 defined: enlightening; foulness, urgent and versatile; Prakrti arises from the 1. Sattva is darkness, heavy and enveloping. Like a lamp, they interplay of the gunas illuminating, cooperate for a purpose (by union of contraries). (intelligence, activity, and enlightening, clear, inertia) inherent in the and provides the Larson (1987) elements and senses. The intelligence of nature. The intelligibility constituent (sattva) is light- 2. Rajas, is weight and illuminating (that is to say, it proves purpose of the world is to

the intellectual clarity and/or the intelligibility of provide experience and stimulating, enjoyment for purușa, and activating, provides primal, creative nature); the activity constituent also to provide a route for energy for the (rajas) is stimulating and moving (that is to say, it liberation. continual provides the capacity for change and/or the transformation of continuing process of primal, creative nature); the Related (in group) prakṛti. 3. Tamas, is heavy inertia constituent (tamas) is heavy and enveloping YS 2.41; 2.52; 3.35; 3.49; (that is to say, it provides the substance and/or the 3.55; 4.26 and enveloping. It "thingness of primal, creative nature). These three, Purity develops the clarity provides substance or "thingness" of nature. though different in operation and makeup, of sattva, and through

Although different, nevertheless function together for a purpose just as the wick, oil, and flame of a lamp, though different restraint of the senses, it is like the veil is lifted off of they cooperate to in their makeup, nevertheless function together for the inner fulfill their function, like a wick, oil, and the purpose of illumination. brightness/clarity or

flame of a lamp sattvic quality. However,

function together to this sattva quality (which is still of the cittalbuddhi) make light. must be distinguished from purușa for liberation.

Comments (JS) Although SK and YS use different terms for the guna, Feuerstein (1989) states that the YS terms are clearly referring to the "interdependent activity of the primary- constituents (guna). 'Brightness' corresponds with sattva, 'activity' with rajas and 'inertia' with tamas. These three forms of appearance apply to the world of things as much as to the phenomena of consciousness (pp. 71-

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72). SK 14 Colebrooke (1837) Partial The characteristics of Indiscriminativeness and the rest (of the properties YS 2.19-2.20 manifest prakrti, as of a discrete principle) are proved by the influence Nature (prakrti) exists in stated in verse 11, are of the three qualities, and the absence thereof in different forms true because prakrti the reverse. The undiscrete principle, moreover, (unmanifested, is composed of the (as well as the influence of the three qualities,) is three gunas. demonstrated by effect possessing the properties of subtle/atomic, latent, and manifested). Purușa is its cause (and by the absence of contrariety). pure, without categories. The opposite qualities of pure Larson (1987) Related consciousness, or VI. The Inferences that Establish the Existence and YS 4.13-4.14 purușa, are true Makeup of Primordial Materiality and Our experience of the because of the lack of Consciousness world results from the the guņas. It can be argued that the characteristics of that interplay of the gunas. which is manifest (namely, that the manifest Because effect cannot be distinguished, is objective, general, preexists in the cause nonconscious, and productive as was described in in subtle form, we verse 11) are established or determined primarily can infer that because the manifest is made up of the three unmanifested constituents. It would follow by inference, insofar nature/prakṛti is as it has been described as being the reverse of the likewise composed of manifest (see verse 11). the three gunas. Moreover, it can be inferred further that the unmanifest is made up of the three constituents Also, if manifested because of the argument of verse 9 in which it is prakrti is composed established that the effect preexists in the cause (in of three gunas, so is a subtle form) prior to the operation of the cause. unmanifested prakṛti (That is to say, in so far as the unmanifest and manifest are related to one another as cause and effect, it follows that if the manifest has the three constituents, then the unmanifest must also have them.) (Compare commentaries for alternative explanations) SK 15 and 16 Colebrooke (1837) Partial Unmanifested nature SK 15 YS 2.19 (mūlaprakṛti) has no Since specific objects are finite; since there is The three gunas appear in cause, but is the homogeneousness; since effects exist through four levels, from most cause of the manifest energy; since there is a parting (or issue) of effects differentiated to non- world through the from cause, and a reunion of the universe. differentiated: continual SK 16 specific/visible, atomic, transformation of There is a general cause, which is undiscrete. It latent/known by gunas. Things in the operates by means of the three qualities, and by inference, and world are finite, are mixture, by modification, as water; for different unmanifested. the same or objects are diversified by influence of the several connected, require qualities respectively. Partial energy to be YS 4.13-4.14 produced, are the Larson (1987) The essence and the effects of a cause, SK 15-16 reality of a form are due and are of ordinary The unmanifest is the ultimate cause because (a) to interplay of guņas. time and space. This that which is manifest is perceived to be limited in presupposes a cause size (and no limited thing can itself serve as an Related not limited in these ultimate cause); (b) all manifest things, in so far as YS 4.34 ways (finite, their charactersltics are uniform and/or In kaivalya, the

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produced, of ordinary homogeneous (samanvaya), require a single, manifested becomes time, etc.) When ultimate cause as their causal source; (c) the unmanifested; the gunas there is no-thing, no emergence and/or process of that which is are returned to the source. manifestation, there manifest presupposes a cause efficiency (śakti) is no effect. that enables emergence or process to occur; (d) Comments (JS) However, the that which is manifest is just a modification and, Samanvaya is translated potential exists hence, presupposes an ultimate cause different by Larson and because the effect from it that is not a modification (but, rather, is the Colebrooke as same or preexists in the cause. Implied is a type of source or presupposition for modification); and (e) homogenous. Monier- that which is manifest and, hence, defined in terms Williams (2002) give the evolution and of ordinary space and time, presupposes an meaning as connected, in involution. ultimate cause that is not so defined, and hence, in consequence. which the manifest can reside prior to manifestation-that is to say, although cause and effect differ with respect to the contraries manifest/unmanifest, they are identical when there is no manifestation, or, putting the matter another way, the effect disappears when there is no manifestation, but it continues to exist because the effect always preexists in the cause prior to the operation of the cause. Moreover, these unmanifest functions because of the three constituents that individually and together constitute its very being. These constituents undergo continuing transformation, which can be accounted for by the respective capacities that reside in each of the constituents. This notion of the unmanifest undergoing transformation because of its constituent capacities is like (the taste of) water (which, though basically of one taste, is modified in various transformation into a sour taste, a bitter taste, a sweet taste, etc.). SK 17 Colebrooke (1837) Partial The world's objects Since the assemblage of sensible objects is for YS 1.16 exist for another's another's use; since the converse of that which has The pinnacle of non- use. This other is the three qualities, with other properties (before attachment is non- purușa/pure mentioned), must exist; since there must be attachment even to the consciousness. superintendence; since there must be one to enjoy; gunas due to identity with since there is a tendency to abstraction; therefore purușa. (Note: In this We infer purușa soul is. verse the term purușa is exists because we used in the YS.) know that Larson (1987) 1. Combinations Consciousness exists because of the following Partial exist for each other inferences: (a) all aggregates exist for the sake of YS 2.18 2. Purușa must be something else (as, for example, the components Manifest prakrti arises different from the of a bed either as a whole or in its respective parts from the interplay of the three gunas serve the needs of something else, namely, the guņas. prakrti exists for 3. This other must person who uses the bed for sleeping); (b) since it the sake of purușa, to have power or control has been established (in verses 14, 15, and 16) that provide experience and over nature. the manifest and unmanifest are both aggregates in enjoyment, a route for 4. There is a need for the sense that they are made up of the three liberation. subjective constituents, it must be inferred further, in order to experience: Purușa avoid an infinite regress, that the "something else" Partial exists to enjoy the referred to in the first inference must be distinct YS 2.20 world. from that which as the three constituents (that is to The drastr/seer (purușa)

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5. There is an say, one cannot argue that aggregates serve only is pure witnessing inclination in the needs of other aggregates without getting consciousness, undefiled. experience to seek caught in an infinite regress, for any given freedom (kaivalya). aggregate posited as that for which another Partial aggregate exists will itself require another YS 2.21 aggregate, and so on;) (c) moreover, this The drśya/seeable/prakṛti "something else" different from the constituents exists for the sake of the must be inferred because there is a "standing- seer. place," "controlling factor", or "basis" required for both the manifest and unmanifest (that is to say, Partial there must be a principle that "accompanies" all YS 3.35, 3.49 composite aggregates and thus provides a raison Even buddhi is different d'etre and, hence, an authoritative motive for than purușa. primal, creative nature's activity or its objective transformations); (d) in addition, this "something Partial else" different from the constituents must be YS 4.18; YS 4.22 inferred because there is a need for a ground or Purușa is the master of basis for all subjective experience (that is to say, citta/conditioned mind. insofar as the unmanifest encompasses all purușa is changeless. subjective aggregates as well as objective aggregates, there must be "something else" that Partial provides the basis for subjectivity as well as YS 4.24-4.25 objectivity); and finally (e) this "something else" Citta exists for purușa different from the constituents must be inferred and is distinct from it. because there is an inclination in experience to see freedom or "isolation" (that is to say, there must be Partial "something else" distinct from the manifest and YS 4.26 the unmanifest, for otherwise the inclination to Citta is inclined towards seek freedom would be unintelligible or pointless). liberation. SK 18 Colebrooke (1837) Related There is plurality in Since birth, death, and the instruments of life are YS 2.22 purușa, meaning that allotted severally; since occupations are not at Feuerstein notes that in consciousness is once universal; and since qualities affect variously; YS 2.22, the reality of individualized or multitude of souls is demonstrated. prakrti is confirmed after multiple. This is the yogi is liberated. Were inferred from the Larson (1987) this not true, then the first observation of the Moreover, (a) since there are varieties of births, instance of liberation variety of births, deaths, and functional capacities; and (b) since would have destroyed the lives, and deaths, these three divergent manifestations do not occur unreality of the taking place over simultaneously; and (c) since these three world/cosmos, which time differentiations are to be accounted for because of would have liberated all the diversity occasioned by the constituents, beings. (1989, p. 74). But consciousness, insofar as it is that for which all this is not true, so the such manifestations and transformations occur, world is real, and, it must be construed pluralistically. seems to imply, the purușa is individualized.

Related YS 4.18 Purușa, as master of citta, continually witnesses the mind's fluctuations.

Comments (JS) Larson (1979) makes an

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important distinction: Purușa is individual/multiple, but not personal. All personal identity is bound up with buddhi, ahamkāra, and manas. Purușa is a witness/spectator, the fact of consciousness that renders the individual human. SK 19 Colebrooke (1837) Comparable Purușa is the witness And from that contrast (before set forth) it follows, YS 2.20 of nature. It is that soul is witness, solitary, bystander, spectator, Purușa/Seer is nothing solitary, separate and passive. but seeing, witnessing. from experience, and passive. Larson (1987) Comparable Finally, because consciousness is the reverse of YS 4.18 that which has the three contingents (namely, the Purușa, as master of citta, manifest and unmanifest as described in verse 11) continually witnesses the it follows that consciousness can be characterized mind's fluctuations. as that which is the basis for there being a witness; as that which is "isolation" or liberation; as that Partial which is the condition of neutrality (or, in other YS 1.3 words, the condition of being separate from all The seer abides in its own specific experience); and as that which is the nature (when fluctuations condition of nonagency. of the citta end).

Partial YS 2.25 At liberation, the correlation between Seer and Seen end, leaving the aloneness or isolation of the Seer.

Partial YS 3.35 Intellect (sattva/buddhi) and purușa are different. The intellect exists for the sake of purua. purușa exists for its own sake.

Partial YS 4.22 Purușa is unchangeable and separate.

Related YS 4.19 The ordinary mind cannot witness itself since it is the knowable object.

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SK 20 Colebrooke (1837) Comparable Because of the Therefore, by reason of union with it, insensible YS 2.17 proximity (samyoga) body seems sensible; and though the qualities be What is to be ended is of purușa and active, the stranger (soul) appears as the agent. misunderstanding that the prakrti, manifested Seer and the Seeable are prakrti, or the world Larson (1987) correlated, are the same or appears as if it has VII. The Association or Proximity of Materiality one. The source of consciousness/spirit, and Consciousness suffering is the erroneous and consciousness Because of the association or proximity (samyoga) melding of Seer and Seen appears as if it has of primordial materiality and pure consciousness, (and can be avoided). form and activity. that which is manifest appears as if it characterized by consciousness, and similarly, even though all Comparable agency or activity occurs only in the constituents, YS 1.4 consciousness appears as if characterized by Before liberation, while agency or activity. the fluctuations in the mind continue, the Seer conforms to the fluctuations.

Partial YS 2.5 Ignorance (avidyā) arises when we are confused about what is permanent, what is pure, what is self/not (Note that in 2.5, ātma is used for self.)

Partial YS 2.6 Asmitā or egoism is misidentification of the instrument of seeing (body) with true Seer.

Partial YS 2.23-2.24 Samyoga (proximity) of Seer and Seen allows them both to be known in their full power. The cause of this union is ignorance. SK 21 Colebrook (1837) Comparable The association of For the soul's contemplation of nature, and for its YS 2.23 purușa and prakrti abstraction, the union of both takes place, as of the Samyoga (proximity) of benefits each like a halt and blind. By that union a creation is framed. Seer and Seen allows blind man and a lame them both to be known in man traveling Larson (1987) their full power. together. This Moreover, this association or proximity is like the proximity (samyoga) association of the lame man and the blind man Comparable is for the purpose of (that is to say, both are quite distinct, but they YS 2.18 prakrti evolving as come together in order to benefit from the The purpose of prakrti is experience for capacities of one another). Materiality "performs to provide

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purușa. purușa its task," as it were, so that consciousness may experience/enjoyment for reveals itself as have content, and consciousness "performs its purușa, and to provide a isolated from the task", by revealing itself as radically distinct or route for liberation. continuous isolated from all subjective and objective transformations of transformations. Because of this association, the Partial prakrti. The manifest and experiential world has come into YS 2.21 experienced world is being. The Seen exists solely for created from this the sake of the Seer. proximity. (prakrti exists for purușa.) SK 22 Colebrooke (1837) Partial The unfolding of the For nature issues the great one; thence egotism; YS 1.17; 1.41-1.51; 2.19 basic principles from and from this the Sixteen-fold set: from five These verses as a group prakrti is described: among the sixteen proceed five elements. describe the categories of 1. mahat (cosmic samādhi. See SK 3. intelligence) 2. From mahat, ego Larson (1987) VIII. The Derivation of the Basic Principles Partial or self-identification YS 2.19 (ahamkāra). (tattva) The "great one," that is, the intellect, arises from The three gunas appear in 3. From ahamkāra four levels, from most arises the group of 16 materiality. Egoity arises from the intellect. The (from verse 3) mind, the sense capacities, the action capacities, differentiated to non-

4. From the subtle and the subtle elements arise from the ego. The differentiated:

elements (part of the five gross elements arise from the five subtle specific/visible, atomic,

group of 16) arise the elements. latent/known by inference, and five gross elements. unmanifested.

In other words, when Related in proximity of YS 3.44, YS 3.47 purușa, prakṛti The third chapter evolves into describes many powers or intelligence, then attainments. In these two self-awareness with verses, the yogi masters senses, perception, the gross or coarse and the ability to act. elements and the sense On the cosmic level, organs. Through mahat evolves into samyama on the gross the elements. elements, the subtle elements (tanmātras), the gunas, and the nature's purpose (to serve purușa), there is mastery over the elements. Through samyama on perception and I-am-ness (asmitā), there is mastery over the sense organs. SK 23 Colebrooke (1837) Partial The buddhi Ascertainment is intellect. Virtue, knowledge, YS 1.18 (will/intellect) is dispassion, and power are its faculties, partaking For an advanced yogi, characterized by of goodness. Those partaking of darkness are the eventually even the sense reflective reverse. of "I am" falls away and discernment. Eight what remains are past predispositions Larson (1987) conditioned memories, or

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(bhāva) characterize IX. The functioning of the 13-fold instrument latent impressions buddhi, dependent on Intellect is characterized by reflective discerning (samskāra) in deep the dominate guna: (adhyavasaya). When its intelligibility constituent memory. (sattva) is dominant, it is characterized by four When sattva forms (rūpa): (1) the basic predisposition toward Related dominates: meritorious behavior (dharma); (2) the basic YS 2.30-2.32; YS 3.5 1. right behavior predispositions toward discriminating knowledge The yamas and niyamas (dharma) (jñāna); (3) the basic predisposition toward prescribe right behavior, 2. discriminating nonattachment (viraga); and (4) the basic self-study for knowledge, knowledge (jñāna) predisposition toward mastery or control non-attachment, mastery 3. non-attachment (aiśvarya). When its inertia constituent (tamas) is and control (purity, (viraga) dominant, it is characterized by the four opposite contentment, practice, 4. mastery or control forms or predispositions (namely, (5) adharma or devotion). In other words, (aiśvarya) "demeritorious behavior," (6) ajnāna or "ignorance," (7) rāga or "attachment," and (8) sattva dominated behavior. When tamas impotence. dominates: Related 5. wrong behavior Note: The 13-fold is: Buddhi, ahamkāra, manas, YS 2.3 (adharma) five sense and five action capabilities. The five obstacles to 6. ignorance samādhi are similar to the (ajnāna) tamas dominated forms: 7. attachment ignorance, egoism, (rāga) attachment, aversion, 8. lack of clinging to life. control/impotence. Related YS 3.35-36; YS 3.49 Even sattva dominated experience must be distinguished from purușa. From samyama on this distinction arises the flash of insight and mastery over all states.

Comments (JS) Citta in the YS is considered the same as ahamkāra, manas and buddhi (ego, mind, higher intellect) in the SK by Larson (1987). All of these are prakrti. SK 24 Colebrooke (1837) Comparable Ahamkāra, or the Consciousness is egotism. Thence proceeds a YS 4.4 sense of "I am", is twofold creation. The eleven-fold set is one; the "I am" (asmitā in YS) characterized by self- five elemental rudiments are the other. creates the individual conceit, self- mind (citta). If asmitā is awareness, egoity. Larson (1987) the same as ahamkāra, From ahamkāra Egoity is characterized by self-awareness. A this is essentially the arises two sets of twofold creation comes forth from it, namely, the same, except that principles: eleven fold aggregate (made up of the mind, the Patañjali addresses only sense capacities, and the action capacities) and the the sattvic evolutes. See A. The five fold subtle aggregate (made up of the five comments below. elevenfold: (1) Mind subtle elements). Whicher (2000) makes a

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(manas) (2-6) five distinction that asmitā is senses, and (7-11) really buddhi, and asmitā- five active mātra is ahamkāra. capabilities B. Five tanmātras Partial or subtle elements YS 1.17; YS 1.41-1.51; (sounds, touch, YS 2.19 appearance, flavor, These verses as a group odor). describe the categories of samādhi. See SK 3.

Comments (JS) There are a number of interpretations of YS 4.4 according to Feuerstein (1989), who believes the correct interpretation refers to the "deeper ontological principle which makes all individuation possible. In Sāmkhya this is known as ahamkāra" (p. 128).

Is asmitā the same as ahamkāra? Whicher (2000) argues that asmitā is more subtle; more internalized than ahamkāra, and in the Sāmkhyan evolutes would be part of buddhi (p. 243). SK 25 Colebrooke (1837) Comparable The eleven fold set From consciousness, affected by goodness, YS 2.18 proceeding from proceeds the good eleven fold set: from it, as a The Seeable, or nature, buddhilahamkāra, is dark origin of being, come elementary particles: seen/nature arise from the dominated by sattva. both issue from that principle affected by foulness. interplay of the guņas The five fold set (intelligence, activity, and (elements) are Larson (1987) inertia) inherent in the dominated by tamas. The eleven fold aggregate, dominated by the elements and senses. The guna of activity intelligibility constituent emerges out of egoity and (rajas) energizes this is called "modified" Partial manifestation. The five fold subtle aggregate dominated by the YS 1.17;1.41-1.51; 2.19 inertia constituent emerges from what is called These verses as a group "the source of the gross elements". Both describe the categories of aggregates are able to manifest themselves because samādhi. See SK 3. of what is called "the fiery one" (that is to say, both come into manifestation because of the capacity for change or activity that is provided by the activity constituent). SK 26 Colebrooke (1837) Sense capabilities are Intellectual organs are, the eyes, the ears, the nose, seeing, hearing, the tongue, and the skin: those of action are, the smelling, tasting, and voice, hands, feet, the excretory organ, and that of

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touching. Action generation. capabilities are speaking, grasping, Larson (1987) movement, excretion, The sense capacities are those of seeing, hearing, and reproduction. smelling, tasting, and touching. The action capacities are speaking, grasping, walking or locomotion, excreting, and sexual function. SK 27 Colebrooke (1837) Comments (JS) The mind (manas) is (In this set is) mind, which is both (an organ of See SK 29. Larson (1987) similar to both sense sensation and of action). It ponders, and it is an notes that Patañjali's and action organ as being cognate with the rest. They are conception of citta is a capabilities and thus numerous by specific modification of qualities, combination of manas, is also a capability. and so are external diversities. ahamkāra, and buddhi in Its function is Larson (1987) the SK. This difference in purposeful Patañjali may reflect intellectual activity. The mind is similar to both the sense capacities earlier Sāmkhya doctrine. The multiple and the action capacities and so is also a capacity. capabilities reflect Its function is intentionality; it apprehends the Related the particular contents of the various action capacities and sense YS 1.2 transformations of capacities. The variety of the capacities and the Yoga is the process of the gunas. external differences (among things apprehended by the mind) arise because of the particular ending or restricting the fluctuations (vrtti) of the transformations of the constituents. citta. Citta includes manas, but the point here is that the mind in SK is built upon the transformations of the gunas, and it connects perception, thought, and action, in other words, fluctuations of the mind (vṛtti).

Related YS 1.35; YS 2.53 Manas is used three times in the YS. The first is in YS 1.35 in the section on practices that calm the mind. YS 1.35 says that clarity is developed by sustaining mental activity upon a sensory object, although the translations and comments are particularly vague on this sutra. In 2.53, through breath-control, the mind becomes ready for focusing.

Related YS 3.47-3.48 Mastery of the senses (siddhi) is attained and the

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body moves with the speed of the mind (manas) with mastery over prakṛti.

Related YS 4.4 Citta proceeds from the general principle of I-am- ness (asmitā-mātra). This is the same/similar to manas proceeding from the sattvic aspect of ahamkāra, and evolving cognitive senses and active ability (speaking, grasping, moving, procreating, eliminating). SK 28 Colebrooke (1837) The function of the The function of five, in respect to colour and the five sense organs is rest, is observation only. Speech, handling, bare awareness. The treading, excretion, and generation are the function functions of the five of five (other organs). action capabilities are speech, grasping, Larson (1987) walking, excretion The function of the five sense capacities is bare and orgasm. awareness, or perhaps better, the 'indeterminate sensing" of sound, etc. The functions of the five action capacities are speaking, grasping, walking, excretion, and orgasm. SK 29 Colebrooke (1837) Partial The function of Of the three (internal instruments) the functions YS 4.4 buddhi, ahamkāra, are their respective characteristics; these are The differences in and mind/manas is to peculiar to each. The common function of the three work according to instruments is breath and the rest of the five vital terminology between YS and SK are often sited. their specific airs. Assuming that buddhi, characteristics. ahamkāra, and manas However, the Larson (1987) common function is As already pointed out, intellect, egoity, and mind equate to citta (Larson, 1987), then SK 29-31 the maintenance of have specific and separate functions, namely, establish a reason for the life (five vital reflective discerning, self-awareness, and Patañjali to (primarily) breaths or winds). intentionality which, set forth in verses 23, 24, and discuss Yoga from the 27, are also their essential characteristics. Taken view of one aspect (citta), together, however, they also have a common since for practical function or common essential characteristic, and that is the (support or maintenance of the) five purposes, they function together. vital breaths (prāna, etc.) (that is to say, the common function or common essential One difference in these characteristic of the intellect, ego, and mind is the terms is noted in verse SK maintenance of life.) 39

Comments (JS) What are the five vital breaths/winds? In the

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Yuktidipika, a commentary on the SK (author unknown, written around the seventh century), they are listed as prāņa, apāna, samāna, udāna, vyāna (Larson & Bhattacharya, 1987, p. 262) SK 30 Colebrooke (1837) Partial These three, along Of all four the functions are instantaneous, as well YS 4.4 with whatever sense as gradual, in regard to sensible objects. The See SK 29. capability is involved, function of the three (interior) is, in respect of an function together unseen one, preceded by that of the fourth. when we perceive something. In Larson (1987) conceptualization or When perception of something takes place, the inference (where there four (intellect, egoity, mind, and one of the is no sense object) capacities) function either simultaneously or memory and successively. Similarly, when awareness occurs of imagination are used. something unperceived (as, for example, in conceptualization, inference, etc.), the intellect/will, egoity, and mind function on the basis of prior perceptions (retained in memory, imagination, etc.)

