1. Figurative Poetry In Sanskrit Literature - Kalanath Jha 1975 MLBD

FIGURATIVE POETRY IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

KALANATH JHA

FIGURATIVE POETRY IN

SANSKRIT LITERATURE

K ALANATH JHA, M. A., Ph. D. Department of Sanskrit nhagali ir University, Bhagalpur

MOTILAL BANARSIDASS IELHI :: VARANASI :: PATNA

@MOTILAL BANARSIDASS Indological Publishers and Booksellers Head Office : BUNGALOW ROAD, JAWAHARNAGAR, DELHI-7 Branches : 1. CHOWK, VARANASI (U.P.) 2. ASHOK RAJ PATH (OPP. PATNA COLLEGE), PATNA-4 (BIHAR)

ISBN O 8426 0819 2

First Edition : Delhi, 1975 Price : Rs .: MLBD

Printed in India BY SHANTILAL JAIN, AT SHRI JAINENDRA PRESS BUNGALOW ROAD, JAWAHARNAGAR, DELHI-7, AND PUBLISHED BY SUNDARLAL JAIN FOR MOTILAL BANARSIDASS, BUNGALOW ROAD, JAWAHARNAGAR, DELHI-7

CONTENTS

Pages PREFACE vii

ABBREVIATIONS ix

CHAPTERS

I : Introduction 1 Poetry vis-a-vis powers of denotation, indication and suggestion-Word and meaning relation-Ingredients of poetry-Figures vis-a-vis Citrakāvya-Figures vis-a-vis senti- ment-Imagination and poetry-Imagination and imagery- Place of Citrakavya in poetry in general-Figures vis-a-vis suggestion. II : Development of Concepts 24 Meaning of Citra-Citrālamkāra-Citrasūtras-allitera- tion and the styles of compositions-Chime and its divisions -Ubhayacitra and the figures comprising it-Arthacitra and Bimbānubimba-relation-Kūtas-Prahelikā and its varieties- Varieties of Citra as Svaracitra etc .- Citra and Vakratā. III : Śabdacitra 45 Alliteration and its divisions-Chime and its divisions- Their complex varieties-Srnkhalā, Padabhyāsa, Ślokābhyāsa, Pratilomaślokārdha-Citrabandhas : Samudgaka, Ardhabhrama, Sarvatobhadra, Gomūtrikā, Turangapada, Sarayantra-Ākā- racitras : Padmabandha, Cakrabandha etc .- Bandhacitras : Chatra, Patākā, Muraja etc .- Common features. IV : Ubhayacitra 68 Whether a division of Citrakavya at all ?- Whether pictorial ?- Its varieties-Kūtas and Praśnas-Their sub- varieties-Concealment in Kutas-Dropping or placement- Contribution of Bhoja to Kūtas in particular and Ubhayacitra in general-Prahelikās : Daņdin and Vișnudharmottarapurāņa -Minor varieties of Ubhayacitra : Akșaramușțikā etc.

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V : Arthacitra 102 Image vis-a-vis suggestion-Arthacitra vis-a-vis similes and metaphors-Contribution of C.D. Lewis to the idea of Image Poetry-Bimba and image-Symbol vis-a-vis image- Importance and value of Citrakāvya-Figures of similitude capable of production of image-other such figures-Visual capacity and evocative power of words. VI : History of Citrakāvya 135 Vedic kernel of Kūtas-Riddle hymns-Arthacitra in Vedic literature-Kūțas in Mahābhārata-Bhāgavatapurāņa, Bhāravi, Māgha, Bhatti, rī Harșa and Daņdin-Less impor- tant poems but devoted wholly to Citrakāvya; Yamaka-, Ślesa, Dvisandhāna-, Trisandhāna-, Niranunāsika-, Nir- dantya-, Niroşțhya-, Viloma-, Vakrokti-, Vyājokti-, and Citrabandakavyas-Arthacitra in classical literature. VII : Conclusion 162 Idea of image in our old literature-Alamkāravādins- Conditions for production of imagc-Seed of the concept of image-Modern psychological theory of the production of image-Symbolist vis-a-vis Imagist Poetry-Indian theory of suggestion vis-a-vis Citrakāvya-Western view of creative poetry-Definition of Citrakāvya x-rayed-Pictorialism in itself not to be condemned. APPENDIX I The Imagist movement in Western Poetry 186 BIBLIOGRAPHY 191 APPENDIX II Illustrations 195 INDEX 203 Errata 211

PREFACE

'Citrakāvya' or 'Figurative poetry', in classical view, consists of the figures of speech and in the western-oriented present view taken, it is pictorial or imagist. Citrakāvya is figurative also because in the form of Bandhas etc. in Sabda- citra, it is expressed through figures or designs. The concept of figurative poetry in Sanskrit literature, which I have moulded from scanty materials available here and there is comparatively a new one. The seed of the concept un- doubtedly lies in the Dhvanyaloka of Anandavardhana. It got some sprouting in the Locana of Abhinavagupta and Rasa- gangādhara of Paņditarāja Jagannātha, but its further develop- ment stopped. Thus the tender sapling of figurative poetry withered. On the contrary, in western literature this movement grew into a vigorous force in the shape of imagist poetry. This work presents an attempt to put the figurative deve- lopment of Sanskrit literature on the foothold of imagist poetry and should be viewed in this perspective. Again though only Arthacitra has the real imagist value and character, I have undertaken study of Sabdacitra and Ubhayacitra as well to bring to bear upon all the highways and byways of the development. Arthacitra, thus, has in its embryo the image of sense in its western parlance. Ordinarily, in our own classical view, it means only the peculiarity in meaning. Based chiefly on the figures of similitude, in this back- ground, Arthacitra would visualise production of image from reflection of the matter in hand in the standard of similitude. The image thus produced will emerge on the canvass of our mind. Its value will be determined by the measuring degree of its emotive character, as only the emotive images are the most natural, effective, and hence superb. In Sanskrit rhetorics, suggestive poetry is the best but in western poetics imagist or pictorial poetry occupies this place. Naturally, the question whether suggestive poetry is imagist

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and vice-versa is relevant. In fact, suggestiveness and imagery are no bar to each other. Thus the assertion of Sanskrit rhe- toricians that Citra variety of poetry is non-suggestive and hence of lowest order is far from truth. This poetry can often be of the highest order and this is proved beyond dispute in the present book. Of necessity, in conformity with the principles of litera- ture underlying the shift of value from suggestive to an imagist one, I had to redefine poetry in general and then to assess the place of figurative poetry in it. Other divisions and sub-divi- sions of poetry and their allied concepts have been dealt with in the new light. The chapter on the history of Citrakāvya consists, largely, of the historical development of figurative poetry based on Sabdacitra and Ubhayacitra. For keeping the idea of Citra at par with that of image, I have drawn profusely upon the works of western critics, especially C. D. Lewis, to whom I acknowledge a debt of gratitude. Of the Indian critics of thought, Krsna Caitanya has, perhaps, influenced me most. Also, my thanks are due to all those ancient and modern authors whose works I have profitably consulted. Here I beg pardon of the Rsis of Sanskrit Rhetorics for my forthright expressions especially for the new concepts which Ihave introduced not out of vanity or vindica- tion but for the convenience of accommodation. Lastly, I must remember Dr. Satyavrata Singh, formerly University Professor & Head of the Deptt. of Sanskrit, Lucknow University, who gave me this topic, and my guru and guide Dr. B. Jha, University Professor & Head of the Deptt. of Sanskrit, Patna University, for his numerous valu- able suggestions. I cannot also forget M/S Motilal Banarsidass who ultimately completed the onerous task of publication.

ABBREVIATIONS

AV Atharvaveda, ed. R. C. Sharma, Muradabad, 1929.

AB Aitareya Brāhmaņa, Ānandāśrama Sanskrit Series. AR Alankāraratnākara of Śobhākaramitra, ed. C.R. Devadhar, Poona, 1942. AS Alamkārasarvasva of Ruyyaka, ed. G.P. Dwivedī, Bombay, KMS, 1939. V-AS Alamkārasarvasva with Vimarsinī of Jayaratha. AŚ Alankārasekhara of Keśavamiśra, ed. A.R. Shāstrī, Benaras, CSS, 1927. AK Amarakosa ed. H.G. Shastrī, CSS, 1957. AA Artists on Art, Pantheon Books, 1945. .B-DAP E. Bullough : Distance as an aesthetic principle, The British Journal of Psychology, Vol. V. B-PD E. Bullough : Psychical Distance Aesthetics ed. Elizabeth M. Wilkinson, Bowes & Bowes, 1957. .B-RC Bain : Rhetoric and Composition I. B-HS C.M. Bowra : The Heritage of Symbolism. Mac- millan & Co. Ltd., London, 1959. .B-OC Baudelairé : Oeuvres Completes, ed. by Y. G. le Dantee, Gallimard, 1951. BP Bhāgvatapurāņa; ed. by Mūlacand Tulasīdās Teliwālā, Nirņayasagar, Samvat 1985. .BK Bhāmaha's Kāvyalamkāra, ed. by D. N. Sharmā, Patna. B-VP Bhartrhari's Vākyapadīya ; ed. by Subramania Iyer.

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CL Candrāloka of Jayadeva, CSS, 1950. CM Citramīmāmsā of Appaya Dīkșita, ed. by K.P. Śukla, Vāņī Vihāra, 1965. CMK -with Khandana of Jagannatha. C-A Benedetto Croce : Aesthetic, translated by Douglas Ainelie, Vision Press, Peter Owen, London. C-CO Jean Cocteau : A call to Order, trans. Rollo H. Myers, London, 1936. C-PP Paul Claudel : Positions et Propositions Vol. I, Gallimard, 1928. D-KB Kāvya Kī Bhūmikā, Dinkar, Patna, 1958. DL Dhvanyāloka of Ānandavardhana, ed. M. Shās- tri, KSS, 1940. L-DL Dhvanyaloka with Locana of Abhinavagupta. B-DL Dhvanyaloka with Balapriya Comm. D-KM Kuttanīmata of Damodaragupta, ed. by N. Caturvedī, Mitra Prakāshan Ltd., Allahabad. EV Ekāvalī of Vidyādhara, ed. K. P. Trivedī BSS, 1903. ECAJ An Exposition of the Citramimamsa of Appaya Dīksita and its Appraisal of Fagannatha's criticism : A thesis. by Dr. M. Jhā. E-MP T. S. Eliot : The Music of Poetry, Jackson,. 1942. E-FS Tr. L S. Eisenstein : Film Sense (Faber), trans. Jay Leyda. F-LLC Flaubert : Letter to Louise Colet, 1853, Corres .. pondence Vol. II. HV Hayagrivavadha. H-KN Kāvyānusāsana of Hemacandra, ed. R.C. Parikh. Bombay, 1938. HK Hindī sāhitya Men Kavyarupon ké Prayoga by Dr. S. D. Avatare, Rajpal and Sons, Delhi,. 1962. H-CEL Herbert Read : Collected Essays in Literary Critici -- sm, Faber, 1909.

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H-VM Henri Mondor : Vie de Mallarme, Gallimard, 1941. IS Īsopanişad. The works of Śankarācārya series. J-MS Dr. Jung : Modern Man in search of a soul. KD Kāvyādarsa of Dandin, ed. by B.D. Catțopādh- yāya, Calcutta 1803 Saka. KD with MP Kavyādarśa with Mālinya-Proñchani of Prema- candra Tarkavāgīa.

KP1 Kāvyaprakāśa of Mammața, ed. M.C. Nyāya- ratna, Calcutta, 1886. KP2 Kavyaprakāsa with Udyota of Nāgeśa Bhatța, edited by Sukthankar, Karņātak Publishing House, Bombay, 1941. KP3 Kavyaprakāsa with Pradīpa of Govinda Țhakkura, edited by K. P. Parab, Bombay, KMS, 1891. P-KP3 Kavyaprakāsa with Prabha of Baidyanath Tatsat on it. KN Kuvalayānanda of Appaya Dīkșit, ed. by Dr. B.S. Vyāsa (CSS, 1956). R-KN Kuvalayānanda with Rasikarañjani of Gangādhara Vājpeyin. A-KN Kuvalayānanda with Alamkāracandrika of Baidya- nāth Tatsat. KSS Kāvyālamkārasārasamgraha of Udbhața, ed. by K.S.R. Shastri, Poona, GOS, 1931. KSV Kavyālamkārasūtravītti of Vāmana, Vāņīvilāsa Press, 1909. K-AK Kavikarņapūra's Alamkārakaustubha. KM Kāvyamīmāmsā of Rājaśekhara, ed. by M. Miśra Benaras, CSS, 1934. KS Kumārasambhava, ed. by N.R. Ācārya, Bombay, KMS, 1946. KB Kādambari of Bāņa, ed. by M.R. Kale, Bombay, 1903. KV Kicakavadha, ed. by S.K. De, University of Dacca 1929. KKA Kūțakāvya : Eka Adhyayana by Dr. R. Sharmā, National Publ. House, Delhi, 1963.

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KK Kāvya aur Kalpanā by R. K. Pāņdey. KA Kāvya mén Abhivyañjanāvāda by L.N. Sudhāmśu, Bhagalpur city.

KNPP : MKKS Kāśī Nāgarī Pracāriņī Patrikā 1962 : Mahā- bhārata ke kucha kūțasthala. K-SR Kathleen Raine : The symbol of the Rose, published in the New York Times, Jan, 1952. L-PI C.D. Lewis : The Poetic Image, Jonathan Cape, London, 1947. QAPP Quoted, Archetypal Patterns in Poetry by Miss Maud Bodkin. M-QW Jaques, Maritan, quoted George Whalley. M-OC Stephane Mallarmé : Oeuvres Complètes, ed. by Henri Mondor and Jan Aubry. Gallimard, 1945. M-CP Stephane Mallarme : Crisis in Modern Poetry. M-CM John Middleton Murry : Countries of the Mind. M-W C.E. Montague : Words, words published in the Bookman, April, 1929. M-EE J.S. Mill : Early Essays : What is Poetry ? George Boll & Sons, London, 1897. MW-SED Monier Williams : Sanskrit English Dictionary. ML Mānasollāsa. MD Meghadūta ed. by N. S. Khiste, KSS, 1931. MB Mahābhārata ed. by T.R. Krishņācārya & T. R. Vyāsācarya, Bombay, 1907. AP Adiparvan. UP Udyoga Parvan. BP Bhīșma Parvan. MK Mundakopanişad (The works of Śańkarācārya series). NC Naişadhīyacarita of Śrī Harșa, ed. by V. S. Paņśīkar, Bombay, KMS, 1933. PY Pratāparudrīyayasobhūsaņa of Vidyānātha, ed. by K.P. Trivedi, BSS, 1909. P-HSR Handbook to the study of Rgveda with Sāyana's preface by Peterson.

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P-MB Mahābhāsya of Patañjali, ed. Bhārgava Shāstrī Jośi, Bombay, 1945. PR Pāñcarātra. PM Prescott : The Poetic Mind. P-LQ Paul Valery : Lettres a Quelques-uns. Gallimard, 1952. P-O Paul Valery : Oeuvres vol. I, ed. by Jean Hytier, Gallimard, 1957. R-EMT Bertrand Russel : An Enquiry into Meaning and Truth. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, 1961. R-PLC I. A. Richards : The Principles of Literary Criticism, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1928. R-SKB Ratneshvara's comm. on Sarasvati-Kanthā- bharana Bhoja. RV Rgveda Samhitā. ed. by Max Müller, Oxford University Press, London, 1890. RG Rasagangadhara of Jagannātha, ed. Durgā Pd., Bombay, 1939. R-CNV Ravigupta's Candraprabhāvijayakāvya. RK Rudrata's Kāvyālamkāra, ed. by S. Chowdhury, Vāsudeva Prakāshana, Delhi, 1965. RV Raghuvamśa, ed. by N. C. Vidyaratna, Calcutta. RM Rasamīmāmsa : Rāmacandra Śukla; ed. by Viśvanāth Prasād Mishra, Kāśī Nāgarī Pracā- riņī Sabha, Samvat 2017. SD Sāhityadarbaņa of Viśvanātha, BSS, 1938. L-SD Sahityadarpana with Locana Comm. V-SD Sāhityadarpaņa with Vijnapriya Comm. SKB Sarasvatikanthabharana of Bhoja ed. by K.N. Sharmā & V. L. Paņśīkar, Bombay, KMS, 1934. SPB Śringāraprakāsa of Bhoja, Vol. II, Madras Govt. MSS. ST1 Sammohanatantra. ST2 Sṛngāratīlaka of Rudrabhațța. SRB Subhāşitaratnabhāndāgāra ed. K.P. Parab, Bombay 1826 Śaka.

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SP Sarngadharapaddhati Vol. I (Text), ed. by K.P. Parab, BSS, XXXVII, 1888. SM Sūktimuktāvalī, ed. by E. Krișņamācārya, Baroda, GOS, 1938. SV Sisupālavadha of Māgha, ed. Jīvānanda Vidyā- sagar, Calcutta, 1884. SKD Śabdakalpadruma compiled by Sri Rādhākānt Dev Bahadur, Motilal Banarasi Dass, 1961. SAHRD SAHRDAYA, Sanskrit Journal, Madras. S-LPC Shelley's Literary and Philosophical Criticisms, ed. by John Shawcross, London, 1909. S-DP Shelley : A Defence of Poetry. S-CAP L. A. G. Strong : Commonsense About Poetry, London, 1952. SSMP William Van O'Corner : Sense and Sensibility in Modern Poetry. S-SI Dr. Caroline Spurjeon : Shakespeare's Imagery and what it tells us, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1935. VR Vālmīki Rāmāyaņa, ed. by T. T. Krishņācārya, Bombay, 1911. KK Kişkindhā Kāņda of Rāmāyaņa. UK Uttarakānda of Rāmāyaņa. VD Vișņudharmottarapurāņa, ed. Dr. P. Sāh, Barodā, OGS, 1961. V-KS Vātsyāyana Kāmasūtra, ed. by G. D. Shastri, KSS, 1929. VJ Vakroktijīvita of Kuntaka, ed. by Dr. Nagendra, Ātmaram & Sons, Delhi, 1955. VV Vrttivārttika of Appaya Dīkșita. VP Vacaspatyam (Lexicon). VINS A. A. Macdonell : Vedic Index of Names ana sub- jects, vol. II. W-SME A. N. Whitehead : Symbolism : Its Meaning and Effect, London, 1928. W-HIL M. Winternitz : A History of Indian Literature, Vol. I, Calcutta University publication, 1927. WM Wilfred Meynell in his comment on Francis Thompson's Sister Song.

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W-PP George Whalley : Poetic Process, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1953. Y-R : CY W. B. Yeats : Reveries : Over Childhood and Youth, Macmillan & Co. Ltd., 1917. Y-NN Yāska : The Nighantu : The Nirukta, ed. by L. Swaroopa, Punjab University Publication, 1927. MC=Mānikyacandra A Commentator on Sāhityadarpaņa. KMS=Kāvya Mālā Series. OGS=Oriental Gaikwad Series. BSS=Bombay Sanskrit Series. CSS=Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series. KSS=Kāśī Sanskrit Series. Illustr. V .= Illustrative Verse.

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Before giving my readers an idea of the concept of Citra- kavya in Sanskrit literature or what I feel about it, I may first define what poetry is and state the place of Citrakāvya in Kavya or poetry in general. In fact, in Sanskrit literature, 1the term Kavya means 'the work or idea of a poet' and denotes prose as well as verse, or even a mixture of both (Campu). Naturally, Citrakavya can find expression both in prose and verse or in the mixed genre. Now,2Kavya, or poetry, as it may be broadly called, consists of meaningful words in the first instance. 3In Sanskrit poetics, all words in relation to the meaning they con- vey are guided by the three powers of denotation (Abhidhā), indication (Lakșaņā) and suggestion (Vyañjanā). They might, we know, convey different meanings in different contexts, or all the three meanings, denotative, indicative and suggestive, simultaneously in the same context. Snatched out of context, they may never mean anything, but may always denote, indi- cate or suggest in association, implicit or explicit, in a specific syntactical order. A word, first, gives its conventional sense through the power of denotation embedded in it, according to the Naiyāyi- kas, in consonance with the will of God. It is, actually, quite a different thing that technical words have their meanings ascertained and fixed by the experts. 4The sense, thus denoted

1. Cf EV I, p. 17 : Kavayata 'iti kavistasya karma bhāvo vā kāvyam/ 2. Cf. BK I, V. 16, p 8. Sabdārthau sahitau kāvyam/ 3. Cf. VV, p. 1 : Vrttayaḥ kāvyasaranāvala nkāraprabandhrbhiḥ/ Abhidhā laksaņā vyaktiriti tisro nirūpitāḥ// 4. Cf. RG II, p. 175 : Saktyākhyorthasya śabdagataḥ śabdasyārthagato vā sambandhaviseșobhidhā/

2 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

is called the expressed or the direct sense, because it happens to be the original meaning of a word. This power of expre- ssion is threefold : customary or conventional (Rūdhi), etymological acceptation (Yoga), and etymologo-conventional signification (Yogarudhi). 1The first is contained in the word whose meaning has been conventionally accepted, 2the second is found where the meaning is understood with the help of the etymology, that is, the root part and suffix part of the word and 3in the third, the power of expression, invested in the various parts of the word, is as much necessary as one compiled the whole. That is, in the last one, the etymological sense goes to strengthen the conventional sense. But how does a word having multiple meanings give only one meaning in a particular context ? 4As a matter of fact, there are certain factors like connection disjunction and association etc. which limit its connotation, to one specific meaning, especially in those cases in which the author, or speaker, wants to communicate only one sense. But a poet sometimes uses words with two or more meanings very often deliberately. When this is the case, either both the meanings are of equal importance and relevant to the matter in hand or they are irrelevant to it. The poet uses them as the standard of similitude pertaining to some other object of comparison, or, of the two, one is the thing compared and the other, the standard. In the first two cases, there is no question of the validity of the operation of the power of denotation which rhetoricians ascribe to the operation of the double entendre. Regarding the third, Abhinavagupta, Mammata and Viśvanatha opine that

1. Cf. VV, p. 1 : Akhandasaktimātrenaikārthapratipādakatvam rūdhi/ 2. Ibid, p. 2 : Avayavaśaktimātrasāpeksam padasyaikārthapratipāda- katvam̧ yogaḥ/ 3. Ibid, p. 2 : Avayavasamudāyobhayasaktisāpeksamekārthapratipāda- katvam yogarūdhiḥ/ 4. Vide VP, quoted KPI II p. 20 : Samyogo viprayogaśca sāhacaryam virodhitā/ Arthaḥ prakaranam liogam sabdasyānyasya sannidhiḥ// Sāmarthyama ucitī desaḥ kālo vyaktiḥ svarādayaḥ/ Śabdārthasyānavacchede višeșasm rtihetavaḥ//

Introduction 3

there, only the meaning relevant to the matter in hand is denotative and the power of denotation cannot operate in the other case. Thus the meaning is suggestive, not denotative. However, a group of rhetoricians, including Appaya Dīkşita, do not subscribe to this view. They hold that under such cases, both the meanings are denotative, and only the figure, esta- blishing between them the relationship of the thing compared and the standard, is suggestive. Normally, Mammata and others repudiate the operation of double entendre, and see the possibility of suggestion, based on the signification of a word. However Diksita accepts the operation of the figure double en- tendre. 1In his view a punning word makes the meaning known, regardless of the subject, through the power of denotation. Further, he suggests that the intention of the old rhetoricians like Mammata, is that always in such cases, there is only the suggestion of the figures of sense such as simile, metaphor etc. and they never mean that merely the power of suggestion operates. With regard to the power of indication, we can say that it is almost an extended form of the power of denotation. 2It occurs on the denotative sense being impeded. For instance, in the conventional example, 'The hamlet is situated on the Ganges', the denotative sense of the hamlet being situated on the streams of the Ganges, has no explicit meaning. But through the power of indication, the meaning is clarified that 'The hamlet is situated on the bank of the Ganges.' 3It is first of two types : simple (Suddha) and one founded on some resemblance between the primary and secondary sense of a word (Gauni). 4Then again, there are two kinds : one based on the conventional acceptation of meaning (Rūdhi) and the other which acquires some meaning from outside (Prayojana).

1. Cf. VV, p. 13 : Tadrītyā na kathamcidapi prakaranāprakaranādiniy- amanam sakyaśanka m/Tasmāt prastutāprastutobhaya- pare'pi prastutāprastutobhayavācyārthebhidhaiva vrttiḥ/ 2. Cf. KPI II, V. 9, p. 10 : Mukhyārthabādhe tadyoge rūdhito'tha prayojanāt/ 3. Cf. SD II, V. 14. 4. Ibid, V.9.

4 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

Another two : 1a word used elliptically, besides retaining its own primary sense, conveys another (Upādāna); 2and a word that sheds its own primary sense, but conveys some other(Lak- șana). 3Besides, each of these can be divided into one founded on the attribution of the nature or properties (Sāropa), and the other, based on the identification of two things in such a manner that the one is completely absorbed into the other (Sādhyavasānā). The meaning expressed through either of these ways, is called indicative. But when the powers of denotation and indication fail, the power of suggestion comes into play. As with the power of indication there are again many divisions. 4The first is when the denotative sense is not intended (Avivaksitavācya) and this suggestion is founded on indication. The second is when the denotative sense, inherent in suggestion, is intended (Vivaksitanyaparavācya), and this is based on the power of denotation. 5The first is of two kinds : one where the denota- tive sense has continued into some other sense (Arthāntarasan- kramita) and the other, where it has been completely disre- garded (Atyantatiraskrta). 6The second also, is of two kinds : one where the process of transfer is not visible (Asamlaksya- krama) and the other, where it is visible (Samlaksyakrama). 7The poetic emotion or sentiment is expressed within the first. 8The latter has six divisions : arising of oneself (Svatahsam- bhavi) or born of the perfect expression of a poet (Kaviprau- dhoktisiddha) and dependent on the perfect expression of a person speaking on behalf of the poet (Kavinibaddhavaktr- praudhoktisiddha). Each of these relates to the suggestion of some fact (Vastu), or some figure of speech (Alamkāra). In this limited way, the suggestive meaning, arising from the power of sense (Arthaśakti), multiplies to twelve. . Cf. SD II, V.10. 2. Ibid, V.11. 3. Ibid, V.12. 4. Ibid, IV, V.3. 5. Ibid, V.4. 6. Ibid, V.5. 7. Ibid, V.6. 8. Ibid, V.9.

Introduction 5

These are the powers which ultimately invest strength in the words which form the poetic organism land which are distinguished from ordinary speech (Varta). Among the western critics, 2some have given precedence to the word or 3to the sense, but indigenous writers have given equal treat- ment to both. 4In fact, there cannot be any polarisation between meaning and word, content and form, because these dualities are apparent only by analytical dissection. In the actual poetic expression they are indissolubly united. Their unity is symbolised by 5the idea of Ardhanāriśvara, or by 6the 'celebration of the divine nuptials of sound and sense in poet- ry,' as Wilfred Meynell has called it. Sanskrit poetics encompass the union of sound and mean- ing in poetry in terms of the organic, inseparable relation between the two, which implies that the functions of the com- ponents are simply complementary. 7Kuntaka propounded that sound and sense should be such that they beautify each other. 8Kalidasa believed that both should be equally beautiful so that it be impossible to decide which enhances the other. The former expands the concept to cover the continuum repre- sented by an extended poem. Thus, not only should there be

1. Cf. BK II, V.87, p. 63 : Gato'stamarko bhātīnduryānti vāsāya paksiņaḥ/ Ityevamādi kim kāvyam vārtāmenām pracakșate// 2. Vide H-VM, p. 684 : 'It is not with ideas that one makes sonnets but with words.' Cf. C-CO; p. 153 : 'It is not pathetic messages that make us shed our best tears but the miracle of a word in the right place.' 3. Vide F-LLC, p. 187 : 'No ! Form is the flesh itself of the idea, as the idea is the soul of life.' Cf. : N-MP, p. 13 : 'The music of poetry is not something which exists apart from its meaning.' 4. Vide B-OC, p. 1087 : 'The idea and form are two realities in one.' 5. Vide RV, I, V.1. 6. Vide WM. 7. Cf. VJI V.17, p. 60 : Sāhityamanayoņ sobhāsālitām prati kāpyasau/ 8. Cf. KS I, V.42 : Kanthasya tasvāḥ stanabandhurasya muktākalāpasya ca nistalasya/ Anyonyasobhājananād babhūva sādhārano bhūsanabhūsyabhāvaņ//

6 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

this functional integration between the sound and meaning, but, in an extended poetic work, such an integration should exist between one word and another, and between one idea and another. When 1Abhinavagupta interpreted poetic utte- rance as an ideal structure, he believed that the poetic intention could integrate both idea and expression without any compro- mise in favour of one or the other. Therefore, poetry consists of tension generated and con- tained. It is noteworthy that 2Kuntaka once defined literature as consisting of the mutual tension between word and mean- ing. He termed literature Sahitya and enunciated the concept of the co-existence of sound and sense. This is, in fact, the basic trait of every literary expression. It means that the ten- sion in poetry should be compatible with the basic harmony. That is, in literature one word should vie with the other, and one idea with another. So the poem, or, for that matter, lite- rature generally, is fused out of the said tensions, into an integ- rated and tranquil whole. Therefore, the form is functional and organic. 3Vamana, on the other hand, thinks that the insertion and deletion of words occurs only when there is un- certainty of mind. When the poet decides on his choice of vocabulary, the composition is perfected. He goes on to say that the verbalisation is perfected when the words, functionally and poetically, cannot be replaced to advantage by any syno- nyms. ªAccording to Bhoja, even the ideas should be irre- placeable, if the poetic sense is not to be destroyed or radical- ly altered. 5This brings to mind the concept of Sayya with which the conception of the perfection of both word and meaning, is related in Sanskrit poetics. This, in poetic theory, means the apposite use of words in conjunction. In the final analysis, when the perfection is ideal, the literary value of Sayya is

1. Cf. L-DL, p. 27 : Vakroktiḥ utkrstā samghațanā ... / 2. Cf. VJI, V-17, p. 60 : Anyūnānatiriktatvamanohāriņyavasthitiḥ// 3. Cf. KSV, 1.3.15, p. 32. 4. Cf SP, p. 18. 5. Cf. KS, Intro. V.8, p. 4.

Introduction 7

realised where meaning is inherent in the words, and where each word, in turn, is integrated into the whole. Thus, without any qualifying clauses, the words and the meanings have appro- priate powers of denotation, indication and suggestion at the right places. They are fused into the poetic organism, or the body of the poetry. Thus the words and the sense should have all the qualities enunciated in the works on poetics, in relation to a particular style. The position regarding the faults, the figures and the evolution of the poetic sentiment is not clear. The rhetori- cians generally say that Citrakavya is non-suggestive and from this standpoint, it should have no relation to the above. Therefore, Viśvanātha kept this style of poetry apart. To suit our purpose, 1we shall take up the definition of poetry given by Mammata. He has placed Citra style of poetry in the last category due to its non-suggestive character. Although he states that the poetic organism should be free of faults, 2rhetoricians suggest that this complete freedom is but the ideal and is not always possible, although errors should be minimized. So certain faults, such as abstruseness etc., especially in Śabdacitra, do not debar Citrakavya from the realm of poetry. So far as Arthacitra is concerned in the sense we take it, it should be free from blemishes which may hinder the emotive imagery. As regards figures of speech, Rasavadī rhetoricians like 3Visvanatha have relegated them to a secondary position and have held that they are not indispensable for the creation of charm in poetry. Therefore Mammata pleads that sometimes, poetry should exist even without such figures. This does not give premium to our position. We know that Citrakavya is constituted of figures, Sabdacitra of the figures of sound,

1. Cf. KPI I, V.4, p. 3 : Tadadoşau sabdārthau saguņāvanalamkrtī punaḥ kvāpi/ 2. Cf. SD I, p. 10 : Kimcaivam kāvyam praviralavişayam nirvisayam vā syāt sarvathā nirdoșasyaikānta masam bhavāt/ 3. Ibid X, p. 478 : Asthirā iti naișām gunavadāvasyakī sthitiḥ/ 4. Vide Fn. No. I above.

8 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

Ubhayacitra of those bordering on sound and sense, and Artha- citra of sense only. As a matter of fact, even where there is no figure, there is an image, and in the highest sense if this image is poetic and emotive, as is expounded in detail later. Or, on the other hand, there may be some figure which is not readily perceivable. For instance, in the following verse, there is no apparent figure, but the charm is no less : 1"As the pleasant breeze slowly stirs you, the cataka bird, as though in tune with you, sings sweetly to your left. The she-cranes, as if in the sky to renew an aquaintance from the time of their gesta- tion, hover above you, who are so beautiful to their eyes." It does give an image, an emotive image, though not based on similitude. I do not think that even the presence of the poetic naturalism (Svabhavokti) can be denied here. There is some suggestion of personification in the verse, and the sympathetic induction in the relation of cloud and the she-cranes gives a new contour to the poetic beauty. The poetic figures cannot be identified with images; they only generate the latter. They are the means to an end, not an end in themselves. Indeed, though these figures are not an integral part of poetry, their importance cannot be gainsaid. 2Rhetoricians have likened these to such human ornaments as bracelets but they are not always so. The said ornaments can exist away from the body, but there are certain figures of sense which cannot be torn from the poetic context. They are intrinsically related to the poetic organism. I differ from the generally accepted stand because of the view taken by Viśvanatha, a prominent protagonist of the Rasa theory. According to this, the figures subserve the poetic

1. Cf. MD I, V.9 : Mandam mandam nudati pavanaścānukūlo yathā tvām Vāmaschāyam nadati madhuram cātakaste sagandhaḥ/ Garbhādhānaksanaparicayānnūnamābaddhamālāḥ Sevisyante nayanasubhagam khe bhavantam balākāḥ// 2. Vide DL II, V.6, p. 204 : Angāśritāstvalamkārā mantavyāḥ kațakādivat/ Cf. SD X, V.1, p. 477 : Rasādīnupakurvanto'lamkārāste'ngadādivat/ Cf. CL V, V.1, p. 90 : Šabdārthayoḥ prasiddhyā vā kaveḥ praudhivašena vā/ Hārādivadalamkārasamniveśo manoharaḥ//

Introduction 9

emotion or sentiment. The sentiment exists in the poetic orga- nism, consisting of words and meanings, and the elements instrumental in the evocation of the sentiment are complemen- tary to the beauty of the sound and sense. Thus, while the figures are subservient to the poetic emotion, how can it be said that they are the material and external cause of the poetic beauty ? According to this view, on the one hand, they would feed the poetic beauty, but on the other, merely properties of word and meaning. Where the beauty is engendered in poetry because of the configuration of word and sense, the poetry will lose much of its charm in form and content, if we attempt to do away with the pictorial effects of the figures. 1 Ananda, perhaps, with a view to this, propounds that in the matter of suggestion of the sentiment, the figures of speech will not be considered an extraneous aspect of poetry. Basically, the point is, that when poetic form is dependent upon figures of speech, the evocation of the poetic emotion or sentiment can be achiev- ed in an organic fashion. The relation between the two is not such that they can be picked up separately, or be segregated. 2Croce has discussed in a subtle way, both these aspects of a poetic figure. First, he poses a question as to how an ornament, or the figure, can be joined to an expression. If it is joined externally, then, it must remain a separate entity. On the contrary, if it is done internally, then, either it mars the expression, or it does form part of it and becomes a constituent element of the whole. The figures, in whatever form they come, always add intensity to the human emotion, and thus help in evolving the poetic sentiment. But the figures are related to the denotational power of expression and 3they constitute a mode of it. They fall within the jurisdiction of the denotative sense and not of the sugges- tive one, as will be clear later. When the denotative sense surpasses, or is at par with the suggestive, then the latter becomes secondary and the former primary. 4 Ananda states

1. Vide DL II, p. 222 : Na tesam bahirangatvam rasābhivyaktau/ 2. C-A IX, p. 69. 3. Vide DL III, p. 473 :

2. Ibid I, p. 114 : Anantā hi vāgvikalpāstatprakārā eva cālamkārāḥ/ Cārutvotkarșanibandhanā hi vācyavyangyayoḥ prādhānyavivaksā/

10 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

that it should be the poetic beauty which should ultimately determine the greater importance of the denotative or the suggestive sense. He differentiates between the embellisher and the embellished, between the figures and the sentiment, and this is the generally accepted view. But here too I differ. To my mind, the human emotion or sentiment embodied in poetry, is as intangible as the soul itself which, coincidentally, it has been called in relation to the body of poetry. It is as immutable and unaffected as the lunconscious which, in modern surrealist terminology, might be said to be 2the breeding-ground of the best of literary creations, and is treated almost as the western counterpart of the Indian soul-concept. In other words, figures increase the charm of the poetic organism, but not its actual soul, the poetic emotion or senti- ment. However, these figures are an integral part of the deno- tative meaning and beauty of poetry. Rhetoricians accept the existence of the 3poetic subversion (Vakrokti) or 4the hyper- bole (Atisayokti) in almost all the figures and therefore it is not possible to regard an expression as the mere adornment of an idea. It is part of a unified whole. It is also alleged that at certain places in figurative works, everything is emotive and there is no external element, adding to the beauty of the poetry. This is not true. The sentiment of the poetry may, in fact, derive from certain figures of speech. Finally, if the existence of the figures be taken for granted for the generation of beauty in the denotative sense, then, as figures of speech themselves, they would become irrelevant. Thus, such expressions may be suggestive of the essence of poetry, but usually add to the beauty of the essence of denotative contents. The figures are generally used for enhancing the poetic charm, as we have stated. This charm may relate to the emotions or to the expression. Therefore, the function of the figures is, on the one hand, to dress the thoughts and emotions 1. Vide L-PI, VI, p. 144. 2. Vide H-CEL, p. 30 : "The best specimens of literature only throw out vague suggestion, and their authors are not even aware of the nature of their work-they are hardly conscious artists." 3. Cf. BK I, V-36, p. 19 : Vakrābhidheyasabdoktiristā vācāmalamkrtiḥ/ 4. Cf. KD II, V. 220, p. 223.

Introduction 11

with beauty, and on the other, to render the expression candid and effective. 1So they should be organised with regard to the relevant sentiment and emotion. Only in this way can they be effective. 2Poets adept and accomplished in the por- trayal of sentiments, are not concerned with figures of speech. Their effectiveness is spontaneous with the real poet. Only those figures which are revealed in a natural way, should be used. 3We have hinted that the figures are like the ornaments. of thought as well as of language and if they justify this, they are the warp and woof of the work. Only then will they be able to make the language beautiful and thrilling, only then will they be capable of injecting life and power into the emotions. Otherwise, they will be laboured and the poetic composition will suffer. The emotions are more important than the expression and so, if the former be poor, then a beautiful mode of expression will not give validity to the com- position. Therefore, the primary need is for a living, poetic organism. But if the poetic sentiment is not the thing embellished, as we have propounded earlier, why may it not be taken as a figure ? Many rhetoricians of the Alamkara School have taken this stand, chief among them being Bhamaha, Dandin, Udbhata and Vagbhata. In the figures succulent (Rasavat), agreeable (Preyas), mighty (Ūrjasvin) and the composed (Samāhita), different feelings, emotions and sentiments, are made to fun- ction as figures. This situation arises when a particular poetic emotion might be subordinated to another. However, to me it appears that the realisation of sentiment is a different dimension. of poetry, and the poetic sentiment or emotion has an absolute degree of prominence in relation to the other poetic concepts. In two poetic contexts, two separate sentiments might be inde-

1. Cf. DL II, p. 197 : Rasabhāvāditātparyamāsritya viniveśanam/ Ala mkrtīnām sarvāsāmalamkāratvasādhanam// 2. Ibid II, p. 291 : Alamkārāntarāni hi nirūpyamānadurghațānyapi rasasamāhitacetasaḥ pratibhānavataḥ Kaveraha mpūrvikayā parā- patanti/ 3. Vide Supra p. 10.

12 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

pendently prominent. So far as the aforesaid figures are con- cerned, they have, from this angle, only an element of senti- ment, and they cannot be said to embody the sentiment proper. 1Quite differently, Udbhata thinks that the qualities and the figures both constitute the permanent properties of poetry. He has, in this connection, dubbed the ideas of those who say that qualities are inseparably related to poetry and the figures are incidental, as blind adherence to this point of view. According to him, the figures of sense, such as simile, metaphor etc., are as much inseparable from poetry as the qualities, such as sweetness, perspicuity, etc. Some modern rhetoricians, although they have accepted the difference of embellisher and embellished in the school of suggestion, do not conform to the view that the figures are not indispensable for poetry. 2faideva criticizes the assertion of Mammata that sometimes, poetry can exist even without figures, and goes on to state further, that the figures as much constitute the essen- tial element of poetry as heat does of fire. From this point of view, the figures might be treated as creative of the poetic charm. 3Vamana holds a moderate view. To him the figures only enhance the beauty, they are not creative like the qualities inherent in it. The suggestionists, on the contrary, accept only the suggestion or the sentiment as such. The figures have, moreover, almost an inseparable relation with imagination. In literature the former are com- plementary to the latter. No unit of thought is independent in itself. The imagination is its carrier. Therefore, the progress of our thoughts depends on that of the imagination. 4The latter means, in the first instance, the production of vivid images, usually visual images. We sometimes feel the necessity of these images for the expression of our thoughts and emotions. 1. Quot. KPI VIII, p. 181 : Samavāyavrtyā sauryādayaḥ samyogavrttyā ca hārādayaḥ ityastu guņālamkārānām bhedaḥ/ Ojaḥprabhrtīnāmanuprāsopamādīnām cobhayesamapi samavaya- vrttyā sthitiriti gaddulikāpravāheņaivaisām bhedaḥ/ 2. Cf. CL I, V. 8, p. 10. Angīkaroti yaḥ kāvyam sabdārthāvanalamkrtī/ Asau na manyate kasmādanusņamanalamkrtī// 3. Cf. KSV, 3.1.1-2, p. 69 : Kāvyasobhāyāḥ kartāro dharmā guņāh/ Tadatisayahetavastvala mkārāḥ/ 4. Vide R-PLC, XXXII, p. 239.

Introduction 13

Imagination gives concrete form to the abstract, as the langu- age of inner psychological thoughts. It also makes intelligible the superorganic elements by relating them to the sense-organs. When our thoughts, in moments of stress, flow towards the terra firma of unfamiliar and extraordinary emotions, then they have, of necessity, to be aided by the figures and the imagination. The imagination, in a way, is the outcome of the emo- tions and therefore, regardless of logic, makes our expression powerful, profound, colourful and lucid. Consequently, with- out imagination, emotion cannot be fully verbalised. The mind of a poet is generally very pure and clear like that of the primordial man or of a child, and its thoughts and emotions have an imaginative quality. As we can know the subject- matter of a book by its illustrations and diagrams, so we can know the value of the content, by the imaginative expression. But the function of the imagination is also to arouse in the heart of the readers or auditors, a sense of fascination or repulsion towards the thought of a poet, for the materialisation of sympathetic induction. 1The similes and metaphors, among the figures, have separate categories, but an imaginative word-picture may analyse both. 2The imagery, in fact, is like a small word- picture which the poet uses for the exposition of his thoughts and emotions in order to endow them with clarity and intelli- gibility. In the absence of such imaginative word-pictures, the emotions become invalid. Thus, we can say that imagination is a virtue which poetry cannot dispense with. Good poetry is often figurative and symbolical, and matter-of-fact expression cannot create good poetry. 3Even C.D. Lewis, a prominent modern critic, gives great importance to the similes and metaphors used. In his opinion, to invest real beauty in the poetic composition, they must be both original and powerful. It is these figures which make imaginative word-pictures conform to the actual universe, making them more vital. On the other hand, the imagination, when it seeks to create some 1. Vide M-CM, p. 4. 2. Vide S-SI, p. 9. 3. Vide L-Pl, p. 18.

14 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

form, or portray some beauty, may utilise certain figures of speech, but only it can create the essence. It also heightens the poetic effect of newly found imageries. The figures and the imagination gain first familiarity in the poets' awakening, with the magic touch of the chords of feelings asleep in the heart. The aesthetics which dissect the formal properties of poetry, of proportion, symmetry, harmony and balance, are influenced, by the forces of imagination which create beauty and generate the readers' sympathy towards its understanding and experience. The proper commixture of the various physical elements creates the universe, and the productive imagination, with the help of sensual concretisation, creates a novel and beautiful world. But imagination can organise or arrange for new images only where its expression be free from orthodox ideas. The poet must adopt some kind of medium for the successful expression of his experiences and thoughts, his hopes and fears, his pains and pleasures. On the whole, images constitute this medium. This, on the one hand, enlivens the expressions and sentiments, and on the other, limits them within certain boundaries. As a consequence of the inevitability of this medium, imagination takes up various designs and colours, like a rainbow. 1As opposed to the imagination of a painter, which presents ocular, concretised images, that of a poet creates those both ocular and auricular.

With imagination creating beauty, the improbable, artificial form of a poem changes into a probable, natural one. 2Much of the charm of imagination is squandered and lost in the use of similes, metaphors etc., effected only for their own sake, for figurative effect. But the same figures, as pointed out elsewhere, can create a greater intensity of effect, endura- nce and depth, when properly integrated with the imaginative process. The human mind is in the habit of linking the pre- sent with the past. Sometimes, it becomes overwhelmed with the recollection of certain past incidents or events. At that

1. Vide KK, p. 17. .2. Ibid, p. 19.

Introduction 15

moment, it reaches out to the thoughts and emotions of the past, having completely forsaken the present, and then it ex- periences an undefinable sense of pleasure. This world of poetic joy is the harnessing ground of poetic sentiment. Psy- chologically, there is a deep relation between memory and recognition. When one looks to the past, the latter can be- come realised and can open up a vast vista of imagination. Ocular and recollected images are generally taken to be the sources of the imaginative images. The latter gather materials for the process of their own creation, from what we have seen or heard in the past, or from the experience of the present. Thus, images endow shape and form to the nature of poetry, and in order to express the poignancy of a thing or idea, present its concrete form before us. Only if this image- creation depends on the allusion of some idea or emotion, and enhances beauty, sweetness, loveliness or brightness etc., will it be of use to poetry. If it relates only to length, breadth, shape or colour etc., then it will be not only futile, but also a positive handicap to the realisation of the poetic sentiment. Therefore, the imagery of similitude, which awakens the emotions, is alone acceptable in a poem, and not that, which having generated some momentary beauty, becomes ineffec- tive. Thus, being divorced of ocular imagery, the imaginative may create a charm, but it will always be incapable of giving concrete shape to any idea or effect. Poetry does not only give us a meaning, but also portrays the form of the subject- matter. This portrayal always relates to some particular individual or thing, and not anything in general. 1Imagination is unable to present the concretised idea of any class. Indige- nous poets have utilised imaginative image-creation for the sublimation of sentiments, and not for any extraneous effect. In the opinion of F.S. Flint, a lyric is the best medium for the concretisation of ideas or things. In longer poems, the unity, flow, and uniformity of idea and emotion is marred, and so one unitary form cannot arise. This in our own literature is quite commensurate with the stupendous success of Kalidāsa's Meghaduta as a small lyrical poem, concretising human emotions. 1. Cf. RM, p. 295.

16 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

In poetry, only such standards are taken to be effective and exciting as are in close proximity with our thoughts and emotions, and as have been familiar for some time. They are dependent on the similarity of form, of properties, and of the aggregate poetic effect. In the view of Croce, likeness (Sādrśya) and the community of properties, (Sadhar- mya), may not be important from a rhetoric standpoint, but to us they constitute an important concept, because, if we brush them aside, there is nothing left in matter of image- creation. The imagination, to the extent it creates imagery with the help of emotion, is an inexhaustible treasure for poetry. But if it makes an alliance with logic, then it cannot create images and in that event, it will not form the subject of poetry. 1Even in any of the various relations, the poetic sentiment is satiated with the attribution of the nature or pro- perties of one thing to another, but the logic and thought will remain incomplete. For resemblance of form in poetry, it is not necessary that there be complete identity in point of appearance or variety, or for likeness in properties of that there be complete similarity of virtues between the standard of comparison and the matter in hand. In poetry, similarity (Sādrsya) is in the form of 'Bimbapratibimba'-relation and community of properties (Sādharmya) by way of Vastuprativastu-relation which be- come helpful in the suggestion of sentiments. 2Therefore, even if the emotions be perfectly sublimated, only at the allusion to this similarity, or the community of properties, will there be no need of their complete attribution. In the light of the foregoing discussion, we shall look into the main divisions of poetry, and then try to evaluate the place of Citrakavya therein. 3The power of suggestion is thought to be the very lifeblood of poetry in Sanskrit literature, and so the positive presence or otherwise of it, is the chief determinant, according to Sanskrit rhetoricians, of the said varieties. 4Mammata and many of his ilk, classify poetry into 1. Cf. P-PM. p. 217. 2. Cf. KA, p. 97. 3. Vide Supra, p. 4. 4. Cf. KPI I, p. 4.

