1. Fundamental of Ancient Indian Music and Dance Sures Chandra Banerji L.D. Institute of Indology

FUNDAMENTALS

OF

ANCIENT

INDIAN

MUSIC

AND

DANCE

L.

D.

SERIES

57

GENERAL

EDITORS

DALSUKH

MALVANIA

NAGIN

J.

SHAH

BY

SURES

CHANDRA

BANERJI

EX-SECRETARY

VANGIYA

SANSKRIT

SIKSA

PARISAT

CALCUTTA.

L.

D.

INSTITUTE

OF

INDOLOGY

AHMEDABAD-9

Jain

Education

International

For

Private

&

Personal

Use

Only

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FUNDAMENTALS OF

ANCIENT INDIAN MUSIC

AND DANCE

L. D. SERIES 57

GENERAL EDITORS

DALSUKH MALVANIA

NAGIN J. SHAH

BY

SURES CHANDRA BANERJI

EX-SECRETARY

VAṄGĪYA SANSKRIT ŚIKṢĀ PARISAT

CALCUTTA.

L. D. INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGY AHMEDABAD-9

FIRST EDITION

December, 1976

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L. D. Indology

Printed by

K. Bhikhalal Bhavsar,

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46, Bhavsar Society,

Nava Vadaj

Ahmedabad-13,

and published by

Nagin J. Shah

Director

L. D. Institute of Indology

Ahmedabad-9.

FOREWORD

It gives me great pleasure, indeed, in publishing Dr. S. C. Banerji's monograph entitled "Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance". This is really a good introduction to the subject. It explains lucidly the essentials of ancient Indian music and dance. The introduction traces the origin and development of Indian music, and points out its salient features. Chapter I is devoted to vocal music, Chapter II to instrumental music, Chapter III to tāla and Chapter IV to dance. The work is embellished with five interesting appendices. Appendix E contains the Sanskrit text of Pañcama-sāra-samhitā of Nārada, hitherto unpublished. Glossary and Bibliography given at the end enhance the value of the work.

I am most thankful to Dr. S. C. Banerji, ex-secretary, Vañgīya Sanskrit Śikṣā Pariṣad, Calcutta, for agreeing to the publication of this work in the L. D. Series. I have no doubt that the students, teachers and others interested in this subject will find this book interesting and of genuine help in understanding Indian music and dance.

L. D. Institute of Indology, Nagin J. Shah

Ahmedabad-380009. Director

15th December, 1976.

CONTENTS

Preface

vii-viii

Introduction

1-16

[ General Remarks—, Meaning of Samgita—, Origin and Development of Indian music—. Works and Authors—, Characteristics of Indian Music— ]

Chapter

Subject

Page

I

Vocal Music

17

[General remarks—, Gīta-its definition, characteristics and types—, Merits and defects of Gīta— , Nāda, Śruti, Svara, Sāranā—, Amśa, Graha. Nyāsa—, Varṇa, Alamkāra—, Sthāya—, Grāma, Mūrchanā—, Tāna— , Jāti— , Rāga— , Bhāṣā, Vibhāṣā, Antarbhāṣā—, Śabda, Śārira—, Characteristics of Väggeya-kāra—, Gāndharva Svarādi—, Characteristics of singers—, Defects of singers— , Vṛnda, Kuṭapa—]

II

Instrumental Music

37

[ General remarks—, Merits and defects of vādyā— , Merits and defects of instrumentalists— , Dhātu—, Kinds of instrumental music—, Structure and material of musical instruments —, Tāla—, Suśira—, Ānaddha—, Ghoṇa—, Characteristics of a mardala player— , Pāṭa, Pañcasañca, Vādyaprabandha—]

III

Tāla

49

IV

Dance

52

[General remarks— , Nṛtta, Nṛtya— , Nṛttakaraṇa— , Cāri— , Mārga Cāri— , Deśi Cāri— , Sthāna— , Deśi Sthānas— , Angahāra— , Recaka— , Vartanā Calaka— , Nyāya-- Mandalas— , Rekhā— , Qualifications of a dancer— , Merits and defects of a dancer- Decorations of a dancer—, The teacher of dance— , Dance-troupe— , Gaundali— , Peraṇin— , Ācārya— , Audience— , Sabhāpati— , Seating arrangements in assembly—]

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APPENDICES

A —Indian and Western Music 71

B —Influence of Indian music abroad 73

C —Influence of Tantra on music 76

D —Non-Aryan elements in Indian music 79

E —( i ) Text of the Pañcama-samhitā belonging to Varigīya Sāhitya Pariṣat, Calcutta. 81

( ii ) Text of the third chapter of the Pañcama-Samhitā belonging to Asiatic Society, Calcutta. 100

Glossary of technical terms 107

Bibliography 117

PREFACE

The evolution of Saṃgīta in India is like the course of the mighty Ganges. The Ganges flowed from the stately Himālaya, ran through hundreds of miles gathering the soil of the various regions. In its course, it has branched off into tributaries, and has been fed by smaller rivers. Ultimately it has merged with the ocean. Likewise, saṃgīta originated in hoary antiquity, evolved through Vedic, Epic, Purāṇic and Classical ages. Since the time of its genesis, it was enriched by new ideas from age to age till at last it merged into what Ravīndranātha described as mahāmānaver Sāgar or the ocean of vast humanity. India has been the cradle of diverse cultures spread over the length and breadth of the huge subcontinent. The result is that what is called Indian music to-day is a composite art. It is difficult to distinguish between what is indigenous in Indian music and how much has been borrowed or is exotic.

It is intended, in the following pages, to present, in a succinct form, the salient features of ancient Indian music and dance. Such books as Prajñānānanda's Historical Development of Indian Music, Sambamoorthy's History of Indian Music, Ganguli's Rāgas and Rāgiṇīs, M. Bose's Classical Indian Dancing, admirable though they are for the specialists and scholars, are too profound and detailed for the general reader. Such books as Danielou's Northern Indian Music are of regional interest, and do not deal with ancient Indian music alone. Books like N. C. Ghosh's Fundamentals of Rāga and Tāla with a new system of Notation, Peterson's On the Grāmas or Musical Scales of the Hindus deal only with particular aspects of Indian music.

There are many Sanskrit treatises on music and dance. Of these a large number of texts still lie buried in manuscripts beyond the reach of readers. The published texts are not accessible to many, because these are written in Sanskrit.

viii

We have made an attempt to present to the general reader a brief account of the highlights of ancient Indian music and dance as laid down in the Sanskrit treatises, particularly in Śārṅgadeva's Saṃgīta-ratnākara.

The selection of topics for this little book posed a problem. We have, however, included in it all the important topics from which the reader can form a coherent idea of the vocal and instrumental music and dance. In the beginning of this work, a rapid survey of the Sanskrit musical literature of India starting with the Vedic literature has been given.

Several interesting topics, related to Indian music, have been appended to the work. One appendix deals with the interesting points which mark the distinction of the Indian and Western systems. In another we have tried to trace the influence of our musical system abroad. In one appendix we have briefly shown how Tantra, which permeated the cultural soil of India, influenced musical speculations too. One appendix reveals how non-Aryan elements were absorbed into the Aryan culture in the domain of music.

At the end, there is a glossary of the important technical terms, followed by an up-to-date bibliography.

I shall consider my labours rewarded if this monograph whets the intellectual appetite of the readers in respect of Indian music as described in the Sanskrit treatises.

Calcutta,

New Year's Day, 1973.

S. C. Banerji

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INTRODUCTION

General remarks

The utility of music and dance in human life is universally admitted. These arts, when cultivated, help the development of personality to the fullest extent. Music and dance evoke the finer feelings in us. They afford unspeakable joy to not only the performers but also to the listeners. The influence of music even on lower animals is marked. We see how even the fickle fawn is enraptured by songs, and falls an easy prey to the hunter. It is a common experience that the most venomous and menacing serpent is charmed by playing on flutes. Of human beings, not only the grown-ups but also children can be pacified by songs and lulled into sleep.

The usefulness of songs for the fulfilment of spiritual aspirations was recognised in hoary antiquity. The Ṛgveda, Indo-Europeans inhabiting a vast area of the globe, is full of invocations and prayers to gods. These prayers have to be uttered with three accents, viz. Udātta, Anudātta and Svarita; all these accents are musical. The eighth book (maṇḍala) of this ancient work is called pragāṭha (full of songs). The sacrificial rites, closely associated with the life of the Vedic Indians, were accompanied by songs without which these were believed to be incomplete. These songs constitute the Sāma-Veda. In the Gītā (X.22), the Lord says-vedānāṁ sāmavedo'smi (of the Vedas, I am the Sāmaveda). According to the ancient Greeks, as a result of the movement of the heavenly bodies, there arises the Music of the Spheres; by realising this one’s mind is attracted to the Divine Being, It seems as if the entire universe is praying to Almighty with charming notes.

F-1

In many temples of India, we find Devadāsīs or girls dedicated to the worship of deities by dance and music. Even to-day countless devotees try to please God by Sanskrit hymns set to tunes. Jayadeva, the great Vaiṣṇava devotee, has named his book Gītagovinda (the work in which Govinda is prayed to through songs). The Tāntric Sahajiyā cult has found passionate and profound expression in the songs of the Bengal Bāuls. Caitanya not only unleashed a flood of emotion among the masses by means of Kīrtana songs; but the Vaiṣṇava devotees used to believe that Kīrtana was a means of pleasing God. The saints of Daśanāmī sect, too, used to practise devotional songs. Rāmaprasāda, the noted devotee of Goddess Kālī, is known to have reached his spiritual goal through songs. In fact, the uncommon characteristics of his songs and their melody cause ecstatic delight to those who have even a grain of devotional fervour. Vivekānanda's spiritual songs charmed even his master, Rāmakṛṣṇa. A large number of spiritual songs of Tagore testifies to the spiritual aspect of his multi-faceted personality. The 'cruel compassionate one' (nithura daradi) of Atulaprasāda, the immortal lawyer-singer of Bengal, seems to be felt by us in the ups and downs of our lives. It is interesting to note that, according to the Yājñavalkya-smṛti (Prāyaścitta—115), the knowledge of lute-playing, Śruti, Jāti and Tāla is easily conducive to salvation.

Love is one of the primal intincts of human beings. In many cases, music has not only engendered love, but also fostered it. Instances are not rare of uncouth girls having earned the love of young men simply by means of the gift of a pleasant voice. The full-throated song of the loving wife has, in many cases, enthralled her unruly husband addicted to alcoholic drink and even to other women.

Like Sanskrit Kāvya, music has also superhuman rasa. We are naturally averse to such things as cause pain to our hearts. But, we love such literary compositions as depict a tragic picture; the tragic elements in literature, instead of rousing repugnance, add to its relish. Similarly, as the poet says, our

sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thoughts. In fact,

pain is an essential element of life. The Sāṃkhya philosophy

starts with the avowed object of rooting out the threefold

pain—that caused by divine forces, that produced by worldly

beings and that generated within ourselves—to which human

beings are subjected as soon as they are born. Of the Four

Noble Truths, declared by the Buddha, the first is Duhkha

(pain). The wise penetrate the veil of pleasure that envelops

the worldly objects; while the naive human beings are duped

by the momentary pleasures of life, Those, who know the

truth, aim at permanent bliss after overcoming the causes of

pain. One of the strings of our psyche-lute is set to the tune

of sorrow. That is why, after hearing a melancholy song or

a pensive tune played on an instrument, we feel joy as it seems

to be permeated with our most familiar sentiment. According

to Bhavabhūti, a great Sanskrit dramatist, the one basic

sentiment in us is the pathetic; it manifests itself as diverse

sentiments evoked by special circumstances.

The question may arise-what is the use of knowing the

musical lore of the past in this age when current musical

modes have developed to a great extent and are still develop-

ing? Our answer is this. The knowledge of an individual

cannot be complete without a knowledge of his pedigree and

antecedents. Similarly, the true nature of current Indian

music, of which there are two broad divisions as Northern and

Southern, cannot be realised without a knowledge of its

precursors. It is necessary to examine how far the present musical

systems have borrowed from the Śāstra and to what extent

these have assimilated later elements. Apart from the useful-

ness of Samgīta-śāstra from the historical point of view, it

has other uses too. If we delve deep into the Śāstra, we shall

be in a position to know how much of Indian music is indi-

genous and how much has been borrowed from non-Aryans

and foreigners. Again, researches into the ancient lore will

enable us to see if it is possible to improve the current music.

Moreover, the knowledge of the Śāstra will enlighten us about

4

Introduction

our rich heritage in the domain of fine arts. A comparative

study of the Śāstra and the history of music abroad will

reveal to what extent India has influenced other countries,

particularly her eastern and Far Eastern neighbours.

'Mārga' is a term used now-a-days to denote classical music.

For those, who want to have a sound knowledge of 'mārga-

samgīta', a knowledge of the Samgīta-śāstra is indispensable.

Indian dance has of late been very popular abroad. It is

serving as a cultural link between India and foreign countries.

The Sanskrit works on dance will acquaint those, who are

interested in it, with the rich storehouse of knowledge

enshrined in them.

Those who are interested in instrumental music will profit

by a study of the Śāstra. It will teach them not only the art

of playing the instruments but also the scientific ways of

making various instruments. They will also learn how many

types of a single instrument can be made with precision.

Meaning of Samgīta

The word has been derived from the root gai preceded by

sam Gai means 'to sing'. So, the derivative meaning of

samgīta is song. But, it is generally used to indicate the

three fine arts called Gīta (son:), Vādya (instrumental music)

and Nrtta (dance). From the linguistic point of view, there

has been an expansion of meaning of the word samgīta. But,

at present there has been a contraction of meaning. Now-a-days,

samgīta is commonly used to denote vocal music only. When

compounded with the word yantra, as the second member of

the compound it means instrumental music.

In the Samgīta-dāmodara, gīta denotes vocal and instru-

mental music. In this work, the term samgītaka stands for

song accampanied by tāla and vādya.

Origin and Development of Indian Music

The origin of samgīta is shrouded in a veil of obscurity.

Among the ruins of Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000-2500 B.C.)

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there are the flute with seven holes, mrdanga, Vīnā, Karatāla and the dancing figures of men and women. The earliest form of Indian songs is contained in the Sāmaveda. The pragātha portion of the Rgveda, full of songs, has been referred to earlier. The date of origin of the Vedic Samhitā is unknown. According to the orthodox Sanskrit scholars, the Veda was revealed by the Divine Being. They think that the Vedic seer saw the Vedic mantras, but did not compose them. Among the modern scholars, the dates of the Vedic Samhitās are like nine pins set up to be bowled down again. Of them, some push the date as far back as six thousand B.C., while according to others the Veda originated in the period between 2000 and 15000 B.C. Whatever the exact time of their composition, the fact remains that the Veda is the earliest literary work of the Indo-Europeans. In the Rgveda, there are accents called Udātta, Anudātta and Svarita. These are pitch accents. There is also a kampasvara arising out of the friction of two accents. The heptatonic system originated in the remote Vedic age. In the Rgveda there is mention of tānas and of the musical instruments called Nādi, Gargara, Vāṇa, Viṇā, etc. Some songs of the Sāmaveda are called araṇyageya, while others are styled grāmageya. The latter was, perhaps, the harbinger of the Indian songs of later ages. In the Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas, Upaniṣads and in some Vedāṅgas, there are evidences of close familiarity of the Aryans with saṃgīta. In the Nāradiya Śikṣā, which probably dates back to pre-Buddhistic times, there is mention of the seven svaras, three grāmas, twenty-one mūrcchanās and forty-nine tānas. Elements of music are present in the Yāīñavalkya-śikṣā, Pāṇinīya Śikṣā and Māṇdūkī Śikṣā. Svaras etc. are also mentioned in the Puṣpasūtra. There are countless references to vocal and instrumental music as well as dance in the Rāmāyaṇa ( present form c. 2nd-3rd century A.D.), the Mahābhārata ( present form c. 4th century A.D.) as well as the Purāṇas. According to modern scholars, the original epic sources were the songs sung at various places by the travelling singers called Kuśīlavas. The legendary Lava and

Kuśa are said to have pleased Rāma with mārga-samgīta. Of

the Purāṇas, the Mārkaṇḍeya and the Vāyu, which were pro-

bably composed or compiled in the period between the 3rd and

5th century A.D., contain information on music to a greater

extent than the others. In the former, we find mention of

seven svaras, grāma, rāga, mūrchanā, tāna, laya etc. Besides,

it mentions also the instruments called Veṇu, Viṇā, Paṇava,

Mṛdaṅga, Paṭaha, Duṇdubhi, Śaṅkha, etc. It testifies to the vogue

of dance too. Chapter twenty three of this Purāṇa contains

these matters, but not the essential principles behind them. The

Vāyu ( Chapters 86–87) refers to seven svaras, three grāmas

( twenty-one mūrchanās and forty-nine tānas). In it, there is

discussion also on the mutual relations of grāma and mūrchanā,

the signif icance of the iames of mūrchanās etc. Besides

these, it reveals its familiary with gītālamkāra, varṇa, sthāna,

tāla, etc. Certain rāgas are mentioned in the Kālikāpurāṇa.

Information about dance and song is present in the third

section of the Viṣṇudharmottara.

In some Tantras, certain facts about samgīta are found.

Of such works, the most noteworthy is the Viṇātantra included

in the Yāmalatantra.

Dance and music are among the sixty-four kalās dealt

with in the Kāmsūtra of Vātsyāyana ( not earlier than the

4th century B.C. and later than 5th century A.D.).

In ancient Indian literature, prose, poetical and dramatic,

there are numerous references to samgīta and, in many cases,

various instruments and the contents of songs have been

referred to. For example, we may mention the Svapnavāsava-

datta ascribed to Bhāsa. The rāga-parivāhinī gīti ( song with

melody overflowing) of Hamsapadikā in the Śakuntalā is well-

known. In the prologue to this play, the spectators are said

to have been so much enraptured by the sweet melody of

the song that they were sitting like so many motionless pictures.

The Stage-Manager is said to have been carried away by the

melody. In the Meghadūta, samgīta and the instruments Muraja,

Viṇā etc. have been mentioned. In one verse of this kāvya,

the close relation between dance and instrumental music has been expressed in a very charming manner. The prose romance of Bāṇabhaṭṭa, the drama Mṛcchakaṭika of Śūdraka, the fable Pañcatantra etc. bear eloquent testimony to the wide prevalence of music in the then society of India.

In many Buddhist works, too, various information about dance and music, both vocal and instrumental, is found. The very names of certain Jātakas point to their authors' familiarity with music and dance; e.g. Nṛtya-jātaka, Bherīvādaka-jātaka, Viṇāsthuna-jātaka. The information in the Matsya-jātaka and Guptila-jātaka is clearer and comparatively more elaborate. The Jātaka stories probably originated in the 3rd or 2nd century after birth of Christ; it is difficult to ascertain precisely when they assumed the forms of books. In the Lalitavistara, which perhaps dates back to the second century A.D., we find the words gīta, gāna, nṛtya and the instruments Bherī, Mṛdaṅga, Viṇā, Veṇu, Vallakī etc. In the Lānkāvatāra-sūtra (c. 1st century A.D.), there is mention of Viṇā, the playing of lute with the bow (koṇa), the seven notes, grāma, mūrchanā etc. Various kinds of information are available in the works Milindapañha, Sumaṅgalavilāsinī, etc.; there is evidence of the use of saṃgīta in the Buddhist festivals. In a piece of Gāndhāra painting of Ajantā of 6th century bear out that Gautama used to practise music regularly. We are told that, at a certain ancient educational centre, at least 500 śramaṇas and other students used to learn music. In the three universities of Nālandā, Vikramaśīla and Odantapurī, there were separate departments for teaching the Gāndharavidyā or saṅgīta.

Although saṃgīta had been undoubtedly in vogue in India from very remote ages, this discipline appears to have been systematised, for the first time, in the monumental Nāṭya-śāstra ascribed to Bharata.

Purandara Dāsa of the 15th century was a resident in the land between the North and the South India. Having

8

Introduction

acquired profound knowledge of the music of both these regions, he attempted a synthesis of the two regional systems.

But, in course of time, the points of difference between the two became marked. In the 17th century, one Venkatamukhi revolutionised South Indian music by introducing seventy-two scales. Though, in the matter of Suddha-mela Venkaṭa's views widely differ from those of Somanātha, Pundarīka and Rāmāmātya, yet Venkaṭa became very popular in South India.

Considerable changes were introduced into South Indian music through the compelling songs of Tyāgarajā, Shyāma Śāstrī, Svatitirunel.

In the 19th century, particularly after the advent of Muhammad Rejā of Patna and Mahārājā Pratāp Singh of Jaipura, North Indian music assumed a new garb. Their works are entitled respectively Nagmat-e-Asafī and Rādhā-govinda-samgītasāra. During the reign of Akbar and Jahangir, music of this type spread far and wide. Besides Āmir Khasru and Tānsen, Gopāl Nāyek, Baiju Bāora, King Mana of Gwalior and Haridās Goswāmi were massive pillars to the mighty edifice of this kind of music.

In Northern India, besides Delhi, Gwalior, Bundi, Jaunpur, Āgra, Mathurā and Vrindāvan were noteworthy centres for the cultivation of Mārga-samgīta. In greater Bengal, too, the cultivation of this music was wide and deep. In this province, samgīta reached a high degree of development due to the rise of scholar-musicians and musician-saints. The role of samgīta in the literature and culture of this province deserves special mention. The Caryāpadās, which probably originated round about 1000 A.D. bear eloquent testimony to the fondness of music on the part of the Bengalis as well as to their spiritual aspiration through music. Another such work is the Krsnakīrtana ascribed to Candīdāsa. Jayadeva, the glory of Bengal, the padmāvatī-carana-cāranacakravartī, composed his immortal Gīta-govinda with a mind saturated with the Vaiṣṇava and Vraigāla bear witness to the considerable development of

the rāga Gauḍa

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Introduction

9

music in this region and also the genius of Bengal in the

realm of music. Elements of the music of this province reached

the far-off places in Central Asia called Kashgar, Kuchi, Khotan

etc. through travellers, Buddhist priests and merchants. The

music of such non-Aryan races as Śabaras, Pulindas, Kambo-

jas, Vāṅgas, Kirātas and Drāviḍas etc. infiltrated into the

musical lore of the Aryans. The music of these tribes and

races has been included under Deśī (local or regional) which

is used in contradistinction to Mārga. But, curiously enough,

the rāgas Pulindikā, Śabarī etc. have found a place in the

exalted mārga saṅgītā. From this, it is evident that the con-

tribution of non-Aryans to the evolution of Indian music is

by no means negligible. Like the vocabulary of India the

musical literature of this country was also developed by borr-

owings from the non-Aryans.

Works and authors :

That a large number of works on music and dance were

composed in India is attested by the mention of earlier writers

on these subjects found in the extant works. Sāriṅgadeva

alone has mentioned ( Svaragatādhyāya, verses 15-21, of

Saṅgīta-ratnākara ) more than 20 predecessors. The number

of extant works also is not negligible. Of these, comparatively

a small numer of works has been published. Of the published

works, the following are noteworthy :

1. Nāṭya-śāstra—ascribed to sage Bharata. According to

some, chapters 28–33 of this work, dealing with music, were

composed by Kohala.

The date of its composition is highly controversial. It

has been variously assigned by different scholars to different

periods from the 2nd century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D.

Among its commentaries, Adhinavabhāratī is the most well-

known and very widely read.

2. Dattilam—ascribed to Dattilācārya.

It has generally followed Bharata. The seven svaras have

been mentioned by him no doubt; but, in his opinion,

E-2

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Introduction

grāmas are two—ṣadja and madhyama. He has recognised 84 tānas. Jātirāgas (Śuddha, Vikrta) are 18. In this work, tāla

has also been discussed.

3. Brhaddeśī—of Matariga, composed sometime between 5th and the 7th century A.D According to some, it arose

sometime after the 9th century. It generally follows the Nātya-śāstra. The extant work seems to be incomplete, because, in

spite of the promise of a section on vādya in the concluding verse, there is no such section in it. Though admitting 22

śrutis, Matariga says that, as a matter of fact, the basic śruti is only one and the others are only its pratibhāsa or mani-

festation.

4. Samgīta-makaranda—ascribed to Nārada who is supposed to have flourished in the 11 century. Many scholars

think that this Nārada is different from the author of the Nāradiya Śikṣā.

5. Samgīta-ratnākara—of Śārṅgadeva. Date 13th century A.D. The author appears to have been the Chief Accountant

of king Siṅghana of Deccan.

Barring the Nātya-śāstra, this is the only work in which dance, vocal and instrumental music have been dealt with in

considerable detail. It is regarded as a very authoritative work.

It has been commented upon by Mallinātha, Siṅgha-bhūpāla, Keśava, Hamsabhūpāla and Kumbhakarṇa. The

commentary of Mallinātha is the most popular.

6. Samgīta-samayasāra—of Pārśvadeva. Date probably 13th century A.D.

7. Samgīta-dāmodara—of Śubhaṅkara. Supposed, not on conclusive evidence, to have been a Bengali author of the

15th century A.D. It contains discussions on vocal and instrumental music, dance and drama.

8. Svaramela-kalānidhi—of Rāmāmātya who was a minister of king Rāma of Vijayanagar and descendent of Kallinātha

referred to above. Date 16th century A D.

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9. Rāgavibodha--of Somanātha of the 17th century A.D. The author was probably a native of Andhra. The author seems to have been actuated to compose this work by a desire to bring about the harmony of the science of music with its practice.

10. Samgīta-darpana--of Dāmodara also called Catura Dāmodara. The author was the son of Lakṣmīdhara and a musician in the court of Jahangir ( or Shahjehan, according to some). Date 17th century.

11. Rāgataranginī--of Locana Paṇḍita of the 17th century.

12. Samgītasudha--of Govinda Dīkṣita of the 17th century.

13. Hṛdayakautuka and Hṛdayaprakāśa--of Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva of the 17th century.

14. Samgītapārijāta--of Ahobala of the 17th century. It was translated into Persian in the 18th century. Among the published works, it has the closest relation with the current Indian music.

15. Rāganirūpaṇa--or Catvārimśacchatarāga-nirūpaṇa--ascribed to Nārada. It is a compilation which appears to have been made by a comparatively late and unknown author.