Larson's Note: In both cases, however (that is to say, whether in knowing what is perceptible (or) what is beyond perception), intellect/will, egoity, and mind function only when preceded by perception of an external object. SK 31 Colebrooke (1837) Partial The buddhi, The instruments perform their respective YS 4.4 ahamkāra, manas, functions, incited by mutual invitation. The soul's See SK 29. and senses function purpose is the motive; an instrument is wrought by cooperatively with none. Partial each other, always, YS 2.18; YS 2.21; and only, for the sake Larson (1987) YS 4.24 of witnessing All of these capacities in their respective ways function coordinately with one another. The reason The Seeable exists for the consciousness sake of purușa. (purușa). for the functioning is always one "for the sake of consciousness" (that is, for the sake of the two Partial purposes of consciousness: experience (bhoga) YS 3.35 and liberation (apavarga)). None of these In common experience, capacities ever functions for any other purpose. sattva and purușa are not distinguished, but through samyama on this distinction, knowledge of purușa is obtained. SK 32 Colebrooke (1837) The 13 aspects Instrument is of thirteen sorts. It compasses, (buddhi, ahamkāra, maintains, and manifests: what is to be done by it manas & ten is tenfold, to be compassed, to be maintained, to be

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capabilities) combine manifested. to create an instrument called Larson (1987) kāraņa. The This, then, is the "thirteen fold instrument" instrument's effect is (namely, intellect, egoity, mind, and the sense and tenfold, i.e. relating action capacities), and its functions with respect to to each of the senses seizing, holding, and illuminating. The objects, or or actions (5 senses in other words, the things to be seized, held, and (jñanendriya) of illuminated, are tenfold. hearing, seeing, feeling, tasting, smelling; 5 actions (karmendriya) of expressing, grasping, moving, excreting, procreate SK 33 Colebrooke (1837) Related Antahkārana is the Internal instruments are three; external ten, to YS 4.4; 4.6; 4.9; 4.10 threefold internal make known objects to those three. The external YS 4.4 concerns mind organ (buddhi, organs minister at time present: the internal do so proceeding from ahamkāra, manas) ahamkāra. The other that operates in past, at any time. verses discuss the process present or future. Larson (1987) The internal organ (antahkārana, or intellect, of karmic deposits which

The external organ propel rebirth.

(10 capabilities) is egoity, and mind taken together) is threefold. The external (the five sense capacities and the five the context or range action capacities) is tenfold and provides the sense Also see SK 30-31. or sphere of the contents of experience. The external functions in antahkāraņa and present time, whereas the internal functions in all operates in present three times. time. SK 34 Colebrooke (1837) The objects of the Among these organs the five intellectual concern five senses may be objects specific and unspecific. Speech concerns gross or subtle. sound. The rest regard all five objects. Speech or expression only concerns sound, Larson (1987) but the rest of action The five sense capacities have or provide both organs operate in all specific (and nonspecific sense contents. The five senses. action capacity of speech has or provides only the content of sound. The other four action capacities have or provide the contents of all five kinds of senses and their contents. SK 35 Colebrooke (1837) Partial The buddhi, together Since intellect, with the (other two) internal YS 4.15; 4.16; 4.17 with ahamkāra and instruments, adverts to every object, therefore The world is real, but manas, understands those three instruments are warders, and the rest people understand the all objects. These are gates. world differently because three are the gate- of their perceptions and keeper, and the sense Larson (1987) cognitions. A thing is and action organs are Because intellect together with the other known, or not, if it has the gates. components of the internal organ comprehends conditioned or colored the every content, the threefold internal organ, ordinary mind (citta).

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therefore, can be said to be the "door-keeper," whereas the tenfold external organ can be said to See SK 29 note on citta. be the "doors". SK 36 Colebrooke (1837) Partial The ahamkāra These characteristically differing from each other, YS 2.18; YS 2.21; manas and ten senses and variously affected by qualities, present to the YS 4.24 present the whole of intellect the soul's whole purpose, enlightening it The Seeable exists for the existence to the as a lamp. sake of puruşa. buddhi, illuminating it for the sake of the Larson (1987) Partial purușa, for Egoity, mind, the five sense capacities and the five YS 4.22-4.24 experience and for action capacities, all of which are differentiated by These verses describe the liberation, like a reason of the specific modifications of the final stages of yoga, and lamp. constituents, and all of which function together like the components of a lamp, thereby represent the involution of

illuminating or providing access to all of reality, the process in SK 36. In other words, now the citta present or deliver up to intellect that which has been illuminated. They do all of this for the sake is quiet enough that the intelligence of sattvic of the entire purpose of consciousness (namely, buddhi begins to reflects experience and liberation). itself being seen by purua. Although the mind has countless desires, it really exists for the sake of purușa.

Partial YS 3.35 Normal experience in the world confuses purușa with the citta, so this distinction is critical for the yogi and leads to realization. SK 37 Colebrooke (1837) Comparable The buddhi produces Since it is intellect which accomplishes soul's YS 3.35 enjoyment for fruition of all which is to be enjoyed, it is that, Normal experience in the purușa; in other again, which discriminates the subtle difference world confuses purușa words, intelligence between the chief principle (pradhāna) and soul. with the citta, so this offers the assimilated distinction is critical for experience for the Larson (1987) the yogi and leads to pleasure of purușa. Intellect provides certitude regarding every aspect realization. of experience for consciousness and, even more Moreover, buddhi than that, reveals the subtle difference between Comparable can discriminate or primordial materiality and consciousness. YS 4.22-4.24 reveal the subtle These verses describe the difference between final stages of yoga, and pradhāna (prakṛti) represent the involution of and purușa. the process in SK 36. In other words, now the citta is quiet enough that the intelligence of sattvic buddhi begins to reflect itself being seen by purușa. Although the

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mind has countless desires, it really exists for the sake of puruşa. SK 38 Colebrooke (1837) Comparable The subtle elements The elementary particles are unspecific: from these YS 3.44 (tanmātras: sound, five proceed the five elements, which are termed This verse concerns the touch, appearance, specific; for they are soothing, terrific, or involution occurring as flavor, odor) are stupefying. the yogi becomes more general, and they and more internal. By give rise to the five samādhi on both gross gross/fundamental Larson (1987) and subtle elements gives elements known as the mahabhūtas X. The subtle and gross elements knowledge of the subtle

(ether, air, fire, water, The subtle elements are nonspecific. The five portion (tanmātra),

earth). We gross elements (mahabhūtas), which are specific, interconnectedness (of

experience them as arise from these. The five gross elements are gunas), and purpose (of experienced as being comfortable, uncomfortable, prakṛti). specific due to their differing qualities of and confusing. Related comfort/soothing, YS 1.17; YS 2.19 uncomfortable, or In YS, stages of samādhi confusing/stupefying. reverse the evolution. See explanation at YS 1.51 which examines the distinctions of samādhi (YS 1.17), coupled with YS 2.19, the divisions of the gunas.

Comments (JS) According to Larson, the three qualities here are subsets of tamas (1987, p. 70), supporting the concept of a closed system: All of prakrti, manifest or unmanifested is triguna. See SK 11. Subtle and gross elements arise from the tamasic aspect of ahamkāra while manas is sattvic. SK 39 Colebrooke (1837) Comments (JS) There are three kinds Subtile (bodies), and such as spring from father This verse explains the of specific objects in and mother, together with the great elements, are SK conception of a subtle the world: (a) subtle three sorts of specific objects. Among these, the bodies; (b) gross body, which is what subtile bodies are lasting; such as issue from father reincarnates over time. In bodies, those born of and mother are perishable. SK terms, the subtle is the father and mother; buddhi (higher and (c) objects Larson (1987) formed from gross intelligence), ahamkāra XI. The subtle body (I-am-ness), manas elements. Subtle There are three kinds of specific aggregates in the (mind), and all of the bodies persist from manifest world: (a) subtle bodies; (b) gross bodies one lifetime to born of maternal and paternal seeds; and (c) senses, action capabilities, and subtle elements- another. Bodies born various objects made up of gross elements. Of everything except the

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of parents end. these, the subtle body persists from one existence gross elements. linga- to another, where as the gross bodies born of śarīra and sūksma-śarīra parents cease. are terms for these 18 elements. Patañjali, however, views citta as pervasive through lifetimes. Thus, in the YS, senses, action capabilities, and subtle elements do not reincarnate (Larson, 1987).

Related YS 2.12-2.13; YS 4.8; YS 4.10 These verses refer to aspects of rebirth and the causes of rebirth relevant to the goal of liberation. The effects of karma, inspired by the kleśa (hindrances, ignorance) will be experienced over lifetimes. Subconscious traits (vāsana) and impressions (samskāra) will appear this lifetime or in future lifetimes. SK 40 Colebrooke (1837) Comments (JS) The subtle body (the (Subtile body), primeval, unconfined, material, Note that although the 13-fold plus composed of intellect, with other subtile subtle body of SK is tanmātras equal 18), principles, migrates, else unenjoying; invested different than the also called the linga with dispositions, mergent. reincarnating aspect in YS here), exists before (the citta), the description the physical body. It Larson (1987) here makes clear that is both free from The subtle body (linga), which is preexistent to all neither carry experiences physical form, yet other bodies, unconfined, persistent (for each (only the "color" or persistent through individual in the course of transmigration), and "scent") to the next life. reincarnations. made up of intellect, egoity, mind, the five sense Although it is capacities, the five action capacities, and the five Related devoid of experience, subtle elements, and which in itself is devoid of YS 4.8-4.11; YS 4.24 it gives certain experience, transmigrates, permeated or "perfumed" (and, hence, given a characteristic What are the qualities (carries a "scent") to each "scent" as it were) by its basic predispositions. predispositions (bhāvas)? In SK 23, they are listed physical life through as merit, knowledge, its predispositions nonattachment, power, (bhāvas). and the reverse of each. These give the qualities to the next life. Are they the same/similar to vāsana? Certainly they work in a similar mode. Both good and bad actions produce subconscious traits (vāsana) that will

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eventually arise in a life when the right conditions are presents SK 41 Colebrooke (1837) See note on 39. The subtle body As a painting stands not without a ground, nor a (linga - 13 element) shadow without a stake, & c. so neither does needs support (from subtile person subsist support less, without specific that which is (or unspecific) particles. solid/tamasic), like a painting needs a Larson (1987) canvas. Just as a painting cannot exist without a canvas or just as a shadow cannot exist without a pillar or post, in a similar manner the subtle body cannot exist with an appropriate support. SK 42 Colebrooke (1837) Partial Since the subtle body For the sake of soul's wish, that subtile person YS 4.8-4.12, 4.24 is motivated for the exhibits (before it), like a dramatic actor, through Both good and bad sake of purușa, will relation of means and consequence, with the aid of actions produce appear like an actor. nature's influence. subconscious traits It assumes its roles (vāsana) that will because of its Larson (1987) eventually arise in a life predisposition The subtle body, motivated for the purpose of when the right conditions (bhāvas) (causes and consciousness, behaves like a dramatic actor, are presents. effects), with the aid functioning by means of the efficient causes and of prakṛti. effects derived from the inherent power of Both Yoga and Sāmkhya materiality. (in SK 42) base transmigration on dharma/adharma as instrumental causes, prakṛti as material cause. (Jacobsen, 2002, p. 65)

Related YS 2.18; YS 2.21 The Seeable exists for the sake of purușa. SK 43 Colebrooke (1837) See SK 42 The innate Essential dispositions are innate. Incidental, as Partial predispositions virtue and the rest, are considered appurtenant to YS 4.8-4.12, YS 4.24 (bhāvas) are both the instrument. The uterine germ (flesh and blood) natural and acquired. and the rest belong to the effect (that is, to the Related They reside in the body). YS 2.18; YS 2.21 subtle body, specifically in Larson (1987) buddhi. The innate XII. The basic predispositions predispositions The innate predispositions (bhāva), namely, determine the quality meritorious behavior etc. is either natural or of life of the embryo, acquired. The predispositions reside in the subtile so although they are body (and, specifically, in intellect, as was stated subtle, they affect the in verse 23). These innate predispositions perishable body. determine the quality of life of the gross embryo, etc. (that is to say, the predispositions, which reside on the level of the subtle body, nevertheless

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bring about certain effects on the level of the gross, perishable body). SK 44 Colebrooke (1837) Partial Where there is virtue By virtue is ascent to a region above; by vice, YS 2.1-2.2 or virtuous behavior descent to a region below; by knowledge is Yoga is certain behavior (dharma), then there deliverance; by the reverse, bondage. (intense practice, study, is a movement devotion) which weaken (transmigration) Larson (1987) By means of (the predisposition toward) causes of pain. upward in the scale of beings, and meritorious behavior one transmigrates into higher Partial downward with vice. forms of life; by means of (the innate YS 2.25-2.28 With true knowledge, predisposition toward) demertorious behavior, one Cause of erroneous union one is liberated; with transmigrates into lower forms of life; by means of (of purușa and prakṛti) is ignorance is bondage. (the predisposition toward) knowledge, one comes to liberation; and by means of (the predisposition ignorance. The way to end the union is toward) the opposite of knowledge, one comes to discriminating bondage. knowledge. Yoga practices develop this knowledge.

Partial YS 2.3-2.4; YS 2.30; YS 2.32 By practicing the limbs of yoga, impurities decrease, wisdom dawns. The first limb (yama) promotes disciplines: non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, chastity, non-attachment. The obstacles to yoga are ignorance, egoism, attachment, aversion, and clinging to life.

Partial YS 4.3 Merit or demerit will not propel evolution of prakṛti; rebirth will happen anyway. But right behavior/thoughts may be an aid toward upward evolution (as a farmer removes the impediments in a stream so it can flow more freely). SK 45 Colebrooke (1837) Comments (JS) From detachment By dispassion is absorption into nature; by foul Only one of the bhāvas comes absorption passion, migration; by power, unimpediment; by leads to liberation, and into prakrti/nature, but by desire and the reverse, the contrary. that is jñāna, or knowledge. The passion one is reborn. Larson (1987) commentaries explain that By means of (the predisposition toward) the first part of this verse

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With power, there is nonattachment, one attains dissolution in means absorption into control over life materiality; by means of (the predisposition mūlaprakrti for "one With lack of power, toward) passionate attachment, one attains series of migrations" and declining control. transmigration; by means of (the predisposition not liberation (Colebrook, toward) power, one attains control over life; by p. 146). Attachment leads means of (the predisposition toward) impotence, to rebirth. one attains declining control over life. Comments (JS) YS 2.30; YS 2.32 The fifth yama is non- attachment, and the fifth niyama is īśvara- pranidhāna or devotion to lord, personal god. Interestingly, non- attachment is vairāgya in both SK and YS. Power, in SK 45, is "aīśvara", mighty, lord-like. SK 46 Colebrooke (1837) Comments (JS) Our ordinary This is an intellectual creation, termed obstruction, There are two experience is disability, acquiescence, and perfectness. By delineations of bhāva, the conditioned by disparity of influence of qualities the sorts of it are eight and the 50, and predispositions fifty. controversy over the (bhāvas). This reason. creation of the Larson (1987) intellect This is the "intellectual creation" (pratyayasarga), (pratyayasarga) and it manifests itself on the level of ordinary consists of the eight experience in fifty divisions that arise because of bhavas and their the varying collocations (occasioned by the effects in 50 unequal distributions) of constituents. The fifty divisions: divisions are broadly classified into four groups misconceptions, dysfunctions, contentments, and A. attainments (siddhi). Ignorance/misconcep tions and doubt - 5 types B. Dysfunctions or disabilities in sense or action capabilities - 28 types C. Complacencies (lack of desire to know)- 9 types D. Accomplishments from correct apprehension (siddhi) - 8 types SK 47 Colebrooke (1837) There are five distinctions of obstruction; and, Note: See SK 46 and 48. There are five types of ignorance, 28 from defect of instrument twenty-eight of types of dysfunctions, disability; acquiescence is nine fold; perfectness nine types of eightfold. apathies, and eight Larson (1987)

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types of There are five kinds of misconception; twenty- accomplishments. eight kinds of dysfunction due to defects in the functioning of one's capacities; nine kinds of contentment; and eight attainments. SK 48 Colebrooke (1837) Comparable The five types of The distinctions of obscurity are eightfold, as also YS 2.3 ignorance or those of illusion; extreme illusion is tenfold; The five types of misconception are: gloom is eighteen fold, and so is utter darkness. ignorance are "archaic 1. Darkness (tamas): names for the well-known 8 varieties five kleśa (of yoga)" 2. Delusions or Larson (1987) Larson, 1987, p. 631. Confusions: 8 The five kinds of misconception are darkness varieties (tamas), confusion, great confusion, gloom, and 3. Great blind gloom. Among these five kinds of confusion/delusion: misconception, there are eight varieties of 10 varieties darkness, eight varieties of delusion, ten varieties 4. Gloom: 18 of great delusion, eighteen varieties of gloom, and varieties eighteen varieties of blind gloom. 5. Blind gloom: 18 varieties SK 49 Colebrooke (1837) Related The 28 types of Depravity of the eleven organs, together with YS 1.30-1.31 dysfunction include injuries of the intellect, are pronounced to be There is some overlap injuries to the mind disability. The injuries of intellect are seventeen, with the section in the YS or senses (11 types), by inversion of acquiescence and perfectness. giving the blocks or and injuries to the obstacles to yoga practice: buddhi/intellect (17 Larson (1987) Disease, apathy/dullness, types). The injuries to The twenty-eight kinds of dysfunction include Doubt, Carelessness the intellect are the injuries to the eleven capacities (namely, the mind, Lethargy, Sexual reverse of the nine the five sense capacities and the five action preoccupation contentments and capacities) together with seventeen kinds of injury False perception, Lack of eigh to intellect. The list of seventeen injuries to groundedness, Instability accomplishments. intellect refers to the reverse of the nine in practice. The blocks contentments and the eight attainments cause suffering, depression, restlessness, and disturbed breathing. SK 50 Colebrooke (1837) Partial The nine types of Nine sorts of acquiescence are propounded; four YS 1.19 complacencies are internal, relating to nature, to means, to time, and to luck; five external, relative to abstinence from An advanced yogi who related either to merges with prakrti internal beliefs or (enjoyment of) objects. (rather than realizing external actions. liberation) will be reborn. A. Internal Larson (1987) complacencies* The nine kinds of contentment are divided into two Partial 1. Tendency to be groups: (a) the internal, including belief in YS 1.30 satisfied with primordial materiality as ultimate, belief in a Blocks to yoga are knowledge of material basis (patina) as ultimate, belief in time as apathy, dullness, doubt, mūlaprakrti alone ultimate, and belief in destiny as ultimate; and (b) carelessness, lethargy, 2. tendency to the external, including the turning away from the lack of groundedness in think that external contents of the five kinds of activity that relate to practice among others. signs of asceticism the five sense capacities. are enough Related 3. belief that in YS 1.22

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time, all will be Time needed for liberated liberation is dependent on 4. laziness, or the intensity of practice. belief that liberation will arise without Comments (JS) effort Also see Gaudapada in B. External Larson and Bhattacharya 5-9. Satisfied with (1987, p. 222). having turned away from the senses and their attached evils (acquisition, protection, waste, attachment and injury). SK 51 Colebrooke (1837) Comments (JS) The eight Reasoning, hearing, study, prevention of pain of Siddhi are of two accomplishments three sorts, intercourse of friends, and purity (or varieties. The siddhi in (siddhi) are: gift) are perfections (or means thereof). The fore- SK 51 are spiritual 1. Reflective mentioned three are curbs of perfectness. attainments. There are reasoning 2. Oral instruction Larson (1987) another 8, called supernatural or 3. Study The eight attainments are reflective reasoning, oral conventional powers. 4-6. Removal of 3 instruction, study, removal of the three kinds of These are referred to as kinds of frustration (see SK 1), association with appropriate "other" in YS 3.45 (power frustration/pain persons, and an open yet disciplined temperament. to become very small, 7. Association with The misconceptions, dysfunctions, and very large, light, heavy, right persons 8. Open yet contentments all hinder the development of the all pervasive, attain all desires, power over disciplined attainments. elemental forces, temperament immediate gratification). The other 3 In the SK, these categories of supernatural powers are pratyayasarga discussed under (ignorance, ignorance, under gloom dysfunction and (Larson, 1987, pp. 56-57). complacencies) all Gloom includes the hinder the development of the gloom or frustration of not attaining supernatural attainments (siddhi). power (siddhi). The Sāmkhyavrtti (very old commentary, Larson, p. 187) also discusses the two types of siddhi. SK 52 Colebrooke (1837) Note: See SK 39. To function, the Without dispositions there would be no subtile subtle body must be person: without person there would be no pause of Related imbued with these dispositions: wherefore a twofold creation is YS 4.29-4.34 predispositions; presented, one termed personal, the other To turn it around, in YS, likewise, the intellectual. without the latent predispositions need impressions or traits a canvas to display Larson (1987) The subtile body cannot function without the (samskāra, vāsana), there themselves. This is is liberation (YS 4.29- referred to as a predispositions; likewise the predispositions 4.34) and no reincarnating

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twofold creation, the cannot function without the subtle body. aspect. subtle body creation Therefore, a "twofold creation" operates, referred (linga) and the to as the "subtle creation" (linga) and the predisposing creation "predisposition creation" (bhāva). (bhāva). SK 53 Colebrooke (1837) Comments (JS) The world we The divine kind is of eight sorts; the groveling is From commentaries, the 8 experience (elemental fivefold; mankind is single in its class. This, divine orders: creation, forms of briefly, is the world of living beings. 1 Brahma: Supreme things from god(s) combination of gross Larson (1987) 2 Prajapatya: elements) is made up XIII. The empirical world Rishis/divine sages of divinities, humans, The divine order has eight varieties; the animal 3 Saumya: lunar/planetary animals and plants. and plant order has five varieties; and the human 4 Indra, second order order is of one variety. Such, briefly, is the scope gods of the total, empirical world experience. 5 Gandherba: demigods, attend Indra 6 Yaksha: Attend Kuvera 7 Rakshasha: Demons, foes 8 Paisacha: Cruel fiends Humans are one category Animal and plant order have five varieties (domestic animals, wild animals, birds, reptiles/fish, vegetables/minerals). SK 54 Colebrooke (1837) Comments (JS) For divinities, there is Above, there is prevalence of goodness: below, the Yoga "is in agreement a prevalence of creation is full of darkness; in the midst, is the with one of Sāmkhya's goodness or sattva predominance of foulness, from Brahma to a fundamental views, the (though the other stock. independent existence of gunas are present Larson (1987) prakṛti ... (this) also). independent existence In the upper (divine) order there is a from any spiritual In humans, preponderance of the intelligibility constituent principle does not mean a darkness/foulness (sattva); in the animal/plant order the inertia denial of the existence of (rajas/tamas) constituent (tamas) is preponderant; and in the divinities ... In Sāmkhya predominate, so pain middle, human order, the activity constituent and yoga, divinities are dominates. (rajas) is preponderant. This classification applies therefore beings of a to all of creation from Brahma down to a blade of composite This is true grass. nature ... dependent on throughout the purușa and prakṛti. The experiential world, divine is not an ultimate from Brahma to principle, but is itself immovable things. dissolvable into two parts" (Jacobsen, 2002, p.235) SK 55 Colebrooke (1837) Comparable Purușa witnesses the There does sentient soul experience pain, arising YS 4.18 pain arising from from decay and death, until it be released from its Purușa, as master of citta, decay and death. So person: wherefore pain is of the essence (of bodily continually witnesses the

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long as the subtle existence). mind's fluctuations. body continues to function, suffering is Larson (1987) Related the essence of bodily Consciousness in this empirical world comes upon YS 2.13 existence. frustrations that are occasioned by old age and As long as the source of death. So long as the subtle body continues to karma exists, we function (by means of the lack of discrimination), experience its fruits in just so long suffering will appear to be a birth, life span, and completely natural part of experience. experiences.

Related YS 2.17 Suffering can be avoided because its source is the erroneous melding of Seer and Seen. SK 56 Colebrook (1837) Comparable The world, from This evolution of nature, from intellect to the YS 2.18 cosmic intelligence special elements, is performed for the deliverance Prakrti arises from the (mahat) down to of each soul respectively; done for another's sake guņas and is embodied in gross elements, is as for self. the elements and senses. created through It exists for the dual prakṛti/nature. Larson (1987) Although it appears This entire manifest world, from intellect down to purpose of experience of

that nature creates for the gross elements, has been constructed by emancipation.

nature's sake, it is materiality. The entire effort, though it appears to Comparable really for purușa, for be for her own benefit, is really for the sake of YS 2.21 the sake of liberation another, namely, for the sake of the liberation of The seen exists solely for of each each consciousness. the sake of the Seer. consciousness. Partial YS 4.24 Although the mind has countless desires (resulting from subconscious traits), it really exists for the sake of purușa, pure consciousness, because it can only act in relationship to purușa. SK 57 Colebrooke (1837) Comparable Prakrti functions for As it is a function of milk, an unintelligent YS 4.24 the sake of liberation (substance), to nourish the calf, so it is the office Although the mind has unconsciously, as of the chief (principle) to liberate the soul. countless fluctuations milk functions to driven by subliminal traits nourish the calf. Larson (1987) (vāsana), it really exists XIV. Similes illustrating the role and function of for the sake of purușa, materiality since it can only act when Just as unconscious milk functions for the it is relationship with nourishment of a calf, so materiality functions for the sake of the freedom or liberation of purușa.

consciousness. SK 58

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Colebrooke (1837) Comparable In the world, we can As people engage in acts to relieve desires, so does YS 2.18; YS 2.21; be motivated to act the undiscrete (principle) to liberate the soul. YS 4.24 by some desire, so The Seeable exists for the too is prakṛti Larson (1987) sake of purușa. motivated to function Just as in the world someone acts so as to bring for the sake of release about the cessation of a desire, so the unmanifest Partial of purușa. (materiality) functions for the sake of the YS 4.26 liberation of consciousness. The mind (citta) is inclined towards discernment (viveka) and onward to liberation.