Introduction 17

three main varieties : suggestive poetry (Dhvanikavya), the poetry of subordinate suggestion (Guņībhūtavyangya), non- suggestive poetry (Citra). In the first, there is a predomi- nance of suggestive sense, in the second it is only secondary, and in the third, according to them, there is no suggestive sense whatsoever, and the charm that it has is due to the pecu- liarity of word or meaning, or of both. This type of poetry, as they feel, is composed to give effect to that very peculiarity. In preferential order traditionally, the first division is the best, the second the second best and the third the worst. 1Viśvanātha actually accepts only two types, as he ex- cludes the third because it is characterised by the absence of the sense of suggestion, and according to him, suggestion or poetic sentiment is the very soul of poetry. 2agannatha, on the contrary, propounds four main types of poetry, to accommo- date Citra in the poetry of subordinate suggestion (Guņībhūta- vyangya), and it is he who has salvaged Citrakavya to some extent. His four types are : first, Uttamottama, second, uttama, third, Madhyama, and then Adhama. In the second and third varieties, he treats respectively the two divisions of the poetry of subordinate suggestion, that is, one where the suggestion is explicit (Jagaruka), and the other where it is implicit (Ajagarūka). In these two he finds scope for all poetry where the charm is generated chiefly because of the figures of sense. In the last category, he places the verbal peculiarity (Sabda- citra), which gives only intellectual delight and not emotional exhilaration. When we talk of suggestive poetry, we do not seriously mean that the poetry be all suggestion and no denotation. 3In this variety, the suggestive element surpasses the denotative one, either in volume or intensity, or in both. To take an example : "The first rain-drops stayed for a moment on Parvatī's eyebrows, were whipped from her lower lip and

1. Vide SD IV, p. 191. 2. Vide RG, I, p. 11. 3. Cf. CM, p. 23 : Yatra vācyātisāyi vyangyam sa dhvaniḥ/ 4. Cf. KS V, V. 24, p. 79 :

18 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

splashed on to her breasts, and then trickled slowly threefold, to her navel." Here the poet has described the course of the first rain- drops on Parvati's body. He has suggested its beauty, and has also indicated that she was in a meditative stance. To be specific, the suggestion is made by the stay of the rain-drops on her eyebrows, of their density; by their `stay only for a moment, of their softness; by their having been whipped from her lower lip, of its tenderness; by their splash- ing on to her breasts, of the latter's firmness; and through their termination in her navel, of its depth and capacity. In the phrase 'first rain-drops' the word 'first' suggests that the drops were few, but the plurality of the word 'rain-drops' denotes their capacity. Also, the delineation of the first rain-drops on Pārvatī's body is suggestive of her erect position, and through it in turn, is made the suggestion of her meditative posture being unimpeded even with the falling of the first cool rain- drops giving relief from the prolonged and scorching summer. Thus Parvati's perfect meditative posture is suggested in the verse. The stay of the rain-drops on her brows, suggests that she was looking, with her eyes half-closed, towards the tip of her nose. Had her eyes been completely open or closed, then the tips of the brows would have been either upturned or downturned, and it would not have been possible for the water- drops to stay on her brows. It is also suggested that she had her mouth closed, for otherwise, as the drops fell from the eye- brows, they would have entered the mouth and would not have fallen downwards. Had she not been firmly erect in her meditative posture, the rain-drops would not have splashed directly from her lower-lip on to her breasts. Also, they would not have then trickled into her navel. Moreover, had the navel been fleshy, the rain-drops would not have terminated there. As the drops fell from brows to lower lip, and from the latter to the breasts, and from them to the navel, it sug- Sthitāḥ ksaņam paksmasu tāditādharāḥ Payodharotsedhanipātacūrņitāḥ/ Valīşu tasyāh skhalitāḥ prapedire Cireņa nābhim prathamodabindavab//

Introduction 19

gests that she was motionless, or else the water-drops would not have fallen in that manner. Here it is clear that the sug- gestive sense excels the ordinary or the denotative sense. With this background, let us take an example of the poetry of subordinate suggestion. 1"O beloved one, will you return at the end of a watch (i.e. a period roughly of three hours), or at midday, or in the afternoon, or in the evening ?' With streaming tears, the girl implores her lover not to jour- ney to a place which takes hundred days to cover." It is suggested that the girl would be unable to endure a separation of more than a day. It is clear in the verse that if the lover goes, it will take him hundred days to reach the destination, but the deadline that the beloved sets, is the eventide. Without expressing her disapproval directly, she is suggesting it very clearly, whether innocently or intentionally. It is said that at the time of a person's departure, one should not call that per- son back. The suggestion here might be taken to be in con- formity with this convention. The beloved's tears add to the first suggestion that she cannot bear to be parted for more than a day. This is also in consonance with the idea generally given vent to by poets, that it is in the atmosphere of the night that lovers feel most deeply their separation, as they might pass the day in varied preoccupations. The way the beloved gradually, though with growing disapproval, extends the deadline, shows her heart-breaking effort and courage. It also suggests that as time passes from a watch to midday, from midday to afternoon, and from afternoon to dusk, she would be experiencing an increasing degree and intensity of unhappi- ness. The first deadline is the watch and it shows that she could easily pass the first three hours of separation. After that, she would lose patience with the passage of time, till evening, when even the patient has no patience, and she would die. The direct or the expressed sense, is the beloved's dissuasion 1. Cf. Praharaviratau madhye vāhnastato'pi pare'thavā Kimuta sakale yāte vāhni priya tvamihaisyasi/ Iti dinasataprāpyam desam priyasya yiyāsato Harati gamanam bālā-lāpaiḥ savāspagalajjalaih//

20 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

of the lover from going, and according to Dksita, the suggest- ions strengthen that denotative sense. To Panditaraja, this is an instance of suggestive poetry, embodying the sentiment in separation, and surpasses the expressed sense. The latter might have criticised the former quite justly elsewhere, but here I think, in pursuance of the traditional exposition of the poetry of subordinate suggestion, Dzksita is right in calling it the same. To my mind, the chief difference between suggestive poetry and the poetry of subordinate suggestion, should be of volume or intensity or both. That is, if the volume or inten- sity or both of suggestion, is more than that of the direct expression, then it will be suggestive poetry. If the volume or intensity or both of denotation is more than that of suggestion, then the poetry will be one of subordinate suggestion. There is no question of suggestion being subservient to the sense of denotation, because wherever there is suggestion, it will more often than not, under very exceptional cases like the one above quoted, subserve the denotative sense, as the former may or may not be present in a particular verse, but the latter should always be. Both are separate entities and should be treated, as such, on individual merit. Moreover, if suggestion is the better and more desired thing, which certain- ly it is, how can it assist the denotation ? Even popularly speaking, the master is always the master and the servant the servant. The difficulty is all the more great if the figures are used alongside the suggestion, or still greater when the figures used are themselves suggestive. In the latter eventuality, it is difficult to keep suggestion from the figures, or for that matter, from the direct sense, and the total effect should be suggestive. As I have stressed that there are some figures of sense which are very directly related to the sense of suggestion, or even to the poetic sentiment or emotion in the ultimate analysis, and as the figures are tradi- tionally taken to be the decoration of the denotative power of expression, one would like to strip them of the suggestive garb and proclaim them subservient to the direct sense. As a result, the accruing poetry is one of subordinate suggestion. There is nothing wrong with figurative expression in poetry; it may

Introduction 21

heighten the general poetic tone and effect ifit is accompanied with the suggestive emotion, giving a unitary impression to the reader. The emotion is the most important thing in poetry, and if it is present then the other factors will help it, and if it is not, then the so-called figurative expression will not be emotive. The instance of suggestive poetry we have quoted above, pregnant with so many suggestions in an apparently bizarre- looking verse, is rare, and I doubt whether all the suggestions that the rhetoricians have pointed out can be revealed as existing in the poet's mind. The figurative expression, in its own right, cannot be decried. Although there can be verses with many and beautiful figures as suggestions, we quote only an exquisitely simple, though beautiful verse which, according to the traditional standard, should have a predominant deno- tative sense, or at best, it would be an instance of the poetry of subordinate suggestion owing to the most enchanting simile used, coupled with emotive and organic suggestions. The poetry here, in the final analysis, should be called suggestive. 1"About to choose her husband, she passed along the row, giving a radiance to the kings, like the flame of a lamp in the night on the deserted mansions of the highway." The occasion is the husband-choosing ceremony of Indumatī. The kings have come in their best and are sitting in a line. Each of them thinks that he deserves the garland of Indumatī and will get it. The princess would go through the row with a garland in her hand, which she would fling round the neck of the one she would choose as her husband. She arrives and commences. She stops before one king while the latter is being described. The particular king is aglow with the prospect of being chosen, but she does not like him and moves ahead. His face hopefully lit, is now dark with despon- dency. This happens with the other kings whom she visits. The poet here has likened the beautiful princess to the flame of a

1. Cf. RV. VI, V. 67 : Sañcārinī dīpasikheva rātrau yam yam vyatīyāya patimvarā sā/ Narendramārgātța iva prapede vivarnabhāvam sa sa bhūmipālab//

22 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

lamp and the dressed-up kings, seated in the row, to the majes- tic edifices on the public highway. It is said that beauty has a light about it. The princess is fair-complexioned and the suggestion is that she radiates the white gleam of her face. This is the physical aspect of the simile, commensurate with the physical focusing of light on the mansion at which, at a particular moment of time, somebody with a lighted lamp in his hand, happens to pass. More than this is the spiritual aspect, where the beauty of Indumatī as an aesthetic ideal, or the hope of gaining her, kindles the hearts of the kings. The face is the index of the mind, or, the other way round, what happiness or sorrow, hope and despondency, there is in the mind, is visible upon the face. Indumatt, therefore, as a glowing light enlightens the faces as well as the hearts of the suitor- kings. It is also significant that the lamp is almost suggested to move itself. It has its own beauty. It is said to move in the night and justifies its utility and beauty, as well as the appro- priateness of the simile. It is notewor thy that the poet chooses a simile which agrees with the matter in hand even in respect of gender and number. This adds to the compactness and beauty in the simile that has made the poet immortal. To my mind, the use of the word Bhava in Vivarnabhavam is quite important. The poet might have used Rupa instead, but that would not highlight the metamorphosis of feeling that was going on in the inner recesses of the minds and hearts of the kings. The word Vivarna in the compound, is no less remark- able because it suggests that the kings who were rejected, were so saddened that they lost the usual colour of their faces. Thus the simple, though powerful words used, plus the lucidity and forcefulness of style, compactness, suggestiveness and appro- priateness of the figure, together with the use of telling adject- ives and the vivacity and emotional potency of the suggestions and the images they .evolve, make the verse better than one where there is only multiplicity of pure suggestions. In all, this may be called an instance of suggestive poetry. Thus, what is called Citrakavya, especially the one endowed with Arthacitra, can be poetry of a very high order, provided there be concord between them and the images

Introduction 23

evolved, and the consistency of impression. The figures, of which this division of poetry is constituted, are not irrelevant and contribute in evoking a fine poetic sense, or an equally superb poetic image. All this is related to the creative imagi- nation of a poet. The secret of originality in the evocation of a good visual image is first, the perceptive eye, and then the interpretive imagination. With these is created a poetry which both inspires and impresses.

CHAPTER II

DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTS

Citrakavya consists in the peculiarity attendant on word (Sabdacitra), on the meaning (Arthacitra), and of word and the meaning (Ubhayacitra). The effect must in all the three cases, be qua poetic figure. The three varieties are generally characterised by the absence of the power of sugges- tion (Vyañjanā). Embellishment is taken to be the secondary sine qua non of poetry, and Citrakavya is that which em- bellishes word (Sabda), meaning (Artha) or both (Ubhaya). This sort of poetry falls within the third division, as deter- mined earlier. 1Among many dictionary meanings of the word Citra, two are prominent : 'peculiar' (as adjective), and 'image' (or 'picture', as noun). In Citrakāvya, 2a sense of wonder is generated owing to the peculiar handling of certain metres etc; or due to the use of poetic designs (Bandhas) representing pictures of certain specific types in verses, depending on the skill of the poet in the arrangement of letters. Secondly, it may be interpreted to mean something an image or picture in poetry may denote, which the various poetic designs or the poetic or emotive images, might reflect. In the coming chap- ters, it will be evident that both these interpretations have to be taken in order, to cover the whole field of the traditionally accepted sub-varieties of the three said divisions of Citrakāvya. Thirdly, as a corollary to the second interpretation 3we might say that Citrakavya is only the image of true poetry (Kavya), not the poetry itself. In this case, it merely imitates poetry

1. Vide SKD Vol. II, p. 448. Cf. VP Vol. IV, p. 2942. Cf. MW SED, p. 396. 2. Cf. EV VII, p. 190 : Aho yena krameņa gatā varņapamktistenaiva krameņa pratyāgatetyāścaryakāritvād vā citram/ 3. Cf. DL III, p. 495 : Na tanmukhyam kāvyam/Kāvyānukāro hyasau/

Development of Concepts 25

without ever becoming so, and is therefore, an exercise for a novice talent. 1Following Mammata, we find that the expression 'Citra' denotes figures of speech and literary excellence. Conse- quently, the belles lettres endowed with the figures of sound, or sense, or both, and the requisite literary excellence, are styled Citrakavya. I think this is the most comprehensive view as it subsumes within it all the possible ramifications of the foregoing interpretations. The first interpretation is, undoubtedly, based on the concept of Citra as a figure of speech (Citrālamkāra). Even among the rhetoricians, this idea seems to have gained cur- rency, and citrakavya might owe its origin to this. 2Ruyyaka, 3Jayadeva, 4Viśvanātha, and others like Bhānudatta and Keśava miśra, mention citra only as a figure and have enumerated it among the figures of sound. It is noteworthy that none of the most celebrated rhetoricians has defined and dealt with citra as a figure in the sense the above have, with the sole excep- tion of Visvanatha. The modern, and most prevalent, concept of Citrakavya, is an extended version of the current meaning of Citralamkāra, and in the implications of the latter we find the seed of the former. But to differentiate, Citrālamkāra deals with citra, as we have just averred, as a figure of sound, whereas Citrakāvya treats it as a figure pertaining to sound or sense or both. The former stands for a particular variety of the figure of sound, consisting mostly of the poetic designs (Bandhas), while the latter includes within its jurisdiction all the figurative peculiarities of word or meaning or both. With 5Mammata, only the later rhetoricians Vidyā- dhara and 7Vidyānātha, speak of citra both as a division of

1. Cf. KPI I, p. 5: Citramiti guņālamkārayuktam, .... / 2. Vide AS, p. 30. 3. Cf. CL V, p. 100. 4. Vide SD X, p. 514. 5. Cf. KPI I, p. 5; IX, p. 214: Yadyapi sabdātmakānām varnānām khadgādyākārahetutā nāsti, tathāpi tadvyañjakānām lipyātmaka- varnānām tathātvena tathātvamupacaryate/ 6. Cf. EV VII, p. 189. 7. Vide PY, p. 71 and pp. 345-349.

26 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

poetry, and as a figure of speech. 1Ananda and 2Diksita refer to it only as a variety of poetry because the former has to deal with poetry alone, on the basis of the presence or otherwise, of suggestion, and for the latter it would have been beyond his scope to treat any other matter. It is surprising that Bhamaha, Dandin and Udbhata, though dealing with the figures of sound, the latter even elaborately, do not name citra as a figure. 3Rudrata does not name it as figure, but 4 Nami- sadhu, in his comments, does so clearly. Kuntaka treats every poetic concept in the light of the evasive speech qua poetic figure (Vakrokti) and hence, though knowing, might not have found scope for its clear mention. 5Bhoja, on the contrary, while making an elaborate treatment of the six varieties of citra, takes it as an axiom and feels that he is dealing with citra as a figure. The position with 6Hemacandra is stranger. In connection with his treatment of the varieties of poetry, he dubs the non-suggestive type as the worst, but does not mention that it is called citra. He mentions it while dealing with the figures of sound. The third interpretation is not very reasonable, and having basis in Mammata, we shall here try to make an exposi- tion and application of the second, especially in relation to the poetic image (Arthacitra), 7which is near the Western con- cept of 'image poetry'. With respect to Sabdacitra, as we shall elaborate later, it is best to interpret 'citra' as a certain uniqueness or peculiarity wrought in poetry. The idea of image- making in poetry might originally have been borrowed from the field of painting. The principles underlying them were

1. Cf. DL III, p. 494: Pradhānagunabhāvābhyām vyangyasyaivam vya- vasthite/Kāvye ubhe tato'nyadyat taccitramabhidhīyate// 2. Cf. CM, p. 11. 3. Cf. RK V, V. 1, p. 119. 4. Ibid : Yatra kāvye vastūnām cakrādīnām rūpāni samsthānāni racy- ante nibadhyante taccitrasādrsyādāscaryād vā citram nāmālam- kāraḥ/ 5. Cf. SKB II, p. 265. 6. Vide H-KN II.58, p. 157 : Avyangyamavaram/ 7. Vide Appendix No. I.

Development of Concepts 27

called Citrasūtras. 1Visnudharmottara unhesitatingly states that the art of image-making cannot be understood except by one who has studied Citrasutras which, in turn, cannot be known without mastering the art of dancing. Further, dancing (Nrtta) does not exist without the accompaniment of musi- cal instruments and proficiency in the latter is unattainable without the study of singing as an art. In 2Kuttanīmata, we find the citrasūtras mentioned as one of the subjects to be studied by the accomplished courte- sans, along with Bharata, Visākhila and Dantila. 3In Visnu- dharmottara a fine image is described which a poet may try to imbibe and emulate in the poetry of Arthacitra : "The surface glistens, and appears to come to meet the spectator (or reader as we may add in case of such poetic image) : the sweetness seems as if smiling, and appears as if endowed with life." Citra is described as one where the representation is like an image. 4It is surprising to find here that even the concept of sentiment (Rasa) has been extended to all the arts except that of architecture. In literature (Kavya) it is Kāvya- rasa, in painting (Citra) it is Citrarasa, and so on. More- over, we find such ideas as Rasacitra, Bhavacitra and even, Dhulicitra prevalent quite long ago. In the context of imagery in poetry, the word Alekhyaprakhya was, perhaps, current. Ananda uses it in the Vrtti and it is amazing that 5Rajasekhara borrows it in a different context. Among the peculiarities pertaining to sound (Śabda- citra), alliteration (Anuprasa) is mentioned by almost all the rhetoricians except Anandavardhana and Diksita for the reasons mentioned. Among its varieties, most of the rhetoricians give Chekānuprāsa and Vīttyanuprāsa. 6Ruyyaka, 7Jayadeva,

1. Cf. VD Vol. II, III.II, p. 4. 2. Cf. D-KM, V. 123, p. 30 : Bharatavisākhiladantilavrksāyurvedacitrasūtreșu/ Patracchedavidhāne bhramakarmaņi pustasūdaśāstreșu// 3. Cf. VD Vol. I, III, Chap. 43, V. 21, p. 155. 4. Ibid : Vol. II, III, Sec. XII, p. 217. 5. Cf KM XIII, p. 211. 6. Cf. AS, p. 28. 7. Cf, CL V, p. 95.

28 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

1Mammața, 2Viśvanātha, 3Vidyādhara and 4Vidyānatha also add Lāțānuprāsa. 5Viśvanātha, with Dandin and some others, enumerates Srutyanuprasa in the list. It is peculiar that 7Jayadeva names Sphutānuprāsa, and 8Bhamaha together with 9Udbhața, mentions Grāmyānuprāsa, which the former annotates as Komalānuprāsa. Besides, 10Udbhata, 11Fayadeva and 12Visva- nātha each respectively adds Parusānuprāsa, Arthānuprāsa and Antyanuprasa. 13 Hemacandra mentions by name only Lata. As for the repetition of both letters or words, he gives two varie- ties each : One where the repetition is only once (Sakrdāvrtti), and the other where it is many times (Asakrdavrtti). 14Rudrata bases his division of alliteration on his concept of Vrttis as does Bhoja also. 15The latter makes almost a complete departure from the traditional treatment of alliteration and enumerates a vast variety. First, he gives three broad varieties based on the repetition of sounds (Srutyanuprasa), of letters (Varņānu- präsa) and of words (Padanuprasa). Then he classifies the first into three : Gramya, Nagara and Upanagara; dividing the first into three again-constituting the repetition of soft letters, of hard letters and of medium letters; the second into two- constituting the repetition of letters having either the same place or organ of utterance, or a different one; and the third into four-making up the repetition of da, la, or ra, la, or na,

1. Cf. KP1 IX, p. 195. 2. Cf SD X, p. 486. 3. Cf. EV VII, p. 192. 4. Vide PY, p. 341. 5. Cf. SD X, p. 484. 6. Vide KD III, 55-60, pp. 54-59. 7. Vide CL V, p. 96. 8. Cf. BK II, V. 6, p. 31. 9. Cf. KSS, p. 5. 10. Ibid, p. 4. 11. Cf. CL V, p. 97. 12. Cf. SD X, p. 485. 13. Cf. H-KN II, p. 295. 14. Cf. RK, V. 19, p. 41. 15. Vide SKB II, pp. 228-265.

Development of Concepts 29

na or dental and palatal sounds; thus making in all, nine sub- varieties. Of the second, the rhetorician gives twelve divisions i.e. the repetition of letters constituting bunches, occurring at particular spots, having some other letter or letters in the middle, lengthening and shortening at places, continuing and discontinuing, consisting of the growing number of letters in an order, consisting of repetitive letters in a reversed order, a group with the occurrence at the beginning and end of each foot, occurring only in the middle of each foot joining the parts, occurring at very close intervals till the end of sentence or the verse, quite different from the above, and interspersed with stressed letters. Of the third, the extra divisions are : words consisting of disjunct syllables, of conjunct letters, con- stituting smooth repetition with soft syllables made up of the various modes of repetitive words and somewhat tautologous. This as well as those resembling the first, second, fifth, eighth and ninth varieties of the second type of alliteration, together with a series of repetitions, form the abovesaid eighth and ninth varieties. Bhoja has given much importance to alliteration and has derived and classified the Vrttis, or the particular styles of composition, on its basis. For example, Kārņāti (i.e. the style of composition connected with the Karnāta country) con- sists of guttural alliterations, Kauntali (i.e. connected with the Kuntala country) of palatal, Kaunkī (i.e. related to the Konka country) of cerebral, Aundri (i.e. related to Ondra) of conjuncts having the same place or organ of utterance, Paundrī (i.e. of the Pundra country) of dissimilar conjuncts, Kaunkani (i.e. of Końkaņa) of dental letters, Vānavāsikā (i.e. of Vanavāsa) of labials, Tamraliptika (i.e. one relating to the Tāmralipti coun- try) of conjuncts formed with the last letters of each class, Mathurī (i.e. one of Mathura) of the sibilants, Drāvidi (i.e. of Dravida country) of the semi-vowels, Mātsyā (i.e. connected with Matsya country) of the repetition of letters taken from two or three such classes, and Māgadhī (i.e. relating to Magadha) of letters of one class made to look like Vaidarbhi (i.e. of Vidarbha country) by certain interceptions. The allitera- tion of words bordering on chimes, might form different sub-

30 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literatuer

divisions due to the intermingling of the compounded and the uncompounded words, and of those intercepted and un- intercepted. 1Striking at the root of the alliterations evolved, Bhoja has shown that they are possible owing to many human feelings, such as ecstasy, wonder, excitement or flurry, or any two or three of these. 2It is peculiar to realise that what Kuntaka meant by the circumlocution or undulation of speech belonging to the arrangement of letters, is this very alliteration. Here it has been split into three varieties according to whether there is repetition of one, two, or more letters. In another way also, the writer classifies it threefold : firstly, where the repetition is of letters, guttural, palatal, cerebral, dental and labial, mixed with their final nasals; secondly, where ta, la and na sounds are repeated mostly in twos; and thirdly, where there is repetition of the rest consonantal sounds in conjunct form. This treatment, it goes without saying, resembles that of Bhoja. Also there is some similarity in that Kuntaka includes in this class the styles of composition like Upanāgarika etc., and also the chimes or the verbal juggleries similar to these. Of chimes mention is made by almost all rhetoricians except Udbhata, Ananda and Diksita. The first and the last were dealing with a different type but Ananda should have treated it. Among older rhetoricians, 3Bhamaha names only five broad types, including the complicated Samdastaka and Samudgaka. As a refreshing contrast, 4Dandin gives forty-three varieties of ordinary chimes, over and above thirteen types of Samud- gaka,-and the Samdasta and Mahāyamaka of which he offers only one illustration, but 5Premacandra, in his commentary, says that a large number of varieties of it could be possible. In elaboration, only 6Bhoja has been able to match, and even

1. Vide SKB II, pp. 256-257. 2. Cf. VJI, p. 66 : Etadeva varnavinyāsavakratvam cirantaneșvanu- prāsa iti prasiddham/ 3. Vide BK II, V. 10, p. 33. 4. Vide KD III, pp. 334-388. 5. Ibid, p. 384 : Atyantabahavasteşām bhedāḥ sambhedayonayaḥ/ 6. Cf. SKB II, pp. 198-221.

Development of Concepts 31

surpass Dandin. He goes more subtly into the divisions and discovers that among chimes occurring at different places of the feet i.e. at the beginning, middle and end, all combina- tions are not possible, as illustrations are not available in all cases. Among such varieties are the unseparated one (Avya- peta), occurring at the beginning or end of only one foot of a verse and the separated one (Vyapeta), occurring at the middle of only two feet. With regard to the unseparated one occurring at the middle, he says that it can be possible only with respect to its occurrence in the fourth foot. Moreover, he treats almost a new style of chimes, where the position rules are not obeyed (Asthanayamaka). In one foot itself, two or more sets of words are repeated, in separated or unseparat- ed way. This can happen with regard to other feet as well. Also, the repetition can be very minute to the extent of the reverberance of letters in a long series, continuing up to even more than one foot. This, in this position, or when extended, forms Varņacitra of the rhetoricians. In a novel way, 1Bhoja invents a new name, the girdle- chime (Kāñcīyamaka), for one of the complicated varie- ties. 2But the importance of Rudrata in this connection cannot be gainsaid. He devotes a full chapter to the discussion of chimes, and he is more concerned with their classification. He has given some new names under this head like Garbha, Puccha, Pamkti, Vaktra, Sikha, Mala etc. but, in fact, this is not a new idea. Thus, superficially only, he gives new orienta- tion to the discussion of chimes. 3To the Rasavadi rhetoricians like Mammata and Visvanatha, complicated chimes and bandh- as were a positive evil and so they made only passing refer- ence to the possible varieties, and have not treated them in detail. 4Vidyadhara has shown a little more academic inte- rest in the chimes, and has dealt with the desirability or otherwise, of their use in literature. It is peculiar that he

1. Cf SKB II, p. 216. 2. Cf. RK. III, pp. 49-83. 3. Cf. KP1 IX, p. 199 : Tadetat kāvyāntargadubhūtam ...... / Cf. SD X, p. 516 : Kavyāntargadubhūtatayā tu neha prapañcyate. 4. Vide EV VII, p. 189 : Prāyaso yamake citre rasapustirna driyate/

32 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

prohibits chimes occurring in only three feet of a verse. He is also against their general use in poetry, because they might prove detrimental to the realisation of a particular sentiment. Of the reversed designs (Vilomacitras), few among the rhetoricians have made any mention, and very few have treat- ed them. When extended in certain order, they are called all- moving (Sarvatobhadra) or, the half-moving (Ardhabhrama). Most are dealt with, among the old rhetoricians by 1Dandin, and among the new by 2Vidyādhara and 3Kavikarnapūra. But of the poetic designs, mention is made by 4Hemacandra of only the sword and the drum, and 5Mammata adds the lotus to it. With Bhamaha, Dandin keeps complete silence, but 6the latter mentions the conventional Gomutrika. 7Rudrata, again, comes to the fore. He treats all the designs mentioned, and innovates new ones like the bow, the arrow, the lance (Sakti), the plough, the horse-step, the elephant-step, the pestle and trident. In recent times, 8Vidyādhara is elaborate in dealing with most of these, adding the mountain-design, while 9Vidyānātha men- tions the wheel-design with the eight-petalled lotus, and adds the serpent-design. To these, as extra designs, 10Kavikarņapūra adds the umbrella, the banner and the club. It is surprising that Visvanatha does not name any. Perhaps he felt that they detracted from the realisation of the poetic sentiment. 11In this context, the novelty of Bhoja lies in the elabo- ration of the manifold sub-varieties of the lotus-design, the wheel-design and the Gomutrika. As for the lotus-design itself, he treats the four-petalled, the eight-petalled, the sixteen- petalled, and the special eight-petalled one bearing the name of the poet. Of the wheel also, he gives a few different designs 1. Cf. KD III, pp. 386-394. 2. Cf. EV VII, p. 191. 3. Cf. K-AK II, 7. 4. Vide H-KN, p. 314. 5. Vide KP1, p. 217. 6. Cf. KD III, p. 390. 7. Cf. RK V, pp. 121-142. 8. Cf. EV VII, p. 190. 9. Vide PY, pp. 346-349. 10. Vide K-AK II. 7. 11. Vide SKB II, pp. 272-276 & 280, 284-293.

Development of Concepts 33

like the Dviśrngātaka, the Vividita etc. Of the conventional Gomūtrikā, he treats over twelve varieties consisting in one foot, two feet, hemistich, one full verse, of reversed order, of varied metres, and of more than one language. Sometimes one verse can form many and varied types of it. He also gives the sky-design and the Sarayantrabandha, and cites verses which can give a hundred, a thousand, ten thousand, a lakh, a crore, or even countless verses at will. In 1Viloma- citra, he introduces verses where the reversed form is made up of, and written in a different language. In 2Varna- citra, he gives yet a more elaborate treatment of verses consisting of only one consonant, or two, or three etc, hav- ving no dental or labial or cerebral or palatal letters or any two or three of these or having only short or long vowels or in a different way qualitatively short or long or both in a certain pattern. With regard to the figures of both sound and sense (Ubhayālamkāras), falling under the peculiarities pertain- ing to both (Ubhayacitra), 3Vidyānatha is, perhaps, the first to make clear mention. 4Among these, the subversive speech qua poetic figure is several times mentioned by Bhā- maha, but perhaps he took it in a general sense. It is queer that Dandin, Udbhata and Fayadeva, do not enumerate it. Foll- owing 5Mammata and 6Viśvanatha, 7Vidyadhara and 8Vidya- natha also give its two types, but 9Bhoja and 10 Hemacandra do so in a different way. 11Mammata and 12Visvanatha place

1. Vide SKB II, pp. 277, 278. 2. Ibid, pp. 265-272. 3. Cf. PY, p. 337. 4. Cf. BK I, Vs. 34,36; II-Vs. 85 86; VI-V. 66. 5. Vide KPI IX, p. 192. 6. Vide SD X, p. 490. 7. Cf. EV VII, p. 326. 8. Cf. PY, p. 411. 9. Cf. SKB II, p. 296. 10. Vide H-KN II, p. 332. 11. See Fn. No. 5 above. 12. See Fn. No. 6 above.

34 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

it as a figure of sound, while 1Ruyyaka, 2Vidyādhara, 3Vidyā- nātha and Dīksita, think it is a figure of sense. As for parano- masia, 4Bhamaha and 5Dandin both mention it, but do not split it into two as the unbroken (Abhanga) and the broken (Sabhanga), as the later writers have done. Only 6Bhoja treats its six varieties, and 7Viśvanatha eight. 8Rudrata treats it as a figure belonging both to sound and sense, and deals with it in two separate chapters. He gives many new varie- ties of both. It is peculiar that Vidyādhara and Vidyānatha do not name it at all. Jayadeva, on the other hand, classifies it differently. As for its historicity, it is an old figure, but about its nature rhetoricians hold varied views. Some take it as a figure of sound, some of sense, and some both. Actually, it all depends on the particular verse being capable of altera- tion in words without any change in the meaning. If there is such capacity, the figure will be treated as that of sense, otherwise, paranomasia is a figure of sound. The maxim holds good with all the figures having dual nature. The same figure can be both of sound and sense when a particular arrange- ment of words can, or cannot, be altered without affecting the meaning. Incapability of being altered (Parivrttyasahisnuttva), is the sine qua non of the figures of sound, and so they excite appreciation only when set in a particular fashion. Thus alliterations and chimes are possible only when there is repeti- tion of particular letters, or groups of letters, at certain regular and close intervals. Of the poetic designs (Bandhas on the other hand, there must be, like the Euclid, certain suppositions regarding certain letters at particular points. According to 9Ruyyaka, the seeming tautology (Punar- uktavadābhāsa) is a figure of sense, but to 10Mammata and 1. Cf. AS, p. 219. 2. Vide Supra p. 33, Fn. No. 7. 3. Vide Supra p. 33, Fn. No. 8. 4. Cf. BK. III, p. 73. 5. Cf. KD II, p. 290. 6. Cf. SKB II, p. 221. 7. Cf. SD X, p. 492. 8. Vide RK IV & X. 9. Cf. AS, p. 20. 10. Cf. KPI IX, p. 219.

Development of Concepts 35

1Sobhakara, it is that of sound only. It must be mentioned here that 2Mammata takes one of its varieties as representing both the figures, and in that sense, it is an Ubhayālamkāra forming basis of the Ubhayacitra. Among other rhetoricians 3Udbhata, *Hemacandra, 5Vidyadhara and 6Vidyānātha, treat it. "Jayadeva mentions it as Punaruktapratikasa. Among older ones, Bhāmaha and Dandin, and later even the omnivorous Bhoja, do not mention it. As for the insinuatory speech (Chekokti), it is also a new figure but 8based on the Chekokticcāyā of Bhoja. Among other dual figures accepted here for discussion, the concealing speech (Gudhokti), and the contriving speech (Yukti), have been treated by both Dīksita and 9Bhoja. Dīksita has innovated a new figure in the revealing speech (Vivr- tokti). 10As for the contriving speech (Yukti), it, though a new figure, is actually an offshoot of the conventional covert allu- sion (Vyajokti). In it there is the concealment of what is not formal, but in the latter, there is the concealment of form itself. According to another view, in the former there is con- cealment by verbs of some secret, but in the latter, it is through the statement of some fact only. It is worthy of men- tion here that 11Bhoja has taken it as a figure of sound and has dealt at length with its six varieties. 12Sometimes a

1. Cf. Vide AR, p. 1. 2. Cf. KPI IX, V. 9, p. 220. 3. Cf. KSS, p. 3. 4. Cf. H-KN II. p. 338. 5. Cf. EV VII, p. 184. 6. Vide PY, p. 343. 7. Vide CL V, p. 98. 8. Vide SKB II, p. 165. 9. Cf. SKB II, p. 298. Cf. Ibid, p. 172. 10. Ibid, p. 257. 11. Vide Supra Fn. No. 11, p. 35. 12. Vide KN, p. 151 : Tvatkhadgakhanditasapatnavilāsinīnām Bhūşā bhavantyabhinavā bhuvanaikavīra/ Netreșu kankaņamathorușu patravallī Colendrasimha ! tilakam karapallaveșu//

36 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

different figure, such as incongruity (Asangati), can display a striking meaning with verbal manipulations. Among these, the subversive speech (Vakrokti) deserves special treatment, as quite a new school of thought in poetics was woven round this concept. Kuntaka, in his chef d'oeuvre (Vakroktijīvita), invested the concept with a new life and represented the deviant expression as the very life-force of poetry. Although this gave importance to figurative speech at the cost of the suggestive speech, this movement initially gathered much momentum and attracted serious attention. About figures of sense, I have nothing to say here, except that in order to create the peculiarities with regard to meaning or the poetic image (Arthacitra), there must be, as discussed later in detail, the reflection of the object com- pared in that to be compared (Bimbānubimbabhāva), to show the essential qualities of both. Other figures of sense come under the second order, of those capable of exciting an appreciative audience with regard to the sense. But the poe- tic figurations (Vicchittis), with respect to surpassing the standard of comparison by the object (Vyatirekavicchitti), and that regarding concealment of the real and the display of something else as real, would stand on the borderland of Ubhayacitras. 1But it is still more surprising to find that besides parano- masia (Śleșa), and the subversive speech qua poetic figure (Vakrokti), some scholars have treated apparent incongruity (Virodha), model metaphor (Samāsokti), circumlocutory speech (Paryāyokta), figurative reference (Anyokti), conceal- ment (Apahnuti), illusion (Bhrāntiman), metaphorical hyper- bole (Rūpakātiśayokti) and subtle reference (Sūkșma), under the head of poetic tricks (Kūtas). These poetic tricks can safely be placed under the peculiarities pertaining both to sound and sense (Ubhayacitras), because some of these poetic tricks are founded on puns (Slesa), and some owe their origin to the poetic subversion of.speech (Vakrokti), and the two have characteristic features of both the figures of sound and sense. 1. Vide KKA, p. 47.

Development of Concepts 37

Unintelligibility or abstruseness is the basis of Kūta. Poetic tricks (Kūtas) gave rise to riddles or the conundrums, under the criteria of Ubhayacitras. Alliteration and chimes or some striking image or meaning, should not be enough to entitle any piece of poetry to selection as Ubhayacitra, as has generally been done by the rhetoricians. This would at best produce collocation (Samsrsti), or commixture (Samkara), of figures of sense, or of sound, or both. To make up this variety of Citrakāvya, there should be some sort of verbal jugglery, together with some fine imagery, or at the least, there should be some exciting or striking meaning mingled together. These elements with the suggested sense without prominence, would not debar any piece of poetry from Citra variety. As a matter of fact, poetry which is understood without reference to the sense and context of the words used, is Kūta. Here, something is said for effecting poetic charm in concealing the sense in a parade of pedantries From the point of view of content, the concealment of meanings and the clever use of words, are two conditions mecessary for Kuta poetry. In understanding the meaning, one has to ransack one's brain and imagination, but once discovered, the meaning gives a high degree of delight.

There is some difficulty in grasping the meaning in sugg- estive poetry after the abandonment of the directly conveyed sense, but that does not give Kuta poetry the status and im- portance of the suggestive class. In fact, a poet need not make skilful use of words or of other means, such as the crea- tion of figures, in the composition of Kuta poetry, in giving vent to suggestive poetry. Besides, the mysterious sense of the former cannot be equated with the suggested sense (Dhvany- artha). It is the expressed sense (Vacyartha), derived through the contextual interchange of words. Thus, difficult words and figures are used in almost all varieties of Citrakāvya, but they are not all Kutas because the meaning is not always inscrutable or ambiguous. Kuta has been very popular with scholars of discrimina- tion, to the extent that in modern times we are accustomed to the word Kūļakavya on the analogy of Citrakāvya.

38 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

Indeed, 1Kūta is a specific form of poetry-writing represent- ing the oblique style of expression where the desired sense is concealed and couched in occult words. But, broadly speak- ing, it might be called a distinct branch of poetry. 2Poetry is the art of the embellishment of thoughts, and the express- ion of emotions and sentiments. A poet's expressions become ecstatic, and his words create pleasure. When the style becomes musical, the verbalisation of thought is sublimated by the imagination. Simplicity is the ornament of the descriptive style, and strangeness that of reflective writing. Perhaps Kūta is of recent origin, but 3 Prahelika is an old word found in Amarakosa, together with Pravahlika, and dealt at length in 4Visnudharmottarapurāna. It seems to be a literary diversion from very ancient times. In the Vedic age, mention is made of the latter in the Brahmanas of the Rgveda, such as 5Aitareya. The reference is about certain laconic verses of the 6Atharvaveda. A different type of riddle namely theological, is also referred to in the Brahmanas, under the name of 7Brahmodya. The attraction of this kind of literary activity seems to have been considerable, and it is mentioned as one of sixty-four arts in the 8Kāmasūtras of Vātsyayana, and is referred to by 9rasodhara in his comments on it, as one well-known (Lokapratīta) in society. He gives two varieties of it, viz., one for diversion (Krīdartha), and the other for discussion (Vādārtha). 10Visnudharmottara gives twenty-four varieties based on Dandin's sixteen divisions, of which11 the latter has dubbed fourteen as riddles based on the faults of poetry (Dustaprahelikās).12 Bhāmaha describes it as one employ-

1. KKA. p. 1. 2. Ibid. 3. Cf. AK I-IV, p. 58. 4. Cf. VD III, Vol I, p. 35. 5. Vide AB XXX VII, p. 738. 6. VINS Vol. II, p. 40. 7. Ibid, p. 80. 8. Cf. VKS I-III-16, p. 29. 9. Cf. VKS I-III-16, p. 32. 10. Cf. VD III. II, Vol. II, p. 22. 11. Cf. KD III, V. 106, p. 410. 12. Vide BK I1, Vs. 9-10, p. 10.

Development of Concepts 39

ing chimes (Yamaka) and having recondite meanings through the variety of root-meanings. He further adds that such a literary form could be understood, like the Sastras, only with the help of commentaries, and it is a source of pleasure to the sharp-witted, but humiliation for the lesser so. Among later writers, to mention only a few, Mammata dees not even ment- ion it, and1 Visvanatha states emphatically that it is unfavour- able to sentiment (Rasa). It is of interest to note here, that 2the Prerana-variety of Geyapreksakavya, full of humour, and replete with erotic suggestions, consists of such riddles. In 3Visnudharmottara, there is a general instruction that a riddle should be expressed only through one or two verses. This explains why Ubhayacitra is difficult to compose, for there it is necessary to maintain poetic interest in a number of verses. According to 4Winternitz, the riddle queries and riddle gambols were originally the recreation of the vedic age, and sometimes formed part of the sacrificial rituals. Besides, in those ancient days, such poetry was to endow the elements of nature with anthropomorphic forms, to strike wonder and curiosity in the breasts of human beings, and to give brevity of expression in meaning, as well as to keep the secrets of mysticism concealed. It was possible because of the high development of the sensibilities and sentiments expressed. With respect to such poetry, mostly in Kuta, the language used is generally symbolical or mystical, the symbols often taken from the universe of nature. 5Sometimes, the exper- ience of the mystical and metaphysical, being itself inexpressi- ble, makes one take recourse to such symbols and metaphors. Like a dumb person, the mystical seer could experience only within himself, and could express this to others only with the help of symbols and gestures. From the works of Sanskrit poets, like 6Bana, it is 1. Vide SD X, V. 13. 2. Cf. H-KN VIII, p. 446. 3. Cf. VD III, II, Vol. II, p. 19. 4. Vide W-HIL Vol. I, p. 184. 5. Vide KKA, p. 50. 6. Vide KB, p. 15: Kadācidālekhyavinodena ... kadācidakșaracyuta- kabindumatīgūdhacaturthapādaprahelikāpradānādibhirvanitāsam- bhogaparānmukhaḥ ....

40 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

evident that people in general used to take an interest in this sort of poetic recreation. As a result of this high sensibility for poetry and art, and owing to the social conditions prevailing in the middle age of Sanskrit literature, a vast literature of the ilk of Kutas, Citras and Prahelikas was pro- duced. 1The propensity of the poets towards this kind of literature was also because of their liking for copious use of figures, both of sound and sense, bordering on the Kūtas. Among these figures, with respect to Kuta poetry, the figures of sound are styled Sabdālamkarakūta, and those of sense, Arthalamkarakūța. Thus, the figures have special importance in Kuta composition, but they are only the properties making poetry more beautiful. They conceal the real beauty which, when unravelled, gives unique delight to the reader. Here we may point out that 2Kesavamiśra classifies the figure concealed (Gudha), and the poetic interrogations, (Praśnas), under the figures of sound.3 With him, 4Bhoja puts riddles (Prahelikas) under the same head, and adds Jati, Rīti, Vtti, Chāyā, Śayyā, Mudrā, Gumphanā, Pațhiti and Bhaniti, which are exposed to the charge of over-extension. Among these, we have seen how 5Sayya is, essentially, a part of the concept of style (Riti), and 6how Vrtti, though help- ful in the determination of a particular style, is conducive to the creation of certain figures like alliteration and chimes. Chaya is not of much importance. Of Mudra, Gumphanā, Pathiti and Bhaniti, I think that the first three could be placed under the categories pertaining to both word and sense (Ubhayacitra). Bhoja classifies all of these into six varieties, with per- haps, the intention of maintaining uniformity. 7Among the varieties of the first, relating to the word, sentence, case, number and the juxtaposition (Samuccaya), the one per-

1. Vide Supra, p. 36. 2. Cf. Aś X, pp. 30-31. 3. Ibid. 4. Vide SKB II, p. 141. 5. Vide Supra p. 6. 6. Cf. Supra p. 30. 7. Cf. SKB II, p. 166.

Development of Concepts 41

taining to word is important as there is some concealed purpose to be expressed through the power of indication (Laksaņā). 1Gumphanā is the appropriate arrangement of word and mean- ing, and hence, might be conducive to any of the divisions of Citrakavya. Besides those varieties relating to the word, meaning and sentence, it is also one connected with the use of synonyms, and the conventionally accepted successive order of words in a sentence. 2As for Pathiti, it might promote Ubhayacitra by giving some particular sense in a verse through reading it with a change of voice (Kāku), accentuation, split- ting of words and sentences, gesticulation and chiming. 3 Bhaniti, on the contrary, is an expression endowed with periphrasis (Bhangin) or beauty (Vicchitti). It thus lies on the borderland of deviant expression (Vakrokti) when subver- sion or evasion of speech is meant, of conception qua poetic figure (Utpreksā) where thc poetic beauty is generated be- cause of the probability of the similitude offered, and of exaggeration (Atiśayokti) where the similarity drawn is improbable in the material world. According to Bhoja, it is also where something more is suggested in the particular verse than what is stated, when one part of the statement is covered by another part in the style of self-comparison (Ananvaya), and when something more is to be imagined in the verse from outside in order that full sense be carried through. Coming to the three varieties of Citrakavya themselves, it is the most commonplace view that of the three, the verbal peculiarity (Śabdacitra), mainly based on the figures of sound, is the least important. The reason for this is that it is generally regarded as an impediment to the maturing of a particular sentiment desired by a poet. 4Of the particular figures of sound constituting it, especially the highly spun chimes, some rhetoricians are very critical. The criticism is justified, and these figures are good only insofar as they

1. Cf. SKB. II, p. 180 .. 2. Ibid, p 191. 3. Ibid, p. 177. 4. Vide Supra p. 31. Fn No. 3.

42 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

are in proportion and aid the particular prevailing sentiment, without divesting from it. 1Bhoja has named these figures as Citra, forming the kernel of Citrālamkāra, and classified it into six varieties. The first and second varieties, Svaracitra and Vyanjanacitra, constitute Varnacitra. The third is Sthanacitra, dependent upon the use of letters in poetry and produced vocally from one, two, or more places of pronunciation in the mouth. The fourth and fifth, Akāracitra and Bandhacitra, resemble each other and have very slight difference. The sixth is Gaticitra, embodying the Vilomacitras, the Ardhabhrama, Sarvatobhadra etc. figures, where a striking verbal effect is created through the movement of certain letters or groups of letters in a parti- cular order.2 It may be mentioned that Hemacandra has also given attention to these citras. Lastly, we must treat some concepts enunciated by Kuntaka, which, though not directly related to Citra, are vital to the discussion. 3Besides the periphrasis belonging to the arrangement of letters dealt with elsewhere, 4that relating to the first part or the root part of a word, is most vital and is of eight kinds : the one dependent on the peculiarity of convention (Rudhivaicitryavakrata), that depending on the use of synonyms (Paryāyavakratā), that pertaining to attribu- tion (Upacāravakratā), the one belonging to the use of adjectives (Viseșaņavakratā), one based on concealment (Samvrtivakratā), that attached to the grammatical use of Vrttis (Vrttivakrata), one relating to the peculiarity in the use of gender (Lingavaicitryavakratā), and the one related to the peculiarity of the verbal form (Kriyāvaicitryavakratā). 5Among these, the first one, in point of poetic beauty, is dependent on the power of indication, and Ananda has dealt with it in connection with suggestion having a transfer of sense ( Arthantarasankramitavācyadhvani). 6Kuntaka has

1. Cf. SKB II, p. 265. 2. Vide H-KN V, p. 307. 3. Vide Supra p. 30. 4. Cf. VJ, I, pp. 66-81. 5. Cf, VJ, II, p. 192. 6. Cf. DL II, p. 167 & p. 170.

Development of Concepts 43

taken examples from Dhvanyaloka itself. As for the second, the 1suggestionists have included it under Paryāyadhvani and the 2Alamkāravadins under the figure Parikara. These two might come under the aegis of Arthacitra. With regard to the production of image,3 we are more concerned with the third. Here, even with scanty relation, the properties of the stan- dard of similitude are attributed to the matter in hand in such a way, that the difference between the two is eliminated, which gives rise to an identity, although the fundamental nature of the two differs in that one is abstract and animate, while the other is concrete and inanimate. Among these, where the attribution is of concrete on the abstract, we might get a true image, but where it is of the animate on the inani- mate, it is so to a lesser extent. On the contrary, where the attribution is of the abstract on the concrete, we have very touching poetic beauty and sometimes imagery. 4According to Kuntaka, this forms the foundation of beauty, born of the indicative sense, especially Gaunī, and of the figures of sense like mataphor etc. The fourth is also important. 5In another context we have dealt with the power of appropriate adjectives related either to the cases or to the verbal forms. The nouns are endowed with beauty, which the particular adjective reveals. When it creates additional beauty, it might do so by giving rise to some figures of sense. 6Kuntaka, very scientifically, stresses here the appropriateness of adjectives to the matter, sentiment, or the figures etc. Among these, those of imagist character are helpful in portraying the picture of the thing described, those which are sensuous awaken the sensibilities, and those intellectual provoke thought. Sometimes they also have the quality of expressing some idea succinctly.

1. Cf. SD X, p. 670. 2. Cf. CL V, p. 125. 3. Vide VJ II, p. 223. 4. Ibid, II, V. 14: Yanmūlā sarasollekhā rūpakādiralamkrtiḥ/ 5. Vide Supra p. 22. 6. Cf. VJ II. 15, p. 236 : Svamahimnā vidhīyante yena lokottaraśriyaḥ/ Rasasvabhāvālamkārāstad vidheyam višeșaņam//

44 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

What a sentence may not be able to express, an adjective may do. With the contact of the periphrasis dependent on attribution, the importance of the use of adjectives increases. Among the later varieties, only the fifth and the eighth, especially the latter, bordering on poetic tricks (Kūtas), con- cern us, and are relevant to the discussion in that they bring concealment and augment poetic beauty. Of the periphrasis pertaining to the latter part or the suffix part of a word, there is no importance in this context except lin the case of a particular variety of it, where the cases in a particular sen- tence are reversed, and some sort of Kūta is perceptible.