16. Samgītasārasamgraha--of the Bengali Ghanaśyāmadāsa or Narahari Cakravartī. Date Śaka 1725 (=1803 A.D.) which is written at the end; it may be the date either of the original work or of the copy.

The Abhilāṣitārtha-cintāmaṇi or Mānasollāsa--ascribed to the Cālukya king Someśvara, and composed in Śaka era 1051 (1129 A.D.); it contains a large number of verses on vocal music and instruments.

Characteristics of Indian Music :

There is a tendency among certain scholars to point out Western influence on whatever is ancient and great in India. Some of them hold that Indian drama is, to a great extent, influenced by the Greeks. Attempts have been made to trace Western influence on Indian Astronomy. But, some Western

12

Introduction

scholars themselves1 have asserted that the great art of Indian music is absolutely free from Western inspiration.

We have shown, in an appendix, the basic differences between Indian and Western music. Some scholars are inclined to think that Indian music has some similarity with the music of Arabia and Persia1. There are, no doubt, some parallelisms between Indian music and that of the above two countries. But, no definite case of borrowing can be established.

Muslim influence on North Indian music is but natural. Attracted by the natural resources and the fabulous treasure of India, the Muslims carried on their predatory activities in this part of India in different periods starting from the 8th century A.D. At last, in the 12th and 13th centuries, they appeared as regional rulers in various parts of India. In course of time, they attempted to extend their imperial sway throughout this vast countrary. Amir Khasru, Court poet of Sultan Alauddin, has stated, in his Persian work, that Indian music is superior to that of all other countries; by it not only human beings, but also beasts are charmed. Through the intervention of the Sultan, Khasru effected notable changes by an admixture of the elements of Persian music.

The connoisseur-kings of the Khilji dynasty introduced certain new rāgas of which the most noteworthy are Śaka, Turuṣka-gauda and Turuṣka-todi; these are mentioned in the medievel works on music. Besides Amir Khasru, Tānsen and Vilāskhān deserve honourable mention among those who acquired a high degree of proficiency in music, and made significant contribution to the evolution of Indian music under the patronge of the Muslim rulers.

In the domain of instrumenal music, the Occident is indebted to the Indian viṇā, at least for the Violin and the Flute; this is admitted by an occidental scholar2 himself.

1 For example, G. T. Garratt, The Legacy of India, p. 325.

2 Ibid, p. 326.

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From the foregoing account of Indian music it is clear that the stream of music has been flowing over the soil of

India from time immemorial. In Sanskrit literature, the succulent current of music has been flowing ever since the remote

Vedic Age. As a river with a strong current floods the lands through which it flows and fertilises them with alluvial soil,

so the mighty current of Indian music has been rushing forth with irresistable force. In its course, it has been flowing

through the Vedic, Epic and Classical ages, being enriched by the influence of the religious life of the Aryan seers, the joy-

ous atmosphere of the courts of Hindu rulers and the pomp and splendour of the courts of Muslim Badshahs. Ultimately

it merged into the sea of vast humanity.

It is our bounden duty to preserve the true character of Indian music. Human beings sometime lose their own indivi-

dual characteristics in the vortex and welter of life, and move about in the society as non-descript being far away from the

upper strata of the society. We should take all possible care to see that Indian music, carrying a vast and valuable heri-

tage, is not reduced to such a condition.

In order to preserve the true nature of Indian music, we should first of all know what its distinguishing feature is.

Its chief distinctive quality is its spiritualism. Our country is a land of spiritual values, a seat of meditation for the

attainment of the goal which is far beyond gross materialism. It was through Samgita that the Vedic seer, awe-struck

at the unspeakable beauty and vastness of nature, expressed his feelings towards gods and goddesses. The wide use of

dance, vocal and instrumental music in connection with the worship of divine beings is attested by the epics and Purāṇas.

The flute of Kṛṣṇa, the Viṇā of Sarasvatī etc. symbolise the fact that Samgita is the best means of pleasing gods. In such

statements as gānāt parataram nahi we find hints at the soul-stirring power of songs as well as their utility in making

men move along the spiritual path. The time has come when we should see that Indian music, which was born in the

sublime and religious environment, nursed in the holy shrines and also in the respectable royal courts, does not lose its own excellence under the impact of foreign music and in the association of vile claptrap and light music which sometimes attract people. It was due to the abuse of samgīta that it was condemned as a vice in such scriptures as the Manu-samhita; the sacredness of samgīta has nowhere been denounced. The cultivation of music, in any of its aspects, did not originate as a means of diversion of a few rich people with a hedonistic outlook on life. We must bear in mind that real knowledge of music is to be acquired through sādhana (devotion); it is a science to be mastered in a disciplined manner.

Another marked characteristic of Indian music is its close relation with universal nature. As stated above, the Vedic songs spontaneously emanated from the hearts of Vedic seers, charmed with the form and mighty magnitude of Nature. So samgīta was born in the cradle of nature. The heptatonic system, on which songs are based, is also derived from the creatures of nature. We find, in the musical lore, special melodies suitable to particular periods of time like morning and evening and particular seasons like Summer, Spring etc, The people, who took music as a way of reaching the spiritual goal, used to believe that Megharāga and Dīpaka rāga could cause rainfall and conflagration respectively. It seems as though the music, that is constantly floating in the air on all sides of us, entered through the ears of the musician-devotees and touched their inner soul.

Thanks to scientific development, the countries of the globe have come nearer to one another. One of the evil effects of this phenomenon is that, due to the impart of the culture and civilization of different lands, our minds are being distracted from our own heritage and we are fast allowing our long cherished values to sink into the morass of oblivion. The glitter and glamour of the foreign elements are apt to dazzle the eyes of young uncritical people. Most of us are unaware of the precious gems that lie hidden in the mine of Sanskrit

literature. The old order of kings and emperors, who used

to extend their fostering patronage to Indian music and

musicians through centuries, is defunct. These rich people are

themselves faced with the struggle for existence; they have no

longer the capacity for cultivating or patronising music even

though they have a strong desire to do so. I do not mean

that we shall be complacent like the proverbial frog in the

well by shutting the door to the wind of diverse cultures

blowing from different directions; obscurantism is not our

philosophy. What I mean to say is that we shall allow the

wind of foreign cultures to blow into our houses; but we

shall not allow ourselves to be swept off our feet.

In modern times Pandit Bhatkhande and Ustad

Muhammad Nawab Ali Khan occupy an exalted position

among those who have tried to analyse the characteristics

of Indian music. It will not do if we take to music

merely as a profession or a means of livelihood. It is nece-

ssary to delve deep into its philosophy. For this are nece-

ssary regular practice and dedication. A tendency among

some modern students of music is rather disappointing. Some

of them, even without the necessary training, desire to be

experts within a very short time and aspire to be regarded

as artists. This approach and this attitude have caused a dete-

rioration of standards. One should remember that no siddhi

(success) is possible without sādhana (devoted practice).

Different, however, is the case with those whose sole aim is

cheap popularity or acquisition of money.

Countless treatises on Indian music still lie buried in

manuscripts, and face extinction; many have already fallen

victims to the ravages of time. We can place our cultural

characteristics in this realm on the deserving pedestal if we

can rescue these treasures from oblivion and put them into

the light of day.

So far we have written about Indian music and not Hindu

music. In fact, Hindu music is a misnomer. The music that

was evolved in India through vicissitudes of centuries cannot be designated as Hindu in the true sense of the term. As Muslim influence is natural in the music of Northern India, so also the influence of Drāviḍa music is probable on that of South India. The music of India is Indian music; it cannot be designated as Hindu, Muslim or Drāviḍa. As a matter of fact, this music is composite. In this connection, it is also to be remembered that, as pointed out above, the influence of non-Aryans on Indian music is also not negligible.

1

VOCAL MUSIC

General remarks

In the Sanskrit works on music, song has been highly

extolled. It may be noted that, in the Vedic times, song

constituted an essential element of the sacrificial rites

used to be performed for propitiating gods. Indeed, the

Sāmaveda, one of the four Vedic Samhitās including the

Atharvaveda, is a collection of songs. Of the gods, Śiva is

particularly stated to be delighted with songs. Brahmā has

been described as engaged in singing songs. Songs enrapture

the soul, and enthrals the beings. Even a little child, utterly

inexperienced in the pleasures of the senses, while weeping,

is appeased with songs, the music of the lullaby lulls even

a very restive child to sleep. What to speak of human beings ?

Even lower animals are enchanted by songs. For example,

the restless deer, attracted by the charming melody of songs,

becomes motionless and falls a victim to the hunter.

Of song, instrumental music and dance, the three consti-

tuents of Samgīta, song has been accorded the highest place.

Sārṅgadeva says ( I. i. 24 ) dance follows instrumental music

which, in its turn, follows songs :

Gīta—its definition, characteristics and types

A group of Svaras 1 ( notes), which caused delight to

the mind, is called gīta. It is twofold according as it is

gāndharva and gāna. Gāndharva is that whose tradition has

1 To be defined below.

3

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been eternal,1 which is employed by Gandharvas,3 is regulated

by the rules relating to graha, amśa, mūrchanā, etc. and is

conducive to welfare. That which is composed by a vāggeya-

kāra3, possessed of various characteristics and is described in

connection with deśī rāga etc., is gāna, delightful to people.

Songs are twofold from another point of view, viz.

mārga4 and deśī. The former is that which was sought by

gods like Brahmā, and was used by Bharata and the like

before Śiva and is always conducive to welfare. That is deśī

which caters to the taste of the people of particular regions.

Songs are again of two kinds according as these are, or

are not, set in words. Those, which consist of dhātu and other

accessories, are called nibaddha (set). Those which are not so

are anibaddha (unset). Nibaddha song has three designations

viz. prabandha, vastu are rūpaka. A part of prabandhā is call-

ed dhātu. It is fourfold—Ugrāha, melāpaka, dhruva and

ābhoga; these are the four constituents of the nibaddha song

in order. Of these, melāpaka and ābhoga do not exist in

certain cases. Wind, bile and phlegm, supporting our body, are

called dhātu. Similarly, udgrāha etc. support the body of the

prabandha, and, as such, are called dhātu. Dhruva is so called

as it is constant in all prabandhas. Between dhruva and ābhoga

occurs another dhātu which is called antara or antarā.

Prabandhas are threefold—two-dhātu ( i.e. devoid of

melāpaka and ābhoga ), three-dhātu (devoid of melāpaka )

and four-dhātu ( i.e. having all parts ).

Again, prabandhas are either aniryukta or niryukta; the

former is devoid of the restrictions relating to chandas

(rhythm) and tāla. The latter is regulated by such restrictions.

The number of different kinds of prabandha is quite

considerable.

1 That is, revealed, not composed by human beings (Kallinātha.).

2 A class of demi-gods regadrded as the the singers or musicians of

gods and said to give good and agreeable voice to girls.

3 One who composes poems and songs.

4 Derived from the root mrg (to seek).

Vocal Music

Merits and defects of gīta.

The merits of gīta are tenfold, viz.,

(i) Vyakta—clearly pronounced.

(ii) Pūrṇa—possessed of full gamaka.1

(iii) Prasanna—clearly and easily intelligible.

(iv) Sukumāra—possessed of svaras arising from the throat.

(v) Alaṃkrta—embellished in the three places mandra, madhya and tāra.2

(vi) Sama—of even varṇa(letter), laya and sthāna.3

(vii) Surakta—having harmony of the sounds produced by the flute and throat.

(viii) Ślakṣṇa—of equal smoothness in high and low pitches, in swift and middling layas.

(ix) Vikrṣṭa—having loud pronunciation.

(x) Madhura—possessed of very graceful and charming sound.

The blemishes of gīta are also ten, viz.,

( i ) Lokaduṣṭa—condemned by people.

(ii) Śāstraduṣṭa—blamed in Śāstras or treatises on music.

(iii) Śrutivirodhī—opposed to Śruti.

(iv) Kālavirodhī—sung at the improper time.

(v) Punarukta—repeated.

(vi) Kalābāhya—inartistic.

(vii) Gatakrama—devoid of order.

(viii) Apārthaka—devoid of sense.

(ix) Grāmya—vulgar.

(x) Sandigdha—doubtful.

Nāda, Śruti, Svarā, Sāraṇa

The term ‘nāda’ consists of the two consonants, na and da, with the intervening vowel ā; ‘na’ stands for prāṇa (vital breath) and ‘da’ for anala (fire). So, nāda, denoting sound produced within the human body, is generated by the combination of the vital breath and fire. The process of its

1 To be defined later on.

2 The terms to be defined afterwards.

3 Do

genesis is as follows. The soul, desiring to utter speech,

activates the mind. The mind strikes the fire within the

body. That fire sets the wind in motion Then, the wind,

resting in the brahmagrānthi,1 gradually moves upward

generating sound in the navel, heart, throat, head, and it

emanates through the mouth. In songs, nāda is three-fold,

viz. mandra (low) in the heart, madhya (medium) in the throat

and tāra (loud) in the head; each successive sound is double

of the preceding one. This nāda is supposed to be heard

(śruta) in twenty-two forms in the above three places; from

'śruta' it is called śruti. In the heart, twenty-two arteries are

supposed to be joined with the upwared artery. These are said

to be in a curved manner. As the wind strikes them, twenty-

two śrutis are produced; these have a gradually higher pitch.

To clarify the conception of śruti Śārṅgadeva mentions

(Svarāgatadhyāya-11-22.) two vīnās (lutes); one of them is

dhruvā (fixed) and the other calā (adjustable). In the latter,

the strings will have to be shifted. Both of them should be

exactly similar so that the nāda, arising from them, becomes

uniform. Each of them will have twenty-two strings. Of these

strings, the first one will be set in the lowest key, and the

second in a slightly higher key. The two sounds, produced

in them, having no other sound in between, will be continu-

ous or uninterrupted. Thus, the sound in each of the succeed-

ing string will be higher than that in the preceding one. The

sounds, produced in these strings, are called śruti. In the

two lutes, the notes (svara) will have to be placed. Of these,

ṣadja, consisting of four śrutis, is to be placed on the fourth

string. Then, on the third string from the fifth one, ṛṣabha,

having three śrtuis, should be placed. On the second string

from the eighth will be placed gāndhāra having two śrutis.

Next, madhyama, with four śrutis, is to be placed on the

fourth string from the tenth. Then, pañcama, having four

śrutis, will be placed on the fourth from the fourteenth. After

that, dhaivata of three śrutis should be on the third from the

1 Name of a joint in the body.

Vocal Music

eighteenth. Lastly, niṣāda of two śrutis should be placed on the second from the twenty-first.

In the calaviṇā, the seven notes are to be brought to three strings which, in the dhruvaviṇā, are situated immediately before their own places. Then, in comparison with the dhruvaviṇā, the svaras in the calaviṇā will be one śruti lower. By a combination of two śrutis, GA and NI of calaviṇā enters RI and DHA respectively in dhruvaviṇā. RI and DHA of the former enter into SA and PA of the latter. SA, MA, PA of the former enter into NI, GA, MA respectively of the latter. When the śrutis of the calaviṇā are combined with those of the dhruvaviṇā; their number can be clearly ascertained. There should not be further lowering of the śrutis as that would detract from their charm We have noticed above that the svaras have been lowered. This lowering ( or, rending higher ) of svara is technically called sāraṇā 1 It is noteworthy that, in the above cases, four sāraṇās only have been recommended; this is because the constituent śrutis of a svara has the maximum number of four. It may be noted that the Śrutis are equal to one another.

That which arises immediately after śruti, is charming, has resonance, and itself causes delight to the mind of the listener is called svara. The Śrutis give rise to the seven svaras called Ṣadja Rṣabha, Gāndhāra, Madhyama, Pañcama, Dhaivata and Niṣāda represented respectively by SA, RI, GA, MA, PA, DHA and NI. The seven svaras in order have been taken respectively from the peacock, Cātaka bird, goat, Krauñca bird, cuckoo, frog and elephant.

Śrutis are said to be of five classes (jāti), viz. Dīptā (brilliant), Āyatā (wide), Karuṇā (pathetic), Mrdu (soft) and madhyā (medium). These exist in svaras in the following manner. Ṣadja contains all the above classes excepting Karuṇā. Rṣabha has three excluding dīptā and āyatā. Gāndhāra contains

1 Another meaning of Sāraṇā has been laid down in connection with instrumental music.

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diptā and āyatā. Madhyama has mrdu and madhyā. Pañcama

has all but diptā. Karunā, āyatā, and madhyā are contained in

Dhaivata. Niṣāda has only diptā and madhyā. Each of the

Śruti-jātis has sub-divisions.

Svaras are two-fold—śuddha (pure) and vikṛta (modified)

The seven, starting with ṣadja, are śuddha. When a svara leaves

its own place or the śrutis specified for it, and assumes another

place or contains other śrutis, it becomes vikṛta. For example,

when Ṛṣabha assumes the four śrutis of ṣadja, it is regarded

as vikṛta. The total number of vikṛta svaras is twelve.

From the point of view of their position in a song,

svaras are divied into four kinds, viz. vāḍī, samvāḍī, vivāḍī

and anuvāḍī. That is called vāḍī which is largely pronounced

in the application of jāti-rāgas etc. Two svaras, with eight

or twelve śrutis, intervening between them, are said to be

samvāḍī of one another. Nī and Ga are vivāḍī (discordant)

to other svaras. The svara which follows vāḍī svara is

called anuvāḍī. The svaras, excepting samvāḍī and vivāḍī, are

designated as anuvāḍī. Vāḍī, samvāḍī, vivāḍī and anuvāḍī are

characterised respectively as king, minister, enemy and servant.

From the standpoint of pitch, Svaras are divided into three

kinds, viz. mandra (low), madhya (medium) and tāra (loud).

Amśa, Graha, Nyāsa

Svaras are divided also as Amśa, Graha and Nyāsa. That

svara which manifests the charm of a song, which, being

used as Graha, Nyāsa etc. is found in a large measure in a

song, is called amśa. Its chief characteristics are largeness of

measure in use, coupled with pervasion in a rāga.

The svara, which is at the beginning of a song, is called

graha. In other words, the svara, with which a song commences, is known as graha. Graha may begin a raga or its

ālāpa. Generally, amśa becomes graha. Sometimes, ṣadja too,

becomes graha.

Vocal Music

Nyāsa is the designation of the svara in which a Rāga culminates. In other words, it is the svara in which a rāga, being completed, rests or stops. In most cases, amśa svara or its samvādi svara becomes nyāsa.

Varṇa, Alamkāra

The action of singing is called varṇa. It is fourfold-sthāyī (constant), āroḥī (ascending), avaroḥī (descending) and saṃcārī (promiscuous). The intermittent singing of the same svara is sthāyī; e.g. SA SA SA. Āroḥī takes place when the svaras are in an ascending order; e.g. SA RA GA. The reverse is Avaroḥi or descending; e.g. GA RA SA. In saṃcārī, there is promiscuity among the svaras whose regular order or its exact reverse is violated, e.g. SA GA RA.

A particular combination or mode of arrangement of varṇas is called alamkāra. The purpose of alamkāras, which have a very large variety, is to convey knowledge about the precise nature and charm of svaras as well as to diversify the varṇa-combinations. Some of these alamkāras are prasannādi, prasannānta, prasannādyanta and prasannamadhya; all of these belong to sthāyī varṇa. Prasanna is the name of mandra which has already been explained. Examples,

Prasannādi :

SA SA SA

Here the first two are mandra and the last one tāra indicated by the stroke above it.

Prasannānta :

SA SA SA

The first one is tāra followed by two mandras.

Prasannādyanta :

SA SA SA

The first and the last are mandra and the middle one tāra.

Prasannamadhya :

SA SA SA

Here the first and the last are tāra and the one intervening between them is mandra.

24

Fundamentais of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

Sthāya

A part of a rāga is called sthāya. According to Śārñga-deva, the total number of sthāyas is 96. Of these, 10 relate to voice, instrumental sound etc; these are clearly distinguished, and are not mixed. In accordance with qualities, sthāyas are of 33 kinds. There are 20 sthāyas, having separate individual characteristics. There are 33 mixed sthāyas possessed of different qualities; these are relatively little known. (10 + 33 + 20 + 33 = 96). In fact, mixed sthāyas are endless.

Gamaka, Vāga

The trembling of a svara is called gamaka; it is said to be pleasing to the mind of the listener. Śārñgadeva mentions (Prakīrṇa 87-97) fifteen varieties of gamaka in accordance with the extent and speed of tremor. Gamaka is also called vīga which, according to the commentator, belongs to the local dialect.

Ālapti or Ālāpa

Ālapti or Ālāpa denotes the action by which a rāga becomes manifest. The commentator Simhabhūpāla explains that ālāpa denotes that group of svaras which clearly manifests a rāga; this manifestation means the spreading out of a rāga. This is rāgālapti, and is used in anibaddha songs.

Another kind of ālāpa is rūpakālapti. In it, the rāga of a nibaddha song is manifested. Rūpaka is a variety of Nibaddhagāna, as stated earlier.

Grāma, Mūrchanā

A group of letters, which is the resort of mūrchanā, krama, tāna, varṇa, alamkāra1 etc., is called grāma.

Grāmas are three, viz. Ṣadja, Gīndhāra and Madhyama. Of these, Gāndhāra is said to be current in heaven only. Ṣadja grāma arises when pañcama resides in its own fourth śruti. If it resides immediately before its own final śruti, we have madhyama grāma.

1 Of these, the last two have been explained earlier. The other two will be defined below.

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Vocal Music

The ascent and descent of the seven svaras in order are called mūrchanā. The number of mūrchanās in each of the two terrestrial grāmas, mentioned above, is seven.

Each mūrchanā is of seven kinds due to its commencing from the svaras beginning with the first etc. In them, after singing the final svaras, the earlier svaras are to be sung in order (krama). These mūrchanās are called krama. Their total number is 392.

Tāna :

Tāna, derived from root tan—to spread out, is so called as is spreads out a rāga. Tānas are twofold, śuddha and kūṭa; the former arises when the svaras are uttered in the regular order. When uttered by violating the order, they give rise to the latter kind of tāna.

Jāti :

Jāti is the designation of songs with varṇa and alaṃkāra etc. Mataṅga, in his Brhaddeśī, clearly defines jāti. Acc. to him, jāti is the name of the svaras which are manifested with śruti, graha, svara (alaṃkāra, varṇa) etc. From these svaras the relish of the charm of each of the svaras or rāgas is possible. Jātis are the sources of Gāndharva and Deśī rāgas.

Jātis are divided into śuddha (pure) and vikṛta (modified). Under the former are included the seven named after the svaras, e.g. Ṣādjī, Ārsabhī, etc. Those are known as śuddha which have their title svara as nyāsa, apanyāsa1, aṃśa, graha, which are devoid of tātra nyāsa and which are complete. When these characteristics, excluding nyāsa, are lacking, we have vikṛta jāti. The number of vikṛta jātis is about 139. The relation between jāti and rāga is one that subsists between the generator (janaka) and the generated (janya). Before the names of rāgas came into vogue, jātis were prevalent.

1 It is the name of that svara in which a vidāri is completed. Vidāri means part of a nibaddha song.

4

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26

Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

Rāga :

It is not known precisely when the word ‘rāga’ came to

be used for the first time to denote a musical mode. The

Nāradīya Śikṣā (circa 1st century A.D.) mentions rāga in

connexion with grāmarāga, but does not explain the term.

In his Nāṭyaśāstra Bharata (circa 2nd. cent. A.D.) mentions

rāga, jātirāga and grāmarāga, but does not define rāga.

Rāga denotes such a dhvani (sound), possessed of particular

svaras and varṇas, as causes delight to the mind of people.

Rāgas appear to be broadly divided into two classes,

viz. grāma-rāga and deśī rāga which may be rendered as

classical and regional respectively.

Grāma rāgas1 are fivefold according as they are the resorts

of five kinds of songs. The five classes of grāma-rāgas are2 :

(1) Suddhā—constituted by simple and charming svaras.

(2) Bhinnā—consisting of uneven and swiftly uttered svaras.

It has sweet gamakas.

(3) Gauḍī--compact, having gamakas in the three places of

mandra, madhya, tāra and possessed of sweet svaras

of ohāṭī.3

(4) Vesara—it is vegasvarā, i.e., it consists of swift svaras,

and is very charming in all the varṇas named

sthāyī etc.

(5) Sādhāraṇī—possessed of the characteristics of the above

four kinds of songs.

The above types have respectively seven, five, three,

eight and seven sub-divisions thus making a total of thirty

grāma-rāgas.

! A grāma-rāga is so called as it arises from grāma which has been

defined as a group of svaras which are the resort of mūrchanā etc.

2 The names are teminine as they qualify gīti which is feminine.

3 A kind of song in singing which the chin is placed on the heart;

which has kampita gamaka, is possessed of very swift svaras and

the sounds HA and AU. When qualifying rāga, these will be called

śuddha, bhinna, etc.

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Śārṅgadeva mentions ( Rāgaviveka–16–18 ) twenty rāgas which are as follows :

Śrīrāga, Naṭṭa, Vaiṅgāla (2) Bhāṣa, Madhyama-ṣādava, Raktahaṃsa, Kolahahāṣa, Prasava, Bhairava, Dhvani, Megha-rāga, Somarāga, Kāmoda (2), Āmrapañcama, Kāndarpa, Deśa, Kaiśikakakubha Naṭṭanārāyaṇa.

He also mentions the following eight Uparāgas1 which have been explained as generated from near grāma-rāgas.

Śakatilaka, Ṭakkasainḍhava, Kokilāpañcama, Revagupta, Pañcamaṣādava, Bhāvanāpañcama, Nāgagāndhāra and Nāgapañcama.

Śārṅgadeva says ( Rāgaviveka–67 ) that now he is stating Deśī rāgas. From this it appears that, according to him rāgas are divided into three classes, viz. grāma-rāgas, rāgas and deśī-rāgas. In Rāga-vivekādhyāya ( ii. 3 ), he says that some of the noted grāma–rāgas are also called deśī.

Some of the well-known deśī rāgas are Mālavakaiśika, Toḍī, ṣādava, Hindola etc.

Of minor rāgas, (rāgāṅga) there are eight according to ancient writers mentioned by Śārṅgadeva. There are thirteen rāgāṅgas stated to be current in his time. Other types of ancillary rāgas, called Upāṅga, Kriyāṅga, Bhāṣāṅga, have also been mentioned. Śārṅgadeva says ( Rāgaviveka–ii. 19 ) that the total number of rāgas is 264.