Related YS 2.13 As long as the source of karma exists, we experience its fruits in birth, life span, and experiences. SK 59 Colebrooke (1837) Comparable Just as a dancer As a dancer, having exhibited herself to the YS 4.32 leaves the audience spectator, desists from the dance, so does nature At the final stage, the after performing, so desist, having manifested herself to soul. gunas begin to cease the prakṛti ceases after flow of transformations. having shown herself Larson (1987) Their purpose is fulfilled. to consciousness. Just as a dancer ceases from the dance after having been seen by the audience, so materiality ceases Related after having shown herself to consciousness. YS 4.33 At this final stage, the flow of time, which is essential a sequence of discrete movements, becomes visible or knowable. SK 60 Colebrooke (1837) Comparable Prakrti/nature, in her Generous nature, endued with qualities, does by YS 4.24 many facets, shows manifold means accomplish, without benefit (to Although the mind has herself unselfishly to herself) the wish of ungrateful soul, devoid as he is countless desires, it exists purușa as separate. of qualities. for purușa because it can Nature is helpful, a only act in relationship to servant to purușa. Larson (1987) purușa. Purușa, devoid of Materiality, made up of the constituents, helps any characteristics, consciousness in various ways and behaves Comparable does not reciprocate. selflessly towards consciousness, who does not YS 2.18 return the favor (that is to say, materiality The purpose of nature is behaviors like a servant or like a generous man to provide experience and who assists all). enjoyment for purușa, and also to provide a route for liberation.

Comparable YS 2.21 The Seen exists solely for

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the sake of the Seer. SK 61 Colebrooke (1837) Comparable (without the In my view, there is Nothing, in my opinion, is more gentle than poetry) nothing more nature; once aware of having been seen, she does YS 4.34 sensitive or delicate not again expose herself to the gaze of soul. The gunas are now than nature, who, irrelevant and have no realizing she has been Larson (1987) purpose for purușa. As seen, withdraws and In my view, there is nothing more sensitive and such, they are reabsorbed does not again expose delicate than primal, creative nature, who, having herself to the gaze of into prakrti. The power of realized the she has been seen, withdraws and Seer/Seer is in its own consciousness. never against comes into the sign of consciousness true, pure nature. (that is to say, primordial materiality behaves like a lovely and shy young virgin who, having been seen in her nakedness by a man, quickly withdraws from his view). SK 62 Colebrooke (1837) Comparable No purușa is really Verily not any soul is bound, nor is released, nor YS 2.5; YS 2.25 bound or liberated or migrates; but nature alone in relation to various Ignorance is the confusion reborn. Only prakṛti, beings, is bound, is released, and migrates about what is real, what is in various aspects, is permanent, what is Self. bound, liberated or Larson (1987) When ignorance is reborn. XV. Liberation and isolation (mokşa and kaivalya) dissolved, purușa is Not any (consciousness), therefore, is really revealed as free. bound, is liberated or transmigrates. Only materiality in her various manifestations is bound, Comparable is liberated or transmigrates. YS 4.25 When the yogi knows the difference between citta and purușa, the ongoing confusion ceases. SK 63 Colebrooke (1837) Comparable Prakrti binds her own By seven modes nature binds herself by herself: by YS 4.25; YS 4.26; self by means of the one, she releases (herself), for the soul's wish YS 4.29; YS 4.31 predispositions (At last stage), the yogi (bhāva: virtue/vice, Larson (1987) detachment/desire, Materiality binds herself by herself by means of sees the distinction (viśeșa) between buddhi ignorance, the seven predispositions (described in verses 43- and purușa, and there is a power/weakness). 45 and 46-51). She releases herself by means of discontinuation of sense She releases herself one form or one predisposition (namely, the of self. citta is inclined through the eighth predisposition toward knowledge of jñāna) for the towards discernment predisposition, sake of consciousness. (viveka) and onward to knowledge, for the Note 10: This verse does not appear in the Chinese liberation. Because of sake of puruşa. translation. discernment of the identification (between buddhi and purușa) (viveka-khyāti), the yogi is completely unattached Then knowledge (jñāna) is pure.

Partial YS 2.28 By practicing the limbs of

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yoga, there is a light of knowing (jñāna-diptir) of the distinction (viveka- khyāti) between Seer and Seen

Additional notes (JS): These next three verses are crucial in this comparison. If one takes the stance that discriminative knowledge in Sāmkhya is too analytical or academic, then there can be no comparison between the path of the yogi and the path of the follower of Sāmkhya. However, the goal of Sāmkhya is clearly metaphysical, not merely analytical. It appears that discrimination and knowledge was understood to be as insightful as yogic insight, and that is well-supported. In the urge to categorize, has the possibility that they are different facets of the same possibility been confused? (See Larson, 2001, pp. 204-206). SK 64 As a result of study Colebrooke (1837) See SK 63 of these principles So, through study of principles, the conclusive, Comparable (of the 25 categories), incontrovertible, one only knowledge is attained, YS 4.25; YS 4.26; pure, complete, and that neither I am, nor is aught mine, nor do I exist. YS 4.29; YS 4.31 true discriminating Partial knowledge (jñāna) Larson (1987) YS 2.28 arises, saying I am As a result of the meditative analysis (abhyāsa) on not (the subtle or the principles (of the Sāmkhya), the discriminating Partial gross body), nothing knowledge (jñāna) arises, "I am not (conscious), YS 1.18 belongs to me, there (consciousness) does not belong to me, the 'I' is Eventually, even the sense is no I. not (conscious)." This discriminating knowledge is of "I am" falls away. complete, pure because it is free from error, and What is left (for further not mixed with any other thing (kevala). practice) are past conditioned memories (samskāra).

Related YS 4.4 The individual citta (mind and sense of self) proceeds from general

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principle of I-am-ness. (In the chapter on kaivalya, Patañjali starts with the inverse.) Woods (p. 303) pointed out the association.

Comments (JS) Note use of term "kevalam" in SK, term associated with freedom/isolation in YS (transliterated as kaivalya)

Note use of abhyāsa in SK 64. In YS 1.12, the goal of yoga is reached through abhyāsa (practice) and non- attachment. Some writers would disagree that abhyāsa in SK yields same result as YS. See discussion in dissertation. SK 65 Colebrooke (1837) See SK 63. In the light of this Possessed of this (self-knowledge), soul Comparable discriminating contemplates at leisure and at ease nature, YS 4.25; 4.26; 4.29; 4.31 knowledge, purușa (thereby) debarred from prolific change, and sees nature/prakṛti, consequently precluded from those seven forms. Partial because at that YS 2.28 moment, nature has Larson (1987) turned away from the Then, consciousness like a spectator sees Partial other seven materiality, for at that moment materiality has YS 2.25-2.26 tendencies or turned away from the other seven predispositions. When the ignorance of the predispositions. indivisibility of Seer and Seen is ended, the Seer is revealed, freed.

Partial YS 4.11 (Assuming vāsana relate to bhāva): Vāsana are the interweaving of ignorance, results of karma, our mental substrate, and the stimulus presented. When these factors disappear, so does the vāsana. SK 66 Colebrooke (1837) Consciousness sees; Comparable He desists, because he has seen her: she does so, YS 4.25-4.26 nature is seen and because she has been seen. In their (mere) union (At this point) the on- then ceases. Though there is no motive for creation. going confusion ceases, they are still in and the mind is inclined

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proximity, there is no Larson (1987) towards isolation, motive for any new The indifferent one (namely, consciousness) liberation. (The process is creation. thinks, "I have seen her." The other (namely, materiality) thinks "I have been seen," and ceases. completed in the next few verses below). Though the two continue to be in proximity with one another, no new transformations take place. SK 67 Colebrooke (1837) Comparable The other seven By attainment of perfect knowledge, virtue and the YS 4.27-4.30 tendencies or rest become causeless; yet soul remains a while For the advanced yogi at predispositions cease invested with body, as the potter's wheel continues the culmination of because of the whirling from the effect of the impulse previously practice, distracting realization of given to it. thoughts arise due to discriminating latent impressions. They, knowledge. Yet, the Larson (1987) subtle body When the seven predispositions no longer operate too, can be removed. Due

(associated with because of the realization of correct, to perfect discriminative discernment, the state is purușa) remains due discriminating knowledge, nevertheless, the subtle called dharmamegha to past deeds body (associated, with purușa) continues to subsist samādhi. The kleśa cease (samskāra), just as because of the force of latent dispositions, just as and karma stops. the potter's wheel the potter's wheel continues for a time even after Knowledge is pure and continues to rotate for the potter ceases exerting force. infinite, and little remains a time after the force to be known. propelling it ceases. SK 68 Colebrooke (1837) Comparable When When separation of the informed soul from its YS 4.32-4.34 prakrti/nature's corporeal frame at length takes place, and nature in (Then, at the end), the purpose is respect of it ceases, then is absolute and final gunas begin to cease the accomplished and deliverance accomplished. flow of transformations, nature ceases to and the flow becomes function, is separates Larson (1987) When distinction from the body (and its attendant invisible. The power of and attains complete the Seer is in its own true and permanent processes) has been attained (that is to say, when nature. isolation (kaivalya). materiality has ceased to function after having accomplished her purpose), there is the realization Comments (JS) of isolation that is both complete and permanent . Both SK and YS move back and forth in topic and explanation, and there are theories about the YS concerning what should be accurately ascribed to Patañjali. But it is interesting that both texts end in almost the exact same description. SK 69 Colebrooke (1837) NA This profound or This abstruse knowledge, adapted to the liberation secret wisdom for of soul, wherein the origin, duration, and realizing liberation through termination of beings are considered, has been thoroughly expounded by the mighty saint. discriminating knowledge of reality, Larson (1987) its origin, duration, This profound discriminating knowledge, which and dissolution, has brings about the realization that consciousness is

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been explained by the the radical foundation for freedom or isolation, has sage. been expounded by the sage. The very nature of all of reality, its duration in time, its origin, and its final dissolution has been analyzed herein. SK 70 Colebrooke (1837) NA This excellent and This great purifying (doctrine) the sage pure wisdom was compassionately imparted to Asuri, Asuri taught it compassionately Panchasikha, by whom it was extensively given to Asuri, who propagated. then passed it on to Pancasikha, who Larson (1987) widely disseminated This excellent and pure (discriminating it. knowledge) was given out of compassion to Asuri. He, in turn passed it on to Pancasikha. By Pancaskha the doctrine (tantra) was widely disseminated and/or variously expanded. SK 71 Colebrooke (1837) NA This tradition is Received by tradition of pupils, it has been summarized in Arya compendiously written in Arya metre by the metre by the noble- piously disposed Iśvara Krishna, having minded thoroughly investigated demonstrated truth. Īśvarakrishna, after he thoroughly Larson (1987) understood the And this (knowledge) handed down by a doctrine. succession of pupils has been summarized in these verses by the noble-minded Iśvarakrishna who has understood the doctrine correctly. SK 72 Colebrooke (1837) Related In these 70 verses all The subjects which are treated in seventy couplets YS 1.1 60 topics of are those of the whole science, comprising sixty Similar assertive traditional Sāmkhya topics, exclusive of illustrative tales, and omitting statement and style. are covered, with controversial questions. examples and objections excluded. Larson (1987) Moreover, it is to be noted that in these seventy verses all of the sixty topics of the traditional Sāmkhya have been included. Only illustrative tales and polemics against opposing views have been excluded. SK 73 None in Colebrooke. NA Thus, this summary Larson (1987) is an accurate and Thus, this briefly summarized system of thought complete reflection (śāstra) is not defective with respect to the of the vast Sāmkhya complete subject matter of the Sāmkhya. It is a doctrine (tantra). reflected mirror image of the vast (Sāmkhya) doctrine (tantra).

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Yoga Sūtras in Relation to the Sāmkhya Kārikās

Verse Translations Relationship to SK Woods Houston Book One Concentration Chapter 1 Woods (1914/2003) SK 72 Chapter on samādhi Now the exposition of yoga [is to be made].

YS 1.1 Houston (1995) Here is the instruction Now, the chapter on samādhi. on yoga. Now, the instruction of yoga. YS 1.2 Woods (1914/2003) SK 11 Yoga is the process of Yoga is the restriction of the fluctuations of mind-stuff. SK 27 ending or restricting the fluctuations (vrtti) of Houston (1995) Comments (JS) the citta. Yoga is the nirodha (process of ending) of the vrtti Vrtti is also (definitions) of citta-the field of consciousness. translated as scattered, agitated, objectification, contractions, or, literally, to whirl. Patañjali's definition is YS 1.6.

Citta is usually translated as mind. This is inadequate. Consciousness, used by Feuerstein (1989), is confusing because it seems to neglect the unconscious attributes (samskāra), and is also confusing in terms of purușa. Larson's (1987) description of citta as buddhi- ahamkāra-manas would mean citta includes higher intelligence, ego, self-identity, perception, and cognitive mind. It does not ignore the body, but neither is it contained by the body. This is more

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complete, but cumbersome. For all these reasons, I have chosen to use citta without translation.

Feuerstein emphasizes that YS 1.2 is about the process of restriction (nirodha) and should not be confused with the ultimate goal of yoga, kaivalya. YS 1.3 Woods (1914/2003) Then the Seer [that is, the Self,] abides in himself. SK 2 When the fluctuations SK 19 (vrtti) end, then the Seer is known as one's Houston (1995) Comments (JS) true essence. Then, the abidance of (I) the seer (drastr) in (my) own Seer (draştr) is nature (svarūpa) equated to purușa in SK. YS 1.4 Woods (1914/2003) SK 1 Otherwise, there is At other times it [the Self] takes the same form as the SK 20 continual confusion and fluctuations [of mind-stuff]. identity with the fluctuating citta. Houston (1995) Otherwise, there is conformity to vrtti-definitions. YS 1.5 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) There are five forms of The fluctuations are of five kinds and are hindered or Feuerstein (1989) fluctuations (vrtti). unhindered. notes that these These five either five are practical, trouble the citta, or help Houston (1995) and that other free the mind from vrtti-definitions (of the field) are five-fold. They are functions and trouble. either klista-obstructing (causing pain) or aklista-non- activities of citta obstructing (not causing pain). are possible, but these are the ones which the yogi will learn to master. He also makes the point that any of the five can aid or hinder. YS 1.6 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) They are: Sources-of-valid-ideas and misconceptions and predicate- There are 1. Right knowledge 2. Wrong knowledge relations and sleep and memory. disagreements about whether 3. Conceptualization or Houston (1995) imagination (fantasy) They are: evaluation, misperception, conceptualization, sleep is only deep and dreamless 4. Sleep sleep, and memory. sleep (void) or 5. And memory. might include dream states. It seems more logical

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to include dream states. YS 1.38 includes concentration on dreams. YS 1.7 Woods (1914/2003) SK 4 There are three forms of Sources-of-valid-ideas are perception and inference and SK right knowledge verbal-communication. SK 6 (pramāņa): Direct perception, inference, Houston (1995) and testimony or Pramāna-valid means of evaluation are: direct scripture. perception, inference, and testimony. YS 1.8 Woods (1914/2003) SK Wrong knowledge Misconception is an erroneous idea (jñāna) not based on (viparyaya) is a that form [in respect of which the misconception is mistaken idea, a false entertained]. appearance. Houston (1995) Viparyaya-misperception is mistaken knowledge, founded on an appearance which is not that. YS 1.9 Woods (1914/2003) The predicate-relation (vikalpa) is without any Vikalpa is "our Conceptualization incessant (vikalpa) relies on [corresponding perceptible] object and follows as a result conceptualizing of symbols/language and of perceptions or of words. reality in terms of is imaginary. language, which is Houston (1995) Vikalpa conceptualization is without an (actual) object- the most powerful obstacle preventing relying upon concept in language. us from experiencing reality as it really is" (Feuerstein, 1989, p. 32). Conceptualization can also aid progress for the yogi, especially in the beginning. YS 1.10 Woods (1914/2003) Sleep entails a pattern Sleep is a fluctuation [of mind-stuff] supported by the of non-wakefulness. cause (pratyaya, that is tamas) of the [transient] negation [of the waking and the dreaming fluctuations].

Houston (1995) Nidrā-sleep is a vrtti depending on a pratyaya-the immediate arising thought towards non-wakefulness. YS 1.11 Woods (1914/2003) Remembering (smrti) is Memory (smrti) is not-adding-surreptitiously to a once a re-experiencing of objects in the mind. experienced object.

Houston (1995) Smrti- (the act of) memory is the non-escaping of vişaya- experienced objects. YS 1.12 Woods (1914/2003) To end the fluctuations The restriction of them is by [means of] practice and (vrtti) requires practice passionlessness.

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(abhyāsa) and non- attachment (vairāgya). Houston (1995) The nirodha-ending of those (vrtti) occurs by abhyāsa- practice and vairāgya-non-attachment. YS 1.13 Woods (1914/2003) Practice (abhyāsa) is Practice (abhyāsa) is [repeated] exertion to the end that continued effort and (the mind-stuff) shall have permanence in this [restricted vigilance in abiding in state]. one's own true nature (svarūpa). Houston (1995) Abhyāsa-practice is vigilance in remaining there. (as I, the seer abiding in my own nature, seeing. I.3) YS1.14 Woods (1914/2003) A firm practice But this [practice] becomes confirmed when it has been (abhyāsa) is one cultivated for a long time and uninterruptedly and with established over a long earnest attention. time, without interruption, with Houston (1995) devotion to truth and Moreover, that abhyasa-practice has a firm ground when sincerity. attended to for a long time, without interruption, and with devotion to truth. YS 1.15 Woods (1914/2003) Non-attachment or Passionlessness is the consciousness of being master on dispassion (vairāgya) is the part of one who has rid himself of thirst for either when the mind (citta) seen or revealed objects. loses all desire for objects either known or Houston (1995) imagined. Vairāgya-non-attachment is the full knowledge (declaration) of (one's own-the seer's) mastery (on the part of one who is) not clinging to visaya-objects, (already) experienced or described (by others). YS 1.16 Woods (1914/2003) SK 3 The pinnacle of non- This [passionlessness] is highest when discernment of the SK 11 attachment is non- Self results in thirstlessness for qualities [and not merely SK 17 attachment even to the for objects]. constituents or forces of Additional creation (gunas) due to Houston (1995) Comments (JS) the discernment of the The higher (vairägya-non-attachment) is the non-clinging Terminology in true self (purușa) as to the gunas (primary forces of creation) due to identity this verse is purușa independent of nature. with purusa-the self. and guna. The three guņas (qualities) are light and intelligence (sattva), activity and energy (rajas), and matter or inertia (tamas) (Houston, 1995). YS 1.17 Woods (1914/2003) SK 3 The process of ending [Concentration becomes] conscious [of its object] by SK 8 (nirodha) fluctuations assuming forms either of deliberation [upon coarse SK 22 of the mind is initially objects] or of reflection [upon subtile objects] or of joy or SK 24 supported or helped by of the sense-of-personality. SK 25 cognitive objects or SK 38 ideas (samprajñata) Houston (1995)

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(Nirodha, the process of ending vrtti is) samprajñata- Feuerstein (1987) There are four stages of cognitive, when connecting with forms which are sense- believes that samprajñata samādhi perceived or subtle, having a feeling of bliss or the nirodha (restriction (also called bīja-with (individual) sense of "I am" (asmitā) or ending) of the seed, or sālambana- fluctuations of citta supported): is "only a 1. Vitarka: necessary, not a concentration upon sufficient (sense-perceived) precondition for object (thing, idea, samādhi" and word) devotion to īśvara 2. Vicāra: subtle, is required (p. 37). reflective concentration Patañjali seems on energy (called clear in YS 1.2 that tanmātras). 3. Ananda: Leaving all yoga is the process of cessation or perception behind, the restriction of the experience of bliss and fluctuations of the sattva mind, and does not 4. Asmitā: When make the buddhi is isolated from the external world and qualification of necessary, not reflects only purușa). sufficient. YS 1.18 Woods (1914/2003) Eventually, even the The other [concentration which is not conscious of SK 9 SK 23 sense of "I am" falls objects] consists of subliminal-impressions only [after SK 64 away. What remain are objects have merged], and follows upon that practice past conditioned which effects the cessation [of fluctuations]. memories, or latent impressions (samskāra) Houston (1995) in deep memory. The other (nirodha), preceded by the practice (abhyāsa) of the pratyaya-immediate arising thought of virāma- cessation*, has a residuum of samskāra-subliminal activation. *of the forms described in the previous sutra, including the individual sense of "I am" YS 1.19 Woods (1914/2003) SK 9 For those (in this [Concentration not conscious of objects] caused by world SK 50 advanced state) who (means) is the one to which the discarnate attain and to leave their physical which those [whose bodies] are resolved into primary- Comments (JS) body, or are merged in matter attain. This verse seems to unmanifested nature, have inspired a the (remaining latent) Houston (1995) number of different will propel rebirth. In the case of those who are out of body, or absorbed in interpretations. prakrti-unmanifest primary matter, it (the other nirodha Misra (1973) is preceded by) the pratyaya-immediate arising thought explains that the (directed towards) becoming. condition Patañjali refers to is "pseudo" asamprajñāta samādhi in which the yogi's absorption "is not followed by Self- analysis and Self-

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knowledge" (p. 179).

Might this be a way of differentiating trance from samādhi? YS 1.20 Woods (1914/2003) For others (those who [Concentration not conscious of objects,] which follows are not diverted), upon belief [and] energy [and] mindfulness [and] realization is preceded concentration [and] insight, is that to which the others by faith or belief in the [the yogis] attain. practice, strength/energy, clear Houston (1995) memory, In the case of others, it (the other nirodha), is preceded contemplation, and by faith, energy, memory (aklista-unobstructed), discerning insight. samādhi-cognitive absorption and prajña-primary insight. YS 1.21 Woods (1914/2003) For those who are For the keenly intense, [concentration] is near. intense practitioners, liberation comes Houston (1995) quickly. In the case of those whose frequency is intense, it (the other nirodha) is near. YS 1.22 Woods (1914/2003) SK 50 The intensity can have Because [this keenness] is gentle or moderate or keen, different degrees (mild, there is a [concentration] superior even to this [near moderate, or extreme), kind]. which affects the time needed. Houston (1995) Because of degree of mild, moderate, or extreme (frequency), thence there is also a difference (in nearness). YS 1.23 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) Or, through devotion or Or [concentration] is attained by devotion to the Icvara. Īśvara is not alignment to īśvara. mentioned in the Houston (1995) SK, and this is Or, because of īśvara-pranidhāna-the perfect aligning of attention in īśvara-the ultimate seer (there is a probably the most discussed difference in nearness of the other nirodha). difference between classical Yoga and Sāmkhya. There are divergent views on this sutra, its use, and its importance. Iśvara is translated as God, god, supreme consciousness, divine, divine within, Self, and personal god, psychological god, etc. See YS 1.24

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Additionally, there is some discussion as to the intent of this sutra. Is devotion to īśvara optional? Does it increase intensity, and thus link back to YS 1.22? Is it in addition to practice, part of practice, or an alternative? YS1.24 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) Īśvara is a special kind Untouched by hindrances or karmas or fruition or by Patañjali says of purușa, untouched latent-deposits the Icvara is a special kind of Self. īśvara is the by action, or the fruits of action arising from supreme guru, Houston (1995) infinite kleśa (root causes of Iśvara is a distinction of purușa-self, untouched by intelligence, and a pain). accumulations of the fruitions of karma-action (arising) special kind of from kleśa-root obstructions (causes of pain). purușa, untouched by karma and kleśa. Kleśa is the ignorance, egoism, attachment, and aversion which create the confusion between purușa and the phenomenal world. So, perhaps īśvara is the formulation of the concept of full wisdom in its most pure and direct sense? That concept then would provide a power aid for yogis. (Of course, concepts are vrtti.)

Translators and commentators seem to have ignored the relationship of these verses to the previous verses on intensity of practice. Are they connected?

There is no

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implication that īśvara is a creator- god. YS 1.25 Woods (1914/2003) Īśvara is infinite In this (Icvara) the germ of the omniscient is at its utmost intelligence. excellence.