1. Ibid, illustr. V. 97, p. 275 : Yācñām dainyaparigrahapranayinīm neksvākavaḥ sikșitāḥ Sevāsamvalitaḥ kadā raghukule maulau nibaddho 'ñjaliḥ/ Sarvam tadvihitam tathāpyudadhinā naivāparodhah krtaḥ Pāniḥ samprati te hațbāt kimaparam sprastum dhanurdhāvati//

CHAPTER III

ŚABDA CITRA

In the peculiarities pertaining to word (Sabdacitra), ingenuity is displayed in the arrangement of letters, or in the combination of letters making different words or senses. The verbal figures of speech on which this depends, or from which the charm of Sabdacitra originates, are, broadly speaking, alliteration (Anuprasa) and chime (Yamaka). The former is of two kinds : the alliteration of letters (Varnanuprāsa), and the alliteration of words (Padanuprasa). The former itself is of two classes : dexterous alliteration (Chekānuprāsa) consisting of repetitions of one or more consonants, and repeti- tive alliteration (Vrttyanuprasa) comprising of the repetition of a single consonant. Besides these, 1as we have just seen, alliteration may be of many types, determined by different points of view, of which most come within the said categories. Of these, only Lātanuprasa needs special mention. Here the letters and the sense are the same, but there is difference in the syntactical relation (Anvaya). It may be pointed out that rhetoricians have generally accepted only two categories of alliteration, the repetitive and the dexterous one, and what in the more descriptive manner above is called the alliteration of words, is something very close to chime. To me this appears to be the more scien- tific view of the two and I deal with only those two categories which can be illustrated within the space of single verse : "2The female bees, making much noise, were excited by the

1. Vide Supra pp. 27-30. 2. Cf. SV. VI, V. 20 : Madhurayā madhubodhitamādhavīmadhusamrddhasamedhitamedhayā/ Madhukarānganayā muhurunmadadhvanibhrtā nibhrtāksaramujjage//

46 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

pollen of the Madhavi creeper, which was rich due to the advent of spring, and sang in steady, but sweet tones." There is a recurrence of m, dh letters on the one hand, and even of a group of these letters, construed as madhavī on the other, intensifying the striking verbal expression produced by the repetition of a regular group of sounds, nibhrta. Chime is a permutation or reverberation of words. It occurs when the same letter is repeated, or when the same word is repeated with different meanings, with regularity at the beginning, middle or end of a foot, or a whole foot in alternative feet by alterations of caesura. The latter is of three kinds : that occurring on the transference of it by the separation of an entire letter (Śrnkhalā), one on the resump- tion by a letter of its own form on the cessation of its con- junction with another letter (Parivartaka), and that on the disappearance of a word on the disruption of conjunct letters (Cūrnaka). This classification of chime on the basis of caesura is only artificial, and here we shall avoid Rudrata and Bhoja, and follow Dandin, and take it up in the various per- mutations and combinations of the differing varieties. To take first the chime of the unseparated (Avyapeta) variety occurring in the beginning of a foot : "1Oh friend, do not show this jealous anger to your beloved; being broken- hearted, you should make him feel ashamed by clinging to his neck." Here, the chime is in the beginning of the first foot of the verse, in mānena-mānena (mā+anena). It may occur in the beginning of the second or third or fourth foot. Again, there can be chiming in the beginning of the first and second feet. 2"O one with lotus-like face, please tell (me) whether the vernal season is making your eyes have sweet

1. Vide KD III, V. 4, p. 337 : Mānena mānena sakhi pranayo 'bhūt priye jane/ Khanditā kanthamāślisya tameva kuru satrapam//

2. Ibid . V. 8, p. 339 : Madhuram madhurambhojavadane vada netrayoh/ Vibhramam bhramarabhrāntyā vidambayati kim nu te//

Śabda Citra 47

dalliance, mistaking it to be the black-bee !" Here, we find chime in the beginning of the first foot, madhuram-madhuram (+bhoja), and in the beginning of the second foot, vadane- vada ne (+trayoh). There can also be chime in the begin- ning of first and third feet, first and fourth feet, second and third feet, second and fourth feet, and third and fourth feet. We shall now come to a verse having three chimes in the beginning of the feet. 1"Frantic cranes were plunging into the water of the pond and the white swan, with its reviling cries, was about to kill me". Here the chime occurs at the beginning of the first, second and third feet in viśada-visad (+āmatta), sārase-sārase, and kurute-kurute (neyam), respective- ly. In this way, this may occur in the beginning of the first, second and fourth feet, first, third and fourth feet, and second, third and fourth feet. There could be chimes in all the four feet and every- where in the beginning : 2"May my charming beloved, with pale-red silken garments of Patala colour, be like the pink rays of the sun, or like the wine-coloured western horizon (at the sunset time) !" Here chime is seen in ramanī-ramaņī (+yā), Pāțalā-pāțalā (+mśukā), varuņī-vāruņī (+bhūta), and sāura-bhā- sāurabha (+spadam), respectively in the beginning of the first, second, third and fourth feet. Also, there can be many sub- divisions of yamaka, found in the middle or end of the first, second, third, fourth feet or any of two, three, or all the four feet of the verse. Coming to the separated (vyapeta) variety, we find that whereas chimes were always in pairs without any words intervening between them in the above instances, here there may be a word or words coming between a set, or sets of pairs. First, to take the first and second feet making up this pair : 3"(The spring season) makes the pride (or jealous anger) of

1. Cf. Ibid : V. 14, p. 342 : Visadā visadāmattasārase sārase jale/ Kurute kuruteneyam hamsī māmantakāmișam// 2. Ibid : V. 18 p. 345 : Ramanī ramaņīyā me pātalāpātalāmsukā! Vāruņīvārunībhūtasaurabhā saurabhāspadam// 3. Ibid : V. 20 : Madhurenadrśām mānam madhurena sugandhinā/ Sahakārodgamenaiva sābdaseşam karisyati//

48 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

those (women) with eyes, charming like those of the female gezelle, remain in word (or name) only, as if, with sprouting of the new bunches of blossoms of sahakāra, sweet and fragrant !" Here the chime occurs in madhurena-madhurena pair, the first one in the beginning of the first foot as part of the word madhurenadrsam, and the second in the beginning of the second foot as an independent word. Such chimes can take place between first and third feet, first and fourth feet, second and third feet, second and fourth feet, and third and fourth feet, always in the beginning. This can also occur with three groups of sounds, words, or parts of words, in the beginning of any of the three feet, finally culminating in the beginnings of all the four feet : 1"In the battles, the elephants, trickling with blood, having been killed with your hands, putting an end to the enemies, looked beautiful like the evening clouds !" Here, the chime is consummated in karena-karena-karena in the beginning of the first, second and third feet. It is to be pointed out that Karena is a part of the word antakarena in the second foot, and of Karenavah in the third foot. It needs no mention that in the instance above, other words intervene between karena occurr- ing in the different feet. There can be two sets of equal groups of sounds in different combinations, i.e. one set occurring in the first and second feet, and the second in the third and fourth, one set in the first and third feet, and the other in the second and fourth, and first as well as fourth feet constituting the first set, and the remaining second and third making up the other set. Let us take the first variety :2 "The damsels, ornamented with jewelery, danced, with their beautiful and intoxicating eyes and lips capable of creating pleasure, and making their lovers wait upon them." Here, the first set of words occurring in the first and second feet is mudarama, where in the first foot, muda is a separate word and rama is part of the word ramanam, and in the second foot, it is made out of the word 1. Ibid: V. 26, p. 348 : Karena te ranesvantakareņa dvișatām hatāḥ/ Kareņavaḥ ksaradraktā bhānti samdhyāghanā iva// 2. Ibid : V. 30, p. 349 : Mudā ramanamanvītamudāramaņībhūșanāh/ Madabhramaddrsaḥ kartumadabhrajaghanāḥ kșamāḥ//

Śabda Citra 49

udāramani with prior euphonic combination with m sound of the word anvztam. The word in the second set is-madabhra, part of madabhramaddrsah in the third foot, and of adabhraja- ghanah with euphonic combination with m sound of the word Kartum in the fourth foot.

We should remember here that in the previous variety, where pair chimes take effect, all the sub-varieties could be possible if the chimes occur in the middle or end of the foot in combinations of first and second, first and third, first and fourth, second and fourth, and third and fourth feet. This could happen in all the four feet as well. Where there are three equal chiming groups of sounds, the combinations in the middle or end of any three feet out of the four, can be among first, second, third feet, first, third, fourth feet, and second, third and fourth feet.

Going back, in the unseparated (Avyapeta) variety, the chimes arising in the beginning of one foot and in the middle or end of another, or in the middle of one foot and end of another i.e. in the beginning of the first foot and middle or end of the second, in the beginning of the first and middle or end of the third foot, and in the beginning of the first and middle or end of the fourth foot, would make some more divisions, viz., in the middle of the first foot and beginning or middle or end of the second, in the middle of the first and beginning or middle or end of the third, and middle of the first as well as the beginning or middle or end of the fourth. foot. From the point of view of the chime in the end of the first foot, the following combinations would turn out : end of the first and beginning or middle or end of the second, end of the first and beginning or middle or end of the third, and end of the first and beginning or middle or end of the fourth foot. Naturally, in most of the above cases, when more than one set of 'pair-chimes' are met with, both unseparated and separated varieties of chimes occur. In the following, one set of identical pair chimes occurs in the beginnings of the first and second feet, and the other set in the beginnings

50 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

of the third and fourth feet : 1'She is unable to look to that Sala tree whose blossoms hang down, as also she is incap- able of bearing the sight of the black-bees nestling on the Vakula trees, and of her female friends lying to her !' Here, the chime in the first half is in Salam-Salam. The first pair in the beginning of the first foot consists of Salam, and the identical part of the word Sālambakalika. In the second pair, both the words are independent. Thus, in the second half, the beginning of the third foot consists of Nāli-nali of which both constitute parts of separate words. The second pair, commencing with the fourth foot, comprises of Nālī existing in the compounded word, and the identical word as part of nālikinīrapi where na and alīkinīrapi are euphonically combined. Among this mixed variety, more combinations are possible as one set of pair-chimes can occur in the beginning of first and fourth or first and third, and the other pair in the beginning of second and third or third and fourth feet. Com- binations could be had from the occurrence of the first set in the beginning or middle or end of first foot, and the middle or end of the second, as well as of the second set in the beginning or middle or end of third, and middle or end of the fourth feet. The occurrence of the first set can be in the beginning or middle or end of the first, and middle or end of the third feet, as well as of the second set in the beginning or middle or end of the second, and middle or end of the fourth feet; as also the occurrence of the first set in the beginning or middle or end of the first foot, and middle or end of the fourth, as well as of the second set in the beginning or middle or end of the second foot, and middle or end of the third foot. Likewise, a single set of pair-chimes might occur in the beginning, middle or end of all the feet : 2'In the long night of three watches, may I get at death, because she is, as if, fading

1. Ibid : V. 34, p. 351 : Sālam sālambakalikāsālam sālam na vīkșitum/ Nālīnālīnavakulānālī nālīkinīrapi// 2. Ibid : V. 36, p. 353 : Yāma yāmatrayādhīnāyāmaya maranam nišā/ Yāmayāma dhiyā'svarttyāyā māyā mathitaiva sā//

Śabda Citra 51

away with inner pangs on account of the length of night whose vicinity I reached mentally !' Here, the pair-chime yama-yama occurs independently, or as part of other word or words euphonically combined in all the four feet in the begin- ning. In this way, this single-set of four-pair chimes can be found in the beginning of one, or more than one, but less than four feet, and the middle or end of the remaining feet. Going back to the separated variety, the chimes may eventuate in the beginning of the first foot and middle or end of the second, third, or fourth feet, in the middle of the first foot and beginning or middle or end of the second, or third, or fourth feet, and in the end of the first as well as the beginning or middle or end of the second, third, or fourth feet. Retracing our steps, we find only one pair-chime twice in all the four feet; one in the beginning and the other in the end, or one or more but less than four in the beginning, and remaining in the middle or just before the end, or one or more but less than four in the end and the remaining in the middle or just after the beginning, or one pair in all the four feet, or one in the middle and in the end in all the feet uniformly. Take for example, the first sub-variety among the above- mentioned1 : "O guileless and pitiful friend, please make my union with her possible, who is afflicted like the moon, troubl- ed with the increase and decrease of his digits and because in the night whose watch-period does not end and who is (hence) lustreless, (and) from whom I have myself got this love-lan- guor." Here, the chime-pair maya-maya of the unseparated variety, made up of independent or euphonically combined sounds, occurs in the beginning and end of all the feet, mak- ing also the separated variety of chime because of the inter- vening words between the two sets of identical pair-sounds, in each of the feet.

1. Ibid : V. 48, p. 363 : Mayāmayālambyakalāmayāmayā Mayāmayātavyavirāmayāmayā/ Mayāmayārtim niśayāmayāmayā- Mayāmayāmūm karunāmayāmayā//

52 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

Like the above there can also be only one pair-chime occurring thrice, or even more times, depending on the length of the foot in a particular metre accommodating the pairs, as well as the intervening words, and this can happen in all the four feet, or in other possible combinations discussed above. Here we shall take the case of three pair-chimes in each of the four feet-in the beginning, in the middle and in the end: 1"O one with dark complexion like that of the black throat of Siva, or of rama, or of the laboun, O conversationalist like those cooing at the time (i.e. rainy season) of the moist, dark clouds. (that is, peacocks), O Krisņa, the destroyer of the Supreme Destroyer, the Death to the Kali (or sinful) Era, may the soft- speaking damsels with dark locks of hair looking beautiful on their heads, be attracted (towards you) !" The chime-pair occurring throughout at the said places is Kāla-Kāla. Also, there is a high order of alliteration on account of the commix- ture of some similar sounds in the gaps. One thing may be said here, that with the increase of pairs in a foot, the possi- bility of combinations increases, but the other way round, with the lessening of gaps between the pairs, this possibility might decrease. Now we propose to deal with more complex forms of alliteration, of chime as well as the pictorial poetic composi- tions (Citrabandhas) etc. When a poet chooses to compose a verse with the fewest of letters, the alliterative effect is heightened. First, to take a verse made up of only two letters. running throughout in any combination : 2"He, with adroit spies, making vacuum of the enemies, looking beautiful with the waving clothes, refulgent and adept in the warfare, moved with peculiar steppings." There are only two letters ca and

1. Ibid : V. 50, p. 365: Kālakālagalakālakālamukhakālakāla Kālakālaghanakālakālapanakāla kāla/ Kālakālasitakālakā lalanikālakāla Kālakālagatu kālakāla kalikālakāla// 2. Vide KJ; XV, V. 38 : Cāracañcus cirārecī cañcaccīrarucā rucaḥ/ Cacāra ruciras cāru cārairācāracañcuraḥ//

Sabda Citra 53

ra occurring throughout this verse. This can also happen with each of the four feet having repetitions of one or two letters of different sound-groups, even in various combinations. For example, we may take each foot out of four with a diffe- rent letter : 1"With sword, with arrows and the bow, pro- ceeding having acquired gold and elephants etc., and, thus, fortune favouring and of resplendent demeanour, though grave, and with the ability of killing even the son of Siva (i.e. Skanda), Arjuna, jumping (as if with verve and jubilance), suddenly looked beautiful !" The first foot here is made up of sa, the second of ya, the third of la and the fourth again, of śa letters. This can eventuate in only one or two or three feet. Now to take an example of a verse consisting of only one letter in all the four feet : 2"O multifaced one, he is not a man to be hurt by any ordinary person, and the person who hurts an inferior one, is not really a man (i.e. he lacks manhood); and he cannot be one hurting his master, and one hurting such, who, very much already hurt, is not free of fault (i.e. it is a blemish in just warfare)." Here na letter runs throughout. Other letters in the constituent words are, inevitably, vowels combining euphonically with the recurrent na sound. These constitute the Vyanjanacitra of Bhoja, lead- ing to the striking effect created out of the repetition of a cer- tain number of consonants. As for the Svaracitra, we take here only one example, with all the letters having 'ai' vowel : 3"May I be prosperous with (attainment of) the gods like

1. Ibid, V. 5 : Sa sāsiḥ sāsusūḥ sāsoyeyāyeyāyayāyayaḥ/ Lalau lilām lalo'lola śāsīsāsisuśīḥ śasau//

2. Ibid, V. 14 : Na nonanunnonunnono nānā nānānanānanu/ Nunno'nunnonamunnenonānenānunnanunnanuț// 3. Vide SKB II illustr. 277, p. 271 : Vaidhairainairaisairaindra iraijairailairjainaiḥ saiddhaih/ Maitrairnaikairdhairyairvairairdaih svaiḥ svairairdaivaistais- taiḥ//

54 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

Brahmā, Vişņu, Śiva, Indra, Kāma (i.e. Cupid), Ilā (i.e. Earth), Buddha, the Siddhas, Mitra, Kubera and those over and above these, and with the patience and opulence of sundry kinds, all well-known !" Of the Sthanacitra, it is not proposed to give here any illustration, as unless limited to the use of only one or two letters, having identical pronunciation where it would be a de facto case of Varnacitra-it does not generally evoke wonder at first sight. Coming to the more complex varieties of chime, to take first what is called 'Chaining chimes' (Srnkhalāyamaka), so named as one word of the chime-pair comes in the end of a foot and in the beginning of the consecutive foot, thus connect- ing the two : 1Siva, with mercy, not that did not speed the arrows, dreadful, with their heads spilling away the fears and capped with the feathers of peacocks." The first pair in the first two feet is Bhima-bhima and the second in the third and fourth feet is Sikha-sikha. Besides the above, there could also be one connecting chime-pair between the end of the second and the beginning of the third foot. In all, there being three chime-pairs, this variety is named Sandasta : 2"That woman (lit. the weak one) whose love is brimming due to enebriety (or intoxication) and who has pangs of cupid within, did not prove to be so much heat-giving (or afflicting) to me, having been accompanied by me, in spite of being enraged on account of my offences." The pair connecting the first and second feet is madena sa-madenasa, while the second pair con- necting the second and third feet is-na yojita-na yojita- and the third one connecting the third and fourth feet is gatāpita- gatāpi tā -. Among the most complex, there could be the repetition of a foot in different combinations i.e. in first and second, in

1. Ibid, V. 42 : Tena vyātenire bhīmā bhīmārjunaphalānanāh/ Na nānukampya višikhāḥ śikhādharaja vāsasaḥ//

2. Vide KD III, V. 52, p. 368 : Upodharāgāpyabalā madena sā madenasā manyurasena yojitā/ Na yojitātmānamanangatāpitāngatāpi tāpāya mamāsa neyate//

Śabda Citra 55

first and third, in first and fourth, in second and third, in second and fourth, or the first three feet can be the same, or the first . two and fourth, or the last three. For instance : 1"I, the stupid one who did not shun the jealous wrath tenaciously, and whose heart and soul both are pitiless, did not embrace my lover, fallen on my feet, in a way so that I could have pressed my two breasts against his bosom !" The first foot Namandayāvarjitamānasātmaya is repeated in the second. All these are called foot-chimes (Padābhyāsayamaka), but when all four feet are the same, it is the chime superior (Mahāyamaka) : 2"The arrows of Arjuna (lit. the overlord of the world) disseminated (in different directions). In the world the arrows of Siva were made to go the adverse way; the Ganas of Siva, capable of killing the demons, felt jubilant and those looking for Siva (i.e. gods and the sages) took to heaven (lit. the moving place of the birds) !" Here, Vikāśamīyurjagatīśa- mārgaņā is repeated in the four feet. There is, also, a variety called Samudgaka where half the verse, consisting of two feet, is identical : 3"We have swiftly moving chariots, we have dexterously trotting horses, we have divine elephants sounding sweetly and we have a distinguished infantry capable of getting over all odds." The first root is identical with the third and the second with the fourth. So the hemistich comprising of the first two feet Syandamano chaturagāh surebhāvāvipattaya is repeated in iden- tical manner. Two more combinations can be possible here,

1. Vide Ibid III, V. 57, p. 372 : Na mandayāvarjitamānasātmayā namandayāvarjitamāna- sātmayā/ Urasyupāstīrnapayodharadvayam mayā samālingyata jīvites- varaḥ// 2. Cf KJ. XV, V. 52 : Vikāsamīyurjagatīsamārganā vikāśamīyurjagatīsa mārganāh/ Vikāsamīyurjagatīsamārganā vikāsamīyurjagatīsamārganāh// 3. Ibid XV, V. 16 : Syandanā no chaturagāḥ surebhāvāvipattayaḥ/ Syandanā no cha turagāḥ surebhāvā vipattayah//

56 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

first where the first foot is repeated in the second and the third in the fourth, and second, where the first foot is identical with the fourth and the second with the third. To crown all, even one separate verse could be repeated verbally in another verse, both having different meanings : 1(i) "O king, on account of your muscular and stout arms, unequalled in destroying the strong foes, this earth has become dreadless". (ii) "Your enemies who are leaderless, whose weapons are placed on the funeral pyre, whom affluence (or sovereignty) and friends have bereaved, and who are afraid, have climbed the scale of Yama (i.e. have died)." One verse having the identical groups of sounds repeated in the other is Vināyakena bhavatā vīttopacitabāhunā/ Svamitroddhāriņābhītā pīthvī yamatulā- sritā// This is called verse chime (Slokābhyāsayamaka). It is a difficult art in which a poet reverses a particular verse in another verse : 2(i) "O immortals, our adversaries, endowed with sharp swords, fearless, resplendent, (and) beautiful, and capable of putting up with the strains of battles, do not in the matter of strength feel shaky." (ii) "Shining with armour, gleaming with the fire of energy and with glow- ing high breasts, who, fearless, relishes the battle-field, devouring (people) with (roaring) sounds." The first verse is Niśitāsirato 'bhīkonyejate maraņārucā/ Sārato na virodhī na svābhasobharavanuta //', repeated in reverse order in the second verse, beginning from the end of this verse and ending with the beginning. In the like manner, when half the verse is repeated in reverse order, we can have the reversed

1. Vide KD, Vs. 68-69, p. 382 : Vināyakena bhavatā vrttopacitabāhunā/ Svamitroddhārinā'bhītā prthvī yamatulāśritā// Vināyakena bhavatā vrttopacitabāhunā/ Svamitroddharina'bhīta prthvi yamatulasritā//

2. Cf: KD XV, Vs, 22-23 : Nisitāsirato'bhī konyejate'maranārucā/ Sārato na virodhī naḥ svābhāsobharavānuta// Tanuvārabhasobhāsvānadhīrovinatorasā/ Cārunā ramate janye ko'bhītārasitāśini//

Sabda Citra 57

half verse chime (Pratilomaślokārdhayamaka) : 1"I, who am plunged in meditation of Brahman, have no love for worldly pleasures, or the pangs of Cupid, or any sad thought wearing the bliss which overcomes even time." The first two feet repeated in reverse order consist of Nādinomadenā dhīh svā na me kācana kāmitā/. Likewise, there can be the reversed verse-foot chime (Pratilomapādayamaka) where at the end of a foot, the consecutive foot begins with the ending letters of the former and goes on to end in the reverse way : 2"O one lording over the demons even in the Heaven, will you be able to go to conquer the different directions (i.e. regions situated in different quarters), being endowed with indifferent notions, in the mountains difficult of access (by enemies) on account of dense forest trees, quite unshakable and where foes cannot get hold of you ?" Here, Vetrasakakujesaile of the first foot is repeated in the second in reverse order, and yāta kim vidiso jetum of the third foot, is reversed in the fourth. In what is called the half-moving (Ardhabhrama), the letters in all the feet are so arranged that the first, second, third and fourth letters, in descending order, as well as in ascending order the last the penultimate letters, the third from last and the fourth from last, when read together would give the first, second, third and the last foot of the verse. The most noteworthy thing here is that each foot would have only eight letters, otherwise the letters of one side would not correspond to the letters of the other side, and all the letters would not make the whole verse exactly. It is ob- vious that the letters making the last foot stand close to each other in all the feet. 3From the figure it is clear that there are

1. Cf. KD III, V. 75, p. 387 : Nādino madanādhī svā na me kācana kāmitā/ Tārnikā na ca kāmena svādhīnādamanodinā//

2. Vide KJ, XV, V. 18 : Vetrasākakuje saile' leśaije'kukaśātrave/ Yāta kim vidišo jetum tujesodivi kim tayā//

3. Vide Appendix No. II, Figure No. 1.

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four linings of arrows, first coming down and then moving up in a half-moon, forming the four feet of the verse. Had the said linings made a circle or moved all round, it would have been all-moving (Sarvatobhadra), but as they move in a half circle, it is called half-moving. 1With the aforesaid all-round moving, the arrangement of letters is such that besides the respective co-ordina- tion of first letters to the last, of the second to the penulti- mate ones, of the third to the third from last, and of the fourth to the fourth from last letters to make up the four feet, respectively in descending and ascending order, the resultant foot would prove itself even though read either way. So, in the Ardhabhrama variety, for example, the first letters of all the four feet in descending order, would make the first foot, read or written from the righthand side, only when taken together with the last letters of the four feet in ascending order. But in this variety, the first letters and the last in descending and ascending order respectively, would make the first foot of the verse, read or written even from the lefthand side. Therefore, with a view to the forma- tion of a particular foot, let us first come down and then, moving horizontally, go up in respect of the reading of a particular set of letters, and then move to the right and get the first foot in the same order as one would get in reading the same to the left from the same point from where one started reading the first letters of all the feet. The most remarkable feature here is that out of the eight letters of which each foot of this variety consists, four from the begin- ning are the same as the next four in reversed order, and so, the last letter of the first group is the same as the first of the other group, the penultimate letter of the first is identical with the second letter of the second group, and so on. One thing more. The first letters and the last, in the said order, form the big circle or half-circle, the next correlating letters the smaller, the next yet smaller, and the next the smallest. Among the four feet in criss-cross fashion, there are,

1. Vide Appendix No. II, Figure No. 2.

Śabda Citra 59

in all, twenty-one squares. As the two four-letter-groups in each foot are reversible to each other, each letter in each foot comes twice in identical manner. It is noteworthy that the above few, according to Bhoja, constitute the Gaticitra. The above figures may be called subtler varieties of chime (yamaka), requiring more poetic skill. Of Gomutrika, though Bhoja treats it among the bandha- citras, 1he says that it depends on the peculiarity of move- ment (Gativaicitrya) and hence, we classify it under Gati- citras. 2It has several varieties : that constituting two or more feet of the verse called Padagomutrika, one constituting it in a verse and then giving rise to another verse called Ardhagomu- trika, one constituting of two verses which is called Ślokagomu- trika etc. Moreover, sometimes we have the last-mentioned variety where the two verses are composed in two different languages, or even in two separate metres, and then there is Gomūtrikādhenu and its sub-varieties, which give rise to a hund- red, a thousand, or any number of gomūtrika verses. This is really a marvellous feat of which Sanskrit poetry might be proud. 3It may be pointed out here that this variety of Citrabandha is called Gomutrika because the system of reading out the verse it follows, is in a cut-cross fashion like that of the sprinkling urine of a moving cow. Avoiding detail, we treat here only 4Pādagomūtrikā as a representative variety. We first make an elongated rectangle and bisect it lengthwise. Then, starting from the lefthand side corner below, we draw eight parallel lines upward meeting

1. Vide SKB II, p. 284 : Udāharanamātram caitat, tena gativicitrādigo- mūtrikādayo 'nye'pi citraprakārā bhavanti. 2. Vide Ibid : pp. 284-293. 3. Ibid : V. 115, p. 284 : Gatiruccāvacā yatra mārge mūtrasya goriva/ Gomūtriketi tatprāhurduskaram citravedinaḥ// 4. The illustr. V. : Kāmksan pulomatanayāstanapīditāni Vaksaḥsthalotthitarayanchanapiditani/ Pāyādapāyabhayato namuciprahārī Māyāmapāsya bhavato'mbumucām prasārī//

60 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

on the upper line of the rectangle, so that the eighth line meets half-way on the righthand side vertical line. Then, starting from the lefthand side corner above, we draw parallel lines so that these lines meet the previously drawn lines on points where they touch the upper or the lower horizontal lines of the rectangle. Now the first two pattern-gaps, one just above the other, on both left and right sides, are to be left out, and starting from the lefthand side, in the next pattern-gap every letter is to be placed on the bisecting line, and in the previous adjacent ones, the letters are to be kept in the middle. It is peculiar that every following letter, even in the second foot, is identical with that in the first, and so, after filling the upper half of the rectangle, when we fill the lower half, every succes- sive letter of the foot coincides on the bisecting line and only the previous ones have to be filled up in the aforesaid manner. Likewise, the next two feet of the verse have also to be filled up in a separate figure. Unlike Gomūtrika, 1Turangapadabandha comes within Gaticitras, in its own right. 2Here, when all the four feet of the verse are written out in four lines in a systematic way, each letter within a separate pattern, quite a different verse arises when letters are sorted out from the patterns to be co- vered, as through the movement of a horse in chess i.e. with the movement of two-and-a-half patterns away. To come to the other verse, we move from the first pattern in the first line to the third in the second, then to the fifth in the first, the seventh in the second, the eighth in the fourth, the sixth in the third, the fourth in the fourth, the second in the third, the third in the first, the fifth in the second, the seventh in the first, the eighth in the third, the sixth in the fourth, the fourth in the third, the second in the fourth, the first in the second, the third in the third, the first in the fourth, the second in the second, the fourth in the first, the fifth in the third, the

1. Ibid : p. 279. 2. The illustr V .: Bālā sukālabālā kā kāntilālakalālitā/ Sasvā sutavatī sārā darpikā vratagardhita//

Śabda Citra 61

seventh in the fourth, the eighth in the second, the sixth in the first, the seventh in the third, the eighth in the first, the sixth in the second, the fifth in the fourth, the fourth in the second, the second in the first, the first in the third, and then to the third in the fourth and the last line. For a simple understand- ing of this movement, we have, in due order, to put numbers in different patterns in the figure given. Quite similar to this is 1Sarayantrabandha, as here also we move with chess-steps, but in a different way. 2The four feet of the verse are written out in four lines but as we move with chess-steps to the last among the four feet, we gradually get all these four feet again and not a different verse altoge- ther, as in the previous figure. For the first two feet, this move- ment will be downwards and for the last two upwards. For every successive letter in all the feet, we have to move out into the other feet, otherwise, for every alternate letter, we have to come to the particular foot undertaken. So in the figure cited, to make up the first foot, one moves for the second, fourth, sixth and eighth letters of the first foot to the identical letters in the third foot, and for giving rise to a similar second foot for the letters in the identical positions already mentioned, we move to identical positions in the fourth foot. Likewise, for the third and fourth feet respectively, we have to move up for the letters in the identical positions to the first and the second feet. Now to deal with the poetic designs (bandhas). Among them, we have seen that 3Rudrata has illustrated some new varieties. In fact, this literature has been growing even in modern times and newer types are still being evolved. Rough- ly, bandhas come up to more than a hundred and fifty in number and some of them bifurcate into many divisions. As the aim is only to introduce the reader to the subject and not

1. Ibid, p. 282. 2. The illustr. V. : Namaste jagatām gātra sadānavakulaksaya/ Samaste'ja satāmn nātra mudāmavana lakșaya// 3. Vide Supra Chap. II.

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to make an elaborate treatment of it, we shall treat only a few important and much-known bandhas. 1It may be pointed out that Bhoja has divided them into two varieties: Akaracitras and Bandhacitras, and accordingly, though the division is quite artificial, we follow it for convenience. 2It is peculiar that among the former, only several varieties of Padmabandha (lotus- design) and Cakrabandha (wheel-design) are taken, and in the latter all the rest are included. Among the Akaracitras, to first take the lotus-design. This could be of many kinds, such as the four-petalled ones, the eight-petalled ones, the sixteen-petalled ones etc. and, those with the names of the poets related to them. The latter could be possible in all the varieties. Among these, 3we illus- trate for convenience, only the eight-petalled one. In this, there are eight petals, with eight petal-shaped patterns, and there is also one middle filament-portion displaying one round pattern. All the 'ya' letters in the verse in point, are repre- sented by a single such letter placed in the middle pattern. In this case, on two petals there is only one letter each, as against two on every other petal. Otherwise, to make two on all uniformly, of the sixth, eighth and ninth 'ya' letters of the second hemistich, the first two have to be written on separate petals, with the closest associative or concomitant letters, i.e. with 'dhi' and 'ma' letters respectively. Now, beginning with the initial letters of the verse, let us start from the cen- tral 'ya' letter, and in the vertical petal above, let first śri, and then above it 'ta' letters, be placed in order to make yasrita. Then, place in the petal left to it 'pa' first, and then 'va' above it, then, from the position in the petal still left to it, place 'na', and 'ta' below it, going back to the central 'ya' making up Pavanatayā with these two petals combined, as against the former which alone made up the previously combined whole yāśritā.

1. Ibid, p. 265. 2. Ibid, pp. 272-276. 3. The illustr. V. : Yāśritā pāvanatayā yātanacchadanīcayā/ Yācanīyā dhiyā māyā yāmāyāsamstutāśriyā//

Śabda Citra 63

Starting from the same central place and coming back in a centrifugal manner to the same petal, viz., first to 'ta' and then to 'na' and then to the petal left to it, first place ccha and then 'da' above it, and going above to the petal still left to it, placing first 'ni' and then 'ca' below it, and going back to the central 'yā', makes yātanacchadanīcayā, thus ending the first hemistich of the verse. Now, coming up from the central 'ya' to the same petal in order, first to 'ca' and then to 'ni', and then going back to the same 'ya', constitutes yacanīya. Likewise, starting fresh from the top of the petal left to it, viz, from 'dhi' and then to 'ya' below it, shapes dhiyā, and then to the petal still left to it, going bottom to bottom, we get 'ma', and then 'ya' just above it, making maya, and then retracing from above to below and going to the central 'ya', forms yamaya. Ultimately, moving from the central 'ya' to 'sam' below 'stu' on the petal left to it, and then to the latter and then again going to the petal still left to it, top to top, to 'ta' from 'stu' and latterly to śri below it and to the central 'ya', makes up Samstutaśriyā, thus, ending the second half of the couplet. One important fact is that in the sixth and seventh petals, 'ya' letters might be disposed of, giving these two petals only one letter each, as against two on every other petal. In that case, the letters on the said petals, whenever required, would be construed with the central 'ya'. This is partly shown in the miniature figure where 'ya' letters have been retained in the petals. In the other figure, all possible relations have been shown with the central 'ya', or with 'ya' in the petals, whichever is more expedient. The relation of the letters on the petals with that in the centre is either cen- tripetal i.e. when it comes from the petal to the centre, or, centrifugal i.e. when it emanates from the centre towards any of the petals. Next the 1wheel-design. Here also, many varieties might be possible, dependent on the number of spikes in a particular

1. The illustr. V. : Śuddham baddhasurāsthisāravișama tvam rugjayātisthira Bhrastoddharmarajahpadangavi gavāksīnena cañcadbhruvā/

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wheel, such as the six-spiked one, the eight-spiked one etc. To avoid detail, we illustrate only the six-spiked one. Here, every foot of the verse begins and ends on a separate spike, where, except the first and last letters which are on the cir- cumference of the wheel, the middle letter is always in the midpoint and which, in the first three feet, invariably is so. Thus, the central letter is construed with all the three feet except the last one, which forms the circumference with spacing of the gaps. These two letters have no relation with those on the spikes or with that in the centre, there being two letters in each gap. The letters on the circumference coincide with every fourth letter of the fourth and the last foot, and do not have to be rearranged. As against the lotus- design illustrated, the letters, except those on the circum- ference or in the centre, forming the spikes, are running as naturally as in a verse and are not all related to each other in the same way as in the former figure, where the cross-relations among each and every letter are shown through the arrow- marks. To deal with the poetic designs (bandhas), we take up a few representative ones among the many. First, the 1um- brella design (Chatrabandha). Here, characteristically, we would have the first foot of the verse reversed in the last foot so that both, being one, would form the handle of the umbrella, and the second and the third feet in continuous order, would together fill up the seven gaps in between the eight stretching bars. Starting from the righthand side, the first three gaps. would have in natural order, firstly, three letters, and then two each, and then from the fourth gap onwards the rest of the letters would place themselves in reverse order i.e. the letter coming first would be placed upward and the one coming next beneath that letter. In this way the fourth, fifth, and sixth gaps, would have two letters each, and the seventh would get a Tathyam cintitaguptirastavidhidigbhedannacakram sucā Cāro 'prāmsuradabhramugratanu me ramyo bhavānīrucā// 1. The illustr. V. : Tanutām tanutām rādhākrisnayocaritasrutiḥ/ Hrttāpānām sudhāsindhudhārā tām nu tatām nuta//

Śabda Citra 65

quota of three letters. As will be clear from the figure given, starting from the lower part of the handle upwards, and then at the end diverting to the right and starting from the first gap to the last, in the order required as mentioned, and then starting from the uppermost part of the stick downwards, we have an umbrella in verse-form. Like the above, in what is called the 1banner-design (Patākābandha) there are only eight letters in each foot but the difference is that in the stick part of the banner we will not give a whole foot, the first foot, nor only the first foot is the same as reversed form of the last or fourth foot, rather, the whole first two feet are identical with the next two feet when reversed. So in the stick portion, only the first six letters of the first foot would be placed, one below the other, in vertical form, and out of the remaining letters of the first and second feet combined, the first and the uppermost linear gap has four letters and the next two below this have three each, all horizontally written in the natural order. It will be obvious that beginning with the letters of the banner-pole in ascending order, and at the end moving on to the first linear pattern, and then the second and the third horizontally, we have the first two feet or the hemistich. After that, read- ing back from the end of the third linear pattern, then the second, then the first, from left to right, and coming to the pole, reading back in descending order would give the other hemistich or the last two feet. This poetic structure is no- thing more than the reversed half-verse chime (Pratiloma- ślokārdhayamaka) with the difference that whereas in the for- mer each foot should consist of only eight letters, there can be no such restriction in regard to the latter. The same verse can be cast in the club figure (Gada- bandha) order when, beginning upside down in the handle of the club, having only one letter in the first and uppermost pattern followed by two such patterns with three letters each in descending vertical order, and then among three such patterns on the club itself, giving each one three letters in hori- 1. The illustr. V .: Rāsatamsarasārambhe rādha sa'raramadhavam/ Bandhamārarasādhārābhe'ram sārasatamsarā//

66 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

zontal natural order, we get the hemistich. Going up, reading the same letters in the opposite way, we come to the other half of the verse and the whole verse is complete. The first thing to be noted is that the total number of letters in the handle part is seven, while in the previous structure it was only six. But with this divergence, we have in all the pat- terns, three letters consistently, except the one remnant letter which is kept separately in the uppermost stripe. In the pre- vious pattern we begin in the ascending order, in this design we start in descending order of the polar part of the club as is evidenced from the figure. From the point of view of symmetry and consistency, one more element is noticeable, that in the second and third pattern-shreds of the handle res- pectively, we find 'ta' letter flanked by 'sa' letter, and 'sa' letter flanked by 'ra' letter. Finally, 'the drum-design (Murajabandha). Here we have first two strings tightened on the opposite sides. The first one is bound up to the lefthand side corner above, and touching the middle of the lower portion meets the righthand side corner above, and the second one, on the opposite side, bound up to the lefthand side corner below and bisecting the upper portion, comes down to the righthand side corner beneath. The first forms the first foot of the verse and in the second are placed the letters constituting the fourth foot. These two make a rectangle in the middle having the common letters Na-ga-ma-na in the same order as read from the half above and half below. There are two rectangles from both sides, having almost the same area, meeting in an artistic way in the middle of the previously mentioned rectangle. Among these two rectangles, that at the lefthand side makes up the second foot, where the letters are placed in an order starting from the left corner and coming, upside down, near the same posi- tion, and one at the righthand side consisting of the third foot where the letters are read from the right corner, upside down,' close to the same point. With the intersection of these three rectangles, ten 1. The illustr. V. : Sā senā gamanārambhe rasenāsīdanāratā/ Tāranādajanā mattadhīranāgamanāmayā//

Sabda Citra 67

small rectangles are formed consisting of four letters in a systematic way which produce no meaning. In consonance with a regular system, the letters are always placed after the intersection. If the corner has no such intersection, then on two flanks of the corner, two letters are placed. What is noteworthy is the production of twelve triangles on the four sides of the drum-figure and surprisingly, if the placing of letters be accurate, methodical and artistic, all the four feet of the verse would be read out, one after another, in four lines, as if in a natural way. In the above Citrabandhas, whether Gaticitras, Akāra- citras or the Bandhacitras, the most common thing is the repetition of certain letters in certain positions, which enhances the sense of wonder produced in a particular variety. Thus, alliteration and chimes might be said to be at the root of these poetic designs. 1The particular verses quoted as illus- trations corroborate this idea. In Gomūtrikā, the word Pīditāni occurs at the end of the first two feet and in the beginning and end of the last two feet respectively, occur the alliterative words Pāyādapāya and Māyāmapāsya, Prahārī and Prasārī. In Turangapada, the first two feet have several alliterations, and in the beginning of the third it is found in Sa sva su, and likewise the words Darpika and Gardhita occurring respectively in the beginning and end of the fourth foot. In Sarayantra, the first and third feet are similar in sound and so are the second and the fourth. In Padmabandha there is a recurrence of similar sounds in Pāvanatayā, Nīcayā and rācanīyā dhiyā māyā yāmaya etc. and so in the Cakrabandha in Suddham baddha, Gavigavā, Guptirasta and Radabhramugra etc. Likewise, there are alliterations and chimes in Tanutām tanutām, Sudhāsindhu- dharā and Tām nutatām nuta in Chatrabandha, in Rasatam sara- sārambhe, Rādhāsāra etc. in Patākābandha and in Murajabandha in Sā senā and Rasenā, and in Tāranā and Dhīrana, respectively in the beginning of the first and second, third and fourth feet. In the last-mentioned variety, in the middle of the first and fourth feet, the word Gamana recurs, adding to the total effect. 1. Vide Supra, pp. 59-66.

CHAPTER IV

UBHAYACITRA

In this chapter we propose to deal with the second divi- sion of the third variety of poetry, namely, the peculiarity pertaining to both word and meaning (Ubhayacitra). Both word and the meaning together should give charm to a parti- cular verse. Here, we should be clear that the striking effect pertaining to the word (Sabdacitra), or that pertaining to the meaning (Arthacitra), can be found singly in a set of verses constituting a separate body of poetry. But this second division can be found only in a few individual and scattered verses. I do not mean to say that the striking qualities per- taining to both word and meaning (Ubhayacitra), running continuously and consistently throughout a number of verses, is an impossibility. This is generally not possible insofar as this variety of Citrakāvya embodies within itself a commixture both of the figures of sound and of sense. We try to establish in further chapters that the riddles (Prahelikas), or the poetic tricks (Kutas) etc., also constitute this variety of poetry and. we might get them running throughout a number of verses. Here, we may give passing reference to the fact that 1this division has not been accepted by all the rhetoricians and is missed by even the magnum opus, Dhvanyāloka. But this might have been done mainly through omission or commission. Those rhetoricians who relied, for this classifi- cation, on the concept of the figures of speech, of both sound and sense, have not generally felt the necessity of recognising this division. According to them, only two could be possible

1. Cf. DL III, pp. 494-495.

Ubhayacitra 69

concomitant with the two types of figures of speech. In fact, this division consists in the sum-total of striking effects generated by both the figures of speech, and in this case is homogeneous, incapable of being separated or demarcated as that of word or of sense. Here I differ from the view of Dkşita and others, that a verse containing both the figures of sound and sense might be taken as an instance of Ubhaya- citra. In this division may be included the particular. figures utilising the striking qualities of the two kinds of figures of speech (Ubhayālamkāras) standing on their borderland, chiefly the poetic tricks (Kūtas), in which might come different varie- ties of riddles, controverted points (Prasnas), and other verbal tricks effective through concealment, placement, and dropping of letter etc. Here we may note that sometimes Kūtas them- selves take help of, or are born out of, some particular figure of sound (Sabdālamkāra) or of sound and sense (Ubhayālam- kāra). It is seldom the case that a particular verse, forming Kuta, arises on some figure of sense (Arthālamkāra). Firstly let us examine the dual nature of the aforesaid figures. Among these, the 1concealing speech is that which is not addressed to the person for whom it is intended : "O bullock, be off another's field; the guardian of the field is coming." Here the speaker exhorts somebody, engaged in amorous antics with the wife of another, and tells him of the danger of staying. On the contrary, only the first part of the illustration covers the 2revealing speech qua poetic figure. In both places there is use of some word or words having more than one meaning. In the above example, such a word is Ksetra meaning both 'field' and 'wife'. The real purport of the speech is not intended for a neutral audience, and the second sense is always a suggestive one. The dual character of these two figures is due to the double entendre present. In

1. Cf. KN, V. 154, p. 252 : Gūdhoktiranyoddesyam ced yadanyam prati kathyate/ Vrsāpehi paraksetrādāyāti ksetraraksakaḥ// 2. Ibid., V. 155, p. 253 : Vivrtoktiḥ slistaguptam kavināviskrtam yadi/ Vrsāpehi paraksetrāditi vakti sasūcanam//

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'contriving speech there is also concealment, but of one's own motive and actions, as a result of which, not only the motive is concealed, but the person to whom it remains undisclosed is duped: 'She was drawing your picture but seeing somebody coming, gave it in hand the bow of flowers'. 2This is similar to the use of certain words with particular motive in Kūta poetry. The 3Suksma figure is likewise similar. ªIn insinuatory speech, a skilled speaker, having used a proverb, wants to suggest a concealed sense : "O friend, only a serpent knows the steps of a serpent." Here the con- duct of a bad man is made known from that of another such person, perhaps on the basis of the pun on the word Bhujanga, meaning both 'serpent' and a 'bad character.' 5Even in sub- versive speech, there is pun, and through it some other mean- ing is suggested : "O beloved, shun your jealous anger; the day has come. Nandi is not here; he is near Siva." The second part of the speech is a clever subversion of the first, which, in that sense is construed differently, meaning, 'Don't leave Nandi who is come.' As for the seeming tautology, it consists in the use of different words which appear to give one meaning but have many. Among Kutas, we illustrate first one based on chimes : "O Fanakī, Rama has sent you this ring of brilliant colour, of gold, pure, and with the letters of his name inscribed." Here, the word Suvarna, in genitive, has been repeated four

1. Cf. KN, V. 156, p. 256 : Yuktiḥ parātisandhānam kriyayā marmaguptaye/ Tvāmālikhantī drstva'nyam dhanuhpauspam kare 'likhat// 2. Cf. SRB 198-67, p. 540. 3. Cf. KN V. 151, p. 248. 4. Cf. Ibid. V. 158, p. 257 : Chekoktiryatra lokokteḥ syādarthāntaragarbhitā/ Bhujanga eva jānīte bhujangacaraņam sakhe// 5. Ibid V. 159, p. 259 : Vakroktiḥ ślesakākubhyāmaparārthaprakalpanam/ Muñca manam dinam prāptam neha nandī harāntike// 6. Cf. SRB 194-8, p. 532 : Suvarnasya suvarņasya suvarnasya ca Jānaki/ Preșitā tava Rāmena suvarņasya ca mudrikā//

Ubhayacitra 71

times. The meanings in respective order are : of brilliant colour, pure, with letters (inscribed), and golden. Sometimes, this striking sense is generated through the use of symbols and metaphors, generally taken from the phenomena of nature. Often a letter or even a number is sufficient to convey the idea1 : "The eagle (Garuda), swan and bullock (in reverse order), are carriers who have in their hands trident, conch- shell and disc (respectively). Such gods (namely Siva, Brahmā and Visnu) may stay in your house with Parvati, Savitri and Lakșmī (respectively as spouses,." Here, the first letters of the words stand for the whole and are compounded in normal order. These words are : Vihangah standing for Garuda, the king of birds, from vih meaning 'bird', for Hamsa from Ham, and for Vrsabha from 'Ga' signifying 'Go' meaning 'bullock', Tricakamdharapanayah where Tri stands for Trisula, Ca for Cakra and Kam for Kambu; and Pasālasahitāh where Pā is for Pārvatī, Sa for Sāvitrī and La for Laksmī. Again, there might be use in a specialised sense, of words with manifold meanings: 2"Having seen a corpse fallen in the waters, the black crow became happy; all the jackals are weeping: O god, why did he go (out of hand) !" The words Keśava, Drona and Kaurava, are not used in the conventional sense of Krisna, Dronācārya and the Kauravas. In respective order, they mean 'the corpse in water,' 'the black crow' and 'the jackals'. The apparent contradiction in actions in respect of the conventional mean- ings of the words used, engenders the striking effects. Sometimes a long series of compounded words stand for and mean one object : 3'May Krsna, having eyes like lotuses, the ally of Arjuna; the husband of Draupadi : the sister of

1. Cf. SRB 195-28, p. 532 : Vihangā vāhanam yesām tricakandharapānayaḥ/ Pāsālasahitā devāh sadā tișthantu te grhe// 2. Ibid. 194-1, p. 532 : Kesavam patitam drstvā drono harsamupāgata ḥ/ Rudanti kauravāḥ sarve hā kesava katham gataḥ// 3. Ibid, 197-9, p. 539 : Vāyumitrasutabandhuvāhanārātibh sanasirovalambinī/ Tajjavairibhaginīpate sakhā pātu mām kamalalocano hariḥ//

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Śikhand1 : the foe of Bhisma, begotten of the Ganga whom Siva carried on his head, who himself makes ornaments of the serpents; the enemy of rats; the carrier of Ganesa : the brother of Karttikeya; the son of Agni : the friend of Vayu, pro- tect me !" Almost the whole of the first three feet of the verse mean Arjuna. This is possible because of the far-fetched application of the power of indication which is, actually, a 1blemish in poetic constructions but is sublimated in Kūta because of the sense of wonder it creates. The whole com- pound may be resolved thus : The companion of Vayu=Agni; his son=Karttikeya; his brother=Ganesa; his carrier=rat; its enemy=serpent; one making it a decoration=Siva; one having been kept on his head=Ganga; one born of her= Bhīşma; his foe=Sikhandī; his sister=Draupadī; her husband =Arjuna. This can happen in a series of words even without a compound : 2"May Vişnu, the lord of Laksmi, the progeny of waters : the enemy of fire, the offspring of the inner part of (the trunk of) the fig-tree, be pleased with me!" Here the difference lies in the use of the word Garbha in more than one shades of meaning. First and foremost, this is used in the sense of 'inner part' and then it means 'progeny.' The exposi- tion is : the inner part of the fig tree; its progeny=Agni; its enemy=water; its progeny=Laksmī; her lord=Visnu. Thus the use of words in meanings not in vogue brings forth Kuta : 3"In Kali age the countryside would commerce in foodgrains, the brahmins in the Vedas and women in their secret parts." Here also the poetic charm, however artificial, emerges out of a blemish. The exposition of the illustration lies in the knowledge of the meanings of the 4words Atta, Sula, Siva,

1. Vide Kumārila : Nirūdhā laksaņāḥ kāścit sāmarthyādabhidhānavat/ Kriyante sāmpratam kāścit kāścinnaiva tvasaktitaḥ// 2. Cf. SRB 195-26, p. 534 : Śamīgarbhasya yo garbhastasya garbhasya yo ripuḥ/ Ripugarbhasya yo bhartā sa me vișnuḥ prasīdatu// 3. Ibid. 194-15, p. 533 : Attašūlā janapadāḥ śivaśūlāścatuspathāḥ/ Pramadā kešasūlinyo bhavisyanti kalau yuge// 4. Ibid. notes :

Ubhayacitra 73

Catuspatha and Keśa, which here mean respectively, 'food- grains', 'selling', Vedas, Brahmana and 'the secret part of woman.' Sometimes, there is mystery in meaning due to difficulty in construing the words properly, which, in turn, leads to Kuta : 1"Having seen the birth of a child to the demons, Rāma having eyes like lotuses, chief (or famous) in the lineage of Raghu, gave thought (to their destruction)." There is con- tradiction, more apparent than actual, in the prose order which, when kept properly, gives the right meaning. Here, the words after the first one in the second hemistich, would be construed with Raghuvamse and the first with the rest. Be- sides, in the strangeness due to compounds (Samāsakūta), one word is to be construed differently because of different com- pounds applicable to it : 2"O king, myself as well as yourself, both are Lokanatha. (The difference is :) I am Bahuvrihi com- pound i.e. one whose master isthe world, and you are genitive tatpurusa i.e. master of the world." By way of a panegyric, a bard says to a king that they both are Lokanatha; the only difference is that he is Bahuvrihi (i.e. Lokah natha yasya viz .; a suppliant) while the king is genitive Tatpurusa (i.e. Lokasya nathah, viz., lord of the world). Similarly, in the mystery due to the use of the nominal root (Nāmadhātukūta), the striking effect is generated because of the use of such verb or verbs : 3"O beloved, how your burden (or braid) of hair can be capable of being served by the ageless ones (that is, gods), as

Attamannam sivo vedo brāhmanaśca catuspathaḥ/ Keśo bhaga iti proktaḥ śūlo vikraya ucyate// 1. Cf. SRB 195-32, p. 535 : Kumarasambhavam drstva Raghuvamse mano'dadhat/ Rāksasānām kulaśrestho Rāmo rājīvalocanaḥ// 2. Ibid, 195-22. N.B. :- Here we may point out that grammatical symbols have been used to enhance the beauty of the paradox : Aham ca tvam ca Rājendra lokanāthāvubhāvapi/ Bahuvrīhiraham rājan sa sthītatpuruso bhavān// 3. Ibid, 195-22, p. 537 : Kati te kabarībhārāḥ sumanaḥsangāt priye'tinīlatvāt/ Bhavati ca kalāpavattvānnirjarasevyaḥ katham vā syāt//

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it acts like Brahmā on account of its attachment to flowers (or, gods, in case of Brahmā), like Vinu owing to its being blue (or, black) and is like Siva because of carrying ornaments (in the case of Siva : in the shape of serpents)." Here also, the peculiarity lies in the two meanings displayed by the three verbs, Kati, Ati and Bhavati, that are used. The first two are indeclinables, ordinarily while the third remains a verb. These nominal verbs are derived respectively, from Ka=creator, A =Vișnu and Bhava=Śiva. We have seen above that double entendre plays an im- portant role in the formation of the poetic charm, pertaining to both word and sense. Now, we see that the indicative sig- nification of word (Laksana) is very helpful in the composi- tion of Kuta poetry, belonging to this second division of Citra- kāvya. We have already seen a very occult instance of it, in the illustration of Kuta arising out of a compounded series of words (Samastaśabdamālākūța). In the verse below, we find a beautiful example-where, for the blooming of the lotuses, the poet resorts to the power of indication : "1This sun (lit. one having odd number of horses) shining (even) in the cloudy sky and having attained the lustre of Visnu, makes the slumber of the lotuses go." The Kuta, again, is accentuated by the use of words, not in vogue in the sense they are used i.e. Varivā- raņamastaka for culvert, visa for water and Ksaya for dwelling place : 2"O Devara (that is, husband's brother), I have seen a goat on the culvert (lit. on the head of that, obstructing waters) that went to its place, having consumed the leaves of the sun-plant and having taken water." The latter can also be said to be an illustration of Kuta arising out of certain euphonic combinations (Sandhikūta), as here two quite sepa- rate words, when euphonically coalesced, give a different word, altogether changing the tenor of the whole verse. For

