1. Hindusthani Music An Outline of its Physics and Aesthetics Ranade G.H

HINDUSTHĀNI MUSIC

An Outline of its Physics

AND

Æsthetics

BY

G. H. RANADE

Lecturer in Physics, Fergusson College, Poona †.

Ex-member and Secretary, Music Education Committee

appointed in 1948-49, by the Government of Bombay.

( Second Edition. Revised and Enlarged )

1951

All Rights Reserved by the Author.

Printed by Shri. Keshav Ganesh Sharangani, at the

Aryabhushan Press, 915/1, Shivaji Nagar, Poona 4,

and

published by Shri, G. H. Ranade, at Shri Krishna

Sadan, 72/c Narayan Peth, Poona 2.

For Copies write to the author, G. H. Ranade,

72/c Narayan Peth, Poona 2.

Shrimant Narayanrao Babasaheb Ghorpade

Late Chief of Ichalkaranji.

To

Shrimant

Narayanrao Babasaheb Ghorpade

Late Chief of Ichalkaranji

for

His Proverbial Patronage

to

Fine Arts and Learning.

SIGNS AND SYMBOLS USED

Middle octave.

C D E F G A B.

Lower ”

C1 D1 E1 F1 G1 A1 B1

Higher ”

c d e f g a b

Indian Notation.

Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni.

Addition of dashes at the top indicates still higher

octaves and that below those still'lower.

Flats and double flats as:–Db, Dbb, Ab, Bb, etc.

Sharps and double sharps as:– A♯, F♯♯ etc.

Septimal notes as:– 7Eb 7bb etc.

Eleventh harmonic:– 11F♯♯♯.

Vibration number for the Middle C = 240.

Index number for the frequencies of the several notes

is placed at the bottom, as:– {C D Eb

24, 27, 28.8 and so on.

Transliteration from Sanskrit into English

अ आ इ ई उ ऊ ऋ ॠ ए ऐ ओ औ

a ā i ī u ū ṛ ṝ e ai o au

क ख ग घ ड च छ ज झ ञ ट ठ ड ढ ण

k kh g gh ṅ c ch j jh ñ ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ

त थ द ध न प फ ब भ म य र ल व श ष स ह क्ष

t th d dh n p ph b bh m y r l v ś ṣ s h kṣ

Preface to the Second Edition.

The First Edition of the book was sold out long ago and in spite of continuous demands for its copies, a fresh edition could not be published earlier, owing to various difficulties.

In preparing this edition the old text has been revised and several additions have been made at many places, particularly in the first four chapters. The historical survey taken in the First chapter now covers a much wider field and has been brought up-to-date. It contains such new topics as the Śuddha scale of the Naghamāt-e-Āsafi, notes on Col. Peter and Capt. Willard, Bengali tunes, and a critical appreciation of some latest books on Indian music.

The laws of musical sound given in the Second chapter have been treated at greater length and are further explained in the light of the subjective experience of a listener. In the Third chapter which deals with the Evolution of the Musical Scales, a positive and constructive approach to the Śruti-Doctrine and its verification is given in as simple and clear a manner as possible.

The Fourth chapter is entirely rewritten and contains the substance of my research, conducted under a Research-grant from the University of Bombay since after the publication of the First Edition, and gives an analysis of the musical structure of the various non-classical forms of musical expression such as Vedic chant, Sāmagāna, Recitation of the Poetic Metres and the tunes of Folk-Songs. It also contains an analysis showing how non-classical forms start from poetry and make music subservient to it, while the classical forms start with

viii

music and make poetry the hand-maid of music. Some very interesting methods of effecting climax are described in the appendix to that chapter and should prove to be thought-provoking. The appendix also contains some thirty illustrative specimens rendered into musical notation, to substantiate the conclusions arrived at. The Fifth, Sixth and the Seventh chapters contain a full scientific discussion of the three Unities of Indian Music and of how they shape its Æsthetics. The Eighth chapter deals with the several forms of Classical music. In the Ninth and the last chapter, it has been shown that the Rasa-Theory, as expounded by the old Sanskrit traditionists, has its own limitations and cannot explain the Rasa of music at its best, which latter easily leads one into a state of complete self-effacement, culminating in a higher consciousness which words have no power to describe.

The book is intended to be a general guide to the Physics and Æsthetics of music, in general, and Hindusthani music, in particular, and contains many original topics suggesting new lines of research. I do not however arrogate to myself the right of speaking for the South Indian system of music and leave that work to South Indian scholars, themselves. My special thanks are due to the University of Bombay for its 'Publication grant' to the First Edition of this book and also for another 'Research grant' for prosecuting further research regarding Folk Music, the substance of which is now included in the Fourth chapter of this Edition.

I take this opportunity of expressing my sincere thanks to the Government of Bombay for having called me to act as Member and Secretary of the Committee, they had appointed in 1948, to survey the whole field of Music Education in the Province. I had thus an oppor-

ix

tunity of studying the existing condition of music educa-

tion at close quarters and in the light of information

received in official and private dicussions, I have reason

to believe that the need for such books is felt all the

more keenly. In fact, some of our School-Boards and

Universities have already prescribed the book either as a

text book or as one for general reading and I trust that

they too will find the New Edition quite useful and

dependable for a methodical and critical study of Indian

Music.

I have to thank my former colleague Prof. D.G.

Dhavle, now University-Professor of Physics, Poona

University, for his help and advice in the preparation of

this edition as well. I also thank all the other gentle-

men who have been of help to me in one way or

another.

My thanks are due to the Aryabhushan Press and

its staff for the great pains they took in carefullly printing

this edition too.

Last but not the least, I express my deep debt of

gratitude to my former patron the late Shrimant

Narayanrao Babasaheb Ghorpade, late Chief of

Ichalkaranji, whose sad demise took place a few years

ago.

72/C Narayan Peth, Poona 2.}

2 January 1951.

G. H. RANADE.

CONTENTS

PAGE

Dedication

...

...

iii

Signs and Symbols used

...

...

v

Preface

...

...

vii

CHAPTER

I A Brief Survey of the Evolution of

Indian Music

...

...

1

II The Nature and Limitations of the

Function of Music and the Laws of

Musical Sound

...

...

25

III The Evolution of the Musical Scale

...

...

36

IV From Speech and Recitation to Folk-

Music and from Folk-music to the

Classical stage

...

...

52

V The Unities of Indian Music

...

...

81

VI The Unities—continued

...

...

102

VII The Æsthetics of Indian Music

...

...

118

VIII Forms of Musical Composition

...

...

141

IX Some Side-Issues and Retrospect

...

...

155

Appendix

...

...

175

Bibliography

...

...

197

Index

...

...

199

CHAPTER I

A BRIEF SURVEY OF THE EVOLUTION OF

INDIAN MUSIC

'Divine Truth, artistically represented to perception and feeling, forms the centre of the whole world of Art.'

Truth however, as is often said, is half-concealed and half-revealed and hence closer acquaintance and associa-

tion are needed to appreciate it in all its beauty. The artist, in man, feels it, is inspired by it, and feels happy

and elevated in conveying to others his experience of the golden touch of Art. When this process resolves itself

into a well-ordered and accomplished fact, Art makes over its conquests to Science and sets forth to explore

unknown regions in the Land of the Beautiful.

The development of Indian Music is not an exception to the above rule. The cries1 of birds and beasts—such as

the cooing of the cuckoo or the neighing of the horse—

were among the principal musical occurrences to catch the fancy of the early artist. From such small and simple

beginnings, music in India had grown into a well-developed art, as far back as history can reach.

In the Vedic period, the hymns as a class used to be chanted and some of them were further set to tune and

rhythm and thus there soon came into existence a class of singer-priests. The hymns needed accurate pronuncia-

tion and emphasis on particular syllables and words and extended over a fairly long duration of time. Their

chanting, therefore, required great modulation of voice and insertion of intermediate pauses. Thus uncon-

sciously, the essentials of both melody and rhythm came

2

THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN MUSIC [ Chapter I

into prominence. In the early stages, the melody was

bound to be plain and curt. Gradually, the limits were

widened and it moved through a fairly large portion of

the scale. What was true of melody was equally true

of rhythm. From a simple accent and a pause, the

rhythm developed into a science of evergrowing and

varied cycles of time-keeping. This resulted in a

greater polish in the practice of the art and before long

a Theory—rather a Grammar2—of music based partly

on observed facts and partly on hypothetical preposses-

sions came into existence.

The Vedic hymns were however too grave and rigid

a subject for so plastic and subtle an art as music.

Eventually, music made a move towards the lighter side

of life, and was more at ease with it, as it always has at

its command a rare wealth of emotional appeal. On this

account, music has always been considered to be the

fittest medium to express the joys and sorrows, the

languishing hopes and despairs and the thousand and one

little vanities of the human race. It is no wonder,

therefore, if its field of activity soon shifted from the

altar to the stage. Thus, there were performers for all

occasions, religious or festive. There was already the

singer-priest who perhaps in course of time became the

temple-singer. There was the tramp—as he is there even

to-day—who went round the country and entertained

the country-folk. Lastly, there were reputed actors

and actresses, who performed for the kings or for people

of more urbane tastes.

This really marked the beginning of a true and

classical form of music. The popular practices of the

earlier period were abandoned and several innovations

were adopted, as the result of a close observation of the

Chapter I] THE PERIOD OF BHARATA

3

nature of musical sounds. The opera of those days

consisted of vocal as well as of a number of instrumental

performers. Among the instruments, there were string-

ed instruments of many kinds-some to be directly

plucked and played and others to be played with a bow.

There were in addition, flutes, horns, cymbals and drums

of many kinds. These facts clearly show that in those

days, music was on the high road to advancement. The

oldest and probably the first detailed exposition of the

Theory of Indian Music belongs to this period. In the

"Nāṭya Śāstra" or the Science of Dramaturgy, the sage

Bharata (prior to 300 B. C.) gives a clear and detailed

account of the Swaras-musical notes, of the Śrutīs

-the microtonal intervals between the successive

degrees of the scale, of the two Grāmas-parent scales,

and of the Mūrchanās-scales obtained by transposi-

tion. He has further given a detailed account of an

experimental method3 for deducing the Śruti-ratios.

The method is rather crude, yet its merit lies in the fact

that it is perfectly critical and truly scientific in spirit.

We may, therefore, say that the foundations of the

Physics of Indian music were well and truly laid by the

time of Bharata.

In his days, there were the two parent scales and

eighteen Jātis. Seven of these were derived from the

Ṣadja Grāma and the remaining eleven were obtained

from the Madhyama Grāma. Of these again only four

from the Ṣadja Grāma and three from the Madhyama

Grāma were called Śuddha Jātis and the rest were obtain-

ed by the fusion of two or more Jātis from each Grāma.

Thus all the music was classified in eighteen broad

groups or Jātis. Two songs widely differing in their

'melodic progression and æsthetic appeal were classed to-

gether, simply because the scale of each was derived from

4

THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN MUSIC [ Chapter II

the same Jāti. A finer distinction was perhaps needed and so, in later years, each Jāti was further split up into or was replaced by what are now known as Rāgas. As Rāga has almost the same meaning as the term 'melody-type' in English, with the addition, however, that it is based upon melodic as well as æsthetic possibilities. It appears that the Rāgas came into being after Bharata and their coming marks a new era in the history of Indian music.

There is, however, no evidence to determine the commencement of this new period accurately. The earliest and the most reliable reference to the Rāga-system is to be found in the Brhatdeśī of Matanga (about 400 A. D.). In introducing the Rāga-system he says that as the Rāga-way was neither explained nor referred to by Bharata and others, it was up to him to explain the same, in accordance with the practices then current†. This shows that the Rāga-system was already ripe and had developed well-respected standards, in the days of Matanga. It seems that not only the experts, but society, as a whole, made due contribution to the formulation of new and popular Rāgas. It is for the detailed explanation of the 'popular system of music' that Matanga wrote his epitome on music. In fact, he names his book as Brhatdeśī, meaning 'A treatise on popular music'. By the word 'Deśī' he means the type of music sung or liked by men, women and children, as well as by kings‡. By the time of Matanga, not only were the Jātīs of Bharata replaced by the Rāgas, but the more orthodox types of the Rāgas also were further replaced by the new and popular types which evolved from day to day.

The Brhatdeśī largely draws upon the earlier works, and particularly upon the Nāṭya Śāstra of Bharata and

Chapter I] KĀLIDĀSA USES A RĀGA

5

mostly deals with the same topics, the only addition being

the chapters dealing with the Rāgas. But particular

interest attaches to the fact, that the Rāga-idea had

become sufficiently old and the old Rāgas were being

replaced by new and popular ones. When and how the

change took place is not told by Matanga, but the

significant references to music, in old works of art, point

to a very early date, indeed! As an illustration, it may

be pointed out that an analysis of the works of Kālidāsa

shows that the great poet closely followed the rules of

art, as laid down in the Nāṭya-Sāstra of Bharata. The

frequent and significant use of musical terms and similes,

the stage directions for singing particular verses only,

and the propriety of time and melody of music to the

occasion show that the poet was very well up in the

science and art of music. Nay, he had indeed gone a

step ahead of Bharata; for, Kālidāsa is found to have com-

posed songs in one or two Rāgas. We can say this

definitely at least of one song6, viz. that which the Naṭī

sings in the prelude to the opening act of the Abhijñān-

Sākuntalam. The song, as it appears, was to be sung in

Sāranga7 ( Madhyamādi )—the very first Rāga of the

renaissance period ( or the period of the modern Rāgas8

later on referred to by Sārṅgadeva, the author of the

Sangīta Ratnākar ). This indicates that the musical

renaissance had begun as early as the period of Kālidāsa,

if not earlier.

That the Rāga-system came into being in very old

days is borne out by evidence from a still different

quarter. In the parody of a musician, which forms the

subject matter of one of the fables in the famous ' Pañca-

tantra ' ( 5th century A. D. ), an ass poses as a great

musician and in support of the fineness and delicacy of

its performance, quotes the musical doctrine and further

6

THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN MUSIC [ Chapter I

explains the Rāga-system. The details about music given in this fable compare very favourably with those

of the Northern school of Indian music, even of to-day.

The next authoritative work on music belongs to the early thirteenth century. It is the famous Sangīta

Ratnākara of Śārṅgadeva, who still inspires reverence in the minds of India's musicians. He lived at the court

of the Yādav kings of Devagiri. The Sangīta Ratnākara deals at great length with music in all the three tradi-

tional aspects of it, viz. vocal and instrumental music and dancing Bharata had already dealt with these three

aspects, in his Nāṭya Śāstra. His music, however, had not developed any Rāgas. Matanga wanted to describe

instrumental music, in continuation of the general theory of ( vocal ) music but unfortunately further

portions of his work have not been yet unearthed.

But Matanga gives a good account of the Rāga-system.

Sārṅgadeva, the author of the Sangīta Ratnākara, is more elaborate and scholarly in his treatment of the

general doctrine of music, but does not in spirit differ much from either Bharata or Matanga. In fact, he quotes

them very often and appears to have closely followed the latter, particularly in his arrangement of the several

topics. Thus, he has devoted special chapters to instrumental music and dancing, in addition to those

giving the general theory of vocal music. The treatment of vocal music in the Ratnākara is of course more

exhaustive than that in the Bṛhatdeśī, but smacks of pedantry. For, Sārṅgadeva tried to link the music of

his day with that of the past, though at one place he frankly admits that the old type of music was altogether

extinct. The Jātis of Bharata had disappeared by the time of Maṭanga and the Rāgas had taken their place.

These Rāgas again were replaced by fresh and new varie-

Chapter I] THE ADHUNĀ PRASIDDHA RĀGAS

7

ties, such as the Adhunāprasiddha8 Rāgas of Śārṅgadeva

or those Rāgas well-known and current in his day.

Under these circumstances, the most reasonable course,

for Śārṅgadeva would have been to trace the growth of

his Rāgas out of the older Rāgas, and the growth of

these, in their turn, out of the Jātis or else to describe

the Rāgas of his day, quite independently of the

old forsaken practices of which there is ground

to believe Śārṅgadeva himself had nothing beyond a

vague idea. There is, therefore, a lot of controversy and

confusion as to whether his music has anything in

common with the present-day music, either of the North

or of the South of India or whether his system was

altogether a different one. The later Pandits of both

the schools, however, based their systems on that of the

Ratnākara in spite of the fact that the two schools

differed widely in their practices. This made matters

worse, indeed! A Pandit never stopped to think to

which school of music his art belonged and how different

were the practices of his day from those of the ancient

times, before he set himself to write an epitome on

music. What he did was merely to copy the old works

and somehow fasten his own practices and beliefs on

them. The music of Śārṅgadeva is not therefore clearly

understood in any part of the country and until recently8

not even one of the Rāgas, elaborately described by him,

could be successfully identified. The other por-

tions of the Ratnākara, however, deal with the whole

range of musical form and composition and make the

treatise a useful guide in many respects.

Just after Śārṅgadeva, i. e. soon after the close

of the thirteenth century, the Mohammedans invaded the

Deccan and overthrew the dynasty of the Yādavas of

Devagiri. This had its own reactions on Indian music,

8

THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN MUSIC

[

Chapter

I

]

as on other matters of culture. Persian models began

to be introduced into Indian music, evidently widening

the gulf between the Northern and Southern schools.

The Northern school later on adopted a new scale as

its basic or Śuddha scale, while the Southern school

retained the traditional one. Scholars believe that this

change in the Northern school was wholly due to our

contact with the Persian art of which Amir Khushru

was the pioneer. With his rare insight and art, he

introduced new and finer variations of the Rāgas and

invented new instruments. It is, therefore, true that

he not only contributed to the polish of the art

but also extended its possibilities. But, it is equally

true that his attempts could not alter its traditional

Hindu character. Perhaps, he never attempted any

such alteration at all! Amir Khushru himself says at

one place:-

"I am an Indian, if a Turk.

I do not derive my inspiration from Egypt.

I do not therefore speak of Arabia,

My lyre responds to the Indian Theme."

Curiously enough, Amir Khushru is the inventor of

a lyre, the famous Sitār of to-day. The Śuddha scale of

the Sitār is the same as the Śuddha scale of the Northern

school and is believed to be a transposed form of the

ancient Śuddha scale of the Veenā, of which the Sitār is

but a modified form.

If we take into consideration all the sharps and flats

of the Sitār-scale, then it happens to be a scale with

twelve semi-tones to an octave. This scale gives the

twelve identical notes, which the Southern Pandits use

as the basis of their system. The Sitār is thus a good

Chapter I]

AMIR KHUSHRU

9

compromise between the two schools; the major forms

of the notes, giving the model scale of the North, and

the minor forms giving the model scale of the South.

Like the tempered scale of the West, it serves the needs

of both the schools fairly satisfactorily. Thus, it will be

clear that the Sitār-scale does not in the least suggest

that Amir Khushru ever intended to effect any changes

in the old Indian art, but on the other hand, strongly

indicates that by inventing an ingenious instrument like

the Sitār, Khushru has left to posterity an easy means of

bringing the two schools as near each other as possible.

But the later theorists freely borrowed from the

older works and added to the confusion already made

by Śārṅgadeva. Most of them, however, were practical

musicians of a high order and so the detailed information

given by them about the practices current in their own

days is certainly interesting and valuable. Some of them

really tried to systematise their views on rational lines,

and among them, Pandit Ahobala, the author of the

Sangīta-Pārijāta (early 17th century) deserves special

notice. It is he who first gave the relation between

(the pitch of) the different degrees of the scale in terms

of the speaking length of a wire under constant tension9.

Ahobala may, therefore, be said to have taken a further

step in the experimental development of the laws of

Indian music.

It is enough to say, here, that similar attempts were

made by many Pandits almost till the end of the

Mughal period. But most of them belonged to the

Southern school and there were only a few who describ-

ed the traditions of the Northern school. But even

among the latter, there were none who started with the

Śuddha scale as it was. These, therefore, merely reiterated

10

THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN MUSIC

[ Chapter I

in a more or less modified form what Ahobala had

already said. From this period onwards, we may say

that the progress of the study of the science of music

was checked, as the artistes, pandering to the tastes of

their masters, began to take all sorts of liberties with

the orthodox Rāgas. This caused the art to drift and

created much disorder in its practice. Yet, to this period

( 16th and 17th centuries A. D. ) belong a few artistes

like Haridās, Tānsen, Surdās, Tulsīdās, Jagannātha

Sadārang and Adhārang, who, though innocent of the

laws of musical sound, were great men of genius. Like

Palestrina ( 1524-1594 A. D. ), they were guided in their

paths by feeling, fancy and inspiration and have left an

imperishable record behind them. They thus unconsci-

ously laid down the foundations of what we call the

classical style of to-day, which easily distinguishes the

present-day music of the North from that of the South.

