1. Evolution of Raga and Tala in Indian Music Gautam M.R. MRML

M. R. Gautam

Evolution of

Rāga and Tāla

in Indian Music

Munshiram Manoharlal

Publishers Pvt Ltd.

dedicated

my guru

Thakur Jaideva Singh

Contents

Contents

Preface

vii

Introduction

ix

Acknowledgements

xv

List of Abbreviations

xvi

1

A Brief Historical Survey of Indian Music up to the Thirteenth Century

1

2

Vedic Music

12

3

Music as Depicted in Nāṭyaśāstra: Gāndharva Sangīta

35

4

Brhaddeśī of Mataṅga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

61

5

Sangita Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

104

6

A Brief Survey of Western Musical Aesthetics and Detailed Descriptions, Discussions of Indian Musical Aesthetics and its Practical Variations

145

ISBN 81-215-0442-2

This edition 1993

First published 1989

© 1989 Gautam, Madurai Ramaswami

Published and printed by

Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,

Post Box 5715, 54 Rani Jhansi Road,

New Delhi 110 055

vi

Contents

Contents

7

The Evolution of the Concept of Tāla

CHAPTER 7

The Evolution of the Concept of Tāla

The Evolution of the Concept of Tāla

217

8

CHAPTER 8

249

Conclusion

Introductory Note to the Appendices

259

Appendix I

260

Appendix II

272

Appendix III

274

Bibliography

275

Index

277

Preface

Preface

I shall be ever indebted to my revered guru Thakūr Jaideva Singh

whose never failing guidance in preparing this work, mainly

responsible for its completion. He gave me the full benefit of his

vast scholarship in the fields of music and musicology, Sanskrit,

occidental and oriental philosophies, yoga, philology, semantics,

morphology, teleology, ontology, etc., and helped me to get a syste-

matic vision of the various concepts of Indian music.

I also enjoyed the full benefit of his magnificent personal library.

Most of my reference books were available in it.

A list of abbreviations, used in this work, is given in the begin-

ning. A comprehensive chart showing the interpretation of the

various Deśī-tāla-s mentioned in the different texts, namely, Sangīta

Ratnākara, Sangīta Cūḍāmaṇi, Sangīta Sudhā, Sangīta Samaya-

sāra, Bharatārgava, Bharatabhāṣyam and Aumāpatyam, have been

given with analytical observations.

Bibliography of the books used for reference in this work, is

given at the end of it with an indication of the important concepts,

technical terms and historical perspectives mentioned therein.

In the chapter on tāla, due to lack of better signs, capital S has

been used to denote guru; capital I for laghu and zero for drutam.

7 June 1988

Calcutta

M.R. Gautam

Introduction

INDIAN music, in its sojourn in space and time may be divided, in a historical perspective into three phases: ancient, medieval, and modern. These may be regarded as ending approximately in the 13th cent. AD, 18th cent. AD, and our own times respectively.

Introduction

The chief relevance of history to any contemporary modality of life lies in the offer of objectivity, perspective and a method of evaluation of present trends and aspirations in the role of their shaping the future. A systematic, objective and critical study of the history of Indian music based on original source material is still, largely a desideratum.

Introduction

The present work is a humble attempt in this direction. It endeavours to set forth the conceptual evolution of two foundational and differentiating elements of Indian music viz. rāga and tāla. Indian music rests on the tripod of rāga, tāla and prabandha. These represent respectively the sound, time and structural aspects of musical experience. Prabandha, in the sense of form, worded or otherwise, emerges from a matrix of rāga and tāla. These two characterise and differentiate Indian music from all its compeers.

Introduction

They obtain, in a vast and varying usage in this huge subcontinent, uniformity and continuity in space and time from a textual hierarchy. To trace their evolution in, and from the large treasure house of textual sources, is both necessary and fascinating; necessary because of the need of rewriting our cultural history and fascinating and humbling-because of both the vastness of scope and the nature of the problems involved.

Introduction

The present volume deals with such an evolution during the first phase of Indian music viz. the ancient. It was originally written as a thesis for the degree of Ph.D. in the Banaras Hindu University under the guidance of that patriarch of contemporary Indian musicology, Padmabhushan Dr. Thakur Jaideva Singh, to whom the work is dedicated, with love and veneration. The book now

Introduction

appears substantially in its original form with but minor changes. It will be followed by a second volume in which the evolution of rāga and tāla in the second and third phases of Indian will be traced.

Introduction

The work is divided into eight chapters. The first chapter gives a brief account of the history of our music from the avuailble texts begining from Nāradīya Sikṣā upto the Sungīta Saroddhara in the 18th century ad. Many works on music apart from the Nāṭyaśāstra, Brhaddesī, and Sangīta Ratnākura, have been cited and an outline as to what they contain, has been given. For example, Sangīta Kulpataru, Sarasvatī hrdayālaṃkāra or Bharatabhāṣya by Nānya-deva, Sangīta Sudhākara by Haripala, Sangīta Ratnāvalī by Soma-bhūpāla, Sangīta Samayasāra by Pārśvadeva, Sṛṅgārahāra by the king of Śākaṃbarī, Sangītopanisadasāru by Sudhākalasa and other texts beyond 14th century ad, have been mentioned because of the significant information they contain regarding rāgā and tāla. From these texts, one gets an idea of the course of evolution of our music. For instance upto Bharata's time, i.e., 14 century ad, there were only five Mārgī tāla-s but by the 13th century ad, tāla had developed a great deal and we get the names of 130 tāla-s in Sṛṅ-gārahāra (13th cent.) Also one can see the gradual rise of gāna, i.e., Grāma and Desī rāga-s replacing Jātis. We also get a clear picture of the development of the śrutis, svaras (melodic) compositions, the connotations of technical terms of music like graha, aṃśa, nyāsa, apanyāsa, vādī, saṃvādī, alpatva, bahutva and even rāga from the study of the above texts. The emergence of the time-theory is signficant. No reference to this is found in Bharata's time. Even later, this theory was prevalent only in respect of Grāma and Desī rāga-s and never of Jāti-s.

Introduction

The second chapter is on Vedic music. After surveying the origin and evolution of the sāma scale and the sāman (sāma music), the solid fivefold contribution of Sāmaveda to our classical music is explained with illustrations. The fivefold contribution is (1) the notes of the funda:mental scale which later on became our primary tone-system, namely, Ṣadja grāma; (2) the origin of our Mūrchanā system; (3) the rudiments of aesthetics of our music; (4) the concept of laya; (5) the earliest system of notation, namely, the cheiro-nomic system.

Introduction

The third chapter is devoted entirely to Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra. It deals with the music as described by Bharata. Bharata refers to

Introduction

Gāndharva music, the music that was meant not only for the deva Gāndharvas as distinct from nṛa Gāndharvas but also the devas-divine beings themselves. He called it Mārga or spiritual music. Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra is the earliest comprehensive and authentic work of Indian music that gives a fairly clear picture of Gāndharva music as it existed in about ad 100 to 400 Bharata, while he refers to and defines the fundamentals of Gāndharva music in the above work, was mainly concerned with drama and his interest in music was only to the extent it could be applied to the former to augment the effect in different acts and scenes. Therefore it seems clear that his primary interest was not music as such but only applied music. In the context, he refers to particular Grāma rāga-s to be used in particular scenes. His stress on music has been predominantly in respect of its application to drama. The rasa-s described by Bharata relate to drama as represented on the stage. Music to him was another beautiful, artistic, effective device to bolster up the moods of the various scenes of the drama through appropriate thematic tunes. In the light of these facts, it will be clear that there is misconception among some scholars who write on Indian music oi reckoning the Nāṭyaśāstra as a text primarily in music. It is just possible that Bharata may have left out those aspects of our music which to him were not useful or germane to his main subject of interest, namely, drama. This is perhaps the reason that out of the thirty-six chapters in his work, he has devoted only four chapters to music.

Introduction

The two epics Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata also contain references to music. The former refers to Jāti-s only while the latter refers to Grāma rāga-s only. Similarly in the Harivaṃśa Purāṇa, there are references only to Grāma rāga-s. And again in the śikṣā texts, there is no mention of Jāti-s whereas Bharata deals with and describes Jāti, Mūrchanā and Grāma mainly in his work. Were there then two parallel streams of evolution in our music from ancient times which ultimately united in the present form of rāga and melā? Why and how was the name Grāma rāga given? Could it be a natural evolute ot Grāma as distinct from the Grāma-Mūrchanā Jāti cycle? Because Grāma rāga-s had some of the attributes of the present rāga in respect of form and expression whereas in the term jāti-rāga, the suffix rāga seems more in the nature of emphasising the charming (rañjakatva) aspects of the Jāti than in the technical sense of the word as known at present. These issues are discussed. Also detailed analysis of the structure of Jāti-s, their

xiii

Introduction

this text also would have been unintelligible and its utility greatly

Introduction

reduced.

Introduction

A separate chapter (Chapter six) on aesthetics has been provided

Introduction

on the practical devices as exísted in the period of Sangīta Ratnā-

Introduction

kara and before. It was also felt that the amazingly complex

Introduction

nomenclature of 96 sthāya-s, 6 kāku-s and 15 gamaka-s with their

Introduction

subtle ramifications deserve elucidation as they dealt with both rāga

Introduction

and tāla, and gave a clear picture as to the high state of evolution

Introduction

of our music. But there is no escaping the fact that the highly codi-

Introduction

fied sophisticated categorisations of the above devices und doubtedly

Introduction

inhibited the free play of imagination to a great extent. However

Introduction

the concept of improvisation was not unknown and special provi-

Introduction

sion was made for this under the category of anibaddha gāna

Introduction

(spontaneous as opposed to precomposed music). In the definitions

Introduction

of the various sthāyas, kākus and gamakas, several texts have been

Introduction

cited, namely Sangīta Ratnākara, Sangīta Sudhā, Sangīta Samaya-

Introduction

sāra, Caturdandī Prakāśikā and Sangīta Rāja.

Introduction

Also a separate chapter (Chapter seven) has been given to tāla

Introduction

because the concept and evolution of tāla is as significant as rāga.

Introduction

The origin of the concept of tāla from laya; the physical and

Introduction

psychological aspect of laya involving the concept of time and

Introduction

space in their absolute sense and the gradual scientific evolution of

Introduction

tāla into the main five Mārgi varieties, namely, Cañcatputa, Cācca-

Introduction

puta, Satpitāputraka, Udghāt!a and Sampkveṣṭaka. The subsequent

Introduction

fade out of the Mārgi tāla-s along with the Jāti-s, the resurgence of

Introduction

gāna with its Grāma and Deśī rāga-s and the enormous expansion

Introduction

of new tāla-s totalling more than 120 by 13th century AD, have all

Introduction

been dealt with in detail. The Mārgi and Deśī tāla systems have

Introduction

been critically analysed with illustrations. The subtle concept of

Introduction

time (kāla) itself in Bharata's period and as elucidated by Abhinava-

Introduction

gupta have been discussed. The manner of marking the tāla-s with

Introduction

the help of a tāladhara and ghana, the subsequent doing away

Introduction

with ghana in the Deśī tāla-s, i.e., the two distinct stages of deve-

Introduction

lopment of tāla, one in the time of Nātyaśāstra and the other in

Introduction

the time of Sangīta Ratnākara have been presented and discussed.

Introduction

The concept of graha and sannipāta has also been dealt with. The

Introduction

highly complex structure and system of our tāla-s, the mārga-s, the

Introduction

kāla-s and their evolution have been given in detail.

Introduction

The last chapter (Chapter eight) under 'Conclusion' traces the

Introduction

evolution of our music and shows how our musical traditions, in

characteristics, their intrinsic musicality or otherwise has been

given.

Chapter four is on the second phase of the evolution of our

music, namely, the gradual but steady transition from Jāti to

Grāma-Deśī rāga-s. In other words from Gāndharva sangīta to gāna.

This is clearly perceptible in the work Brhaddesī by Mataṅga attri-

buted to 7th-9th century AD. While Mataṅga describes Grāma-

Mūrchanā-Jāti briefly, he deals with Grāma and Deśī rāga-s,

Bhāṣā-s, Vibhāṣā-s, Antarabhāṣā-s. Gīti-s, Prabandha-s and certain

aspects of our music which were omitted by Bharata. His interpre-

tation of śruti is unique and he has given a more comprehensive

analysis of it than Bharata. Unfortunately the chapter on tāla is

lost and there one is unable to get a clear picture of the state in

which it was in his time.

The next chapter, i.e. Chapter five deals with the final phase of

evolution of our music upto the 13th century AD. This is available

in the Sangīta Ratnākara by Śārṅgadeva. Thi's is a magnificent, ex-

haustive work giving a classic elucidation of the information given

in both the Nātyaśāstra and Brhaddesī. But for this work, it may

have been difficult to understand the other texts fully. After ex-

plaining the Grāma-Mūrchanā-Jāti system, Śārṅgadeva takes the

examples of Jāti-s given in notation by Mataṅga and provides them

with suitable literary texts. Then he delineates on Grāma rāga-s,

Deśī rāga-s, Bhāṣā-s, Vibhāṣā-s, Antarabhāṣā-s. He also gives a list

of pūrvprasiddha and adhunāprasiddha rāga-s. Many rāga-s are

illustrated in notation. There are also Sanskrit compositions in

notation. In this chapter, the five Gīti-s, namely, Suddhā, Bhinnā,

Vesarā, Gauḍī and Sādhāriṇī, the four Aṅgas-Rāgāṅga, Baḍṣāṅga,

Kriyāṅga and Upāṅga are described and discussed. The ākṣiptikā-s

of the Grāma rāga-s belonging to both the Ṣaḍja and Madhyama

Grāmas, have been given and their descriptions by Mokṣadeva,

Kaśyapa, Śārṅgadeva and others have been analysed from the

point of view of melodiousness, feasibility in singing and in some

cases the innate contradictions in the derivation between the Grāma

rāga-s and their parent jāti-s. Wherever possible the Grāma and

Deśī rāga-s have been compared with the rāga-s current at present

both in Hindustānī and Karṇāṭaka music.

The illuminating commentaries of Källinātha and Simhabhūpāla

through a flood of light on the nature of music, musical instruments

that existed around that period. But for their graphic explanations,

xi

Introduction

elt

Introduction

spite of the several modifications and adjustments during the course

Introduction

of the centuries, have been maintained in essence throughout. How

Introduction

rāga and tāla have crystallised into their respective current forms,

Introduction

how Gāndharva music, considered as celestial music in Bharata's

Introduction

time, faded out yielding to gāna, how the very concept of Mārgi

Introduction

sangīta changed from spiritual music to classical aesthetic music by

Introduction

8th century AD, how Gāndharva music has also continued, although

Introduction

its form has undergone tremendous changes have been discussed,

Introduction

analysed and inferences drawn.

Introduction

Regarding gāna, a study of the 33rd Chapter of the Nāṭyaśāstra1

Introduction

was indeed revealing. Bharata has devoted an entire chapter on

Introduction

the state of gāna, which showed that another variety of music

Introduction

alongside Gāndharva music existed and was popular. The enlighten-

Introduction

ing commentary of Abhinavagupta2 throws a flood of light on the

Introduction

evolution of our music. Strangely most of the scholars of the

Introduction

Nāṭyaśāstra appear to have missed this chapter and have taken

Introduction

Gāndharva music to be the only noteworthy music and have traced

Introduction

all subsequent evolution to it.

Introduction

The evolution of our music has moved along different paths—

Introduction

along by ways and highways, in a complicated fashion. It is

Introduction

difficult to disentangle the various influences that have gone into

Introduction

the making of our music as it exists today. An attempt has been

Introduction

made to give as scientific analysis of the main factors that have

Introduction

contributed to the evolution of our music as is possible on the

Introduction

basis of the available texts.

Introduction

A study of the book will show that our present music is derived

Introduction

more from gāna rather than from Gāndharva musjc though the ten

Introduction

characteristics of the Jāti-s mentioned by Bharata are still retained

Introduction

in some form or the other.

Introduction

1Nā. Śā., Baroda edn., 1964, p. 33.

Introduction

2Ibid., vol. IV, pp. 393-94.

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

GRATEFUL acknowledgement is made to the following:

Acknowledgements

Padmabhushana Dr. Thakur Jaideva Singh, my guru, for his

Acknowledgements

paternal affection, free access to his wisdom, erudition and his vast

Acknowledgements

library. He was a perennial source of inspiration and encourage-

Acknowledgements

ment in my life.

Acknowledgements

My dear friend Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. R. Sathyanarayana,

Acknowledgements

a renowned authority on Indian music and dance for his scholarly

Acknowledgements

ideas and suggestions in the preparation of this volume.

Acknowledgements

The late Dr. R.K. Shringy for some suggestions on the chapter

Acknowledgements

on tāla in this work.

Acknowledgements

The Banares Hindu University for permission to publish the

Acknowledgements

original doctoral thesis in the present form.

List of Abbreviations

Nā. Śi. Nāradiya Śikṣā Nā. Śā. Nāṭyaśāstra Brhd. Brhaddesī S. S.s. Sangīta Samayasāra S. R. Sangīta Ratnākara S. S. Sangīta Sudhā S. Rā. Sangīta Rāja C. P. Caturdandī Prakāśikā S. C. Sangīta Cūdāmani B. B. Bharatabhāṣyam B. A. Bharatarṇavam M. U. Mānasollāsa Bh. K. Bharata Kośa R. D. Rāga Darpana S. S.a. Sangīta Sārāmrta D. Dattilam

1

A Brief Historical Survey of Indian Music up to the Thirteenth Century

INDIAN music is ancient. Its origin is traced to Sāmaveda. But a brief historical survey will give us the important works on it, and thereby enlighten us in its evolution. But it is a melancholy fact that most of the works on Indian music are not available, and whatsoever available, in manuscripts, are in such dilapidated, precarious condition that it would be dangerous even to touch them. Many of them are available only in parts.

1

A Brief Historical Survey of Indian Music up to the Thirteenth Century

While Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra (Nā. Śā.), is the most authentic and comprehensive work on Indian music, although its main subject of interest was drama, Nāradiya Śikṣā (Nā. Śi.), is considered an earlier work than Nā. Śā. While the Nā. Śā. is ascribed between the first cent. BC to third cent. AD, Nā. Śi. is attributed to 150 BC, or over a century earlier to Nā. Śā. In the latter, the main subject matter is Vedic music followed by Grāma rāgas. Strangely there is no reference to Jāti. Whereas in the Nā. Śā., there is a comprehensive description of the Grāma-Mūrchanā-Jāti system, the system of evolving the 22 śrutis etc., but hardly any description or discussion of Grāma rāga except as a mood-augmenting mode in particular scenes just before their commencement. This, in fact, appears to be more an interpolation than the work of Bharata. Nā. Śi. deals with the origin of the sāma-scale, krusta, prathama, dvitīya, tritīya, caturthā, mandra and atisvārya (detailed discussion on this topic is done in the chap. 2). The work also mentions the six Grāma rāgas namely Madhyama Grāma, Ṣadja Grāma, Sādhāritā, Pañcama, Kaiśika, Ṣādava and Kaiśikamadhyamā. But the structure and form of the rāgas are not given, with the result one cannot get an idea of the svara-arrangement of the above rāgas. But the real significant point is that the term rāga has been used, in its technical sense, whereas in the Nā. Śā. it has been used only in the literal sense of pleasing.

1

A Brief Historical Survey of Indian Music up to the Thirteenth Century

My contention is that this indeed is a very important landmark in

2

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

the history of Indian music. Because the general belief is that Jāti

is the matrix of the rāga which followed it. But the fact that Grāma

rāga existed contemporaneously with Jāti, shows that there were

two parallel streams of evolution in Indian music i.e., Grāma rāga

and Jāti. It appears that at different periods Jāti and Grāma rāga

were alternately in vogue or comparatively more prominent. For

instance, in the two epics, Rāmāyana and Mahābhārata, the former

refers at several places to Jāti, with hardly any reference to Grāma

rāga whereas in the latter, there is hardly any mention of Jāti but

several references to Grāma rāgas. Therefore it is difficult to state

which of the above two forms was earlier. These two streams

alternately flowed smoothly for sometime and then fell into rough

waters. We find that Bharata considered Jāti as Gāndharva Sangīta,

a music that pleased not only men of learning (aesthetes) but also

the Gāndharvas and gods. He apparently classified Grāma rāga

under gāna which he considered as inferior to Jāti. Therefore he

hardly says anything about Grāma rāgas. He called Jāti as 'Mārgi

Sangīta. But we find Grāma rāga gaining in prominence by about

the eighth-ninth cent. AD when it came to be called Mārgi Sangīta

i.e., in the time of Matanga. This means that the very connotation

of the term Mārgi underwent a change. The term that earlier de-

noted spiritual, celestial music (in Bharata's time) later on--in the

time of Matanga --came to mean more classical music as opposed

to folk. Thus the evolution of our music shows such dramatic

changes in concepts, composition and execution.

As Bharata's Nā. Śā. is discussed separately, I shall briefly re-

view some of the other texts on Indian music. Several names are

mentioned by Rāmakrishna Kavi, the great Savant, whose magnum

opus Bharata Koṣa has served one or two Sanskrit scholars to pass

off, as scholars in music as well. But the information given in it

about the contribution of many of the works is insignificant. For

example, Viśākila is mentioned as the next great author after

Bharata in the fourth cent. AD. Nothing is known about his work.

Śārdula, Viṣṇudharmottara, were two other authors, the titles of

their works are not known. They are believed to have been in

fourth or fifth cent. AD, definitely earlier than Matanga. Rāhul, a

Buddhist wrote on music in fifth cent. AD.

Then Matanga in ninth cent. AD wrote Brhaddesī which is

available only in parts. His main contribution was the 12-tone Mūr-

chand system, elaboration of the Jātis with notation, Grāma rāgas,

A Brief Historical Survey of Indian Music up to the Thirteenth Century

3

Bhāṣās, Vibhāṣās and Antarabhāṣās, description and examples of

Deśi rāgas and introduction of the Kinnarī viṇā.

Then we have Sarasvati Hrdayālankāra and Bharata Bhāṣya by

Nanyadeva attributed to AD 1080. It has 15 chaps. on music and

has a commentary on the music portion of Nā. Śā., (chaps. 28-36).

But it has a number of mistakes.

Sangīta Kalpataru is another text of the tenth cent. AD, because

Raja Bhoja quotes from it and Raja Bhoja lived in tenth cent.

Sangīta Sudhākara of Haripāla is well known. It was written in

AD 1175.

Then Abhilāṣitārtha Cintāmaṇi by Somesvara conteins a few

chaps. on vocal, instrumental music and dance. His work extends

to 1600 verses. His son Pratapa Cakravarty or Jagadeka Malla

wrote Sangīta Cintāmaṇi. Although this was a big work, only 1st,

2nd and 5th chaps. are available. Pārśvadeva, author of Sangīta

Sumayasāra has bodily lifted many verses from this.

Sangīta Ratnāvali is another text written in AD 1180, by Soma-

bhūpāla.

Then comes Sangīta Sumayasāra of Pārśvadeva almost contem-

porary with Sangīta Ratnākara of Śārṅgadeva. Of this work, the

1st chap. and half of the 2nd chap. are not available. It deals with

gamakas more lucidly than Sangīta Ratnākara.

Sangīta Ratnākara was written by Śārṅgadeva about AD 1230.

His ancestors came from Kaśmir and served the Yādavas of Deva-

giri. S.R. consists of seven chaps., i.e. (1) Svara, (2) Rāga, (3) Pra-

kiṛṇaka, (4) Prabandha, (5) Tāla, (6) Vadya, and (7) Nrtya.

Four commentaries have been written on it by Simhabhūpāla,

Keśava, Kāllinātha and Viṭṭala. Of these the commentaries of only

Simhabhūpāla and Kāllinātha are published. While Viṭṭala wrote

his commentary in Telugu, Keśava's commentary is not available.

Regarding other works of the thirteenth cent. AD, Śṛṅgārahāra

written by the king of Śākambhari, is the most significant. It is sup-

posed to have been written in AD 1300. The author has mentioned

old rāgas. He has also given 15 Janaka rāgas and 20 Bhāṣa rāgas

as obtained and derived from Yastika. In addition '53 Deśi rāgas

have also been mentioned. In the chap. on tāla, he has given 120

tālas.

It seems that between second and thirteenth cent. AD, there was a

tremendous upsurge of tāla construction, because in the Nā. Śā., a

total of five tālas is mentioned and by thirteenth cent. AD, 120

tālas had developed.

In this work, the author refers to several viṇās like Ekatantri,

Nakulā, Kinnarī and Ālāpinī. There are also chaps. on rasa, abhi-

naya and alaṅkāra.

Rasatvasamuccaya by Allarāja is a work consisting of five

chaps. of which four are devoted to music.

Mokṣadeva is another writer of the thirteenth cent. AD who has

written about Grāma rāgas. He has mentioned 50 rāgas that were

in vogue in his period (Pravartak rāgas).

Another important work on music is by king Madana in AD

1375. He was king of Delhi; he was a Telugu prince and author of

several works on dharmasāstras and music. Ananda-Sañjīvinī a

work of his was so scholarly that even Rānā Kumbha has quoted

from it in his Nityaratna Koṣa. Madana has mentioned 130 tālas

and has given their prastāras. Second chap. is on rāga, third chap.

is devoted to prabandha, but it abruptly ends here which may be

due to his death or loss of kingdom.

A Jain scholar Suddhakalasa wrote a book Sangītopanisadasāra

wherein he has referred to rare tālas among which Prthvikundala

is one. The book was written around AD 1350.

Sangītacandra by Vipradāsa of the fourteenth cent. AD, has only

one chap. on nrtya. His chap. on nrtta was commented upon by the

Nepal king Jyotirmal in Nepalese in AD 1625. The author quotes

Sārṅgadeva and hence must have been after him.

Devanabhaṭṭa and Devendra both lived in the fourteenth cent.

AD, and named their work Sangīta Muktāvalī. Both the authors

deal mainly with nrtta. The latter was a disciple of Rudrācārya

and probably lived in Gopācala (Gwalior).

Aumāpatam is a very significant work on music. It must have

been a huge book as it consisted of 30 chaps. The author Umāpaty

belonged to the Tamil region and appears to belong to some

school other than Bharata. A study of this text may throw fresh

light on the evolution of our music.

Viśvapradīp, written in AD 1350 is by a Mythila Brahmin Bhuva-

nānanda. The work exhaustively treats on musical topics. The

chap. I is on nāda, chap. II is on rāga, III on tāla, IV on gīta, V

on miscellaneous musical topics, and VI on musical instruments.

There are a total of 2600 verses.

Another text written about AD 1350. is by Śṛṅgāraśekhara. The

name of the text is Abhinayabhūṣaṇa. It treats incidentally on

music. Its main interest is dramatics and consists of 1060 verses.

The commentary is in Tamil.

Alaṅkāra Saṅgraha by Amṛtānanda probably written in the

thirteenth-fourteenth cent. AD consists of 13 chaps., each one ex-

tending up to 100-50.verses.

Aśokamalla was another well-known scholar whose book on

music is not available and its title also not known. The only

available section is on abhinaya consisting of 2000 verses. But he

extensively quotes from Hanumān, Kirtidhara, Kohala, Abhinava-

gupta and later writers.

Sangīta Śromāṇi was a very valuable work, because it was the

result of the joint effort of many scholars who were assembled at

a place called Kada (near Allahabad), situated between Jamuna

and Ganga in AD 1429 and was sponsored by king Sultan Shahi.

He organised an All India Conference on music and invited scho-

lars from all over the country. Hence the work that resulted was

based on all the important texts on music up to that time. But

unfortunately this work is completely lost.

Sangīta Dīpikā by Mādhava Bhaṭṭa about AD 1400, contains

descriptions of rāgas based on the rāga-rāgini system. The author

was a resident of Banaras and his work consists of 1000 verses.

Sangīta Ratnāvalī containing about 1000 verses on music is

attributed to AD 1200. This is also not available although other

subsequent authors quote from it.

Sangīta Kalpadrukṣa, Tālārṇava are two works of the fifteenth cent.

AD. The former has a commentary called Vistāra by Rai Gageśa

and the latter, as is evident from the title, was exclusively devoted

to tāla but is not available.

An additional word about Sangīta Ratnākara appears necessary.

Written by Sārṅgadeva about AD 1230, he was the third genera-

tion. His ancestors hailing from Kaśmīr settled down in Devagiri

(Aurangabad) under the Yādavas. Sārṅgadeva's grandfather was

Bhaskara, a great Sanskrit scholar who was invited by the Yādavas.

Sārṅgadeva's father was Sodhala who was patronised by king Sin-

ghana of the Yādava dynasty who ruled between AD 1210-47. He

was appointed Karagāgrani (accountant-general) by the same king.

In this work, which is perhaps the most valuable Nā. Sā.

the chap. on svara especially, contains theories which are contra-

dictory to the principles on which they are supposed to be based.

For instance Sārṅgadeva, while acclaiming Bharata's 22-śruti

arrangement in a saptaka, actually introduces fourteen notes within a saptaka. He mentions ten notes—five under niṣāda and five under gāndhāra, namely niṣāda (Pancacrutī, dha), kaiśika niṣāda, kākalī niṣāda, cyuta ṣadja, acyuta ṣadja, gāndhāra (Pancacrutī, re), sādhāraṇa gāndhāra, antara gāndhāra, cyuta madhyama, and acyuta madhyama. All the above svaras are that an interval of only one śruti whereas Bharata clearly states that the minimum difference of interval required between two svaras to be musically viable, is two śrutis. The strange consequence is that all subsequent scholars like Rāmāmātya, Somanātha, Puṇḍarīka, Tuljādhipa, Bhāvabhaṭṭa, have all blindly followed Śāṛngadeva while at the same time upholding the śruti-arrangement principle of Bharata. They have tried to establish fourteen svaras within twenty-two śrutis. Therefore either the number of śrutis within the saptaka has to be increased. to at least twenty-eight or Bharata's entire svara-arrangement scrapped.

In this context, Matanga's understanding and definition of śruti aśrayī bhāva:1 with two kinds of śrutis namely antaraśruti and sva-śruti is most convincing.

A work entitled Bālabodhan of about AD 1350, is a valuable commentary on the Nā. Śā., because it quotes and refers to all the previous commentators on the Nā. Śā., like Udbhata, Lollaṭa, Śankūka, Ghaṇṭaka, Kīrtīdhara, Abhinavagupta, Jagadekamalla and Śrirangarāja, Śrirangarāja's reference in the above work is found in Bhāṣya Vākhyāla of Acyuta Rāya of Vijanagar (AD 1530-44) Bālabodhan is not available now.

The next important text on music after S.R. is Sangīta Rāj (Sa. Rāj.) of Mahārāṇa Kumbhakaraṇa of Citrakūṭa (now known as Chittoor). It was written in AD.1449. He was also a commentator of Gīta Govinda. What is most amazing is how he found time to do so much creative work in the midst of fighting 30 battles and building nearly 40 fortresses.

Sa. Rāj closely adheres to S.R., but at many places there are supplemented commentaries with quotations from Abhinavagupta and Vipradāsa, Aśokamalla, Devendra, Madana and Sangīta Siro-mani (by Pandita Mandali). Sa. Raj and Gīta Govinda have been referred to by Mahārāṇa Kumbha's son in his inscription of about AD 1480.

1 Brhaddeśi. Trivandrum, p. 8.

6 Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

A Brief Historical Survey of Indian Music up to the Thirteenth Century 7

1. Sangīta Cintāmaṇi, another unavailable work of about AD 1400, is by Vāmabhūpāla, king of Konḍavīḍu in Andhra Pradeśa.

Sangīta Sarvasva, a work of about AD 1500, was by Jagaddhara who called himself Sarasvatidāsa. Only a portion of the manuscript is available. There are references to a king Udayavatsa, probably of Orissa or Bengal.

Sangīta Dāmodara of Śubhankara is on music, poetics and dramatics. There is a description of the status of different schools of music prevalent then. There are references to Sangīta Cintāmaṇi.

Kohala's work is unavailable and it is known through quotations given by Abhinavagupta.

Sangīta Sūryodayā is another important work of the sixteenth cent. AD. The author Laxminārāyaṇa wrote this under the auspices and behest of king Krṣṇadeva Rāya who ruled Vijayanagar from AD 1509 to 1530. He deals with tāla, prabandha and nrtta. He altogether omits rāga. He has mentioned the names of 100 new tālas. He says that, his father wrote a commentary in Telugu on S.R. He also mentions that his father received 3000 tolās of gold from Ghiazuddin, Sultan of Mānḍoa in Gujarat.

Tālakalāvardhi, an exhaustive work on tālas, unfortunately not available now, is very valuable as it contains references to almost all the important texts on music. The author Acyuta Rāya, was the brother of king Krṣṇadeva Rāya. He discusses everything on tāla that was current then quoting from Sangīta Chandrodaya, Maṇidarpana, Vīdyāvinoda, Caturśabha Vīlāsa. Tālakalā Vīlāsa, Nrtya Cūḍāmaṇi, Kātyāyana, Sangītārṇava and Rangarāja's Bharata Bhāṣya. Unfortunately not a single work cited above, is available today.

Svarāmelakalānidhi by Rāmāmātya is available, and quite well known. It was written in AD 1550. He was the father of melā system of classification of rāgas, later followed by Pt. Venkatamakhin. He refers to svayamblu antara gāndhāra and śuddha.dhaivata. He deals mainly with Karṇātaka music and describes various viṇās.

Amātya means minister and hence there is a controversy as to his identity whether he was the same person who died in the battle Tallikoṭṭa or Alīya Rāmāmātya.

Puṇḍarīka Viṭṭala wrote several books on music. He also dealt mainly with Karṇātaka music. He belonged to a village called Śivaganga in Karṇāṭa. The books were written between AD 1560-70.

They were Ṣadrāga Candrodaya, Nartana Nirṇaya, Rāga Mālā, and Rāga Manjarī. He was also an adherent of the melā system. The significant aspect of this contribution is his reference to Persian maqāms which had, by then, come into vogue in this country. But he mentions their origin in Indian rāgas. For example, he mentions the names of 15 maqāms derived from Indian rāgas. They are as follows:

Persian Maqām Indian Rāga or Melā

1. Rahāvi derived from Devagāndhār

2. Niṣāvar derived from Kānaḍā melā

3. Māhūr derived from Sāran̄g melā

4. Jangūlā derived from Bangāl melā

5. Āhang derived from Deśī rāga

6. Bārā derived from Malhār

7. Sūhvā derived from Kedāra

8. Irāqya derived from Dhanāsri

9. Hussainī derived from Jaijaivanti

10. Muslik derived from Mālav

11. Yaman derived from Kalyāṇ

12. Sarpardā derived from Bilāval

13. Vakrez derived from Deśakār

14. Hijāz derived from Āśāverī

15. Muśk (????) derived from Devagiri

Rasakaumudī is another important work by Śrikanṭha who flourished in the court of Śatruśalya, a Jain dynasty which ruled over Jamnagar. This was written in AD 1583. The first five chapt. are described and rāgas are classified into 15 melās. He also refers to svayambhu svaras.

Rāga Vibodha by Somanātha written in AD 1609, contains also a commentary by the author. He has described the Rudra vīṇā, Ṣuddha and Madhya melā vīṇās and given 23 melās as predominant. He has also followed Sārṅgadeva in establishing more than nine svaras. In fact where Sārṅgadeva has shown fourteen svaras in a saptaka, Somanātha has established seventeen.

Sangīta Sudhā was by king Raghuṇātha of Thanjavur in AD 1620.

Some believe that it was actually written by Govinda Dixit. There are a few poems both in Sanskrit and Telugu, Karṇātaka music was at its zenith under his patronage. Ṣuddha and Madhya melā vīṇās are described. As in Rasakaumudī, 15 melās are mentioned as predominant and details of 50 rāgas are given which were popular in his time. 264 rāgas as given by Sārṅgadeva, are defined on the chap. on rāgas.

Caturdaṇḍī Prakāśikā was written by Pandit Venkatamakhin in AD 1630. The author introduced 72 melās. He was the son of Govinda Dixit. He also has described the Ṣuddha and Madhya melā vīṇās. He also introduced his own type of vīṇā called the Venkaṭadhvarl vīṇā which went into oblivion in its own lifetime. He criticises and abuses the author of Svaramelakalānidhi, Rāmāmātya profusely. He deals mainly with gīta, prabandha and tāla. Sāla-gasūḍa prabandha was the only prabandha which was called gīta. The first person to introduce Caturdaṇḍī was Gopāl Nāyak.

Sangīta Darpana by Dāmodar Miśra was written in AD 1630. It contains five chaps. which deal with gīta, tāla and nrtya.

Sangīta Cūdāmaṇī by Govinda a work of the seventeenth century probably AD 1680, is very valuable because it was this author who made the various modifications on the vīṇā, now in use and settled the controversy of the 72 melakartas. The new terms he coined and the coinstruction of the vīṇā have survived to this day. His exact whereabouts and time are not known. He must have been someone in South India.

Sangīta Sārāmṛta was written by king Tulaja in AD 1729-35 in Sanskrit. It has enumerated 29 melās beginning from Śrīrāga. In some places he has deviated from Caturdaṇḍī Prakāśikā.

Sangīta Pārijāta by Pt: Ahobala was written in about AD 1650 and 1700. He followed the principle of śrutis and took kāft as the principle scale. He shows the method of establishing the śuddha and vikṛta svaras on the sounding wire of the vīṇā. In other words, he shows the method of expressing the śuddha and vikṛta svaras in terms of the length of the speaking wire of the vīṇā in exactly the same way as shown by Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva in his Hṛdayaprakāśa. He has also described several Hindustānī music rāgas.

Sangīta Sāroddhara was a work composed by Ranganātha of Śrīrangapaṭṇam in about AD 1750. He was a good Vedic scholar. His book is valuable in furnishing Vedic quotations.

Parameśvara, an author, the title of whose work is not known, would be very useful to vīṇā players as he has written six chaps. on the technique of vīṇā playing. The work may have been written in about AD 1750.

Thus the history of Indian music shows that by and large most of the authors have followed two works mainly, namely Nā. Śā., and S.R. A survey of the course that our music has taken also indicates that the Grāma-Mūrchanā-Jāti system which Bharata exerted so much, practically faded out by the ninth cent. AD, and what Bharata considered as inferior music i.e., gāna, under which he classified Grāma rāgas, supplanted Jāti and assumed the primary form of classical music. Grāma rāga became so popular that the term Mārgi Sangīta which was used exclusively for Jāti gāna came to be used to denote Jāti, Grāma rāga, Bhāṣā, Vibhāṣā and Antara-bhāṣā. In other words, what was considered Deśī Sangīta in Bharata's time cāme to be reckoned as Mārgi Sangīta in Matanga's time (ninth cent. AD). In Matanga's time Deśī Sangīta was regional stylised music as opposed to unstylised folk music.

But by and large, up to the thirteenth cent. AD, especially the period between tenth and thirteenth cent. AD, there was a spate of scholarly works on music, but there was not much original contribution, in the works. There was repetition of the same theory of Grāma, Mūrchanā, Jāti, rāgas, tālas and nrtta, nrtya and musical instruments. Many have quoted Nā. Śā., and its commentators. Many of the works are not available at all, some of them which are available are only in parts.

But one regrettable fact is that none of the musicologists thought it necessary and desirable to give a detailed description of the classical music that was in vogue in their respective periods. We have names of several rāgas mentioned with their Bhāṣās, Vibhāṣās and Antarabhāṣās but their actual musical forms are not given in notation. Similarly varieties of prabandhās are described but their musical structure is unintelligible. Similarly gamakas, sthāyas and other technical terms of music are described without clear examples.

Nevertheless one gets an idea of the evolution of rāga and tāla in the course of the thirteenth cent. The word rāga which was used in its literal sense in Bharata's time evolved into a highly stylised form and became the very foundation of our music. It took in all the lakṣanas of its predecessor Jāti and added a few more like

anuvādī, vivādī, although the importance of gr.ha, amśa, alpatva, bahutva, lessened with the fading out of the Jāti-gāna.

The new feature in the evolution of the rāga was the introduction of the time-theory. Bharata does not mention this aspect at all but Śārngadeva while defining the Grāma rāgds clearly specifies the time-theory governing them. It has not been possible to trace its origin and exact period. But the significant point is that the musical structure and aesthetics forms began to be associated with the diurnal and nocturnal cycles, and some inscrutable relationship established between the intrinsic expressive quality of the svaras and the particular time of day and night This indicates the realisation of the integration of sound and light in nature and how it is correlated in music. This in itself may open out a new field of research. In this age of highly technological specialisation, it may not be difficult to scientificaly investigate the exact correlation between the svara and varying degrees of light and shade.

The time-theory came and is still lingering in the North but has disappeared altogether in the South.

The other feature regarding tāla. There was tremendous progress in tāla. Especially in the period between eleventh and fourteenth cent . there appears to have been great emphasis on tāla. From the five tālas mentioned by Bharata and Mataṅga, one finds 108 tālas mentioned by Śārngadeva, Hammīra, in his work Śṛṅgārahāra (AD 1300) also refers to 120 tālas; Madana (AD 1375) has referred to 130 tālas in his work Ananda Sanjīvini, Sangītopanisadsāra (AD 1350) gives several examples of rare tālas; and later texts like Sangīta Sūryodaya and Tālakalāvardhi have devoted special attention to tālas. But the earlier five tālas-cācatputa, rancatputa, saṭpitā-putraka, udghāṭṭa and sampakveṣṭaka were reckoned as Mārgi tālas and subsequent expansion of tālas was of Deśī tālas. But in the marking of these tālas, there was a steady rationalisation of the details of procedure. The earlier intricacies were lessened considerably in later Deśī tālas. This is discussed in a separate chap.

As regards the evolution of composition, prabandhas held sway from Bharata's time up to about the eleventh-twelfth cent. But by the time, Śārngadeva wrote his book, prabandha appears to have gone out of vogue and its place taken by other forms notably rūpakālaptī. This was the model on which khayāl evolved.

2

Vedic Music

THAT our music originated from the Sāmaveda is now a matter of common knowledge. But it is very interesting when one studies the origin and evolution of the sāma-scale. The period of the Vedas is still a matter of controversy. According to Western scholars like Max Müller and Winternitz they came into existence about 2000 to 1500 BC whereas Lokmānya Tilak maintains according to the description given in the Rgveda of the position of the various planets then-that the Vedas were in vogue from 10,000 BC. Whatever it be, whether 2,000 or 10,000 BC, it still is the most ancient literature in human history. So our music is consider- ably developed in the time of Sāmaveda.

2

Vedic Music

The Nāradīya Śikṣā mentions the beginning of the sāma scale. S.R. also mentions it and Kāllinātha has given a description of the evolution of the svaras of the scale from a single svara to a saptaka.

2

Vedic Music

The first music consisting of one svara was ārcikā from the Sanskrit root ṛca (ऋच्) which means a Rgvedic hymn. The adjectival form of ṛk is ऋष् which means pertaining to ṛk (ऋक्). In other words ārcikā denotes a musical chant chanted by Rgvedic reciters. Kāllinātha states it is repetition of one svara or chanting on one svara, e.g., aum, aum, aum on sa or any other svara. There is a great profundity in the content and significance of the word. Words are but the result of vibration. Indian Yoga and Tantra have expounded this aspect of nāda, marvellously. They describe four stages from the gross physical to the mental, then supramen- tal and transcendental states. The gross physical is vaikharī, the second stage is madhyamā. The third is paśyantī and the fourth is parāvak. In almost all the religions, the word has been referred to as the beginning of creation. In Hinduism it is AUM, Christianity also begins with the word. In other words in that state of nascent creation i.e., the state of parāvāk, the word is no other than the

2

Vedic Music

content and the referent. This has a significant implication that the entire creation of the universe is the result of 'Divine Imagina- tion or thought.' In this state, thought, word and the thing are one. Para means highest; vak means thought-vibration. Paśyantī is a state where a vision of the configuration of nāda starts. Madhyamā is that state where thought-feeling prevails without verbal expression. Vaikharī is the state of the senses where experience is had through the direct employment of the five senses of hearing, seeing, touching, smelling and tasting and verbalization starts. Brahma means mantra or word. Bhāhmanā is the text that explains the Vedas. The Āraṇyakā pertains to the knowledge developed through meditation in the forest i.e., the text in which truths mentioned in the Vedas are given as experienced by man. Upaniṣada deals with fundamental metaphysics and the path of spiritualisation as expounded in the Vedas.

2

Vedic Music

As stated earlier the earliest form of musical chant began with one svara known as ārcikā. S.R mentions in verse 39, p. 120 in vol. I as follows:

2

Vedic Music

आर्चिको गाथिकश्चैव च सामिको च स्वरान्तरः । एक स्वरादितानां चतुर्णाममिधा इमाः ॥

2

Vedic Music

As regards ārcikā, Kāllinātha clearly defines it as follows:

2

Vedic Music

यज्ञप्रयोगेस्वृचामेकस्वराश्रयत्वान् तत्सम्बन्धादार्चिकः ।

2

Vedic Music

meaning that it was used in yajñas and on such other occasions involving repetition of mantras on a single note. For example the repetition of mantra Aum on Ṣadja.

2

Vedic Music

Gāthā is any song in praise of someone. Usually it was in praise of the Yajamān or the person who gets the yajña performed by the yājñīk (performer of the yajña). Gāthik pertains to gāthā and consists of two svaras.

2

Vedic Music

Kāllinātha defines it as follows:

2

Vedic Music

गाथासुबन्धाद्गाथिको द्विस्वरः ।

2

Vedic Music

In Vedic times, the word svara was used only for vowels and not to denote musical notes. The word for musical notes was Yama. But we shall study the sāma-scale and its notes by using the

familiar term svara instead of Yama. Then there was an addition of

one more svara which was known as sāmika. The svaras used were

gāndhāra, ṛṣabha and ṣadja. The scale was a descending one

beginning with gāndhāra.

साम्नां तु त्रिस्वरत्वं सप्तस्वरत्वच्चैव मन्त्रादिस्थानत्नयविवक्षया ।

The above description of the sāmika svaras by Kāllinātha that the

three svaras indicate the three saptakas or sthānas namely mandra,

madhya and tāra does not seem plausible because it is well-nigh

impossible to sing these svaras in different registers and call it

sāmika. He seems to have presumed the existence of all the seven

svaras of the saptaka at the time of sāmika svaras as is evident in

his expression सप्तस्वरत्वच्चैव or "in spite of the seven-noteness" and

thereafter ascribed the three svaras of sāmika to the three sthānas

namely mandra, madhya and tāra. But it is obvious that when the

three svaras of sāmika were described, only three svaras were then

distinctly marked. Otherwise the evolution of the sāma-scale would

have no relevance at all if all the seven svaras of it were known

from the beginning.

Whereas Simhabhūpāla has not made this mistake but has

quoted the śloka from Nāradiya Śikṣā without any additional

elaboration or elucidation. The verse in Nāradiya Śikṣā is as

follows:

श्राचिकं गाथिकं चैव सामिकं च स्वरान्तरम् ।

कृते तु स्वर शास्त्राणां प्रयोजकत्वं विशेषतः ॥

(Chap. I.V.2)

The next stage in the evolution of the sāma-grāma was the addition

of one more svara to the sāmika. This new scale was called Sva-

rāntara (स्वरान्तर). The svaras were ga, re, sa, ni. Here again the

verse in S.R. seems to have been misinterpreted by Kāllinātha.

But before discussing svarāntara, it is interesting to investigate

some matter regarding the sāmika music of the three svaras. Puṣpa-

sūtra, an authentic text on Sāmaṿeda states as follows:

पञ्चस्वेव तु गायन्ति पूर्विष्ठानि स्वरेपु तु ।

सामानि बट्‌टु च वान्यानि सप्तसु श्रेतु कोतुमाः ॥

(pp. 198-99)

That is today a tāna is created with each note in successive and

cumulative order i.e.. a tāna with one note, then with two notes,

then three notes, then four, five, six and finally seven notes. Kālli-

nātha implies that in all, there will be seven tānas. The tāna with

four notes which is svarāṅtara will be in the middle as four is the

middle number of seven.

Kāllinātha's explanation that the tāna containing four notes is

svarāntara because the fourth note is obviously in the middle of

the seven-note scale does not seem plausible. This shows that he has

चतुःस्वर तानस्यैक स्वरादि सप्तविधतान—

मध्यवात्त्वात्स्वरान्तर इति संज्ञा ॥ (Vol. I, p. 120)

interpreted the word antara in svarāntara as 'middle' or madhya. But his interpretation is not logical and his assumption of all the seven notes of the sāma-scale is unjustified. Sir Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary gives the following meanings of the word antara i.e., juxtapose, adjacent, in between, middle, additional etc. As the scale, then existent, had developed just one additional note to the already existing sāmika-scale, svarāntara has been referred to as consisting of four notes in the S.R. and Nā. Śl. which clearly means the addition of an extra note to the sāmika. There-fore the connotation of adjacent, juxtapose or 'additional seems more justifiable and logical.

The notes of svarāntara were ga, re, sa, ni. The additional note was ni in modern terminology. According to Sāmavedic terminology, it was caturthā. A little study as to how it may have evolved reveals an interesting possibility. If one sings the sa or sadja, one will notice that it will be extremely difficult if not well-nigh impossible to sing the sa without touching its preceding note niṣāda. Therefore, it stands to reason to assume that 'the additional or continuous note niṣāda or caturthā may have been 'discovered first as a grace-note of ṣadja or ṛtiyā which led to its isolation later on as a full-fledged note. All evolution must have some sequence and logic except in the case of biological evolution involving 'mutation'. So here also the extra note in the descending sāma series was caturthā which is niṣāda.

The third stage in the evolution of the sāma-scale is very interesting. Up to now we have found that all the notes have two qualifications. One is that they are ascribed numbers or denoted by numerical terms like prathama, dvitiya, tritiya and caturtha. The second is that each additional note to the first one prathama, formed a group which became a type of music. That is to say, there was a one-note, two-note, three-note, and four-note music, which were called ārcikā, gāthā, sāmika and avarāntara respectively.

But after this there is a sudden transition from numerical indices to descriptive ones. The subsequent three notes of the sāma-saptaka are descriptive namely mandra, atisvāra and kruṣṭa. This is clearly described in Nā. Śl. as follows:

प्रथमस्व द्वितीयस्व तृतीयो य चतुर्थकः । मन्द्रः कृष्टमहोति स्वार एताङ् कुर्वन्ति सामगाः ॥

(Chap. I, V.12, p. 13)

Here again if we deliberate as to why the above names may have been given, we will find that they themselves give the clue to the development of the scale. The fifth note is called mandra. As the scale series was in descending order this note was lower than caturtha or modern niṣāda. It is possible that the note is lower, the word m:ndra was used. Mandra in Sanskrit, means lower. Lower than this was atisvāra, ati means very much but in this context it means extreme i.c., that which is the lowest extreme note to be sounded. Svara means to be sounded. Ati as already stated means antim, extreme or limit. So atisvāra became the modern mandra pañcama. It is felt then that no lower note than atisvāra was humanly possible to phonate.

As regards the last of the seven notes namely kruṣṭa there is some difference of opinion as to its etymology. Burnell, a Vedic scholar derives the word kruṣṭa from the root karṣa which means to pull and hence he asserts that while playing the vinā in stretching the gāndhāra, a little excessive pull may have accidentally produced the kruṣṭa or madhyama note. Actually the word क्रुष्ट is the past participle of the root क्रुष्ट which means to speak loudly or 'articulate loudly'. The Sāma-gāna, the loudest note was क्रुष्ट being the highest and, therefore, had to be phonated with force and was naturally termed loudest. It is probable that this note also svarāntara may have begun as a grace note (गान्धार) of gāndhāra or prathama and later on became an independent full-fledged note. So the full sāma-scale is क्रुष्ट, प्रथम, द्वितीय, सुष्ठु, तृतोय, मन्द्र, अतिस्वार: .This scale existed in India till the medieval period, i.e., up to the fifteenth cent. AD. This scale is defined in S. R., as

चतुरश्चतुस्तु र्चैव पड्ज मध्मपञ्चमम: । है हि निषाद गान्धारो तृस्त्रो तिस्रो द्वे देवतॐ ॥

This was known as the śuddha scale (saptaka). The śruti arrangement in the above saptaka is 4, 3, 2, 4. 4. 3, 2. But this word śuddha has perhaps been mistaken by some great scholars like Pt. Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande and Pt. Onkarnath Thakur to mean the Western music major scale whereas the word śuddha as used in the Indian music texts like Nā. Śā., S.R., etc. only stands for a definite arrangement of notes with the śruti value as denoted above.

To go back a little, it is interesting to study how the terms audava came to be associated with five.

from the word udu which means a star and since stars appear in

the firmament or sky (आकाश) and since ākāśa is the fifth in order,

of the five elements-earth, air, fire,water and ākāśa, according to

Indian philosophy it indirectly suggests five and therefore audava

has come to mean 'pertaining to five'. Audava is the adjective of

udu. Ṣādava is derived from षट् and means pertaining to six.

Up to svarāntara, there was merely chanting and thereafter Sāma-

gāna began. That is to say Sāma-gāna had a minimum of five notes.

Of the four Vedas, excepting Sāma, all the other three had only

chant whereas in Sāma there was both chant and gāna. Sāma-gāna

as already stated was predominantly pentatonic (Puṣpa Sūtra, pp.

19 -99).

Having traced the gradual evolution of the notes.of the sāma-

dīya Śikṣā which has clearly given the notes of the scale 'against

successive numbers beginning from prathama (one) und going up to

saptama (seven) based on the notes as produced on the flute. The

relevant verse in the 'Nāradīya Śikṣā is as follows:

यः सामगानां प्रथमः स्त वेणोमध्यमः स्वरः ।

यो द्वितीयः स गान्धारस्तृतीयस्य च स्मृतः ।

चतुर्थः पड्ज इत्याहुः पंचमो धैवतो भवेत ।

षष्ठो निषादो विज्ञेयः सप्तमः पंचमः स्मृतः ।। २ ।।

(I-5-1 and 2)

The flute or bānsurī is the most ancient musical instrument in the

world. In the period of Nā. Śi., as there was no 'static' tonic there

was only the Grāma rāgas which were sung on the Mūrchanā sys-

tem. Hence it was obviously impossible to fix any note according

to numerical indices through any stringed instrument like the viṇā.

No stringed instrument would be used as base as no note had any

fixed position on it. For instance the note ma could be on any

string and therefore, may differ from individual to individual and

thereby may even alter the sāma-scale. Whereas it is not the case

with the flute. On the flute, with all the holes closed, it will always

produce only one note. It is possible that this natural facility was

understood by our ancient scholars, and therefore, they chose the

flute as the basis for the demonstration of the sāma-scale. Strangely

in the modern flute with seven holes, the note produced when all

the holes are closed, is madhyama. So according to Nā. Si.

Vedic Music

Prathama svara

Dvitīya svara

Tṛtīya svara

Caturtha svara

Pañcama svara

Ṣaṣṭha svara

Saptama svara

ma

ga

re

sa

dha

ni

pa

In other words the above scale in descending order would be ma,

ga, re, sa, dha, ni, pa.

The flute was used then much in the same way as the pitch-pipe

is used today. The note produced by closure of the five holes could

be done even by a lay man as well as an expert almost in the same

way as blowing into a pitch-pipe. But it would not have been

possible to handle any stringed instrument likewise.

But in this description of Nā. Si., of the sāma-scale, two problems

arise. Firstly prathama is referred to as ma whereas in the initial

sāma-scale it is ga. If we study the description given in the Nā. Si.,

we will find that the scale all along from the beginning to the

seventh svara mentions only numericals. If it indicated the numerical

of the sāma-scale as known originally then logically after caturtha

instead of stating pañcama and ṣaṣṭha, it would have mentioned

mandra and atisvāra for dha and pa. Therefore it is clear that the

numericals mentioned were not technical names but just denoted

the numerical order. There are schools which believe that since ma

is referred to as prathama, pañcama (pa) must be kruṣṭa. They

have, therefore kept the scale from pa to lower pa. Some others

while accepting prathama as ma have mentioned pa as kruṣṭatar.

In this connection, it will be interesting to mention Sāyaṇa's

description of the sāma-scale in Samavidhāna Brāhmaṇa:

लौकिके ए निषादादयः सप्तस्वरा: प्रसिद्धाः ।

तस्मिन्न कुष्टादयः सप्तस्रवा भवन्ति ।।

तदयथा यो निषादः स कुष्टः धैवतः प्रथमः । पंचमः द्वितीयो मध्यम-

स्त्रतीयः गान्धारस्तचतुर्थः । ऋषभो मन्द्रः पड्जो प्रतिस्वार्यः ।।

There are two points of significance in the above verse. Firstly

that the scale was a direct descending series. Secondly that the

niṣāda was taken as the starting note of the scale on the basis of

20

the Madhyama Grāma i.e., by taking the ma of the Madhyama

Grāma as the starting note which is niṣāda. Then Sāyaṇā's scale

becomes clear.

Now we come to some of the subtle changes in the structure of

the texts before the actual singing of the Sāma-gāna. There were in

all six such changes which were called sāma-vikāras. They were:

(1) Vikāra, (2) Viśleṣaṇa, (3) Vikarṣaṇa, (4) Abhyāsa, (5) Virāma,

and (6) Stobha.

Sāma borrowed the text of its songs from Ṛgveda and adapted

it to music. Sāma had no text of its own. Sāma means svara or

musical tone according to Sāyaṇā and Chāndogya Upaniṣad. This

connotation is confirmed in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad (Ch. U.,

1.8.4). It is clearly defined that the word sāma is interpreted as

svara.

1. Vikāra means change in the letter of the text Rgveda e.g.,

'agni' becomes agnāyi in Sāma-gāna.

2. Viśleṣaṇa means division of words and their transformation

e.g., vitaye becomes voyitoya 2 yi (वोयितोय 2 यि).

3. Vikarṣaṇa involves a specific stretching of a letter e.g., Ye (ये)

becomes Ya 23 yi (या 23 यि).

4. Virāma indicates a short-pause e.g., gṛṇāno-hṛaya-dālaye (गृणानो

हृदयतले) becomes gṛṇānoha-vadālaye (गृणानोह वदातले).

5. Stobha means any additional exclamatory words not in the

origināl text just as auhoā (औहोआ) hāvu (हावु) hāvu (हावु) etc.

. Now let us examine the notation system of Sāma-gāna, Pt. Kailās

Candra Bṛhaspati has given a succinct description in his magnum

opus Bharata Saṅgīta Siddhānta of the seven Mūrchanās of the Ṣadja

Grāma (p. 38). When one studies the notation system of Sāma-gāna

one is led to infer that the Mūrchanā system must have had its

origin in Sāma-gāna becausc Laxmaṇa Shankar Bhaṭṭa states clearly

the practice that was in vogue while singing it. He says प्रत्येकंक्रमद्वयारोहिन्

which means when the Sāma-gāna begins with any particular

number-note, that note was made the tonic or in modern terms,

ṣadja. For example, if a song began from note on. 2 then it

meant that the tonic was gāndhāra.

The sāma saptaka is as follows:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Ma Ga Re Sa Ni Dha Pa

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

21

Vedic Music

It starts with Ma as one, two as gāndhāra, three as ṛṣabha etc.

The number placed on the top of the first letter of the hymn in-

dicates the tonic.

There were several symbols and signs but all of them consisted

of placements of numbers in different positions either on top or

next to the letters of words of the song.

1. When two or more numbers are placed by the side of a word

in addition to the number on top of it, then the side numbers

would indicate the notes after or succceding the tonic, e.g.,

3

havu 56. This means the tonic is no. 3 or ṛṣabha and nos. 5

and 6 indicate mandra niṣāda and dhaivata.

In this way, it becomes clear that the system of Mūrchanās

had its foundations in Sāmavedic music. But such shifting

scales could have been possible only with the help of the vīṇā,

the most prevalent instrument even then. The old name of the

vīṇā was vāṇa as the early shape of the instrument was like a

bow or dhanuṣa.

2. Nos. 6 and 7 usually do not figure as tonic. This is corrobo-

rated by Kātyāyana Ṛṣi when he states:

अतिस्वारेण क्रुष्टे प्रारम्यो न कदाचन: 1

क्रुष्ट is the highest note and atisvāra is the lowest and hence

do not figure as a tonic.

If sometimes no. 7 is used as tonic and found on the top of

a letter, then it is to be construed as the next higher note to

no. 1 namely pa. This may have been due to the fact that the

lower pa may be too low a tonic.

3. If together with number 2, ra is placed on the letter, then it

means that the note of that particular letter will be of two

mātrās, e.g., Hāvu and in terms of modern Indian music, it

becomes Sa–Sa

ha 5 vu

4. If an avagraha (ऽ) is placed next to a letter, then that indicates

the prolongation of the letter to a duration of two mātrās e.g.,

3 ra 3

Ku 5 Yā (कु 5 याँ). Taking no. 3, as the tonic (Sa), i.e.,

22

ṛṣabha the avagraha next to the letter Ka indicates prolongation

of it for two mātrās; then the no. 5 indicates the third note

from the tonic namely the lower dha. The letter ra placed on

top of the letter Ya means that the note indicated by no. 5. is

to be prolonged for two additional mātrās.