1. Cf. SRB 196-43, p. 537 : Prābhrabhrād visņudhāmāpyavisamāśvaḥ karotyayam/ Nidram sahasraparņanam palayanaparayanām// 2. Ibid, 195-31, p. 535 : Devarājo mayā drsto vārivāranamastake/ Bhakşayitvārkaparņāni visam pītvā kşayam gataḥ//

Ubhayacitra 75

instance, the word thus formed here is Devarājah (Devara+ Ajah), giving the surface meaning Indra, and the latter is said to have been seen on the culvert and having consumed the leaves of the sun-plant and swallowed them, is stated to have met with destruction. Among Prahelikas, there are certain ones which are Kūța poetry as well : 1"O one with lotus-like eyes, I want to drink' water from you. But if you are a female servant ( : sense taken of a Sūdrā woman), I won't; if you are not, certainly I will." It is a Sandhikūta, as also a Prahelika based on pun: the former because the effect is heightened because of the euphonic combination in the word Dasyasi occurring twice, and the latter on the score of apparent-looking verbal form, Dāsyasi being repeated in a contradictory manner. Very often a certain object is described in such manner in a conventional paradox, and after reading the verse, the object described is found :"2(That is) legless but goes afar, having letters but is not a pandita (i.e. scholar), though mouthless, speaks clear; one who understands, is a pandita." Here, the object described is a 'written letter.' In an extended form, this is found in interroga- tive verses where generally, the answer or clue is supplied in the last foot. This interrogative riddle (Praśna) as it is called, is broadly of two kinds : reply to the queries asked by only one person (Ekaprstapraśnottara), and reply to the queries asked, generally between two persons mutually questioning and answering (Dviprstapraśnottara). The second one is also called simultaneous question-answer (Yugapatpraśnottara), as replies are being given and questions asked simultaneously. This is also said to be mutual speech and counter-speech (Uktipratyukti) for the same reason. Of the two, the former is of six sub-divisions : reply con- sisting within the verse itself (Antarālapa); reply to be made outside the verse (Bahiralapa); replies where words from 1. Cf. SRB & SM, p. 351 : Pānīyam pātumicchāmi tvattaḥ kamalalocane/ - Yadi dāsyasi necchāmi no dāsyasi pibāmyaham// 2. Cf. SRB No. 1, p. 528 : Apādo dūragāmī ca sākșaro na tu panditaḥ/ Amukhaḥ sphuțavaktā ca yo jānāti sa panditah//

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outside have to be construed, perhaps on the basis of those existing within the verse (Bahirantarālāpa); Fatipraśna where the questionnaire, consisting of both question and answer '(Praśnottarajāti), is supplied by the two answers of two diffe- rent questions, of which the second answer is the reverse, in the order of letters, of the first reply; Prstapraśna where the questions themselves provide answers when words are construed differently; and Uttaraprasna where replies to the queries in first three feet of the verse are generally supplied in the last foot, as also the overall answer of the whole query in the verse given in the last foot, is, the other way round, characterised by certain adjectives in that very last foot. As for the latter kind, there cannot be any distinct types, but is of various shades. To take first one. First of all, it is of two types, one where answers of the queries of the first three feet of the verse consist in the last foot, and the other where generally, queries are put not in all the feet, but whatever the query, the answer lies in construing the letters of one word: 1"From whom is the musk produced ? Who kills the herd of elephants ? What should a coward do in battle ? From deer, the lion, retreat." Here, uncompounded three words of the fourth foot, respec- tively give answer to the queries put in the first three feet. 2"Who moves in the sky ? Who is charming ? What is to be uttered in prayer ? What is the decoration ? Who is to be respected ? How (was) Lanka ? The bird, the Laksmi, the Rk (Veda), the bracelet, the father (Shaken by the brave mon- keys !) !" On the other hand, this highlights a different shade where in first three feet, two questions are asked. In all, six queries are asked and replies to all these queries, except the last one, are supplied in the fourth foot in a compounded,

1. Cf. SRB No. I. p. 550 : Kastūrī jāyate kasmāt ko hanti kariņām kulam/ Kim kuryāt kātaro yuddhe mrgāt simhaḥ palāyanam// 2. Ibid, No. 2, p. 550 : Kaḥ khe carati kā ramyā kā japyā kim vibhūsanam/ Ko vandyaḥ kīdršī lamkā vīramarkațakampitā//

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compact fashion, which itself is a cogent answer to the last query. For the first five queries the answers, respectively, in the last foot are, vih (i.e. bird)+Rama (i.e. Lakşmī)+Rk (i.e. Vedic stanza)+Kațakam (i.e. bracelet)+Pitā (i.e. father), euphonically combined. From the first verse, it differs in that there, the fourth foot, though on the surface having some meaning, is at best contradictory and not cogent grammatically, whereas it is so in the second illustration : 1"What is orna- ment for the breasts ? How is Uma ? From where is the light of the moon ? How does Sita weep, having been carried away by Ravana ? The pearl-necklace, devoted to Siva, from night [O Rāma, O Devara (i.e. Laksmaņa), O father, O mother !]." Here also in the first three feet there are many questions asked though not as many as in the previous one, and the fourth foot answers the last query. But in respect of answering the previous queries, the fourth foot should be resolved letter by letter in as many parts as are the queries. The following is the most sophisticated : 2"Who is the beloved of Siva ? What is as beautiful as the moon ? What does the serpent do to the face of its counterpart ? Who is the husband of Lakşmī ? What is odd among the even (i.e. exciting thing) ? Gaurī, face, kisses,-Vāsudeva. (Also, Vāsudeva kisses Gaurī's face !)." This illustrates a type having many queries in the first three feet whose answers, except the last one's, are pointed out in respective order in the words constituting the last foot, which is itself a cogent clause and an answer to the last query. One more thing to be noted here is the apparent contradiction found in the last foot. 1. Cf. SRB No. 19, p. 551 : Vibhūşanam kim kucamandalānām kīdrsyumā candramasaḥ kuto bhāḥ/ Sītā katham rauti dasāsyanītā hā Rāma hã devara tāta mātaḥ// 2. Ibid, No. 16, p. 551 & SP No. 3 (p. 88), SM No. 27, p. 352 : Kā sambhukāntā kimu candrakāntam kāntāmukham kim kurute bhujangaḥ/ Kaḥ śrīpatiḥ kā visamā samasya gaurīmukham cumbati vāsudevaḥ//

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Coming to the other type, we get only two shades gene- rally, one where the whole word answers the question and the other, where requisite letters construed out of a single word provide clue to the answer : 1"Only highly intelligent people know from where the three worlds are (generated), and on being born they (i.e. the three worlds) are full of love, (the answers being) placed in this verse in the beginning." Here, the word Adau in the beginning portion of the verse where the clue is said to exist, when resolved as At+Au provides, in respective order, two answers to the two queries found in the last two feet of the verse. The first question is : Kutah bhuva- natrayam ? (whence the three worlds), and the answer is : At (from Visnu). The second question is : Kasmin samutpanne sara- gam bhuvanatrayam ? (On whom being born, the three worlds become full of love-sentiment ?)-and the answer is : Au (On cupid being born). Here the word Bhuvanatrayam is to be construed with both the interrogative clauses. As against it is the following verse : 2"The cave says : Who am I? What is the answer (embedded) in this query ? Why, even told, you do not understand, O friend, that you are slighting!" The answer from the verbal form Kadarthayasi (i.e. why despise ?) from which we fetch out, according to our convenience, the letters dar+ya+si, which when euphonically coalesced, form the word Daryasi (i.e. you are a cavern), providing the answer. In Bahiralapa we get such shade : 3"Tell me, O good boy, how is your father (to you), and how is the ocean with waves swayed by the wind ?" Here we have two queries in

1. Cf. SRB No. 24, p. 351 : Śloke'trādau vinirdistam vijānanti mahādhiyaḥ/ Kutaḥ kasmin samutpanne sarāgam bhuvanatrayam// 2. Ibid, No. 23, p. 351 : Kā 'hamasmi guhā vakti praśne'muşmin kimuttaram/ Kathamuktam na jānāsi kadarthayasi yat sakhe// 3. Ibid, No. 25, p. 352 : Bhadra mānavakākhyāhi kīdrsaḥ khalu te pitā/ Vātāndolitakallolaḥ kīdrśaśca mahodadhiḥ//

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answer to which a word is adeptly evolved. When dissolved in two different ways it gives answers to the queries. The said word is evolved from outside the verse of which there is no clue whatsoever. This word is Majjanmakarah, which, when disjoined like 'Mat+janmakarah', provides answer to the first question. When it is euphonically disjoined like Majjat+ Makarah, it answers the second query. At both places, the word respectively means 'giver of my birth' and 'the place where alligators emerge and submerge.' On the contrary, in verse that follows, there is some difference : 1"Which up- held Visnu bearing the appearance of a pig ? Which the king wants foeless ? By whom is cupid produced ? Through which is adorned the face of the damsel ?" The difference is that there is some clue for making out the word which provides answers to all queries, and this clue lies in the answer of the fourth foot of which only parts are answers to the three preced- ing queries, consisting in three previous feet of the verse. This also makes some difference in the nature of this interro- gative paradox, as contrary to this, in the previous verse, the whole word provided reply to both the questions. Here, the answers of the first three feet are, respectively, Kum (i.e. the earth)+Kum (i.e. the earth)+Ena (i.e. through Visnu), to- gether making the reply to the fourth foot in Kumkumena. Sometimes the answers to be made out for the separate queries, as well as the aggregate answer, are all grammatical, or might be technical terms : 2"Whom the wicked does not like (or praise) ? What is Suptinanta ? Please tell the appella- tion of the nine ladesa tin (or, the verbal tense roots)." The answer of the first query is Parasmai (i.e. for other), and of the second Padam (i.e. the word), and of the third constituting the third and fourth feet, amounting to Parasmaipadam (i.e. a voice for another). Thus, we might have a kūta like this :

1. Cf. SRB No. 24, p. 352 : Kām harirabharat sūkararūpaḥ kāmarirahitāmicchati bhūpaḥ/ Kenākāri ca manmathajananam kena virājati tarunīvadanam// Ibid No. 19, p. 555 : Na ślaghate khalaḥ kasmai suptinantam kimucyate/ Lādeśānām navānām ca tinām kim nāma kathyatām//

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1"Who keeps closely embraced on the chest of Visnu ? Who, in the Nandana forest, is happy on account of the pollens of lotuses ? What is the metre of verse, having short and long letters ?" 'Here, of the last query constituting the last two feet, the answer is the name of a metre, made up of the ans- wers of the first two feet of the verse. So, in order of the three queries, the answers are : Mā (i.e. Lakșmī)+Alinī (i.e. black-bee)=Malini (metre). Again, we find an increase in the complexities in composition : 2"Who moves in the sky ? By whom was killed the lord of the demons (viz. Rāvana) ? Who sinks in the sea? How is the sportive gait of a young wo- man? Who is beloved of the king ? What is the carriage of the monarch ? What is charming in the waters ? Who was abductor of Rama's wife ? What constitutes the middle letters of my replies to the questions, constitutes benediction to you." There are eight queries, the answers of which, respec- tively, are : Grahesah (i.e. the lord of constellations), Rāmena (i.e. By Rama), Mainakah (i.e. the mountain of the same name), Mantharam (i.e. slow), Sacivah (i.e. the minister), Turangah (i.e. the horse), Rajivam (i.e. the lotus) and Ravanah (i.e. the demon of the same name) of which the middle letters, as per instructions in the last foot, form the benedictory message viz., He me natha ciramjīva (i.e. O my lord, may you live long !). Still further, let us see the complexity : 3"Which does the

1. Cf. SRB No. 97, p. 561 : Urasi murabhidaḥ kā gādhamālingitāste Sarasijamakarandāmoditā nandane kā/ Girisamalaghuvarnairarnavākhyātisamkhyai- Rgurubhirapi krtā kā chandasām vrttirasti// 2. Ibid, No. 116, p. 563 : Kaḥ khe yāti hato nisācarapatiḥ kenāmbudhau majjati Kaḥ kīdrk tarunīvilāsagamanam ko nāma rājñām priyah/ Patram kim nrpateḥ kimapsu lalitam ko Rāmarāmāharo Matpraśnottaramadhyamāksarapadam yat tat tavāsīrvacaḥ// 3. Ibid, No. 121, p. 563: Kşonī kam sahate karoti divi kā nrtyam šivāyāḥ pati- Rbhūtānā m kamayunkta jīvaharane kā Rāmasatroḥ purī/ Kam raksanti ca sadhavah pasupateh kim vāhanam procyatām Ālomapratilomasāstracaturairekam dvayoruttaram//

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earth bear ? Who does dancing in the heaven ? Whom did the lord of Parvati (i.e. Siva) deploy from amongst the imps for extricating life ? Which is the city of the enemy of Rama (i.e. Ravana) ? Whom do the good people protect ? Tell which is the carriage of Siva ? One each, in normal as well as in reversed order, is the answer for two consecutive queries." The peculiarity here lies in the fact that the answer of one query is always found reversed in the adjacent one. For inst- ance, the answers of the first two queries are Bharam (i.e. the burden) and Rambha (i.e., the celestial nymph of the same name), of the next two Kalam (i.e., the particular Bhta) and Lanka (i.e. the city of the same name), and still of the next two Dinam (i.e. the poor) and Nandi (i.e. the bull of the same name). These queries constitute the first three feet, and the last foot only renders help in finding out the answers. The answers of each pair of queries are the same but in reversed order. In the SKB of Bhoja under the head Ekaprstaprasnottara, there are four more varieties. In Bahirantaralapa, let us take just one example: 1"Who married Subhadra ? What reply is here in this query, that stands for what (synonym of) monkey ? Whence is the complete sustenance (possible) in heaven (or sky) ?" There are three questions. The answer of first one is somehow supplied by the second in the shape of some synonym of Kapi (i.e. the monkey), and from amongst many such synonyms the answer is specified by the third, viz, Vayutah (i.e. through air), which is itself the answer of the third query. With regard to the synonyms of the word Kapi which should be Vayukta (i.e. endowed with the particle Vā), the word is specifically ascertained as Vanarah, which in turn is the answer of the preceding three queries. Really, Vayutah is the direct answer to the third query, and with res- pect to the first one, it is something outside, but when out of it comes the word Vanarah, it becomes directly related to the first question. In a way, the second and third questions only provide clues to the answer of the first question. Therefore, from this point of view, there is answer within answer, and so 1. Cf. SKB II v. 374, p. 303 : Subhadrām ka upāyamsta prasne 'musmin ya uttaraḥ/ Sa kīdrk kapimācaste vyomni pūrnasthitiḥ kutaḥ//

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there is something like Antarantaralapa instead of Bahirantara- lapa. Now Jatiprasna : 1"From what nature of landscape the king is conjectured as having bathed ? When asked to dress up the courtyard, what did the reluctant ones tell?" The first half of the verse and the second half form two queries, and of the first the answer is Haimavārakarañjina, and of the second, Najiramkaravamahai, which is just the reversed form of the first. Likewise, to illustrate Prstapraśna : 2"What is it that is one- fourth of rojana ? What is equal to two thousand of Dandas (equivalent to four Hastas in measure) ? What is black ? What is sweet ? What is (comfortable) for parrots, the vast shady grove?" Here all the five queries occur having within them the answers. For instance, Ko so joanavao as a query, is ren- dered in Sanskrit Kah sa yojanapadah (i.e. what is it that is one- fourth of a Yojana ?), and in the form of answer is rendered as Krośo yojanapadah (i.e. Krośa is that which is one-fourth of a Yojana). In the same way, for Ko dandanam dve sahassaīm, the question is : Ko dandanam dve sahasre (i.e. what is equal to two thousand of Dandas ?) and the answer is : Kodandānam (i.e. it is two thousand of Kodandas). In the second half of the verse there are three queries : Ka kalī (i.e. what is black ?), Kā mad- hura (i.e. what is sweet ?) and Kim sukaprthukānanacchāyam (i.e. what is the shady grove for the parrots ?). The answers are : Kākālī (i.e. the row of crows), Kamadhura (i.e. the high- est place of cupid), and Kimsukaprthukānanacchāyam (i.e. the shady grove of Palasa trees). Then Uttaraprasna: 3"What is food for the trees in spring time, asked the fisherman (lit. the tapper of the fish etc.). What reply these two (i.e. first two feet of the verse) got ? The rows of cuckoos, darker than the darkness, devouring the forest region." The words, wanted 1. SKB. II illust. 375; Kīdršā bhūmibhāgena rājā snāto 'numīyate/ Prānganam kurutetyuktāḥ kimāhustadanicchavaḥ// 2. Ibid, II illust. 376 : Ko so joaņavāo ko dandānam dve sahassāīm/ Kā kālī ka madhura kim sukaprthukananacchāyam// 3. Ibid, II, illust. 377, p. 304 : Kim vasantasamaye vanabhaksah prstavān sa prthulomavilekhaḥ/ Uttaram ca kimavāpaturetat kānanādatimirādapikālī//

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as answers for the first three feet, have been placed in the fourth foot in such an order, that taken as one whole they form the answer directly to the third foot as well. The peculiarity lies in the derivative word Pikalī (i.e. row of cuckoos) being qualified by adjectives making the whole of the fourth foot viz. Kananadatimirat api kalī, and this ultimately is answer to the chief query found in first foot of the verse. As for queries asked and answers supplied mutually (Dviprstapraśnottara) between two persons, there is not much to say. We shall see a few shades that would suffice from the point of view of x-raying its nature. First, there is a simple type in reversing the speech, almost like a logical rebuttal : 1"Meaningless became the birth of the lotus-plant that did never see the disc of the moon. Also quite futile was the origin of the moon who did not behold the blossoming lotus-plant." By way of Anyokti, the lover poet means to say that the birth of the beloved princess is fruitless as she has not seen (yet) the beautiful face of the former. In another half of the verse, the beloved retorts that futile too is his origin, who has not beheld her blossoming countenance. But a definite poetic charm is created out of the subversion of speech (Vakrokti) in retort in the following verse : 2"Oh ! by whom has the ruthless intel- lect of yours been devised ? The intellect is heard to con- sist of the three properties (viz. Sattva, Rajas and Tamas), but never made of wood !" The poetic subversion is based on a pun in the word Daruna, used here in fem.nom.sing. of Dāruna (i.e. rough or ruthless), but is subverted to be under- stood in instr. sing. of the word Daru (i.e. wood), as is clear from the biting and satirical second half of the verse. To take one more example, to get a different shade though based on pun as before : 3"Please describe the Mahabharata, the sugarcane- 1. SP No. 17 : Nirarthakam janma gatam nalinyāh yayā na drstam tuhinamsubimbam/ Utpattirindorapi nisphalaiva drstā vinidrā nalinī na yena// 2. Ibid & No. 11 (p. 89), SRB No. 3 (p. 564) : Aho kenedršī buddhirdārunā tava nirmitā/ Trigunā śrūyate buddhirna tu dārumayī kvacit// 3. Ibid, No.1, p. 64: Bhāratam ceksudaņdam ca sindhumindum ca varnaya/ Padamekam pradāsyāmi pratiparvarasodayaḥ//

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stick, the ocean and the moon. I will give only one foot (of the verse) : there is rise of Rasa in every Parvan." Here the whole tenor of the verse is changed because of the double entendre in the word Pratiparvarasodayah, which in respect of the great epic, means 'the evolution of sentiments in every chapter named Parvan', with regard to stick of the sugarcane, 'the existence of juice at every knot', with respect to ocean, 'the rise of tide (whether nip or ebb) at every knot (or joint) of the month i.e. on full-moon day or new-moon day', and in relation to the moon, 'the waxing of the digit on every full-moon or new-moon day.' The first half of the verse is traditionally said to be the speech of Bhoja, and the second half that of Kalidāsa. We have seen above that concealment brings purpose to Kutas or the riddles. This concealment can be of the finite verb, of any of the various cases, of compound, of gender, of the case-ending, or of the verbal ending (i.e. Tin) in many ways. For example, in the following verse the finite verb is Aduh, of which the initial letter is concealed, being euphonically combined with the word Sarve before Duryodhanasamīhaya, of which again, the initial letter is actually the final one of the aforementioned finite verb : 1"All the Pandavas who had come gave a cow, gold and varied jewels to him who was in search of riches." So even the word Duryodhanasamīhaya can be broken like this : (A)duh+yah+dhanasamīhaya, giving the proper meaning, otherwise there is apparent contradiction in the verse. Sometimes this concealment is effected through a eupho- nic combination in a straight style throwing challenge : 2O king, the bird wandered in the township from one bamboo tree to another. Here, the verb is concealed. He who knows, is a pundit." The verb Ata (i.e. past perfect third pers. sing. of VAt) is concealed, being euphonically combined with Vih (i.e. bird) making a normal word Virata, which followed by the word Nagare, appears to give a cogent sense and hence eludes the reader. 1. SRB. No. 1 (p. 545), SP No. 1 (p. 82) : Agatāh pāndavāḥ sarve'duryodhanasamīhayā/ Tasmai gām ca suvarnam ca ratnāni vividhāni ca// 2. Cf. SRB No. 9, p.546 : Virāțanagare rājan kīcakādupakīcakam/ Atra kriyāpadam guptam yo jānāti sa panditaḥ//

Ubhayacitra 85

With regard to the concealment of cases, let us first examine how the nominative case is concealed and the poetic curiosity generated : 1"O Brahmin, the prosperous one gives on the river-bank, food, raiment, gold and various jewels. Go at once." We find in this instance that the nominative is Ibhyah (i.e. prosperous) euphonically combined with the voca- tive Brahmana in such a way, that the whole word gives the semblance of a dative case, amply justified by the use of the finite verb Dadati, making the confusion more. In the following verse we find the accusative case in Sarah (i.e. the pond) con- cealed, having euphonically coalesced with Javanamarutah (i.e. the speedy breeze), making the whole word look cogently different in Sarojavanamārutah (i.e. the breeze of the cluster of lotus-plants) : 2"The robust, speedy wind, carrying the mois- ture-particles, agitates the pond, as if with exhalations of the wives of the passers-by !" Below, the instrumental case is in the word Mahanasa (i.e. through a big cart), which when combined euphonically with Ayatah (i.e. came) makes a differ- ent sense altogether : 3This (person) who has come by a big cart, is like a netherworld to you. I have consumed the meat etc., O Baka, know me Bhīma !" It must be noted that Mahā- nasa (when the final vowel is not elided), means 'cooking place (or kitchen)'. Then, to take illustration of the concealment of the dative : 4"The damsel, replete with devotion, having bathed in the waters of the small pond, offers to cupid the lotus-flower, meant to augment good fortune." Here the dative case is in Aye (from the word Ih=cupid) which is so adeptly coalesced with the preceding Ambhoruham (i.e. the lotus) that it goes to make a new and cogent word, qualifying Vapi-

1. SRB No.2 (p. 516), SP No. 3 (p.83): Annavastrasuvarnāni ratnāni vividhāni ca/ Brāhmaņebhyo nadītīre dadāti vraja satvaram// 2. Cf. Ibid. No. 1, p.547, SM No. 8. p. 349 : Śīkarāsārasamvāhī sarojavanamārutaḥ/ Prakşobhayati Pānthastrīniņśvāsairiva māmsalaḥ// 3. Cf. Ibid. No. 2, p. 547 : Aham mahanasayataḥ kalpito narakastava/ Mayā māmsādikam bhuktam bhīmam jānībi mām baka// 4. Ibid. No. 1, p. 547, SM No. 10, p. 349 : Ambhoruhamaye snātvā vāpīpayasi kāminī/ Dadāti bhaktisampannā puspam saubhāgyavardhanam//

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payasi, (i.e. in the waters of the small pond). When Aye is separated, and rightly so, with the use of Da root, the word Ambhoruham qu ilifies puspam (i.e. flower). Likewise in the instance below, we get the ablative character of the word Alinah (from Alin i.e. the black bee) concealed because of its euphonic combination with Atyantam (i.e. very much), giving rise to a new, cogent word, Atyantama- linah (very much dark or pallid), qualifying Ripuh (i.e. enemy): 1"O brave one, the enemy has been vanquished by you with irresistible arrows, like one overcome by the black bees anxious for flowers in the forest, who get very much frightened of them." As for concealment of the genitive case, we may illustrate thus : 2"The splendour of a man is generated owing to Laksmī or Sarasvatī. Here the genitive case is concealed. The time-limit (for finding it out) is ten years." In Bhanuh (i.e. sun) the word Nuh (from Nr i.e. man) is the genitive, which being placed with the word Bhah (i.e. lustre) and eupho- nically coalesced, makes the aforesaid new word give sense. Again, the locative case in the word E (from A Vișnu or Krsna) is concealed below with the word Kante following, form- ing a word itself : 3"She (Laksmi), having abode among the lotuses, who has made love in secret with Visnu, purifies men with her glances." There is a beautiful instance of the voca- tive of word Vato (from Vatu=a boy), having been con- cealed because of its being coalesced with the following word Rksa (i.e. bear), giving rise to a new word Vațavīkșah (i.e. the fig-tree) : 4"O boy, this big bear is there, obstructing the road. You should not go until and unless it goes elsewhere."

1. Cf. SRB No. 1, p. 547, SM No. 11, p. 349 : Śilīmukhaistvayā vīra durvārairnirjito ripuḥ/ Bibhetyatyantamalino vane'pi kusumākulaiḥ// 2. Cf. Ibid. No. 2. p. 547 : Bhānurvai jāyate laksmyā sarasvatyā'thavā matā/ Atra sasthīpadam guptam maryādā dasavārșikī// 3. Ibid, No. 1, p. 547 : Yā kațāksacchațāpātaiḥ pavitrayati mānavam/ Ekānte ropitaprītirasti sā kamalālayā// 4. Ibid, No. 4, p. 548, SP No. 6, p. 84 : Vațavrkso mahānesa mārgamāvrtya tisthati/ Tāvat tvayā na gantavyam yāvannānyatra gacchati//

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On the surface, this verse also shows apparent contradiction in meaning. Before ending this part of the discussion, we must say that the concealment of more than one case is possible : 1"Be, O hand, always worshipful towards Siva. He, who understands (here) the nominative, the accusative, and the verb concealed, is a pundit." The finite verb, together with the nominative and accusative cases, is concealed. As we see from the dissolution of the word Bhavanisa karomesam into Bhava (i.e. Be)+Anisam (always)+Kara, (O hand !)+Umesam, the word Bhava is the finite verb, Umesam the accusative case, and Kara, though standing for the nominative, is actually the vocative case. In almost all the instances above, the euphonic combina- tion is the cause of concealment. In most of the places after this euphonic coalescence, the words are formed in such a way that the coalescence itself is not easily marked out. This is called Samhitagupta (or, Sandhigupta). Wherever with the emergence of new words a sort of apparent contradiction is generated in the verse, the paradoxical or enigmatic effect is all the more heightened. We get such a thing in the last verse as well, where in the new word Bhavanisankaro- mesam, there is a separate indication of Bhavānī, Sankara and Umesa. The concealment of a compound generally occurs in a word which otherwise is formed in the shape of a derivative etc. So, in compound and in derivative the same word may give different meanings, and hence, this type of concealment might be based on pun : 2"One in the habit of eating poison, consumes the alms, (and) accompanied by his wife, never leaves the mountain. O brave one, even though enraged you treat your enemy like Siva." The word Visadi, when expound- ed, will give the meaning 'one who takes poison', otherwise, it means 'afflicted.' Again, Sadarogam na muñcati means. (without compound) : 'Always suffers from some malady', but

1. Cf. SRB No. 1, p. 548 : Bhavānisankaromesam prati pūjāparāyanah/ Kartrkarmakriyāguptam yo jānāti sa panditaḥ// 2. Ibid : Visādī bhaiksyamasnāti sadārogam na muñcati/ Rustenāpi tvayā vīra sambhunāririva krtaḥ//

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when taken in compound it means : Sadarah (i.e. accompanied by wife) agam (i.e. the mountain) na muñcati (i.e. does not leave). In respect of the concealment of gender, we cite the following : 1"O friend, this lover, having a truly clear heart, has come. Because of his intense love, seeing you after a long time, he will, having embraced, enjoy you." On the sur- face, masculine nominative Preyan (i.e. lover or, the lovely one), coordinate with the neuter Nitantasvacchahrdayam (i.e. having highly clear heart), looks incongruous, and when we probe deep, we find that there are really two words in the latter, Nitantasvacchahrt (i.e. having highly clear heart), and Ayam, euphonically combined. Both these being masculine are commensurate with the masculine Preyan. Here, the con- cealment is of the masculine gender in Ayam, euphonically merged in the neuter Hrdayam. Even in the following, where a case-ending is concealed, that case-ending being nominative singular in the word Rah (i.e. wealth), there is an apparent incongruity of use of the singular finite verb Janayati (i.e. produces), with the plural-looking Sadarah (i.e. those having wives) qualifying Grhamedhinah (i.e. the householders) : 2"The opulence always engenders happiness among house- holders (as opposed to the ascetics), if righteousness and world- ly pleasure both be accomplished together." In the same way, in the next instance, plurality of the verb is concealed in sin- gular-looking Pariprcchati (formed with Yan-luk suffix meaning Atisayena prcchanti (i.e. ask too much) used with the nominative plural Sakhyah (i.e. the friends) : 3"On yourself being present, female friends ask her oftentimes : 'Why are you emaciated ?' Please say, whether she can make reply to them !" Finally, we add concealment of a foot, of some intention (of the speaker), or of a fact according to Bhoja, over and above those already noted. Let us take the first one : 4"The row I. SRB : Nitantasvacchahrdayam sakhi preyān samāgataḥ/ Tvām cirāddarsanaprītyā yaḥ samālingya ramsyate// 2. Ibid : Pramodam janayatyeva sadārā grhamedhinaḥ/ Yadi dharmasca kāmasca bhavetām sangatāvimau// 3. Ibid : Kasmāt tvam durbalāsīti sakhyastām pariprcchati Tvayi samnihite tāsu dadyāt kathaya sottaram// 4. Vide SKB II, p. 302, illustr. No. 369 : Dyuviyadgāminī tārasamrāvavihatasrutiḥ/ Haimīşumālā suśubhe (vidyutāmiva samhatiḥ) //

Ubhayacitra 89

of arrows reaching up to the heaven and the sky, (and) obstruct- ing the sense of hearing with high-pitched sounds, looked beautiful (like the linings of lightnings) !" The second, first, seventh, fifth, eleventh, ninth, thirteenth and sixteenth letters of the first half of the verse, constitute the fourth foot, shown in brackets, when taken together in the order indicated. So finally we find one whole foot concealed in the verse. Then the second : 1"If the wife of the servant is asked by her husband's brother to go to the king's place with sword in her hand, then why did she look to the bed smilingly ?" Here, the man hav- ing seen red dye etc. on the feet of woman, thinks that she wants to gain upper hand in the course of sexual action, and the woman smilingly looks towards the bed with the intention that the former does not employ her in the action. This very intention is concealed in the verse and has to be construed to bring forth the full meaning. As for the third, the foregoing illustration Panīyam patumicchami works here. There in the apparent verbal form Dasyasi, the fact of being a Dasii.e. maid-servant, is concealed. With the dropping of half a syllable, one full syllable, Bindu, Visarga or a letter, it is necessary that we should arrange the words in such manner that even after such dropping, the metre of the verse is not affected. In such a case, sometimes the stress of the dropping syllable or letter etc. is shifted to the adjacent, preceding, or following syllable, or the stress is merely loosened. Likewise, with the placing of a half syllable or full syllable, Bindu or Visarga or a letter, poetic curiosity can be aroused in a particular verse with a vast difference in the meaning with a slight change. Both these droppings and placings are only two facets of one thing. In relation to the change in meaning wrought by the dropping of a syllable etc., the previous meaning of the particular verse can be said to be brought out in a condition when the same syllable etc. is placed after it was dropped out.

1. SKB. illustr. No. 370 : Pr-Jai dearena bhaniā khaggam ghethuna raulam vaccā/ Ta kim sevaunavahue hasiuna valoiam saanam// Skt .- yadi devareņa bhanitā khadgam grhītvā rājakulam vraja/ Tatkim sevakavadhvā hasitvā'valokitam sayanam//

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In the aforementioned order, we are first going to deal with the dropping or placing of half a syllable : 1"In the sky overcast with clouds and marked with the streaks of lightning, is the newly risen moon, beautiful, and the darling of all, not attainable." The other meaning : "In the sky overcast and streaked with lightning, Oh girl, a lover whom all will like, is very difficult to get !" Here in Balenduh khe na labhyate (i.e. the newly risen moon is not available in the sky), if we drop the nasal letter, conjunct with the glide Duh in Balenduh, quite a different meaning is produced in Bale duhkhena labhyate (i.e. O girl, the Kanta or lover is to be attained with difficulty). With the loss of the nasal here, half a syllable is lost, but, generally speaking, it can be said to be a case of the dropping of a Bindu or a consonant also. As against it, in the following, the dropping of a full syllable constituting i in the word Niram (i.e. water), leaves out the word as Naram (i.e. man) and con- sequently gives a new twist in the meaning of the verse : 2"O people, fatigued on account of lying on the earth (in summer season), take to water, good and clear, for allaying your heat." Other meaning : "O people, vexed of living with the wicked take recourse to a man, noble and clean, for the alleviation of your agonies." Here as in the previous verse, as also in the cases following, it is to be noted that other words in the parti- cular verses are so used as to give double meaning in the case of the dropping of a syllable etc., and here the pun comes into play. Now to take an example of the dropping of a Bindu : 3"As this Vakula tree of mine is of good breed, shady, and situated on a good roadway, so it is really a shelter to all." Other meaning : "As of noble birth, well-behaved and keeping

1. Cf. : Payodharabharākrānte vidyullekhāvirājite/ Kāntaḥ sarvajanābhīsto bālendukhena labhyate// 2. Cf. SRB No. 1, p. 549 : Mahāsayamatisvaccham nīram santāpaśāntaye/ Khalavāsādatiśrāntaḥ samāśrayata he janāḥ// 3. Ibid, No. 2, p. 549 : Yathā satprasavah snigdhah sanmārgavihitasthitiḥ! Tathā sarvāśrayaḥ satyamayam me vakuladrumaḥ//

Ubhayacitra 9I

to a righteous path, this one actually is the main prop of my family, a shelter to all." Here, with the Bindu or Anusvara of ya in Satyamayam being dropped, and the following two letters me (which is separate) and va (which is part of the word Vakula) having been associated with the residue Satyamaya, the whole word, thus formed, is Satyamayameva (i.e. really only this), which is quite meaningful. In this case, the residual last word, Kuladrumah, is to be expounded thus : Kule druma iva (i.e. one who is like the main tree in the family or dynasty). This Bindu, which is dropped, can form part of a single word : 1"In whomsoever paramour, this young woman, having besmeared herself with sandal-paste, likeable, decorated with a mark on her forehead, and the breeding-ground of cupid, shall not produce delight?" Other meaning : "In the snakes, whomever, this mountainous tract (of Malaya Mt.), shady (or, full of turm- eric or indigo plants), having sandal trees, agreeable (or having Priyangu creepers or the large cardamoms) and having Tilaka trees, shall not generate pleasure ?" When this is not elided, the word Ana gabhuh stands for a damsel, otherwise, the initial a being coalesced with the preceding Esa, the word left is Nagabhuh (i.e. 'the mountainous tract') standing for the Malaya mount. As for the dropping of Visarga, in the word Mahasuh (i.e. high-souled) in the given verse, it is remarkable that the word left associates with the following word khat (i.e. from the heaven or sky), making a separate word Mahāsukhāt (i.e. from the great pleasure), giving a turn in the meaning of the verse : 2"The lion-hearted Nahusa, having boarded the chariot of Brahma, on account of the curse of sage Agastya, fell from the sky (or, heaven) and took the form of a serpent." (The other way : 'fell down from a great pleasure' instead of 'fell. from the sky' and without 'the lion-hearted.'). Again in the following, we see that a whole letter Na,. being the initial letter of the word Nadinah, is dropped, as 1. SRB. No. 1, p. 549 : Susyāmā candanavatī kāntā tilakabhūșitā/ Kasyaişā'nangabhūḥ prītim bhujangasya karoti na// 2. Ibid. No. 2. p. 549 : Agastyasya muneḥ śāpād brahmasyandanamāsthitaḥ// Mahāsuḥ khāt paribhrasto nahusaḥ sarpatām gata//

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if making a different verse altogether : 1"Who seeks after the ocean, insipid and having a bad surrounding, though great, highly patient and replete with myriads of gems ?" Other meaning : "Who serves the poor, of dry temperament, and having bad entourage though great, highly patient, and hav- ing many good things ?" By placing this letter where it was, the word Nadinah having been expounded Nadinam inah, means 'the lord of the rivers'. This dropping of the letter can be of the middle one, or of the penultimate or last one. For example, in the verse quoted, we get the middle letter of the word Sugatah (i.e. Lord Buddha) dropped, thus causing a change in the meaning : 2"Of good habit, of golden complexion and having a face like that of a full moon, to whom does not Lord Buddha give pleasure, having been enshrined in the heart ?" (The other way : 'son', replacing 'Lord Buddha'). In that eventuality, the word formed is Sutah (i.e. son). Now among the category of the dropping of a letter, there can also be par- tial dropping or loss of the consonant or vowel. However the dropping of vowel, leaving the consonant associate with the word, is a very rare phenomenon. In the following we find an instance of the dropping of a consonant in the aforesaid manner, where the letter Bh in Bhiksavah is lost, consequently causing the rise of a new word Iksavah (i.e. the surgarcane sticks), thus giving two meanings : 3"All the beggars are desirous, the chemicals sustaining life (i.e. food and drinks) are dear to all. Those (i.e. beggars) endowed with tolerance, are mostly seen in Magadha country." Also : "The sugarcane sticks are exhilarating; the juice is liked by all people. They (i.e. the sugarcane sticks), abundantly sown in the earth, are found mostly in Magadha country."

1. SRB, No. 1, p. 549 : Mahānapi sudhīro'pi bahuratnayuto'pi san/ Virasaḥ kuparīvāro nadīnaḥ kena sevyate// 2. Ibid, No. 2, p. 549 : Susīlaḥ svarnagaurāngaḥ pūrnacandranibhānanaḥ/ Sugataḥ kasya na prītim tanoti hrdi samsthitaḥ// 3. lbid, No.1, p. 550; Bhiksavo rucirāḥ sarve rasāh sarvajanapriyāḥ/ Kşamāyāmabhisampannā drsyante magadhe param//

Ubhayacitra 93

In this connection, we may deal with the dropping of the place (Sthanacyuta), that is, the changing of the rightful place of words in a sentence. In another way, it can be said that under this category, words like the subject, predicate etc. change their places and the prose order becomes difficult : 1"God Siva is dependent on equivocators (otherwise, serpents), the moon wanes, the sun is a heat-scorcher, Brahma is sexually incapable (otherwise, peace-loving) and Indra is the enemy of his own people : therefore, Laksmi having ignored these, chose Vișnu who may protect the worlds !" Among the adjectives, Dvijihvasrita, (i.e. one depending on equivocators) qualifies Harah, Kșayī (i.e. one prone to waning) Candrah, Tapakarah (i.e. one giving heat) Vivasvan, Santah (i.e. one sexually debilitous) Vidhih and Gotraripuh (i.e. foe of one's own kinsmen) Sudesah (or Suresah ?). This gives the key to the normal prose order. This kind of riddle is similar to, or even identical with, the Klistanvaya type of Kuta. In the like manner, the dropping or placement of a letter in a word can be alternate. That is, in one and the same word, some letter is dropped and some other letter is kept in its place instead : 2"Whose the charming damsel, with a face like that of the full moon, and having white Sari, does not brighten heart which is highly inquisitive for love," (The other way : 'The pleasant night, having as its face the full moon and having a clear sky ...... ). Here, a change in the meaning of the verse is effected by dropping the initial letter Ka of Kamini (i.e. damsel) and placing letter ra in its position, making the word, raminī (i.e. the night). Also, certain words like Pūrnacandramukhī, Nirmal- ambara etc. have two meanings, and hence are applicable in both cases. But to illustrate a slightly different variety :' 3<The 1. SRB, No. 2, p. 549 : Haraḥ ksayī tāpakaraḥ sudesaḥ śānto harirgotraripurvivasvān/ Candro dvijihvāśrita ityupeksya lakşmyā vrtaḥ pātu vidhirjaganti// 2. Ibid, No. 2, p. 550 : Pūrnacandramukhī ramyā kāminī nirmalāmbarā/ Tanoti kasya na svāntamekāntamadanāturam// 3. Ibid, No. 3, p. 550 : Kūjanti kokilāḥ sāle yauvane phullamambujam/ Kim karotu kurangāksī vadanena nipīditā//

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cuckoos chirp on the mango-tree, the lotus is blooming in the waters ; what one, with eyes like those of the deer, would do, when afflicted with cupid ?" Here, we observe that some letter is dropped in some word and some other letter is placed instead in some other word, and again, in the same word, some letter is dropped and in its place, some other letter is kept. For example, in the verse in question, the letter Ra of the word Rasale is dropped and letter rau is placed in the word Vane, the dropping and placing of both being in the beginning of the words concerned. In the second half, the initial letter Ma of the word Madanena is dropped, and letter Va is placed there making the word Vadanena to dupe the reader. In the first half also, two new cogent words, Sale and Yauvane, are formed for the same purpose. Actually, the dropping or placing could happen with respect to a half sylla- ble, one syllable and the like, but in anthologies, this is found only in the case of a letter. Of the riddles (Prahelikas), from amongst the sixteen enumerated and illustrated by Dandin and the twentyfour of Visnudharmottara of which a few are coincident, many are similar to some of the Kutas already noticed. Not only this, even some of the figures comprising Ubhayacitras might have occurred here and there, in the course of the treatment of Kuta poetry, as they constitute the foundation of the latter. Among such figures, is 1the subversion of speech (Vakrokti), as Kuta itself is, in a way, the subversive (Vakra) style of ex- pression. Among the riddles (Prahelikas), Samatrata, Vikrānta- gopitā, Mușita, Kalpita and Vyamūdha of Visnudharmottara, are identical with Dandin's Samāhita, Vyutkranta, Pramușitā, Pra- kalpita and Samudha. Besides, both give Vancita, Parușa, Namantarita, Nibhrta and Samanasabda, and are at one regard- ing their meanings. Only in the case of Vañcita, is there a different reading as Vandita in the text of Visnudharmottara. However, Parihāsika of Vișnudharmottara seems to be different from the Pariharika of Dandin, though looking identical, and although both enumerate Samanarupa and Samkhyata in an identical way, they mean differently. Again, Dandin mentions

1. Vide Supra, p. 83, Fn. No. 2.

Ubhayacitra 95

Ekacchanna and Ubhayacchanna and also Vișnudharmottara. It may be noted in this connection that the latter is obscure as to their import, but the former makes it clear. 1Samkīrnā has been defined in Visnudharmottara as Sambhavopeta and if, here, we interpret the word Sambhava as Samkala, it agrees with the definition given by Dandin. 2Over and above these, Vișnudharmottara goes on to explain Gūdhā, Arthakarī, Vyabhi- carinī, Nastārtha, Nastāksarā, Anyarthata, Arthada, and Lesa. Of these, 3Samatrata or 4Samahita is almost the same as 5Sandhikūta. In Vancitā or Vandita we have certain word or words with a specialised sense as in the 7case already discussed. 8Vikrantagopita or 9Vyutkranta is identical with the 10Klistānvayakūța or the 11Sthanacyuta. 12 Mușita or 13Pramușitā is like 14one previously cited where the meaning is made difficult to understand owing to the use of obsolete words. Moreover, though not 15Parihāsikā, yet 16Pariharika of Dandin resembles the 17Samasamalakuta effected through the power of indication on account of the farfetched sense. 18Samanarupa, in the view .of Vişnudharmottara, will be like 19ramakakuta, but will be an

1. Vide VD III. II, Vol. II, p. 21. Cf. KD III, V. 105, p. 409. 2. Vide VD III, XVI, Vs. 11-14, Vol. I, p. 36 3. Ibid, V. 3, p. 35. .4. Cf. KD III, V. 98, illustr. 108. 5. Vide Supra, p. 74, Fn. No. 2. 6. Cf. VD, Vol. 1, XVI, V. 3, p. 35. Cf. KD III, V. 98, illustr. 109. 7. Vide Supra. p, 74, Fn. No. 2. 8. Cf. VD III, Vol I, XVI, V. 4, p. 35. 9. Cf. KD III, V. 99, illustr. 110. 10. Vide Supra, p. 73, Fn. No. 1. .11. Vide Supra, p. 93. Fn. No. 1. 12. Cf. VD III, XVI, V.4, Vol. I, p. 35. 13. Cf. KD III, V, 99, illustr. 111. 14. Vide Supra, p. 72, Fn. No. 3. 15. Vide VD,III. Vol. I, XVI, V. 5, p. 35. 16. Cf. KD III, V. 104, illustr. 120. 17. Vide Supra, p. 71, Fn. No. 3. 18. Cf. VD III, V. 5, Vol. I, XVI, p, 35. 19. Vide Supra, p. 70, Fn. No. 6.

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example of 1Sleşakuta if we take the meaning offered by 2 Dandin. As for 3Paruşa and 4Samkhyata, the 5former consists in words having two meanings at least, of which one based on the secondary sense is at the root eluded by the obvious sense, and the latter is like the Samkhyakuta mostly found in the Vedas. In 7Kalpita or 8Prakalpita, the intended mean- ing is concealed by a different apparent meaning, 9explained and illustrated earlier. 10 Namantarita and 11Nibhrta are like pure riddles exemplified elsewhere, 12where some reply is to be found but where the query might not be explicitly posed. 13V yamudha or 14Samudha depends for its suspense on the con- cordance of one or more words, and may come under the 15 Kliştānvayakuta, and there is nothing very peculiar if, in 16Gudha, the intended meaning is obstructed owing to a parti- cular Bandha being used in the verse. Likewise, 17 Nastārtha is similar to the 18Matradatta, where the meaning becomes clear and relevant by putting the missing syllable in the verse, and 19 Nastakșara and 20 Anyarthata are themselves, similar to each

1. Vide Supra, p. 83, Fn. No. 3. 2. Cf. KD III. V. 100, illustr. 112, 3. Cf. VD III, Vol. I. XVI, V. 6, p. 35. Cf. KD III, V. 100, illustr. 113. 4. Cf. VD III, V. 6, Vol. I, XVI, p. 35. Vide KD III, V. 101, illustr. 114. 5. Vide Supra, p. 71, Fn. No. 2. 6. Vide Infra, chap. VI; FN. RV. 10, 17-8 etc. 7, Cf. VD III, Vol. I, XVI, V. 7, p. 35. 8. Vide KD III, V. 104, illustr. 115. 9. Vide Supra, p. 71, Fn. No. 2. 10. Cf. VD III, XVI, Vol I, V. 7, p. 35. Cf. KD III, V. 102, illustr. 116. 11. Vide VD III, Vol. I, XVI, V. 8, p. 35. Cf. KD III, V. 102. illustr. 117. 12. Vide Supra, p. 75, Fn. No. 2. 13. Cf. VD III, Vol. I, XVI, V. 9, p. 35. 14. Vide KD III, V. 103, illustr. 119. 15. Vide Supra, p. 73, Fn. No. 1. 16. CI. VD III, Vol. I, XVI, 9, p. 35. 17. Ibid, V. 12, p. 36. 18. Vide Supra, p. 90, Fn. No. 2. 19. Cf. VD III, Vol, I, XV1, V. 13, p, 36. 20, Ibid, V. 13, p. 36.

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other and may come under the 1Aksaracyuta. Only, in the former, the meaning is concealed by the dropping of a letter, while in the latter, the meaning becomes quite different due to that dropping. 2 Ekacchannā and 3Ubhayacchannā are also like the said pure riddles, where in the first case, the Asrita is expressed and the Asraya concealed, while in the second, both are con- cealed. In 4 Arthakari, the obvious meaning is supposed to lead to some other meaning, thereby concealing the intended pur- port and in 5Vyabhicarini the same effect is achieved through a particular word. Similarly, in 6Arthada, interpretation of meaning through a particular tense, gives a different sense, and in 7Lesa, only the seed of the meaning is suggested and the rest is to be found. These riddles resemble some given earlier, or else are like the pure ones. Only 8Samkīrna is different in that it consists of a combination of more than on- riddle. To emphasise the point, we quote the instance given by Dandin : 9<If this army (i.e. Alphabet) is not won with Haya (i.e. horses, or in case of alphabet : ha, ya letters), Gaja (i.e. elephants, or otherwise : Ga, Ja letters) and Bhata (i.e. pedestrian warriors, or in other case : bha, ta letters), then this our son would remain ignorant of the idea of riches and prestige (or, otherwise, ignorant ofeven the syllables)!" Here, the effects of both Namantarita and Vancita are combined. Among the other chief varieties of literary recreations, prevalent in the middle age, were Akşaramustikā, Bindumatī, Samasyapūrti and Bhāşācitras. 10 Akșaramustika is of two types:

1. Vide Supra, p. 92, Fn. No. 1. 2. Vide, VD III, Vol. I, XVI, V. 10, p. 35. Cf : KD III, V. 104. illustr, 121. 3. Vide VD III, Vol. I, XVI, V. 10, p. 35. Cf : KD III, V. 105, lllustr. 122. 4. Cf : VD III, Vol. I, XVI, V. 10, p, 35. 5, Ibid, V. 11, p. 36 6. Ibid, V. 13, p. 36. 7. Ibid, V. I0, p. 35. 8. Vide KD III, V. 105. 9. Ibid, V. 123 : Sahayā sagajā senā sabhațeyam na cejjitā/ Amātriko'yam mūdhaḥ syādaksarajnasca nah sutaḥ// 10. Vide, VKS I-III, p. 34.