Yet the distinct set-back given to science was so

great and annoying, that by the time of the early British

period, thinking people were thoroughly disgusted with

the absurd classifications and meaningless conventions of

the time. Thus, there were numerous Matas10 or schools

of musical traditions and lore, which hardly agreed with

one another. One really wished for a simple yet a

rational way out of the chaos. A step in the right

direction was first taken by Mahārāja Pratāp-Singh-Deva

of Jaipur ( 1779-1801 A. D. ), who called a conference of

the Pandits and experts of his day and in consultation

with them got a standard work on Hindusthani music

written, called the ‘Rādhā Govind Sangītāsāra. It was

certainly a praiseworthy attempt, as it has preserved in

writing the opinions of the best available experts of that

period. In the opinion of Pandit Bhātkhande, " the

literary talent available to the Maharaja, at that time,

Chapter I] SANGITA SĀRA 11

does not however appear to have been of a superior

order." The work refers to good many Sanskrit authori-

ties, notably to Ratnākara, Darpana, Rāgamālā, Anūpa

Vilās, Pārijāta and others, but according to Pandit

Bhātkhande 'the Pandits of Maharaja Pratap Singh do

not seem to have followed or rightly understood even one

of them.' The Swarādhyāya·of the Sangitasāra is but a

mere Hindi translation of the chapter of the same name

in Ratnākara, and does not in any way help a reader to

unlock the riddle of the ancient Suddha scale of our

music. Yet Pandit Bhātkhande says that it appears to

be the Bilāwal scale, which however is a very doubtful

proposition and does not stand in view of a critical

examination of the available material on the point both

in and outside the Sangitasāra, an authorised edition of

which has been duly published by the Poona Gāyan

Samāja.

Naghamat-e-Asafī of Mohammed Reza is yet another

work of the same type and was compiled by its author

about the year 1814. Thoroughly dissatisfied with the

absurd and meaningless Rāga-Rāgini-Putra classification

of his time, Reza took it into his head to introduce some

sort of intelligent principle in the classification. Before

doing so, he boldly criticised all the four Matas or

systems of music, current in his day, and pronounced

them as wholly out-of-date and unsuited to the

spirit and practice of his time. The central principle

upon which he based his own Mata or system

was that between every Rāga and its Rāginis, there

must be some close similarity or common features.

So far as is known, only a few possess its copies

in the manuscript form. But a fairly detailed and

critical account of its contents has been given by

Pandit Bhātkhande in his Hindusthāni Sangitá Paddhati.

12

THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN MUSIC [ Chapter I

Vol. III, pp. 120-138, and also incidentally in his other books. In summarising his views about the

Śuddha or probable basic scale of the Naghamat-e-Asafi, on page 136, Pandit Bhātkhande says that Reza has no-

where referred to his notes as Śuddha nor has he stated the intervals between the notes of his scale. Pandit

Bhātkhande has therefore left his readers to make their own surmise in the matter and on his own part has

suggested a scheme in which Reza's scale possibly consisted of the following twenty-two notes:-One Sa, three

forms of Re, five forms of Ga, four forms of Ma, one Pa, three forms of Dha, and five of N1; in all twenty-two.

By and by, Pandit Bhātkhande however began to advocate that the Śuddha scale of the Naghamāt-e-Asafi has been

the Bilāwal scale, perhaps to get added support to his own proposition that the Bilāwal scale is the Śuddha scale

of Hindusthāni music. It is, however, difficult to accept this view and to reconcile Pandit Bhātkhande with

Pandit Bhātkhande himself, but of the earlier days. Contemporary evidence, too, does not support this

later view of Pandit Bhātkhande; for the Naghamāt-e-Āsafi, like its immediate predecessor the Śangitasār of

Maharaja Pratāpsingh or its immediate successor 'The Music of Hindostan ' of Captain Willard, does not even

once refer to any of its notes as Śuddha, but on the contrary uses the Grāma-Mūrchanā language in the

definition of its Rāgas, definitions denouncing the older Matas as foolish and intended to set the house of music

in order. (vide page 132 of Hindusthāni Sangit Paddhati Vol. 111—definition of the Bhairava Rāga.)

This brings us to the early British period during which, with the exception of Sir William Jones who had

published an article on 'The Musical Modes of the Hindus 'as early as 1784, no other European scholar

Chapter I ]

CAPT. WILLARD

13

appears to have taken any interest in Indian Music. On

the contrary, music lost its royal patronage and remained

confined to the courts of the Indian Princes, but for

whose genuine appreciation and noble patronage it would

have become almost extinct. In the army of some of

these Princes, there used to be some European officers

and those with a taste for music incidentally had many

opportunities of listening to good music and also of

associating themselves closely with the court-musicians.

An anecdote about one Col. Peter of the old Gwalior

Army runs that he was both a good composer and an

excellent performer of vocal music and as they say some

of his Chij-s are current in Gwalior even to this day.

Another famous instance is that of Capt. N. A.

Willard who was also an officer in the army of the

Bāndā state. It appears that Willard had a sound know-

ledge of the theory and practice of the European System

of Music and was gifted with the power of close observa-

tion and study. He was a skilful performer on several

of our musical instruments. His famous book ‘A Treatise

on the Music of Hindostan’ was published at Calcutta in

1834. He has been sympathetic and essentially Indian in

his approach to the subject. The book is valuable for the

datá collected in consultation with the leading musicians

of his time and for the observations and generalisations

which show its author’s deep insight and sound

acquaintance with the professional technique. According

to him ‘from the theory of music a defection had

taken place in its practice, and men of learning used to

confine themselves exclusively to the former, while the

latter branch was abandoned entirely to the illiterate.’

Naturally, the theory that a professional knew did not go

beyond a smattering knowledge of a number of technical

terms and the tuning of some instruments, supported by

14

THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN MUSIC

[ Chapter 1

a working hypothesis built out of fragments indifferently

collected from old Sanskrit works on music and also

from hear-say. He further says that the musicians of his

day never used the term 'Śuddha' for any of the musical

notes such as the 'Re, Ga, Dha, Ni' of to-day, but

invariably referred to them as 'Tīvra' or sharp. Published

only twenty years after the Naghamāt-e-Āsafi, Willard's

book makes no mention of the Bilāwal scale as the

Śuddha scale of Indian music. It is therefore doubtful

whether Mohammed Reza the author of the Naghamāt-

e-Āsafī ever proposed any or even the Bilāwal scale, as

the Śuddha scale of Hindusthānī music as Pandit

Bhātkhande would have us believe. It needs no argu-

ment to prove that Willard on account of his superior

general education and critical ability is inherently more

dependable than Mohammed Reza and the more so

because he was also an expert of the Western system of

Music and had a sound knowledge of acoustics and the

art of putting into notation any music heard. The

suggestion that the Śuddha scale of the Naghamāt-e-Asafī

must have been the Bilāwal scale of to-day has therefore

no clear sanction of contemporary evidence or traditions,

though it may be said to be a very brilliant and useful

creation of the late Pandit Bhātkhande himself.

It was only in the latter part of the nineteenth

century that eminent Indian as well as European scholars

took to the study of Indian music. Of the European

scholars of this period, most showed a peculiar want of

imagination, in trying to solve the problem of Indian

music by a literal interpretation of ancient Indian works

on music, combined with the use of mathematical tables11.

A literal interpretation of many passages often leads one

into a vicious circle of arguments. Again, mathematical

measurements, of the distance between the frets of an

Chapter I] SŪRSĀGAR AND RĀGA-KALPADRUMA

15

instrument or the length of a speaking wire on the

Veenā, do not often represent the true length. Playing

on the Veenā, or any Indian instrument with strings, is

largely a matter of guess-work, for a large number of the

notes employed are obtained by increasing the tension

of the wire, by pressing it hard with the finger and by

dragging it further on to one side. Under these circum-

stances, one cannot expect to find much about the Indian

scales by measuring the wire-lengths or the spaces

between the frets of the different stringed instruments.

Yet, this was the method employed by such workers as

Mr. Ellis and Mr. Hipkins in the verification of the

Indian scales. The work of such scholars, though

pursued on truly scientific lines, had but little practical

value and in some cases only helped to feed the fire of

prejudice against Indian music, by providing a faulty

standard of contrast between the Indian and European

systems of music.

Among the contemporary Indian works, the publica-

tion in print of such great song-books as the Sūrsāgar and

those of the Puṣṭi-Mārga greatly revived the interest of

the educated classes in the old compositions, which sadly

enough undergo even to this day great mutilation and dis-

figurement at the hands of our professionals. These

song-books are veritable repositories of the best compos-

itions in Hindusthāni music.

The Rāga Kalpadruma of Krisnānanda Vyās is another

great collection of old compositions and freely draws

upon the Sūrsāgar and the song-books of the Puṣṭi-Mārga

in addition to those chij-s which the author collected from

all possible sources, great or small. The industry and

patience of the author in bringing out such a gigantic

collection certainly command our admiration particularly

16

THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN MUSIC

[ Chapter I

when we know that he had to toil for it for well over

twentyfive years and had to go on foot from one end of

the country to the other for a number of times, in pursuit

of old and rare compositions. It was first published in

1842, at Calcutta.

A pamphlet called the 'Gīta Lipi', written by Mr.

G. L. Chatre and after his untimely death revised by his

brother the famous Keropant Chatre, stands out as a dis-

tinct landmark in the history of the early attempts of the

educated classes to make the teaching of music, simple

yet sound. It gives the elementary laws of sound and

the scales and the staff-notation of the European system

of music in plain everyday language and has proposed a

similar system of notation for the purposes of recording

Indian songs. It was published, in 1864, by Raosaheb

V. N. Mandlik of Bombay, who in his introduction says

that the book was prepared for use in the Girls' School

conducted by the Literary and Scientific Society of

Bombay. It consists of 39 pages and eight charts of

notation and eight specimen songs also put into notation.

The interest attaching to this book is in the fact that it

is perhaps the very first book which advocated and framed

a system of notation for Indian Music.

Sir Shourindra Mohan Tagore is another great figure

of those days and is well known for his patronage to music.

Between 1867 and 1896, he published a number of books

on music among which 'The Universal History of Music'

needs special mention. The 'Geeta Sūtra Sār' ( 1887 ) of

Krishnadhan Bannerjee and 'A Discussion on Indian Music'

( 1894 ) by Bhawānrao Pingle are two other good books.

looking much ahead of their time.

As early as1883, Pandit Bālkrishṇabuwā, a learned and

brilliant musician of the Gwalior Gharana of Hassukhan

Chapter I] THE POONA GĀYAN SAMĀJA

17

and popularly known as the Doyen among the musi-

cians of Mahārāshtra used to publish, at Bombay, a quar-

terly journal of music called the 'Sangita Darpana' and

in its pages we find a good exposition of the well-known

Rāgas accompanied by illustrations duly rendered into

simple music notation. He had thus forestalled many an

advocate of music notation known to this generation.

The Sangita Kalādhara of Pandit Dāhyābhai of Bhāv-

nagar is another work of the period which needs special

mention and contains a large number of old songs

rendered into music notation, which is simple and

clear enough.

The Poona Gāyan-Samāja (founded in 1874) was a

very influential body and soon spread its activities even

at a far-off place like Madras. Almost all the great men

in these parts were associated with it in some way or

the other and among its patrons are to be found the

names of such illustrious personages as H. R. H. the then

Duke of Connaught, and H. R. H. the then Prince of

Wales (H. M. Edward VII). No other music institu-

tion can boast of such glorious traditions richly deserved

by its publication of various works on music such as the

Rādhā Govind Sangit Sār and by creating among the

public a taste for good music and its academical study.

In more recent years, notable contribution towards

the study of music was made by men like the late Pandit

Vishṇu Digambar of country-wide fame, and a learned

disciple of the famous Bālkrishṇabuwā. It was really he,

who rescued music from the clutches of its vulgar caterer

and by popularising it among the educated classes, pre-

pared the way for the theories of Pandit Bhātkhande and

others. He has also devised a system of music-notation

2

18 THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN MUSIC [ Chapter 1

which is capable of recording old songs in a very faithful manner. The chief merit of the Pandit's work lies in

the fact that he published in notation whole songs, with all their progressions, embellishments and rhythmic

variations and has thus left to posterity complete units of continuous and whole performances, as it were, of old

classical songs.

Mr. Clements ( I. C. S Retired ) and Mr. Deval of Sangli edited many books on music under the auspices

of the Phil-Harmonic Society of Western India. Their chief contribution to the study of Indian music lies in

their research about the 'Intonation of Indian Music' and in their actual testing of many of the Rāga-scales,

with the help of the Dichord. They have also invented a simple form of staff-notation, which can faithfully

record any Indian song.

Mr. Clements and Mr. Fox-Strangways deserve our thanks for yet another service which they have rendered

to the cause of Indian music Both of them are critics, gifted with rare insight and intelligence and by their

able exposition of several musical topics have opened new avenues of critical and comparative standards of

judging Indian music from the view-point of the Westerner.

Next in the field, is the outstanding personality of the late Pandit Bhātkhande, B. A., LL. B. and an Advo-

cate of Bombay. A truly modern man of a selfless spirit and well-equipped with talent and education,

he saw that it was possible to establish the current Hindusthānī Music System on a sound founda-

tion, so as to render its study easy and intelligible. He was able to do so by successfully applying the

Mela-Kartā method of the Southern Pandit Vyan̄kat

Chapter I] PANDIT BHĀTKHANDE 19

makhi to the Northern system, without much sacrificing

any of its specialitįs. As a result, he wrote a book in

Sanskrit called 'Lakshya-Sangīta' and published it in

1910, under a pseudonym. The book was written in the

strains of the old Shāstric school and Pandit Bhātkhande

in support of his statements elsewhere, freely quoted

himself under the pseudonym. The third-person ref-

erences and the high tributes paid to the book by

Pandit Bhātkhande himself, were couched in such a

language as to persuade a reader to think that the book

was an extraordinary discovery and was the work of some

Pandit belonging to a much earlier period. Pandit

Bhātkhande had a very sharp wit and a natural gift of

quick and clear judgment. But an Advocate he was and

an advocate he remained to the last. In his books he

has devoted pages after pages to criticising his opponents

in a very scathing and unsparing manner, though many

of his own statements cannot go unchallenged. All these

things provided his adversaries with much capital against

him. But the book had its own merits. It gave in a

very simple and compact form a practical basis for the

Northern school of Indian music. The patterns for

classifying the Rāgas were few and simple and as they

were first arrived at, by the selection of common features

from similar or allied Rāgas, it is no wonder if they easily

conformed to the current practices. As the book had a

workable basis in view, the author rejected the critical

method, assumed certain things and wrote it in the

manner of the Naghmat-e-Āsafi of the early nineteenth

centuty. The book easily appealed to the student of

music with the popular mentality, but the more critically

minded thought that Pandit Bhātkhande in his zeal for

compactness and patterns sacrificed facts to forms.

Pandit Bhātkhande, however, firmly believed in the

utility of his method and thought that it would do more

20

THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN MUSIC

[ Chapter I

good than harm to the study of Indian music. He,

therefore, did not mind the criticism levelled against him

and spared no pains in collecting, collating and editing.

old books and manuscripts on music. Simultaneously

with this, he collected detailed information about a large

number of Rāgas with a host of rare Chīj-s or songs,

illustrating each Rāga, set such Chīj-s to notation and

published them in four12 big volumes. In his famous

Hindusthānī Sangīt-Paddhati also extending to four

volumes and covering about 2500 pages, he gave the

theory of Indian music and attempted in his own way

to trace the historical growth and transitions in the form

of each Rāga. His was a gigantic task and it is hard to

conceive how one man could ever have executed it, and

executed it so successfully, in one life time! Yet Pandit

Bhātkhande has done the impossible! He cleared off

the debris accumulated up to his time, laid bare the

solid foundations of the system and built on them a

wonderful structure of his own, in imitation of the

archaic style of the old Pandits. His method, however,

is essentially historical and does not directly concern

itself with the important bearings of the laws of sound,

on many musical questions.

The latest adherents of Pandit Bhātkhande are from

Bengal. A time there was when Bengal paid its homage

only to the indigenous Viṣṇupur School of Music and

had but scant respect for the Hindusthānī School.

Mr. Krisṇadhan Bannerjee the author of the ' Gitasutra-

sar ' is, however, vehement in his criticism of the' works

of Kṣetra Mohan Goswāmi the apostle of the Viṣṇupur

School, and from the apologetic character of the defence

of Goswāmi by modern Bengali writers, it seems that

Banerjee's 'criticism was not unfair. Classical music,

which was till then a close preserve of the Ustad's and a

Chapter I]

TAGORE'S TUNES

21

subject of admiration by the chosen few, gradually work-

ed up its way to the inside of the Bengali household.

Simultaneously, however, the novel tunes of Tagore's

songs and the fresh orientation he gave to music had

made their own impacts on the classical Rāgas and for a

time ruled supreme in Bengal. Tagore's adaptations of

European tunes and his crossing of one Rāga with

another in an unconventional manner led to confusion in

the name of artistic execution. A non-Bengalee, who

cannot follow the meaning of the songs, thinks that their

tunes distinctly jar on his ears, on account of their out-

of-the way or exotic musical contour. In fact outside

Bengal, the so-called Bengali type of music passes for a by-

word to mean hybrid music. The later imitators of

Tagore and the film-producers who traded in this music

for a less worthy cause are perhaps the real culprits

in the matter. Any way, the Bengalees like all

practically-minded people have come to consider Pandit

Bhātkhande's system as the one best suited for

learning and teaching music in an easy manner. There

are indications, however, that the Bengali scholars,

like many others elsewhere, have come to find, in

Pandit Bhātkhande's system, many loopholes in the form

of inconsistencies and dogmas which lie hidden under

the camouflage of a utilitarian theory and short-cut

methods.

In 1943, the India Society of London published a

very informative book called 'An Introduction to the

Study of Musical Scales' by Alain Daniélou, a well-known

scholar and musician. He is quite frank and sympathetic

in his views and his comparative study of the Western

and Eastern Systems of Music is a proof of his sound

scholarship and impartial judgment. He has strongly

criticised many European writers on Indian music for

22

THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN MUSIC [Chapter I

their hollowness, hatred and hypocrisy (only such terms can bring out the full force of his criticism) and for their unwarranted sweeping statements, meant to belittle the antiquity and the truly scientific character of the Indian system. The copious historical references with which he substantiates his views and the large number of carefully worked-up tables, showing the ratios for Śrutis and the musical notes and scales etc. are bound to be of very great help to all students of music.

To modern scholars, Danielou may however appear to be somewhat antique in his views, since he subordinates science to metaphysical analogies and personal beliefs. Our more immediate interest however requires us to restrict ourselves to his exposition of the Indian system. On the surface of it, his treatment looks like a grand mosaic but is really full of contradictions and anachronisms as he has tacked together ancient and modern works belonging to different centuries though they have little in common. Thus, their conventions are different; so also are their notes, the scales and the æsthetic affinities attached to them. None of them has unlocked the riddle of the Śrutis beyond doubt and the unscientific character of many has been conclusively proved. The citations from such and particularly from the present-day writers (some named and others though not named, easily recognisable from the quotations) may not impress a reader who knows them in the original and also knows the periodic transitions in their views and in some cases their pretended antique character. Music lovers must however thank M. Danielou for his sincerity and genuine appreciation of Indian music.

Quite recently, M. Danielou has published yet another book called 'Northern Indian Music' intended to

Chapter I] A BIBLIOGRAPHICAL BOOK 23

give the history and growth of the theory and practice of

music in India, in general, and in its Northern part, in

particular. It is mainly a bibliographical volume and

contains the original sources with a running commentary

by the author. In many places, he has repeated much of

what he has once said in his earlier book,—perhaps to

preserve the continuity of the subject-matter for a fresh

reader. Some of his surmises regarding the early history

of Indian music and the possible contribution made to it

during the Buddhistic period need critical corroboration

before they could be accepted. The book is like a tray-

eller's guide and appears to have been written principally

for the European tourist in the wonderland of Indian

music. 'As such, it may serve as a handy catalogue of

the sources along with explanation and translation into

English of the various technical terms and conventions of

Indian music, ancient and modern It must however be

said that the book lacks the freshness and promise held

up by the earlier book.

To the modern student of music, who may ask the

why and the how of every thing, only a mass-collection of

the Rāgas and other incidental details would not convey

everything that constitutes music. It would also be

impossible for him to pass lightly over conventions and

practices or even metaphysical analogies which may

appear to him as irrational or unscientific. Thus, at every

step, he would demand a rational explanation of what the

Art has achieved by means of delicate æsthetic feeling.

The study of music in relation to the laws of musical

sound alone can offer such a rational explanation.

Musically there is a mass-awakening in modern India

and public demands for the inclusion of music in our

e !ucational system have met with partial success at the

24 THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN MUSIC [ Chapter I

hands of our Government and Universities. In such circumstances, it is high time that the system of Indian music were subjected to a critical analysis from the viewpoint of modern science. It is hoped that the present analysis would clearly disclose that the system is based not on caprice but on broad scientfic principles, which go a long way in building up the essential unities of Indian music. It would also show that the various æsthetic processes it employs have their origin and also culmination in these unities. It is with such a belief that the author thinks it worthwhile to place his humble views regarding the matter before all lovers and students of the Art and Science of Indian Music.

CHAPTER II

The Nature and Limitations of the Function of Music and The Laws of Musical Sound

For an intelligent appreciation of the part played by music as an Art, it is necessary to know its place in the family of Arts and the nature and limitations of its function.