5. The portion of a song between two parallel vertical lincs at

the beginning and at the end is known as Parva. Every Sāma

or Sāma song is to be precded by pranava or Om. प्रणवं प्राहु

प्रस्तुतीय which means every song is to be preccded by pranava or

Om. Each parva has to be sung in one breath.

6. If there is one figure over a particular letter and another

against or by the side of it. then that letter has to be sung in

two different notes indicated by the two figures. For instance

2 1

in मो s रप् if मो is assumed to begin with म, then the figure 3

would indicate नि and so मो has to be sung as स—नि and since

the scale is in descending order, the figure 1 over म would

indicate the svara र्. So मो 3 मे would become सा—नि रे.

7. The letter उ (vu) indicates high tone and letter क (ka) denotes

low tone.

8. A dash (−) on a letter denotes trepling of a particular note.

9. Λ this sign joins the tune of the preceding letter with the

avagraha (ऽ).

10. ~ This sign indicates augementation of the tune.

Vedic Music

23

1 र 1 र 2 र 2 र 3 4 र 5 2र 3 4र 5

हाउ हाउ हाउ ।। आज्य दोहम् । आज्य दोहुम् । 2र 3 4र 5

2 1र

मूर्धीनि

दा ३ ।

वा 3अर2 ।

ति

पृथिव्यो ।।

Let us now convert this ancient notation. Every Sāmavedic

song begins with pranava Om (प्रणबं प्राक्‌ पृथ्वंगीत) which has to be

introduced here.

2 1 1र 2 र 2 र 2र 3 4 र 5 2र 3 4र 5

ओं 3म् हाउ हाउ हाउ ।। ओ३य दोहम् ।। आज्य दोहुम् ।

स नि रे म स स स स स नि ध् प

2 र2 4र 5 2 र 1 2 3 4 5

ग्रा३य दोहुम् ।। मूर्धीनि दा३ ।। वा 2 अर ।।

ति पृथिव्या

स नि रे रे रे स नि रे स नि ध् प

It will be seen that the above svaras clearly indicate the Rāga

Kulyān or according to modern nomenclature Rāga Yaman. A point

worthy of note is that only five svaras have been employed in this

song. They are रे स नि ध प्. So this is a Audava Gīta.

Let us take up another example. This mantra is known as नादेयम्.

The text of the ऋक् (rk) runs as follows:

A few examples from Sāmans would illustrate the above musical

variations clearly. We shall take the Ājya doham Sāman. Actually

for our purpose a portion of it would suffice. Hence we shall take

a portion of it. The text of the mantra runs as follows:

2 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1

मू घा नं

दि वो

श्र र ति

पू थि व्यो ।।

Certain changes are introduced in this Sāman for the purpose of

singing. A stobha of हाउ is added which is repeated thrice. Then

there is abhyāsa or repetition of आज्य दोहम् (ājya doham) thrice. Next

vikāra is introduced in दिवो which becomes दाझ्य and then there is

virāma after धर and नि is carried into the next phrase. Finally the

numerical notation is added for singing. The mantra with all

these changes would become as follows:

3 3 3 31 23 12 31 23 32.3 13

त्य मूषु वाजिनं देव जूर्तं सेहो धान तस्तार रथानाम् ।

This text will be converted thus for singing

5र 2 र 3 प 1 1 1 1 1 1

त्य मूषु ।। वाजि ।। ना ^ 5 2 3 4 5 म् ।। देवजूताड् 2 3 4 म

5 र2र 1 2 2 3 4 5

सहो वा नं ता ।। हु त्त् ^ 3 ।। र रथानाम् ।।

In modern notation the above song would get transformed thus:

5 4 5र 1 र 1 1 1

मो . 6म् यमूषु वाजि ना ^ 5 2 3 4 5म

सड नि रे स सड स . मड म गड . मड गड रे5 सड

24 Evolution of Rāga and Tala in Indian Music

2 र 2 र 2 1 1 5 र 3 र 2

देव अजुता ^ 5 2 3 4 मु॥ सं ही वा न ता ॥

मडमड मडगड म स ग रे ड स सड गड मड पड

2 3 4 5

हतता ^ 3॥ र* र था ना मु ॥

म म ग म स म ड रे ड स ड

As this song contains six notes namely प म ग रे ड नि it is a Ṣādava Gīta. According to modern rāgá classification, it becomes Bilāval.

The third example that we shall take up is the famous Gāyatrī Mantra. The text of the mantra is as follows:

1 2 3 :3 1 * 3 1 2 4 3 1 2 3 1 : 2

तत्सवितुर्द्वरेप्यं भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि । धियोनः प्रचोदयात ॥

but with the changes introduced for making this mantra singable, it will become thus:

2 1 3 1 3 ओ 5 ^ 3म तत्सवितुर्द्ररिणयो म भर्गो देवस्य

सा 5 नि रे रेरे रेरेरे ड रेरे ड रेरे रे रे 5 रे रे

1 र 2 1 1 - - - 1

धीमाही 2 धि यो यों नः प्र चो 1 - 2 - 1 - 2॥

रेरेरे 5 रे रे ड रे 5 ड रे रे 5 रे 5 5 स ड रे 5 5 से

1 1 2 1 1 1

हिम आ 2॥ दै यो॥ ॥ आ 3 - 4 - 5

रे ड रे ड 5 स रे ड रे स ड नि 5 ड़ 5 प ड़

The svaras that occur in this mantra are रे ग प ध प. It is therefore again an Audava Gīta but the svaras according to rāga nomenclature may either be Kalyāṇ (Yaman) or Bilāval.

The points that emerge out of these examples of sāmans are that irrespective of the variation of the figures in the beginning of each sāman, the melodic phrase of the Oṅkāra in each sāman remains the same namely, स नि रे. The first and the third sāmans begin with the figure 2 and the second sāman with the figure 5, but the opening pbrase in all the three is स नि रे in the Oṅkāra.

25 Vedic M osic

Parts of the Sāma-gīta

The Sāma-gítas have also several parts. It is very interesting to study them. There are in all five parts and they are known as bhakti. They are: (1) Hiṅkāra or Huṅkāra, (2) Prustāva, (3) Udgīta, (4) Pratihāra. and (5) Nidhāna.

There was a special manner in singing the sāma. There were in all three singers. They were called Prastotā. Udgātā and Pratihartā. The main singer was the Udgātā. Prastotā and Pratihartā were his assistants.

The song began thus. In the beginning, all the three singers sang 'Hum' together as if to intone their tonic correctly and clearly. The 'Hum' which they sang was 'Hiṅkāra' bhakti already referred to above. This was perhaps equivalent to the present day musicians singing the tonic or the sa before commencing their performance. The sa nowadays is usually ākār. Then the second part of the sāman prastāva is sung by the prastotā. Prustāva means introduction. This introductory part is sung with an Oṅkāra. Then this is followed up by Udgīta or the main part of the song. This is sung by Udgīta or the main part of the song. This is sung by Udgātā. As the Udgātā sings the Udeīta, the pratihār tā waits for it to end but before it actually ends, he picks up its last word and continues with the pratihāru part of the song. In the end all the three join in singing the nidhānu or final part of the sāman in unison.

To illustrate the parts mentioned above, an example is given below:

Prastāva Udgīta

प्रो नाई ॥ ग्रायाद्ह वोऽद वोयाद तोयाद ।

Udgīta (continued) Pratihāra

गुणानो ह । व्यदातोयाई । नाइ होता सा ।

Pratihāra (continued) Nidhāna

तसा हू वा ग्रोहोवा ॥ हिप्रि

Gātra viṇā

In the Nāradiya Śikṣā there is a reference to two kinds of viṇā i.e., Dārvi viṇā and Gātra viṇā. Dārvi means wood. hence Dārvi viṇā is that viṇā which is made of wood, bamboo and gourd. Gātra means limb. hence Gātra viṇā here means any part of the human body which could be made to act the part of the viṇā.

1

26

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

Vedic Music

27

Rhythm in Sāma-Gāna

Although one finds no names of tāla in Sāma-gāna, there were certainly rhythms. Hence tāla as was known later did not exist in Sāma-gāna but there were three types of rhythm. They were hrasva, dirgha and pluta. Hrasva denoted one mātrā, dirgha two mātrās and pluta three mātrās.

Sāma: The Root Concept of Mūrchanās, Jāti and Rāga

It has already been demonstrated that the opening svara of every Sāma-gāna becomes the tonic or Anśa svara of that particular gāna.

The sāma saptaka began from ma and descended up to pa. i.e. it was ma, ga. re, sa. ni, dha, pa. When cach of these notes became the key-note or modern sa. it produced different scales. producing notes of different intervals. In this way it contained the seed of the subsequent Mūrchanās, Jātis and rāgas.

To illustrate this point, a chart is given below wherein the formation of the different Mūrchanās or scales from· different key-notes and the potentiality of rāgas, is shown:

Key- note of Sāma

The scale of Mūrchanā obtained from that key-note

The name of the Mūrchunā according to Bharata's. Nāṭyaśāstra

The Melā or Thāṭa according to modern music

1

2

3

4

pa

pa dha ni sa re ga ma sa re ga ma pa dha ni

Suddha Sadja

Rescmbling Jaunpuri or Nata Bhairavi with pañcama of 12 śrulis. Khamāj or Karnāṭaka Hari! kamboji. Kalyāṇ (Yaman) or Karnāṭaku Kalyāṇi.

ma

ma pa dha ni sa re pa sa re ga ma pa dha ni

Matsarīkṛtā

ga

ga ma pa dha ni sa re sa re ga ma pa dha ni

Aśvakrāntā

Of all the various parts of the human body the palm of the hand is the easiest and most adaptible to serve as the Gātra viṇā. The palm including the fingers were utilized thus:

Pañcama was represented by the top phalanx of the thumb. Madhyama was represented by the middle phalanx of the thumb. Gāndhāra was represented by the middle phalanx of the index finger. Ṛṣabha was represented by the middle phalanx of the middle finger. Ṣadja was represented by the middle phalanx of the ring finger. Niṣāda was represented by the middle phalanx of the last finger. Dhaivata was represented by the lower phalanx of the last finger.

The thumb moved over and above phalanxes of the different fingers and touched the particular svaras of the sāman as the singer sang them. In due course, the svaras of the song got associated with the particular phalanxes of the fingers. The singer in turn also visualised the notes of the song on his fingers as he heard it. In this way this type of learning was both audio and visual.

On further deliberation over this system. one is led to ponder if the creators of the modern staff notation may not have had the above system with the lines of the different phalanxes serving as the pitches of different notes; as the basis. Because there is a board similarity between the two systems in the different lines indicating pitches. There were also countries like Greece and Egypt which employed the same device like Gātra viṇā and called it Cheironomy.

1 2 3 4

re re ga ma pa dha ni sa Bhairavī or

sa re ga ma pa dha ni Abhirudgatā Karṇāṭaka

Hanumat Toḍi.

sa sa re ga ma pa dha ni Kāfī or Karnā-

sa re ga ma pa dha ni Uttarandrā ṭaka Kharahara-

priya.

ni ni sa re ga ma pa dha Rajani Bilāval or Kar-

sa re ga ma pa dha ni ṇaṭaka Saṅkarā-

bharaṇam with dha of 4 śrutis.

dha dha ni sa re ga ma pa Bhairavī with

sa re ga ma ma dha ni Uttarāyatā two madhyamas

and without pañcama.

It will be clear from all the illustrations hitherto that Sāma music had really the seeds of our classical music and the claims of our old scholars in their texts that it was the origin of our classical music was no mere fancy but a substantiable fact. There are two kinds of music basically–one is folk music and the other is classical, in the former, there is no rigid rule of intervals, rhythm etc, but whereas in the latter, there were definite rules laid down for strict adherence. Likewise Sāma music also had definite rules of procedure to be followed.

In Sāma music, the three Jātis–Auḍava, Ṣāḍava and Sampūrṇa have been mentioned which are in vogue even today.

In Sāma music, five parts are mentioned namely, hiṅkāra, pras-tāva, udgīta, pratihāra and nicidhāna. In the Dhrupapada which came centuries later five parts were sung but they were given different names i.e., Tom-nom or ālāpa, sthāyī or udgrāha, antarā, sancārī and ābhoga.

The first note of the Sāma-gāna became its key-note. This gave rise to Mūrchanās, Melās, Jātis and later on rāgas.

Sāma-gāna was a kind of group music with definite unison and responsorium.

As the key-note of each song shifted, Sāma was able to use svaras of various intervals known in modern musical parlance as komala, tīvra, etc.

There was no tāla in Sāma-gāna but there was precise rhythni based on Hrasva, Dīrgha and Pluta.

The Viśleṣaṇa of Sāma gave rise, in later music.to bhanjani of Rupakālaptī and layabānta of the Dhruvapada.

And most significant Sāma music had its own notation which could be said to be the oldest in the world.

And now let us consider the next stage of evolution in Indian Music. We find after Vedic music, references to Grāma rāga and Jāti gāna in the Mahābhārata and Rāmāyuṇa respectively. Rāmā-yaṇa is, of course, the earlier epic. But there is no evidence of the process and manner of evolution between Vedic music and the Grāma-Mūrchanā-Jāti system. There is a huge hiatus between the two.

Let us therefore take up Grāma. The word has two meanings–the one primary and the other conventional. The primary meaning is सङ्घ or collection. Any c.llection was known as Grāma It was, in otlicr words a generic term just as इन्द्र-ग्राम, पूत-ग्राम (indriya-grāma, bhīta grāma) etc. Therefpre the connotation of village given to the word Grāma was in the conventional sense of a place having a collection of people. A group of people living together was called a Grāma. An extension of this meaning was made in respect of the Indian musical svaras. Just as the members of a family live together, even so in a Grāma, svaras live together (Bh. Ko., p. 189).

How did Grāma originate? On the basis of samvāda. The two main forms of samvāda were the ṣadja-pañcama and ṣadja-madhyama. The third one as mentioned in the Saṅgīta Samgraha Cūḍāmaṇi is Ṣadjāntar namely ṣadja-gāndhāra. How the Ṣadja Grāma was evolved is known to all students of mùsic, Bharata in his Nāṭyaśāstra has clearly described the process. He states that a nine-stringed, fretless vīṇā (Navatantri vīṇā) is to be taken. It is as follows:

1. The first string should be tuned at any low audible pitch. This should be construcd as ṣadja;

2. Then its corresponding fifth and sixth strings should be tuned

to madhyama and pañcama respectively.

3. Then for the time being supposing the fifth string to be ṣadja,

the eighth string from the original ṣadja (1st string) is to be

tuned to the madhyama of the new ṣadja on the fifth string.

Then it will be seen that the new madhyama is the niṣāda of

the original ṣadja.

4. For the time being imagine the eighth string (niṣāda) to be

ṣadja and tune the third string to its descendent madhyama

(avarohic ma). Then this svara will be gāndhāra to the original

ṣadja.

5. The fourth string is to be tuned to the pitch of antara-gān-

dhāra to the original ṣadja 1st string.

6. Presume the fourth string (antara-gāndhāra) to be ṣādja and

tune the ninth string to its pañcuma. The ninth string will

then be tuned to kākali-niṣāda in relation to the original

ṣadja. And finally presume for the time being the seventh

string to be ṣadja and tune the second string to its lower

madhyama. It will be found that the second string is tuned to

the ṛṣabha in relation to the original ṣadja.

If all the nine strings are now stroked in order then they will

phonate the svaras of the Ṣadja Grāma namely ṣadja, ṛṣabha,

gāndhāra, antara-gāndhāra, madhyama, pañcama, dhaivata, niṣāda

and kākali-niṣāda. This type of deduction of svaras and establish-

ing their respective pitches on the Navatantri vīṇā is quite old.

Nānya Deva as quoted in Bharata Kośa mentions it.

विपंच्यां नवतन्त्रीषु स्वरासप्त तथापरी ।

काकल्यान्तरसंज्ञा च द्वौ स्वारवित्यमानी च ॥

(p. 628)

If Madhyama Grāma also is to be heard on the Navatantri vīṇā,

then it could be done by plucking the 1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th, 0th,

7th and 8th strings in that order. Then, the svaras would corres-

pond to madhyama, triśrutik pañcama, catuhśrutik dhaivata, ni-

ṣāda, ṣadja, ṛṣabha and gāndhāra. The above svaras interpreted in

terms of Ṣadja Grāma wili become ṣadja, triśrutik ṛṣabha, antara-

gāndhāra madhyama, triśrutik pañcama, catuhśrutik dhaivata and

niṣāda.

As regards the discovery of dhaivata, there is an opinion that it

was automatically sounded when madhyama was played on the

viṇā; hence it was visualised as स्वयम् (self-begotten or self existent)

svara. The etimology of the word dhaivata also enlightens this

view dhi means buddhi and dhaivata means buddhivāla or a wise

person. It is only a sensitive and intelligent person who can dis-

cover an automatically phonated note. The svara madhyama is

considered most important in the Indian musical scale because it is

placed right in the middle and is directly responsible for the second

tetrachord on the lines of the first. The intervals of the svaras of

the second tetrachord are identical with those of the first; and the

position of the madhyama svara is exactly in the middle of the

saptaka. Hence, the Indian musical scale is not an octave. In the

octave, the same notes cannot repeat in succesive octaves whereas

in the saptaka it will repeat identically with every eighth svara.

Grāma is generally defined as a scale. But it is something more

than a scale. Mūrchanā also is a scale. It can be termed as a funda-

mental scale, the base of all scales. Clements in his book Introduc-

tion to Study of Indian Music defines it thus. But the,best definition

seems to have been given by Mahārāṇā Kumbha in his Sangītarāj:

व्यवस्थित श्रुतियुता यत्न संवादिनः स्वराः ।

मूर्छनापाश्रयो नाम स ग्राम इति साजितः ॥

—कुम्भः

that is to say Grāma is that where there is a particular order of

arrangement of śrutis and the svaras are determined by consonance.

It is the base of Mūrchanā. Grāma is the very base of the melodic

form of Indian music. But by far the best English translation of

the term Grāma is in the 'Dattilam'1 as tone system.

What is the purpose of Grāma? Matanga clearly describes and

clarifies this point:

स्वर श्रुति मूर्छनातानजातिरागाणां वयवस्थानत्वं नाम प्रयोजनम् ।

—मृहदेवः

What was the necessity for two Grāma? The ncessity may have

arisen in Bharata's time when it was found that in certain Jātis or

musical modes, current then, there was a samvāda between pañcama

1This work is attributed to the 3rd cent. AD. See E. Wiersma-te Nijenhuis,

Dattilam: A compendium on ancient Indian music.

and rsabha whereas in the Sadja Grāma, there is no consonance (samvāda) between pañcama and rsabha. Bharata, therefore, had to

accept another fundamcntal scale in which there was consonance between pa and re in order to have a base for the other Jātis (modes). This pa–re consonance was found in the Madhyama

Grāma.

But why did Gāndhāra Grāma fade out so early? Abhinavagupta gives reasons in his Abhinavabhāratī thus:

द्वौ ग्रामौ भरतेनोक्तौ ग्रामो गान्धारपूर्वक: ।

वत्तिताराति मन्त्रत्वाद्देश्वर्यान्नोपदर्शित:॥ (Bh. Ko., p. 189)

Sārngadeva has to say this regarding this Grāma:

रिमयो: श्रुतिमेंकां गत्वा रदचेतसमा श्रित: ।

पश्रूयंति घों निषादस्तु ध्रुविति सश्रूयंत: श्रुत: ॥ ४ ॥

गान्धारग्राममाश्रष्ट तदा तं नारदां मुनीन् ।

प्रवर्तंतें स्वगलोके ग्रामों सो न महीतले ॥ ५ ॥ (S. R., p. 100)

In accordance with this statement, the Gāndhāra Grāma will work out as follows: But in order to understand the specific diffe-rence between the Sa-Grāma and this one, we shall give the note-syllables of the former on top of their śrutis and the latter at the bottom of them:

That is, the śruti intervals of the various svaras of Ga-Grāma are as follows:

Sadja is of three śrutis; rsabha is of two śrutis; gāndhāra is of four śrutis; madhyama is of three śrutis; pañcama is of three

srutis; nisāda is of four śrutis; From this it will be clear that the intervals of the svaras of the Grāma are bound to be discordant (वैषम्ये) as mentioned by Ācārya Abhinavagupta because of the irregular and disproportionate distribution of the śrutis.

Regarding the Grāmas and Mūrchanās, the point that is to be remembered is the graha svara or the keynote of the particular Grāma. This was later known as amśa svara and used in connection with Mūrchanās only. Many scholars have had difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the word amśa. Most of them seem to have taken the common meaning 'to divide'. But the other more significant meaning is 'to shine'. Amśa is also a synonym for sunbeam. This interpretation is found in Vedic Sanskrit, in the Rgveda (the sun is called विभावरी). But from the definition of amśa svara (राग: प्रभवति एवं राग: विलसति) it is clear that it is interpreted as the source of aesthetics (रजकत्व) and the scale of it. This meaning does not emerge from the meaning 'to divide' but from the other meaning 'to shine'. The secondary meaning 'to divide' is also applicable because the sun divides the day and night. But its primary quality is to shine.

Once again reverting to the Grāmas, most of the scholars refer of Gāndhāra Grāma as having passed to svalgalok (heaven). This interpretation may also be taken in a implicatory sense as having been lost and dead. Because in Hindu custom, all people who pass away are consigned to svalgalok; hence Närada and others may have used the same expression to indicate that the Gāndhāra Grāma has completely gone out of vogue in the lākṣaṇic sense.

As regards Grāma, there has been copious research. Taking into account modern scholars like Pt. V.N. Bhatkhaṇde, Pt. K.C.D. Bhāspati and Pt. Oṃkāraṇāth Ṭhākur, one finds certain basic discrepancies in the very concept of the term and its structure. For instance Pt. Bhatkhaṇde, in spite of his vast scholarship, seemed to have confused the Suddha Grāma with the European Major Scale. Whereas the Suddha Grāma was the name given to 'tone system' which had a specific śruti arrangement. That is the Sa-Grāma having the 4-3-2-4-3-2 arrangement. Neither Grāma means scale nor Suddha means major. His second misconception seems to be the equidistance of all śrutis. This perhaps led him to imagine, that the svaras which were placed in the last śruti could just as well be placed on the 1st. It has now been definitely established that

Vedic Music

there are three types of śrutis having different values in terms of Savart: 5, 18 and 23. The 6 Savart śruti is the comma diesis i.e., 81/80. The 8 Savart śruti is the minor tone (Laghu ardha-svara according to Lalit Kishore Singh in his Dhwani and Sangīta) and upamahati (as per Pt. K.C.D. Brhaspati) has the value 25/24 and the last variety having 23 Savarts is known as limma (Mahati according to Pt. K.C.D. Brhaspati) where the value is 256/243 (cf. Dhwant and Sangīta, p. 173).

3

Music as Depicted in Nātyaśāstra: Gāndharva Sangīta

BHARATA in Nāṭyaśāstra refers to Gāndharva Sangīta or the music for divine beings. But he lays certain conditions.1 This was also called Mārgī Sangīta. Vedic Sangīta was also considered as Mārgī Sangīta or Gāndharva Sangīta. The conditions are four:

3

Music as Depicted in Nātyaśāstra: Gāndharva Sangīta

1. Gāndharva Sangīta will always be to the accompaniment of several instruments-stringed, membranophonous and percussion.

3

Music as Depicted in Nātyaśāstra: Gāndharva Sangīta

2. Gāndharva Sangīta must have the three essentials–svara, tāla, and pāda, i.e., the music should have melody in a specific order and arrangement; it should have tāla or rhythm also well organised with suitable texts.

3

Music as Depicted in Nātyaśāstra: Gāndharva Sangīta

3. The music should be pleasing to the Gods.

3

Music as Depicted in Nātyaśāstra: Gāndharva Sangīta

4. The music should also please the Gandharvas–especially the deva-Gandharvas as opposed to Manuşya Gandharvas.

3

Music as Depicted in Nātyaśāstra: Gāndharva Sangīta

But all this description is in the context of the drama. Jātis were also considered as Mārgī Sangīta. Bharata describes the Jātis as they applied to drama. But there were obviously Jātis under different situations and circumstances. For example, the epic Rāmāyaṇa was supposed to have been sung in the form of a ballad before Rāma by Lava and Kuśa, his two sons in the different Jātis. The examples given in the S.R., of Jātis have no connection with drama. They are in praise of Śaṅkara and are in fact Śaṅkara-stuti. So it stands to reason that Jātis-gāna must have had other varieties of rendering. These forms appear to have remained in vogue till the time of Mataṅga who is ascribed to the 7th-8th century. This music is described at length in Mataṅga’s work Brhaddesī. But there was the other music which was prevalent. It was known as Deśī Sangīta. Deśī Sangīta was not folk music. It was regional music.

3

Music as Depicted in Nātyaśāstra: Gāndharva Sangīta

1 Na. Śa., Bombay edn., chap. 28, verses 8-9, pp. 5-6.

36

Kallinātha appears to contradict himself when he first states that

Deśī Sangīta is almost free style music but immediately states that

some of the characteristics of Mārgi rāga are also found in

Deśī rāgas.1 He seems to be searching for the rules of Jāti in

Deśī rāgas which is obviously conflicting. The tāra-mandra range

mentioned by him applies to Jātis and where this range was not

clear, he says those Deśī rāgas tend to become anarchic (II-ii,

pp. 98-99). He also states that where the Deśī rāgas have rules,

it is not altogether different frqm Mārgi rāgas. Matanga gives

more details than Bharata. He mentions the specific scene or act in

which specific Jātis should be sung or played. He also mentions

the dufferent Mūrchanās from which Jātis are derived.

Grāma rāga is also mentioned by Matanga. Bharata refers to it

at only one place as to which act or scene, it should be used.

Grāma rāga is described in greater detail by Matanga but Jāti was

still more popular and prevalent in his time. Jāti remained in

vogue till the tenth century, and thereafter began to fade. S.R.,

describes both Jātis and Grāma rāgas but emphasises more on Deśī

rāgas and Adhunā-Prasiddha rāgas.

What is Jāti? It has several meanings. It means caste, type, race

and genus. Of these, which connotation is most appropriate to

music? The root of the word Jāti in Sanskrit is Jan which means

to produce. It is an extraordinary coincidence that the Latin root

for the word genus is also gen (pronounced jan) which means exact-

ly the same as the Sanskrit one. There is a difference of opinion as

to the interpretation of the Jāti in terms of 'music.' Most of the

scholars have taken the meaning of giving birth to and have stated

that Jāti is born under such and such conditions. But the other

meanings of the word as caste, race or species are also.worthy of

consideration. Because when one studies the names of different

Jātis, one feels that some of them have imbibed the es of re-

gions. Even scholars like Matanga feel that the word 'i connotes

birth, origin whereas it is not logical to assume its n meaning in this

narrow sense. Jāti in some form must have existed before its

stylised version emerged. It, therefore, stands to reason that Jāti

may have evolved from folk music and the word may have been

used in the sense of genus. Jāti interpreted thus becomes genus of

a certain arrangement of notes. They must have had an ethno-

1S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II-ii, p. 15.

37

sociological origin. This itself could form a subject for separate

research.

Matanga while defining Jāti does not seem to be sure of himself.1

After giving various interpretations, he concedes the possibility of

the word Jāti to be used in the sense of genus.

As stated earlier, the names of the Jātis suggest reference to

certain regions. For example, the Vikṛt Jātis Kaiśikī, 'Sadjodicyavā,

Āndhrī indicate. specific regions. Kaiśikī, according to Monier

Williams Dictionary represented the regions which 'pertains to the

present Vidarbha. 'Sadjodicyavā is referred to as a place in the

North; Udicyavā means northern region; Āndhrī straightaway de-

notes the region of Āndhra. So it seems justifiable to presume that

Jātis like rāgas, which followed, may have evolved out of folk

melodies. Because no form of music, especially classical can spring

up without a base.

But the technical definition of Jātis is best given by Ācārya

Abhinavagupta in his Abhinavabhāratī. He defines it thus:

तत्र केयं जातिनाम? उच्चते-स्वरा एवं विशिष्टसन्निवेशभाजो

रवितमदृष्टास्मृदयं च जनयन्तो जातिरित्युच्यते:। कोऽसौ सन्निवेश

इति चेत्, जातिलक्षणेन दशकेन भवति सन्निवेशः: ॥2

which means:

When the notes are in a specific arrangement or pattern produc-

ing aesthetic enjoyment, giving rise both to material prosperity

(दृष्ट) and unseen spiritual benefits (अदृष्ट) then it is called Jāti. The

different (characteristics) between Deśī and Gāndharva Sangīta is the

capacity of the latter to produce अदृष्ट or spiritual fruit. The fruit

which is the result of pleasing the gods or heavenly beings who are

unseen or unperceivable. This benefit is not possible through Deśī

Sangīta. The svara-sanniveśa or specific pattern of svaras would

have to incorporate the ten characteristics of the Jāti (Jāti lakṣaṇas)

as prescribed by Bharata.

There were a total of eighteen Jātis. The seven Jātis were based on

Ṣadja Grāma and the eleven Jātis on Madhyama Grāma. The Jātis

affiliated to Ṣadja Grāma were Ṣāḍjī, Ārṣabhī, Dhaivatī, Niṣādī,

'SodjodícyavāTī, 'Sadjakaí'sikī and 'Sadjamadhyamā. The Madhyama

1Bha. Ko., p. 227.

2Abhinavabhāratī, p. 43.

Grāma affiljates were Gāndhārī, Madhyamā, Gāndhārodicyava, Pañ-

camī; Raktagāndhārī, Gāndhārapañcamī, Madhyamodīcyavā, Nanda-

ṣaḍjī, Kārmāravī, Ādhri- and Kaiśikamadhyamā.3

Out of these eighteen Jātis seven were named after the seven

svaras of the saptaka. They were of two kinds—Śuddha and

Vikṛta.—Under Ṣadja Grāma, there were four Śuddha Jātis. They

were Ṣāḍjī, Ārṣabhi, Dhaivatī and Niṣādavatī or (Naiṣādī). What

was the definition of Śuddha Jāti? Śuddha Jātis were those in which

there was no diminution of the seven notes and the svara on

which it was named itself became the graha, aṃśa and nyāsa svara

of those Jātis. When a change takes place in the nyāsa svara and

ja respect of the other lakṣaṇas then the Jātis were termed Vikṛta.

In other words, the same Śuddha Jātis can turn into Vikṛta Jātis

also.

The basic distinction between Śuddha Jāti and Vikṛta Jāti is that

in the former the nyāsa svara is the mandra svara, i.e., the conclu-

sion of the Śuddha Jāti takes place in the mandra svara whereas in

the latter, this rule is relaxed. Out of the eighteen Jātis, eleven

are the result of the blend of two or more Jātis, and therefore

become Vikṛta. In other words, Vikṛta Jātis are formed by the

mutual combination of the above Jātis.2

For instance, the combination of Ṣāḍjī and Madhyamā produce-

ed the Vikṛta Jāti, Ṣadjamadhyamā, Gāndhārī, Pañcamī, Madhyamā and Dhaivatī

produced Madhyamodīcyavatī. Gāndhārī, Pañcamī and Saptamī

(Naiṣādī) produced Raktagāndhārī; Gāndhārī and Ārṣabhi produc-

ed Āndhrī; Ārṣabhi, Pañcamī and Gāndharī produced Nandayantī;

Naiṣādī Ārṣabhi and Pañcamī produced Kārmāravī; Gāndhārī and

Pañcamī produced Gāndhārapañcamī; and Ṣāḍjī, Gāndhārī, Madh-

yamā, Pañcamī and Naiṣādī produced Kaiśikī.3

Out of the above Jātis, four are septatonic, four hexatonic, and

the remaining ten, pentatonic. There were no Jātis with less than

five svaras.

Kārmāravī, Gāndhārapañcamī, Ṣadjakaiśikī and Madhyamodīcyavā

were always septatonic; and Āndhrī, Nandayantī, Gāndhārodīcyavatī

and Ṣāḍjī were always hexatonic; the rest were pentatonic. But the

most significant point was that the hexatonic (ṣādava) and penta-

tonic (auḍava) Jātis could naturally be converted into the other

with, the reduction or addition of a note and yet be considered the

same Jāti. This strange latitude of conversion cannot be applied

in the case of rāga as it will change the entire character and

structure of the new convert. This is completely out of vogue now.

Another peculiarity in the tradition of Bharata in the rendering

of Jāti was the rule that the samvādī svara of the aṃśa svara

can never be omitted. The strict observance of this rule conse-

quently prevented several Jātis from having their ṣādava and

auḍava forms: The aṃśa svara that stood in the way of ṣādava

or auḍava formation was known as Ṣādavadeṣṭī or Auḍuvadeṣṭī.

For example, the Jāti Ṣadjamadhyamā obtains its ṣādava form by

omitting niṣāda but as niṣāda itself is its aṃśa svara, its omission

is impossible and hence its ṣādava form is equally impossible.1

Similarly, Gāndhārī, Raktagāndhārī and Kaiśikī Jātis are said to

become ṣādava with the omission of ṛṣabha but in the Madhyama

Grāma there is ṛṣabha-pañcama samvāda; therefore in these three

Jātis, pañcama svara is never the aṃśa svara because if it becomes

aṃśa svara, then the exclusion of its samvādī, ṛṣabha, will be

impossible.2 Another example is Ṣāḍjī Jāti. The omission of niṣāda

engenders its ṣādava rūpa, but in its ṣādava state its aṃśa svara

being gāndhāra, its samvādī niṣāda cannot be excluded. Therefore

Ṣāḍjī Jāti cannot have its ṣādava state.3

One more peculiar feature of the Jātis is that although the

exclusion of any svara was possible and permissible, the exclusion

of madhyama svara was impossible. It was termed avināśī or

indestructible. Even the Brāhmaṇa singers of Sāma-gāna have stat-

ed in Gāndharva Kalpa in their reference to the madhyama svara

that it is inerasable or indispensable and indestructible.4

The ten lakṣaṇas of Jātis are as follows: aṃśa, graha, tāra,

mandra, nyāsa, apanyāsa, alpatva, bahutva, ṣādava and auḍava.5

There is no reference to vāḍī or samvādī. The concept of vāḍī-

samvādī was evidently a later development with the coming of the

rāga.

3Na. Śā., Bombay edn., p. 439.

2Ibid., p. 441.

3Ibid., p. 441.

3Na. Śā., Bombay edn., p. 441.

2Ibid.

3Ibid.

4Na. Śā., Kāśī edn., p. 324.

5Na. Śā., Bombay edn., p. 443.

Of the ten laksanas of the Jāti mentioned above, amśa svara occupied a very important place. It itself had ten laksanas and it pervaded every aspect of the rendering of the Jāti. A study of the etimology of this word is equally interesting. The root of the word amśa in Sanskrit is amśa which means 'to shine' as used in Rgveda, Aṃśumān, is a synonym for the sun. since amśu means rays. Therefore, it does not appear very appropriate to use this term exclusively in the sense of 'divide'. It also had this extended meaning because it was the sun which divided the day and the night; similarly it was the amśa svara which divided the saptaka into āroha-āvaroha and mandra, madhya and tāra. In fact it was the amśa svara as the keynote which brought life to the Mūrchand. But for this note, there would be no way to distinguish one Mūrchand from another. It is easily the most significant svara in the Mūrchana-Jāti system of music. It was the aesthetic nucleus and commander of the saptakas. Hence, the Vedic connotation appears more appropriate.

The ten attributes of the amśa svara are:

1. in which the rāga(?) dwells,

2. from which the Jāti unfolds and in which it is established,

3. which is the leader, regulator and displayer of the tāra and madhya, and

4. mandra saptakas,

5. which is used more than the other svaras,

6. which is used repeatedly with graha,

7. apanyāsa,

8. vinyāsa,

9. sanyāsa, and

10. nyāsa, etc.1

In the eighteen Jātis, the number of svaras that had the position of the amśa svara varied from one to all the seven svaras. For example, in Gāndhāropancami, the amśa svara was pañcama whereas in Ṣāḍji, the amśa position was held by ṣaḍja, gāndhāra, madhyama, pañcama, dhaivata. Similarly in Ṣaḍjamadhyamā all the seven svaras enjoyed amśa-sthāna2

1Quoted by Källinātha in his commentary in S.R.; and ascribed to Bharata.

2Na. Sa., Bombay edn., pp. 444-45.

The total number of amśa svaras in all the eighteen Jātis is sixty-three.

All the different laksanas of the Jāti are well defined by Bharata Muni.

1. Graha svara: Graha-svara is so called because all vocal or instrumental music commences from the amśa svara and therefore it is called the graha svara. Amśa svara is therefore the graha svara in all the Jātis. The term graha here may be taken in the sense of graha or beginning. When the amśa svara is on the position of the starting note, it is called graha svara.1

2. Tāragati: According to Bharata's tradition, the rule laid down in respect of the extent of tāragati was one saptaka above the amśa svara, beyond this, it was considered undesirable because as the amśa svara was the basis and keynote of the Mūrchonās, any extension of the tāra saptaka beyond seven notes from the amśa svara was looked upon as being against the tradition of Bharata.2 There is some sense in this concept because in the light of the situation where the tonic shifted higher and lower, one saptaka beyond the amśa svara was perhaps out of range of the human voice and any instrument.

3. Mandragati: There were three kinds of mandragati: one ending with amśa svara, one with nyāsa svara and the third with apanyāsa svara. In the descent (āvaroha), the limit of mandragati was the amśa svara because the latter was the starting note of all the three saptakas. But there were sometimes instances when despite the establishment of the positions of the nyāsa and apanyāsa, the range of mandragati stretched beyond them. As an example, Kālinātha quotes from Bharata, in his commentary in S.R., that in Nandayanti Jāti, in spite of the nyāsa svara being gāndhāra, in āvaroha, mandragati extended to its succeeding svara, rṣabha.3

4. Nyāsa svara: The svara on which the gīta or vādya-prabandha terminates, that is called nyāsa svara. The total number of nyāsa svaras in all the Jātis is twenty-one because the same svara becomes the nyāsa svara in several Jātis.4 The table given below will clarify

1Na. Sa., Bombay edn., p. 442 and Banaras edn., p. 324.

2S.R., Adyar edn., as quoted by Källinātha in his commentary.

3मन्द्रस्वनतापरौ नासित् न्यासे तु दृढो स्वविस्रितौ । गान्धारण्यासितोगेयं ह्यष्टामुपनिबन्धनम् ॥ (नन्दयन्ती)

4Na. Sa., Bomby edn., p. 443.

42 Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music the above statement.

Nyāsa svara Jāti Number

Ṣadja Ṣādji, Ṣadjamadhyamā 2

Ṛṣabha Āṛṣabhi 1

Gāndhāra Gāndhāri, Raktagāndhāri, Ṣadjakaiśiki, Āndhri, Kaiśiki, Nandayanti 6

Madhyama Madhyamā, Ṣadjamadhyamā, Ṣadjodicyavā, Gāndhārodicyavā, Madhyamodicyavā 5

Pañcama Pañcami, Gāndhārapañcami, Kaiśiki, Kārmāravi 4

Dhaivata Dhaivati 1

Niṣāda Kaiśiki, Naiṣādi 2

Total 21

5. Apanyāsa svara. Translated literally from Bharata's Nā. Sā., it means the svara on which the middle of the composition (gīta or vādya-prabandha) terminates,1 but it could be interpreted to mean as that svara whose importance is second only to nyāsa. In other words apanyāsa svara is an important, inevitable punctuation point in the composition next in importance to nyāsa svara. It could be, therefore, termed 'secondary nyāsa' svara as appropriately done by Dr. Nijenhuis in Dattilam. As there are several apanyāsa svaras in the same Jātis and the same apanyāsa svara in several Jātis, the total number of apanyāsa svara in all the eighteen Jātis comes to fifty-six.2 But Bharata states an exception when ṛṣabha is sometimes taken as apanyāsa svara in Kaiśiki in addition to niṣāda in which case the total number increases from fifty-six to fifty-seven.3 The table given below will illustrate the above statement.

1Na. Sā., Bombay edn., p. 443.

2Ibid.

3Ibid., p. 452.

6. Alpatva: There were two types of alpatva—one was by a slight touch or complete omission of the svaras and the other was by using the svara .or svaras sparingly without repeating them. The

Music as Depicted in Nātyaśāstra: Gāndharva Sangita 43

Apanyāsa svara Jāti Number

Ṣadja Ṣadjakaiśiki, Ṣadjodicyavā, Ṣadjamadhyamā, Gāndhāri, Gāndhārodicyavā, Madhyamā, Madhyamodicyavā, Kaiśiki 8

Ṛṣabha Ṣadjamadhyamā, Āṛṣabhi, Gāndhārapañ-cami, Pañcami, Dhaivati, Naiṣādi, Kārmā-ravi, Madhyamā, Āndhri 9

Gāndhāra Ṣādji, Ṣadjamadhyamā, Kaiśiki, Āndhri, Naiṣādi 5

Madhyama Gāndhāri, Madhyamā. Ṣadjamadhyamā, Dhaivati, Naiṣādi, Kaiśiki 6

Pañcama Ṣādji, Gāndhāri, Madhyamā, Ṣadjamadhyamā, Gāndhārapañcami, Pañcami, Kaiśiki, Āndhri, Nandayanti, Kārmārāvi, Ṣadja-kaiśiki 11

Dhaivata Ṣadjodicyavā, Āṛṣabhi, Gāndhārodicyavā, Madhyamodicyavā, Ṣadjamadhyamā, Ma-dhyamā, Dhaivati, Kaiśiki, Kārmāravi 9

Niṣāda Ṣadjakaiśiki, Āṛṣabhi, Ṣadjamadhyamā, Pañcami, Naiṣādi, Kaiśiki, Āndhri, Kārmā-ravi 8

Total 56

former was called langhana and the latter anabhyāsa.2 In the Jāti system the practice of forming the Ṣādava and Auḍava varieties from the sampūrṇa form, involved the omission of some svaras. These svaras even in the sampūrṇa state were used less and came under alpatva usage.3 The strange practice in those days was that even those svaras which were considered as anabhyāsa, anamśa (not being- the amśa svara) and lopya (eliminated) could still be used sparingly. Alpatva had special significance then in the context of the conversion of the sampūrṇa Jātis into ṣādava and auḍuva varieties and was clearly defined and observed but in the case of the modern rāga, alpatva in this sense, is difficult to con-

2Na. Sā., Bombay edn., p. 443.

3S.R., Adyar edn., Svarādhyāya, p. 190.

ceive and perhaps even unnecessary.

7. Bahutva: In contrast to alpatva, here the svaras are used repeatedly and extensively and like alpatva there are two kinds of bahutva; the first is repetition and the second is non-omission of the notes. All the notes namely the amśa, saṃvādi, anuvādi are used again and again both in the droha and avaroha. Bahutva has not much significance because of a fixed ṣadja and in the absence of graha and amśa svara concepts. Because in the Mūrchanā system, with constant tonic-shifts, and conversation from septatonic to hexatonic and pentatonic, there was a necessity of graded emphasis on various notes. But in the rāga system, this has been substituted by vādi-saṃvādi. Hence the concept of alpatva and bahutva has changed.

The concept of vādi has also changed since the time of Bharata. In Bharata's system, it was synonymous with the amśa svara of the keynote (starting note) which changed with each Mūrchanā. But a significant question arises here as to why the same svara was given two names i.e., amśa and vādi. Amśa had two connotations—one in a divisive sense (amśayati iti amśah) i.e., the svara which divided the registers into mandra, madhya and tāra. The other sense was that of keynote. Vādi meant that svara which was constantly sounded which invariably happened to be the amśa svara. Then bahutva was the note used most often after the amśa svara. But with the fixing of the ṣadja, the concept of vādi as amśa svara underwent a change. Therefore, the distinction between amśa svara and bahutva does not have the old significance, This is a very important point. In the present day music, vādi as conceived by Bharata has gone. It has been replaced by vādi as melodic centre in the rāga in one tetrachord and saṃvādi in the other tetrachord as its consonant. The necessity of bahutva itself has disappeared. In Bharata's time, vādi-saṃvādi whether as separate notes or as used in the jāti depended on the śruti relationship, i.e., sa–pa or sa–ma or sa–nyāsa svara was the apanyāsa svara in his time. Bharata had a wonderfully worked out scheme of aesthetics with his nyāsu, apanyāsa, vinyāsa and sanyāsa. They were like punctuations in language. The word nyāsa means final, full-stop; this was the old con-notation; at present it is in the sense of frequent pause.

There are references to Jātis in the Rāmāyaṇa, the earlier of the two epics and Mahābhārata. Vālmiki refers to seven Jātis, presumably the seven Suddha Jātis. The word tāla also occurs in Vālmiki's Rāmāyaṇa. Therefore, it appears that between the Vedic and the Epic periods, Jāti and tāla must have developed. Whether there were Vikṛta Jātis in Vālmiki's time, it is not possible to ass rt. Strangely there is no reference to Grāma rāgas, whereas Mahābhārata refers only to Grāma rāgas. There is hardly any mention of Jāti. Paradoxically Nāradiyā Śikṣā, a text on music attributed to 150 bc, a couple of centuries prior to Nāṭyaśāstra, contains details and descriptions of Grāma rāgas and Sāma Vedic music but no description of Jāti. But Nāradiyā Śikṣā does not refer to Bhāṣā, Vibhāṣā and Antarabhāṣā rāgas. Hariṇaṁśa Purāṇa also mentions Grāma rāgas.

The final reduction of Nāṭyaśāstra, according to Manmohan Ghosh was in ad 250. From the systematic and vivid description given by Bharata, it stands to reason that this form of music must have already been in vogue, a few centuries earlier.

But one interesting thing is that in the two important texts Nāradiya Śikṣā and Nāṭyaśāstra, while both refer to Mūrchanās, their names differ. Bharata mentions Jāti rāga also but it appears to reason that the word rāga must have been used in the sense of rañjakatva or pleasure-giving rather than in the technical sense in which it came to be used later on. Bharata does not describe Grāma rāga at all and it seems plausible that this may have been an interpolation. Mataṅga describes Mūrchanā-Jāti and Grāma rāga almost implying that Grāma rāga was an evolute of Jāti. Sāriṅgadeva also followed Mataṅga. If it is assumed that the word rāga was used in both Jāti rāga and Grāma rāga in the technical sense as is understood now, then where was the necessity of Jāti or Grāma?

8. Ṣādavita: 'Ṣaṭ' means six and 'av' means to preserve. When the preservation of Jāti is done by six svaras it is called ṣāḍava (ṣaṭ-ava). The compositions restricted to six svaras are therefore called ṣāḍava. In this, the svaras, namely the 'langhana' and 'anabhyāsa' svaras which usually are not repeated more than once, produce the ṣāḍava or auḍuva form. Bharata states that there are, all told, forty-seven varieties of Ṣāḍava Jātis although the total number of amśa svaras in all the fourteen Jātis is fifty-four. Seven amśa svaras have to be deducted from the above total because those are Ṣāḍavadveṣī. So Bharata says that out of the fourteen Jātis capable of having the hexatonic form, forty-seven varieties are possible

out of them.1

9. Auduvita: Pt. K.C.D. Bhaspati, in his Bharat ke Sangita

Siddhānta has given a fine definition of the above term. He says

'udu' means stars, and 'va' means to move. That is the thing in

which the stars move is called 'uduva'. Of the five elements—

earth, water, fire, air, and sky—sky is fifth in order and that which

is fifth is called 'auduvi.' Also the sky is the container of the stars

and the stars move in it. Apart from this, the state of eliminating

two svaras from seven svaras and forming a five-svara Jāti is known

as 'aduva'; and the process of converting the sampadga to the

aduva state is termed auduvita.2

Just as in ṣādavita, here also, the total number of amṣa svaras in

the ten Jātis that are auduvita is forty-two but of them twelve are

Auduvadreṣṭi (inimical to audava) and hence the nett number is

thirty. So of the ten Auduvita Jātis, thirty subvarieties are possi-

ble.3 Thus the ten lakṣaṇas or characteristics of the Jātīs are des-

cribed by Bharata.

Sārṅgadeva has shown thirteen lakṣaṇas of the Jātis by including

antaramārga, sanyāsa and vinyāsa whereas Bharata laid down only

the above ten lakṣaṇas.

10. According to S.R, antaramārga is that peculiar usage when

certain svaras—other than nyāsa, apanyāsa, vinyāsa, graha or amṣa

are employed to conjure up some special effect in conjunction with

amṣa, graha, apanyāsa, vinyāsa and sanyāsa. Antaramārga is obvi-

ously possible only in: Vikṛta Jātis.

To explain this in modern parlance, it is akin to Bhāṣāṅga rāgas.

: For instance, the use of komal niṣāda in Rāga Kedāra or the judici-

ous of komal dhaivata in the Rāga Kāfi would be an antaramārga

operation.

11. Sanyāsa: In understanding this, it is necessary to explain

certain other technical terms like vidāri and sthāya. Vidāri is the

natural syntactical division of a composition, both structural and

textual whereas sthāya is a melodic phrase.

In this case, vidāri also means a part of both the text and struc-

ture of the composition. Sanyāsa is that svara which is the saṃvādi

or anuvādi of the amṣa svara on which the first vidāri of the com-

position (gīta) ends; i.e., the note on which the first phrase of the

composition halts, it is the first important punctuation point in the

composition. There is a limitation in this. The note on which the

vidāri ends must be either the saṃvādi or anuvādi of the amṣa

svara of the Jāti to serve as the punctuation of that vidāri the

last limitation is structural. By fixing both the note and word of

the composition, Jāti-gāna had brought about hide-bound rigidity

and destroyed the scope for improvisation. The rigidity of note-

structure was further accentuated by rigidity in the textual compo-

sition.

12. Vinyāsa: The svara which ends on a word occurring in a part

of the vidāri is called vinyāsa.1 As has been explained earlier, by

binding the composition with nyāsa, apanyāsa, sanyāsa and vin-

yāsa, the scope for free improvisation was considerably curbed. In

fact there appeared to have been hardly any prospect or play of an

artist's imagination as he perennially stood the danger of trans-

gressing some rule or the other. It must have been considered quite

an achievement if the artist conformed to all the manifold regula-

tions and restrictions.

Another term which Bharata has defined and Sārṅgadeva and

Kallinātha have expatiated in some detail is sthāyī svara. Sthāyī

means essentially that which is unchanging, stable, constant. In

the context of the Jātis, it means amṣa svara which is also the starting

note or that note which is heard unceasingly.3 At present the sthāyī

svara is obviously ṣadja. As is done today, the different svaras of

the sāptaka are taken with ṣadja as the 'base' and the 'pitch of it

well established. That is to say the determination of the arrange-

ments or interval relationships of the various svaras are based on

the keynote (sthāyī svara). Upoha means to produce, to bring about,

to accumulate. A clear definition is in the Bharata Koṣa.3 The sing-

ing of the 'dhruva' gīta, the usage of meaningless words like 'jhan-

tum' etc., based on the sthāyī svara to understand 'raghu and other

varieties of tempo (laya) and tāla also went under the name of

Upohana. The upohana operation was the starting operation of the

2Nā. Sā., Bombay edn., p. 444.

2S.R., Svarādhyāya, p. 192.

3Nā. Sā., Bombay edn., p. 444.

1S.R., Adyar edn., Svarādhyāya, p. 189.

2S.R., Kallinātha Adyar edn., Svarādhyāya, p. 189.

3उपोहते स्वरो वष्मादि तस्माद गीर्व प्रस्तुतिः ।

तस्मादुपोहनं होय᐀- स्वराविष्टरमवादयः॥ -Bha. Ko., p. 83

song. Sārṅgadeva, while defining Upohana says that the sthāyī svara is the svara on which the rāga dwells and it is the opening note of the saptaka.1

From all this, it will not be difficult to see that the musicians and musicologists of the medieval and ancient periods were sparkl-

ing intellectuals. As in the field of Hindu mysticism and philoso-

phy where one comes across razor-sharp subtleties in the defini-

tions of ātman, God etc., so also in the field of music, the intellec-

tual incisiveness of our old musicians and musicologists was fully

manifested in the several subtle, tenuous, skilful definitions of the

characteristics of Jātis and Jāti-gāna. While it is impossible not to

admire their scintillating intellects from the purely musical and

aesthetic points of view, it seems quite evident that they were rather

carried away by the brilliant possibilities of subtleties, that they

ignored the pragmatic aspect of the rendering. Music is a practical

art and any amount of science or grammatical injunctions, if they

tend to inhibit or stultify the performer or artist, will not, in the

long run, contribute towards its creative efflorescence. And that

unfortunately, apparently happened with our music. But it survived

because of its innate strong artistic resilience and consequently its

capacity to modify itself according to the various changing times

and conditions and yet retain its original soul.

Bharata has laid down a general rule that the start of a Mūr-

chanā will be from the madhya sthāna of the vīṇā so he has not

gone into details of procedure of fixing the notes of the Jātis on the

vīṇā. Mataṅga, in accordance to his Dvādaśa-svara-Mūrchanā has

given details of fixing the various notes of the Jāti. Whereas

Mataṅga begins the Jāti from the seventh fret from the meru and

establishes the madhya saptaka there; he has one whole saptaka as

mandra and the tāra saptaka begins from the fourteenth fret. He

has four svaras there and the balance, i.e. states, could be obtained

by stretching the wire. He had started using the twelve-svara-Mūr-

chanā and did not believe in the strict adherence to the rules of the

mandra and tāra saptaka limits. He obtained the minimum twelve

svaras needed for a Jāti from the seventh fret as he had eighteen

frets.

The other features described by him in respect of the nyāsa,

apanyāsa svaras, the sa-ga and sa-dha sangītis, the tālas etc. are

1S.R., Adyar edn., Vādyādhyāya, p. 283 and 296.

the same as in Na. Sa., but Mataṅga states that the audava form

can never be derived with the omission of sadja and dhaivata. He

says the audava form will emerge only when riṣabha-pañcama or

niṣāda-pañcama are deliberately weakened (alpatva). The Jāti is

derived from Dhaivātī Mūrchanā which is Uttarāyata.1 It is sung

in three different mārgaṣ and in three different gītis. Here the term

mārga is used to denote the laya (tempo) of the tāla and gīti is the

style of rendering (bāṇi) of the same composition. It is stated by

Mataṅga that this Jāti is sung in Chitrā, Vārtika and Dakṣiṇā

mārgaṣ. In the reverse order Dakṣiṇā may be taken to be vilambit,

Vārtika as madhya laya and Chitrā as druta laya. The gītis in all

these mārgaṣ are prthulā gīti, sambhāvita and māgadhi respectively

and the layas of the tāla (Pañcapaṇi) was caṭuṣkalā, dvikalā and

ekakalā respectively.2 Kalā is a technical term used with different

connotations in different contexts. Here it denotes the time-measure

or mātrāṣ of the tālaṣ. So Dakṣiṇā mārga had four kalāṣ (caṭuṣkalā)

which was sometimes doubled and made into eight kalāṣ for con-

venience (aṣṭakala); Vārtikā mārga was of two (dvikalā) or four

kalāṣ (caṭuṣkalā) and Chitrā mārga of one (ekakalā) or two kalāṣ

(dvikalā). These mātrāṣ or kalāṣ are for each section of the Pañca-

pañcī tāla.

But there are certain features of the Jātis which are in diametric

opposition to the rules of the modern rāga system.

Take for example the Dhaivatī Jāti. Bharata3 and Mataṅga4 and

Sārṅgadeva5 state that this Jāti in its pentatonic form omits both

ṣadja and pañcama. It may be argued that ṣadja and pañcama

svaras earned their acala or immutable position only after the ṣadja

became fixed. Whilc that contention is valid and tenable, the struc-

ture of the Jāti as it emerges is also quite extrao:dinary. The Jāti

in order to be sung must be transposed on to the ṣadja, In other

words Dhaivatī Jāti is as follows. It is based on the Riṣabhdādi

Mūrchanā which means the dhaivata svara would be on the fourth

fret (parva). From the fourth fret, in Mataṅga's Kinnarī vīṇā, the

eleventh will be beginning of the madhya saptaka and the eight-

1This Jāti's derivative Mūrchanā is mentioned as Uttarāyata by Kāllinātha by

interpreting Mataṅga in terms of Bharata, Dhaivatādi Mūrchanā. But the

Dhaivatādi Mūrchanā of Mataṅga was actually Bharata's Uttarāmandrā.

3Bha. Ko., p. 690, extr. from Mataṅga's Brihaddeśī.

4Bha. Ko., p. 448.

5S.R., Adyar edn., Svarādhyāya, p. 217.

50 Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

centh tāra saptaka. The Ṛṣabhādi Mūrchanā according to modern parlance takes the form of the rāga Bhairavī with all the svaras re, ga, dha and ni komal with ṣuddha madhyama. The Dhaivatī Jāti, with the ṣadja transposed in place of dhaivata which is its graha amṣa and nyāsa svaras, takes all the svaras of the modern Bhairavī except that it has two madhyamas in chromatic order without the pañcama. It is like this:

Sa re ga ma Ma dha ni sa. Dhaivatī Jāti is: dha ni sa re ga ma pa dha.

It is stated that in this Jāti, in the ṣāḍava state, pañcama is omitted which means it would become: dha ni sa re ga ma dha or in terms of ṣadja: Sa re ga ma Ma dha sa.

Now an interesting point emerges. If the Jāti is sung with dhaivata as the tonic, then a rāga very close to the modern rāga Vāgeśrī and exactly like the modern Kārnāṭaka Rāga Śrīrañjanī is formed. But in the practical field repetition of dhaivata as the tonic would inevitably change the complexion of the arrangement as it would begin sounding like ṣadja. With ṣadja transposed on dhaivata, the āroha-varoha of the Jāti becomes: Sa re ga ma Ma dha Sa-Sa dha Ma ma ga re sa. This form does not sound very musically viable. Moreover, the significance of dhaivata being graha, amṣa and nyāsa svaras becomes irrelevant if ṣadja is transposed on dhaivata. Also the modern musician and musicologist have the tendency to assess the structure and arrangement of the svaras of Jāti, establishing the position of ṣadja and intoning all the other svaras in relation to it; whereas in the days of the Jāti, ṣadja was like any of the other svaras of the saptaka. Looked at in this way, every one of the seven svaras of the saptaka had an equally important place. Therefore, it stands to reason to presume that in singing the Dhaivatī Jāti, there was no transposition of ṣadja; but the question of making it the graha, amṣa and nyāsa svaras inevitably entails its constant repetition. Here again there appears another contradiction. If the dhaivata svara is retained as the tonic, then the omission of pañcama in the ṣāḍava state of the Dhaivatī Jāti gives a form very close to the modern rāga Vāgeśrī. In the auḍava state, with the omission of both ṣadja and pañcama, the form still remains close to Vāgeśrī. It becomes: dha ni re ga ma dha. This can still be sung in his way in the Vāgeśrī aṅga keeping dhaivata svara as graha and nyāsa. But it is stated that it is derived from Ṛṣabhadi Mūrchanā. This means

51 Music as Depicted in Nātyaśāstra: Gīndharva Sangīta

that this Jāti must have the form, complexion and structure of the modern rāga Bhairavī; this in turn implies the transposition of the ṣadja on dhaivata. If that is done, then the singing of the Jāti takes quite a different and difficult form; the auḍava form becomes: Sa re ma Ma dha Sa. Now this possibility also seems improbable because of the other conditions stipulated in the ṣāḍava and auḍava states. For instance, it is stated that in the ṣampūrṇa state, ga, ma, pa and ni are weak (alpa) or should not be taken much. What is more amazing is that these svaras continue to be weak even in the auḍava state. Which means the svaras that are strong or that could be taken again and again are dha, re and sa. But in the auḍava state, it is mentioned clearly, that both sa and pa are omitted. Mataṅga describes this Jāti as above. Therefore, the inference as to the musicality and singability of the Dhaivatī Jāti can only be that it should have been extremely circumscribed and hedged on all sides with rules.

The retention of dhaivata as tonic reflects the Ṣāḍjī Jāti as it was derived from the Dhaivatādi Mūrchanā. In this case, the Dhaivatī Jāti is shown as a derivative of the Ṛṣabhadi Mūrchanā. A close study of both these Mūrchanās, transposing ṣadji as the tonic gives the same notes, the only difference being that in the former i.e., the Uttarāyata Mūrchanā the two madhyamas occur in chromatic order without pañcama, whereas, in the later i.e., Abhirudgatā Mūrchanā, there is only ṣuddha madhyama and the notes are exactly like the modern Rāga Bhairavī. Here also there is tremendous similarity between the two Jātis.