Rāgas are divided into three classes in accordance with the number of svaras in them. These are sampūrṇa having all the seven svaras. ṣādava containing six svaras only, audava or auduva2 consisting of only five svaras; the first or ṣadja is, however, constantly present in it.

1 The prefix ‘upa’ means ‘near’.

2 Derived from udu denoting stars. Stars reside in the sky which is the fifth of the five elements (pañcabhūta). From this number audava is so called.

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Again, rāgas may be śuddha ( pure or unmixed ) and

Chāyālaga or Sālaga (mixed): the latter being so called owing

to its having the shadow or likeness of another rāga.

Bhāṣā, Vibhāṣā, Antarabhāṣā

These terms were probably too well-known at the time

of Śārṅgadeva to be defined by him. These appear to denote

minor rāgas. all fancied as females, which have no indepen-

dent existence are produced by main rāgas. While bhāṣās

are said to be born of certain rāgas. vibhāṣās appear to be

their minor varieties. Antarabhāṣā may be that which exists

between two bhāṣās. For example, Kakubha rāga has six

bhāṣās called bhinnapañcamī, kāmbhojī, madhyama-grāmā,

raganṭī, madhurī and śakamiśrā, three vibhāṣās called bhogava-

rdhanī, ābhirikā and madhukarī and one antara-bhāṣā called

Śālavāhanikā.

According to Sārṅgadeva, there are 90 bhāṣās, 20 vibhāṣās

and 4 antarabhāṣās.

It is interesting to note that, at least down to the time

of Śārṅgadeva, the term rāgiṇī did not come into vogue. The

idea of six rāgas, with 36 rāgiṇīs as their consorts, was a

later development.

Rāgas and rāgiṇī have been fancied as having forms with

anthropomorphic features and traits of character. It should

be noted that such Dhyānas ( figures to be meditated upon )

occur only in later treatises. Some of these are quoted below

and translated into English. These will at once reveal the

poetic fancy behind the forms conceived and the spiritual

outlook of the writers on the Śāstra.

Śrīrāga

aṣṭādaśābdah smaracāramūrtīh,

dhīro lasat-pallava-karṇapūrah |

sadjādi-sevyo'ruṇa-vastradhārī

śrīrāga esa ksitipālamūrtīḥ ||

[ This Śrīrāga, aged eighteen years, is handsome like Cupid,

steady, shining with ear-ornaments of leaves; he is served by

ṣadja etc, wears a scarlet cloth and looks like a king. ]

Vocal Music

Vasantī

(Rāginī of Śrīrāga)

śikhaṇḍivarhoccaya-baddha-cūḍā

karṇāvatamsa-kṛtaśobhnāmrā viśvarasyāmatamḥ sucitrā

vasantikā syādalī-mañjulaśriḥ ‖

[ Vasantikā, adorned by bees, exquisitely beautiful, having her body blue like the lotus, is wearing a crown of peacock's plumes and decked with ear-ornaments of mango-blossoms.]

Karnāta-rāga

kṛpāṇapuṇis-turagādhīrūḍho

mayūrakantḥāti-sukanṭha-kāntiḥ |

sphurat-snigdha-rasaḥ-praśāntah

karṇāṭa-rāgo haritālavarṇaḥ ‖

[Karnāṭa-rāga, sword in hand, with a complexion more radiant than the peacock's throat, is riding a horse; he is very quiet, scintillating, lovely and has the tinge of haritāla (yellow orpiment). ]

Velāvali

( Rāginī of Hindola-rāga )

samketa-dikṣām dayite ca datvā

vitanvatī bhūsanamam akeṣu |

muhur smarantī smaram iṣṭadevam

velāvalī nīla-saroja-kāntiḥ ‖

[ Velāvalī, possessed of a complexion like the blue lotus, having instructed the husband about assignation, while adorning her slim limbs with ornaments, is repeatedly remembering her desired deity, Cupid.]

Bhairava

gaṅgādharah śaśikalā-tilakas-trinetrah

sarpairbhāsita-tanur-gaja-kṛtivāsāḥ |

bhāsvat-triśūla-kara esa ṇṛmuṇdadhārī

śubhrāmbaro jayati bhairava ādirāgaḥ ‖

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[ Victorious is this three-eyed First Rāga, Bhairava, with

the Ganges on his head, a lunar digit as the mark on his

forehead, possessed of body adorned with a serpent, wearing

elephant-skin, holding a trident in hand and carrying a

human skull. ]

Bhairavī

( Rāginī of Bhairava )

sphatikā-racita-pīthe ramya-kailāsa-śṛṅge

vikāca-kamala-patrair-arcayantī maheśam |

karadhṛta-ghana-vādyā pītavarṇāyitākṣi

sukavibhir-iyamuktā bhairavī bhairavastrī ||

[ This wife of Bhairava, large-eyed, yellow-complexioned,

holding a ghana1 instrument in hand, worshipping with

petals of lotuses in bloom, Mahādeva, seated on a crystal-

pedestal on the charming Kailāsa peak, is called Bhairavī by

good poets. ]

Śabda, Śārīra

Śābda or voice is the basis of songs. Śabda has been

divided by Śārṅgadeva (Prakīrṇaka—39-67) into four princi-

pal kinds, viz.

(i) Khāhula—arising from phlegm. If it pervades the sthānas

called mandra and madhya, it is called ādilla.

(2) Nārāṭa—arising from bile it is compact, deep and in-

audible in the three places mandra madhya and

tāra respectively.

(3) Bombaka—arising from wind. Having no substance within

like the trunk of the Eraṇḍa tree. It is harsh,

loud like the ass's bray and heavy.

(4) Miśraka—arising from the admixture of the above three.

It has four varieties, viz. combination of ( a )

Nārāṭa-khāhula (b) Nārāṭa-bombaka (c) Bom-

baka-khāhula and (d) mixture of these three.

Each of these has sub-varieties.

1 A class of musical instruments made of metal, e.g. cymbal.

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In accordance with qualities, Śabda has been divided into fifteen kinds, viz.

(i) Mṛṣṭa—pleasing to ears.

(ii) Madhura—indestructible and unchanged in its three places mandra, madhya, tāra.

(iii) Ceḥāla—charming, devoid of the extremes of too heavy and too light, tender and devoid of essencelessness.

(iv) Tristhāna—unchanged in the three sthānas, mandra etc.

(v) Sukhāvaha—delightful to mind.

(vi) Pracura—ample.

(vii) Komala—Soft.

(viii) Gādha—heard after spreading due to strength.

(ix) Śrāvaka—capable of being heard from afar.

(x) Karuṇa—evoking pity in the mind of the listener.

(xi) Ghana—having substance within and audible from a distance.

(xii) Snigdha—audible from a distance and devoid of roughness.

(xiii) Ślakṣṇa—uninterrupted like the flow of oil.

(xiv) Raktimān—attractive.

(xv) Chavimān—bright according to experts.

The defects of śabda are as follows :

(i) Rūkṣa—devoid of tenderness.

(ii) Sphuṭita—seeming to be broken.

(iii) Nihsāra—devoid of substance within.

(iv) Kākolī—raucous like the cawing of crows.

(v) Keṭi—pervading three sthānas, but devoid of the qualities of sweetness etc.

(vi) Keṇi—pervading the sthānas tāra and mandra with difficulty.

(vii) Kŕśa—thin or light.

(viii) Bhagna—insipid like the cry of the ass and the camel.

Śabda may be produced by a person spontaneously or after practice. The capacity of sound or voice for manifesting rāgas, without practice, is called Śārīra. It is so called as it is born with the śarīra (body); in other words, it is congenital

32

Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

and not acquired. The qualities of śarīra are pervasion,

resonance, sweetness, pleasantness, gravity, softness, possession

of substance within, mildness, brightness.

The defects of śārīra are : lack of resonance, pleasant-

ness, substance and the presence of roughness, improper voice,

crow-like raucousness, lightness, harshness as well as removal

from the proper sthāna

Characteristics of Vāggeyakāra

Vāk means Kāvya; geya means a composition which can

be sung. These are called mātu and dhātu respectively. One

who makes these two kinds of composition is called vāggeya-

kāra. Such a person may be uttama (best), madhyama (medium)

and adhama (inferior). The first of them is endowed with

the following qualities : proficiency in grammar, lexicons,

metrics, alaṅkāras, rasa, bhāva, skill in regional modes of

composition, e.g. Pāñcālī, knowledge of a variety of languages,

mastery in arts, skill in vocal and instrumental music as well

as dance, charming śārīra1, knowledge of laya and tāla,

capacity for discriminating among various modes of into-

nation, genius, ability to sing pleasantly, experience in deśī

rāgas, skill in speech before an assembly, giving up anger

and spite, appreciative mind, sense of propriety, capacity

for composition independently of others, insight into others'

minds, knowledge of characteristics, capacity for swift

composition of songs, composition of songs containing the

shadow of various songs, excellence in gamakas in the three

shānas, skill in various kinds of ālāpa, concentration.

The vāggeyakāra of mediocre merit can compose dhātu well,

but is unsatisfactory in the composition of mātu. Also

of mediocre merit is one who knows both dhātu and mātu, but

lacks efficiency in prabandhas elā etc

He is inferior who can compose mātu well, but is bad

at dhātu.

1. Explained earlier.

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Gāndharva, Svarādi

One, who is conversant with mārga and deśī, is called gāndharva. One, who knows only mārga. is known as Svarādi.

Characteristics of Singers

Singers may be best, medium and inferior. The best singer has the following qualifications : good voice, śārira of good in rāga, rāgāñga, bhāṣāñga, kriyāñga and upāñga, skilled in prabandha songs, conversant with the principles of various kinds of ālāpa, effortless use of gamakas in all sthānas, controlled voice, versed in tālas and śrutis, tirelessness even after many prabandha songs, experienced in śuddha and chāyālaga rāgas as well as in the peculiarities of all kinds of intonation and in sthāyas, absence of all defects, practice in singing, pleasantness according to the tradition of vocalists, capacity for bringing about clear svaras and tālas etc., possession of deep or compact voice, unhampered speed, capacity for attracting people's minds with songs sung at a lonely place (or, capacity for speedy singing), clearly manifested rāga, possession of traditional knowledge.

The singer of the medium quality lacks some of the above merits, but is free from defects.

A singer, having defects, is said to be inferior.

Performers of vocal music are of five kinds viz. śikṣā-kāra (learner), anukāra (imitator), rasika (appreciator), rañjaka ( delighter ) and bhāvaka i.e. one who can turn an insipid song into one of relish, render a song devoid of emotion into one of emotion, and can sing after realising the intention of listeners.

Defects of Singers

Singers of the following kinds are condemned :

(i) Samdaṣṭa—one who sings with clenched teeth.

(ii) Udghuṣṭa—One who sings too loudly.

5

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(iii) Sātikāri—one singing with repeated hissing sounds.

(iv) Bhīta—terrified.

(v) Śankita—apprehensive.

(vi) Kampita—one who sings habitually shaking the body and trembling the voice.

(vii) Karāli—one who distorts the face alarmingly while singing.

(viii) Vikala—one who sings svaras with more or less than the usual number of śrutis.

(ix) Kāki—one whose voice is raucous like that of a crow.

(x) Vitāla—one departing from the proper tāla.

(xi) Karabha—one singing with the shoulders raised.

(xii) Udbhata—singing like a goat. An inferior singer.

(xiii) Jhombaka—one whose forehead, face and neck become sinewy while singing.

(xiv) Tumbakī—one whose throat swells like a pumpkin gourd while singing.

(xv) Vakrī—one who sings with the curved throat.

(xvi) Prasāri—one who sings after stretching the body.

(xvii) Nimilaka—one who sings with closed eyes.

(xviii) Virasa—one whose song is insipid.

(xix) Apasvara—singing with prohibited svaras.

(xx) Avyakta—one who sings with stuttering voice and indistinct letters.

(xxi) Sthānabhraṣṭa—one who is unable to reach the three sthānas called mandra, madhya and tāra.

(xxii) Avyavasthita—Singing with unregulated sthānas.

(xxiii) Miśraka—one who sings after mixing up śuddha and chāyālaga rāgas.

(xxiv) Anavadhānaka—inattentive to sthāya etc. According to Simhabhūpāla, one who reverses the sthānas.

(xxv) Sānunāsika—one who sings with a nasal voice.

Vocal Music

Vṛnda, Kutapa

A group of singers and instrumentalists is called vṛnda (orchestra). It is of three kinds, viz. best (uttama), medium (madhyama) and inferior (kanisṭha). That, in which there are four principal singers, eight chorus singers, twelve female singers, four flutists and four players on mṛdaṅga, is uttama.

In the madhyama, the number of male and female singers is half of that in the uttama. In the kanisṭha, there are one principal singer, three chorus singers, four female singers, two flutists and two players of mardala.

The group of female singers, too, is threefold. In the uttama, there are two female singers, ten chorus singers, two flutists and two players of mardala. In the madhyama, there are one principal singer, four chorus singers and one (or, according to others, four) flutists. In the kanisṭha, the number of female singers and instrumentalists is less than that in the madhyama or their number is arbitrary.

A vṛnda, constituted by singers and instrumentalists whose number is larger than in the uttama, is called Kolāhala (confused noise).

Following the principal singer, absence of dissimilarity in chorus songs, conformity with tāla and laya, mutual rectification of defects, if any, in one part, capacity for pervasion in the three sthānas beginning with mandra, similarity of voice—these are the merits of a vṛnda.

A particular kind of vṛnda is called kutapu. Kutapa-vṛnda is threefold according as it relates to tata instruments, avanaddha instruments and drama.'

The first variety of kutapa is constituted by players of Viṇā, Ghosavatī, Cītrā, vipañcī, parivādinī, vallakī, kñbhjikā jyesṭhā, nakulosṭhī, kinnarī, jayā, kūrmī, pñākī, hastikā, śatatantrikā, audumbarī, satkarṇa, pauṇa, rāvaṇa, hastaka, sāraṅgī, ālapanī etc. Besides, in it there will also be flutists,

1 For tata and avanaddha, see chapter on nstrumental music.

36

Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

pāvika, pāvakāhala, conch-blower, player of such instruments as muharī, śrīṅga etc.1

The second type of kutapa will be constituted as follows :

the principal player of mrdaṅga, players of the following instruments—paṇava, dardura, dakkā, maṇidakkā, dakkulī, patāha, karakā, dakkā, dhavasa, ghaḍasa, huḍukkā, ḍamaru, ruñjā, kuḍukkā, kudavā, nihsāṇa, trivaḷī, bherī, ṭumbakī, bom-baḍī, paṭṭavādya, paṭa, kamrā, jhallarī, bhāṇa, selluka, jaya-ghaṇṭā, kāmsyatāḷā, ghaṇṭā, kirikiṭṭaka.2

The third kind of kutapa will be constituted as follows :

People experienced in various kinds of abhiṅaya (acting) prevailing in regions Varāṭa, Lāṭa, Karṇāṭa, Gauḍa, Gurjara, Koṅkaṇa, Mahārāṣṭra, Andhra, Hammīra, Cola, Malaya, Mālava, Aṅga, Vañga, Kaliṅga etc., those expert in lāsya and tāṇḍava dances, those versed in wonderful Sthānas like Āliḍha, those vell versed in matters relating to Maṇḍala and the like.3

1 For the terms, see chapter on Instrumentatal music.

2 Ibid.

3 For Sthāna, Maṇḍala, see chapter on Dance.

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II

INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC

General remarks

Instruments have been divided into four classes, viz. Tata, Suṣira, Avanaddha and Ghana. The first two are said to produce songs through śrutis, the third to impart pleasantness and the fourth is said to make songs worth while. Tata instruments are made of strings and suṣira has holes in it. Those which are covered with leather is called avanaddha. That which is played by striking is called ghana.

The lute is called viṇā. It is twofold according as it is śrutiviṇā and svaraviṇā. Of these two, the former has been described under vocal music in connexion with Sāraṇā.

In connexion with svaraviṇā, Śārṅgadeva says that, in it too, the experts can produce śrutis. The types of this viṇā are ekatantri, nakula, tritrantrikā, citrāviṇā, vipañci, mattakokilā, ālāpiṇī, kinnarī, pināki and niḥśaṅkaviṇā These should be so constructed that the svaras are clearly heard and ample charm is produced in the minds of listeners.

Under suṣira are included vaṃśa, pāva, pāvikā, muralī, madhukarī, kāhalā, tuṇḍukinī, cukkā, śṛṅga, śaṅkha etc.

Paṭaha, mardala. huḍukkā, karaṭā, ghaṭa, ghaḍasa, dhavasa, dhakkā, kuḍukkā, kuḍuvā, ruñjā, damaruka. ḍakkā, maṇḍidakkā ḍakkuli, sellukā, jhallarī, bhāṇa, trivalī, dundubhi, bherī, niḥsāṇa, tumbakī—these are included under avanaddha.

Ghanavādyas are tāla, kāmsya-tāla, ghaṇṭā, kṣudraghaṇṭikā jayaghāṇṭā, kamrā, śuktipiṭa etc.

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Vādyas are again divided into four classes, viz. śuṣka,

gītānuga, nṛttānuga nṛttagītānuga. That is śuṣka which does

not accompany song and dance. It is also called goṣṭhi.

Gītānuga, nṛttānuga and gītanṛttānuga are those which

accompany respectively song, dance and both of these two.

Kamrikā or kamrā is the name of a bamboo stick for

playing the lute. It is the modern bow. The action of the

kamrikā is called sāraṇā1 which is fourfold, viz. utkṣiptā,

sanniviṣṭā, ubhayī and kampitā. That is utkṣiptā in which the

kamrā, coming in contact with the string, moves upward and

repeatedly falls down. If the sāraṇā takes place immediately

after touching the string, it is sanniviṣṭā. If these two kinds

of sāraṇā are successively repeated, the is ubhayī sāraṇā.

Kampitā arises due to the trembling of the kamrikā in the

place of svara.

Merits and defects of Vādya

The merits are as follows :

(i) Rakta-pleasant, (ii) Virakta-vibhinna ( distinct ?),

(iii) Madhura-sweet, (iv) Sama-even or unifcim ? (v) Śuddha-

not mixed, (vi) Kala-delicate, (vii) Gīra-possessed of sub-

stance, (viii) Sphuṭaprahāra-with manifest sound, (ix) Subhara-

possessed of beautiful rāga, (x) vighuṣṭa-deep.

Merits and Defects of Instrumentalists

Versed in the mode of striking with the hand and the

bow of the lute, expert in vocal and instrumental music,

experienced in jati, tāla, laya, pāṭa, pañcasañca2, endowed with

ten qualities of the hand, playing the instrument intended by

the person concerned, versed in the principles of the sound

of musical instruments, possessed of the knowledge of grahas

sama etc., skilled in hiding the defects of songs, instrumental

music and dance, director of graha, mokṣa, versed in the

measure of songs and dance, possessing the knowledge of all

1 Another meaning of sāraṇā has been set forth in connection with

vocal music.

2 The five are song, instrumental music, dance, graha, mokṣa and

randhra (defect ?).

the differences in instrumental music, possessed of rūparekhā (?), skilled in udghaṭṭana, possessed of the knowledge of the difference of all vādyas (instruments ?), versed in the increase, decline and attainment of nāda—such an instrumentalist is the best. The worst is one devoid of some or all of these merits.

The merits of blowing are as follows : charm, compactness, pleasantness, clarity, amplitude of sound, gracefulness, tenderness, resonance of nāda, pervasion of three sthānas. on the part of the flutist; the last quality implies that the blowing will not be more nor less than what it should usually be.

The merits of a player of mardala are as follows : clear varṇas, keeping the limbs as usual or capacity for pleasing others, experience in following the ‘likeness of the song, expert knowledge of sweet and violent instrumental music, skill in the movement of the hands concentration, tirelessness, skill in mukhavādya,1 following the huḍukkā player, amplitude, knowledge of yati, tāla and laya, following the song.

The defects are the reverse of the above merits.

Two, three or four mardala-players constitute a group. They will follow the mukharī or the principal player.

The following are the merits of a player of the vīṇā :

Expert knowledge of the principles of nāda, śruti, svara, grāma, jāti, rāga etc., graceful body, steady in seat, tireless pair of hands, fearlessness, self-restraint, presence of mind, tenderness of limbs, learning in the arts of vocal and instrumental music, concentration of mind.

The merits of a flutist are as follows :

Practice in the movement of fingers, reaching the proper place, possession of good sense of rāgas, capacity for producing sweetness in the manifestation of rāgas in an

1 The meaning is not clear.

agreeable manner, speedy ascent and descent, skill in singing

and playing instruments, revealing the proper sthāna (or, acc. to

some, tāna) to singers, hiding their defects, skilfulness in

respect of mārga and deśī rāgas, capacity for produing rāgas

in the improper sthāna as in the proper one. An expert flutist

can produce various svaras in a single hole due to the

intensity or otherwise of the wind, its fast and slow speed,

filling or not filling, increase or decrease.

The following are the defects of a flutist :

Excess of wrong application,1 the reverse of the merits

stated above, not reaching the intended sthāna, shaking of

the head.

The faults of blowing a flute are as follows :

Yamala—completing one blowing by another.

Stoka—though heavy, yet un able to reash the proper sthānas.

Kṛśa—able to reach the proper sthāna but too light.

Skhalita—stopping at intervals.

According to others, the following are the defects of

blowing :

Kampita—that which emanates, with distorted svara, from

the mouth having cough.

Tumbakī—sound resembiing that of the tumba (a kind of

gourd).

Kāki—sound devoid of tārasthāna, resembling the cawing

of crows.

Sandaṣṭa—insufficient scanty.2

avyavasihta—sometimes less, sometime more than usual, harsh.

In this connexion, it may be added that the blowing

of a flute may be fivefold :

(i) Kampitā—the shaking of the flute attached to lips; it is

necessary for accomplishing varṇa and alamkāra.

(ii) Valitā—it arises due to tha move nent of fingers; it is

necessary to produce samcāri varṇa.

1 Gamaka or alāpa in the improper place.

2 Can it mean blowing with clenched teeth ?

Instrumental Music

(iii) Muktā—it arises when the holes are free from all fingers;

it produces a free sound.

(iv) Ardhamuktā—when the holes are half-free; it produces

halting sounds.

(v) Niṣpiditā—when all the holes are fully covered by fingers,

and the flute is filled with wind.

Śārṅgadeva says (Vādyādhyāya 662) that the merits and

defects, stated in connexion with voice under vocal music,

are to be understood mutatis mutandis in this case also.

A band of flutists is generally said to be constituted as

follows : one principal flutist and his four followers.

Dhātu

The notes, produced by particular kinds of strokes, are

called dhātu. The dhātus develop the music of vīṇā, cause

unparalleled delight and give rise to faultless sounds. Dhātus

are fourfold, viz. vistāra, karaṇa, āviddha and vyañjana. Of

these, vistāra has four varieties, karaṇa five, āviddha five and

vyañjana ten. The total number of dhātus, along with the'r

divisions and subdivisions, is 34.

Kinds of Instrumental music

It is of four kinds, viz. śuska, gītānuga, ṇṛttānuga and

gītanṛtānuga. Vādya without gīta and ṇṛtta is called śuska; it is

called goṣṭhī. The other terms are self-explanatory. Āśrāvaṇā is

the name of the playing of the lute without song; there are

nine other kinds of lute-playing also without song.

The use of song and instrumental music, as the pre-

dominant or subservient factor, is called ṿṛtti. It is threefold :

(i) Citrā—instrumental music primary and vocal music

secondary.

(ii) Ṛtti—vocal music and instrumental music are of an

equal position.

(iii) Dakṣiṇā—vocal music prominent and instrumental music

secondary.

6

Gītānuga vādya is threefold :

(i) Tattva—that kind of instrumental music which manifests laya, tāla, yati, akṣara, grāma, aṃśa etc. pertaining to song.

(ii) Anugata—it partly manifests song. As in song, so in it also there are pause and staying at a different sthāna. But, if there in vilambita laya in song, the instrument is skilfully played in druta laya.

(iii) Ogha—in it, at the end, the instrumentalist, imitating the song, shows the imitation of the parts of the song by skilful and continuous strokes of the hand.

Structure and material of musical instruments'1

Tata

The ālāpinī vīṇā is as follows :

The daṇḍa (rod) will be eight muṣṭis2 long, made of bamboo, hollow, circumference two aṅgulas, free from joints etc., smooth, uniform all through, circular, fitted with a kakubha (a crooked piece of wood at the end) two aṅgulas long and half an aṅgula wide, half as much in thickness, facing upwards, devoid of a patrikā, having one rod fitted with a śaṅku (pin or peg) the space below which will be four aṅgulas long and high at the outer side and in the middle. The tumba (i.e. the round thing at the lower end) is twelve aṅgulas in length, four aṅgulas at the mouth and an ivory nābhi3 is fixed at a distance of a quarter less than two muṣṭis below the top. The strings, made of the entrails of sheep, will be fine, smooth, even and firm. Coconut shells (karpara), tying ropes (doraka) and bridges (sārikā) are used in its construction. According to others, the rod will be made of Khadira wood and the strings of linen or silk or Kārpāsa cotton.

1 Only the principal types under each class will be described.

2 Muṣṭi means the length of the clenched palm.

3 Navel-like cavity or piece.

Instrumental Music

43

Still others provide that the rod, in all cases, should be made

of red sandal-wood. Śārṅgadeva states that, in some cases,

the length of the rod exceeds ten muṣṭis.

Kinnarī vīṇās are of two kinds—laghvī and bṛhatī. The

laghvī is as follows : Daṇḍa, which is round, is three vitastis1

five aṅgulas long, five aṅgulas wide, having many holes; the

kakubha,2 made of śāka wood, will be two and a half aṅgulas

wide and five aṅgulas long, in its middle there will be a

tortoise-shaped iron piece, half an aṅgula less in length and

breadth: the sārikā, made of a perforated piece of b one o

the chest of a vulture and measuring the little finger of the

hand or it may be made of irun or bell-metal. On the back

of the daṇḍa, fourteen sārikās will be fixed with wax, mixed

with the ashes of a burnt piece of cloth, on the fourteen

places of svaras. Below the second heptad, the first sārikā,

a little longer than one finger, will be fixed at the place of

Niṣāda. At intervals will be fixed sārikās of which each

succeeding one will be a little bigger than the preceding one.