Houston (1995) There (in īśvara), the seed of omniscience is unsurpassed. YS 1.26 Īśvara/purușa is the Woods (1914/2003) Teacher of the Primal [sages] also, forasmuch as [with guru of the sages; the Him] there is no limitation by time. teacher throughout time. Houston (1995) That (īśvara), being unlimited by time, is also the teacher of the ancients. YS 1.27 Woods (1914/2003) The expression of The word-expressing Him is the Mystic-syllable īśvaralpurușa is OM -- (praņava) the primary, mystical sound. Houston (1995) The expression of that (iśvara) is OM (pranava-primary sound frequency of creation heard as an inner ringing sounds current). YS 1.28 Woods (1914/2003) Repetition of OM leads Repetition of it and reflection upon its meaning [should to the realization of its be made]. meaning. Houston (1995) The repetition of that (OM-pranava) (leads to) the realizing of its meaning. YS 1.29 Woods (1914/2003) From this practice Thereafter comes the right-knowledge of him who thinks comes the removal of in an inverse way, and the removal of obstacles. obstacles and knowledge of inner Houston (1995) consciousness. From that (comes) the attainment of inward directed consciousness, and also the disappearance of the blocks. YS 1.30 Woods (1914/2003) SK 49 The blocks (to practice, Sickness and languor and doubt and heedlessness and SK 50 non-attachment and listlessness and worldliness and erroneous perception and devotion leading to failure to attain any stage [of concentration] and liberation) are instability in the state [when attained] - these distractions distractions of the citta, of the mind-stuff are the obstacles. such as disease, apathy or dullness, doubt, Houston (1995) carelessness, Sickness, density, doubt, carelessness, lethargy, sexual lethargy, sexual preoccupation, erroneous perception, failure to obtain preoccupation, false grounding (in abhyāsa-yoga practice), and instability are perception or error, lack disruptions in citta-the field. These are the blocks. of groundedness in practice, and instability in practice. YS 1.31 Woods (1914/2003) SK 49 Blocks cause suffering, Pain and despondency and unsteadiness of the body and

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despair or depression, inspiration and expiration are the accompaniments of the restlessness or distractions. instability, and disturbed breathing. Houston (1995) They (the blocks) have the accompanying disruptions of pain, depression, restlessness of the body, inhalation and exhalation. YS 1.32 Woods (2003) (Steady) practice of To check them [let there be] practice upon a single entity. concentration on one principle (eka tattva) Houston (1995) will prevent obstacles. In order to prevent those blocks, the abhyāsa-practice of a single truth. YS 1.33 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) A calm mind is fostered By the cultivation of friendliness towards happiness and Feuerstein (1989) when one cultivates compassion towards pain and joy towards merit and translates upekșā as attitudes of friendliness indifferences towards demerit [the yogin should attain] towards the happy, the undisturbed calm of the mind-stuff. equanimity rather than indifference or compassion for those in neutrality, since it pain, joy in virtue, and Houston (1995) is a "more subtle empathetic detachment The clarification of citta-the field comes about due to the and positive for non-virtue. realization of friendship with regard to the experiences of attitude, namely a happiness, compassion with pain, elation with virtue, and dispassionate but neutrality with non-virtue. nonetheless empathetic witnessing" (p. 48). While I can not comment on the accuracy of word choice, the concept seems to fit well with the intent of non-attachment.

YS 3.23 explains the result of the mastery of friendliness.

YS 1.34 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) A steady mind is also Or [he gains stability] by expulsion and retention of In the yogic fostered when one breath. system, breath is practices controlled related to prāņa, exhalation or breath Houston (1995) both the physical retention. (Citta-the field is clarified) also by the holding in or out breath and also the of breath. more esoteric life force. YS 1.35 Woods (1914/2003) SK 27 A steady mind is also Or [he gains stability when] a sense-activity (pravrtti) fostered by holding arises connected with an object [and] bringing the Comments (JS) mental activity upon a central-organ into a relation of stability. In other words, by sensory object. concentration on a Houston (1995) organ of Also, a pravrtti -cognition which has arisen, related to a sensory object, holding the steadiness of the mind, perception, say the tip of the tongue,

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(clarifies citta). that perception becomes supernormal, and that attention steadies the citta (Woods, 1914/2003, pp. 72- 73) YS 1.36 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) Or by focusing on Or an undistressed [and] luminous [sense -activity when Vyāsa's having light, arisen brings the central-organ into a relation of stability]. commentary relates concentrating on this to attention on blissful light within. Houston (1995) the Lotus of the Also, (a pravrtti-cognition) which is sorrowless and Heart (heart cakra). luminous (clarifies citta) Possibly related to YS 3.34, the siddhi of knowledge of the mind that comes from samyama on the heart center. YS 1.37 Woods (1914/2003) Or by a practice that Or the mind-stuff [reaches the stable state] by having its transcends attachment, object [a mind-stuff] freed from passion. is devoid of passion. Houston (1995) Also, citta (whose) object is that which transcends attachment (is clarified). YS 1.38 Woods (1914/2003) Or by concentrating on Or [the mind-stuff reaches the stable state] by having as the knowledge or the supporting-object a perception in dream or in sleep. insights from dreams. Houston (1995) Also, (citta is clarified) having as its supporting object the knowledge of dreams or sleep. YS 1.39 Woods (1914/2003) Or by meditating on Or [the mind-stuff reaches the stable state] by any object that is contemplation upon any such an object as is desired. desired. Houston (1995) Also, by dhyāna-meditation as desired (citta is clarified) YS 1.40 Woods (1914/2003) The mastery extends His mastery extends from the smallest atom to the from mastery of the greatest magnitude. smallest to the greatest object. Houston (1995) The mastery of this (dhyāna-meditation and hence desirelessness for its objects) extends from the greatest magnitude to the greatest minuteness. YS 1.41 Woods (1914/2003) As a group, YS As fluctuations (vrtti) [The mind-stuff] from which, as from a precious gem, 1.41 through 1.51: diminish, the mind fluctuations have dwindled away, is, with reference either SK 3, 8, 22, 24, 25 (citta) becomes like a to the knower or to the process-of-knowing or to the clear jewel in which the object-to-be-known, in the state of resting upon [one] of

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object, the experience, these [three] and in the state of being tinged by [one] of the experiencer are these [three], and [thus] is in the balanced-state. simultaneously blended together (samāpatti). Houston (1995) In the case (of a citta) whose vrtti-definitions have diminished, which is like a perfect gemstone, samāpatti- cognitive blending is the focusing on that (object) and the saturation by that in reference to the experiencer, the experience, and what is experienced. YS 1.42 Woods (1914/2003) As a group, YS Samādhi in which Of these [balanced-states] the state-balanced with 1.41 through 1.51: words, meanings, and deliberation is confused by reason of predicate-relations SK 3, 8, 22, 24, 25 knowledge of the object between words and intended-objects and ideas. are also simultaneously blended (with the Houston (1995) object, experience, and There (in such as case), samāpatti-cognitive blending experiencer) is called which is savitarka-with thought, is mixed with words, savitarka samāpatti. meaning, knowledge and conceptualization YS 1.43 Woods (1914/2003) As a group, YS When memory (smrti) When the memory is quite purified, [that balanced - 1.41 through 1.51: is purified, the state]-which is, as it were, empty of itself and which SK 3, 8, 22, 24, 25 knowledge of the object brightens [into conscious knowledge] as the intended of concentration shines object and nothing more-is super-deliberative. alone (without name, form, or qualities). This Houston (1995) is called samādhi Upon the purification of memory, samāpatti-cognitive beyond thought or blending is nirvitarka-beyond thought when, as if empty nirvitarka samādhi. of its (citta's) own form, it shines forth as the object alone. YS 1.44 Woods (1914/2003) As a group, YS The same two By this same [balanced-state] the reflective and the super- 1.41 through 1.51: classifications apply reflective [balanced-states] are explained as having SK 3, 8, 22, 24,25 when the object is subtile objects. subtle. Houston (1995) Specifically, by this (the previous 2 sutras), savicara (with reflection), and nirvicara (beyond reflection), samāpatti-cognitive blending is explained with regard to subtle vişaya-objects. YS 1.45 Woods (1914/2003) As a group, YS The subtlety of objects The subtile object likewise terminates in unresoluble- 1.41 through 1.51: can approach the state primary-matter (alińga). SK 3, 8, 22, 24, 25 of unmanifested matter (alińga). (Thus the Houston (1995) mind can go to the root And the subtlety of objects extends to alinga-the of unmanifested unmanifest state of primary matter. nature.) YS 1.46 Woods (1914/2003) All of these categories These same [balanced-states] are the seeded As a group, YS 1.41 through 1.51: of samādhi have a seed concentration. SK 3, 8, 22, 24, 25 or object (and thus are not the deeper level of Houston (1995) meditation). These particular (samāpatti-cognitive blendings) constitute sabija samādhi-cognitive absorption with seed.

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YS 1.47 Woods (1914/2003) As a group, YS Beyond reflection, in When there is the clearness of the super-reflective 1.41 through 1.51: the pure nirvichara [balanced-state, the yogi gains] internal undisturbed calm. SK 3, 8, 22, 24, 25 samādhi, the nature of the higher self Houston (1995) (adhyātma) shines The clarity of the higher self occurs in the lucidity of the through. nirvicara samāpatti, (samāpatti beyond subtle reflection).

YS 1.48 Woods (1914/2003) SK 2 Insight and knowledge In this [calm] the insight is truth-bearing. As a group, YS of the object of 1.41 through 1.51: meditation is complete Houston (1995) SK 3, 8, 22, 24, 25 and truth. There, prajña-insight is truth-bearing.

YS 1.49 Woods (1914/2003) SK 2 This insight is wholly Has an object other than the insight resulting from things As a group, YS different than insight heard or from inferences inasmuch as its intended-object 1.41 through 1.51: gained from is a particular. SK 3, 8, 22, 24, 25 study/tradition and inference. Houston (1995) Due to the nature of its purpose being distinction (between purușa-self and the gunas-primary forces of creation), that prajña-insight has another vişaya-object than both the insights from tradition and inference. YS1.50 Woods (1914/2003) As a group, YS The conditioned The subliminal-impression produced by this [super 1.41 through 1.51: impressions (samskāra) reflective balanced-state] is hostile to other subliminal- SK 3, 8, 22, 24, 25 produced in this state impressions. stops all other impressions. Houston (1995) The samskāra-subliminal activator, born of that (prajña- insight) checks other samskāra. YS 1.51 Woods (1914/2003) As a group, YS When this final When this [subliminal-impression] also is restricted, 1.41 through 1.51: impression is ended, all since all is restricted [the yogi gains] seedless SK 3, 8, 22, 24, 25 impressions are gone, concentration. and samādhi is without Comments (JS) seed. Houston (1995) A summary of the Upon the nirodha-ending of even that (samskāra born of distinctions of insight), owing to the nirodha of all (samskāra), nirbīja samādhi (YS 1.17), samādhi (samādhi without seed). coupled with YS 2.19, the divisions of the gunas:

I. Samprajñata samādhi (also bīja- with seed, or sālambana- supported, cognitive enstasy). The categories are forms of insight, dependent on the object: 1. Vitarka: on

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perceived object, a thing, idea, word. Nirvitara is beyond thought (of the object) (YS 1.43). The objects in this category correspond to the 16 principles of Sām̧khya. The objects relate to visesha, or manifested aspects of gunas, in YS 2.19. 2. Vicāra: on subtle, energetic, experiential. Nirvicara is beyond reflection on the subtle, not limited by form, time, space, at one with the object (YS 1.44). This extends to clarity of higher self (adhyātma) which results in prajña, or insight, which stops samskāra (YS 1.47). Nirvicara extends to ānanda and asmitā samādhi below. This category (vicāra) corresponds to the tanmātras and (probably) the tamasic aspect of aham̧kāra in Sāmkhya, and avisesha (subtle) aspects of guņa in YS 2.19. In YS 1.45, Patañjali says that subtlety of objects extends to alińga, the unmanifested state of gunas. 3. Ānanda: Leaving perception behind, the

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experience of joy or bliss associated with sattva guņa. Corresponds to sattva aspect of ahamkāra. Whicher, 2002, equates asmitā- mātra with aham̧kāra, but asmitā with buddhi. 4. Asmitā: When buddhi is isolated from the external world and reflects only purușa. Corresponds to lingamātra in YS 2.19. What corresponds to alińgamātra in YS 2.19 is samādhi on unmanifested prakṛti (mūlaprakṛti), resulting in prakṛti- laya in YS 1.19, a diversion from the path of Patañjali.

II. Asamprajñāta samādhi (nirbījah, without seed is the term used in the YS): The restriction/ending of all samskāra, even that born of insight (YS 1.51), and dwelling in purușa. It should be noted that Eliade (1973) and Feuerstein (1989, p. 72) do not see ānanda and asmitā as levels or stages, but, as Eliade gracefully puts it, they represent "an ascent" (p. 81). Trying to match the levels of gunas

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with the categories of samādhi is probably similarly strained. However, there is some correlation, although not tidy, as I have tried to indicate above. The point is the interplay between the two. (Sources: Eliade, 1973; Whicher, 2002; Feuerstein, 1989) Here ends the first Houston (1995) Comments (JS) chapter. Here ends the first chapter. Vyāsa's Yoga- bhāșya, the oldest commentary on the YS, ends chapters one and four this way: Of Patañjali's Yoga-treatise entitled Exposition of Sāmkhya (Sāmkhya- pravācana), the First Book, on Concentration (is finished).

Book Two Means of Attainment Now, the chapter on sādhana. YS 2.1 Woods (1914/2003) SK 2 The yoga of Self-castigation and study and devotion to the Icvara are SK 44 action/rites/practice the Yoga of action. (kriyā yoga) is based on three disciplines: Houston (1995) 1. Intense yoga Tapas-intensity in spiritual practice, svādhyāya-learning practice (tapas) and application of personal mantras, and īśvara- 2. Learning and pranidhäna-the perfect aligning of attention in the personal study of sacred omniscient seer within (īśvara) is kriyā yoga. teachings (svādhyāya) 3. Focus and surrender to the omniscient Seer (within). YS 2.2 Woods (1914/2003) SK 2 These three practices For the cultivation of concentration and for the SK 44 culminate in samādhi attenuation of the hindrances. with the aim of weakening kleśa (given Houston (1995) in 2.3) It has the purpose of realizing samādhi-cognitive

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absorption, and also the purpose of weakening the kleśa- root causes of pain. YS 2.3 Woods (1914/2003) SK 1 The five obstacles Undifferentiated-consciousness (avidyā) and the feeling- SK 23 (kleśa) to samādhi of-personality and passion and aversion and the will-to- SK 44 1. (Spiritual) ignorance live are the five hindrances. (avidyā) 2. Egoism or I-am-ness Houston (1995) (asmitā) Avidyā-absence of self-awareness, asmitā-sense of "I 3. Attachment (rāga) am", rāga-attachment, dveșa-dislike, and abhinivesa-the 4. Aversion/dislike will to live, are the kleśa-root causes of pain. (dveșa) 5. Clinging to life (Abhinivesa) YS 2.4 Woods (1914/2003) SK Ignorance is the basis Undifferentiated-consciousness (avidyā) is the field for SK 44 for the other obstacles. the others whether they be dormant or attenuated or The other four may be intercepted or sustained. dormant, or weak, or sporadic, or sustained. Houston (1995) Avidyā (absence of self-awareness) is the field for the others. They can be dormant, weakened, interrupted, or aroused. YS 2.5 Woods (1914/2003) SK 1 Ignorance arises when The recognition of the permanent, of the pure, of SK 20 we are confused about pleasure, and of a self in what is impermanent, impure, SK 62 what is permanent, pain, and not-self is undifferentiated-consciousness. what is pure, what is happiness, and what is Houston (1995) really the Self (Atma) Avidyā-absence of self-awareness is an identification of permanence in the impermanence, purity in impurity, happiness in pain, and self in non-self. YS 2.6 Woods (1914/2003) SK 20 Egoism or I-am-ness When the power of seeing and the power by which one (asmitā) is the seeming sees have the appearance of being a single-self, [this is] Comments (JS) single identity of the the feeling-of-personality. Whicher's (2000) two (distinct) powers of theory that asmitā the seer and the act of Houston (1995) seeing. (Egoism is the The sense of "I am" is the seeming single identity of the is equal to buddhi (in SK) would product of avidyā or ignorance.) two (distinct) powers of the seer and the act of seeing make sense in (something). reading this sutra.

YS 2.7 Woods (1914/2003) Attachment is the Passion is that which dwells upon pleasure. clinging to pleasure. Houston (1995) Rāga-attachment is hold on to (prior) happiness. YS2.8 Woods (1914/2003) Aversion or dislike Aversion is that which dwells upon pain. rests on sorrowful or painful experiences. Houston (1995) Dveșa-dislike is hold on to (prior) pain. YS2.9 Woods (1914/2003) The fear of death, The will-to-live sweeping on [by the force of] its own fueled by the physical nature exists in this form even in the wise.

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body's instinct to survive, exists even for Houston (1995) the wise. Abhiniveśa-the will to live, is carried on by its own inclination, rooted in that way even in the wise. YS 2.10 These [hindrances] [When they have become] subtile are When the obstacles to be escaped by the inverse-propagation. (kleśa) become subtle, they are ended by Houston (1995) observing where they Those (kleśa-root causes of pain), (in their) subtle (form), came from. are to be ended by inverse propagation (non-activation). YS 2.11 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) Fluctuations (vrtti) of The fluctuations of these should be escaped by means of Feuerstein (1987) the mind arising from kleśa can be ended by contemplation. sees this sutra as

meditation (dhyāna). Houston (1995) support for the idea that dhyāna halts Vrtti-definitions of (citta-the field, arising from) those the fluctuations of (kleśa) are to be ended by dhyāna -meditation. the mind, but samādhi encounters something different. The goal of yoga is not ceasing fluctuations in his view, only a part of process (p. 66). YS 2.12 Woods (1914/2003) SK 1 These obstacles are the The latent-deposit of karma has its root in the hindrances SK 39 root causes of pain. and may be felt in a birth seen or in a birth unseen. They are the cause of our karma/action that is Houston (1995) continued through Having its root in the kleśa-root causes of pain, the lifetimes, now and in accumulation of karma-actions can be experienced in the future. births, seen and unseen. YS 2.13 Woods (1914/2003) SK 39 As long as the source of So long as the root exists, there will be fruition from it SK 55 karma exists, we [that is] birth [and] length-of-life [and] kind-of- SK 58 experience its fruits in birth, life span, and experience.

experiences. Houston (1995) As long as the root (of karma-actions) exists, there is fruition from that-birth, life-time, and life-experience. YS 2.14 Woods (1914/2003) The fruit may be These [fruitions] have joy or extreme anguish as results painful or pleasant, in accordance with the quality of their causes whether depending on whether merit or demerit. the source is virtuous or not. Houston (1995) These (birth, etc.) have delight or distress as results, according to the virtuous or non-virtuous nature of their cause. YS 2.15 Woods (1914/2003) SK 2 However, to the wise, As being the pains which are mutations and anxieties and all attachments are pain, subliminal-impressions, and by reason of the opposition because of the inherent of the fluctuations of the aspects (guna), -- to the

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consequences. The wise discriminating all is nothing but pain. know attachments bring the anxiety of loss, Houston (1995) renewed cravings, and Because of the pains caused by samskāra-subliminal the continued activity activation of suffering due to change, and on account of of the gunas. the obstruction of vrtti-activity due to the guna-primary forces of nature-to the discerner, all is but pain. YS 2.16 Woods (1914/2003) SK 1 However, suffering in That which is to be escaped is pain yet to come. the future can be avoided Houston (1995) Pain, not yet come, is to be ended. YS 2.17 Woods (1914/2003) SK 1 Suffering can be The correlation of the Seer and the object-of-sight is the SK 2 avoided because its cause of that which is to be escaped. SK 20 source is the erroneous SK 55 melding of Seer and Houston (1995) Seen. The cause of what is to be ended is the samyoga- correlation between the drastr-seer and the drśya-the seeable. YS 2.18 Woods (1914/2003) SK 3 The Seeable, or nature, With a disposition to brightness and to activity and to SK 8 arises from the inertia, and with the elements and the organs as its SK 9 interplay of the gunas essence, and with its purpose the experience and SK 11 (intelligence, activity, liberation [of the Self]-[this is] the object-of-sight. SK 12 and inertia) inherent in SK 13 the elements and Houston (1995) SK 17 senses. The purpose of Drśya-the seeable, has the characteristics of brightness SK 21 the nature is to provide (sattva-guņa) activity (rajas-guņa) and inertia (tamas- SK 25 experience and guna). It is embodied in the bhuta-elements and indriya- SK 31 enjoyment for puruşa, sense organs and exists for the (dual) purpose of SK 36 and also to provide a experience and emancipation. SK 41 route for liberation. SK 42 SK 43 SK 56 SK 58 SK 60 YS 2.19 Woods (1914/2003) SK The gunas, or qualities The particularized and the unparticularized [forms] and SK 8 of nature, have four the resoluble only [into primary matter] and irresoluble- SK 9 stages: primary-matter-are the divisions of the aspects (guna) SK 11 1. Manifested in Houston (1995) SK 14 physical world The phases of the guna-primary forces of creation, are the SK 15/16 (visesha) particularized (visible), the unparticularized (atomic), the SK 22 2. Subtle existence linga-only-indicated (primary manifestation) and SK 24 (avisesha) alinga-the unmanifest (prakrti-primary matter). SK 25 3. Latent, known by SK 38 inference (lingamātra) 4. Unmanifested, gunas are in balance (alińga) YS2.20 Woods (1914/2003) SK 3 The Seer/puruşa is the The Seer, who is nothing but [the power of] seeing, SK 11 power of seeing and nothing else. (It does although undefiled, looks upon the presented-idea. SK 12 SK 14

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not have categories as Houston (1995) SK 17 does nature, and it does The draștr-seer is drsi-mātra-seeing alone. It is pure, SK 19 not change.) The Seer is even [when] witnessing pratyaya-thoughts directed pure, even when witnessing objects. (It towards an object.

appears to change because it witnesses nature.) YS 2.21 Woods (1914/2003) SK 3 The Seen exists solely The being (atman) of the object-of-sight is only for the SK 17 for the sake of the Seer. sake of it [the Self]. SK 21 (prakrti exists for SK 31 purușa.) Houston (1995) SK 33 The existence of drśya-the seeable, is solely for the SK 36 purpose of that (drastr-seer). SK 42 SK 43 SK 56 SK 58 SK 60 YS 2.22 Woods (1914/2003) SK 3 The Seeable ceases for Though it has ceased [to be seen] in the case of one SK 18 the liberated person, but not for other people whose purpose is accomplished, it has not ceased to be, since it is common to others [besides himself]. since it is a common experience to others. Houston (1995) With regard to that (drastr-seer) whose purpose is accomplished, (drśya-the seeable) has ceased although (at the same time) it has not ceased since it is common (to others) YS 2.23 Woods (1914/2003) SK 20 The perfect union The reason for the apperception of what the power of the SK 21 (samyoga) of the Seer property and of what the power of the proprietor are is and Seen (purușa and correlation. prakṛti) allows them both to be known in Houston (1995) their full power. (When The samyoga-correlation (between draştr-seer and drśya- apart, there is no seeable) is the case of the apprehension of the svarūpa- activation of nature.) distinct essences of the powers (śakti) of the master (I, svamin-drastr), and what is mine (my domain-drśya) II.17 YS 2.24 Woods (1914/2003) SK 20 The cause of this union The reason for this [correlation] is undifferentiated- is ignorance (avidyā). consciousness.

Houston (1995) The cause of that (samyoga-correlation) is avidyā- absence of self-awareness. YS 2.25 When ignorance Woods (1914/2003) SK 19 Since this [non-sight] does not exist, there is no SK 44 dissolves (with correlation. This is the escape, the Isolation of the Seer. SK 62 liberation), the union SK 65 (samyoga) or Houston (1995) indivisibility ends. The Owing to the disappearance of that (avidyā-absence of Seer is revealed as (always) freed and self-awareness), there is the disappearance of the samyoga-correlation, the end (of what is to be ended).

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independent of the That is kaivalya-the aloneness of seeing. II.17 Seen. YS 2.26 Woods (1914/2003) SK 2 The way to end the The means of attaining escape is unwavering SK 44 union of Seer and Seen discriminative discernment. SK 65 (samyoga) is through discriminative Houston (1995) knowledge (viveka). The unceasing viveka-khyāti-identification of viveka, is the way to the end. YS 2.27 Woods (1914/2003) SK 2 As one approaches the For him (there is) insight seven-fold and advancing in SK 44 end, there are seven stages to the highest. stages of insight Comments (JS) (prajña) or Houston (1995) From discriminative Of that (way to the end), there is sevenfold prajña- commentaries knowledge. insight, as the final stage. (Woods, pp. 170- 171), the seven are (1) what is to be escaped is known; (2) reasons for suffering/ignorance are no more, (3) nirodha has been achieved, (4) discriminative discernment is perfected, (5) the tasks of prakṛti (experience and liberation) are done, (6) the gunas come to rest and are reabsorbed, and (7) the Self/Seer/purușa is enlightened, isolated. YS2.28 Woods (1914/2003) SK 2 By practicing the limbs After the aids to yoga have been followed up, when the SK 44 of yoga, impurities impurity has dwindled, there is an enlightenment of SK 63 decrease, and the light perception reaching up to the discriminative discernment. SK 64 of knowledge or SK 65 wisdom dawns, leading Houston (1995) to viveka. By practicing the (eight) limbs of yoga-upon the diminishing of impurities, there is a light of knowing, up to (leading to) viveka-khyati-the identification of viveka. YS2.29 Woods (1914/2003) The eight limbs/practices of yoga Abstentions and observances and postures and regulations-of-the-breath and withdrawal-of-the-senses are: Yama, niyama, and fixed attention and contemplation and concentration āsana, prāņāyāma, are the eight aids. pratyāhāra, dhāraņa, dhyāna, and samādhi Houston (1995) Yama, niyama, āsana, prāņāyāma, pratyāhāra, dhāraņa, dhyāna , and samādhi are the eight limbs.