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one where the concealment of certain letters, like that in the palm of hand, engenders charm either with a view to unravel- ling some concealed purpose, or effecting brevity in a poetic work, and the other, where the concealment is done with a purpose of effecting privacy. In the first variety, we get the semblance of the thing, or purpose (Sābhāsa). It is also called 1 Akşaramudra. 2In the example cited, we find in the first foot the first letters of the signs of Zodiac, in the second their particular appellations owing to their conjunction with the points of eclipse, and in the third and fourth the names of the months. 3The other variety is called Bhutamudra, which has several sub-varieties. 4In SKB, on the other hand, there is an instance where all the four feet of the verse are so arranged, that from every foot we get a four-footed verse consisting of Murajabandha. 5In the second, on the basis of a given verse, there arises another verse of the same meaning, of which indications are put through dots for the vowels, nasals, visargas and juxta- posed consonants, in the same order as they exist in the accru-

1. Ibid, quote-RCPV: Gahanaprasannasarvām katipayasūtrāmimāmanantamukhīm/ Anadhītyāksaramudrām vādasamudre pariplavate// 2. Ibid : Mevrmikasimkatuvrdhamakumbhī mūdhasavasusakanidhaka- āvyāḥ/ Phācaivaijye-āsrābhā-ākāmāpaumā caiva// 3. Ibid. quot : Musțiḥ kisalayam caiva cchațā cārī patākīkā/ Patākānkusamudrāśca mudrāvargeșu saptasu// Angulyaścāksarānyeșām svarāścānguliparvasu/ Samyogādaksaram yuktam bhūtamudrā prakīrtitā!/ 4. Vide 11, illustr. 361, p 300 : Atih atiḥ anma-alam prīdyaradya jadya phadya/ Melā melā melam melam phasa phasa phasa phasa// The verse arising out of the first foot : cf : illustr. 362 : Adya me saphalā prītiradya me saphalā ratiḥ/ Adya me saphalam janma adya me saphalam phalam// 5. Ibid, illustr. 363 : Tavāvavādaḥ pratyabdhi patākā pratisangaram/ Phalam pratyadbhutopāyam yasāmsi na tu na kvacit// The indications in dots of the accruing verse : The verse actually accruing : Udadhāvudadhāvājñā samyuge samyuge jayaḥ/ Sāhase sāhase siddhiḥ sarvatra tava kīrtayaḥ//

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ing verse. 1In the third, we have some Samasya or problem in a foot or so of a verse, which has to be extended to all the feet in such a way that the verse seems to be an organic and single whole. The charm is all the more enhanced if the problem given is of some 2paradoxical nature, otherwise it may also constitute some 3general statement, or some aphorism, or even some 5onomatopoetic sounds, or some idiom or proverb. When not given as a problem (Samasya), the last one is called 7 Ābhāņaka. In Bhāșācitra, a verse appears to have been com- posed in more than one language, giving some suspense to the reader. 8Sometimes a foot or feet made up of a different langu- age, may be construed in the one generally used, but 9often it may not. 10Among the less important ones, are Pratimala,

1. Vide SRB No, 1, pp. 520-524. 2. Ibid : Hīnahatyā dadhātyeva lāghavam mahatāmapi/ lti matvā dvipadvesī mrgāt simhaḥ palāyate// 3. Ibid : Šmaānesvāvāso vasanamibhacarmaiva jarako Vṛso vāho bhasma dravinamanugā bhūtanivahā/ Tathāpyekaḥ sambhustribhuvanamidaın rakșati sadā Kriyāsiddhiḥ sattve vasati mahatām nopakara e// 4. Ibid : Nijapatirādyah pranayī harirdvitīyaḥ karomı kim gopi/ Śrnu sakhi pāņinisūtram vipratişedhe param kāryam// 5. Ibid : Rāmābhişeke madavihvalāyāh hastāccyuto hemaghațasta- runyãḥ/ Sopanamasadya karoti sabdam thatham thathamtham thathatham thathamthaḥ// 6. Ibid : Laddūkairdvijakulamadya bhojayitvā dīnāram pratijanamapyanupradāya/ Yad vitīm nrpa na dadāsi tanna yogyam vikrīte karini kimakuse vivādaḥ// 7. Vide SM No. 30, p. 353 : Bahuklese'lpaphalade kārye bhāvyam na sādaraiḥ/ Vidārya giriśrngāni mūsakākarsanena kim ?// 8. Cf. : SRB No. 3 p 568 : Kamanekatamadanam suratanarajatucchalam tadāsīnam/ Appatibhanam khamate so'ganikanam naram jetum// 9. Ibid No. 15, p. 570 : Haranayanahutāsajvālayā jo jalāyā Ratinayanajalaughaiḥ khāka bākī bahāyā/ Tadapi dahati cittam hāya mai kyā karūngī Madanaśirasi bhūyaḥ kyā balā āga lāgī// 10. Cf : VKS I-III, p. 29.

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Durvācakayoga, Mlecchitavikalpa, Sampāțhya, Mānasī, Kāvya- kriyā, Kriyākalpa, Ākīrņamantra and Parakāmohana, etc. 1Pratimala is also known as Antyākșarī, where two teams consisting of one or more individuals, reciprocate in a com- petition in which one has to recite from memory, a verse beginning with the last letter of the one just recited by the opponent and this course goes on, until in the end, one fails to recite the requisite verse posed by the other team.2 In Durva- cakayoga, verses consisting of such words are made to reci- procate in a competition, which either verbally or in sense, or both, is difficult to pronounce or use. Also, a team might throw the challenge to the other team, or else, try to put it in a tight corner by posing a verse which has to be replied to in an Antyaksarī way, by an even more hard-to-pronounce verse. Ordinarily, a team has to recite with clear pronuncia- tion, as many verses as the other has recited, otherwise it does not get through. The 3Mlecchitavikalpa consists in the various devices prescribed by experts, of making the words comprising a verse difficult to understand, by reversing, in a certain order, the positions of letters. In 4Sampathya, one person chosen to initiate recites a book and the other, without hear- ing it first, recites extempore so that the two voices coincide, accentuating the tone of recitation. Of 5Manasi there are two varieties, one perceptible and the other imperceptible. In the

1. Ibid, p. 32 : Pratislokam kramādyatra sandhāyāksaramantimam/ Pațhetām slokamanyonyam pratimāleti socyate/ 2. Ibid : Damstrā'grarddhyā pragyo drākksmāmambvantaḥsthāmucciksepa/ Devadhrut ksiddhyrtvik stutyo yusmānso'vyātsarpātketuḥ// 3. Cf : VKS I-III, p. 34 : Dādeḥ kşāntasya kādeśca svarayorubhayorapi/ Bindūșmanorviparyāsāt durbodhamiti samjñitam// Akau khagau ghanau caiva cațau ñaņau tapau namau/ Yasau rașau lasau ceti mūladevīyamucyate// Grahanayanavasusametam sadānanākhyāni sāgarā munayaḥ/ Jvalanāngam tukasrngam durlikhitam gudhalekhyamidam// 4. Ibid, p. 35. 5. Ibid.

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first, some person, without telling the meaning, jots down a verse in consonants, nasals and aspirates, in due order, com- posing the poetic designs of lotus etc., and some other person reads it out, having provided the proper syllables, metres and juxtapositions, etc. On the other hand, when it is read out, it belongs to the imperceptible variety and is called Ākāsamānasī. Besides, 1Kavyakriya is poetry-writing as a hobby in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Apabhramsa ; 2Kriyakalpa is the acquisi- tion of the knowledge of rhetoric principles for appreciation of poetry; 3Akirnamantra is talking some secret in some type of code language in a crowded place, and 4Parakāmohana is misleading some person with apparently making clear to him something other than the actual fact. Riddles are of use in effecting these arts. At present these are obsolete, but there was a time when people feverishly talked them, and organis- ed various types of literary circles known as Sarasvatībhavana, Kāvyadevāyatana and Vidyagosthī etc.

1. Ibid. 2 Ibid. 3. KD III, V. 97. 4. Ibid : Yadrūpamanyarūpeņa samprakāśya hi vañcanam/ Devetaraprayogābhyām jneyam tacchalitam yathā// Divyam sūrpanakhārūpamitarad vāyunandanaḥ/ Chalitavānabhistya sriyā rāmam ca kīcakam// Cf : VKS I-III, p. 35.

CHAPTER V

ARTHACITRA

In the current chapter, our aim is to deal with pecu- liarity of meaning (Arthacitra). In consonance with what we have established in the introductory chapter, we must again make it clear that we are not going to take all the figures of sense within the ambit of Arthacitra, as prescribed by the Sanskrit rhetoricians, as in that case the concept of image ( Citra ) will suffer. Dikșita deals in the traditional style with all the figures of sense, capable of creating poetic charm. In spite of very high thinking on some aspects of poetry, Sanskrit Poetics has not been able to evolve a true concept of Citrakavya, or image poetry, or even of Arthacitra in the modern sense of the term. Among old rhetoricians, 1Ananda was the first to come near the concept. He propound- ed that some sort of picture or image is generated in Citra- kavya, but added that it is as if devoid of any life. By life he means the power of suggestion, and there he becomes one with other rhetoricians who have thought of this power of suggestion as the differentia for the three varieties of poetry i.e, suggestive (Vyangya), semi-suggestive or the poetry where the suggestion is subordinate (Gunībhutavyangya), and the non- suggestive (Citra). It is our firm conviction that a true image has no oppo- sition with the power of suggestion. On the contrary, some- times it is found that the latter nourishes and enhances the beauty of the former. But even the most progressive among

1. Cf. DL-III, p. 495 : Kevalavācyavācakavaicitryamātrāśrayenopanibaddhālekhyaprakhyam yadābhāsate taccitram/ DL : Yamakacakrabandhādicitratayā prasiddhameva tattulyārthamev- ārthacitram mantavyamiti bhāvaḥ/ Ālekhyaprakhyamiti rasādijīvarahitam mukhyapratikrtirūpam cetya- rthaḥ/

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Sanskrit rhetoricians, like Panditaraja, will not accept this position. 1He certainly has taken Arthacitra from the lowest order of poetry, and has placed it in the second category, at par with the poetry of subordinate suggestion. In this connection, he has, in his Chef de oeuvre, dubbed unaccept- able, in the context of sublime poetry, the views of comment- ators who have separated the former from the latter. 2He has criticised the whole thesis propounded and established in the Citramīmamsa. He does not mean to say that Citra variety of poetry is completely bereft of the power of suggestion. As a matter of fact, even from this standpoint, the only reasonable explanation is that here, the figures of speech become promi- nent and the power of suggestion is of secondary importance. 3In fact, very seldom is poetry written which has no thoughts and only pictures or images, and the other way round, poetry with no images and only thoughts, is even rarer. On the other hand, there can be poetry only when the thoughts be trans- muted into pictures or images, with the help of metaphors and similes, and sensibility be produced in them so that they are only the vehicles of the intellect. In the evolution of this Arthacitra, the similes or the metaphors are of utmost help. 4According to the indigenous view, simile (Upama) is the source of all, or most, of the figures of sense. 5"This one and unique simile," as Dīkşita avers, "appears like the actress, who, by adopting diverse roles and

1. Cf. Vide RG I, p. 20 : Yattu atādrsi gunībhūtavyangyamityādikāvyaprakāśagata- lakşane citrānyattvam țīkākārairdattam, tanna/ Teşām gunībhūtavyangyatāyāścitratāyāśca sarvālamkāri- kasammatattvāt/ / 2. Cf. CMK V. 2 : Rasagangādhare citramīmāmsāyā mayoditā/ Ye doşāstatra samkşipya kathyante viduşām mude// 3. KB, p. 118. 4. CM, p. 43 : Tadidam citram viśvam brahmajñānādivopamājñānāt/ Jñātam bhavatītyādau nirūpyate nikhilabhedasahitā sā// 5. CM, p. 41 : Upamaikā sailūsī samprāptā citrabhūmikābhedān/ Rañjayati kāvyarange nrtyantī tadvidām cetaḥ //

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dancing on the stage of poetic composition, delights the mind of those who are well-versed in it." At the least, this is capable of giving rise to all the figures of sense based on similes and they are the most important figures from our point of view of image production. So far as the essential feature of simile is concerned, it consists in the delineation of similarity subsisting between two numerically distinct objects. In the light of the western treatment of image, metaphor has this place in relation to the other figures of speech, and in respect of the production of image. But Lewis thinks that image is a broader concept and its field is also wider. 1The functions of both metaphor and image might seem identical in one sense, but on the basis of his discussion on this topic in his master- piece, we can assume that the nature of image is definitely subtler. Lewis admits the metaphorical nature of image, but to a certain extent only. In the metaphor, it is not that the feeling of the thing compared and the standard of similitude is destroyed, but in image, the difference between the above disappears into an intensity of feelings. As a matter of fact, in imagery the standard is engendered out of the thing com- pared, and the latter means not the matter in hand, but the poetic experience begotten of it. 2Lewis has not given the name of image to one used only with shallow sentiments for the display of embellishment alone, and has called this a far-fetched conceit. 3He has also felt that a poet's discriminatory insight, large-heartedness and thoughtfulness, are indispensable in the creation of an exqui- site poetic image. 4He has lauded the natural overflow of poety from images and has disdained the use of images imposed by either tradition or individual. 5In poetry, metaphor in general has been used as a figure, but there might be certain metaphors having as much depth as images born out of an unconscious mind. It is not irrelevant to point out that it

1. Cf L-P I, p. 18. 2. Ibid, p. 91. 3. Ibid, p. 45. 4. 1bid, p. 121. 5. Ibid, p. 24.

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sounds a little strange that 1Lewis, on the one hand, takes poetic images to the farthest depths of the primordi, and on the other, uses metaphor in sundry measures. It is true that among figures of sense the metaphor is, perhaps, closest to the concept of image, but from the point of view of thoughts and sentiments, that cannot be said to be co-ordinate with the image. In metaphor, the formal relation of identity subsisting between one thing and another is important, 2while in an image, the very experience is metamorphosed into the envi- sioning of the object. This learned theoretician has expressed his opinion, 3taking into account the profound relation of image with ex- perience, that image, instead of creating a thing or object, visualises it in the context of experience. Thus, the object, focussed in the image, comes as part of a series of relation- :ships, as also part of the nature of metaphor. It originally acts in more than one way and it might suggest a partial intellectual flash of the whole universe. It is as well, the function of every poetic image, that it would indicate the limitless expanse in a limited way. It is most remarkable to find that though the theory of image propounded by Lewis is not so comprehensive and complete as the Indian theory of suggestion, but in the latter there is an unquestionable dis- regard for the visual element, forming the foundation of image-creation. It is to the credit of Panditaraja that 4he has stressed the element of enchantment (Ramaniyata) in poetry, and has endowed Arthacitra with this visual element. He pulled poetry out of the mire, but unfortunately, even he could not strike at the subtle forms of poetic charm arising out of this visual element in poetry. In Indian literature, we find a very high order of the perception of image, but it is surprising that in old rhetorics

1. Cf. L-P I, p. 14l. 2. Ibid, p. 70. 3. 1bid, p. 121. 4. Vide SV-IV, V. 17 : Kşane ksane yannavatāmupaiti Tadeva rūpam ramaņiyatāyāḥ/

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it has been assigned a low position. A true perspective regard- ing it has not developed in Indian poesy. It ought to have been seen as an independent unit, separated from the figures based on similarity. The uniqueness of both sentiment and form is important in itself. The perception of form or image has its own suggestions and gradations, in which it can be sublime besides being of a lower order. The discernment of an image is an independent business where the suggestion of image through image itself, can be possible from subtle to subtler shades. In modern Indian criticism, the word Bimba has stood for image, but here we shall take it as expressive of reflection through which the standard of similitude is reflected in the object compared, or through which an image is effected. Modern western literary critics have associated this image with almost all the varieties of poetic expressions. They have no predetermined and delimited frontiers of sentiment, figure, or suggestion and it is, therefore, that the form of image which their critique of poetry brings before us, has only a very slight semblance in the Arthacitra of Indian poetics. The element of the similitude of form found in Arthacitra, would automatically be lost if all the figures of sense were associated with it. 1In this situation, Citratva only denotes Vicitratva as we have pinpointed in the foregoing pages. True to the real fact, and in conformity with the western concept of image, we mean by Citratva picturesqueness, imagery, etc., and as a necessary corollary, all the figures of sense will not be: included in it. In Sanskrit poetry, for the production of this ima- gery, 2there must be, Bimbapratibimbabhava (or Bimbanubim- babhava as it is also called) viz, the relation of the reflected (Bimba) and the reflecting element (Pratibimba) between the

1. KPI. IX, p. 212 : Vaicitryamalamkāraḥ/ 2. SD-fn X, p. 599 : Bimbam sarīram pratibimbam tacchāyā, tayorbhāvaḥ ākāra- pratyākāratulyatvam/ Prativākyam vibhinnasyāpi sādhāraņadharmasya tulyarūpatayā vākyārthayorupamāsampādakatve .... /

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thing compared and the standard of comparison. 1In the thing compared (Upameya) the standard of similitude (Upa- mana) is mirrored or focussed, and an image is produced. In technical language, this might also be called tinging (Rañ- jana) of the former by the latter. In other words, Upameya is tinged with the colour of Upamana and becomes one with it. 2This is often possible through the process of merging of the latter in the former. 3In the figure metaphor (Rupaka), there is seldom this merging or identification between the aforesaid two objects. On the other hand, in the majority of cases, the nature or properties of one object are attributed to another. In the former situation, the soul of one object is transmuted or mirrored into the other, while in the latter there is super- imposition or placement of the form of one object on to the other, as if from outside. Therefore the identification is intrinsic and complete in the former, whereas, if it is identifi- cation, it is exterior and superficial in the latter. It may sound surprising that the metaphor, which in Aristotle's view is very near the idea of image, which place the simile has been accorded in Indian poetics, is, on the above ground, rejected by 4Appaya Dixit and some such rhe- toricians from the pale of Bimbapratibimba relation, as also from the domain of image. But it is a matter of relief that once again, 5Panditaraja comes to the rescue, and stoutly

1. V-AS, p. 35 : Loke hi darpanādau bimbāt pratibimbasya bhede'pi madīya- mevātra vadanam samkrāntamityabhimanyante/ 2. Cf, KN, p. 44 : Vişayasya svasabdollekhanam vināpi visayivācakenaiva sabdena grahanam vişayanigaranam, tatpūrvakam vişayasya vişayirūpatayā'dhyavasānam .... / 3. SD X, p. 541 : Rūpakam rūpitāropo visaye nirapahnave/ Cf. AS, p. 44 : visayinā visayasya rūpavataḥ karanāt rūpakam/ 4. Vide A-KN Upāttabimbāvisiştavişayadharmikāhāryāropaniscayavi- şayībhūtamupamānābhedatādrūpyānyataradrūpakam/ . Vide RG, II, p. 300 : Yadapi rūpake bimbapratibimbabhāvo nāstītyuktam tadapi bhrāntyaiva/

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defends the position of Jayaratha that this relation is not altoge- ther impossible in regard to the metaphor. The latter has quoted a Iverse to substantiate his ideas, and Panditaraja has whole- heartedly supported it as an instance of Bimbapratibimba relation in metaphor. Here, it must be pointed out, that given Bimba- pratibimba-relation, if there is one impression throughout a verse there is image. So one unified picture is necessary in an image, though these may have broken images also. In connection with any discourse on image as identical with Arthacitra, it is customary to deal with symbol. 2In Indian literature, symbols are taken to be the old images, but in western literature, these symbols have developed into images and so they constitute the first phase of the development of thought into imagery. A symbol, through the medium of the manifest indicates the unmanifest but with an image, there is identity of both. This is despite the fact that there also, the movement is from manifest sentiment to unmanifest, and the identified position of both is the equation of two varied actions. With an image, the express meaning might be one, but the symbolical meanings might be many. This is because one image may represent many things. Therefore the percep- tion of the letters used in certain words comprising an image, may symbolise several concepts. Among the western theoreticians, Baudelaire attached much value to symbols, owing to their particular quality of transporting experience beyond the terrestrial and making it transcendental. He gave it the name of liberating value.' To German philosophers goes the credit of making poetry the means of the mystic revelation of the universe. Sensations were taken to be the only source of experiencing unspeakable truths, and by symbols such experience could be expressed. 3In the course of critically thinking over such ideas of sym-

1. Quote : V-AS, p. 44 : Kandarpadvipakarnakambunalinairdānāmbubhirlāñchitam Samlagnāñjanapuñjakālimakalam gandopadhānam rateḥ/ Vyomānokahapuspapucchamalibhiḥ sañchādyamānodaram Pasyaitat sasinaḥ sudhāsahacaram bimbam kalankāyitam // 2. Cf. HK, p. 24. 3. Cf. SSMP, p. 70.

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bolism, Remy de Gourmont laid greatest stress on the visual element and the use of exact, appropriate words in poetry. As a result of this, there was a turn in the second generation of the symbolists away from the indirect subtleties of Baude- lairé shrouded in the mystic layers of 'conscious-subconscious.' 1It is peculiar that Gourmont, alone among the symbolists, stressed the importance of vision in the poetic structure be- yond the tangibly visible. Imagists drew inspiration from the symbolists, and bre- aking their circle of thoughts, tried to give a new vision of art. The main purpose of an image is the presentation of the experienced object, and the objective of a symbol is fulfilled by the representation of certain ideas. 2Eliot made the symbol the carrier of both thought and sensation. Thus the idea of the imagist symbol is the result of the equation and synthesis of both the presentation and representation of fact, as well as of thought. From a word expressive of the cognition of an object, is understood also the cognition of the concept innate in that particular object, or attributed to it by the user. Therefore, one side of the word-and-meaning relation is imagist, and the other symbolist, and these two always balance each other. Symbols that are also images are a primary contemporary concern, because the image, as a form of knowledge and an artistic impression, has for several centuries been suspect. The beauty of the poetic image or the Arthacitra, consists in the synthetisation and concretisation of abstract thoughts in poetry. The usefulness of the language of poetry is found in the concrete rather than in the abstract. 3Those, who, taking inspiration from the art of the abstract, want to establish it in the field of poetry, do not really understand the real nature of language. But with the condensation of ideas there is always the danger of the language lacking the strength to carry the meaning. This might result in ambiguity, which should be avoided. To sum up, the search after the basic contents of Artha- citra started, among other reasons, due to an awakened 1. Cf. SSMP, p. 70. 2. Ibid, p. 111. 3. Ibid.

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attitude to discover something in the Indian poetic concept, similar to the modern concept of image (Bimba) in the form of poetic truth. There is, also, the attraction towards poetic utility and structural unity in the formal matter of poetry. In the following verse, a forceful and sublime image has been evolved, underlying the imagination of the poet and it has been taken by Mammata as an example of Arthacitra in the tradi- tional way-1"The Amaravati looked as if she had closed her eyes because of fear, whose doors Indra nervously bolted, having heard him (i.e. Hayagriva), the giver of prestige (to friend), come out at will from his mansion." The poet has on the basis of conception qua poetic figure (Utpreksa), evolved a very lively and captivating image of a fear-stricken woman, with her eyes closed, and this the poet has done by expressing the formal imaginative picture of the city whose doors have been bolted. In the above case, we find an abundant measure of suggestion as well, and doubt occurs regarding the acumen of the seers of poetry like Mammata. Though he has created a lifeless, photostat simile here, he did not commit any major mistake, as Ananda and Abhinava were his guides. Two ques- tions arise : firstly, whether there is any real relish in such a simile, and secondly if there is, why should it be made to look so impoverished and be placed in a lower category of poetry ? It is clear that Indian thinkers could not probe into the intricacies of this imagist relish. The theory of sentiment in poetry had come, by analogy, from the field of dramaturgy, and had so engrossed the attention of the rhetoricians, that the visual element found in the former was not fully appre- ciated or evaluated. None of the old rhetoricians have given time to the discussion of the nature of the image, of a particular senti- ment manifesting itself. Whatever discussion there has been, has related only to the peculiarities of the secondary significa- . 1. Cf. HV : Vinirgatam mānadamātmamandirād Bhavatyupaśrutya yadrcchayā'pi yam/ Sasambhramendradrutapātitārgalā Nimīlitākșīva bhiyā'marāvatī//

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tion, founded on . some resemblance between the primary and secondary sense of a word (Gauni Laksana), of the suggested sense through the use of some figure (Alamkaradhvani), or of the figures arising out of similarity. Otherwise, it has limited itself to making threadbare the question, whether figures are permanent properties of a particular sentiment, or its tempo- rary phase. When we make an assertion about the beauty of the similes of Kalidasa, it does not denote different varieties and subtleties of formal similitude found in his poetry, nor does it give the idea that a particular simile is sublime beca- use it is conducive to a particular sentiment. To illustrate : 1"Having reached the mountain, white with snow, which is the source of that river, and whose rocks are fragrant with the musk of the deer sitting there, you, having been seated on its peak and removing the fatigue of the way, would bear the exhilarating beauty comparable to that of the mud dug up (through the horns and clung on to them) by the bull of Shiva (lit. three-eyed one)." When the poet writes this piece, it can- not be said that the personal appeal of motive and powerful imagery, would have had its value with the sentiment in sepa- ration, and without that suggestion there would not be that appeal. It would be not only a misadventure, but a poetic fallacy as well, to place this piece of poetry under the lowest category on account of its Citratva. This literary appeal is related to a different kind of sensibility. This has a very wide apprecia- tion in Indian Arts, but in poetics it has been ignored because of its nature of engulfing within it all the elements of poetry viz, suggestion, sentiment and figures etc. The greatest proof is the fact that Citrakavya, in the form of different bandhas, remained circumscribed to the conception of Citralamkara, and the very basis of Arthacitra almost died out. Gradually, even the figures of sound lost their inner appeal and Citrakavya became regarded as a lower order of poetry in Sanskrit literature. 1. Vide MD I, V. 52 : Āsīnānām surabbitasilam nābhigandhairmrgānām Tasyā eva prabhavamacalam prāpya gauram tușāraiḥ/ Vakşyasyadhvaśramavinayane tasya srge nisannah Sobhām ramyām trinayanavrsotkhātapamkopameyām//

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Dealing with the figures of sense which generally evoke- imagery, we first take up the simile. We have stressed earlier that 1this is the root of most, if not all, of the figures. Some: of the rhetoricians, to name only the representative ones, like: Dandin among the old, and Mammata among the new, have,. from different points of view, conceived several varieties of it. 2The first-mentioned one has classified it on the basis of various forms and grades of similitude, subsisting between the stan- dard and the object of comparison, 3while the latter has done it from the viewpoint of how this similitude is expressed. It goes without saying that most of these varieties later developed into separate figures. To take but one example, 4Dandin's Anyonyopama is nothing but the reciprocal simile: ( Upameyopama) of today. On the other hand, Mammata's modus. operandi is grammatical, and he has made divisions of similes,. as expressed through various primary and secondary suffixes. and in compound etc. 5It is remarkable to see that Dandin,. also has hinted at these various types of similes. Then there is a classification based on the elision of any one or two or three of the constituent elements of the simile. It is a pleasant. surprise to find that 6J.S. Mill, by way of analysis, though in a different context, has thrown light on the concept of similarity, constituting the vital element of simile. To pause: for critical reflection, we find very subtle grades of difference in the various forms and aspects of similarity. A portrait or landscape may resemble the original in different ways and denote a peculiar content. Similarity between two things. may be of different degrees. When it exists in the highest: degree, it is called identity and the two similar things are said to be identical. This is metaphor. 7There is equipol- ence of both difference and similarity between object and the standard of comparison.

1. Vide Supra, p. 103, f.n. 4. 2. Cf. KD II, p. 109. 3. Cf KPIX, Vs. 1-4, pp. 224-237. 4. Vide KD II, V. 18, p. 116. 5. Ibid-Vs. 57-60, pp. 138-39. 6. Vide M-EE, p. 207. 7. Cf. ECAJ III, Sec III.

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On the contrary, 1when there is a superiority of differ- ence or of similarity, there might be other figures depending on whether the said superiority is in favour of the object of comparison or of the standard. The common properties play a significant role in the evolution of such figures as are based on similarity. In respect of these common properties, where the points of resemblance are more than those of difference, there is some particular figure. When the points of difference are more than those of resemblance, the figure is altogether a different one. Normally, the object of comparison has less properties, and the standard more, but 2when we find that the former possesses a greater share of these common properties, more poetic charm is generated and the figure produced is dissimilitude (Vyatireka). 3In the figure simile, of course, there is numerical difference between the standard of comparison and the object so far as their generic features are concerned, but there is also identity through the medium of common properties. 4According to Mammata, simile consists in the similarity of attributes or common properties between the standard and the object of comparison, provided they are distinct. There- fore, the central interest lies in comparing one object with another, when both possess a common characteristic. Such a comparison may tend to exalt or degrade an object. In com- munion of the two objects (Sadharmya), through the same properties, lies the charm (Vicchitti) of the figure. When we compare two objects in point of some attributes, we ack. nowledge perfect equality between the objects, so far as those attributes are concerned. On the other hand, if there is the slightest consciousness of inequality in respect of the said attributes, there cannot be a simile. Here we may point out, that 5Panditaraja has criticised this definition for failing to embody charming effect (Hrdyatva) as an essential of a good

1. Cf. ECAJ III. Sec. III. 2. Vide KP' V. 19, p. 266. 3. Cf. ECAJ III, Sec. III. 4. Cf. KP' X, V. 1, p. 222. 5. Cf. RG, II, p. 212.

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simile. But Mammata does not specify this in the definition of any figure, indicating thereby, that he tacitly admits it as a necessary prerequisite of all figures. 1In simile, the Bimbapratibimba-relation would be found in cases where the attributes are mentioned separately. 2Therefore, it follows that it would be absent in the case of an elliptical simile. 3On the other hand, it is present in the following verse due to the power of reflection in the under- lying attributes of ruddiness and pendulousness, found respec- tively, between one's being besmeared with the red sandal and the summit's having been reddened with the rays of the newly risen sun, and again, between the pearl-necklace being pendent round one's shoulders and a mountain torrent gushing down : 4"This Pandu king, with pendent pearl-necklace on his shoul- ders, having been besmeared with the red sandal on the body, looks resplendent like the Himalaya mountain with its summit reddened with rays of the newly rising sun and (rendered beautiful) with the streams gushing forth". Here, in the shape of the white-complexioned Pandu king besmeared with the red sandal and with a pearl-necklace hanging down his shoulders, we get a very beautiful picture of a big snow-clad mountain whose peak looks tawny because of the ruddy rays of the rising sun, and where a cascade of water is rushing down. The verse, when read, gives a visual picture and leaves an indeli- ble impression on our mind. This, in turn, augments the poetic charm engendered through the use of simile.

1. Vide KN, p. 4 : Vastuto bhinnayorapyupamānopameyadharmayoḥ parasparasādrśyā- dabhinnayoḥ prthagupādānam bimbapratibimbabhāvaḥ/ 2 Cf. R-KN, p. 14-15 : Ata eva dharmaluptāyāmanugāmitāprayuktameva dharmasya šādhā- ranyam na bimbapratibimbabhāvakrtamapīti/ 3 Ibid : Bimbapratibimbabhāvakrtasādhāranadharmanirdesasthale sabdopāttā- nām haricandanabālātapādīnāmeva aruņimādisādrsyamādāya bim- bapratibimbamādāya ...... / 4 Vide RV, VI. V. 60 : Pāndyo'yamamsārpitalambahāraḥ kļptāngarāgo hanicandarena/ Ābhāti bālātaparaktasānuḥ sanirjharodgāra ivādrirājaḥ//

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About metaphor, we have discussed its potential for evoking an image, which Panditaraja rightly affirms. To attest this, to quote below a verse: 1"This night Kapalika, white with the besmearing of ashes in the shape of moon-light, taking pleasure in the art of vanishing at will, moves on a tramp from one island to another, carrying bones in the form of stars, (and) holding fragrance of the unfailing collyrium, on the pretext of the black spot in the skull-bowl of the moon." In this instance too, we get an exquisite image of the night in the shape of a female-mendicant of a particular sect. The mendicant has besmerched her body with ashes, and hence is white, while the night is clear because of the full-moon. The former carries bones, has a facility for making herself invisible, is a rover, and keeps the magic collyrium in her skull-bowl, whereas the latter has stars shining in the firmament, dis- appears with the rise of the sun each day, as if she relishes this hide-and-seek, moves from one hemisphere to another so that there is daytime in the continent of the particular hemisphere she has left, has the moon like the skull-bowl, and in it is the blackspot like the unfailing collyrium of the mendicant. 2The attributes of the said mendicant are superimposed on those of the night. So there is the Bimbapratibimba-relation between 'moonlight' and 'ashes' on the one hand, and between 'stars' and 'bones' on the other. Again, there might be this relation, but in a slightly different way, between 'moon' and the 'skull-bowl', 'blackspot' and the 'magic collyrium'. The virtue of 'taking pleasure at will', and 'moving on a tramp from continent to continent', is common to both, forcing identification between the two. 3This is an example of metaphor, having identi-

1. Cf : Jyotsnābhasmacchuranadhavalā bibhrati tārakāsthi- Nyantardhānavyasanarasikā rātrikāpālikīyam/ Dvīpāddvīpam bhramati dadhatī candramudrākapāle Nyastam siddhañjanaparimalam lanchanasya cchalena// 2 Vide KN, p. 76 : Tatrāpi visayavișayinostadvisesanānām ca pratyekamevaikyāropaḥ na tu jyotsnādivisistarātrirūpavisayasya bhasmādivisistakāpālikīrūpa- vişayinasca visistarūpenaikyāropo'sti/ 3 Cf. KP X, V. 7, p. 243 : Tad rūpakamabhedo ya upamānopameyayoḥ/

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fication of two objects, on the basis of identification of the attributes pertaining to both. 1It is distinguishable from simile, in that no word is used expressive of the similitude between the object and the standard. If in the former, it is similitude that charms us, here it is the undivided superim- position of the attributes. But it must be remembered that in metaphor, this superimposition of the standard on the object of similitude, must be based on similarity alone, and should only be intentional or simulated, and not genuine. In point of the Bimbapratibimba-relation, exemplification qua poetic figure (Drstanta), is nearest to the figures dealt with above. 2This consists in the reflection of the standard and the object of similitude as well as the common attributes binding the two. We may note that this figure is based on similitude in the meanings of the sentences and not of words independ- ently. This similarity must only be suggested and not expressed. Further, what is most important, the attributes pertaining to the matter in hand must only be similar to, and not the same as those relating to the standard. In other words, the attributes. must correspond to each other but should not be identical. As we shall deliberate later, this correspondence of attributes bet- ween the object and the standard of similitude, constitutes the very life-blood of the Bimbapratibimba-relation. 3One thing that must be noted is that the Bimbapratibimba-relation exists not

1. Cf. KD, II, V. 66, p. 141 : Upamaiva tirobhūtabhedā rūpakamucyate/ 2. Cf. SD X, V. 69, p. 599 : Drstantastu sadharmasya vastunaḥ pratibimbanam/ Cf. KP3 X, V. 16 : Eteşāmupamānopameyasādharmyānām sarveşām pratibimbanam drstāntaḥ/ Cf. KN, p. 68 : Yatropamānopameyavākyayorbhinnāveva dharmau bimbaprati- bimbabhāvena nirdistau tatra drstāntab/ 3. Cf. V-AS, p. 96 : Ataśca dharmānām dharminām ca bimbapratibimbabhāvena.

Cf. MC (Comm) : nirdeśe 'yamalamkāraḥ/

Na tu prativastūpamāyāmiva sādhāranadharmasyaiva dviḥ pra- yogaḥ kintūpameyāderapi/

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only between attributes, but through it also between those having attributes. Again, both the matter in hand and the standard are verbally mentioned, and in exemplification through dissimilarity (Vaidharmya), the similitude should be conveyed negatively. In the verse cited below, there is a positive instance of exemplification through similarity : "Nay the kings be a thousand and one, but the earth is having him only as her lord. The night, though replete with constellations, stars and planets, is really illumined by the moon alone." The beautiful image evolved in the form of night, thronged with the cluster of constellations, stars and planets, and illumined by the moon, corresponds to the picture of the earth possessing thousands of (small) kings, but really having only Magadharaja as her lord. The Bimbapratibimba-relation exists between 'a host of small kings' and 'a cluster of constellations, stars and planets' on the one hand, and between 'earth' and 'night', Magadharāja and 'the moon', as well as between the actions of 'overlording' and 'illumining' on the other hand. Therefore, the underlying idea of the verse is : the kings might be a thousand, but only Magadharaja is lord of the earth in the real sense of the term, as unnumbered constellations, stars and planets are not able to illumine the night, even together, which the moon accom- plishes alone. Like metaphor, but unlike simile, no word here is expressive of the similitude, and there are two independent sentences, each constituting the object and the standard of comparison. 2In these respects, as well as in regard to Bimbaprati- bimba-relation, figure illustration (Nidarśanā) is very close to exemplification. 3Here we come to a figure wherein similitude

1. Vide RV, VI, V. 22 : Kamam nrpah santu sahasraso'nye Rājanvatīmāhuranena bhūmim/ Naksatratārāgrahasankulāpi Jyotismatī candramasaiva rātriḥ// 2. Vide KP'X, V. 11, p. 253 : Nidarsanam drstāntakaraņam/ 3. Cf. KN, V. 53, p. 69 : Vākyārthayoḥ sadršayoraikyāropo nidarśanā

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between two things is conveyed, in a veiled manner, by one thing being described as being the same as the other. Thus two sentences, generally connected by correlatives are used, each containing an idea apparently unconnected with the idea in the other, but for that very reason, suggesting the similarity between the two ideas. The poetic effect, as is evident by the very nature of this figure, can be produced in the body of two sentences, or even one sentence, or a word. 1Though it is normal for a poet to attribute to the object of similitude the properties of the standard, the poet sometimes produces the same poetical effect, possibly with a greater emphasis, by attributing to latter the properties of the former. 2This figure always goes with an inner identification of mean- ing (Artha abheda) which is quite exclusive of superimposition as found in metaphor, or supersession of either the object or the standard of comparison occurring in hyperbole. For inst- ance : 3"On the rise of the sun and setting of the moon, with their rays stretched up like strings, this mountain assumes the grace of a big elephant, with two bells dangling down its two sides." In some cases above, it has been seen that through images, abstract and intangible things have been given con- crete shape, but here there is crystallisation or superconcreti- sation of the concrete phenomena of nature. The image that is called up is superb. On one side of the Raivataka mountain is the rising halo of the sun in the east, and on the other side the setting disc of the moon on the west. The two constel- lations, both round-shaped, are like two large spherical bells,

1. Vide KN, p. 73 : Upamānopameyayoranyatarasminnanyataradharmāropaḥ padā- rthavrttirnidarsaneti ... / Cf. R-KN, p. 97 : Tacca dharmini dharmyantaratādātmyāropa-taddharmāropābh- yām dvividhamityeva yuktamityasmaddeśikapariśīlitah panthāḥ/ 2. Vide RG, II, p. 462 : Evañcāropādhyavasāyamārgabahirbhūta ārtha evābhedo nidarsanā- jīvitam/ 3. Cf. SV, V. 20 : Udayati vitatordhvaraśmirajjāvahimarucau himadhāmni yāticāstam, Vahati girirayaın vilambighaņtādvayaparivāritavāranendralīlām//

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dangling on both sides of the elephant. The rays of the rising sun and the setting moon are like the strings tied up on the back of the elephant, on to which the said bells are hanging down. With the movement of the elephant, the bells move. This shows the dynamic character of the said constellations. When the bells move, a tinkling sound is produced. There is no such suggestion in the verse, but we can infer it from the chattering notes of the birds in the morning described. The image becomes all the more pleasing because of its homeliness, as we know that an elephant, with two bells dangling and tinkling on its sides, is a common sight in the countryside, even today. In other words, to the Raivataka mountain is attributed the grace of an elephant, and 1this juxtaposition, though apparently unconnected, aims at driving at the similarity of the former to the latter. 2The figure illustration is under the category where a seemingly impossible relation between two objects is established. The Bimbapratibimba-relation is between the said mountain with the rising sun and setting moon on its two sides, on the one hand, and an elephant with two bells dangling on either side, on the other. More specifi- cally, it is between the mountain and the elephant, two cons- tellations and two bells, as well as the rays of the constellations and the strings to which the bells are attached. 3In this figure it must be noted that the similitude exists implicitly in the meanings of grammatically dependent sentences, and the charm lies in juxtaposing two facts having no apparent connection between them. It has been seen above, that in the Bimbapratibimba- relation, attributes, or the object with attributes in one place, are different from those in another, but still they correspond, just as the thing reflected is different from the reflection,

1. Vide RG, II, p. 455 : Upāttayorarthayorārthābheda aupamyaparyavasāvī nidaršanā/ 2. Cf. KP'X, V. 11, p. 253 : Abhavan vastusambandha upamāparikalpakaḥ/ 3. Vide KP, 3 X, p. 395 : Atrānyalīlodvahanasyānyenāsambhavād vāranendralīlāsadrsīm līlā- mityupamāyām paryavasānam/

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though one corresponds to the other. This is the ideal condi- tion for the production of an image. On the contrary, in the typical comparison (Prativastūpamā), there is traditionally the rather less attributes Vastuprativastu-relation. 1It means the relation of the attributes in one place to those in another, when these attributes are the same but couched in different words. This evokes less poetic charm but its capacity to produce an image cannot be denied. For example, in the following verse, there is a good image : 2"O daughter of Vidarbha king, you, by whom even the king of Nisadha (i.e. Nala) is captivated on account of your exalted virtues, are fortunate indeed ! What more praise can be possible than of the moonlight which makes even the ocean tremulous ?" There is a focussing of similitude between Damayantī and 'the moonlight', Nala and 'the ocean', as well as between the actions of 'captivating' and 'making tremulous.' 3From the word Stuti (i.e. encomium) in the second sentence constituting the standard, are expressed the noble qualities of the moonlight forming the reflection (Pratibimba) of the high qualities of Damayantī (Bimba). Also from the use of the word 'moon- light' for Damayanti, is suggested her soothing though powerful virtues, making even Nala, with oceanlike gravity, ruffled. From this instance, it must be conceded that in some cases at least, it becomes difficult to judge precisely whether it is the Bimbapratibimba-relation or the Vastuprativastu-relation. The same attribute, stated in different words, is likely to be mistaken for two corresponding attributes, or vice versa. It must be mentioned here, that this figure, consisting of at least 1. Cf. Candrikā (Comm.) : Bhinnasabdabodhyaikadharmagamyam prastutāprastutavākyārthasā- drsyam prativastūpamā/ Cf. KP 2 X, p. 90 : Drstānte tu sāksāttadvrttidharmāmse'pi ...... / dharmasya prthakśabdā- bhyāmupādānam vastuprativastubhāvaḥ/ 2. NC, III, V. 116 : Dhanyāsi vaidarbhi guņairudarāiryayā samākrsyata naișadho'pi/ Itaḥ stutiḥ kā khalu candrikāyā yadabdhimapyuttaralīkaroti// 2. V-SD X, p. 598 : Atra damayantī upameyā candrikā upamānam tayordhīrākarsanameko dharmaḥ/

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two mutually independent sentences, implies the similitude inherent in those sentences without any expressive word. Each sentence must embody the attribute, whether constituting the matter in hand (Prakrta), or the standard of similitude (Aprakrta), and this similitude may be stated positively or negatively. The chief charm lies solely in the same attribute presenting itself in more than one case. Besides, we do not come across corresponding objects having attributes; they may occur, but the poet does not stress them. In the figure conception (Utpreksā), the rhetoricians have not found the Bimbapratibimba-relation, or even the Vastuprativastu-relation, but 1with the possibility of simili- tude, if not actual similitude, it will be amply clear from the verse below that such a thing is not impossible in particular cases : 2"The moon, with rays as if with fingers holding the braid of hair, like darkness, kisses, as it were, the face of the night having lotuses, like eyes, half-closed." Here there is a very beautiful picture of the moon, in the form of a lover, kissing the face of the night (who is like the beloved), holding her braid of hair. In this verse, the sentiment of love in union is implicit and is emphasised by the fact that night, the beloved, has become enamoured and has half-closed her eyes, while she relishes the pleasure of union with her lover. Actually, the moon is rising in the eventide, dispelling the darkness and consequently, making the lotuses droop, but from this a picture emerges of a lover holding the braid of his beloved's hair with his hand, and kissing her face, as a result of which the latter closes her eyes from overpowering senti- ment. The Bimbapratibimba-relation might also be found between 'fingers' and 'rays', 'braid of hair' and 'the patches of darkness', and the word Rajanīmukha means 'commencement of the night' in one case, and 'the countenance of the beloved night' in the other. Again, 'the evening time has the lotuses

1. Vide KN, p. 35 : Anyadharmasambandhanimittenānyasyānyatādātmyasambhāvana- mutpreksā/ 2. Cf. : Angulībhiriva kesasancayam sannigrhya timiram marīcibhiḥ/ Kudmalīkrtasarojalocanam cumbatīva rajanīmukham śaśī//

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half-closed, like eyes' and 'the face of the night-damsel has her eyes, like lotuses, half-closed.' From the figures exemplification, illustration, and typical comparison, the difference here, is chiefly that there are not two sentences, and there is no correspondence in point of having the Bimbapratibimba-relation between the objects. The word expressive of similitude, based on poetical fancy, is used twice. In conception qua poetic figure, we pass on to a figure 1which has the element of simile in it, but which is more highly poetical than the latter. 2Moreover, this figure is prominenly leaning towards identification (Abheda), and if hyperbole, in which the object of comparison is swallowed up by the standard, be taken to be the height of poetical effect in the direction of this identification, then the figure conception is,. indeed, a milestone on the way. 3Here the poet's mind is said to be in a state of suspense or incertitude, of course intentional and not actual, and wavering between the standard and the object of similitude, but with a greater bias towards the former. Among such figures which traditionally have no Bimba- pratibimba or even Vastuprativastu-relation, but often evoke images, by way of specimen we may take up only model metaphor (Samäsokti) and the figure concealment (Apahnuti), as our aim is only to throw torchlight in this direction, and not to deal with all the figures that flash, or might flash, an. image, because as we shall see, image-creation is a different art and calls for a definite, purposive effort on the part of a. poet. 4Of the model metaphor, it can be said that it is a

1. Cf. X, p. 36, KP 2 : Sambhāvanā ca ramanīyadharmanimittikā grāhyā/ 2. Ibid, p. 38 : Etāvataivotprekșāyām sādhyavasānatvavyavahāraḥ prācāmiti. bodhyam/ 3. V-AS, p. 70 : Sambhāvanā hi ekatarapaksasithilīkaraņena paksāntaradārdhyena ca prādurbhavatītyasyāh sādhyādhyavasāyatulyakaksatvam/ 4. Cf. SD X, V. 74, p. 612 : Samāsoktiḥ samairyatra kāryalingavisesaņaiḥ/ Vyavahārasamāropa prastute'nyasya vastunaḥ//

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figure based on verbal similitude with the superimposition of the behaviour of one thing over another. It is customary with poets to see in the action of a particular object, the striking reflection of the action of some other object. They describe a particular action in such a way that appreciative people are at once reminded of the corresponding action of the standard, even when the latter is not mentioned, or, if mentioned, not so explicitly. In fact, the charm of the figure lies in so describing the action of the former that the latter is at once suggested. To illustrate these points, we cite a verse : 1"The autumn, possessing a rainbow in the form of a ready- made nail-scratch, and making visible the moon with a black spot because of whitish clouds, generated more glow in the sun." Here, it is natural for the autumn season to have pale-white clouds and a clear sky, enabling the moon to be visible, and adding more heat to the sun. We also get the behaviour of a beloved, appeasing her paramour with the gift of her white-complexioned breasts under the very nose of her lover, and thus engendering the heat of jealousy in him. The use of the word 'readymade nail-scratch', standing in compari- son to the 'rainbow', is the key to this figure. The many- coloured rainbow, with red colour in prominence, on the whitish clouds in the sky, is like a readily given blood-stained nailmark on the white breasts of a damsel. So, on the one hand, there is the picture of an autumnal sky with pale-white clouds, with the moon clear and the sun aglow, and on the other, of a beloved with bloodstained nailmarks on her breasts, caressing her paramour, and thus, making her lover jealous. The former picture constitutes the matter in hand, and

Cf. KN, p. 87 : Samāsoktāvaprastutavyavahārasamāropaścārutāhetuḥ/ Na tu rūpaka iva prastute'prastutarūpasamāropo'sti/

1. Vide Quote : SD X, p. 619 : Aindram dhanu pāndupayodharena saraddadhānārdranakha- kșatābham/ Prasādayantī sakalankamindum tāpam raverabhyadhikam ca -- kāra//

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the latter the standard, and 1from the description of the former, the latter is suggested or reflected. But we must be definite about one thing, that the use of any clue, as in the present verse, is never necessary in the model metaphor figure, for the true mirroring of the standard. Had the use of word 'readymade nailscratch' not been made, the behaviour of the lover, the paramour, and the beloved, would still have been suggested. What is most important here is 2the dexterous use by the poet of beautiful adjectives with double significance, when one meaning applies to the matter in hand which is expressed, and the other to the standard which is suggested. Here adjectives are understood in their wider meaning, and not in the strict grammatical sense. Therefore, this figure borders the double entendre. Again, if there is reflection or correspondence between the two objects, one expressed and the other suggested, then I do not understand why this should not be taken for the Bimbaprati- bimba-relation which the rhetoricians have denied. In the above verse, there is a good piece of suggestion in the use of the word Ardra (i.e. wet) for the nailmark, showing that it is readymade. 3Concealment qua poetic figure (Apahnuti) is metaphor supplemented by a denial. If in the metaphor there is superimposition of one thing over another, in concealment this superimposition is backed by denial, to the effect that the matter in hand is not what it is. To adopt mīmamsist termi-

1. KP 2, p. 64 : Aprakrtagatavyavahāraruparthasya vacanam prakrtavțttānte āropo vyañjanayā pratipādanamityarthaḥ/ Cf. P-KP 3, X p. 393 : Asyāñca samāsoktau prakrtavrttānto 'bhidhayaiva pratīyate'pras- tutavrttāntastu vyañjanayā/ 2. Vide KN, p. 92 : Ata eva ślistavisesanāyāmiva sādhāranaviseșanāyāmapyaprastuta- vyavahārasamāropa ityeva prācīnānām pravādaḥ/ 3. Vide AS, p. 63 : Apahnavapūrvaka āropaḥ, āropapūrvako'pahnavaḥ chalādisabda- irasatyattvapratipādakairvā 'pahnavanirdeśaḥ/ Cf. KN, V. 26, p. 28 : Śuddhāpahnutiranyasyāropārtho dharmanihnavaḥ/

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nology, there is affirmation supported by denial, and it is. needless to say that such denial gives emphasis to the affir- mation. But the denial must be intentional, and the aim of the denial and assertion may be to convey similitude, pertaining to the word or to the meaning. An example of concealment1 based on similarity, pertaining to the word, may be cited. 2"He clung to my feet, prating'; 'was it your lover ?' 'No, my anklet !" Such types give the riddles dealt with earlier. As to the production of image within the purview of this figure, it is a rare thing. For example : 3"The forest region being devoid. of water, the trees having been scorched with the flaming heat of the meridian sun, as if with their tongues outstretched ask for water on the pretext of the flames of the forest fire rising from under the trunks." This is a good image, in the form of very thirsty people with their tongues stretched out, as if ask- ing for water in a waterless region. In this instance, the real fact of the trees having caught fire is concealed by the use of the phrase 'on the pretext of', and instead, the fact of their spreading out tongues for water like thirsty people is established. Among lesser figures, we find a different sort of mirroring in the figure Bhavika, where there is visualisation of the things, past or future. This may be effected in two ways : either the things being described might have that horror or beauty which makes them seem actually present before our eyes, or because they might have been so vividly delineated due to the extraordinary power of expression of a particular poet. While Bhamaha and Udbhata insist on only those cases where the power of evocation rests on the adequacy of the verbal tissue created by the poet, Mammata feels inclined to include the former, within this figure. His reason is that the figure is like natural expression (Svabhavokti), where the beauty is.