'Music is not an isolated Art. It forms a most necessary link in the great family of Arts. Its origin is to be looked for, at the same source as that of the other Arts. Its ideal functions are also the same.'

'Art in general is that magic instrumentality by means of which man's mind reveals to man's senses that mystery - 'the Beautiful.'

In the realm of art, contact with the Beautiful is first established by drawing our attention to the close similarity between the beauties of Art and the beauties of Nature. The beauties of Nature are however the result of physical facts and are inseparable from their material cause. 'The beauties of Art, on the other hand, are an address to the inward mind and have an existence in the mental consciousness.' They are indeed beyond the reach of physical facts or pure nature and do not find a true, much less a full, expression in them. 'Art therefore seeks to find a true revelation and reality in itself.' It thus tries to transform the material world into an ideal world. Music, being the least material of all the Arts, easily surpasses the rest in this respect and is therefore justly called the Art of all Arts.

26

THE LAWS OF MUSICAL SOUND [ Chapter II

But then, music is not altogether free to choose its

own way. For, as it must necessarily employ the

medium of sound for its expression, it must first obey

the laws of musical sound, before being able to discharge

its higher function as a pure art. Thus, music is a

dual entity-it is a science as a matter of exigency and

is an art, by nature. As a science it has to obey certain

physical laws, while as an art it creates its own forms

and order, so as to make a direct appeal to man's

æsthetic instincts and enrich him emotionally. Truly

good music cannot therefore afford to sacrifice any of

these aspects; indeed the two are inseparable ! For,

music without æsthetic appeal is a meaningless tyranny,

however scientific it may be in its physical form, while

a mere poetic call on the imagination has not the power

to make the same direct and tender appeal, as when it

is accompanied by even a cursory melodic phrase. The

processes which infuse artistic and emotional values in

music form the æsthetics of music. Such values are

often secured by the extension of the physical laws and

in some cases by a deliberate departure from them. The

reason for the departure is that the material unity of the

Beautiful with the rigid physical structure is a narrower

unity and soon ceases to keep pace with the highest

spirit of Art. Art therefore, breaks through the

armour of the material form, disengages itself from its

shackles and rises higher, reborn and radiant as it were

with the glory of resurrection. But, as will be seen

later on, this occurs not in blunt defiance of the physical

laws, but rather as a continuation of the spirit for

which these laws stand.

Thus, to understand any system of music and the

technique of its several forms of expression, it is

necessary to know these laws at the very outset.

Chapter II ]

NOISE

27

We may, therefore, state these physical laws first and postpone the consideration of the æsthetic principles to a later chapter.

To begin with, music finds an expression only through the medium of sound.

Sound, which is musical, is pleasing to the ear while noise is distinctly jarring.

In a musical note, however attentively we may listen to it, we perceive no change or variation. The sensation is perfectly cunntinuous and uniform.

A noise on the other hand is the result of rapid irregular and distinctly perceptible alternations of various kinds of sounds, which crop up in a fitful manner. By international agreement, noise is now defined as 'sound undesired by the recipient.' This is a distressingly subjective definition ; for a noise in its physical sense certainly differs from a musical note. But so far as music is concerned the definition need not be objected to, as a note, not permissible in a Rāga or chosen melodic pattern, if sung or played through mistake, does jar on the ears of its listeners and in general, even the best of music, when not wanted, becomes a tyranny.

Again, we may often come across a sound which is a mixture of the two.

A stretched string gives a perfectly musical sound. A beginner on the violin, however, produces a sound, in which the scratching of the bow spoils the musical character of the note. Hence such a sound is a mixture, in which the element of noise preponderates.

28

THE LAWS OF MUSICAL SOUND [ Chapter II

Human voice can produce sounds of either class. In singing a sustained note, it remains quite steady, neither rising nor falling. In conversation or reading, however, it perpetually varies in pitch. A speech, wanting in such variations becomes monotonous.

All musical sounds, whatever their origin, may be distinguished from each other, by three different qualities.

Firstly, by the loudness or intensity.

Secondly, by the pitch.

Lastly, by the difference in the peculiar quality or timbre.

For our purpose, we shall concern ourselves with the study of musical sounds only, as the study of noises has no direct bearing on music.

Loudness :-Loudness depends in the first place on the greater or less energy by which the sound is produced. Thus, when a stretched string is forcibly plucked, the sound is louder than when it is plucked or bowed lightly. Again the note of a stretched string gradually becomes less and less loud and finally dies away altogether. In all such cases, the loudness is directly dependent upon the amplitude—which on its own part is dependent upon the energy which produces the sound and wears away with time.

Next, it depends upon the nature and density of the medium, which transmits the sound.

Lastly, the loudness depends upon the distance of the listener from the sounding body. In an isotropic medium, it varies inversely as the square of the distance. Thus, at double the distance the loudness becomes four times less, at three times the distance, it becomes nine times less and so on.

Chapter II ] REINFORCEMENT OF SOUND

The above are the general laws about the loudness of

sound. Temporary variations can however be effected.

For instance, the intensity of sound, confined to a tube,

does not diminish even after a considerable distance and

remains practically constant.

Again, the note of a tuning fork, mounted on a sound-

ing board or a hollow box, is much louder than when it

is not so mounted. In this case, the box is said to vibrate

in a forced manner, along with the tuning fork. The

loudness however suffers very rapidly due to a greater

rate of demand on the original energy, which now spends

itself much sooner.

The proximity of bodies having the same natural

period as the vibrating body is yet another factor which

causes the reinforcement of the original sound. This is

a case of sympathetic vibration or resonance. The

bodies though not in any physical contact with the

sounding body, on account of their having the same

natural period as the latter, pick up the excitement of

their own accord or as it is called, sympathetically, and

reinforce the original sound.

In practice all musical instruments are so designed as

to combine a generator with a radiator of sound.

The former generates the notes of the desired pitch

while the latter in the form of a resonance-box, sound-

board or a gourd etc. prevents what is called 'circulation'

and gives increased loudness to the notes.

Apart from the laws of Physics governing the loudness

of sound, there is a subjective side to the appreciation of

its intensity. A note, which should be normally audible,

is often not heard or is masked by another, sounding

more loudly and simultaneously. On the contrary, a

passenger, in a moving train, who thinks that he is talk-

ing or singing quite in his normal tone, is surprised to

30

THE LAWS OF MUSICAL SOUND [ Chapter II

find, if the train stops, that he is really exerting his voice

a little too much above the normal. This explains why

the finer shades of music do not come within the thresh-

old of hearing during day-time, when the general noise-

level is high, but are easily heard and appreciated at

night. Hence it is that night time is always preferred

for musical performances.

Pitch :-The second characteristic of a musical

note is its ` Pitch '. It depends upon the number of

vibrations, per second, of the sounding body.

Pitch is independent of the amplitude of the vibra-

tion. The pitch of a musical note, like the number of

vibrations of a pendulum, remains sensibly the same,

irrespective of the gradual loss in amplitude.

It is found that the human ear can pick up sounds

of frequency roughly between 20 to 38000 per second.

The lower limit is mostly the same for all, but the

upper limit may widely differ from individual to

individual and comes down with old age. All the notes

between these limits are not, however, employed in

music.

Even for a rough musical effect, it is found that a

note must have at least 30 vibrations per second, the

upper limit being near about 4000. Though musical

instruments are able to give any note between these

limits, for vocal performance, the limits are brought still

closer, since the well-developed voice of a singer can at

best cover about three octaves.

For a stretched string, under constant tension, the

pitch varies inversely as the vibrating length.

Thus, if the length is halved, the pitch is doubled.

If the length is made one-third, the pitch becomes three

times as much, and so on.

Chapter II ]

TIMBRE OR QUALITY

31

Again, a string not only vibrates as a whole, but also has several simultaneous modes of sectional vibrations.

Thus, the note emitted by a string is a complex one and is built up of several tissues or pure notes, which happen to be the harmonic upper partials of the fundamental or of the lowest note.

The degree of prominence of any one or more of the upper partials depends upon how, where and with what force the string is excited.

Timbre:-The third characteristic of a musical note is the 'Timbre' or 'Quality'.

It depends upon the nature of the vibration and is governed by the relative prominence of the upper partials.

The quality of the notes given by different instruments is not the same. As musical instruments very widely differ in their material and make and in the method of their excitation, there is a corresponding modification in the number of upper partials generated and in the degree of their prominence and hence in the quality of the note.

Again, the notes of stringed instruments, alone, are rich in over-tones which are true harmonic upper partials of the fundamental, whereas those of bells and instruments with stretched membranes or of other non-stringed instruments are usually not so. On this account, the note of a stringed instrument is richer in its musical quality than one of the same pitch given by the latter class of instruments; hence the preference given in music to stringed instruments.

In appreciating the quality of a musical note, the mechanism of the human ear reacts in a peculiar way.

32

THE LAWS OF MUSICAL SOUND [ Chapter II

The ear hears not only the original note but also a few

of its harmonic upper partials. Further, combination

notes are formed within the ear though they do not exist

in the beginning. These combination notes together

with the aural harmonics considerably modify the quali-

ty of the music heard. An interesting case is that of the

early gramophone records. The horns, used in those days,

were very small and filtered out all bass from the music

before it was recorded. By creating difference notes be-

tween the partials of the original notes, the ear could

however restore much of the original bass to the music,

when it was replayed.

The pitch of a musical note can be found out with

the siren or by other methods, but in music, the actual

number of vibrations is seldom wanted.

Music judges two notes only by their mutual relation

or by the interval between them.

The interval is the ratio between their vibration

numbers.

It is common experience that some intervals are

consonant, while some are dissonant in effect.

The cause of dissonance between two notes is the

generation of 'beats'.

Two notes of different frequencies create in a

medium disturbances or waves of sound, such that these

waves sometimes co-operate with and at times oppose

each other, and the resultant disturbance is of an uneven

character. This gives rise to the beats or the alternate

throbbing sensation.

The number of beats given by two notes is equal to

the difference in their frequencies.

Chapter II ]

BEATS

33

Very slow beats are not very unpleasant, but as

the frequency of the beats increases, so does the un-

pleasantness till it reaches a maximum. If the number

of beats is still further increased, the unpleasantness

gradually diminishes,—the periodic and rapid beats them-

selves giving the impression of a new or a secondary

musical note.

The range over which the dissonance due to beats

persists is different for different frequencies. It is small

in the lower octaves and becomes greater with each

higher octave. There is however an appreciable differ-

ence in the numerical values of the several dissonant

ranges as obtained by different scientists. It, however,

appears that the dissonance is a maximum when the

interval between the beating notes is near about a

semitone and becomes less as the interval increases and

finally disappears when it amounts to about a minor

Third.

We know that the note emitted by a stretched

string is complex and contains, in addition to the prime

note, its harmonic upper partials. These partials

completely blend into the prime and are found to bear

simple and determinate ratios towards it. Thus, begin-

ning with the prime, the frequency ratios of the successive

members of the harmonic upper partials' series may be

represented by the series 1:2:3:4:5:6:7, etc. Here

then is the key to determine the consonant or dissonant

character of two notes, sounded together.

Thus, if the two notes have between themselves such

simple ratios as 1:2, 2:3 etc. either no beats at all will

be generated or if generated, they will give a note which

will blend into the prime and enrich its quality.

34

THE LAWS OF MUSICAL SOUND [ Chapter II

Such exceptional cases are called consonances.

There are however degrees of consonance, according to

the degree of harmonic relationship between the notes.

Thus, when one of the notes happens to be a direct upper

partial of the other, the consonance is absolute or the

most perfect. Such consonance, therefore, is of the first

order. If however neither happens to be a direct

harmonic partial of the other, but both of them are so

related as to be harmonic partials of a third note serving

as a common root, the consonance, though not absolute,

is still perfect and belongs to the second order.

Again in the harmonic series, proper, the nearer

harmonics are more consonant with the prime than the

more distant ones.

Between themselves, the harmonic upper partials

are mutually out of beating distance up to the seventh

partial only. After that the consonance is toned down

and leads towards dissonance and is finally replaced by

dissonance when the sixteenth partial is passed. But

these higher partials are so feeble that they are not

at all audible and hence do not invite any further

consideration.

Thus, it is clear that the nearer and more direct the

harmonic relationship between two notes, the greater is

the degree of consonance generated.

Naturally, between two notes there will be such

relations as those of absolute copsonance, perfect con-

sonance, imperfect consonance, imperfect dissonance,

or perfect dissonance, etc. It is not sufficient however

to consider the case of the members of the upper

harmonic series alone. For, though the early members

of the harmonic series furnish between them all the

Chapter II ] HARMONIC PARTIALS

35

consonant intervals upon which music is based, yet in practice, it is impossible to restrict music to such high notes. The jump from the fundamental to the Octave is very great and requires the introduction of other consonant notes in this interval. The study of the harmonic series offers here a good precedent. In fact the consonant ratios, 2:3, 3:4, 4:5 etc. given by the first few harmonic partials may judiciously be used in introducing the required notes. Thus a set of notes or a chord, to be mutually consonant, must employ some one from these ratios for the intervals between its individual members. This simplifies the work of choosing consonant chords.

To return to our point, in pratical music, it is not enough to take into consideration, the relation between two notes only, inasmuch as melody or harmony invariably consists of more notes than two. Thus there would be chords of three, four or more notes. A chord however usually means a chord of three notes; for with the help of two such chords it is possible to derive chords with four or more notes. The two fundamental chords are known as the Major Chord and the Minor Chord respectively and form the key-stone of the Western system of music. Thus three notes which have the vibration ratios 4: 5: 6 form the Major Chord, while the ratios for the Minor Chord are 10 : 12 : 15.

Indian Music however does not directly employ either of these Chords but brings out the relationship between the notes by referring them to the constant accompaniment of a drone which serves as the Tonic Chord of all music, sung or played.

CHAPTER III

The Evolution of the Musical Scale

As already explained in the last chapter, consonant intervals make the passage from one note to another perfectly smooth and musical. Consonances have, therefore, always played a great part in all systems of music.

It is true that to widen the range of choice and to put greater vigour and strength in the expression of the ideas, musicians do use, in addition, dissonanc notes also, but then, such notes are not allowed to last too long and at last are invariably resolved into a consonance.

A musical scale is a collection of such artistic steps, leading from the fundamental to its Octave. As the physical significance of the different consonances and dissonances was not at first truly known, it took a long time before scales began to be constructed on really rational lines, as we now understand them.

The evolution of the scales has a great history behind it and its study simplifies the understanding of our modern scales and of many other practices connected with their construction. We shall therefore briefly trace this evolution, here.

To begin with, in the music of all nations, two unfailing characteristics are found; rhythmic movement and procedure by determinate degrees. To determine these degrees accurately is to construct a musical scale. From our knowledge of the harmonic series, we know that consonance and a simple law of formation supply between themselves the key to the rational construction

Chapter III ] PYTHÀGOREAN SCALE

37

of a musical scale. But this knowledge of the harmonic

series was the product of the later centuries, the con-

sonant intervals known in the olden days, being only the

Octave and the Fifth As the Octave was a mere

repetition of the prime, the Fifth alone was known to be

a distinctly different yet a perfectly consonant interval.

So, the early artists used to get additional notes, by taking

the direct or inverse fifth of the notes already known to

them. On the European side, it was the famous Greek

scientist Pythagoras who first constructed the whole

diatonic scale from the following 'series of Fifths.'

F ± C ± G ± D ± A ± E ± B

Arranged as the successive degrees of a scale the series

may be written as:-C D E F G A B c.

with the ratios:- 1, ⁹⁄₈, ⁸¹⁄₆₄, ⁴⁄₃, ³⁄₂, ²⁷⁄₁₆, ²⁴³⁄₁₂₈, 2,

towards the key note or fundamental C.

The scale with intervals between the successive

degrees might be written as :-

C D E F G A B c

⁹⁄₈, ⁹⁄₈, ²⁵⁶⁄₂₄₃, ⁹⁄₈, ⁹⁄₈, ⁹⁄₈, ²⁵⁶⁄₂₄₃,

Here, though the law of formation of the scale is very

simple, the individual notes have, nevertheless, an origin

very distant from the fundamental note and some of

them indeed bear extremely complex ratios towards it.

The interval ²⁵⁶⁄₂₄₃, repeating twice in the scale, is not at

all simple. Hence the Pythagorean scale of Fifths is

essentially non-harmonic in its character.

Further, in order to increase the musical resources,

the ancient Greeks, like the Hindus, used to derive by

38 THE EVOLUTION OF THE SCALE [ Chapter III

transposition six new scales, by making each of the

remaining six degrees of the scale of Fifths, a fresh point

of start for each successive scale.

The Pythagorean scale, as it was, could not satisfy

the requirements of harmony and also fell short of the

requirements of melody even of those days. The scale

of pure Fifths, therefore, had its own day, but as time

rolled on, had to give way to better ones. Another

disadvantage of the scale of Fifths was, that on account

of unequal and complex intervals, transposition without

'introducing large errors was not possible. This was true

of the derived scales also. So, it was thought advisable

to distribute the interval between the prime note and

its Octave, equally among twelve notes. This is the

Tempered Scale, so named, because it tempers or slightly

alters the character of the notes of the ideal scale. The

successive notes of the Tempered Scale form a perfect

Geometrical Progression and are separated from their

neighbours by the same common interval—the mean

semi-tone. The Tempered Scale has a simple law of forma-

tion and offers a special facility, to fixed-toned instru-

ments, of change of base at will, without changing the

intermediate intervals. But, with the exception of the

fundamental and the Octave, no other notes of the

Tempered Scale are truly consonant and the melodies

given by these are never perfect—much less perfect are

the harmonies. As the music played to equal tempera-

ment is bound to be always a little out of tune, it soon

becomes insipid.

In Indian music also, one octave used to be divided

into twenty-two Śruti-s or microtonal intervals.

Bharata expounds the whole Śruti-theory in about ten

lines and Sārṅgadeva describes it in about fourteen

Chapter III ]

THE ŚRUTI—INTERVAL

39

curt couplets. The literal interpretation of these passages leads some to think that the Śruti intervals must

be all equal and uniform. Accordingly, the Śruti

scale would be a tempered scale, having twenty-two

instead of twelve equal intervals in one octave. As

the distribution happens to be made among about double

the number of notes, the error is bound to be smaller

than that in the Tempered Scale. Hence the principal

degrees of the Śruti-scale are a nearer approach to

the notes of the ideally harmonic scale. Being a tempered scale, however, it has the same drawbacks as the

Tempered scale of the West and cannot therefore take

the place of an ideally perfect scale.

The Śruti interval may be easily calculated in the

following manner. Let r be the common interval between

the successive Śrutis of the Śruti-scale. Then the interval

between the fundamental and the Octave is made up by

twenty-two intermediate Śrutis or common intervals.

Thus, Octave/Fundamental = 2/1 = r22.

∴ r = one Śruti = 2^1/22.

Thus, if we want to find the number of Śrutis in a

given interval and if x be taken as that number, then x

is given by the equation

2^x/22 = The given interval (a Fifth, Fourth, etc.)

The following table gives a comparison of the

calculated number of Śrutis, making up the different

intervals, with the number as given by the ancient

Indian books on music and clearly shows where and how

40

THE EVOLUTION OF THE SCALE [Chapter III

the Sruti-scale differs from the mathematically expected scale.

At this stage, it is desirable to know the other side of the Sruti-scale-controversy, which has provided the bone of contention for ages and has set one great man against another even to this day.

Both Bharata and Sārṅgadeva assigned a proper name to each Sruti, and both put them into five broad Jātis or classes1. It is on account of this classification of Srutīs that some critics think that with Bharata or Sārṅgadeva, all Srutis were not equal and that there were sharps and double sharps, flats and double flats even among the Srutis, the middle one being the normal interval. Nobody who cares to read

Chapter III ]

GRĀMAS

41

these old books can deny the grouping of the Srutis in five classes. The real disagreement, however, is about assigning a meaning to the names used for these classes. Whether these names have some significance other than being a sharp or a flat is questionable at this distant date and for want of any other evidence, internal or otherwise, it is difficult to decide either way.

A fairly good approach to the Śruti-scale is, however, not above the comprehension of modern students of music. Thus, it was a custom with Bharata and other ancient writers on music to mention their basic scales or Grāmas first in an empirical manner. These were the Ṣadja, Madhyama and the Gāndhāra Grāmas respectively. According to them the Gāndhāra Grāma is meant for the celestial beings and owing to their limited aural and vocal capacity, mortals are unfit to handle it. Human beings could therefore use the remaining two viz. the Ṣadja and the Madhyama Grāmas. Their scales as given by them are as follows :-

Ṣadja Grāma:— C3 D2 Eb4 F4 G3 A2 Bb4 c

Madhyama Grāma:— C3 D2 Eb4 F3 G′4 A2 Bb4 c

The Śruti intervals between the neighbouring notes are indicated by arithmetical numbers, and the total number of Srutis is twentytwo in both. As will be seen, the Madhyama Grāma differs from the Ṣadja Grāma only in its Fifth. The Fifth of the Ṣadja Grāma is a true Fifth while that of the Madhyama Grāma is one Śruti lower than it. What however is the measure of this interval of one Śruti or even of the other intervals indicated by two or three Śrutis ? The ancient writers do not answer such questions directly but leave it to their readers to find out the Śruti values themselves, by tracing back the

42

THE EVOLUTION OF THE SCALE [ Chapter III

steps ( as in a converse theorem in Geometry ) of an experiment2, they describe. It consists in lowering the

true Fifth of the Ṣadja Grāma by this supposed interval (of which the verification comes at the end of the ex-

periment) of one Śruti four times successively and then in inspecting the resulting notes for any possible identi-

fication of them with any one of the original notes in the Ṣadja Grāma-scale.