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YS 2.30 Woods (1914/2003) SK 23 The Yamas, or Abstinence from injury and from falsehood and from SK 44 disciplines or restraints theft and from incontinence and from acceptance of gifts or abstinences, are are the abstentions. Comments (JS) 1. Ahimsā: Non- External violence Houston (1995) observances, 2. Satya: Truthfulness Ahimsā-non-hurtfulness, satya-truth, asteya-non-stealing, primarily comes 3. Asteya: Non-stealing brahmacarya-spiritual resolution of desires, and from interactions 4. Brahma-carya: aparigraha-non-possessiveness are the yama-universal with others Acting in Brahman, disciplines. spiritual resolution of desires, commonly chastity/incontinence 5. Aparigraha: Non attachment, non- clinging, non- possessiveness, non- greed YS 2.31 Woods (1914/2003) SK 23 Yamas are the great When they are unqualified by species or place or time or vow of conduct. They exigency and when [covering] all [these] classes-[under are universal, these circumstances exists] the Great Course -of-conduct. irrespective of life, place, time, and Houston (1995) circumstance. Irrespective of life state, place, time, and circumstance, these (yama) are universal-the great vow. YS 2.32 Woods (1914/2003) SK 23 Niyama, or internal Cleanliness and contentment and self-castigation and SK 44 disciplines or study and devotion to the īśvara are the observances. observances, are: 1. Sauca: Purity Houston (1995) 2. Santosa: Sauca-purity, santosa-contentment, tapas-intensity in Contentment 3. Tapah: Intensity in spiritual practice, svādhyāya-learning and practice of personal mantra, and īśvara-praņidhāna-perfect aligning practice of attention in the omniscient seer within (īśvara) are the 4. Svādhyāya: Self- niyama-internal disciplines. study 5. Īśvara-praņidhāna: Devotion, aligning of attention toward īśvara. YS 2.33 Woods (1914/2003) Negative (opposing) If there be inhibition by perverse-considerations thoughts or beliefs can (vitarka), there should be cultivation of the opposites. be neutralized by inviting positive Houston (1995) thoughts and cultivating Upon the suspending of vitarka-opposing beliefs-there positive beliefs. is the realizing of (their) opposites. YS 2.34 Woods (1914/2003) All negative or hurtful Since perverse-considerations such as injuries, whether thoughts and deeds done or caused to be done or approved, whether ensuing result in pain, ignorance upon greed or anger or infatuation, whether mild or and suffering. These moderate or vehement, find their unending consequences thoughts or actions may in pain and in lack of thinking, there should be the stem from greed, anger, cultivation of their opposites. or confusion. They

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may be mild, moderate, Houston (1995) or extreme. They all, Vitarka-opposing beliefs, such as himsa-hurtfulness etc. however, result in pain whether done, caused to be done, or approved of, are and ignorance. Thus, conditioned upon greed, anger, and confusion, are mild, cultivate their opposites moderate, or excessive, and have their unending results in (positive thoughts and pain and ignorance. Thus the realizing of their opposites. deeds). YS 2.35 Woods (1914/2003) When one is fully As soon as he is grounded in abstinence from injury, his grounded in non- presence begets a suspension of enmity. violence, hostility ceases. Houston (1995) Upon being established in ahimsā-non-hurtfulness-there is a relinquishing of hostility in the presence of that (ahimsā). YS 2.36 Woods (1914/2003) When one is fully As soon as he is grounded in abstinence from falsehood, grounded in actions and consequences depend upon him. truthfulness, when speech and actions are Houston (1995) honest, then what is Upon being established in satya-truth-there is surety in said comes true. the result of actions/practice.

YS 2.37 Woods (1914/2003) When one is grounded As soon as he is grounded in abstinence from theft, all in honesty (non- jewels approach him. stealing), prosperity is attained. Houston (1995) Upon being established in asteya-non-stealing-the attainment of all prosperity. YS 2.38 Woods (1914/2003) When one is grounded As soon as he is grounded in absence from incontinence, in chastity, then vital he acquires energy. energy is obtained. Houston (1995) Upon being established in brahmacarya-the obtainment of vital energy. YS 2.39 Woods (1914/2003) Freedom from greed As soon as he is established in abstinence-from- and attachment acceptance-of-gifts, a thorough illumination upon the illuminates the karmic conditions of birth -- activators which propel this birth/life. Houston (1995) Upon a foundation in aparigraha-non-possessiveness-the understanding of the wherefore of birth. YS 2.40 Woods (1914/2003) With purification, there As a result of cleanliness there is disgust at one's own comes a growing body and no intercourse with others. detachment from the fascination with one's Houston (1995) physical presence and Owing to śauca-purity, there is a desire to protect one's the outer world. own body, being the non-contact with whatever is adverse (to that). YS 2.41 Woods (1914/2003) SK 13 Mental purity creates Purity of sattva and gentleness and singleness-of-intent

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clarity, spiritual and subjugation of the senses and fitness for the sight of intelligence, inspiration, the self- focus, mastery of the senses, and fitness for Houston (1995) self-realization. And (due to śauca-purity) there is the clarity of sattva (the primary force of brightness/intelligence), inspiration, one-pointedness, mastery of the sense organs, and readiness for the seeing of the Self. YS 2.42 Woods (1914/2003) With contentment there As a result of contentment there is an acquisition of is unexcelled joy. superlative pleasures.

Houston (1995) Owing to santosa-contentment, there is, an unexcelled attainment of happiness. YS 2.43 Woods (1914/2003) SK 51 Intense practice and Perfection in the body and in the organs after impurity purification of the body has dwindled as a result of self-castigation. and senses result in perfection of the body Houston (1995) and senses. The perfection of the body and sense organs is due to tapas-intensity in spiritual practice, being the elimination of impurities. YS 2.44 Woods (1914/2003) Self-study, spiritual As a result of study there is communication with the study, and the use of chosen deity. mantras results in union with the chosen deity. Houston (1995) Owing to svādhyāya-learning and application of personal mantras, there is union with (one's) beloved deity (source of inspiration). YS 2.45 Woods (1914/2003) Additional notes Samādhi is attained Perfection of concentration as a result of devotion to the (JS): through devotion to īśvara. Praņidhāna has be īśvara. translated as Houston (1995) prayer, meditation, The perfection of samādhi-cognitive absorption is due to attention to, and īśvara-pranidhāna-perfect aligning of attention with the devotion. Iśvara omniscient seer within (īśvara). has been rendered as god, lord, master, prince, God, divine, Seer within, higher power, deity, personal god (Monier-Williams, 2002). YS 2.46 Āsana is a stable, Woods (1914/2003) Stable-and-easy posture. comfortable posture. Houston (1995) Asana-posture is that which is stable and comfortable.

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YS2.47 Āsana becomes stable Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) By relaxation of effort or by a [mental] state-of-balance Ananta is and comfortable by with reference to Ananta associated with relaxation of the effort Vishnu and refers and meditation on the to the 1000-headed infinite. Houston (1995) cosmic serpent Asana-posture (becomes stable and comfortable) owing who holds the to the relaxation of effort and samāpatti-cognitive world, providing a blending with the infinite. couch for Vishnu. Vyāsa's commentary begins: " ... may he, the divine Lord of Serpents, protect you, with his white stainless body-he, the giver of concentration (yoga), and himself concentrated in concentration" (Woods, 1914/2003, p. 3; Feuerstein, 1997, p. 23). YS 2.48 Woods (1914/2003) When mastered, the Thereafter he is unassailed by extremes. yogi is then unaffected by the pull of opposites, Houston (1995) such as pleasure or From that (āsana), non-affliction from the pairs of pain opposites (pleasure and pain, etc.) YS 2.49 Woods (1914/2003) When asana is When there is this [stability of posture], the restraint of mastered, then one breath cutting off the flow of inspiration and expiration should practice [follows]. prāņāyāma, breath regulation. Houston (1995) That (āsana-posture) being achieved, prāņāyāma-breath regulation is interruption of the (normal) motion of inhalation and exhalation. YS 2.50 Woods (1914/2003) Prāņāyāma is the But this [restraint of breath] is, External or internal or observance of the suppressed in fluctuation and is regulated in place and outbreath, inbreath, and time and number and is protracted and subtile. suspension/pause. With practice, focusing on Houston (1995) location (in the body), (Prāņāyāma has) external, internal or suspended timings (of the breaths), modifications, (which become) long and subtle, when and the extent or observed by means of location (of the breath's motion in number, the breath the body), time (length of inhalation, exhalation and becomes long and intervening spaces), and number. subtle. YS 2.51 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) The fourth type of The fourth [restraint of the breath] transcends the external There are several prāņāyāma transcends and the internal object. interpretations.

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the inbreath and Eliade (1973) outbreath. Houston (1995) describes The fourth (modification) transcends the reference to spontaneous breath external and internal. suspension in deep samādhi, something beyond (fourth) the three (inhale, exhale, pauses) in YS 2.50. YS 2.52 Woods (1914/2003) SK 13 Through practice of As a result of this the covering of the light dwindles breath-control, the citta away. becomes clear and pure-a veil is lifted Houston (1995) from the light of Due to that, the covering of light is dispersed. consciousness. YS 2.53 Woods (1914/2003) SK 27 And the mind becomes For fixed attentions also the central organ becomes fit. ready for dhāraņa, concentration, or Houston (1995) focusing of attention. And readiness of the mind for dhārana-focusings. YS 2.54 Woods (1914/2003) Pratyāhāra is when the The withdrawal of the senses is as it were the imitation of senses are restricted as the mind-stuff itself on the part of the organs by the citta withdraws into disjoining themselves from their objects. itself. Houston (1995) Pratyāhāra-sense withdrawal is as if imitating citta's svarūpa-essential nature (sattva-guna-brightness, clarity) on the part of the senses, in disconnecting with the sensory objects. YS 2.55 Woods (1914/2003) From pratyāhāra As a result of this [withdrawal] there is complete mastery comes perfect mastery of the organs. of the senses. Houston (1995) From that, the perfect mastery of the senses. This ends the second Houston (1995) chapter. Here ends the second chapter.

Book Three Supernormal Powers Now the chapter on accomplishments or extraordinary powers. Now, the chapter on powers.

Note: The underlines in this column help identify the various powers. YS 3.1 Woods (1914/2003) Dhārana is learning to Binding the mind-stuff to a place is fixed-attention. concentrate, learning to fix the energy of the Houston (1995) citta Dhārana-focusing is fixation of citta- (the energy of) the

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at a single focus. field of consciousness within a focal point.

YS 3.2 Woods (1914/2003) Dhyana is the sustained Focusedness of the presented idea upon that place is fixation of the citta at a contemplation. single object or idea. Houston (1995) The single directionality of a pratyaya there (to the chosen focal point) is dhyāna-meditation. YS 3.3 Woods (1914/2003) Samādhi is when the This same [contemplation], shining forth [in mind (citta) reflects consciousness] as the intended object and nothing more, only the true essence (svarūpa) of the object and, as it were, emptied of itself, is concentration.

of meditation. Houston (1995) That (citta) specifically, reflecting as the object alone, as if empty of its own form, is samādhi-cognitive absorption. YS 3.4 Woods (1914/2003) The three (dhāraņa, The three in one are constraint. dhyāna, and samādhi) are called samyama, Houston (1995) meaning the perfect The group of three (dhāraņa, dhyāna, and samādhi, regulation of the mind. practiced) together as one, is samyama-the perfect regulation of citta. YS 3.5 Woods (1914/2003) SK 23 The mastery of As a result of mastering this constraint, there follows the samyama brings the brilliance of insight, shining forth of insight.

wisdom. Houston (1995) Owing to the success of that (samyama), the brilliance of prajña-insight. YS 3.6 Woods (1914/2003) Samyama is mastered Its application is by stages. step-by-step. Houston (1995) Its (samyama) application is in stages. YS 3.7 Woods (1914/2003) Samyama is more The three are direct aids in comparison with the previous internal that the [five]. previous five limbs. Houston (1995) The group of three (dhāraņa, dhyāna, and samādhi) is the inner limb(s) distinct from the previous (five limbs of yoga). YS 3.8 Woods (1914/2003) But even samyama is Even these [three] are indirect aids to seedless external to the seedless [concentration]. samādhi . Houston (1995) That (inner limb) however is an external limb of nirbīja - the seedless (samādhi-cognitive absorption). YS 3.9 Woods (1914/2003) Latent impressions When there is a becoming invisible of the subliminal- (samskāra) that impression of emergence and a becoming visible of the

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normally appear will subliminal-impression of restriction, the mutation of now disappear. This restriction is inseparably connected with mind-stuff in its happens because period of restriction. samskāra arises which is connected to the very Houston (1995) act of ending mental The submergence of the samskāra-subliminal activator of fluctuations. So the externalization and the emergence of the samskāra of mind is transformed by nirodha-the act of ending (citta-vrtti) is the nirodha- the momentary pariņāma (nirodha-transformation) which is connected to stillness. Nirodha citta-the energy field of consciousness at the moment of pariņāma is the nirodha. transformation resulting from stopping the fluctuations of the mind. YS 3.10 Woods (1914/2003) This stillness continues This [mind-stuff] flows peacefully by reason of the because of the subliminal-impression. subliminal impressions (samskāra) of Houston (1995) ceasing/restricting The calm flow of that (nirodha-parināma-transformation) (nirodha) the vrtti. occurs due to the samskāra-subliminal activator (of nirodha). YS 3.11 Woods (1914/2003) Samādhi- The mutation of concentration is the dwindling of transformation is the dispersiveness and the uprisal of singleness-of-intent dwindling of belonging to the mind-stuff. distractions as the mind becomes more one- Houston (1995) pointed. The disappearance of all-objectness and the arising of ekāgratā-one-pointedness is samādhi-pariņāma (samādhi-transformation) of citta-the energy field of consciousness. YS 3.12 Woods (1914/2003) In this transformation, Then again when the quiescent and the uprisen presented the rising and subsiding ideas are similar [in respect of having a single object], the thoughts develop the mind-stuff has a mutation single-in-intent. same one-pointed focus (ekāgratā pariņāma). Houston (1995) There again, when the quieted and the arisen are the same pratyaya, there is one-pointedness transformation of citta-the field. YS 3.13 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) The transformations Thus, with regard to elements and to organs, mutations of This is a difficult (above) impart a external-aspect and of time-variation and of intensity sutra. knowing beyond the have been enumerated. Commentaries use characteristic form the illustration of (dharma), state in time, Houston (1995) the transformation and changing By this are explained the parināma-transformations of of clay to jar to conditions of either the dharma-characteristic form, potential change and dust. Thus, in physical world or of condition in regard to the bhūta-elements and indriya- samādhi, there is a perceptions. sense organs. deeper knowing of a form beyond its current state and time

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YS 3.14 Woods (1914/2003) SK 3 The underlying form is A substance conforms itself to quiescent and uprisen and a substance that indeterminable external-aspects. Comments (JS) conforms to past, Jacobsen (2002), p. present, or future Houston (1995) 227, equates aspects. The form substratum conforms to the characteristic form, dharmi (the which may be quieted, arisen, and indistinguishable (past, substratum present, and future). mentioned here) and mūlaprakṛti. This makes sense then in the stages or categories of samādhi, discussed above. As samādhi advances, the more and more subtle structure of the object is revealed. YS 3.15 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) In samādhi, (the yogi's The order of the sequence (krama) is the reason for the A difficult sutra very subtle) perception order of the mutations. with many of continual change of the form is due to the Houston (1995) interpretations, none of which (very subtle, not usually The separateness of the krama-sequential progression (of seem to add much grasped) transformation each citta-field) is the reason of the separateness of clarity for a reader. of the form (in time and pariņāma-transformations. My best guess is condition). that it deals with the subtlety of yogi's perception of the form that allows perception of transformations of the form in time beyond normal perception. The next sutras list the Woods (1914/2003) siddhi. I have As a result of constraint upon the three mutations [there underlined the follows] the knowledge of the past and the future. attainments in each verse. Houston (1995) Due to samyama (perfect regulation of citta by dhāraņa, YS 3.16 dhyāna, samādhi), on the three transformations By practicing samyama (characteristic, potential change, condition) there arises on this sequence, there knowledge of the past and future. comes knowledge of past and future. YS 3.17 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) We usually confuse a Word and intended-object and presented are confused When it is said that word, its meaning, and because they are erroneously identified with each other. Patañjali supports its original concept the notion of behind the word. But by By constraint upon the distinctions between them (there arises the intuitive) knowledge (jñāna) of the cries of all practicing samyama on living beings. sphota, this is the

the word or sound, verse presented as

knowledge or insight of Houston (1995) evidence. This is

the meaning of the The confusion of words, meanings, and pratyaya is due one reason it was thought that

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sound is found. to the super-imposition of one upon the other. By Patañjali the samyama (perfect regulation of citta) on the inherent Grammarian and distinctness of these, there arises knowledge of the sound the writer of the of all beings. YS were one. YS 3.18 Woods (1914/2003) Samyama brings direct As a result of direct-perception of subliminal impressions perception of one's own there is [intuitive] knowledge of previous births. latent impressions (samskāra), giving one Houston (1995) knowledge of one's By direct perception of samskāra-subliminal activators, own past births. knowledge of previous births. YS 3.19 Woods (1914/2003) Samyama brings direct [As a result of constraint] upon a presented idea [there perception of the arises intuitive] knowledge of the mind-stuff of another. thoughts of another. Houston (1995) (By direct perception) of a pratyaya-knowledge of the citta of another. YS 3.20 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) Although the But [the intuitive knowledge of the presented-idea of May not be underlying support another] does not have that [idea] together with that upon included in all (object) for these translations as a thoughts of another which it depends [as its object], since that upon which it depends is not-in-the-field [of consciousness]. separate sutra. cannot be known. Houston (1995) And it is not that (citta) together with its supporting object, due to its (the citta's) nature of being that which has no object. YS 3.21 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) One can become As a result of constraint upon the [outer] form of the In some invisible by practicing body, when its power to be known is stropped, then as a translations there is samyama on one's consequence of the disjunction of the light and of the eye an explanation that (own) body and there follows indiscernability [of the yogi's body]. this can explain the intercepting the light (from one's body) that disappearance of Houston (1995) sound, touch, taste, would allow another to By samyama on the form of the body, while suspending smell, etc. see it. its ability to be seen, that is, the disconnecting of light to the eye-there arises invisibility (placement within). YS 3.22 Woods (1914/2003) Karma is manifested Advancing and not-advancing is karma; as a result of either slowly or constraint upon this [two-fold karma] or from the signs of quickly. samyama on death [there arises an intuitive] knowledge of the latter karma or on other end. omens can reveal the time of death. Houston (1995) Karma is either with the advance of sequential progression (fast in fruition), or against the advance of krama (slow in fruition). The knowledge of time of death may be known by samyama upon that or by signs. YS 3.23 Woods (1914/2003) Samyama on [As a result of constraint] upon friendliness and other friendliness and other like qualities imbues [sentiments there arises] powers [of friendliness].

one with the energies or Houston (1995) power of friendliness. (By samyama) on friendship, etc .- strengths. (I.33).

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YS 3.24 Woods (1914/2003) On samyama on the [As a result of constraint] upon powers [there arise] strength of elephants, powers like those of an elephant. the power of strength will arise. Houston (1995) On strengths-the strength of an elephant, etc. YS 3.25 Woods (1914/2003) Samyama on the light As a result of casting the light of a sense-activity [there within (the finer arises the intuitive] knowledge of the subtile and the activity of the mind) concealed and the obscure. reveals knowledge of the subtle, hidden and Houston (1995) remote. By projecting the brilliancy of the finer activity (of citta), knowledge of the subtle, concealed, and distant. YS 3.26 Woods (1914/2003) Samyama on the sun As a result of constraint upon the sun [there arises the reveals knowledge of intuitive] knowledge of the cosmic-spaces. the world. Houston (1995) By samyama on the sun-knowledge of the worlds. YS 3.27 Woods (1914/2003) By samyama on the [As a result of constraint] upon the moon [there arises the moon brings knowledge intuitive] knowledge of the arrangement of the stars. of the arrangement of the stars. Houston (1995) On the moon-knowledge of the organization of the stars. YS 3.28 Woods (1914/2003) On the pole star, [As a result of constraint] upon the pole-star [there arises knowledge of the stars' the intuitive] knowledge of their movements. movement. Houston (1995) On the pole star-knowledge of their motion. YS 3.29 Woods (1914/2003) On the navel cakra, [As a result of constraint] upon the wheel of the navel knowledge of the [there arises the intuitive] knowledge of the arrangement systems of the body. of the body.

Houston (1995) On the navel cakra-knowledge of the organization of the body. YS 3.30 Woods (1914/2003) On the pit of the throat, [As a result of constraint] upon the well of the throat there is cessation of [there follows] the cessation of hunger and of thirst. hunger and thirst. Houston (1995) On the well in the throat-the ceasing of hunger and thirst. YS 3.31 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) On the tortoise shaped [As a result of constraint] upon the tortoise-tube [there Nādī is a vein or tube below the throat follows] motionlessness [of the mind-stuff]. channel relating to (kūrma nādī), energetic anatomy steadiness and Houston (1995) (Feuerstein, 1997). motionlessness. On the tortoise duct (tortoise), steadiness. YS3.32 On the light at the Woods (1914/2003) [As a result of constraint] upon the radiance in the head

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crown cakra, visions of [there follows] the sight of the Siddhas. masters and adepts are obtained. Houston (1995) On the light in the top of the head-vision of the perfected ones. YS3.33 Woods (1914/2003) From a flash of Or as a result of vividness [the yogi discerns] all. intuition or (supersensory) insight, Houston (1995) all knowledge or From the flash of illumination, all knowledge. powers can come. YS 3.34 Woods (1914/2003) On the heart center, [As a result of constraint] upon the heart [there arises] a knowledge of the citta. consciousness of the mind-stuff.

Houston (1995) On the heart-full knowledge of citta-the field. YS 3.35 Woods (1914/2003) SK 8 Experience in the world Experience is a presented-idea which fails to distinguish SK 13 does not distinguish the sattva and the Self, which are absolutely SK 17 between sattva and uncommingled [in the presented-idea]. Since the sattva SK 19 purușa. Samyama on exists as object for another, the [intuitive] knowledge of SK 23 this distinction the Self arises as the result of constraint upon that which SK 31 illuminates purusa. exists for its own sake. SK 36 SK 37 Houston (1995) Experience is a pratyaya which does not distinguish sattva [guna of brightness, a primary constituent of matter] and purușa-the self as absolutely unmixed. By samyama on what exists for its own sake (purușa) distinct from that (sattva) which exists of the other - the knowledge of purușa. YS 3.36 Woods (1914/2003) SK 23 And from this As a result of this [constraint upon that which exists for distinction arises the its own sake], there arise vividness and the organ-of- flash of insight or [supernal]-hearing and the organ-of-[supernal]-feeling intuition and and the organ-of-[supernal]-sight and the organ-of- supersensory [supernal]-taste and the organ-of-[supernal]-smell. capabilities. Houston (1995) From that arise the flash of illumination, suprasensory hearing, feeling, seeing, tasting, smelling and intelligence. YS 3.37 Woods (1914/2003) These supersensory In concentration these [supernal activities] are obstacles; capabilities are powers in the emergent state they are perfections (siddhi). (siddhi) in the world, but they are obstacles to Houston (1995) seedless (nirbīja) These siddhi-attainments in the externalized state are samādhi. obstacles in reference to samādhi-cognitive absorption [nirbīja -seedless]. YS 3.38 Woods (1914/2003) (There are other siddhi.) By loosening the As a result of slackening the causes of bondage and as a result of the consciousness of the procedure [of the mind- bondage of mind to stuff], the mind-stuff penetrates into the body of another.