1. Cf. BK III, V. 21, p. 75 : Apahnutirabhīștā ca kiñcidantargatopamā/ 2. Vide KN V. 30, p. 32 : 3. Cf. Quote KN, p. 34 : Rikteşu vārikathaya vipinodaresu madhyahnajrmbhitamahatapatāpa- taptāḥ/ Skandhāntarotthitadavāgnisikhācchalena jihvām prasārya taravo jala -- marthayante//

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more or less initially given (Siddha); and since the latter sometimes appears as an evocative figure, as we shall shortly see, this class of evocation of the 'glorious' past or future should be accepted as a poetic figure. There may be some sort of visualisation in this figure, but to me it does not look an imagist one, and so, except under exceptional conditions owing to the superb creative power of a poet, this figure may be rejected. It has been noted above, that ordinarily, the Bimbaprati- bimba-relation is the first criterion of an image, then the Vastuprativastu-relation to a lesser degree. But above all, it depends on the calibre of a poet, together with his power of using the words appropriately so as to evoke visual pictures. An instance may be cited : "1The damsels having only wal- lowed in the waters, with effort stroking their fleshy thighs gently, the mass of waves having been broken asunder, spread out on to the shores, driving away the cranes." Here, the traditional figure is the natural description (Svabhāvokti), but the poet has, by dint of his extraordinary skill, evoked an image without the above preconditions being present, and even without the suggestion of any simile. The words used are very powerful in conveying the image. When read out, the stanza immediately creates before us the visual picture of the mass of waves rushing towards the shores of the big pond or river, where cranes have spread out in a network, and where in waist-deep water, beautiful women are bathing their fleshy thighs. With the onrush of the waves the cranes, as if foresee- ing trouble, fly away with nervous chattering sounds. Among Sanskrit poets, Bhavabhuti has most of this power of endowing pictorial representation to the expressed sense in a natural way. The examples are copious in his Uttararama- carita. The only thing to stress here is that under such conditions, there is less chance of getting the suggested sense as in the figures of image, where there is the Bimbapratibimba- relation, or where there is some simile. But the possibility

l Cf. KJ, VIII, V. 31 : Vigādhamātre ramanībhirambhasi prayatnasamvāhitaplvarorubhiḥ/ Vibhidyamānā visasāra sārasānudasya tīresu tarangasamhatīḥ//

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cannot be gainsaid altogether, as seen in the following example of Arthacitra given by Panditaraja: "1The monkeys, sleeping comfortably in the cold season on the summits of the Sahya mountains, hot with Rama's fire of separation, are wroth with Hanūman." The context of this verse relates to the arrival of Hanuman with the message of Sita to Rama, who is living at the Sahya mountains with his army of monkeys. The poet means to suggest that before Hanuman's coming, Rama was feeling intensely, burning with the fire of separation from Sita and, thus even in the cold season, as the mountains were warmed with that fire, the monkeys were sleeping comfortably. But when Hanuman comes with the message, Rama no longer feels the pangs of separation and the fire dies out, and so the mountain range is as cold as before. As the monkeys are afflicted with the cold, they become angry with Hanūman be- cause ultimately, it was he who made them suffer. 2The suggestion here, according to Jagannatha, is explicit (Jāga- rūka). 3In the Bimbapratibimba-relation, we have seen that there is more poetic charm, or more chance of the poetic image being created as on grounds of different attributes the objects are reflected into each other. But in the Vastuprati- vastu-relation, the properties being the same, though couched in different words, the objects are only coordinate with each other. Even beyond this, if the words used for the object compared and the standard of similitude are identical, there is no mirroring (Bimbana) as in the case of self-comparison (Ananvaya), and the reciprocal simile (Upameyopamā). In these figures, for want of any reflective element, no image can be produced, and repetition of the identical words is, in the most part, the cause of any poetic charm. As for the product- ion of image, even in simile it is not there if the two objects

RG I, p. 20 : Rāghavavirahajvālāsantāpitasahyasailasikhareșu/ Šisire sukham sayānāh kapayah kupyanti pavanatanayāya// 2. RG, I, p. 23 : 3 PY, p. 366 : Ekasyārthasya sabdadvayenābhidhānam vastuprativastubhāvah/ Dvayorarthayordvirupādānam bimbapratibimbabhāvah//

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are barely compared, there being no magic in description or in the correlation of the common properties. In hyperbole and: some other figures also, it is some other quality, like the subversion of the cause-and-effect relation, and not the production of imagery which might be the chief cause of poetic: charm. When a whole picture is generated by one verse, and different words used in it, instead of detracting go to cooperate towards that end, there is a greater chance of image being: evolved because it is generally created out of one impression. So, in figures where there are many impressions rather than. one, there is no imagery, or even broken images accepted on the authority of western rhetorics. Finally, we can say that an image is a different thing outside the limitation of any parti- cular figure of speech as separate entity, and is the real test of a poet, being more difficult to use or evoke than any of the beautiful figures. What is needed for achieving this feat is a surcharging of the imagery with feelings and emotions. There- fore, to be genuinely evocative, images must be emotive. Emotion, like an oily substance, gives contours in the images. Arthacitra constituting these images, to be highest type of poetry, must emerge from the depth of heart. These images when devoid of emotions, become like still-lifes to be hung up on walls. Originally what indigenous rhetoricians might have meant by rejecting Citrakavya as the lowest grade of poetry, is this. The verses quoted above in support of the thesis in this: chapter, are ample proof of the fact. They cannot be torn. away from life without being separated from the real imagist properties, from emotions. In this context, we must affirm. that even in natural description (Svabhavokti), where there is no scope for similitude, there are beautiful images when they have an emotive appeal. Here it may be pointed out, that 1this natural description or poetic naturalism, is one of the two chief figures originally conceived in both eastern and

1. Cf. KD II, V. 363, p. 329 : Ślesaḥ sarvāsu pusnāti prāyo vakroktișu sriyam/ Bhinnam dvidhā svabhāvoktirvakroktisceti vānmayam//

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western poetic thought, the other being the 1deviant expression (Vakrokti), in which almost all figures of ornament were includ- ed. This natural description is the most direct form of ex- pression, as opposed to suggestion, and has a direct appeal to the heart, especially, if the images be sparsely strewn. 2If the moods or emotions are changing, the images in a poem are like a series of mirrors set at different angles, so that as the theme moves on, they are reflected in a number of different aspects. Here we quote two instances to illustrate changing emotions from Valmiki, the first, as well as one of the greatest, of India's epic poets. In the first we find Rama experiencing the first bitter rains after his separation from Sita. Sometimes he sees in it his own passionate image, sometimes that of an injured person-his own reflection, and at times that of Sita struggling in the hold of Ravana. 3"The sky, having its wound bound up with smooth rags in the shape of clouds, stained with the vivid tints of the setting sun, having super-white borders and yellowish clouds, appears like a passionate person, breathing in slow wind and besmeared with the red sandal of the eventide. The earth, like Sita, afflicted with scorching heat, though sprinkled with the first rains, sheds tears, having

1. Cf. B-RC I : "A figure of speech is a deviation from the plain and ordinary mode of speaking, for the sake of greater effect : it is an unusual from of speech." 2. Cf. L-PI III, p. 80. 3. Vide VR, KK XXVIII, V.5-12, p. 114-115 : Samdhyārajotthitaistāmrairantesvadhikapāndaraiḥ/ Snigdhairabhrapatacchedairbaddhavraņamivāmbaram// Mandamārutaniḥśvāsam samdhyācandanarañjitam/ Āpāndujaladam bhāti kāmāturamivāmbaram// Eșā gharmapariklistā navavāripariplutā/ Sīteva sokasamtaptā mahī vāspam vimuñcati/ / Meghodaravinirmuktāḥ kahlārasukhasītalāḥ/ Śakyamañjalibhiḥ pātum vātāh ketakigandhinaḥ//

Kasābhiriva haimībhirvidyudbhiriva tāditam/ Antaḥstanitanirghosam savedanamivāmbaram// Nīlameghāśritā vidyut sphurantī pratibhāti me/ Sphurantī rāvaņasyānke vaidehīva tapasvinī//

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been tormented with the pangs of separation. The breeze, emerging from the heart of the clouds, is cool as the white lotus and redolent with the fragrance of the Ketaka flowers, can be sipped in cupped hands ...... Whipped by the golden thong of the lightning, the sky, as if in pain, seems to be crying out aloud with thunder. The lightning, leaping out in the black clouds, is, to me, like sorrowful Suta, struggling in the hold of Rāvana." The whole picture is charged with emotions, the mood is poignant and Valmki's profound creative intuition is revealed by the imagery embodying ideally the like emotion. In the second, Ravana and his hosts camp by the river Narmada. The breath of the river tempers the heat, and the spot is ideal for a halt. Ravana is gratified : 1"The sun of a thousand rays seems to have changed the world to gold, and in the sky, this orb of day, whose beams were intense, having observed me seated here, has grown as cool as the moon. The wind, cool owing to having contacted the waters of the Nar- mada, and able to reduce fatigue, blows steadily, diffusing sweet fragrance, as if in fear from me. This Narmada, most excellent among the rivers, and one enhancing amorous pastimes, is like a round damsel, as though because of the waves (generated) due to alligators, fish and birds." The poetic sentiment reflect- ed is the love in union, as against the former, where clearly there is yearning love in separation. In the latter instance, the amorous feelings of Ravana determine the individuality of the river, which, though described by the poet, is seen through the eyes of that hedonist. A purely formal analysis might reveal that the imagery effected here is dependent on an incipient compa- rison, but is really the resultant rapproachement between two distant realities. In such a case, erotic sentiment becomes the

1. VR, UK XXXI VS. 27-29 : Eșa raśmisahasrena jagatkrtvaiva kāñcanam/ Tīkşnatāpakaraḥ sūryo nabhaso 'rdham samāśritaḥ// Māmāsīnam viditveha candrāyati divākaraḥ/ Narmadājalasītaśca sugandhiḥ śramanāsana// Madbhayādanilopyatra vātyesa susamāhitaḥ/ Iyam cāpi saricchresthā narmadā narmavardhinī// Nakramīnavihangormiḥ sabhayevānganā sthitā//

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unconscious bond of association which annihilates distance. How beautiful the verses quoted above are, only appre- ciative people can assess. In Valmiki, we find both wisdom of the heart and grandeur of the imagination. While the latter is responsible for the use of the figures of speech, the former prunes it to propriety. If the figure is an adornment, emotion is the very life. 1Ananda clarifies that as the putting on or off of even ordinary ornaments suggests to us the mental state of a person, so the use or surrender of figures suggests the poetic emotion or mood. The image emerging from the deepest recesses of the heart is really born with the very first poetic urge, and 2I am sure this holds good with the imagery of our poet. The surging emotions, stirred in his heart at the sight of the wounded Kraunca couple, became concretised in the shape of poetry. He was equally successful in both natura- lism and imagery, because he made his heart the sole decider between the two, with the result that both proved ideal for the deeper poetic purpose. Vālmiki's mastery in both makes clear to us, that reality of feeling is the most important thing in poetry, and the qualitatively strong tension of the heart deter- mines the mode of the poetic expression. Besides, we mark above one very important aspect of the production of images, that when there is natural description, or more exactly, description of nature there is generally a high grade of imagery through anthropomorphisation, or the attri- bution of human forms to the elements of nature. But only poets of very high calibre can arouse such images. In the instance first cited, the hovering dark cloud is anthropomor- phised as the ill-intentioned Ravana, and the lightning as the beautiful and chaste Sita, struggling to get out of the cruel clutches of the former. But, there are many instances especially in the works of Kālidasa, where there are no clues to the similes, and in that case, the personification becomes even more charming and life-like. To substantiate this position :

1. Vide DL, II, V.6, p. 204 : Tamarthamavalambante ye 'nginam te gunāh smrtāḥ/ etc. 2. Ibid, I, V.5, p. 85 : Krauñcadvandvaviyogottha sokah ślokatvamāgataḥ/

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1"That river, having a little water in the form of a stream, might be expressing, on account of her state of separation, O fortunate one, your good fortune through the yellow, worn-out leaves falling from the trees sprung up on her banks; it is (now) left to you to devise the way she sheds her emaciation." Here the cloud has been given the shape of a lover and the river that of his beloved. It is now one year since the last rainy season that the cloud was away, and during this time the river was as if yearning and tossing in bed, lean and thin. She was yellow with the fallen, yellowish leaves of the nearby trees. But with the onset of the rains, her lover has returned and in no time she will be green and happy, and full of water, which will rush like passion in her veins. The poet adds that the beloved has kept her fidelity intact in separation, and so the lover should congratulate himself and restore her to her original happy position. Here, over and above the exquisite picture of cloud and river and their actions apart, there is a geographical fact in that in summer, rivers generally run short of water, and during the rains, they are filled up. In the instance under review, there is also some element of sugges- tion. 2As above in the case of the suggestion of poetic figures (Alamkāradhvani), the evocation of feeling is the sole arbiter. 3Kathleen Raine refers to the juxtaposition of images being the basis of the poetic figure. This, of course, points to the normal association of images in poetic figures and not in parti- cular to the image that is suggested. Broadly speaking, this is applicable to the field of the expressed image as well. 4But the

1. MD, I, V. 29 : Venūbhūtapratanusalilā 'sāvatītasya sindhuḥ Pānducchāyā tațaruhatarubhramśibhirjīrnaparnaiḥ/ Saubhāgyam te subhaga virahāvasthayā vyañjayantī Kārśyam yena tyajati vidhinā sa tvayaivopapādyaḥ// 2. Cf. L-DL, I, p. 52: Rasacarvaņātmanastrtīyāmsasyābhidhābhāvanāmsadvayottīrņatvena nirnayāt, vastvalamkāradhvanyo rasadhvaniparyantatvameveti ...... / 3. Vide K-SR. 4. Ibid.

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perpetual images, however intense or refined, lack a dimension without which there is a feeling of claustrophobia. There should be a synthesis of the symbolic and the contemporary. That is, the expressed image as well as the suggested one, should be an objective correlative of the inward feeling. 1Old Indian theorists hold that when there is suggestion in image, the suggested image is, as a result, an embellishment (Alamkāra) and not embellished (Alainkārya), and so it should be relegated to the subordinate position. They demand that in order to qualify as the finest shade of poetry, the centre of gravity in the particular poem should shift to the suggested sense. On the other hand, where the suggested meaning is the embellishment rather than the embellished, the poetic achieve- ment has to be graded lower, as an instance of the poetry of subordinated suggestion. But this is not true. The fact re- mains that the suggested sense has the force of an accompani- ment in music. Poetic naturalism might have been adequate in itself to arouse feeling, but that is not the point. The quality of the suggested image blends with the quality of the literal image, and what is resultant in our experience is a feeling, both unitary and enriching. The exponents of the theory of suggestion themselves first raised suggestion to the pedestal of the supreme poetic value, and then, having moved on further, gave sentiment or feeling that status. In that case, if an enri -. ched feeling is contained in a poem, it should not be relegated to the inferior position simply because the centre of gravity of the particular poem does not lie on the plane of suggested sense, but is found in the stratum of expressed meaning. 2Even

1. Cf. DL, II, p. 198 : Yatra rasasyālamkāryatā rasāntaram cāngabhūtam nāsti tatra śuddhā evopamādayaḥ/ Ibid, p. 197 : Upamādīnāmalamkāratve yādrsī vārtā tādrsyeva rasādīnām/ tada- vayamanyenālamkāryena bhavitavyam/ tacca yadyapi vastumātra- mapi bhavati, tathāpi tasya punarapi vibhāvādirūpatāparyavasānād rasāditātparyameveti sarvatra rasadhvanerevātmabhāvaḥ. 2. Vide DL, II, V. 17, p. 223 : Dhvanyātmabhūte srngāre samīksya viniveśitaḥ/ Rūpakādiralamkāravarga eti yathārthatām//

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according to Ananda, the figure to suggest the feeling should be born along with the poet's revelation and delineation of it. It will then have to be naturally and easily introduceable, and the poet will not have to pause to make a special effort to effect it. Lastly, we must in this connection examine the visual capacity and the evocative power of the words themselves, so that when combined in a poetic organism, they might create a unitary, visual impression, called image, given the magic touch of the poet. 1In fact, Sanskrit poetics have always affirmed that feeling is the soul of poetry, and sound as well as sense, together constitute its body. As such, the concept of the parity of the two implies that sound representing the word-texture might also arouse nuances of feelings. As Sanskrit rhetoricians insist that all literary ornaments should subserve feeling, and 2as in a verbal figure replacement by a synonym is ruled out, it is clear that word as a phonetic entity functions directly as a poetic cue. 3Even the analytical findings that soft vocables and vowels suit the erotic sentiment, while consonantal explo- sives are ideal for the expression of the sentiments of anger and heroism, confirm that our rhetoricians realised that feeling tones could be directly excited by words. 4Really, the whole basis of the art of literature is that the emotions and feelings directly excited by the words, should intensify our emotions and feelings arising from the contemplation of the meaning.

1. Vide SD, I, V.3, p. 19 : Vākyam rasātmakam kāvyam/ Cf. DL, I, p. 45 : Kāvyasya hi lalitocitasanniveśacārunaḥ śarīrasyevātmā sārarūpatayā sthitaḥ sahrdayaslāghyo yo 'rthaḥ ... Ibid, V.8, p. 97 : So'rthastadvyaktisāmarthyayogī śabdaśca kaścana/ Yatnataḥ pratyabhijñeyau tau sabdārthau mahākaveḥ// 2. Vide Supra p. 34. 3. Cf. M-W. 4. Vide W-SME, p. 98.

CHAPTER VI

HISTORY OF CITRAKĀVYA

The history of Sabdacitra like chimes, alliterations, and the Bandhas, is comparatively recent. In the Rigveda, there is no special effort for striking verbal effects 1except in odd cases. The later Vedas might have started the attempt, but it begins from the dawn of classical Sanskrit. The intention of using these verbal juggleries is clear, though not always, even in the early great trio of Bhāsa, Aśvaghosa and Kālidāsa. Of Ubhaya- citra in the shape of riddles and poetic tricks, the endeavour seems to be more business-like from the beginning, and we see it in the form of 2riddle hymns in the Rgveda, of Brahmodyas in the Brahmanas and the Upanisads. The Vedic sages perhaps found themselves leaning more towards the attempted use of such Kūtas and riddles, due to reasons such as generating a sense of curiosity or wonder, expressing experiences metaphy- sical and mystical, and the desire to conceal knowledge from others, which we have pointed out elsewhere. It is generally acknowledged that poetry begets a sense of curiosity consisting of beautiful sentiments born of appro- priately chosen words. That is why that even in the early poets and sages there is a tendency to embellish and endow their works, with art and beauty. Often, to a thrilling effect they resort to the device of the concealment of sense. This serves the twin purpose of engendering suspense in the minds

1. Cf. RV, 4-40-5 : Hamsah sucisad vasurantariksasad Hotā vedișad atithirduronasat/ Nrsad varasad rtasad vyomasad Abjā gojā rtajā adrijā rtam// 2. Cf. Ibid, 164-33 : Dyaurme pitā janitā nābhiratra bandhurme mātā prthivī mahīyam/ U'rtānayoścamvoryonirantaratrā pitā duhiturgarbhamādhāt//

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of the readers, and of bringing artistry into poetry. Also, the mystical and metaphysical experience being inexpressible, recourse is taken to symbols and metaphors. Even riddles and Kūtas may be used to keep the experience concealed, and thus safe from the hands of the undeserving. Here, the first category, being suggestive, is among the highest type of poetry, but in the second, though the objective of the concealment of sense is not a genuine characteristic of good poetry, yet sometimes, this also arouses a unique sense of curiosity and gives a new meaning with unprecedented pleasure. 1Among the said riddle hymns, there are only a few to which the commentators have given the right exposition. In some cases, they have offered corrupt explanations, and there are some still left, of which the meaning is not yet clear, as is explicit from the views expressed by 2raska and 3Sayana. Among such verses, a few spiritual, mystical or philosophical, are called by raska such relating to the probe of the sup- reme spirit (Adhyatmikī), and others all composed beyond our ken (Paroksakrtā). Some such hymns are also found in the 4 Atharvaveda, and some philosophical ones in 5the Upanișads as well. This tradition of occult poetry in the old Vedic books can best be called pragmatic and mystic. Often symbols are used, and in that case, they may be called symbolic tricks (Pratīkakuta) in the modern sense of the term. It is not beyond our jurisdiction to mention here, that such poetry has also been written sometimes with a view to safeguarding the confi- dential nature of religious thoughts and actions. 6Even today, this idea is prevalent among the Tāntric and Vaisnava sects of Bengal and the Pancaratras. There is also a ritual aspect of some sacrificial stanzas which are like riddles in the shape of a questionnaire. On the

1. Vide W-HIL I, p. 117: "The hymn RV 1.164 contains a large number of such riddles, most of which, unfortunately, we cannot understand." 2. Vide Y-NN VII, p. 132. 3. P-HSR : SP, p. 11. 4. Vide Infra., p. 139, Fn. No. 1. 5. Vide Infra., p. 139, Fn. No. 2. 6. Cf. ST1.19 : Deyam sisyāya sāntāya visnubhaktiratāya ca/ Cf. PR 4, 7-5 : Gopanīyam gopanīyam gopaniyam prayatnatah/

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occasions of big sacrifices, the officiating priest (Rtvik), or any other sacerdotal personage, puts these questions to the kings and ministers present. Here also, symbolical and even mystical language is used, and the symbols are often taken in the shape of numerals from the universe of nature. The earth, the sky, the sun, the moon, the atmospheric region, the cloud and its genesis through the process of evaporation, the rains, the sols- tices, the year, the seasons, the month, the days and nights etc. form the chief contents of the symbolical expressions. Under- standing their sense was thought to be the highest touchstone of literary sensibility. For example, in the following verse, the year is being described as a wheel with twelve peripheries in the shape of months, three hubs as important seasons, and three hundred and sixty spikes as days : 1"Who knows that only wheel with twelve peripheries and three hubs ? There are also three hundred and sixty moving spikes fixed to it." To take one now in a purely enigmatic style : 2The dark night has begotten a white (i.e. fair-complexioned) child. The reddish baby has together (with mother) mounted the firmament." Obviously, the description is of the sun's rising in the eastern horizon in the morning, as if from the womb of the black night. The sun, at the time, is like a white, lustrous, palpable and reddish baby. The seeming contradiction lies in Krsņā (i.e. Draupadī) giving birth to Arjuna (who was one of her five Pandava husbands). These two words should be taken here, as adjectives, and not as substantive proper names. In the same style, the verse below strikes more wonder and curiosity : 3"One having only one leg is speedier than one having two, the two-legged than the tripod; the quadruped comes at the call of the two-legged, beholding and waiting upon the flock." Here the ram, having one leg, is suggested as the symbol for the god of wind. Some also explain it as the 1. RV-1, 164.48 : Dvādasa pradhayaścakramekam trīņi nabhyāni ka u tacciketa/ Tasmintsākam trisatā na samkavo 'rpitāh șastirna calā calāsah// 2. Ibid : I.164-2 : Krsņāyāḥ putro 'rjuno rātryā vatso ajāyata/

3. Ibid : 10, 117-8 : Saha dyāmadhirohati ruho ruroha rohitaḥ//

Ekapād bhūyo dvipado vi cakrame dvipāt tripādamabhyeti paścāt/ Catupadeti dvipadāmabhisvare sampaśyan panktīrupatisthamānah//

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sun, having a wheel or halo. The two-legged is, of course, man and the three-legged, an old man with a supporting stick. The four-legged stands here for a dog, though it may generally denote any animal with four legs. To give one more such verse which, depending on the magic of numbers, inspires awe in the description of a great god with four horns, three legs, two heads and seven hands : 1"This bull has" four horns, three legs, two heads and seven hands. Having been tied threefold, it bellows. This great god has come among the mortals." At first sight the verse seems contradictory and meaningless, but 2Sayana has given several meanings of which we put forth only two, one relating to the description of the sacrificial fire, and the other connected with the sun. In regard to the first one, the four horns mean either the four Vedas, or the priests of the same number, the three legs stand for the three Soma-extracting ceremonies to be performed in the morning, noon and evening, the two heads. are Brahmaudana and Pravargya, and seven hands denote the seven vedic metres (i.e. Tristup, Jagati, Ușņig, Gāyatrī, Pamktī, Anusțup and Brhatī). It is bound thrice by Mantras, Brahmanas and the Kalpas, and is called a bull because it bears or rains the fruits of the sacrifice, and roars in melodies produced by the songs of Saman and rajus. As for the second meaning, the said number of horns, legs, heads and hands symbolise the same number of directions, Vedas, day and night, and the rays. The three places are earth, the atmospheric region and the sky. That rains, and so it is called the bull. It is noteworthy that 3Patañjali has explained this in relation to the supreme power of words (Sabdabrahman) having four horns in the four types of words (i,e. Nouns, verbs, prepositions and indeclinables), three legs in the three tenses (i.e. present, past and the future), two heads in the word and the meaning, seven hands in the seven case-endings, tied at three places, the bosom, the throat and 1. RV : 4.58.3 : Catvāri srngāstrayo'sya pādā dve sīrșe sapta hastāso 'sya/ Tridhā baddho vīsabho roravīti mahādevo martyān āviveśa/ / 2. Ibid : ed MM, vol. II, 4.5.58-3, p. 492. 3. Vide P-MB, 1 1.1, p. 13.

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the head. Now we add one verse from the famous Kuntatapa hymn of the Atharvaveda, reflecting the paradox of ritual mysti- cism bordering on the philosophical : 1"The mouth of the spoon is downward and the bottom upward ; there are seven seers on its sides, and the eighth one is speech." The spoon stands for the skull (or, head) in whose various parts live the five breathing winds (Pañcapranavayu), the energising agents. The sense-organs reside close to them, among which is speech- power, the giver of intuition. From the Upanisads, amongst many philosophical riddles the one quoted is the most familiar and homely : 2"Two birds, who are mutual cooperators, are friends, sitting on the same tree ; one of them eats up the delicious pippal fruits, (or, berries) and the other, eating nothing, simply waits (lit. shines forth). The two birds are the individual soul and the supreme soul, mutually cooperating in a relation of the restrained and the restrainer (or, ruler and ruled), and are friends on account of a similar supreme spirit, and staying on the same tree of the body corporeal, or the universe. Only the individual soul consumes or experiences the fruits of actions in this universe, and not the supreme soul. To turn towards the exposition of Arthacitra in Vedic literature, it is important to note that sensibilities and senti- ments befitting the expression of true poetry developed in the pre-historic past. There is good poetry in the Rigveda due to the anthropomorphisation of the elements of nature, in the forms of divinities. However, poetry with embellishment does appear at times. The Vedic sage describes the wild fire devouring the heath and shrubs as like a barber shaving the earth : 3"The fire, having been fanned by the wind, has spread in the forests and is razoring the sprouting hair of the Earth." Some of the verses from the hymns to Agni are marvellous and 1. Vide AV-10.8, 9 : Arvagvilascamasa urdhvam budhnastasmin yaso nihitam viśvarūpam/ Tasyāsata rsaya saptatīre vāgastamī samvidāneti// 2. Cf. MK, 3.1-1 : Dvā suparnā sayujā sakhāyā samānam vrksam parisasvajāte/ Tayoranyah pippalam svādvattyanaśnannanyo 'bhicākaśīti// 3. Vide RV-1. 65.8 : Yad vātajūto vanā vyasthādagnirha dāti romā prthivyāḥ/

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create real images. To take one more example : 1"The fire is swallowing up the forests with its sharp fangs (i.e. with swirls of the fire). It is clearing them and is uprooting them in such a way, as if a warrior was uprooting enemies." It is not unusual to get such word-pictures. Sometimes, the 2sage distinguishes the poetic speech from the ordinary, as "one sieves the barley powder." Elsewhere, 3he prays the Almighty to ward off the cares "that are consuming him as rats eat weavers' threads". Here there is a unique instance of the concretisation of an abstract, intangible idea. 4Again in one verse the supreme spirit is described as "a swan seated in the midst of light." It is to be noted here that in classical litera- ture, the word Hamsa, often in a mystical context, stands for the supreme being. Among the hymns of the Rgveda, those relating to Ușas are accepted to be the most beautiful. In this connection, we cannot but quote 5one full verse to show its imagist value : "Like a dancer, she enrobes herself with em- broidered garments; she bares her bosom, as the cow yields her udder; creating light for all the world of life, Usas has laid open the darkness, as cows their stalls." After the Vedas, it was from the Mahabharata that the Kuta style of poetry flourished. There is a story there of how it began. When there was a problem of writing the first script of this epic at the dictation of Vyasa, the work was entrusted to Ganesa, and the latter accepted it, but on the condition that his pen would never stop. In order to get out of this quandary, 1. RV : 1, 143.5 : Agnirjambhaistigitairatti bharvati yodho na satrūn sa vanānyañjate/ 2. Ibid : 10.71.7: Saktumiva titaunā punanto yatra dhīrā manasā vācamakrata/ Atrā sakhāyaḥ sakhyāni jānate bhadraisām laksmīrnihitādhi vāci// 3. Ibid : 10, 33.3 : Mūo na siśnā vyadanti mādhyaḥ stotāram te śatakrato/ Sakrt su no maghavannindra mrlayā 'dhā piteva no bhava// 4. Vide Supra p. 135, Fn. No. 1. 5. Cf. RV, 1.92, 4 : Adhipeśāmsi vapate nrtūrivāpornute vaksa usrevā barjaham/ Jyotirviśvasmai bhuvanāya krnvatī gāvo na vrajam vyușā āvartamaḥ// 6. Vide MB-AP I, V. 116 : Yasmin pratijñayā prāha munirdvaipāyanastvidam/ .Granthagranthim tadā cakre munirgūdham kutūhalāt//

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the poet asked Ganesa not to write anything which he did not understand, and he began to create knots and Kūtas, so that while the script-God was engaged in understanding them, he moved on further. Vyasa says that he began to devise difficult knots in the midst of his work, as an exciting pastime (Kutū- hala). The use of Kutūhalādhyāyi in Agni-Purana, on which there is a separate chapter, points to that direction. In the Mahabharata, we find a full-fledged use of allitera- tions, puns, and chimes, together with such Kutas. So, there was a clear attempt to display pedantic skill in poetry, altho- ugh in the epic itself, this trend is very limited, except in the places where it is required. For instance, in the Adiparvan, Vidura hints in this very occult language to rudhisthira, the plot of Duryodhana to burn the Pandavas to ashes in the lac- house built in Varanavata : 1"That rogue would set that house on fire; he is a dreadful foe; you can guard yourself only when you run away through the subterranean passage." Here the word Kaksaghna stands for Purocana, who had been set for the purpose. Again, sisira is fire, the destroyer and Sisiraghna is also for the abovesaid crafty man who was to destroy the lac- house with the help of fire, and Mahākaksa means 'arch enemy'. Moreover, the reason for speaking in this Kūta style is put in a beautiful Kuta, itself based on pun and chimes : 2"The know- ing one, easily understanding the local dialects of the village- folk, spoke those words to the person who himself used to understand those dialects. People, not understanding those dialects, could not understand those words; only people under- standing those could understand them." The word Prajña here has three meanings : wise, village-fool and one difficult to understand, and the word Pralapajña, two meanings : the per- son who knows the dialects of the village folk, and one pratt- ling like an uncultured person. So there are many varieties of riddles and Kūtas found 1. MB : 145-3 : Kaksaghnaḥ sisiraghnaśca mahākakse vilaukasaḥ/ Na dahediti cātmānam yo rakșati sa jīvati// 2. Ibid: 145-20 : Prājñaḥ prājñapralāpajñah pralāpajñamidam vacaḥ/ Prājñam prājñaḥ pralāpajñam pralāpajno vaco 'bravīt//

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in the epic, some even mystical, and some very occult. 1One philosophical-mystical one resembles one found in the 21s0- panisad, based on chimes, and 3an occult sort, explained, among many others, by 4Dr. V.S. Agrawal, is similar to one quoted in the body of this thesis elsewhere. One such occult verse, taken by the said scholar, suggests in a peculiar way some metaphysical symbols : 5"An ox with humpback, a parrot with bent beak, the blissful heaven, an eye-sore, a heavenly tree or its flowers giving ichorous saturation, dancing, especi- ally of a peacock, something persecuting, especially Bhairava and the roundball sweets of the mouth-these eight whomsoever bite becomes frantic, loses sense and (ultimately) perishes". 6According to Sarvajnanārayana, corroborating on the authority of Devabodha, these eight respectively symbolise eight mental deformations, namely, desire, anger, greed, illusion, vanity, conceit, spite and egotism. In yet another interesting verse, some inauspicious signs are described which began to appear just before the Mahābhā- rata war : "The small babies in the houses of the common- folk, who are still in the sucklings' chamber, sing and dance,

1. MB : 5 46-9 : Pūrņāt pūrnānyuddharanti pūrņāt pūrnāni cakrire/ Haranti pūrnāt pūrnāni pūrnamevāvasisyate// 2. Cf. Is-l : Pūrnamadaḥ pūrnamidam pūrnāt pūrnamaducyate/ Pūrnasya pūrnamādāya pūrņamevāvasisyate// 3. Vide MB : AK, 18.7 : Jalecaraḥ kāñcanayastisamstho vyāttānanah sarvatimipramāthī/ Vitrāsayan rājati vāhamukhye sālvasya senāpramukhe dhvajāgryah// 4. Vide KNPP : MKKS, 1962 : 5. Vide MB : UP : 94.38-39 : Kākudīkam sukam nākamaksisantarjanam tathā Santanam nartanam ghoramāsyamodakamastakam/ Etairviddha sarva eva maraņam yanti manavāh/ Unmattāśca viceștante nastasamjñā vicetasaḥ// 6. Cf. : Kāmakopau mohalobhau madamānau tathaiva ca/ Mātsaryāhamkrtī caiva kramādeta udāhrtaḥ// 7. Vide MB : BP, 3.8 : Prthag janasya kudakāh stanapāḥ stanavesmani/ Nrtyanti parigāyanti vedayanto mahad bhayam//

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foreboding great fear." Dr. Belvelkar takes Kudaka as a reading of Kudika='small water-vessel' or, as Kadava or Kudapa='a grain-measuring small vessel.' Similarly he takes Stanapa as Tanapa and Stanavesma, as Stenaveśma. 1Dr. Agrawal thinks all these are corrupt and derives Kudaka meaning 'small baby' from the Skt. Kutika, and correlates it with the Panjabi Kudi or Kuda. He also takes Stanapa as qualifying it. Of the two, this seems to be the better. After the Mahabharata, 2there are some mystical and paradoxical verses in Bhāgavatapurana, some of them resembling those based on a number already quoted. Skipping then we come to Bhäravi, the representative of a periodic change wrought with the change in literary taste. As a result of a high sensibility among readers for poetry and art, a vast liter- ature of the type was produced in the middle age. It was an art to write riddles and Kutas in poetry and a marvel to com- pose Citrabandhas. 3This art was at par with, for example, gardening as a means of recreation, inspired by the desire of striking awe-producing and suspense-giving expressions. Here, skill and pedantry were required. In fact, social life was happy, and the poets generally thought of amusing their pat- rons with the help of this artistry. Therefore, from an Indian point of view, the highest objective of poetry is not only imita- tion of life, as Aristotle would have it, but is also amusement and pleasure. Bharavi could be said to be almost the progenitor of this style of poetry, but he does not always involve in Le jeux de mots (i.e. verbal jugglery), which is found only in the 5th and 15th cantos of his work. 4In the 5th canto, the poet has got entangled in the vortex of alliterations and chimes. Many of the forms and varieties of chimes have been illustrated here Vide verses 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 20, 23 etc.) of which the detail is

1. Vide : KNPP : MKKS : 1962 : 2. Cf. BP, 11 13-32 : Dve asya bīje satamūlastrinālah pañcaskandhah pañcarasaprasūtiḥ/ Dasaikasākho dvisuparnanīdastrivalkalo dviphalo ·rkapraviștah// 3. Cf VKS, I,III 16, p. 29. 4 Cf. KJ, p. 73.

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not needed in this chapter. 1Canto 15th describes battle-scenes illustrating various kinds of Sabdacitra and the Bandhas, and some of the verses have been taken in the present work, as examples in the chapter of Sabdacitra. Some of the verses are made up of only one or two letters, some have no labial or such other letters, and moreover, there are different varieties of chimes culminating in Samudgaka, Ardhabhrama and Sarva- tobhadra. Later, Bhatti has used alliterations with various intensity, and also some chimes in the 10th canto of his epic. Bhattikāvya actually is the symbol of the dual objective of the poet, of showing skill in pedantry as well as accentuating the readers' curiosity. But after Bharavi, Magha alone is the real artist with a leaning more towards the use of double entendre, and in this, at least, he is certainly superior to his famed predecessor, though his poetry is more artificial or affected. In the 6th can- to of Sisupalavadha, the six seasons make their advent at the Raivataka mountain, and the poet has described their beauty in alliterations. From the point of view of this figure, Magha's setting of words is very charming. 2In the 16th canto, the messenger of Sisupala comes and gives message to Krisna in a punning style, meaning that either Krisna should bow down to the suzerainty of Sisupala, or should be prepared to fight battles. 3In the 19th canto, Magha deli- neates battle-scenes, taking resort to Citrakāvya. Here various Citrabandhas have been used, but as their discussion is out of our scope, we only quote a verse having three meanings, to show the height of paranomasia : 4"Hari, the pleasure-giver to the proud Balarama (or, destroyer of Bali, the king of demons and giver of pain to the gods-in respect of Indra; or, at whose rising all the ailments are gone and who gives new vigour to good people-with regard to the sun), the salvager of the Earth (or, the destroyer of poison-in regard to Indra; or, the dryer 1. Cf. KJ, p. 254. 2. Cf. SV, p. 271. 3. Cf. Ibid, p. 419. 4. Cf. Ibid, V: 116 : Sadāmadabalaprāyah samuddhataraso babhau/ Pratītavikramaḥ śrīmān harirharirivāparaḥ//

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of waters-with respect to the sun), the measurer of the three worlds with three steps (or one of famous valour-on the side of Indra; or one renowned for his movement in the sky- in relation to the sun), and one having Laksmi with him (or one having riches-in regard to Indra; or one having lustre or splendour-as regards the sun) looked like a second Indra or the sun." It can be seen that Magha is very adept in the use of puns. These are sometimes dependent on other figures, but pure puns are also used profusely (Cf. 3. 57, 5.45 etc). Sometimes these puns are so involved, that there is no under- standing of the sense, without alterations in case-terminations to suit two meanings on two sides (Vibhaktivipariņāma). After Magha, among big poets who have used Citrakāvya only sparsely and have not written any separate work in this variety of poetry, Sri Harsa stands out prominently. Heappears to be very familiar with the most subtle types of Sabdacitra, as is evident from the verse quoted here to show the contrast in the relish of the poetic sentiment : 1"O one with pupils in your eyes like emeralds, by way of the pretext of pouring forth heavy drops of tears, is known your immense skill at using Binducyutaka (i.e. a variety of riddles), for undoubtedly, you yourself make the Samsara (i.e, the world) Sasāra (i.e. endowed with the very quintessence) !" It is queer to find that instead of evoking emotions, even on such a delicate spot, this poet goes on to brandish the sword of his pedantry. His Nala, in spite of seeing his beloved weeping profusely, keeps himself weighed down with heavy artifice : weeping Damayantī seems to him to shed, as if in one day, all the drops or dots by way of shedding drops of tears, so that the word Samsara will also have its dot removed. The effect here is of a beauty which the discerning can appreciate, despite a setback in the emotive portrayal. Nala's Damayantī is weeping, but it seems even her weeping is beautiful because through her 'weeping' existence, she endows the world with life and essence. 1. Vide NC, IX, V 104 : Cakāsti binducyutakāticāturī Ghanāśrubinduśrutikaitavāt tava / Masāratārāksi sasāramātmanā Tanoşi samsāramasamsayam yataḥ //

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Śri Harsa does not use the chimes and Bandhas feverishly in the manner in which Bharavi and Magha indulge. He is a mas- ter of the beautiful subversions of speech, like the one quoted, and also of puns. In the 13th canto of his Naisadhacarita, there is a height of paranomasia when, in a 1single verse, he is able to give five broad meanings, or, taking the suggested ones, even more, by describing the five Nalas, one real, and the rest, four gods impersonating Nala. First, the gods are described separately, and in each case there is a suggestion through the change of voice (Kaku), that the particular god be avoided. To take the first meaning in respect of Indra : "O scholarly woman, this god who is not the master of the terres- trial region (i.e. who is lord of heavenly regions), who has the weapon hurling down with its onslaught onto the mountain, who is the master of the eastern quarters, shattering the moun- tains, and who has more powers (as compared with that of human beings), who is not as weak as the Nala grass (rather, who is very strong) choosing whom you would get gambols in the Nandana forest etc. and long life, why is he not decided upon and chosen? If you leave him, the elder brother of Vișnu, who would then be your fiance/or your desired-one, viz, only your foe, or the one would be your choice, who is to be tamed by wind, or who is to be pacified by water (Agni) !" The reason to leave him is being sounded; "Are you not choosing him as he is not Nala, the protector-god of the earth- ly region ? Or, not that he is not the husband of Saci, the breath of life ? Or, as he is not your Nala, the mighty one, but only looks like Nala ! Or, as he looks weak like the Nala grass, so he is not your Nala ! If you leave him, then your choice would be one sailing in the ocean of happiness and comforts ! Or are you not making him up and choosing him, as only Nala is your life-force, the king of Naisadha ? Then, is it not an advantage in leaving one whose prowess is put to doubt by the demons (i.e. Indra) ?" 1. Vide : Ibid : V. 34 : Devaḥ patirvidusi naișadharājagatyā nirņīyate na kimu na vriyate bhavatyā / Nāyam nalaḥ khalu tavātimahānalābho yadyenamujjhasi varaḥ kataraḥ paraste //

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In point of Agni : "One who is known by the speed (or gait) of the ram, his carrier, or of the mountainlike ram, or of the ram on this earth (i. e. Agni), the master (owing to pro- tecting the three worlds by way of helping the kitchen), or one whose carrier is the ram, who is the shelter of the Agneyi direction (i.e. the master of it), the god who is not Nala but having the appearance of Nala, and who is more resplendent than him, why should not he (Agni) be decided upon and chosen ? If you shun him, then who else is the better one, or who else is to be your choice-rather your enemy !" Damayantī is sounded that she should leave him : "You would not decide upon him and choose him because he is not Nala, the mighty one, rather one only having his appearance and whose glamour is proved towards the grass Nala only (viz, not towards the demons !). You whose only alternative is the king of Nisadha, should not choose and decide upon this Agni !" In the case of Yama, the meaning would be: "One who is endowed with the gait of the buffalo, hurling away with hoofs the hills and mountains, the master, (being in the shape of Dharma) or the master of the southern quarters having access to his buffalo there, the powerful, the occult (on account of being in the shape of Dharma), the god, why do you not choose and decide upon him ? If you leave him, no advantage would accrue to you (rather loss !). Except him, nobody would be a better husband ! He is not Nala but one from whom you could have the profit of a very long lease of life, who has too much of honour, and who is, in respect of splend- our, like Agni, or if you leave him, who would be your staun- chest enemy (or he himself !) ? Or one who moves in the waters (i.e. Varuna) would be your choice !" Suggestion to leave him: "you are not choosing and deciding upon him as he is lord of the southern quarters and he is not Nala, but one whose prowess is darkened on account of the demons-only he appears as Nala. If vou leave him, then your choice would be Nala, the ocean of bliss." In relation to Varuna: "One who is the lord of the life- force of all the animate and inanimate beings (i.e. water), who is the mainstay of one who is the nourisher (of the universe) and the birthless (i.e. Visnu), and who has a great halo like

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Nala and hence appears like him, who is without the glimmer of Agni (i.e. opponent), the highly honoured one, why do you not decide upon him and choose him ? If you eliminate him, then who superior would be your suitor or your fiance would be your foe. If you leave him, the devotee of Visnu, then no profit would accrue to you (rather loss !)". The idea of leaving him is thus sounded: "He is the lord of the northern quarters and none else. So, if you brush him aside, then you get abundant life, because in that case your husband would be Nala, the ocean of pleasure." Lastly, Sarasvati points to the real Nala and asks her, without any ambiguity, to choose him: "This, the overlord, with knowledge, is the king of Naisadha, the human Nala (not the god in his guise !), the lord of the terrestrial region or the king of Nisadha who is the only option for you, or thro- ugh the signs (like falling of the eyelids etc.) of those born on. the terrestrial plains (i.e. human beings), the one who is not god (but a human being on the other hand !), this one who is, on. account of great beauty, cupid on the earthly region, why do you not decide upon him and choose him, as you would be getting (in this way) the great Visnu, or you would be getting long lease of life? If you leave him, then who would be your choice, or there would be great misfortune for you or, there would be no profit (rather loss !) or whose choice would be a. better one ?" In the said canto, the poet gets an opportunity of dou- ble entendre; up to the verse which has been explained, most have two or three meanings. 1Sri Harsa has clearly told that at certain places he has, with endeavour, placed knots in his. work. 2It is important to note that he also uses the word Granthagranthi for these intellectual knots. Even ordinarily„

1. Vide : Ibid. XXII, 154 :

Granthagranthiriha kvacitkvacidapi nyāsi prayatnānmayā Prājñammanyamanā hațhena pațhitī māsmin khalaḥ khelatu / Sraddhārāddhaguruslathīkrtadrdhagranthiḥ samāsādaya- Tvetat kāvyarasormimajjanasukhavyāsajjanam sajjanaḥ // 2. Cf. Supra P. 140, Fn. No. 6.

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his poems are difficult owing to the inculcation of philosophi- cal ideas, and due to the drawing of symbols and similes from their domain. Subandhu, perhaps, in the same conceited style, also favours puns, and he promises to give them in every letter. He has used them in pure form as both Sabhanga and Abhanga, and has based on it other figures with seeming contradiction and computation. Ordinarily, we also get chimes and alliterations in his work, as also in the works of Dandin and Bāņa.

The former has devoted almost the whole of seventh chapter of his Dasakumāracarita to Niroşthyakāvya where Man- tragupta, having been bitten by his beloved in the lip, is naturally made to eliminate labial latters in his speech. Be- sides, Setubandha of Pravarasena and Ajiyasantithaya (Pkt) of Nandișena also contain a few glimpses of Citrakavya, though Nalacampū of Trivikramabhatta is replete. In this connection, we may mention the name of Avantivarma, the Kashmir king, who took a keen interest in the development of this type of poetry, and patronised Sivasvāmī, Ratnākara and Anandavar- dhana. The first one wrote Kapphinabhyudaya and the second Haravijaya. The latter is an epic in fifty cantos, of which the forty-third, forty-sixth, and forty-eighth ones, are devoted to Citrakavya. The third one, Anandavardhana, though a prominent theorist of Dhvani school, has composed Devisataka consisting of the poetic designs of net and quiver, besides the usual ones. Here the wheel-design with thirty-two spikes is a wonder to watch.

Thus far, we had been treating Citrakavya found mostly in stray verses. Now to deal with it in the shape of integral compositions (Prabandhakavyas). They are, broadly, of two types : the poems of chimes (Yamakakāvyas), having different varieties of chimes used throughout, so that words, feet, or hemistich, or even whole verses are repeated, having different meanings, and the poems of puns (Ślesakāvyas), having the same set of words, giving more than one meaning in the verses throughout the composition. Among the latter, are some where the same verse gives two different meanings, thus narrating two

150 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

different tales (Dvisandhānakāvya), relating three different tales side by side on the basis of three meanings in each verse (Tri- sandhānakāvya), and such others. Besides, there is a poem having no nasals (Niranunāsikakāvya) and there might be even one having no labials (Nirosthyakāvya), one having no dentals (Nirdantyakāvya) etc. There is also a poem in which throughout, the first half of the verse is repeated backwards in the second half (Vilomakavya). In fact, these are over and above the regular poems, delineating particular designs (Citrabandha- kāvyas), of which there are certain ones which comprise only a particular variety of Bandha. Moreover, there is a poem con- sisting of deviant expressions (Vakroktikāvya), and one com- prising tricky compositions (Vyājoktikāvya), besides the dyglot poems consisting of verses that can be read in two or even more languages. Among these, to take first the chiming poems. Here the first important one we find, is Kicakavadham of Nitivarman. 1Premacandra, in his commentary on Kavyādarsa, cites it as a rare instance opening with benediction. It has been a favou- rite of the Pandits of Bengal. It dates, perhaps, to the earlier part of the nineth century A.D. The poem describes, in five cantos, the episode of Kicaka's assault on Draupadi and his final finish by Bhima. The poet draws his material from the Virațaparvan of the Mahabharata, but only in parts, to suit his purpose, so that he makes up the story in his own way. In the history of Sabdacitra, this poem marks an important phase of development. Perhaps, it was written to illustrate the extent to which chimes might be used as accessories in the 2delinea- tion of the semblance of Kīcaka's erotic sentiment. About the patron of the poet, nothing is clearly known, but 3from an eulogy at the end of the first canto, it appears that he might have been a king of Kalinga and it was, perhaps,

1. Vide KD with MP (comm.) I, p. 17. 2. Vide DL II, p. 222 : Yattu rasavanti kānicid yamakādīni drsyante tatra rasādīnāman- gatā yamakādīnāmangitaiva / Rasābhāse cāngatvamapyaviru- ddham ' 3. Vide KV, V. 21 p. 10.

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for his delectation that Nitivarman has written this interesting tour de force. Actually, more than a chiming poem, this can be called a punning-chiming poem (Ślesayamakakāvya) be- cause, though there are mostly chimes throughout the book, in the third canto, paranomasia is interspersed with chimes of one particular variety in the long speech of Draupadi to the Pandava brothers. Considerable skill is displayed in managing these verbal tricks, and some of them are very good and not in the least laboured, like those of Nalodaya. The last named is a short poem, consisting of four cantos. It describes the life of Nala. There are about fifteen commen- taries on this book. The authorship is generally attributed to Kalidasa. 1Ramarși, on the other hand, in his commentary on this poem, ascribes it to Ravideva, the son of Narayana. But 2Vișnu, another commentator, mentions its author as one Vasu- deva, son of Ravi. The author, quite ostensibly in this poem, wants to dis- play his poetic dexterity in manipulating the most varied and artificial metres, together with all the elaborate tricks of style. He purposively makes use of chimes in order to achieve pe- dantic effects in poetry, a tendency exhibited in the later kavyas. But it is quite uncommon that he introduces rhyme even in the middle, and at the end, of the metrical lines. It goes without saying that this brings sonorous and soothing melody in the otherwise artificial, and hackneyed poetry. As for the real epic material, it is scanty, no doubt, and the narration is full of long descriptions and lyrical exuberances. Among some important but comparatively small poems of this variety, are the Rāksasakāvya, Saurikathodaya and Tripu- radahana. The first one is attributed to Kalidasa as well as to

1. Cf. : Iti vrddhavyāsātmajamiśrarāmarsidādhīcyaviracitāyām ravidevaviracitamahākāvyanalodayațīkāyām yamakabodhinyām nalarājyaprāptirnāma caturtha āśvāsaņ / 2. Cf : Iti nalodaye vāsudevakrte caturthah parichhedaḥ / Ravitanubhūyamitāyāḥ krtergatissabdacitrabhūyamitāyāh / Janahāsāyamitāyā dhiyaśca vivrtā mayādhunā yamitāyāh //

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Vararuci, and is a short poem of twenty verses in an enigmatic style, full of alliterations. It is a description of the sylvan scene effected through the mouth of a person moving about with his spouse in the forest region. The second one, on the contrary, narrates the life of Sri Krsna right from his birth to the conqu- est of Baranasura, on the basis of Harivamsa. The third one describes the story of the destruction of the three cities by Siva. We have six extant commentaries on Rākşasakāvya, and one each on the latter two. Comparatively speaking, rudhisthira- vijaya might be chronologically a bit earlier, and is a bigger poem in eight divisions in Arya metre. It might have been composed at the time and under the patronage of king Kulase- khara because his name is mentioned as the reigning king. The real source of the poem, so far as storylgoes, is the Mahābhārata but the poet, to suit his purpose, singles out the episode from the hunting expeditions of the Pandavas, to the coronation of Yudhisthira after the great war. One Sokkanatha has written a commentary on it. Then there is one Caturvimsatika, a panegyric consisting of four groups of verses. The first group is in praise of the twenty-four Tirthankaras, the second of all the Finas, the third eulogises the Jain doctrine, and the fourth various deities. Here it is noteworthy, that the writer Sobhana was a Jain, having complete faith in Jain philosophy, and was popularly known as Sobhanamuni. He lived in 10th century A.D. in the court of Dhara. It is, also, a chiming poem (Yamakakāvya) and the verses, here, are so constructed, that the second line agrees, to the letter, to the fourth line, but with different meanings. 1At about the same time, lived Śrīvatsānka, son of Rāma alias Vedavyasa and a pupil of Ramanuja. He came from a wealthy family, but he later abandoned all, and lived as a mendicant. His memory, it is said, was supernatural. He was a great poet and his verses are fluent with lay fancies as well as the sanctities of theological allusions. His Vaikunthastava describes the glory of Visnu in Vaikuntha, his Atimanușastava the

1. Vide SAHRD. (SJ, Madras) XVII, 65, 89, 113, 130.

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great deeds of the same god in his various incarnations, and his Sundarabāhustava the grace and purposes of the idolic forms of the said god. Likewise, his Varadarajastava relates to the description of the particular merit of Varadaraja of Kāñcī, and Srīstava delineates the qualities of Laksmī. These five, together, are called Pancastavi. Quite extraordinarily, his son, Parasara Bhatta, also became a great poet in this style. He wrote Vişnusahasranāmabhāsya and Srīrangarājastava. There are com- mentaries, one anonymous and another by Venkatacarya. Among his minor works, are Śrīgunaratnakoșa, Kşamāşodasī, Taniślokī and Astaślokī, Candamāruta, Vedāntavidyāvijaya, Sadvidyāvijaya, Vedāntadesikavaibhavaprakāsikā, Parāsaravijaya and ramakara- tnākara. From amongst these, Parāsaravijaya relates to his own history, and ramakaratnakara is a very important poem of chiming variety, in Arya metre, on Sri Krisna, followed by his own commentary. In the last one, in certain verses, the first hemistich is repeated in the second, proving the highest poetic skill of the poet in matter of chimes. He lived about the begin- ning of 12th century A.D. In chronological order, Dharmaghosa comes next. He was a sage and died in 1301 A.D. He wrote verses capable of even four different meanings. His ramakastuti is wellknown on which Somatilaka wrote a commentary. Among his other works are, Śrisayamakasataka and Acyutalīla. After him, Mananka, the poet, wrote his ramaka poems, Brndavana and Meghābhyudaya. He calls himself a king in his gloss on the Gitagovinda and is quoted by Raymukuta in his commentary on Amarakosa. Then there is Ramalilamrta of Krsnamohana, having an almost identi- cal theme. Of Anandatirtha, the writer of thirty-seven books, at least one of this style ramakabharata is very important. He is known by various names and was born in 1198 A.D. His early life displayed miracles of divine powers, and by twenty- five, he became versed in all the sciences and the Vedas. Later, he renounced family life and became an ascetic. He became the famous founder of the Dvaita school of Philosophy, and has written profusely and most authoritatively on the subject. His Yamakabharata is the epitome of his mastery of language, and narrates the Mahābharata story in verses, full of chimes.