The eighth one will be fixed three aṅgulas apart from the

preceding one. The other six sārikās will be fixed at gradually

increasing intervals not exceeding four aṅgulas. At the lower

joint of the kakubha on the daṇḍa, will be fixed the first

tumba. The second tumba, a little wider than the first, will

be fixed between the third and the fourth sārikās, in the

lower part. Into a hole, two aṅgulas below the tip of the

daṇḍa, a moving pin is to be placed; it will have a hole in

its neck. One aṅgula below it, a two-horned pin, resembling

the feathered part of an arrow, one aṅgula high, is to be

made. In front of it, a little distance away, a fixed pin is to

be placed. Then firmly fixing on the kakubha an iron string,

smooth, round, even, strong and resembling elephant’s hair,

it will be drawn to the above two-horned pin, with its second

end the moving pin will be surrounded. This pin will be

twisted so long as the string does not become firm. By twist-

1 One vitasti = 12 aṅgulas.

2 See under ālāpinī vīṇā.

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ing it on the opposite side the string becomes loose. If the

string is long, then, for the sake of firmness, an iron peg,

put into the hole of the neck of the moving pin, will be

fitted in the fixed pin.

The Brhatt kinnarī will be one vitasti more in length and

one aṅgula more in breadth than the laghvi; it will have

three tumbas and the strings made of nerves. The third tumba

is to be placed as in the ālāpinī. The other characteristics of

the laghvi will be present in the brhatī too.

Suṣira

A flute is to be made of bamboo, Khadira wood, ivory,

white or red sandalwood, iron, bell-metal, silver or gold. It

will be round in shape, straight, smooth and devoid of joint-

knots and scars. Inside it there will be hollow as long as

the flute; the hollow, equal to the little finger in width, will

be uniform. From the tip of the flute a space of two, three

or four aṅgulas is to be left out. Then a hole, of the

dimension of one aṅgula, should be made fit for being blown.

From the main hole another hole, called tāra, will be one

aṅgula apart. Other seven holes will be made at intervals of

half aṅgula. The last eight holes are stated to be like bones

of jujube fruits. Below the holes there will be a holeless

space of two aṅgulas. Of the above holes, the seven, produc-

ing sound, are considered to be meant for the division of

svaras. The eighth one is intended to be an outlet for the

wind. The wind, produced by blowing, is filled by the

main hole.

The length of a flute varies from two aṅgulas to twenty

-two; the last one being called Śrutanidhi.

Ānaddha

Paṭaha is twofold, viz. mārga and deśī. The former is

two and a half cubits long, six aṅgulas in circumference,

big in the middle; its right face is eleven aṅgulas and a half,

the left one ten aṅgulas and a half. There will be an iron ring

Instrumental Music

over the right one and, on the left, an earthen ring. The ring on the left side should be covered with a pārikā taken from a six-month-old dead calf. Then, both the rings will have seven apertures each. After this, kalaśas, made of gold etc., seven in number and four aṅgalas long, are to be tied with strings placed in the apertures on each side. Leaving a space of four aṅgulas from the left face, a patrikā, made of iron and having a width of three aṅgulas is to be firmly placed round the paṭaha. The two covered faces are to be tied with the thick skin, called kavala, of the outer part of the body of a calf or goat. The kavala of the right side should be perforated all around. With the strings, placed on the right face, the kalaśas are to be firmly drawn and the strings tied well in the ring. With the strings placed in the seven holes in the kavala, the kalaśas are to be encircled and fixing them in the iron ring the kalaśas are to be kept in a compact form. Outside the kalaśas, at the fringe of the left ring, there will be a kacchā (waist-band) for being put around the waist (of the player).

The deśī paṭaha is like the above with the difference that it is a cubit and a half long and its right and left faces are seven aṅgulas and six and a half aṅgulas respectively, its left face is tied with uddalī (i.e. the skin of the animal's groin).

Both the above kinds of paṭaha are made of Khadira wood. Each of them is divided into three classes--uttama, madhyama and adhama. Those described above are uttama. The madhyama and the adhama are respectively one-twelfth and one-sixth less.

Mardala, also called mṛdaṅga or muraja, is made in the following manner: made of the faultless (i.e. devoid of scars and cracks etc.) wood of the citron tree, one-half aṅgula thick, 21 aṅgulas long, left face 14 aṅgulas, right face 13 aṅgulas, middle part thin, one aṅgula thick at the faces, thick and round skin at both ends, in each of the two pieces of skin 40 holes one aṅgula apart from one another; in the

holes will be placed straps which will be sewn, embedded in the straps there will be pieces of potsherd touching the middle part of the instrument both over it and below, the potsherd being tied with three straps the middle part will be encircled firmly, at that place there will be a knot of two straps resembling gō-mātṛikā1, the pieces of leather covering the faces will be firmly tied, of the two rings at the two ends, a kacchā2 placed in the left one should be fixed in the right and tightly drawn and made twofold, a waist-band made of cloth should be placed in the waist.

As regards the wood to be selected for the construction of the wooden instruments, the general instruction is that, when the kind of wood is not specified, it should be gathered from khadira or red sandal tree. Śārṅgadeva says that trees belong to three species—pitalā, vātalā and śleṣmalā. The first kind grows on dry land, the second on land having a little moisture and the third on a fully moist land near tanks. For the purpose of instruments, the first is the best and the second inferior, but the third is to be avoided. The pieces of wood, with the following defects, should be rejected : softness, scar, hole, joints of branches, knot and breach.

For tying the faces of percussion instruments the hide of a six-month (according to some, two-year) old calf is suitable. The straps are made of old bulls. The cow's leather to be struck should be bright like Kunda flowers, moon and snow or slightly coppery like a (new) mango-leaf and free from sinew and flesh. Before use it should be soaked in cold water for one night. The hide, with the following defects, is not fit for use : having fat, with the cover of the uterus stuck to it, klinna (moist ?), pecked with the beaks of the crow, spoilt by fire and smoke, worn out.

Ghana

For the instruments made of bell-metal, the metal should

1 The criss-cross manner.

2 Described above.

Instrumental Music

be well refined in fire The tāla ( popularly called karatāla ) will be circular in shape. Its face will be two aṅgulas and a quarter, the inner portion one aṅgula wide and low, the hole in the middle will be a quarter less than a guñjā, the thickness one yava, height one aṅgula and a half. Its form will be even, smooth and beautiful so that it produces sound pleasant to the ear. Strings of borders of cloth are to be passed through the holes and tied with knots at the ends.

Characteristics of a mardala player

Mardala players are of four kinds—vādaku, mukhari, pratimukhari and gītāñuga.

Vādaka is derived from vāda which means a mode of disputation. In a vāda, a person takes up his own side and refutes the view of the other side. Similarly, the vādaka takes up the playing. The mukhari is so called because other instrumentalists look up to his face for playing their instruments. He will have the following qualities : capacity for composing vādya-prabandhas, training in dance, skilled in vocal and instrumental music, surekha1, concentration, indispensable to the female dancer presence on the stage. The pratimukhari lacks a few of the qualities of the mukhari. He is called gītāñuga who, having set the harsh and soft letters, through nāda, mandra, madhya, tāra, follows the song in order to help the madhura through playing the instrument; this is done in both śuddha and sālaga songs.

Pāṭa, Pañcasañca, Vādyaprabandha

It is the name given to Vādyāksara, i.e. the letter-like sounds produced in an instrument. The pāṭas, which arise from the different positions of the hand, rather the palm, and the strokes made by it, are called hastapāṭa Eighty-eight hastapāṭas have been stated by Śārṅgadeva. DHA RA KA TA DHA RA KA TA— it is an example of hastapāṭa. Different kinds of pāṭa, being applied to the instruments like Paṭaha,

1 Of a pleasing physical posture.

produce instrumental music of various sorts. The total number

of the kinds of vādya, produced by pāṭa, is 500.

The shaking of the neck, elbow, thumb, wrist and the

left foot is called sañca. Due to the sañca of the thumb and

the wrist, the player of paṭaha becomes best. By shaking the

shoulders and the elbow one becomes inferior. The huḍukkā

player, due to the shaking of the thumb, elbow and the neck,

becomes best. One becomes madhyama by shaking the wrist

and the elbow. One, who is worst, plays with the shaking of

the left foot.

As there are gīta-prabandhas, so we have vāḍya-prabandhas

too composed of udgrāha etc. According to Śārṅgadeva, there

are 43 vādya-prabandhas. An example of vāḍya-prabandha : gaḍ

da ga thom gakkathomṭem etc.

III

TĀLA

The term ‘tāla’ is derived from the root ‘tal’ which conveys the sense of pratisthā (foundation, basis). Śārṅgadeva tells us that it is so called because music, both vocal and instrumental, and dance are based on it. It has been defined as the time measured with the help of the measures called laghu (short), guru (long) and pluta1. A short vowel is laghu, a long one guru and a prolated vowel is called pluta. For example, a, ā are laghu and guru respectively. Pluta is generally used in the following circumstances : calling from afar, singing, weeping. For instance, in u umeśa (O, Umeśa) the u is pluta. In the case of tāla, the time required in spelling out laghu, guru and pluta letters is meant. In this connexion, we should mention also mātrā. One mātrā is determined by the time required in pronouncing five short letters, e.g., KA, CA, ṬA, TA, PA. In tāla, laghu, guru etc. are ascertained by mātrās. Tāla is said to determine the measure of song, instrumental music and dance.

Tāla is broadly twofold—mārga (classical) and deśī (regional). The action in the former is of two kinds, viz. soundless (nihśabda) and sounded (saśabda). The former, called Kalā, is fourfold : āvāpa, nīskrāma, vikṣepa and praveśaka. The latter (i.e. sounded), also called Pāta or Kalā, is fourfold, viz. dhruva. śamyā, tāla and sannipāta.

1 According to Pāṇini, īkalo’c hrasva-dirgha-plutaḥ (1. 2.27)—vowels requiring as much time as is required in pronouncing short u, long ī and prolated ū are respectively called hrasva, dīrgha, pluta. Hrasva and dīrgha are the designations of laghu and guru respectively.

50

Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

The bending of the fingers, with the palm upturned, is called āvāpa. Nişkrāma is the name of the stretching of the fingers with the palm turned downwards. The casting of the hand, with the fingers outstretched and the palm upturned on the right side, is called viksepa. The contraction of the fingers of the hand, remaining on the right side with the palm turned downwards, is called praveśa. The placing of the hand below, with the snapping of the thumb and the forefinger together, is called dhruva. The production of the clapping sound with the right hand is called śamyā. Such a sound, produced by the left hand, is known as tāla. The production of such a sound with both the hands together is called sannipāta

Mārga, mentioned above, is fourfold, viz. dhruva, citra, vārtika and dakṣina.

As regards deśī tāla, its difference from the mārga tāla appears to rest chiefly on the fact that while the former appeals to the common folk, the latter is appreciated by the experts or connoisseurs. According to the Saṃgītaratnākara (Tālādhyāya—237), such a tāla, when accompanied by cymbals etc., becomes attractive. The author further states that such a tāla should be yathāśobha, i.e. it should not violate Śobhā. Kallinātha explains śobhā as attractiveness caused to the appreciating mind by the similarity of time in the repetition of tālas in the part of songs.1 Another characteristic of deśī tāla has been stated as the determination by the measures called laghu etc. without violating śobhā. In deśī tāla, druta and pluta have half a mātrā and three mātrās respectively.

Of deśī tāla, one hundred and twenty varieties have been distinguished. Śārṅgadeva says (Tālādhyāya—312) that there are little known tālas too. He lays down nineteen ways of ascertaining the mutual difference among the well known and little known tālas.

1 Śobhaśabdena gitāvayeṣu talavṛttinām kālasamyanibandhanā saḥṛdaya-hṛdayamgamata.

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Tāla

Tālas are again twofold—caturaśra and tryaśra, known respectively as caccatputa and cācapuṭa. Saṭpitāputraka is a variety of tryaśra which has another one called Udghaṭṭa. Saṭpitāputraka is also designated as Uttara and Pañcapāṇi,

Laya, Yati

The pause, intervening between tālas or strokes which determine the time of mātrās, is called laya. Kallinātha makes the concept of laya clear. He says that if one action follows another without cessation, there is no rest or pause; so, there is no laya in such a case. For example, there is no separate laya between laghu mātrās which exist as parts of two guru mātrās. Again, there is no separate laya between laghu mātrās which form parts of pluta mātrā.

Laya is threefold—druta (swift), madhya (medium) and vilambita (delayed).

The mode of application of laya is called yati. Yati is of three kinds—samā, srotogatā and gopucchā. Samā takes place when there is uniformity of laya in the beginning, middle and end Srotogatā arises when vilambita, madhya and druta layas are used respectively in the beginning, middle and end. That is gopucchā which resorts to druta, madhya and vilambita layas.1

1 There are also other varieties of each of the three kinds of yati.

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IV

DANCE

General remarks

At the outset, it should be stated that originally dance was conceived in connexion with drama. Śārṅgadeva says (Nartanādhyāya—3) that Nartana is threefold, viz. Nāṭya, Nrtya and Nrtta. Further on he says that Nrtta is a kind of abhinaya (acting, mimetic art). Nrtta, as a kind of abhinaya, is performed by means of Karaṇa1 and aṅgabhaṅgī (gestures and postures). The aṅgas are six—head, hands, chest, sides, hip, feet. Some include shoulder also. The pratyaṅgas are neck, arms, back, belly, thighs, shanks. According to some, the wrist, knees and ornaments, worn on the limbs, are also included in pratyangaṅgas. There are twelve upāṅgās in the head, viz. eyes, brows, eyelids, eye-balls, throat, nose, breath, lips, teeth, tongue, chin and face.

The other Upāṅgas are heels, ankles, fingers, toes, soles of feet.

Nrtta (dance) should be distinguished from Nrtya (gesticulation, tableau), Śārṅgadeva defines Nrtya as that which manifests emotions or feelings by means of gestures (āṅgikā-bhinaya). According to him, it is known as mārga. He characterises Nrtta as movements of limbs devoid of any imitation of any condition. Dhananjaya, in his Daśarūpaka, brings out the distiinction between the two in the following words—anyad bhāvāśrayam nrtyam nrttam tālalayāśrayam. It means that, while nrtya is based on bhāva (emotion, feeling), nrtta is related to tāla and laya.2

1 See below.

2 The terms have been explained in the foregoing chapter on Tāla and Vocal music respectively.

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Dance

Nrtta is broadly divided into two classes—Tāṇḍava and Lāsya. Violent dance, taught by Tanḍu, the foremost among the mythical attendants of Śiva, is called Tāṇḍava. Lāsya is the name of the tender graceful dance said to be taught by Pārvatī; it is to be performed with delicate movements of limbs, and is conducive to love.

Nrtta again is threefold—viṣama,vikaṭa and laghu. The dance, in which one walks over ropes etc., is called viṣama. Vikaṭa is the name of dance performed with grotesque look, dress and movements of limbs. Laghu nrtta is that which is performed with Āñcita1 and such other minor Karaṇas.2

Nrttakaraṇa

A graceful action of hand, foot, etc. together, which is in consonance with the Rasa concerned, is called karaṇa or Nrttakaraṇa. Usually, in the begining of dance, the feet are in the natural position, the hands have the Latākara pose and the body is in the Caturaśra pose. The left hand is generally kept on the chest and the right one makes such movements as are suited to each Karaṇa. There are other features peculiar to each of the Karaṇas.

Karaṇas may be innumerable. Śārṅgadeva mentions one hundred and eight as the most common and important ones.

Of the Karaṇas, some are standard prevailing everywhere, while others are deśī in vogue in particular regions. The latter includes the various Utplutikaraṇas or Karaṇas with jumps. We state below only a few varieties under each class as illustrations :

Samanakha—the body is in the natural position; the feet touch each other with the toes placed on the same level on the ground The hands are in the Latā5 pose.

1 That kind of dance in which the arm goes out from the region of the chest and returns to the chest. There are other light dances called by this name.

2 Defined below.

3 Infra.

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54

Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

Dolāpāda–after Ūrdhvajānu Cāri, the Dolāpādā Cāri is performed and the arms are kept in the Dola pose.1

Janita –It takes place when, after Janitā Cāri, one hand in the form of Muști2 is placed on the chest and the other is in the Latā pose.

Śakatāsya—After Śukaṭāsyā Cāri, one hand and one foot are stretched out; the other hand in the Khaṭakāmukha3 form is kept on the chest.

Bhramara–The foot remains as in Āksiptā Cāri. At the same time the Udveștita4 movement is made with the hand. The lower part of the spine is curved around, and the feet form svastika. The same is repeated on the other side. Simultanously the Ulbaṇa5 gesture is made with hands.

Sūci –One foot is thrown up, bent and brought down without touching the ground. The hand on the same side is kept, in the khaṭakāmukha pose, at the chest. The other hand, in the Alapadma pose, is near the head. The same is repeated on the other side.

Apakrānta

After Baddhā and Apakrāntā Cāris, the two hands move in an appropriate manner.

Pārśvakrānta–It takes place when Pārśvakrāntā Cāri is performed and the hands follow the feet.

1 Infra.

2 In it, the tips of fingers rest in a compact manner in the middle of the palm not covered by the fingers, and the thumb remains pressed against the middle finger.

3 Infra.

4 The straightening of the bent fingers, beginning with the forefinger, in their respective order, along with the movement of the hand away from the chest to the side.

5 In it, the two Alapadma hands, with quivering fingers, face the shoulder and are stretched over the shoulders.

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Dance

Utpluti-karaṇas

Añcita—Standing up in the natural position of the feet and jumping straight upwards.

Lohadṛ—Standing with the feet in the natural position and twisting around the loins one jumps up and falls obliquely.

Cārī

Derived from the root car (to move) with the addition of the suffix iṅ, followed by the feminine affix īs, it denotes the aggregate of various graceful movements of the feet, shanks, thighs and hips performed simultaneously. Cārī, also called Vyāyāma, has the following varieties : Cārī, Karana, Khaṇḍa and Maṇḍala. The Cārī, which can be performed by any one foot, is called Cārī. That, in which both the feet are required, is called Karana which is to be distinguished from Nṛttakarana. Three Karanas make a Khaṇḍa. Three or four Khaṇḍas make a Maṇḍala.

Cārī, performed by one foot, is of two kinds; viz. Bhaumī (terrestrial, i.e. performed on the ground) and Ākāśikī (aerial, i.e. performed in the air above the ground). Each of the Bhaumī and Ākāśikī Cārīs has sixteen varieties.

While the above are classical or standard Cārīs, called Mārga, there are also regional Cārīs with local characteristics, called Deśī Cārīs. The latter again are divided into two classes, Bhaumī and Ākāśikī; the number of the former is 35, while that of the latter is 19.

We shall mention below only a few typical Cārīs under each class by way of illustrations.

MĀRGA CĀRĪ

Bhaumī

Samaṁpādā—standing with the two feet close together, the

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

toe-nails on a level, and in the Samapāda1

posture.

Vicyavā —from the Samapāda position the feet are lifted up

and fore-parts are brought down on the ground.

Janitā —in it one foot is in Agratalasamcara, one hand is

kept at the chest in the Musṭi3 pose and the

other hand moves in a beautiful manner.

Śakaṭāsyā—in it the upper part of the body is held with

effort, one foot in the Agratala Samcara form is

stretched forward, and the chest is kept in the

Udvāhita5 form.

Ākṣiptā —in it, one foot in Kuñcita form is thrown up to

the height of three spans, brought to the other

side and then, crossing the shanks in Svastika,

it is caused to fall on the ground on its heel.

Ākāśikī

Alātā —one foot is stretched backwards with its sole

facing the other thigh. Then its heel is brought

down to the ground on its side.

Vidyudbhrāntā—One foot touches the head which is turned

back, is turned round in all directions and

stretched.

Ūrdhvajānu —in it one foot in the Kuñcita form is thrown

up and its knee is kept on a level with the

breast. The other foot is kept steady and

motionless.

Pārśvakrāntā—in it, one Kuñcita foot is raised and brought

down on the the ground by its heel.

1 Where Sausṭhava of the limbs is important, and the two feet are kept

in the natural position at a distance of one span from each other.

2 Infra.

3 In it, the chest is lightly raised without shaking.

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DEŚĪ CĀRI

Bhaumī

Parāvṛttatalā—the sole of the foot faces up at the back and is stretched outwards.

Ardhamandalikā—the two feet move outward rubbing the ground and return with a circular movement to the original position slowly one after the other.

Ākāśikī

Vidyudbhrāntā—throwing up the foot in front and moving it around above the forehead quickly, and placing it on the ground.

Hariṇaplutā—jumping up with foot bent and letting it fall repeatedly.

STHĀNA

It means a static posture as distinguished from cāri which denotes a particular movement. There is one sthāna before the commencement of a cāri and one after it. One starts a cāri from one posture, one stops at another.

A particular position of the motionless body is called sthāna. There are six sthānas for men, seven for women. These are standard sthānas. Besides there are 23 deśī ( regional or local ) sthānas. Again, there are nine sitting postures ( upaviṣtsthānakas ) and six reclining ones ( suptsthānakas ). All together number 51 according to Śārṅgadeva.

We give below a few typical examples under each class.

Postures for men

Vaiśākha—the two thighs are kept in the air above the ground at a distance of three and a half spans from each other and the feet are kept on the ground pointing obliquely outwards, also at the same distance from each other.

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

Āliḍha—the left thigh is motionless in the air and slightly

bent. The right foot is stretched forward to a

distance of five spans. Both feet are oblique.

Postures for women

Gatāgata—the female dancer, about to move forward, hesitates

with one foot raised.

Valita—the body is slightly twisted around, the foot, in the

direction in which the body is twisted, touches the

ground with the little toe. The other foot touches

the ground with the big toe.

Deśī Sthānas

Vardhamāna—the two feet are oblique with the heels touch-

ing each other.

Nandyāvarta—in Vardhamāna above, the distance between the

feet is six aṅgulas or one vitasti (= 12 aṅgulas).

Upaviṣṭa-sthānas

Madālasa—one foot is stretched out a little, the other is

placed on the seat, and the head is bent on one side.

Utkata—the heels and the hips are on the same level and

the feet are on the ground in the natural position.

Suptasthāna

Sama—lying down with the face turned upwards and the hands

loose and free.

Nata—lying down with the shanks slightly separated and the

two hands resting loosely.

AṄGAHĀRA

This term is constituted by two components, viz. aṅgu and

hāra. It is explained as the movement (hāra) of aṅgas (limbs).

Some explain it as a movement pertaining to Hara (i.e. Śiva),

and demonstrated by limbs (aṅga).

According to Śārṅgadeva, the graceful movement of the

limbs to the proper places, composed of groups of Mātṛkās

(i.e. combination of two karaṇas) is called Aṅgahāra.

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The number of Angahāras is infinite. Śārṅgadeva mentions thirty-two as important among them.1

RECAKA

Particular movements of the feet, hands, waist and neck are called recaka.

The continuous movement of the foot in between the heel and the tip of the toe and then outwards, involving bending and stretching, is the recaka of the foot.

A swift circular movement of the hands inward and outward alternately is the recaka of the hands.

Turning round the waist in all directions along with the vertical rotation of the toe slightly spread out, is the recaka of the waist.

Shaking and moving the neck around is recaka of the neck.

The necessary recakas are added to aṅgahāras.

VARTANĀ, CĀLAKA

Vartanā denotes a particular movement of the arms. By resorting to various movements of arms, separately and collectively, and adopting the tempos druta etc. innumerable vartanās can be produced. Śārṅgadeva does not enumerate the vartanās of which twenty-four varieties are described by Kallinātha following Kohala.

When employed with recakas, without the loss of grace, these movements of arms, full of skilful modes, are called Cālakas. Kallinātha, following Kohala, describes 50 Cālakas.

1. For fear of prolixity, we do not name them here. As these are connected with karanas, their definitions require the explanation of the karanas concerned. For considerations of space, we do not define them here.

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NYĀYA

The movement of the body in dance for simulated protection against weapons and for the simulated discharge of weapons is called nyāya. Corresponding to the four styles (vṛtti) called Bhāratī, Sāttvatī, Ārabhatī and Kaiśikī, nyāyas are fourfold, viz. Bhārata, Sāttvata, Vṛṣagaṇya and Kaiśika. Pravicāras are those excellent (prakṛṣṭa) and varied (vicitra) movements and gaits meant for discharging weapons. The nyāyas are to be employed with cārīs in discharging the weapons.

MANDALAS

Maṇḍala is the name given to a particular combination of Cārīs. Maṇḍalas are divided into two kinds, bhauma (terrestrial) and ākāśika (aerial). There are ten maṇḍalas under each class. Maṇḍalas are employed in discharging weapons. In depicting fighī, aerial maṇḍalas are important. It may be noted that as several cārīs constitute a maṇḍala, the omission or addition of some cārīs does not mar it.

Earthly Maṇḍalas

A few instances are given below;

Bhramara

The right foot and the left foot are Janita and Spandita respectively. Then these two are respectively śakaṭāsya and Cāṣagati. Again, the right and left feet are Bhramara and spandita respectively.

Cāṣagata

In it, there will be cāṣagati feet all through, and turning round in a circle at the end.

Krānta

In it, the right and the left feet are respectively Sthāpita and Apakrānta respectively. Then both the feet are Pārśvakrānta.

Aerial Maṇḍala

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the left one moving round in all directions. Then the left and right feet are respectively Sūcī and Apakrānta.

Sūcīviddha

The right foot is successively Sūcī and Bhramara. Then the left one is Pārśvakrānta and Apakrānta, and the right foot sūcī. Then the left foot is Apakrānta and the right Pārśvakrānta.

REKHĀ

It is the name of a particular position of the body, attractive to the mind and the eyes. In it, there is a harmonious combination of the various poses of the major limbs, e.g. head, eyes, hands.