Another tantalizing factor is that Mataṅga states that in the ṣuddha or pūrṇavasthā i.e., in the heptatonic state gāndhāra, madhyama, pañcama and niṣāda are alpa or weak. The remaining notes are ṣadja, ṛṣabha and dhaivata. With four notes alpa, it really becomes difficult to construct the form of this Jāti. It is also stated by Mataṅga that in the Vikṛta state, dhaivata, ṛṣabha and madhyama or apanyāsa svaras. What is even more confounding is the description given further on that the Dhaivatī Jāti, even in the auḍava state has all the above four notes in the alpatva condition! So we are left with only one note namely dhaivata because in the auḍava state both ṣadja and pañcama are vārya, and ga, ma, ni are alpa (weak)! Musically this seems quite a proposition to play or sing. Similarly the Naiṣādi Jāti,1 here too, as in Dhaivatī Jāti, four

svaras in the pūrṇāvasthā are alpa (weak). With four svaras weak,

it is difficult to imagine any aesthetic expression with only three

svaras. There are other perplexing things also. For instance accord-

ing to all the three great authorities—Bharata, Matanga and

Sārṅgadeva, in the Naisādī Jāti, three svaras namely, niṣāda, ṛṣabha

and gāndhāra enjoy the status of amśa svara. They are also apanyāsa

svaras. Ṣadja, madhyama, gāndhāra and pañcama are weak (alpa).

The remaining svaras are niṣāda, ṛṣabha and dhaivata. But earlier,

it is stated that gāndhāra is one of the amśa and apanyāsa svaras!

The other confusing factors are:

1. that it resembles Dhaivatī Jāti, and

2. it is derived from the gāndhāra or Aṣvakrāntā Mūrchanā.

Let us take the first factor namely its resemblance to the Dhai-

vatī Jāti. With niṣāda as amśa svara, the Jāti becomes ni, sa, re,

ga, ma, pa, dha, ni. With the transposition of Sa over Ni, the Jāti

takes the form of the present-day Suddha Bilāval. With ṛṣabha as

amśa svara, the scale is exactly like modern Bhairavī with re, ga,

dha and ni komal and ma śuddha. With gāndhāra as amśa svara,

the scale takes the scale which is exactly like the present-day

Yaman. In the first case, in all the three condltions namely, pūr-

ṇāvasthā (heptatonic), ṣādavāvasthā (hexatonic) and auḍuvāvasthā

(pentatonic), it is nowhere near Dhaivatī Jāti as the scale, in all

the three cases, in the current context of rāga structure, takes the

following notes: Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni resembling Suddha

Bilāval: Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Ni with dhaivata svara omitted. (Pan்-

cama svara is omitted in the ṣādava condition which becomes dhai-

vata when sa is transposed on Ni.) There is no known rāga in

Hindustānī music but there are two rāgas in Karnāṭaka Music

which have identical āroha but, are different in the avaroha. The

rāgas are Suddha Vasanta and Kṣapa. In the former the avaroha is

vakra with dhaivata as the vakra (transilient) svara like this: Sa

dha Ni Pa ma Ga Re Sa. In the latter, pañcama is omitted i.e., Sa

Ni Ma Ga Re Sa.

In the auḍava condition, both ṣadja and pañcama are omitted,

madhyama and dhaivata are weak. The auḍava form of this Jāti

will be Ni Re ga ma dha. It is stated by Bharata and Sārṅgadeva

that this Jāti is similar to the previous one namely Dhaivatī Jāti in

the ṣādava and auḍava condition and also in taking the remaining

svaras in respect of alpatva and bahulya.

Naisādī Jāti is shown as a derivative of the Gāndhāra Mūrchanā.

Gāndhāra Mūrchanā in modern parlance is the current rāga Yaman.

But this is evident only with the transposition of ṣadja on the svara

gāndhāra. Otherwise it is the same Ṣadja Grāma svaras similar to

the Kāfi rāga. In this way all the Jātis would sound similar.

The other way in which any distinction could be brought about

in the various Jātis with different svaras as tonic is to intone the

ṣadja with the new svara as tonic. For example the Gāndhārāmśa

Ṣādji Jāti has the svara gāndhāra as amśa or vādi or tonic. If the

gāndhāra is in place of ṣadja and the svaras of Yaman pro-·

duced with those of Kāfi, then that would become Gāndhārāmśa

Ṣādji. The following illustration will make the point clear.

Ga, Re ma ga, Re ma pa, Dha ma pa, ma pa Dha,

ma pa, Re ma ga; ga, ga, ni ni, Sa, RiSa,

Re, ma, ma pa Dha, pa, pa ma ga.

If sa is transposed on ga, then the same ālāpa would sound as

follows:

Sa, Ni Re Sa, Ni Re Ga, Ma Re Ga, Re Ga Ma,

Re Ga, Ni Re Sa; Sa Sa, pa pa, Dha, Ni Dha,

Ni Ga

Ni Dha, Ni Re Re, Re Ga Ma, Ga, Ga Re Sa..

With ga as Sa, the śruti arrangement of Aśvakrāntā Mūrchanā

will be as follows and different from modern rāga Yaman.

2 4 4 3 .2 4 3 2

ga ma pa dha ni Sa Re Ga

2 4 4 3 2 4 3 2

Sa Re ga ma pa Dha ni Sa

Re and ga are of four śrutis; Ma which is tīvra, is of three śrutis

from Ga which is antara Ga and hence in the same position as in

Yaman. But the antara Ga of Gāndhārāmśa Ṣādjī is one śruti higher

than that of Yaman; Dha is the same in both being four śrutis

from Re; but it is only three śrutis from Dha and hence one śruti

less than the Yaman, Ni. This means that the upper Sa is also one

śruti less than the Sa of Yaman.

In the same way, Madhyamāmsa Ṣādji, Pañcamāmsa Ṣādji could be elaborated using madhyama, pañcama and dhaivata in place of ṣadja. A little ālāpa in each would illustrate the point better.

Madhyamāmsa Ṣādji

According to the current rāga classification, a rāga similar to that of Khamāj of Hindustānī music or Harikāmbodī of Karnāṭaka music would be the rāga that would be formed out of Ṣadjāmsa Ṣādji Jāti.

With Dhaivata as Amśa Svara or Tonic

Dha, Dha, Dha Sa ni Dha, Dha Sa Re, Sa Re, Sa, Dha, Sa ni Dha, Dha ga ga, ma pa, ga, ma pa, ni, ni, ni Sa Re, Sa Sa, Dha Dha, Dha.

With Sa as Tonic or Amśa

Sa, Sa, Sa ga re sa, Sa ga ma, Ga ma, ga, Sa, ga ma, ga re Sa; Sa, Ma Ma, dha ni Ma, dha ni, re, re, re ga ma, ga ga, Sa Sā, Sa.

In the above elaboration, the absence of pañcama makes the Jāti more complex and unmusical especially the latter half, but ālāpa could be done more melodiously.

Coming back to the Naiṣādi Jāti, it is stated by Bharata, Matanga-ṛṣabha and gāndhāra are amśa svaras. They are also graha svaras; only niṣāda is nyāsa, the other two are apanyāsa. In the sampūrṇa state, sa, ma, ga and pa are weak or are to be used sparingly. In the auduvita state dha and ma are weak. The point which is talising is that the svara namely gāndhāra which is both graha and amśa svara enjoys only (alpatva position in this Jāti in the sam-pūrṇa state. Also it is stated that this Jāti is similar to Dhaivati Jāti in the use of strong and weak notes. Its derivation from Gān-dhāra Mūrchanā makes it more complicated and confounding. If niṣāda svara is taken as graha and amśa svara, then a rāga similar to modern Bilāval would be formed. In the Dhaivati Jāti ga, ma, pa and ni are weak or alpa. In the Naiṣādi Jāti-the alpa svaras are ga, ma, pa and sa. Analysing this musically, it seems quite evident that (no tangibly aesthetic form can emerge with the successive notes weak: The similarity between the two Jātis only accentuates the untenable musical position than anything else.

With ma as Tonic

ma, ma pa ma, pa Dha ma, ma Dha Dha ni, Dha ni Sa Re, ni Dha, ni Dha pa ma, ma Sa Sa, Re Ga Re, Sa, Re Ga, pa, pa, pa, Dha ni, Dha Dha, ma, ma, ma.

The Same with Sa as Tonic

Sa, Sa Re Sa, Re Ga ma, Sa Ga Ga Ma, Ga ma pa Dha, ma Ga, ma Ga Re Sa, Sa pa pa, Dha ni Dha, pa, Dha ni, Re, Re, Re Ga ma, Ga Ga, Sa, Sa, Sa, Sa.

Pañcamāmsa Ṣādji

Similar to the modern Āsāvarī thāṭu with pañcama as tonic. Pa, Pa, Dha Sa Re ga Sa Re, ga ma pa, ga Re, Sa Re ga Sa Re, ni Dha pa; pa Re Re, Re-ga ma, Re ga ma Dha, Dha, Dha ni sa, ni ni, pa, pa, pa, pa.

With Ṣadja as Tonic

Sa, Sa, Re ma pa, dha ma pa, dhi ni Sa, Dha pa, ma pa dha, ma pa, ga Re Sa; Sa pa pa, pa-dha ni, pa, dha ni, Re, Re, Re ga ma, ga ga Sa Sa Sa Sa.

Dhaivatāmsa Ṣādji

Similar to modern Bhairavī of Hindustānī music without pañ-cama but with two madhyamas.

After illustrating the Ṣuddha Jāti Ṣādji and its seven amśa variations, we shall now take up another major variety of the Jāti, namely a Vikṛta Jāti.

We shall take up the Vikṛta Jāti Ṣadjakaiśikī.

In this Jāti, six out of the seven svaras are amśa svaras. The exception is ṛṣabha.

1 Na. Śā., Bombay edn., p. 448.

2 Bha. Ko.

3 S.R., Adyar edn., Svarādhyāya, p. 220.

56 Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

According to Bharata,1 Mataṅga2 and Śārṅgadeva3 and Dattila,

this Jāti takes three forms namely sampūrṇā ṣādava and auḍava.

Ṣādava (hexatonic) state is obtained with the omission of ṛṣabha

and auḍava by omitting ṛṣabha and dhaivata.

T ere are certain apparent contradictions. For instance all the

above scholars state that ṛṣabha and dhaivata are weak and should

be taken sparingly. Bharata is not specific but states that ṛṣabha

and dhaivata are the notes to be omitted. But he states dhaivata is

also one of the aṁśa svaras and when niṣāda and dhaivata become

aṁśa svaras pañcama become-nyāsa svara; in this state ṛṣabha

sometimes becomes apanyāsa svara.4

Dattila states that ṛṣabha and dhaivata should be studied

omitted but immediately thereafter states that dhaivata is one of

the aṁśa svaras.

Śārṅgadeva also defines the same characteristics of Kaiśikī as

Bharata and Mataṅga and Dattila have done but he gives a few

additional details. He gives the Mūrchanā of this Jāti as Gān-

dhārādī and the tāla as pañcapaṇī just as it is in Sāḍjī Jāti. The

contradictory detail again is when he states that “pañcama and

dhaivata are ṣādava-auḍava virodhī, i.e. they are respectively inimi-

cal or opposed (allergic?) to the formation of the hexatonic and

pentatonic states. Whereas all the scholars have mentioned the

omission of dhaivata as the condition for the obtaining of Kaiśikī's

pentatonic form.

The starting svara of this Jāti is gāndhāra. So its āroha and

avaraha in the sampūrṇa state will resemble modern Hindustānī

Yaman (The charts given at the end of this thesis will give a clear

picture of the different Jātis).

With the omission of ṛṣabha, the ṣādava form will be as follows:

Sa Ga Ma pa Dha Ni Sa

Sa Ni Dha pa Ma Ga Sa

There is no corresponding rāga in modern Hindustānī music.

But Karnāṭaka music has exactly the same āroha-avaraha in its

rāga (Kannadamāruva, a derivative of Karnāṭaka Melakarta Meca-

1Nā. Śā , Bombay edn., p. 448.

2Bha. Ko., p 679.

3S.R., Adyar edn , Svarādhyāya, p. 224.

4History of South Indian (Carnatic) Music, Appendix IV, p. 121, 1940th Rāga.

57 Music as Depicted in Nāṭyaśāstra: Gāndharva Sangīta

kalyāṇī, the equivalent of Yaman. But this is an extremely uncom-

mon rāga in that music also. This scale is a musically tenable one

and can be sung well as a rāga if pañcama is taken less in the

āroha as usually done in Yaman.

The auḍava variation with the omission of ṛṣabha and dhaivata

also has no modern Hindustānī equivalent but Karnāṭaka music

has a popular rāga Amṛtavarṣiṇī which is an exact equivalent and

very pleasing and sweet. The great composer-musician late G.N.

Bālasubramaṇiam expounded this rāga beautifully. After him an-

other extraordinarily talented musician Bālamurali Kṛṣṇa sings

this and other vakra rāgas with great finesse and command.

But as stated already, the śruti arrangement and value will be

different between Kaiśikī and modern Yaman. Gāndhāra would be

a śruti higher being of eight śrutis, niṣāda and ṣadja will be a

śruti less than it is in Yaman.

Let us take up the different svarāmśas of Kaiśikī.

Gāndhārāmśa Kaiśikī

Ācārya Bṛhaspati in his book Bhārat ke Sangīta Siddhānta has

suggested the tuning of Mataṅga's Kinnarī vīṇā as follows:

The cikārī should be tuned to gāndhāra, then from the meru

up to the seventh string will be mandra; from seventh to fourteenth

string will be madhya; and from the fourteenth string onwards till

the eighteenth, will be the tāra sthānas respectively. The balance of

notes of the tāra sthāna namely, sa and re could be obtained by

stretching niṣāda on the eighteenth string.

But this does not indicate musically the svarūpa or form of the

Jāti. It would be better understood if the note structure of the Jāti

is translated into modern terms of rāga.

As already described Kaiśikī resembles rāga Yaman, Gāndhārāmśa

Kaiśikī means to transpose ṣadja in the position of gāndhāra. This

then will give rise to modern Āśāvarī Thāṭa of Hindustānī and

Naṭa Bhairavī melā or rāga of Karnāṭaka music.

The transposition is as follows:

Kaiśikī—Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa

Gāndhārāmśa Kaiśikī—Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Re Ga

(In terms of Sa as tonic)—Sa Re ga Ma Pa dha ni sa

But the śruti arrangement will be quite different. Firstly Kaiśikī

is a Jāti of Madhyama Grāma. Hence its pañcama is one śruti less than of that of the usual pañcama.

The śruti distribution of this Jāti will be as follows:

Ga to Ma will become Sa to Re when Sa is made the tonic. The Re will be four śrutis, ga will be of three śrutis, one śruti more than the usual sādhārana or komal ga i.e., it will be antara gān-dhāra; ma will also be a śruti higher than the usual śuddha ma, but of four śruti is from ga; i.e., it will be tīvra ma, pa will be at a distance of two śrutis from ma and thirteen śrutis from sa.

With ga, one śruti above the usual śruti figure of six i.e., antara gāndhāra and ma two śrutis above the usual tīvra ma. Pa is in the normal position according to Ṣadja Grāma and one śruti more according to Madhyama Grāma; dha is at its right place from sa, but it is not komal dha but will be the catuhśrutika dhaivata from sa, being seventeen śrutis from it: niṣāda is three śrutis from dha and is on the 2nd śruti and in the position of kākalī niṣāda.

So this Jāti would actually sound very peculiar and it will be a misnomer to call it either Āṣāverī or Nata Bhairavī and compare it with both.

Madhyamāmśa Kaiśikī

With the shift of sa as tonic in the place of ma, the Jāti will be as follows:

ma pa dha ni sa re ga

4 3 4 4 2 3 2

sa re ga ma pa dha ni

If Kaiśikī is similar to Yaman, then, with its madhyama as ṣadja, the scale that will emerge will be that of Bhairavī with the difference that in place of pañcama, there will be tīvra madhyama, i.e., it will be Bhairavī with two madhyamas. But in the above transposition, the śruti division will be:

re — three śrutis — triśrutika re

ga — four śrutis — antara ga

ma — four śrutis — tīvra ma

pa — two śrutis — pañcama pa

dha — three śrutis — triśrutika dha

ni — two śrutis — dvīśrutika ni

From sa, ga will be at an interval of seven śrutis, i.e., one śruti more than komal, i.e. it will be (antara) ga; ma will be two śrutis from śuddha madhyama, i.e., it will be tīvra ma; pañcama will be exact and in perfect consonance with sa. Dha will be triśrutika and niṣāda will be in the śruti lower than that of Kaiśikī Niṣāda, i.e., four śrutis from sā; according to modern reckoning. Pañcama will ' be a śruti more than that in Madhyama Grāma. Pūrvāṅga of this Jāti will be somewhat like Yaman; Uttarāṅga will be like Kāfi.

There is no rāga comparable in Hindustānī music but in Karnāṭaka music rāga Yācaspatī will bear a distant resemblance. The svara structure of it is like Yaman in pūrvāṅga and Kāfi in Uttarāṅga.

Pañcama Kaiśikī

With sa transposed in place of pañcama, the śruti distribution of the various svaras of the saptaka will be as follows:

4 3 2 4 4 3 2 4

sa re ga ma pa dha ni sa

3 2 4 3 2 4

re ga ma pa dha ni

i.e., sa — four śrutis

re — three śrutis — triśrutika — re

ga — two śrutis — pañcaśrutika — ga

ma — four śrutis — in the right position — 9 śrutis from sa

pa — three śrutis — right position in Ma Grāma — 12 śrutis from sa

dha — two śrutis — atikomal dha — 14 śrutis from sa

ni — four śrutis — right position of Kaiśikī (komal) Niṣāda — 18 śrutis from ṣadja.

The śruti structure of this Jāti when interpreted in terms of current arrangement of note-intervals, would sound very odd because ṛṣabha (three śrutis), gāndhāra (two śrutis) and dhaivata (two śrutis) and pañcama (12 śrutis), will be mutually discordant and inconsonant. Especially pañcama one śruti less than normal and dhaivata of just one śruti from the normal śruti position of modern pañcama, namely, 13 śrutis.

60 Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

According to our rāga nomenclature, this has the overall struc-

ture of Āṣāveri thāṭa with ṛṣabha, gāndhāra, pañcama and dhaivata

all one śruti less than normal. It will be very difficult to maintain

the śruti arrangement.

In this way, Dhaivatāṃśa and Niṣādāṃśa Kaiśikī can be taken

and ṣaḍja transposed on dhaivata and niṣāda and their respective

śruti distribution shown.

The above illustrations have been given to impress the fact that

the subtle śruti variations were productive of upa-Jātis but their

singability according to modern understanding of svara arrange-

ment, would be rather remote. But the illustrations have brought

forth clearly the type of music that was in vogue then. This would

help in assessing the evolution of our music.

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

CHAPTER 4

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

Evolution of Indian Music

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

H

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

AVING discussed and delved into the Nāṭyaśāstra, we shall now

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

take up the next important text Brhaddeśi by Matanga. This

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

work is attributed variously to the seventh, eighth and ninth

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

century by different scholars. Whatever the difference of opinion as

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

to its period is, all scholars are agreed that it is a work not beyond

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

ninth century AD. It is a very significant text on Indian music as it

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

has thrown fresh light on several things that Nāṭyaśāstra had men-

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

tioned in brief. Brhad means comprehensive, deśi refers to regions,

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

provinces, zones. Brhaddeśi means in this context a comprehensive

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

treatment of deśi music. Matanga himself states that he has dealt

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

with that part of music not treated by Bharata. Does it mean that Deśi rāga by Bharata. Does it mean that Deśi rāga in any

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

form did not exist in the time of Nāṭyaśāstra? This problem has

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

been discussed in the sequel.

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

In his Brhaddeśi, Matanga has given the general characteristics

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

of Śruti, Svara, Mūrchanā, Alamkāra, Gītiṣ, Grāma rāgas, Deśi

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

rāgas, Bhāṣā and Prabandha.

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

Bharata in his Nāṭyaśāstra mentions the names of Jātis and their

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

lakṣaṇas (characteristics), Gāndharva Sangīta. But in the time of

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

Matanga, Jāti, Grāma rāga, Bhāṣā, Vībhāṣā, Antarābhāṣā came to be

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

known as Mārga Sangīta i.e., any music that was stylised came to be

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

known as Mārga Sangīta. In Bharata's time, Gāndharva Sangīta

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

was considered Mārga Sangīta. All Jāti-gāna and Mārga-tālas

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

were considered Gāndharva Sangīta.1 This was called also

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

Mārga Sangīta.

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

Källinātha, in his commentary on the Sangīta Ratnākara, while

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

dealing with Deśi Sangīta, has given a confused definition. He

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

states that it is music liked by the people, which is without any

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

rules. But if it is without rules, then how can it have such elabo-

4

Brhaddeśi of Matanga Showing the Second Stage of Evolution of Indian Music

1N.S., vol. IV, chap. I, verses 8-20, p. 6.

62 Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

rate. sophisticated characteristics which he himself describes? We shall discuss this when we deal with the Sangīta Ratnākara.

Similarly Grāma rāga which Bharata refers to in passing as significant in enhancing the moods of certain Acts in the drama, has been dealt with by Mataṅga in greater detail. In fact there is some confusion regarding the very definition of Grāma.

Mataṅga defines Grāma as a group of samvādī svaras wherein there is a definite arrangement or order of śrutis and which is sustained by Mūrchanā, Tāna, Varṇa, Krama, Alaṃkāra etc, just as the different members of a village live together amicably and respectably.

Grāma rāgas and Gītīs

Mataṅga mentions Grāma rāgas as being sung in different gītīs (styles of rendering), namely, Suddha, Bhinna, Gauḍi, Vesarā and Sādhāraṇī or in one or in some cases more than one.

There was a basic difference between gīti and gīta. Gīti was the style of musical composition in which a song was rendered. Gīta meant any song that was sung.

Mahārāṇā Kumbha gives the best definition of Grāma rāga.1

Mataṅga mentions seven types of gītīs: Padaśrita and Svarāśrita, i.e.; style of composition based on poetic content or text of the song and composition based on musical structure.

Bharata mentions only Padaśrita gītīs. Before we discuss gītīs, let us further investigate Grāma rāgas. Nāradīya Śikṣā, one of the earliest works on music ascribed to about 200 BC, has a definition of Grāma rāga as given by the commentator.2

Mataṅga has not given descriptions of the Grāma rāgas, he has described mostly Bhāṣā, Vibhāṣa, and Antarabhāṣā. Nārada, Kaśyapa and Śārṅgadeva have, however, given description of these rāgas. We shall discuss Śārṅgadeva's description in a separate chapter. Here we shall take up the descriptions as given by Nārada and Kaśyapa.

There were seven Suddha Grāma rāgas of which three belong to

1Tatra grāmasamudbhūtan pañcagitīsamśrayāt, Suddhādibhedasambhinno grāmarāgā itritah. —Bha. Ko., p. 190

Yathā svarasanniveśena grämayaitryam loukike gāne evam svarasanniveśena vaicitryatā sāmagānam ananatprabhedam bhavati iti. —Nā. Śl., p. 21

63 Bṛhaddeśī of Mataṅga

Ṣadja Grāma and four to Madhyama Grāma. They were as follows:

Ṣadja Grāma Madhyama Grāma

1. Ṣadja Grāma rāga 1. Madhyama Grāma rāga

2. Sādhārīta 2. Pañcama (Suddha Pañcama)

3. Kaiśika Madhyama 3. Kaiśika

4. Śāḍava

Let us first take all the rāgas of the Madhyama Grāma. The first rāga is Madhyama Grāma rāga. This is define-1 by Nārada1 in which he states that in this rāga, there is predominance of gān-dhāra; niṣāda is also repeatedly taken and dhaivata is weak. The rest of the svaras, by implication, are of normal importance. In other . words, madhyama is the amśa svara; gāndhāra is predominant. niṣāda is second in prominence and dhaivata is weak.

Kaśyapa's definition is different.2 Since Nārada himself refers to Kaśyapa in some of his definitions of Grāma rāgas, it appears that Kaśyapa may have been even earlier than Nārada.

Kaśyapa states that the rāga called Madhyana Grāma is born out of Gāndhārī, Madhyama and Pañcamī Jātis. Ṣadja is amśa svara; madhyama is nyāsa svara.

In Gāndhārī Jāti, according to Bharata, gāndhāra is the nyāsa svara; ṣadja and pañcama are apanyāsa svaras. In Madhyamā Jāti, madhyama svara is nyāsa and ṣadja, ṛṣabha, pañcama and dhaivata are apanyāsa svaras. In Pañcamī Jāti, pañcama and ṛṣabha are amśa svaras, niṣāda, pañcama and ṛṣabha are apanyāsa svaras. At the same time, Bharata states that in this Jāti, ṣadja, gāndhāra and pañcama svaras are weak.3 This seems a contradiction in terms.

Studying all the above Jātis, one gets the impression that excepting Madhyamā Jāti, the other two Jātis have hardly made any contribution as the allocation of importance of the svaras in them is at variance with that in Madhyama Grāma rāga.'

But if one aualyses the reason for Kaśyapa's contention, one has

2Gāndhārasyaadhipatyena niṣādasya gatā gatiḥ, Dhaivatasy ca dourbalyam madhyama grāma ucyate —Nā. Śl., Mysore edn., p. 21

3Gāndhārimadhyamājātyoḥ Sapancamyoḥ samutthitaḥ, Ṣad jāṃśo madhyamagrāmo madhyamo nyāsa eva ca.

—Kaśyapa, Bha. Ko., p. 465.

9Nā. Sā., Baranas edn., p. 329.

64

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

to turn to Bharata's assertion that all melodic combinations that

are sung in the world are all contained in the permutations of

Jātis.1 It seems all the scholars after Bharata took this statement

of Bharata almost as an axiom and tried to fit in their theories in

consonance with it.

Kaśyapa, Mokṣa, Nanyadeva and others have attempted to

show that Grāma rāgas were all born of Jātis. Bharata whenever

he used the word rāga, he did not use it in the technical sense as

it was used later but mainly in the sense of rañjakatva or in the

delightful aspect.2

If for a moment, we concede that Bharata did use the term rāga

in its technical sense, then it stands to reason that he should have

called the rāgas, Jāti rāgas. Why did he always mention Grāma

rāga distinctly and rever Jāti rāga? Does not this itself give a

glimpse of the proof that Grāma rāga had a definite connection

with the two Grāmas and not with the Jātis?

Sārngadeva has also defined Madhyama Grāma rāga exactly as

Kaśyapa has done it.

Let us take we the next rāga—Suddha Pañcama rāga. The definition

as given by Nārada and others differ. Nārada does not refer to

any Jātis but merely describes the rāga. He states that if pañcama

is a free halting note, and antara gāndhāra, rṣabha and niṣāda are

in it, then understand it is Pañcama rāga.3

Kaśyapa says Suddha Pañcama rāga is derived from Madhyamā

and Pañcamī Jātis and its pañcama svara is both amśa and nyāsa

and its gāndhāra and niṣādu are seldom taken.4

Another reason may also have been the gradual fade out of Jāti-

gāna and the steady emergence into prominence of Grāma rāga

during the time of Matanga. It could have been the desire of the

scholars to raise the status of the Grāma rāga from Deśī Sangīta

to that of Mārgī Sangīta by tracing its origin to Jātis. Otherwise

when one studies the description of Nārada, one feels the lack of

necessity of bringing in the Jātis at all. Of course, the structure and

character of some of the Grāma rāgas changed as time went on

which is but natural.

The third rāga in Madhyama Grāma is Suddha Kaiśika.

Here again the difference in the descriptions of Nārada, Matan-

ga and Mokṣa is worthy of note.

Nārada states that the Rāga Suddha Kaiśika takes kākali niṣāda

and pañcama svara is very prominent. He quotes Kaśyapa's autho-

rity for this.1 There appear to be two Kaśyapas—one senior and

another junior. The former must have been prior to Nārada and

there is apparently no contradiction in their views: But the later

Kaśyapa is a staunch follower of Bharata and his views are quite

at variance with those of Nārada.

There is another definition by Nārada of the same rāga wherein

he mentions the presence of both kākali niṣāda and antara

gāndhāra.2

Mataṅga states that Kaiśikī rāga is born out of Kaiśikī and

Kārmāravī Jātis and is sampūrṇa. It has ṣadja as amśa svara,

madhyama as nyāsa.

65

Brhaddesī of Matanga

any Jātis with reference to the derivation of Grāma rāgas. In fact in

the whole text of Nāradīya Śikṣā, there is no reference to Jātis.

Nārada describes Grāma rāgas neither as Janaka nor Janya rāgas.

As there were only seven Suddha rāgas, he describes their structure

and essential charncteristics. Why do the subsequent scholars

labour to ram the Grāma rāgas into Jātis? One reason may be that

Bharata regarded Jātigāna as Gāndharva Sangīta and Grāma rāga

as Gāna. The former according to him was Mārgī Sungīta and

later Dcfī Sangīta. May be this approach of Bharata prompted the

scholars of the succeeding centuries to correlate the two.

1Yatkincidgīyate loke tatsarvam jātiṣu sthitam.

—Bha. Sang. Sldh., p. 199,

2Rāgastu yasmin vasati yasmūccaiva pravartate.

—Nā. Sā., Bombay edn., p. 433

3Yadi p.ñcamo virimate gāndhāraścintaro bhavati,

Riṣabho niṣādasāhilastatt pañcamamidrṣam vidyāt.

—Nā. Sī., 1.4.6

4Madhyamapañcamī jātyoisambhūtasśud.Jhapan camah.

Amśo'sya pañcamo nyāsasvalpadviśrutikassvarāh.

—Kaśyapa, Bha. Ko., p. 66

1Kākalirdṛśyate yatra prādhānyam pañcamasyā tu, Kaśyapaḥ

kaiśikam prāha madhyamagrāmasambhavam. Nā. Sī., 1-4-11.

2Antarasvarasamyukta kākali yatra drśyate, Kaśyapaḥ kaiśikīm prāha madh-

yagrāmasambhavam, Nā. Sī., as quoted by Rāmkrṣṇa Kavi in Bha. Ko.,

p. 149.

66

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

From this, it is clear that even Matanga was not free from inhibition that Grāma rāgas were evolutes of Jātis. The form of this rāga had obviously undergone a great change, because Matañga does not mention the presence of kākali niṣāda orantara gāndhāra.

But strangely Moksadeva whose work Sangīta Sārakālikā is dated c. AD 1300 in his definition of the above rāga mentions that it takes kākali niṣāda. Although he has not mentioned antara gāndhāra, it may be inferred that this svara must have been also taken as the perfect consonant note of kākali niṣāda.1 Mokṣa was at least four centuries later than Matanga. But Mokṣa's description also tallies with that of Matanga in his affiliation of the above rāga to Kaisiki and Kārmāravī Jātis. He states that tāra sadja is both graha and amsa svara; pañcama is nyāsa svara. So this rāga must have undergone changes in the time of Matanga and got back its earlier form in the time of Mokṣa. Or it may be that Matanga after referring to the two Jātis, Kaisiki and Kārmāravī felt it unnecessary to mention kākali niṣāda and antara gāndhāra. This inference becomes obligatory because Matanga and Mokṣa mention the same Jātis. Both these Jātis belong to Madhyama Grāma.

The next and the last rāga belonging to Madhyama Grāma is ṣādava.

Here again Nārada's description of Grāma rāga is as an independent and pure form and hence did not connect it with Jātis. But he also does not refer to Bhaiṣā, Vibhāṣā or Antarabhāṣā. It is possible these developed later.

Nārada defines Sāddha Sādava rāga thus:

That it takes rṣabha, ṣadja, dhaivata, pañcama, and niṣāda and it belongs to Madhyama Grāma.2

Kaśyapa states that this rāga was derived from Sadja Madhyama Jātis in which pañcama is both amsa and nyāsa svara and gāndhāra is weak.3

Kaśyapa's assertion in assigning this rāga to, Sadja Madhyama

1Kārmāravyāśca kaiśiktyastāṃ ṣadja grahamśakạh panyāsaḥ kākaliyukto vijñeyeṣudha kaiśikaḥ. Virarāudrābbutarasạh sampūrapasvarako mataḥ. Moksadeva, Bha. Ko., p. 664.

2Rṣabhoṭhita Ṣadjahato dhaivata sahitaśca pañcama yatra. Nipatati madhya-ma rāga tam niṣādam śādavam vidyāt. Na. St., 1.4-5, p. 21.

3Ṣadjaṃte madhyamajateḥ sambhūtaśuddha sādguvaḥ, Nyāsaśca pañcamo-msaśca gāndhāreṇa durbalataḥ. Kaśyapa, Bha. Ko., p. 671.

67

Brhaddesi of Matanga

Jāti is once again conflicting because Sadja Madhya Jāti belongs to Sadja Grāma whereas Sādava rāga belongs to the Madhyama Grāma. Here again arise the difference in the svaras of the Sadja and Madhyama Grāma. Sadja Grāma has pañcama of four srutis and dhaivata of three srutis whereas with the Madhyama Grāma, it is the reverse. Also in Sadja Grāma, there is rṣabha-dhaivata consonance and no rṣabha-pañcama consonance whereas in Madhyama Grāma, there is no rṣabha-dhaivata consonance but rṣabha-pañcama consonance. Hence it appears contrived and artificial to affiliate a rāga belonging to one Grāma to a Jāti of a different Grāma.

The point worth deliberating here is how the old scholars justified the affiliation of a Jāti in Sadja Grāma as the parent (Janaka) of a rāga assigned to Madhyama Grāma. Another feature is that Jātis were being sung and therefore it seems more untenable and unnecessary to derive another singable mode from one which is already in vogue. The classification, therefore, of Grāma rāgas under Jātis, appears contrived.

One more point worthy of note is the contrived, laboured extension of the connotation of the word Sādava by Matanga to mean the best of the six rāgas. But etymologically Sādava can never be taken to mean that. because Sādava is derived from the roots sat-ava, sat means six, ava means which is connected with six—hence six svaras. But Matanga, in his explanation of the reason why this name Sādava must have been given, appears to have taken the most leading among the Grāma rāgas; but the word Sādava has no such implication. Ava also means to preserve. He has thereby tried to extend its meaning beyond its capacity. Because the term Sādava can never be taken to mean the preserver of six rāgas instead of six svaras. This attempt of Matanga seems quite unnecessary and rather forced.

Now let us deal with the Grāma rāgas belonging to the Sadja Grāma.

The first rāga is Sadja Grāma rāga.

Nārada defines it as a rāga in which gāndhāra is predominant, niṣāda is sparingly used, dhaivata is kampita or shaken.1

Moksadeva defines it as a derivative of Sadja Madhyama Jāti

1Isaṭsprśo niṣādastu gāndhāraśscādhiko bhavet. Dhaivataḥ kampito yatra ṣadjagrāmantu nirdiśet, Na. St., 1-4.8.

68 Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

with tāra ṣadja as both graha and aṃśa; madhyama is nyāsa and it takes all the seven svaras (sampūrṇa); it also has kākali niṣādu and antara gāndhāra.:.It expresses three rasas—Vīra, Adbhuta and Raudra.1

There is considerable difference in the description of Nārada and Mokṣa. Of course, the time lag between the two writers is also considerable, i.e., nearly fourteen centuries. It may be, the rāga had undergone vital changes. It seems that there were in that period also, different schools rendering the same rāga in different ways.

One aspect that is significant is the total omission of any refe-rence to Jātis by Nārada. This jndicates that he belonged to a school different from that of Bharata.

Kaśyapa's definition of Ṣadja Grāma rāga is similar to that of Mokṣa. The former lived several centuries before and hence there are a few differences also. Kaśyapa states that Ṣadja Grāma rāga is a derivative of the Jātis Ṣāḍḍjī and Ṣadja Madhyamā. In this rāga, ṣadja is aṃśa and madhyama is nyāsa and it is sampūrṇa.2

Kaśyapa does not mention the use of 'kākalī niṣāda or antara gundhāra nor does he specify the tāra ṣadja as has been done by Mokṣa. The only thing that appears to be constant is the name of the rāga through the centuries.

The next rāga of Ṣadja Grāma is Sādhārita. Nārada defines it thus:

The rāga which takes antara, gāndhāra and kākali niṣāda that is Sādhārlta.3

By this definition, if one were to define the āroha and avaroha of this rāga, then with kākali niṣāda and antara gāndhāra and the other notes of the Ṣadja Grāma namely ṣuddha madhyama, triśru-tika rṣabha and dhaivata, they will be very close to the notes of modern Bilāval or the Karnāṭak Śaṅkarābharaṇam.

Mokṣa defines this rāga differently. He states that in Sādhārita, ṣadja is graha and aṃśa; niṣāda and gāndhāra are sparingly used; madhyama is nyāsa; it uses all the seven svaras and is derived from

1Ṣadjamadhyamikājāteḥ tāraṣadjagrahāṃśakaḥ, manyāśasvarasampūrṇāḥ kākalyantarabhūṣitaḥ rase vīraḍbhūte ratudre ṣadjagrāmabhīdanataḥ. Bha. Ko., p. 687.

2Ṣaḍjāṃśo madhyamīnyāsaḥ syāt ṣāḍji ṣadjamadhyayob, ṣadja grāma iti proktā sampūrṇasvarakasthataḥ. Kaśyapa, Bha. Ko., p. 688.

3Antassvara sampūkta kākulīyatā dryate, tantu sādhāritam vidyāt paiñca-masthānantu kaiśikam. Na. Śl., I-4-9, p. 22.

Bṛhaddeśī of Mataṅga

69 the Ṣadjamadyama Jāti.

Although there is no contradiction in assigning this rāga to Ṣadja Madhyamā Jāti as it belongs to Ṣadja Grāma, still the difference in description between Nārada and Mokṣa is consider-able. The latter has stated that niṣāda and gāndhāra are sparingly used1 whereas Nārada, by mentioning only kākali niṣāda and antara gāndhāra, has, by implication, given them prominence. Nārada has omitted mentioning the graha, aṃśa and nyāsa svaras. And yet the rāga's contours are more clearly gleaneble throughb Nārada's description than that of Mokṣa's. According to Mokṣa, the tāga would be very similar to that of Ṣāḍḍjī Jāti. But the strange point worthy of note is that while Mokṣa mentions the use of kākali niṣādu and antara gāndhāra in the previous rāga namely Ṣuḍja Grāma rāga. Nārada mentions the same thing in respect of Sādhārita and states the sparing use of niṣāda in the previous rāga. In other words, the description of Ṣadja Grāma rāga by Nārada tallies more with that of Sādhārita of Mokṣa. But the descriptions of Ṣudja Grāma rāga by Nārada and Mokṣa do not tally at all. From the svaraprastāras given, it is difficult to form an exact idea of the structure and movement of the rāgas.

The third and last rāga in the Ṣadja Grāma is Kaiśika Madhyama. Nārada states that when all the seven notes are used in Kaiśika and the rāga begins from and ends in madhyama, then it is Kaiśika Madhyama.2

Nārada does not specify whether the gāndhāra here is antara and niṣāda is kākali as he has done in his definition of the Rāga Kaiśika. He has merely stated here that all the seven notes used in Kaiśika Madhyama. Hence the main difference, it seems is the beginning and ending of the rāga on madhyama svara which again implies that madhyama is graha, aṃśa and nyāsa in the Rāga Kaiśika Madhyama.

Mokṣa defines this rāga thus:

It is derived from Kaiśiki and Ṣadja Madhyama Jātis, it uses tāra ṣadja as graha and aṃśa; madhyama is nyāsa; it omits rṣabha and pañcama; uses gāndhāra sparingly; takes kākalī niṣāda. It is used to

1Sāṃśāgraho nigālpaḥ syāt ṣadjamadhyamayā kṛtah, sampūrṇo madhya-manyāsaḥ ṣuddhasaṁdhasaṁdhārito mataḥ. Mokṣa. Bha. Ko., p. 671.

2Kaiśikam bhāvayitvā tu svaraissamāntarvaiṣamāntaḥ, yasmāttu madhyame nyā-saḥ tasmāt kaiśika madhyamaḥ. Na. Śl., I-4-10, p. 22.

depict Vira, Adbhuta and Raudra rasas.1

This definition by Mokṣa is similar to his definition of Ṣadja

Grāma rāga in that in both the rāgas, tāra ṣadja was graha, and

amśa and madhyama was nyāsa. But in the above rāga, the

omission of rṣabha and pañcama makes it an auḷara rāga. Its struc-

ture would resemble the modern Rāga Bhinna Ṣadja. But if

gāndhāra is sparingly used, even then the form of modern Rāga

Bhinna Ṣadja could be maintained because it has madhyama-ṣadja

saṃvāda.

But again a contradiction arises in the assigning of this rāga by

Mokṣa to Kaiśikī and Ṣadja Madhyamā Jātis. Because the Rāga

Kaiśika Madhyama belongs to Ṣadja Grāma and the above two Jātis

belong to Madhyama Grāma. How Mokṣa manages to reconcile

this anomaly is not known. These are problems yet to be resolved.

Mataṅga has made no reference to tāla but it must be presumed

that he must have used the mārga tālas mentioned by Bharata.

No available text of Brhaddesī contains a chapter on tāla, although

there must have been a chapter on tāla in it earlier.

Jāti-Prastāra or Jāti Elaboration

Let us take the first Jāti Ṣāḍjī. Bharata in his description of the

Jāti-Prastāra or Jāti Elaboration

Jātis has not mentioned the gītis and the tāla mārgas of the Jātis

Jāti-Prastāra or Jāti Elaboration

whereas Mataṅga has described both, which have been repeated

Jāti-Prastāra or Jāti Elaboration

by Śārṅgadeva in S.R.

Jāti-Prastāra or Jāti Elaboration

Gīta was the term to denote any song but gīti was a technical

Jāti-Prastāra or Jāti Elaboration

term indicating the style of rendering of a composition. Since the

Jāti-Prastāra or Jāti Elaboration

composition in the days of Bharata, Mataṅga and Śārṅgadeva,

Jāti-Prastāra or Jāti Elaboration

was so complicated and elaborate in structure and text, the mere

Jāti-Prastāra or Jāti Elaboration

adherence to them, was considered to be a style. There were in

Jāti-Prastāra or Jāti Elaboration

all five main styles of rendering, independent of the varieties of

Jāti-Prastāra or Jāti Elaboration

compositions. They were known as Suddhā, Dhinnā, Vesarā, Gauḍī

Jāti-Prastāra or Jāti Elaboration

and Sādhāriṇī.

Jāti-Prastāra or Jāti Elaboration

There were two unique features of rendering of the Jāti which

Jāti-Prastāra or Jāti Elaboration

have not remained in the age of rāga notwithstanding the fact that

Jāti-Prastāra or Jāti Elaboration

Jāti was the matrix of the rāga. They were: that the same Jāti

Jāti-Prastāra or Jāti Elaboration

which was saṃpūrṇa could have its ṣāḍava and auḍuva forms by

1Kaiśikī ṣadjamadhyamābhyām tāraṣaḍjagrahāṃśakāḥ. Manyāsassyāt ripatya-

yakto gāndhārālpasasakālibh, rase viro'dbhute raudre śuddhakaiśika madhya-

maḥ. Mokṣa, Bha. Ko ;D. 665.

omitting one and two sraras respectively and yet be considered to

be the same Jāti. In the present position of the rāga, such an

operation would completely change the complexion and structure

of the rāga. For instance; if Rāga Yaman which is saṃpūrṇa is

taken, one can assess its ṣāḍava form by merely omitting pañcama

and have ni, ṛe, ga, ma, dha, ni, sa but its auḍuva form with the

same omission seems impossible. The only way open seems with the

exclusion of niṣāda and madhyama. But as there are already three

rāgas established under that scale, it will not be possible to pro-

duce a form separate from the above or bring about the flavour of

Yaman in five svaras without bringing in Bhupālī, Suddha Kalyāṇa

or Jait Kalyāṇa. In any other it may be even morè difficult to have

a ṣāḍava ard auḍuva modifications of the same saṃpūrṇa without

either completely going off its original mood and character or

landing on some well-known rāga already established.

The second peculiarity was that the same Jāti was rendered in

three different layas—vilambita, madhya and druta. Whereas, at

present we have different compositions for different layas—vilam-

bita, madhya and druta, but there are cases when vilambita khyāls

are sung as druta khyāls and vice versa. For example, the Jaipur

Gharānā (Ustad Alladin Khan's School) and his disciples and

followers sing usually vilambita laya khyāls. Some of these khyāls

are sung in druta laya in the Agra Gharānā.1 These layas were then

known as mārgas and Bharata mentions three mārgas in which the

Jātis were sung. They were ekakalā, dvikalā, caṭuṣkalā. Here the

word 'kalā' is used in the sense of mātrā in tāla as understood today,

ekakalā consists of one mātrā, dvikalā two mātrās and caṭuṣkalā

four mātrās. The names of these mārgas, were Citrā, Vārtika and

Dakṣiṇa respectively. Different Jātis were sung in different mārgas,

and in the same mārgas, the same Jātis, as stated earlier, were sung

in different mārgas also.

One other feature was that the texts of the Jātis were modified

according to the mārgas in order to fit in to the respective mārgas

and yet retaining it as the same Jāti. The modifications were māga-

dhī, ardhamaṅgadhi, sambhāvitā and prthulā. These textual modi-

fications of composition were categorised as padaśrita gītis. Gītis

as already explained, were styles of rendition of gītas. The defini-

tion of these padaśrita gītis is—is that musical rendering in which

1Khyāl Naṭ-Kāmod, 'Nevara Baje' in tīntāla.

72 Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

the text is ornamented by the varṇas of sthāyī, ārohī and avarohī, and is also set to laya.1

In the tālas used in the time of Bharata, there were three important varieties. They were cañcalputa or caccatputa which was caṭasra and cācapuṭa or cāpapuṭa which was tryaśra. These were the two varieties but they were further subdivided into three more types in accordance with the number of mātrās or kalās. The first one was called yathākṣara (ekakalā) or two mātrās, dvikalā and which was twice as much as ekakalā or four mātrās and caṭuṣkalā or eight mātrās as it was twice as much as dvikalā. Another way of expressing the mātrā-kalās was by giving different time measures specific names. There were three kinds-laghu, guru and pluta. Laghu was of one mātrā, guru of two mātrās and pluta of three mātrās. Various syllables of the words of the songs were assigned time-measures and the total duration of the tāla made up, from its very name. For instance the tāla cañcalputa was of eight mātrās in the following way: can cal pu tu. The first two syllables were of two mātrās duration and hence were gurus, the third was a laghu or one mātrā, the final syllable was a pluta of three mātrās. The total number of mātrās of the tāla comes to eight.2 Each kind was also a symbol. Laghu is denoted by the sign I; guru by S and pluta by S'. It could therefore; be expressed as SS IS'. Similarly the other tāla cācapuṭa is of six mātrās consisting of guru, laghu, laghu and guru expressed as SIS.

The term kalā also had several shades of meaning. In all, it was used in four ways. Kalā was:

(1) a tāla-bhāga or part of a tāla;

(2) a pāda-bhāga or part of a song;

(3) a tāla-kriyā or specific rhythmic operation; and

(4) a mātrā or time unit.

If there was one mātrā for one section, it was dhruva kalā; if there were two mātrās, it was citrā kalā; if there were four mātrās to a section, it was known as vārtika kalā and eight mātrās to a section was called dakṣiṇā kalā. In other words dakṣiṇā was vilambita laya; vārtika was madhya laya and citrā was druta laya.

1S.R. Adyar edn., Svarādhyāya, p. 280.

2Nā. Śā., Bombay edn., p. 476 and Banaras edn., p. 343.

73 Brhaddesī of Matanga

In the dakṣiṇā mārga, there were twelve sections and each section had eight mātrās making a total of ninety-six mātrās. The twelve sections were divided into two parts, each part consisting of forty-eight mātrās or kalās.

In the Śuddhī Jāti, the amśa, graha and nyāsa svara is ṣadja; the Jāti begins from ṣudja and because of the nyāsa svara, it also ends in ṣadja. In spite of its vikṛta varieties having 'gāndhāra mātrā and pañ-cama svaras as upa-nyāsa, this being its śuddha varicty, even the apanyāsa svara is ṣadja. So we have aṁśa, graha, nyāsa and apa-nyāsa all on the same svara ṣad.j i.e., the middle of the composition terminates on ṣadja (the sixth line of the song or the 48th mātrā).

In the composition that is given below, there are in all twelve lines, each line consisting of eight mātrās. The first half of the composition ends on the 6th line or 48th mātrā. Each section of the tāla has different movement within it. The letter in abbreviation on the top of the number of mātrās of cach section indicates the type of operation to be followed. Generally the time measure of one laghu is calculated in terms of the time interval taken to pronounce five short syllables.

In the days of Bharata and later, the manner of playing the tāla with the hands was made quite elaborate and specilic. The pattern of playir g it had been well established and fixed not to permit any deviation as it would change the tāla. There were eight different ways of indicating the pattern and time duration of the tāla. They were called āvāpa, denoted in abbreviation by a niṣkrāma abbreviation-ni; vikṣepa-vi, pravacśa-pra-dhruva-dhru, śamya —śa, tāla-tā, sannipāta-san.

Āvāpa means upturned open palm, the folding or closing of fingers is also called āvāpa.

Niṣkrāma is spreading out the fingers of the half closed palm.

Vikṣepa means to take the upturned palm (usually the right one) with spread-out fingers to the right side.

Praveśa means to close in the fingers of the half open palm.

Dhruva means to take the hand down after snapping with the fingers.

Śamyā means to clap with the right hand over the left hand.

Tāla means to clap with the left hand over the right hand.

Sannipāta means to clap with both hands by bringing them together in front of the chest. These operations are clearly des-

cribed in the Sangita Ratnakara.1

The composition given below is given in the Sangita Ratnakara.

The text is in Sanskrit. Such texts were called pada. It as follows:

Tam bhavalallata nayanambujadhikam

Nagasunupranayakeli samudbhavam.

Sarasakrtatilaka pankānulepanam

Pranamāmi kāmadehendhanānalam.2

1. Tälakriyā or ā — ni — vi — pra —

Täla operation

Laghu or Mätr3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Svara or notation sa sa sa sa pa nidha pa dha ni

Pada or text tam — bha va la līā — ta

2. Täla operation or T.O. ā — tā — — vi — śa —

Laghu or L 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Svara or S re gama ga ga sa rega dhasa dha

Pada or P na ya nām — bu jā — dhi

3. T.O. ā — ni — — vi — Tā —

L 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

S rega sa re ga sa sa sa sa sa

P kam — — — — — — —

4. T.O. ā — ni — — vi — śa —

L 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

S dha dha ni nisa nida pa sa sa

P na ga sū — nu pra na ya

5. T.O. ā — tā — — vi — pra —

L 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

S ni dha pa dha ni re ga sa ga

P ke — li — sa mu — bdha

6. T.O ā — ni — — vi — śam —

L 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

S sa dha dha ni pa sa sa sa sa

P vam — — — — — — —

1S.R., Adyar edn., Talādhyāya, pp. 4-5.

2Ibid.

Bṛhaddesi of Matanga

7. T.O. ā — ni — vi — pra —

L 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

S sa sa ga sa ma pa ma ma ma

P sa ra sa kṛ ta ti la ka

8. T.O. ā — ta — — vi — sa —

L 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

S sa ga ma dha ni dha pi ga re ga

P pañ — — kā nu le pa —

9. T.O. ā — ni — — vi — tā —

L 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

S ga ga ga ga sa sa sa sa sa

P naṃ — — — — — — —

10. T.O. ā — ni — — vi — śa —

L 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

S dha sa re ga re sa ma ma ma ma

P pra na mā — mi kā — ma

11. T.O. ā — tā — — vi — pra —

L 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

S dha ni pa dha ni re ga re Sa

P Je — hen — dha nā — na —

12. T.O. ā — ni — — vi — sa ni —

L 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

S rega sa re ga sa sa sa sa sa

P lam — — — — — — —

The notation system followed here is that which was copied by

Pt. Viṣṇu Nārāyaṇa Bhaṭkhande. Here a dot is placed on top of

the svara to indicate that it is in mandra saptaka and a short staff

line on top of the svara to indicate it is in tāra saptaka. Madhya

sthāna svaras have no symbols. Komal and tivra svaras also had no

distinctive signs on them.

A break-up analysis shows the following:

Sadja has been used 36 times

Ṛṣabha has been used 12 times

Gāndhāra has been used 20 times

Madhyama has been used 8 times

Pañcama has been used 8 times

Dhaivata has been used 16 times

Niṣāda has been used 12 times

76

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

Sadja being amśa, graha, nyāsa and apunyāsa has been obviously used maximum. As stated by Bharata and Sārṅgadeva, gāndhāra and dhaivata are the two svaras which along with sadja produce the sangatis and flavour of the Jāti. Hence these svaras enjoy bahutva as against madhyama and pañcama which are used less and in alpatva Ṛṣabha and niṣāda occur twelve times and will have to be considered as used in alpatva; it is ulso called an:amśa. Niṣāda has bucn taken nine times only out of twelve in association with dhaivata and sadja and only three times independently whereas rṣabha has appeared the contrary: three times with gāndhāra and the rest independently This indicates that rṣabha had a more important position than niṣāda.

A study of the musicality of the Jāti gives the impression that it will be not only difficult to sing it but the svara-arrangement is unmusical and inconsonant. For instance at the end of the first section and beginning of the second and it occurs two times elsewhere; there is a jump from komal niṣāda to śuddha rṣabha. At the end of the second section there is a phrase re ga dha sa; it does not reflect any aesthetic or musical flavour. The entire con:position musically does not seem to project any evocative mood. The svaras of Sādji Jāti are that of Kāfi. With emphasis on sadju, dhaivata and gāndhāra, the tone-picture of the Jāti is vague and me sy. And the manner in which the words of the song are used also does not help in presenting any mood. In the fourth, fifth and sixth sections, the wirds nagu:sānupragayakelisamudbhavam have been set in such a time that it does not sound like a piece of music but like a chant. In fact the overall impression of this music is like a chant

The tāla aspect of this composition is not very difficult but to change the manner of keeping the tāla in each section in spite of the number of mātrās to each section remaining the same, seems unnecessary and incomprehensible. Even the division of mātrās

77

Brhaddesī of Matanga

within the section is uniformly in two's, throughout all the twelve sections. It appears more an exercise on intrincacies without much rhythmic utility or significance.

Likewise the same Sādji was rendered with rṣabha as the basic or key-note; which was called ārṣabhī: the Jāti from svara gān-dhāra as key-note was called Gāndhārī. All the first seven Jātis which were based on the different notes of the saptakas whose nyāsa and amśa svaras were the same key-notes were known by the same notes.

Now in order to understand the Sādji Jāti better in its musical aspect, it would be interesting to study the description by Sārṅga-deva when he states that Sādji resembled Rāga Varāṭi.1 There is a slight discrepancy in assigning of the Mūrchanā for this Jāti. According to Sāriṅgadeva, Sādji was derived from Dhairati Mūr-chandā. Strangely Kāllinātha appears to have mistaken the starting svara of the Jāti from dhaivata to mean that it is an offshoot of Bharata's Uttarāyatā Mūrchanā which starts from the dhaivata svara,2 whereas the actual position is that the Sādji Jāti's commencing note was dhaivata and it was from the Uttarāmandra Mūr-chandā of Bharata which resembles the modern Śuddha Kāfi. If once takes Kāllinātha's statement and follows it, then the scale of the Jāti that is based on the Uttarāyata Mūrchanā becomes Śuddha Bhairavī with two madhyamas in chromatic order in both āroha and avaroha, completely eliminating pañcama. Obviously, this is not the form of Sādji as described by Sārṅgadeva and as given earlier here.

Sādji compositions were in three mārgas–Citrā, Vārtikā and Dakṣiṇā.3 Citrā was sung in Māgadhi, Vārtikā in Saṃbhāvita and Dakṣiṇa in Prthulā. Māgadhi was the rhythmic style developed and prevalent in the state of Magadha.

Sārṅgadeva while stating the resemblance of Sādji with the then current Rāga Varāṭi has given a description and a svara-prastāra of the rāga from which the musical structure of it is well discernible.4 The rāga is referred to as Vārtikā. The description given in Brhad-

1S.R., Adyar edn., vol. I, Svarādhyāya, 7th Prakaraṇa, p. 199.

2Ibid., p. 196.

3Ibid., p. 197.

4S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II. chap. II, verses 10-12. Rāgādhyāya, p. 17 (II. 10-12, p. 17).

78 Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

deśī is also similnr.1 Also Dattilam contains a description of this.2

Śārngadeva states that Varāṭī rāga sometimes takes kākalī3

the Janya rāga or derivative from Bhinna Pañcama.4 Kāllinātha

also endorses this view by clarifying that Varāṭī's Janaka rāga is

Bhinna Pañcama8 but this seems to have been misinterpreted by

Mrs. Nijenhuis in her book Dattilam as she has interpreted Bhinna

Pañcama as being the Bhāṣā of Varāṭī. There is also a reference to

Varāṭī in the S.ngīta Samayasāra of Pārśvadeva,9 a work, a few

decades earlier than the Sangīta Ratnākara. It mentions Varātikā

as a Vibhāṣā of Pañcama. There is a description of this rāga in

the Sangīta Rāj also. But the best description from which some

idea of the musicality could be gleaned is Brhaddesī. It is as

follows:

ma dha, sa dha ni dha, pa ni ma ma ga sa,

sa ga ma ga· sa, dha ni dha.

dha dha dha dha, sa dha ni pa. pa,

ma ga sa ga ma.

The form it takes is very close to the modern Rāga Vāgesrī as

the emphasis of dhaivata-madhyama indicates. Also in the very

construction of the elaboration, the omission of ṛṣabha adds to the

flavour of the Rāga Vāgeśrī. It is certainly not an orthodox delinea-

tion of it as it contains phrases which are contradictory to its

spirit and mood. For instance the phrase—pa ni ma ma ga sa is

indicative of no specific modern rāga. But the phrase sa, dha ni pa

is a clear description of Rāga Caudra Kauns (Vāgeśrī Aṅga) or

Auḍava Vāgeśrī. So that general impression of the entire elucidation

of the passage is that the nearest modern rāga that it evokes is

Vāgeśrī. Therefore, the Ṣāḍjī Jāti and Varāṭī rāga must have been

close to Vāgeśrī. Rāga Varāṭī appears to have been a vakra śāḍava

rāga with a blend of modern Kānaḍā and Kauns Aṅgas. All the

svaras given in the elaboration of Rāga Varāṭī are only in the

1Brhaddesī, Trivandrum edn., p. 129.

2Dattilam.

3S.R., vol. I, 7.60.

4S.R., vol. II, 2.83 (Kāllināithn), verse 30, p. 224.

5S.R, vol. II, 67.

6S.S., chap.; III; verses 23-24.

79 Brhaddesī of Mataṅga

madhya saptaka.

In this connection, it is necessary to understand the connotation

of the words mandra and tāra while describing the svaras. Mandra

was used in the sense of lower and, tāra in the sense of higher.

For instance, sa, ni dha pa; in this phrase in dha pa would be

indicated as mandra or lower to sa. Similarly in the phrase ga ma

dha ni sa, ma dha ni sa is tāra in relation to ga. So until and

unless the term sthāna is used with the above words, it would be a

mistake to presume they indicate the mandra and tāra saptaka.1

Nirgiṭa or Bahirgīṭa

These were compositions wherein meaningless words seemed

ṣuṣkāksara or stobhākṣara are used.2 The connotation of the word

bahirgīṭa or nirgiṭa means song consisting of meaningless words.3

Because this type of song was appropriated and sung by asuras,

devatas, began calling it bahirgīṭa. There is an interesting incident

related by Bharata as to how this type of song came into being. It

seems the asuras or demons protested to Nārada Muni that the

devatas or celestial people had a music of their own in which they

revelled but they (asuras) had none. So Nārada Muni, the clever,

crafty person he was, gave them the above type of song. The asuras

were highly pleased and in turn rejoiced in singing it.

The suṣkākṣaras or stobhākṣaras used were the following:

Jhantum, Jagatipa, Valitaka, Kucajhala, Glīkala, Paśupati,

Dīrghinigi, Dīgra, Ganapati, Tica.

These words were also useful in songs with meaningful words as

they helped in extending them for completion of an āvartan or

cycle of tāla. Even specific metres (chandas) could be created with

these words and significant words. in the same way as that of rhythmic syllables of percussion instru-

ments especially membranophones.

Bahirgīṭa or nirgiṭa is part of the seven types of gītas or songs

1S.R.. II.

2Nirgiṭam giyate yasmādpadām varoayajanāt. Nā. Śa. Baroda edn., chap. V,

p. 223.

3Nirgiṭamiti tāvadāyam nāma. Nirarthakam gitamiti. ibid., ch. V, p. 222.

80 Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

starting from madraka, uparātaka, ullopya, prakari, ovenaka, rovindaka and uttara. The singing with suṣkāksaras was also called stobhäktiyā. This type of meaningless words and rhythmic syllables are used even today in the tarānā of Hindusthānī and tillānā of Karṇāṭak music. In the ālāpa of Hindusthānī music, meaningless words are used like tc, re, ne, nom, tom. The word used by Bharata for ālāpa was upohana.