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body, and by knowledge of how the Houston (1995) mind really functions, By the relaxation of the cause of relationship (to the entering another's body body), and the experience of going forth, citta's entry is possible. into another body. YS 3.39 Woods (1914/2003) By mastery over the As a result of subjugating the udāna, there is no adhesion udāna nerve current to water or mud or thorns or similar objects, and [at (upward vital air), one death] the upward flight. can levitate over the earth and leave the Houston (1995) body at will. Through mastery of udāna-non-contact, and rising above with regard to water, mud, thorns, etc. YS 3.40 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) By mastery over the As a result of subjugating the samāna (there arises) a Commentary adds samāna nerve radiance. a "flaming forth of (equalizing vital air) the flame in the radiance surrounds the Houston (1995) body. Through mastery of samāna-radiance body" (Woods, 1914/2003, p. 268). YS 3.41 Woods (1914/2003) By samyama on the As a result of constraint upon the regulation between the relationship between organ-of-hearing, and the air, [there arises] the supernal ear and ākāśa organ-of-hearing. (ether/space), supernormal hearing Houston (1995) (perhaps clairaudience) By samyama on the interrelation between hearing and is possible. ākāśa-space/ether-divine hearing

YS 3.42 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) By samyama on the Either as the result of constraint upon the relation There are some relationship between between the body and the air, or as the result of the discrepancies in body and ether/space, balanced-state of lightness, such as that of the cotton- there is lightness of fibre, there follows the passing through air. numbering. For Mishra (1973), for weight, and thus example, this is traveling through Houston (1995) 3.43 ether/space is possible. By samyama on the relation between the body and ākāśa- space/ether, and samäpatti-cognitive blending with light objects like cotton-traversing ākāśa. YS 3.43 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) By samyama on objects An outwardly un-adjusted fluctuation is the Great Another difficult without distorting Discarnate; as a result of this the dwindling of the sutra with many through perception, covering to the brightness. difficult memory, etc., in other translations. Some words, beyond the Houston (1995) commentaries activity of mind The non-imaginary (actual) external vrtti-activity include the power incarnate, the yogi is (defining citta) is the great out-of-body state. From that, free of tamas and rajas the dispersing of the covering of light. of disincarnate citta (of the yogi) (matter and energy), to enter the bodies and pure sattva (light) of others (Woods, shines. p. 272). My understanding is a combination of the Vyāsa commentary and Desikachar (1999).

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YS 3.44 Woods (1914/2003) SK 22 By samyama on both As a result of constraint upon the coarse and the SK 38 gross and subtle essential-attribute (svarūpa) and the subtile (sūksma) and elements, there is the inherence and the purposiveness, there is a Comments (JS) knowledge of the subtle subjugation of the elements. Note that the actual portion (tanmātra), terminology in the interconnectedness (of Houston (1995) sutra is not gunas), and purpose (of By samyama on (their) gross state, svarūpa-essential tanmātra or guņa. prakṛti). nature, subtle state, interconnectedness and nature of The commentary of serving a purpose-mastery of the bhūta-elements. Vyāsa includes these terms (Woods, p. 274). YS 3.45 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) From mastery over the As a result of this, atomization and the other [perfections] From Vyāsa the elements, many other come about; [there is] perfection of body; and there is no obstruction by the properties of these [elements]. perfections are powers, such as atomization, becoming minute, are levitation, possible. There is Houston (1995) magnification, perfection of the body; From that, the emergence of such powers as becoming ability to extend, the elements do not minute, etc., perfection of the body, and non-affliction by non-obstruction of obstruct the body. its constituents. desire, other mastery of elements, sovereignty over elements, capacity to will elements to remain as they are. YS 3.46 Woods (1914/2003) Perfection of the body Beauty and grace and power and the compactedness of means beauty, grace, the thunderbolt, -- [this is] perfection of body. strength, and brilliantly hard like a diamond or Houston (1995) thunderbolt. Beauty, gracefulness, strength, and adamantine firmness are the perfection of the body. YS 3.47 Woods (1914/2003) SK 22 Mastery of the senses is As a result of constraint upon the process-of-knowing and SK 27 achieved by samyama the essential-attribute and the feeling-of-personality and on the processes of the inherence and the purposiveness, [there follows] the Feuerstein (1987) perception, essence of subjugation of the organs. points out how this the senses, on the sutra mirrors 3.44 relationship with I-am- Houston (1995) By samyama on (their) process of perception, svarūpa- (p. 119). ness, the connectedness (gunas), and the essential nature, the sense of "I am", (their) purpose of the senses. interconnectedness and nature of serving a purpose, mastery of the indriya-sense organs. YS 3.48 Woods (1914/2003) SK 27 From that, the body As a result of this [there follows] speed [great as that] of moves with the speed the central-organ, action of the instruments of of the mind, perception [knowledge] disjunct [from the body], and the without senses, and subjugation of the primary-cause. mastery over nature (pradhana or prakṛti). Houston (1995) From that, the swiftness of the mind, the state of transcending the sense organs, and mastery over pradhana-the primary matrix of matter (prakṛti).

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YS 3.49 Woods (1914/2003) SK 8 When the distinction He who has only the full discernment into the difference SK 13 between intelligence between the sattva and the Self is one who has authority SK 17 (sattvalbuddhi -the over all states-of-existence and is one who knows all. SK 23 pure reflective nature) and purușa is Houston (1995) recognized, one attains Of (that citta-field), having only the identification of the mastery over all states separateness of sattva guna, and purușa-self, there is and infinite awareness. supremacy over all states, and omniscience. YS 3.50 Woods (1914/2003) Through non- As a result of passionlessness even with regard to these attachment to even this [perfections] there follows, after the dwindling of the supreme attainment, seeds of the defects, Isolation. and when all past impressions have Houston (1995) dwindled, there is Through vairāgya-non-attachment even to this kaivalya, freedom, (supremacy and omniscience), upon the disappearance of liberation, isolation. the seeds of the impediments (kleśa), there is kaivalya-the aloneness (of the power of seeing-the seer). YS 3.51 Woods (1914/2003) Praise from the high- In case of invitations from those-in-high-places, these placed individuals should arouse no attachment or pride, for undesired should not cause pride because of the consequences recur.

possibility of renewed Houston (1995) undesired inclinations. Upon the invitation of the high-placed, (there should be) no cause for contact or pride because of the renewed, undesired inclination. YS 3.52 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) By samyama on the As a result of constraint upon moments and their I find 3.52 and 3.53 moment in time, and its sequence [there arises the intuitive] knowledge particularly sequential progression, proceeding from discrimination. interesting. One comes discriminative way of knowledge (jñāna). Houston (1995) understanding it By samyama on the kşana-moment and its krama- might be the sequential progression-the knowledge born of viveka- dissolution of the discernment (between sattva guna and purusa-the self). stream of consciousness. The yogi is now able to discriminate the transformation of nature without the citta's need/use of continuity. YS 3.53 Woods (1914/2003) From this arises the As a result of this there arises the deeper-knowledge of deeper distinction, not two equivalent things which cannot be distinctly qualified usually known, between in species or characteristic-mark or point-of-space. objects usually judged similar. Houston (1995) From that, the ascertainment of the difference between similars (not normally distinguished), due to not being restricted in their separateness by means of category, potential, and position.

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YS 3.54 Woods (1914/2003) This intuitive The [intuitive] knowledge proceeding from knowledge born from discrimination is a deliverer, has all things as its object, discrimination delivers and has all times for its object and is [an inclusive whole] all things, without sequence. instantaneously. Houston (1995) (This knowledge born of viveka is) causing to cross beyond (kleśalkarma etc.), omni-objective (encompassing all objects in all conditions), and is non-sequential. Thus concludes the knowledge born of viveka-discernment. YS 3.55 Woods (1914/2003) SK 13 Liberation (kaivalya) When the purity of the sattva and of the Self are equal comes when the purity [there is] Isolation. of sattva (of the cittalbuddhi) is equal to Houston (1995) the purity of purușa. Upon the equal purity of sattva and purusa-kaivalya-the aloneness (of seeing). Here ends the third chapter. Here ends the third Woods (1914/2003) chapter. Vyāsa's commentary, Yoga-bhāşya ends: Of the Exposition of the Comment on the Patanjalan [Treatise] the Book on Supernormal Powers, the Third.

Houston (1995) Here ends the third chapter. Book Four Isolation Isolation/freedom Now, the chapter on kaivalya.

YS 4.1 Woods (1914/2003) Special powers can Perfections proceed from birth or from drugs or from result from birth (such spells or from self-castigation or from concentration. as the ability of birds to fly), and also by Houston (1995) temporary means such siddhi-attainments result from samādhi-cognitive as drugs, mantras, and absorption (which may arise) from birth, herbs, mantra, intense spiritual and tapas-intensity in spiritual practice. practice (tapas), and samādhi. YS 4.2 Woods (1914/2003) Transformation or The mutation into another birth is the result of the filling- evolution into another in of the evolving-cause. level of life flows from the abundance of Houston (1995) nature/prakṛti. The transformation into another category of existence is because of the overflowing of prakrti-the primary unmanifest world ground. YS 4.3 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) Merit or demerit will The efficient cause gives no impulse to the evolving There are many not propel evolution of causes; but [the mutation] follows when the barrier [to variations and prakṛti; rebirth will the evolving-cause] is cut, as happens with the peasant. understandings of happen anyway. But this difficult verse. right behavior/thoughts Houston (1995) Commentaries may be an aid toward The efficient cause (samādhi) does not motivate the were helpful

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upward evolution (as a processes of prakrti-primary evolution, but is merely the (Woods, pp. 301- farmer removes the separating away of obstacles, like a farmer. (who irrigates 303). impediments in a a field by removing obstacles to waterways). stream so it can flow more freely). YS 4.4 Woods (1914/2003) SK 24 The individual citta Created mind-stuffs may result from the sense-of- SK 27 (mind and sense of self) personality and from this alone. SK 29 proceeds from general SK 30 principle of I-am-ness. Houston (1995) SK 31 Individually created citta-fields proceed only from SK 33 asmita-the sense of "I am" SK 64

Comments (JS) See Whicher's (2000) discussion, pp. 68-70 and Feuerstein (1987), p. 128. YS 4.5 Woods (1914/2003) Comments (JS) Although there distinct While there is a variety of actions, the mind-stuff which A number of activities, one citta is impels the many is one. interpretations. If the originator of others. the individual citta Houston (1995) evolves from the Although there is division in activity, one citta is the ontological motivator of many (citta-fields). principle of asmitā- mātra (ahamkāra), then the individual citta (of one lifetime?) has different activities. With next sutra, seems best to interpret it in light of individual as a way of understanding how samādhi alters the reincarnating citta since cittalantahkārana hold the karmic deposits. YS 4.6 Woods (1914/2003) SK 33 The citta will have Of these [five perfections] that which proceeds from the karmic deposits from contemplation leaves no latent-deposit. Comments (JS) activities except in the Vyasa lists the five case of meditation. Houston (1995) There (in the division of activity), non-accumulation (of perfections as those proceeding from karma) is the result of dhyāna-meditation. birth, drugs, spells, self-castigation, and dhyāna (meditation). YS 4.7 Woods (1914/2003) The yogi's actions are The yogi's karma is neither-white-nor-black; [the karma] Comments (JS) Vyāsa says the not-

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neither good/pure or of others is of three kinds. black-nor-white is bad/impure. (Actions just need to happen.) Houston (1995) found in the yogi hindrances have Actions of others are The karma of a yogi (of whom there is nirodha of citta- dwindled and are in good, bad and mixed. vrtti), is neither white nor black. O fathers it is threefold. their last body (p. 305).

See YS 4.3. YS 4.8 Woods (1914/2003) SK 39 Good and bad actions As a result of this there follows the manifestation of those SK 40 produce subconscious subconscious-impressions only which correspond to the SK 42 traits (vāsana) that will fruition of their (karma). SK 43 eventually arise in a life when the right Houston (1995) conditions are presents. From that (threefold karma), the manifestation of vāsana-

fruition. subliminal traits, specifically corresponding to their

YS 4.9 Woods (1914/2003) SK 33 The subconscious traits There is an uninterrupted [causal] relation [of sub- SK 40 are so intertwined in conscious-impressions], although remote in species and SK 42 memory that they will SK 43 eventually arise, even if point-of-space and moment-of-time, by reason of the correspondence between memory and subliminal- in place, time, or birth. impressions. Comments (JS) In SK, the Houston (1995) reincarnating Even in the case of those (vāsana-subliminal traits) aspect is 18-fold, separated by birth, place, and time (from their cause in called the subtle karma), there is a causal relation on account of the body. In YS, the uniformity of smrti-memory and samskāra-subliminal reincarnating activators. aspect is the all- pervasive citta, and there is no subtle body (Larson, 1987, p. 630). YS 4.10 Woods (1914/2003) SK 33 These subconscious Furthermore these [subconscious-impressions] have no SK 39 traits have no beginning beginning [that we can set in time], since desire is SK 40 go on and on, driven by permanent. SK 42 primordial will to SK 43 continue life. Houston (1995) And the begininglessness of these (vāsana-subliminal Comments (JS) traits) is because of the eternality of the will-to-live. Primordial will is the urge of Nature to ceaselessly transformation (Feuerstein, 1987, p. 132). YS 4.11 Woods (1914/2003) SK 40 Subconscious traits are Since [subconscious-impressions] are associated with SK 42 the interweaving of cause and motive and mental-substrate (āśraya) and SK 43 ignorance, the results of stimulus, if these cease to be, then those [subconscious- SK 65 karma, our mental impressions] cease to be. substrate, and the stimulus. When these Houston (1995) factors disappear, so Owing to interconnectedness by means of the cause

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does the subconscious (avidyā-absence of self-awareness), the results (of trait. karma), and the supporting objects of the substratum (citta) - upon the disappearance of these (factors) the disappearance of those (vāsana). YS 4.12 Woods (1914/2003) The experience of a Past and future as such exist; [therefore subconscious- SK 42 SK 43 form or object can impressions do not cease to be]. For the different time- reveal either the past forms belong to the external-aspects. Comments (JS) and future aspects, both "The reality of of which exist. Houston (1995) time is the reality Past and future essentially exist, owing to the difference of the ever self- in the paths (sequential progressions) of dharma-of modifying primary characterized forms. substance, viz. the world-ground or Nature (prakṛti)" (Feuerstein, 1987, p. 133). Past becomes potentiality; future is potentiality. YS 4.13 Woods (1914/2003) SK 11 Whatever our These [external-aspects with the three time-forms] are SK 12 experience of these phenomenalized [individuals] or subtile [generic forms SK 14 forms/objects, their and] their essence is the aspects (guna). SK 15/16 essence is derived from the interplay of the Houston (1995) forces of the These forms (dharma) are manifested or subtle, and gunas/characteristics. composed of the guna-primary forces. YS 4.14 Woods (1914/2003) SK 11 The reality of objects The that-ness of a thing is due to a singleness of SK 12 and forms is due to the mutation. SK 14 unique interplay of the SK 15/16 gunas/characteristics. Houston (1995) The reality of an object (derives) from the uniqueness of (its) changes. YS 4.15 Woods (1914/2003) SK 35 People may understand Because, while the [physical] thing remains the same, the the same object mind-stuffs are different, [therefore the two are upon] differently because of distinct levels-of-existence. their differing perceptions. Houston (1995) Owing to the differences of citta-fields, while (there is) sameness of an object perceived -the separate way (sequential progression) of both (citta and vastu-object)

YS 4.16 Woods (1914/2003) SK 11 But the existence of an And a thing is not dependent upon a single mind-stuff, SK 35 object/form is not [for then in certain cases] it could not be proved [by that dependent on mind-stuff], [and] then what would it be? perception. If an object were not detected by Houston (1995) anyone, would it still An object is not dependent on one citta (citta's exist? perception); that, being without pramāna-a valid means of assessment, in such as case, would be "what"?

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YS 4.17 Woods (1914/2003) SK 35 A thing is known, or A thing is known or not known by virtue of its affecting not, if it has [or not affecting] the mind-stuff. conditioned or colored the ordinary mind Houston (1995) An object is known or unknown because of the conditionality of the coloring by that (object) of the citta- the field. YS 4.18 Woods (1914/2003) SK 17 Purușa, as master of Unintermittently the Master of that [mind-stuff] knows SK 18 citta, continually the fluctuations of mind-stuff [and thus] the Self SK 19 witnesses the mind's undergoes-no-mutations. SK 55 fluctuations. Houston (1995) The vrtti-definitions of citta-the field are always known, due to the changelessness of purusa-the self, who is the master of those (citta-vrtti). YS 4.19 Woods (1914/2003) SK 19 However, citta cannot It does not illumine itself, since it is an object-for-sight. witness or illuminate itself because it is seen, Houston (1995) the object. That (citta) is not self-luminous because of its drśya - seeable nature. YS 4.20 Woods (1914/2003) The citta cannot And there cannot be a cognition of both [thinking- see/know and be substance and thing] at the same time. seen/known at the same time. Houston (1995) And (because of its non-self-luminous drśya-seeable nature), the impossibility of cognizing both (citta-the field and an object) at the same time. YS 4.21 Woods (1914/2003) If another citta (instead If [one mind-stuff] were the object-for-sight for another, of purușa) witnessed there would be an infinite regress from one thinking- another's citta, there substance to another thinking -substance, as well as would be an endless confusion of memory. reflection of mind and a confusion of memories. Houston (1995) If citta were seeable by another citta (there would be) an infinite regression from one buddhi-function of cognition to another buddhi, and the confusion of memory. YS 4.22 Woods (1914/2003) SK 17 (Witnessing The Intellect (citi) which unites not [with objects] is SK 19 consciousness (purușa) conscious of its own thinking-substance when [the mind- SK 36 is unchangeable, stuff] takes the form of that [thinking-substance by SK 37 separate, and is not an reflecting it]. agent. Yet, citta can not illumine itself. So how Houston (1995) does this illumination The unchanging awareness [of purușa-the self], has an work?) experience of its buddhi-function of cognition, upon the

When citta is quiet, the appearance of a form in that [citta-field].

intelligence of sattvic buddhi reflects itself being seen by puruşa.

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YS 4.23 Woods (1914/2003) SK 36 At that point, the citta Mind-stuff affected by the Seer and by the object-for- SK 37 perceives both seer and sight [leads to the perception of] all intended-objects. seen, and thus understands all Houston (1995) Citta-the field, colored because of drastr-the seer and drśya-the seeable, (encompasses) all objects. YS 4.24 Woods (1914/2003) SK 17 Although the mind has This [mind-stuff], although diversified by countless sub- SK 31 countless desires conscious-impressions, exists for the sake of another, SK 36 (resulting from sub- because its nature is to produce [things as] combinations. SK 37 coconscious traits), it SK 40 really exists for the sake Houston (1995) SK 42 of purușa, pure That (citta), although variegated by uncountable vāsana- SK 43 consciousness, because subliminal traits, exists for the purpose of another SK 56 it can only act in (purușa-the self) due to its activation by collaboration. SK 57 relationship to purușa. SK 58 SK 60

YS 4.25 Woods (1914/2003) SK 17 When one knows the For him who sees the distinction, the pondering upon his SK 62 distinction between the own states-of-being ceases. SK 63 mind and purușa, the SK 64 ongoing confusion Houston (1995) SK 65 (perpetuating the sense Of the one who sees the distinction (between cittalsattva SK 66 of self) ceases. guņa and purușa), there is a discontinuation of perpetuating the sense of self (defined by vrtti). YS 4.26 Woods (1914/2003) SK 13 The mind (citta) is The mind-stuff is borne down to discrimination, onward SK 17 inclined towards towards Isolation. SK 58 discernment (viveka) SK 63 and onward to Houston (1995) SK 64 liberation. The citta, included towards viveka-discernment (between SK 65 sattva and purușa), is borne on towards kaivalya-the SK 66 aloneness of the power of seeing. YS 4.27 Woods (1914/2003) SK 67 But distractions arise In the intervals of this [mind-stuff] there are other due to subconscious presented-ideas [coming] from subliminal-impressions. impressions. Houston (1995) In the intervals of that (citta, borne on towards kaivalya), other pratyaya-thoughts directed toward objects, are due to samskāra-subliminal activators. YS 4.28 Woods (1914/2003) SK 67 The subconscious The escape from these [subliminal-impressions] is Comments (JS) impressions can be described as being link [the escape from] the hindrances. YS 2.10 advocates removed, as in the case the yogic practices of the obstacles (kleśa) Houston (1995) (discipline, study, as explained before (in The ending of these (samskāra is achieved) as described devotion) to YS 2.10). for the kleśa-root causes of pain. (That is, by non- weaken the hold of activation II.10). samskāra. Their dissolution comes in samādhi.

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YS 4.29 Woods (1914/2003) SK 52 When one is unattached For one who is not usurious even in respect of Elevation, SK 63 to even the highest there follows in every case, as a result of discriminative SK 64 rewards, due to perfect discernment, the concentration [called] Rain-cloud of SK 65 discrimination, one [knowable] things. SK 67 remains in an absorption called Houston (1995) Comments (JS) dharmamegha (cloud of Over the (citta) which always has viveka-khyāti-the The last stage dharma) samādhi. identification of discernment (between sattva and before liberation. purușa), is without self-interest even regarding a state of There is no elevation, there is dharma-megha-samādhi-absorption in consensus on the cloud of dharma. dharmamegha, but Feuerstein (1997) suggests that it might refer to the very faintest constituents of prakṛti, the faint cloud that stands between the yogi and kaivalya (p. 86). YS 4.30 Woods (1914/2003) SK 52 Then kleśa cease and Then follows the cessation of the hindrances and of SK 67 karma stops. karma.

Houston (1995) From that, the discontinuation of the kleśa-root causes of pain and karma. YS 4.31 Woods (1914/2003) SK 52 Then knowledge is pure Then, because of the endlessness of knowledge from SK 63 and infinite, and little which all obscuring defilements have passed away, what SK 64 remains to be known. is yet to be known amounts to little. Sk 65

Houston (1995) Then, because of the infinity of knowledge, which has removed the sediment of all coverings, little remains to be known. YS 4.32 Woods (1914/2003) SK 52 Then the gunas begin to When as a result of this the aspects (guna) have fulfilled SK 59 cease the flow of their purpose, they attain to the limit of the sequence of SK 68 transformations. Their mutations. purpose is fulfilled. Houston (1995) Due to that, the conclusion of the krama-sequential progression of the changes of the gunas whose purpose has been achieved. YS 4.33 Woods (1914/2003) SK 52 At this point, the flow The positive correlate to the moment, recognized as such SK 59 of time, which is at the final limit of the mutation, is a sequence. SK 68 essentially a sequence of discrete movements, Houston (1995) becomes visible or The krama-sequential progression, correlative to its knowable. kșana-moments, is apprehensible at the final end of its changes.

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YS 4.34 Woods (1914/2003) SK 8 The gunas are now Isolation is the inverse generation of the aspects, no SK 10 irrelevant and have no longer provided with a purpose by the Self, or it is the SK 15/16 purpose for purușa. As Energy of Intellect grounded in itself. SK 52 such, they are SK 61 reabsorbed into prakṛti. Houston (1995) SK 68 The power of Seer is in The pratiprasava-return-to-source of the gunas, devoid its own true, pure of purpose for purușa-the self is kaivalya, or the abidance nature. in its own essence (svarūpa) of citi-śakti-the power of awareness (of purușa-the self/drastr-the seer).

Here ends the fourth Houston (1995) Vyāsa's chapter. Here ends the fourth chapter. Thus the Yoga Sūtras of commentary, Yoga- Here ends the Yoga Patañjali are completed. bhāşya ends: Sūtras of Patañjali. In the Patanjalan authoritative book on yoga, the Exposition of the Sāmkhya, the Book on Isolation, the Fourth (Woods, 1914/2003).

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CHAPTER 5

PSYCHOLOGICAL COMMENTARY

This narrative is a result of the examination of the texts and writings, both ancient

and modern, about the texts. It was written by extracting the comparisons in data and

grouping them by category. It is also a personal document, since it strives to both connect

and contrast the verses through my understanding of the intent, history, and content of the

texts.

Roots of Human Suffering

In the tradition of most Indian sacred texts, both Sāmkhya and Yoga reject

temporary palliatives and seek to explicate permanent release from suffering. Even sacred

rituals are temporary, and they often are defective in some way. The purpose of both texts

is to succinctly set forth a sure path for realization. There is hope, and suffering can be

avoided because the source is our erroneous melding of seer and seen, purusa and

prakrti, witnessing consciousness and the material world.

The Yoga Stras supply five root causes of pain which drive human thoughts and

behavior. The first and most important root cause is ignorance, but it is ignorance of a

special kind, the ignorance of our true self. Humans live in a confused state, believing

that our desires, hopes, fears, vices, virtues, and ego are our true personality. Until we

recover our misplaced self, and until we release our attachments and aversions, we are

destined to suffer.

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The message of Sāmkhya is essentially the same. Our true nature is a pure,

witnessing consciousness that exists separately from the material world. Both

consciousness and the world are real, but confusion of the two principles creates

suffering. Although terminology is not always the same in Yoga and Sāmkhya, both use

the term samyoga to explain the erroneous correlation. Freedom comes through a

discriminative discernment of the principles of the cosmos, both phenomenal and

potential, and pure consciousness. In other words, through a deep and reflective study, a

profound insight into the true nature of self and cosmos is possible, and this profound

insight is liberating.