Qualification of a dancer

Generally women are fit for various movements in dancing. They are of three types, i.e. Mugdhā (shy), Madhyā (normal) and Pragalbhā (bold, confident). The types correspond to three stages of youthfulness. The first is the stage of adolescence in which there is eagerness for the kind of amorous pleasure in which the lips, full-grown breasts, cheeks, hips and thighs are concealed due to shyness. The second is the life of love in which the woman has heavy thighs and hips, large, hard, heaving and firm breasts. The third is the stage in which there is a maddening charm, the woman is clever in perfect amorous sports and has spontaneous amorous feelings.

Merits and defects of a dancer

The following are the merits of a dancer : beauty of limbs, perfection of form, charming full face, large eyes, red lips, beautiful teeth, conch-like neck, arms like moving creapers, slender waist, not-too-heavy hips, thighs like elephant-trunks, not too tall, crippled or fat, not having prominent veins, conspicuous charm, sweetness, courage, generosity, fair or dark complexion. The best dancer, by delicate movements,

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

beautiful rhythm and correct timing, seems to manifest the

sound of songs and instruments, and fully evokes the Rasa.

Decoration of a dancer

Waving loose, black, glossy and abundant hair with

flower-strings on it or, straight long braid of hair decorated

with a string of pearls, forehead having curly locks, a beauty-

spot on the forehead with musk, sandal-paste etc., eyes with

collyrium; ears with cylindrical ornaments, radiant teeth, cheeks

with streaks of musk; pearl-necklace round the neck; large

pearl-strings decorating the breasts; gem-studded golden

bangles on the fore-arm, on fingers rings set with rubies,

sapphires, diamonds etc.; body smeared with sandal-paste or

saffron; garments of white silk etc.; a fine jacket or short

petticoat with a tight bodice.

The teacher of dance

He should have the following qualifications :

Personality, sound knowledge of dancing, knowledge

of the beginning and concluding songs and instrumental music,

Graha1, instrumental music, tradition, beauty of sounds, sthāyas2;

cleverness in the tempos Druta etc. and in tālas; capacity for

composing Vādyaprabandhas, originating new styles in Samgīta;

skill in the art of teaching, capacity for attracting people,

knowledge of the merits and defects of dancing performances.

Dance-troupe (Sampradāya)

Troupes are of three kinds, viz. Kuṭila (best) Madhyama

(medium) and Kaniṣṭha (smallest). The Kuṭila sampradāya is

constituted as follows :

1 Mukharin (leader).

1 Pratimukharin (chief assistant).

1. Explained under Vocal music.

2. Ibid.

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2 players of the percussion instrument called Āvaja.

2 players of the percussion instrument called Addhāvaja.

2 players of the percussion instrument called Karatā.

32 players of the drum called Mardala.

2 cymbal players.

8 playing bell-metal cymbals.

2 playing the wind instrument called Kāhala.

2 flutists.

2 main singers.

8 other singers.

2 main female singers, one of whom is a dancer.

8 other female singers.

74

The troupe, having half the above strength, is madhyama; less than the latter is called Kanisṭha.

Closely following the Mukharin, his tempo (laya) making up the deficiencies, observing the timing (tāla)—these are the merits of a troupe. the lack of any of these merits constitutes a defect.

GAUNDALĪ

Gaundalī is the designation of a kind of female dancer. Hence the dance, performed by her, is also called Gaundalī.

This mode of dance is called Gaundalī-paddhati as distinguished from Suddhā-paddhati.

Gaundalī is devoid of vigorous instrumental compositions and songs like Elā, accompanied by vocal Sālagasāḍa compositions like Dhruva.

The dancer dances with gentler movements of the limbs, using the Lāsyāṅgas.

She herself sings, and plays on the Trivalī instrument.

Some reject this instrument as the wearing of the Trivalī on the shoulder is not decent for a girl.

If this dancer does not sing, she is called Mīkagaundalī.

Her dress is to be that of the region called Karnāṭaka.

This mode of dance is called deśīpaddhati.

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PERANIN

A kind of dancer is called Peranin He will be as follows :

Body smeared with white powder such as ash, shaved

head with a tuft of hair, wearing a number of shining

anklet bells tied to the shanks, good voice, expert in the

arts of timing and tempo, attracting the mind of the

audience.

The dance of a Peranin has five elements, viz.

( i ) Gharghara --special training in the sounding of anklet

bells.

( ii ) Visama --it denotes Utplutikaranas (Karanas with

jumps).

( iii ) Bhāvāśraya--imitation of ludicrous things for comic

effect.

( iv ) Kavicāra --description of the hero of high character.

( v ) Gīta --Sālaga songs prescribed for the Gaundalī.

ĀCARYA

The Ācārya will be as follows :

Versed in the theory and practice of dance, vocal

and instrumental music, eloquent in speech, handsome

in appearance and dress, expert in eulogy in a pleasing

manner, humorous in assemblies, expert in playing musical

instruments.

AUDIENCE

The people, gathering in the hall of dance, should be as

follows :

Possessed of moderate views, attention, eloquence,

skill in Nyāya, discrimination between right and wrong

types of dance, modesty; versed in Rasas and Bhāvas,

three kinds of Samgita, critical of those who talk in-

correctly, clever, free from jealousy, possessed of hearts

overflowing with Rasa.

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SABHĀPATI

The President of the assembly should be as follows :

Of an amorous disposition, generous, honourable, discriminating between dancers, rich, appreciative of even slight merit, interested in entertainments, eloquent, free from jealousy, clever in jokes, intelligent, dignified, skilled in arts, well-versed in Śāstras, desirous of fame, pleasant-tongued, capable of understanding others' minds, judicious, possessed of good memory, versed in the three branches of Samgīta, charitably disposed, possessed of all instruments, the knowledge of the distinction between Mārga and Deśī, capable of distinguishing deficiencies and excesses, learned, bold, impartial, having command over attendants, capable of aesthetic appreciation, full of Rasa, truthful, highborn, having a gracious face, steady in affection, grateful, kind, virtuous, afraid of sins, friendly to scholars.

SEATING ARRANGEMENTS IN ASSEMBLY

The President should occupy the lion-seat. To his left will be members of the harem and to his right the chieftains. Behind the chieftains should be the treasurer. Near them will sit scholars versed in worldly and Vedic lore, with them should be poets of aesthetic taste, clever in various styles. In the centre of scholars will remain honoured physicians and astrologers. On the right is the Council of Ministers along with Chiefs of the army. Men and women of aesthetic taste should sit around the members of the harem and in front of the king Behind the king will stand beautiful young girls carrying chowries and making a jingling sound of the bangles. On the left of the king, in front, will sit composers of songs, story-tellers, bards, scholars and flatterers. Around them will be the attendants of the king. There should be some clever men holding canes. The bodyguards of the king should stand on all sides with weapons in hands.

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Various poses of different limbs (aṅga) and sub-limbs (pratyaṅga) have been prescribed. Some of these are applicable in dance, while others are used in acting (abhinaya) It is not possible, within the limited space of this little book, to describe all of them. We, therefore, confine ourselves to a description of the hand-poses alone. Among these again, we shall describe only a few prominent ones.

Some of the poses are prescribed for the single hand, while others are to be made with both the hands together.

Poses of the single hand

Patāka

In it, the thumb is bent, touches the root of the forefinger; the palm and fingers are outstretched and the fingers are pressed against one another.

Arāla

In it, each finger, beginning with the forefinger, is separated from the next with increasing intervals, and is higher and higher and slightly bent, while the forefinger is curved like bow and the thumb bent.

Padmakośa

In it, the thumb and the other fingers are bent like a bow, separated from each other with tips not attached to one another.

Muṣṭi

In it, the tips of fingers remain compact in the middle of the palm, not covered (by the fingers), and the thumb is pressed against the middle finger.

Śikhara

It takes place when the thumb of the Muṣṭi pose is turned upwards.

Kapittha

In it, the tip of the forefinger of Śikhara touches the tip of the thumb.

Dance

Hamsapaksa

In it, the three fingers, beginning with the forefinger of patāka, are slightly bent at the roots.

Khaṭakāmukha

In it, the ring finger and the little finger of the kapittha pose are thrown upwards, separated and bent.

Poses of the Samyukta (combined) hands

Kapota

In it, the two hands are joined at their bases, tips and sides.

śvastika

In it, the two hands, with one wrist placed over the other, face upwards at the left side of the body.

Dolu

In it, the two hands in the Patāka, pose hang down with relaxed shoulders and loose fingers.

Makara

In it, the hands, in the form of Patāka, face downwards and are placed one upon another, with the thumbs stretched upwards.

The above poses of the hand are to be used in Abhinaya.

The following are some of the poses employed in Nrtta ( dance ).

Caturaśra

In it, two Khaṭakāmukha hands, in the same level with elbows and shoulders, face forward in front of the chest at a distance of eight inches from it.

Svastika

It takes place when there is Svastika with two Hamsapaksa hands not touching each other.

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

Arālakhaṭakāmukha

In it, two hands in Patāka are crossed in Svastika and then swung inwards and outwards. Then forming the Padmakośa pose, facing upwards, they are again caused to swing inward and outward alternately. Then the left hand assumes the Arāla pose facing upward and the right the Khaṭakāmukha facing downward forming Caturaśra.

Recita

It is the name of the two hands stretched out with palms upward.

Latākara

It takes place when the two Patāka hands, stretched cross-wise, are caused to swing.

Varadābhaya

In it, the right and left hands in the Arāla pose assume the Varada (giving boon) and Abhaya ( granting protection against fear) poses next to the corresponding hip.

Alapadma

In it, two Alapallava hands, near the chest, are made to approach the shoulders with the Udveśṭita movement and then stretched out.

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APPENDICES

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APPENDIX 'A'

INDIAN AND WESTERN MUSIC

Now-a-days there is a tendency to westernise Indian music at least to some extent. Before introducing western methods and spirit, we must understand the basic difference between the two systems.

The fundamental difference between the two systems is that, while Indian music rests on melody, Western music is founded on harmony. In an Indian song, the successive concordant notes produce a definite rāga The harmony of the west is dependent upon the concord of different notes related to one another. The melody in India has a uniform unchanged mood: time and tune make a homogeneous unit. In Indian music, the balance is effected by time-variations and grace. 'In western music mood is used to articulate the balance of the whole piece'. In India, the prominent notes and the mutual relation of the individual notes are fixed by long tradition. In the west, the principal notes are made by the transient impulse of the harmony; in it what matters is a group of notes and not the individual ones. In India, melody depends upon the relation of fixed notes which vary in accordance with the rāga; it has no concern with development through notes suggesting harmony. In the west, melodies centre around notes harmonically connected with the tonic. Consequently, imitation at different stages, though common in western music, is very rare in the Indian system. In India gamakas ( tremor of the notes ) are deliberate as these are considered to add to the grace of songs. In the west, these are accidental embellishments. The use of microtones distinguishes Indian music from the western. In Indian songs, conformity with the

classical standards is all-important; in it accuracy and skill

are treated as more important than the quality of the tone.

The tune, melody and rhythm are all with which it is concerned.

In western music, the quality of the voice and the charm are

important factors.

Another feature which distinguishes Indian music from

the western is that while the former develops a single emotion,

the latter frequently changes the moods. There is a funda-

mental difference between the systems of rhythm in the

music of India and Europe. "The highly developed tāla or

rhythmic system, with its avoidance of strict metre and its

development by the use of an accumulating combination of

beat sub-divisions, has no parallel in western music On the

other hand, the Indian system has no exact counterpart to

the tone of the tempered system, except for the keynote, of

western music."1

There cannot be a more fitting finale to this topic than

the following quotation from Rabindranath Tagore who, in his

inimitable language, brings out the distinction between the

aims underlying the two systems of music :

"Our music draws the listener away beyond the

limits of everyday human joys and sorrows, and takes us

to that lonely region of renunciation which lies at the

root of the universe, while European music leads us to

a variegated dance through the endless rise and fall of

human grief and joy."

1. See D. P. Singhal : India and World Civilisation, I, p. 222.

APPENDIX ‘B’

INFLUENCE OF INDIAN MUSIC ABROAD

That there was brisk contact of India not only with her

Asian neighbours, but also with such far-off regions as Egypt,

Greece etc. is borne out by historical evidence. This contact

was established through maritime trade, religious activities,

especially the propagation of Buddhism, political domination

and military invasions.

In the domain of music, there are some points of similarity

between the Indian system and that in vogue in certain other

countries. While, in some cases, this might be accidental

coincidence or parallel development, in others the influence

of India is a historical fact.

The accounts of India, left by the Chinese travellers,

Fa-hien, Hiuen Tsang and I-tsing, bear eloquent testimony to

cultural intercourse between our country and China. It was

probably in the Gupta age (320 A.D. to the first half of the

seventh century) that there was a diffusion of Indian culture

in the countries of the middle and east Asia, particularly in

China. Kuchi in Central Asia was then a centre of the cultiva-

tion of Indian music. There is evidence of the prevalence of

our music in Kashgarh and Khotan too. It is probable that

the Indian artists of Kuchi carried this art to China. It found

an honoured place even in the royal courts of China. In 581

A.D., at the invitation of the then Chinese Emperor, many

Indian musicians went to that country. An Indian artist,

named Sujiva, adorned the royal court of China in the period

between 560 and 578 A.D. An expert Viṇā-player, he used

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to train the music-lovers of China in the modes of Indian rāgas. It appears that the Chinese used to cultivate Indian music

down to the 9th-10th centuries. Ancient Chinese manuscripts testify to their familiarity with the seven svaras, grāmas,

mūrchanās etc. of the Indian system of music. According to some, the musical notes of China have been modelled on those

of India. It is significant that at least three Chinese notes correspond to the three svaras called Ṣadja, Ṛṣabha and

Pañcama. In the sixth century, Korea was also a seat of Indian music. From China and Korea it travelled to Japan.

Indian colonies in Champa or Kambuja may have played a part in the transmission of Indian music to Japan. According

to an ancient Japanese tradition, two chief types of music, called Bodhisattva and Bairo, were imported from China to

Japan by an Indian Brahmin named. Bodhi. Bodhisattva is evidently an Indian appellation. Bairo seems to have been

derived from the Indian rāga Bhairava which is still called Bhairo in Hindī.

Of the Far Eastern countries—Java, Bali, Sumatra and Cambodia looked upon our music with respect, and actively cultivated it.

Some songs of Tibet, particularly those of the devotional character, appear to have elements in imitation of the

Sāman songs.

According to some scholars, the musical instruments like the harp, which resemble the Indian viṇā, were borrowed from

India by such ancient lands as Greece, Egypt, Alexandria etc.

There are certain striking parallelisms between the Indian and Greek systems of music. For example, the two earliest

scales of Greece, called Mixolydic and Doric, have resemblance with early Indian scales. Pythagoras’ scheme of cycle

of the fifth and cycle of the fourth in musical system correspond to the sadja-pañcama and sadja-madhyama bhavās of the

Nāṭyaśāstra. Though mere likeness of the two systems is no evidence of one borrowing from the other, yet the probability of

Influence of Indian music abroad

Indian: influence on Greece cannot be ruled out. It should be borne in mind that Indian music, dating back to the Ṛgvedic period, is definitely older than the Greek. In this connexion, it deserves notice that some ancient Greek writers claim that the greater part of their music was borrowed from Asia. Strabo, among others, shares their view. Alexander’s biographer, Arrian, knew of the Indians’ love of music since early times. Aristotle’s description of a lyre reminds one of the Indian ekatantri vīṇā. Curt Sachs thinks that the South Indian drum tambattam was known in Babylonia by the name of timbutu. According to him, the South Indian Kinnarī was King David’s Kinnor.

The Arab writer, Jahiz, informs us that Indian music was popular in the Abbasid court. He records an Indian musical instrument, called kankalah, containing a string stretched on a pumpkin. It appears to be the kingar made with two gourds. Another source records a book on Indian tunes and melodies. Some technical terms of Arabian music appear to have been borrowed from Persia and India. The Arabic maqam iqa appears to be Persian rendering of Indian melodic rhythmic system. Yehudi Menuhin is certain that some element of Indian music ‘became the mainstay of Arabic music.

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APPENDIX 'I'

INFLUENCE OF TANTRA ON MUSIC

In certain works on music, we find mention of nāḍīs (artery, vein), cakras (circles) etc. within the body in connexion with the genesis of nāda, śruti, svara etc. We briefly state below what Śārṅgadeva says about these things. It may be added that the human body, regarded as a microcosm, has been the subject of vigorous dicussion in the Tantra. In fact, an important way of Tāntrić meditation is to look inward and to awaken the kulakuṇḍalinī, the vital life-force fancied as a serpent coiling at the bottom of the upper part of the body.

CAKRA

The following cakras are supposed to be within the human body :

Ādhāra—in between the anus and the penis. Supposed to have four petals.

Svādhiṣṭhāna—in the region of the navel. 10 petals.

Anāhata—in the heart. 12 petals.

Viśuddhi—in the throat. 16 petals.

Lalanā—in the forehead. 12 petals

Ājñā—in between the brows. 3 petals.

Manas—above the ājñā-cakra. 6 petals.

Soma—above the manas. 16 petals.

Sudhādhara—in the Brahmarandhra, an aperture in the crown of the head through which the soul is said to escape at the time of death. 1000 petals.

The Viśuddhi-cakra is said to be the resort of the svaras sadja etc. Śārṅgadeva holds that the soul, residing in the eighth and some other petals, desires success in music. By the

Influence of Tantra on music

sixth and some other petals of it songs etc. are spoilt. Resort to eight petals, beginning with the eighth, causes success in

songs etc. Its sixteenth petal is their destroyer. The tenth and eleventh petals of Lalanā give success. The first and some

other petals of it are destroyers. The soul in Brahmarandhra seems to be satisfied being drenched in ambrosia, and accom-

plishes the best kind of songs etc. The soul, in other petals and cakras, never achieves perfect success in songs etc.

Śārṅgadeva says that two aṅgulas above Ādhāra-cakra and two aṅgulas below the genital organ there is a cakra called

dehamadhya measuring one aṅgula. In it there is a slender flame of fire. At a distance of nine aṅgulas from it there is

the body-root four aṅgulas in height and width; it is called Brahmagrānthi. In it there is nābhicakra with twelve petals.

There the soul travels like a spider in the cobweb.

NĀḌIS

Nāḍīs are said to be infinite. Of them, the important are : Suṣumṇā, iḍā, piṅgalā, kuhū, sarasvatī, gāndhārī,

hastijihvā, vāruṇī, yaśasvinī, viśvodarā, śaṅkhinī, pūṣā, payasvinī.

VĀYU

The following ten kinds of wind are supposed to exist within the body :

Prāṇa, apāna, vyāna, samāna, udāna, nāga, kūrma, kṛkara, devadatta and dhanañjaya.

Of these, the chief is prāṇa. Remaining below the navel it moves about in the mouth, nostrils and heart. It is the

source of inhalation, exhalation, cough etc. Apāna is the source of sound; it remains in the anus, penis, hips, thighs and belly.

According to Śārṅgacieva, the soul climbing the prāṇa-vāyu, ascends up to Brahmarandhra through Suṣumṇā and descends.

Nāda is twofold—anāhata (non-struck) and āhata (struck). Anāhata, which is changeless and inaudible, is only a subject

of meditation in the way taught by the spiritual guide. It is devoid of delightfulness to people. Āhata, pleasant to people

though śruti etc., is the source of Śruti and the like, and expands songs; it is everchanging.

In the heart, twenty-two nāḍis are supposed to be joined with the upward artery. These exist in an oblique manner. As a result of wind striking against them, twenty-two śrutis come into being; these śrutis are of a gradually higher pitch. Similarly, twenty-two śrutis are admitted in the throat and the head.

The use of mudrās or positions of hands etc. in connexion with samgīta, particularly with dance, seems to testify to Tāntrić influence. The idea of mudrās, as symbolising feelings, moods, sentiment etc., probably originated in the Vedic period. In Vedic rituals, various poses of hands were adopted by the singer of Sāmans. The mudrās, however, along with mystical diagrams called maṇḍala and yantra, were highly developed in connexion with Tāntrić rites. It may be that, with the diffusion of Tāntrić rites, the mudrās came to be included in larger number in the works on music.

Śiva and Śakti are the two fundamental principles of the Tāntrić philosophy. In the musical lore, too, there is a tradition that Rāgas and Rāginīs, which form the basis of vocal music, emanated respectively from Śiva and Śakti. According to one tradition, one rāga emanated from each mouth of Śiva, and one rāga from the mouth of Pārvatī.

APPENDIX ‘D’

NON-ARYAN ELEMENTS IN INDIAN MUSIC

Indian culture is a composite one comprising heterogeneous elements. Through ages it has assimilated many things not

only from the various strands of culture spread over the vast sub-continent. The rites and rituals of the Aryans, their Śāstras

and arts reveal their indebtedness to non-Aryan tribes. India has been a target of foreign invasions ever since the early

times. Hordes of Śakas, Hūṇas, Parthians, Muslims etc. and people of various European countries invaded this land and

sometimes settled here in large number and became naturalised.

After the invasion of Alexandar. (c. 326 B.C.), there was a brisk cultural exchange between Greece and India. Greek

principalities were established in parts of this country. Besides invasions for political and military ends, there was intercourse

among the Indians and the foreigners, particularly with the peoples of the different countries of Asia. Thus, there was

ample scope of fusion of culture, at least in some fields, among the Indians and her neighbours, far and near. The diverse

fabrics of different lands and of various races and tribes of India were woven into the complex and colourful texture of

this land.

In the realm of music, we find elements derived from non-Aryan sources and foreign lands. We shall briefly deal

with these elements. The names of certain Rāgas and Rāginīs clearly indicate their origin among the non-Aryan tribes in-

habiting the different regions of India. Śaka, Pulindi, Ābhirī,

Śāberikā and Bhairava appear to have been derived respectively from Śakas, Pulindas, Ābhīras, Śabaras and Bhairavas.

Mālava ( along with its derivatives Mālasrī, Mālavakausíka

etc.), Āndhri and Gurjari probably owe their origin to the

tribes known as Mālavās, Andhras and Gurjaras. The name

Velāvali is probably derived from vela-ūlli, a Dravidian word.

Toḍi, derived from Tuḍḍi, Āśāvari and Dhannāsikā have no

meaning in Sanskrit; these appear to have originated from

foreign sources. The names Chevāṭi, Kaccoḷi and Geranji are

clearly non-Aryan. Kāmbojī, Khāmbāja or Khāmācī was pro-

bably imported from Kambuja which may have been the region

of this name situated in the north-west of India or it may

refer to Cambodia in the Far East. Mataṅga, in his Brhaddeśī,

thinks Kāmbojī to be non-Aryan; opinions, however, differ on

this point. The names Turuska-toḍi, Turuska-gauḍa indicate

a mixture of Turkish elements with the Indian. The name

Boṭṭa is taken by some to have been derived from Bhoṭṭa or

Bhoṭa which refers to Tibet. Bhammāna, according to some,

hints at its Armenian origin; of commercial contacts of the

Armenians with India there is ample evidence. Takka-rāga is

considered by some to be a contribution of the non-Aryan

Takka race.

Some of the authors of Sanskrit works on music were aware

of the foreign elements of the rāgas. For instance, in

his Brhaddeśī, Mataṅga says ‘samkirṇā ca matā nityam jñeyā

vaideśasaṃbhavā ’ -it is mixed and originated in a foreign land

APPENDIX ‘E’

( I )

Pañcamasāra-saṃhitā Ascribed to Nārada

To Nārada the following works on music are ascribed :

( i ) Nārdīyā Śikṣā1,

( ii ) Saṃgīta-makaranda2,

(iii) Catvāriṃśacchata-rāga-nirūpaṇa or Rāganirūpaṇa3,

( iv ) Pañcama-sāra-saṃhitā or Pañcama-saṃhitā.

The last one has not yet been printed. Svāmī Prajñānānanda,

in his Bengali work Saṃgīta O Saṃskṛti, mentions a manuscript

of this work (No. 5040) belonging to Asiatic society, Calcutta.

Since then another MS. has been found in Baṅgīya Sāhitya

Parisat, Calcutta (No. 716) The Asiatic Society MS., entitled

Pañcamasamhitā, contains only the third chapter called

Rāganirṇaya. The other one contains four chapters. It is

difficult to say whether or not it represents the complete

work. At the end, it contains the chapter-colophon only,

but does not indicate that the work is concluded. It is dated

Śaka 1700 (=1778 AD). The third chapter of this MS. shows

considerable divergence from the Asiatic Society MS. The text,

presented here, is based on the fuller MS. of the Baṅgīya

Sāhitya Parisat. The divergences in the third chapter, contained

in the Asiatic Society MS., will be clear on comparison of

the two texts; the text of the Society MS. has been transcribed

in Appendix E (2). The variants are considerable in number

and striking in nature. This leads us to the conclusion that the

two MSS. either represent distinct manuscript traditions or

there were interpolations in any one of them.

1 (i) Benares ed., 1893 (with comm. by Bhaṭṭaśobhākara)

(ii) Calcutta ed., 1890.

2 Ed. GOS, No. XXI, Baroda, 1920.

3 Ed. Āryabhūṣaṇa Press, 1836.

M-11

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The fuller MS. is full of corrupt readings; portions of it are illegible Yet, the text is presented here with the idea that the scholars can see what this hitherto unpublished text, associated with the name of Nārada, contains.

A re'sume' of the contents, based on the imperfect text, is set forth below. The first chapter, incomplete in the beginning, traces the origin of music to Bharata etc Rambhā is credited with tne authorship of the Samgitasamhitā. The origin of dance in heaven is mentioned. Bharata is also said to have made a Samhitā which gained currency on earth. Bharata and others are said to have created a Nata (dancer) named Bhadra who entertained all in heaven, on earth as well as in the nether world He was followed by Subhadra, Atibhadra and Vīrabhadra. His immediate successor cannot be ascertained from the corrupt text He is said to have excelled even his father in merits. The son of Vīrabhadra is said to have put all musicians to shame. Vīrabhadra's son acquired fame which spread far and wide His sons and grandsons also became extremely famous as Natas. Some of them settled in Dvārakā, some in the East while others resorted to the North and the South. Those who settled in the East were mostly proficient in various Śāstras and were the best. They used to sing beautiful songs, dance superbly and described various Śāstras and Kāvyas. The Natas, who are self restrained and faithful to their own profession, are protected by the Brahmins versed in the Vedas as well as by the people in general.