Thus :-

One lowering brings down G to G′ by one Śruti.

Two lowerings bring down Eb to D and Bb to A by two Śrutis.

Three lowerings bring down D to C and A to G by three Śrutis. and

Four lowerings bring down F to Eb G to F and C to Bb by four Śrutis.

At no stage during the first three lowerings, any of the derived notes admit of any identification. After the

fourth lowering, however, we get a clue to identify the two notes Eb and Bb as they are as much below F and C

as F is below G, which latter as a result of the four lowerings now comes down to the level of the original F.

But G and F are accurately known even from the very beginning, as they happen to be the direct and inverse

Fifths of the fundamental note. Thus the interval of four Śrutis turns out to be the interval between the

notes F and G, which in our modern language is but a Major tone (9/8).

Thus, taking C to denote 240 vibrations per second, the portion of the Śruti scale that can be definitely

ascertained now is :-

Chapter III ] BHARATA'S ANTARA GĀNDHĀRA

43

C E F G B c.

240, 284 , 320, 360, 426 , 480.

E and B having been obtained by lowering the values

of F and C by four Śrutis or by the interval of 9/8.

To obtain the notes D and A which remain still un-

known, we must know the measure of two Śrutis. This

is known from another clue to be found in the descrip-

tion of the Antara Gāndhāra or the Kākali Niṣāda as

given by the ancient writers. They say that the " Antara

Gāndhāra is reached either by raising E by two Śrutis or

by lowering F by the same measure." Thus it is clear

that the Antara Gāndhāra lies mid-way between E and

F. Similarly, the Kākali Niṣāda lies mid-way between B

and C. But the interval between E and F is already known

to be four Śrutis (9/8) and half of this interval would be

√9/8 or nearly 3/2.83. Thus a note of frequency 283, if

raised by this interval would have 300 as its new frequen-

cy or the note E of frequency 284 when raised by this

interval would turn out to be a note of frequency, a little

over 300 or to be more accurate 301.6. This is however

the Antara Gāndhāra and it is so very close to the natural

or Harmonic Third that it can be hardly differentiated

from it. The Harmonic Third happens to be a

direct upper partial of the fundamental note of

the Tamburā, to the drone of which all music has

to be given. In fact the tuning of the Tamburā is

not considered as perfect unless the Harmonic Third

becomes distinctly audible in the drone. Thus, the

Harmonic Gāndhāra has a fundamental precedence over

the mathematically anticipated Antara Gāndhāra, which

lies only within hair-breadth distance from it. There

is no other consonant note in that extremely small region

but the Harmonic Third and in trying to tune the

44

THE EVOLUTION OF THE SCALE [ Chapter III

Antara Gāndhāra, the tuner is bound to select the

point on the wire where the most consonant note is likely

to be obtained. Another question is that would it

become possible, in practical music, to make such a dis-

crimination in the tuning of an instrument with frets of

width of at least a tenth of an inch and the finger-tip

contact varying easily by an equal or even greater

magnitude? Those, with some experience of tuning

musical instruments, would grant how difficult it would

be to make such a hair-splitting distinction, in which

case the only conclusion that can be reasonably drawn

from Bharata's statement would be that by Antara

Gāndhāra he must have meant the most consonant note

within that region. We must also remember that

Bharata's approach to the problem is of the form of an

actual experiment and is not based on paper calculations

which can be pursued to any degree of smallness but

which beyond a certain limit cease to bear any fruit in

an actual experiment. By the Antara Gāndhāra, there-

fore, Bharata must have meant the Harmonic Third, in

which case the interval of two Śrutis turns out to be the

interval between the Harmonic Third and F, which is

equal to 320/300 or 16/15.

A lowering by two Śrutis would therefore mean the

lowering of a note by this interval of 16/15 and if Eb

(28449) is lowered by this interval of 16/15, it comes out

to be 26623, the exact figure obtained by lowering the

Harmonic Third by the interval of four Śrutis or by 9/8.

This coincidence cannot be called as merely accidental,

but it directly justifies our presumption that by Antara

Gāndhāra, Bharata must have meant the Harmonic Third.

Similarly, A, being two Śrutis lower than Bb (42623),

turns out to be 42623 ÷ 16/15 = 400.

Chapter III ] PRAMĀNA ŚRUTI

45

Again D:C and A:G are three Śruti intervals, each, and come out to be 266²3 ÷ 240 = 10/9 and 400 ÷ 360 =10/9. In both these cases, therefore, the three Śruti interval turns out to be 10/9.

The reader must have noted that each interval obtained so far was obtained in an independent manner from the clues supplied by Bharata and not from any one, once obtained. Collecting all the intervals obtained at the different stages, we have :-

C-c = 22 Śrutis or the interval of 2/1

C-G = 13 Śrutis or the interval of 3/2

C-F = 9 Śrutis or the interval of 4/3

C-E = 7 Śrutis or the interval of 5/4

C-Eb = 5 Śrutis or the interval of 32/27

Eb-F, = F-G, = Bb-c, = 4 Śrutis or 9/8

C-D,= G-A, = 3 Śrutis or 10/9

D-Eb= A-Bb = 2 Śrutis or 16/15

From the intervals known before, the interval G'-G (one Śruti, from which our search has started) can be found out.

In the Ṣadja Grāma, G-A is three Śrutis 10/9 and in the Madhyama Grāma G'-A is four Śrutis (9/8). Thus G'-G is 9/8 ÷ 10/9 = 81/80 and having known this once, the whole Śruti theory becomes known.

The measure of one Śruti is however not the same throughout. Thus one Sruti-interval may be any one out of the following.

5 Śrutis ÷ 4 Śrutis = 32/27 ÷ 9/8 = 256/243

4 Śrutis ÷ 3 Śrutis = 9/8 ÷ 10/9 = 81/80

3 Śrutis ÷ 2 Śrutis = 10/9 ÷ 16/15 = 25/24.

46

THE EVOLUTION OF THE SCALE [ Chapter III

the middle one being the smallest and the one in particular chosen by Bharata to signify the measure of the

Pramāṇa Śruti.

Thus all the notes of the two Grāmas may now be rearranged and written as :-

Ṣadja Grāma :- C D Eᵦ F G . A Bᵦ c

240, 266⅔, 284₄₉, 320, 360, 405, 426⅔, 480

Madhyama C D Eᵦ F G′ A Bᵦ c

Grāma. 240, 266⅔, 284₄₉, 320, 355₉₁₆, 400, 426⅔, 480

By shifting the tonic from one note to another of the Grāmic scales, seven different modal scales or Mūrchanās are obtained from each Grāma which together develop nineteen different variations of what are popularly known as the seven notes of the musical scale.

These therefore appear to be the nineteen notes referred to by Sārṅgadeva in his Sangita Ratnākara as being the notes in one octave, from which two more drop down further, as notes which happen to be at an interval of one Śruti are dissonant and are therefore inadmissible in music.

Thus there are twenty-two Śrutis but seventeen different musically useful sounds in one octave and these seventeen are classed under seven broad names indicating the seven notes of the basic scales.

The intelligent reader must have however seen that there is a small flaw in the argument viz. the rounding off of the mathematically obtained value of the Antara Gāndhāra to bring it down to that of the Harmonic Third.

Where is the authority for this? To be honest, there is no direct authority for it, but as the Harmonic Third plays an important part in the basic harmony

Chapter III ] GHOST OF THE ŚRUTIS

47

of the 'Drone' of the Tamburā, it is quite a legitimate note of the Indian system and being more consonant than the anticipated Antara Gāndhāra, it is bound to receive precedence over the latter. A more plausible explanation is that the limitations of the instrument and the player leave no room for the theoretical error to peep in, and it thus disappears altogether in practical music. There is, however, no unanimity of opinion in the matter, possibly because our Pandits would never forgo their birthright to differ ! On account of this impasse the Śruti-problem was virtually given up after Sārṅgadeva, though no-body had the courage to defy it openly. It was discussed by every author only as a matter of orthodox practice and if anything was left behind, it was really the ghost of the Śrutis ! In more modern times, however, our contact with the West brought the sciences to our very door and gave us the laws of sound together with the magnificent structure of the Science of Western Music. This had its inevitable reactions on our set way of looking at things.

We shall now briefly survey the course of these reactions. Between two advanced systems of music, innumerable things are bound to be common, and parallels here and there could be conveniently pointed out. Consonances being consonances all the world over, it is no wonder if there is found a close similarity between certain Indian and Western scales. The incidental agreement–if any–may at best be taken as the inductive verification of what the ancient Indian Theorists meant, but cannot certainly be taken as a proof or solution of the Śruti-problem. But this is what some of the present-day exponents of Indian Music would want us to believe. They want to fasten the results of modern science upon the ancient writers, who must have been quite unaware of them. Like the pupil, who

48

THE EVOLUTION OF THE SCALE

[Chapter III.

knows the answer but not the method, they make-

selves miserable by catching at this thing and that

and by twisting and perverting the plain meaning of

words. Their wish that the old ideas be granted as

the correct and scientifically true ideas is certainly

pious, but is not in keeping with the plain facts of

history. The better way would have been to keep the-

mind open and have the frankness of correcting the-

old ideas, wherever necessary. This would have saved

a lot of time and labour wasted fruitlessly till now. As

an instance, it is funny to see how the ten lines of Bharata

or fourteen couplets of Sārṅgadeva have been the source

of unending discussions, which, length for length, may

far outweigh the information of all the encyclopædias

of the world put together!

But, as it was, even within the basic scale, various-

methods of execution were possible. Other scales, like

the ancient modes, were generated by the fundamental

scale and had equal claims to attention and stood on a

level with the original scale. Thus both in Greece and

in India, the modal scales also were frequently used.

In Europe, however, the requirements of harmonic

music later on reacted in a peculiar manner on the

construction of scales and as a result only one of the old

tonal modes (the Major mode of today) remained

unaltered, while the rest, after undergoing several

modifications, fused into the so-called Minor mode.

These are the two scales-the Major mode and the

Minor mode, which form the backbone of the music of

the West.

The closest and the simplest relationship of the tones

is reached in the Major mode, as all its notes are but

Chapter III ] MAJOR AND MINOR SCALES

49

constituents of the compound tone of the tonic or its

Fifth, above or below.

The Major mode is really built up of three Major

chords.

Notes.

C D E F G A B c (d)

Index No.

of frequency. {

24 27 30 32 36 40 45 48 54

1——→1——→1

3←——3←——3

2——→2——→2.

The first Major chord is indicated by 1, the second by

2 and the last by 3. The arrow supplied to the figures

indicates the point of start and direction of application

in each case. Similarly, the Minor scale consists of three

Minor chords.

Notes.

C D E♭ F G A♭ B♭ c (d)

Index No. of frequency. {

24 27 28.8 32 36 38.4 43.2 48 54

1——→1——→1

3←——3←——3

2——→2——→2

It should be remembered that in both these scales, the

principle of tonality is fully observed, as all the tones

are connected by a simple relationship to the chief note,

the tonic, as also between themselves.

Similarly, if a particular scale is put forward as the

Śuddha or the natural scale of Indian Music, one ought

to show that such a scale is the result of truly scientific

practices and does not rest on mere caprice The

4

50

THE EVOLUTION OF THE SCALE [ Chapter III

Śruti-scale, as put forward by its present-day exponents, cannot satisfy this expectation, as one is not

sure if the Veenā of today is exactly like the Veenā of

the ancient days. Even if it were so, the other difficulty

is that the passages dealing with the Śruti-scale lend

themselves to various interpretations and hence the

result is not conclusive. Further, the mere measurement

of the position of frets on a Veenā or Sitār cannot

completely determine the nature of the scale, as the

Veenā-notes are seldom the free or open notes of the

string, but are invariably such as are obtained by slight

variations in pressure, effected by 'Meend' or a push

here and a stretch there.

In these circumstances, some are tempted to adopt

the Major Scale of the West directly as the basic scale of

Indian Music. But such a step is too bold and moreover

unnecessary, as it is possible to trace the evolution of the

scales of Indian Music, firstly by a critical analysis of

the popular or folk forms of recitation and song in

general and secondly, by the consideration of a simple

but a very important practice common to both the

ancient and modern systems of Indian music. If we

liken music to a flowering plant, the folk forms represent

its roots and stem, surrounded by mud and water, while

the classical forms represent its branches, clad in rich

green robes and crowned with beautiful fragrant flowers

dancing to the rhythm of the fresh breeze. Folk music is

a veritable repository of a variety of forms ushered in

by tradition or by other social or cultural causes, but

essentially smells rather of the earth. Classical music

adopts what is best in Folk music and by giving it a new

orientation of tone and rhythm, brings some musical law

within easy, and conscious understanding of its listeners.

It thus transforms the material world into an ideal world

Chapter III ] TRADITIONAL STANDARDS 51

in which both joy and sorrow become equally beautiful.

In order to understand the scales and æsthetic processes

of classical music, it is therefore necessary to take stock

of the progress made in this direction by folk music and

of the standards set and hardened by tradition in the

preceding stage.

CHAPTER IV

From Speech and Recitation to Folk-Music

AND

From Folk-Music to the Classical Stage.

So far, we have concerned ourselves only with the Physics of music. We may however do well to remind ourselves at this stage that tradition, inheritancè and association also have always played an important part in the development of all known systems of music. Incidentally, the Rāgas, the melodies and the various methods of progression of Indian music are the outcome of the efforts of many generations and what we call classical music to-day is the very cream of such an age-long musical activity. It will now be our aim to investigate the characteristic features of each stage of the progress of the popular or folk-forms of musical expression so as to have a consistent and connected view of the evolution of Indian Music as a whole.

Folk-Music:——Folk-music is the music of the masses. When a layman sings a song, he knows nothing about the intervals used in it or about its rhythmic structure. To him the intervals and the rhythm occur naturally. But then, folk-music is not the music of a savage. On the other hand, it is a living and integral part of any musical culture, worth the name. Through the force of habit and the tendency towards imitation and unconscious adaptation to the spirit of the particular times, folk-music could preserve its old treasures in tact and further enrich them by inventing new forms side by side with the great developments in classical music.

Chapter IV ] NO RĀGA-RULES IN FOLK MUSIC

53

Folk-music has its own charms and even among the

illiterate masses, a large number of people are found to

possess a fine ear for such music and a rare facility of per-

formance, too. Simple in form but rich in meaning, its

appeal is instantaneous and almost infectious. The study

of folk-music claims one's attention all the more, because

it has many things in common with the classical form of

music. Thus, in many of the classical Rāgas, one is often

reminded of some popular tune or folk-song. Similarly,

the classical Rāgas of yesterday are often found reflected

in some folk-tunes of to-day. It should, however, be

remembered that in spite of the similarity of some tunes

arising from an unconscious process of ' give and take '

between the two types of music, folk-music never gives

the impression of any Rāga or classical mode as such, but

bears its own stamp which eludes all the established

criteria of the Rāga-system of classical music.

This is due to the fundamental difference between

the processes of evolution of the two types of music.

In fact, they are just the reverse of each other. Folk-

music does not employ any musical device as the result

of conscious knowledge or the study of the science of

music. It does not seek its theme or emotional content

from music, but starts with one of its own choice, in the

form of a poetic piece or song and music serves as but a

guide or groove for the overflow of the poetic emotion.

Classical music, on the other hand, has to adopt the

melodic law and order of the chosen Rāga and then must

make suitable arrangements and combinations of tone

and rhythm so as to recreate the essence of the emotion

associated with the chosen Rāga. Thus, its emotional

content springs from music itself and is not sought out

of any poetic or extraneous means. It has thus to achieve

the uphill task of making as near an approach to the

54

FROM SPEECH TO THE CLASSICAL STAGE [ Chapter IV

intended emotion as possible, and it therefore needs

great care, precision, fore-thought and above all a deep

understanding of the several stages of the appearance

and growth of emotion. The music of folk-songs is

subservient to their poetic theme and has to prune its

notes and melodies on and off to suit its needs. Thus it

is that the notes of folk-music are often cramped or

extended a little away from the true notes and give gross-

melodies1. The resulting incongruities and chinks in the

music are, however, cemented together by the poetic

sentiment that spurts through them. The rough musical

contour is thus pushed off in the background under

the polish imparted to it by poetry. Thus, when a

person is humming or whistling a tune, he is often found

so much absorbed in his music that, for a while, he

forgets himself as well as his whereabouts, though in his

more conscious moments, he would himself have called

such music as neither good nor even tolerable. The

glides, the turns and the twists and the rise and fall of

music, however, serve as a true index of the mood or the

subjective experience of the singer. He loves his music

better than the best music he might ever have heard,

not because it is good music, but because it is his music

and nothing else would fit into his mood half-so-com-

pletely. The crudeness of the music is therefore wiped

off by the inherent intensity of the mood and by his

complete identification with it. Folk-songs, in which the

mood is weak or self-identification is lacking, fail to

make any appeal, because in the absence of these, the

incongruities and the defects of music at once become

too bold and unpleasant.

Bearing in mind this fundamental difference between

the processes of folk and classical music, we will now

trace the evolution of popular or folk-music, proper.

Chapter IV ] THE BEGINNINGS OF MUSIC

55

The Beginnings of Music

Music consists of artistic expression in tone and time or rhythm, and every form of natural or human activity may have something to contribute towards its making.

In fact, every action implies some form of motion and is usually accompanied by somc kind of sound. Thus music may have its roots in the simplest of unintentional and impersonal activity such as the blowing of the breeze, and the rustling of the leaves, the surging of the billows and the thundering of the clouds or the murmuring of the brook.

The result may not be what we call music to-day, but is certainly musical. The cries of some birds and beasts are much more musical than the music of the elements and must therefore have attracted the attention of the primitive man.

But it should be remembered that even birds and beasts have undergone a process of evolu-tion.

The beginnings of human music are therefore really rooted in the evolution of the human ear and the vocal organs and not in the supposed imitation of the cries of birds and beasts, as they are found to-day.

Even speech was not the product of a day. In the absence of speech, man's first language must have been one of automatic exclamations or mechanical sounds and it must have cost him an experience of several generations to produce even such notes as the cries of birds and beasts either orally or mechanically.

The earliest forms of acoustic expression must have been, therefore, of the nature of rough and ready sounds, produced vocally or mechanically.

At this stage, a human being must have been in no way superior to birds and beasts. The music of the birds and the beasts has however mostly remained the same.

The lions roar, the sheep bleat or the peacocks cry to-day just as in the days of our fore-fathers.

Human speech has however been·developed by

56 FROM SPEECH TO THE CLASSICAL STAGE [ Chapter IV

the inherent urge in mankind; for further development and is continually enriched with growing experience, and

this is equally true of music too. In so far as the child repeats the history of the race, some of these stages of

the evolution of speech and music are distinctly discern-ible in its progress. In short, commencing from simple

exclamations and mechanical sounds, speech as employed in simple narration and dialogue, chanting, recitation of

verses, folk-songs and classical songs appear to be the significant stages in the growth of vocal expression and

musical form. These forms evidently fall into two groups; the one not requiring any musical accompaniment and the other requiring it as a matter of necessity.

Thus speech in any of its forms does not require any accompaniment, chanting, recitation of verses, and simple

folk-songs seldom need any, and even when accompanied are poetic rather than musical in effect. To the other

class, which necessarily requires accompaniment, belong the advanced folk-songs, songs for dances and those of

the classical type.

We shall bestow our attention first on the types not requiring any accompaniment, in the order of their

gradual evolution.

Exclamations

An exclamation is the spontaneous or automatic self-expression in sound of the instinct which is at its bottom.

Such exclamations are common to all animals including man. They are instantaneous and are not the result of

any previous contemplation and are fully suggestive of the root instinct. Their appeal is direct and has all the

bluntness or force of life. The relationship between the instinct and the corresponding exclamatory sound is

present here in its true character, untempered by the

Chapter IV ] INSTINCTS AND EXCLAMATIONS

57

conventions or symbolism either of language or of any

considered action. The presence of the exclamatory

sound is suggestive of the presence or the awakening of

the instinct at its root, and vice versa.

Fear, anger, disgust, joy, self-assertion, submis-

sion, tenderness, etc. are some of the common instincts

which can be easily recognised from the exclamatory

sound which accompanies them. Thus powerful and

sustained sounds indicate self-assertion or conquest,

cheerful bubbling sounds joy or satisfaction, gruff and

cutting sounds anger or displeasure, faltering or shaky

and trembling sounds nervousness or fear, and so on.

Such exclamations therefore furnish a basic material for

a primary approach to the æsthetics of self-expression in

sound, both ordinary and musical.

Speech.