There were seven types of gitas as already mentioned, namely:

(1) Chandaka, (2) Āsārita, (3) Vardhamāna, (4) Pāṇika, (5) Ṛk, (6) Gāthā, and (7) Sāma.

Before any of the above gitas were sung, according to the Bharata tradition, upohana or prelude was sung.1 It gave the listeners a foretaste of the song and the Jāti in which it was to be sung. Upohana always started from the sthāyi svara.

The mode of development of the various gitas was quite elaborate and systematic. Apart from the upohana, there were four parts of gita, i.e. mukha, pratimukha, śarīra and sanghāran or śirṣak.

Pāṇik, Ṛk, Gāthā and Sāma were all sung on the pattern of Sāma but were set to tāla whereas Sāma was not set to tāla. Chandakais not described with examples by Bharata

Āsārita gìta was sung outside the screen of the theatre in order to put the audience in a receptive mood for the drama which was to follow. This was usually in the pūrvaranga.

Vardhamāna was also a prakāra similar to Āsārita but this was sung after the screen was lifted and consisted usually of an evocation to Lord Saṅkara.

Āsārita had four varieties. The word Āsārita was derived from the root aśru which means 'to hasten towards'; āsayate means 'to be undertaken' or 'begun'; in this context the Āsārita gìta indicated the commencement of the drama. The four varieties were:

(1) Kaniṣṭh-āsāritam

(2) Layāntaram

(3) Madhyamāsāritam

(4) Jyeṣṭhāsāritam

1 Upohyate svaro yasmādyena gìtāḥ pravartate, tasmādupohanāṃ jāyam sthāyīsvarasamaśrayam. Vema., Bha. Ko., p. 83.

81 Brhaddeśī of Mataṅga

Nānyadeva in his work Bharata Bhāṣya has defined Āsārita gìta.1 All the even types of songs with their ramifications have been described by Bharata. But they were all essentially adjuncts to the drama. Music was an integral part of drama but was used as a catalyst.

It was used in the opening phase of the drama to prepare the audience and tune their mood to receive the drama well that was to follow. But the music was always presented in judicious quantities - never in excess because the audience may begin to disregard the drama. Hence it was given in the right proportion. There was an umpire usually to judge whether the music and drama were being done properly. Instrumental music was very important. Orchestral music which went by the name Kuṭapa formed the first part of the programme before the commencement of the drama. This was called pūrvaranga. There were two kinds of pūrvaranga called Suddha and Citra. The music was usually in consonance with the mood of the act of the drama that was to follow.

The strange phenomenon in Indian drama in the time of Bharata was the practice of having men and women do male and female roles respectively. In the selection of actors age, temper and decor were important factors. Women were chosen to do delicate, subtle roles.

Heroine's part was given to that person who was an adept in music i.e., with a good voice, control of svara and tāla. Nowhere in the world was there the practice of using men and female roles in drama, 2000 years ago.

Nirgīta or bahirgīta was the music performed behind the screen before the play began. There were nine states of bahirgīta:

(1) Pratyāhāra, (2) Avatāraṇa, (3) Ārambha, (4) Āśrāvaṇā, (5) Vaktrapāṇi, (6) Parighaṭṭana, (7) Saṅghoṭana or Saṅkhoṭana, (8) Margotsārita and (9) Āsārita.

Pratyāhāra was the right placement of the instruments. In Bharata's scheme of Kuṭupa, the various instruments had specific fixed positions from one another.

Avatāraṇa, as with the instruments, so with the musicians, i e., correct position of them.

1 Tālamānakaḷātanāmūrchanasthāna karmaśu; Sarvataḥ yasmāt tasmādāisiri- tam smr̥tam. Bha. Ko., p, 46.

Ārambha, a prelude or ālāpa consisting of voice and instruments.

Āsrāvaṇā was a kind of performance where the tuning of the instruments as also playing them, were accomplished. The tune had both a rhythmic as well as a melodic aspect. The tune was usually like this:

SaSa—SaSa; SaSaSa—SaSaSa etc.

Such tunes helped instruments in different octaves to be distinctly heard and their state of tunefulness to be assessed correctly.

Āsrāvaṇa was done in three parts. The first part consisted of a song with meaningless words running to twenty-four syllables of which the first, second, eleventh, fourteenth, fifteenth and twenty-forth were guru (long) and the rest were laghu (short).

The second part, another meaningless song, was sung consisting of twenty-four syllables of which six were long and the rest were short as in the first part. But tāla was introduced at this stage. This part was sung in cācapuṭa tāla.

In the third part, there were fifteen syllables: 3, 8 and 15 were guru and the rest were laghu. Guru was of two mātrā duration and laghu was of one mātrā.

Ārambha was done in three stages and a beautiful combination of vistāra, karaṇa and vyan̄jana dhātus was made.

First stage was tāla dhātu prakāra, i.e. stroking the strings of the instruments.

Second stage was ribhita dhātu consisting of two laghus and one guru. For example:

di—da da

1 1 2

Third stage was hlāda dhātu—This was a song of ten mātrās divided into eight laghus and one guru.. For example:

dida dida dida dida da

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 & 10

The above three dhātus had three khaṇḍas or further subdivisions.

First part had 12 gurus, 8 laghus and 5 gurus making in all 42 mātrās. This consisted of mnemonic syllables of the viṇa.

Suṣka gīta was of twenty-five syllables.

Second part had 8 laghus, 1'guru, 4 laghus, 1 guru, 4 laghus and 1 guru totalling 22 mātrās.

Third part had 15 laghus and 1 guru totalling 17 mātrās Suṣka gīta was of 9 syllables.

Vaktrapāṇi had two parts: First part was called mukha consisting of 5 gurus, 6 laghus. 6 gurus and 2 laghus totalling 30 mātrās.

Second part called pratimukha had 1 gurus, 3 laghus, 1 guru and 8 laghus totalling 21 mātrār.

Samkhotana had one part of 27 akṣaras and 33 mātrās comprising 2 gurus, 8 laghus, 2.gurus, 1 laghu, 1 guru, 12 laghus and 1 guru=33 mātrās.

The term dhātu that appears often in respect of the indication of instrumental music is very significant. The word is from the root 'dhā' which means to hold together i.e., the constituent factors that keep a thing in its integral form is called dhātu in its generic sense-. In the context of music, it means the production of a particular note through a particular stroke or in modern parlance the technique of the plectrum.

Parighatṭana has one section of 51 akṣaras and 62 mātrās comprising 8 gurus, 24 laghus, 2 gurus, 16 laghus and 1 guru. The tāla which was used was calledampakveṣṭaka tāla.

Mārgotsārita has three sections all identical but in different tālas. The total akṣaras were 18 and the section consisted of 4 gurus, 8 laghus, 3 gurus and 3 laghus totalling 25 mātrās. The first section was in cācaputa tāla, the second and third sections were in ṣatpitputraka tāla.

Apart from these, there was what was called Līlākṛita Vidhi. The songs in this vidhi were of both kinds of Jātis namely, those that were derived from Ṣadja Grāma and Madhyama Grāma, those that were derived from Ṣadja Grāma were called abhiśritā and those that were derived from Madhyama Grāma were called pariśritā.

It appears necessary after the enumeration of the nine stages of development of Nirgīta of Bahirgīta to describe the dhātus or technique of playing them. This was entirely instrumental music but it is amazing to see the bewildering complexity, details and nomenclature of the different kinds of movements of the plectrum.

The technique of playing with the plectrum, as already mentioned, was known by a generic term dhātu. There were four varieties of dhātu, namely,

(1) Vistāra

(2) Karaṇa

(3) Aviddhā

(4) Vyañjana

1. Vistāra had four sub-varieties: (a) Vistāraja, (b) Samghātaṭaja, (c) Samvayuj and (d) Anubandha.

(a) Vistāraja was a note of two mātrās in one stroke-dā.

(b) Samghātaṭaja was two strokes producing two notes each of two mātrās-dā.

(c) Samvayaja consisted of three strokes producing three notes of two mātrās each.

(d) Anubandha was a mixture of all the above three.

2. Karaṇa had five sub-varieties: (a) Ribhita, (b) Udaya, (c) Nirāṭṭa, (d) Hlāda, and (e) Anubandha.

(a) Ribhita had 2 laghus, 1 guru=4 mātrās to be played in three strokes.

(b) Udhaya had 4 laghus, 1 guru=6 mātrās to be played in five strokes, i.e.

diru diru, dā

1 2 3 4 5 6

(c) Nirāṭṭa had 6 laghus, 1 guru=8 mātrās to be played in seven strokes e.g., dira, dira, dira, dā.

(d) Hlāda had 8 laghus, 1 guru=10 mātrās to be played in nine strokes.

(e) Anubandha was a mixture of all the above four.

3. Aviddha dhātu had five sub-varieties: (a) Kṣepa, (b) Pluta, (c) Atibala, (d) Atikīrṇa, and (e) Anubandha.

(a) Kṣepa had 1 laghu, 1 guru=3 mātrās in two strokes.

(b) Pluta had 1 laghu, 1 guru, 1 laghu=4 mātrās in three strokes.

(c) Atibala had 1 laghu, 1 guru, 1 laghu, 1 guru=6 mātrās in four strokes.

(d) Atikīrṇa had 1 laghu, 1 laghu, 1 laghu, 1 laghu, 1 guru, 1 guru,

1 guru, 1 laghu = 13 mātrās in nine strokes.

(e) Anutandha was a mixture of all the above four.

4. Vyañjana·dhātu had ten sub-varieties: (a) Puṣpa, (b) Kala, (c) Tala, (d) Niṣkoṭita, (e) Ūnmiṣṭa, (f) Repha, (g) Anusvanita, (h) Bindu, (i) Avamrṣṭa, and (j) Anubandha.

(a) Puṣpa is an operation when the strokes are produced with both the thumbs in conjunction with the little finger. It is a technique in which a string is struck jointly with the thumb and the little finger.

(b) Kala is to stroke with both the thumbs two separate strings simultaneously.

(c) Tala is striking a string with the right thumb after pressing down with the left thumb.

(d) Niṣkoṭita is to strike the left thumb up and down.

(e) Ūnmiṣṭa is to strike with the left index finger–softly and very melodiously.

(f) Repha is when all the fingers are used in striking successively the strings.

(g) Anusvanita is to strike the strings from below after the tala technique.

(h) Bindu occurs when a guru is played on any string.

(i) Avamrṣṭa is to strike the same note in three strings in three registers from below successively.

(j) Anubandha is a mixture of all the above.

Vistāra is for practising bols (mnemonics). It consists of bols of one mātrā whereas samghāṭaja and samvayaja have two and three bols respectively.

And there were further ramifications of the sub-varieties of vistāra.

Samghāṭaja had four stages: (1) Dviruttara, (2) Dviradhara, (3) Adharādi uttaravasana, (4) Uttarādharavasana.

(1) Dviruttara occurred when two notes were played in the mandra.

(2) Dviradhara, two notes in the madhyasthāna, middle register.

(3) Adharādiuttaravasana occurred with two strokes: one in

the tāra sthāna and the other in the mandro

(4) Uttarādharavasana was the opposite of the third variety,

i.e. one stroke in the mandra sthāna and. the other in the

tāra.

Avanriṣṭa was producing the same note in all the three

registers by striking the three strings successively with the thumb

and the little finger of the right hand from below.

Pratyāhāra was placing the ensemble of instruments in the

proper order.

Avatāraṇa was seating of the musicians in the proper order.

Āsrāvaṇā was started with karaṇa or vistāra dhātu. It had three

stages. First part consisted of six akṣaras (letters) in which 1st, 2nd,

11th, 14th, 15th and 24th were guru (of two mātrās).

It was performed in three stages. The song to be selected had to

have the gurus in the order mentioned above. The rest of the

remaining eighteen letters were laghu. The second part of the song

was similar to the first in its distribution of guru and laghu. In the

third part, the 3rd, 8th and 15th letters were guru and the remain-

ing 12 letters laghu. The total number of letters was fifteen. The

first two parts were to be played in caccatputa tāla and the third in

cācapuṭa tāla.

Ārambha had its own rules. It was first played in various

kinds of vistāra dhātus, then it was to be combined with varieties

of vyañjanā and karaṇa dhātus in the following order:

First, to be combined with tala dhātu (a variety of vyañjanā).

Second, it was to be combined with ribhita dhātu (a variety of

karaṇa).

Third, it was to be combined with hlāda dhātu (a variety of

karaṇa).

Arrangement of akṣaras was as follows i.e. its syllable scheme:

A point worthy of note in these compositions was the blend of

two types of rhythm—the physical and the psychic–physical

rhythm in the form of tālas, gurus and laghus and psychic rhythm

in the akṣara kalās. It was believed that aesthetic delight was

possible only with the harmonic combination of physical and

psychic rhythms.

First part of Ārambha had 8 gurus, 12 laghus and 5 gurus.

Second part consisted of 8 laghus, 1 guru, 4 laghus, 1 guru, 4

laghus. One mātrā was equivalent to five akṣaras, i.e. ta na na

na na was one mātrā.

The third part had 8 laghus and 1 guru.

Vaktrapāṇi: In this, aviddha and karaṇa dhātus were used more

and one vyañjanā dhātu.

Syllabic arrangement of the composition:

1st Part — 5 gurus, 6 laghus

6 gurus, 2 laghus

2nd Part — 4 gurus, 3 laghus

1 guru, 8 laghus

Saṅkhotana: In the first part, bindu, a variety of vyañjanā dhātu

was played, using the consonant notes sa-pa. re-dha etc , ṣatpitā-

putraka tāla was to be used in this composition. The composition

in saṅkhotana consisted of twenty-seven akṣaras or letters of which

the syllabic arrangement was as follows:

2 gurus, 1 laghu, 2 gurus, 1 laghu, 1 guru, 12 laghus, 1 guru

Parighaṭṭana had only one section. Its syllabic arrangement

was as follows:

8 gurus, 24 laghus, 2 gurus, 18 laghus, 1 guru

The dhātus used most in this, were a combination of vyañjana

and karaṇa. The tāla used was called sampakveṣṭaka of 12 kalās or

mātrās.

Mārgasārita: There were three varieties namely, Jyeṣṭha,

Madhyama and Kaniṣṭha.

Kaniṣṭha used a beautiful combination of vistāra, aviddha

and karaṇa dhātus. According to Sārṅgadeva, it had three

sections, in each of which the syllabic arrangement was to be as

follows:

88

4 gurus, 8 laghus, 2 gurus, 8 laghus, 1 guru, 1 laghu

In the first section, the tāla to be used was cācapuṭa. In the next

two sections, the tāla used was ṣaṭpitāputraka.

Līlākṛta: In this style of performance of the vīṇā, there were

both meaningful and meaningless songs. Śārṅgadeva gives the

following definitions of abhiṣritā and pariṣritā that were used in

Līlākṛtā Vidhi.

Songs sung in the aṃśas of the Jātis of the Ṣadja Grāma in the

Vārtika Mārga, were known as abhiṣritā and songs in the aṃśas of

the Madhyama Grāma Jātis were known as pariṣritā.

This was always sung in catuskaḷā. This had four sections namely,

Mukhā, Pratimukhā, Śarīra and Samharaṇa.

Mukhā or upohana consisted of 2 guru, 20 laghu, and 2 guru.

Śarīra had three subsections. The first section was to be sung in

caccatpuṭa tāla. The second and third section in cācapuṭa tāla.

Sañharaṇa was placing the saṃnipāta at the end, after singing

the three sections.

Madhyama or Madhyamasārita is sung in dvikalā ṣaṭpitāputraka

tāla. It has also four sections:

Mukhā or upohana consisting of 2 gurus, 18 laghus, and 2 gurus.

Pratimukhā or Pratyupohana consisting of the same distribution

of guru and laghu as in upohana.

Śarīra or main body of the song, had three subsections. The first

subsection was sung in caccatpuṭa tāla; the second subsection in

ṣaṭpitāputraka tāla and the third section also was sung in the

same tāla as the second.

After Nirgiṭa, Bharata has mentioned fourteen styles of vocal

compositions. The first seven were:

1. Chandak 2. Āsārita 3. Vardhamāna 4. Pāṇika, 5. Ṛca 6. Gāthā

and 7. Sāma.

The first three are highly complicated with instrumental music.

The fourteen styles of composition were based on permutations

and combinations of the four tālas, three yatis (Sama, Gopuccha

and Srotogatā) and three mārgas (Vārtika, Citrā and Dakṣiṇā).

Vārtika mārga was of 4 sections (pa da bhā ga) in

89

Bṛhaddeśī of Mataṅga

dvikalā.

Citrā mārga was of 2 sections in ekakalā.

Dakṣiṇā mārga was of 8 sections in catuskaḷā.

Mārga means path, taking a short or long route. Mārga was

different from kāla or laya. Mārga indicates the mātrās used at

the rate of five laghu-akṣaras per mātrā. It is different from vilamba madhyā and druta kāla as in modern classical music.

In Mārga, a section meant a bar. In Citrā there were two sections

in ekakalā or in modern parlance one mātrā whose measure was

five laghu akṣaras. This meant the cycle of the tāla would repeat

after every two kālās or mātrās. In Vārtika mārga, there were four

sections in dvikalā or in two mātrās per each section. The total

was eight kālās or mātrās. Naturally, the time taken for each cycle

was longer in this than the previous one. Similarly Dakṣiṇā mārga

would take twice as much time as Vārtiku mārga. The point

worthy of note is that the number of kālās or mātrās increases

with each mārga along with the increase in sections. Therefore the

increase in time duration is mainly because of the increase of

sections and kālās.

Whereas in modern tālas, the number of mātrās remains constant

along with the sections. The change of kāla is effected by the in-

crease or decrease of the time-measure between two mātrās. For

instance, in modern ek tāla, if the time-measure between mātrās

in four counts (1, −2, −3, −4, then the total count for the twelve

mātrās of ektala would be forty-eight. If it was half of that, then

it would be twenty-four; half of that would be twelve mātrās. Here,

there is nothing like a shorter or longer route as in the case of

mārga but a question of going the same distance in slow or fast

tempo.

Let us take the four of the seven types of musical composition

mentioned earlier.

Pāṇika gīta: It had mukhā or upohana, pratimukhā or pratyu-

pohana and śarīra consisting of the main song.

Ṛca gīta: This was sung in anuṣṭubha and other chandas. Anuṣ-

ṭubha chanda consisted of four quarter verses of eight syllables

each. Ṛk, the root of the word Ṛca meant prayer, i.e. Vedic chant

in Vedic metres.

There were two reasons for the name of Ṛca gīta. First because

it was in praise of God and second because it was mainly sung in

90 Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

Vedic metres although other metres of classical Sanskrit (kāvya metres) were also used. Rca gīta had forty-eight kalās i.e., forty-eight syllables or akṣaras. There were also ṣuṣkāṣṣara gītās and these were sung in catuṣkalā and ṣatkalā.

Gāthā gīta: In this, four akṣaras constituted one kalā. It consisted of 128 kalās and the metre employed was kāvya metre like Ārya etc. This had mukhā and pratimukhā and it was sung with ornamentations.

Sāma gīta: The basic difference: between Sāma and Sāma gīta was, in the former, there was no tāla whereas in the latter, there was tāla.

Along with the introduction of tāla in Sāma gīta, there were five parts in Sāma gīta as there were in Sāma; but their names were different.

Five Parts of Sāma Five Parts of Sāma gīta

Udgīta Ugrāha

Prastāra Anugraha

Pratihāra Sāmandha

Upadrava Dhruva

Nidhāna Ābhoga

Just as the hiṅkāra was done in Sāma, the Sāma was also done in Sāmia gīta. The chandas used was Gāyatri etc. It was sung in trikal and ṣatkal.

The other seven types of gītas mentioned by Bharata were:

1. Madraka, 2. Aparāntaka, 3. Ullopyaka, 4. Ovenaka, 5. Rovin-daka, 6. Prakarī, 7. Uttara.

2. Madraka: This had four parts -mukhā, pratimukhā, śātra and saṅgharana.

First section was also called prathama vastu. The term vastu meant both a general composition and a-part of composition. The prelude before singing the first section was known as upohana. This word also has an interesting etymology.

Upohanāmapi, upa samipa ūhyate vicāryate ityupohanamityuk-tam.

91 Brhaddesī of Matanga

This means the form of the rāga or Jāti that emerges after meditating upon its structure and essence. Upa means approach and Uh means meditate.

The prelude before the second section was called pratyupohana. But sometimes upohana and pratyupohana were sung together before the first section itself. Upohana was done both iri svara and tāla.

Madraka was sung in three layas-in cka kalā, dvikalā and catuṣkalā corresponding to modern druta, madhya and vilambita kāla respectively.

2. Aparāntaka: It had five, six or seven parts; in cach part there were four gurus and four laghur. Gurus were called śākha and laghus, pratīśākha. The gītas were sung in dvikalā and catuṣkalā.

3. Ullopyaka: Wordings of the composition had two gurus and two laghus. They were sung in ekakalā, dvikalā and catuṣkalā. Eka-kalā wordings had 2 gurus, 2 laghus and 1 guru in each mātrā.

Dvikalā had 8 gurus in one mātrā.

Catuṣkalā had 16 gurus in one mātrā.

The last mentioned would have been very, very slow tempo which is not in vogue in modern classical music. For instance tritāla in the above tempo would be 16×16 or 256 single unit mātrās or for one āvartana i.e., each mātrā will have 16 sub divisions.

4. Ovenaka: It had twelve sections like sthāyani, tarā, etc.

5. Rovinduka: This had from seven to sixteen sections.

6. Prakarī: It had four or sometimes three and a half sections.

7. Uttara: This had twelve sections.

From all the above prolific details, it seems clear that the entire Indian classical music was founded on-vocal music.

There were also Dhruva gītas. The word Dhruva was a blanket term for all vocal compositions. It was used because every part and position was fixed. There were many such Dhruva gītas but five were used in drama:

1. Prāveśikī (entry).

2. Nāṣkrimikī (exit).

3 Ākṣepikī: an incidental song in a scene.

4. Pradeśikī: a song to create a pleasant feeling or brighten the atmosphere.

5. Antarā: Interlude song in order to remove tension in a traumatic scene.

92

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

Mārga, Deśa, Sangīta, Śruti, Grāma and Mūrchanā

Bharata has not given a clear, detailed practical description with

examples of the svaras used in each Jāti, whereas Matanga has

given, in terms of svaras, the various characteristics of each Jāti

namely, the Graha, Aṃśa, Nyāsa, Apanyāsa svaras etc. On the

basis of these examples, Śārṅgadeva has given examples of songs,

giving practical illustrations of all lakṣaṇas of the Jātis.

The other significant thing that Matanga did was to give the

lakṣaṇas of Deśī rāgas. He described the Deśī rāgas and the off-

shoots of Grāma rāgas like Bhāṣā, Vibhāṣā, and Antarabhāṣā. 'By

giving practical examples, of Jātis in terms of svaras, Matanga

made it possible for people to comprehend the form of Jāti. With-

out him, it could be said that Jāti would have been unintelligible.

Śārṅgadeva expanded further by giving texts to the svaras of the

Jātis as given by Matanga. So in a way, it could be stated that

Brhaddesī is a link between Nāṭyaśāstra and Sangīta Ratnākara.

The term Deśī was first used by Matanga. It is not found any-

where in the Nāṭyaśāstra. Deśī means regional music stylised as

distinct from unstylised folk music. Unfortunately, the complete

work is not available.

Mārgī Sangīta has been changing its connotation in the course

of time. In Bharata's time, only Jāti was considered one another's

limits.1 But Matanga appears to have taken the conventional

connotation of the word Grāma meaning a village to be its literal

meaning. Grāma simply means a group; it may be a group of any-

thing. For example there is bhūta-grāma, indriya-grāma indicating

the group of elements and of the senses respectively. So to take the

meaning of the word Grāma for a village and define the musical

term Grāma seems rather inappropriate.

Matanga, on the contrary, has made a great contribution in his

clear definition of siara and śruti and their mutual relationship.

He says that śruti and svara are not identical. There are two

types of śruti: one is Svaragata śruti and the other is Antara śruti.

Svaragata śruti is that point where the accumulation of the śrutis

explodes into svara. For example in the Catuḥśrutika ṣaḍja, the

first three śrutis are Antara śrutis but the fourth is Svaragata

śruti.2

1Brhaddesī as quoted in Bha. Ko., p. 139.

2Brhaddesī.

93

Brhaddesī of Matanga

Matanga further elaborates that there can be only five types of

relationship between svara and śruti. (1) Tādatmyam (तादात्म्यं)

identity, (2) Vivarta (विवर्ते) illusory form, (3) Kāryatvam (कार्यत्वं),

effect, (4) Parināma (परिणाम), transformation, and (5) Abhivyañjakata

(अभिव्यङ्जकतन), manifestation. He goes on to describe all these with

examples:

1. Tādatmyam is identity just as in the case of species and

individuals.

2. Vivarta is turning round, revolving, an inverted form, also

illusory as the transposed image through a mirror. He means

thereby that svara is the reflection of the śruti but not exactly.

3. Kāryatvam implies that svara is only a kārya or effect of śruti,

just as the jar is the effect of the moulding of clay. Clay is the

cause and jar is the effect.

4. Parināma is the transformation of śruti into svara just as milk

is transformed into curd.

5. Abhivyañjakata literally means expression. In this case it

means that the śruti takes on the manifestation of svara at a parti-

cular pitch. It is like a lamp which lights up a jar by removing the

darkness. It manifests the jar which was lying in darkness. It

merely removed the obstruction viz. darkness.

Apart from this, he gives two other names of śrutis: one is

Āśraya śruti and the other Aśrayī śruti. The former means that

which supports and the latter that which is supported. The latter is

the svara which is supported by śrutis.

A further analysis of the above five standpoints may clarify the

position vis-a-vis śruti and svara:

1. In the case of tādatmyam, the example of species and the

individual is inappropriate because śruti is both identical and not

identical with svara. The above term denotes a .basic difference

despite great similarity as between species and svara. Hence it

precludes the possibility of identity between śruti and svara. The

very concept of śruti and svara is different.

2. The second relationship presupposes a sense of illusion. Svarā

is certainly not an illusionary form of śruti. Hence this should be

also rejected.

3. It cannot also be called a cause-effect relationship because the

effect is already contained in the cause implicitly just as oil in the

tila or sesame seed. But this is not true in music. The svara is not

contained in the śrutis.

4. Matanga feels that either pariṇāma or abhivyañjakata is equally

applicable but the example he gives for abhivyañjakata of the lamp

manifesting the jar by removing the darkness, is inapplicable. The

śrutis do not reveal the svara by the removal of any obstruction.

Svara could be better explained as the explosion (vṛte) of the śrutis,

i.e. the combined saṃskāras (impressions) of the preceding śrutis

explode at a certain stage into a svara. The svara therefore is an

emergent, not a resultant of the śrutis. It is a saltus. Also the

example of the lamp lighting the jar becomes untenable in the light

of his earlier thesis of āśraya and āśrayī relationship between śruti

and svara.

Now we shall take up the next contribution of Matanga namely

his twelve-note Mūrchanā (Dvādaśa Mūrchanā) theory.

Mūrchanās from the beginning, i.e. from Bharata's time were

utilised for obtaining different scales. Mūrchanās were always

sampūrṇa and had all the seven notes. But Matanga felt that seven

svaras were inadequate to get a clear picture of a Jāti or a rāga.

He felt a few svaras in the mandra and a few in the tāra sthānas

will alone ensure a clear picture of a rāga and may help even in

the deduction of rāgas So accordingly he introduced the Dvādaśa

Srara (twelve svara) Mūrchanā. Hence in comparison with Bharata's

Mūrchanās, Matanga's Mūrchanās were as follows:

A table showing both the positions vis-a-vis the Mūrchanās of

Ṣadja and Madhyama Grāmas would give a clear picture.

Ṣadja Grāma

1. Uttaramandrā – Dha Ni Sa* Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Re Ga

2. Rajani – Ni* Sa Re* Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Re Ga Ma

3. Uttarāyatā – Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha* Ni Sa Re Ga Ma Pa

4. Śuddhaṣaḍjā – Re Ga Ma Pa* Dha Ni Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha

5. Matsarikṛtā – Ga Ma* Pa Dha Ni Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni

6. Aśvakrāntā – Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Re Ga* Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa

7. Abhirudgatā – Pa Dha Ni Sa Re* Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Re

Madhyama Grāma

1. Sauvirī – Ni Sa Re Ga Ma* Pa Dha Ni Sa Re Ga Ma

2. Hariṇāśvā – Sa Re Ga* Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Re Ga Ma Pa

*These svaras indicate the beginning note of the original Mūrchanā in the Ṣadja

and Madhyama Grāmas. The lines over the lower and three higher notes in the

Mūrchanā in the form of a saptakā because the identical form is

maintained in the subsequent register up- or down. But in the 12-

tone Mūrchanā; the form gets disarranged and after the completion

of one āroha the subsequent starting, note is different, hence the

native order is disturbed.1

(b) The main purpose of Matanga in propounding his system

was to prove that he could obtain the complete form of a Jāti or

Brhaddesṭi of Matanga

3. Kalopanata – Re* Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha

4. Śuddhamadhyā – Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa* Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni

5. Mārgi – Ma Pa Dha Ni* Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa

6. Pauravi – Pa Dha* Ni Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Re

7. Hṛṣyakā – Dha Ni Sa Re Ga Ma Pa* Dha Ni Sa Re Ga

The main distinction in the two Mūrchanās is that Bharata's two

Grāmas are avarohaṭmakā i.e., descending whereas Matanga's

Mūrchanās are ārohaṭmaka, i.e. ascending, this is the reason that

two Mūrchanās, Aśvakrāntā in Sa-Ḍāma and Hṛṣyaka in Ma-Grāma

are not traceable in their full form.

Of all the scholars, Mahārāṇā Kumbha in his Sangīta Rāja has

been the severest critic of Matanga's 12-tone Mūrchanā theory.

Although none of the later scholars accepted the above theory,

none advanced as many clear-cut arguments to refute the theory as

Mahārāṇā Kumbha.

His main objection to the Drādaśa Svara Mūrchanā were:

(a) The basis of Mūrchanā is āroha-āvaroha. Therefore its starting

note is very important. In Matanga's 12-tone theory, the starting

notes of most of the Mūrchanās become different and hence the

two Grāmas –Ṣadja and Madhyama forms unnecessarily get altered.

For instance the starting note of Uttaramandrā is 'Dha' but according

to Matanga, it is 'Dha'. But Uttaramandra's starting note as 'dha'

does not conform to any principle of arrangement of Mūrchanā.

Similarly Sauvirī in Madhyama Grāma, has no valid rationale for

beginning from niṣāda. There is a sound basis for keeping the

Mūrchanā in the form of a saptakā because the identical form is

maintained in the subsequent register up- or down. But in the 12-

tone Mūrchanā; the form gets disarranged and after the completion

of one āroha the subsequent starting, note is different, hence the

native order is disturbed.1

beginning and the end of each Mūrchandā indicate the five additional notes

intro.luced by Matanga. In the case of Aśvakrāntā in Ṣadja Grāma and Hṛṣyaka

in Madhyama Grāma, the original Mūrchanā is obtained only up to six notes and

hence their complete forms are not available in Matanga's Mūrchanās.

1क्रमास्वररागादरूद्धरोहो मृग्यनेतु यत्न ।

सकर्ण तत्र विधेयः क्रमारोहावरोहाद् वक्ष्ये ॥

कुंभ., पृ. फो., पृ. २५६ ।

96

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

rāga through his 12-tone Mūrchanā. But on a close analyse, this

is found to be untrue. Because the 18th Jāti Nandiayantī, the last of

the Vikṛta Jātis needs all the fifteen tones to get the ṛṣabha of

mandra, madhya and tāra sthāns to manifest its full form. This

means that the 12-tone Mūrchanā is inadequate as it falls short by

three tones and is therefore not useful for this Jāti. Kumbha states

rather severely that this theory is useless.1

(c) The 12-tone Mūrchanā implies two saptakas in the ṣāḍavita or

hexatonic state and two and a half saptakas in the auḍavita or

pentatonic state. But actually the 12-tone sprawls over all three

saptakas. Take for example the Dhaivatī Jāti. Since its Mūrchanā is

ṛṣabhādi, it starts from the svara ṛṣabha. In the Kinnarī vīṇā of

Mataṅga, there are twelve frets and the last two svaras are obtained

usually through miṇḍ or deflection of the wire. Thus Dhaivatī Jāti

would be turned as follows:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa

In the above. madhya saptaka will begin from the fourth fret i.e.,

Dha; the svaras preceding it will form the mandra saptaka; the

svaras after the tenth fret will form the tāra saptaka.

Now in the hexatonic and pentatonic states, pāñcama and ṣadja

are omitted respectively. This will further increase the range of the

Jātis beyond two and two and a half saptakas respectively. To

1वदन्तं जानिथापारिताम्-महादिमिद्ये।

दारमसारमुनेन मूर्छनाः स्वाप्रणीतिका।

नन्वदोषा मतदूषितः मतङ्गदासमय्यः।

—कुम्भ, म. को., पृ. २८५।

Bṛhaddeśī of Mataṅga

97

But in order to limit the range of the 12-tone Mūrchanā, if the

omitted notes are also included in the hexatonic and pentatonic

Jātis, then the respective Mūrchanās may cease to be the creators

of their respective Jātis.1

(d) Mahārāṇa Kumbha further objects that in this 12-tone

Mūrchanā, the basic concept of Sa-Pa, Re-Dha and Ga-Ni sam-

vāda, (consonance) is not obtainable. In the first Mūrchanā of

Ṣadja Grāma namely Uttaramandrā, Mataṅga's Mūrchanā starts

from dhaivatā and the corresponding Sa-Pa samvāda in it is Dha

Ga. But there is no consonance as the difference in Srutis is only

12. There is, however, consonance between Ni-Ma and Sa-Pa,

corresponding to the original Re-Dha and Ga-Ni. But there is on

the contrary, samvāda between Dha-Re-Ni-Ga and Sa-Ma. So if it

is stated that the first Mūrchanā of the Ṣadja Grāma i.e. Uttara-

mandrā has more Sa-Ma samvāda than Sa-Pa samvāda, then that is

àgainst the basic principles of 'Ṣadja Grāma where Sa-Pa samvāda

is more prominent that Sa-Ma samvāda. Similarly, in the first

Mūrchanā of Madhyama Grāma namely Sauvīrī (सौवीरी), Mataṅga's

Mūrchanā starts from niṣāda and the position of madhyama is Ga.

Here one finds than Ma-Ni samvāda is not available from Ga, i.e.,

there is no samvāda between Ga-Dha. But actually this argument

of Kumbha appears unjustifiable and a little overstretched because

if one accepts Mataṅga's starting note of Sauvīrī as niṣād., then

that should be taken as corresponding to madhyama which is the

starting note of Sauvirī. Then there is perfect Sa-Ma samvāda bet-

ween Ni-Ga, Re-Pa; but there is no samvāda between Ga-dha

corresponding to the original Ni-Ga. The Ma-Ni samvāda in

Mataṅga's Mūrchanā corresponding to the original Sa-Ma is also

perfect and obtainable. So there is only one samvāda i.e., Ga-Dha

which is discordant. But the main principle of the prominence of

Sa-Ma samvāda in all Madhyama Grāma Mūrchanās, I believe, is

fulfilled in Mataṅga's 12-tone Mūrchanā also. Therefore, Kumbha's

assertion of inconsonance and isolation of the basic concepts of

consonance in Mataṅga's 12-tone system, appears

unjustifiable.2

(e) Another contention of Kumbha is that the 12-tone Mūrchanā

with its different starting note takes away the rañjakatā or the

1वाद्योषविश्रान्तितत्परतया निषादोऽपि दीर्घायते।

—कुम्भ, म. को., पृ. २८६।

2षड्जवदिसमयोगाद् वृत्तः सप्तगो वरः; स्मृतः।

—शार्ङ्गदेवः।

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Hexatonic Re Ga Ma Dha Ni Sa Re Ga Ma Dha Ni Sa

Pentatonic Re Ga Ma Dha Ni Re Ga Ma Dha Ni Re Ga Ma Dha

Thus it will be seen that in the former state, there are almost three

saptakas-three svaras in the.mandra six in the madhya and

five in tāra saptakas respectively.

In the latter state, in addition to stretching over three saptakas,

the first svara of the fourth saptaka is also obtained.

98

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

delightfulness of the Mūrchanās for example in Uttarāmandrā and

Sauvīrī that exists in its original form when they begin from sadja

and madhyama respectively. This could be true because when the

starting note is lower by a few notes, then the pitch is also corres-

pondingly lowered and an unnatural low pitch especially in vocal

music, is bound to be ineffective. There is truth in this contention

of Kumbha.1

(f) Finally, Kumbha's argument that the seven-tone Mūrchanā is

the most useful, necessary and desirable one in contrast with

Mataṅga's twelve-tone Mūrchanā, seems tenable; because in the

formation of a Jāti or a rāga, it often happens that a note or two

has to be omitted or used less comparatively. In a seven tone

Mūrchanā, the picture of a Jāti or rāga becomes clear if one knows

the note or notes omitted or used less. But in a twelve tone Mūr-

chanā, this is not possible. One has to resort to kūta tāna, according

to Kumbha but the kriyā is part of the Mūrchanā to produce such

tāna, these tānas cannot create the desired Jātis or rāgas.2

In the foregoing objections raised by Kumbha, there are some

scholars who have attempted to somehow prove Kumbha's

opinions, without going into their intrinsic validity. For example,

Pt. K.C.D. Brhaspati in his endeavour to substantiate Kumbha's

objection d) explained already in the previous pages, has unac-

countably taken ṛṣabha, the fifth note from pañcama in the Sadja

Grāma's first Mūrchanā, Uttarāmandrā and has stated the lack

of samvāda. But there can never be any samvādī between these

svaras in the Sadja Grāma as Pa is of four śrutis and Re of three

śrutis. The difference between them in śrutis will be twelve whereas

in the Madhyama Grāma, the difference is thirteen śrutis and there-

fore, there will be perfect consonance. This is because the poñcama

is of three śrutis and dhaivata of four śrutis.3

Similarly in trying to prove the significance of the lack of Sa-Ma

samvāda in the twelve-tone Mūrchanā theory of Mataṅga in

Madhyama Grāma's first Mūrchanā Sauvīrī Pt. Brhaspati states that

there is no svara higher than Ga and lower than Dha in Mataṅga's

1न ह्रासक्रमोऽन्यारे षट्चत् जावद्यि जावते ।

—दशम, प. को., पृ. २८५

2षड्जग्रामे तु षड्जस्य ऋषभः पंचमस्य तु धैवतः ।

कूटतानोपयोगित्वं मुख्यतयाों प्रभवेदनम् ।

न रागनिरपेक्षतायां वसतु स्वररत्नारिका ॥

—इबै, पृ. २८५

3Bharata Saṅgīta Siddhānta, p. 53.

99

Brhaddeśī of Mataṅga

Mūrchanā which starts from niṣāda which has Sa-Ma samvāda.

Here also, it is impossible to have samvāda because of the very

basic śruti structure of the scale. Whether it is Mataṅga's twelve-

tone Mūrchanā or Bharata's seven-tone Mūrchanā, there cannot be

any Sa-Ma type samvāda between Ga and Dha. The śruti difference

is eleven. There is, however, Sa-Pa type samvāda both Ga upwards

and Dha downwards i.e., Ga-Ni and Dha-Re each of thirteen

śrutis between them.1

Now let us analyse Mataṅga's feeling of necessity for his twelve-

tone Mūrchanā. It seems evident that his concept of Mūrchanā

itself was different. His twelve-tone Mūrchanā theory was not

merely to establish a scale but to study how the Jātis and rāgas

could move in different registers. It facilitated better understand-

ing of Jātis and rāgas as it added a few notes in the mandra and

tāra sthānas, whereas in the seven tone saptaka the full range of

the Jātis and rāgas was not describable. Any Jāti or rāga with a

predominent mandra or tāra emphasis cannot be illustrated in the

seven-tone Mūrchanā. Also the twelve-tone Mūrchanā was of great

benefit to instrumentalists as it afforded them the scope of obtain-

ing different svara sthānas in all the registers. The Kinnarī Viṇā

had eighteen frets in all and with the first note on the meru and

two additional notes by deflecting of the wires, it was possible to

get full three saptakas, i.e., twenty-one notes. Therefore, its practi-

cal utility cannot be mitigated. This is recognised by almost all

the scholars although they disagree and denounce his theory.

Indeed when one studies the theoretical implications, one will find

that many fundamental principles get upset.

Mataṅga brought into vogue the Kinnarī Viṇā and introduced

for the first time the movable frets or calasārikā. The idea behind

this was to obtain the two extra notes kākali Ni and antara Ga by

shifting the frets from the Ni and Ga, which occurred in some

Mūrchanās. But little did he realise the far-reaching consequences

of his innovation. He perhaps never could have imagined that he

had unwittingly sown the seeds of melā. What he instituted for

his own convenience to get the two additional svaras, later on led

to the gradual disappearance of the Mūrchanā system itself. Hence

in a way, it could be stated that Mataṅga's twelve-tone Mūrchanā

1Bharata Saṅgīta Siddhānta, p. 54.

100

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Musio

was the oasis of melā which came into vogue several centuries later. The term melā may not have been used in his time, but the kriyā or function of the melā had already started to show up. His Kinnarī Viṇā in a peculiar way, killed the Mūrchanā.

In this context, if we study the outstanding significance of Matanga's Kinnarī Viṇā and his twelve tone Mūrchanā theory, one is led to ask the question, why did Bharata need to resort to the Mūrchanā system? It seems clear because in his time, the idea of having frets on the viṇā, had not occurred to anyone. Because of the lack of frets, and the necessity of tuning each string of his twenty-one stringed Mattakokila Viṇā on each separate svara, the concept of the Mūrchanā system was inevitable.

While it will be clear that the concept and advent of the movable fret ushered in the origin of the melā, a deeper study of Bharata's Mūrchanā system and the manner in which he tuned his Mattakokila Viṇā, also reveals the seeds of the mela concept. In Bharata's Mūrchanā, the initial note was called nigraha. This was defined as 'asampsparśa' i.e., not to be touched or struck in this case. The other term used was 'praveśa' which here means modification and not entry i.e., when a Jāti had to omit one or two svaras-to change from sampūrṇa to ṣādava or audava-the strings of the Mattakokila Viṇā were either stretched or loosened in order to tune it either with succeeding or preceding svaras respectively. Even in Bharata's time, there was a fixed string on which was the initial or starting svara of the Mūrchanā. In modern parlance, this could be termed as the tonic. In this time, the tonic changed but the string remained constant. For example, it was always the eighth string on which the madhya ṣadja was tuned. Whatever modifications that were effected on the strings for obtaining the ṣādava and audava forms of Jātis, the eighth string was always exclusively reserved for the madhya ṣaptaka ṣadja. Even if ṣadja had to be omitted as in the Dhaivati Jāti in its audava form, it is borne in mind that the praveśa was from ṣadja to either Re or Ni. So the concept of the necessity for a constant svara on a fixed string either Sa or Ma of Sa-or Ma-Grāma respectively was perhaps the earliest glimpse of the origir of the melā. Without this arrangement, the modifications done in obtaining the various Jātis through Mūrchanās, could have led to utter confusion and chaos. Bharata also obtained the antara gāndhāra and kākalī niṣāda through the praveśa kriyā. But since Mataṅga had movable frets, he had no problem.

Brhaddesī of-Mataṅga

101

All these tendencies were clearly the seeds of the melā which followed later on.

Etymologically the word melā means to get together desired notes. Thāṭa means a framework. The very idea of shifting a svara from one śruti position to another implies the concept of the melā. Because such shifts of the same svaras are inconceivable and impossible in a Mūrchanā where the seven tone rule has to be rigidly observed.

In the light of the above arguments, the assertion of certain scholars that melā was an exotic product imported by us, seems untenable. Whatever Iranian influence we may have had, that was in the field of practical music. In the field of theory of concepts and axioms, there appears to be no such exotic absorption by us.

Pt. Brhaspati is a staunch advocate of the belief that the idea of melā was taken by us from Iran from their maqām. This is not valid for two reasons. Firstly as explained above, the seed of the melā concept had been sown as early as the time of Mataṅga. He is attributed variously to the 8th or 9th century AD. Even assuming that he lived in the 9th century, there was no Iranian or Muslim influence on this country at that period.

Secondly, the fundamental difference between maqām and melā was that the former was singable whereas the latter was not. Hence maqām could, at best be compared with modes of Greek music. That the Iranians and Arabian were greatly influenced by the Greeks is a well-known fact of history. The very term for music, mousiki in Greek, has been borrowed by the Arabians. There are several other terms like this which the Muslims took en block from Greeks.

But it is interesting to see that the same scholar writing in his books' has clearly described the function of the movable frets in Mataṅga's Kinnarī Viṇā where both Śuddha and Vikṛta forms of the same svaras can be obtained from the same Mūrchanā by movement of the frets. Does this not imply the beginning of the melā and the concept of the fixed tonic?

Alaṅkāras

Mataṅga's main contribution is the abundant light that he has thrown on the different aspects of music from the practical angle.

1 Bharata Sangīta Siddhānta p. 58, 5th para and Sangīta Cintāmaṇi, p. 77.

102

Evolution of Rāga and Tala in Indian Music

What had been briefly defined by Bharata namely Jāti, Alaṃkāras,

Grāma rāgas, Gītis, Gāndharva Sangīta etc. have been elucidated

with illustrations by Mataṅga. Without Mataṅga's illustrations the

music chapters of Nāṭyaśāstra would have been unintelligible. It

also goes to prove that Bharata's Jāti music was alive even in the

time of Mataṅga. But in the latter's time, Grāma rāgas and Bhāṣā,

Mārgi and Deśīya rāgas had come into prominence even among

musicologists. It could, therefore, be stated that Mataṅga's time

was the confluence of the ancient and medieval music.

Mataṅga's contribution in respect of alaṃkāras is also very

significant. Bharata had defined them briefly in connection with

varṇa.1

Mataṅga's description is more elaborate.2 He asks, what is meant

by alaṃkāra? It means embellishment or elaboration through alam-

kāra. Alam + karoti i.e., alam means adequate and karoti means

that which makes adequate something which is inadequate. Just as

the bracelet and the armlet enhance the beauty of both woman

and man so does the alaṃkāra based on varṇa like prasannādi

etc. beautify the gītis which in turn delight both the singers and

listeners greatly.

Bharata and Mataṅga have enumerated thirty three alaṃkāras in

all. Out of these seven conform to sthāyīvarṇa, twelve to ārohī-

varṇa, five to avarohīvarṇa and thirteen to sañcārīvarṇa. But the

total comes to thirty seven. But of these, four come under more

than one varṇa and hence are not counted. Therefore, the total

number is thirty three. Mataṅga has retained all the names of the

alaṃkāras as given by Bharata and has closely adhered to the

division of the alaṃkāras under various varṇas.

But it has to be admitted that in Nāṭyaśāstra as well as in

Bṛhaddesī, the characteristics of the alaṃkāras are rot clear enough.

Gīta and Gīti

Mataṅga states the Grāma ragas were being used in the five gītis

namely Suddhā, Bhinnā, Gauḍī, Veserā and Sādhāraṇī. He defines

1एवं वणिस्. किन्तु यथासङ्करतो गानयोभयकः ।

एवम् समासतोक्तान् सप्तवर्गान्कारादिवोधितान् ॥

—नाट्यशास्त्र, २९१२४

२वणिसङ्कारक्रियाभ्यां हि गीयते इति गीतयः स्मृताः । यथा कटाक्षादियोगेन नारी

दृशो वाथ मालिनी: चौभाग्यमार्जयेत्, तथा एतैः सङ्कारैः सम्स्कृता वणिसंख्या गीतिगणेऽपि ।

वणौँ सुवादशा वयतीति ।

—बृ० १, ३४

103

Bṛihaddeśī of Mataṅga

gīta and gīti. Gīta is any song that is sung, i.e., it is a generic term

for a song, whereas gīti is a style of rendering a musical composi-

tion. In this both the structure of the composition and its style of

rendering are implied. There were two broad divisions of gītas -

padaśraya and svaraśraya i.e., style of composition based on poetic

content or text of the song and composition based on musical

structure.

The fundamental division in Suddhā, Bhinnā, Gauḍī, Vesarā and

Sādhāraṇī is the melodic structure of the compositions whereas

Bhāṣā, Vibhāṣā and Antarabhāṣā are variations of Grāma rāgas.

Mataṅga's Bṛhaddesī is the 'only work available' which gives des-

cription of the gītis and the Janya rāgas of the Grāma rāgas like

Bhāṣā etc., Bharata has not referred to these Janya rāgas. They

may have developed either after Bharata or during his period but

he may not have taken interest in them.

Mataṅga states that these four varieties of Bhāṣā namely, Māla,

Saṃkirṇa, Deśāja and Chāyā1. He has also shown that Bhāṣā has

evolved from Grāma rāga, Vibhāṣā from Bhāṣā, and Antarabhāṣā

from Vibhāṣā.

A general outline of the gītis, the Janya rāgas of the Grāma

rāgas has been given in this work but their detailed elaboration is

to be found only in the S.R.

1Bṛhaddesī, Travancore edn., p. 104.

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

Sangīta Ratnākara

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

105

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

Gaudī is defined as a style in which closely-knit, legato gamakas traversing three registers are taken with melodious svaras through Ohāti.1

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

This definition describes five distinct features of Gaudī. They are:

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

1. Gaudaiḥ akhaṇditastthitaiḥ i.e., the notes are closely arranged and the entire piece is sung in a legato fashion.

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

2. Tristhāna gamakaiḥ i.e., it covers all the three registers with beautiful gamakas.

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

3. Ohāti lalitaiḥ svaraiḥ i.e., the svaras are taken in such a way as to give the impression of O and hā.

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

4. Kampitair mandraīḥ i.e., generally kampita gamakas are used in a deep low tone in this style.

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

5. Mṛdudrutataraiḥ svaraiḥ i.e., the svaras are sung softly but in fast tempo.

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

But Kāllinātha warns, in his commentary, that O and hā are not to be pronounced literally. but that the notes should be enunciated in such a manner as to give a semblance of O and ha.

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

He also states that the name Gaudī came to be used for this style because this style was very popular with Gauḍas or present day Bengalis.

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

Simhabhūpāla has also reiterated what Kallinātha has said .and has quoted Mataṅga who states that there were four types of Ohāṭī namely samākṣara, sama, aroha.and avaroha.

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

LET us now take up the study of this work. First we shall briefly describe the gītis as found in this text.

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

These are in all five gītis namely Śuddha, Bhinnā, Gauḍī, Veṣarā and Sādhāraṇī. As gīti is of feminine gender the names of all the five gītis are also of feminine gender.

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

1. Śuddha1

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

The style would be considered Śuddha when the notes are taken in their simple form without any complexity, retaining the aesthetic beauty of the melody.

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

A close example in Hindustānī music of this style could be found in the Śuddha bānī of Dhruvapada. The well-known exponents Dagar Brothers sing this style.

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

2. Bhinnā

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

Bhinnā is an ornate style of composition and rendering.2 In this the svaras have a winding and a zigzag movement and it employs subtle, melodious gamakas. Mataṅga states, as quoted by Kalli-nātha, the commentator of S.R., that the word Bhinnā has been used in the sense of modification and not in the usual sense of difference, separateness i.e., Bhinnā is that style in which notes are used, not in their simple form but in aesthetically beautifully modified forms. It is used in the sense of vikāra.3

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

3. Gauḍī

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

From the definition of this style, it would be clear that aesthetic concepts of rendering were quite developed in the 13th century,

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

4. Veṣarā

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

This word is a compound of the two words 'vega' and 'svara'. Vega means fast. WhIle combining the ga and va are dropped. Hence vega+svara became Veṣvara or Veṣarā.

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

This definition is as follows:

5

Sangīta Ratnākara: The Third Phase of Evolution of Indian Music

The svaras are sung in fast tempo (like that in modern chotā khyāl) taking care that the exceedingly pleasant flavour of the svaras are not in any way impaired in the fast tempo. The kind of rendering of a composition is known as Veṣarā.2

5

Sādhāraṇī

5. Sādhāraṇī

5

Sādhāraṇī

This style incorporates the beauties of all the other four styles.

5

Sādhāraṇī

It is called Sādhāraṇī. In a way, it could be stated that the modern

5

Sādhāraṇī

musical composition of the vilambit khyāl style is an offshoot and

5

Sādhāraṇī

an evolute of Sādhāraṇī.1

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

GRĀMA RĀGAS

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

Sangīta Ratnākara has dealt in detail this subject. In Nāṭya-

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

śāstra, there are reference to Grāma rāgas, in passing, with refe-

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

rence to the particular scenes of the dramas where these ought to

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

be sung to augment the particular moods of the scenes. No des-

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

cription of the Grāma rāgas is found in this work. But Källinātha

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

quotes the names of the five gītis in which the Grāma rāgas are

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

sung from the Nā. Śā.2 which means his copy of the work had

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

more details on Grāma rāgas.

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

In Brhaddesī, there is elaboration of Grāma rāgas into Bhāṣā,

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

Vibhäṣā and Antarabhāṣā and their sub-varieties. But it is some

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

what brief as no examples in notatian are given.

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

However in S R, Grāma rāgas, their Bhāṣās, Vibhāṣās and

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

Antarabhāṣās, Upagrāma rāgas are all enumerated totalling several

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

hundred rāgas although the names of several of them are repeated

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

under different categories. But from the study of this work, it is

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

possible to trace an unbroken stream of evolution of our music

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

even form pre-Bharata period.

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

For instance, Grāma rāgas are mentioned by Nārada3 who is

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

ascribed to about 150 BC. Then Matanga, in the 8th century AD.

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

gives descriptions of Grāma rāgas and their varieties. From the

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

study of his work, it appears that Jāti-gāna was getting out of

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

vogue and Grāma rāga were getting into vogue. But the general

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

concept of the superiority of Jāti Gāna appears to have been

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

accepted by Matanga. In fact there seems to have been two types

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

of music-one considered Gāndharva Sangīta and the other Gāna.

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

The former comprised Grāma Mūrchanā-Jāti and the latter Grāma

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

rāgas. The latter was considered also as Laukika Sangīta. There-

5

Sādhāraṇī

GRĀMA RĀGAS

fore, in this context, Matanga, like the scholars that preceded and

Sangīta Ratnākara

followed him, has attempted to link the origin of Grāma rāgas

Sangīta Ratnākara

with Jātis. The lacunae in his theory have already been pointed

Sangīta Ratnākara

out in the previous chapter under Brhaddesī. But it seems recessary

Sangīta Ratnākara

to stress here one essential point that, however superior, our old

Sangīta Ratnākara

scholars may have reckoned the Grāma-Mūrchanā-Jāti system, the

Sangīta Ratnākara

fact remains that it died a natural death a few centuries after

Sangīta Ratnākara

Bharata, whereas the Grāma rāga system seems to have kept on

Sangīta Ratnākara

evolving continuously. It appears to have had an unbroken line of

Sangīta Ratnākara

development. The emergence of Bhāṣā, Vibhāṣā and Antarabhāṣā in

Sangīta Ratnākara

the time of Matanga was an indication that the Grāma rāga system

Sangīta Ratnākara

was beginning to replace the Jātis. This trend continucd and

Sangīta Ratnākara

Sārngadeva has further elaborated on the system. The point of

Sangīta Ratnākara

interest is that the later Rāga-Rāginī system which also took its

Sangīta Ratnākara

origin from six basic rāgas, was a direct evolute of the Grāma rāga

Sangīta Ratnākara

system. Rāginī was considered the female aspect of rāga just as

Sangīta Ratnākara

Bhāṣā etc., were the feminine aspects of Grāma rāgas. This trend

Sangīta Ratnākara

persisted through the centuries and even the present rāgu system of

Sangīta Ratnākara

Indian music is in direct lineage of the Grāma rāga system. Several

Sangīta Ratnākara

names of Grāma rāgas, Bhāṣās are still current both in Hindustānī

Sangīta Ratnākara

and Karnātak Music. For example Revagupti (Revagupti) Nāga

Sangīta Ratnākara

Gāndhāra (Nāgagāndharvam) etc. in Karnātak Music and Bhinna

Sangīta Ratnākara

ṣaḍja, Kakubha (Kukubha), Naṭa Nārāyaṇa (Naṭa Nārāyaṇī), Deśā-

Sangīta Ratnākara

khya (Deśāksh1), Kāmada, Bhairava, Megha, Mālavakaiśika (Māl-

Sangīta Ratnākara

kauns) etc., in Hindustānī Music.

Sangīta Ratnākara

Therefore in studying the evolution of rāga, it seems, that the

Sangīta Ratnākara

conccpt of Jāti being the matrix of the rāga may have to be revised

Sangīta Ratnākara

and substituted by Grāma rāga. It will be clear that Grāma rāga

Sangīta Ratnākara

has played a more vital role in the evolution rāga than Jāti. In

Sangīta Ratnākara

fact, the history of evolution appears evident and uninterrupted in

Sangīta Ratnākara

the study of Grāma rāga, Bhāṣā, Vibhāṣā and Antarabhāṣā than

Sangīta Ratnākara

the Jāti.

Sangīta Ratnākara

Now we shall take up the study of Grāma rāga in detail. There

Sangīta Ratnākara

was continuous development of Grāma rāga from the time of

Sangīta Ratnākara

Brhaddesī upto to the time of S R., in various ways. Originally in the

Sangīta Ratnākara

time of Matanga there were three bases of division of Grāma rāga:

Sangīta Ratnākara

1. Grāma

Sangīta Ratnākara

2. Svarāsraya, i.e., the style of rendering the notes,

Sangīta Ratnākara

3. Padāsraya, i.e., varieties of textual compositions.

108

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

Although the basic rāgas were seven, some of them were sung in more than one gīti, a few of them were sung in all the five gītis and a few of them in only one gīti.

Also, all the seven grāma rāgas were sung in one gīti. For instance all the rāgas were born in Ṣuddha style in Ṣadja and Madhyama Grāmas. Another important point was that the Ṣuddha style was so fundamental that all the rāgas were included in the Ṣuddha style.

But here again, the point of controversy whether the Grāma rāga was an evolute of the Jāti or the Grāmas directly, is worth consideration. If, as some scholars like Mataṇga, Nānyadeva, Mokṣadeva, Kāśyapa and others insist on deriving the Grāma rāgas from Jātis, then the former should be normally assigned to the two Grāmas from which all the Jātis evolved.

But instead the Grāma rāgas have first been assigned to the Grāmas, and then to Jātis. This appears to be wrong because the two Grāmas are the parents of Jātis and therefore the Grāma rāgas cannot be an off shoot of both Grāmas and the Jātis.

It is like the same child being born of the grandfather and the grandson at the same time. It seems quite unnecessary to have brought in the Jātis.

The first gīti, Ṣuddha had a total of seven rāgas as follows in the two Grāmas:

Ṣadja Grāma

1. Ṣuddha Ṣadja Grāma rāga 2. Ṣuddha Kaiśika Madhyama 3. Ṣuddha Sādhāritā

Madhyama Grāma

1. Ṣuddha Pañcama 2. Ṣuddha Madhyama Grāma rāga 3. Ṣuddha Kaiśika 4. Ṣuddha Ṣāḍāva

Bhinna Gīti had five rāgas:

1. Kaiśika Madhyama 2. Bhinna Ṣadja 3. Bhinna Tāna 4. Bhinna Kaiśika 5. Bhinna Pañcama

Gauḍi Gīti had three rāgas:

1. Gauḍa Kaiśika Madhyama 2. Gauḍa Pañcama 3. Gauḍa Kaiśika

Sangīta Ratnākara

109

Vesarā Gīti had eight rāgas:

Ṣadja Grāma

1. Ṭakka 2. Vesarā 3. Sauviīra

Madhyama Grāma

1. Boṭṭa 2. Mālava Kaiśika 3. Mālava Pañcama 1. Ṭakka Kaiśika 2. Hiṇḍola These were sung in both the Grāmas.

Sādhāraṇi1 had seven rāgas:

1. Rūpa Sādhāra 2. Ṣāka 3. Bhambhāna Pañcama 4. Narta 5. Gāndhāra Pañcama 6. Ṣadja Kaiśika 7. Kakubha was sung in both the Grāmas.

The total number of rāgas in all the five gītis was thirty.

Apart from the above, there were uparāgas. They were thus called, according to Kallinātha because they were much closer to Grāma rāgas than to Jātis.

There were eight uparāgas. Upa means near or in proximity.