Chapter II opens with an eulogy of Nātya (dramatic art); it has been said to be conducive to the four ends of human life. This is followed by praise of songs. One who sings a song, be it out of greed for money, for pleasure or on the spur of the moment, lives in the company of God for thousand years.

A Nāyaka (hero) is high-born, handsome, possessed of the spirit of sacrifice, successful, endowed with good look, merits, youth and enthusiasm and learned. Vādya follows gīta, laya follows vādya. All this accords with the desire of the Nāyaka.

Appendix E

Nrtya is said to be the combination of dhātu and mātrā; Dhātu consists in nāda, which is its essential element. Mātrā consists of a number of letters. The wind, called Prāna, goes up to Brahmarādhra.1 Then through the mouth it emanates as nāda.

He is a true singer who sings clearly, with purity in accordance with the Śāstra, with a sweet voice and is free from the eight faults. The faults are : curved throat, swollen throat, closing of the eyes, shutting the mouth, eyes turned up, eyes turned downward, shaking of the head and bending of the body

This is followed by the qualifications of the player of the mrdańga, the dancer, the Vidūṣaka and the Nāyikā (heroine).

Abhinaya (acting) is defined as the imitation of a condition. It is fourfold : āńgika (done with gestures and postures), vācika (vocal) āhārya (done with costumes) and sāttvika. The last one is eightfold—sweat, horripilation, hoarseness of voice, trembling body, faded complexion, tears, stupefaction or motionlessness, pralaya (fainting, loss of consciousness).

One, who is not pleased with a charming song, is said to be a human beast.

Samgīta consists in gīta (song), vādya (instrumental music) and nrtya (dance). The dance of males is called Tāńdava, while that of females is designated as lāsya. Instruments are fourfold—(i) Tata—e.g. vińā etc.

(ii) Susira—e.g. vamśi etc.

(iii) Ānaddha—covered with leather.

(iv) Ghana—bell, cymbal etc.

These four classes belong respectively to gods, Gandharvas, Rākṣasa and human beings. In all kinds of instruments Goddess Sarasvatī herself lives Of the four classes, murāja (tabour) is

1 An aperture in the crown of the head through which the soul is supposed to escape on its leaving the body.

84

Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

the chief; all other instruments become charming in the

association of it.

The third chapter, called Rāganirnaya, holds that rāgas

are six while rāginīs are thirty-six. The six rāgas are—

Mālava, Mallāra, Śrī, Vasanta, Hindolā and Karṇāṭa. As a

general rule, it is provided that these rāgas should be sung

after ten dandas at night. Meghamallāra can be sung at any

time. The proper time for Vasanta is from Śrīpañcamī1 up

to the time when Hari goes to sleep.2 No restriction as to

time need be observed on the stage and at the command of

the king.

The song of a particular rāga should be followed by that

of its wife; but the wife of another must be avoided. In this

matter also, there is no harm if the king orders otherwise.

The 15 rāginīs, called Vibhāṣā, Lalitā, Kāmodā,

Paṭhamañjarī, Rāmakelī, Rāmakīrī, Veloyārī, Gurjarī, Deśakārī,

Subhagā, Pañcamī, Gaṭā (?). Tudī, Bhairavī, Kaumārī, are to

be sung in the morning. Varāḍī, Māyūrī. Koḍā, Vairāgī,

Dhānusī, Velāvalī, Mārāṭhī—these 7 should be sung at noon.

Gāndhārī, Dīpikā, Kalyāṇī, Pūravī, Aśvavārī, Kānadā, Gaurī,

Kedārā, Pāhidā, Mādhavī, Mālasī, Lāṭī, Bhūpālī, Sinduḍā—these

fourteen are to be sung in the evening.

The rāginīs, belonging to the respective rāgas, are stated

below :

Mālava—Dhānusī, Mālasī, Rāmakīrī, Sinduḍā,

Aśvavārī, Bhairavī.

Mallāra—Velāvalī, Pūravī, Kānadā, Mādhavī,

Koḍā, Kedārikā.

Śrī—Gāndhārī, Subhagā, Gaurī, Kaumārikā,

Veloyārī, Vairāgī.

Vasanta—Tudī, Pañcamī, Lalitā, Paṭhamañjarī,

Gurjarī, Vibhāṣā.

1 Te fifth lunar mansion of the bright half in the month of Māgha, also

called Vasant-pañcamī. On this day Goddess Sarasvatī is worshipped.

2 The eleventh day of the bright half of the month of Āṣāḍha when

Viṣṇu is supposed to lie down to enjoy four months’ repose.

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Appendix E

Hindola--Māyurī, Dīpikā, Deśakārī, Pāhidā,

Vārāḍī, Mārāṭhī.

Karnāta--Nāṭikā Bhūpālī, Rāmakelī, Kāmodī, Kalyāṇī,

Gaṭā (?).

Next follow the dhyānas (figures to be meditated upon)

of the different rāgas and rāginīs. These are in various metres

and couched in elegant language which reveal the poetic gifts

of the author.

The above account is based on the manuscript belonging

to the Bangīya Sāhitya Pariṣat. The other manuscript appears

to represent a shorter version. It omits many of the preliminary

verses. After two introductory verses, both of which are

absent in the Sāhitya Pariṣat MS., it sets forth the names of

rāgas followed by those of the rāginīs. The other noteworthy

divergences between the two manuscripts are set forth below.

For Sindhuḍā of the Pariṣat MS., the Society MS. reads

Sindhujā, Aśvati of the former is Āśoāri of the latter. Kaumārikā

of the former corresponds to Kumārikā of the latter.

Among the rāginīs, to be sung in the morning, the first

is Vibhāṣā in the Pariṣat MS., while it is Āhirī in the other

one; the latter name does not occur in the Pariṣat MS. Among

the rāgas to be sung at noon, the Māyūrī of the Pariṣat MS.

is replaced by Māidhavī in the Society MS. Rāginī Dhānusī

of the former corresponds to Dhānasī of the latter.

As regards the time appropriate for singing the rāgas,

while the Pariṣat MS. provides the night after leaving the

first ten dandas, the Society MS. ordains two periods, viz.

within ten dandas of pradoṣa (nightfall). In connexion with

the rāga Meghamallāra, the Pariṣat MS reads sarvāsu sarvadā;

the Society MS. reads, evidently with more aptness, varṣāsu

for sarvāsu. As regards the period suitable for Vasanta rāga,

the Pariṣat MS. ordains the time from Śrīpañcamī up to the

śavana of Hari. The Society MS. extends the limit up to the

time of Durgāpūjā.

The dhyānas of the rāgas and rāginīs, occuring in the

two MSS, reveal considerable divergences, not only verbal

but also material.

The fourth chapter deals with Tālas, and traces their

genesis in heaven. One hundred and one Tālas are said to

have been introduced on the earth. This portion of the MS

is extremely corrupt so that it is not possible to make out

a coherent account of its contents. It can be gathered that,

by means of laghu, guru, pluta etc., different Tālas have been

described. The names of Tālas, which can be gathered from

this portion, are as follows : ekatāla, yatitāla, ṣatpadī, viṣama-

sandhi, rūpaka, aṣṭakatāla, apūrvakalā haragaurī, jhampaka,

yamaka, daśakuśī, kundaśekhara, vastūtāla, sarvamanohara.

The name of Nārada, with which the work is associated,

appears to give a stamp of antiquity to it. But an examination

of its contents leads to a contrary conclusion.

The use of the term rāginī is a pointer to its later origin.

This word has not been used in early works on music. Even

such a late work as the Saṃgīta-ratnākara of Śārṅgadeva

(13th. cent. A.D.) divides rāgas into three classes, viz. Bhāṣā,

Vibhāṣā and Antarabhāṣā; this work does rot mention the

term ‘rāginī’. The Saṃgīta-makaranda (c. 11th cent. A.D.),

ascribed to Nārada, is, perhaps, the earliest work to classify

rāgas as male, female and neuter; even this work does not

use the word rāginī.

The number of rāginīs as 36 is another proof against the

antiquity of the work.

The above facts, together with the language, style and

contents of the work, tend to indicate that it was a popular

compendium composed by a late writer who fathered it on

Nārada in order to impart a halo of authority and antiquity

to it.

It is difficult to determine the provenance of this work.

It is, however, significant that, in the first chapter, the artists

Appendix E

of the eastern region (prācyāḥ have been highly praised. Still

more significant is what seems to be Rāḍhā contained in the

verse following the one in which the word ‘prācya’ occurs.

The actors of this place have been stated to be the best

(uttama). Rāḍha or Rāḍhā was the name of the portion of

West Bengal on the western bank of the Bhāgīrathī, and

exiended in the south up to Dāmodara and, probably to the

Rūpanārāyaṇa river. In an ancient work, it comprised also the

northern part of the Ganges. The praise of the eastern people,

particularly of those inhabiting Rāḍhā, seems to indicate that

the author was a Bengali. The fact that both the manuscripts

of the work, discovered hitherto, are in the Bengali script,

appears to lend countenance to this assumption. In this

connexion, it may be pointed out that, in the Asiatic Society

MS., the period appropriate for Vasant-rāga has been stated

to extend from Srīpañcamī up to the time of Durgā-mahotsava.

Durgā-pūjā, in this name, is a great festival in Bengal, Bihar

and Assam. This accords well with the praise of the men of

the east (prācyāḥ), especially of Rāḍhā. The mention of the

tāla Daśakuśi, which is definitely known to have originated

in Bengal, seems to point to Bengal the origin of the work.

The divergences between the Pañcamasamhitā on the one

hand and the Nāradīya Śikṣā and the Samgītamakaranda on

the other are too many to warrant the assumption of the

common authorship of these three works. The divergences

will be clear even to a superficial reader. So, we do not take

up their detailed discussion here.

संगीतम्

ततः सज्जोतकं कृत्या ग्रन्थं सर्वे पृथक् पृथक् ।

आनन्दयन् देवराजं शिष्यास्ते भरतादयः ॥

रम्भया रचिता ततः स्वर्गे सज्जीतसंहिता ।

प्रचार

तया…… नाटच्यानुष्टान…… ॥

प्रचार च पाताले हुहुस्ता… संहिताम् ।

देवर्षिभरतस्यापि संहिता भतले स्थिता ॥

संहितानां प्रचाराय...भरतादयः ।

भद्रं नाम नटं चकुसतो ध्यान(?)प्रभावतः ॥

अत्राहतगतिः स्वर्गे पाताले च तथा सुरभि ।

अनुष्ठानेन गीतानां ततः सर्वानतोत्थितं ॥

सुभद्रश्रातिभद्रश्र वीरभद्रस्ततः परं ।

भद्र...विशभद्रो भद्र...॥

तस्य पुत्रः सुभद्रो भूभृत्पुत्रतुर्याधिकीरो गुणैः ।

येनेयं पृथिवी सर्वा धन्येत मन्यते जगत् ॥

अतिभद्रस्ततो जज्ञे सर्वभद्रतरो गुणैः ।

सर्वशाकानुसारेण सर्वतो...रअनम् ॥

पुत्रोऽतिभद्रस्य च वीरभद्रो ।

बभूव यस्तु भुरुतुल्यगीति: ॥

दिदृक्षेन गानेन महेशतोषं ।

विधाय सोऽवाप गणाॅधिपत्यम् ॥

वीरभद्रतनयो भद्रपाणिर्विश्रवावश्रुतीर्ति: ।

भूत्वा भद्रं भवेशस्यं हस्तेन कुरुते समक्षम् ॥

सुरवरसुजगनां मोहनं यस्य गीतम् ।

मुनिनिगण....लर्ज्जितं विश्रमासीनं ॥

उरुनिधिहृदमध्यादुस्थित: पद्मराजां ।

उत्गाति विदितकीर्ति:..... ॥

आसीत्स्तु तनयो भद्रकर्मा शास्त्राविचक्षण: ।

अतिहासप्रबन्धेन मुनीनामपि ससतत: ॥

तस्य पुत्राश्च पौत्राश्च बभ्रुः चरमोज्ज्वलाः ।

वसुधा नटवंशोऽयमेव.....तथा ॥

द्वारकामाश्रिता: केच...पुरोस्थता: ।

केचिल्लत्याच्यामुदीच्यां च दक्षिणस्यां तथा ऽवरे ॥

तज्जान्तर्या: सदाचारास्त नटाः पुनरुत्तमा: ।

नाच्यां प्रायेण गुणिनो नानाशास्त्राविचक्षण ॥

राढायां(?) संस्थिता ये च ते नटाः पुनरुत्तमाः ।

ये गायान्त सुगीतान्त नृत्यन्त च विचक्षणा: ॥

नानाशास्त्रं च काव्यं च वर्ण्यन्त कथ्यन्त च ।

रञ्जयन्त समा: सर्वोऽस्ते नटाः पुनरुक्तमाः ॥

पारंपारं(?)येन विरदतो नटवंशो महागुण: ।

स्वर्गो मरत्य च पाताले सङ्कीत....॥

ये नटाः पुण्यकरमाणः स्ववृत्तिस्था जितेन्द्रियाः ।

गुप्तास्ते श्रोत्रियैः सर्वैरपि प्रैर्जनसमुच्ययैः ॥

वीत श्रान्तिरदृक्‍तपञ्चमसरसाहृताभ्या प्रथमाध्यायः ।

देवरर्षिक्षितिपालपूर्वरचितानालोक्य धर्मोदिना

तद्रावार्धितभूमिकाभिनयनं स्वादर्थसिद्धिः पुस्ता ।

संगीतात्रतचित्रवृत्ति......भवत्यज्ञाना

...श्रीयुतशंकरेण कथितं नाट्यं चतुर्वर्गदम् ॥

यो विलासोभनेन सुश्रुते वापि

हठेन वा गायति गीतमात्रं ।

स वक्तते वर्षसहस्रमीश-

पुरोगमः सर्वगणाग्रणीशः ॥

त्यागी कृतี कुलीनः सुश्रीको रूपयौवनोल्साही ।

...तुरत्को लोको भवति विदग्धोडत्र नायको गुणवान्॥

गीतस्यातुगतं वाद्यं वाद्यस्यातुगतो लयः ।

चित्तवृत्तिन्तरायस्य सर्वमेवानुगच्छति ॥

धातुमात्रासमायोगो नृत्यमित्यभिधीयते ।

तत्र नादात्मको धातुरमात्रा स्वकशसंचयः ॥

ऊध्वंगो हृदयस्थानान्मारुतः प्राणसंश्रयः ।

ब्रह्माण्डत्पतनं वक्त्रान्नाद आविर्भवत्यसौ ॥

व्यक्तं शुद्धं यथाशास्त्रं दोषष्टकविवर्जितं ।

सुकण्ठं ध्वनिना नित्यं यो गयति स गायनः ॥

तिर्यगुत्कुलगत्ता चक्षुराननमीक्षणं ।

ऊधर्वाधोहकुशीरःकम्पः प्रहूयते गानदूषणं ॥

अदीर्घ...इरगुरि तीक्ष्णबुद्धिः परिप्फुर...पाणिः

सौद्रिबुधः श्री वेष्टः सुसिद्धहस्तः कथिता मुद्राः ।

...क्ष्मावानं शरणी...पतुतसरे मर्क्षु

सज्जीतशास्त्रे कुशाले रसज्ञः पात्रोत्तमोऽयं किल नृत्यशास्त्रे ॥

कुसुमवसन्तोऽत्र विधिवर्मपुपुंवर्गसभाषाधैः ।

हास्यकरकलहरुचिविदूषकः कथितो जनः ॥

पत्रावलीचित्रविलासलीला विभूषणश्रीमन्मनदैकवेशा ।

लावण्यसाराभिनयप्रवीणा सा नायिका संकथिता कवीनद्रैः ॥

भवेदभिनयोऽवस्थानुकारः स चतुर्विधः ।

आङ्गिको वाचिकश्चैवमाहायः सात्त्विकस्तथा ॥

स्तम्भः स्वेदोऽथ रोमाञ्चः स्वरभङ्गाश्च वेपथुः ।

वैवर्ण्यमश्रुप्रलयमित्यष्टौ सात्त्विका मताः ॥

संगीतकेन रम्येण सुवर्ण यस्य न चेतसि ।

मनुष्यपशुरुक्तोऽयं विपरोरेव विचेतनः ॥

गीतं वाद्यं च नृत्यं च त्रिभिः संगीतकं विदुः ।

पुण्यतयं ताण्डवं प्राहुः क्रीनृत्यं तु स्यसमुच्यते ॥

ततं सुपिरमानद्धं घनं वाद्यं चतुर्विधम् ।

ततं वीणादिकं वाद्यं वंस्यादि सुषिरं मतम् ॥

चर्मावनद्धममानद्धं कांस्यतालादिके घनम् ।

ततं वाद्यं तु देवानां गणश्वराणां तु सेधिरम् ।

आनद्धं राक्षसानां तु मानवानां घनं चिदुः ॥

निजावतारो गोविन्दः सर्वमेवातरयत्क्षितौ ।

चतुर्विधेषु वाद्येषु स्वयङ वसति भारती ॥

एतेषां......भोक्ता नारायणः स्वयम् ।

चतुर्विधेषु वाद्येषु प्रधानं सुरजो मतः ।

यस्य संयोगवाद्यमासाद्य सर्वं वाद्यं सुशोभनम् ॥

मृदङ्गः पणवीनप्त्रो... ... ।

द्वार्णे निवसेन्नित्यं मृदानी सह शङ्करः ॥

रचितस्ता

गणेशस्त्राक्षरे ब्रह्मा धीवर्‍ण निवसेत् स्वयम् ।

...बणे निवसेद्वि॒षणुर्‍दक्षरे रुद्रसङस्थितिः ॥

इति श्रीनारदकृतपञ्चमसारसंहितायां द्वितीयोऽध्यायः ।

Appendix E

श्रीचन्द्रवनचन्द्रस्य संझीतकविलासिनः ।

गोप्यः पोडशसाहस्रसंख्या... ...गता: ॥

संझोतवाद्यं मुरली स्वयं कृष्णो निपेबते ।

आविर्भूव गोपेषु सेवेयं हरलीलया ॥

गोपीभिर्गीतमारुधमेकैकं प्रियसन्निधौ ।

तेन जातानि रागाणां सहस्राणि च शोभन ॥

मेरोरुत्तरतः पूर्वं पश्चिमे दक्षिणे तथा ।

समुद्रकच्छे ये देशास्तत्रामोघां प्रचारणा ॥

भारतो यश्रू भूभागः पारम्पर्योंपदेशतः ।

रागा: षड्थ रागिण्य: पट्तन्रिश्रुतल्यातिमागता ॥

हारोत्पादिवर्गेऽस्तु ... ... शने: शने: ।

प्रथमें रञ्जनीलायां गीयन्ते गानकोविदैः ॥

हारवर्णे तु गणाध्यक्षो रीवर्णे केशवः स्वयम् ।

तेऽवर्णे संस्थतो ब्रह्मा नारवर्णे च शिवः स्वयम् ॥

आदौ मालवरागेन्द्रस्ततो माल्लारसंज्ञः ।

श्रीरागस्तस्य पश्चात्तु वसन्तस्तदनन्तरम् ॥

हिन्दोलश्र्चाथ कर्णाट एते रागाः प्रकोर्तिताः ।

पुरुषा वरवभूषाल्या रागाः षट् मालवादयः ॥

दशावधान्तपर्यन्तौ रात्रौ सर्वेऽपि गानमीरितम् ।

मेघमल्लाररागस्य गानं सर्वेषु सर्वदा ॥

श्रीपञ्चमोऽपि समासाद्य यावत्स्याद्वश्यानं हरे: ।

तावदूरुसन्तरागस्य गानमुक्तं मनोऽभिभिः ॥

सर्वेषामिह रागाणां रागिणीनां च सर्वशः ।

रञ्जनं नृपाज्ञायां कालदोषो न विद्यते ॥

राग चेदालपेत्पूर्वं तत्पन्नोस्तदनन्तरम् ।

नान्यपत्नो प्रगातव्या नृपाज्ञायां न दूषणम् ॥

अथ रागिण्यः

विभाषा ललिता चैव कामोदा पठमञ्जरी ।

रामकेली रामकोरी वेलोयारी च गुर्जरी ॥

देशकारी च सुभगा पञ्चमी च गता तुडी ।

भैरवी चापि कौमारी रागिण्यो दश पट्ट च ॥

एता: पूर्वाङ्ककाले तु गीयन्ते रागकोविदैः ।

वाराडी मायूरी कोडा बैरागी चापि धानुषी ॥

वेलावळी माहरा्टी सप्पैते(ता:) रागयोषित:।

मेया मध्याह्नकाले तु यथा भरतभाषितम् ॥

गान्धारी दीपिका चैव कल्याणी पूरवी तथा।

अभ्वारी कानडा च गौरी केदारपाहिडा ॥

माध्वी मालसी लाटी भूपाली सिन्दूरी तथा।

साथमहे रागिणीस्सेता: प्रगायान्त्त चतुर्देश ॥

अथ रागस्य रागिण्य:

धानुसी मालसी रामकिरी च सिन्दुडा तथा।

अभ्वारी भैरवी च मालवस्य प्रियास्वमा: ॥

वेलावली पूरवी च कानडा माधवी तथा।

कोडा केदारिका चैव मझारस्य प्रिया इमा: ॥

गान्धारी चैव सुभगा गौरी कौमारिका तथा।

वेलोलयारो च वैरागी श्रीरागस्य प्रियास्वमा: ॥

तुङ्डा च पञ्चमी चैव लोलिता पठमञ्जरी।

गुज्जरी च विभाषा च वसन्तस्य प्रिया इमा: ॥

मायूरी दीपिका चैव देशाकारी च पाहिडा।

वाराडी माहरा्टी च एता हिन्दोलयोषित: ॥

नाटिका चाथ भूपाली रामकेली गत(?) तथा।

कामोद्दी चापि कल्याणी कर्णाटस्य प्रिया इमा: ॥

अथ रागध्यानम्

नितम्बिनीचुम्बितसवक्त्रपद्म:

शुकवयति: कर्णयुग्मप्रभत्त:।

सद्वृीतशालां पवित्रान्प्रदोषे

मालाधरो मालवरागराज: ॥

नीलोत्पलं कर्णयुगे वहन्ती

इयामा सुकेशी कृष्णामध्यभाग।

ईषत्सहासास्मुजवक्त्ररम्या

सा धानुसी पद्मसुचारुनेत्रा ॥

करे विधूताम्बुजयुग्मरमस्या

इतस्ततलक्ष्यारु निलोकयन्ती।

कण्ठे स्करन्मुक्तिकरलहारा

सा मालसी सक्कथिता विचित्र ॥

प्रतमचामीकरचारुवर्ाा

कर्म्मोहतंसं कमलं वहन्तो।

पैशम्पं धमु: पुन्पभसनं दधानां

चन्द्राननां रामकिरीं प्रविष्टा॥

मदिन्द्रनीलालजयतरन्मुजाश्रीं

प्रविष्टयन्तीं कविलय(?)यन्त्रं।

विचित्ररत्नाभरणं मुकेशीं

सा सिन्धुडा कान्तसमपीपसंस्था॥

ज्वाप्रसूनशुतिरीन्दुवक्त्रा

शुकं च पद्मं च करयोर्दधाना।

श्रैमांशुकालक्च्छादितगात्रयष्टि-

मैहाविद्रधा कथिताथ्वारो॥

सरोरुहैः शंकरमर्चयन्तीं

तांध्यप्रयोगप्रतिबन्धघोरां।

गौरीतनुं भैरविकां सलोच्यं॥

विद्यां सुशीलेाडति...

...धार्मिकशीलयुक्तः।

कामातुरः पिङ्गलनेत्रयुग्मो

मल्लारागः कुसुमप्रियश्व॥

संकेतितोःफुल्लततानिकुञ्जे

कृतस्थितिः कान्तसमागमाय।

वेलायां व्रतकर्मालपौत-

विरचितवेशाभरणा निरुक्ता॥

रहः स्वकान्तक्रियमाणपत्रा-

वल्लों वहन्ती कुचकुम्भयुगे(रमे)।

दूर्वादलद्ययमतनुः सकामा

पुरातनैः सा पूरवी निरुक्ता॥

अशोकमृक्षस्य तले निपणां

वियोगिनीवाॅपकणाख्विताक्षी।

निम्बूषणाढ़ी जटिलैकबेणी

सा कानडा इमस्तथैव तन्वी॥

...गले दधानां

प्रसूनमालं दयितस्य बालां ।

गौरो स्वकान्ताननचुम्बितास्य ।

सा सुन्दरी मार्धविकारिकुलजे ॥

सत्कचांपेयादयेत् स्वभुजैः

स्तालान् समभ्यस्यते समुचैन ।

सदैव तालाराहता च बालां

कोडा करालस्तनयुग्मरम्या ॥

स्नात्वा समुत्तीर्णवती सुन्देहा

केशाग्रनिस्यन्दितवारिविन्दुः ।

निष्पीडयन्ती स्तनमितांगकान्तं

केदारिका न्यकतपयोधरश्रियः ॥

लीलाविहारेण वनान्तरेषु

चिन्वन्ति प्रसूनानि वधूसहायैः ।

विलासवेशोदिततन्यकमूर्तिः

श्रीराग एव कथितः पृथिव्याम् ॥

सन्ध्याकाले वेष्टमनि प्राणनाथे:

स्कन्धे वीणां वादयतों दधानाम् ।

...

श्रीगान्धारी गन्धमाल्यान्ति धत्ते ॥

रसपदार्थविवेचनकौतुकं

विदधती निजकोविदसंविदि ।

सुकवित्वामृतभावन तत्परा

भगवती सुभगा समुदीरिता ॥

पुष्पोद्याने सार्धमालोकलापैः

क्रीडन्तीयं कौतिलककलोलिभिः ।

वामो इयामा सद्गुणग्रामसीमा

गौरी गौर...