In every day speech musical intervals recur involun-

tarily, although the singing tone of the voice is concealed

under the noises which characterise the speech sounds

and the speech is not held firmly but is frequently allow-

ed to glide up and down. The alterations of pitch are

more numerous and complicated, if the speech is meant

for the public In closing an affirmative sentence the

voice falls from the middle pitch by a Fourth, while it rises

by a Fifth above in closing a sentence which is interro-

gative in nature. The small musical effect. of speech is

spoiled by the rough noises which accompany the indivi-

dual letters forming the words of the speech. To

counteract the rough effect of such hard sounds and to

restore a sense of ease and completeness, a speaker

introduces cadences in his speech, although unconsci-

ously. This is why cadences are markedly prominent in.

58 FROM SPEECH TO THE CLASSICAL STAGE [ Chapter IV

such languages as Kannada in which hard consonants occur on a very large scale. Thus, in everyday conversation or speech in that language, a singsong, better a semi-musical tone asserts itself prominently at the closing of a sentence. This is true even of the Sanskrit language in which conjunct consonants occur in many of its words. In the pronunciation of words with conjunct consonants, the vowels are invariably lengthened, primarily for making the syllables perfectly clear and audible, yet, secondarily for reducing the harsh character of the speech to a minimum. The lengthening effect is particularly noticeable at the closing of a sentence, as such closing is tantamount to the completion of a statement. The sense of ease or completion is secured by what is called the introduction of a cadence, when the voice again falls down to the normal tone-level. But in a major portion of everyday speech, a certain middle level or pitch is maintained and the alterations in it are neither numerous nor very large.

Dialogue

A dialogue, however, is full of inflections and exclamatory sounds and undergoes numerous alterations in the pitch and the quality of its tone. A question means raising the tone, while an answer means bringing it down to the normal level. When one question is answered by another cross-question, the latter begins with still greater stress and pitch of tone. In a dialogue, the tone of the speech is fully coloured by the interplay of the feelings and emotions of the conversing parties and employs variations suggestive of the mood and mental reactions of the speakers. Thus a dialogue essentially differs from ordinary speech. It is speech in action and is therefore effectively employed in dramatic plays. This then is the second stage which further

Chapter IV ]

PROSE AND POETRY

59

defines the relationship between sound and the suggested state of mind or the sentiment of the speaker. In this connection it will be interesting to mention it here that the characteristic difference between speech and dialogue forms is strongly in evidence even in the inarticulate language and conversation of one bird with another of its species and enables one to conclude whether they are just sporting, fighting or making love or are in normal mood.

Prose and Poetry.

The distinction between prose and poetry is inherently perceived and appreciated by all. In prose, rhythm in the musical sense is absent, since there is no restriction as to the length of each sentence or clause or about the places of stress and pause. The syntax of prose is also rigid and leaves no choice for any synesis or a happy arrangement of the several parts of speech, nor is there any attempt made of introducing rhymes. Metre and rhythm are, however, the fundamentals of poetic form. They impose on verse a fixed length and order of long and short vowels and thus create a set type of vowel-music, running into similar and equal lines, with rhymes and cadences at the close. All these make verse more dignified and better balanced than prose and usher into it the element of rhythm. The syntax of poetry being elastic, it can give prominence of both tone and position to any desired portion of the composition and can thus effect greater symmetry and coherence between its several parts. Even in prose, there is a style known as 'Curna' which borders between prose and poetry. Pieces composed in this style are known as 'Curnikās.'2 A 'Curna' means a finely powdered substance, smooth and soft to the feel. A prose without hard consonants and rich with alliterations and rhymes at the close of the

60

FROM SPEECH TO THE CLASSICAL STAGE [ Chapter IV

successive clauses and sentences and delivered or recited in

the manner of a poem is certainly more soft and smooth

than ordinary prose and forms the substance of a 'Curnikā'.

The bards and the heralds ( the Bhātas and the Cāranas )

usually employed this style in proclaiming on ceremonial

occasions the high traditions and the tenets of their royal-

masters-the kings. So also do the devotees in paying

homage to the saints or God. In short, the rendering of

prose into poetry means the union or adaptation of happy

words to orderly and rhythmic periods or in other words

to metrical forms, with such artistic devices as periodic

rests or pauses, alliterations, rhymes and cadences. It is

within the limits of such smooth and melodious intonation

and a plastic syntax teeming in alliteration, rhymes and

cadences that the emotional shades of the poetic content

must be vocally expressed by the reciter or understood

or construed by the listener.

Automatic self-expression in the form of rough and

ready sounds or exclamations may at once suggest the

kind of feeling and the emotional reactions of a person

but is totally poor in depicting the varying shades of the

growth and fineness of the emotion. They are therefore

only too gross and blunt artistically. In prose, tonal

variations or qualities coupled with the meaning of

words do suggest the feeling with its associative emotions

clearly and can further delineate their rise and fall to a

certain extent. In the absence of rhythm, the finer

shades of the growth and the delicacy of emotion are

however denied to prose, but are within easy reach of

poetry. In the case of music, the innumerable ways of

varying the shades and quality of consonances and dis-

sonances and the subtle manipulation and variety of its

rhythm infinitely widen its range of emotional expres-

sion, every shade of which is not without an equally fine.

Chapter IV ]

VEDIC CHANT

61

or expressive counterpart or replica of it, in music. Thus, without forfeiting the power of suggestion, each higher form of music effects a closer and finer approach to the mechanism and essence of the human emotions and its culmination takes place in the subtle and almost mysterious working of music, proper.

To return to our point, the metrical compositions happen to be the most ancient and authentic types of musical form and may therefore be studied in the order of their antiquity.

The Vedic Chant.

The Vedic Hymns are the living and authentic examples of the world's most ancient and sacred literature and music, as well. They are composed in what are called the Chandas or the Vedic metres. A Chandas has four similar lines with a fixed number of syllables, whether long or short. It is thus the number of syllables and not the quantity of vowels that determines the length of a line. The stanzas or the Ṛks forming a hymn used to be chanted or sung according to the need of the occasion and there were three different ways of doing it.3

The first or the Ārcika way of chanting employs only one note for all the syllables and it is literally monotonous. It is used for prayer, in private, or for scholastic purposes such as revising, memorising, or for learning the text of the Ṛks by rote. The second way of chanting is called the Gāthika or the musical way, musical in the sense that it employs a second note in addition to the base note. The Sāmika style is the third and the most common way of chanting Vedic hymns. It employs the three notes viz. the fundamental, and the notes just a major tone above and below it. The Sāmika style is

62 FROM SPEECH TO THE CLASSICAL STAGE [ Chapter IV

employed for all formal or public recitations, individual

or collective. Since collective recitation requires unity

of accurate pronunciation and synchronous delivery, the

Sāmika way had to be a permanently set way of chant-

ing. In fact, it may be justly named as 'the uniform

style of delivery ' of Vedic chant, since it is one and the

same throughout India, in spite of provincial differences

of language and customs. The grammatical rules and

the other details concerning Vedic chant are given

at great length in the ancient Prātiśakhya and Sikṣā

books. For our purpose, it will be enough to give here

a brief summary of the findings concerning the music of

the Vedic chant.

Vedic chant employs three notes only. They are

Ni (B♭), Sā (C) and Re (D). The chant always begins

with the basic note C corresponding to the sound of an

Udātta syllable. If the opening syllable happens to be

an Anudātta one, the syllable 'Om', which is always

Udātta, is borrowed at the beginning of the chant and

does the work of the required Udātta syllable. The

notes occur in their natural sequence and are taken con-

secūtively i. e. without dropping the intermediate note.

Each syllable forms a unit of utterance and together their

chanting reminds one of the 'Nom Thom ' (or the Ālāpa

syllables) exercises. In fact, they form a musical phrase

which is like an Ālāpa of a famous classical Rāga, the

Darbāri Kānadā, Some such sequence as ' Sā, Ni Sā, Ni

Sā Re; Sā, Ni, Sā,' forms the nucleus of the phrase and

repeats itself as a group in the chanting of all the Chan-

das. Whatever the Chandas, the chanting sounds all

alike and does not give the least inkling aboyt the form

or the length of the Chandas-measure, actually em-

ployed. Thus the rhythm of the Vedic chant is not of

the formal (meañing 'suggestive of the form ') type but

Chapter IV ]

CLIMAX

63

is of the primary or the essential kind. Last, but not

the least, the chant is a set type of recitation, and is, like

all sacred literature, entirely immune from personal

colouring and variations.

An interesting practice connected with the chant is

that of recitation-parties or contests, in which the chant

is given alternately by two groups of reciters. After

each turn, the loudness, the pitch and also the tempo are

gradually increased. Each group ends its turn by placing

the tone a little higher, which the other group picks up

as its basic note for its new turn and the chant thus

heads on towards a climax.4 When one round finishes

the next one begins, again with the normal tone and the

climax is again reached as before. The point to be noted,

however, is that in spite of higher tone-level for every

new turn, the melody remains the same, only that it is

repeated at higher and higher levels. Another interest-

ing practice connected with the recitation parties is that,

at times, both the groups chant different Ṛks at one and

the same time and thus create a primary vocal harmony or

descant, one can call it anything, for it gives one the

impression of either. The mass of the collective tone

and the repetition of the rhythmic nucleus with ever-

increasing loudness, pitch and tempo more than counter-

balance the monotony and enrapture one with the

majesty of Vedic chant.

Other Scholastic Ways of Chanting.

In addition to the plain chant, there are some very

highly scholastic ways of chanting the Vedic texts.

They are known as the Pada, Krama, Jaṭā and the Ghana

ways of chanting. Of these the musical aspect is almost

the same as in plain chant with this difference that the

clauses or even Padas are recited again and again

64 FROM SPEECH TO THE CLASSICAL STAGE [ Chapter IV

according to the patterns laid down in the code for

chanting. Accordingly, each Pada is chanted in a detached

manner or a group of them is repeated once, twice or

more times with repetition of the preceding and

succeeding clauses, according to these patterns. On

account of such fixed order or sequence, coherence and

symmetry between the several parts of the chant become

evident and contribute to it what may be called a

' musical form.' The repetition of the Padas and the

different clauses of the Chandas, according to chosen

patterns has evidently given rise to the different metres

later on known as the 'Gana Vṛttas,' 'Mātrā Vṛttas'

' 'Dandaka' 'Dodhaka' 'Totaka' and other forms of

verse, which even now serve as models for innovating

new metres and time-measures to suit our present-day

needs.

Sāma-Gāna.5

We now give a brief summary of the musical prac-

tices as found in the famous style of singing Sāmans or

Sāma-Gāna. The Sāma Veda has no separate text. The

Rks themselves supply it. But the Sāma-Veda sets the

Rks to musical form for the purposes of Sāma-Gāna

and in doing so, the original text is changed and some-

times distorted beyond recognition. Meaningless extra

syllables such as ' How, Him, Hum ' etc, are borrowed,6

some of the vowels are elongated, or are altogether

replaced by new ones, and even the old words give place

to new ones. The Sāma-Gāna thus takes all kinds of

liberties with the text such as those the present-day

musicians are in the habit of taking. Sāma-Gāna is,

however, a collective affair and like the chant is also of

a set type, perfectly immune from any personal colouring

or alterations.

Chapter IV ]

SĀMA-GĀNA

65

The following is a brief summary of the principal findings about the singing of the Sāmans :-

(1) The scale of Sāma-Gāna is:- C, D, E♭, F, G, A, c.

(2) The note A (Dha) is sometimes omitted and is then replaced by the note B♭ (Ni♭), and vice versa.

(3) The notes are taken strictly in their natural sequence, i. e. without jumping over the neighbouring notes.

(4) They figure in small groups of three or four notes and seldom extend beyond the range of one tetrachord at a time.

(5) No extra chromatic note is employed any-where.

(6) The Stobha letters, ' Hā, How, Him, Hum,' which are borrowed, are sung to the level of the base note and thus supply the feeling for a sustained tonic.

(7) The music is permanently set without any room for any personal colouring or distortion.5

(8) The music of one and all the Sāmans of any one branch of it sounds alike, whatever be their meaning content or the Chandas of their metre. The tune does not give the least indication either of the Chandas employed or of any time-measure. The rhythm of Sāma-Gāna is therefore of the essential and not of the formal (meaning, suggestive of the form) type.

5

66

FROM SPEECH TO THE CLASSICAL STAGE [ Chapter IV

(9) Pious Brāhmanas refuse to take any accompaniment for Sāma-Gāna, though some modern scholars have begun to advocate the use of it.

(10) Sāma-Gāna does not even once give the impression of any Rāga as such, but sounds like some tunes similar to those of some metres and simple folk-songs.

A close examination of the notes of the tunes employed either by Chant or by Sāma-Gāna clearly reveals that both these types employ the Minor Seventh and the Major Second for the notes Ni and Re. The so-called Śuddha scale of either the Northern or the Southern system of music takes but one of these notes and not both simultaneously. Now, the Major Second is a legitimate note of the Śuddha scale of the Northern system, but the Minor Seventh is not. In the Southern system, the reverse is the case, since the Major Second is a note foreign to its Śuddha scale, whereas the Minor Seventh is one of its legitimate notes. Both these systems, however, claim that their origin is in the Vedic music, but neither of them appears to have retained the old traditions intact or unchanged. The truth probably is that art-music drew upon the older traditions and recreated out of them, its own scales and form in its own way and according to its special needs and exigencies.

As previously stated, the chant and particularly the other scholastic ways of chanting a Ṛk with various sequences of its clauses and Padas have given birth to the Gana and Mātrā or Jāti Vṛttas of Sanskrit and the other allied languages. The Gana-Vṛttas have a fixed kind of vowel-music but the rhythm of each line considered separately is irregular. Considered together there is however perfect symmetry and balance between the four lines

Chapter IV ]

QUICKENING OF APPEAL

67

forming the two couplets with a perfect rhyme at the

close. The Jāti Vṛttas are more elastic in their sequence

which is regulated by the quantity and not by the order of

long and short vowels figuring in it. They therefore show

a distinct advance in their rhythmic structure and here

the poetic and the musical rhythms fully agree with each

other. Barring such songs as are deliberately composed

in a particular Rāga, the music of all popular songs, an-

cient or modern, including even the film-songs6 of to-day,

falls in the category of the Jāti-Vṛttas. A Jāti-Vṛtta has a

simple musical phrase as its nucleus, which is repeated

over again on one and the same plane. A small deviation

occurs in the Antarā which, however, is neither bold nor

different in its pattern from the main phrase. Instead of

keeping the musical nucleus bound to one and the same

level, if it is projected and spread over gradually ascending

or descending levels, the music of the Jāti-Vṛttas ceases

to be monotonous and develops a musical form both rich

and wide in its appeal. This is why popular songs usually

run into a number of stanzas. The Haridāsas often

employ this device, and with great advantage too, in

quickening the appeal of a simple Bhajan as ‘Rāma, Rāma,

Sitārāma, Sitārāma, by asking the whole

congregation to recite it and further by transferring it to

gradually higher pitch-levels and by quickening the

tempo.

Thus, we have traced the characteristic features of

the different forms of self-expression in sound and also of

popular music culminating in the Jāti-Vṛttas7 which have

served as the models for the songs of classical music. In

short, with a long ancient tradition and intuition as its

sole directive forces, the unconscious music of the popular

forms has reached to the level of the conscious music of

the classical type and so the musical details as found in

68 FROM SPEECH TO THE CLASSICAL STAGE [Chapter IV

the analysis of the folk forms as a group are bound to

help us in our constructive view of Indian music as a

whole and may indirectly throw some light on the prac-

tices of classical music to be considered in a later chapter.

Some of the findings about folk-music, as it obtains

in Mahārāṣhtra, were published by the author as early as

1935. Since the publication of the first edition of this

book, a research grant from the University of Bombay

enabled him to conduct the investigation still further and

to visit Madras ( the centre of South Indian Music ) and

Baroda for the purposes of ascertaining how far these

findings were true of the popular or folk-music of other

provinces in India.

A demonstration was given before the Experts' Com-

mittee of the Music Conference held by the Music

Academy, at Madras, and the questionnaire issued in this

respect was placed before the Committee for its con-

siderartion. From the answers received to the question-

naire at Madras and elsewhere, it may safely be said that

the folk-music of these provinces does not differ in its

practices from that of Mahārāṣhtra. In each case

indigenous reciters were requested to recite the differ-

ent pieces of poetry and folk-songs in the most natural

or unsophisticated manner. The results were equally

true in the case of specimens in the languages of other

provinces also.

An independent corroboration from an unknown

quarter came as a pleasant surprise. It came from Mr.A.G.

Chagalā8 of Karachi who says 'Your twenty observa-

tions regarding the folk-music of Mahārāṣhtra tally with

my own regarding the folk-music of Sind and the North-

west, except that I find that the extreme range of the

folk-melodies in this territory is somewhat wider, pre-

Chapter IV ] PRINCIPAL FINDINGS OF FOLK MUSIC

69

cisely a Minor Third above the Octave.' It may there-

fore be said that at least in the folk-music of the differ-

ent provinces, there has been a complete unity of

practices, though those of classical music of the North

and the South widely differ from each other.

The major findings of this study are briefly given in

the following pages.

1 In folk-music, the recitation or music is always

coupled to the time-span of the poetic words

making up the metre and there are no tonal

extensions, as such.

2 The melody, though flowing on freely, is often

pivoted on a particular note or group of notes

and circles round such a note or notes.

3 The melodies of folk-music are very simple and

employ a few notes at a time. They seldom

move in two tetrachords at a stretch.

4 In the elementary forms, folk-music does not

employ a drone, yet there is a level always

maintained, to which the music invariably re-

turns, so much so, that not for a moment is

the sense of this level or tonic either lost or

weakened.

5 The maximum number of notes employed in

folk-music is nine. These consist of the seven

consonant notes viz. those of the Major Scale

and two more viz. the Minor Third and Minor

Seventh.

6 The minor forms do not however occur as fre-

quently as the major ones.

7 Sometimes the enharmonic forms of the same

note occur—the higher form occurring in the

ascent and the lower one in the descent.

70 FROM SPEECH TO THE CLASSICAL STAGE [ Chapter IV

8 Prayer or other religious hymns or songs, when chanted alone to oneself, employ only one note-the tonic-and are literally monotonous.

9 If recited in public, they employ one or two more neighbouring notes, the whole recitation never extending beyond one tetrachord.

10 For a very big audience the voice is often raised by a Fourth or Fifth, but even then the melody seldom extends beyond one tetrachord at a stretch.

11 The alternative way of recitation for a big audience is to begin on the higher Octave and proceed by a descending melodic progression.

12 In the longer metres and songs the melody has to be necessarily lengthened in duration and hence it embraces notes from two tetrachords. But there is usually an imitation in one tetrachord of what occurs in the other.

13 The melody is so simple yet sure that the intervals and their sequence is correctly observed in a natural way and needs no previous thought or special effort. Students of classical music know how difficult it is to take a leap of a just Fourth or Fifth, but in Folk-music such leaps are correctly taken even by a lay reciter, without any conscious preparation or effort.

14 A piece of poetry or a song always contains an even number of lines or divisions. At the end of every odd line, there is felt a sense of incompleteness; the sense of completeness returning only at the end of the next even line.

Chapter IV ] PRINCIPAL FINDINGS OF FOLK MUSIC 71

15 This incompleteness is of the character of a query or interrogation. Its immediate cause is that the odd line does not end on the tonic, but ends on a harmonically more distant note, usually the next higher note—the Major Second. So, a deliberate shift from the tonic, at a psychological moment when it is strongly in demand, causes perturbation or gives a shock, which we call incompleteness.

At the close of the next even line, however, there is a well-planned return to the tonic and this at once restores ease and the sense of completeness.

16 No single note receives any individual prominence either by way of duration or stress. The notes are mere counterpoints—as it were—to the order of long and short syllables which make the metre. As such, the notes of Folk-music are never of the sustained type and hence scarcely afford an opportunity to bring out the beauties of any harmonic relationship of the several notes, either towards the tonic or even between themselves.

17 The nine notes of Folk-music are almost the same as the nine principal consonances, which chiefly figure in fixing up the tonality of classical music. ( See—Chapter V ). Thus, it appears that even in the folk stage, there were no cultural reactions, which opposed the formation of a truly natural and hence of a harmonic scale.

18 In the more strict forms of the metres—viz. the Gaṇa-Vṛttas, rhythm is regulated by particular Gaṇas or groups of syllables and

72 FROM SPEECH TO THE CLASSICAL STAGE [ Chapter IV

hence by a particular order and quantity of

syllables. In the lighter forms however, i. e.

in the Mātrā-Vṛttas, it is regulated by a

periodic accent and hence not by any order but

by regular stress.

19 As will be seen from its scales, melodies and

rhythm, Folk-music does not violate the laws

of the Physics of music even once, but in spite

of its perfectly scientific structure, is unable

to stir our emotions through the power of tones

alone. The reason, for this, is that Folk-music

has a Science but no Art behind it. Just as

water is neutral in colour and takes the tinge

of the colour we add to it, Folk-music has no

tonal moods of its own, but adopts the mood

poetry brings to bear upon it. Thus the same

metre, with the same melody, may without any

harm be used to convey sentiments of dia-

metrically opposite characters.