Foundation of Knowledge

The epistemological foundations of Yoga and Sāmkhya are similar. Patañjali adds

a twist in presenting valid sources of knowledge as one of the fluctuations of the mind,

pointing out that even valid knowledge is still of the world, still prakrti. Valid knowledge

is distinguished from fantasy, errors, deep sleep, and memory, but ultimately all are

aspects of mind.

In Sāmkhya, valid sources of knowledge are also a function of mind, but

Īśvarakrishna uses this knowledge to derive the cosmic principles. Primordial matter

(mūlaprakrti) exists, but it is too subtle to be directly perceived. However, we can infer

prakrti through its effects. The cosmic intelligence (mahat) and the individualized

intelligence (buddhi) are among the effects that lead to the inference of the existence of

prakṛiti.

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There is another level of knowledge spoken of in Sāmkhya. This knowledge is a

predisposition inherited over lifetimes, a motivating trait that ultimately propels the

individual towards liberation. This knowledge is borne of intensive questioning and

discernment, producing a fundamental ontological shift.

Method of Relieving Suffering

Yoga lays out a set of ethical, devotional, and meditative practices to

systematically reverse the confusion of self. Sāmkhya advocates a depth of knowledge

and discrimination. The emphasis is different. Most of Patañjali's text is devoted to

practice and to the indicators of success and failure. Much of the Sāmkhya Kārikās is

devoted to delineation of the cosmos and poetic imagery of the final discrimination

between nature and witnessing consciousness.

Is the method the same? The sutras pertaining to Sāmkhya's method of

knowledge and discrimination are vague compared to Yoga. Yet, while Iśvarakrishna

does not give details about the method of Samkhya, there are clues. How exactly would a

seeker following Sämkhya discriminate, know, and realize the duality which results in

self-realization? The first clue is that reading scriptures and following rituals do not work.

Mere studying in an academic sense is not enough. Knowledge of the cosmos and

evolution is useful, but not sufficient. A vision of the goal and a philosophical

understanding of spiritual confusion are useful. What is necessary, however, is a

profound discrimination of who we are not, and a profound insight into our true nature.

In verse 64, Iśvarakrishna says that as a result of the study of Sāmkhya, true

knowledge (jñāna) arises when an individual says: I am not this doing; I am not this

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suffering; I am not this wanting; I am not this agent or ego. We do not know what step-

by-step training leads to such a radical realignment of self, although it would seem to

involve persistent interior examination. Psychologically, it would seem that the process

of philosophical understanding, the paradigm shift from what masquerades as real to

what is true, requires a moment-to-moment, experience to experience discrimination. Is

that not akin to meditation and realization? Of course, some writers adamantly disagree

on its effectiveness. Feuerstein (2001) attacked the method, the dualism, and the lack of

theism of classical Sāmkhya as inadequate (p. 198; p. 240), and justified dualism as a

necessary response to the rise of Buddhism (p. 198). On the other hand, Radhakrishnan

and Moore (1989) wrote that, of course, discriminative knowledge is not abstract, it is the

product of "virtue and yoga" (p. 425). Larson (1987) pointed out that Sāmkhya proposes

a "progressive sequence of reflective discriminations that naturally or spontaneously

leads to the desired goal", while yoga uses a "rigorous meditative praxis that is a

prerequisite for reflective discrimination" (p. 28). However, he added, the difference may

be one of emphasis, particularly in regard to the importance of intellect over will (pp. 28-

29).

If one takes the stance that discriminative knowledge in Sāmkhya is an analytical

or academic exercise, then there can be no comparison between the path of the yogi and

the path of the follower of Sāmkhya. However, the goal of Sāmkhya is metaphysical, not

merely analytical, and in this system, discrimination and knowledge are understood to be

insightful and liberating. Zimmer (1974) pointed out that Vedānta and Sāmkhya both rely

on knowledge for enlightenment. Liberation is also attained through the "mind-

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amplifying practices of yoga" and other traditional paths. The end, the "miracle of Self-

recollection" is the same (p. 416).

Somewhere underlying the debate there might be a sense that one method is better

or right, but if this is truly an assumption, it seems misplaced. Indian philosophy and

Hinduism are quite comfortable with ambiguity and multiple solutions. Dasgupta's

(2005) quote from the Citradipa makes this point clearer. It says that for some, those with

minds honed by philosophy, Samkhya is enough. For those with scattered minds, the

discipline of yoga is a boon (p. 40). Perhaps this is the key to yoga's growing popularity

in the twenty-first century in America. Larson (2001) suggested that perhaps Sāmkhya

and Yoga "are kinds of Yoga" with different disciplines (p. 121). This idea is clearly

expressed in the earlier Bhagavad Gīta: "By meditation some perceive the Self in the self

by the self; others by the path of knowledge and still others by the path of works"

(Radhakrishnan, 2002, p. 310). In the spirit of the Bhagavad Gītā, a text of promoting

philosophical and religious cohesion, Radhakrishnan added that while humans may have

a predilection towards philosophy, devotion, or action, eventually "knowledge, love and

action mingle together" (p. 53).

Yoga's methodical refinement of the personality through meditation has far more

guideposts than provided in Sāmkhya. The path to freedom is unceasing elimination of all

that is not real, thereby isolating the witnessing consciousness from all else. The practice

is meditation, which systematically reduces the mental and emotional fluctuations of the

mind. Meditation is supported by study, devotion to a higher ideal, ethical behavior,

physical postures, breath control, and a weakening of the enticement of the senses. The

mind is initially trained by focusing on a cognitive object, sustaining the focus, and

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ultimately undoing the trappings of subject-object, and the object of attention becomes

more and more subtle.

Patañjali also provided a forewarning of the obstacles to success on the path.

Obstacles are distractions such as physical illness or lack of mental focus that derail the

yogi from the path. As a result of falling prey to these distractions, the yogi experiences

psychological distress, such as despair, depression, restlessness, instability, and disturbed

breathing. Thus either the distraction or its psychological result can be a warning to the

yogi. Repetition of OM and developing concentration will prevent the blocks and curb

the effects.

The Yoga Sutras are also far more forthcoming on the topic of ethical behavior.

Before ethical behavior, however, there exists a predisposing set of convictions, in this

case, the law of karma, held by all Indian systems save one (Dasgupta, 2005, p. 318).

Karma drives what situation presents itself in the moment and begs a choice; the choice

drives the repercussions that appear in the future. Thus, guidelines on ethical behavior in

Indian philosophy assume this basic understanding. The ethical behavior in the Yoga

Sūtras begins with the assertion of non-violence as the foundational concept, followed by

the enumeration of nine other observances. In addition, Patañjali tells us that calmness is

fostered by friendliness towards the happy, compassion for those in pain, joy in virtuous

action, and empathetic detachment for non-virtuous action. Negative or hurtful thoughts

arising from the unconscious cause pain and suffering. However, they can be neutralized

by cultivating positive thoughts. Ultimately, the advanced yogi's actions are neither good

nor bad; they just happen. Until that time, however, cultivating ethical behavior is

encouraged.

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Sāmkhya lays out no rules or vows, and some writers hint that Sāmkhya is devoid

of a system of ethics (Riepe, 1961, p. 212). However, this is not true (SK 23, 44, 50, and

51). Sāmkhya says that virtuous behavior (dharma) and vice affect the subtle body, that

which reincarnates. Since the mechanism is similar, meaning action strengthens or

weakens the traits and predispositions, and the intent is similar, meaning the reduction of

karmic effect, the result is similar to yoga.

Patañjali tells us that mastery of meditation (samyama) brings the perfect

regulation of the mind, the brilliance of insight, and deep wisdom. This samyama is

mastered step-by-step as the yogi learns to turn inward even more. Samyama using

different objects as stimuli will produce the various powers (siddhi) enumerated in the

third chapter. In Sämkhya, there are siddhi which are spiritual attainments and siddhi

which are supernatural powers linked to ignorance. The note to SK 51 in Chapter 4 gave

some detail on this comparison.

In yoga, there are warnings about the rise of supernatural powers, but the powers

themselves are recounted in some detail. For example, how does the power to know the

future arise? Patañjali offers the analogy of the transformation of clay to a jar and then to

dust. In samādhi, there is a deeper knowing of a form beyond its current state and time,

and insight into the form in its past, present, or future aspects results in knowledge. How

do other powers arise? Direct perception of one's own latent memory impressions

(samskāra) gives knowledge of one's own past births. Samyama on karma or on other

omens can reveal the time of one's death. Samyama on friendliness imbues one with the

energies or power of friendliness. Samyama on the strength of elephants gives strength,

and samyama on the light within (the finer activity of the mind) reveals knowledge of the

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subtle, hidden and remote. Samyama on the sun reveals knowledge of the world.

Samyama on the navel cakra gives the knowledge of the systems of the body. Samyama

on the crown cakra gives visions of adepts. Although these magnificent powers can

dazzle, Patañjali warns that they are obstacles to seedless samādhi, or samādhi without a

stimuli, and it is this path that leads to liberation.

While there are differences within the two systems in regard to practices, there is

a similarity of understanding and intent. Both classical Yoga and Sāmkhya are dualistic,

and essentially conceptualize the dualism in the same manner. Both posit an essential

error of ignorance, the ignorance of our true self and a confusion of egoism with

transcendent personality. Liberation or freedom for both systems is a radical isolation of

the witnessing consciousness from everything else. Both unravel this error through

phenomenological discrimination, not linguistic or logical discrimination, an alert

realignment of cognition, intelligence, and worldly personality. Yoga adds other

important means and supports, markers and caveats to guide the yogi. Catalina (1968)

made an interesting comparison:

Psychologically, the difference ... is one of emphasis ... Sāmkhya is a negative approach to the knowledge of the self, for the logical structure, while positive, is designed to distinguish what is not the self .... [Yoga is] a positive approach through a method of negating the effects of the prakrtic world .... Both systems insist upon the follower being of sound body and mind, ... virtuous and moral. (p. 88)

Patañjali tells us that there is insight before liberation that is wholly different than

insight gained from study/tradition and inference. The state prior to liberation actually

stops the formation of new conditioned memories, and eventually even the sense of I-am-

ness falls away. All that remains at this point are deep memory impressions. Kleśa, the

causes of suffering, die away. The cycle of cause and effect of action ceases. Knowledge

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is pure and infinite, and little remains to be known. Matter (prakrti) ceases its endless

transformation; its purpose is fulfilled. Now the flow of time, a sequence of discrete

movements, becomes visible or knowable.

Yogis can get lost in samādhi, merging consciousness with primordial matter.

Although the sutra is abstruse, it appears that this is another warning about the immense

power and possible pitfalls inherent in samādhi. For those yogis who remain devoted to

liberation, the effects of karma eventually dwindle, and even the faintest trances of

prakṛti dissolve. Iśvarakrishna is more poetic, using the analogy that just as a dancer

leaves the audience after performing, so prakrti will withdraw once she has shown herself

to purușa. In the light of discriminating knowledge, nature turns away from remaining

tendencies or predispositions of the buddhi.

Samādhi and Liberation

Patañjali makes several distinctions in describing samādhi, guideposts for states

largely beyond words. Eliade (1973) called these distinctions "an ascent" (p. 81), rather

than a stage. At first, there is concentration upon an object, idea, or word. The focus turns

more toward the subtle aspects of the object until eventually perception is abandoned,

leaving only the feeling of bliss in samädhi. All of this sounds fairly prescribed, yet what

is portrayed is the disintegration of the everyday personality, that construction of traits,

behaviors, and ambitions built on confusion about self.

This, however, is not the end. There is isolation of the aspect of citta which is

illumined intelligence (buddhi), and this aspect begins to reflect pure, witnessing

consciousness (purusa). When the yogi is able to distinguish between buddhi and purușa,

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there is a discontinuation of sense of self within the world. The yogi is in the world, yet

the everyday fascination, interplay, and attachment to the world dissolves.

The fourth chapter of the Yoga Sūtras describes how the mind of the yogi

becomes more and more inclined towards discernment and liberation. Everyday life is

full of desires, but these desires have an origin deep in the unconscious, results of

lifetimes of confused action. By quieting the mind in yoga, these threads of desires, the

reactions and emotions, are slowly unwound, producing an inclination towards

discernment, liberation, and true knowledge.

The last distinction of samādhi occurs when there is no cognitive support or

object upon which to focus. The highest aspect of prakrti in the individual, the buddhi,

retreats. Pure, witnessing consciousness, which has, in truth, always been free, is now

profoundly isolated. The yogi is liberated, completely unattached to desire, completely

unwrapped from the entanglements of karma. The endless transformations of nature

cease, and knowledge (jñāna) is pure.

A more technical delineation of the distinctions of samädhi in yoga, along with

the corresponding principles of Sämkhya and stages of the characteristics of nature

(gunas) are given in YS 1.51 in Chapter 4. Trying to match the categories of Sāmkhya

with the distinctions of samādhi is possible, if somewhat strained or untidy. The subject,

advanced states of consciousness, is largely beyond words. Yet there does exist a

correlation between the two systems. Samädhi in yoga and the principles of unfolding

nature (prakrti) in Sāmkhya are reversed images, involution and evolution, and there is a

decided interplay between the two texts in this regard.

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What would a liberated yogi be like? Actions would occur, but there would be no

actor. Situations would exist as a result of past karma, but the attachment would be gone.

Perhaps there is no experience of liberation, only indifference to experience. Actions at

this point would have no consequences, so actions could be anything, without limits

(Eliade, 1973, p. 34). Sāmkhya denies that suffering has anything to do with the real self.

Its "solution drives man outside of humanity, for it can be realized only through the

destruction of the human personality" (p. 35). Yoga is the same.

Sāmkhya tells us little about these states of consciousness, nor does it give many

clues about liberation. It simply says that as a result of the profound, discriminating

knowledge, the tendencies that drive the human being through lifetimes cease. For a short

time there is winding down, just as a potter's wheel continues to rotate for a short time

after the potter stops.

There is some interesting overlap of words in the two texts. The Sāmkhya system

is based on true knowledge. In English, knowledge is not often connected to the idea of

spiritual insight, therefore translations may lose some of the significance of this special

type of knowledge. In Sāmkhya, jñāna is the word used for this wisdom knowledge (SK

2, 64, 69, and in direct knowledge in SK 67). Discriminative knowledge (vijñāna) is the

practice; the knower, or purusha is jña (Larson, 2001, pp. 8-9). In verse SK 64, the word

kevalam is used for isolation or freedom. Kevalam becomes kaivalya in yoga, with the

same meaning (Monier-Williams, 2002, p. 426, p. 311). Jñāna is also the predisposition

that guides one towards freedom. The other word used is viveka, discrimination or

discernment, or classification according to the underlying reality or real properties

(Monier-Williams, pp. 987-988). It is interesting that in the Yoga Sūtras (YS 2.26) viveka

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is used as the discernment which produces nirodha. Two verses later (YS 2.28), Patañjali

tells us that the light of jñāna comes through the practices of yoga. In the fourth chapter,

Patañjali says that, for the advanced yogi, the citta is inclined towards discernment which

is the pathway to kaivalya. It does seem as if the path or inclination of the two texts has

some similarities.

The Principles of Evolution and Involution

Sāmkhya lays out a view of the cosmos in hopes that insight into its enumeration

will bring about self-realization. The terms evolution and evolutes are used to describe

this conceptualization. Yoga, on the other hand, is interested in describing the

phenomenology of the yogi's experience. This involution is expressed in the nuances of

samādhi, from one-pointed focus on concrete objects to embodied pure consciousness in

asamprajñāta samādhi. These levels or nuances of samādhi bear a close, if not exact,

resemblance to the evolutes of Sāmkhya, in reverse. Thus, the first evolute of Sāmkhya is

mahat, the principle of individuation on a cosmic level. The last stage of samādhi is the

distinction of this aspect for the individual.

Sāmkhya starts from two great principles, that of pure, witnessing consciousness

(purușa) and unmanifested or primordial matter. The universe, the world, and the

individual all flow from aspects of prakrti, and prakrti unfolds both for the cosmos and

the individual in the same way. In both Sāmkhya and Yoga, prakrti serves purușa; the

world serves consciousness. The practices of Yoga and the knowledge of Sāmkhya both

reverse the outward flow, taking the individual back to the beginning, the dual principles

of purușa and prakṛti.

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Purușa, or pure, passive, witnessing consciousness, is never really bound or

liberated or reborn. It exists for itself, and is unchangeable and separate. It continually

witnesses the individual's confusion and the mind's fluctuations. While purusa is

individual, it is not personal, since all personal identity is bound up with prakrti. Purușa

is simply the fact of consciousness, that which renders the individual human.

Prakrti is everything else. The usual translations are world, matter, or nature, but

whatever the translation, it is real in both Yoga and Sāmkhya. The world is a play of

forces (guna) which endlessly reform and transform. Gunas give the world substance,

energy, and light, and are reflected in our basic psychological states. Thus when the guna

of sattva dominates there is clarity, intelligence, light. When the guna of tamas dominates

there is darkness, weight, slowness, and stability; and when rajas dominates there is

energy, fire, force. Everything material is made up of the gunas, but there must be a

something beyond, else what is the purpose of nature? It is not mental states because they

are part of nature. The gunas can not exist, "save as oriented toward a single subject that

transcends experience" (Eliade, 1973, p. 25). Prakrti exists for purușa.

People may understand the same object differently because of their differing

perceptions. But the existence of a form is not dependent on perception. If an object were

not detected by anyone, would it still exist? In Yoga and Sāmkhya, the answer is yes.

Why does the world exist? Both Sāmkhya and Yoga repeat that matter exists for

consciousness. From cosmic intelligence (mahat) down to the most concrete, material

elements, the world exists in service to consciousness. The power of the phenomenal

world results from the proximity of the two great principles. Even divinities exist through

this proximity, and, like humans, even divinities are dissolvable into the dual principles

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(Jacobsen, 2002, p. 235). Writers have pondered over this duality, reading it as a

hierarchy of purusa over prakrti, and seeing it as nihilistic. Another possibility might be

that evolution and involution, in the Sämkhya and Yoga sense, are the processes of the

world experience, and they exist through, for, and because of consciousness.

Workings of the Mind, Ego, Memory, and Traits

Patañjali speaks much about the citta, or mind. Although Patañjali does not

always use Sāmkhya terminology, such a mapping has support. For example, citta is

more than the cognitive mind. It represents cognition, conditioned memory, higher

aspects or intelligence, and the ego or sense of self-all of the elements which make up

the everyday personality, minus the physical body. In Sāmkhya, buddhi (higher mind or

intellect), ahamkāra (ego), and manas (mind) together create this complex organ.

In Sāmkhya, the buddhi is characterized by predispositions which color or

characterize the individual. In yoga, the conditioned, distilled experiences of lifetimes

likewise color or characterize the everyday personality of the individual. The influence of

traits arises in the movements or whirlings (vrtti) of the mind. Thus the first goal of yoga

is to still or cease these whirlings. Patañjali identifies a list of fluctuations of the mind,

perhaps more practical than comprehensive. They are right knowledge, wrong

knowledge, conceptualization or imagination, sleep, and memory. Any of the five can be

temporarily helpful or hurtful for the yogi.

In Sāmkhya, the predispositions are called bhāva, and they are inherited and

modified over lifetimes. They reside in the subtle body, specifically in buddhi, and

determine the qualities of the embryo. In Sāmkhya, there are eight predispositions: merit,

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knowledge, nonattachment, power, and the reverse of each of these. When there is virtue,

then there is a movement upward on the scale of beings, and a downward movement with

vice. With true knowledge, one is liberated; with ignorance there is bondage. Only the

predisposition to knowledge (jñāna) leads to liberation.

Yoga provides more detail and insight into memory, traits, and the unconscious,

all working within the sphere of karma, the law of cause and effect. In yoga, the

unconscious traits (väsana) are the interweaving of karma, our mental substrate, and the

stimulus presented. The traits go on and on, driven to continue life and experience. They

are strengthened or weakened by action, and will arise again when the right conditions

are present.

Are the Samkhya and Yoga models of unconscious traits or predispositions the

same? Yoga does not categorize them as Samkhya does, although Yoga designates them

as meritorious or not. Neither Yoga nor Samkhya say that merit is enough for liberation,

although both support ethical behavior as a prerequisite. Sāmkhya identifies one

predisposition as the trait which fosters liberation; Yoga does not. However, both the

predispositions of Sämkhya and traits of Yoga work in a similar mode. Both define the

next reincarnation and explain the mechanism that links karma to the individual's life.

Both Sāmkhya and Yoga have a concept for I-am-ness, or ego, or individuation.

In Sāmkhya, the sense of self-identity is characterized by self-conceit, self-awareness and

egoity. In Yoga, asmitā or asmitā-mātra, is the aspect which creates an illusion of a

single self from the dual principles. In both systems, self-identity is ultimately ignorance

and a cause of suffering.

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One difference between Yoga and Sämkhya relates to the aspect which

reincarnates. Sāmkhya posits a subtle body that holds the essential karmic elements,

albeit without experience. The subtle body, being a body of sorts, has access to the subtle

perceptions. Changes in this subtle body occur with the experience of each lifetime. In

Yoga, only the citta is pervasive throughout lifetimes. Citta holds the unconscious traits

and impressions, the karmic residue that propels the need for experience in the next

lifetime.

Īśvara

In the literature review, several interpretations and opinions were offered on the

topic of īśvara, both Yoga's inclusion and Samkhya's exclusion. What was found in the

comparison of the texts? Iśvara and īśvara-praņidhāna (devotion to īśvara) are

mentioned in three separate places in the Yoga Sūtras. Iśvara is named in five verses, and

another seven verses refer back to īśvara or īśvara-praņidhāna. Thus, īśvara is neither

ignored, nor a central theme in yoga.

The first time īśvara is mentioned, Patañjali has just explained that success for the

yogi is dependent or quickened by intensity of practice, meaning by belief that the

practice works, by energy, by mindfulness, and by insight. Or, says Patañjali, success

comes or is speeded by aligning of attention or devotion to īśvara. Iśvara is the supreme

guru in whom the seed of all knowing is unsurpassed. Iśvara is a special type of purușa

not touched by karma. What does this mean? Iśvara is not phenomenal, not a creator, not

a majestic, powerful god, and not a "third category" (Gupta, 1986, p. 176). Rather, īśvara

is an individualized consciousness (purusa) that has always been free of the need, and

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thus the result, of experience. Repetition of OM is calling upon the essence of purity, and

the alignment that this chanting brings, removes any obstacles to practice thus reducing

the time needed for enlightenment. It is interesting that in Vyasa's commentary on YS 29,

he describes kaivalya, isolation, as beyond karma-in essence, reaching the state of

īśvara (Woods, 1914/2003, p. 63). This externalization of īśvara, a special purușa,

essentially reinforces the duality of the philosophy.

The second time īśvara is mentioned is in the practice īśvara-pranidhāna,

meaning devotion to iśvara. This appears as one of the three facets of the yoga of action

(kriyā), along with intense practice and study. The third occurrence is in the eight limbs

of yoga. In fact, the same three practices are repeated as part of the observances or ethical

foundations (niyama) underlying the eight-limbed path of yoga. Patañjali explains that

intense practice perfects the body and senses, self-study results in communication with

the chosen deity, and devotion is īśvara results in perfection of samādhi.

Thus, it is true that devotion to isvara appears in three aspects in the Yoga Sūtras.

It does not command the central role, as would the worship of a god in a religion. The

role of īśvara is to provide a focus for devotion, thus annihilating obstacles to freedom.

The obstacles are very real, understandable impediments to a yogi, such as physical

illness, apathy, doubt, sexual preoccupation, and lethargy. The chanting, or continual

whispering, of OM lends powerful assistance to overcome these obstacles. Given

Patañjali's practical orientation, the verbs, devotion and chanting, may be as important

than the concept or noun, īśvara. In other words, the act of concentration might be

rationale enough for īśvara's inclusion.

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CHAPTER 6

EPILOGUE

Overview

Although the immediate inquiry of this study dealt with the comparison of two

texts, the underlying question was how to approach a system from another culture that is

deemed both soteriological and psychological. While yoga and meditation are already

well-known in American psychological literature, little of the research involves historical

data. Using historical methods, adapted by Taylor for psychology, this study attempted to

expand the research base for these topics and expand the questions asked about yoga. In

this chapter, questions raised during the study are addressed, followed by a concluding

statement.

Reflections on the Study

This section explores four questions that arose during the study. While some of

this discussion is projective, it is based on considerable time with the texts, background

information, and the psychological framework that provided an entry to this material.

Why is the Connection Between the Two Texts Important?

As noted in the literature review, there are hundreds of years of debate and

discussion on these texts and their connection. This began only a few hundred years after

Patañjali with Vyāsa's 6th century commentary, which drew - too much for some critics -

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from his understanding of Sāmkhya (Whicher, 2000, p. 55). Sankara, however, the

founder of the Advaita Vedānta school, reinterprets Patañjali as being non-dual (pp. 5-8).