1. Ṣaka Tilaka 2. Ṭakka Saindhava 3. Kokila Pañcama 4. Revagupta 5. Pañcama Ṣāḍava 6. Bhāvanā Pañcama 7. Nāga Gāndhāra 8. Nāga Pañcama

There were twenty rāgas. These were called rāgas because they were considered very close to Jātis according to Kāllinātha. They were:

1. Śrīrāca 2. Naṭā 3. Bangāla 4. Bangāla Two varieties 5. Bhāṣā 6. Madhyama Ṣāḍava 7. Rakta Hamsa 8. Kollāhāsaka 9. Prasava 10. Bhairava 11. Megha 12. Soma 13. Kāmoda 14. Kāmoda Two varieties

1S.R., vol. II, Adyar edn., pp. 7-8.

15. Āmra Pañcama 16. Kandarpa

16. Deśākhyā 18. Deśākhyā Two varieties

17. Kaiśika Kakubha 20. Nata Nārāyana

There were fifteen Grāma rāgas apart from the basic seven. They were:

1. Sauvira 2. Kakubha 3. Takka 4. Pañcama 5. Bhinna Pañcama 6. Takka Kaiśika 7. Hindola 8. Bot!a

2. Mālava Kaiśika 10. Gāndhāra Pañcama 11. Bhinna Sadja 12. Vesara Sādava 13. Mālava Pañcama 14. Tāna 15. Pañcama Sādava1

No details are given as to which of the two Grāmas the above rāgas belong to. But according to Yāstika, as quoted by Källinātha, out of the above fifteen rāgas, the following seven rāgas gave rise to Bhāsās:

What is Bhāṣā? It has nothing to do with the common connotation of language. Källinātha clarifies it by defining it as a variety of Grāma rāga. He again quotes Matanga who states that Bhāṣā should be construed as a variety (prakāra) of Grāma rāga.3 In the same way, Vibhāṣās were prakāras of Bhāṣās and Antarabhāṣās varieties of Vibhāṣās. Matanga warns that these should not be mistaken to mean styles. He states that the term rāga is used because they produce rañjana i.e., they have a pleasant charm.

Bhāṣās derived from Grāma rāgas: Sauvira had four Bhāṣās: 1. Sauviri 2. Vega Madhyamā 3. Sādbāritā 4. Gāndhārī

Sangita Ratnākara

Kakubha had six Bhāṣās: 1. Bhinna Pañcami 2. Kāmboja 3. Madhyama Grāma 4. Rāganti 5. Madhurī 6. Sāka Miśra

Rāga Takka had twenty-one Bhāṣās: 1. Travana 2. Travaṇodhava 3. Vairañji 4. Madhyama Grāma 5. Mālava Vesarā 6. Chevati 7. Saindavī 8. Kolāhala 9. Pañcama Lakṣitā 10. Saurāṣṭri 11. Pañcami . 12. Vega Rañji 13. Gāndhāra Pañcami 14. Mālavī 15. Tānavalitā 16. Lalitā 17. Ravicandrikā 18. Tānā 19. Ambāharitā 20. Dohyā 21. Vesari

Takka also had four Vibhāṣās. They were: 1. Devāravardhani 2. Andhra 3. Gurjari 4. Bhāvanī

Rāga Pañcama had ten Bhāṣās 1. Kaiśiki 2. Trāvaṇi 3. Tānodbhavā 4. Ābhirī 5. Gurjari 6. Saindhavi 7. Dākṣintāy 8. Āndhri 9. Māngāli 10. Bhāvanī

This had two Vibhāṣās: 1. Bhambhāni 2. Andhālikā

Bhāṣās of Bhinna Pañcama 1. Dhaivata Bhuṣitā 2. Suddha Bhinnā

1S. R., Adyar edn., vol. II, p. 10. 2Ibid., p. 11.

112

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

Varātī

4. Viśālā

Vibhāṣā: Kausalī.

Takka Kaiśika had two Bhāṣās:

Mālava

2. Bhinnavalitā

One Vibhāṣā: Drāviḍi

Preñkhaka and nine Bhāṣās

Vesarī

2. Cujamañjarī

Ṣadja Madhyamā

4. Mādhurī

Bhinnapauralī

6. Gauḍi

Mālavavesarī

8. Chevaṭṭi

Piñjari

Boṭṭa had one Bhāṣā namely Māñgālī.

Mālavakaiśika1 had thirteen Bhāṣās:

Bāṅgālī

2. Māñgālī

Harṣapurī

4. Mālavavesarī

Khañjanī

6. Gurjarī

Gauḍi

8. Paurālī

Ardhavesarī

10. Śuddhā

Mālavarūpā

12. Saindhavī

Ābhirī

It had two Vibhāṣās:

Kāmbhojī

2. Devāravaradhini

Gāndhāra Pañcamī had one Bhāṣā namely Gāndhārī.

Bhinna Ṣadja had seventeen Bhāṣās:

Gāndhāravallī

2. Kachellī

Svaravallī

4. Niṣādinī

Travanā

6. Madhyamā

Śuddhā

8. Dākṣiṇātyā

1S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II, pp. 11-12.

113

Sangita Ratnākara

Pulindakā

10. Tumburā

Ṣadja Bhāṣā

12. Kālinḍī

Lalitā

14. Śrīkanṭhikā

Bāṅgālī

16. Gāndnārī

Saindhavī

This had four Vibhāṣās:

Paurali

2. Mālava

Kalindi

4. Devāravaradhini

Vesarā Ṣadja had two Bhāṣās:

Nādyā

2. Bāhyasāḍava

It had two Vibhāṣās:

Pārvatī

2. Śrīkaṇṭhī

Mālava Pañcama had three Bhāṣās.

Vedavī

2. Bhāvanī

Vibhāvanī

Tāna had one Bhāṣā, namely Tānodbhavā.

Pañcama Ṣādava had also one Bhāṣā, namely Potā.

Revagupta1 had one Bhāṣā—Śaka, and one Vibhāṣā—Pallavī, and three Antarabhāṣās:

Bhāṣavalitā

2. Kiraṇāvalī

Śakāvalitā

Śārṅgadeva states that there were ninety-six (96) Bhāṣās, twenty

Vibhāṣās (20) and four Antarabhāṣās (4).2

But a tally of Bhāṣās, Vibhāṣās and Antarabhāṣās above gives

96 Bhāṣās, 17 Vibhāṣās and 3 Antarabhāṣās, i.e., three Vibhāṣās

and one Antarabhāṣā less.

Śārṅgadeva quotes Mataṅga as mentioning four varieties of

Bhāṣās namely:

Mukhyā

2. Svarākhyā

Deśākhyā

4. Uparāgaja

1S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II, p. 12.

2Ibid., p. 13.

Mukhyā: Mukhyā means independent, i.e., not based on anything—region, svara or rāga.

Svarākhyā: As the term Svarākhyā itself indicates, is based on the name of svaras, e.g., Gāndhārī, Pañcamī, Madhyamā, etc.

Deśākhyā: It is based on the name of a region, e.g., Āndhrī.

Uparāgaja: Uparāgaja means born of a Uparāga

Śārṅgadeva has made one clarification at the end of all this enumeration of Grāma rāgas, Bhāṣās, Vibhāṣās and Antarabhāṣās that although the names of several Rāgas, Bhāṣās and Vibhāṣās are common, yet their characteristics are different.1

Rāgāṅga, Bhāṣāṅga, Kriyāṅga and Upāṅga

Śārṅgadeva has described in the classification of rāgas, the four aṅgas mentioned above. From here on, the evolution of rāga takes a big leap So far we were discussing and studying Grāma rāgas which had come to be known as Mārga rāgas. But with the introduction of the above aṅgas, the rāgas came to be classified under Deśī Saṅgīta. The term Deśī here does not mean merely regional but that music where liberties over the svaras of the rāgas is permitted. That is to say where the scope for improvisation is greater.

It will be seen that the period from about 6th cent. AD till about the 14th cent., was one when many creative experiments were made on rāgas and their ramifications. Hence there were constant changes in nomenclature, classification and interpretation of the Jātis and rāgas. In Mataṅga's period the Grāma rāgas were expanded into Bhāṣās, Vibhāṣās and Antarabhāṣās but these were not termed Deśī Saṅgīta. On the other hand, when the same rāgas were embellished with the four aṅgas. Kāllinātha states that because the characteristics of the Mārga rāgas underwent changes, the modified forms were called Deśī rāgas. But there is no explanation as to why Bhāṣā, Vibhāṣā and Antarabhāṣā were not considered as modifications of the Grāma rāgas and.classified under Deśī Saṅgīta.. There is apparently some confusion here.

Mārga rāga and tāla slowly began to fade away and were taken over by Deśī rāga and tāla. Some of the popular Grāma rāgas were also later on called Deśī rāgas.

1S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II, p. 13.

Now for a brief description of the four aṅgas.

1. Rāgāṅga: Śārṅgadeva quotes Mataṅga that any rāga which showed the direct influence of a Grāma rāga was called Rāgāṅga.

2. Bhāṣāṅga: Bhāṣāṅga was that rāga on which the influence of a Bhāṣā was clear and specific.

3. Kriyāṅga: Kriyāṅga was that rāga wherein there was predominance of emotional effect.

4. Upāṅga: Upāṅga has not been defined clearly but Śārṅgadeva sta es that it is a type of music which cannot be included in any of the other three aṅgas, i.e., Rāgāṅga, Bhāṣāṅga and Kriyāṅga but it was considered a kind of miscellaneous aṅga. In other words whēnver in a rāga in addition to anyone of the above aṅgas, an extra aṅga was manifested, it was known as Upāṅga. For instance in Rāgāṅga, supposing there was a semblance of Bhāṣāṅga, then that was called Upāṅga.1

Śārṅgadeva has classified the Deśī rāgas into two broad categories, namely—Pūrva prasiddha and Adhunāprasiddha.

Pūrvaprasiddha rāgas were those which were in vogue in former time. Adhunāprasiddha rāgas were those which were currently popular.

Eight Rāgāṅgus are enumerated under Pūrvaprasiddha rāgas. They are:

1. Śaṅkarābharana 2. Ghaṇṭārava

2. Hamsa 4. Dīpaka

3. Rīti 6. Karnāṭaka

4. Lāṭī 8. Pallavī

Eleven Pūrvaprasiddha Bhāṣāṅgas are mentioned:

1. Gāmbhīrī 2. Vehārī

2. Śvasita 4. Utpalī

3. Goli 6. Nādāntarī

4. Nilotpalī 8. Chāyā

5. Taraṅginī 10. Gāndhāragatikā

6. Veranjī.

Twelve Pūrvaprasiddha Kriyāṅgas are mentioned:

1. Bhāvakrī 2. Svabhāvakrī

2. Śivakrī 4. Makarakrī

1S.R., Adyar Edn.. vol. II, p. 19.

116

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

5. Trinētrakri

6. Kumudakri

7. Danukri

8. Ojakri

9. Indrakri

10. Nāgakṛti

11. Dhanyākṛti

12. Vijayakri

Three Upāṅgas

1. Pūrṇāti

2. Devalā

3. Guruñjikā

making a total of thirty-four.

Under Adhunāprasiddha rāgas, Śārṅgadeva mentions thirteen

Rāgāṅgas:

1. Madhyamādi

2. Mālavaśri

3. Toḍi

4. Baṅgāla

5. Bhairava

6. Varāṭi

7. Gurjari

8. Gauḍa

9. Kolāhala

10. Vasanla

11. Dhanyāśi

12. Deśi

13. Deśākhya

Nine Adhunāprasiddha Bhāṣāṅgas are mentioned:

1. Dombakri

2. Sāvarī

3. Velāvalī

4. Prathama Mañjari

5. Ādikāmodikā

6. Nāgadhvani

7. Suddhā Varāṭikā

8. Naṭṭā

9. Karnāṭaka Baṅgāla

Three Kriyāṅgas are mentioned:

1. Rāmakṛti

2. Gauḍakṛti

3. Devakri

Twenty-seven Adhunāprasiddha Upāṅgas are mentioned:

1. Kuntali

2. Drāviḍi

3. Saindhavi

4. Upasthānavañāṭikā

5. Chāyā

6. Hatasvarāvañāṭi

7. Pratāpavañāṭikā

8. Turuṣka Toḍi

9. Mahārāṣṭri Gurjari

10. Saurāṣṭri Gurjari

11. Dakṣiṇā

12. Drāvaḍi Gurjari

13. Bhuñjikā

14. Stambhatīrthikā

15. Chāyā Velāvali

16. Pratāpa Velāvali

117

Sangit Ratnākara

17. Bhairavi

18. Kāmodāsiṃhāli

19. Chāyānaṭṭa

20. Rāmakṛti

21. Bhallaṭikā

22. Malhari

23. Malhari1

24. Gauḍa

25. Karnāṭi

26. Deśavāla

27. Tauruṣkadrāviḍi

Śārṅgadeva has said that in all there are so far 264 rāgas.

Before we discuss further the complicated and manifold varieties

of the rāgas, it is necessary to analyse the basic approach of Sārṅ-

gadeva and his commentators towards the evolution of Grāma

and Deśi rāgas.

There are certain apparent contradictions in the treatment and

concept of Grāma rāgas. The first one is ascribing the origin of

the Grāma rāgas to Jātis. If we analyse this stand, we find that the

earliest work on music i.e., Nāradīya Śikṣā gives description of the

Grāma rāgas but nowhere mentions Jātis and Mūrchanās. Actu-

ally if the contention that the Jāti is the parent of the Grāma rāgas

was old and true, then none else was more competent to establish

the fact as Nārada. But his total omission of any reference to Jāti

creates a doubt whether the contention of the subsequent scholars

like Kaśyapa, Mokṣa, Mataṅga, Nānyadeva and others is tenable.

Another perplexing fact is that all the scholars continue to refer

to rāga as Grāma rāga although they assert its origin to the Jāti.

If the origin or rāga is from Jāti, then why not call it Jāti rāga?

Simhabhūpāla while discussing this point raises the right ques-

tion by asking 'rāga ragaviśeṣasambaddha iti kuto-yam viśeṣa

lābhah?' But his answer to this question is incongruous. He

quotes Bharata as stating that all rāgas are born of Jātis.2 He has

taken this quotation from Mataṅga. He further quotes Bharata as

stating that all the melodic forms of music sung in the world are

embedded in the Jāti.3 The question raised was in-connection with

the relationship of the rāgas and Grāmas whereas the answer deals

with the relationship of Jātis and rāgas. It is strange that a scholar

1Two Malharis are mentioned which may be a misprint.

2Jātisambhūtatvāt sāgānām, S.R., Adyar edn., vol II, p. 9. cf Brhaddesi.

p. 87.

3Yatkinicid-gīyate loke tatsarvam jātiṣu sthitam, S.R., Adyar edn. vol II,

p. 9,

of the stature of Simhabhūpāla should be guilty of the fallacy 'ignoratio elenchi': It seems that Källinātha and Simhabhūpāla were a lit'tle too overawed by the utterances of the charismatic personality of Bharata Muni and could not dare disagree with him. But they appear to have lost sight of the basic fact that they were contradicting themselves. Therefore,their tracing of the parentage of Grāma rāgas is not convincing. Another contradiction found in the description by scholars like Kaśyapa, Mokṣa and others is the confusion of the Grāmas. For instance, Kaśyapa has traced the origin of Madhyama Grāma rāgas from the Jātis, Gāndhārī and Madhyamā,1 whereas actually the above two Jātis belong to Ṣadja Grāma but Madhyama Grāma rāga belong to Madhyama Grāma. How can Jātis belonging to Ṣadja Grāma produce rāges belonging to Madhyama Grāma? How can the parent and the progeny differ in the species? It appears to be specious logic on the part of Kaśyapa. Moreover, the śruti structure of Ṣadja Grāma and Madhyama Grāma are different. The former has pañcama of four śrutis and dhaivata of three śrutis whereas in the latter, it is the reverse. In the former, there is no samvāda between ṛṣabha and pañcama but there is samvada between ṛṣabha and dhaivata whereas in the Madhyama Grāma, it is the reverse. Hence any rāga which is born of one cannot contain the qualities of the other.

There also is no description of the general relationship of the Grāma rāgas and the Jāti. In the history of our music, our ancient scholars have noway described the mutual relatioship of the two systems of the Grāmas and Grāma rāgas and the Grāma-Mūrchanā-Jāti.

Bharata's claim that whatever is being sung in the world is implicit in the Jāti, appears to be a tall claim. It may be that Bharata was using the word rāga, not in the technical sense, but in the sense of rañjakatva or melodic combinations and permutations.

Now we shall take up the Grāma rāgas from which Deśī Sangīta evolved. Sārṅgadeva has given a clear description of all of them. They are seven in all Madhyama Grāma rāgas, Ṣuddha Grāma rāga, Ṣuddha Sādhāritā, Ṣudḍha Paiñcama, Ṣuddha Kaiśika, Ṣuddha Sādhārita;2 This rāga is born of Ṣadja Madhyama Jāti.

1Kaśyapa, Bharata Kośa, Baroda edn., p. 465.

2S.R., vol II, Adyar edn., pp. 19-20.

Tāra Ṣadja is graha, amśa and Madhyama is nyāsa.The rāga is sampūrṇa, niṣāda and gāndhāra are sparingly used; its Mūrchanā is Ṣadjēdī or Uttaramandrā; the predominant alaṃkāra used is avaro-hipprasannānta; Ravi (Sun) is the presiding deity, it is sung in the first prahara of the morning and during the garbhasandhi in the drama. It depicts Vīra and Raudra rasas.

According to Källinātha, the ālāpa and karaṇa of the rāga was as follows:

The definition of ālāpa as given by Sārṅgadeva is when the the graha, amśa, mandra, tāra, nyāsa, apanyāsa, alpatva, bahutva, audava and ṣādava are expressed clearly, it is said to be rāgālīpa.1

Ākṣiptikā was a composition with the text well woven in svara and tāla.2

Rāgālīpa was without words and Rāpakālāpa was with words.

Vartanī was ālāpa in laya but without tāla like modern jod but in more vilambita laya.

Karaṇa was vartanī in druta laya or double tempo.

One feature which is very significant while studying the ālāpa of the Grāma rāgas and the Jātis from the Jāti-prastāras and ākṣiptikās as given in the S R., is the frequent jumps of notes from lower to middle, middle to upper registers and vice versa. This feature appears to common all o ver the world upto the 10th century. A passage like ma ma, pa dha ma ga sa dha ni ma etc., is common. The Sāma Sangīta or Sāma Gāna was also similar. Even the Gregorian Chant has similar jumps.

For practical singing, therefore, the tempo had to be rather slow as otherwise it would be both difficult and even discordant to sing the svaras fast. It must be conceded that such passages from register to r:gister was done gracefully both ways. But such passages have been included in karaṇa which means the singer had to train himself quite ably before attempting ālāpa, vartanī and karaṇa.

The svara-structure of the rāgas was quite circumscribed. The total number of svaras used was nil; there were no komal svaras like ṛṣabha and dhaivata or vīra madhyama. Hence the musicians did not have great variety of rāgas. Variations were in the kākalī niṣāda, antara gāndhāra, audava and ṣādava forms.

1S.R., vol. II, Adyar edn., p. 21.

2Ibid.

120

Śuddha Sādhāritā

Śārngadeva describes the rāga thus:

Rāga Śuddha Sādhāritā is derived from Ṣadja-Madhyamā Jāti

and tāra ṣadja is both its graha and amśa svaras, nyāsa is madh-

yama, niṣāda and gāndhāra are alpa. This rāga is sampūrṇa and its

Mūrchanā is Ṣaḍjādi or Uttaramandrā. Its alaṃkāra is avarohi

prasannānta: its deity is Sūrya, it is sung in the first quarter of the

morning, its rasas are Vīra and Raudra. It is used in the Garbha-

sandhi.1

Mokṣadeva states that Śuddha Sādhāritā is a sampūrṇa rāga,

ṣadja is both graha and amśa svara, niṣāda-gāndhāra are alpa

(infrequent usage) and madhyama is nyāsa svara. This rāga is

born of the Ṣadja-Madhyamā Jāti.2

Ālāpa3

Sā pā dhā rēpāpādhāre pādhā sāsāpādhānidhā

pāmāmā repā dhāre pādhāre pādhāpāpa sāsā

mā sā gā re mā. magare sāsā sarega

pādhārepādhārepādhāsāpādhāsāsā sāregāmādhāpā

nidhāpā sā ṣā.

Pada

Udayagiri śikhara śekhara turagakhurakṣata vibhinnā gha-

natimiraṭu. Gaganatala sakala vilulitasahasarakirṇo jayatu

bhānuh.

Ākṣiptikā-Tāla cañcatpuṭa

1. Tāla Ā — ni — — Vi — Śa —

Laghu 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Svara sā sā dhā ni pā pā pā pā

Pada u da ya gi ri śi kha

1S.R. Adyar edn., vol. II. 11.21.22.

2Bha. Ko., p. 671.

3The following signs are indicative of mātrās or duration and registers of each

note.

Sā = 1 mātrā, Sā = 2 mātrās, Sa = madhya sthāna or middle register,

Ṣa = mandra or lower register; Sa = Tāra or upper register.

121

Sangita Ratnākara

2. Tāla Ā Ni Vi Tā

Laghu 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Svara dhā dhā ni ni re er pā pā

Pada se kha ra tu ra ga Pra khu

3. Tāla Ā Śa Vi

Laghu 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Svara re pā pā pā dhā ni pā mā

Pada ra ksa ta vi bhi nna

4. Tāla Ā Ni Vi San

Laghu 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Svara dhā mā dhā sā sā sā sā sā

Pada gha na mi rah Vi Ṣa

5. Tāla Ā Ni

Laghu 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Svara dhā dhā sā dhā sā re gā sā

Pada ga ga na ta la sa ka la

6. Tāla Ā Ni Vi Tā

Laghu 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Svara re gā pā pā pā pā pā pā

Pada Vi lu li ta sa ha ra kir ṇo sra

7. Tāla Ā Śa Vi Pra

Laghu 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Svara dhā mā dhā mā sā sā sā sā

Pada ki re — ja ya

8. Tāla Ā Ni Vi San

Laghu 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Svara pā dhā nidhā pā mā pā mā mā

Pada bhā — — nuh — — —

In this composition, when one studies the incidence of notes,

one finds apart from ṣadja and pañcama which are amśa and amśa-

samvādi svaras respectively, dhaivata is the most promircent note

after ṣadja. Ṣadja occurs 14 times and dhaivata 13 times and pañ-

cama 19 times.

The svaras are similar to that of the modern Rāga Śuddha Kāfi

but there are a few peculiar sangatis like Dha Ni Re, Re GaSa,

ReGaPa, Dha Ma, DhaSa. There are jumps of more than one

octave, e.g., Dhā Ni Ni Re Re. But there is some consonance in

certain passages in both the tetrachords e.g., Dha Ni Pa-ReGaSa,

ReGaPa-Dha Ni Re but the Re after Ni, instead of being above

it in the Sā-Ga bhāva, is actually one and a half octaves below:

The tāra sthāna is not touched in the composition. This may be

due to the prayoga in the mandra-sthāna.

Taken musically, if the svaras of the composition are sung with

miṇḍa or in līgāto, then the composition, according to current

standards of appreciation, may be more tolerable. But without the

addition of the gamakas-graces it would sound unmusical.

From the point of view of tālu, excepting for the involved way

of indicating the four sections of two mātrās each, there is no

other rhythmic intricacy.

In the Mārgi Tālas, the Sannipāta was' placed in all dvikalā

forms. It is interesting to note that later on in Hindustānī music,

the Sannipāta began to be placed on the first mātrā.

Another noteworthy point is the reference to time in the singing

of this rāga. Bharata nowhere refers to the time-theory. This

appears to be a later development. Could this be construed as a

special adjunct of the Grāma rāga which subsequently was car-

ried over by the Rāga-Rāginīs?

Madhyama Grāma: Sārṅgadeva states that this rāga is born out

of the union of Gāndhārī, Madhyamā and Paiñcamī Jātis, kākalī

niṣāda-is permitted; mandra ṣaḍJa is this rāga's graha-aṃśa svaras,

nyāsa svara is madhyama and Mūrcchanā is Sauvīrī. The alaṅkāras

used are prasannaḍī and avurohī. It is sung in summer (griṣma ritu).1

Kaśvapa also states that this rāga is born of the union of Gān-

dhārī, Madhyamā and Paiñcamī Jātis, aṃśa svara is ṣaḍja and nyāsa

is madhyama.2

In the ālāpa and composition Re and Dha are least used but the

constant octaval leaps render the composition extremely difficult to

sing. But since S.R. states that this rāga is used to portray Hāsya

and Śṛṅgāra rasas, the former especially appears to manifest itself

in the svaru-structure. For example the phrase in the ālāpa—Dha

Re Ga Sa, Re Ga Ni Sa can hardly be expected to produce sober

musical effect but if rendered with adequate appropriate actions

could produce Hāsya rasa. There is no corresponding rāga in the

Hindustānī or Karṇāṭak music today. There is a melakarta 'Gaurī-

manoharī' in Karṇāṭak music which is similar to this.

1S.R., vol. II. Adyar edn., II.63-65.

2Bha. Ko., p. 465.

Sangīta Ratnākara

Ālāpa

Ṣā nidhāpādbā dhādhārē gāṣā regāṇiṣā

sagapāpapapa ninipani ṣā ṣā gapasānidhanini

niregāṣā pā ma pa nidhāmā

Karaṇa

ninipapagasaṣarega ni ṣa sāṣa ṣagagapapadhadha

madhanisanidha pāpāpāpā pani pani saṣasa

gāgāṣigāṣsni dhaninIniniregāṣāṣāpāmpīnidhapā māmā

Pada

Amara guru mamarapatima jayam

jit= madanam sakalaśaśitilakam

Ganaśatapaṭvrtama śubhaharām

Praṇamata sitavṛṣa rathagami nam.

Ākṣiptikā–Tāla Concatpuṭa

1. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — Śa —

Laghu 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Svara Ṣā Ṣā gā gā pā pā ma ma

Pada A ma ra gu ma ma ra

2. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — Tā —

Laghu 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Svara gā mā mā mā dhā nī ṣā ṣā

Pada pā ti ma ja yam — — —

3. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — Pra —

Laghu 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Svara Ṣā Ṣā mā mā pā pā Ṣā Ṣā

Pada ji ta ma da nam sa ka la

4. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — San —

Laghu 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Svara re gā nī Ṣā Ṣā Ṣāi Ṣā Ṣā

Pada ṣa ṣi ti la kam — — —

5. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — Śa —

Laghu 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Svara nī nī nī nī dhā pā mā mā

Pada ga na ṣa ta pa ri vri ta

124

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — Tā —

Laghu 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Svara gā mā gā mā dhā nī Sā Sā

Pada ma ṣu bha ha ram — — —

Tāla Ā — Śa — Vi — Pra —

Laghu 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Svara nī re gā nī Ṣā Ṣā pā pā

Pada pra ṇa ma ta si ta — vr ṣa —

Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — San —

Laghu 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Svara Sā Sā nidha pā mā mā mā mā

Pada ra tha ga ma nam — — — —

Ṣaḍja Grāma

S.R. states that this rāga is derived from Ṣadja Madhyamā Jāti,

it is a sampūrṇa rāga, graha-aṃśa svara is tāra ṣadja, nyāsa svara

is madhyama, apanyāsa svara is ṣadja, avaroḥī and prasannānta alaṃkāras are used, the Mūrchanā is Uttaramaṇdrā, kākalī niṣāda and

antara gāndhāra are used, this rāga is used to express Vira, Raudra

and Adbhuta rasas in the drama, Bṛhaspati is its deity and it is

sung on the 1st prahara of the morning.1

Kaśyapa says that it is a sampūrṇa rāga born of Ṣadja Madhyamā

Jāti. Aṃśa svara is ṣadja and nyāsa svara is madhyama.2

Like the Rāga Madhyama Grāma, this rāga also has Ṣadja and

Madhyama as aṃśa and nyāsa svaras respectively. But here it is

tāra ṣadja and apanyāsa is madhyama ṣadja; also it takes both

kākalī, niṣāda and antara gāndhāra. This makes a great difference.

But the phrases again indicate lack of sense of aesthetics. The

notes are disjointed and it is very difficult to construct a melody

out of them. For example the phrase in the Karaṇa:

Ṛe Re ga dha, ga re sa, ṇi dha pa pa, ṛe ṛe,

ga dha pa re, ṣa ṣa ṣa ṣa;

One wonders what rasas such phrases could produce. Even if they

are sung with full mīṇḍa and aesthetic grace, the notes cannot

produce any pleasant musical effect.

1S.R., Adyar edn., pp. 27-28.

2Kaśyapa, Bha. Ko., p. 688.

Sangīta Ratnākara

125

Another point worthy of note is the prominence given to tāra

ṣadja. This indicates the influence of folk music.

Ālāpa

ṣa ṣa (śa śa) rē gadhagaresa sañidhāpadhādhāregāsā

rē gā sā sāgā pani dhanisa sā sā-gasarega pa-dhanipa māma

Karaṇa

rere gādhā gare sāsā ūdhāpāpā rērē gadha pare

ṣa śa ṣa śa sa sā gānidhā reregē dhā gare ṣā sā

nidhāpā rē rē pāpā nidhani ṣā ṣā ṣā sare sare

padhanidha pamāmāmāmā

Pada

Sa jayatu bhūtādhipatiḥ

Parikarabhogīndrakunḍālabharaṇaḥ

Gajacārmapaṭṭanivasanah

Śaśāṅkucūdāmaṇiḥ śambhuḥ.

Ākṣipṭikā—Tāla Cañcatpuṭa

Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — Śā —

Laghu 1 — 2 3 4 5 6* 7 8

Svara rē re gā Sā gā re gā Sa

Pada Sa ja ya tu bhū — tā —

Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — Tā —

Laghu 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Svara nī dhā pā pā re re gā dhā

Pada dhi pa tih — pa ri ka ra

Tāla Ā — Śa — Vi — Pra —

Laghu 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Svara gā re Sā Sā Sā Sā Sā

Pada bho — gī n dra — kuṇ — — da —

Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — San —

Laghu 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Svara Sa Sa ga dhani nī nī nī nī

Pada lā — bha ra nah — — — —

Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — Sā —

Laghu 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

126

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

Svara

ga

rega

dha

dha

ga

gare

Sa

Sa

Pada

ga

ja

ca

—

rma

pa

ṭa

ni

Tāla

Ā

—

Ni

—

Vi

—

Ta

—

Laghu

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

Svara

ni

dha

pa

pa

pa

Pada

va

sa

naḥ

—

śa

śāṅ

—

ka

Tāla

Ā

—

Sa

—

Vi

—

Pra

—

Laghu

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

Svara

ni

dha

ni

Sa

Sa

Sa

Sa

resare

Pada

cû

—

ḍā

'ma

niḥ

—

—

Tāla

Ā

—

Ni

—

Vi

—

San

—

Laghu

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

Svara

pā

dhā

nidha

pā

mā

mā

mā

Pada

śam

—

—

—

—

—

Śuddha Pañcama

S.R. describes this rāga thus: That it is born of the union of

Madiyamā and Pañcamī Jātis, both kākalī niṣāda and antara

gāndhāra are used, its grāha, amśa and nyāsa svaras is pañcama of

the madhya saptaka; its Mūrchanā is Hrṣyakā, its deity is Kāma-

deva, Saiñcāri varṇa adds colour to it; it is sung in summer in the

first prahara of the morning.1

Kaśyapa also states the same as S.R. He adds that in this rāga,

gāndhāra and niṣāḍa are alpa (infrequently used).

Pañcama svara is the pivotal note. This seems to contain greater

musicality but strangely the Ni-Re saṅgati appears to be common

to many rāgas. The actual jumps are also in evidence in this rāga.

In the composition, a good part of it is in the mandra sthāna on

Re; two lines end on ṣa; the last line ends on pañcama. The song

with its straight simple rhythm when sung, sounds more like a

chant. The main saṅgatis are, Dha Ma Dha Ni Dha Pa, Re Ma Pa

Dha Ma Pa Ni Dha, Pā Pā. There is no exact rāga in both

Hindustānī or Karṇāṭak music to match this.

A point worthy of study is the association of time with each

Grāma rāga whereas there is no association of time in the case of

Jātis This again is another proof that Grāma rāgas belonged to a

1S.R., vol. II, Adyār edn., pp. 110.

127

Sangita Ratnākara

different line of musical tradition.

Ālāpa

Pādhā mādhā nidhāpāpā padhani remapadhāmā dhani

dha pāpāreṇa ṣāṣā mapamaga ṛeṛe ṭemāpadhā mā

paṇidhapāpā sāgā ni dhā papa nire mā pā-dhāmīdha nidha pāpā.

Karaṇa

pāpadhapadhamadhadhanidha pāpā pāpādhani

reg.ṛpāpā madhanidha pāpā pāpādhaṇi rere

gaga ṣāṣa gaga ṛeṛe mama papa dhama dhadha nidha pā.

Pada

Jaya viṣaṁanayana madanatanudhana

varavrṣabhagamana puradahanā

natasakalabhuvaṇa sitakamalāvadā

bhava mama bhayahara bhava śaraṇam.

Ākṣiptikā-Tāla Caṅcatpuṭa

Tāla

Ā

—

Ni

—

Vi

—

Śa

—

Laghu

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Svara

Ṣā

Ṣā

Ṣā

Ṣā

ṛe

ṛe

gā

Ṣā

Pada

Ja

ya

vi

ṣa

ma

na

ya

na

Tāla

Ā

—

Ni

—

Vi

—

Tā

—

Laghu

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

Svara

mā

gā

pama

gā

ṛe

ṛe

ṛe

ṛe

Pada

mā

da

na

ta

nu

da

ha

na

Tāla

Ā

—

Ni

—

Vi

—

Pra

—

Laghu

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

Svara

mā

Ṣā

Sā

Sā

ṛe

ṛe

ga

Sa

Pada

va

ra

vi

ṣa

bha

ga

ma

na

Tāla

Ā

—

Ni

—

Vi

—

San

—

Laghu

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

Svara

ni

gā

pama

gā

ṛe

ṛe

ṛe

ṛe

Pada

pu

ra

da

ha

na

—

—

—

Tāla

Ā

—

Ni

—

Vi

—

Śa

—

Laghu

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Svara

ṛe

ṛe

mā

mā

pa

mā

dhā

mā

Pada

na

ta

sa

ka

la

bhu

va

na

128 Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

6. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — Tā —

Laghu 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Svara mā dhā sā sā nI dhā pā mā na

Pada si ta ka ma la va da na

7. Tāla Ā — Śa — Vi — Pra —

Laghu 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Svara dha ṇi ṛe ṃā ṃā pā pā ra

Pada bha va ma ma bha ya ha ra

8. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — San —

Laghu 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Svara dhā mā dhā nI pā pā pa pa

Pada bha va śa ra ṇam — —

Śuddha Kaiśika

S.R. describes the rāga thus: Born of Kārmāravī and Kaiśikī Jātis, its graha and aṃśa svaras is tāra ṣaḍja, nyāsa svara is pañcama, kākali niṣāda is used, it is sampūrṇa avarohaī and prasannānta alaṃkāras are used: it depicts Vīra, Raudra and Adbhuta rasas, it is sung in Śiśira ṛtu on the first prahara of the morning and is used in the Nirvahana Sandhi.1

Mokṣadeva also says the same thing.2

This rāga has a resemblance to the modern Rāga Paṭadīpa. The prayoga Ga Ni Pa, Dha Pa, Ni Dha Pā, Ma Pa Ga Ma Pa is very similar to that used in Paṭadīpa. Thjs is the inference one makes when one studies the ālāpa and vartanī but the note-structure of the composition is quite different; there the sāngati Sa Re Ma Pa, and Sa Re Ga Ma Pa occur giving it a flavour more akin to modern Śuddha Kāfī. However, this rāga can be sung with greater ease as it does not have the actual leaps and jumps, excepting at one place in the vartanī.

Here again the prominence given to tāra ṣaḍja as graha, is noteworthy.

Ālāpa

Sā sā gāmā gāre gama sāṅī sāre sādhā mādhā nīdhā pā-mā gāmā pāpā.

1S.R., vol. II, Adyar edn., II.28.34.

2Bha. Ko., p. 664.

Sangīta Ratnākara 129

Vartanī

śāśāśāsā reresāśārgere gāgā śāśāśāsā māmā gāre gāre sāśārere pāṅi śaśaśāsa rere māmā pāpadhāmāmāmādhān1 śāśaśāsā reregāmā sāśāpāpā dhāmāgāmā pāmā pāpōpāpā.

Pada

Agnijvālāsikhākeśi

māṃsaśonitabhojini

sarvāhāriṇi nirmāmse

carmamunde namo'stu te.

Akṣiptikā—Tāla Caṅcatpuṭa

1. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — Śa —

Laghu 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Svara Sā Sā Sā Sā Sā Sā nī dhā

Pada a — gni — jvā — lā — śi

2. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — tā —

Laghu 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Svara Sā Sā re mā sā re gā mā

Pada khā — ke — — — —

3. Tāla Ā — Śa — Vi — Pra — 42

Laghu 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Svara Sā gā re sā sā sā sā sā ṇī

Pada māṃ — — sa śo —

4. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — San —

Laghu 25 26 27 28 29 30. 31 32

Svara Sā Sā sā sā nī Sā nī nī

Pada ta bhō — — jī. nī —

5. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — Śa —

Laghu 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Svara mā mā gā re mā mā pā pā

Pada sar — vā — hā — rī — ṇi

6. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — tā —

Laghu 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Svara dhā nī pā mā dhā mā dhā sā

Pada nir — māṃ — se — — —

7. Tāla Ā — Śa — Vi — Pra —

Laghu 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

130 Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

Svara sā sā sā sā nī dhā pā pā Pada car — — ma mun de na — Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — San — Laghu 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Svara dhā nī gā mā pā pā pā pā Pada mo — astu te — — — —

Śuddha Ṣāḍava

S.R. describes this rāga as follows: This rāga is born of the vikṛta rūpa of Madhyama Jāti, gāndhāra and pañcamś are weak, madhyama is both aṃśa and nyāsa svara, tāra madhyamśu is graha svara, kākalī niṣāda and antarā gāndhāra are used, Avarohaṇi and Sañcāri varṇas are used, prasannānta alaṃkāra is also used, Hāsya and Śṛṅgāra rasas are depicted by this rāga, Śukra is its deity and it is sung in the forenoon.1

Mōkṣadeva as quoted in Bha. Ko. (p. 671) clarifies the vikṛta rūpa of Mādhyamā Jāti stating that the placement of the graha svará in tāra sthāna is itself the vikṛta. There, however, appears to be some confusion in the interpretation of the name and the form of this rāga. Whilē Ṣāḍava clearly means a six-svara rāga (Ṣaṭ= six, ava = to protect, i.e., ṣāḍava means to retain six svaras, Mat-aṅga states that since this is the most important of all the six rāgas, it is used in the pūrvarāṅga of the drama and actually takes all the seven svaras and six svaras are impossible.2 Originally as given in Nā. Śi., it consisted of only six svaras but later on it was chang-ed to seven svaras. Mataṅga tries to justify the name Ṣāḍava on the basis that it was the most prominent of all the Grāma rāgas which is a very artificial explanation.

This rāgā resembles remotely the modern Rāga Hemanta composed by late Ustad Allauddin Khan. Although pañcama is weak, the above rāga is the nearest corresponding modern rāga. But the contours of ṣāḍava are so tenuous and jumpy that a cohesive musical idea seems difficult to emerge.

Ālāpā

Mā sāre nidhā sādhānī mādhā sāregā dhā sā dhāmāregāṃā mādhāmāre gārenidhā sādhānirnāṃā.

1S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II, 11.74.76. 2S.S., Commentary, S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II, pp. 68-70.

131 Saṅgīta Ratnākara

Karaṇa

mamarega mama sasa dhani sasa dhani mā mā papapapani dhamamadha dhasasare gāgāṃāregāṃāṃā.

Vartanikā

Sādhani padha māre māni dhadhādhadhasasare māsāsādhani dhapamā mā gāre gāre gāsāmādhāṃā gāregā gamāregā śāsādhani mā dhani dhagasādhani mā mā mā.

Pada

Pṛthugaṇḍagalitamadajala— matisaurabhalagnaśalpaḍasamūham mukhamidrantlaśakalair- bhūṣitamiva gaṇapaterjayatu.

Ākṣiptikā—Tāla Cañcalpuṭa

1. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — Ṣa — Laghu 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Svara mā mā dhā dhā sā dhā nī pā Pada pr thu gan — ḍa gā li ta 2. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — Laghu 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Svara dhā nī mā mā mā re mā re Pada ma da ja la — ma ti —

2. Tāla Ā — Śa — Vi — Pra — Laghu 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Svara dhā nī Śā Śā gā rega dhā dhā Pada ra bha la — gna — śaṭ pa 4. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — San — Laghu 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Svara sā dhā sā maga ma ma ma ma Pada da sa mū — ham — —

3. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — Ṣa — Laghu 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Svara maga re gā mā mā mī pāma gā Pada mu kha min — dra nī — la 6. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — Tā — Laghu 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

132

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

Svara re gā sā sā mā mā ma mā Pada Śa ka lair — bhû ṣi — ta 7 Tāla Ā — Śa — Vi' — pra — Laghu 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Svara nī dhā nī dhā ṣā ṣā ṣā ṣā Pada mi va ga ŋa pa ter — — 8. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — San — Laghu 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Svara gā re gā mā mā mā mā Pada — — — ja ya tu — —

Suddha Kaiśika Madhyama

S.R. describes this rāga thus: It is born of Ṣadja Madhyamā and Kaiśiki Jātis. Ṛṣabha and Pañcama are omitted, graha and aṃśa svaras it should actually be tāra ṣadja), alamkāra used is prasannānta, varṇa-āvaroḥi; and Uttarāmandrā Mūrchanā; gān- dhāra is sparingly used and niṣāda is kākalī; rasas are Vīra, Adbhuta and Raudra; it pleases the Moon and is sung in the fore- noon. It is used in the Nirvahana Sandhi.1

1

Mokṣadeva repeats the same details as R.S., but clarifies that tāra ṣadja is the graha and aṃśa svaras of this rāga. The form of this rāga is similar to the modern Rāga Candrakauns with śuddha dhaivata or if the Vāgeśrī aṅga is taken, then with śuddha niṣāda. But in the composition in the S.R., both pañcama and rṣabha occur. The ālāpa and karaṇa are more intelligible, the song is extremely confusing as its structure is in contradiction with the rules stated above. The octava leaps and jumps occur more in this:

Ālāpa

Ṣā dhānā dhā sani dhasan1 ṣā ṣā sā dhāni mā mā ṣā gā ṣā gā mādhā mādhā sā nidha sani ṣā ṣā dhāmā madhamagāgamā sā sā dhāmā— sagā sā gā mā dhā sā sā sā dhā dī ma ma.

Karaṇa

Sasamamadhadhamamadhasanidhaṣāṣāṣā sasagama gaṇa madhamasānicl:aṣa ṣā ṣā ṣā dhaḍha mama

1

S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II, pp. 84-85.

133

Sangita Ratnākara

dhama sagasagamasa gaga dhadha sasa gaṣa mama dhamadha sadhani māmā māmā.

Pada

Omkāramūrtisaṃstham mātrātrayabhūṣitam kalātitam varadam varam varenyam govindakasaṃstutam vande.

Ākṣiptikā-Tāla Caṅcalputa

1. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — Sa — Laghu 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Svara Ṣā ṣā dhā pa(ma) mā dhā (pa)mā mā Pada Om — kā — ra mûr — ti 2. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — tā — Laghu 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Svara dhā pā(mā?) mā pā(mā?) re(?) mā mā Pada san — stham — mā — trā — 3. Tāla Ā — Śa — Vi — Pra — Laghu 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Svara nī dhā mā nī dhā nī ṣā ṣā Pada tra — ya bhū — ṣi tam — ka 4. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — San — Laghu 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Svara nī dhā nī Ṣā Ṣā Ṣā Ṣā Pada lā — tī — tam — — 5. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — Śa — Laghu 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Svara dhā dhā mā mā re(ni?) re(ni?) sā sā Pada va — ra dam — va — ram 6. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — tā — Laghu 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Svara dhā mā mā gā gā mā gā Pada re — nyam — go — vin 7. Tāla Ā — Śa — Vi — pra — Laghu 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Svara nī dhā mā nī dhā nī ṣā ṣā Pada da — ka sam — stu — tam — 8. Tāla Ā — Ni — Vi — San —

134

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

Laghu 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Svara dhā Sā dhā nī mā mā mā mā

Pada van — — — de — — —

Rāga Gauḍa Pañcama1

S.R. states that this rāga has Dhaivata as graha and aḿśa; nyāsa svara is madhyama; both kākalī niṣāda and antara gāndhāra are used; it is born of Dhaivati, Dhaivati and Ṣaḍji Madhyamā Jātis; it is the favourite of Lord Viṣṇu and Kāmadeva; the rasas depicted are Bhayānaka and Bibhatsa. Pañcama svara is omitted.

The contours of this rāga resemble the modern Rāga Mālatī whose ārohāvaroha is: Sa, Ga Ma Dha Ni Sa; Sa N. Dha Ma Ga Re Sa. It is an auḍava-ṣāḍava rāga. But the above has a few peculiar saṅgatis, like Sa Dha, Dha Ni Dha, Dha Ga, Re Ga Se Sa. It is a pleasant rāga and quite close to the modern Bhīma Ṣaḍja which has all the above svaras with Re and Pa varja (omitted1).

The tāla on which the song is composed, is cañcatpuṭa. There is no complication rhythmically.

dhā mā dha dha ma dha dha, dha ni dhā ni dha, dha dha ni dha ni dha, sa re ga ga re ga, re ga, ga dha dha ni dha, ni dha dha ma ga ma ma. gā mā ma (Dhaivata) dha dha, dha ni dha ni dha dha, sa dha ni dha, sa re ga ga sa sa, ga sā dha dha ni, ma ma ni, dha ni sā dhā dhā (Dhaivata), dha dha, dha dha, dha dha sa dha ni, dha dha ni na ma ni dha ga, sa ga ma ga, ma (Madhyama) ma ma ma dha dha dha dha, ma ma dha, dha ni, dha ni, dha ma dha, ni dha, ni dha ni dha dha, sa dha dha, dha dha sa, dha, dha ni dha ni ma ni dha ga, sa sa ma ga ma ma dha, sa re dha ni dha, dha dha ma. dha ma ga ga sa ga ma ga, ma dha dha, dha dha, dha ni dha ni dha ga, sa sa ma ga ma ma dha, sa re

Sangīta Ratnakara

135

ma dha ma ga, dhā dhā mā dha dhā dhē. dha dha ni, dha dha sa, dha dha ni, dha dha dha dha, dha ni dha dha, dha ma dha. sa rẹ ma ga ma ma, ma dha dha dha ma, dhā'dha dha'dha, dhā'dha dha'dha, dha dha, dha ni dha ni'dha dhanidhāsa dhanidhā hasa regā dhani dhāmagāmāniā. dhim'madhamā dhamadhama. (Mhadhyama) mani dhadha redha dhāmamam ma dhāgamadhānidha dhani dhāmaṁmamaśa gama dhādhani dhani dhanidhā dhasareg i dhanidhā madhasare madhamadhā dhadha dhani dhani dhani madhasmā māgāmāmā.

1. dhā dhā mā dha sā sā sā sā gha na ca. la na khin — nā 2. dhā dhā dhā dhā dhā dhā sū dhā pan nu ga vi ṣa ma vi dhā 3. sā sā mā mā dhū dhā ni śvā sa dhū ma 4. dhā dhā mā gā mā mā mā mā dhūm ru śa śi 5. mā mā gā mā dhō dhā dhā vi ra ci ta kā pā la 6. dhā nī dhā mā mā mā mā gā mā lam ja ya ti ja 7. ma dha dha ma ma ma ma tā — man ḍa lam 8. dhā dhā dhā dhāni ga mā mā mā ṣam — — — bhoḥ — — —

Rāga Mālava Pañcama 1

S.R.'s description is as follows:

This rāga is a derivative of the Jātis Madhyamā and Pañcamī. Pañcama is graha, aḿśa and nyāsa svaras. Its Mūrchanā is Hṛṣyakā, varṇa is ārohi and alpatkāra is prasannāntā; the rasas depicted are Hāsya and Śṛṅgāra.

Hrsyakā is the seventh Mūrchanā of the Madhyama Grāma. In this rāga, gāndhāra is sparingly used and it takes kākalī niṣāda,

136

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

Sangita Ratnākara

137

If we compare Gauḍa Pañcama and this rāga, the main differences are;

(i) In the former Dha is both graha and amśa svara; nyāsa svara is Ma. Both Kākalī Nī and antara Ga are used. Pa is omitted altogether.

(ii) In the latter (above rāga), Pa is graha, amśa and nyāsa svara; Gāndhāra is sparingly used (antara Ga is not used at all), kākalī Nī is used.

The entire mood of the two rāgas is different. The svara-structure of the former is more expressive of Śṛṅgāra whereas the rasas mentioned are Bhayānaka and Bībhatsa. In the latter also Śṛṅgāra appears prominently as stated in S.R. It remotely resembles the Karṇāṭaka Rāga Gaurī Manoharī. Could it be that the Pañcama sung in Bengal (Gauḍa) and Mālava (present Madhya Pradeśa), were two versions of the same rāga? Śuddha Pañcama rāga melody-wise is closer to Gauḍa Pañcama excepting for the omission of Pa by the latter, whereas similarities of the parent Jātis and Mūrchanā occur between Śuddha Pañcama and Mālava Pañcama.

pā mā re gā sā dhā ni dha pā dha dhā ni sa rị mā gā ga pā dhā mā rị gā sā ni dha ni mā mā dha ni sā re gā ma ga sa ni dhā ni pā. pā pā sa dhā dhā sa gā sā sā mā ga rị rị pā mā mā pa ni dha ni dha pā dhā ma ni dha pa pā sa dhā dhā mā rị ga ma pa rị rị ga ma pā ni dhā pā pạ pa sa dhā ga sa sa ga rị pa ma ma pa ma pa pa. dha ma ma pa pa dha ma ma pa dha ma ma pa dha sa sa ma ma pa dha ga sa dha ni dhapa ma ma (Madhyama) ga ga ma ga ma rị rị rị rị ma sa sā sa sa ma rị rị rị rị pa ma ma ma pa pa pa pā pa dha ma ma ma ni ni dha dha ma pa pa pa dha ma ma ma sa sa dha dhā ni ni dha dha pa pa ma ma ga ga rị rị ni ni dha dhā pa rị rị dhā rị rị ga ma pa rị rị dhā rị rị ga ma pa. rị rị dhā mā pā rị ga ma rị ga ma ga ma pa dha ni dha mā.

ma rị rị ga ga sa sa sa dha sa rị ga ga rị sa nidha ma papa rị ma ma śa dha ni dhā pā dhā mā ga śa dhā nị dhā pā dha ma sa dha ni dha pā

mā pā dhā mā ma rị ga sā dha ni mā dha nị sā rị ga mā, dha ni dha dha sa dha ni dhā pā pā.

dha dha dha ni dha ni rị mā pa dha ni dha ga sa dhā nị dhā sā dhā nị (Pañcama) pā pa dha sa dhā dhā ga sā sa sā ma gā rị rị pā mā mā pa ni dha ni dha sa ni dha pā pā dha ni dha sa dha nị

pa pa pa dha ma ma pa ma dha sa dha ni ma ma ni ni dha dha pa pa dha ma nị dhā pā pā.

1. gā rị sani sā maga riga sā pama

dhyā na ma yam na vi —

2. pā pa sā ma gama nidha nị

muñ ca ti dī nam — —

3. rị maga pā pama pā dhama mā

vyā ha ra — ti vī śa ti

4. rima gasa dhama dhani pā pā pā pā

sa raḥ sa li le — — —

5. pama dhama sā sā gā sā nidha

vị dhu no ti pā kṣa

6. nidha sā sā sā rị gā ma

yu ga lam — na ren — dra

7. dhā mā riga sā nidha sā pā māị

ham — so nị — ja —

8. marī gā dhasā nidha pā pā pā pā

prị yā vī ra he — — —

Rāga-Bhammāna Pañcama¹

This is derived from Śuddha Madhyama Jāti; graha and amśa svaras is ṣadja; Ma is nyāsa; Ga is weak; kākalī Nī used; its Mūrchanā is Śadjādi; varṇa is ārohi; alpatva is prasarṇa madhya and the rasas are Vīra, Raudra and Adbhuta; favourite of Śiva.

When actually one studies the ālāpa and the song given by S.R., one finds Nī very sparingly used almost as little as Ga. Re-Pa and

¹SR., Adyar edn., vol, II, pp. 51-53.

138

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

Re-Dha saṅgitis occur more; Ma Pa Ni and Sa Ni are the ways in which Ni-is taken. The overall picture is as follows:

Sa Re Pa, Dha Pa Ma, Ga Re, Re Dha, Dha Pa Dha Sa; Ma Ga Re Sa, Ni Ni, Pa Dha, Ma Pa, Ma Ga, Ma S Ma.

It strikes a similarity with the Hindustānī Rāga Patadipa; but the above form is oblique. It is also close to the Karnātaka Rāga Gaurī Manohari which means it is like Mālava Pañcama. Ga is sparingly used; kākalī Ni is also used; strangely in this rāga although Sa is the grahāmśa svara, Pa appears more prominent as in Mālava Pañcama. The relative Jātis, Mūrchanā and alaṅkāras are different.

Sā ririsa ri rī sā rī ri pā dhā dha dha dha dhapā dha pā pa dha pa dha pa ma mā ma ma mā. gā rī rī dhā dha pa dhā sā dhā sā dhā sā sa sa ma ga rī śā sa nī nī (Dhaivata) (Pañcama) pa dha pa dhā pa pa pa pa ma ma pa ma ma mā—

Sā sā rī ri rī sa rī rī. pā pā dhā pā dha dhā dha pa dha dhā. pā pā pa ma pa ma pa pā pā pā dhā dha dha dha mā mū mā ma dha rī rī rī rī dha rī rī dhā. dhā pā pā pā pā pa pa pa dha dhā sa dhā dha dhā sā sā. sa rī rī rī sa sa sa ma sa ma rī ga sa pa dhā dha dha pa ma pa nī pa pā pa pā pa pa dhā pā dha pa dhā pā dha pa dha pa pa pa pa pa pa dhā pā ma ga sā—

or—sā sā sa dhā sa rī mā pā pa (Pañcama) pā pā sā sā sa rī pā pā mā pa dha sā nī dhā pā ma pa mā pā mā ma ma pa ma pa (Madhyama) mā—

sa sa rī rī sā sā dha dha rī rī sā sā dhā dha dha sa rī ma ma ga sā sa rī ga rī sa rī ma pa dha sa sa nī dhā sā rī gā mā (Pañcama) pa ma dha ma ma ma pa ga pā pā mā mā—

1. rī gā mā sā rī ga sā dha mā gu ru jā gha na la lī tam 2. pā dhā padhā pāma pā dhā ca ra ṇa pa tī tam 3. sā rī mā pā pā dhā pāma mapa ga tī su bha ga ga ma nam

Sañgina Ratnākara

139

4. pā dhani pama dhasa sā sā sā sā ma da. ya ti — — — — 5. rī rī mā pama riga, sā dhā mā pri ya mu di tā ma dhu ra 6. pā pā padha padha pā pā pā pā ma dhu ma da pa ra va śa 7. mā mā pā dhasa riga sā dhani pama hṛ da yā — bhṛ — śam — 8. pā dhā pā dhapa mā mā mā mā ta — — nvi — — —

Rāga Bhinna Pañcama1

It is born of Madhyamā and Pañcamī Jātis; Dha is both graha and aṁśa; pa is nyāsa; Mūrchanā is Pauravī; kākalī niṣāda is infrequently used; Kāllinātha states śuddha niṣāda is also used in tāra sthāna in vindication of the Madhyama Grāma principle. This is not clear; Siṃhabhūpāla says simply that both kākalī and śuddha niṣādas are sparingly used. Prasannādi is the alaṅkāra: Sañcārī is the varṇa. Favourite of-Viṣṇu or Śani; Bhayānaka and Bībhatsa are the rasas depicted; summer is its season; time is first prahara in the morning. Kāllinātha also states that Varāṭī is its Janaka or father.

Analysis of this rāgu brings forth the following:

Janaka Jātis are the same for Śuddha-, Mālava- and Bhinna Pañcama, i.e., Madhyama and Pañcamī Jātis; but the rasas are all different.

Due to the change of graha and aṁśa svaras and the alpaṭra of other svaras, the mood and form of the rāgas undergo considerable changes.

dhā pā dhā mā nī dhā pā nī dhā mā gā mā pā pā pa ma ma ga sa ma gā rī rī rī mā dhā pā dhā mā nī dhā dha pa ga sā ma ma nī (Dhaivata) dhā dhā mā dhā sā (Ṣadja) sā mā rī ga sā sā gā ga sā ma ma nī (Dhaivata) dhā nī dha pa dha dhā ma dhā mā ga mā pā pā

(Dhaivata Ṣadja). sa ga rī (Ṛṣabha) ma nī dha pā pa dha pa nī (Dhaivata) dha dha pa dha nī pa dhā ma pa rī ga rī nī dhā dha pa

1S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II, pp. 73-75.

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ma gā mā pā (Pañcama) ri ṣa bha) ri ma dha ma ma ma ma dhā pā (Dhaivata) dha pa pa ni dha ni (Ṣadja) sa mā ri ri ni dha (Dhaivata) dha dha ma dha ma dha ma ma ga ma ma ma ga ni dha (Pañca-ma) ni dha pa ma ga ma pa pa.

1. dhā mā dhapa dhā dhā dhani dhapa mā vi ma la śa śi khan — da

2. dhā sā ni dhā pā nidha mā mā — ri na — —

3. mā ni mā dhā dhapa dhā dhapa mā ma ma ra ga na na mi ta

4. ni dhā padha dhani dhā dhā dhā ma bha va bha yam — —

5. ri mā dhā ni gā mā ni ka van de tri lo — —

6. dhā pani dhā dhā mā ri mā nā — tham — gan gā — —

7. dhā pama gari mā dhapa dhā dhapa mā sa ri — tsa li la — —

8. nī dhā dhapa dhani dhā mā pā pā dhau — ta ja tam — — —

Rāga Gāndhāra Pañcama1

This is born of Gāndhārī and Raktagāndhārī Jātis: Ga is graha, amśa and nyāsa; Mūrchanā is Herigāśvā; Prasannamadhyā is the alaṃkāra; sañcārī is the varṇa; kākalī niṣāda is used; pleasing to Rāhu; Adbhuta and Hāsya and Karuṇā are the rasas.

Although it is not mentioned by S.R., Ṛṣabha is very weak; it has a few peculiar saṅgātis which make it come very close to the modern Rāga Paṭadīpa. For example Ga Ma Pa; Ga Ni, Pa Ni, Dha Pa but the phrases Dha Ma Dha Ni, Ma Ga Re Ga Ni are antagonistic to Paṭadīpa. The phrase Ma Pa Dha Ni also occurs, and Re is omitted in the āvaroha. What is perplexing are rasas that are attributed to the various rāgas. Rasas like Bhayā-naka, Bibhatsa, Hāsya, Adbhuta cannot be expressed through musical phrases exclusively.

One explanation for the octaval jumps and unmelodious phrases in the above rāgas may be due to the requirement to create the

1S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II, pp. 89-91.

141

Sangīta Ratnākara

above moods in a dramatic performance. The peculiar phrasing of the above rāgas appears almost wantonly discordant.

gā sā sā ni sa ni sa ga ma gā gā. pā mā gā sā sā ni sa ni sa sa ma ma gā gā ni dhā ni sā ni dhā pā ni mā pā mā. gā su ni sa ga ma gā—

ga ma ma ga ni ga mā pa pa pa ni ma ma pā ma pa pā pā ni ni ma dhā ma ma dha ma ma mā gā gā ga ma ma ma gā mā (Ṣadja) sa ni sa sa ga ga ma ga ma ma ma gā gā ri gā ni sa ni pā ni ni ma pa mā gu ma pā ga ma ma ga ni dha ni sa ma pa pa pā ma ma. gā sa ga ni ma sā sā sā ga ma dha pa dha ma ma dhā ni pa ni ni ma pa ni ma ga (Ṣadja) sa ni sa sa ma ga pa ga ma—

or-gā gā ri ri sa ni sa pa ni sa gā gā (Pañcama) sa gā mā ma ga pā dhā ni dhā ni pa ma ni dha ni sa pa ni ni dha ni dha pā ma gā gā ma sā sa sā ma ga ma dha ga ma gā gā ga ri sa ni pa ni sa gā pa ma pa sa gā gā—

ga sa gā ga ma ma ga ga ma ma sa ga pa dha ni ni dhā (Pañcama) pā ma ma pā ma ma ni dha sā ma ma pā ma pa pa ma mā mā sā sa sa sa sa ga ga.