20 In folk-songs proper, the poetic theme is never

very serious, nor the language is very high. A

simple, domestic or worldly topic—often the

celebration of a marriage or love between young

men and women, or an adventure or some such

incident supplies the theme. The narrative

also is never very serious or straight. An

opportunity is frequently sought for a touch

of drollery or odd humour, which is often the

result of meaningless alliterations or thumping

of the syllables of words and of fantastic rhym-

ing. As for the scale of Folk-music, it will be

interesting to consider the inherent factors

which must have made it a truly consonant or

natural scale.

Chapter IV ] MUSICAL EFFECT AND EASE

73

It is common experience that the one aim of

the reciter is to secure the greatest possible musical

effect with the least possible strain.

The musical effect is again the result of the natural

preference of the human ear for consonances. Con-

sonances do not give beats and hence do not, like dis-

sonances, excite the nervous apparatus of the ear, inter-

mittently or irregularly. In consonance, therefore, there

is no strain on the mechanism cf the ear. The ear has

thus a natural preference for consonances and checks

the voice by regulating the motion of the larynx and

the tension of the vocal chords with as much delicacy

as is necessary to produce the tone which it demands.

Such tones are modified by the particular shape

of the oral cavity which-if the complicated action

of its control is neglected for a time-is primarily

an air-chamber and may therefore be likened to

a resonating tube. Every such tube or chamber

has a natural period and gives resonance for a note

of definite wave-length and hence of a definite pitch.

If the excitement is made more vigorous, the same

tube is capable of giving notes which happen to be

the overtones of the lowest or natural note. Thus,

horns and trumpets when blown gently give the

lowest or natural note and its upper partials, if

the blowing is made more vigorous. It is on this

account that the cries of some birds rise or fall by the

intervals of the harmonic series and their consti-

tuents are mutually consonant. If the same considera-

tions are extended to the human voice, it is clear that

it should have a natural preference for generating con-

sonant intervals, if it is to preserve the greatest possible

ease and quality. Be it, therefore, the ear or the voice,

for the best possible musical effect, the excitement of

74

FROM SPEECH TO THE CLASSICAL STAGE [ Chapter IV

either must in no way be forced or strained but must be truly sympathetic or natural. Musical effect and

ease of execution therefore go hand in hand. Thus the scale for the folk-songs is supplied by the major scale

or by some one of its transposed forms. There are four such forms which are generally met with. They

correspond to the Ionian, Aeolian, Dorian and Lydian harmonies of the Greeks. According to Mr. Clements,

'a study of European and ancient Greek music shows that these scales are essential ingredients in any

evolved form of music'. It therefore appears that in almost all countries, the folk-songs employ simple

rational scales, though the music of such songs may mean nothing more than a musical way of pronouncing

or reciting the individual words. In such songs, there is of course no tonal progression, as such, independently

of the words. The advanced folk-songs also are mostly plain and simple in point of their tonal struc-

ture. But such songs, when accompanied by a drone and executed with tonal flourishes or occasional embell-

ishments put on a semi-classical appearance, and lead us to the very door by which songs of the other group-

i. e. those of the classical type-make their appearance on the scene.

To this second group, which necessarily requires musical accompaniment, belong the semi-classical and

classical songs, proper. Advanced Folk-songs and Dances are of the semi-classical type, whereas the

'Chamber-Music' of today represents the classical form of music.

A consideration of the musical potentialities of the accompaniment employed by each form may easily

bring to one's notice the salient features of each type

Chapter IV ] ACCOMPANYING INSTRUMENTS

75

and thereby further simplify our present investi-

gation.

In Indian music, the accompanying instruments

are intended to discharge one or more of the following

functions:-

1 To supply the keynote or the tonic, in the

form of a drone etc.

2 To accompany or imitate the vocal or other-

principal parts of music, in a point to point

or symphonic manner.

3 To supply the rhythm.

The drone supplies the keynote and maintains the

level or the pitch of the song and thus ensures the

accuracy of the intervals used. It thus provides an

easy means of judging the degree of consonance of the

several notes forming the melody, by throwing them into

direct contrast with the constituents of the harmony,

built up by the several upper partials of its primes.

For a rich musical effect of such a nature, stringed

instruments alone can be used; for, it is well known

that instruments of the drum-type and the like are

comparatively poor in effect and without recurring

excitement, are unable to supply any back-ground as that

of a drone. Such instruments produce higher partials,

which are inharmonic and are therefore jarring. In

short, for supplying a drone or the Tonic-Key as a

back-ground, instruments of the drum or bell-type are

not useful. Stringed instruments and the like, alone,

serve the purpose well.

For the discharge of the second function viz. a

point to point accompaniment or symphony, the stringed

76 FROM SPEECH TO THE CLASSICAL STAGE [ Chapter IV

instruments and those of the reed-type alone are useful

for the reasons given above.

For the third function viz. supplying the rhythm,

instruments of the drum-type, though poor in point of

richness of tone or musical quality, offer a special

advantage. The recurring excitement of such instru-

ments and the rapid variations in the intensity of their

sound confer on music the element of motion and

power. Thus skilful drumming can produce almost

every shade of motion straight or zigzag and of delicacy

or power. The drum-type of instruments are therefore

useful in making music as much powerful, emotional,

smooth or zigzag as is desired.

Now, Folk-music and particularly Folk-dances

employ a variety of instruments like drums, bells,

cymbals, horns and trumpets and employ-if at all-a

very weak and poor type of a drone, supplied either

by a reed pipe or by the Tuntunē or the Ektār-the

latter two being coarse instruments with one string

only. The rhythmic element is therefore very powerful

in such songs and dances, and as for the melodic effect,

it is totally drowned by the tangled mass of sounds

produced by the drums and such other instruments.

The emotion is supplied not so much by the consonant

or dissonant character of the notes used, as by the

theme of the song. It is further strengthened by the

gesticulations and bodily movements of the performers

and its rise and fall is regulated by appropriate

variations in the drumming. In such music, 'all are

performers, no audience, and the crowd is a stimulus

that keeps everyone dancing and howling in emulation.'

Thus one or two give the song and others follow them,

by repeating the same lines once again. All join

Chapter IV ]

POWĀDĀS

77

together, when the lines lead to the burden of the song.

As the voices are usually untrained and shrill, the

effect is not much musical but is only manly or

powerful. It is further heightened by the quaint dresses

of the performers and by the outdoor environments,

in which such songs and dances are usually performed.

In the more vigorous types, such as the War-Dances, the

music is accompanied by the waving of flags and fire-

brands and by the brandishing of daggers and swords

and as a consequence, becomes very powerful and

awe-inspiring. The songs accompanying such dances

do not employ any fixed or regular scale but freely

employ discords and effect sudden changes, in both the

loudness and pitch of the sound. Thus at one time a

song may be very rough, shrill and powerful, at

another it may suddenly become soft and tender,

with corresponding changes in the manner of the

drumming also. This state of things is to be seen

particularly in the Powādās or the war-songs of the

Mahrāthās and other similar songs.

There is yet another type of Folk-songs, which

appears almost classical. In this type the accompani-

ment is richer and the drums etc. employed are also

tuned to the tonic note. Such songs are usually a

mixture of the Folk and Classical ways of performing

music and only serve as a link between the two.

There is however nothing that is fundamentally new

or different about them and hence they need not detain

us any longer.

The last and by far the most important group is of

songs of the classical type. In this group, there are

three different ways of performing the music, which

may be either vocal, instrumental or of the nature

78 FROM SPEECH TO THE CLASSICAL STAGE [ Chapter IV

of a dance. These three types together constitute what is traditionally known as 'Sangīta'. Among these, voice is man's first instrument in time and value.

Other instruments merely imitate the voice, but cannot produce the articulate effect, which voice alone can produce. It is true that in harmonic music, instruments play an important role and hence stand on a par with the vocal parts, but as Indian music has no harmony, there is very little scope for the instrumental parts as such. They have always a secondary place in the scheme and merely follow or imitate vocal music.

In dancing also, the vocal part forms the chief centre of interest which is further enhanced by appropriate acting and delicate bodily movements. In classical music, therefore, paramount interest attaches to vocal music only. This is why theorists from the ancient times down to this day, have always taken the word 'Sangīta' to mean vocal music, in particular.

In vocal music of the Classical type, there are two broad groups :-(1) Chamber music and (2) Mass music.

Chamber music is of the solo type and requires a harmonically rich accompaniment, usually in the form of a drone. The mass of tone is therefore never very powerful and accompanied, as it is, by a mild but harmonically rich accompaniment, the effect is never oppressive, but is always sweet and tender. Such music, therefore-be it gay or sad-is invariably of a reflective and intellectual character.

In the other variety, to which belong the Harikathā or Bhajan parties, and the Bājantrīes or Indian Band-parties, more drums and cymbals and almost none of the stringed instruments are employed. Hence such

Chapter IV ] MUSIC ALWAYS EVOLVES A HIGHER FORM 79

music develops a large mass of tone and becomes powerful, but is less reflective and intellectual. In classical songs proper, the ethos or the emotional effect depends, not so much upon the theme, as in the case of the Folk-Dances, as on the consonances and dissonances forming the melodic law or the scale, chosen.

In short, the music of Folk-Songs and Dances, though poor in point of harmonic effect, is powerful and virile and the seat of the power is in the large mass of sound and in the enchanting rhythm of the accompaying instruments of the drum-type.

As for the advanced Folk-songs and songs of the Classical type proper, they are very rich in point of the harmonic effect and as they employ stringed instruments in preference to those of the drum-type are, though less vigorous, more sweet and touching than the Folk-songs. On this account, the Indian system has always restricted its attention to the consideration of the melodic and harmonic relationship between notes and the interpretation of their æsthetic value. Hence, in India, the science of music means the science of classical music only. In fact, the harmonically poor forms of music have really no science of their own. Ignorance or imperfect knowledge of the acoustic laws, poor and faulty accompaniment and want of fineness of performance are usually responsible for the poor musical effect of the early forms of music. With growing understanding and knowledge of the acoustic laws, music has always evolved a higher form. Thus, from speech evolved recitation and verse, from recitation and verse, the folk-songs and from the folk-songs, songs of the Classical type. It is then apparent, that a study of the science of Classical music

80 FROM SPEECH TO THE CLASSICAL STAGE [ Chapter IV

may provide a rational basis for explaining and under-

standing the development of the entire structure of

music, both Classical and Non-classical. Consequently,

there is no further necessity of extending our investiga-

tion beyond considering the essential features and

processes of Classical Indian music alone.

CHAPTER V

The Unities of Indian Music

Classical music picks up the thread where Folk-music leaves it. In Folk-music there is no conscious

aim of understanding the musical meaning of tones,

or of extending it further for artistic effect. The evolu-tion of Folk-Music is inherently a process of an

unconscious synthesis of musical material both good

and bad. Classical music, on the other hand, leaves

nothing to chance, makes a conscious effort of isolating

the good material from the bad and always aims at an

intellectual understanding and interpretation of such

material for further artistic effect. When such material

is subjected to a conscious analytical process, it becomes

evident that the various musical elements and opera-tions hinge upon certain physical laws of broad and

universal nature. These laws therefore play an import-ant part in building up the Unities governing the differ-

ent Music Systems. Further, even under the same

Unity, numerous ways of musical expression are possible

e. g. by creating different orders in the use of the

musical material and form. This is how the different

kinds of musical forms and expression have come into

being.

We shall now briefly explain the Unities of Classical

Indian Music and describe the particular forms and

orders, which each one of them develops, in a sub-sequent chapter.

6

82

THE UNITIES OF INDIAN MUSIC [ Chapter V

There are three principal Unities which govern

Indian Music. They are:-

1 The performance of all music, to the accom-

paniment of a drone.

2 The strict adherence of the music to a par-

ticular Rāga or melodic law.

3 The strict and correct observance of a chosen

measure of time throughout a given piece of

music.

The First Unity:-‘The primal unity of Indian

music is in the tonic or the drone.' The reference of

all music to the accompaniment of a drone is a practice

which is common to both the ancient and modern

systems of Indian music. The drone establishes a

strong feeling for tonality, by supplying the sense of

comparison or contrast of the different notes of a

musical piece, with the constituents of its harmony as

a whole. As the tuning of the prime notes of the

drone is essentially the same to-day as it was in the

old days, we can, without perversion of any ancient

doctrines and traditions, make the drone a starting

point for fully determining the tonality of Indian music.

To enable the reader to appreciate the part played by

the drone in Indian music, it is desirable to consider

here how a feeling for tonality at all asserts itself and

what the forms of tonal relationship are.

It is common experience that a melodic phrase or

a chord appears to be the chord of a determinate root,

even though there may be no accompaniment. It is

because the ear unconsciously analyses the compound

tone into its partials. This process of analysis does not

however become a subject of conscious perception. To

make it so, the chord must be accompanied by the root

Chapter V ] TONAL RELATIONSHIP

83

note, which then functions as a tonic. To make the

analysis easy and perfectly perceptible, the accompany-

ing note must be sustained, as such sustained notes

draw the attention of the singer towards the beats, and

help him to check his own voice in the most decisive

manner so as to avoid any dissonance. Thus the princi-

ple of tonality first comes into prominence unconsci-

ously and finally asserts itself boldly.

Tonal relationship is of two kinds direct and

indirect.

Two tones are said to be directly related when a

perceptible partial of one coincides with a similar

partial of the other.

Thus the notes C, G, F are directly related to

the note C.

The relationship is indirect, when the two notes

happen to be the upper partials of a third note taken as

auxiliary. For example :-

c−d A−B Bb−c G E F

The pair of notes, above each bracket, though not

directly related between themselves are indirectly re-

lated through the corresponding bottom-note, as they

respectively 'happen to be the Major Fourth and Major

Fifth of that note. The bottom-note therefore serves as

an auxiliary and is invariably included in the Tonic-Key

or the drone, so as to make this relationship easily per-

ceptible. The Tonic-Key of Indian music is the drone

of the Tamburā and serves as a point of departure by

means of which the pitch of the song can be maintained

and the accuracy of the intervals, ensured. The drone

84

THE UNITIES OF INDIAN MUSIC

[Chapter V

is usually of two types-the G-type and the F-type.

The reason why these two notes are chosen as auxiliary

notes in preference to other notes will be clear from the

following explanation.

In making the choice for an auxiliary note, the

Fifth and the Fourth of a note have a claim which is

next to that of the Octave only. The Octave, however,

is not a new note and only reiterates what the funda-

mental claims for itself. Of the remaining notes, the

relationship of the Fifth and its inversion the Fourth

to the fundamental is the closest and as such has been

acknowledged in all known systems of music. Thus

the closest and the simplest relation of the tones is

reached when they happen to be the constituents of the

compound tone of the tonic or of the Fifth, below or

above it. The interval of a Fifth is therefore one, which

secures the closest and the simplest relation between

two tones. In addition to the fundamental, the

drone should therefore include both its Fourth and

the Fifth. But though each of them is individually

related to the fundamental as a consonance they

happen to be so near each other that their com-

pound tone gives strong beats. The drone therefore

includes only one of them at a time. The absence or

omission of the other is not however appreciably felt,

as it being a strongly consonant note the ear grasps

or conceives its presence in a subjective manner. As

a consequence, the drone is split up into two parts-

viz. the G-type and the F-type. Really speaking, they

are not two different types as such; they are in fact the

complements of a single ideal Tonic-chord or harmony.

Under the circumstances, each complement may appear

to fall a little short of the ideal harmony, but as already

explained, the deficiency is almost completely wiped off

[ Chapter V ] REVERSION OF INTERVALS 85

by the peculiar habit of the human ear to follow or

grasp the presence of strongly consonant intervals in a

subjective manner. The Fifth being a more consonant

interval than the Fourth, there is less deficiency in the

drone of the G-type than in that of the F-one-and hence

less strain in following or imagining the existence of the

complementary part. It is on this account that Indian

music uses the G-type of the drone for almost all the

Rāgas, and the other type for a few Rāgas only. But

whether the drone is of the G-type or of the F-type, the

method of admission of new notes to the scale is common

to both. The new notes may be admitted through their

relationship either with the Fifth or with the Fourth.

In simpler Rāgas, the relationship is usually restricted to

one of these, but as will be seen from an analysis of the

scales of some complex Rāgas, the principle has a wider

application and is applied in its dual form, to form the

scale of one and the same Rāga.

As an illustration, it may be stated that if there is

a relation of a Fifth between the corresponding notes

of the two tetrachords of a scale, then there is

automatically a relation of a Fourth, between the

corresponding members of its first tetrachord and

the tetrachord just below it ( i. e. from the lower

octave ), and those of its second tetrachord and

the tetrachord just above it, ( i. e. from the higher

octave ). Thus let us take the two tetrachords of

the middle octave of the so-called Śuddha scale of

Indian music and reproduce that scale over one tetrachord

on either side. Then the sequence of relationship of the

notes C and G is CG and GC alternately in the suc-

cessive tetrachords.

86

THE UNITS OF INDIAN MUSIC [ Chapter V

1st tetrachord of the higher octave

c

d

e

f

480

540

600

640

2nd. middle octave

C

D

E

F

G

A

B

c

240

270

300

320

360

405

450

480

2nd tetrachord of the lower octave

G

1

A

1

B

1

C

1

180

202.5

225

240

Similarly the sequence of relationship of the other notes also is reversed, if the series begins one tetrachord below or above the middle C. This means that there is an alternate relationship of a Fourth and a Fifth, taking place between the two successive tetrachords of any given scale, reproduced, if necessary, both ways. This is true particularly of Indian music as it uses three consecutive octaves, and thus moves over four to six successive tetrachords, leading to an alternating reversal of the relationship.

In practical music, the instrument Tamburā supplies the drone. The Tamburā has a big gourd at the bottom, with a long hollow wooden neck above. It has two bridges, one at the centre of the flat side of the gourd and the other almost at the top of the wooden neck—the distance between the two being usually about three feet or a little more. Four wires are stretched across the bridges and their tension is varied by working little pegs at the top of the wooden neck. The two middle wires are of steel and are tuned in unison, to any desired pitch. The two outer wires are of brass. The first of them is a little thicker than the two middle wires and is tuned to a Fifth or a Fourth below the standard or the fundamental note given by the two middle wires. The other outer wire—the fourth and the last in the group—is thicker than even the first wire itself. It is

Chapter V ]

THE DRONE

87

tuned just an Octave below the fundamental note. The drone is of the G or F-type according as the first wire is tuned to a major Fifth or Fourth, in the octave below the fundamental note.

The drone therefore is not a single note but is a collection or a bundle of several harmonic tissues in the form of upper partials and the combination notes, in addition to the primes. In such a combination, the primes of course predominate in point of intensity and duration, and of the primes, the note of the two middle wires, in particular, as it serves as the base for the secondary note G or F, as the case may be. The drone is thus a harmony built up by the primes, their upper partials and the consequent combination notes generated.

Whenever a piece of music is given to the accompaniment of such a drone, a comparison or contrast of the notes occurring in it, with the constituents of the harmony of the drone, is unavoidable. Such notes alone, as happen to have the nearest direct relationship with the constituents of the harmony of the drone, will compare favourably with it or will be felt as consonances and others for want of any such relationship will receive no backing and will provide a contrast and sound as dissonances due to the generation of beats.

A rational consideration of the constituents of the harmony of the drone is therefore bound to give all the fundamental consonances of Indian music and may further help us in ascertaining how far the principle of tonality is followed in the construction of its different scales.

The drone is made up of three classes of notes, (1) The primes, (2) The upper partials of the primes, and (3) the combination notes.

88

THE UNITIES OF INDIAN MUSIC [ Chapter V

Among these, the prime notes are the most con-

spicuous of all and inherently dominate the others in the

harmony as a whole.

The next group is that of the upper partials of the

primes.

As is well-known, partials higher than the sixth are

scarcely audible and so there is no practical necessity

of considering the upper partials' series beyond the sixth

partial. Normally, such partials may not be audible in

the drone, but when they are employed by artistes, the

ordinarily thin partials may, by virtue of their union

with similar but more powerful notes produced by the

artiste, gather some force as to strongly influence the

judgment of a listener. To provide some basis for

judgment even in such extreme cases, we may consider

the upper partials' series up to the ninth partial.

Thus, for example, the Western musicians stop

at the seventh harmonic, as they find it extremely

unsuitable for the purpose of their system. It is

however not so with Indian music, The Indian profes-

sional singer not only uses the septimal intervals often,

but uses them with distinct advantage and then the

result is peculiarly soft and tender. According to Mr.

Clements 'the importance attached to the septimal

intervals i. e. those derived from the seventh harmonic,

places the music of India in the first rank of intellectual

development of musical art.'

The eighth partial is a mere repetition of the prime.

The ninth partial when reduced to the middle

octave is just a major tone higher than the prime note

and is a Fifth of the Fifth of the prime note. It is then

through the Major Fifth acting as an auxiliary note, that

Chapter V] THE DRONE 89

the ninth partial establishes its relationship towards the tonic note.

The tenth is but a repetition of the fifth partial.