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There are a few commentaries on it but all anonymous. He also wrote some Stotras which, though not meant to display his poetic art, nevertheless do give some hints of it. They are Aryastotra, Gurustotra, Krisnastuti and Dvādaśastotra. Again Bhagavatatātparyanirņaya, Bhāratatātparyanirņaya, Krişnakarņā- mtamahārņava, Šankaravijaya and Šankaracāryāvatārakathā, are also attributed to him. Among the poems of puns (Slesakāvyas), the lesser ones are Śleşacūdāmaņi of Śrīnivāsa, Śleşollāsa of Sivaprasāda, Śl șaca- mpūrāmāyaņa of Venkațācārya and Śleșacintāmani of Cidambara. Again, Rāmāstaprāsa of Rāmabhadra, Prāsabhārata of Sūryanārāya- ņa, Citraratnākara of Cakrakavi, Višeşaņarāmāyana of Vīrarāghava and Citrakāvya of Somakuñjara also abound in puns, though not like the previous ones, and hence might come under this category. Among the more important Sleşakāvyas, are Sandhyākaranandin's Ramacarita (or, Rāmapālacarita) and Anandakavya. The former depicts at once, the story of Rama and the history of poet's patron king Rāmapala of Bengal, who regained his ancestral kingdom which had been usurped by Bhima. This king ruled between 1104 A. D. and 1130 A.D. Thus, among Sandhānakāvyas, Rāghavayādavapāndavīya has verses of three meanings, relating three different tales, and Pacakal- vanacampu deals similarly with five different stories. Here we may note that in the style of abovesaid Rāghavayadavapāndavīya we have under this category radavarāghavīya, Rāghavanaisadhīya, Raghavapāndavīya etc. Moving on further, Saptasandhānakāvya depicts the lives of seven great men. To crown all, one Soma- prabha has a Satārthī-Kavya to his credit, where a verse gives hundred different meanings. The composition of the Suratotsava of Somesvaradeva, Pūdukāsāhasra of Venkațadeśika and Sāgara- candra's Mantradhirājakalpa, also belong roughly to this period. Moreover, there are also some poems having verses depicting different designs (Bandhakavyas), illustrating lotus, sword etc. One such poem is the Laksmīsāhasram of Venkațādhvarin, where there are many poetic designs, such as those of the window, eagle and the Gaticitras. In Venkatesvara's Citrabandharamāyaņa, there are highly ingenious designs like bracelet, umbrella etc. Kama- lamālikāstotra of Venkatācārya, son of Nrsimha, is another feat of

History of Citrakāvya 155

alliterative ingenuity, a garland of lotuses in praise of Laksmī. It is also accompanied by a commentary. In this class the bracelet-design (Kankanabandha) is the most difficult. The narrative is formed here by rewriting a verse, for instance, of thirty-two letters, backward and forward, from a particular starting-point, and making sixty-four verses in all. So, there is Kankanabandharamayana, describing the whole story of the Rāmayana. The author of this poem was one Krisnamūrti, son of Gauri and Sarvagna, who probably lived in the 19th century A.D. The idea of the bracelet-design was improved by Carla Bha- s yakāra Sāstrī in a similar composition. He probably lived in the Agraharam of Kakaraparti in the Krisna district. In his Kankaņabandharāmāyana, he interprets each verse so formed in. two ways, by shifting the compounds so that in effect, there results from one single verse a poem of one hundred and twen- ty-eight verses in all. In Venkatesa's Ramacandrodaya, the 26th canto contains Bandhas and there is also Kankanabandha. The poet was the son of Śrinivasa belonging to the family of Venka- tadhvarin, and was born near Kancī in 1595 A.D. His Rama- candrodaya is a long poem of 30 cantos, describing the story of Rama and was composed in Benaras in 1635 A.D. The work. bears a commentary by the author himself, who composed his. other such poem, Rāmayamakārņava in 1656 A.D., depicting the same theme in ramaka style. Also, there is a poem entitled Ramacandrodaya by Gopālarāy or Gopālasvāmi, son of Finavallī, who might have flourished in the second half of 18th century A.D. This also gives the history of Rama in ramaka form. The author himself has written a commentary on it. To this period or sometime earlier, also roughly belong, among famous. Citrakāvyas, the Rasikarañjana of Rāmacandra, Caitanyacaritā- mrta of Kavikarnapura and the Stavamala of Rupagosvamin. Venkatesvara's Ramayanasamgraha composed in 1866 A.D. in 30 cantos in prose and verse, is another important poem. The poet has arranged the letters of the verses so as to form four more poems out of the particular letters combined and read together from the verses. It is, therefore, described as Catuscitragarbha. The poet has embedded his own name and description in one of such verses in Bālakānda. He was son of

I56 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

Viśvanātha and Kāmābā and lived, probably, nearabout Vizia- nagaram about the middle of 19th century A.D. He was a poetic genius of rare merit in modern times, and has left an instance of poetic composition at once graceful and unique, a combination of acrobatics of surprising ingenuity. There is, then, a varied sort of such poems. Rāmakrīsnaviloma of Daivata Sri Suryakavi has the first half of each verse repeated backwards in the second half, and thus, in the two, the stories of Rāma and Krişna have been related. In Nārāyaņa's Niranu- nāsikacampū, Šūrpaņakhā complains to Rāvaņa of Rāma's assault, and because her nose has been cut, the poet aptly eliminates all nasals which she could not, perhaps, have pronounced. Like this, we have no Nirosthyakāvya or Nirdantyakavya having the elimination of labial or dental or such letters, but in certain books on rhetorics, or even in some poems of classical poets, we might come across such individual examples in verses. To mark a different sort, the poem Gaurivivaha is formed by the regular combination of the first letter of the verses of the different Kandas, from Ayodhya to Yuddha, and describes the marriage of Gauri, the spouse of Siva. In Śrīrangādikşetramā- hatmya, there are regular combinations of the first letter in the second foot of the verses, from Kandas ranging as above. Here, thirteen shrines are described with their theological history. On the other hand, we have a regular combination of the first letters of the third foot of the verses from the same Kāndas, in the same order, in Bhagavadavataracarita, describing the various incarnations of Visnu. When the regular combi- nation is taken of the first letter of the fourth foot of the verses of the same Kandas like above, there results a poem describing the marriage of Draupadi. This has been entitled Draupadi- kalyana.Above all, a combination of the first letters of each of the verses only in Bālakānda, marks Rāmakavacakāvya. Thus, we have these five extant poems produced out of the Ramayana in an ingenious way. There are, even poems representing the clever subversion of speech (vakrokti), and some types of riddles where the omission of a syllable, a letter etc., or the concealment thereof, makes a lot of difference in the meaning of the constituent

History of Citrakāvya 157

verses. On the former variety, there are Ratnakara's Vakrok -. tipaňcāvikā, Rambhāśukasamvāda, Laksmīsarasvatīsamvada and the Girijakamalavivada. In the latter class, comes Kriyago- panaramayana or the Candrakalavilāsa as it is called. Krsnakavi, son of Raghunatha Dksita wrote this poem, consisting of fourteen cantos, based on the story of Ramayana. Here, in all the verses, the verb is concealed in such a way that it is not clearly known to exist. Then, there are dyglot poems, con -- sisting of verses that can be read in any two or more languages, giving as many meanings. Srīnivāsa Kavisarvabhauma has written Kīsņarājajayotkarșa in prose and verse in such a way, that with an alteration in punctuation, the work becomes Sans -- krit or Kanarese. He has also, to his credit, Krişņarājaprabha- vodaya, a poem on his patron Krişna Rāja Udeyar, a Mahārājā of Mysore of the last century. Then, there are some Kavyas of Citra style of some general nature. Vidagdhamukhamandana of Dharmadāsa is one such book, a collection in four chapters of enigmatical verses on different topics. There are commentaries on it by Tāra -. candra, Sivarajadhānī and others, one among them being anony- mous. Visvesvara's Kavīndrakarņābharaņa is a similar work. The Vagbhūșana of Rāmacandra is a group of periphrastic and curiously composed verses in praise of various deities. Perhaps, he lived in the Pand ya country on the banks of Tamraparni. Durghatakavya is a highly artificial poem, consisting of eighty verses in praise of various gods, with an anonymous commen- tary. One poem of this name is attributed to Kalidasa as well. By an unknown author calling himself Kaviraksasa, is the poem, Kavirāksasiyam, comprising of one hundred verses of involved meaning. 1There is a fanciful reason given for this peculiar name. There are three commentaries on it, of which one is by Naganaraya, and the other two are anonymous. Nagaraja is a different person from the above and has a poem Bhavasataka to his name, consisting of 101 verses of which some are in Prakrit, and in each of them, a certain person is

1. Cf :

Sākşareşu bhavatīha jagatyām sarva eva hrdi matsarayuktaḥ / Sākşaram kavijaneșu tamenam loka eșa kavirākșasamāha //

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represented to be doing a certain thing in a certain condition, .and the reason why he or she does that act, or the minor sense of the verse, is meant to be found out by the reader himself. It is, however, also given at the end of every verse. The poet, him- self, is spoken of at the end of the body of his poem, as a king who was the ornament of the Toka race. He was the son of Jalapa and grandson of Vidyadhara. There is also a poem of this name by Venkatācārya and Bhavavilāsa by Rudrakavi and Bhāvamaňjarī by Rāma, son of Krisnagopāla. Similarly, there are three books named Camatkaracandrika and the three wri- ters are Kavikarnapūra, Narottamadāsa and Visvesvara. On the line of Vakroktipancāsikā there is Vyājoktisataka of Trivikrama, and Sītāramīya (also called Sabdodāharaņa) of Bhaskarasūri, son of Rāmasvāmī Dīksita, narrating the story of Rama and is meant to illustrate grammatical forms like Bhattikavya. Sabhyabharaņa, on the other hand, is an anthology with double meanings, in nine chapters, by Ramacandra Bhatta. The last verse interlaces the last Sutra of Panini with ingenuity. The poet was a great grammarian. There is a commentary on it by Govinda. On the same line, is Sarvasena's Harivijaya, a poem with double enten- ·dre, describing the victory of Hari but the difference is that it .also illustrates the movements in chess.

Before touching the current century, I think it proper to give a very brief resumè of the contribution in this field of the Faina Acaryas, in addition to a few I have mentioned by the way. They have contributed in a big way to the develop- ment and growth of this literature. In the 7th century A.D., Sāmantabhadra, alias Śāntivarmā, wrote Jinasataka or the Stuti- vidyā, as it is also called, and Devanandī composed Siddhipriya- stotra. Then, Mahapurana of Finasenasūri deserves our notice among works of 8th century A.D. The work is divided into chapters named Parvan of which the poet himself wrote 52 and the rest were taken up and completed after his death by his disciple Gunabhadrasuri. Among the Jain poets who specialised in this branch of poetry during the period from 10th to 12th centuries A.D., Jinavallabhasūri stands out, and he has written four books, namely, Dharmasikşāprakaraņa, Samghapatțaka, Pra- śnasataka andCitrakāvyasāra.

History of Citrakāvya 159

In the 13th century A.D., Sarvajinastavana of Dharmagho- sasuri is an important work. In the next century, Finaprabha- sūri and Jayatilakasūri have written one book each, viz, Vīra- stavana (Citrastava) and Caturhārāvalīcitrastava respectively, and Kulamandanasuri has to his credit two works, namely, Vīrajinastava and Paňcajinahārastava. Sometime later, lived Munisundarasūri and Udayamāņikyagaņi, who, respectively, com- posed Tridasataranginī and Candraprabhastavana. In the 16th century, there are three prominent Jainas, Jinasūri, Udayadhar- magani and Samayasundaragani. They have, in respective order, bequeathed to posterity, Priyankaranrpakathā, Mahāvīrastavana and Harabandhastavana. Later there are some remarkable Bandhakavyas in the 17th century A.D., like Isvarasataka of Avatārakavi, Lodrapurapārśvanāthaprasasti of Hemavijayagaņi, Vijña- ptipatra of Udaravijaya, Anandalekha of Vinayavijayagani and Citrabandhastotra of Gunabhadra. Specially in the last three, some new poetic designs are available, such as those of the trident, mirror, pitcher, conchshell, necklace, fish, chariot and coconut etc.

Coming to the 20th century A.D., we find Dayanandadig- vijaya of Akhilānanda Śarmā, Citropahāra of Devī Prasād Śukla, and Devīnāmavilāsa of Mahesvarācārya alias Sahib Kaul. Alivilāsa- samlapa of Gangadhara Sastrī, though it has very few verses of Citra style, is quite an important work. Among the new books of this century, are Laksmīśvaropāyanam of Dvirephakavi, Kameśvarapratapodayam of Pt. Jivanatha Jhā, Ugravamsaprasastih of Upendra Țhākur, Karamāhākulaprasastih and Khandavalākula- prasastih of Bakhsī Mukund Sharma and Radhapariņayam of Kavise- khara Badrinatha Jha, to note only a few. The Laksmīśvaropā- yanam deals with the exalted character of Maharaja Laksmiś- vara Singh of Darbhanga in North Bihar. The poet seems to have acquired a good command over the Sanskrit language and has, in a very lucid and beautiful style, depicted his theme. He has also very successfully attempted some Bandhas. Kāmeś- varapratapodayam gives in chaste, though skilful language, the short life-sketch of Mahāraja Sir Kamesvara Singh Bahadur, the son of the abovementioned Maharaja of Darbhanga. Its writer, Pt. Jha, is the Headmaster, Sanskrit School, Janakapur

160 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

(Nepal). The dynastic panegyrics (Kulapraśastis), also relate to the Darbhanga lineage of Maharajas. The author of these panegyrics was a great scholar, having mastered various branches of Sanskrit, and belonged to the village Dhanga- Haripur in the district of Darbhagna. To sketch the history of Arthacitra, we have to be brief, as we have shown earlier that by Citrakavya, people have gene- rally meant only the verbal part of it, and Arthacitra, accord- ing to them, included all the figures of sense. In the sense. understood and taken here, Arthacitra, the true picturesque poetry surcharged with emotions, gets its scanty glimpses here and there, as we have illustrated in the chapter on the subject. Here we have taken only a few illustrations to show variety. Among old works, Vālmīki's Rāmayana is superb in point of ima- geries. The illustrations already cited, are sufficient to prove their worth. Later, coming to Kalidasa, we quote one verse from his Kumarasambhavam to show his mastery, as well as his. uncommon psychological insight, in the use of imagery : 1"Having seen him, Parvati, tremulous and perspiring, lifted her leg to step but did not move like a river which is agitated because of a rock blocking its way". The picture here is of Parvati, lifting her leg to go away, at the indecorous and slighting behaviour of the Brahmacari but mentally retracing her step the next moment, and not liking to go at the latter's unravelling of his form as Siva. She was undergoing all the penitence for this moment. The senti- ment of love struck her, and the sudden change of form made her more nervous. The imagery presented is the most appro -. priate, that of a river trying to move ahead but incapable of doing so, due to the stumbling-block on its path. Under such state, Parvati stands personified as a river, trembling and sweat- ing in its surging waves. To take now one example from Bharavi, as it is not possible to touch all the poets who might

1. Cf. KS V., V. 85 : Tam vīksya vepathumatī sarasāngayastirniksepaņāya padamuddhr- tamudvahantī / Mārgācalavyatikarākuliteva sindhuḥ sailādhirājatanayā na yayau na tasthau //

History of Citrakāvya 161

have evolved beautiful images in their poetry : 1"The world, unsatiated, beheld night when the moon rose (in the sky), and the spell of darkness not greatly broken, like the newly wed wife with her face beaming with the tearing away of the silken veil, but with bashfulness, very much athwart." Here, too, the image has been evoked in an exquisite way because of the simile which is aptly drawn. There is some degree of romantic tenor in the meeting time of day and night. The day is departing and the night is coming with a glamour of her own. The beaming disc of the moon is like the mirthful face of a newly married wife, about whom there is some mystery of darkness still. It is, no doubt, the mystery of the poetry of Bharavi itself, which sometimes wears the embel- lished silken veil, but does give its true appearance through it. In his own words, 2"There should not be any ambiguity in the use of words. There should not be any tautologous use or repetition, and the desirability of sense should never be trampl- ed upon."

1. Vide KJ, IX, V. 24 : Udgatendumavibhinnatamisrām pasyati sma rajanīmavitrptaḥ / Vyamśukasphuțamukhīmatijihmām vrīdayā navavadhūmīva lokaḥ // 2. Vide KJ, II, V. 27 : Sphuțatā na padairapākrtā na ca na svīkrtamarthagauravam / Racitā prthagarthatā girām na ca sāmarthyamapohitam kvacit //

CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSION

The question we are concerned with before giving our conclusions on the subject, is whether, finally, we mean by Citra 'peculiarity' or 'image', as we have shown earlier 1that this denotes both. Discussing the nature and sub-varieties of Citrakavya, we have generally, taken the former sense with regard to the figures of sound (Sabdacitra), and those both of sound and sense (Ubhayacitra). So far as the sense 'image' goes, it is applicable to all but Ubhayacitra, because, it is impossible to have images relating to both sound and sense in the same verse. Perhaps this was the trouble which compelled certain rhetoricians to accept only two sub-varie- ties. But this, per se, does not solve our problem, as in that case, so-called dual figures of sound and sense (Ubhayacitra) would have to be included in that of sound only (Sabdacitra), in which case, we should have to cast its constituents outside the realm of Citrakavya, which would be an improbable proposition. As a matter of fact, we have ample proof to show that 2the idea of image in the sense of Citra is quite customary and .old, 3because in other contexts we find words like Dhūlicitra, Bhavacitra etc. in our literature used on the same line. The meaning of peculiarity might have been imported only later, with a view to including the figures pertaining both to sound and sense (Ubhayacitra) in Citrakavya. The riddles, poetic tricks etc., which constitute this sub-variety, did not deserve to be included in any higher category of poetry. Indeed,

1. Supra p. 24. 2. Vide ML I : 900, 901 : Sādrsyam likhyate yattu darpane pratibimbavat / Taccitram viddhamityāhurvisvakarmādayo budhāḥ // 3. Ibid : 902, 903: Śrngārādiraso yatra daršanādeva gamyate / Bhāvacitram tadākhyātam cittakautukakārakam //

Conclusion 163

Arthacitra meant the image of sense, and lin the various poetic designs (Bandhas) constituting the figures of sound, we get underlying pictures. By stretching the imagination, we may, ultimately, get some such sense even out of the dual figures, as we find some pattern of reading and obtaining the real meaning. Or, as is possible with regard to the simple riddles, the answers might have to be found, with the drawing of pictures of the idea which underlay the verses, but this is nothing more than a farfetched idea. Here we have not bothered much about the peculiarity pertaining to sound (Sabdacitra) or that pertaining to both sound and sense (Ubhayacitra), except in an academic sense. What we are vitally concerned with is Arthacitra and its imagist character cannot be gainsaid. We start with it as an axiom, so to say, as we try to bring this sub-variety in line with even best poetry from our Indian standard of judgment. We have seen how almost all our rhetoricians have touched upon the subject, some deeply, and how vast is this variety of literature in the Sanskrit language which has a wide reading and appreciation even today. We have also witnessed that the literature is still active, and the best of our poets have attempted it. The chime (Yamaka) 2which is called by certain rhetoricians the veritable tumour in the neck of poesy, has been used even by 3Kalidāsa with credit, so that it is no impediment in the realisation of sentiment. 4Of poetic tricks (Kūtas) or riddles, we generally, ascribe the ori- gin to the Mahabharata and even 5the aforesaid great poet has

1. Vide Appendix No. II. 2. Vide KP$ IX, p. 344 : Tadetat kāvye gadubhūtamiti nāsya lakşanam krtam / 3. Vide RV IX, V 28 : Kisalayaprasavo'pi vilāsinām madayitā dayitāśravanārpitaḥ ! Ibid, V. 33 : Amadayat sahakāralatāmanaḥ sakalikākalikāmajitāmapi / 4. Supra, p. 140. 5 Cf RV VII, V. 40 : Matsyadhvajā vāyuvasād vidirnairmukhaih pravrddhadhvajinīra- jāmsi / Babhuḥ pibantaḥ paramārthamatsyāḥ paryāvilānīva navodakāni //

164 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

used them. The same story is true regarding the use of the poetic designs (Bandhas). The question arises whether all this was of inferior stuff and hence useless ? It certainly was not. The effort to use these exacted much poetic skill and aroused much of interest and curiosity in the reader. This was in a sophisticated society and it must be admitted that they touched the head, rather than the heart, and were a sort of intellectual exercise. This reached a climax in the com- posing of 1verses consisting of identical letters or having even a lakh verses in each of them, let alone verses having mani- fold meanings. In Sanskrit poetics, there has been a 2school advocating the importance of figures of speech in the context of poetry and propounding even verbal jugglery as an important condi- tion for any sort of poetry. This school consisted mainly of the trio, namely, Bhamaha, Dandin and Vamana and emphasised more the art of poetry, rather than the content. To them, a writer might have abundant poetic materials based on his personal experience, might have thoughts, sentiments, sensibilities and rich imagination but the poetic work will not be accomplished unless there be proper expression of all these. The materials have to be given an organised form, keeping in view the principles, style, personal likes and dislikes, beauty and effectiveness. The choice of words, flexibility of sentences, their construction, rhythm and cadence-all these are very closely allied with the personality of the writer. In poetry, the form has greater appeal than the intellectual and sensual con- tent. The realism, born of the proper use of the appropriate.

1. Supra p. 33. 2. Cf. BK I, V. 13, p. 7 : Na kāntamapi nirbhūsam vibhāti vanitāmukham / Ibid, V, V. 3, p. 107 : Svādukāvyarasonmisram sāstramapyupayuñjate / Vide KSV 3.2.14, p. 95 : Dīptarasatvam kāntiḥ / Cf RK XV, V. 21, p. 417 : Ete rasā rasavato ramayanti pumsām / Cf. ST2 X, 4. 2 : Laksmīriva rte tyāgānna vānī bhāti nīrasā /

Conclusion 165

words, and mutual concomitance of the word and the sense, is the true mirror of the poets' creative abilities. Thus, verbal peculiarity in poetry might not be the only medium of pleasure that awakens the sentiments and sensibili- ties dormant within the reader. Suspense might be taken to be the original and fundamental human chord which, when struck, paves way for the creation of poetic beauty. According 1to the advocates of the Rasa school, on the contrary, it is the illumina- tion of sentiments which chiefly generates pleasure in poetry, and this is the most widely held view. But this does not mean that poetry of Citra type is always devoid of suggestion and sentiment. Also, it cannot be denied completely that there is some element in poetry in general, which produces suspense or curiosity in the reader. It is true that the sense of curiosity or enlightened pleasure is also begotten on account of a poet's skill coupled with his aesthetic sentiments, 2although that sentiment is not, generally, of much value and does not exist at the time of the realisation of sentiment. Even from the sug- gestionist (Rasavadi) point of view, the poetic beauty which does not enlighten or enthral the sentiments, might generate curiosity owing to the poets' flight of imagination, or even due to his intellectual capacity through which the reader may derive some pleasure of the intellect in resolving any intellec- tual knot or problem. Thus, there is a general lack of interest in the above sort of images, chiefly 3verbal, because of its incapacity to arouse

1. Cf AŚ, p. 6 : Alamkārastu sobhāyai rasa ātmā param manaḥ / Cf. RG I, p. 25 : Evam pañcātmake dhvanau paramaramaņīyatayā rasadhvanista- dātmā / Cf L-DL, p. 27 : Tena rasa eva vastuta ātmā / Vastvalamkāradhvanī tu rasam prati paryavasyete / 2. Vide, KP1 IV, p. 36 : Tatkālavigalitaparimitapramātrbhāvavasonmișitavedyāntarasampar- kaśūnyaparimitabhāvena pramātrā .... / 3. Cf. CM, P. 40 : Sabdacitrasya prāyo nīrasatvānnātyantam tadādriyante kavayaḥ, na vā tatra vicāranīyamatīvopalabhyata iti /

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the greatest emotional response. But in Arthacitra with images with depth of meaning, even the highest type of poetry may be realised. This has a direct appeal to the visual sense, as in a drama, and so enables one to have a firm grasp of the sentiment. It depends for its existence on the figures of sense, mostly those having Bimbapratibimba-or, Vastuprativastu-relation, given the peculiar poetic gift of the particular poet. Naturally, it goes without saying that image-creation generally, goes with the figures of similitude. But although the image evoked in such figures hinges on the appropriateness and compactness of the similitude as in the case of our greatest poet, yet 1true images cannot emerge from a comparison of two or more dis- tant realities. In fact, no image is produced by comparing two disproportionate realities. On the contrary, a striking image, one new to the mind, is evoked by bringing into relation, that which the inner spirit alone has seized. So, image is a pure creation of the spirit. Shelley held the view that the image is created when 2the "film of familiarity; is purged from our inward sight." When image-creation is accomplished, it compels us to feel that which we perceive and to imagine that which we know.

As a matter of fact, what goes with the name of Citrakā- vya in Sanskrit literature is the 3old, decadent symbolism of western literature and there is nothing like imagism in its crystallised form in our own literature, which the western poetic thought has developed. The symbol and the image form a vicious circle. In western literature, what was image a few decades ago, is now only a symbol in its old form and is discarded, having given place to a new image. It might be, a few centuries hence, that the discarded symbol is again en- dowed with new aesthetic value and will emerge as a new image. But I am pained to relate that there is no such deve-

1. Cf Reverdy Quot : H-CEL, pp. 98-99. 2. Cf S-LPC, p. 156. 3. Vide Intro., B-HS : 'The movement with which we are concerned has already spent most of its force ...... '

Conclusion 167

lopment of thought in our literature. 1Lotus, for example, was an independent unit of image here centuries ago, and conti- nues to be so, even today. In the hoary past when it might have come before the poet for the first time, as a standard of simi- litude, then it would have presented itself with its sprightliness, perfume and colour. It bore so much similarity with the bea- utiful face of a damsel that it later stood for it. In that event, the import of lotus would come within the ambit of the sugges- tion of sense. But in course of time, with the appearance of new sense- perceptions, the old context of new and fresh sensations might go and then, lotus would stand for lotus and nothing else. We have seen earlier that with Arthacitra we might even get some tinge of suggestion, but there could be a very beautiful image even in case of direct expression. 2Between the denotation of sense and its indication, there is not always much distance and so the latter is said to be only the tail of the former. Bhatta Nayaka, however, thinks that indication is only the extension of denotation. Actually, in the images the layers of meanings unfold themselves later, but their sensibilities start working from the beginning. This is the communicability of literature in the true sense of the term. It acts as a clue to the mode of expression, peculiar to literature, and goes on giving new meanings. According to Bhatta Tauta description (Varnana) enshri- nes vision (Darsana). I think this is the earliest philosophi- cal seed of the concept of Citra in poetry. Even ordinarily, only that poet or writer is the most successful who has a miraculous power of description in making the things described visible to the readers' minds' eye. It is through the process of perfect sensuous concretisation, where the direct power of words is brought into full play, that the meanings are given vent to. Among all our senses, the visual has the

1. Vide HK. p. 25. 2. Vide L-DL, I, p. 151 : Tathaiva cāmukhyatayā sanketagrahanamapi tatrāstītyabhidhā- pucchabhūtaiva laksaņā / Cf. Quot : KP1 II, p. 14 : Abhidheyāvinābhūtapratītirlakșanocyate /

168 Figurative poetry in Sanskrit Literature

most appeal. It is also most fertile in that it stores up images and can translate them back in the poetic association. Thus it plays an important part in the perception, retention and creative handling of images. The poet is, as it were, a seer who perceives and observes with his intellect, and in course of his composition there is the spontaneous 1welling up of images without which there can be no poetry. These images are the units of impressions that the poet has gathered, and he arranges them." 2A work of art, understood dynamically, is the process of arranging images." 3The poetic myths engendered by the collective mind enlightening mankind for centuries, are now dying out and poetic images are taking their place. The image can be better termed as the myth of the individual. This marks quite a different direction, or dimension of poetic depth. Its initial nature influences the poetic expression, having stayed behind the individual experience and memory, and comes into light through the medium of the personal vision of the poet. Only a critic, endowed with acumen, can evaluate its vital importance. 4Jung has, on the basis of the two layers of conciousness, imagined two types of literary creations at the basis of image- creation. Lewis, on that basis but from a different angle of vision, has taken cognizance of a separate existence of aesthetic experience, where we get an indication of a separate element, weaving the impact of the unconscious, with the aroused skill of the poet. This exists, both, in the poet and the conscious reader, and it is due to this that the imagery of a poet is properly directed. 5In this connection, Mr. Herbert Read has also made a psychological probe and has thought of an inner orga- nising energy, managing the form of the artistic poetry. In his opinion, "there is a certain art of poetry which arises, we do not quite know how, from the music of vowels and consonants,

1. Cf. M-QW, p. 46. Vide E-FS, Tr. L, p. 25. 3. Vide L-PI, I, p. 32. 4. Tbid : VI, Quot. Jung, p. 143. Cf J-MS, pp. 179-180. 5. Vide H-CEL, p. 60.

Conclusion 169

the sound and association of words, the surprise of images and metaphors ...... " 1Lewis, having taken inspiration from Read, has made a psycho-analysis of the process of image-creation. There is much truth in it. The figures of speech make the roots of imagery go deeper. It has inner as well as primeval bearing on the nature of poetic experience. 2It is a central theme of Lewis that 'an image does not image itself.' This means that no image is complete in itself. Rather, it helps in the determination of the form of poetry. Even a poet does not move without having predetermined the sense and nature of the particular image. In some other con- text, the learned critic has expressed the idea that 3a whole poem be one whole image. As a matter of fact, the first phase of image-creation is a poet's positive identification with the inspiration of this art and if 4the imagery of the poem, when developed, is meaningless, then the communion of the poet's creative faculty with his experience is loose. In that case, sentiment evoked does not give the highest bliss equal to one begotten of the attainment of the supreme soul. In a poem there are varied things like emotions, images and the overall texture of the extended poetic tissue. But a unity underlies all these, for there is an inner congruence among all the constituent elements. So the creative impulse is one, but its successive realisations are many which are mani- fested as it evolves and expands to the various levels. The poetic analysis involves an endeavour that brings in its train emotional experience and its objectification through the work- manship. Emotional inspiration marks the first phase in the poetic creation, and is autonomous. Some images seem to emerge from the unconscious along with it. They are, of course, very natural. In the later phase, we can safely intro- duce the critical intellect without basically affecting the quali- ty of the poem as a product of inspiration, and then, a poet may press into service some other useful images discovered

1. Vide L-PI, VI quot. APP, p. 143. 2. Ibid : 1V, p. 91 3. Ibid : VI, p. 149. 4. Ibid : III, pp. 65, 67.

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by his probing intellect. When intellect is secondary to emo- tion, it subserves the latter and does not mar the total effect of the poem by making it an intellectual exercise. This is beca- use, in this case, the intellect becomes poetically stirred and reflects the emotional experience. Like the image, metaphor, being more basic, at least, to the western poetic thought, also might be emotive. There it connotes something more than what it stands for in Sanskrit poetics. 1Trends come and go, diction alters, musical fashions change, even elemental subject-matter may change almost out of recognition, but metaphor remains the life-principle of poetry, the poets' chief test and glory. 2It engulfs all- sense, feeling, thought and meaning, and moves towards a self-determinate form. It is, really, this metaphor which gives the idea of image a new face-lift but the latter, in its own right, remains the true goal of the poet. One of its chief fea- tures is this that it unravels truth insofar as it takes high flights of imagination and probes into the higher relations and makes it easy to be grasped. Lewis holds that emotional logic is the element by which is accomplished the mutual weaving together of images and the unification of their various parts. Every part contributes its bit in the elemental relation thus established. 3Moreover, there has been a stress on congruity in the said weaving together of images in view of the im- portance of the association of the factors that influence the reflection of poetic truth. The recurrent forms of rhythm are also of importance. This idea is very near the western concept of 'the fusion of meaning.' But the use of image brings in its train certain handicaps, the greatest being the verbal complications and occultness. Because of the vigilance of the individual consciousness, all images are not such as are possible of being grasped by every one. Bertrand Russel, while contemplating on the general nature of language, says : 4"Images, in fact, act as symbols

1. Ibid : I, p. 17. . Cf. W-RP, pp. 159-160. 3. Vide L-PI, III, p. 74. 4. Vide R-EMT, p. 241.

Conclusion 171

just as words do." Thus he has actually hinted at the accom- plishment of the work of symbolisation through the medium of images. He has also pointed out how deep is the relation of images with the process of sensation, and how much sensa- tion the perceptible experience evokes. 1Here, what is im- portant to note, is this that the sensations are generally rounded out by spontaneous images or expectations of their usual accompaniments in any perceptive experience. 2In this respect, the sensory core has higher inferential value than the rest. We have just referred to the difficulty of occultness in the use of imagery, but to some it can be justified because of the unavoidable leap of sense from denotative to connotative. By way of expressing through symbolic images the ambiguity of the positive reactions of mankind, we take for granted, with- out any clear social objectives, their conscious, mystic persona- lity and the disdain for intellectualism. 3Ostensibly, we find in image poetry only an endeavour of seeking similitude, unfami- liar and somewhat away from tradition, for the familiar phe- nomena of nature. In this way, there is novelty, of course, in the emergence of the visual element and, that, more than offsets the hackneyed effort, if any. With regard to the theme of such poetry, the western imagist movement has given some new ideas among which are non-traditional nature of contents, preciseness of meaning, clear and straight expression and semi-ocular discernment of the visual element. All these are to purge the language and protect it from prosaicness. In imagism, concentration is the keynote and should form the very essence of poetry. The poetry which is endowed with occult, ambiguous, mystic and dark meanings is the representative of the decadent symbolism we have referred to. On the other hand, the imagist poetry is characterised by clear, definite and artistic expressions. Thus direct, imagist commissioning of poetic matter in appropriate and rhythmic language is the true index of poetic art. 1. Vide R-EMT, p. 120. 2. Ibid, p. 122. 3. Vide J-MS, p. 180 : 'The experience that furnishes the material for artistic expression is no longer familiar. It is a strange something that derives its existence from the hinterland of mans' mind .... '

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When the great theory of suggestion was being establish- ed, the Indian poetic thinking, in spite of some serious lapses, had reached the apex of development. We have seen that Citra was placed in the last category of poetry and was thought bereft of the suggestive element, but the discussion has not been resolved. 1It has been sought to establish that there is nothing which would not generate any type of disposition or state of mind. Naturally, there would be no variety of poetry which would not engender or suggest sentiment, primary or ancillary emotions. In this context, as a result, image poetry (Citrakavya) can only then be possible when these aforesaid elements are not desired and Citratva alone be intended, devoid of sugges- tion which is impossible. The things of this world are the revealer of some sentiment, and sentiment itself is a state of mind which, if the thing concerned is not capable of producing, then it cannot be the subject of a poet. If, on the contrary, it be accepted that there is no harm in the absence of poetry if the poet himself is its subject, then, it is not coherent because what we call image poetry is itself the subject of a poet's imagination. Now, moving in a different way, there must be some under- standing of sense from such poetry, from which some object must be denoted and any object is, necessarily, in the form of a condition producing a state of mind or body (Vibhāva) which, perforce, awakens any particular emotion. There- fore, if the subject matter of a Citrakavya be within the realm of the poet, which, I am sure, it will be, then that must pro- duce delight which is impossible without the arousing of some sentiment. It may be pointed out in this connection that

d. Vide DL, III, p. 495 :

Yatra tu rasādīnāmavişayatvam sa kāvyaprakāro na sambhavat- yeva / Yasmādavastusamsparšitā kāvyasya nopapadyate / Vastu ca sarvameva jagadgatamavaśyam kasyacid rasasya bhāvasya vā'ngat- vam pratipadyate antato vibhāvatvena / Cittavrttivišesā hi rasādayaḥ, na ca tadasti vastu kiñcid yanna cittavrttiviśeșamupajanayati tadanut- pādane vā kavivișayataiva tasya na syāt kavivișayaca citratayā kaś- cinnirūpyate/

Conclusion 173

1 Abhinava has called all these the legend of Vasuki but they are, really, hard facts which cannot be ignored. In this connection, it is of interest to note that relaxation in the very theory of suggestion which Ananda propounds so enthusiastically, is perceptible in the undercurrents of discus- sion in Dhvanyāloka itself. 2When the poetic sense is defined first, two of its subdivisions, the expressed and the suggested, are given without any necessary implication that the latter is. superior to the former. 3The subtle shift in the doctrine came: later, rather unconsciously. Again, in the very beginning, the author held that the suggested sense was itself the soul of poet- ry but 4later, he had to change his position and rethink the issue. No doubt, rather than weakening the position, this has in a classical way, balanced it, but the fresh enthusiasm in the enunciation of a new theory might have tended to obscure this balance among the rhetoricians of posterity. It is beyond any shadow of doubt that Dhvanikara gives. primacy to sentiment and when, indeed, sentiment is the pri- mary thing, it is of secondary importance whether its evoca- tion is direct or through suggestion or, whether the centre of gravity of a particular poem lies on the plane of the suggested sense. These are only the matters of detail. 5Here, even with the poetry of subordinate suggestion the author goes on to make:

1. Vide L-DL, III, p. 496 : Anyasya vāsukivrttāntatulyasyehābhidhānāyogāt kavesced gocaro nūnamamunā prītirjanayitavyā sā cāvasyam vibhāvānubhāvavyabhi- cāriparyavasāyinīti bhāvaḥ / 2. Ibid, 1, V. 2, p. 43 : Vācyapratīyamānākhyau tasya bhedāvubhau smrtau / 3. Ibid, V. 4, p. 48 : Pratīyamānam punaranyadeva vastvasti vānīsu mahākavīnām / Yat tatprasiddhāvayavātiriktam vibhāti lāvaņyamivānganāsu // 4. Ibid, p. 78 : Trtīyastu rasādilaksaņaḥ prabhedo vācyasāmarthyāksiptaḥ prakāsate,. na tu sāksācchabdavyāpāravișaya iti vācyād vibhinna eva / 5. Vide L-DL, III, p. 474 : Tadayam dhvaninişyandarūpo dvitīyo'pi mahākavivișayo'tiramanī- yo lakşanīyah sahrdayaiḥ / Sarvathā nāstyeva sahrdayahīdayaņā- rinaḥ kāvyasya sa prakāro yatra na pratīyamānārthasamsparsena saubhāgyam /

174 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

the concession that it be treated at par with the poetry of pure suggestion, to the extent it realises the poetic sentiment.' This, to my mind, is a very important recognition because it tends to serve as a bridge to span the gulf that separates the specialised poetry of suggestion from poetry in general. So, in the ultimate analysis 1what is and should be suggested, is the sentiment (Rasa). Whether it is evoked through predomi- nantly direct expression when suggested elements are subordi- nate, or through wholly indirect means, that is, through suggestion, becomes a matter of taste. Thus, the theory of suggestion cannot establish that pic- torial poetry, or for that matter, material image, can never evoke feeling. Let us take here the case of the suggested material image (Vastudhvani). In fact, there was a lacuna in the very theory of suggestion in that it did not accede to the suggestion of the material image the capability of resolving itself, finally, into the suggestion of feeling. However 2 Abhirava very remarkably spans it and propounds that the suggested material image may produce the desired sentiment. Here also, we may mark the miraculous leap in the theory, from image to emotion. If the image can evoke emotion or the sentiment, it goes without saying that the expressed image has no less the capacity to do so, than the suggested image, and it all depends on whether the image, direct or suggested, is correlative of the objective phenomena. Actually, poetic naturalism or the pictorial poetry dispensed with suggestion, according to the theorists, and therefore one can understand why they were not happy about it. But as we have seen above, they could not give weight to their case. Anandavardhana must have been fascinated by the basic 1. Ibid : V. 37. p. 475 : Mukhyā mahākavigi āmalamkrtibhrtāmapi ! Pratīyamānacchāyaișā bhūșā lajjeva yoșitām // Ibid : V. 40, p. 483 . Prakāro'yam guņībhūtavyangyo'pi dhvanirūpatām / Dhatte rasāditātparyaparyālocanayā punaḥ // 2. Cf. L-DL, I, p. 52 : Yadūce bhattanāyakena-'amsatvam na rūpatā' iti, tadvastvalam- kāradhvanyoreva yadi nāmopālambhaḥ, rasadhvanistu tenaivātma- tayāngīkrtaḥ / etc.

Conclusion 175

miracle in this type of emotive, imagist poetry. At the root of it, we get a stimulus which senses evoke and which is con- crete. 1But this leads, in turn, to the generation of emotion where the material entity culminates in the immaterial reality. It is difficult to follow, in this quantal leap, every phase of the transition as a continuous processs, but it gives a romantic thrill of its own. Under the spell of this fascination, Ananda extended this concept to the inner poetic fabric. This fabric consists in a linguistic texture, woven out of words which are phonetic entities. Semantically, it is, on the contrary, also a web of meanings. The contours of the expressed sense of a linguistic construction can be precisely fixed because language has certain basic postulates for manipulating the communica- tion of meaning. What is important in poetry is the objectivity of its poetic value which can be assessed by anchoring it on to the interaction working between the object and the subject. Finally, the result is achieved after a very subtle equation which is subjective experience of the said value and object. Unless the object and the resultant poetic relish are thus equated, the poetic art, especially the imagist one, may either degenerate into a sensational theme, or may lapse into a sort of private fantasy and autosuggestion, without any profound relation to the objective reality. Therefore, the aesthetic apprehension constituting a visual focus, involves the selecting and ordering of the perceptible elements together with their indicative meanings in a 'unified ideal of relations.' This ordering is done by 'imagic interplay' between the image-forming power of the perceiver and the image-offering character of the object. This, in effect, is what Abhinava also asserts. The profound significance of objects is a reality, irrespective of whether it is being imaginatively appre- hended by anybody, but, certainly, it is to be the experienced reality of a subject. The subject has, thus, to discover the deeper stratum of the object through intuition. 2In the exer-

1. Vide V-SD, III p. 87 : Ādye vibhāvādisamūhālambanasya savikalpa- katvāt / Antye tu jñānajanyatvena nirvikalpakatvābhāvāt, jñānajan- yajñānasyaiva nirvikalpakatvāt / :2. Cf. C-PP, I, p. 62.

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cise of his image-forming power, the poet finds new relations: of things being established and determined by a harmonic or complementary association governed by meaning 1beyond the access of logic or the laws of causality. This can be said to be the generalisation of the particular sentiment which is indispensable for its evolution. This, in: poetry, happens to materialise between the poet and his object on the one hand, and between reader and the poetic merchan- dise on the other. There is a complete identification of the poet with his object in the flood of emotions and only then he- is able to produce such poetry which enchants the reader .. Here, we may point out that 2the painful images, born of a. tragic situation which the poet portrays, are the most moving: ones. They, within the vision, are immediately known and felt intimately. The images, whatever their nature, become 'distanced' like the objects in a far-stretching landscape 'est -- ranged by beauty.' Again, so far as the memory of a poet is. concerned, it comes from his personal experience and later, undergoes separation from the concrete experience with the. extrusion of the personal aspects. In this context of the generalisation of sentiment called: purgation of feeling in western poetic parlance, sorrow, for example, in a tragic circumstance, remains sorrow. But its. meaning to the spirit is profoundly altered 3under such a situ- ation which the reader relishes as the highest type of spiritual bliss. 4This, in technical language, is called modulation of meaning, and requires the subtly precise 'distancing' of experi -. ence and its 'filtering.' As the process cannot start in 'overdis -. tanced' experience which remains either unconsidered or only theoretically considered, the distance has to be reduced, but this reduction has to be halted at a critical point. So, 'the- utmost decrease of distance without its disappearance' is the prerequisite. This distancing means keeping at the minimum.

1. Cf. KP1 I, V. 1 : Niyatikrtaniyamarahitām ... / 2. Cf. B-DAP, V, Il, p. 116. 3. Cf. RG I, p. 31 : Aśrupātādayo'pi tattadānandānubhavasvābhāvyannatu duḥ khat /,

2. Cf. B-PD.

Conclusion 177

distance experience and sensibility, without bringing them too close to each other. This, I may point out, is necessary for the accomplishment of aesthetic relish, especially, in image poetry. Therefore art, here, is not so much the creation of spon- taneous inspiration as of the poetic intelligence. There is no contradiction between this and the feeling. It is consciousness at its subtlest, based on rich, emotional reactivity, but capable of mobilising that reactivity for precise realisation of the poetic sentiment. So the poetry may be inspirational or intel- lectual, purely suggestive or only pictorially suggestive, but consciousness is, always, at its root. 1The creative moment is like 'a reverie in which the agent, like the object, is conscious consciousness.' That is, if the resources of the unconscious like the free association of images, are fully tapped, a supremely alert and wakeful consciousness keeps careful supervision over all these processes. The will has to come up to the surface. Once the material is thus available, the will rejects and selects and moulds. 2Poetic creation needs the maximum conscious- ness possible. But this consciousness is not to be equated with merely analytical intelligence, for it is at the same time, both poetical- ly sensitive and critically analytical. Intelligence, as ordinarily understood, cannot create. Poetic consciousness, on the contrary, is intelligence and sensibility combined, functioning as a unified power of the personality. The objective is the concretisation of feeling which is the supreme object of poetry, even in the Indian tradition. Thus, image is a very especialis- ed and indispensable quality of poetry which comes out of that concretisation of feeling. Even pure poetry is called poetry merely on the strength of these images. In western rhetorics, 3Lewis has linked the production of images to the depths of the unconscious. Here, he has been influenced by the psychological analysis of Jung. Below the layer of the conscious, in the wave of unconscious energy,

1. Vide P.LQ, pp. 144-145. 2. Cf. P-O, I, p. 1481. 3. Vide L-PI, II, p. 39.

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swim the 'primordia' images or archetypes. 1Jung has dubbed these as psychic residues of countless homogeneous experiences. In these are found not only the individual experiences, but also an amalgam of hereditory experiences. Again, conscious- ness flowing beneath the materialistic universe makes the images animistic and, 2according to Lewis, this animism lies at the root of all poetic images. In this way, personification and pathetic fallacy, are both remnants of the primeval animism and the imagist consciousness also manifests itself after having reacted in its association. In Sanskrit poetics, 3the suggestion, which is the life of poetry of any variety, has been described by Mammata, as the sonic waves coming out of the echoes of the ringing bell. In the creative activity, this idea is just parallel to that of the layer-after-layer of consciousness, having been accumulated in the serene, meditative mind of the poet. Here we get a sort of chemical process taking place between emotions and their different forms and aspects. This poetic analysis is character- istic of the Indian theory of suggestion, original and profound. There might be some thoughtful and sentiment-provoking poems with the self-surrender of the poet as their subject- matter, which cannot be fully understood on the basis of their western imagist analysis, but which might be comprehended on the application of the theory of suggestion. From the point of view of essentiality, this theory offers no opposition to the imagist theory as, 4Lewis also understands various poetic im- pressions as "impressions of a hundred sorts, sensuous, lively, lovely and many-hued" forming the image in the ring-after-ring fashion.

l. Ibid, VI, quot. Bodkin on Jung, p. 141. 2. Vide L-PI, IV, 107. 3. Cf. KP1 IV, p. 50 : Ghantāyām vādyamānāyām pradhānasabdapratītyanantaram yaḥ ksodīyānaparo'nurananānusvānādipadābhidheyaḥ sabdaviśeșaḥ pratlyate / Cf. R-SKB : Tena sahdayahrdayañgamādarthāt kāmsyatālānusvānanyāyena tādr- samarthantaramavagamyate sā gatiriti .... / 4. Vide L-PI, III, p. 68.