1. sā ni sā gā sā gā ṭā — ka pin ga la — —

2. mā pā mā pā gā gā gā gā lā — pe — —

3. gā pā sā gā gā gā gā gani ṭī — ja ya ti jā — hna

4. ni pā mā pama gā gā gā gā vi — sa ta tam — —

5. gā gā gā gani nī ni nī nisa pū rṇa — — hu ti ri va

6. ni pā mā pama gā gā gā gā nī hu ta bhu ji su sa mi dhi

7. mā pā sā gā gā gā mā gani pa ya sah — ka pa rdi —

8. ni pā mā pama gā gā gā gā no — pa(gha) nu de — — —

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Rāga Bhinna Kaisika1

This rāga is derived from Kaisikī and Kārmāravī Jātis, Sadja is the graha, amśa and apanyāsa svaras; it is sampūrṇa; it takes kākalī niṣāda; expressive particularly in Mandra sthāna; varṇa is saiñcāri; alaṃkāra is prasannādi; Mūrchanā is Ṣadjādi; rasas .are Vīra, Raudra and Adbhuta; sung in winter in the morning and is pleasing to Śiva.

Although the description states that it is sampūrṇa, in the ālāpa and the composition thereis no such indication. The usual jumps Sa-Dha and Sa Ni are there and several octaval leaps up and down. It may be due to the three rasas—Vīra, Raudra and Adbhuta that it is supposed to portray. Otherwise the entire phrasing is strikingly unmelodious.

sā dhā mā·dhā sā ni dha sa nī sā sā sā rī sā mā dhā nī sā dhā sā ma pā mā pā—

sā sā dhā mā dhā pā mā rī mā pā dhā mā dhā sā sā. sā sā sā rī rī gā gā sā rī gā sā rī sā· sā·mā dhā· pā pā sā rī ·mā pā dhā sā dhā pā mā pā pā pā.

1. sā sā sā sā rī rī mā mā

in — — dra nī — — la

2. mā mā pāma pā

sa — — pra bham — — nīa

3. mā dhā sā pā dhā mā rī sā

dān — — dha gam — — dha

4. mā mā sani sā sā sā sā —

vā — — si tam — — —

5. sā sā sā sā sā sā sā· sā.

e — — ka dan — — ta

6. nī gā sā sā dhā pā mā pā

śo — — bhi tam — — na

7. mā dhā sā pā dhā mā rī mā

mā — — mī tam — — vī

8. mā ma pāma pā pā pā pā

nā — — ya kam — — —

1S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II, pp. 37-39.

Sangita Ratnākara

143

Rāga Gauḍa-Kaisika1

Born of the Jātis Kaisikī and Sadja-Madhyamā. Sadja is both graha and amśa svaras; uses kākalī·niṣāda; pañcama is nyāsa svara; Mūrchanā is Ṣadjādi; varṇa is ārohi; claṃkāra is prasannādi; rasas are expressed are Karuṇā, Vīra, Raudra and Adbhuta; sung in winter and is pleasing to Śiva; sung during mid-day

In this, there is a contradiction which has to be reconciled. Kaisikī Jāti belongs to Madhyama Grāma whereas Ṣadjā-Madhyamā Jāti is from Ṣadja Grāma. How did the old scholars justify the application in Sadju Grāma as the futher of a rāga assigned to Madhyama Grāma?

Also how did they justify a rāga having two parent Jātis, each from a different Grāma? In the days of Matanga and S.R., the two Grāmas were of paramount significance and specifically constituted to accommodate those Jātis which hād Re-Pa saṃvāda.

sā sī sa ga sa ni sa rī ma ga ga sa ma ma pa ma ni pa pa gā ma ga rī rī ga ma ma sa. ga sā sa ni sa rī ma ga pa ma pa rī ma pā dhā mā pā dhā nī rī mī pā dhā sa ni sā sā. sā sā (Sojda) sa sa sa sa sa sa sa ma ga sa sa sa ma ga sa ga sa ga dha sa. pa dha pa mā pa pā pā. pa ma pā pā pā dha pa dha pā· pa pa pa dha rī rī rī ma rī ma sa rī ma dhā sā sa nī sāī. sā sā (Ṣadja) sa sa sa sa sa sa ga sa ga sa ni sa sa. sā sī· sa sa ga sa sa ma ga ma rī ga,sa ga sa dha·sa pa dha pa nū pā pā dha ma pā pā ga ma ga ga ma (Pañcama) pa pa ga ga ma ma ga ga ma ga. nī pa nī pā ga ma ga sa sa ni pa nī pa. ga mà ga pa ma ma ga ma ga rī rī ga ma ma ma ga rī ma ga sā· ma rī ma ga sā ma pa dha sa rī mā pā ga rī me rī me ma rī ma pā pa rī me pa ni rī rī ma sā pa dha sa-sa rī sā sa ma rī gā sa ga sa nī nī nī ni sa dha dha sa dha ma ma pa pa pā gā ga ga nī pa pa dha nī ga ga ga pa ga mā gā rī rī rī gā mā ma (Ṣadja) sa sa nī nī sā gā rī rī ma ga ma sā gā ma pa. pa nī dha nī ga sa ga sa nī dhā sā dha sa rī

1S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II, pp. 43-46.

mā pa ma pā pā pa ma dha mā rī mā rī sa dha sā rī rī ma

ma ma ma ga sā ma pā pā sa sa ma ma pa pa ma ma pā pā

pa pa ga ga ma ma pā pā pā-

1. sā sā sā sā nī nī nī nī

bha — smā — bhyañ — ga vi

2. nī nī rī rī rī gā sa sā

bhū — ṣi ta — de — ham

3. sā sā rī sā rī sā rī sā

su ra va ra mu nī sa hi

4. rī rī rī rī mā mā mā mā

tam — — — bhi — ma bhu

5. Sā Sā Sā Sā rī rī rī rī

jañ — ga ma ve — ṣṭī ta

6. Sā sā sā sā mā mā rī mā

bā — hum — su ra va ra

7. rī mā mā mā pā pā pā pā

na mī ta pa dam — — —

8. rī rī rī rī pā pā pā pā

can — dra ka lā — ka ra

9. sā rī rī rī sā sā nī nī

san — ta ti dha va la —

10. nī nī sā nī rī mā rī gā

su ra sa rī dam — bu dha

11. sā sā sama gari sā sā sadha dhani

rañ — — pra ṇa ma tā

12. padha padha papa papa mapa mapa pā pā

sa ta ta — nī ṣka lam —

13. padha padha rima pāma dhā sā sā sā

sa ka la — pa ra ma —

14. dhā nī padha mā pā pā pā pā

śī va ma je yam — — —

6

A Brief Survey of Western Musical Aesthetics and Detailed Descriptions, Discussion of Indian Musical Aesthetics and its Practical Variations

CHAPTER 6

6

A Brief Survey of Western Musical Aesthetics and Detailed Descriptions, Discussion of Indian Musical Aesthetics and its Practical Variations

A Brief Survey of Western Musical Aesthetics and Detailed Descriptions, Discussion of Indian Musical Aesthetics and its Practical Variations

6

A Brief Survey of Western Musical Aesthetics and Detailed Descriptions, Discussion of Indian Musical Aesthetics and its Practical Variations

T

6

A Brief Survey of Western Musical Aesthetics and Detailed Descriptions, Discussion of Indian Musical Aesthetics and its Practical Variations

O have a fuller comprehension and evaluation of Indian musical aesthetics, it will be useful to have an idea of aesthetics, and the aesthetic attitude of the western scholars and thinkers as well. This would enable a better synoptic understanding of aesthetics and the aesthetic attitude, according to Indian aestheticians. Therefore, we shall briefly survey the aesthetic attitudes as expounded by some of the thinkers of the West and India before delineating on Indian musical aesthetics and its practical variations.

6

A Brief Survey of Western Musical Aesthetics and Detailed Descriptions, Discussion of Indian Musical Aesthetics and its Practical Variations

Fundamentally, there are certain similarities in the Indian and Western attitudes towards aesthetics. Both believe that there are two basic principles for aesthetic beauty—(i) structural perfection and (ii) emotional expression. Art has the above two but craft has only the former. Craft may have beauty but no emotional expression. As examples a table, a beautifully engraved door, a beautifully decorated earthen jar, filigree work, printing, textile designing, ceramics, glass ware, cutlery etc., are highly evolved crafts and handicrafts, requiring great skill but they are devoid of any emotional content. They may express beauty but they have their utility. Whereas art, whether it is music, painting or sculpture touches the heart; it has expressiveness and no essential utility.

6

A Brief Survey of Western Musical Aesthetics and Detailed Descriptions, Discussion of Indian Musical Aesthetics and its Practical Variations

The other similarity in the two attitudes is that both believe that aesthetics is antipathetic to the personal. There is some confusion between aesthetic and naturalistic expression, that is to say, between a metaphysical, spiritual fact and a mechanical fact; between a concrete reality and an abstraction. For instance, the blush which generally accompanies the feeling of shame, the pallor often due to fear, the grinding of the teeth proper to violent anger, the shining of the eyes and certain movements of the mouth to manifest cheerfulness are some examples of natural personal expression. But there is an abyss between a man who is the prey of anger with all its natural manifestations and another man who expresses

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Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

it aesthetically; between the appearance, the cries and contortions

of some one grieving at the loss of a dear one and the words or

song with which the same individual portrays his suffering, at

another time between the grimace of emotion and the gesture of

the actor.

In Indian aesthetical parlance, the distinction described would

constitute bhāva and rasa. In the state of bhāva, the personal is

prominent whereas, in the state of rasa, the expression of experi-

ence transcends personal limitations.

Now, art is said to create beauty. But what is beauty? There is

divergence of views on this and many thinkers have attempted to

arrive at a correct definition. Plato said, 'beauty is that where on

the earth, there are types trying to respond and correspond to the

archetype of heaven'. That was his idea of beauty. Aristotle said,

'beauty is proportion, balance, harmony, unity', Plotinus who

followed Plato and Aristotle says, 'beauty is, really speaking; trans-

cendental The direction of life is from within outwards and it is

an inspiration trying to give an expression outwards. Inspiration

comes from that particular source which is called God; all beauty

comes from Him.'1 So according to him, there is an apex of beauty

trying to extend itself to the base of beauty. The apex is the divine

source and the base is the earthly manifestation. Plotinus says

that it is beauty that sleeps on the hills, that leaps in the charac-

ter, that peeps through the flower and that appears in the smile

on the quivering lips of the baby. So beauty is the fountain of

manifestation itself, according to Plotinus, so that we find there

are three phases to that beauty; it is transcendental in source,

subjective in human perception and objective in external manifes-

tation. After him there have been many other thinkers like

Benedetto Croce, the Italian philosopher and aesthetician and

George Santyana, the poet philosopher of the United States.

Croce feels that art is inextricably integrated with intuition. And

intuition is knowledge, free from concepts and simpler than the

perception of the real. He says that art is reality apprehended in

all its ingenousness and immediacy in the vital impulse that is to

say pure intuition. Art is 'expression' of 'impression'. Expression

is the synthesis of the unity in variety and the 'indivisibility of the

1Nag Memorial Lectures, 1984 by Prof. Thakur Jaideva Singh. Bunaras,

(unpublished script).

Survey of Musical Aesthetcis: Western and Eastern

147

work of art', whereas Santyana seems to have emphasised the

physical, physiological and psychological aspects of beauty. He

says there are three phases of beauty-the material phase that is

to say, the materials of which beautiful things are constituted,

second phase consists of the arrangemcnts of the materials in

which there is a coalescence; and finally there is the subjcctive

phase of the mind which tries to appreciate that beauty. So we

see that there is unanimity of concept of art as simply a creation

of beauty, although the approaches to its understanding vary. So

what then is art? Is beauty the aim of all art? What is art in itself?

We have seen the definition by Croce. Herbert Read, the great

painter and critic of painting says that 'art is really an embodiment

of form and content in a harmonious whole. Form is the appear-

ance, the shape, the pattern and the content is the idea that is

represented in that form. Art is the beautiful fusion of form and

content in a harmonious whole. Mrs. Susane Langer improved upon

this by introducing the word 'expressiveness'. She says it is not

merely an embodiment of form and content in a harmonious

whole, it is an expressi:veness signifying appeal to the emotion of

man. Rabindranath Tagore, the great poet seer belicved that art is

a vision wedded to form-the vision coming from a higher source.

As an example let us take poetry. Poetry is not merely a gew-

gaw dangled before idle fancy. It is not simply a sugary stanza, a

lady-like prettiness, as Harrison puts it, but is as Shelly puts it—

'poetry is truth's brightest beam, heaven's light on carth'. So that

from the point of view of all great thinkers and literary figures, art

onsists in bringing down a particular vision to the mind of man.

It is not a mere appearance or a polish but a vision.

For the 'experiencing' of the aesthetic beauty, there have been

several thinkers in the West from Kant to Bullough who have con-

templated on this problem. Bullough says that the first requisite

for aesthetic 'experiencing' is 'distancing'. Distancing is a technical

term indicating the psychological process which puts out of gear

with, and distances us from, all practical interests, practical deeds

and practical aims of life. For the time being, we forget the world

around us; we are distanced from all our practical needs. That is

the aesthetic attitude. It is, in fact, antipathetic to the personal or,

in other words, all other personal needs are put aside and we are

absorbed in the appreciation of a particular song, a picture or a

poem; So that the main element of the aesthetic attitude is univer-

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Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

salisation; impersonalization, that is to say, detachment from our

practical needs. That is the first element of the aesthetic attitude.

The second requisite is disinterestedness. Disinterestedness does not

mean loss or lack of interest; on the contrary, there is a keen

attention in the appreciation of art, be it music, painting, drama

or poetry. It only means absence of personal interest or loss of

interest in practical needs. So disinterestedness is the second ele-

ment of the aesthetic attitude. A German thinker Litz brings out a

new idea about this aesthetic attitude. It was in the eighteenth

century that he coined a word 'einfülung' which means not simply

feeling with but feeling into. The first French translation of that

word appears as 'empathy'. This was later adopted by English

also. Now Litz states that it is not only distancing, disinterestedness

or universalization that constitute the main elements of the aesthe-

tic attitude but it is 'cinfunlung' that is to be completely identified

with the art object, to be totally absorbed in it.

In India, the exact equivalent to 'cinfunlong' was in usage in

Sanskrit about 2000 years ago known as tanmayatā which means

to identify yourself with the artiste or the art object, music, dance

or drama. So we find that the aesthetic attitude has four important

elements; namely distancing, disinterestedness, universalization and

empathy. Now comes another issue namely what is the secret of

appeal of an art object? How does an art object appear so capti-

vating, so charming? Here philosophers and thinkers have contri-

buted many important theories. The important theory is known as

the 'make-believe' theory. 'Make-believe' implies conscious self-

deception. For instance there are two kinds of play—one is the

illusion play and the other non-illusion play. Playing hockey is a

non-illusion play whereas playing with a dog is illusion play.

Similarly trying to sail a paper boat on the stream is another

example of illusion play. It is an illusion play because we know

fully we are playing a fictitious role. So in all art objects there is a

kind of self-deception. We may not particularly believe it or dis-

believe it but we are trying to play a role fully conscious of the

fact that we are not that. That is the make-believe theory of art.

The second theory of art is the organic theory. The organic theory

of art maintains that the various components of the art object

namely form, rhythm, colour, sound, line, harmony are so organi-

cally fused into one another that one cannot separate the one from

the other. That is to say any constituent of art does not appear for

itself or in itself but as a contribution to the beauty of the whole.

So the question whether the beauty of art consists in manner or

matter, in what or how, is easily solved by this theory. The how

and what cannot be separated. They are so beautifully fused into

one according to the organic theory that though conceptually you

may analyse it, perceptually you cannot separate it. This organic

theory of art has helped art perception for quite a long period.

But still another problem remains namely, whether we have the

attitude of belief or disbelief when perceiving a portraya! of art.

Coleridge steers clear of both the extremes of belief and disbelief.

He says there is neither belief nor disbelief; there is suspension of

belief in the appreciation of all art. This is very near the Indian

concept of 'cārutā'.1 However, whether it is belief or disbelief, the

point remains whether art has anything to do with life. Art is not

a life situation as Laurence Binyon puts it. It is not an adjunct to

existence; it is not a reduplication of the actual. What is it then?

It is simply a recreation of life. As a matter of fact, a great French

existentialist Marcel defines art in an entirely different way. He

says 'art is simply creative invocation of a presence', creative

because it is not simply a juxtaposition of elements but an organic

fusion of elements; it is invocation because it calls up certain

transcendental ideas into its structure and it is a presence because

it is a felt influcnce.

it is a felt influence. The Freudian pan-sexuality theory that the

artiste and the spectator try to gratify certain unfulfilled desires,

mainly sexual, by appreciating art, is somewhat contrived and a

little sex obsessed. His concept of the substitute satisfaction of

desire in art-appreciation is absurd because substitute satisfaction

is no satisfaction at all.

There is yet another theory propounded by Tolstoy known as

the emotional theory. According to him art consists simply in evoca-

tion of feeling; which is inspired through emotion chiefly humani-

tarian or religious. But here again his theory is incomplete because

art is not entirely emotion; there is emotion, thought and vision.

1Cārutā is from the Sanskrit root cara (चॢ), which means 'to move'. The

extended meaning of this is subjective apprehension of that which can be trans-

lated into external reality just as in the case of the Divine, namely subjective

apprehension and objective creation. There are three kinds of beauty namely

sensuous beauty, intellectual beauty and transcendental beauty. The last men-

tioned takes place in the absolute consciousness.

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Survey of Musical Aesthetics: Western and Eastern

In fact, after studying all these theories, the acsthetic attitude as propounded by Bullough seems most tenable. Art is neither a satisfaction of a personal desire nor simply an appreciation of an emotional expression. Art is an organic whole which leads the mind to appreciating it by a psychological distance-by putting aside all our practical needs. Art construction is not our practical need; it is lifting life to a different plane. It is neither the plane of the material world nor the plane of the mystic; it is intermediate between the two because our absorption in the captivating charm of a particular creation, is not 'normal in life. It is rising above the life situation as the renowned French art critic Andre Malraux puts it 'les grand artistes ne sont pas les transcriptevs du monde, ils en sont rivaux'; that is, 'the great artistes are not transcribers of renlity, they are its rivals'. They do not transcribe reality; they transcreate reality. So the great Western thinkers today feel that art is a transcreation of life.

Bharata also refers to two types. Lokaharmi and naityadharmi. The former relates to the material world whereas the latter is that which raises life from the humdrum activity of the world to a different higher level.

Now what is the attitude of the man who tries to appreciate art? Appreciation of art consists in contemplation, chewing the honeyed cud of emotion, thought and vision of the artist. What does that art represent? Is there a definite language of art? Language is a means of communication -definite ideas are conveyed in definite words. Is there such a language in art? Take for instance painting; there is the colour, the line, sense of proportion, spacing, light and shadow and so on. Does the same colour mean the same thing to everyone? Is the same symbol in all cultures? White may represent purity in one culture but something else in another culture; similarly yellow or green. So then what is the language of art? The great thinker Mr. Richards in his pioneering work Meaning of Meanings says that art is an emotive language. It does not assert anything. It has no truth to claim; that is the business of philosophy or science. He says that is not the business of art or poetry. We appreciate a poem for what it is; not because of what it says. T S. Eliot has praised Richards. But on one point, it is difficult to concur with Richard's theory that it is the business of philosophy and science to make statements on life, that art and poetry merely portray beauty in form and content and have nothing to do with

life because they are an emotive language. But it is an indisputable fact that literature has given us numerous insights into the subtle nuances of life. Shakespeare, Dostoevsky, Tagore, Kalidasa are great, not only for expressing their ideas in a beautiful form, but also because of their vision of life. Therefore, art is not merely an emotive language; it is an organic fusion of idea and form.

Another question which arises in this connection is whether art is representative or merely a kind of beautiful form. Does it convey something beyond itself? A painting with its peculiar colours, lines, perspective, does it represent something beyond itself? Something outside its beautiful form? A poem surely represents something beyond its beautiful word structure and content. Most arts are iconic; they represent and reflect some aspect of life itself beyond its form.

But music represents nothing beyond its form. It is simply an expression of feeling, of mood, of emotion. And it does what other arts cannot do. Bharata in the 17th chapter of his Natya-sastra raises this question and justifies the need of song or music in the drama because music can express human emotion with such profundity which no word in any language can Indian music contains one exceptional feature known as kaku. This term in Sanskrit is untranslatable in any other language. It is derived from the Sanskrit root 'kai' which means laulyopatapayoh that is flexibility of sound so as to bring out the emotion of the heart. So we find Richard's theory that art is an emotive language can be valid only in respect of music. While all other arts are representative, iconic and heteronomous, music alone is autonomous. It says nothing beyond itself. What does it say? It is a direct expression of human feeling. This direct expression is there even in ordinary sound, as for example a dog expressing its affection to its master or when it encounters another rival dog. Or the peculiar intonation of a cow bellowing when it wants to feed its calf or when its calf is dead. By means of specific intonations, even animals express the feeling of their hearts. This is because of the use of kaku even by them. In music, kaku is expressed at the highest level. Take for example a thumari, a light classical form, wherein the use of kaku is maximum. In this form, the enunciation of the words, with appropriate phrasing of the svaras, articulation employing adequate colourations of tone, are all essential to heighten the aesthetic effect. The words are few and the elaboration depends to a great

extent on imagination of the musician and his sense of aesthetics. Take the well known composition in the Rāga Khamāj—'Kāsey Kahūn jī ki batiān'. 'Kāsey' can be expressed in several ways connoting helplessness separation, restlessness, annoyarce (anger) through judicious stress on both the word and the svaras. The phrasing should be such as to manifest the different shades of meaning of the word. The meaning of the above line is 'how shall I express the true feelings of my heart'. 'Kāsey' means how. So music expresses the poignancy of feeling which no word in any language can express Therefore, music is an autonomous art— nothing beyond itself; it is the language of the heart and the universal language of mankind. But it has its limitations; it cannot express idea; it tells no tale; it narrates no event. But in so far as the direct expression of feeling is concerned, it is the greatest medium man has evolved. But contemporary aestheticians have probed deeper into areas of the linguistic analytic and the existential phenomenological approaches and have distinguished them as the former dealing, mainly with aesthetic discourse and the latter, attention not only to the details but an appraisal of the determinate quality and dynamics of our experience of art.

In the linguistic analytic approach, Frege, Russell, Moore and Wittgenstein make free use of the major emphases of the analytic approach to philosophy.

(a) The examination of the many ways in which language is used to avoid confusion as is done in philosophy.

(b) The fallacy regarding a syntactically correct sentence as being necessarily a meaningful one.

(c) The common 'craving for generality' which impels us to make big, sweeping remarks in utter disregard of individual differences.

(d) Resorting to misleading analogies ignoring features which distinguish things.

1. The analytic approach in examining the use of language suggests that 'an inspection of linguistic foundations . . . (aesthetics) is long overdue'.

The following specimen would elucidate the above statement: "The music of Lourie is an ontological music; in the Kierkegaar-

1W. Elton ed., Aesthetics and Language, Oxford, 1970, p. 3.

dian style, one would also say 'existential'. It is born in the singular roots of being, the nearest possible juncture of soul and spirit."1

While being syntactically correct, the above writing is, to the say the least, unedifying, especially when it is referring to the rich and significant material namely music and sceking to illuminate it.

2. As regards the reaction of analytic philosophy to individual views and theories. Prof. Niharranjan Ray says that 'aestheticians of the traditional kind often speak of the rhythm of both painting and music in one breath.'2 Rhythm in music is a matter of beats which are evidently absent in painting. Hence rhythm in one art is distinctly different from that in the other. Therefore, it is indeed necessary to expose sweeping generalisation and misleading annlogies brought about by individual differences. Aestheticians say that all good works of art 'develop a theme'. Now

'We know what this means in music, we may (also) feel that we can make some sense of the phrase in criticising literature . . . but how could we possibly apply this . . . to sculpture?'3

O.K. Bouwsma quotes Wordsworth's definition of poetry as 'the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings'. He says in this sense of pressing-out, it makes no sense to ask what a poem expresses.4 Similarly it is a misleading analogy when some aestheticians say that music expresses sadness in the way language expresses ideas. This is untenable because like poetry music is sad, it cannot express sadness.

Gilbert Ryle, in his essay on 'Feelings' distinguishes seven different uses of the verb 'to feel'. But the aesthetician freely identifies feeling with mere designable emotion. In the actual making of art, on the other hand, the truth may simply be that the artist feels, 'thoroughly interested in his job'.5 The feeling of absorption is perhaps the only feeling present in every case of creation.

1W. Elton, 1970, p. 2.

2cf. N.R. Ray, An Approach to Indian Art, Chandigarh.

3T.A. Passmore, 'The Dreariness of Aesthetics' in Aesthetics and Language, Oxford, 1970, p. 54.

4O.K. Bouwsma, 'The Expression Theory of Art' in Aesthetics and Language, op. cit., p. 98.

5G. Ryle's 'Feelings' in Aesthetics and Lunguges, op. cit., p. 72.

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Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

A. Isenberg points out that an important 'function of criticism is to bring about communication at the level of the senses that is, to induce a sameness of vision, of experienced content.'1

Phenomenology has three key concepts namely intentionality, constitution and performance which are relevant to aesthetical views, and sometimes as a challenge to them.

Intentionality is quite different from intention. An intention is a plan. It is fixed in the sense that one is supposed to carry it out without changing it constantly. Also it is an aiming at some future achievement. Intentionality on the contrary, is immediately involved in every moment of the mind and heart as much in just being silent as in perceiving a present object. Intentionality therefore is a constantly changing phenomenon.

Translating this to Indian music, intentionality implies the spontaneous improvisation or creativity of the musician, when delineating, say, on the Rāga Bihāg. An imaginative musician does not faithfully follow a pre-set plan of the rāga. He may have a broad based framework but what actually happens is he is lost in the details of the moment and his creation proceeds not as the musician's working out of an original plan but as a response to what the detail being made at the moment suggests or demands.

Thus the emphasis phenomenology puts on intentionality substantiates the important aesthetical view that a work of art is an 'emergent'—or the appearance of something which was not quite pre-planned. This also elucidates the varied styles in Indian music of different masters. This seizing of 'individual character may be said to be intuition. H. Bratu and I. Marculescu in their essay 'Aesthetics and Phenomenology' trenchantly support the inextricability of intuition in any creative movement by stating that 'it would be an abandonment of phenomenological axiology to give up intuition in aesthetic perception.'2

Now we come to constitution, the second concept of phenomenology. Here the term constitution does not connote the act of physical establishment as constituting a society or preparing a constitution for a country but an interpretative reading, a construing, a making out, an experiencing as. Constitution, thus under-

1A. Isenburg, 'Critical Communication' in Aesthetics and Language, op. cit., p 137-38.

2The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, Spring 1979, p. 355.

stood, is said to go along with 'reduction' which, according to Edmund Husserl, the German philosopher, means stripping the object of all its relations and properties that make it significant in life. This would be clear through the following illustration. Take for instance the Rāga Śrī. The singer after singing the tonic Sa for sometime takes the komal rṣabha and again descends on it through a graceful glide (nịṇad) from pañcama. The intoning of that rṣabha may cause an experience of devotion or supplication in the trained connoisseur. But the singer who is actively engaged in the art of creation does not contemplate the note or its combinations with other notes in these 'cause-effect' ways although he is quite particular and conscious of the importance of the precision of intonation. It is possible that he invests it with a devotional fervour or simply takes it in all its purity. This is quite different from aiming at making the listener experience these effects. This is what is meant by constitution and reduction.

The third concept of phenomenology is performance. The term performance is very specifically used here and can be taken to be synonymous with production, in place of creation. Whereas creation can be taken in a merely ideal sense as creative ideas, (Croce has identified creation with mere experience)—performance clearly suggests some overt doing, some actual manipulation of materials. Another protest could be that whereas the word 'creation' duly conveys the requisite sense that the making of art is necessarily the emergence of something new, the word performance is not thus suggestive at all. To this the answer is that performance is here said to be taken along with intentionality, constitution and reduction. The last three concepts if taken as one, convey the sense that the material used is stripped of its everyday significance and is treated quite freely by the artist in his own individual way. This would clarify the preference for performance in place of creation.

Performance is a making, a doing, an artistic production. From the view point of everyday talk the word is eminently applicable to the performing arts. But phenomenology uses it to describe all artistic making, and regarded as making or production, the word once provides for the element of actual physical manipulation of some given material in art creation, which falone could perhaps be said to be common to all cases of malling art. What is however distinctive of the phenomenological approach here is that even art contemplation is regarded as performance. And this would hardly

155

Survey of Musical Aesthetics: Western and Eastern

seem odd in the context of music where the listener is a rasika, an eligible contemplator with a truly trained sensibility and an imagi-

nation powerful enough to hold on simultaneously to quite distinct strands, such as a wayw ird movement of a rhythmic pattern, and

also, if but subconsciously to the even flow of the rhythmic cycle.

In any case, the onlooker (or the reader) does not simply passively watch or receive what the performance has to deliver. He makes a

collaborative effort. 'collaborative' because he is throughout helped and guided by the work in arriving at his own reading of the

work art, a 'secondary noema'. This reconstitution too is done not strictly according to a prefixed plan, but under the stress of what-

ever appears immediatcly striking in the object, partly because of the specific training and orientation 'of the onlooker. Here too,

namely in the aesthetic attitude, intentionality, as against the mere intention to find this or that meaning, plays a vital part.

It should now be clear that establishing intentionality and cons- titution on the part of both the artist and his audience, phenome-

nology is able to provide for a subjective-objective 'continuum.

From this it naturally follows that the criteria too for distinguish- ing art from pseudo-art should be such as do not relate merely to

the objective or the subjective side. Thus, critcria like perspicuity and poignancy are preferable to mere shapeliness or disinterested

delight. Perspicuity and poignancy seem to point to a two-way intentionality; coming from contemplating subject and artistic

object at the same time, in a continual process of mutual verifi- cation.1

It may be added that an analytic approuch is by no means alien to the spirit of our music. In ancient India, not only were some of

our basic musical terms defined in what may be called a not merely generally philosophical, but metaphysical manner-and not only

was the supreme aim of music frankly regarded as the emancipa-

1J.N. Findlay, 'The Perspicuous and the Poignant in Aesthetics', edited by H. Osborne.

2For example the terms svara and rasa have been defined respectively as:

स्वरो रञ्जयति श्रोतृत्तम् and नवपदार्थप्रकाशन-नचिन्मयः:

. . . महाशयाद सदोदर:

tion of the individunl'-but, what is more, our musical texts them- selves show a remarkable flair for analysis and classification, so

that our concern with music could be said to have been 'philosophi- cal' even in the current sense of the word.

A little elucidation of the Sanskrit verse on rasānubhūti will help to understand the Indian view points on aesthetics. The great

Indian aesthetician Viśvanātha in his Sāhityadarpaṇa (II, 2, 3) AD 1450 defines rasānubhūti—(aesthetic experience) as follows:

Akhaṇḍasvaprakāśānanda cinmayaḥ vedāntarasparśāśūnyah;

brahmāsvādasahodarah: lokottaracamatkāra-prāṇah.

The first phrase can be split up into four parts-akhaṇḍa, svapra- kāśa, ānanda and cinmaya. Akhaṇḍa is a total integrated and indi-

visible experience, not an arithmetical sum of the various elements of experience. In the words of modern psychology, it is a gestalt,

svaprakāśa means self-luminous. It shines by its own light. It does not require any extrancous agency. Ānanda is bliss, ecstasy and

cinmaya is spiritual experience.

Vedāntarasparśāśūnyah—in ordinary experience there is always the distinction between the knower and the known. For instance,

when I say that I saw an aeroplane, the separation of subject and object is very clear. But in aesthetic experience, the consciousness

of the knowledge as distinct from the known, and vice-versa, vanishes. It is an intuitive experience without any mediation Hence

it is also called an immediat: experience. There is only a pervasive consciousness of spiritual ecstasy which swallows up the distinction

of the knower and the known.

Brahmāsvādasahodarah refers to that which is akin to the reali- sation of Brahman, or the self. In the previous aspect we saw that

aesthetic experience was intuitive and immediate, such an experi- ence is obviously not possible in our normal life, were the separa-

tion of the identities of the knower and the known are inevitable. It

वीणावादन तत्वः श्रुतित्रयातिचारतः:

तालश्रुतिप्रपञ्चेन तु मोक्षमार्ग प्रपञ्चति ॥

धर्मार्थकाममोक्षाणां पार्श्वकामो हि साह्यवान् ॥

—Sāriṅgadeva, R.S., Adyar edn. vol., I, p. 16.

158

is only at the metaphysical and spiritual level that the fusion of the

knower and the known is possible. This fusion can take place in

the experience of rasa, which has consequently been linked, to

brahmānanda of the beatitude of the realisation of the self. It is

compared to brahmānanda, also because the realisation of ecstasy

comes after the transcendence of the limitations of egocentric

impulses, where all consciousness of duality has been obliterated.

But it is only brahmānanda sahodara i.e., akin to brahmānanda.

Brahmānanda itself is pure spiritual bliss (citānanda) while the bliss

of aesthetic experience has its human associations like rati,

Lokottaracamatkāraprāṇatāh is lokottara or transcendental, super-

mundane; camatkāra means in this context a flash of delightful

wonder. In other words, aesthetic experience is transcendental

and above mundane experience. Viśvanātha says that this can be

enjoyed only 'as one's being, as an intrinsic, indivisible aspect of

one's self' (svakāravadabhinnaṭvena). He says that this can be

relished only by those who are deeply sensitive to beauty. Not all

are capable of this experience.

Having traced the aesthetic attitudes and values of both the

Western and Indian thinkers, we shall now discuss in detail the

practical variations in Indian musical aesthetics as described in the

Sangīta Ratnākara. The bewildering complexities, the staggering

subtleties, profundity and numcrosity of the practical variations in

Indian musical aesthetics boggles the imagination especially when

one realises that they were devised and in vogue in the 13th cent.

An, when the West had not even perhaps imagined anything like

aesthetics in music. That is one of the reasons for the brief survey

of both West and Indian aesthetics. In fact, when one studies the

above text, and finds the clarity, perspicacity and depth of compre-

hension of the Indian aestheticians of the period, it seems that the

contemporary level of aesthetics in Indian music is of a much

lower standard. The amazingly high level of knowledge that a

vocal musician was expected to attain in various fields like voice

culture, languages, dance, theatre, and instruments is too tall an

order for the modern classical musician. Apart from these, the

requirement to be conversant with all the intricate melodic vari-

ations like s.thāyas, gamakas, kākus implied that the musician must

perforce be also a first rate scholar in Sanskrit. Those were days

of leisure, peace and plenty compared with the present state of

hurry, restlessness and poverty. It would therefore be a revelation

Survey of Musical Aesthetics: Western and Eastern

159

to study the high state of evolution of Indian music seven hundreds

years ago in aesthetics and its practical variations.

INDIAN MUSICAL AESTHETICS AND

ITS PRACTICAL VARIATIONS

In this chapter we shall discuss the practical devices used in

Indian music for asethetic expression, as enjoined in the texts.

The two main ingredients are gāmakas and sthāyas. But apart

from these, other factors that contribute towards aesthetic mani-

festations are:

(a) good composition,

(b) correct singing and rendering of composition.

Therefore, we shall discuss in chronological order

(i) The qualifications of an excellent composer (uttama vāggeya-

kāra).

(ii) The qualifications of an mediocre composer (madhyama

vāggeyakāra).

(iii) The qualifications of a poor composer (adhama vāggeya-

kāra).

(iv) The qualifications of a correct singer.

(v) The qualifications of an incorrect singer.

(vi) The definitions and use of the various gamakas both in

Hindūstānī and Karnātaka music.1

(vii) Sthāyas or melodic phrases2 and their aesthetic beauty.

The first five topics are mentioned by Śārngadeva in his S.R. in

detail and hence they will be studied and discussed with reference

to that work. A study of the qualifications of an excellent com-

poser and singer as given in S.R. would give us an idea as to the

incredibly exacting standards that prevailed six to seven centuries

ago. It was imperative that anyone who wished to be either a

1As enumerated and described in S.R. and S.S.s.

2As given in S.R., S.S.s., S. Raj., S.S. and C.P.

160

composer or singer had to be adequately qualified in other allied

branches of fine arts, such as poetics, dance, instrumental music,

phonetics, morphology, semantics, etc.

The description of a vāggeyakāra has been given by Śārṅgadeva

in great detail. When one sees the attributes that are necessary for

being adjudged as a top-ranking composer, it would not be diffi-

cult to realise that hardly any of our modern coiTposers would

measure up to the required standard of Śārṅgadeva's period.

The word vāggeyakāra is a compound one consisting of 'vāk'

and 'geya'. 'Vāk' means speech, here it is used in the sense of

words or literary text of the composition. 'Geya' is the musical or

singing part of the svara-structure of the composition. 'Kāra' is

the suffix denoting the doer. This term is specifically used for

vocal music as instrumental music does not have either words or

singing. The text of the composition is denoted by a technical

term called 'mātu' and the svara-structure by the term 'dhātu'.

The qualifications needed for a top-ranking composer are as

follows:1

1. He must have a sound knowledge of grammar.

2. He must have an extensive vocabulary.

3. He must be an expert on the various metres (chanda).

4. He must be a master of alaṅkāra (figure of speech).

5. He should be fully conversant with all the varieties of rasa

and bhāva (aesthetics).

6. He should be a linguist, i.e., he should have a sound know-

ledge of several languages.

7. He should have a comprehensive idea of vocal and instru-

. mental music and dance.

8. He should possess a scintillating voice and robust health.

9. He should possess sound knowledge of laya and tāla.

10. He should possess sound knowledge of kāla, i.e., silent and

sounding movement of the hands to indicate tāla.

11. He should have a deep knowledge of the appropriate use of

all the varieties of kāku.

12. He should be a creative genius.

13. He should be a fine musician.

14. He should have a thorough knowledge of Deśī rāgas.

1S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II, pp. 149-51.

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

161

15. He should be free from anger and hatred.

16. He should be an original composer. The term used is anuc-

chista which means not the leavings of others.

17. He must be characterised by interest.

18. There must be newness in his compositions.

19. He should an expert on prabandhas.

20. He should be capable of creating composition in fast tempo.

21. He should have knowledge of all three registers.

22. He should have knowledge of ālāpti.

23. He should be capable of great concentration.

The drawbacks of a mediocre composer (madhyama varga) are

as follows:

(1) Lack of balance between mātu and dhātu.

(2) Inadequate knowledge of prabandha.

(3) Lack of poetic quality in composition.

Drawbacks of a Poor Composer (Adhama Varga)

1. Poor quality of mātu and dhātu.

2. Poor imitator i.e., one who bodily takes the tunes of others

and only changes the words. He is considered worse than

the poorest of composers.

Gāndharvas were those:

(a) Who could, with their music please both the Gods as well as

men.

(b) There were adepts in the manipulation of svara, tāla and

texts.

(c) They were singers of Mārgi Sangīta. But in the time of

Śārṅgadeva, Gāndharva was one who could sing both Mārgi

and Deśī Sungīta.

Deśī Sungīta had become so popular that it could not be ignor-

ed. This was one of the major developments in the evolution of

our music because the emergence of Deśī Sungīta into prominence

meant the gradual melting of the rigidity of conformity to compo-

sitional limitations. This was the beginning of the impetus to im-

provisation which later culminated in the advent of the khyāl and the fade out of the dhruvapada.

Qualities of a First Rate Vocalist1

1. His music should be pleasant — hrdaya.

2. His voice should also be pleasant — śārīra.

3. Thorqugh mastery over graha and nyāsa.

4. Mastery of all the four āngas—rāgānga, bhāṣānga, krlyānga and upānga.

5. He should be an expert on prabandhas.

6. He should be a master of ālāpti.

7. He should possess a three register range in his voice, and be capable of using all the gamakas in them.

8. Complete voice control.

9. Good stamina.

10. Complete knowledge of Suddha, Chāyālaga and Saṃkīrṇa rāgas.

11. He should be a specialist in the use of kākus.

12. He should have a deep knowledge of rāga and tāla.

13. He should be capable of moving freely over the various sthāyas.

14. He should be pragmatic in his approach.

15. He should be pleasant in his manners.

16. He should possess good memory.

17. He should be an expert on 'nirjavana sthāya'.

18. He should have the capacity to captivate the hearts of listeners.

19. He should be an expert in the expression of a rāga.

20. He should be fully conversant with his tradition.

Five Kinds of Performers2

1. One who has had excellent training and can also train well. He was called śikṣākara. He was both an excellent performer and a teacher.

2. The next one was called anukāra i.e., one who did not have

1S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II, pp. 153-55.

2Ibid., p. 159.

the originality of style and lacked the sound training of the śikṣā-kāra but imitated others without fully comprehending their styles. He was a good imitator.

3. The third was called rasika. One who was capable of producing aesthetic rapture. Here the obvious reference is to those musicians who regard emotional expression and aesthetic depth as superior to grammatical correctness, and other structural perfections. We have today examples of musician, whose music, albeit very correct and complete in all aspects of rāga and tāla, is yet bereft of aesthetic i.e., rasa and bhāva.

4. The fourth variety is called ranjaka i.e., one who delights the audience. He is pleasant to the ears but without much depth.

5. The fifth is one whose music has plenty of emotional expression. He is called atiśayādhāna which means excellence of impression.

Faults of Singers1

A total of twenty-five faults has been enumerated. They are not only exhaustive but very interesting and describe quite typically some of our present renowned musicians

1. Sandaṣṭa—One who gnashes one's teeth while singing.

2. Uddhuṣṭa—loud without proper sweetness.

3. Sītkāri—singer without proper intonation.

4. Bhīta—stagefright.

5. Saṅkita—diffident.

6. Kampliṭa—shaking or quivering voice.

7. Karālī—contortions of the face.

8. Vikala—a singer who either overshoots or undershoots a note.

9. Kāki—cawing like a crow-raucous.

10. Vīṭāla—out of tāla.

11. Karabha—craning the neck, like a camel.

12. Udbhata—producing or simulating the sounds of a goat.

13. Jhombaka—one while singing protrudes the various nerves of the neck, mouth and forehead.

14. Tumbaki—one whose neck swells like a tumba.

15. Vakri—one who twists one's neck.

1S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II, pp. 156-59.

16. Prasari-one who abnormally stretches one's body.

17. Nililaka-one who closes one's eyes while singing.

18. Virasa-without rasa.

19. Apasvara-one who takes wrong notes.

20. Avyakta-indistinct expression.

21. Sthanabhrasṭa-one who is unable to traverse all the registers.

22. Avyavasthita-one who shifts wrongly from register to register.

23. Miśraka-one who mixes the rāgas and hence incapable of singing a rāga purely.

24. Anavadhāna-inattentive-one who is not conscious of the proper melodic arrangements.

25. Sānunāsika-one in whose music, there is prominent nasality.

GAMAKAS

Now we shall take up the gamakas of Indian music. These could be termed as aesthetic graces but it is very succinctly defined in Sangīta Samayasāra.1 The definition in the Sangīta Ratnākara is not very clear.2 It merely states that the change in the svara is gamaka which is pleasing to the listener, whereas the definition of S.S. is very specific. It states that a gamaka takes place when the oscillation of a svara, starting from its own śruti, moves to take the support of another śruti of a neighbouring svara. This movement between the śrutis of two svaras is significant because it correctly connotes the term gamaka which is from the Sanskrit root 'gam' which means to move. Gamaka literally means conveyer, or one who guides.

When the actual function of the gamaka as it operates in practical music is analysed, it becomes clear that it is a dynamic energy which moves between two svaras illuminating the intervals between them. It is because of this that gamaka is considered the soul of Indian music. It is like the incandescence to the lamp. Without it the svara will be like a lifeless body. It will be seen that the role

1Svaśrutisthānasambhūtām chāyām śrutyantarāśrayām. Svaroyad gamayed gamakosouniupitaḥ. S.S., Trivandrum edn., 1925, p. 6.

2Svarasya kampo gamakaḥ Śrotrcittasukhāvahaḥ. S.R., 1959, Adyar edn., vol. II, p. 169.

of gamaka in manifesting the essence of a rāga is very significant. For instance in elaborating rāgas like Darbarī Kānadā and Āḍānā, apart from the difference of the former being pūrvāngavādī and the latter uttarāngavādī, the aesthetic distinction is in the gamaka of the gāndhāra, dhaivata and niṣāda. Similarly the gamaka of the ṛṣabha of Bhairava is different from that of Toḍī and Komala Ṛṣabha Āsāverī. The gāndhāra of Nāyakī Kānadā is different from that of Sūhā, Sūgharāī, Kāfī Kānuḍā and other varieties of Kānadā. The komal gāndhāra of Miāñ Malhār is different from that of the gāndhāra of Kānadā. The komal gāndhāra of Miāñ-kī Toḍī, is again different from that of Kānadā and Malhār and also Multānī, Kāfī and Bhatravī. These distinctions which are extremely subtle are possible only through the thorough understanding of the significance of the gamakas and the precise appropriate use of them.

The total number of gamakas enumerated by Sārṅgadeva is fifteen. They are tiripa, sphurita, kampita, līna, āndolita, valli, tribhinna, kurula, āhata, ullasita, plāvita, gumpita, mudrita, namita and miśrita.

In the S.S., Pārśvadeva has mentioned only seven varities of gamakas. They are sphurita, kampiʾa, lina, tiripa, āhata, āndolita and tribhinna.

Even in the definition and description of the gamakas by Sārṅgadeva, although his use of rhythmic measures as basis for them, is indeed remarkable, the forms of the gamakas, are not very clear. To express the contours of the notes through laya end tāla units is unique indeed but the definitions suffer from lack of melodic precision. It seems that Sārṅgadeva has made druta the unit of measurement.

Whereas Pārśvadeva has defined the gamakas from the standpoint of svara-structure and therefore one gets a better idea of them.

Let us take first the gamakas defined by Sārṅgadeva:

1. Tiripa

This is defined as a lovely quivering like a very slight stroke on ḍamarū lasting only a quarter of a quaver or druta, i.e., one-eighth of a mātrā is known as tiripa.1

1Tasya bhedastu tiripaḥ S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II, p. 169.

As already explained, the above definition is not easy to comprehend because it has not been defined in terms of svaras. The quivering of a slight stroke on the damaru is understandable but in respect of the tiripa gamaka, the svara-pattern is not given.

Whereas the definition of tiripa as given by Pārśvadeva is as follows:

When intervals quickly move round like a whirl this the connoisseur of music knows as tiripa.1

Even here, the definition is not every explicit but the description that the gamaka moves like a whirl gives one the impression that the note-pattern of tiripa may be like this:

ni sa re sa, sa re ga re, re ga ma ga, etc.

2. Sphurita

The speed of sphurita is one-third of a quaver, i.e., one-sixth of a mātrā.

Here again the gamaka is defined purely in terms of temporal units; hence its svara-form is difficult to visualise.

But in S.S., the definition is as follows:

When intervals throb upwards at the speed of a semiquaver, i.e., one-fourth of a mātrā, the wise call this sphurita.2

From the above definition the shape of the gamaka will be in terms of svara-patterns like this:

Ni sa re ga sa re ga ma, re ga ma pa, etc.

where the time-until of these groups of notes would be one-fourth of a mātrā. It will be seen that the term gamaka has not been used in the sense of a shake of the note but in the sense of ornamentation consisting of several notes but forming a fixed pattern. This is a very significant fact because at present gamaka generally denotes a heavy shake of the note.

1Śrutayo yatra vegena bhramantyāvarta rūpavat, Tamāhustiripam nāmnā gamakam gītavedinah. —S.S., Trivandrum edn., 1925, pp. 5, 52

2Ārohikramāto yatra sphuranti śrutayaḥ kramāt, Anudrutavegena tamāhuh sphuritam budhāḥ. —Ibid., 1.4.49

3 Kampita

Śārṅgadeva's definition is as follows:

The kampita gamaka lasts a semi-quaver, i.e., one-fourth of a mātrā.1

Whereas the definition as given by Pārśvadeva is as follows:

A shake of the note at twice the speed of a quaver (one-fourth of a mātrā) is known as a kampita.2

Śārṅgadeva by merely defining that kampita lasts a semi-quaver does not help in giving an idea of the pattern of ornamentation.

Pārśvadeva on the contrary, although using the temporal reference gives a better idea of kampita could be. From his definition, it appears that kampita gamaka is a shake of a single note. For example, the shake of the gāndhāra of Darbārī, Nāyukī or Sāha Kānadā. It is usually of the speed of one-fourth of a mātrā provided the tempo is slow.

4. Līna

"The speed of a līna is that of a quaver, i.e., half a mātrā"3 says Śārṅgadeva.

Pārśvadeva states when a note at the speed of a quaver softly melts into another neighbouring note, this is called līna.4

Again Śārṅgadeva's definition is unintelligible but Pārśvadeva's difinition is clearer musically. For example the studied beautiful merging of niṣāda into ṣadja in the Rāga Bihāg or madhyama into pañcama in the Rāga Muliānī is a līna gamaka. This is very aes-

1Drutārdhamānavegena kampitam gamak:un viduh. S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II, 169.91.

2Svarakampo bhaved yatra drutadvigunavegatab, Kampito nāma gamakaḥ sa vijñeyo maniṣibhiḥ. —S.S., Trivandrum edn., 1925, 1.5.51.

3Linastu drutavegena. S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II; 169.91.

4Drutamānena maśrṇaḥ svaro yatra vilīyate, Svarāntarakrameṇalva sa bhavellīnasanjñakaḥ. —Ibid.,

168

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

thetic usage of a note and quite often used by musicians with a

sense of beauty. It was once a characteristic gamaka of the Kīrāna

Gharāna, but today it is used by others also.

5. Andolita

Śārṅgadeva's definition is that āndolita lasts one crotchet or one

mātrā.1

Pārśvadeva states, "When there is a rocking of the notes lasting

one crotchet or mātrā, this grace is spoken of as āndola by con-

noisseurs of music "2

The latter definition indicates that the oscillation of the note

under āndolita is quite vigorous and for a much longer duration

in comparison with the kampita gamaka. This is similar to the

modern concept of the generic term gamaka. For instance, any

note of a rāga, namely, niṣāda or dhaivata or madhyama of the

Rāga Yaman could continuously be shaken for a full one mātrā to

produce the āndolita.

6. Vali: Śārṅgadeva's Definition

Producing the chāyā of two or three notes from the svara-

sthāna by deflecting the string in a circling manner is known a

vali.3

Pārśvadeva does not mention this gamaka.

For one thing, this gamaka was meant specially for the instru-

ment, namely, the vīṇā. This could be conceived as the oscillation

ni-pa or sa-pa in Nāyakī or Suhā Kānadā. This could be as well

produced by vocal musicians.

7. Tribhinna

Śārṅgadeva's definition is as follows:

Tribhinna is a compact ornament running at one stroke

Āndolito laghuvegatab. S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II, 169-91.

Āndolanam bhaved yatra svarānām laghumanānatab,

Āndolitākhyam gamakam gitajñāstām pracakṣate.

Valirvividhavakratvayuktavegavaśādbhavet. S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II, 169.92.

169

Survey of Musical Aesthetics: Western and Eastern

through three notes without any pause.1

Pārśvadeva's definition is as follows:

A grace that touches three distinct points and amalgamates

the qualities of all the three turning round the notes in a

single flow is traditionally known as tribhinna.2

Both the definitions indicate that this gamaka must be an instru-

mental one. For one thing the human voice cannot phonate three

distinct points simultaneously. Another interesting implication is

that this must be the closest resemblance to the Westen triad-

major or minor. It could also be three sounds distinct on three

different strings. For example on the same string, it could be

sā-ga-pa; re-ma-dha; ga-pa-ni, etc. But if taken on three different

strings, madhyama, ṣadja and pañcama strings it would be either

pa-re-dha or dha-ga-ni.

8. Kurula

Definition of this gamaka is given only by Śārṅgadeva as follows:

Kurula is like vali but performed softly with a contracted

throat.3

It is not quite clear why the throat should be contracted to pro-

duce this gamaka, if it is similar to vali. It is the same ni-pā or

sa-pa circular motion gamaka touching two or three notes in the

course of the oscillation from ni to pa and backwards or sa to pa

and backwards.

9. Ahata

According to Śārṅgadeva, striking the next or neighbouring note

Tribhinnastu triṣu sthāneṣvaviśrāntaghanasvarab. S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II,

169.92.

Sthānkatrayasamasparśit tattāststhāna guṇairyutaḥ,

Aviśrānta svaropetāstribhinnaganakah smrtaḥ.

Kurulo valireva sejād granthilāḥ kanṭhya komalaḥ. S.R., Adyar edn., vol.

II, 159.93.

and coming back is known as āhata.1

This gamaka is quite commonly used even today. In fact, it is

one of those gamakas which cannot be avoided. This occurs in

singing most of the rāgas. It is a grace that is common to both

vocal and instrumental music. For example pa-dhapa, dhapa,

dhapa, ma-pama, pama, pama or ga-rega, rega, rega, ni-dhani,

dhani, dhani, etc.

Also this gamaka is as prevalent in both Hindustānī and Kar-

naṭak music.

Pārśvadeva defines this as follows:

When a note beautifully manifests itself by delicately touch-

ing the neighbouring with ascending order, it is called āhata.3

The definition of Pārśvadeva is almost the same as of Śārṅga-

deva; the only difference is that the latter specifies the soft touch-

ing of the neighbouring ought to be in the ascent, the note

contacted should be higher than the original one.

10. Ullāsita

"This is produced by gliding over the intermediate notes,"3

according to Śārṅgadeva. Pārśvadeva has not mentioned this

gamaka.

This gamaka is the same as the modern ghasit and is very com-

monly used in Hindūstānī music but hardly in Karnāṭak music.

This is a fast glide usually in the descent but it could also be in

the ascent. The Muslim musicians call it avarohī and ārohī ghasit.

11. Plāvita

Śārṅgadeva's definition is when the shake lasts three crotchets

or three mātrās which is one pluta, then it is called plāvita.4

1 Svaramagrimamāhatya nivṛttastvāhato mataḥ. S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II,

159.93.

2 Svarah pravartate yatra samāhatyagraham svaram.

Ārohikramataḥ so'yamābataḥ parikīrtitaḥ

—S.S., Trivandrum edn., 1925, 1-5-53

3 Ullāsitaḥ sa tu prokto yaḥ svaranuttarottarāt. S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II,

169.94.

4 Karamidgachet plāvitastu plutamātra kampanaṃ. S.R., Adyar edn., vol.

II, 169.94.

The definition is rather vague because the nature of the shake is

not specified, Whether it involves one or more notes or whether

it is a jump from one to another, is not clear. Plāvita is from the

Sanskrit root plu which means to jump. So it appears that common-

sense that this gamaka must be akin to the modern miṇḍ. The

only difficulty is this term miṇḍ is used now-a-days as a synonym

for gamaka that it has lost all its specific connotation. Neverthe-

less, plāvita indicates a sudden quick hopping from one note to

another. For example, sa-pa, re-dha, ga-sa or ni-ma, pa-re, ga-dha,

etc. In this jump from one note to note, there is no gliding over the

intermediate notes but one jumps from the starting notes to the

note to be taken.

12. Gumphita

"It is a deep aspirate descending into the chest,"1 according to

Śārṅgadeva. Pārśvadeva does not mention this gamṭaka.

This is an extremely difficult gamaka as the musician has to use

a lot of energy in producing this aspirate. The svara thus produc-

ed would be heavy and phonated from the chest, my guruji

Thakur Jaideva Singh says that the late Pt. Viṣṇu Digambar

Paluskar was a master of this gamaka.

13. Mudrita

Śārṅgadeva defines this as that gamaka when a note is produced

with the mouth closed.2 Mudrita is therefore commonly used in

both Hindustānī and Karnāṭaka music.

14. Nāmlta

Nāmita is a grace in which the notes come down to a lower pitch

as if bowing says Śārṅgadeva.3 Musically this could be expressed

in the phrase pa ni-pa, the glide from pa being swift to ni and

pausing there and gliding gently and slowly in to pa thus stimulat-

ing the act of bowing.

1 Hrdayangamahunkarāragarbhito humphito bhavet. S.R., Adyar edn., vol. II,

169.94.

2 Mukha mudraṇa sambhūta mudrito gamako mataḥ. Ibid., 170.95.

3 Svarāṇāṃ namanādukto nāmitod havanivedibhih. Ibid., 170.96.

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Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

15

Miśrita

As the word itself indicates, this gamaka is a mixture of one or more gamakas.1

15

Miśrita

Thus Śārṅgadeva has described fifteen varieties of gamakas. But it is interesting to see that most of them are meant for vocal music. The only instrumental graces are tribhinna and vali.

15

Miśrita

Of these fifteen gamakas some are used more in Hindūstānī and some in Karnāṭak music. For instance, ullasita, plāvita, līna, mudrita, āndolita are used more in Karnāṭak music. Āhata, kurula, nāmīta are used equally in both the musics.

15

Miśrita

Having studied the various gamakas, we shall now take up the sthāyas. They are translated differently by different scholars as melodic patterns, musical figures, etc., but I feel the best interpretation of the term in English is aesthetic phrases or idioms. These idioms helped a great deal in the aesthetic delineation of the rāga. They contributed towards a clear manifestation of the ethos of the rāgas and therefore were considered an essential and integral part of the musical rendition. The exhaustive and intricate detail into which the musicians and musicologists went into defining the varieties of sthāyas, would give an idea of the highly developed sense of aesthetics in music over five centuries ago. It was impossible for an illiterate or semi-literate person, as is very often the case today, at least, in Hindūstānī music, to be a singer or an instrumentalist.

15

Miśrita

The sthāyas are basically meant for vocal music and incidentally would illustrate the predominant importance of vocal music over instrumental music. Knowledge of Sanskrit was very necessary in those and the musician was fully conscious of the subtle nuances, graces, and other aesthetic manipulations that are possible in the elaboration of a rāga and he employed them with full knowledge of their scope and impact.

15

Miśrita

The word sthāya is also used as thāya by some scholars. Thāya may be result of popular usage of the word sthāya and hence a pointer as to the extent to which sthāya-s were in vogue in practical music. Sthāyas are similar to gamakas, but more comprehensive. Generally when a note extends itself, it could be called a gamaka but a sthāya has other attributes. It is (i) sthāna, (ii) gamaka, (iii) tānaka, and (iv) māna. Before we discuss this, let us look at the historical development of sthāya as depicted in the various texts.

15

Miśrita

S.R. is the first text that gives a detailed description of the sthāyas. S.S. of Pārśvadeva also gives a number of sthāyas but the significant point worthy of note is the colloqual names of several sthāyas that are mentioned in it. This is almost a contemporary work of S.R., and the existence of colloquial names of the sthāyas is a clear indication that the sthāyas were very much in vogue and in practical use and in the knowledge of musicians in the 12th and 13th centuries AD.

15

Miśrita

1. Apart from the above, two works, the other works that deal with this topic in detail, reproducing the text of S.R., are S. Rāja, S.S.1 and S.S.a.2

15

Miśrita

2. There are other texts that give partial treatment like Puṇḍarīka Viṭṭhala's Sadrāgacandrodaya. It mentions only seven sthāyas.

15

Miśrita

3. There are texts which have omitted sthāyas completely but deal with gamakas either fully or partially. They are Nānya-deva's Bharata Bhāṣya, Rāmāmātya's Svaramelakalānidhi, Śubhaṅkara's Sangīta Dāmodara, Śrīkaṇṭha's Rasakaumudī, Paṇḍita Dāmodra Miśra's Sangīta Darpuṇa, Ahobala's Sangīta Parijāta and Śrinivāsa's Rāgatatva Vibodha.

15

Miśrita

4. Somanātha in his work Rāgavibodha deals partially with sthā-yas calling them vādanabhedas. In his fifth viveka (chapter), in his commentary on the 14th introductory verse, he states that although there are infinite number of varieties of tonal ornamentations possible on the vīṇā (vādana), he would be dealing with only twenty of them which are most popular in Deśī Sangīta. He calls them both gamakas and sthāyas.

15

Miśrita

5. Pt. Veṅkaṭamakhi, in his C.P.3 has devoted the seventh prakaraṇa consisting of seven verses4 to thāya and defines it as the shift of the sthāya-svara in a rāga, i.e. to substitute the sthāya-svara for other notes of the rāga and therefore move out from

1

Eteṣāṁ miśraṇāṁ miśrastasya syurbhūrayo bhidah.

Teṣāṁ tu sthāyāvāgeṣu vivṛtilyaṁ samvidhāsyate.

—S.R. Adyar edn., vol. II, 170.96,

1Sangīta Sudhā by Raghunātha Bhūpa.

2Sangīta Sārāṁṛta of Tulajāādhipa.

3Caturdandī Prakāśikā of Paṇḍita Veṅkaṭamakhi.

4Madras Music Academy edn.

Survey of Musical Aesthetics: Western and Eastern

173

174

the original sthāya-svara. It was a kind of Mūrchanā-bheda and distinct from ālāpa. Rāmāmātya also mentions in his Rāga Prakarana, verse 16, thāya along with ālāpa and prabandha.