It is from the eleventh partial onwards that we first come across notes, which, when not a repetition of any of the earlier partials, become more and more complex in their relationship towards the fundamental.

In short, the first six partials alone, being audible, deserve our full consideration, the next three viz. from the seventh to the ninth inclusive, though not audible in the drone, may sometimes gather some little strength and hence need some consideration, whereas, of the remaining higher ones, some are mere repetitions of the earlier ones and the rest, not being either audible or closely related to the tonic, do not invite any consideration at all.

We may therefore consider the upper partials' series of the primes of each type of the drone, up to the ninth partial in general and sixth partial in particular.

The harmonic upper partials' series for the G-type of the drone is as given below:-

Ordinal No. of the partial:- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Prime note. C G c g c' e' g' 7b'♭ c" d"

C1 C1 C G c e g 7b♭ c' d'

G1 G1 G d g b d' 7f'♭ g' a'#

From the above series, it is clear that the order of the audible consonances is as C, G, e, d, (b) and among the inaudibles 7b♭ is more prominent than either 7f♭ or a#

90

THE UNITIES OF INDIAN MUSIC

[ Chapter V

The series for the F-type of the drone may sim-

ilarly be written as :-

Ordinal No. of

the partial:- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Prime note.

C C c g c' e' g' 7b'b c'' d''

C1 C1 C G c e g 7b b c' d'

F1 F1 F c f a c' 7e'b f' g'

The order of the audible consonances in this group

is as C, G, F, e, (a) and among the inaudibles 7b b is

more prominent than 7e'b or d''.

We shall now consider the combination notes. Of

these, there are two varieties :-(1) Difference notes

and (2) Summation notes. The frequency of the

difference note is equal to the difference of the fre-

quencies of the two original notes. The frequency of

the summation note is equal to the sum of the fre-

quencies of the original notes.

The combination notes are again of the first, second

or any higher order according as they are generated

by the prime notes or by the first, second or higher

partials of one note with any one of the other. The

degree of loudness or prominence becomes less and less

as the partial happens to be higher and higher.

Let us now find out the combination notes that

may arise between the primes of the drone.

In the G-type of the drone, the notes are:-

G1 (18) C (24) and C1 (12)

So, the first difference notes will be:-

C - G1 G1 - C1 C - C1

24 - 18 18 - 12 24 - 12

C,, C,, C1

6 6 12

Chapter V ] COMBINATION NOTES

92

The first difference note in all the three cases is the fundamental note itself, only one or two octaves below.

Hence, it only strengthens the effect of the fundamental note.

The second difference notes are :-

2C - G

= E ) 2G

• C = C

) 2C

• G

= C

)

48 - 18 =30) 36 - 24 = 12) 24 - 18 = 6 )

2G

• C

= C ) 2C - C

= G ) 2C

• C = unison)

36 - 12 = 24) 48 - 12 = 36) 24 - 24 = 0 )

Thus the second difference notes also are not new notes at all. They already belong to the partials' series of the primes themselves.

If we persist in taking the third and higher difference notes, the resulting notes turn out to be the members of the upper partials' series of the smallest common difference, which in our case is C

(6) and serves as the root note of the series given by the difference notes. Thus it will be seen that the difference notes of any order do not generate any new note, but only strengthen the effect of the primes themselves and their upper partials.

The summation notes again, for the same notes viz. G

(18), C (24) and C

(12) will be:-

1 st Order:-

G

• C = 7Bb

C + C = c

C + C

= G

}

18 + 24 = 42

24 + 24 = 48

24 + 12 = 36

C

• G

= E

12 + 18 = 30.

2nd Order :-

2G

• C = e ) 2C + C

= e ) 2C

• G

= 7Bb )

36 + 24 = 60) 48 + 12 = 60) 24 + 18 = 42 )

G

• 2C =

C + 2C

= c ) C

• 2G

= c )

18 + 48 = 66) 24 + 24 = 48) 12 + 36 = 48 )

92

THE UNITIES OF INDIAN MUSIC [Chapter V

Summation notes of any higher order will also be represented by multiples of 6 and hence will belong to the series of the partials of which the number 6 represents the root note. Thus the summation notes also do not generate any new notes other than those already belonging to the upper partials' series of the primes or of their difference notes. Hence all the three groups of notes strengthen the earlier members of the upper-partials' series including the seventh partial 7Bb.

Thus in the G-type of the drone, the prominent consonances when arranged in a descending degree of consonance will be:-

C G E D B 7Bb, the first four being already audible in the drone.

If we extend a similar consideration to the F-type of the drone, the following scheme gives the difference and summation notes for that type.

1st difference notes:-

C - F1 = F,) C - C1 = C1 ) F1 - C1 = F///

24 - 16 = 8 ) 24 - 12 = 12 ) 16 - 12 = 4.

The 2nd difference notes:-

2C - F1 = F

48 - 16 = 32) 2C1 - C = unison

24 - 24 = 0

2F1 - C = F// ) 2C1 - F1 = F//

32 - 24 = 8) 24 - 16 = 8

2F1 - C1 = A1

32 - 12 = 20

2C - C1 = G

48 - 12 = 36

As the number 4 happens to be the highest common factor of the series, two of the difference notes are but repetitions of the prime note F1, only one and two octaves below and the third difference note is a repetition of the other prime note C1 Thus the difference

Chapter V] COMBINATION NOTES

93

notes are members of a series of upper partials of which the root note is represented by F,, (4). The same will be the case for the second or any higher order of difference notes.

As for summation notes, those of the first order will be:

F1 + C = A C + C = c C + C1 = G

16 + 24 = 40 24 + 24 = 48 24 + 12 = 36

C1 + F1 = 7Eb

12 + 16 = 28

The notes of the second order will be:-

2F1 + C = 7eb 2C + C1 = e 2C1 + F1 = A

32 + 24 = 56 48 + 12 = 60 24 + 16 = 40

F1 + 2C = f C + 2C1 = c C1 + 2F1 = 11Bb.

16 + 48 = 64, 24 + 24 = 48, 12 + 32 = 44

Similarly any higher order of summation notes will give such notes as happen to be the members of the upper partials' series of which the note F,, represented by the figure 4 will act as the root note.

Thus either the difference or summation notes of any order do not generate any new notes in the F-type of the drone also, but further stress the early members of the upper partials' series for the primes. The prominence of prominence will then be C G F E A of which the first four members are audible in the drone. The notes C, G and E, being distinctly audible and common to both the types of the drone, serve as good links between the notes of the two types.

In short, the combination notes do not materially alter the effect of the upper partials' series for the two types, but on the other hand strengthen the first five

84

THE UNITIES OF INDIAN MUSIC

[ Chapter V

terms of the series concerned and lend some stress to

the seventh harmonic also. The complete series of the

G-type up to the first nine members may be written in

the middle octave as-

C D E 7Fb G A# 7Bb B c...(1)

Similarly the series of the F-type, written in the

octave F1–F is—

F1 G1 A1 7Bb C D 7Eb E F...(2)

or in the octave C-c is,

C D 7Eb E F G A 7Bb c...(3)

the reason for writing the second series in the octave

F1–F is that the note F1 serves as the root note for the

combination notes of that type and in the series for the

upper partials of the primes also, it is strongly backed

up against the tonic note C.

The notes of the series (1) are a just Fifth above

the corresponding notes of the series (2). Hence the

tonality of the two types is not different but is only

parallel, and by a simple change of the base from F1 to

C may become identical.

These two series as given by the two types of the

drone include all the consonances of the Indian system.

Of these, the septimal intervals have a minor place in

the scheme. Again the consonance A#, being a more

distant (ninth) harmonic, is less consonant than A,

which is the fifth harmonic of the series for F1. Thus it

is, that where F predominates, A is chosen in preference

to A#. To return to our point, the model scale or

scales of Indian music must choose their degrees from

these fundamental consonances in the first place.

As for the construction of a scale, the ancient Indian

system lays it down that (1) as far as possible there

Chapter V ]

CHOICE OF A SCALE

95

must be symmetry between the two tetrachords of the

scale, and that (2) the corresponding members of the

two tetrachords must be mutually related by the interval

either of a major Fifth or of a Fourth.

So, to choose the scale in a rational manner, we

must choose the degrees from the essential consonances

forming the harmony of the drone, and so arrange them

as to give two similar tetrachords with a relation of a

Fifth or a Fourth, between their corresponding members.

No such scale is ideally possible from only the audible

or major consonances of the harmony of the drone. The

nearest approach to such a scale is by the admission

of A♯ to the scale, in preference to the note A. Then

the scale is as :-

C D E F G A♯ B c

Here the two tetrachords are perfectly similar and

their corresponding members are at a distance of a

Major Fifth. Thus the pairs, C–G, D–A♯, E–B, and

F–c, are related by an interval of a just Fifth.

If we choose the septimal intervals, then

C D 7E♭ F G A♯ 7B♭ c is also a scale with similar

tetrachords of which the corresponding notes are

related by the relation of a perfect Fifth only.

These two are the fundamentally consonant scales,

possible under the circumstances. Additional scales,

may be derived by admitting notes which, though not

directly related with the primes, may claim an indirect

relationship with them through the notes of the funda-

mentally consonant scales. Such relationship must

be of either a Fifth or a Fourth. (The following table

gives such derived consonances—reduced to the middle

96

THE UNITIES OF INDIAN MUSIO [Chapter V

octave—with their relation to the fundamentally con-

sonant notes:—

Note of reference.

The derived notes:—

Fourth

Fifth.

C

(240)

F

(320)

G

(360)

D

(270)

G

(360)

A#

(405)

E

(300)

A

(400)

B

(450)

F

(320)

Bb

(426₂₃)

c

(480)

G

(360)

C

(240)

D

(270)

A

(400)

Db

(266₂₃)

E

(300)

A#

(405)

D

(270)

E#

(303.75)

Bb

(432)

Eb

(288)

F*

(324)

B

(450)

E

(300)

F#

(337.5)

Eb

(288)

Ab

(384)

Bb

(432)

F#

(337.5)

B

(450)

Db b

(253.125)

Ab

(384)

Db

(256)

Eb

(288)

Dbb

(256)

F#

(341₁₃)

Ab

(384)

Apparently every new note obtained may be

taken as a new base and the series may be continued

indefinitely. But it should be noted that such derived

notes become more and more distantly related to

the primes and soon cease to be consonant in character.

From these additional notes, fresh scales may be derived

on the model of the fundamental consonant scale. The

following are the most common scales of such a type, in

which the two tetrachords are perfectly symmetrical and

are related by the relation of a Fifth or a Fourth, and in

which both the auxiliary notes F and G are necessarily

included. Hence these scales serve as the essential or

model scales for those of the chromatic type.

Chapter V ]

SIX MODEL SCALES

97

1. Notes C D E F G A♯ B c

Frequency 240,270,300,320,360,405,450,480

The two tetrachords here are related by a Fifth.

2. Notes C D E F G A B♭ c

Frequency 240,270,300,320,360,400,426⅔,480.

The relation is that of a Fourth.

3. Notes C D E♭ F G A♯ B♭ c

Frequency 240,270,288,320,360,405,432,480

The relation is that of a Fifth.

4. Notes C D E♭ F G A♭ B♭ c

Frequency 240,270,288,320,360,384,426⅔,480

The relation is that of a Fourth.

5. Notes C D♭ E F G A♭ B c

Frequency 240,256,300,320,360,384,450,480

The relation is that of a Fifth.

6. Notes C D♭ E♭ F G A♭ B♭ c

Frequency 240,256,288,320,360,384,432,480

The relation is that of a Fifth.

An analysis of the various scales used in Indian music shows that it uses scales of both the consonant and chromatic types. ( See appendix for the chromatic scales ). As Indian music has no harmony, chromatic scales do not offer much difficulty in their use. What the system insists upon is that it must keep intact the relationship of a major Fifth or major Fourth between the corresponding members of the two tetrachords. To keep this relationship always true and prominent, the system further requires every scale to include, in addition to the fundamental note, either its Fourth or Fifth so

7

98

THE UNITIES OF INDIAN MUSIC [ Chapter V

that it should function as the consonant note for reference in the second tetrachord. Thus in each tetrachord

the music starts from and necessarily returns to the prime notes of the drone. This helps the performer to

maintain his sense of tonality firmly. The other consonances generated by the harmony of the drone serve

him well in fixing his intermediate notes also, as they provide in themselves a good standard of comparison and

contrast. The question of choosing a scale, therefore, reduces itself to introducing notes in a given tetrachord and

then by the principle of parallel tonality, the notes of the other tetrachord are automatically fixed. Such notes, as

happen to be the members of the harmony of the drone, will give consonant scales and others will give less con-

sonant or dissonant scales. To heighten the effect, the dissonances may in certain cases be made further acute.

In such cases, the scales are of course chromatic, but help to widen the range of artistic performance.

In practical music, the method of the vocal performer fundamentally differs from that of the instru-

mentalist in obtaining any scales. The instrumentalist sticks up to his frets or keys and thereby often exposes

himself to small errors. The vocal performer on the other hand bases his judgment on the harmony generated

by the drone, and so his sense of tonality is never lost. Thus if a sharp or a flat of a note is wanted, the instru-

mentalist will change the position of his frets or vary the tension a little. The vocal performer on the other

hand will try to link up such a note with one of the prominent consonances of the harmony of the drone,

either as a consonance or as a dissonance, according as the case may require, and thus always observe the true

interval, by the simple device of the accompaniment of a drone as a constant background to his music.

Chapter V ]

THE DRONE

99

Again for a change in scale, the instrument player has to make a new adjustment for every new scale, but for the vocal performer who uses a drone, there is no necessity of any new arrangement at all; all scales whether with sharps or flats can be fully brought out with the help of the same common harmony of the drone.

The constant use of the drone trains the performer in the habit of employing truly harmonic intervals and in the proper understanding of the artistic use of dissonances.

The drone further strengthens the modal effect and enlarges the scope for variation between Rāgas belonging to the same family.

Above all, it boldly asserts the feeling for tonality, by constantly stressing the tonal relationship between the individual note on the one hand and the fundamental or the tonic note on the other.

Since there is no harmony, as such, in Indian music, 'the notes of a chosen scale stand out from each other as clearly as the faces of our friends do to our minds eye' and their individual consonant or dissonant character also stands out clearly and prominently on account of the contrast provided by the harmony of the drone.

In Indian music, particular interest therefore attaches to the tonal relationship of each note-be it a consonant or dissonant one-towards the harmony of the drone, of which the fundamental or tonic note is the chief and powerful constituent.

The First Unity of Indian music therefore is in the correct observance of the tonal relationship of the chosen notes, and it is easily and correctly observed by the constant reference of all music to the accompaniment of a drone, as previously described.

It is on account of the increasing influence of the drone, that the whole system began to be considered as being based on one Grāma (a group of essential

100

THE UNITS OF INDIAN MUSIC [ Chapter V

notes ) instead of on two, as in the old days. Really speaking in to-day's music there is no one parent mode

or Grāma as such, but it is a harmony of several consonances which is provided by the drone that has taken

its place. Again this harmony contains such intervals as may admit of a relation of a Fourth or a Fifth between the

corresponding members of the resulting or chosen scales. It is therefore wrong to suppose that all music

has been reduced to one Grāma - the Ṣadja Grāma.

The fact is that music has been using intervals belong-

ing to both Grāmas and other intervals also, which do

not belong to either of them, and after due incorpora-

tion of the merits of each, has extended its possibilities

much beyond the limited field of the Grāmas. With

the constant use of a drone, it is impossible to ignore

the strong sense of tonality which the music develops

and that over and above the relation of the individual

notes towards each other, the relation of each note

towards the tonic or the keynote asserts itself boldly

and throws its relation with the other notes in the

back-ground. It is on this account, that scales began to

be judged by their reference to the tonic note. Again,

as the G-type of the drone is used on a very large scale,

-for almost all kinds of music-and the F-type in a few

cases only, the consonances belonging to the G-type

largely engage one's attention. But there are many

musical compositions, which though played or sung to

the G-type of the drone, employ consonances of the

F-type. This means that the linking of tones is a

matter of a free choice and has its roots in the essen-

tial laws of harmony, rather than in the narrow and un-

intelligible relations of the old Grāmic scales. Follow-

ing what Sir James Jeans observes at one place, we may

say that this is in keeping with the natural tendency

Chapter V] TONIC-CHORD OF INDIAN MUSIC

101

of continually enlarging the potentialities of the scale.

The scale has been in turn pentatonic, heptatonic,

of twelve or twenty-two notes and may yet be split

up into a larger number of divisions in order to make

it still richer and more accommodative. But in every

such attempt, the simple ratios of the harmonic upper

partials must beyond doubt figure most prominently.

The Indian system is not an exception to the

above. Originally the scales were very rigid, then

they went by tetrachords, then there was the

thought of symmetry between the two tetrachords, then

they went by saṅgati-s or by associating two particular

notes together and finally the construction of a scale has

now come to rest on the relationship of the different notes

towards the harmony of the drone or the Tonic-Chord of

Indian music, if we may call it so. In Western music,

a strong feeling for tonality makes the passage from a

major to a minor scale easy and enjoyable In Indian

music too, there is a similar development. Thus in

the scales of certain Rāgas, there is a frequent change

from the relationship of a Fourth to that of a Fifth

and vice versa and under the circumstances the scale

evidently develops enharmonic forms in the case of

some of its notes. It is the drone therefore and the

consequent feeling for tonality it creates, that make

such music easy and enjoyable. On this account,

the reference of all music to the constant accompani-

ment of a drone forms the first and foremost Unity of

Indian music.

CHAPTER VI

The Unities - Continued

Rāga, the Second Unity of Indian Music.

The observance of a strict melodic law or a Rāga throughout a piece of music is the second important

Unity of Classical Indian music. In a Rāga, a particular scale is chosen and its notes are so arranged as to

excite a certain emotion in the mind of the listener.

Rāga is a distinctive feature of Indian music and is not known to the music system of the West, in which

'Harmony' predominates and the mood changes according to the impulse of the moment.

The word Rāga literally means 'that which enraptures the hearer.' Incidentally, it is not a plain,

simple thing. It is neither a scale, nor a mode, much less is it a melody, for a single scale or a mode may

generate more Rāgas than one and in one and the same Rāga, innumerable melodic arrangements are possible.

Thus, in the ancient days there were only Jātis or modes, but as it was later on found that it was possible

to extend the potentialities of a mode still further, the Jātis were gradually replaced by what are called

Rāgas. Out of a single mode or a particular scale, many different Rāgas can be formed by giving prom-

inence to this or that particular note or to a particular melodic nucleus. A Rāga is thus an artistic idea or

an æsthetic scheme of which a scale, a mode and a melody or melodies form the raw material.

Chapter VI] OḌAVA, ṢĀḌAVA, SAMPŪṚNA

103

There are three chief categories under which the

Rāgas are classified. Thus a Rāga is Śuddha or pure,

Chāyālaga or derived or is Sankeerna,- meaning -of

mixed origin, according as the scale, employed by it, is

Śuddha or pure, derived-meaning slightly modified, or

is wholly chromatic in its character. The Śuddha Rāgas

admit of a more general and broad treatment than the

Chāyālaga, in which the treatment becomes more and

more specific, till finally in the Sankeerna Rāgas it

becomes absolutely singular.

Again, in one and the same category, there are three

primary ways in which a single scale may be employed

for the formation of the Rāgas. Thus, if only five degrees

of the scale are chosen, the Rāga is Oḍava or pentatonic,

if six are chosen it is Ṣāḍava or hexatonic and if all the

seven are chosen, it is Sampūrṇa or one employing the

full scale.

Further, there will be Rāgas, which may be Oḍava

both in ascent and descent or may be Oḍava in ascent

only and Ṣāḍava or Sampūrṇa in descent. Thus for the

Oḍava variety alone, there will be three sub-varieties

and for the three main varieties together, there

will be in all nine sub-varieties of choosing the notes for

ascent and descent from one and the same scale. A

Rāga must therefore, belong to one of these nine varieties

in which a scale can be chosen.

The chosen scale does not however attain the

status of a Rāga, unless it further obeys the following

conditions:-

1 It must necessarily possess æsthetic potentialities.

2 It must always take C (Sā), the fundamental.

104

THE UNITIES—CONTINUED

[ Chapter VI

3 It must employ the full range of an octave and

so must cover both the tetrachords.

4 It must not omit both F ( Ma ) and G ( Pa )

simultaneously, which means, that it must always

include at least one of them, if not both.

5 It must not take both flats and sharps of the

same note consecutively.

It may be shown that the above conditions have a

truly scientific origin in the principle of tonality itself as

explained in the last chapter and have nothing that may

be called capricious about them. Let us therefore

examine their significance one by one.