On the other hand, the 9th century scholar, Vacaspati Miśra, a follower of Vedānta,

retained the Sāmkhya structure (Leggett, 1992, p. 4), and so the list goes on. Yoga is a

living tradition, and shifts might be expected as new ages, cultures, and philosophies

encounter the material. Sankara said that people would not commit themselves to a

practice as intense as yoga unless they can accept both the goal and the means. In the

beginning, the interpretation of the experience is bound to be secondhand (Leggett, 1992,

p. 5). So the philosophy becomes an external tool to help interpret the internal

experience, at least at early stages of practice. In yoga, the internal experience is wordless

or largely wordless; the philosophy helps translate the encounter with a different level of

consciousness. Sankara's and later interpreters' reclothing of yoga in new garments helps

craft understanding and encourage belief. There is nothing inherently wrong with this; it

is just not where Patañjali started.

So why is the historic connection with Sāmkhya important to recognize? First, as

noted in the literature review, Sāmkhya and Yoga have a common, pre-Vedic, aboriginal

heritage (Zimmer, 1974). By the time they appear in the Bhagavad Gīta, they are merged

with the later orthodox views. This merging created the synthesized systems of later

Indian philosophy (p. 281). This does not mean Yoga and Sāmkhya are the same, but the

idea of the two systems interweaving and supporting each other has cohesion. Patañjali

chose or retained Samkhya to set the conceptual stage for the internal experience.

Second, as pointed out in the section on the history of Yoga, the connection with

Sāmkhya contrasts with how Yoga is often presented in America. Yoga's practices are

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appealing, but Sāmkhya's dualism is not, so it is, perhaps, easier to find a more

comfortable structure. However, if psychologists are willing to use the methods of

classical Yoga, it seems important to understand its history and goals.

Why Would Patañjali Describe Yoga in Dualistic Terms?

Patañjali gives not one, but three interrelated formulations of the path of Yoga.

The first is practice, non-attachment, and, depending on the reading, devotion to īśvara.

The second formulation is practice, study, and devotion to iśvara. The last formulation is

non-violence, non-grasping, a simple, ethical life, devotion to īśvara, and a practice

involving body, perception, breath, and cognitive focus. All of these steps contribute

towards internalization and non-attachment. Even the subtlest notions of self are detached

during the last stages of samadhi. Without non-attachment, the work fails. Feuerstein

(1989) put it well: "Practice without dispassion is conducive to an abnormal ego-inflation

and hunger for power and thus increased entanglement in things worldly" (p. 34).

Why would Patañjali describe yoga in dualistic terms? Sāmkhya and Yoga spring

from a similar heritage, and Patañjali was practical and single-minded. The dualism that

he described is well-suited to facilitate the non-attachment required for kaivalya, for even

the bliss must be discarded in the practice. Catalina (1968) pointed out that bliss is part of

purusha's nature in Vedānta, but bliss is pleasure in Sāmkhya, and thus part of prakrti (p.

63). Patañjali is interested in precision, in absolute isolation of consciousness "from the

earlier biography and all that it contained, discarding the mask of that apparent

personality" (Zimmer, 1974, pp. 309-310).

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Attachment in psychology often has a positive connotation because human

connection is valued, especially between parent and child, families, and social group.

Pathological attachment results in enmeshment, loss of conventional identity, a merging

of self into another or an egocentricism that prevents the empathetic understanding of

another identity. Attachment, at least in part, comes from proximity, physically or

mentally, and association of feelings, images, words, sounds, smells. There develops a

reliable affection, a bond. Humans pull toward what is pleasurable, and push away from

what is painful. In everyday language, when the term detached means there is a stepping

back, a lessening of the bond, a creation of cognitive distance, and a lack of emotion,

caring, or grasping. In everyday language, this may be referred to as being philosophical.

In yoga, all attachment is excessive. What stops the yogi is the whirling, grasping

mind. Thoughts, which are karmic actions themselves, create the confusion that ego is the

true personality, which is the basis of suffering. The first evolutes of prakrti, and the last

involutes of samādhi, are the principles of individuation and ego. As practice continues,

the conditioning revealed is ever so much subtler, trickier. Patañjali spends an enormous

amount of time, maybe a fifth of the sutras, warning advanced yogis that these last stages

of discrimination are not the end. The attainments acquired in practice can be powerful

and blissful, but Patañjali warns they are not self-realization.

The whole structure of the practice can be considered a choice between living

unconsciously and dissipating the unconscious through the means of conscious choice.

The unconscious perceptions, traits, habits, memories, habitual movements, cognitions,

physical inclinations, emotions, and energy, developed over lifetimes, are all content that

can be peeled away in the practice. Of course, not even a yogi lives without others, so the

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structure includes protocol for being in the world and making choices of non-attachment.

For example, calmness is fostered by friendliness towards the happy, compassion for

those in pain, joy in virtue, and empathetic detachment for non-virtue. The choice point at

each moment either leads to the continuity of conditioning or a moment of freedom. The

radical separation of consciousness and matter in Yoga seem to aid the purity of the

practice, preventing a false illusion that liberation has been reached when the ego is still

intact and in control. Many traditions propose that the grasping ego is the hindrance to be

released. Krishnamurti (1999) maintained that "religion is the cessation of the 'me,' and

action born of that silence" (p. 77). Sachdeva (1978) pointed out that yoga had no trouble

assuming that egolessness was possible, and in fact assumed that it was "a necessary pre-

requisite for the achievement of a completely integrated personality" (pp. 246-247). My

point is that Patañjali used a framework that supported the release of a grasping ego

efficaciously.

Earlier in this study, James's (1907) discussion of noetic pluralism was

mentioned. The experience of unity could be misleading if one assumed that the same

sense of unity existed for all, and it seems probable that merging of subject-object in

samādhi could elicit such feelings. It also seems possible that Patañjali's philosophy with

its twin principles, plurality of purusa, and praxis of discrimination, supports the practice

of non-attachment well. Sāmkhya-Yoga's dualism rejects the world as illusion, but

allows a place for consciousness beyond perception and awareness. This consciousness

has no content, no attainment, and no productivity, and therefore, all thought, feeling, and

action, except for the enlightened yogi, is attachment. In this sense, Patañjali posits the

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possibility of enlightened life within the world, but only after scouring the mind fully.

Before the final stage of full purity, ego is still running the show.

Larson (2001) pointed to the difference in Sāmkhya and Advaita Vedānta; the

latter offering elegance of the proposition that essence of a human will be found to be the

"bliss of Being itself ... of everything that is" (p. 234). Sämkhya, on the other hand, may

be somewhat less appealing since, at the core, there is no cosmic essence of Being at all.

In Sāmkhya:

The human condition generates itself and is finally the only agency for generating its own awareness of itself either as bound or free. Freedom for Sāmkhya is not a positive realization of what the human condition is. Freedom instead is precisely the realization of what the human condition is not ... there is no realization of a cosmic or metaphysical Self at the conclusion of the process of reflection or discrimination. (pp. 234-235)

What is the Importance of Iśvara in Yoga?

The literature review discussed the inclusion of īśvara in the Yoga Sūtras.

Harkening back to the idea that Patañjali was infinitely practical, whatever the

interpretation of īśvara, it seems that devotional activities were useful as a channel for

emotion and also a powerful focusing tool. It also seems possible that īśvara is a

sophisticated symbol for understanding and moving towards liberation. What is īśvara

but an individual purusa, one that was not touched by experience, not touched by karma,

and thus is purified for devotion? What is the yogi searching for but dissolution of the

traces of experience in order to reveal the individual purușa? Vascaptimicra defined

kaivalya as beyond karma, beyond birth and experience (Woods, 1914/2003, p. 63), and

īśvara is a pure consciousness that has always existed in that state.

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Iśvara is a symbol of becoming, the great guru and supreme guide. It is not īśvara

that removes the obstacles of sickness, doubt, sloth, and instability; it is the chanting

(japa) of the sound of īśvara, OM that removes the obstacles. It is the action, not the

symbol that is of highest importance. Perhaps Patañjali has masterfully crafted a

motivating symbol of realization and the path to realization at the same time.

Is Yoga Psychology?

Yoga as an inner science has many concerns in common with psychology, many

overlaps with humanistic and transpersonal psychology, and shares a belief in the

importance of the unconscious with depth psychology. Despite the terseness of the sutra

style, yoga starts with empathy for human suffering and a wish to alleviate pain in

thought and action. Success in this venture is available to all, dependent on effort and

time. There is a sense of the commonality of the human condition, living in ignorance

and suffering, yet all having the potential and innate drive towards self-realization. Many

clinicians share something similar: the concern for human suffering, a non-judgmental

stance, and a hope for something better for their clients.

But is there a yoga psychology? I would argue that yoga does not make a good

adjective; rather it seems more respectful to let it stand as a complete, living

philosophical system in pursuit of self-realization. In that pursuit, yoga covers much of

the same territory as modern psychology, but when uprooted, it loses much of its internal

consistency. Yoga is not simple. It is religious and spiritual, steeped in history, but

concerned with the immediacy of the moment. Yoga embraces concepts like karma and

rebirth that are alien to Judeo-Christian belief systems. It advocates a total system for

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transformation, including radical shifts in body and mind, and release of all attachments

and judgments. Yoga's goals are clear; psychology is still struggling with ideas of health,

conformity, and cures. Many of yoga's assertions do not translate comfortably, despite

Americans' growing familiarity with the practices.

Sachdeva (1978), holding both depth psychology and yoga in high regard, strove

to find the balance between psychology and yoga. He encouraged both Western

transpersonal psychologists, like Maslow whom he respected, and Indian psychologists,

to appreciate the differences and learn from each other. He pointed to Vyāsa's elaboration

on five stages of mind: agitated, stupefied or infatuated, oscillating or distracted, one-

pointed, and restrained or quiet (Woods, 1914/2003, p. 3) as one way to conceptualize the

differences. Most of Western psychology has looked at the lower levels of mind; yoga

has acknowledged the lower level, but focused on the last two stages.

Within the intact system of yoga lies a well-tested theory that addresses the

unconscious, drives and motivation, memory, behavioral change, stress management,

ethics, meaning, choice, and freedom, all terms which have meaning in psychology. Yoga

demands accountability for each thought and action through the workings of karma. That

accountability translates into integration and alignment of values, beliefs, thoughts,

actions, and identity. Yoga, at its heart, seems to me to be the continuing and confirming

experience of humans discerning what is real experientially, and adjusting to each

revelation with increasing depth. Reality in yoga has cultural and historical feet, and the

internal consistency of the system supports the experiential unfoldings.

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Conclusion

The comparison of the two texts revealed overlaps in purpose, foundational

concepts, and the process of involution and evolution. There were differences in

terminology, method, and variances in some concepts. Several sections in the Yoga

Sutras had no corresponding concepts in Samkhya. Differences would not be surprising.

since the texts come from two separate philosophical schools, and some similarities

simply reflect the common cultural and spiritual heritage. In total, however, the

connections and agreements between the texts are considerable, and the analysis

permitted an appreciation of the interplay. It did not highlight any reason to reinterpret

Patañjali through a different philosophical lens.

The application of historical research, text analysis, and interpretative analysis

greatly enriched my personal understanding of yoga's foundations. While it is clear that

commentaries, both ancient and modern, are useful guides, the texts themselves speak

loudly and with authority. The Sāmkhya Kārikās has much poetry and imagery that

carries the reader through the difficult task of defining both the cosmic evolution and a

path of self-realization in a few succinct verses. The Yoga Sūtras are relentless in their

intensity and focus. The vision is clear and the work is stripped of anything, which is not

indispensable to the practice. There is no attempt to be global or inclusive, and the only

extravagances in the text seem to be the many depictions of extraneous powers. Even

these serve as signals to attainment, and caveats for possible detours.

The two texts are both pointed and practical. The cosmos of Sāmkhya may not be

all that descriptive as science, but it is deeply descriptive of humanity's place in nature,

and it functions well as a basis of human psychology, perception, abilities, subtleties,

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conscious, and unconscious. For psychologists, it might be interesting to note that ancient

Sāmkhya had identified in some detail concepts that psychologist are still trying to

understand, like individuation, perception, memory, self-identity, ego, and consciousness.

Classical Yoga builds on these concepts to create an intricate replication of cognition and

an ethical and motivational theory, both comprehensive and flexible in use. Yoga is

certainly much more than a workbook, and 2,000 years later, people are still finding it

both an inspiration and a guide.

What are the implications of this study for psychology? First, the study generated

questions about what is happening when psychologists use yoga techniques in search of

physical, behavioral, or mental goals. The goals of Samkhya and Yoga had little to do

with social adjustment or even conventional mental health. I have no answers for this

concern, only twin feelings of interest in the possibilities and uneasiness. What happens

when these practices are continued? There seems to be intense interest in both expanding

yoga practices in America, as well as deepening the understanding of the practice. In

India there is cultural support for this type of spiritual search, a foundation of ethics, and

a chain of teachers. A radical shift in personality might not be considered psychotic. In

America, the foundations and support are less likely to be in place.

Second, speaking as someone fairly well versed in quantitative analysis, it seems

both obvious but important to assert the richness of the historical data. This richness

comes from the texts, but also from the lineage of scholars who developed methods and

fostered attitudes to respect historical data and religious experience. In particular, the line

from Wach, Eliade, Streng, and Taylor represents a disciplined, yet open approach to

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material such as this. Translating these methods and attitudes to psychology allows a

much more insightful approach to exploring non-Western epistemologies.

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APPENDIX A

SANSKRIT - ENGLISH GLOSSARY

Sanskrit words are italicized unless the word is used to designate philosophical schools. Proper names and names of Hindu gods are not italicized. Yoga, as a word in common usage in English, is not italicized. Sanskrit words used as adjectives, such as Vedic, are not italicized. All texts are italicized.

abhyāsa practice abhiniveśa the will to live, clinging to life adharma wrong behavior, demeritorious, vice, one of the bhāva adhyātma internal or personal, higher self, inner being Advaita Vedānta monistic philosophical school associated with Sankara ahamkāra I-am-ness, self-identity, ego ahimsā non-violence, the first and most basic ethical constraint of yoga aiśvarya mastery ajnāna no knowledge, ignorance ākāśa ether, space alińga unmanifested matter; primary matter ānanda bliss, joy ananta infinite, related to Vishnu, serpent bed of Vishnu, kuņdalinī apāna one of the five breaths: breath of lower limbs, elimination; change aparigraha non-possessiveness apavarga liberation, release āptavācana reliable authority asamprajñāta without cognitive support (in samādhi) āsana seat, posture aștānga eight limbs (of yoga) asmitā I-am-ness; probably buddhi or ahamkāra in SK āśraya mental-substrate, substratum asteya non-stealing Atharva Veda one of the four Vedas ātman self avidyā ignorance a-vijñāna without understanding aviśeșa unparticularized, invisible, atomic avyakta unmanifested, unevolved world Ayurveda ancient Indian system of health and healing

Bhagavad Gītā part of the Mahābhārata, literally song of god, teachings of Krsņa bhakti devotion bhāva predisposition, eight in Sāmkhya bhāsya commentary, explanation bhoga experience, enjoyment bhūta five gross elements: earth, water, fire, air, ether/space in Sāmkhya

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bīja seed brahmacarya acting in Brahman, spiritual resolution of desires, chastity Brahman Supreme Reality principle buddhi intellect/will, higher mind buddhīndriyas five senses: hearing, seeing, touching, tasting, smelling

cakra (chakra) energy center in the individual, literally wheel citi transformative awareness of Purușa or Seer citta conditioned mind, combined higher intellect, cognitive mind, and I-am-ness

dhāraņa focused concentration, fixed attention dharma meritorious behavior, duty, path, law, custom, factors of existence dhyāna meditation, follows dhārana, holding the focus draştr seer, purușa drșta perception dṛśya seen or seeable, perceived dveșa aversion, dislike

eka one, single ekāgratā one-pointedness

guņa quality, characteristic, constituent process guru teacher

hatha type of yoga emphasizing physical postures; literally sun and moon, connoting force

īśvara a pure purușa, chosen deity, lord īśvara-praņidhāna devotion to īśvara

japa recite, repeat, mutter, as with a mantra jña knower jñāna discriminating knowledge, a bhāva, or predisposition

kaivalya isolation, liberation, freedom kāraņa a material cause (mūlaprakṛti) karma or karman action, law of cause and effect of actions/thoughts. Also, karma yoga, action without ego incurring no effect, non-binding karmendriya five action capabilities: speaking, holding, moving, procreating, eliminating Katha one of the Upanişads kevalin In Jainism, one who is enlightened, fully free (Pali from Sanskrit kaivalya) kleśa hindrance, affliction, also pain krama sequential progression

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kriyā action, spiritual performances or disciplines kșaņa moments kuņdalinī serpent power, śakti in the individual kūrma tortoise

laya absorption, immersion lińga sign; mahat in SK (YS). Also symbol of Siva for worship. linga-mātra primary manifestation (the one manifestation, mahat) linga-śarīra subtle body, what reincarnates in Sāmkhya, 18 priniciples

Mahābhārata one of the great epics, literally Great India. mahābhūta gross elements: ether/space, wind, fire, water, earth mahat first principle of individuation (of cosmos), first evolute of prakrti Maitrayana one of the Upanişads manas cognitive mind, thinking mandala circle, aid for focus or devotion in meditation mantra sacred word or text, repeated or chanted, prayer or hymn mātra only, primary māyā the world as illusion

Mīmāmasā One of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy, coupled with Vedānta, as Yoga is with Sāmkhya mokșa liberation, freedom, spiritual release mudrā hand gesture, seal, can include other practices mukti or mukta mokșa mūlaprakṛti unmanifested nature, primordial materiality

nādī channel, usually subtle energy channel for prāna Nāgārjuna Indian Buddhist philosopher of the 2nd century C.E. nidrā sleep nirbīja without seed, meaning without a cognitive focus in meditation; the final stage of samādhi and samskāra, last stage in samādhi nirīśvara without or beyond īśvara nirodha ceasing, restriction, processing of ending niskriya beyond action or activities niyama restraint, in Patañjali, one of the eight limbs, includes cleanliness, contentment, intensity of practice, study, and devotion to īśvara Nyāya one of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy, logic

pāda foot, walking, motion; also means chapter or section, as in Yoga Sūtras pariņāma transformation, change Patañjali author of the Yoga Sūtras pradhāna synomyn for prakrti (materiality, nature)

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prajñā spiritual insight prakṛti matter, nature, manifested world/cosmos, materiality pramāņa knowing prāņa life force, breath; breath of heart and mouth praņava mystic sound, OM prāņāyāma practice of breath restraint pratiprasava return-to-source of the gunas, involution pratyaya immediately arising thought pratyayasarga intellectual creation pratyāhāra withdrawal of senses, one of the eight limbs of Patañjali's Yoga pravṛtti cognition, finer activity of the mind pūrana ancient lore, myths purușa pure, witnessing consciousness

rāga attachment, passion rajas one of the three gunas; activity, energy rāja royal, rāja yoga is the classical yoga path of Patañjali Ramayana Rg Veda epic story of Ram oldest of the four Vedas ṛși holy sage, inspired creator of holy texts rūpa form

sādhana spiritual practice sahasrāra crown cakra, literally 1,000 spokes Sakti feminine energy of cosmos, inherent capability, kuņdalinī sālambana supported samādhi absorption in meditation samāna one of the five breaths: breath of heart and stomach; digestion and social relationships samanvaya homogeneous, connected to samāpatti cognitive blending, coinciding Sāma Veda one of the four Vedas Sāmkhya one of the six orthodox schools of philosophy; literally, enumeration (of the cosmic elements) Sāmkhya Kārikās text by Iśvarakrsņa sāmkhya-pravācana exposition of Sāmkhya; how Vyasa ends his commentary Samkhyavrtti ancient commentary on Sāmkhya samprajñāta insight with cognitive object samsāra cycle of rebirth samskāra latent disposition, memory trace, subliminal activator, karmic effect samyama perfect regulation of citta (dhāraņā, dhyāna, and samādhi) samyoga correlation between Seer and Seeable (essential error) Śańkara Eighth century founder of Advaita Vedānta, also Shankara santosa contentment śāstra system of thought

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sattva guna of lightness satya truthfulness śauca purity, cleanliness savitarka sāmadhi with thought, mixed with words, meaning, concepts siddhi attainment, perfection Siva one of the three gods of the Hindu trinity, called the destroyer; associated with yoga and austerities. smrti memory; also, one of four categories of śāstra, with śruti, purāņa, and tantra, in this sense meaning teaching of sages and law sphota meaning, a theory of language śruti what is heard, direct revelation, as in the Vedas sūksma-śarīra subtle body, what reincarnates in Sāmkhya, 18 principles śūnyatā emptiness svādhyāya self study svarūpa essence, true nature

Taittiriya one of the Upanişads tamas guņa of inertia, heavy, dark, solid tanmātra subtle elements: Sound, touch, appearance, flavor, odor tantra doctrine, scientific work, systematic collection; relatively recent works divinely revealed tapas intensity in practice, austerity, ascetic practice tattva principle tejas fire, one of the elements triguņa three constituents or qualities of prakrti, three guņas

udāna one of the five breaths, flowing up; speaking and self-confidence Upanișads philosophical and mystical texts, after the Vedas upekșā indifference, equanimity, empathetic witnessing

vāc speaking Vācaspati Miśra 9th century commentator on most Indian philosophies vairāgya unattachment, dispassion Vaiśeşika one of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy vāsana karmic tendencies or traits over lifetimes veda sacred knowledge Vedas ancient sacred texts of Hindus Vedānta one of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy vicāra reflection vicāra samādhi subtle, reflective concentration on energy (subtle elements) videha without a body, dead vidyā wisdom, knowledge vijñāna discrimination vikalpa conceptualization viparyaya wrong knowledge, misperception virāma stopping, cessation

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vișaya object or content of awareness, experienced objects viśeșa specific, distinction, manifested aspects of guna Visishtadvaita theistic philosophical school of differentiated non-duality vitarka samādhi concentration upon (sense-perceived) object (thing, idea, word) viveka discernment, discrimination viveka-khyāti vision of the discernment between buddhi and purusa at liberation vṛtti fluctuations (of citta) vyakta manifest (world) vyāna diffused breath; one of the five breaths; homeostasis, unity Vyāsa also called Veda-vyāsa, author of oldest yoga sutra commentary, or Yoga-bhāsya. Sixth to seventh century.

Yajur Veda one of the four Vedas yama external restraint, one of the eight limbs of yoga; includes non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, chastity or sexual restraint, and non-possessiveness Yoga one of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy yoga all other uses of yoga, not italicized or capitalized Yoga Sūtras Text of classical yoga, by Patañjali

The definitions and transliterations were derived primarily from Colebrooke (1837), Houston (1995), Larson (1987), and Monier-Williams (2002). Three other sources were also used: Feuerstein (1989, 2000), and Zimmer (1974).

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APPENDIX B

Historical Timeline

Date Event or Text Sources and Alternatives

Early 3200-2600 B.C.E. Indus Valley Civilization Source: Parpola (2005) Mature 2600-1900 B.C.E. (Harrapa) Zimmer (1974): 3500-1500 B.C.E. Embree (1988): 3000-1500 B.C.E. 2000-1000 B.C.E. In-migration of Aryans Source: Zimmer (1974) Oral traditions Embree (1988): 2000-1400 B.C.E. Early: 1500-1000 B.C.E. Vedas Source: Jha (2004) Later: 1000- 600 B.C.E. Zimmer (1974): 1500-800 B.C.E. 800 B.C.E. and later Upanișads Source: Zimmer (1974)

563-483 B.C.E. Historical Buddha Source: Zimmer (1974)

500/600 B.C.E. to 200 C.E. Epic Period Source: Radhakrishnan & Moore (1989) 400 B.C.E. to 200 C.E. Ramāyāna Source: Zimmer (1974) 400 B.C.E. to 400 C.E. Mahābhārata/ Bhagavad Source: Zimmer (1974) Gītā Larson (1987): 200 B.C.E. to 200 C.E. 100 B.C.E. to 400 C.E. Pre-Karika-Sāmkhya Source: Larson (1987) No consensus Yoga Sūtras (YS) Zimmer (1974): 100-200 Most fall into the range of B.C.E. (Chapters 1-3; 400- 200 B.C.E. to 400 C.E. 500 C.E. for Chapter 4) Dasgupta (2005): 400-100 B.C.E. (p. 69) Larson (1987): 400-500 C.E. Woods (1914/2003): 300-500 C.E. Radhakrishnan & Moore (1989): 100-200 C.E. 350-450 C.E. Sāmkhya Kārikās (SK) Source: Larson (1987) Zimmer (1974): 400-500 C.E. Embree (1988): 300-500 C.E.

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557-569 C.E. Chinese translation of SK Source: Larson (1987) Implies text was already well-known 500-600 C.E. Gaudapāda commentary on Source: Larson (1987) Sāmkhya (Bhāsya) 500-700? C.E. Vyāsa commentary on Yoga Source: Larson (1987) Sūtras (Bhāsya). Oldest Woods (1914/2003): 650 to commentary. 850 C.E. 788-820/850 C.E. Śańkara (Advaita Vedānta) Source: Zimmer (1974)

850 C.E. Vācaspati Miśra Source: Radhakrishnan & Commentator Moore (1989) Larson (1987): Commentary on Sāmkhya 850 or 975 C.E.