In Kīrtanasāgaram, pt. II, P. Sambamurthy refers to thāya as a very useful device for elaborating a rāga. He states that thāyas were composed melodic figures not in tāla but used in the ālāpana of a rāga with syllables like ta ra nom tom, etc. But this ālāpa is improvised. It may be that the composed thāyas were used in the improvised ālāpana.

An illustration of this is given by him from a MS from the Sarasvati Mahal Library, Tanjavur.1 He cites Rāga Nādanāmakriyā. P. Sambamurthy also states that is completely out of use today.

We therefore find that–

1. Apart from S.R. no other work has treated sthāyas in a comprehensive manner.

2. That except for Pārśvadeva, none else uses the Deśī names for the sthāyas.

3. That authors of the South only in the 15th cen. AD and later, have dealt with this topic, using the term thāya and in the sense of sthāya-svara which have been referred to by Pārśva-deva under Anyarāgaku in his work S.S.

4. The concept of sthāya is now completely out of vogue, both in the North and in the South.

Now let us consider sthāya as it is defined in the texts and its scope in the musical rendering.

In S.R., sthāya is defined as ‘Rāgasyavāyavah sthāyo vāgo gamako ucyate’ (II, III, 97), which means that sthāya is a component of a rāga. Premlata Sharma, in her paper cited earlier (p. 31), states that this definition refers to two implications of the term rāga, namely, its general sense of pleasing or charming (ruñja-katva) and the technical sense of a specific melodic arrangement. She states that “this means that sthāya comprises an analysis of the elements of rañjakata in music and delineating of rāga.”

1“The Concept of Sthāya’ by Premlata Sharma, Indian Music Journal, 1966, p. 30.

175

Pārśvadeva’s definition of sthāya is more explicit and comprehensive.

Yo yatā cālinah sthāyastam tathaiva niveśayet. Vicitrasya tu gitasya yataucityopaveśanam. Sthāyā vidheyā na tu saikārūpā bahuprakārāvirkṛtā vibhāti, Vicitrarūpo’pi mayūrakanṭho jagajjanapritikaro yathā saḥ.

—(S.S.s. 2, 32-33)

Ivamuktasthāyāśabdena kimabhidhīyate? Gatya gamakayogena rāgeṇānyena kena vā. Svarairvṛttiḥ svaravṛttiṣṭhāya ityabhidhīyate. (34)

Sthāyānām karanānyāhuścāstvāri sthānatānake, Gamako mānameyeteṣām lakṣaṇyabhidadhmahe. (35)

Tatra sthāyyādivarṇānāmāśraḥ svaramaṇḍalalḥ, Sthānamityucyate tasminnudāharaṇamucyate. (36)

... Tāno (ānāma) rāgāpekṣayā ... Sthānamityucyate tajjñaiḥ svaro yo gamakāśrayah, ... gamakāḥ kampitādayah, Svādutvānuguṇā bhāvanti (hi) yathā śoke rasāḥ śat ca te, Rāgavyaktinukulakā hi gamakā rāge’pi sañcāriṇaḥ, Tanmātrāparimāṇameva sutarām mānām vādantyādarāt, Saṅgitakarakṇadhārapadāvimāḍhāukamānāḥ param. (37)

In the above definition, the term svara-vṛtti is very important. Vṛtti is a generic term in Sanskrit and has several shades of connotation. For example,

(a) Śabda-vṛtti means the power of words in yielding meaning.

(b) Nāṭya-vṛtti is four styles of drama.

(c) Anuprāsa-vṛtti of five kinds consisting of repetition of rhyming consonants or syllables.

Vṛtti generally connotes action, operation, movement and a particular state. Therefore, svara-vṛtti means a comprehensive rendering of svara, embracing all aspects of it. Pārśvadeva mentions four karanas or kinds of operation of sthāya which have

already been referred to. They are:

(i) Sthāna-or basic svara-mandala' of a rāga which is āśraya or base or substratum of the four varṇas.

(ii) Tāna-a svara or a group of svaras in a rāga used with gamaka. But the term tāna here denotes a kind of ālāpa or particular melodic patterns peculiar to various rāgas. While gamaka is a generic term for all varieties of shakes of svaras and specific patterns, tāna as defined by Pārśvadeva is distinct from gamaka as the former relates to individual rāgas.

(iii) Gamaka-varieties of gamakas like kampita, sphurita, andolita, etc.

(iv) Māna-mātrāparimāṇa or temporal regulation or measurement.

Thus sthāya is distinct from gamakas as it takes all the above four ingredients in which gamaka also is included.

Now we shall take up the classification of sthāyas.

Classification of Sthāyas

S.R. has enumerated ninetysix varieties of sthāyas and S.S. nearly ninety. But the names in the two texts are different because in the latter, Pārśvadeva has used Deśī names for a number of sthāyas.

S.R. has classified the sthāyas as per their being prasiddha (well-known) and asaṃkīrṇa or distinct. He has also given aprasiddha and saṃkīrṇa sthāyas, i.e., obscure and indistinct respectively.

The classification of the sthāyas given below analyses the basic elements comprising the different sthāyas. For the definitions of the sthāya-varieties a separate glossary is given at the end which may be consulted.

(i) Based on the order or sequence of svaras: Seven varieties, i.e., śabda, svaralaṅghita, prerita, ullāsita, sthāyuka, cāli (bhaṅgiviseṣa), vakrā.

(ii) Comprising various analogies for the movement or arrangement of svaras: Twelve varieties, i.e., dhāla, sthāpanā, gati, kaṇḍarāṇā, lullita, taraṅgita, pralamblita, niḥsṛta, pratigrāhyollāsita, bhrāmita, ghaṭanā, baddha.

(iii) Based on the volume or intensity of tones: Ten varieties, viz., lavaṇī, bhrīta, upaśama, nirjavana, komala, sūkṣmānta, prakṛtisthaśabda, kalā, ākramāṇa, ghanatva.

(iv) Relating to kāma or shake of notes: Five varieties, i.e., vahani and its varieties khuttā and utphulla, ghoṣa, vaha, dīrgha-kampita, sthira.

(v) Referring to svara (interval or characteristic) features of rāgas: Seven varieties, i.e., svarakāku, rāgakāku, anyarāgakāku, amśa, jīvasvara, rāgeṣṭa, apasvarābhāṣa.

(vi) Relation to sthāna (mandra, madhya and tāra): Eleven varieties, i.e., tīkṣṇa, svara, avaskhalita, troṭita, sampraviṣṭa, utpraviṣṭa, troṭitapraviṣṭa, kṣipta, samhita, dīptaprasanna and prasannamṛdu.

(vii) Referring to laya or tempo: Four varieties, i.e., druta, sama, ālambavilambaka and pluta.

(viii) Based on slackness (śithilata) or gāḍhatā of musical rendering: Eight varieties, i.e., gāḍha, lalitagāḍha, śithila, laghu, guru, hrasva, śithilagāḍha and dīrgha.

(ix) Referring to the aesthetic appeal of svaras: Nine varieties, i.e., bhājana, nāda, chavi, ravita, koruṇā, cokṣa, snigdha, sukha and kāraṇa.

(x) Referring to musical instruments: Two varieties, i.e., vādyā-śabda and yantraja.

(xi) Referring to timbre: Two varieties, i.e., kṣetrakāku and yantrakāku.

(xii) Miscellaneous: Twenty-four varieties, i.e., deśakāku, dhvani, avadhāna, apasthāna, vicitrā, gātra, lallita, prasṛta, ucita, sudiśika, apekṣita, aksarāḍambara, prasṛtākuñcita, vedadhvani, avaghaṭa, chāndasa, sukurābhāṣa, antara, asādhāraṇa, sādhāraṇa, nirādhāra, duṣkarābhāṣa, nikṛiti and miśra.

The above classification would give an idea as to the exhaustive analysis that was done of musical aesthetics on the practical side.

Origin, Development and Decline of the Concept of Sthāya

When we study the origin of sthāya, one feels that it has not sprung up all of a sudden in the 12th-13th cent. AD, but has evolved from other aesthetic devices prevalent several centuries earlier. After all sthāyas were aesthetic idioms calculated to bolster up the ethos of the rāga and help manifest its characteristic features. Similarly in the time of Bharata, there were two musical devices, viz., alaṃkāras and dhātus-the former meant for vocalists and the latter for instruments especially the vīṇā. The former consisted of various svara-patterns and the latter, the technique of the plectrum (mizrāb), i.e., the technique of producing a particular through a

particular kind of stroke. Alamkāra means ornamentation, embellishment and dhātu is from the Sanskrit root dhā which means 'to hold together' or the constitutent factors that keep a thing in its integral form. This is dhātu in its generic sense. In the musical context, it means those factors that help sustain the integrity of the musical forms and the particular quality or peculiarity of the instrument (vīṇā).

Mataṅga also has dealt in detail with alamkāras. Now sthāyas appear definitely as evolutes of alamkāras. A few illustrations given below would elucidate this point.

(i) The seven alamkāras of Bharata, classified under sthāyī varṇa (prasannādi, prasannānta, prasannādyanta, etc.) could be the basis of the sthāyas under category (vi) mentioned above, if they are taken to stand for the rendering in the three sthānas-mandra, madhya and tāra or category (iii) above, if the above alamkāras are taken to mean volume and intensity of tone, as has been done by some scholars.

(ii) Bharata's alamkāra 'bindu' is identical with sthāya troṭita.

(iii) The sthāya 'svaralaṅghita' refers to the laṅghana of notes. Several of Bharata's alamkāras are formed through laṅghona or omission of notes. For example, parivartaka, niṣkoṭita, āvartaka, sampradāna, hasita, etc.

(iv) The karaṇas and dhātus mentioned for instrumental music (vīṇā-playing) by Bharata, are broadly based on (a) laghu-guru strokes, (b) intensity of the various notes depending on the force of the strokes, and (c) scheme of mandra-tāra. All these three features are found fully represented in the sthāyas classified above. Also six out of the ten varieties of bahirgīta or śuṣkavādya (purely instrumental music) specify different combinations of laghu-guru in a tāla. Sthāyas under categories (vii) and (viii) above contain this feature.

(v) The evolution of the sthāyas based on sithilata and gāḍhatā could be traced to the gītis of Bharata, i.e., māgadhi, ardhamā-gadhi, prthulā and sambhāvitā which were in turn based on the permutations of short and long syllables.

(vi) The qualities of the human voice (kanṭhaguna) referred to by Bharata have their parallels in the sthāyas relating to snigdhatā, ghanatva and nāda etc.

(vii) The kampita alamkāra could also be said to be the basis of gamaka as were kampa, gamaka and some other sthāyas.

The above illustrations would make it clear that the sthāya evolved through the thorough understanding and critical analysis of the various ingredients that contributed to varicty of tonality in musical rendition. For example, gamaka which evolved out of kampa-meaning shake or tremor, developed independently with fifteen varieties and also contributed in the formation of sthāya varieties.

S.R. treats sthāya and its concept in a fully developed form. It does not gibtheve istory or evolution of this concept but strangely, this very highly developed aesthetics concept is not to be found in any of the texts after S.R., thereby giving the impression that the use of sthāya in practical music, must have gone out of vogue completely. Such of those texts of post S.R. period, which deal with sthāya, seem to have done so, only to maintain the continuity of the Śastric tradition and not as useful devices for practical rendering of music.

In the post S.R. period, the decline of the concept of sthāya was complete. One of the reason could have been the advent of the Muslim culture and its general intolerance of Hindu culture especially the difficult language, Sanskrit. We find many of the meaningful terms in music in Sanskrit being substituted by colloquial words especially in Hindūstānī music. For example, words like mīṇḍ, ghasīṭa, murkī, lāgha, dānta, etc.

In Karnātaka music, there appears to be a modification in the comprehension of some of the sthāyas. For instance, Pt. Veṅkaṭamakhin in his C.P. (I, 124-25), refers to dola corresponding to the sthāya, dhāla, under sphurita-gamaka. This indicates that sthāya began to be construed as synonymous with gamakas.

Karnātaka music today has accepted ten varieties of gamakas (daśavidha gamakas) and its definition of ullasitam gamaka is at variance with that given in S.R. and corresponds to the sthāya svaralaṅghita. S.R. defines ullasita as gamaka in āroha (ascent) but Karnātaka music mentions both āroha and avaroha ullasitam. In fact the use of the word jāru means more a glide than a shake. Hence the āroha ullasita is called etra-jāsu and avaroha ullasita īrakka jāru. Etra in Tamil means up or above and īrakka means to bring down. In Hindūstānī music also, the ārohi-avaroḥi mīṇḍ corresponds to the above. This shows that the original connotations underwent changes both in Hindūstānī and Karnātaka

notations.1S.R., Adyar edn., 1959, vol. II, p. 171 (S's commentary).

180

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

music and the terms of sthāya-varieties went completely out of

usage.

The Significance and Value of Sthāya in Indian Music

The concept of sthāya is perhaps a unique feature not only in

Indian music but in the music of the entire world. Nowhere in the

world, at any time, was there, this idea of sthāya for melodic

rendition. The concept of sthāya that were created, indicates how thorough and critical, were

the exploration and analysis of the possibilities of tonal ornamen-

tations or embellishments.

But a little explanation regarding the term sthāya seems neces-

sary. While the English word ornamentation or embellishment

implies mere external decoration or beautification of something

which is originally otherwise, sthāya essentially implies an inherent,

innate state with no duality of inward and outward states. There-

fore, in music, the tone when beautified by an alaṃkāra or sthāya

becomes an indivisible integral tone, inseparable from its embel-

lishment. "It is a natural grace just like a smile or a bright look in

a human being." Bharata's verse, in this connection, will illustrate

this point:

Śaśinā rahiteva niśā vijaleva nadī latā vipuṣpeva,

Analakṣyate ca nārī gīitralaṃkārahiṇā syāt.

Whether it be ornamentation of svaras which implies intrinsic

graces (lakṣaṇa in poetics) or art decoration (alaṃkāra in poetics),

the term sthāya embraces both. The discontinuance of the usage

of this "invaluable terminology" from our musical parlance is

indeed deplorable as it implies loss of the Śāstraic analysis of

the formal and aesthetic aspects of tonal rendering. But the ces-

sation of the usage of this terminology does not necessarily imply

the cessation of the practical operations of it in actual musical

renderings; but its falling into disuse is certainly "a loss of the

scientific and analytical outlook towards elements of musical

variety and a conscious use thereof."

The post-independence era has seen a fruitful and creative resus-

citation of many branches of our fine arts; the pre-independent

state of having mostly illiterate or semi-illiterate musicians, is also

practically obliterated; the musicians of the last two decades are

well educated and hence can, with a little additional study and

effort, learn the Śāstraic background of the practical exposition of

formal and aesthetic aspects of musical rendition. It is therefore

desirable and necessary for the "revival of the concept and termi-

nology of sthāya in both Hindūstānī and Karnātaka music."

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Survey of Music Aesthetics: Western and Eastern

A GLOSSARY OF STHĀYAS1

The ninety-six sthāya dealt with in Sangīta Ratnākara under

four headings are being taken up seriatim. The lakṣaṇas found in

S.R. (III, 99-188) have been supplemented wherever necessary with

those from Pārśvadeva's Sangīta Samayasāra (II, 38-128), Raghu-

nātha Bhūpa's Sangīta Sudhā (III, 165-286) and commentaries on

S.R. by Simhabhūpāla and Källinātha.

The following is an alphabetical list of sthāyas2 which will be

useful for reference. The first number in each case refers to the

heading and the second to the serial number, falling under a parti-

cular heading.

Amśa ... II 10

Akṣarāḍambara ... III 2

Antara ... IV 21

Anyarāgakāku (chāyā) ... I 7

Apasthāna ... II 12

Apasvarabbāsa ... IV 14

Apekṣita ... II 31

Alambavilambaka ... III 14

Avaghaṭa ... IV 11

Avadhāna ... II 11

Avaskhalita ... III 6

Asādhāraṇa ... IV 29

Ākramaṇa ... IV 3

Ucita ... II 29

Utprāviṣṭa ... III 9

Utphulla (vahanī) ... I 4

1This is reproduced from Premlata Sharma's article in Indian Music Journal, July, 1966, pp. 33-41.

2The alphabetical list is according to the Devanāgarī.

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Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

Upaśama

... II 17

Ullāsita

... III 3

Karunā

... II 14

Kalarava

... IV 16

Kalā

... IV 2

Kāku (chāyā)

... I 7

Kāṇḍāraṇā

... II 18

Komala

... II 25

Kṣipta (kṣipra)

... III 19

Kṣetrakāku (chāyā)

... I 7

Khuttā (vahan1)

... I 4

Gati

... II 3

Gāḍha

... II 20

Gātra

... II 16

Guru

... IV 25

Ghatanā

... IV 4

Ghanatva

... IV 9

Ghoṣa

... II 32

Cāli (jakkā)

... IV 6

Cokṣa

... II 28

Chavi

... II 6

Chāndasa

... IV 17

Chāyā

... I 7

Jakkā (cāli)

... IV 6

Jīvasvara

... IV 7

Dhāla

... I 2

Taraṅgita

... III 4

Tikṣṇa

... I 10

Troṭita

... III 7

Troṭitapraviṣṭa

... III 15

Diptaprasanna

... IV 23

Dīrgha

... IV 28

Dīrghakampita

... III 12

Duṣkarābhāsa

... IV 32

Survey of Musical Aesthetics: Western and Eastern

183

Deśakāku (chāyā)

... I 7

Druta

... II 8

Dhvani

... III 5

Nāda

... II 4

Niharta

... III 10

Nikrti

... II 13

Nirādhāra

... IV 31

Nirjavana

... II 19

Prakṛtisthaśabda

... IV 1

Pratigrāhyollāsita

... III 13

Pralambita

... III 5

Prasannamṛdu

... IV 24

Prasṛta

... IV 26

Prasṛtākuñcita

... III 16

Prerita

... I 9

Pluta

... IV 12

Baddha

... IV 15

Bhajana

... II 1

Bhrta

... II 9

Bhrāmita

... III 11

Miśra

... IV 23

Yantrakāku (chāyā)

... I 7

Yantraja

... I 6

Rakti

... II 7

Rāgakāku (chāyā)

... I 7

Rāgeṣṭa

... IV 13

Laghu

... IV 20

Lalita

... II 22

Lalitagāḍha

... II 21

Lavanṭ

... I 3

Lulita

... II 23

Vakra

... IV 22

184

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

Vaha ... III 1

Vahanī ... I 4

Vādyasabda ... I 5

Vividhatā ... II 15

Vedadhavani ... IV 3

Śabda ... I 1

Śithila ... IV 10

Śithilagādha ... IV 27

Sampraviṣṭa ... III 8

Samhita ... IV 19

Sama ... II 24

Sālambita ... III 5

Sādharana ... IV 30

Sokurābhāsa ... IV 18

Sukha ... IV 5

Sudeśika ... II 30

Sokṣmānta ... III 20

Sthāpanā ... II 2

Sthāyuka ... III 18

Sthira ... III 17

Snigdha ... II 27

Svara ... II 33

Svarakāku (chāyā) ... I 7

Svaralangghita ... I 8

Hrasva ... IV 26

I. TEN PRASIDDHA (WELL-KNOWN) STHĀYAS WITH (DISTINCT) ASAMKĪRNA LAKS.ANAS

1. Pertaining to Śabda

Muktaśabdapratigrāhyāḥ sthāyāḥ śabdasya kīrtitāḥ -(S.R., III,113)

Källinātha's commentary is as follows:

Pūrvasthāyo yasmin dīvanau mucyate, uttarasthāyo Cakravālarityā tatrai va pratigrhyate cet, tadasabdāsthāyā iti vyapadiśyanta ityarthah. -(S.R. II, ch. III, p. 174)

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Survey of Musical Aesthetics: Western and Eastern

Pārśvadeva says,

Yasmin avare sthāyaviśeṣaṇam syāttatraiva bhūyo grahaṇe ca

Tad-dimsthāya iti prasiddhistam śabdasambandhinamāmati. -(S.S., III. 165-66)

This generally means ringing changes with words. K. states (quoted above) that śabdasthāya is that where the words pick up immediately after the pūrvahāya terminates and the uttarasthāya begins, in a cyclic manner, like a wheel.

But P.L. Sharma interprets it differently in relation to music which is interesting. She states:

This can be interpreted in two ways: (i) in alaṅkāras like saregare, regamaga, etc., where the succeeding phrase begins were the note with which the preceding phrase ends, and (ii) where a particular note is prolonged and ended rather abruptly and again taken up in the beginning of a new phrase, e.g., dhanisa. . . , sanire . . . , etc., 'Oydra' mentioned by P1 can be taken to bear contradistinction with this as it (Oydra) implies a return to the starting note, e.g., saregama, magaresa.

Yāsmat svarāvṛttirvidhikramāt, tadoyāram samudhiṣṭam prāyaścārohi samśrayam. -(S.S., II.41-42)

2. Pertaining to Dhāla

Dhālo muktāphalasyeva calanam lunṭhanātmakam.

-(S.R., III.113)

Karasthamuktāphalavacca dhālah, śaśvat svarāṇām calanāt-mako yaḥ.

-(S.S., II.166)

Vṛttamauktikavatkācabhūtale vilāsadhavanau,

Śrutiḥprāvartate kṣipram yatra dhālam taducyate. -(S.S., II.46-47)

Where the notes freely move, like the rolling of a pearl, P's definition likens the movement of the notes to the rolling of pearls on

2Pārśvadeva, author of Sangita Samayasāra.

a sheet of glass. The modern example for this would be ullāsita gamaka-the glide both in āroha and avaroha, in a comparatively fast tempo.

3. Pertaining to Lāvanī

Namanam tvatikomalam, lavanyāḥ parikīrtitaḥ.

Lavani, tadyujah sthāyā lavanyāḥ parikīrtitah.

(S.R., III.113-14)

Atikomalam sukumāram svaraṇām namanam adha uccaraṇam

lavanītūcyate. (Sihaupāla's comm., ibid.)

Snigdhakomalasabdāsya vinā yatena kampanam,

Laghutvena sahoktam tannamanam gānakovidaiḥ saiva

navanīḥ,

(S.S., II.103-4)

Rendering of svaras with particular tenderness in descent (namana) is lāvanī. P. has added kampana or light shake. This lāvanī, navanī may have some affinity with Mahārāṣṭrī lavāve which means 'to bow down'.

According to Siṇhabhūpāla, lāvanī is to very delicately and melodiously traverse from the higher to the lower notes.

4. Pertaining to Vahanī

Yattu kampanamārohiṇyāvarohiṇi vā bhavet,

Vahanī sātha sañcāriṇyapi vā sthirakampanam.

(S.R., III.114-15)

The kampa or tremor of notes in āroha and avaroha and constant tremor in sañcārī varṇa is called vahanī. In other words, to intone the notes with a slight shake in the three varṇas, namely, ārohi, avarohī and sañcārī is called vahanī. This is subdivided as follows:

(i) That pertaining to gīta or composition.

(ii) That pertaining to ālaptī.

(iii) That associated with sthira (steady) kampa (on one and the same note), i.e., when the shake is slow.

(iv) That associated with vega (fast tempo), i.e., with notes moving fast when the shake is fast.

Survey of Musical Aesthetics: Western and Eastern

187

(v), (vi) and (vii) When the notes and shakes are sung in all the three registers (sthāna) mandra, madhya and tāra. These also relate to the three vocal centres of the body-the chest or diaphragm, the throat and cerebrum. These three are very important resonant cavities, i.e., laryngeal pharynx, the oral pharynx and the nasal pharynx which resonate predominantly in the lower, middle and upper registers respectively.

(viii) Yasyāmanantarviśantīva svaraḥ khutteti sa matā.

(S.R., III. 117)

Hṛdyā has two varieties, namely, khuttā and utphullā. Khuttā is where the notes appear to merge into or turn inward. This could be compared with the valli gamaka (S R., III.92), e.g., saresasa, regarere, etc.

(ix) Sotphullectyuditā yasyāṃ niryāntivopari svarāḥ.

(S.R., III. 118)

Utphullā is efflorescence of notes, i.e., where the notes blossom forth, open out. It is the opposite of khuttā.

Merging in the ascent is khuttā, e.g., pa-ma, sa-ni and merging in the descent is utphullā, e.g., ma-pa, ni-sa. In both the cases, lina gamaka is used, and the first note tapers into the succeeding note. P. also describes vahantī in identical terms.

5. Pertaining to Vādya Śabda Rāgamagnā vādyasabdā yeṣu te vādyasabdjāḥ.

—(S.R., III.119) Vādyasya śabdeśvapi vāyapāṭaksarāṇi te syuḥ taganadite rāgasaṃleṣaviśleṣabhājataḥ sthāyā matāścedyute vādyasabdāḥ.

—(S.S., III.175) Vādyasabda has been interpreted in S.S. as syllables (pāṭākṣara) associated with musical instruments. Rāga may be taken here to stand for rakti in general. Where rakti is created by special use of the syllables associated with an instrument, jhālā in sitār, relā on the tablā or where the syllables of an instrument are used in vocal music, e.g., the rhythmic syllables of the tablā in the tarānā or tillānā of Karnāṭaka music, the sthāya can be said to be related vādya śabda.

6. Pertaining to Yantras (Musical Instruments) Ye yantreṣveva dṛśyante bāhulyātte tu yantra jāḥ.

—(S.R., III.120) Those that are found in abundance only in musical instruments, e.g., ghaṣīṭa, sūta, etc., of plucked stringed instruments or special bow-techniques of bowed instruments.

Where vādya-śabda has special significance in the context of syllables associated with musical instruments, the present type refers to special tonal embellishments which are peculiar to certain instruments.

7. Pertaining to Chāyā or Kāku Kāku has been used here as a synonym of chāyā which literally means 'shadow' but seems to imply a special characteristic inherent in timbre, in accentuation, in intonation or in a rāga or a special characteristic of one svara or rāga being transferred to another as will be clear from the following six varieties: P. has given some more synonyms of chāyā in addition to kāku, viz.,

bhāvanā (infusion or decoration or saturation),. rakti (charmingness, pleasingness, loveliness), bhāṣā (the expressive feature of a rāga).

—(S.S.s, II.96)

(i) Svarakāku Śrutinyūnadhikāvena ya svarāntarasamśraya, Svarāntararasya syāt svarakākurasau mataḥ.

—(S.R., III.122) Svarasya sadjasya catuhśruteryacchrutim yadā svikurute niṣādaḥ,

Chāyām sadjasya bhajettadanimevaṃ nimuktāḥ svarakākur-adya.

—(S.S., III.179) It is obvious that svarakāku pertains to vikṛta svaras where one note enters the sphere of another and thus adopts its' shadow by getting nearer, e.g., niṣāda gets the chāyā of ṣadja or madhyama the cāyā of pañcama, when it takes over one or more śrutis of ṣadja or pañcama respectively. It gets augmented and gets nearer the latter.

(ii) Rāgakāku Ya rāgasya nijacchāyā rāgakākum tu tāṃ viduḥ.

—(S.R., III.122) Sā mukhyā procyate bhāṣā gītalakṣaṇavedibhih.

—(S.S.s, II.99) The special characteristic of a rāga which distinguishes from other rāgakāku, e.g., ni dha ṇisa, Sa dha ni pa or ga pa re ga sa resa; these phrases of Mlāṅ Malhāra and Śaṅkarā of Hindūstānī music, the former having a continuous smooth dove-tailing of the notes and the latter having the grace note of ṛṣabha on gāndhāra are both indispensable. to those rāgas. P. has very aptly called it mukhya bhāṣā or main expression of a rāga.

(iii) Anyarāgakāku Sā tvanyārāgakākuryā rāge rāgantarāśrayā.

—(S.R., III.123)

190

This occurs when in a characteristic phrase of a raga, the flavour

of another is recondite, e.g., ni-pa in Behag or pa Re ga re sa in

Sankara has the Raga Yaman hidden in it. Or the Raga Khamaja

imbedded in the Raga Tilak-Kamoda.

In other words, one raga bears the chaya of another, e.g., the

Raga Lalit's anga in the Raga Basanta-sa ma ga ma ma S ma

ma ga in the use of both the madhyamas or the Saranga anga

sa ni pa ma re sa in the aroha of many varieties of Kanada. Par-

Svaradeva calls this uparagabhasa and says that it is popularly

known as thaya ('iyameva loke thayeti prasiddha').

(iv) Desakaku

Sa desakakuryage bhaveddesasvabhavatah.

-(S.R., III.123)

This implies regional characteristics in musical rendering. Par-

svaradeva identifies it with desakhya bhasas of ragas. This is more

conspicuous in vocal music or in instruments like violin or vina

directly following the model of vocal music, e.g., the peculiar

embellishments of a vocalist belonging to Panjab or Maharastra

which could be easily distinguished. Certain raga-s are associated

with certain regions like Manda of Rajasthan or Pahadi of Panjab.

The same raga rendered by a Maharashtrian or a Panjabi can be

easily recognised by a discerning listener.

(v) Ksetrakaku

Sariram ksetramityuktam pratiksetram nisargatah,

Rage nanavidha kakuh ksetrakakuriti smrta.

-(S.R., III.124)

This refers mainly to the timbre of human voices which distin-

guishes one voice from another (no two human voices are iden-

tical). Apparently it is difficult to say how the timbre of the

human voice can have special significance in raga unless raga is

understood as rakti in general. But on deep consideration, one

finds that the timbre of the human voice has its own significance

in the establishment of the ethos of a raga. Thus it is pertaining

to state that the expression of a raga is considerably governed by

the timbre of the pertaining voice. it is common experience that

some musicians have a fancy for certain ragas as the timbre of

191

of their voice is suitable to them. For example, Ragas Jaijaivanti,

Chayanata, Maluha Kedara-favourites of late Ustad Faiyaz

Khan; Bhapali, Malkauns, Kedara of late Bade Ghulam Ali Khan;

Multani, Puria, Marva of late Ustad Abdul Wahid Khan of

Kirana.

Parsvadeva1 very aptly explains this as follows:

Kasyacid gayanasaise rage kasminscidiksyate,

Rakti svabhavatastajnaih ksetrakakurmahitale.

-(S.S.s., 101, 102)

(vi) Yantrakaku

Vinavamrsadiyantrotha yantrakakuh satam mata.

-(S.R., III.125)

This pertains to the timbre of musical instruments, which can

also have its place in raga. For example, vina of North India is

specially suitable for solemn, tranquil and painfully moving ragas

like Darbari Kanada, Bhairavi, Bhairava, Pili, etc. On the con-

trary, Jalatarainga cannot have any shake of the note and its ragas

will naturally be different like Bhupali, Yaman, Bihag, etc.

8. Svaralanghita

Madbye madhye svaran bhurillanghayan svaralanghitah.

-(S.R. III.126)

This implies the skipping over of more than one intermediary

notes. S.R. enjoins the omission of bhurin meaning many which is

interpreted by Simhabhupala as three or four notes, but langhana

can become conspicuous by the omission of one or two notes also.

Hence S.S. lays down the omission of two or three notes. Parsva-

deva two varieties of this, viz., langhita and svaralanghita.

1It is significant that Parsvadeva identified ragakaku wi h mukhya or mula

bhasa, anyrigakaku with uparagabhava or sankirna bhasa which is popularly

known as thaya according to him and desakaku with desikhya bhasa. Similarly

svarakaku may be identified with svarakhya or chayamatrasrayi bhasa. This

identification can go a long way in apprehending the significance of the four

types of bhasa of Grama ragas given by Matanga and subsequent writers down

to Ragā Kumbha.

Iṣadāhatasamyuktah svaro yatra vilanghayet, Svarāntarakrameṇaiva laghitam tat pracakṣate. —(S.S.S., II. 52)

e.g., sa ga re ga ma re ma ga pa, etc.

Idameva yadaikadvitrisvarāntaritam bhavet, Tadā gṭakalatabhijñaiḥvaralaghanamīritam. —(S.S.S., II.52)

This lays down the omission of one, two or three notes.

9. Prerita

Tiryagūrdhvamadhastācca preritaḥ preritaiḥ svaiḥ. —(S.R., III.127)

The movement of notes in upward, downward and slanting or oblique direction is enjoined here. Tiryak (slanting) can be understood in melodic music as the wakragati, i.e., curved or winding movement of notes.

e.g., sa re, sa ga re sa, ma ga sa, ga re ga, maresa. or ga ma re sa in Rāga Kedāra

10. Tikṣṇa

Svarah pūrṇaśrutistāre tikṣṇavattikṣṇa ucyate. —(S.R., III.127)

Pūrṇaśrutiryatra vibhāti tārasthāne'pi sūcyagravadeva tikṣṇaḥ. —(S.S., III.186)

The sharpness of a whole tone used in the tāra sthāi (upper register) has been given here the analogy of a needlepoint, e.g., antara ga in tāra.

II. THIRTY-THREE PRASIDDHA (WELL-KNON) STHĀYAS WITH SAMKĪRNA (INDISTINCT) LAKṢAṆAS

1. Pertaining to Bhajana

Rāgasyātiśayādhānam prayatnād bhajanam matam:

Tadyuktā bhajanāsya syuḥ. —(S.R., III.121)

Rāgābhivyaktirbhajavanā suśrātrasamudbhavā. —(S.S.S., II.88)

S.R. emphasises the element of conscious effort in creating rāga or rañjakatā par excellence. It is common experience that a performing musician has a few special gamblits which he puts into use with more effort to create rakti. This effort cannot and should not remain constant throughout a performance. Pārśvadeva on the other hand, emphasises the element of natural gift, i.e., suṣārṭra.

2. Pertaining to Sthāpanā

Sthāpayitvā sthāpayitvā yeṣām pratipadam kṛtiḥ. —(S.R., III.29)

Ye sthāpayitvā sthāpayitvā niścalikṛtya pratikṣaṇam punaḥ kriyante te sthāpanāsambandhinaḥ. —(Simhabhūpāla, op. cit.)

The movement of notes can be explained here with the analogy of plodding or walking with heavy steps pausing awhile at each.

3. Pertaining to Gati

Savilāsāsti gītasya mattamātāṅgavadgatit, Tadyuktāstu gateḥ sthāyaḥ. —(S.R., III.129, 130)

The analogy of the gait of an elephant in rut is cited for gati of svaras. S.S. adds the adjective gābhirā (mattadantāvalavadgabhiragatīḥ) which can be interpreted as majesty or accompanied by intoxication, i.e., swinging but majestic movement of notes. But it is rather difficult to visualise this musically. Pārśvadeva gives a somewhat different connotation of gati as follows:

Mādhuryasahito gite śrutimātrastu kevalam, Svarāṇām sanniveśo yaścāturyaāt sā gatirbhavet. —(S.S.S., II.39)

The element of skill in the structure of notes is emphasised here,

4. Pertaining to Nāda

Snigdho mādhuryamāṃsalāḥ Bahulo yeṣu nādaiḥ syāt te nādāsya prakīrtitāḥ. —(S.R., III.130)

194

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

Nāda has been used in a special and restricted sense denoting

the abundance of snigdha (unctuous) and mādhurya-mānsala (fleshy

with sweetness) musical sound.

5. Pertaining to Dhvani

Atidīrghaprayogāḥ syuḥ sthāyā ye te dhanirmatāḥ.

—(S.R., III.131)

Yeṣu dīrghataraḥ prayogo gamakasandarbhaste dhanisambandhināḥ.

— (SimbabhUpāla, op. cit., p. 180)

Prayoga has been interpreted as gamakasandarbha or an orderly

arrangement of gamaka-s. Dhvani can be taken to imply the use

of long phrases full of gamaka-s.

6. Pertaining to Chavi

Yuktāḥ komalayā kāntyā chave sthāyā nirūpitāḥ.

—(S.R., III.131)

Chavi denotes tenderness of notes accompanied by splendour.

S.R. has defined it thus in the context of kanthagunas or the good

qualities of the voice.

Dhāturvimalakanṭhatvādyah prajñairūpalakṣyate,

Ujvalo 'yamiti proktaśchavimāniti sa dhvanịḥ.

— (S.R., III.77)

7. Pertaining to Rakti

Rakterutkarṣato rakteruktāḥ sthāyā manṣiibhiḥ.

—(S.R., III.132)

This refers to the super-excellence of rakti, it is similar to bhajana

(no. 1 above) but the only difference is that the latter implies con-

scious effort whereas the former does not.

8. Pertaining to Druta

Drutasyānvarthanāmānah.

—(S.R., III.132)

Uccāraṇam yatra javāt svarāṇām sthāyāsta etc drutaśabda-

pūrvāḥ..

—(S.S., III.194)

195

Survey of Musical Aesthetics: Western and Eastern

This refers to fast tempo.

9. Pertaining to Bhṛta

Bhṛtāsya bharaṇād dhvaneḥ,

Dhavanerghanatvena ca jāyamānamuccāraṇam syād bhṛta-

śabdāvācyam.

—(S.S., III.194)

In Hindi, it is popularly called ‘bharāva’ literally meaning ‘filling

up’, implying fullness of volume or intensity, P. gives a somewhat

different explanation as the filling up of rāgās.

Yad rūpakethavālaptau vartate rāgapūraṇam,

Bharaṇam tatsamuddiṣṭam haraṇam tadviparyayah.

—(S.S.S., II.86-87)

10. Pertaining to Amśa

Rāgāntarasyāvayavo rāgeṃśaḥ.

—(S.R., III.133)

Amśa has been used in a special sense here. It does not denote

the predominant of a rāga, but denotes the particular phrase of a

rāga used in another rāga. The two extant commentaries of S.R.

throw some light on the question as to how the amśa can be dis-

tinguished from anyar-gakāku.

Kāllinātha states:

Nanvanyarāge kakoramsyā ca ko bheda iti cet: ucyate-pra-

kṛta-pra-

rāgāntarāśrayāḥ sati ya pratīyate, sānyarāgākākuh. Amśastu

prakṛtarāge hyavidyamāne eva sobhātiśayāya yācitakamandā-

nanyāyena rāgāntarādupādāya saṃyogavṛttiyātra sambadhya-

ta iti bhedro draṣṭavyaḥ.

Nanvamśasyanyarāgakākoh katham bhedaḥ? brūmaḥ-anyasya

rāgasyacchāyā kākuḥ; chāyāyā bhinnā evāyayavo 'ṃśa iti.

—(Simhabuūpāla, op. cit., p. 180)

Kāllinātha is more exact and concise in saying that anyarāga-

kāku implies samavāya-sambandha whereas amśa implies samayo-

gasambandha. In other words, anyarāgakāku denotes the chāyā of

one rāga being inextricably woven into another rāga [cf. examples

under 1-7 (iii) above] and amśa denotes a solitary phrase of a rāga

196

being used in another rāga, merely as an arbitrary embellishment,

e.g., the use of phrases from Rāga Śaṅkarā or Hamsadhvanī in

the Rāga Yaman. Śaṅkarā: ga pa ni sa, ga re sa ni S dha pa ma S

ga; Hamsadhvanī: ni re ga pa, ni re ga re, sa ni dha pa, ma ga re

sa.

S.R. and P. give seven varieties of amśa in almost identical

terms and with identical illustrations.

Their names are as follows:

(i) kāraṇāmśa is the amśa of Kāraṇa rāga found in Kārya rāga.

(ii) kāryāmśa is the amśa of Kārya rāga found in a Kāraṇa

rāga.

(iii) sajātīyāmśa is amśa of a Sajātīya rāga in another rāga.

(iv) sadrśāmśa is the amśa of a similar rāga in another.

(v) visadrśāmśa is the amśa of a dissimilar rāga in another.

(vi) madhyasthāmśa is the amśa of a neutral rāga in another.

(vii) amśāmśa is the sañcāra of one amśa in another.

To illustrate the above, in terms of over music as it is today,

may help in understanding the different aspects of amśa better.

(i) Where the amśa of the Janaka rāga is found in the Janya

rāga, e.g., ṁa dha ni, re, sa ni dha pa—this phrase of Yaman in

the Rāga Hamīr.

(ii) The opposite of (i) i.e., the amśa of the Rāga Hāmīr in

Yaman, i.e., the amśa of the Janya rāga in the Janaka rāga. For

example, ni dha, dha, ni sa ni dha, ni re ga re sa ni dha, etc.

(iii) Rāga Bhairava, a few centuries ago, as mentioned in the

texts was similar to our modern Mālkauṅs. Alternately we may

cite the more clear examples of similarly structured rāgas like

Pūryā, Mārvā and Sohinī.

(iv) Sadrśāmśa: the varieties of Nata, Kuhūṭā or Malhāra, etc.

(v) A very clear example can be found in the Rāga Jaijaivantī.

When the dhaivata svara of this is taken as the ṣadja for a moment

and the phrase dha ni re, re sa nisa, dha ni re . . ., it would sound

exactly like Rāga Hamīr, i.e., ga ma dha, dha re ma pa, ga ma

dha, etc. In other words tirobhāva could be compared with visa-

drśāmśa.

(vi) Madhyasthāmśa appears to be an ope.ation very similar to

modern āvirbhāva and tirobhāva as Siṁhabhūpāla explains this in

Survey of Musical Aesthetics: Western and Eastern

197

his commentary1 as incorporating both sadrśāmśa and visadrśāmśa,

e.g., Rāga Bhairavī in Yaman with niṣāda as ṣadja.

(vii) Amśāmśa—not clear.

11. Pertaining to Avadhāna

Manasā tadgatenāiva ye grāhyāste 'vadhānajāḥ.

—(S.R., III.141)

Cetasō vaiyāgrye yo gātum na śakyate so 'vadhānajāḥ (S).

The sthāyas that demand total attention fall under this type.

12. Pertaining to Apasthāna

Apasthāna is the opposite of svasthāna.

Āyāsena vinā yatra sthāne syāt pracuro dhvaniḥ,

Svasthānam tadapasthānānam tvāyāsena tadudgataḥ.

Apasthānāsya te sthāyā ye 'pasthānāsamudbhavāḥ

—(S.R., III.142)

Āhānabāhulyavaśena gānam bhavatyapasthānatatayā pratītam.

—(S.S., III. 207)

This implies special effort in voice production (in vocal music)

or in the act of playing on instruments. Bhajāna relates to special

effort in the creation of rakti but this relates only to voice pro-

duction or to reproduction on instruments. It is a well known fact

that each voice or instrument has a special pitch-range which may

be called svasthāna. If that is violated, i.e., if the tonic is not in

conformity with that range, then the result would be that the voice

would be strained and some extra effort entailed while singing

or playing an instrument.

13. Pertaining to Nikrti or Niṣkrti

S.R. does not define it saying its significance is clear from the

name itself.

Nyūnādhikatvōbhayavarjana gānam tu yat sā nikrṭirniruktā.

—(S.S., III.208)

Thāyam vividhamādāya balāt samsthāpane punaḥ,

Anyūnādhikatā tajñairnikrtiḥ parigīyate.

—(S.S.S., II.80-81)

1S.R., Adyar edn. 1959, II, III, p. 180,

Nişkr̥tt would be a better reading in view of the above definitions which imply restoration to the original position after the use of various sthāyās which may be explained as resolution.

14

Pertaining to Karuṇā

S.R. does not define this.

14

Pertaining to Karuṇā

Gānena kuryuḥ karuṇām nr̥ṇām ye sthāyā niruktāḥ karuṇādimaste.

14

Pertaining to Karuṇā

Karuṇā rāgayogena cintā-dinatayāthavā,

14

Pertaining to Karuṇā

Karuṇā kāku-samyuktāḥ sthāyāste kakuṇābhidhān.

14

Pertaining to Karuṇā

—(S.S.S., II.67-68)

14

Pertaining to Karuṇā

Those sthāyās which arouse karuṇā (melting of the heart in general) fall under this.

15

Pertaining to Vīvidhatā or Variety

Sthāyā nanavidhām bhaṅgim bhajanto vīvidhatvajāḥ.

15

Pertaining to Vīvidhatā or Variety

—(S.R., III.143)

15

Pertaining to Vīvidhatā or Variety

Nānāvidhām ritimupeyivāmsaḥ sthāyāstatatastavidhatvajāḥ.

15

Pertaining to Vīvidhatā or Variety

—(S.S., III.209)

15

Pertaining to Vīvidhatā or Variety

Aneka bhaṅgiyuktāḥ sthāyā vīvidhatvasambandhināḥ.

15

Pertaining to Vīvidhatā or Variety

—(Simhabhūpāla, op. cit., p. 180)

15

Pertaining to Vīvidhatā or Variety

The following sthāyās with deśī names mentioned by Pārśvadeva explain ‘bhaṅgi’ of svaras in its various aspects.

15

Pertaining to Vīvidhatā or Variety

(i) Moḍāmoḍi

Samudhrtya svaron 'yatra teṣāgrānyadhah krāmāt,

15

Pertaining to Vīvidhatā or Variety

(i) Moḍāmoḍi

Bhajyate sā parijñeyā moḍāmoḍiti samjñayā.

15

Pertaining to Vīvidhatā or Variety

(i) Moḍāmoḍi

—(S.S.S., II.58)

15

Pertaining to Vīvidhatā or Variety

(i) Moḍāmoḍi

The phrase sa re sa ni dha would illustrate the above.

15

Pertaining to Vīvidhatā or Variety

(ii) Gumphāgumphi or gumbhāgumbhī

Sapta prayogā ekatra vartante cennirantaram,

15

Pertaining to Vīvidhatā or Variety

(ii) Gumphāgumphi or gumbhāgumbhī

Sragivābhijñāracitā gumphāgumphīti soditā.

15

Pertaining to Vīvidhatā or Variety

(ii) Gumphāgumphi or gumbhāgumbhī

—(S.S.S., II.59)

15

Pertaining to Vīvidhatā or Variety

This is a series of prayogas.

16

Pertaining to Gātra

Gātrāsya gātre niyatāḥ.

16

Pertaining to Gātra

—(S.R., III.144)

16

Pertaining to Gātra

Sthāneṣu yeṣu pratigātrabhinnā bhinnāstu rāgāḥ prabhavanti samyak,

16

Pertaining to Gātra

Gātrāsya sambandhitayā pratitāḥ sthāyāḥ samaste iti veditav-yam.

16

Pertaining to Gātra

—(S.S.; III.210)

16

Pertaining to Gātra

These relate to the characteristic features of the music of each vocalist associated with the peculiarities of his physiological set up S. thus explains the difference between kṣetra-kāku (1-7, (v)) and gātra sthāyā.

16

Pertaining to Gātra

Nanu kṣetrākākusambandhibhya eteṣām ko bhedāḥ?

16

Pertaining to Gātra

Ucyate—kṣetra-kākuk pratideham chāyamātram;

16

Pertaining to Gātra

Gātrajeṣu tu sthāyasvarūpameva pratideham bhidyata iti.

16

Pertaining to Gātra

—(Simhabhūpāla, op. cit., p. 181)

16

Pertaining to Gātra

This seems to imply that kṣetra-kāku refers merely to differences of timber of the human voice but gātra-sthāya denotes all the characteristic sthāyās peculiar to different human voices, e.g., some voices are especially suited for the expression of karuṇā, some vīra or raudra and others for tāna(s) on fast tempo.

17

Pertaining to Upasama

Kr̥tā tivrataram dhvanim,

17

Pertaining to Upasama

Yeṣūpaśantīḥ kriyate bhavantyupasamasya te.

17

Pertaining to Upasama

—(S.R., III.144)

17

Pertaining to Upasama

This means that the intensity of a tone has to be suddenly decreased or a loud tone has to be ended abruptly. But S says that it implies an abrupt descent from a tone of high pitch (atītāra) towards mandra tones, S.S. accepts this interpretation.

18

Pertaining to Kānḍāraṇā

S.R. does not explain this stating that it is well-known. S explains it with the analogy of the art of engraving, and S.S. follows this explanation which makes use of a visual analogy.

18

Pertaining to Kānḍāraṇā

Loke sthambhādisu padmādyārotkiraṇam kānḍāraṇetyucate

18

Pertaining to Kānḍāraṇā

—(Simhabhūpāla, op. cit., p. 181)

Kāṇḍāraṇāsthāyamathāmanāmaḥ stambheṣu yā takṣabhirapja-rūpaḥ,

Citrakṛtistu kriyate hi so 'yam kāṇḍāraṇāstatsadrśā vicitrāḥ.

-(S.S., III.213-14)

S states that just as beautiful engraving of a lotus on a pillar,

the configuration of notes in kāṇḍāraṇā may be compared with the

above. It appears that S. did not clearly comprehend this as the

above analogy is very difficult to translate musically.

K on the other hand says that kāṇḍa means the three sthānas,

viz., mandra, madhya and tāra and kāṇḍāraṇā is that where the

notes run through all the three sthānas. S.S. refers to this view

also:

Kāṇḍeṣu mardramadhyatireṣvāsamantādrāṇatīti vyutpatt yā-prasiddhetyarthaḥ.

-(Kāllinātha, op. cit., p. 178)

19. Pertaining to Nirjavana

Saralaḥ komalo raktāḥ kramāṇnito 'tisūkṣmatām,

Svarah syādyesu te sthāyālḥ proktā nirjavanānvitāḥ.

----(S.R., III.145-46)

Yeṣu svarah syāt sarala.stathāiva syādraktiśāli sukumārarūpaḥ,

Atyantasūkṣmatvamitāḥ krameṇa sthāyā amī nirjavanānvitāśca.

-(S.S., III.215-16)

Nirjavana is a technical name of the use of straight, tender and

pleasant notes, gradually reduced in loudness. Pārśvadeva has

called it nijavani or nijavana and has emphasised breath-control.

Jitaśvāsatayā yānam nāmnā nijavanam viduḥ.

-(S.S.S., II.89)

It appears similar to moderno diminuendo involving gradual

decrease, not only in volume but also in the subtlety of notes.

20. Gāḍha

This is the opposite of slack or śithila and is popularly known as

having kasāva or terseness. This could be also interpreted as

crescendo.

Gāḍhaḥ saithilyanirmuktaḥ.

-(S.R., III.146)

21. Lalitagāḍha

sa eva mṛdutāṇvitāḥ bhavellalitāgādhastu.

-(S.R., III.146-47)

This means the addition of tenderness or gracefulness to gāḍha.

22. Lalita

Lalitastu vilāsavān.

-(S.R., III.147)

This implies a special kind of graceful movement.

23. Lulita

This indicates a tender and swinging movement of notes.

Mārdavāghurnitaḥ prokto lulitaḥ.

-(S.R., III.147)

24. Sama

This pertains to medium tempo, neither fast nor slow; it can also

be interpreted as the tonal embellishments used in the original

tempo of the song or composition known in Hindi as barābar kī

laya.

Samaḥ punaḥ hino vegavilambābhyām.

-(S.R., III.147-48)

25. Komala (full of tenderness)

Syāt komalaḥ saṃbḥṛtaḥ saukumāryaḥ.

-(S.S., III.219)

26. Prasṛta

This means widespread; it seems to imply a long spread out

musical phrase.

Prasṛtaḥ prasaropetaḥ.

-(S.R., III.148)

Viṣṭṛṇayuktaḥ prasṛtābhidhānaḥ.

-(S.S., III.219)

27. Snigdha

Means unctuous end opposite of rukṣa or dry.

Snigdho rūkṣatvavarjitaḥ.

-(S.R., III.148)

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Evolution of Raga and Tala in Indian Music

28. Cokṣa

Bright or shining. Pārśvadeva has called it cokkhāyi. This is similar to cairman (no. 6 in the present heading).

Ujvalo gaditaśokṣah,

—(S.R., III.149)

29. Ucita

This means suitable or apt. Aucitya is a general quality which is an essential feature of all artistic creation. Its absence has been considered as the greatest cause of rasabhaṅga, i.e., violation of aesthetic values.

Anaucityādṛte nānyadrasabhaṅgāsya kāraṇam,

Prasiddhaucityabandhas tu rasasyopaniṣat parā.

—(Dhvanyāloka, III)

30. Sudeśika

That which is capable of being appreciated only by sahrdayas.

Sudeśiko vidaghānām vallabhah.

—(S.R., III.149)

There are certain features of musical rendering with appeal only to an aesthete and not to the common man.

31. Apekṣita

Apekṣitastu saḥ.

Sthāyaḥ sthāyenaḥ pūrveṇa pūrtyartham yo 'bhikāṅkṣitaḥ.

—(S.R., III.150)

Pūrveṇa sthāyenaḥ yah svapūrtyarthamākaṅkṣyate so 'pakṣitaḥ.

—(Siṁhabhūpāla, op. cit., p. 182)

This means that a note or a combination of notes which is essential for bringing about a sense of completeness of the preceding sthāya, is apekṣita. But S.S. has interpreted it the other way round, saying that the preceding sthāya is required by this sthāya for its own completion.

Pūrtyarthamākaṅkṣati yastu pūrvam sthāyam bhavet so 'yam-apekṣitākhyāḥ.

—(S.S., III.220)

203

Survey of Musical Aesthetics: Western and Eastern

This does not sound plausible but may be interpreted as implying repetition which naturally involves an original phrase.

32. Pertaining to Ghoṣa

The use of gamakas called valli, vaha and vahanī in the lower register is ghoṣa.

Valau vahe vahanyām ca yaḥ snigdhamaḍhuro mahān,

Mandradhvanīḥ sa ghoṣaḥ syāttadyuktā ghoṣajā matāḥ.

—(S.R., III.151)

33. Pertaining to Svarā

Svara has been used in a very restricted sense, viz., deep and sweet tones of the lower register. The distinction between svara and ghoṣa seems to be very subtle: whereas ghoṣa implies some shake (kampa) in the mandra sthāna, svara is without kampa.

Gambhīramadhuradhvānā mandre ye syuḥ svarasya te.

—(S.R., III.152)

III. TWENTY APRASIDDHA (OBSCURE) STHĀYAS WITH ASAMKĪRNA (DISTINCT) LAKṢAṆAS

1. Vaha

Vahanta iva kampante svarā eṣu vahasya te.

—(S.R., III.152)

The analogy of a man, trembling under a heavy weight carried by his, is cited here; it implies tremor with full intensity, not with lightness. For example, the heavy āndolana of gāndhāra and sometimes niṣāda in the Rāga NāyakI-Kānhaḍā.

gagagaga, gamapama, resanisa, nininini, panesāni pamagasa.

2. Akṣarādambara

Akṣarādambaro yeṣu mukhyāste syustadanvitāḥ.

—(S.R., III.152)

The abundance of akṣaras or syllables referred to here can come about in two ways:

(i) by enunciating the syllables of the words of the gita in a similar way, and

(ii) by pronouncing the solfa syllables in quick succession.

Some songs are wholly or partially abundant in laghu aksaras, e.g., nipaṭa, nilaja haṭa naṭakhaṭa.

3. Ullāsita

This is one of the fifteen gamakas but is not associated here with kampa which is an essential feature of gamaka. It is described as the order of ascent in fast tempo. "vegena preritaiḥ ūrdhvam svarairullāsito mataḥ" —(SR., III.153)

e.g., nī sa ga ma dha, sa ga ma dha nī, ga ma dha nī sa, etc.

4. Taraṅgita

This refers to a wave-like movement of notes.

Yatra gaṅgātaranganti svarāḥ sa syāt taraṅgitaḥ.

—(S.R., III.153)

e.g., in the Rāga Mālkauṅs,

ma ga, dha ma, ni dha sa ni ga sa, etc:

5. Salambita or Pralambita

Parito 'rdhabhrte kumbhe jalam dolāyate yathā,

Gīte tathāvidhaḥ sthāyaḥ proktastajjñaiḥ salambitaḥ.

—(S.R., III.154)

The analogy of the sound of water in a half-filled jar is somewhat difficult even to conceive musically. This is one of the major hurdles in understanding the correct structures of some of the sthāyas mentioned in S.R. The best way I can imagine this musically is with the following example in the Rāga Mālkauṅs: dhama ga ma, ma ga sa ga, ga sa nī sa. The water in the half-filled jar would have a wave-like movement only when the jar is shaken. It has to be done slowly for some kind of rhythm to be formed. So the above phrase' would have to be sung with a heavy voice in medium tempo, keeping in mind the movement of water inside the jar.

6. Avaskhalita

Avaskhalati yo mandrādavarohṇa vegataḥ;

so 'vaskhalita-ityuktaḥ.

—(S.R., III.155)

This implies an abrupt descent almost stumbling to mandra and then again a sudden ascent from mandra, e.g., pa pa sa ga sa, sa sa

7. Trotita

Trotitastu svaraḥ kvacit

Ciram sthitvāgnivat tāram sprṣṭvā pratyāgato bhavet.

—(S.R., III.155-56)

When a particular note is prolonged and its octave note touched for a very short while and then reverts back to the original note, it is called trotita, e.g., sasasssasa.

8. Sampraviṣṭa

Ghanasvaro 'varohe syāt sampraviṣṭaḥ.

—(S.R., III.156)

When there are closely knit svaras in descent, e g., sasa nini dhadha papa or sa ni dha pa ma ga.

9. Upraviṣṭa

This is just the opposite of the above and implies close svaras or full intensity in ascent.

Tathāvidhaḥ; ārohiṇyupravisṭaḥ syāt

—(S.R., III.157)

10. Niḥsṛta

Svarāstu yatraiva viniḥsaranti sthāyastvasau niḥsaraṇābhi-dhānaḥ.

—(S.S., III.229)

This seems to imply the flowing out of svaras from a particular point, e.g., sa sa gamapa dha ni sa ga.

11. Bhrāmilta

This may be interpreted as the cyclic movement of notes bearing the analogy of a merry-go-round, e.g., sagaresa, remagare, gapamaga, etc.

Yatra bhramantiva khalusvarāḥ sa sthāyo bhaved bhrāmita-nāmadheyāḥ.

Dīrghakampita

This obviously refers to prolonged shakes.

Pratigrāhyollāsita

Pratigrāhyollāsitah syadasau yaḥ pratigrhyate Utkṣipyotkṣipya nipatan kelikandukasundarah.

Yatra svarāstantuvadeva kelyāmutkṣipya cotkṣipya ca grhyam-āgāḥ, Sthāyam tamenam parigrhya pūrvamullāsitam saṅkathayanti santah.

Alambavilambaka

Drutapūrvovilambāntaḥ syādalambavilambakaḥ.

That which is sung or played first in druta laya and then in vilambita laya. This can be in a composition or in gatibheda, e.g. (1/4, 1/2, 1) or in the duration of notes.

Troṭitapratiṣṭā or Troṭitaprāvrṣṭa

Breaki g in tāra or mandra at a particular note and resuming the same in mandra or tāra respectively.

Syāt troṭitapratiṣṭo 'sau yatra syatāramandrayoḥ, Prathamam troṭayitvaikamaparāsya pratigrahaḥ.

Prasṛtākuñcita

Prasṛtākuñcita sthāyaḥ prasāryākuñcitadhvaniḥ.

where the volume is widened in the beginning and tapered in the end, e.g., sa sa, i.e., there is crescendo of volume to start with

and then diminvendo which are indicated by the symbols <(cre scendo) and >(diminuendo) in western music.'

Sthira

Sthāyivarṇāpitib kampataḥ sthira ityabhidhīyate.

Kampa is sthāyi-varṇa, i.e., repeated shakes on a single note.

Sthāyuka

Ekaikasmin svare sthitā sthitvā vātha dvayordvayoyḥ Triṣu triṣvatha vā sthāyo racitaḥ sthāyuko mataḥ.

Kṣipta or Kṣipra

Ūrdhvataḥ prasāritaḥ kṣiptataḥ.

Kṣipta literally means 'thrown out'; popularly called pheṅka in Hindi. If the reading of kṣipra of S.S. is accepted, it will mean fast tempo but that will be identical with druta.

Sūkṣmānta

Sūkṣmānto' nte' lpatām gataḥ.

IV.

THIRTY-THREE APRASIDDHA (OBSCURE) STHĀYAS WITH SAMKĪRNA (INDISTINCT) LAKṢAṆAS

Pertaining to Prakṛtistha Ṣabda

Where the notes are produced with normal intensity without extra force or softness.

208 Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

Sabdah prakāsate yeṣu dhrtibhrtyādivarjitah, Svabhāvādeva śabdasya prakrtisthasya te matāḥ. -(S.R., III.162-63) or (S.S., III.238)

2. Pertaining to Kalā

This implies artificial reduction of intensity.

Yeṣu sūkṣmikṛtāḥ śabdāste kalāyāḥ prakirtitāḥ. -(S.R., III.163)

3. Pertaining to Akramana

This implies the use of extra energy of prāṇa or breath.

Bhrśam prāṇapratigrāhyā ye syurākramanasya te. -(S.R., III.164)

4. Pertaining to Ghaṭanā

Te sthāyā ghaṭanāyā ye śilpinā ghaṭitā iva. -(S.R., III.164) Sthāyāstu ye vardhakikalpyamānastambhā iva syurghaṭanā-dimāste. -(S.S., III.240)

This refers to conscious effort in giving a particular furm to a sthāya on the analogy of a craftsman who carves out a stone pillar. Kāṇḍarāṇa (no. II.18 above), related to the engraving of a lotus on a stone pillar. Ghaṭanā in Hindi means giving a form not necessarily embellished.