अद्भालिकायां स्फुटकौसुदीभः

प्रकाशितायां रजनीविहारैः ।

धूताय कान्तेन समं वसन्ती

कौमारिका कामकलां वहन्ती ॥

Appendix E

गौरीपदाम्भोरुहमरचयन्ती सा गन्धारश्रीमती रत्नसानो: ।

नानाद्रव्योपायनैरभक्तिभावैर्वे लोयारी कथ्यते ललितेयम् ॥

उत्रासयन्ती धम्मिल्ललं.... प्राणवनघुना मालतीकुसुमस्रगिभैरागी रागिणी स्मृता ॥

चूताश्रुकुरेणैव कृतावतंसो विधूर्ण्यमानारुणनेत्रपद्म: ।

पीताम्बर: काञ्चनचारुदेहो वसन्तरागो युवतिप्रियष्ठ ॥

सुनृत्यमानापि सुशीला युक्ता मुक्तावलाताकलिपतहारयष्टि: ।

चूताकुरं पाणियुगो वहन्ती जवारुणाझी कथिता च तूड़ी ॥

संगीतगोष्ठीषु गरिष्ठभागं समाश्रिता गायनसंप्रदायै: ।

खर्वा कवननूपुरपादयुग्मा सा पञ्चमी पञ्चमवेदविद्या ॥

उद्भासि केशासुसंयममात्मनो विदधती ध्यानोत्थितवत्स्यसौ ।

सखीकलापै: परिहासलीलया वचित्ससमायां परिभ्रमयन्ती ।

पत्रं मसी सत्कलमं वहन्ती मधूक्तिशीला पठमअरीयम् ॥

कर्णोत्पलालम्बिमभधुव्रतानां श्रुणवन्ती मधुजुलकूजितानि ।

कान्तान्तिकं गन्तुमना: प्रदोषे सा गुजराइविकलाख्विताझी ॥

Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

अध्यापयन्ती निजशिष्यग्नुन्दं

संगीतकश्शाणि विवेचनार्धः: I

मनोहराहारलताभिरामा

समा समस्तभाषाकुशाला विभाषा II

लीलाविलासेन पतन्तु पृथिव्या-

मुस्थापितस्तत्कक्षणमालिङ्गुन्दै: I

.... ....गीतिरसैर्विदग्धान्

हिन्दोलरागः कथितो रसज्ञैः II

मधुरकेकाश्रवणोल्लसन्ती

मयूरिका वोक्ष्य मुदं वहन्ती

मसूरकर्णाभरंञ दधानां

मायुरिका संकथिता गुणिन्द्रैः II

प्रदोषकाले गृहदेहलीषु

प्रदीपहस्तारुणगात्रवक्षा

सीमन्तसिन्दूरविराजमाना

... ...किल्य दीपिकेयं I

सार्थं सखीभिरविजने वसन्ती

विचित्रवेशोज्ज्वलवक్త्रार्ज्जी

निरीक्षमाणा मणिदर्पणेपु

सा देहकुमारी कथिता सुनीन्द्रैः II

भर्तृर्द्ध्यानाचरणारविन्दं

निषेधयन्ती परदेशयानम्‌

प्रकामदाम्पत्यसुखे न मुरधा

सा पाहिडा संकथिता कवीनद्रैः II

कर्णे दधानं...पुष्परुचकंञ

सुधृतवक्शोजमनोहरक्श्री

स्मेरन्नना भावविलोलनेत्रा

गौराङ्गयष्टिः कथिता वशब्दी II

उत्पन्नमात्रे प्रथममापष्ठे

मनः पुनः......

नतजघनाभा नियतं रुचिरा

सा माधवट्ठी इहकोलिरुस्ता III

Jain Education International

For Private & Personal Use Only

www.jainelibrary.org

Appendix E

कृपाणपाणिस्तुरगरूढो

मयूरकण्ठोपमकण्ठकान्तः ।

सुरतिच्छतोषणीषधरः प्रयाति

कर्णाटरागो हरिणं विहन्तुम् ॥

चिरं नटन्ती शुभरत्नमध्ये

............निविलं श्रमाम्भः ।

सुगीततालेऽु कृताथमाना

नाटी सुना (शा ?) टी परिधानशीला ॥

स्वनायकं पुष्पलताधिरूढं

समुन्नुकी तं समुदीक्षमाणा ।

प्रसारमाणा कुसुमानि शाश्वद्

भूपालका सा काञ्चितासुधीभिः ॥

अध्यापयन्ती शुगरारशार्त्रीः

श्रीरामरमेति सुवेशलक्ष्मीः ।

वामस्तनाधस्वलिताङ्गुकश्रोः

श्रीरामकेलिः कथिता विदग्धैः ॥

विशेषवैदगध्यवती समस्त-

कलाविलासेन विमोहयन्ती ।

वृहत्नितम्बा परिपुष्टदेहा

......प्रलम्बस्तनभारभुग्या ॥

भत्रौ समं पथि सुसंभावयन्ती

पथोविहारेण सरोरुहाणि ।

विचिन्वती सौरभमोदमाना

कामोदरागिण्युदिता मुनिन्द्रैः ॥

............नटपरिश्रमेण

........ ........ .......

कल्याणी कल्य हस्थेहलनं

प्रस्थापितांककरिकलापम् ॥

इति नारदकृतपञ्चमसारसहितायां रागविनिर्णयस्तितीयोऽध्यायः ।

१३

Jain Education International

For Private & Personal Use Only

www.jainelibrary.org

अथ तालाध्याय:

तालस्य मानं नियमेन घाते

तालाश्र श्रृण्वन्तु गुणप्रचारो: ॥

भद्र: सुभद्राश्च तथातिभद्रो

निनादतालान् दिवि.......... ॥

वीरभद्रो भद्रपाणिभेद्र.... मानित: ॥

एकोनशतताल्यारते पाताले स्थापनं मुदा ॥

एकाधिकशतांस्तालान् विश्वभद्रो महीतले ॥

गुणिनामुपकाराय सर्वत्रैव प्रचारयेत् ॥

पश्चिमे दक्षिणे चैव लङ्कायां सिंहले तथा ॥

अष्टोत्तरशतं स्वर्गे पश्चिमे पञ्चमं तथा ॥

दक्षिणे पञ्च लङ्कायां सप्त सप्तशतं सिंहले ॥

पूर्वं पञ्च समादेय उत्तरेऽपञ्चमं तथा ॥

पूर्वभागे चोत्तरेऽपि च क्रमेणैव विभागितम् ॥

प्रचारान्ति च.......... भुवम् ॥

तदू यथा-

एकतालस्तु ..........

विषम .......... षट्पददीस्तदनन्तरम्

विश्यातं विषम: सन्धिरूपकं प्रेमवर्धनम् ॥

ततो हरगौरी च झम्पकम् ॥

यसकं दशाक्षरश्चैव कुन्दशेखरमेब च ॥

......... ...... दासगीतं. . . . . . . ॥

एते तालाः प्रकीर्तिता: ॥

वायाश्रतस्तस्स्तु......पूरणके च वाङ्यम् ॥

कलाद्रय: स्यादथ...पञ्चोक्षरं स्याद् गुरु ॥

न पूरणे नापि च घातिनीषु ॥

शीघ्रं गुरुघाते प्लुतः स्याल्घुरेकघात: ॥

विरामयुक्ता द्रुतमेव घातो नियमो निरुक्त: ॥

न पूरणं नापि च घातिनीषु ॥

शीघ्रं गुरुघाते...प्लुतः स्याल्घुरेकघातः ॥

विरामयुक्ता द्रुतमेव घातो नियमो निरुक्त: ॥

प्रत्यक्षरे विरामश्रेष्ठसर्वतालादिसंभव: ॥

एकतालः स कथितो देवैः...उदाहृतः ।

यतितालो यदा यदा सुस्थः धृत्तो गीतं गुणीभरे॥

तथा धरणनामैव प्रसिद्धा गुणसंविद ।

प्लुतक्रियात्मकः दैवतः स्यात्पदे पदे ॥

आदिमध्यावसाने तु किलासः स उच्यते ।

द्रुतत्रयं लघुश्चैकस्ताले ....नामनि ॥

चतुस्तु तालं न लघुभवेत विषमतालके ।

द्रुतद्वयं...प्लुतश्चैतालस्य पट्टपदी तथा ॥

आदौ चान्ते लघुद्रयं गुरुमध्ये यदा भवेत ।

तदा विमसंधिः स्यात्तालो भवति सम्मतः ॥

गुरुः स्यादिमध्यान्ते स तालो रूपकः स्मृतः ।

यदि चाष्टकतालोऽपि कलाSSधिक्यं विलक्ष्यते ॥

पदे पदे तदा तालः स्यादपूर्वकला धृक्म ।

दुतद्रयं लघुश्चैको गुरुलेऽपुयुगं तथा ॥

हरगौरीति तालः स्याद्द्रितरयं प्लुतमिश्रणात् ।

गुरुप्लुतो भवेच्चात्र स तालो झंपकः स्मृतः ॥

गुरुत्रयं लघुद्रयं ततः प्लुतगुरुलेऽपि च ।

चरने चरने झेयं स तालो यमको भवेत् ॥

द्रुतद्रयं लघुद्रयं प्लुतो लघु...भवेत ।

चरने चरने झेयं स तालो दशकुशी भवेत् ॥

गुरुद्रयं लघुप्लुतगुरुसत्ततः प्लुतगुरुलेऽपि च ।

चरने चरनेSप्येवं स तालः कुन्दशेखरः ॥

आदौ गुरुलघुद्रयं चरने चरने भवेत् ।

यतितालः स कथितो नृत्यभूमौ गुपीभरे॥

आदौ गुरुलेघुश्चाथ चरने चरने भवेत् ।

गायकानां मनोहारी वसुतालस्तदा भवेत् ॥

तालः सर्वमनोहरः ॥

इति संगोतशास्त्रयो जन्तातिप्रमाणतः...शिवलोके महीयते ।

इति श्रीनारदकृतपरचमसंहितायां चतुर्थेऽध्यायः ।

100

Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

(II)

पञ्चमसंहितायां रागनिर्णय:

ताशब्देनोच्यते गौरी नाशब्देनोच्यते हरी: |

तानोति शब्दहुंकारात् प्रोक्तोऽप्यनन्ये शाने: शाने: ||

तत्तत्कालं सुरविज्ञाय दम्पत्योर्गीयतां बुध: |

एतयोर्मनमात्रेण त्रैलोक्यं वशमानयेत् ||

अत्र रागा:-

मालवश्रीचैव मल्लार: श्रीरागश्च वसन्तक: |

हिन्दोलक्श्राथ कर्णाट एते रागा: षडीरिता: ||

एतेषां निय:-

धानसी मालसी चैव रामकरी च सिन्धुजा |

आशोरारी भैरवी च मालवस्य प्रिया इमा: ||

वेलावली च पूरवकी कानडा मायूरी तथा |

कोड़ष केदारिका चापि मल्लारस्य प्रिया इमा: ||

गान्धारी च तथा गौरी सुभगा च कुमारिका |

वेलोयारी च बैरागी श्रीरागस्य प्रिया इमा: ||

तुड़ी च पञ्चमी चैव ललिता पटमञ्जरी |

गुर्जरी च विभाषा च वसन्तस्य प्रिया इमा: ||

माधवी देविका चैव देशकारी च पाहिडा |

वडरी !! मारहाटी च एता हिन्दोलयोषित: ||

नाटिका चाथ भूपाली...... रामकेलिका |

कामोदा चाथ कल्याणी कर्णाटस्य प्रिया इमा: ||

समयानुक्रमेण बोद्धव्यम-

आहिरो ललिता चैव कामोदा पटमञ्जरी |

रामकेलो रामकिरि वेलोयारी च गुर्जरी ||

देशकारी च सुभगा पञ्चमी च गता तुड़ी |

भैरवी चैव कौमारो रागिण्यो दश पञ्चमम् ||

एता: पूर्वोक्तकाले तु गीयन्ते गायकैर्नृपे: |

वधारा माधवी... बैरागी चापि धानसी ||

वेळात्रली मारहाटी सप्तौता रागयोषितः |

गेया मध्याह्नकाले तु यथा भरतभाषितम् ||

गान्धारी दीपिका चैव कल्याणी पूरवी तथा |

आशोयारी कानडा च गौरी केदारपाहिडा ||

माधवी मालसी लाटी भूपाली सिन्धुजा तथा |

सायाहने रागिणीश्रैताः प्रगायन्ति चतुर्दश ||

पुरुषा वसभूषाद्या रागाः षण्मालवादयः |

प्रदोषाद् दशदणडान्तर्गेया गानस्य रीतयः ||

दशदण्डात् परं रात्रौ सर्वेषां गानमीरितम् |

मेघमल्लाररागस्य गानं वर्षासु सर्वदा ||

श्रीपञ्चमीसमारभ्य यावद् दुर्गामहोत्सवः |

तावद् वसन्तरागस्य गानमुक्तं मनोषिभिः ||

सर्वेषामिह रागाणां रागिणीनां च सर्वशः |

रज्ञभूमौ नृपाज्ञायां कालदोषो न विद्यते ||

रागं चैवाल्पतेत् पूर्वं तत्पत्नीतदनन्तरम् |

नान्यपत्न्यं प्रगातव्या नृपाज्ञायां न दूषणम् ||

रागाः षडश्र रागिण्यः पञ्चदश्राश्रविम्रहः |

भागता ब्रह्मसदसि ब्रह्माणं समुपासते ||

अथ रागध्यानमाह–

नितम्बनीचोच्चुम्भितवक्त्रकृतप्रदीप्तः

शुक्रकुचोपरिसद्गुणवान्प्रमत्तः |

संगीतशास्त्रानुरत प्रदोषे

मालधरो माल्यवत् एष रागः ||

नीलोत्पलं कर्णयुगे वहन्तो

इयामा सुकेसी कृषमध्यभागा |

हंसत्सहासास्मुजयकत्ररम्या

सा धानसी पद्मसुचारुनेत्रा ||

करेँ विधूताम्बुजयुग्मरम्या

इतस्ततश्रारु विलोकयन्ती |

कण्ठे सुकुन्तोऽत्करतनाहारा

सा मालिनी संकथिता विप्रत्रैः ||

प्रथमचामीकरचारुस्वर्णो

कर्णावतंसं कमलं वहन्ती ।

पौष्पं धनुः पुष्पवसने दृधानां

चन्द्रानना रामकिरो प्रतिष्ठा ॥

सदिन्द्रनीलश्युतिपद्मजाक्षी

प्रवदयन्ती कोपनासितनेत्रम् ।

विचित्ररत्नाभरणा सुकेशी

सा सिन्धुजा कान्तसमीपसंस्था ॥

जयाप्रसन्नश्रुतिदिकत्रेखा

सुनीलपद्मं करयोरदधाना ।

श्रोमांशुकाच्छादितगात्रयष्टि

मेघाsविदग्धा कथिताशोयारी ॥

चन्द्रप्रभा चारुमृगौव नेत्रा

विधुंधरी नृत्यकलां वहन्ती ।

पिकस्वरातौsपि मनोहरन्ता

सा मैरवी देवी श्रियं ददातु ॥

विहारशीलेाडपि च नीलदेहे

गभीरवाक्यः परमो विदग्धः ।

कामातुरः पिङ्गलनेत्रयुग्मो

मल्लाररागः कुशलं करोतु ॥

सकेतिकतस्फूर्तिललितानिकुञ्जे

कृतस्थितिः कान्तसमागमाय ।

वेलावली युग्मकमाल्यमौलि

काला विचित्राभरणानुरक्ता ॥

... ... ... ...

...वहन्ती कुचकुम्भयुग्मे ।

दूर्वोदलश्याममतनुः सकामा

प्राणाधिका सा पूर्वी प्रतिष्ठा ॥

अशोकवृक्षस्य तले निषण्णा

वियोगिनी वाष्पाकुलाsश्रुताक्षी ।

विभूषिताsङ्गी कलितैकवेणा

सा कानडा हेमलतात्मकान्ति तन्वी ॥

Appendix E

तडित्प्रभालोलविशालनेत्रा

वक्त्रं च नीता प्रमदा स्वकान्तम् ।

चुचुम्बमान प्रियवादिनी च

मयूरिका माध्यमिका निकुञ्जे ॥

प्रनर्तिता लास्यकलाविलास-

पवित्रदेहा कुडिललक्षणा च ।

कान्तस्य वामे वरकामिनी सा

कोडाविहारेडपि सुतिष्ठतीव ॥

... ... ...

स्निग्धा मनोहारि गजेन्द्रगामिनो

केदारिका वृत्तपयोधारश्री: ॥

क्षीणो विहारेण वनान्तराले

चिन्वन् प्रसूनानि वधूसहाय: ।

विलासवित्तो विततिदिव्यमूर्ति:

श्रीराग एष कथित: पृथिव्याम् ॥

सुगीतनृत्यानुरता दिनान्ते

कान्तस्य स्कन्धे प्रणिधाय पाणिम् ।

वीणां दधानाऽऽ विचित्रित्राढ्यो

गान्धारिका गन्धविनोदिनी च ॥

प्रसन्नवक्त्रा शिवभाविनी सा

प्रगायती वापि पिकप्रभांषाम् ।

इयामा रसस्था किल देवोरूपा

गौरी गभीरा विधिनोपदिष्टा ॥

नाट्यरसपदार्थोनि विचिन्वन्तीह कौतुकम् ।

कविताभावसंयोगा भारती सुभगा मता ॥

मुख्यै: प्रहृष्टा स्फुटकौमुदीभि-

विराजमाना सबलासवेशा ।

कामार्तिकां कामकलां वहन्ती

गौरी पदाम्भोरुहर्मर्च्यमन्ती ॥

वलोधरा करञ्चुलिकां वहन्ती

लावण्य.... ... 1

विनोदिनो रत्नकलयापहारा

वेलोयारी पीतनिचोलधारिणी ॥

मनस्विनी मानवता प्रभाविनी

निःश्वासयुक्ता स्थिररहष्टिस्निग्धा ।

वैरागिणी रागयुता प्रतिष्ठा

विदगधरूपैः किल देवी रुपैः ॥

चूताड्कुरेणैव ऋतावंतसो

विघूर्ण मानारुणनेत्रपद्मः ।

पीताम्बरः काञ्चनचारुदेहो

वसन्तरागो युवतीप्रियश्रीः ॥

सुगन्धिमानानेकसुगन्धियुक्ता

मुक्तालताकम्पिततहारयष्टिः ।

चूताड्कुरं कर्णयुगो वहन्ती

गौडी नताङ्गी तुडोरितेयम् ॥

संगीतविद्याविशारदा च

विहारभावा वरकामिनीया ।

प्रदीप्तभाषा सुरसासुधाझा

श्रोपकृचमी पद्ममदेवविद्या ॥

तमसि केशव यस्य संचरं

करोति लोलव्रतमभावधीरः ।

चन्द्राननालो लोहितनेत्रपद्मा

संपूजिता चतुर्वे... ललितावनश्रीः ॥

शिखाकलापैः परिवेशशीला

क्वचिन् समास्यां परिपूरयन्ती ।

पित्रं... सत्कमलं वहन्ती

मज्जूकृतशीलेपि च मकरेयम् ॥

कर्णोत्पल....

सुहृदूदृशती मज्जूकृतानि ।

कान्तान्तिक गन्तुमनः प्रदोषे

सा गुजरी नृत्यकलास्वताझी ॥

Appendix E

अध्यापयन्ती निजशिष्यवृन्दं

संगीतशास्त्राणि विवेचनाभिः |

मनोहरा हारलताभिरामा

समस्तभासा दर्शनासु विभासा ||

लीलाविलासेन.. पृथिव्या-

मध्यापिनस्त्रिपुरसुन्दरीषु'।

उदूघोषयन् गीततरसो विदग्धान्

हिन्दोलरागः कथितो रसज्ञैः: ||

मयूरेकारवलोळकान्ति

मयूरीका बीक्ष्य मदं वहन्ती |

मयूरवृन्दैः समनृत्यमाना

सा माधवी संकथिता गुणज्ञैः ||

प्रदोषकाले गृहदेहलोषु

प्रदोषहस्तारुणचारुवक्षा |

सोमन्तिसिन्दूरविराजमाना

सुरतिमोल्या किञ्चिद् द्रपिकया्म ||

साधंँ सखीभिर्निर्जने (विजने) वसन्ती

विनित्रवक्रोञ्जनस्वकसरान्त |

निरीक्षमाणा मणिदर्पणेषु

सा देशकारि कथिता मुनिभिः ||

भर्तृद्भयाना चरणारविन्दम् |

विशेषयन्ती परदेशकालम् |

प्रियाजुरागैरतिकातराक्षी

सा पाहिडा संकथिता कवीन्र्दैः |

... श्रुकुचाकुलाक्षो

मलिनचीनां धरणों लुठन्ती |

प्रियाजुरागं सततं स्मरन्ती

कृशाङ्गयष्टिः कथिता वराडो ||

उत्पत्तिमात्रे प्रथमापराधे

माने पुनः कर्तुमना चिरेण |

.......वा निभृतं रुदन्ती

......................||

M-14

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

कृपाणपाणिस्तुरगाधिरूढो

मयूररूण्ठोपमकण्ठकान्तः।

कर्णाटरागो.................... ॥

चिरं नटनती सुरङ्गमध्ये

विचित्ररत्नाभरणा सुमध्या।

उन्नतासिता...................।

भूपालिका सा कथिता कविाभः॥

श्रीरामनामेति सततं जपन्ती

पूजारता पुष्पचयैः..........।

आनन्दरूपा कल्याणदेहा

श्रीरामकेलिः कथिता विदग्धैः॥

विशेषवैदगध्यवती समस्तकलाविलासेन विमोहयन्ती।

वृहदूनितसुकृशामध्यभागा पीतस्तनी सा कथिता प्रतिष्ठा॥

प्रियेषु साधु सरसि प्रकामं पयोविहारेण सरोरुहाणि।

चिचिन्वती स्तौरभमोदमाना कामोदरागी कथिता गुणज्ञैः॥

सा ताण्डवे नृत्यविशेषशीला लावण्यलीलाऽऽ वनितातनुश्रीः।

नूपुर केयूरकिङ्किणीजालं कस्याऽनुरागी परिवादयन्ति॥

इति नारदकृतपञ्चमसंहितायां रागनिर्णयो नाम तृतीयोऽध्यायः॥

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GLOSSARY

(In Devanagari alphabetical order)

In this Glossary are included not only the important and technical terms, used in this work, but also such other terms as are necessary even for a cursory study of the Samgitasastra. The chapter on dance is elaborate, and contains numerous technical terms. Of these, we have selected here only the broad ones, particularly those which convey more meanings than one in different contexts. The figures in bold types indicate page numbers of this work.

Añgahāra : N 790, 797 etc. 58, 5

Graceful posture at appropriate place.

Añghritādita : N 1007-8

A kind of Desi cāri of the aerial type.

Añcita : N 312-4, 340, 594-95, 757 55

(i) A posture of the hand. (ii) A posture of the feet. (iii) A kind of Nttakarana. (iv) A kind of Utplutikarana.

Anibaddha : P 4, 18, 24

A kind of song. In it there is no word. It is called alapa or alapti (q.v.).

Anubandha : V 127, 148 etc.

A kind of dhātu (q.v.).

Anubhāva : N 1390-91.

Particular movements of the eye, eyebrow, facial expression etc. indicating love etc.; it is one of the constituents of Rasa.

Anuvādi : S iii. 48, 59 etc.. 22

Name of the svara which makes the samvādi svara clearer. So called as it follows the samvādi. In the heptatonic system, the third svara from the vādi is called anuvādi. For example, if SA is vadi Ga becomes anuvādi.

1 The following abbreviations have been used here to indicate the chapters of the Samgita-ratnakara, noted against them.—The figures against these abbreviations refer to the number of verse in the Adyar edition of the Samgitaratnakara :

N—Nartanadhyaya R—Ragavivekadhyaya T—Taladhyaya

P—Prabandhadhyaya S—Svaragatadhyaya V—Vadyadhyaya,

PK—Prakirnakadhyaya

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Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

Apaviddha : N 339, 595-97, 845-47

( i ) A kind of aṅgahāra (q.v.),

( ii ) A particular posture of the arms.

(iii) A kind of ṇṛttakaraṇa.

Ardhacandra : N 117-19. V 68, 86

( i ) A posture of the single hand in dance.

( ii ) Name of a manual action or pose in vāḍya.

Ardharecita : N 237, 628-29

( i ) A pose of the hand in dance.

( ii) A kind of Nṛttakaraṇa.

Alāta : N 615-16, 1199-1202

( i ) A kind of aerial maṇḍala (q.v.).

(ii) A kind of ṇṛttakaraṇa (q.v.)

Alātā : N 950-51, 1009

( i ) A kind of aerial cari (q.v.).

( ii) A kind of aerial cari of the Deśi class.

Avanaddha : V 4, 6, (Also Ānaddha); 35, 37, 44

A type of musical instruments; these are covered with leather.

Avaroha : V 200, 255 etc. (Also Avarohī); 23

Descent of svaras, e.g. ṆA DHA, PA etc.

Avahittha : N 208-9, 1963-65,

( i ) A posture of the hands joined together.

(ii ) Sthāna (q.v.) for females.

Amśa : S vii, 34, T 62

According to some, another name of Vādi svara. According to others, the svara in which the full form of a rāga is divided.

Āḍilla : PK 40

A particular kind of voice in a song. Khāhula (q.v.), extending over the sthānas maṇḍra, Madhya, is so called.

Āṅgika : N 20

Acting by means of gestures and postures.

Ābhoga : PK 8, 9. T 233; 18

( i ) A kind of dhātu (q.v.). Foot of a song containing the bhaṇita of that song.

(ii ) Name of an accessory of the Sāmagāna.

Ārabhaṭī : N 1112, 1117-18

A kind of dramatic art; a particular mode of dance.

Āroha : V 200, 222, etc. (Also Ārohī); 23

Ascent of svaras, e.g. SA, RA, GA, etc.

Ālāpti : PK 189; 24, 32, 33, 40 (f.n.),

Also called alāpa. It denotes the process by which the form of a rāga is manifested without meaningful word and tāla.

Ālāpinī : V 10

A kind of svaraviṇā.

Āvarta : N 673-74, 1154-57

( i ) A kind of terrestrial maṇḍala (q.v.).

(ii ) A type of Nṛttakaraṇa (q.v.).

Glossary

Āśravaṇā : V 179, 186 etc.

Playing of the viṇā without the accompaniment of songs.

Udgrāha : P 7; V 944, 946 etc.

Name of the first dhātu as a part of prabandha. With it a song is commenced.

Udghaṭṭita : N 331 740

(i) To stand with a particular position of the feet.