Conclusion 179

'The creation of poetry begins from an impression and a drop of the river of experience is crystallised in the form of an image. The second stage of the process of creation is of effort- less, condensed concentration of mind like that of a rogi. Here, as 2Yeats contemplates, the action both of will and intellect is at a standstill, and the images come in a dashing wave. In Indian terminology this state of poetic creation is more or less like the perfect absorption of the mind in the course of penitence, which, 3according to the said critic, is like 'a state of trance.' 4Lewis, on the other hand, has termed this as 'the suspension of intellect.' In the third stage, a poet's crea- tive consciousness is awakened, and then related to the focussing of the inner form of the poem by the method of assimilation and elimination. In such a state of poetic creation, both subject and object are metamorphosed into quite different forms, ready for a unique confrontation. It has been seen above how the sub- ject poet undergoes the transformation, and is, in the creative moment, quite a different being. His mind, which receives the object, is no longer one behaving in the worldly fashion, and the object too, no longer belongs to the material, external world. It is the perfect awareness of this very subtle nature of poetic experience, which makes 5Visvanatha affirm that it be- longs to the interface between embodiment and transcendence, or the 'bonded-liberated state'. If, then, the mind is now in a state of serene self-possession, the serenity is not to be confused with a withdrawn deadness. 6Mallarmé has a remarkable passage, reading like an elaboration of 7the Indian concept of the melting of heart (Druti) in poetic experience ; "The

1, Ibid. 2. Ibid : III, quot. Yeats, p. 69. 3. Vide Y-R : CY, p 209. 4. Cf. L-PI, III. p. 69. 5. Vide SD, III, V. 23+, p. 179 : Yuktaviyuktadasāyāmavasthito yah samaḥ sa eva yataḥ / Rasatāmeti tadasmin saňcāryādeḥ sthitiśca na viruddhā / 6. Vide M-OC. p, 262. 7. Cf. SD, III, V. 8, p. 77 : Asrupātādayastadvad drutatvāccetaso matāḥ /

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teardrop of exquisite relish" that makes its appearance in intense poetic experience, belongs with "the highest summit of serenity where beauty ravishes our spirit." This poetic state can only be experienced by one's own self, but a western poet-critic who has, perhaps; passed through the process, has been able to describe this very touchingly: 1'The happy, liberating touch of non-objectivity drew me out into the desert' where only feeling is real ...... From the su- prematist point of view, the appearances of natural objects are, in themselves, meaningless; the essential thing is feeling, in itself and completely, independent of the context in which it has been evoked." Abstract art is as valid as respresenta- tional art, because the spirit can relish both in a plenitude of presentation. Again, in both, the suggestions might be latent which can be revealed in the poetic moment and both are creations of imagination. Here the question arises whe- ther auto-suggestion can work up the feeling. In fact it does, but it cannot create art which can communicate the experience to another, as we have pointed out earlier. So far as the object is concerned, its form has to lose all suggestions of orga- nic shape in order to become universal. When, on the other hand, the poetic object is universalised, the poetry gains a sort of universal appeal which, in turn, makes it great. Here, we may point out that psychoanalysts like Jung think that poetry, to be great, must be based upon, and nourished by, the universal experiences of mankind which, in a way, are manifestations of the collective unconscious, of which the contents are called archetypes. These are images impressed upon the mind which might be revealed in the poetic crea- tions, investing them with a universality, all their own. Besides, the poetic image has, as 2Whalley has pointed out, a subtle feature in that it is a feeling-vector. According to him, 3"feeling is centrifugal, vectorial, outward moving and pointing insistently outside the self in which it is generat- ed." Thus, not only is it the vehicle for a 'charge' of feel-

1. Vide AA, pp. 452-453. 2. Vide W-PP, 141. 3. Ibid, p. 68.

Conclusion 181

ing but it also has a directional character, seeking to move in a certain direction. 1Whalley confines himself chiefly to the emergence of these vectorial characteristics in the rhy- thmic pattern, but 2Lewis, on the contrary, has pointed out the tendency of images to be congruent with one another and, thus form a distinctive pattern. This is necessary for the wholeness of a poem, otherwise the total effect would be marr- ed by being merely a series of stabbing, meaningless flashes. Thus, the poem must have, among its parts, a relationship which underlies all reality. Again, 3Whalley means to suggest that the self is the anterior reality, for, it is in this that the feelings are generat- ed. This resembles the Purva-Koti of Bhoja. The centrifugal radiation of feelings penetrating into the world, is the middle phase, but the process does not stop here. 4The fulcrum for feeling is the self, the central point of departure and return. This return constitutes the Uttarakoti of Bhoja. Further, we find that Shelley comes half way to Bhoja's insight and he derives all poetry, nay, all creation, from love and 5defines love as "a going out of our own nature and an identification of ourselves with the beautiful which exists in thought, in action or person, not our own." This, the according to Bhoja, is middle phase. In the climactic phase, what is 'not our own', gets assimilated into our being and, the love, now, is the love of the self, thus enriched. 6Sanskrit poetry does not have the unexpressed sense to be darkly gathered. Nor does our theory of poetics regard it as indeterminate. It is bound up by means of definite links with the expressed sense without which its existence is not possible. But it is wrapped up in such a way that it is possi- ble only for those who are initiated in the poetic hierogly- phics, to comprehend it in its subtlety. Even the knowledge

1. Vide W-PP. 2. Vide L-PI, III, p. 65. 3. Vide W-PP, 4. Ibid. 5. Vide S-DP, p. 38, 6. Cf. De : HSP, p. 174.

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of grammar and lexicon does not help. But men of taste and literary instinct, quickly can follow it. It is the province of the connoisseur (Sahrdaya) who, as expert in discerning the intricate mess of veiled words and sense, gets into the aesthetic relish of deeper significance. But, if we link the moments of perception, that would only give lyrical sequences but not a complex structure which, we should always keep in mind, is not sought for its own sake as an absolute pattern. A faithful mirroring of the interaction between sensibility and reality, will, necessarily, have to be complex. It is because the world stimulates desires in sensibility that mature into motivations and actions which, in turn, impinge on reality and change its pattern. It is these changed patterns that confront the sensibility later, and generate fresh emotive reactions which will be related to the original reactions in meaningful ways, with fulfilment or frustration. 1As regards the relationship between two images, Mallarme said that the poet must be careful, because from between the two good images a third element, clear and fusible, will be distilled and caught by our imagination. It is this third image, distilled out of the fusion of the two that charms us more. 2Imagination here does not play any mean role, but ultimately, experience is the main thing. It is the experience which is the taking-off ground. The more solid this basis, the stronger and deeper the poet's understanding of reality and the further the leap. Thus, poetry is double: it is plastic, representing 'the pure objectivity of the image' and it is musical representing 'the inner mood.' So, if Mallarmé dismissed Parnassian poetry which was plastic, three-dimen- sional and sculpturesque, it was not because of its inherent defects, but because of his failure to notice that the Parnassian image is a perfectly expressive objective correlative. To sum up, the most important point which has emerged after this discussion is that pictorialism and direct expression can never be condemned as unpoetic in themselves. The

1. Vidc M-CP, p. 134. 2. Cf. S-CAP. p. 74.

Conciusion 183

test should be whether or not, the mental image is also an emotional image. In tragic situations, we generally have a more emotional ordering of experience, and hence, there is more chance of the image being emotional. When we look into the great epic of Valmiki, we find the wonderful contours of the magnificent ordering of experience, achieved in his aesthetic creation. He refined the first lyrical impulse 1he received through the sudden and tragic demise of the Krauñca bird, and 2wove out an epic pattern of incidents, accentuating the incidence of tragedy, genetically related to the action and interaction of characters. The impulse was profound but, nonetheless, it was still a raw intensity of the experience of separation which drove the poet to poesy. The human experience which imbibes the tragic pain, does not shed the latter. Only when it is analys- ed and dissected, it loses some of its power to blunt the poetic sensibility. Thus, the insulated, initial experience of the first poet could not have borne the heavy load of lyrical emotions without running the risk of degenerating into sentimentality. But his superb imagination stood him in good stead and bridged the gulf between emotions and reality in poetry, giving it an all-embracing vision of life. So, in the light of what we have discussed here, regarding Citra and the image, let us now examine the 3definition of this variety of poetry propounded by Anandavardhana. We see that it falls to the ground because it is too narrow. Citra- kavya, in the sense we take here, especially Arthacitra, might not aim at the evocation of feeling and sentiment but at least, sometimes, it is evocative. From another point of view, we can hold that every poetry or, for that matter, any litera- ture, aims at such evocation of feeling; it is quite a different thing that it is not able to achieve it. As regards the second

1. Vide Supra p. 131. 2. Cf. L-DL, p. 85 : Yaņ śokaḥ sthāyibhāvo nirapeksabhāvatvād vipralambhaśrngārocit- aratisthāyibhāvādanya eva, sa eva tathābhūtavibhāvatadutthākrandā- dyanubhāvacarvaņayā hrdayasamvādatanmayībhavanakramādāsvād- yamānatām pratipannah .... / 3. Vide Supra p. 102, Fn. No. 1.

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clause, that it does not exploit the special illuminating power of suggestion, we can say that it stands thrashed. As for the third clause, we shall take it only in a broader perspective. The Citra or image does, basically, depend on the striking expression and meaning, but let me ask what variety of poetry or literature does not ? So far as its looking like a picture is concerned, I don't think there is any harm in it, if it possesses other essential features of good poetry. I think it does so. It evokes feeling and sentiment and is also suggestive. So, it has got only the additional virtue of picturesqueness. Besides, we have also seen that a subject poet passes through a 'trance- like state' like the producer of the highest grade of poetry according to Indian tradition. It is proof that the said poetry has come out of the fire-ordeal, safe and genuine. So poetry in this clever definition does not descend to the pictorial level merely because it lacks suggestion. Earlier this defect alone would have been sufficient to condemn it. But now, it must also show the defect or failure to evoke emo- tion. Visvanatha accepts this position and so does 1Abhinava- gupta when he defines pictorial poetry as that which merely imitates genuine poetry, the latter which enshrines feelings. Here embarrassing questions can be asked. Since sugges- tion and feeling are independent variables, what is the status of poetry which uses suggestion but is not emotive in quality ? What is the status of poetry which is pictorial, and which does not use suggestion, but which incarnates feeling ? The questions are legitimate because the theory has had to admit the independence of the two variables. In the reformulation of theory, feeling regains its prime status and suggestion becomes the technique of its evocation. 2That is the final

1. Vide L-DL, III, p. 495 : Rasādijīvarahitam ..... / Ibid, p. 496 : Naiva tatra rasapratītirasti yathā pākānabhijñasūdaviracite māmsapā- kaviśeșe / 2. Cf. DL, II, V. 3 p. 175 : Dhvanerātmāngibhāvena bhāsamāno vyavasthitah / Ibid, V. 4, p. 180 : Rasādiparatā yatra sa dhvanervișayo matah /

Conclusion 185

result of Anandavardhana's synthesis. If, again, feeling is the prime value, why should sugges- tion be the invariable tachnique ? Does the theory dare to assert that the pictorial image cannot arouse emotion ? It cannot, because Abhinavagupta says that the suggested image is really an emotional image. Again, can the theory claim that only the suggested image has this power and not the directly expressed image ? It cannot. For one thing, there is all the weight of the luminous clarification of the emotive power of poetic naturalism. Secondly, even in the poetry of suggestion, does not the image acquire its emotive power be- cause it is an objective correlative, and not because it has been suggested instead of directly expressed ? If suggestion, as such, is the principle of evoking emotion, all suggested imagery would be invariably emotive or, in other words, every sugges- tive poetry would invariably be genuine poetry. Success, then, would stand guaranteed for any poet in this field as it would be impossible for him to write bad poetry, if only he had the sense to resort to the technique of suggestion !

APPENDIX I

The symbolist movement took its roots in western poetry in the last quarter of the 19th century. Its exponents were Baudelairé, Paul Valéry, Mallarmé, Rainer Maria Rilke, Stefan George and Alexander Blok. In the second wave, when Imagism made its appearance, there came three Englishmen : T.E. Hulme, F.S. Flint and Richard Aldington, and three Americans : Ezra Pound, H.D. (Hilda Dolittle) and Amy Lowell. Among the most modern protagonists are W.B. Yeats, T.S. Eliot, Auden, Spencer and Lewis. Baudelairé had a keen sense for neopsychology and had much faith in symbols on account of their virtue of purging the experience of its terrestrial quality and giving it a transcen- dental tone. Valéry felt that the chief task of symbolism was to take back from music what poets had lost to it. He also thought that whenever people talked of philosophy in poetry there was a case of their having been uneasily wedded. He gave supreme importance to words and their rhythm because in his opinion it was they who provided the images and evoked the most appropriate associations. Mallarme was most influential among the pioneers. He gave foremost value to the condensation of images in poetry. To him, the machinery of similes and comparisons stood obsolete and there was need for the identification of things with objects. Poetry should not be informative alone but suggestive and evocative as well. It should not name things but create their atmosphere. Thus to add mystery to poetry by suggestion was a noble ideal. Mallarmé certainly created a new mystici- sm of art. He expressed it disjointedly in words of Heracli- tean darkness and power. But he was not merely content to suggest. He, like Valery, had a profound faith in the musical

Appendix 187

effects in poetry. He thought poetry was an inevitable part of music and believed that one was almost analogous to the other. Poetry, to him, was a dream, a music of the spheres, a harmony audible to the spiritual ear. The unheard song and the silent word had a glory about them which he tried to convey to others. They also symbolised the poetic ecstasy and had much meaning for him. Rilke, on the contrary, purported to attempt a harmonisa- tion between two different kinds of poetry which spring from the fulness born of living in the imagination and yielding to every impression which itself in turn comes from the eager quest for sensations. Stefan George held that the worth of poetry is decided not by the meaning but by form. According to him, the essence of poetry is like that of a dream. A very deep insight of the poet or an equally profound impression upon him might be reflected in a poem but they are no guarantee for its goodness unless both are transposed into a sort of music composed of joy and tranquillity. That explains. why every poem is something unreal. Beauty is not at the beginning nor at the end; it is just the climax. The true poetic art is that which breathes new life into a poem, partly wakeful and partly sleepy. George wished to bridge the gulf between art and reality. Blok, on the other hand, with his mystical temperament came more and more to find symboli- cal importance in things and to interpret ordinary happen- ings as instances of mysterious divine laws. Hulme noted that the importance of similisation in poetry is foremost because there the denotative or direct sense is not so signi- ficant as the indicative or the suggestive. If the expression in a poem is simple and commonplace, it loses the desirable effect. Therefore ideas of similitude are indispensable there, otherwise we would have no sentiment in it, no poetic effect, no originality. We may also point out in this connection that Flint is generally known as the precursor of imagism in western poetry. In his opinion, the concretisation of things or ideas which is the life of poetry, is easily mana- geable within the limits of a small poem like a lyric or a sonnet. In order to give a concrete shape to ideas he thought that the use of such appropriate words as are capable of doing

188 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

it, is imperative. The last two poets are very important from the point of view of the development of imagist ideas, as intellectual impulse actually came from the former, while the latter contributed to the technical teaching. But it was Ezra Pound who gave a new definition to image and a new direc- tion to the movement. In this he was surely influenced by the views of Jacob Epstein and Wyndham Lewis who were pioneers of the vorticist movement, but he also influenced such people as Yeats and Eliot. First, he defined an image as that which presents an intellectual and emotional com- plex in an instant of time. He used the word 'complex' rather in the technical sense employed by such neopsycholo- gists as Hart. Subsequently, he changed his definition and replaced the word 'complex' by 'vortex' or 'clusters' consisting of fused ideas and endowed with energy. Satirising the word 'energy', J. Isaacs wrote that had Pound not lost interest in that exposition of 'image', it would surely have become an atom bomb one day. It is interesting to note here that the vorticists had named their journal 'Blast' ! Yeats held that barring story-telling or portraiture, all art including poetry-writing is symbolic and at the same time purposive and that its purpose is identical with that of the medieval talisman made up of complex colour and form, a part of the divine essence, as it were. In this connection he makes a distinction between two kinds of symbolism : sym- bolism of sounds and symbolism of ideas. Under the first head he visualises among all sounds, colours, and forms of poetry a beautiful and musical relation, independently and together, making one unit each and because of preordained energies and long associations, evoking one emotion out of many whom he calls the foot-steps of certain disembodied powers over our hearts. Under the second head he speaks of the intellectual symbols that evoke ideas either singly or, those mixed with emotions and eked in respect of pure ideas, more visibly through the mind but in regard to emotions, more invisibly beyond the threshold of sleep, that is, in dreams. As a matter of fact, Yeats, through symbolism found a way to create an extremely lively and concrete poetry about

Appendix 189

himself. He worked hard to rid his verse of all vagueness and looseness. Thus what he lost in mystery, he gained in power. According to Eliot, a symbol carries both sensation and thought. Thus the idea embodied in an imagist symbol results from synthesising presentation of fact and representa- tion of thought. True, a word imparts the knowledge of a particular thing, but in it is also ingrained its concept attribut- ed by the user. Naturally, one side of it is imagist and the other symbolist, always balancing each other. Among the various types of images, Auden is very fond of the functional image and there he succeeds too, to a great extent, not because he is a didactic poet able through it to press home his. moral but because he has grasp on a wide contemporary situation and has an insight into its patterns which enable him to create powerful themes capable of vivifying and relating his images. Lewis, on the contrary, has breathed a new life into the idea of symbolist imagism when it was sinking into an obsolete form. With Freud and Dr. Jung, he has brought it to the plane of the unconscious and subjected it to psycho- analysis. We are not going to speak more of him because while dealing with Arthacitra and the impact of the modern concept of the collective unconscious, we incorporated and utilised his poetic credo. The French imagist movement chiefly started between 1860 and 1890 as a result of the reactions of naturalism and as second wave of romanticism. It raised with thundering voice the question of poetic expression and the innateness of factual realisation which influenced not only the whole bulk of European but also American literature. This imagist movement is taken to be the re-exposition of the field of poetry. In the manifesto of 1913 (3rd edition), musical clauses were to take the place of metronymic verses. In 1908 Mr. Hulme established one poets' club and edited a paper where one of his poem entitled 'Autumn' was published which was later adjudged as the first important imagist poem. Here for moon we find the image 'red-faced farmer' and the stars were 'with white faces like town children.' Another member of the club, Edward Storev, in a collection of poems entitled 'Mirrors of Illusion' published one

190 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

that very year entitled 'Image' consisting of only three lines : Forsaken lovers, Burning to a chaste white moon, Upon strange pyres of loneliness and draught. Actually, there would not have been any revolution in poetry had this poem not been written after the French symbolist poetry because in Rimbaud's 'The sleeper in the valley' there is greater and more powerful imagery : 'The whole valley bubbled with sunbeams like a bear-glass.' But the American soil didn't prove congenial to the imagist movement and so it couldn't last there long with meagre reso- urces, though it had by then given flow to the general stream of creativeness. Thus Karl Sandberg's famous poem 'Letters to Dead Imagists' sums up conclusion of this era. In a special number of 'The Egoist', Flint, one of the champions of Hulme, published a brief resumè of the activi- ties of the movement where he admitted on his group the clear influence of French symbolist poetry. According to J.M. Brinin, this influence brought in the field of poetry the effect of purgation. Between 1912 and 1922 thousands of imagist poems were published in collections. During this time, Pound was the most important figure and his association with several countries like Ireland, England, France and Italy increased the extent of his influence outside America to European continent. He went to Ireland for lessons from Yeats but instead, in a way, taught the latter. The shadow of his influence on Eliot was even larger and most of his poetic concepts originat- ed in the latter's imagist ideas. The new generation of Auden-Spencer-Lewis owes much debt to the generation of Yeats-Pound-Eliot in the field of rhetorics and literary princi- ples, and the rise of imagist symbol in their poetry is ample proof of the fact that we get in their works the aggregate consciousness of symbolism and imagism.

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

A : SANSKRIT

1. Atharvavedasamhitā. 2. Aitareya Brāhmaņa. 3. Alamkāraratnākara : Śobhākaramitra. 4. Alamkārasarvasva (with "Vimarśiņī" of Jayaratha) : Ruyyaka. 5. Alamkaraśekhara : Kesavamiśra. 6. Alamkārakaustubha : Kavikarņapūra. 7. Amarakośa. 8. Bhāgavatapurāņa. 9. Candrāloka : Jayadeva. 10. Citramimamsa (with "Khandana" of Jagannatha) : Appaya Dīksita. · 11. Dhvanyāloka (with "Locana" of Abhinavagupta and "Bālapriyā" comm.) : Ānandavardhana. 12. Ekāvalī : Vidyādhara. 13. Hayagrīvavadha. 14. Handbook to the Study of Rgveda with Sayana's Pre- face. 15. Īsopanișad. 16. Kāmasūtra : Vātsyāyana. 17. Kuțțanīmata : Dāmodaragupta. 18. Kavyadarsa (with "Malinya-pronchanī" of Premacan- dra) : Daņdin. 19. Kāvyālamkāra : Bhāmaha. 20. Kāvyālamkārasārasamgraha : Udbhața. 21. Kāvyālaņkāra : Rudrața. 22. Kāvyālamkārasūtravrtti : Vāmana. 23. Kāvyānuśāsana : Hemacandra.

192 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

24. Kāvyaprakāśa (with "Udyota" of Nāgeśa Bhațța, "Pradipa" of Govinda Thakkura and the "Prabha" of Baidyanātha Tatsat) : Mammața. 25. Kuvalayānanda (with "Rasikarañjanī" of Gangadhara Vājapeyin and "Alamkāracandrikā" of Vaidyanātha. Tatsat) : Dīkşita. 26. Kāvyamīmāmsā : Rājaśekhara. 27. Kumārasambhava : Kālidāsa. 28. Kādambarī : Bāņa. 29. Kīcakavadha. 30. Mānasollāsa. 31. Meghadūta : Kālidāsa. 32. Mahābhārata : Vyāsa. 33. Muņdakopanișad. 34. Nirukta and Nighaņțu : Yāska. 35. Naișadhiyacarita : Śrī Harșa. 36. Pañcarātra. 37. Pratāparudrīyayaśobhūșaņa : Vidyānātha. 38. Rgvedasamhitā. 39. Rāmāyaņa : Vālmīki. 40. Rasagangādhara : Jagannātha. 41. Raghuvamśa : Kālidāsa. 42. Sahityadarpana (with "Locana" and "Vijnapriya' comm) : Viśvanātha. 43. Sarasvatīkaņțhābharaņa : Bhoja. 44. Śrńgāraprakāśa : Bhoja. 45. Sammohanatantra. 46. Subhāșitaratnabhāņdāgāra (Anthology). 47. Sārngadharapaddhati ( do ). 48. Sūktimuktāvalī ( do ). 49. Śiśupālavadha : Māgha. 50. Śabdakalpadruma (Lexicon). 51. Sahrdaya (Journal). 52. Vișņudharmottarapurāņa. 53. Vākyapadīya : Bhartrhari. 54. Vakroktijīvita : Kuntaka .. 55. Vrttivārttika : Appaya Dīkșita. 56. Vacaspatyam (Lexicon).

Bibliography 193

B: ENGLISH

1. An Exposition of the Citramimamsa of Appaya Dīksita and its Appraisal of Jagannatha's Criticism : Dr. M. Jha. 2. Aesthetic : Croce. 3. A Call to Order : Cocteau. 4. An Enquiry into Meaning and Truth : Russel. 5. A Defence of Poetry : Shelley. 6. A History of Indian Literature, Vol. I : Winternitz. 7. Crisis in Poetry : Mallarmé. 8. Countries of the Mind : Middleton Murry. 9. Commonsense About Poetry : Strong. 10. Collected Essays in Literary Criticism : Read. 11. Distance as an Aesthetic Principle (Article) : Bullough. 12. Early Essays : What is Poetry ? : Mill. 13. Film Sense : Eisenstein. 14. History of Sanskrit Poetics : P. V. Kāne. 15. Kāvya-Prakāśa of Mammața : Eng. Tr. by Dr. Gańgā- nātha Jhā. 16. Letter to Louise Colet : Flaubert. 17. Lettres a Quelques-uns : Valéry. 18. Modern Man in Search of a Soul : Jung. 19. Oeuvres Complètes : Baudelaire. 20. Oeuvres Complètes : Mallarmé. 21. Oeuvres, vol. I : Valéry. 22. Poetic Process : Whalley. 23. Positions et Propositions vol. I : Claudel. 24. Psychical Distance (Article) : Bullough. 25. Rhetoric and Composition I : Bain. 26. Reveries : Over Childhood and Youth : Yeats. 27. Symbolism : Its Meaning and Effect : Whitehead. 28. Shakespeare's lmagery and What it tells us : Spurgeon. 29. Senses and Sensibility in Modern Poetry : William Van O' Corner. 30. Shelley's Literary and Philosophical Criticisms : Shaw- cross. 31. Sanskrit-English Dictionary : Monier-Williams. 32. Sanskrit Poetics : Krisņa Caitanya. 33. The Heritage of Symbolism : Bowra.

194 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

34. The Music of Poetry : Eliot. 35. The Symbol of the Rose (Article) : Raine. 36. The Poetic Image : Lewis. 37. The Poetic Mind : Prescott. 38. The Principles of Literary Criticism : Richards. 3 9. Vie de Mallarmé : Mondor. 40. Vedic Index of Names and Subjects vol. II : Macdonell. 41. Words, Words (Article) : Montague.

C : HINDI

1. Ādhunika Hindī Kāvya Mé Citravidhāna : Dr. R. Y. Singh. 2. Bhāratīya Sāhityaśāstra : Baldeva Upādhyāya. 3. Hindī Sāhitya Me Kavyarūpon Ke Prayoga : Dr. S. D. Avatare. 4. Kūțakāvya : Eka Adhyayana : Dr. R. Sharmā. 5. Kāvya aur Kalpanā : R. K. Pāņdey. 6. Kāvya Mé Abhivyañjanāvāda : L. N. Sudhānsu. 7. Kāśī Nāgarī Pracāriņī Patrikā (Journal).

APPENDIX II

Sa Sa tva ra ti de ni tyam Sa da på ma psa si ni Tva rå dhi ka ka sam nå de 4 Ra ma ka tva ma ka rşa ti

1

Figure No.1.

Devac kāc nitt nit - kārvār-de

Vad hi-ka+ swad swat ka +hit Kã karebhabha+ -pe +kā -ka

Nifswastbha -vya vya bhaswa ni 1

Figure No.2.

Kamp ma ta na ta ksa Lo sta 12a di ni

stha ra ncha Pr ta ' Figure No.3.

196 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

Pa da ya ya na chi hã Ya pa bha to mu pra Ma ma sya V2 mbu châm sa

Figure No.4.

1 Bà 30 9 20 3 24 11 26 lã su ka la vã la kā

16 19 29 10 27 4 23 kām ti la la ka lā li tā

31 8 17 14 12 Sa 21 6 25 swa su ta Va ti sā rā

18 Da 15 32 kā 7 28 13 22 5 rpi vra ta ga rdhi ta

Figure No.5.

Na ma ste ja ga tām gā tra

Sa dã na va ku la kşa ya

Sa ma ste ja sa tām nā tra

Mu dā ma va na la ksa ya

Figure No.6.

Appendix II 197

8 2. Stw Spi T sam ed< -- -

7 yatMa YaTa Na 3

Dhi cha chchha

6 Da

5 Figure No.7.

stu Sm Sam Pa

• Ta Na

cha chchha Da

Figure No.8.

198 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

Ta nu gra thyam chintitaguptirasta me mu

Bhra stodhar marajahpadanga ra

myo Vi şamatvamrugjayātisthi da

bha gavāksīnena chaňchadbhru dhidigbhedannachakraņslu chā ra

Su ddhambaddha surāsthişira vā

uedd Oel nel

Figure No.9.

199

dkāsindhu nāmsu- ttāpā- tih hri

Tanutam tanutam Rādha tasru Śchari-

Figure No.10. Appendix II

Krisnayo-

Figurative Poetry tn Sanskrit Literature

Rā ram bhe Radhã es )Satamsa Rasāram sa ra ra Mādha vam ra

sa

Figure No.11. Bhe Rã dha sā ra ra Mādhavam Rā sa tam

Figure No.12.

Appendix Il

ma nã va

Se na

Sa mbhe

na Si da na

Ra se ra ta

Ta ra ma tta

ma da ja na

Dhu ya

na ga na ma

ma Figure No.13. 201

INDEX I VERSES QUOTED AS ILLUSTRATIONS (Numbers refer to pages) Adya me saphalā 98 Iyam cāpi saricchreșțhā 130 Atțaśūlā janapadāḥ 72 Aham ca tvam ca rajendra 73 Apādo dūragāmī ca 75 Jalecaraḥ kāncanayasți 142 Aho kenedrsi buddhir 83 Jyotsnäbhasmacchurana 115 Annavastra-suvarņāni 85 Kanțhasya tasyāḥ 5 Aham mahanasayatah 85 Kareņa te raņeșvanta 48 Ambhoruhamaye snātvā 85 Kālakālagalakāla 52 Agastyasya muneḥ 91 Kati te kabarībhāraḥ 73 Atih atiḥ anma-alam 98 Kasturī Jāyate kasmāt 76 Angulibhiriva keśasamcayam 121 Kaḥ khe carati kā ramyā 76 Arvāgvilaścamasa 139 Kaḥ khe yāti 80 Agnirjambhai 140 Kasmāt tvam durbalā 88 Adhi peśāmsi vapate 140 Kamanekatamādānam 99 Agatāh pāndavāh sarve 84 Kandarpadvipakarņakambu 108 Āsīnānām surabhitasilam 11I Aindram dhanuh 123 Kaksaghnaḥ śiśiraghnaśca 141 Kāmksan pulomatanayā 59

Bahukleśe'lpaphalade 99 Kā śambhukāntā 77 Kāhamasmi guhā vakti 78 Bālā sukālabālā kā 60 Bhadra māņavakakhyāhi 78 Kām harirabharat 79

Bharatam ceksudandam ca 83 Kamam nrpāh santu 117

Bhānurvai jāyate laksmyā 86 Kaśābhiriva haimībhi 129

Bhavanisamkaromeśam 87 Kākudīkam śukam 142 Keśavam patitam drstvā 71 Bhiksavo rucirā sarve 92 Kīdrśā bhūmibhāgena 82 Kim vasantasamaya 82 Catvāri śrngāstrayosya pādā 138 Cakāsti binducyuta 145 Koso joanavāo 82 Krsnayāh putro'rjuno 137 Cāracañcuḥ cirārecī 52 Ksoņī kam sahate 80

Damstra' grarddhya 100 Kumarasambhavam drstva 73

Dādeḥ kşāntasya 100 Kūjanti kokilāḥ sāle 93

Devarājo mayā drsto 74 Devah patirviduși 146 Laddūkairdvijakulamadya 99

Dhanyāsi vaidarbhi 120 Madhurayā madhubodhita 45 Dvādaśa pradhayaḥ 137 Mānena mānena sakhi 46 Dvā suparņā sayujā 139 Madhuram madhurambhoja 46 Dve asya bīje 143 Madhureņadrsam mānam 47 Dyaurme pitā janitā 135 Mayā mayālamba 51 Dyuviyadgāminī tāra 88 Mahaśayamatisvaccham 90 Mahanapi sudhīro'pi 92 Esa gharmapariklista 129 Mandamārutaniḥśvāsam Eșa raśmisahasreņa 130 Madbhayadanilopyatra 129 130 Ekapād bhūyo dvipado 137 Matsyadhvajā vāyuvaśād 163 Mamasīnam viditveha 130 Gahanaprasannasarvām 98 Mevrmikasimkatu 98 Granthagranthiriha kvacit 148 Meghodaravinirmuktāḥ 129

Haraḥ kşayī tāpakaraḥ 93 Mudā ramaņamanvīta 48 Mūso na śiśnā 140 Haranayanahutāśa 99 Hamsah śucisad 135 Na nonanunno 53 Hīnabatyā dadhātyeva 99 Na mandayāvarjita 55

204 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

Namaste jagatām gātra 61 Subhadrām ka upāyamsta 81 Na ślāghate khalaḥ 79 Suśyāmā candanavati 91 Nādino madanādhī svā 57 Susilāh svarnagaurāngāh 92 Niśitāsirato'bhīko 56 Nirartbakam janma gatam 83 Syandanano ca turagāh 55

Nitāntasvaccha 88 Śloke'trādau vinirdistam 78

Nijapatirādyaḥ praņayi 99 Nīlameghāśritā vidyut 129 Tanutam tanutam radha 64 Tavavavadah pratyabdhi 98 Tathyam cintita 64 Payodharabharākrānte 90 Tam vīksya vepathumatī 160 Pānīyam pātumicchāmi 75 Pāņdyoyamamsārpita 114 Tena vyātenire bhīmā 54 Tvatkhadgakhandita 35 Praharaviratau madhye 19 Prābhrabhrād visņudhāmā 74 Urasi murabhidaḥ kā 80 Pramodam janavatyeva 88 Udadhāvudadhāvājñā 8, 9 Prthag janasya kudakān 142 Udayati vitatordhvaraśmi 118 Prajnah prajnapralapajnah 141 Udgatendumavibhinnatamisrām 161 Pūrņacandramukhī ramyā 93 Pūrņāt pūrņānyuddharanti 142 Upodharāgāpyabalā 54

Pürņamadaḥ pūrņamidam 142 Vațavrkso mahāneșa 86

Ramaņī ramaņīyā me 47 Vāyumitrasutabandhuvāhanā 71 Vetraśākakuje śaile 57 Rasatam sarasarambhe 65 Rāmābhișeke mada 99 Veņībhūtapratanusalilā Visadā visadāmatta 47 132

Rāghavavirahajvālā 127 Vaidhairainai 53 Rikteşu vārikathayā 125 Sthitāh ksanam paksmasu 18 Vikāsamīyurjagatīśa 55

Sañcāriņī dipaśikheva 21 Vināyakena bhavatā 56 Vihangā vāhanam yesām 71 Sa sāsiḥ sāsusūḥ 53 Vibhūsaņam kim kuca 77 Samigarbhasya yo garbha 72 Vişādi bhaiksya 87 Sahayā sagajā senā 97 Śmaśānesvāvāso 99 Vinirgatam mānada 110

Sandhyārāgotthitai 129 Vigādhamātre ramaņībhi 126

Saktumiva titaunā punanto 140 Virațanagare rajan 84

Sadāmadabalaprāyaḥ 144 Sphuțatā na padai 161 Yadi devareņa bhaņitā 89

Salam sālambakalikā 50 Yadvātajūto' vanā 39 Yatha satprasavaḥ 90 Sa sena gamanarambhe 66 Sākșareșu bhavatīha 157 Yadrūpamanyarūpeņa 10I

Śīkarāsārasamvāhī 85 Yasmin pratijnayā prāha 140

Śilimukhaistvayā vīra 86 Yācñām dainyaparigraha 44

Śuddham baddhasurāsthi 63 Yāma yāmatra 50

Suvarņasya suvarņasya 70 Yāśritā pāvanatayā 62 Yā kațāksacchațā 86

II. BOOKS REFERRED ON CITRAKĀVYA

Ajiyasantithaya 149 Atimānusastava 152 Bhagavatapurana 143 Bhatțikāvya 144, 158 Astaślokī 153 Acyutalila 153 Bhagavatatatparyanirņaya 154

Alivilāsasamlāpa 159 Bharatatātparyanirņaya 154

Āryastotra 154 Bhagavadavatāracarita 156

Ānandakāvya 154 Bhāvavilāsa 158

Ānandalekha 159 Bhāvamañjarī 158 Bhāvaśataka (Nāgarāja) 157

İndex 205

Bhāvaśataka (Veņkațācārya) 158 Lakşmīsvaropāyanam 159 Brndāvana 153 Lodrapuraparśvanāthapraśasti 154 Caturvimsatikā 152 Mahābhārata 140, 141, 142, 143, Catuścitragarbha 155 150, 152, 153 Candamāruta 153 Mantradhirajakalpa 154 Candrakalāvilāsa 157 Mahāpurāņa 158 Camatkāracandrika (Viśveśvara) 158 Mahāvirastavana 159 -Do- (Kavikarņapūra) 158 Meghābhyudaya 153 -Do- (Narottamadāsa) 158 Candraprabhāstavana 159 Nalacampū 149 Citraratnakara 154 Nalodaya 151 Citrakāvya 154 Niranunāsikacampū 156 Citrabandharāmāyaņa 154 Citrakāvyasāra 158 Pañcastavi 153 Citrastava 159 Parāśaravijaya 153 Citrabandhastotra 159 Pañcakalyāņacampū 154 Citropahāra 159 Pañcajinahārastava 159 Caitanyacaritāmrta 155 Pādukāsāhasra 154 Praśnaśataka 158 Daśakumāracarita 149 Priyankaranrpakathā 159 Dayānandadigvijaya 159 Prasabharata 154 Deviśataka 149 Devīnāmavilāsa 159 Rasikarañjana 155 Dharmaśiksāprakaraņa 158 Rambhāsukasamvāda 157 Draupadikalyāņa 156 Rākşasakāvya 151, 152 Durghatakāvya 157 Rāmalilāmrta 153 Dvādaśastotra 154 Rāmāsțaprāsa 154 Girijākamalāvivāda 157 Ramacarita 154 Gaurivivaha 156 Ramapalacarita 154 Gurustotra 154 Rāghavayādavapāņdavīya 154 Rāghavanaișadhiya 154 Haravijaya 149 Rāghavapāņdaviya 154 Harivijaya 158 Rāmacandrodaya (Veņkațeśa) 155 Harabandhastavana 159 -Do- (Gopālarāy) 155 Or (Gopālaswāmy) Iśvaraśataka 159 Rāmayamakārņava 155 Rāmāyanasamgraha 155 Jinaśataka 15 Ramakrsnaviloma 156 Rāmakavacakāvya 156 Kapphiņābhyudaya 149 Rādhāpariņayam 159 Kamalamālikastotra 154 Kankaņabandharāmāyaņa (Krsna- Sadvidyāvijaya 153 mūrti) 155 Śankaravijaya 154 -Do-(Cārlā Bhāsyakāra Sāstri) 155 Sankaracaryavatarakatha 154 Kavīndrakarņābharaņa 157 Saptasamdhānakāvya 154 Kavirākșasīyam 157 Śatārthikāvya 154 Karamāhākulapraśasti 159 Śabdodāharaņa 158 Kāmeśvarapratāpodayam 159 Sabhyābharaņa 158 Khandavalākulapraśasti 159 Samghapațțaka 158 Kicakavadham 150 Sarvajinastavana 159 Krsnastuti 154 Saurikathodaya 151 Krsnakarnamrtamaharnava 154 Setubandha 149 Kriyagopanaramayana 157 Sītārāmīya 158 Krsnarajajayotkarsa 157 Siddhipriyastotra 158 Krsņarājaprabhāvodaya 157 Sisupalavadha 144 Kşamāsodaśi 153 Ślesacūdāmaņi 154 Ślesollāsa 154 Laksmisahasram 154 Śleşacampūrāmāyaņa 154 Lakşmīsarasvatīsamvāda 157 Ślesacintāmaņi 154

206 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

Śristava 153 Varadarājastava 153 Srirangarajastava 153 Vāgbhūșaņa 157 Srīguņaratnakosa 153 Vedāntavidyāvijaya 153 Srisayamakaśataka 153 Vedāntadeśikavaibhavaprakāśikā 153 Śrirangādikşetramāhātmya 156 Vaikunthastava 152 Stavamālā 155 Vişņusahasranāmabhāsya 153 Stutividyā 158 Viśeaņarāmāyaņa 154 Suratotsava 154 Vidagdhamukhamandana 157 Sundarabahustava 153 Vijñaptipatra 159 Virastavana 159 Taniśloki 153 Vyājoktiśataka 158 Tripuradahana 151 Tridaśatarangiņī 159 Yamakaratnākara 153 Yamakastuti 153 Ugravamśapraśasti 159 Yamakabharata 153 Yādavarāghaviya 154 Vakroktipañcāśikā 157, 158 Yudhişthiravijaya 152

III. NAMES AND TERMS OCCURRING IN THIS WORK

Akşara Drsțānta 116 -mudrā 98 Nidarśanā 117 -muşțikā 97 Paryayokta 36 -cyuta 97 Parikara 43 Anuprasa 27, 45 Prativastūpamā 120 Antya 28 Rūpaka 107 Artha 28 Samkara 37 Cheka 27, 45 Samsrsti 37 Gramya 28 Samāsokti 36, 122 Komala 28 Svabhāvokti 125, 126, 127 Lāța 28, 45 Śleșa 36 Nāgara 28 Suksma 36, 70 Upanāgara 28, 30 Upamā 103 Parușa 28 Upameyopamā 112, 127 Pāda 28, 45 Utpreksā 41, 110, I21 Śruti 28 Ubhaya 33, 35, 69 Sphuța 28 Vyatireka 113 Varņa 28, 45 Virodha 36 Vrttya 27, 45 Ākāšamānasī 101 Rūpaka 36 Akirnamantra 100, 101 Antyākșarī 100 Ābhānaka 99 Abhidhā I Ālekhyaprakhya 27 Abhanga 34, 149 Aesthetics 14 Ardhabhrama 32, 42, 57, 58, 144 Alliteration 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 40, Arthasakti 4 45, 52, 135, 141, 143, 144, 149, Alamkāra 4, 133 152 -dhvani 110, 132 Animism 178 Ananvaya 41, 127 Archetypes 178 Anyokti 36, 83 Attribution 4, 16, 43, 44 Anyonyopamā 112 Anthropomorphisation 39, 131, 139 Apahnuti 36, 122, 124 Atiśayokti 10, 41 Auto-suggestion 175, 180

Asangati 36 Bandha 24, 25, 31, 34, 61, 62, 64, Bhāvika 125 96, 110, 135, 144, 146, 150, 163,164

İndex 207

Cakra 62, 67 Circumlocution 30 Citra 52, 59, 67, 143, 144 Claustrophobia 133 Chatra 64, 67 Connotation 2 Gadā 65 Continuum 5 Kankaņa 155 Correlative 118 Muraja 66, 67, 98 Objective 133, 182, 185 Padma 62, 67 Cadence 164 Patākā 65, 67 Turangapada 60, 67 Datta (also, Cyuta) Śarayantra 33, 61, 67 Akşara 89, 91, 97 Bimba 106, 110, 120 Ardhamātrā 89, 90 -pratibimbabhāva, 106, 107, 108, Mātrā 89 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 120, Bindu 89, 90, 145 121, 122, 124, 126, 127, 166 Svara 92 -(anubimbabhāva) 36, 106 Vyañjana 92 Bimbana 127 Sthana 93 Bindumati 97 Visarga 89, 91 Brahmodya 38, 135 -Dhvani Brahmaudana 138 -artha 37 Bhangin 41 -kāvya 17 Bhrantiman 36 Atyantatiraskrtavācya 4 Bhūtamudrā 98 Arthāntarasamkramitavācya 4, 42 Belles Letters 25 Asamlakşyakrama 4 Samlaksyakrama4 Citra 17, 24, 25, 26, 27, 37, 40, 42, Avivaksitavācya 4 102, 103, 162, 172, 183, 184 Vivakşitānyaparavācya 4 alamkāra 25, 42, 110 Kavipraudhoktisiddha 4 sūtras 27 Kavinibaddhavaktrpraudhokti- rasa 27 siddha 4 Kāvya 24, 25 Svatahsambhavi 4 Ākāra 42, 62, 67 Paryāya 43 Artha 22, 24, 26, 27, 36, 43, Durvācakayoga 100 68, 102, 103, 105, 106, 108, Dviśṛngātaka 33 109, 110, 11I, 127, 139, Denotation 1, 2, 3, 7, 17, 20, J67 160, 163, 166, 167, 183 Dissimilitude 113, 117 Bandha 42, 59, 62, 67 Distancing 176 Bhāva 27, 162 Double entendre 2, 3, 69, 73, 74, 84, Bhāsa 97, 99 144, 148 Dhūli 27, 162 Dramaturgy 110 Gati 42, 59, 60, 67 Dyglot 157 Rasa 27 Sabda 17, 24, 26, 27, 41, 45, Geyapreksa 39 68, 135, 144, 145, 150, 162, Gomūtrikā 32, 33, 59, 60, 67 163 Ardha 59 Svara 42, 53 Pāda 59 Sthana 42, 54 Śloka 59 Ubhaya 24, 33, 35, 36, 37, 39, -dhenu 59 40, 41, 68, 69, 94, 135, 162, Gupta 163 Kāraka 84 Varņa 31, 33, 42, 54 Kriyā 84, 87 Viloma 32, 33, 42 Linga 84 Vyañjanā 42, 53 Pāda 88 Campū I Samāsa 84, 89 Catuścitragarbha 155 Tin 84 Chekokti 35 Vastu 88, 89 -chaya 35 Vibhakti 84 Chime 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 39, 40, Sandhi 87 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, (Samhita) Vacana 88 54,55, 59, 70, 135, 141, 142, 143, Gūdhokti 35 146, 149, 151, 153, 163

208 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

Hieroglyphics 181 Hyperbole 118, 122, 128 Arthālamkāra 40 Śabdālamkāra 40

Image 8, 12, 26, 27, 43, 102, 103, Klișțānvaya 93, 95, 96 Nāmadhātu 73 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, I10, Pratika 136 114, 120, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, Samāsa 73 131, 132, 133, 134, 140, 161, Samāsamālā 95 162, 163, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 174, 176, 177, Samastasabdamālā 74

180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185 Sandhi 74, 75, 95 Samkhyā 96 -creation 15, 16, 122, 162, 168, 169 Auricular 14, 128, 183, 185 Śleșa 96 Yamaka 95 Emotive 8, 24 Evocative 128 -Kāvya 37 Expressed 132, '133, 174, 185 Laksaņā 1, 41, 74 Ocular 14 Perpetual 15, 133 Gauņi 3, 43, III

Pictorial 174, 185 Lakşaņa 4

Material 174 Prayojana 3 Śuddha 3 Poetic 8, 23, 24, 26, 27, 36, 105, Sāropā 41 10g Sadhyavasāna Recollected 15 4

Suggestive 133, 174, 185 Upadana 4 Lokapratīta 38 Visual 12,23, 114, 126 Imaginative /15, 1I0 Manasi 100 Imagery 7, 13, 14, 15, 16, 27, 37, 43, Matradatta 96 106, 108, 127, 130, 131, 160, Mlechitavikalpa 100 168, 169, 171, 185 Indication 1, 3, 7, 41, 42, 72, 74, 167 Metaphor 3, 12, 13, 14, 39, 71, 103, 104, 105, 107, 108, 112, 'II4,

Juxtaposition 40, 101, 119, 132 116, 117, 118, 124, 136, 170 Model 36, 122, 124 Metamorphosis 22, 105 Kāvya 1, 24, 27 devāyatana 10I Nrtta 27 -Kriyā 100, 10I -Rasa 27 Parakāmohana 100, 10I Bandha 154 Pancaratras 136 Citrabandha 52, 59, 67, 143, 144 Pratimālā 99, 100 Dvisandhāna 150 Dhvani 17 Pravargya 138 Praśna 40, 69, 75 Kūța 37 Antarālāpa 75 Niranunasika 150 I. Ekaprstapraśnottara 75, 81 Nirosthya 149, 150, 156 75,83 Nirdantya 150, 156 2. Dviprstapraśnottara (or, Yugapatpraśnottara 75 Prabandha 149 or, Uktipratyukti 75 Sandhāna 154 Bahiralapa 75, 78 Ślesa 149, 154 Bahirantarālāpa 76, 81, 82 Śleşayamaka 151 Jātipraśna 76 Trisandhana 150 (or, Praśnottarajāti) 76 Vakrokti 150 Prstapraśna 76, 82 Viloma 150 Uttarapraśna 76, 82 Vyājokti 150 Prerana 39 Yamaka 149, 152 Preyas II Kāku 41, 146 Prahelika 38, 40, 68, 75, 94 . Krivākalpa 100, 10I (or, Pravahlikā) 38 Krīdartha 38 Anyarthata 95, 96 Kutuhaladhyayi 141 Arthakari 95, 97 Kūța 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 44,. '68, 69, Arthada 95, 97 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 79, 84, 93, Bhaniti 40, 41 94, 135, 136,140, 141, 143, 163 Chãyā 40

Index 209

Dusta 38 Sarvatobhadra 32, 42, 58, 144 Ekacchannā 95, 97 Sabhanga 34, 149 Ubhayacchannā 95, 97 Samasyāpurti 97 Gumphana 90 Samuccaya 40 Gūdhā 95, 96 Sampāțhya 100 Jāti 40 Sarasvatibhavana 10I Kalpitā 94, 96 Sahrdaya 182 Prakalpitā 94, 96 Sādrśya 16 Leśa 95, 97 Sādharmya 16, 113 Mudrā 40 Sābhāsā 98 Mușitā 94, 95 Sthanacyuta 93, 95 Pramușitā 94, 95 Simile 12, 13, 14, 21, 103, 110, 112, Nāmāntaritā 94, 96, 97 113, 114, 126, 149, 161 Nasțārthā 95, 96 Elliptical 114 Naştākșarā 95, 96 Reciprocal 1I2 Nibhrtā 94, 96 Typical 120, 122 Pațhiti 40, 41 Similitude 2, 8, 15, 43, 106, 107, 110, Parușā 94, 96 112, 116, 119, 121, 122, 123, Parihārikā 94, 95 125, 127, 128, 166, 167, 171 Parihāsikā 94, 95 Signification 2, 3 Rīti 40 Primary 3, 4, 9 Sayya 40 Secondary 3, 9, 96 Samātratā 94, 95 Speech Samāhitā 94, 95 Concealing 69 Samudha 94, 96 Insinuating 35, 70 Vyamudhā 94, 96 or, Contriving 35, 70 Samānaśabdā 94 or, Subversive 36 Samānarūpā 94, 95 Deviant 129 Samkhyata 94, 96 Evasive 26 Samkīrņā 94, 97 Revealing 35, 69 Vanditā 94, 95 Circumlocutory 36 Vañcita 94, 95, 97 Surrealist 10 Vikrāntagopitā 94, 95 Suggestion 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, Vyutkrāntā 94, 95 39, 42, 102, 103, 105, 106, 110, Vrtti 40 III, 124, 126, 127, 129, 132, Vyabhicāriņī 95, 97 133, 147, 165, 167, 172, 173, Punaruktavadābhāsa, 34 Punaruktapratīkāśa 35 174, 178, 180, 184, 185 Suggestionist 12, 43, 165 Pūrvakoți 181 Sublimation 15 Paranomasia 34, 36, 144, 146, 151 Suspension of intellect 179 Parnassian poetry 182 Sympathetic induction 8, 13 Periphrasis 41, 42, 44 Symbolism 109, 149, 171 Permutation 46 Pictorialism 182 Tour de force 151 Poetic naturalism 8, 128, 133, 174, 185 Tautology 29, 34, 70 Polarisation 5 Primordia 13, 105, 178 Upamāna 107 Psycho-analysis 169 Uttarakoți 181 Pun 36, 70, 87, 141, 149 Upameya 107 Urjasvin II Rañjana 107 Unconscious 10, 168, 169, 177, 180 Rūdhi 2, 3 Yoga 2 Vādārtha 38 Rasavat 4 Vastu 4 Riddles 39, 40, 84, 93, 94,96, 97, I01, -prativastubhāva 120, 122, 126, 135, 136, 139, 141, 156, 162, 163 127, 166 Vakratā Śayyā 6, 40 Kriyāvaicitrya 42 Samdastaka 30, 54 Lingavaicitrya 42 Samudgaka 30, 55, 144 Paryāya 42

210 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

Rūdhivaicitrya 42 Vyangya 102 Samvrti 42 Guņībhūta 17, 102 Upacāra 42 Jāgarūka 17, 127 Viseşaņa 42 Ajāgarūka 17 Vrtti, 42 Variables 184 Vakrokti 10, 26, 36, 41, 83, 94, 129, Vocables 134 156 Vārtā 5 Yamaka 39, 45, 59 Vaidharmya 117 Avyapeta 31, 46, 49 Vivrtokti 35 Vyapeta 31, 47 Vicchitti 36, 41, 113 Asthana 31 Vyatireka 36 Curņaka 46 Vidyāgoșțhī 101 Garbha 31 Vividita 33 Kāñci 31 Vrtti 29 Mahā 30, 55 Auņdri 29 Mālā 31 Drāvidi 29 Pamkti 31 Kaunki 29 Padābhyasa 55 Kauntali 29 Parivartaka 46 Kārņāțī 29 Pratilomaślokārdha 57, 65 Māgadhi 29 Pratilomapāda 57 Māthuri 29 Puccha 31 Matsyā 29 Śikhā 31 Pauņdri 29 Śrkhalā 46, 54 Tāmraliptikā 29 Ślokabhyāsa 56 Vānavāsikā 29 Vaktra 31 Vaidarbhī 29 Yoga 2 Vyañjanā 1, 24 Yukti 35

ERRATA

Page Para FN. Line Incorrect Form Correct Form No. No. No. No.

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212 Figurative Poetry in Sanskrit Literature

Page Para FN. Line Incorrect Form Correct Form No. No. No. No.

122 2 -8 prominenly prominently 129 3 1 Samdhyārajot- Samdhyārāgot- thitai .... thitai ... 132 1 1 Veņūbhūta .. i Veņībhūta ... 151 2 1 parichhedaḥ paricchedaḥ 154 2 2 Śl șa .. Śleșa ... 166 1 18 familiarity ; is familiarity is 181 2 12 This, the This,