5. Pertaining to Sukha

Sukhadāstu sukhasya syuh. -(S.R., III.165) Sthāyāstu ye śrotrasukhapradāḥ syuh sukhasya sambandhitā-yoditāste. -(S.S., III.240)

Those which are pleasant to the ear. This bears close similarity to rakti (no. II-7 above), but rakti may be said to be deeper than sukha as the former is not only pleasant but has a potentiality to impart emotional colour to the mind; sukha may be confined to pleasure of the sense-level.

209 Survey of Musical Aesthetics: Western and Eastern

6. Pertaining to Cāli or Jakkā

Cālirijakketi kirtitā sthāyāstadanvitāścaleḥ. -(S.S., III.165) Cālibhaṅgiviśeṣeṇa svarāṇāṁ cālanam sā loke jakketi kathyate -(S)

Bhaṅgiviśeṣa may be explained as a special crooked or winding course of notes or a special "break and turn" as implied in the Moḍāmoḍī of Pārśvadeva (no. II.15, p. 198).

7. Pertaining to Jīva Svarā

Those that centre round the amśa svara (predominant note) of a rāga. Amśa has not been used here in the restricted sense as is the case in (no. II.10, p. 196).

Amśo jīvasvaro matāḥ; tatprādhānyena ye gttāḥ sthāyā jīva-svarasya te. -(S.R., III.166)

8. Pertaining to Vedadhvani

Bearing similarity with vedadhvani, i.e., either staying too long on a note ormoving round two or three notes for a long time.

Vedadhvaninibhadhvānāḥ sthāyā vedadhvanermatāḥ. -(S.R., III.166)

9. Pertaining to Ghanatva

Refer to those that have antaḥsāratā or fulness or richness of volume.

Antaḥsāro ghanatvasya. -(S.R., III.167)

10. Pertaining to Śithila

This literally means slack, i.e., opposite of gāḍha. But S. and SS. call it the opposite of ghana which does not seem to be correct.

Śithilaḥ ghanatvapratiyogyarthaḥ. -(S)

11. Avaghaṭa

Duṣkaro 'vaghaṭaḥ proktah -(S.R., III.167)

That which is very difficult. Pārśvadeva has referred to the ele-

ment of difficulty as durvāsa which is restricted to the pitch-range.

Tāramandrasamāyogāt prayogo yatra duṣkaraḥ,

Vartate sa tu gitajñairdurvāsah parikirtitaḥ.

—(S.S.S., II)

Pluta

Pluto 'tyantavilambitah.

i.e., in very slow tempo.

—(S.R., III.167)

Rāgeṣṭa

Rāgeṣṭaḥ svapūryarthā rāgeṣṭa iti kirtitaḥ.

—(S.R., III.168)

That which is essential for making a rāga complete or full.

Apasvarābhāsa

Sa syādapasvarābhāso bhātyapāsvaravaravattu yaḥ.

Yastu susvaro'pyapasvaravadavabhāti so'pasvarābhāsah,

—(S)

That which appears to be out of tune (apasvara) in spite of being

in tune (susvara). There is one possibility of mistaking a note

tune as out of tune when there is a tonic-shift (mūrchanābheda),

e.g., when gāndhāra of the Rāga Yaman is taken as ṣadja form.

If one sings continuously on gāndhāra as ṣadja, one may get con-

fused whether the notes of the Rāga Yaman are being correctly

performed or not but even this does not sound plausible.

The other possibility is when certain svaras of certain rāgas are

taken with their peculiar śruti inflexions, e.g., when the Rāga Toḍi’s

Gāndhāra which is slightly ati-komala or the dhaivata of Rāga Deśi

which is between the śuddha and komala dhaivata, then to the un-

trained ear-and unfortunately today to the majority of listeners

who have developed an unaccountable disregard for such subtleties

it may definitely be out of tune, whereas actually it is perfectly in

tune and correct.

Baddha

Stabdhahsthāyastu baddhaḥ syāt.

—(S.R., III.169)

This implies a stand still position of a tone, e.g., when a note is

prolonged and movement seems to be absent (though physically a

single tone also implies a succession of vibrations).

Yastu nigalita iva stabdhastisṭhati sthāyaḥ sa baddhaḥ.—(S)

Yah śṛkhalābaddha ivāvabhāti sthāyam tu tam baddhamu-

śantisamtaḥ.

—(S.S., III.246)

Pertaining to Kalarava

Bahutvam madhuradhvaneḥ

Yasmin kalaravasyā'sau.

—(S.R., III.169)

Bahutva (abundance) of sweet dhvani (notes) can be explained

in meloḍic music in terms of the simultaneous tones of many

instruments or voices produced in unison or in octave.

Chāndasa

Chāndaso'caturapriyaḥ.

Yastu chāndasānāmacaṭurāṇāmavidagdhānām priyaḥ sa chā-

ndasaḥ.

—(S)

That which is dear or appealing to the unrefined or uncultured

listeners. For example, in modern classical music concerts, the

gimmick of a so called dialogue between the drummer (tablā-player)

and the vocalist or main instrumentalist elicits the interest of the

lay audience. Similarly when the singer increases the tempo very

much and does a continuous trill on the upper tonic, then he gets

an applause from the lay listeners; or the jhāla in every fast tempo

on the sītāra.

Sukarābhāsa

Sukarābhāsa ityukto duṣkaraḥ sukaropamaḥ.

—(S.R., III.170)

That which appears to be very easy but is very difficult. All

students of music have experience of this. Great masters alone can

render difficult pieces in such a way as to make them "appear very

easy.

For example, the mīṇḍa in Rāga Śrī from pañcama to komala

re or tāra re to madhya re etc., when taken with finesse and effort-

leśsness may seem to be easy, but actually very difficult to sing it

212

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

in perfect tune.

19

Samhitā

Ghaṇṭanādavadāyā tāstārānmandram tu samhitāḥ.

—(S.R., III.170)

Pārśvadeva gives a similar definition under the name avatīrṇaka.

The proceeding of a tone from tāra to mandra accompanied by reduction in intensity just as is the case in the anuraṇana of ghaṇṭā (bell).

20

Laghu

Laghurgurutvarahitaḥ.

—(S.R., III.171)

The meaning of gurutva and lāghava is not clear; it may mean either the use of laghu (short) syllables in abundance or an easy flowing way of singing or playing.

21

Antarā

Dhruvakābhogayostu yaḥ, antare so'n tarāḥ.

—(S.R., III.171)

This is a dhātu section of a prabandhīa (composition) which occurs between dhruva and ābhoga. It is difficult to deduce why it has been accorded a place in sthāyas in exclusion of the other dhātus. The only explanation that appears to be plausible is that antarā may be a melodic piece designed to join dhruva with ābhoga and thus, it may be taken to be basically different from the other dhātus.

22

Vakra

Vakro bhāvedārjāva hīna eva.

—(S.S., III.250)

This is the opposite of Ṛju and implies the use of svaras in an oblique way.

23

Dīptaprasanna

Sukarastu yaḥ; tāre dīptaprasann'osau.

—(S.R., III.171-72)

That which is used in tāra (upper register) with ease, so says S.R., but S and S.S. give a somewhat different interpretation.

213

Survey of Musical Aesthetics: Western and Eastern

Yastu tārasthāne sakalon'yūnaḥ sampūrṇaḥ pratibhāti sa dīptaprasannaḥ

—(S)

Tāre tu yaḥ pūrṇavadeva bhāti dīptaprasannam ranti.

—(S.S., III.250)

This seems to imply a sense of completeness in the tāra-sthāna.

24

Frasannamṛdu

Mṛdu should be taken here to stand for mandra, i.e., easy flowing and caressing tones in mandra are implied here.

Sukarāḥ komaladhvanīḥ; prasannamṛdurityuktāḥ.

—(S.R., III.172)

25

Guru

Gururmato lāghavavanjana

—(S.S., III 251)

This is the opposite of laghu (no. IV 20, p. 211) and may stand either for an abundance of long syllables or a sense of heartiness in tone-production.

26

Hrasva

It denotes shortness of duration.

Hrasvaḥ stokāḥ.

—(S.R., III.173)

S.S. defines it thus:

Hrasvo mato yaḥ khalu kampavat syāt.

—(S.S., III.251)

The significance of kamp is not clear here. The explanation of Pārśvadeva for Bokkala (a sthāya name) seem to be approximate to that of hrasva found in S.R.

Sthāyaḥ svalpaparimāṇo bokkala iti kathyate.

—(S.S.S., II.120)

27

Sthilagādha

Sāndratvabhinnāḥ sabalaśca yaḥ syāt sthāyo mato'sau sthilā-digādhaḥ.

—(S.S., III.252)

Krameṇa gāḍhatām tyaktvā lalitasvaravartanām,

Poccagāḍhamiti proktam gītalakṣaṇakovidaiḥ.

—(S.S.S., II.120)

That which has both śithilată (slackness) and gāḍhatā or sabalatā (force).

28

Dīrgha

S feels it is synonymous with dīpta; dīrgha is the opposite of hrasva and stands for length of duration.

28

Dīrgha

Dīrgho mato hrasvavilakṣaṇaḥ syāt.

28

Dīrgha

—(S.S., III.252)

29

Asādhāraṇa

Śabdaśārirāgunitataḥ sukaraḥ susvaro'thavā,

29

Asādhāraṇa

Yaḥ kasyacinna sarveṣām so'sādhāraṇa ucyate.

29

Asādhāraṇa

—(S.R., III.173-7)

29

Asādhāraṇa

That which cannot be rendered by all musicians.

30

Sādhāraṇa

This means common or ordinary.

30

Sādhāraṇa

Sadrśo yastu sarveṣāmasau sādhāraṇaḥ smrtaḥ.

30

Sādhāraṇa

—(S.R., III.174)

31

Nirādhāra

Na vānchati vahanyādir yaḥ svanirvāhahetave ucyate sa nirā-dhāraḥ.

31

Nirādhāra

—(S.R., III.175)

31

Nirādhāra

This seems to be the opposite of apeksita (no. II.31, p. 201). It can be conceived as the last phrase in a particular section which brings about a sense of completeness and which does not require any other phrase for its completeness. Pārśvadeva has a similar interpretation for vidāri (a variety of sthāya).

Ālaptirvilasattālakalā viśleṣitasvarā,

Vartate cennirā lambalỵ sa vidāriti gadyate. —(S.S.S., II.63-64)

32

Duṣkarābhāsa

Sukaro duṣkaropamaḥ; duṣkarābhāsa ityuktaḥ.

32

Duṣkarābhāsa

—(S.R., III.175-76)

32

Duṣkarābhāsa

Artificial rendering of a piece so as to give it an air of being very difficult.

33

Miśra (mixed)

Miśraṇānmiśrako mataḥ.

33

Miśra (mixed)

—(S.R., III.176)

33

Miśra (mixed)

This includes all mixed varieties and the fifteen gamakas have also been used in producing the mixed varieties. S R. mentions 36 varieties of miśra-sthāya just by way of illustration and says that infinite varieties can be conceived in this category.

33

Miśra (mixed)

Sangīta Rāja mentions 66 varieties further subdivided as follows according to the number of varieties mixed into one:

33

Miśra (mixed)

Dviyogaja 29 + Triyogaja 16 + Caturyogaja 10 + Pañcayogaja 5 + Ṣaṭsamyogaja 6 = 66.

33

Miśra (mixed)

From the exhaustive illustrations of the 96 sthāyas, 15 gamakas and 6 kākuṣ, with detailed analysis and explanations, it will not be difficult to assess the tremendously evolved and involved aesthetic structure of our classical music in the 13th century AD and before. Also the unsparing insistence on perfection of execution, the deep knowledge of all the ancillary subjects of music, like poetry, languages, dance, instruments, aesthetics would give a clear idea as to how difficult it must have been for one to make the grade as a classical vocalist.

33

Miśra (mixed)

Also listed in this chapter are the 23 qualifications of a first rate composer (vāggeyakāra), three and two attributes of a mediocre and bad vāggeyakāra; 20 qualifications of a first rate vocalist; 5 types of performers and 25 faults of singers. Studying these, one is amazed at the thoroughness of the sādhana demanded from one who aspires to be approved as a first rate vāggeyakāra or a first rate vocalist.

33

Miśra (mixed)

Looking at the present state of affairs of our music with semi-literate composers and singers, one wonders how many today would have been able to pass the above standards. While it must be conceded that our music today has expanded a great deal in

7

The Evolution of the Concept of Tāla

1. Historical Perspective of Tāla

respect of aesthetic improvisation; one cannot ignore the overall dilution of standards in literary excellence, structural integrity of composition, purity of rendition of rāga and the general character of the musicians.

7

The Evolution of the Concept of Tāla

1. Historical Perspective of Tāla

THE concept of tāla is quite fundamental to the understanding of Indian music. Bharata, whose Nāṭyaśāstra is considered to be the earliest available work on music in India describes tāla as one of the constituent elements of music as he defines Gāndharva1 as svaratāla-padātmakam (the organic unity of tone, rhythmic cycle and word). But for the very same reason it is difficult to trace the origin of tāla as far as the historical sources are concerned, since all the ancient musicologists such as Bharata and Dattila take it for granted to be a part and parcel of their musical heritage. Dattila, for instance, defines Gāndharva as "a collection of musical notes (svara-saṅghāta) sustained by a verbal text, well measured by tāla and employed with attention and care."2 Thus, as far as the written evidence goes, tāla was already a developed concept and was recognised as an indispensable element of music.

7

The Evolution of the Concept of Tāla

1. Historical Perspective of Tāla

Perhaps one may turn to the tradition of Sāma gāna, which is supposedly considered to be older than that of the Gāndharva form of music, and look for some traces of the origin of tāla.

7

The Evolution of the Concept of Tāla

1. Historical Perspective of Tāla

The word Gāndharva is somewhat of a mythical origin. On the one hand it is associated with a class of semi-divine beings who are supposed to be the professional musicians of gods, and on the other hand it denotes the art of musical performance as originally practised by Nārada who is supposed to have introduced it to the mortal world by the tradition enriched by such celebrities as Bharata and Dattila.3 So, it is quite probable that the tradition of Gāndharva might have been a collateral phenomenon, though Bharata, while describing the origin of Nāṭya derives gīta (melody)

7

The Evolution of the Concept of Tāla

1. Historical Perspective of Tāla

1See N.S., (G.O.S.), 8, 11 and 28.

7

The Evolution of the Concept of Tāla

1. Historical Perspective of Tāla

2Dattilam, 3.

7

The Evolution of the Concept of Tāla

1. Historical Perspective of Tāla

3Ibid., 2.

218

Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

from the Sāmaveda.1

That, however, is quite in a different context and perspective,

for the Nāṭyaśāstra was formulated with a definite and an explicit

end in view. It is stated to have been created by Brahma with the

determination that "it would be the repository of the objective of

all the sciences, the originator of all the fine arts, the indicator of

the future pattern of human activity, the means for the accomp-

lishment of the objective of virtue and wealth, the bestower of

glory and fame and full of instruction and compilation."3 So,

obviously it was not meant to serve kāma (desire for pleasure) one

of the four recognised purusārthas (human values), since its

objective was restricted to dharma and arthā (virtue and wealth).

Thus, the form of music present by the Nāṭyaśāstra represented

a tradition that was specifically oriented to conform to the higher

values of life. It will therefore be quite responsible to infer another

tradition of musical arts which catered to the popular taste, as

entertainment and enjoyment without any inhibitions-something

that corresponded to what was later on openly acknowledge i as

D:śi Sangīta by Mataṅga and Śārṅgadeva.3 This tradition, how-

ever, for obvious reasons, was never considered worthy of being

recorded or encouraged by the enlightened section of the society

which synthesised every human activity with dharma.

In the field of literature also we have the same parallelism of

Sañskṛt and Prākṛt, the former representing the elite culture and

the latter being the vehicle of the people at large. It has been

suggested, with more or less clearness", observes A. Berriedale

Keith,4 "that for profane as opposed to sacred literature, Samskṛt

was originally not employed. It was essentially in the form in

which it was regulated by the grammar of Pāṇini, in the 4th cent.

BC, a form of speech reserved for those who conducted sacrifices

and engaged in theological speculation, in effect, for the Brāhmaṇas.

Other persons used a true vernacular, which may be described as

primary Prākṛt," This provides circumstantial evidence for the

1See N.S., 1.17 ed., (Babulal Shukla Varenasi, 1972).

N.S., 1.14-15.

He says, "the sangīta comprising gītaṃ, vādyam and nṛttam that entertains

people according to their taste in the different regions is known as Deśi (S.R.,

1.1.23-24).

4See Classical Sanskrit Literature, 5th edn., Calcutta, 1947, The Heritage of

India Series, p. 1.

219

The Evolution of the Concept of Tāla

existence of the sacred and the profane traditions of musical arts

developing side by side in and around that age.

Viewed in this perspective there is no wonder if no definite trace

of the concept of tāla is to be found in the tradition of Sāma-gāna,

even though melodically it was sufficiently developed to employ

the seven tones and the three accents. There can be two different

approaches to looking for the origin of tāla, viz., by accepting the

hypothesis of two separate traditions of musical arts existing side

by side as already projected and by tracing everything to the

Vedas, i.e., the Sāmaveda. The concept of tāla is a complex one

comprehending not only rhythm but also tempo and the measure-

ment of musical time in a cyclic manner. These features will be

discussed while considering the concept of tāla particularly. In the

meantime it may be borne in mind that the primary function of

tāla as spelled out by such celebrated musicologists as Bharata,

Śārṅgadeva is to measure what may be called musical time.1 and

therefore cyclic repetition or recurrence is one of the most distin-

guishing features of the concept of tāla. "In Vedic music, rhythm

was observed in composition (sāhitya) with the help of metres

(chanda). Tunes were added to the ṛks or stanzas and the ṛks were

constituted out of the letters, arranged in different metres. The ṛk

stanzas with tunes were the Sāma-gānas."2 So, while the metrical

composition of the sāmans provided the scope for rhythm, as far

as the element of recurrence, as an essential feature of tāla, is con-

cerned, there seems to be no evidence to suggest the notion of

tāla being implicit in the structure and the singing of Sāma-gāna.

It is, therefore of little value, in the present state of our knowledge

or the available sources for it, to look for the origin of tāla in the

tradition of the Sāma-gāna.

Now one must naturally turn to the other proposition, viz., the

unrecorded tradition of profane music, so to say. Looking some-

what objectively, it may be observed that the perception of rhythm

is much more spontaneous and natural to the human mind than

that of svara or even pāda since the development of language must

1See N.S., (G.O.S.), IV.31.1 and S.R. V.3, which defines tāla as "Time pro-

viding through action, measured by such units as laghu etc., the measurement of

melody etc., is tāla."

2See Swami Prajñānānanda, Historical Development of Indian Music, 1973,

p. 422.

have taken quite a long time in the history of human civilization. Therefore, it will be quite reasonable to visualise that the rhythmic movement of the limbs and the body came more easily and effortlessly, as the manifestation of joy in the form of different emotions, to the primitive man; and so the origin of tāla may rather be sought in the perception of rhythm in the song and dance as.practised in the prehistoric times.

Viewed in this perspective, it seems that tāla gradually developed as the specific manifestation of rhythm in order to spell out the temporal element in the rhythmic fabric of time-space. But in order to look for the various developments in the concept of tāla, one must be clear about what the concept signifies, and to do this one has again to turn one's attention to the ancient writers on the subject.

Scope of Study: From Bharata, who is variously placed between 200 BC to AD 400 by the different writers to Śārṅgadeva who admittedly belongs to the first half of the 13th century, we do not have many writers on music whose works have survived the vagaries of time. Most important among the extant works of this period is the Brhaddeśi of Matanga which, however, is incomplete, and to our misfortune does not contain its chapter on tāla. This work is roughly assigned to 5th to 7th cent. AD. Then we have a few works ranging from 10th century to 12th century. We have the commentary of Abhinavagupta on the Nāṭyaśāstra of Bharata called Abhinavabhāratī, belonging to 10th cent. AD. This work is very valuable in the history of musicology as almost all the later writers including Śārṅgadeva are indebted to him for their understanding of the ancient texts. But, here again, since it is a commentary on the Nāṭyaśāstra, as far as tāla is concerned, its exposition is limited to the Mārga-tālus expounded by Bharata. However, it is yet of immense importance since it throws a flood of light on the concept of tāla and the philosophy of time which is the main factor constituting tāla. Thereafter, we have the Māna-sollāsa of Someśvara belonging to the first half of the 12th century.1 This work deals with a host of other subjects but also as a resume of ancient theory of music. It is followed by the Sangītacūdāmaṇi of Jagadekamalla2 which deals with tāla adquately. Of some

1See Krishnamachariar who places him between 1116-27, para 1006, p. 853. 2Ibid., para 1005, p. 813. He is placed between AD 1138-50.

importance besides these works, from the point of view of tāla is the Dattilam of Dattila or Dantila who is said to be one of the sons of Bharata. Though the available text seems to be very meager, yet because of its antiquity, it is of immense importance. However, since it deals only with the Mārga-tālas, its study is of limited value. Apart from these the Bharata-bhāṣya of Nānyadeva which belongs to 11th century1. is another work of importance even with regard to tāla. This work, also called as the Sarsvatīhr-dayakanṭhābharaṇa, is considered by some to be a commentary on Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra and an original work by others.

Another work to be noticed is the Aumāpatam, of Umāpatisyarya belonging to AD 12th cent.2

Thus, in respect of tāla the following few original works constitute the scope of our study: Nāṭyaśāstra, Dattilam, Brhaddeśi, Bharatabhāṣya, Abhinavabhāratī, Mānasollāsa, Sangītacūdāmaṇi and Sangīta Ratnākara. Sangītasamayasāra and Bharutārṇava are two other works that are to be considered as contemporary to Śārṅgadeva as they belong to the 13th century, though the date of the latter is not definitely known.

A survey of the modern literature on Indian music reveals that very little research work has indeed been done in the field of tāla. The Bhāratīya Sangīta of Krishna Rao Mule (in Marathi) gives a brief account of tāla and dhruva adhyāyas of the Nāṭyaśāstra of Bharata which is obviously based on the study of the Sangīta Ratnākara of Śārṅgadeva. Similarly, the originally Bengali work entitled Bhāratīya Sangīta Tāla and Chanda is more or less descriptive. The well known work of Kailāśh Chandra Deva Bhāspati in Hindi Bhārata kā Sangīta-Siddhānta gives a very brief account of the concepts related to tāla as found in the Nāṭyaśāstra and Sangīta Ratnākara with the help of the commentators Abhinavagupta and Kāllinātha on these two works respectively. The Sangītasāstra of K. Vasudeva Sastri throws some light on the origin of tāla from Chanda (metre) but does not aim at discovering and demonstrating the actual stages of development of tāla.

Thus it would seem that for an authentic and an adequate information and the history of ideas related to tāla, one must depend entirely upon the ancient Sanskrit works listed above. As far as the

1Ibid., para 1002, p. 851. He is placed between AD 1079-1147. 2See Krishnamachariar, para 70, p. 830.

222 Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

Mārga tālas are concerned, the Samskṛt texts before and after Sārṅgadeva hardly show any evidence of change or development. There is no essential difference between the treatment of Bharata and Sārṅgadeva, for example. The subsequent writers have, of course, followed suit mixing them up, sometimes with the Desī tālas. With respect to Desī tālas, it may be observed that they were fully developed by the time of Sārṅgadeva. He deals with 120 tālas. Among the earlier writers, Bharata is silent and Matanga's chapter on tāla is unfortunately missing. Dattila, as already stated, deals with Mārga tālas only since he has concerned himself with Gān- dharvasāstra. The Gāndharva form of music was later classified as Mārga by Sārṅgadeva, though the two could not perhaps be equated in every technical or even historical detail. So, as far as the development of tāla is concerned we are suddenly confronted with the Desī tālas by the writers of 12th and 13th century, there being no earlier record available to us for investigation. Thus we are compelled to rely upon the meager data and vague hints that can be inferred more in terms of probability than in terms of actuality.

2. The Concept of Tāla

3. The Concept of Tāla Bharata's way of defining or in other words, expounding tāla, implies a certain perspective in which music as a whole is conceived by him. First of all we have to bear in mind that to Bharata music is not an autonomous art, it being ancillary to drama. Thereby every musical concept in his mind is correlated to the aims and objectives of a dramatic performance.1 Consequently he conceives music also as a śilpa as contrasted with vidyā. The function of a vidyā is to lead man to immortality or freedom. The cultivation of

1 cf. N.S., 1.14-15, धम्र्येन यशस्येन च सोपपेद्यं च संभ्रयम् । प्रभविपयतश्व लोकरूप सर्वकर्मानुबन्धकम् ॥ १४ ॥ सर्वशास्त्रार्थसंपन्नं सर्वकलाप्रपत्तिकम् । नाटचायणं पंचमं वेदं तैत्तिरीयतं मतोम्प्रहम् ॥ I resolve to write the fifth Veda called Nātya which is designed to be the repository of all the branches of learning and initiator of all the arts and crafts, with a view to provide the guidelines for the conduct of all the people in future with regard to what is virtuous, desirable, glorious, instructive and worthy of being imbibed.

223 The Evolution of the Concept of Tala

ślpa (art) is subordinated to the aim of life attainable through vidyā (learning). This, incidentally, may provide the background in which Bharata has selected the materials of the music prevalent in histories for being incorporated in his work. Obviously, Bharata's Nātyasāstra represents the study of what may be called highly cultivated music, practised among the members of the highly cultured section of the society, it being instructive, educative and elevating in orientation. Another factor that lends real significance to this perspective is his concept of Gāndharva, i.e., music, He defines Gāndharva as 'svara-tāla-padātmakam'1 (the embodiment of tone-rhythmic cycle and verbal structure). So he takes tāla as one of the essential constituents of music. Again it is interesting to observe that he almost identifies tāla as such with ghana3 (the spliid instruments) which he considers to be one of the four classes of musical instruments constituting ātudya (instrumental ensemble).3 The modern practice of using the covered instruments (drums) such as tablā for the manifestation of tāla is therefore positively a later development. This development naturally forms a point of departure or of progress in a new dimension as far as the ancient practice is concerned. This aspect of the subject will however be considered in its proper place while dealing with the development of tālas. But all the same it is notable that Abhinavagupta as well assigns the function of tāla to ghana and not to avanaddha.4 Bharata defines, or in fact expounds tāla as follows:

1 See N.S., (G.O.S.), 28.8. 3 cf. Ibid., 28.2— पणं तालस्तु धिषण्येय: (ghana is known as tāla). 3 cf. Ibid., 28.1—ghana is known as tāla. वाद्यं चैवावनद्धं च घनं चापि सुषिरेव च । चतुर्विधं तु घिषण्यातोऽङ्ग सङ्गीतविश्रितम् ॥ This instrumental ensemble is to be known as fourfold as distinguished by their characteristic features, viz., the stringed instruments (the kuṛis etc.), the covered instruments (the drums), the solid (ringing) instruments and the wind instruments.

4 cf. Abh. Bha., (G.O.S.), p. 2. मूति काछिन्येन घनं तदनूसारेण रसमावोपयोनि विनिद्रष्टस्वरमेलहारेण च नोपयुज्यत इतो साम्य-मालोध्योल्लसद्वातात् ।

224 Evolution of Rāga and Tāla in Indian Music

वाच्यं तु यद्नं प्रोक्तं कलापातलयात्मकम् ।

कालस्तस्य प्रमाणं हि विज्ञेयं तालयोगत: ॥2

—(N.S., (G.O.S.). 31.1)

"The instrument that has been called ghana, in association with kalā (unsounding action) pāta (sounding action) and laya (tempo) is to be known as having time for its measure in the use of tāla (or 'by those who apply 'tāla' according to the other version.)"

When ghana is identified with tāla, in view of the above exposition, it only means that the instrument is the medium of the manifesting tāla. Apart from that is involved in it, is the organisation of kalā, pāta and laya so as render it a useful tool to measure the time in a musical rendering. In other words, whereas the function of tāla is to measure time, kalā, pāta and laya provide the means by which it becomes possible to do so; and again for the manifestation of these three, ghana provides the material perceptual medium. In other words, kalā, pāta and laya constitute the factors of tāla, measurement of musical time, its objective or function so to say, and the ghana-vādya (the solid instruments), its medium of expression.

This exposition of tāla can properly-and fully be comprehended by understanding the related concepts of ghana, kalā, pāta, laya and kāla (time).

Ghana has already been explained as the solid musical instrument used as the medium for the manifestation of tāla, but it will yet be worthwhile to look at it from Bharata's perspective. Bharata, as already pointed out, classifies his instrumental ensemble into four types of instrument, viz., tata, avanaddha, ghana and suṣira. But distinguishing them by their characteristic properties and their role in a musical performance, he further divides them into groups, viz., the ensemble of the stringed instruments (tata kutapa)3 and the ensemble of the covered instruments, i.e. drums (avanaddha kutapa) including the suṣira (wind instruments) into the former and the ghana into the latter.3 This classification is essentially based on his concept of svara (tone), which he says is two-fold, viz., body-based (śārirah) and based on stringed instruments

1Tālayoktbhṛt is a text variant.

2Kutapa signifies a group of allied instruments and may roughly be equated with what is now called an ensemble.

3cf. N.S., (G.O.S.), 28.3.

225 The Evolution of the Concept of Tāla

(vaidah).1 Agein it is seen that according to Bharata, Gāndharva (music) is caused (i.e. created) by voice, the lute (vīṇā) and the flute (vamśa).2 That is because obviously these three are capable of producing the svaras (tones). Thus, the rationale of the avanaddha and tata kutapas being formed separately lies in their being atonal and tonal instruments. So, the avanaddhas and the ghanas are recognized to be atonal in nature as well as function. This explains why ghana was assigned the function of manifesting tāla. However, it yet remains to be seen why avanaddha was not considered suitable for this purpose, but for the present what is more important is to comprehend tāla as understood by Bharata.

Since the very function of tāla is to measure time of a musical rendering, it will be of immense value to grasp the notion of time as understood by the ancients. The other constituent factors of tāla given are kalā, pāta and laya. Of these, the first two represent action. Time is considered to be eternal by itself and therefore unlimited. The fundamental question therefore arises, can time be measured and if so, how.

Time is differently conceived in the different schools of Indian philosophy. It will not be relevant to our inyestigation to go into the philosophical intricacies of their exposition. Here we are concerned with time that is measurable. Thus, time is conceived in two aspects, eternal and transitory. According to the Vaiśeṣika system of philosophy, time is an eternal substance3 and the basis of all experiment. We do not know what time is in itself but our experience is cast in its fold.

Time in itself is one but it appears to be many with reference to the changes or events that take place in it.4 Time itself is not measurable; what is measurable is the action or the event that takes place in it, the limitation thereof being subsequently attributed to time. This time is transitory and relative, it always has a point of reference or a standard of measurement with reference to which it becomes perceptible. This time is chronological and consists in the notion of sequence in which certain events are prior and other posterior. But the time that is eternal is yet the substratum of this partial time. Abhinavagupta calls it the kāla khaṇḍa,

3Ibid., 28.12.

4Ibid., 28.10.

5cf. V.S., II.2.7.

6cf. Tarkasangraha, 15.

i.e., a portion of time. He further says that it is the action of singing that is actually measured in terms of time. He elucidates Bharata's definition in these terms:

यद्धनं नामवाद्यमातोद्यं प्रोक्तमुच्यते । तस्य तालेन भाविना वाद्य-दिसङ्ख्यादावप्ति: शब्धक्रियाविशेषयोगेन यस्ताल: परिन्छिद्यात्मको काललक्षण: क्रियात्मक द्वयात्मा स एव गीतक्रियाप्रमाणपरिच्छेदो-पाय: ।1

The purport is as follows: "The tāla that arises from the instrument spoken of as ghana by the application of sounding actions such as samya and unsounding actions such as avapa, which embodies action within a portion of time and is essentially a substance, is the means of measuring (literally limiting) the extent of the act of singing."

In other words tāla is conceived by him to be the means, fashioned out of the saśabda and nihśabda kriyās, for measuring the extent of the act of singing, as it is extended in time. If extension be understood as the quality or property of space, then tāla is essentially the means of determining and regulating the act of singing in time-space. But Abhinavagupta has referred to only two aspects of tāla, namely, movement (kriyā) and divisive time-measurement (paricchitti). But there are two other aspects also which are equally important. They are patterns of the time-division and their cyclic recurrence.

Again he says that time cannot be perceived without action,2 rather it is time that is the cause of every limitation.3 Time is, as already pointed out, the formal cause of all change, its material cause being the limited objects or particular actions. So, action or kriyā is a means of determining the divisions of time in its transitory aspect and time on the other hand is the substratum in which the action takes place in its eternal aspects.

Since tāla is the means of measuring the act of singing in time-space, according to Abhinavagupta, Śārṅgadeva identifies tāla with kāla (time). He says,

1See Ab. Bha., on N.S. (G.O.S), 31.1, p. 151.

2न काल: क्रियाव्यतिरेकेऽपि तु सदैवो पारिच्छेदको भवति । काल: हि मुख्य्यते ।

—Abh. Bha., on N.S., (G.O.S.), 31.1, p. 151

3Ibid.

कालो लघ्वादिमितया क्रियया संमितो मितम् । गीतादिविदधत्ताल: स च द्विषा वृथा स्मृत: ।। ३ ।।

"Providing through action (kriyā) measured by units such as laghu etc., the measurement of song (gīta) etc., time is tāla."1

Though Śārṅgadeva is a close follower of Bharata, a critical scrutiny of the definitions of tāla given by the two authors points to a certain development in the very concept of tāla. The difference between the two, however, cannot be said to be categorical, but nevertheless it provides ample evidence of the development of the idea in the same direction.

To Bharata, tāla was inextricably associated with the medium of its expression, i.e., ghana, which shows that his understanding was concrete; but to Śārṅgadeva, tāla is nothing but time which signifies an abstract concept based on the distinction that was made between the subject and the medium of expression. This development in conceptual terms was probably a necessary forerunner to the change over from the ghana to the avanaddha as a medium of expression for tāla in Indian music.

According to Bharata it is the ghana (vādya) along with kāla, pāta and laya that provides the standards of measurement in time 2 Abhinavagupta marks a development in his concept of tāla when he says that tālu arising from ghana with the sounding and the unsounding actions as well as tempo, is the means of determining the extent of the act of singing as delimited in terms of time-space.3

And Śārṅgadeva says that time as delimited by the actions measured by laghu etc., and thereby setting the measurement of song-dance etc., is tāla.4

Abhinavagupta represents one stage of development and Śārṅ-gadeva another. With Bharata tāla arises out of ghana, in order to measure time; for Abhinavagupta, it is not time that is measured by tāla, it is the extent (i.e. the time-scape) of the act of singing that is sought to be measured by tāla, and for Śārṅgadeva, time as qualified by the measured expanse of the act of singing is tāla. The whole process achieves the isolation of tāla from the medium of its

1S.R., 5.3.

2cf. N.S., (G.O.S.), 31.1.

3cf. Abh. Bha., on N.S., (G.O.S.), 31.1, p. 151.

4cf. S.R., 5.2.

experession. Abhinavagupta develope the concept that it is the act of singing that is the object of measurement in time, but does not dissociate it from ghana; while Sārṅgadeva develops the concept of associating laghu and guru etc., which are the time units measured through kalā and pāta in order to manifest tāla, dispensing with any explicit reference to ghana.

Sangīta-cūdāmaṇi, defines tāla as:

तालः कालस्य यन्मानं मात्राजं हि क्रियाकृतम् ।

i.e., "tāla signifies measuremcnt of time through the mātrās produced by (sounding and unsounding) actions." It may be observed that already the reference to ghana was not considered essential in .p. ojecting the concept of tāla in the 12th century.

Whether it is time that is measured by tālu or the act of singing that is measured by tāla in time, tāla is predominantly concerned with time, a factor that is clearly brought out by Sārṅgadeva. All the same it is true, as pointed out by Abhinavagupta, that time is not perceptible without action or change. And it is the pattern of action that determincs the form of tāla. Again change implies alternation of relative action and rest, the frequency of which produces tempo (laya). So in fact we can see how the three factors—time, action and the rate of change (caused by relative action and pause) go to constitute tāla. It is also clear how time is related to action and tempo. So fundamentally, whatever has been said by Sārṅgadeva, Jagadekamalla and Abhinavagupta, is no doubt implied in Bharata, but the 'credit of realising these implications and stating them in their own way lies with them. Incidentally, their respective perceptions were responsible for the rcfinement and precision that the concept of tāla receives in Sārṅgadeva.

Time, or the expanse of the act of singing in time is measured through kalā and pāta, i.e., the sounding and the silent actions. How is this achieved? By striking a bronze instrument (or a ghaṭa, i.e., a pitcher) at regular intervals of time. Though the ghana was used for keeping time the other system of keeping time by the clapping of hands continued to the maint:ined in a modified and improved form, at least as far as the Mārg.i tālas are concerned. Originally, as it appears, tāla was kept and manifested by the hand. The action of the hand is called kriyā which is conceived to be of two types, viz., saśabda (sounding) and nihśabda (silent). Bharata

has given the other set of terms, viz., kalā and pāta. The word . kalā is used in various senses, it denotes generally a unit of time-measure in tāla as accompanied with some action, nihśabda or saśabda, and particularly it signifies the nihśabda kriyā in contrast with pāta that signifies sounding action.'

Kalā literally signifies a phase or thereby a part of a whole, and thus, it has the function of a unit in the cycle of tāla. This unit of time has no absolute value, it varies according to the Mārga or the particular span of tāla to which it is related. The fact that it has no absolute value is very important as this flexibility was utilised in evolving the structure of Deśi tālas to great advantage. But all the same it does not mean that it has no fixed value.

In metrical measure a kulā is equal to a mātrā which is equivalent to the time taken by pronouncing a short vowel or the time of a nimeṣa (i.e., winking of the eyes). Here, in the context of tāla, a ' kalā or mātrā is equal to five laghus.2 However, in the Mārga tālas the actual unit of tāla which is called kalā consists of two laghus or a guru (of the tāla system). Thus, each kalā of tāla is equal to the time taken by pronouncing ten short syllables (or vowels). Laghu is, however, used in the yathākṣara form which will be dealt with presently.

Bharata says that kalā is threefold according to as it pertains to the three Mārgas3, viz., Citrā, Vārtikā and Dakṣiṇā. Thus, the concept of kalā is inevitably related to that of Mārga in the Mārga tālas. Sārṅgadeva speaks of four Mārgas adding. Dhruva in the beginning. According to him in the Dhruva Mārga, the kalā is of one mātrā, in Citrā, of two mātrās, in Vārtikā of four mātrās and in Dakṣiṇā it has eight mātrās, the mātrā being equal to a laghu.4 In practice the Dhruva Mārga is hardly ever used. So, practically a kalā is at least of the measure of 2 laghus or one guru. It is quite

'cf. S. R., 5.4.

2cf. S.R., 5.16—

पञ्चदशदशकशोरज्जामितया मानेह कल्पते । ९९ ।।

अनया मात्रावसानसमुत्पन्नगुरुप्रबन्धान् कल्पना ।

and also see: N.S., (G.O.S.), 31.2 and 31.4, which says:

निमेषपद् चिलेवा पीतकालैकसातनन्तरम् ।

A nimeṣa is found to be equal to 0.24 seconds, the laghu of tāla is therefore equal to 1.20 seconds.

3See N.S., (G.O.S.), 31.3.

4See S.R., 5,10-11.

interesting to note that the Sangītacūḍāmaṇi speaks of six Mārgaṣ,1

viz., Dakṣiṇā, Vārtika, Citrā, Citratara, Citratama and Aṭicitratama

with their kalās respectively consisting of eight, four, two, one,

half mātrā and anudruta.2 Jagadekamalla is said to be a contempo-

rary of Śārṅgadeva. Someśvara, who is predecessor of both, also

speaks of four Mārgaṣ viz., Vārtika, Dakṣiṇā, Citrā and Citratara.3

And he clearly says that "in this way the measure of sounding

action in tāla is known to be fourfold."4

The addition to the three Mārgaṣ of Bharata in different ways is

a clear pointer to the development of Deśī tālas which, as it will

be observed later, have laghu as their standard unit of measure-

ment in contrast with the guru of Mārga tālas. It was due to this

development probably that Someśvara had to devise Citratara

Mārga and Śārṅgadeva had to add the Dhruva Mārga, while Jaga-

dekamalla went to the extent of innovating six Mārgaṣ in com-

pliance with the structure of Deśī tālas. Śārṅgadeva did not need

to do that because he, at the very outset classified tāla.into Mārga

and Deśī.5 So. subsequently the application of the concept of

Mārgaṣ was abandoned with regard to the Deśī tālas which

acquired a distinct identity. But, nevertheless, Jagadekamalla's

attempt to comprehend all the tālas into a system of six Mārgaṣir

and Śārṅgadeva's classification of tālas into Mārga and Deśī mark

a point of departure from the older tradition in practice.

Someśvara's clear statement that the four Mārgaṣ provide a

cance of the concept of Mārga, which in Śārṅgadeva's treatment is

very intimately related to the concept of the threefold tāla in terms

of ekakala, dvikala and catuskala forms of all the Mārga tālas,

associating them with the Citrā, Vārtika and the Dakṣiṇā Mārgaṣ

respectively. The concept of Mārgaṣ is also related to that of tempo

(laya). However, this aspect will be considered while dealing with

laya. Mārga essentially implies a device for providing different

standards of measuring the same tāla-structure. For example, the

1See Sangītacūḍāmaṇi, 51-54.

2Anudruta is of the value of one-fourth of a mātrā.

3See Mānasollāsa, 4.16.850

4एवं चतुर्धा मानं तालपाते प्रकार्तितवम् !

—Mānasollāsa, 4.16.851

5See S.R., 5.4.

Indeed some have suggested that the Mārga-tālas are those tālas that find

expression in terms of Mārgaṣ.

yathākṣara or ekakala form of caccatpuṭa is SSIS, i.e., two guruṣ,

one laghu and pluta. A guru is equivalent to two laghuṣ. Thus in all, it has four kalāṣ of two

laghuṣ, each of which is capable of being expanded to give rise to

what is known as a pādabhāga (section). The dvikala form com-

prises eight guruṣ in four groups of two guruṣ each, viz., SS SS SS

SS and the catuskala form comprises sixteen guruṣ in four groups

of four guruṣ each. viz., SSSS SSSS SSSS SSSS. This expansion of

the basic structure is achieved by introducing niḥśabda kalā in

between the saśabda kalāṣ. This is amply demonstrated by the

pattern of the saśabda and niḥśabda kalāṣ in them as shown below:

(a) Ekakala caccatpuṭa

(b) Dvikala caccatpuṭa

(c) Catuṣkala caccatpuṭa

Here it may be mentioned that the kalāṣ are named as follows:

Name of saśabda

kalā

Abbre-

viation

Name of niḥśabda

kalā

Abbre-

viation

1. Dhruva

Dhru

ā

āvāpa

ā

2. Śamya

śa

niṣkrāma

ni

3. Tāla

tā

vikṣepa

vi

4. Sannipāta

sam

praveśa

pra

Now, it will be observed that the ekakala form has all saśabda

kriyāṣ, the dvikala form begins with a niḥśabda kriyā and proceeds

with a niḥśabda and a saśabda kriyā in each pādabhāga. Similarly,

it may be seen that catuskala form as well has one saśabda kriyā

and three niḥśabda kriyāṣ in each pādabhāga, thus having the same

four saśabda kriyāṣ as in the ekakala form. It is therefore obvious

that Mārga implies a variation of the time-measure of a particular tāla-structure.

The third constituent factor of tāla is laya (tempo).1 Bharata clearly says that tempo (laya) is caused by the time-space taken by the kalās.2 The time-interval obtained between one sounding kalā and another is called viśrānti (rest) by Sārṅgadeva who defines laya as “rest immediately following action.”3 In other words, tempo is nothing but the interval of time between a series of actions (kriyās). This concept is naturally to be contrasted with the modern concept of laya as speed or rate of action. The former considers rest as the substance of laya while the latter considers action as its substance. Of course it goes without saying that the two are related like the two sides of the same coin, but the consequence of this difference in emphasis is such that the way of expressing it today is just the opposite of what it was earlier. Nowadays the expression ‘increase of laya’ means the increase of speed of action and consequently the decrease of the period of rest, which is the very opposite of the earlier concept according to which the increase of laya meant the increase of the rest period and the decrease of the rate of action. So, laya, according to the ancients, consists of primarily in the period of rest.

What lends tāla a distinct identity with reference to rhythm is what Dattila calls parivarta and Sārṅgadeva calls parivartana which he defines as the repetition of a pādabhāga (i.e., a section) or the whole of tāla.4 It is this repetition or recurrence in a cyclic order that distinguishes tāla from simple rhythm. This concept of parivarta or parivartana it seems, has come down to us in the form of āvartana of modern practice.

1 cf. Dattilam where tāla is said to be based on laya, kāla and kalā:

श्रुतं हि तानं प्रवर्तयति नयकालकलाग्रहं । १०३ ।

—Dattilam. 109

2 N.S., (G.O.S.), 31.5—

सतः: कलाऋतो लय तत्वपरिच्छित:

लयो जयास्तु विश्रेयो हृत्सु मध्येऽथिलम्वितः: ॥ ४ ॥

3 S.R., 5.44—

क्रियानन्तरविज्ञान्तिर्वीय: ।

4 ग्रावृत्ति: पादावृत्तौ; परिसंवर्तनं स्मृतम् ।

—S.R., 5.52

Kallinātha, commenting on ddeb of the text says that implies the whole of tāla. See S.R., Adyar edn., vol. III, p. 24. Also cf. Dattilam, III.

Besides parivarta, yati and graha are other two concepts related to that of laya. Yati is defined by Sārṅgadeva as “the regulation effecting laya (tempo).”1 A melody or a musical rendering is conceived as divided into three parts, viz., the beginning, middle and the end. Yati or its three varieties, viz., samā, śrotogalā and gopuccha2 consists of the varied distribution of the slow, the middle and the fast tempo. We need not go into details here, the concept being very clear in so far as it is related to the distribution of musical speed over the entire body of a composition or a rendering.

Similarly, the concept of graha comprehends the relationship between the commencement of the tāla-pattern and that of the rendering The three types of graha, viz., sama, atīta and anāgata relate to the three layas, viz., one, after and before the commencement of the composition.

In modern musical practice, sama is the aesthetic confluence of the singer, player and drummer. This is the point where the beauty and the intricacies of rāga and tāla tend to get focused. This is one of the unique aspects of Hindustānī music. In Karṇāṭic music, the old concept of graha still continues. There the focal point is the start of the composition and all the intricacies of tāla and svara are calculated towards that point. Sārṅgadeva defines sama as “the graha (hold) in which the commencement of tāla coincides in time with that of melody.”3 The function and the relationship of atīta and anāgata is interpreted differently by Källinātha and Siṁhabhū-pāla. The concept of Källinātha is related to the starting point of the drummer; the other relates to the starting point of the singer.4

We are presently concerned with grasping the concept of tāla as a whole. It seems that gradually the complexity of the three types of graha gave way to the simplicity of sama which discharged the function of graha. Sama or graha as such is one of the most important factors of tāla in Indian music system.

1 लयप्रत्ययसाधनमो यतिरितीर्यते बुधै: ।

समा श्रुतोगता चैव गोपुच्छा लवियोजित: सा ॥

—S.R., V.46-47

2 cf. S.R., 5.47-50 for details.

3 S.R., 5.51.

4 See Källinātha and Siṁhabhūpāla on S.R., 5.50-52. According to Källinā-tha atīta is that which commences prior to the commencement of melody while according to Siṁhabhūpāla atīta is that which commences after the melody has begun. Similarly their interpretation of anāgata also varies.

It has been observed that- tāla is indicated through the action

of saśabda and nihśabda kriyās. But alongside it has also been

observed that tāla was to be manifested through ghana. When tāla

was kept by the action of hand, what was the need for pressing the

ghana into service? Or, conversely, when tāla was to be kept with

the help of ghana what was the need for the system of sounding

and silent movements of the hand?

Śārṅgadeva throws some light on this question while he defines

the utility and the functions of tāladhara. He says, "A separate

cymbal holder (tāladhāra) expert'in the gāndharva system should

be provided to assist the singer and to safeguard against his

inadvertance."1

Obviously, the idea is that a tāladhara is necessary to relieve the

attention of the singer from the pre-occupation of keeping tāla. So

it must have been observed that this preoccupation constituted a

distraction in concentrating upon the act of singing. If it is

reasonably conceived that originally tāla was kept by the hand

through the system of saśabda and nihśabda kriyās, this considera-

tion must have been responsible for the introduction of ghana as

the medium for the manifestation of tāla. Now, why of the two

atonal instruments, viz., ghana and avanaddha, was this function

assigned to ghana to begin with?

Abhinavagupta, while expounding the utility of ghana as a

medium of keeping tāla points out that the system of indicating

tāla through the sounding and the silent acts of the hand is rele-

vant only in the context of the gāndharva and not with regard to

gāna, so much so that even the Dhruvā-gāna, described by Bharata

has no use for the hand-indicating of tāla. Thus for gāna it was

ghana only thàt was to be used as a medium of tāla. All those

forms of music that have no reference to adṛṣṭaphala (mystic merit)

such as Dhruvā songs and Deśī rāgas are outside the scope

of Mārga Sangīta; so for these forms which are technically

called gāna in contradistinction to gāndharva, ghana was the

medium of tāla. This confirms our hypothesis that the system of

1S.R., 5.38-39—

गानस्यवंशेनुकूलः: कांस्यतालाधरो पर: ।

नातु: सहायः: कर्तव्यः: प्रमादभयविनुत्तये ।।

Kāllinātha elucidates that the Jātis, Grāmo rāgas, the six types of rāgas and

the fourteen gītakas constitute gāndharva while the four Mārgas are indicated

by the word Mārga.

Indicating tāla by the hand movements is a hangover from earlier

times, when this function was discharged exclusively by the clapping

of hands.

Another point made by him is that the use of ghana or kāmsya-

tāla secures what is called prayuga-sāmya.1 The concept of sāmya

is used by Dattila as well.3 But the significance of this concept is

not technically very clear. Literally, sāmya means evenness, equa-

bility, concord, harmony, etc. Moreover, as he argues, tāla is used

not only by the singers, who can, in all probability show

sounding and the silent kriyās by the hand, but also by the instru-

mentalists and the dancers who cannot attend to their performance

fully and to tāladhara who is keeping time by hand. A kāmsya-

tāla is naturally helpful to them directly Probably kāmsya is

indicative of the concordance of tonal and rhythmic aspects of a

rendering. This concordance could not be achieved as best by

employing the technique of the hand alone as by a bronze instru-

ment. Besides Sārṅgadeva has given an added purpose for ghana,

viz., to provide a cover for the inadvertance of the singer, obviously

referring thereby to the same consideration as that of Dattila in

the terms of achieving sāmya. Thus, ghana is more helpful in

securing co-ordination between singing, playing on instruments,

dancing and rhythm or tempo, i.e., gīta, vādy a, nrtya and tāla, in

sangīta.

Abhinavagupta points out another function of kāmsyatāla (a

bronze instrument) quoting Viśākhila in terms of "gātuh prasāda

parikṣaṇam"3, i.e., for determining the singer's clarity in time-

measure. The word prasāda in view of what Sārṅgadeva has said

may be deciphered as pramāda (inadvertence) in this expression and

then it would seem that the function of kāmsyatāla as deterrent to

the inadvertence of the singer, as already pointed out by him.

Avanaddha was obviously meant for sangati function that could

not be assigned to ghana since relatively the avandddhas (drums)

are less atonal than ghana-vādyas. The tablā is, for example, set to

tune in any performance. Moreover, avanaddha is capable of

2See Abh. Bh.. on N.S., 32.2, (G.O.S.), p. 152.

1 सामातु: सहायः: भवेत्: साम्याविधौ: परहि: । —Dattilam, 110

3See Abh. Bha.. on N.S., 31.2, (G.O.S.), p. 152.

The expression प्राणिप्रसाद: यातु: प्राताद: परोक्षप्रयोजनं: कौत्स्यतालं: मन्यन्ते: can well

be deciphered to read-प्रमाादविलक्षणं ।

236

producing what we call bols which make it more suitable for

sangati and also lend it an element of delightfulness. This ought

to be one of the reasons for assigning the function of tāla to

ghana.

Enumerating the concepts related to the exposition of tāla,

Bharata mentions twenty-one terms that comprehend the subject

matter of tāla. There are:

1. dhruva, 2. āvāpa, 3. niṣkrāma, 4. vikṣepa, 5. praveśa,

2. śāmya, 7. tāla and 8 saṃipinīta, constituting the niḥśabda

and the saśabda kriyā-s, 9. parivarta, 10. vastu, 11. mātrā-s,

12. the prakaraṇa (gītas), 13. their aṅgas, 14. vidārī, 15. yati-s,

13. layas, 17. gīīs, 18. āwayavas, 19. mārgas, 20. pādabhāgas

14. and pāṇis.1

From amongst these we have already dealt briefly or extensively

with the kriyās (1 to 8), parivarta (9), mātrās (11), yatis (15), layas

(16), mārgas (19) and pādabhāgas (20) as well as the pāṇis (21),

which are the same as the three grahas, viz., sama, atīta and

anāgata. Most of the other concepts are related to what are called

the parkaraṇa gītas or gītakas. As far as the concept of tāla is

concerned the related concepts have been expounded in due pro-

portion to their role. The other concepts we shall be dealing with

while considering the structure of the Mārga tālas and gītakas.

While Bharata has given twenty-one factors of tāla as enumerat-

ed above and Dattila has reduced them to fifteen, Śārṅgadeva

again presents twenty-one which are not the same as those of

Bharata but are much more comprehensive in including every

detail of the technique of tāla. These are: 1. mārga tālas, 2. kālās

(unsounding actions), 3. pātas (sounding actions), 4. mārgas

(spans), 5. the eight mārgakālās such as dhruvaka, citrā, etc., 6. the

standard measure of guru and laghu, 7. the classification as ekakala

dvikala and caṭuṣkala, 8. the pādabhāgas (sections), 9. the mātrā,

10. the technique of pāta and kalā, 11. the regulation of fingering

(aṅguliniyama), 12. the classification or varieties such as yugma

(even), ayugma (odd), etc., 13. parivarta, 14. layas, 15. yatis, 16.

gītakas, 17. gītas, 18. tālāṅgas, 19. gītāṅgas, 20. Deśī-tālas and

1See N.S., (G.O.S.), 31.18-20. Dattila enumerates fifteen concepts comprehen-

ding the eight kriyās into kalā and pāta (i.e. silent or sounding actions).

237

The Evolution of the Concept of Tāla

pratyayas (tabular formula)

Obviously these are not the factors of tāla but the topics treated

by him in the Tālādhyāya. It is not our intention here to repro-

duce the description of each topic. Some of the later writers' have

further reduced the essentials of tāla to what is called the daśa

(ten) prāṇas (ten vital essentials). These are: 1. kāla, 2. mārga,

3. kriyā, 4. aṅga, 5. graha, 6. jāti, 7. kalā, 8. laya, 9. yati, and

4. prastāra.

Of these all but jāti and prastāra have already been dealt with.

The rest of them will naturally be explained in the next topic, viz.,

the structure of tāla.

Classification and Structure of Tāla

The tālas are primarily divided as Mārga tālas and Deśī tālas by

Śārṅgadeva2 though such a clear-cut distinction is not made by his

predecessors. Bharata deals only with the former. The tāla-struc-

ture is constructed by the saśabda and the niḥśabda kriyās (sound-

ing and silent actions) which in-between them also create tempo.

The common name for both these kriyās is kalā and Bharata says

that “kalā is threefold being based on or regulated by the three

varied Mārgas. In Catrā mārga, it consists of two mātrās, in Vārtika,

it is doubled, and in Dakṣiṇā, it is four times (i.e. of 8 mātrās).”3

A mātrā, as already mentioned, consists of five nimeṣas4 or the

laghus of Saṃskṛta prosody. This mātrā is also called laghu.5 The

word mātrā also bears quite a different technical meaning; it

denotes a unit of four pādbhāgas in the construction of gītakas

such as madraka and so on.6 But that is exceptional. The word

mātrā literally means ‘measure’, ‘extent’ in different contexts. Here

in the context of tāla it represents a unit of time.

Thus, kalā is threefold as used in the three Mārgas, the minimum

extent being of two mātrās. That is why Śārṅgadeva clearly lays

down that in the context of ekakala, dvikala and caṭuṣkala forms of

the gītakas kalā signifies a guru which is the equivalent of two

mātrgas.1 In the Mātrās tālas we have another unit called pluta

2Such as Raja Tulaja. Veṅkaṭamakhin, Rāpā Kumbha, etc.

3N.S., (G.O.S.), 31.4.

4A nimeṣa (winking of an eye) is found to be equal to the value of 0.24 second

in our terms.

5See S.R., 5.16-17.

6Ibid., 31.21.

238

which is equal to three mātrās or laghus. But nevertheless a pāda-

bhāga is mentioned in terms of kalās, i.e., gurus. For example, the

yathākṣara caccatputa has two gurus, one laghu and one pluta, i.e.,

2+2+1+3=8 mātrās, and so four kalās in its yathākṣara form

and eight and sixteen kalās in its dvikala and catuskala forms

respectively.

The Mārga tālas are divided into two classes (jātis), viz. catura-

śra and tryaśra which are symbolised by the caccatputa and cāca-

puta tālas.2 The first one of these has four kalās and the second

one has three kalās in their yathākṣara forms while in their

dvikala, and catuskala forms they shall have the multiples (4×2=8

and 4×4=16) of four and three (3×2=6 and 3×4=12) kalās in a

pādabhāga.3

The five Mārga tālas are distributed among these two jātis as

under:

Caturaśra

Tryaśra

1. Caccatputa

2. Cācaputa

3. Satpitāputraka4

4. Udghatta

5. Sampakveṣṭaka5

The ekakala and other forms of these are represented as under:

Name of tāla

Yāthākṣara

Dvikala

Catuṣkala

1. Caccatputa

ŚSŚS

SS SS

SSSS SSSS

SS SS

SSSS SSSS

2. Cācapuṭa

ŚIŚS

SS SS SS

SSSS SSSS SSSS

3. Satpitāputraka

ŚIŚŚŚ

SS SS SS

SSSS SSSS SSSS

2पूः कलामः 1 —S.R., 5.20

2See N.S., (G.O.S.), 31.8 and S.R., 5.17-18.

Name of tāla

Yathakṣara

Drikala

Catuṣkala

1. Caccatputa

SSŚS

SSSS

SSSS SSSS

SSSS

SSSS SSSS

2. Cācapuṭa

SSŚS

SSSSS

SSSS SSSS

SS

SS

The terms yathakṣara etc., will be explained presently.

239

The Evolution of the Concept of Tāla

4. Udghatta

SSSS

SS SS SS

SSSS SSSS

5. Sampakreṣṭaka

ŚSSSŚ

SS SS SS

SSSS SSSS SSSS

Corresponding to the three Mārgas spoken of by Bharata as it

were, we have three forms of these Mārga tālas viz. yathākṣara,

dvikala and catuskala. The term yathākṣara signifies the namewise

arrangement of laghus and gurus.1 Yathākṣara is also called eka-

kala’ which signifies that on the whole a kalā represents a unit that

is capable of developing into a pādabhāga. Accordingly in the

dvikala form a pādubhāga has two kalās and in the catuskala form

it has four kalās.3

Apart from these five tālas, Śārṅgadeva also speaks of three

other varieties of cācapuṭa which are constructed out of the multi-

ples of its catuskala form.4

The construction of the Mārga tālas in terms of time-space has

been elucidated as above, but in actual practice the tālas are kept

by the saśabda and the niḥśabda kriyās and it is the regulation per-

taining to these kriyās (aṅguli niyama) that goes to form the tāla-

pattern. This technique has already been demonstrated while

expounding the concept of tāla. The eight kalās (four silent and

sounding) are demonstrated by the finger-movement as under.5

Name of kalā

Nature

Acti n

1. Āvāpa

Unsounding

Drawing in of the fingers of

the outstretched and upturn-

ed hands.

2. Niṣkrāma

Unsounding

Stretching of fingers of over-

turned hands.

. 3. Vikṣepa

Unsounding

Throwing of the upturned

1See S.R., 5.19—

नामवतेरगीतं पदावलर्: 1

2See Kallinātha on S.R., 5.18-19, p. 10, vol. III.

3See S.R., 5.20-21—

• • हि᳄खने हि᳄क्नो मः ॥ १९ ॥

वाद्याभाग: वसामार्गं तु वतु᳄कले चतु᳄कले ॥

What has been said about the ekakala has been inferred from this.

4See S.R.. 5.25.

cf. S.R.. 5.7-10,