(ii) A kind of Nṛttakaraṇa (q.v.).

(iii) A kind of aṅgahara.

Uparāga : R i. 15.

27

Sub-rāga, so-called because it arises from near grāma-rāga (q.v.).

Upa-rāgas are eight. Śakatilaka, Takka-sainidhava, Kokilā, pañcama, Revagupta, Pañca-niṣidava. Bhavanāpañcama. Nāgagāndhāra, Nāgapañcama.

Ūrdhvajanu : N 627-27, 949-50

(i) A kind of Nṛttakaraṇa (q.v.).

(ii) A kind of aerial cārī (q.v.).

Ekala : PK 23

Solo singer.

Ohāṭṭi : R 5

A kind of song. When the chin is placed on the heart, it arises with the sounds HA and AU along with mandra and highly druta svaras accompanied by gamaka called Kampita.

Āvāpa : T 7

50

A kind pf Kalā (q.v.). In it, the fingers of the upturned palm are contracted.

Āhārya : N 20

Acting by means of costumes.

Auḍuva ; R 24, P 362 etc.

27

A rāga consisting of five svaras of which ṣadja is constant. Derived from the word Udu meaning star. A star is found in the sky which is the fifth of the five elements (bhūta). So, auḍuva indicates the number 5.

Kamrikā : V 62

Bow for playing the lute.

Karaṇa : N 548-49, 899

52, 53, 54, 59 (f.n.)

(i) Simultanjous and graceful action of hands, feet etc. in consonance with the Rasa concerned.

(ii) A kind of Cārī (q.v.).

Karihasta : N 248-54, 710-11

(i) A kind of the posture of hands in dance.

(ii) A kind of nṛttakaraṇa (q.v.)

Kalā : T. 6

6, 49

Action in mārgatāla. It is twofold, silent and sounded; the later is also called pāta.

Kuṭatāna : S IV. 32, 33 etc.

Spreading out of the Svaras contrary to the usual order; e.g. SA, GA, MA, PA etc.

Krānta : N 655-57 1097-98,

1180-82

(i) A kind of nṛttakaraṇa (q.v),

(ii) A kind of sitting posture

(iii) A type of aerial maṇḍala,

110

Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

Khāhula : PK 40

30

A kind of voice used in songs. It arises from phlegm, and is tender, sweet and soft.

Gamaka : PK 87, R 144 etc.

24, 26, 32, 38, 49 (f.n.)

Term indicating the trembling of the voice. It is of 15 kinds.

Gāndharva : PK 12

17, 25, 3.

One who is versed in mārga and desī songs.

Gīta : S i. 21-24, P. 1-4 etc.

17, 19, 64.

Song; it means a group of Svaras which delight the heart.

Gauḍī : R 4

A kind of song. It is compact, pervades the three sthānas called mandra, madhya and tāra, accompanied by gamaka and cantains sweet svaras as in Ohāṭi.

Gaundaḷī : N 1273-77

63, 64

Designation of a class of female dancers.

Graha : S vii. 2, 4, 31; R 33, 90 etc.

18, 22, 25. 38, 62

(i) T 50

According to Bharata, another name of amśa (q.v). The svara from which a rāga commences.

(ii) Commencement of a tāla.

Grāma : S iv. 1. 109, 172 etc.

5, 6, 7, 24, 25, 3?

Denotes svaras which are the resort of mūrchanā, krama, tāla, varṇa, alaṅkāra and jāti. According to Sārṅgadeva, it is twofold—Sadja-grāma and Madhyama-grāma.

Grāmarāga : R i. 2, 3, 14 etc.

26, 27

Being the resort of five kinds of songs, grāmarāga is five-fold.

Gharghara : N 1304-6

Sounding of anklets by a class of dancers called Peranin.

Ghana : V 4; 6 etc.

3.), 37, 46

Musical instruments made of metals and sounded by strokes; e g. bell.

Caturaśra : N. 216-17, 1030-40, 1080

(i) A pose of hands in dance.

(ii) A sthāna (q.v.) for males

(iii) A kind of desī sthāna (q.v.).

Cāri V 897

55

Simultaneous graceful movements of feet, thighs. shanks and waist in dance. It may be aerial, desī aerial, terrestrial and desī terrestrial.

Chāyālaga : PK 16, 37, 311 etc.

28. 33. 61 (Sālaga)

A kind of rāga, also called Sālaga. It is a rāga which is mixed with the semblance (chāya—lit. shadow) of another rāga,

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Glossary

Jāti : Sv. I, vii. 1 etc.

?. 10, 2-, 26,v .9

Song with arṇa and alamkāra.

It is twofold, Śuddha and Vikṛta.

Tata : V 4, 7 etc.

35, 37, 42

The class of musical instruments which are stringed.

Tāna : S 427, 428 etc.

5, 6, 10, 24, 25, 4?0

Name of Śuddha Mūrchanā.

It is twofold—Śuddhatāna and Kūṭatāna. The number of tānas, with aḍuva and ṣāḍava, is 84.

Tāra : S iii. 39

20, 2?3

Name of a place (sthāna) where sound arises. It is the head.

Tāla : P 13, T 3, 9, N 889 etc.

2, 4. 18, 32, 33, 35, 38, 39,

4?, 50, 51, 52, 62, 63

( i ) Name of an accessory of Prabandha.

(ii) Time measured with laghu, guru etc.

(iii) A kind of Kalā (q.v.).

Daṇḍapakṣa : N 257-58, 636-37

( i ) A pose of hands in dance.

(ii) A kind of ṇṛttakarana (q.v.).

Daṇḍapāda : N 704-5, 1177-80

( i ) A kind of aerial maṇḍala (q.v.).

(ii ) A kind of ṇṛttakarana (q.v.).

Daṇḍapādā : N 956-66, 1006-7

( i ) A kind of aerial cari (q.v.).

(ii ) A kind of deśī aerial cari.

Deśī : S i. i2, 24, etc. T 4

18, 25, 33, 4!, 49, 50, 55, 57,

58, 65

That song, instrumental music or dance which causes delight to the people of different regions in accord with their taste. A kind of tāla.

Deśī rāga : R ii. 2

Name of same grāma-rāgas etc.

Dhātu : P 7. 125 etc.

18, 32, 4?1

An accessory of prabandha.

Dhruva : P 7, 317 etc. T 9

18, 49, 50, 65

(i) A kind of prabandha.

(ii) A kind of dhātu (q.v.).

(iii) A kind of Kalā (q.v).

Nāgabandha ; N 767, 1093

( i ) A kind of utplutikarana (q.v.).

(ii) A kind of deśī sthāna (q.v.).

Nāda : S iii- 1, 2. 2, 6, 11 etc.

PK 130

V 50, 103 etc.

19, 20, 139

Sound manifested by the combination of fire and vital breath (prāṇa) within the body.

12

Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

Nārāṭa : PK 41

30

A Kind of sound arising from bile.

Nikuṭṭakā : N 603-6, 873-75

( i ) A kind of nrttakarana (q.v.).

(ii) A kind of angahāra (q.v.).

Nitamba : N 238-39, 714-15

( i ) A pose of hands in dance.

(ii) A kind of nrttakarana (q.v.).

Nibaddha : P 4

18, 24

A kind of song. It consists of meaningful words in a composition. Contra Anibaddha.

Niṣkrāma : T 7

50

A kind of Kalā (q.v.).

Nrtta : N 3, 4, 14, 78, 35 etc.

4, 52, 53, 67

Movements of the body devoid of acting.

Nṛtya : N 3, 4, 14, 27 etc.

7, 52

That which manifests a feeling or emotion through āṅgika abhināya (q.v.).

Nyāsa : R 21, 28 etc. T 62, 73 etc.

22, 23, 25

Name of that svara in which a song or rāga ends.

Parāvṛtta : N 873-75, 1084

( i ) A kind of angahāra(q v.).

(ii) A kind of deśī sthana (q.v.).

Pāṭa : P 13, 257. V 828 etc.

38, 47, 48

An accessory of prabandha. The sound syllables of Vādya, e.g. DHI GI DHIG.

Pāta : T 6

See Kalā.

Perani : N 130-3

64

A dancer dressed in a particular manner and possessed of certain qualities.

Prabandha : P 6, 12, 20, 21,

18, 33

V 952, 1261 etc.

A kind of nibaddha song. It is broadly divided into three kinds-dvidhatu, tridhatu, and caturdhatu. Again, it is divided into two kinds, niryukta and aniryukta. It is further divided into three kinds-sūdastha. alisamśraya and viprakīrṇa. Vādya, too, has prabandhas, eg. Meṭapaka etc.

Praveśa : T 8

A kind of Kalā (q.v.).

Prastāra : T 314, 317 etc.

Spreading out. The method of arranging the seven svaras in a manner other than the natural order. In it the svaras are shown in different Kalās; along with it the syllabes of the song are shown. For example,

NI NI NI NI NI SA DHA NI NI TAM SU RA VAM DI TA

Bombaka : PK 41

30

A kind of sound.

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Glossary

Bhāratī vṛtti : N 1114

A particular mode of speech of actors.

Bhramara : N 167-69, 641–42, 817-18, 1149-51

54, 60, 61

(i) A kind of aṅgahāra (q.v.)

(ii) A kind of maṇḍala (q.v.)

(iii) A kind of ṇṛttakaraṇa (q.v.)

(iv) A particular pose of the single hand in dance.

Maṇḍala : N 899, 901, 1046-48, 1142-48

36, 55, 60

(i) A kind of cārī (q.v.).

(ii) A particular sthāna for males.

Madhya : S iii 39

20, 35

Name of a place (sthāna) where sound arises. It is the throat.

Mandra : S iii 39

20, 35

Name of a place (sthāna) where sound arises. It is the heart.

Mātu : PK 2

32

Poetical composition.

Mārga : S i. 22. PK 1, 12 24d. T4, 10 N 27

6, 8, 9, 33, 40, 49, 50, 52, 55, 65

(i) A kind of saṃgīta which was sought or found by guḍs Brahmā etc. and applied by sages Bharata etc. before Śiva.

(ii) A kind of tāla.

(iii) A kind rāga.

(iv) A kind of dance

M-15

Mūrchanā : S iv. 1, 9, 12, 13, 18, etc. V 67, 96

5, 6, 7, 18, 24, 25, 26 (f.n.)

(i) The ascent and descent of svaras in due order.

(ii) A particular action of the hand in playing musical instruments.

Yati : T 46

38, 39, 51

Mode of application of laya (q.v.): temporary pauses.

Yamala : PK 23

A duet singer.

Rāga : R 2, 18 etc.

PK 14, P 362

V 399, 400 etc.

6, 12, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 33, 39

A group of svaras, which causes delight to the mind of the people.

Rāgālapti : PK 190

Same as Rāgālāpa (q.v.).

Rāgālāpa : R ii. 24.

Manifestation or spreading out of a rāga.

Rūpakālapti PK : 197.

18, 24

A kind of rāgālāpa.

Laya : T 44

6, 32, 35, 38 39, 51, 52, 63

Pause after an action. Time intervening between two mātrās.

Lalita ; N 278-8, 634, 1202-5

(i) A kind of maṇḍala.

(ii) A particular pose of hands in dance.

(iii) A kind of ṇṛttakaraṇa (q.v.).

114

Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

Varṇa : S vi. 1. P 24, 181 etc.

V 172 etc.

6, 23, 24, 25, 39

( i ) The act of singing.

( ii ) A kind of prabandha (q.v.).

(iii) A kind of tāla (q.v.).

Vardhamāna : N 214-1€, 1074

( i ) A particular pose of joined hands in dance.

( ii ) A kind of deśī sthāna.

Valita : N 280-82, 635-36,

58 1 70-71.

( i ) A pose of hands in dance.

( ii ) A kind of nṛttakarana (q.v.).

(iii) A particular sthāna for females.

Vāga : PK 97

24

Another name of gamaku.

Vāggeyakāraka : PK 2

18, 32

One who composes Kāvya and songs.

Vācika : N 20

Acting by means of speech.

Vādi : S iii. 47, 48, 50,

V 216 etc.

22

That svara which reveals the true from of a rāga.

Vidāri : V 120. T 75-77.

That which rends, cuts. It is twofold—gitavidāri and padavidāri. For example,

......samire—here each part

is a gitavidāri. If a vidāri is complete on the aṃśasvara of a rāga or in its samvādi or anuvādi svara or in nyāsa svara, then it is called pada-vidāri.

Vidyudbhrānta : N 684, 85,

837-39

( i ) A kind cf aṅgahāra(q.v.).

( ii ) A kind of nṛttakarana (q.v.).

Vidyudhrānta : N 957, 1001-2

( i ) kind oi aerial cāri (q.v.).

( ii ) A kind of aerial cari of the deśi class.

Vibhāsā : R i. 23 ff.

28

Minor rāga.

Vivādi : S iii. 47, 51 etc.

22

The svara which detracts from the charm of a rāga.

Vivṛtta : N 677-78

A kind of nṛttakarana (q.v.)

Viṣkambha : N 737-39, 847-59

( i ) A kind of nṛttakarana (q.v)

( ii ) A kind of aṅgahāra (q.v.).

Vṛnda : PK 203

35

A band of vocalists and instrumentalists.

Vṛndagāyana : PK 23

A singer in Vṛnda.

Veṣara : R 6

A kind of song.

Vaiśākhaṛecita ; N 657-58, 812-14

57

( i ) A kind of nṛttakurana (q.v.).

( ii ) A kind of aṅgahārṇa (q.v.).

Vaiṣṇava : N 1031-34, 1089

( i ) A particular sthāna for males.

( ii ) A kind of deśi sthāna.

Śamyā : T 9.

49, 50

A kind of Kaṭa.

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Glossary

Śārīra : PK 82

30, 31, 32

The capacity of a singer's voice for manifesting a rāga without practice.

Śruti : S iii. 8, 9, 10 etc.

2, 10, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25,

37, 39

Name of the 22 sounds existing in the heptatonic system.

All these are Śruta (head); hence these are called sruti.

Śāḍava : R 9 etc.

A rāga consisting of six svaras.

Satpitāputraka : T 26

51

A kind of tāla.

Sañcārī : S vi. 1

23

A kind of varṇa. It arises from the admixture of the sthāyī, arohī and avarohī varṇas.

Samvādī : S iii. 47, 49, 50 etc.

V 123. T 74.

22, 23

The svara which supports a rāga whose form has been manifested by the Vādī svara.

Samapāda : N 1041-43, 1077

(i) A particular sthāna for males.

(ii) A kind of deśī sthāna (q.v.).

Samapādā : N 917-18

55, 56

A kind of terrestrial cārī (q.v.).

Sambhrānta : N 736-37, 883-86

(i) A kind of ṇṛttakarana (q.v.).

(ii) A kind of aṅgahāra(q.v.).

Sāttvika : N 20

Acting by means of external manifestations of feelings or emotions, e.g. perspiration, trembling of the body etc.

Sāraṇā : S iii. 19 ff.

19, 21, 38

Movement. Raising or lowering of a svara.

Sālaga : See Chāyālaga.

Suṣira : V 4, 5 etc.

37, 44

The class of musical instruments which have holes.

Sūcī : N 698-9 (Nṛtta-karaṇa)

N 951-52, 1014

54, 60

(i) A kind of aerial cārī (q.v.).

(ii) A kind of deśī aerial cārī.

Sūcividdha : N 700-701, 808-9,

1186-88

61

(i) A kind of aṅgahāra (q.v.).

(ii) A kind of maṇḍala (q.v.).

(iii) A kind of ṇṛttakarana (q.v.).

Sūcimukha : N 147-51, 232-35

(i) A pose of the single hand in dance.

(ii) A pose of joined hands in dance.

Stāṇa : P 15. S iii. 39

6, 32, 33, 35, 36, 39, 40, 57, 58

Place where a svara arises.

It is threefold, viz. maṇḍra, madhya and tāra.

Sthāya: PK 97.

24, 33

Part of a rāga.

56

Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Music and Dance

Sthāyi : S vi. If.

23

A kind of varṇa. The intermittent use of the same svara in a song.

Svara : T iii. 25, 28 stc.

P 12, 15 etc.

5, 6, 9, 17, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25,

33, 39, 40

A tender sound which is resonant, follows śrutiṣ, and independently of other causes, itself causes delight to the mind of the listener.

Svarādi : PK 13

33

One who is versed in the mārga song alone,

Svastika : N 192-94, 592-93,

1073-74.

67

( i ) A pose of joined hands in dance.

(ii) A kind of ṇṛttakarana (q.v.).

(iii) A particular deśī sthāna.

Svastikarecita : N 600-3, 886-888

( i ) A kind of ṇṛttakarana (q.v.).

( ii ) A kind of aṅgahāra (q.v.).

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SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

SANSKRIT TEXTS

(Names of authors in Devanāgarī alphabetical order)

Agnipurāṇa--Chaps. 337–41.

Ahobala : Samgita-pārijāta, ed. K. Vedantavagisa, Calcutta, 1935; Hathras, 1941: (With Bengali translation), Calcutta, 1959.

Kavicakravartī : See Jagadekamalla.

Kāśinātha Apātulasi : Samgitasudhākara, 1917.

Kumbha or Kumbhakarṇa : Samgitarāja, ed. P. Sarma, Pt. I, Varanasi, 1963.

Ghaṇśyāmadāsa : Samgitasārasamgraha, ed. Prajnanananda, Calcutta, 1956.

Jagadekamalla : Samgitacūdāmaṇi, Baroda, 1958.

Dattilam : Ed. Sambasiva Sastri, Trivandrum, 1930.

Dāmodara : Samgitadarpana, Hathras, 1930.

Nandikeśvara : Abhinayadarpana, ed. M. Ghosh, Calcutta, 1943.

Narahari Cakravartī : Same as Ghaṇśyāmadāsa above.

Nānyabhūmipāla : Bharatabhāṣyam.

Nārada : Samgitamakaranda, ed. Telang, Baroda, 1920.

Nāradī Śikṣā : Benares, 1893; ed. S. Sāmaśramī, Calcutta.

Pārśvadeva : Samgitasamayasāra, Trivandrum, 1925.

Bharata : Nāṭyaśāstra, ed. M. Ghosh, Calcutta, I, 1967, II, 1961.

Mataṅga : Brhaddeśī, ed. S. Sastri, Trivandrum, 1928.

Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa : Chap. I, VV. 34–36: Chap. XXIII.

Rāmāmaṛtya : Svaramelakalānidhi, ed. M. S. R. Ayar, Annamalainagar, 1932.

Vāyupurāṇa—Chaps. 86–87.

Viṣṇuśarmā (pen-name of Visnunarayana Bhatkhande) : Abhinavarāgamañjarī, 1921.

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa—Section III.

Śārṅgadeva : Samgitaratnākara, I (Ch. i), Madras. 1943.

II (Chs. ii–iv), Do. 1959.

III (Chs. v–vi), Do, 1951.

IV (Ch. viii). Do, 1953.

Śubhaṅkara : Samgitadamodara, ed. G. Sastri and G. G. Mukhopadhyaya, Calcutta, 1960,

Śrīnivāsa : Rāgatattvavibodha.

Somanātha Paṇḍita : Rāgavibodha, ed. S. Sastri, Madras, 1945.

Someśvara : Abhilaṣitārthacintāmaṇi or Mānasollāsa, III, Baroda, 1961.

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118

Fundamentals of Ancient of Indian Music and Dance

ENGLISH WORKS

( In English alphabetical order )

Agrawala, V. K. Tradition and Trends in Indian Music.

Bagchi, P. C. : India and China, New York.

Bandyopadhyay, S. : The Music of India.

Bhatkhande, V. N. : Short Historical Survey of the Music of Upper India. Bombay, 1934.

Boatwright. H. : Indian Classical Music and the Western Listener.

Bose, M. : Classical Indian Dancing, Calcutta, 1970.

Clemento, F. : Introduction to the Study of Indian Music, London. 1913.

Coomaraswamy, A. K. & Duggirala : The Mirror of Gesture, 1970.

Danileou, A. : Northern Indian Music, 1949.

Deval, K. R. : The Hindu Musical Scale and the Twenty-two Śrutis, Poona, 1910.

Engle, C. : The Music of the Most Ancient Nations, 1865.

Felber, E. : The Indian Music of the Vedic and the Classical Period, Vienna, 1912.

Fox Strangways, A. H. : (i) Thh Music of Hindusthan.

(ii) The Hindu Scale; Leipzig, 1907-8.

French, P. T. : Catalogue of Indian Musical Instruments.

Ganguli, O. C. : Rāgas and Rāginīs, Baroda, 1948.

Garratt, G. T. : The Legacy of India, Oxford, 1938.

Ghosh, N. : Fundamentals of Rāga and Tāla with a New System of Notation, Bombay. 1968

Holroyde. P. : Indian Music, London,

Jairazbhoy, K. A. : The Rags of North Indian Music, London, 1971.

Jones, W. : Ou the Musical Modes of the Hindus.

Keskar, B. V. : Indian Music, Problems and Prospects, Bombay, 1967.

Naidu, B. V. N. and others : Tāṇdavalakṣaṇam or the Fundamentals of Ancient Hindu Dancing, 1971.

Peterson, J. D. : On the Grāmas or Musical Scales of the Hindus.

Pingle, B. A. : Indian Music, 1938.

Popley, H. A. : The Music of India, Culcutta, 1921.

Prajnanananda : Historicul Development of Indian Music, Calcutta.

Raja, C. K. : Samgitratnākara, Eng. trs. (Chap. I), Madras, 1945.

Raja, K. K. and Burnier : Do, Eng. trs. (Chap. VII), Braḥnavidyā, ( Adyar Library Bulletin ), XXIII, 1959, Madras.

Ram, V. B. : Glimpses of Indian Music.

Rao and Sastri : A Monograph on Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra.

Rao, T. V. S. : Studies in Indian Music.

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Select Bibliography

119

Rosenthal, E. : The Story of Indian Music and its Instruments, London

1928 (Reprint, Delhi, 1971).

Roy Choudhury, H. K. : The Musicians of India.

Sambamoorthy, P. : History of Indian Music.

Sanyal, A. N. : Rāgas and Rāginis.

Simon, R. : The Musical Compositions of Somanātha, Leipzig, 1904.

Sinha, P. : An Approach to the Study of Indian Music, Calcutta, 1970.

Subbarao, B. : Rāganidhi. Vol I.

Swarup, B. : Theory of Indian Music.

Tagore, S. N. : Six Principal Rāgas of the Hindus, Calcutta, 1877.

Tagore, S. M. : Indian Music by Various Authors, Vols. I-II (2nd., 1882).

Short Natices of Hindu Musical Instruments. Calcutta, 1912.

Seven Principal Musical Notes of the Hindus with their

Presiding Deities, Culcutta, 1882.

Hindu Music, Calcutta, 1975.

The Musical Scales of the Hindus, Calcutta, 1884.

Vatsyayana K. : Classical Indian Dance in Literature and the Arts, 1969.

Verma, K. M. : Seven Words in Bharata.

Nātya, Nrtta and Nrtya.

White, E. Appreciating Indian Music.

Williard, N. A. : A Treatise on the Music of Hindustan, Calcutta, 1834.

Wilson, A, C. : A Short Account of the Hindu System of Music, London,

Wood, A. : The Physics of Music, 1945.

BENGALI, HINDI, MARĀTHI

(In the spelling of the titles, we have followed the mode of pronunciation.)

Names of authors are in Devanāgarī alphabetical order.)

A. Sanyal : Prācin Bhārater Samgitcintā, Viśvavidyāsamgraha.

K. Gosvami : Samgitsār, 2nd ed., 1879.

D. Mukhopadhyay : Sur O Samgati.

P. Chaudhuri and Indira Devi Chaudhurani : Hindu Samgīt, Viśvavidyā-samgraha.

Prajnanananda : Samgīt O Samskṛti, I, Calcutta, 1953.

Do, Latter part, Calcutta, 1956.

B. K. Roychaudhuri ( Birendrakishore ) : Rag O rūp, Darjeeling. The

Hindusthāni Samgite Tānsener sthān, Calcutta, 1946 B. S.

B. K. Roychaudhuri : Bhāratiya Samgītakosa, Calcutta, 1932 B. S.

V. Bhatkhande : Hindusthāni Samgītapaddhati (Marāṭhī ), I, 1910, II, III,

1914, IVth part, 1932.

Murari Gupta : Samgīt-prakāśikā.

Radhamohan Sen : Samgīta-taraṅga, Calcutta,

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Fundamentals of Ancient of Indian Music and Dance

Ramsevak Misra : Tālaprakāśa (Hindi).

S. M. Tagore : Yantrakośa, 1875.

S. C. Bandyopadhyay : Bhāratcr Jñān Vijñān, I, Calcutta, 1366 BS.

(Chapter on music)

H. N. Mukhopadhyay : Samgite Parivartan, 1931.

ARTICLES

Quite a number of papers, on different aspects of music and dancing,

has been published in various journals. Among such periodicals, the following

are important :

Journal of Music Academy, Madras, III, IV, V, IX XIV, XIX, XXIII,

XXIV. (Articles by Agrawala, Aiyar, Felber, Ganguli, Halugur, Rao)

Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (Articles by

Fox-Strangways and Aiyar) 1935, 1936.

Uttaramantrā (Journal), Vol. I 1940 (P. C. Bagchi).

Sanskrit Research, 1916 (K, B. Deval)

Indian Culture, IV, 1939 (P. C. Dharma)

The Hindoostan, 1940 (O. C. Ganguli)

Journal of University of Bombay, XVIII, 1949 (Sankarana and

Chaitanya Deva)

The Indian Music Journal, Vols. I, II, 1212-13 (H. P. K. Rao )

Also see ( i ) U.S.I.C. Centre News, Almora, 1942, 1943 (Agrawala and

O. C. Ganguli).

(ii) Year-Book of Oriental Art and Culture, London, 1925.

(A. K. Coomaraswamy)

JOURNALS

Of journals, exclusively dealing with music, the following are

noteworthy :

HINDI

Samgita, Samgitakāryālaya, Hathras, U. P.

Samgītakalāvihāra, Poona Gāndharva Mahāvidyālaya.

An important magazine is published also from Samgita-Nātaka-Akademi, Delhi.

BENGALI

Surachandā, Calcutta.

Viśvavitnā, Calcutta.

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