Thus the æsthetic potentialities, necessary for a

Rāga, according to the first condition, are realised by

giving prominence to a particular note in preference to

others. This preference throws that note in direct con-

trast with the Tonic-harmony of the drone and thereby

boldly upholds the particular consonant or dissonant

character of that note, thus imparting a distinct æsthe-

tic stamp or ethos to the Rāga. The note receiving

such prominence is called the Vādi. To heighten the

effect of the Vādi, another note either its Fifth or Fourth

and hence one belonging to the other tetrachord-is given

next best prominence. This note is called Samvādi or

the helpmate of the Vādi. The Samvādi imitates what

the Vādi does in its own tetrachord, and being at a

distance of a Major Fifth or Fourth from the Vādi,

provides a point of reference to maintain the accu-

racy of the intervals between the notes of its own tetra-

chord. It thus bears an equally consonant or dissonant

relation towards the base note of its tetrachord, as the

Vādi bears towards the tonic, which acts as the base

note of the first tetrachord. If the Vādi belongs to the

Chapter VI] SYMMETRY BETWEEN TETRACHORDS

105

second tetrachord and the Samvādi to the first, the com-

parison still holds good but with the bases interchanged

i. e. between the Samvādi with the tonic and the Vādi

with the base-note of the second tetrachord. In any case

there is a symmetry between the corresponding inter-

vals of the two tetrachords of the scale of a Rāga. Thus

the principle of similarity of the two tetrachords of a

scale, as required by the First Unity is facilitated by the

Vādi-Samvādi arrangement which as a result requires

the observance of the second condition viz. that a Rāga

must cover both the tetrachords fully.

The æsthetic potentialities of a Rāga are further

extended by assigning to it particular combinations of

the principal notes of the chosen scale, certain

embellishments, ascending or descending, conjunct or

disjunct forms of melodic motion, and the hour of the

day appropriate to the mood or æsthetic stamp given

by the Vādi and Samvādi of the Rāga. All these how-

ever come under the Æsthetics of music and will there-

fore be dealt with in a separate chapter.

Now, the third condition viz. that a Rāga must not

omit (Sā) C or the tonic and must include at least

(Ma) F or (Pa) G evidently shows that each of the two

tetrachords of a Rāga must begin invariably with its

respective base note. The base notes are none other

than the prime notes of the Tonic-harmony of the

drone. Thus the arrangement of the tetrachords of

a Rāga-scale is directly based upon the practice of

tuning the Tamburā which supplies the drone 'without

which the Rāga-scale would be like a ship without a

rudder.' This explains why a Rāga must include either

Ma (F) or Pa (G) in addition to the tonic note Sā (C)

and also why Indian music requires the constant

accompaniment of a drone.

106

THE UNITIES-CONTINUED

[ Chapter VI

The last condition that a Rāga must not take the sharps and flats of the same note consecutively has also a similar justification. For, while passing from the fundamental to its Octave by gradually raising the pitch of a note, it is at certain specific points only that consonances come to a peak. The degrees of the Śuddha or model scale are so chosen as to represent the consonances, indicating these peaks. Thus between two consecutive peaks or notes of the model scale, there can be no other peak or note, as consonant as the two Śuddha notes. An intermediate note, if chosen, is bound to be a little more sharp or flat than the neighbouring natural notes. A Śuddha or a natural note being a consonance compares more favourably with the drone, as also with its neighbouring Śuddha notes, than either its sharp or flat form. The Suddha note is therefore related to the drone and other Śuddha notes as a consonance and the sharp or the flat one as a dissonance. In taking the Śuddha note consecutively with its sharp or flat form, there will thus be two conflicting æsthetic processes in one and the same Rāga and so they would baffle the very unity for which a Rāga stands viz. that of making a specific emotional or æsthetic appeal.

In such a procedure, there is yet another difficulty viz. that small chromatic intervals not belonging to the scale check the easy flow of melody and are a distinct handicap particularly in vocal performance and produce dissonance. Again, introducing discords, without any æsthetic end in view, is meaningless and merely annoying. For all these reasons the consecutive use of a sharp or a flat of a note, along with its Śuddha form, is strictly forbidden in Indian music.

Over and above these rules, there are some other conventions, which a Rāga has to observe. These are

Chapter VI] RĀGA-CONVENTIONS

107

an outcome of age-long associations and practice and

have assumed almost the same significance as the sci-

entific rules.

A few of the more important conventions may be

given here. Variations in the temperature and humidity

of the atmosphere are both seasonal and diurnal, and

even on one and the same day these occur almost hourly.

The seasons greatly influence our diet, dress and moods,

and the day and night-cycle controls our hours of work

and rest. These are the factors which are mainly

responsible for the assignment of particular seasons and

also of a particular part of the day or night for singing or

playing particular Rāgas.

Thus particular Rāgas are to be sung in particular

seasons and even in that season, at a particular time of

the day or night. It would be considered a sacrilege

to sing a Rāga at any other time, except the one assign-

ed to it. The restriction about the season has almost

disappeared in course of time, but the restriction about

the time of the day or night still dies hard.

For the purpose of the allotment of proper time

to each, the Rāgas are divided into Pūrva and Uttar

Rāgas. The Pūrva Rāgas have their Vādi note in the

first tetrachord, while the Uttar Rāgas have their Vādi

note in the second.

In the Pūrva Rāgas, as the Vādi belongs to the

lower part of the scale, it is but natural that they should

have a tendency for ascending progression, while on

account of the high position of the Vādi, the Uttar

Rāgas can evidently show their best charms in the

descending form of progression. The Pūrva Rāgas

are sung from midday onwards up to midnight and

their ascending progression is in keeping with the more

108

THE UNIFIES-CONTINUED

[ Chapter VI

vigorous and aéctive part of the day. The Uttar Rāgas

on the rother hand, with their descending progression;

are delicate and plaintive in character and justly

employ such hours viz. those from midnight on wards

up to midday, during which one is mostly by oneself

and puts on a reflective mood, and when, on account

of a considerable fall in the general noise level, very

soft and low notes can be easily heard and enjoyed.

Except perhaps the psychological reason given above and

the strong hold on our minds of our traditions and long

associations, there is no other reason which gives a

satisfactory explanation of the order of allotting parti-

cular hours to the different Rāgas.

Sunrise and sunset happen to be the respective

midpoints of the two time-cycles and it is at these times

that the best Rāgas of each type are to be heard. Such

Rāgas are called Sandhiprakāsh meaning twilight Rāgas

and are the most favourite of the artistes and listeners

alike. In Indian music, it has been customary to

associate specific Rāgas with specific emotions. Why a

particular emotion is associated with a particular Rāga

is a matter which needs closer consideration. As such,

the problem is dealt with independently in another

chapter and there it will be seen that it has a truly

scientific basis. But, as far as the average student of

Indian music or the professional is concerned, his ideas

about the relation between the Rāgas and their Rasas or

emotions are more or less arbitrary and are often queer.

So far, we have given the general principles and

conventions of the Rāga-system. But it need not be

supposed that the system is perfectly rigid and incapa-

ble of further changes or evolution, as some orthodox

scholars and almost all professionals believe. In fact

it may be seen that the Rāga-system has been an ever-

Chapter VI | RĀGA, AN EVERGROWING IDEA

109

growing idea and has gradually developed along

rational lines of evolution, even in the past. Thus, from

scales, modes or Jātis were obtained. From the Jātis,

Rāgas were obtained by particular arrangement of the

tetrachords and by giving prominence to an individual

note or group of notes serving as the Rāgānga or nucleus

of the Rāga. In the early stages, the nucleus was as

far as possible so chosen as not to disturb the symmetry

between the two tetrachords. But, as there was bound to

be a very limited number of scales with perfectly similar

tetrachords, the Rāga system had to employ scales with

dissimilar tetrachords also. In such scales the par-

allelism between the Vādi and the Samvādi could not

remain intact and the Samvādi began to be neglected.

In such cases the Rāga-criterion began to be based

upon the Vādi aided by special Sangatis or associations

of certain notes together—a process almost similar to

the progression of Western music by chords. But as

the constant reference of all music to the drone could

further offer free scope for every note of the Rāga to

assert its individual character, either as a consonance

or as a dissonance independently of the other notes of

the Rāga-scale, the Rāga-criterion settled down solidly

upon giving prominence to a desired consonance or

dissonance and hence to a particular note of the

Rāga scale, and so manipulated the other notes as not

to be prominent enough to efface the effect of the

chief note - the Vādi or the dominant. To preserve

the individual character of the Vādi, it was necessary

to refer it always to the Tonic-harmony of the drone

and as such, the drone itself became the point of start

and return of all music. The drone thus superseded

the old convention of the Graha and the Nyāsa—viz. of

beginning music with a specific note and ending it

with another specific one. This is quite justifiable in a

110

THE UNITIES-CONTINUED

[ Chapter VI

system employing a drone, which supplies the very

basis for judging the several notes employed in a Rāga.

But although the drone was a simple and rational

means of fixing the tonality of music, the very fact,

that it needed no conscious effort on the part of the

performer to fix it, deprived the majority of the per-

formers of the art of tuning. The state of things was

not so bad, when the music was accompanied by such

instruments as the Beena. But this set up the Beenakārs

who well knew the art of instrumentation, against

the vocal performers who badly needed it, but never

cared to know it. This rivalry brought about a per-

manent separation between the vocal and instrumental

performers. This happened about the close of the

Seventeenth century and from that time the vocal

performers relied solely upon their æsthetic sense for

the development of their art and as was natural, many

of them could not have the necessary fineness of

æsthetic judgment. So, music began to take liberties

with the laws of harmony and developed along chro-

matic lines. But as the drone was a strong and sure

bond between music and harmony, only such chromatic

deviations, as were really interesting or served an

æsthetic purpose, survived and others perished as a

matter of course. This is how some of the Rāgas with

chromatic scales have come into being.

This tendency of taking undue freedom with the

Rāgas has been rampant among the present-day pro-

fessionals and the so-called music-directors, who having

discarded the use of the Tonic-harmony of the drone,

instead prefer the harmonium. These, therefore, stand

the least chance of developing the faculty of correct

intonation. It is true that people are becoming more

music-minded on account of the wide field opened

Chapter VI] MUSIC CATERERS 111

to music by the Phonograph, the Radio and the Talkies,

but it is equally true that the æsthetic sense of the

masses cannot at once attain the degree of fineness,

which a cultured mind may need or possess. Under the

circumstances, the performers and the music-directors

and manufacturers have been vying with one another

in supplying music, as bad and rough as is in demand!

Of course, there are honourable exceptions and it

augurs well that thinking people have been sick of such

music. Further, it is a welcome sign of the times that

the number of people taking academical interest in

the study of Indian music is increasing everyday. One

may therefore hope to see that music is soon freed from

the clutches of the present-day music-caterer.

No account of the Rāga-system will be considered

as complete, without an attempt to distinguish clearly

the Rāga-system of the North from that of the South.

The necessity arises from the fact that the two systems

had originally a common ancestry.

According to the Pandits, the Southern system re-

mains mostly what it was. It is the Northern system

which has undergone a change perhaps due to the change

in the æsthetic bearings such as the greater pre-

dominance of the drone or perhaps on account of the

bifurcation of instrumental music from the vocal. The

change must have occurred partly as a matter of

evolution and partly on account of the reactions of its

contact with the Persian or Mohammedan art.

The Rāga system of the South is a matter of ma-

thematical computation and is thus easy to understand.

The Southern system recognises only twelve notes in

an octave. This number includes all the notes, the

Śuddha, as well as the sharps and the flats. Each

§12

THE UNITIES—CONTINUED

[ Chapter VI

tetrachord consists of six notes. Of the twelve notes

a Rāga-scale is to employ only seven notes covering

up the whole octave and has to obey further all the

rules previously referred to in this chapter.

Thus by different arrangements of the notes in

each tetrachord and combining them so as to give the

maximum number of individually different scales,

thirty-six scales are obtained for Rāgas which take the

Suddha Ma or the note F and an equal number further

for those that take the Tivra Ma or the note F# in all

giving 72 Thāṭ-s or parent scales. Again each Thāṭ or

parent scale gives 484 different Rāgas by permuting

the notes of each of the nine varieties of choice, such

as the Oḍava, Ṣāḍava and Sampūrṇa etc. Thus the

total number of the possible Rāgas according to the

Southern system is 72 × 484 = 34848. But, of these,

only about two hundred are current even in the South,

the rest of the lot, as one may easily imagine, are either

not explored or do not possess æsthetic individuality

necessary for the formation of a new Rāga, as distinctly

different from any already known. By no means of

course, the Rāga-system has been fully explored, nor is

it ever possible to do so, but the fact, that the number of

Rāgas with individual æsthetic potentialities is itself

very small, is at the bottom of, why only a few Rāgas

are current and shall remain current even in the South.

The Northern school on the other hand did not

attempt the mathematically possible but æsthetically

impossible task of obtaining the maximum number of

Rāgas, but chose to start with such scales as offered a

good æsthetic nucleus. In the old days as previously

referred to in the first chapter, there were rival Matas or

schools of musical thought. All of them, however, pro-

posed six as the minimum number of primary Rāga-scales.

Chapter VI ]

RAGA-RAGINIS

113

These were the six Janaka Rāgas or the parent-scales of the

Northern system. Each Janaka Rāga, had five Rāgini.s

( or wives ) which were derived by shifting the choice for

the Vādi from one note of the scale to another. Again

each Rāgini, either by including some fresh notes or

by omitting some from its original ones, was to give six

sons or subsidiary Rāgas. Thus the total number of

Rāgas and Rāgini.s for one Janaka Rāga or parent-

scale was thirty-six and for all the six parent-scales

together 216. This is about the same number as is

current in the Northern system of to-day. Of course,

no single artiste knows all these Rāgas, nor even the

best among them are able to give more than a hundred

to hundred and fifty of them. The reason for this small

number is that Rāgas, differing only by a small change

here or there, nearly merge into one another and lose

their individuality as such. It is in this manner that a

majority of the mathematically possible number of

Rāgas overlap each other and lose their individual signi-

ficance. Thus the Southern Pandits theoretically

advocate 72 Thāt-s or parent scales, but for the pur-

poses of practical music, feel satisfied with only 19

parent-scales as these do embrace all the known Rāgas

even of their system.

The chief merit of the Northern system lies how-

ever in the fact that every derived Rāga or Rāgini

possesses some distinct feature belonging to the Janaka

or parent Rāga and yet differs from it and other derived

Rāgas by a feature individually its own. Hence, though

the æsthetic appeal of such a family or clan of Rāgas is

generally of a set type, yet it requires great artistic

skill in bringing out the distinguishing character of two

near-most Rāgas.

8

114

THE UNITIES-CONTINUED

[ Chapter V

The clan idea of Rāgas could not however cover

all the requirements of the Northern system and hence

alternative arrangements began to be proposed from

time to time. Thus some scholars advocated the necess-

ity of assuming more than six fundamental or parent

scales and some suggested as many as nineteen. At

present there is no unanimity about the minimum

number of such parent scales necessary to embrace all

the Rāgas of the system. The latest and perhaps the

ablest advocate in the field was the late Pandit Bhāt-

khande of Bombay who based the whole system only

upon ten parent-scales, but even his plan has many

weaknesses and is not able to accommodate all the

Rāgas of the system in a satisfactory manner.

Tāla,—The Third Unity of Indian Music.

Tāla or the singing or playing of every piece of

music strictly to a chosen measure of time is the third

and the last Unity of Indian music.

As is well known, Indian music, which is homo-

phonic and has no harmony, can show its best charms in

the region of melody only. Melody however is a regular

change of pitch with respect to time and so proceeds by

determinate steps. Hence it has to pay special attention

to rhythm. Indian music has consequently developed

every phase of it with minute precision and employs

several time-measures not known to the Europeans.

A time-measure employs a fixed number of Mātrās

or time units; a short syllable means one Mātrā and a

long one means two. The timing of the Mātrās is

regulated by assigning to them a fixed Laya or duration

of time. Subjectively, the Laya or the rhythmic sense

means the ability to maintain precisely the uniformity of

Chapter VI ] RHYTHM IN POETRY AND MUSIC

115

the time-span of each Mātrā or time-unit. The Laya

therefore is as it were the soul of every time-measure.

There are three varieties of Laya—Vilambita, Maddhya

and Druta, corresponding to the slow, medium and fast

varieties of tempo in the Western system. The Maddhya

or the medium is twice as fast as the Vilambita or the

slow, and the Druta or the fast is twice as fast as the

Maddhya or the medium.

In the early stages musical time followed the same

sequence of long and short as that of the poetic metre

used for the song. The time-measure therefore used to

possess the same number of bars or divisions as those

of the metrical line or foot. A bar or a beat usually

signifies the place of stress. But as the rhythm of poetry

mainly depends upon the actual movement of the words,

and not on the Tāla, it is regulated more by the sense

and the length of the words than by the regularity of

stress. The measurement of time by quantity or by the

number of long and short syllables does not therefore

necessarily contribute to the periodicity or regular

recurrence of stress which rhythm in music means. The

poetic metres therefore did not at all suit the require-

ments of musical rhythm, which framed its different

time-measures on the principle of regularity and

symmetry of the places of stress and rest possible under

the circumstances.

In poetry, it is the meaning of words that matters,

while little value is attached to the emotional power of

pure tones. Music, however, attaches more value to the

emotional power of the tones than to their literary

meaning and this served to make its rhythm still further

independent of the poetic metres.

A Tāla-measure consists of several bars and places

of rest.

116

THE UNITIES-CONTINUED

[Chapter VI

A bar may consist of two or more Mātrās but the chief constituents of a bar are either a group of two or three Mātrās, joined together or a group of them repeated once, twice or more times as required to make up the total number of Mātrās assigned to the bar. The bar is indicated by special stress or accent or by the beat of the hand or by a special conventional sound on the drum. Special stress is given on the principal bar and deliberate silence is observed or some other conventional sound is produced on the drum, to mark an agreed position of rest. The silence indicates a particular phase of each Tāla-cycle and thus helps to maintain the sequence of the bars or places of stress in the measure, accurately.

Ancient works on music mention five Mārgi or generic Tālas or time-measures. A number of fresh Tāla-measures used to be obtained by assigning different time-values and sequences to the Mātrā-groups forming the Mārgi Tālas, according to rules specifically laid down for the purpose. Thus, for generations past, there have been as many as one hundred and eight Tālas in vogue and thirty-five of these are considered to be of special importance. Most of these, however, belong to the sphere of pedagogic interest and in practice only a few are really needed. Out of one and the same Tāla-measure, a skilful drum-player or a Tāla-expert can create at will a number of time-idioms, smooth or zigzag and signify a desired degree of ease or strain in following the Tāla-measure. Temporary variations in the strict form of the Tāla-measure are made by changing over from a time in 'two-s' to a time in 'three-s' and by effecting phase differences between the places of stress and pause of the strict and the free forms of the time-measure. Such handicaps evidently put the skill and culture of the performer and

Chapter VI ] LIBERTY WITH LAYA, NEVER 117

the listener, as well, to a rigid test. Indian music does

this by laying it down that an artiste must not take any

liberty with a time-measure or with the Laya, in parti-

cular. Liberty with the Tāla-measure may for once be

tolerated but that with the Laya, never !

Thus by the very choice of a time-measure and by

free variations of its strict form, different degrees of ease

or strain can be suggested and our instincts and emotions,

bearing a correspondence to the smooth or zigzag, slow

or rapid character of the time-idiom, can be awakened.

In short, the first Unity discloses the method of

selecting a scale in an ideal manner and determines the

degree of the consonant or dissonant character of a note

and fixes its place in the scheme of tonality, the second

by giving prominence to particular notes and hence to

particular consonances or dissonances makes capital of

those consonances or dissonances for an emotional

appeal, and the third helps to maintain the flow of the

emotion and governs its rise and fall. Thus the three

Unities of Indian music are the complementary steps of

a common musical end in view and together make for a

larger Unity viz. of giving character to music.

CHAPTER VII

THE ÆSTHETICS OF INDIAN MUSIC

The larger unity or the one theme of classical Indian music is to give character to music.

Character, as we may see, has its roots deeply laid in the tonal relationship of the notes used and in the melodic progression, as extended in the region of rhythm. A song or a tune is the outward embodiment of music, but character is its very soul. The processes which bring out the full beauty of this soul form the Æsthetics of music.

We shall now give the different æsthetic processes employed in Indian music and see what justification they may have from the view-point of modern science:

To begin with, the drone is tuned to the fundamental of the singer's voice. Then a song is given to its accompaniment. Every classical song has a poetic theme. This is usually very simple in nature. It may be in praise of God or a mythological deity or hero, or of a king or patron. In some cases, it may be from music itself or be one describing nature. But more often than not, it may concern itself with lovers with the conventional slip between the cup and the lip. In short, the composition is usually of a simple and homely character. Nor does music allow much scope for any special poetic merit, as the meaning of the poetic words and phrases is stifled or thrown into the background so completely, even by the one-part accompaniment and

Chapter VII ]

IMPROVISATION

119

processes such as those of the Indian system that the audience has to be content mostly with the notes of the

music and has often to guess the words. This is true not only of Indian music but of the music of the West

also. As Megroz puts it 'the words of the majority of songs are so poor and even silly, that the loss is not

necessarily severe.' In any case, the Indian audience does not feel as much concerned with the words of a

song as with the music to which the words are set. Even then the artiste gives some consideration to the poetic

theme. So, when the song is actually sung, it is given first to slow or medium time and the whole song-

usually composed of two and sometimes of more parts-is sung once and occasionally twice or for more times, so

that the poetic theme may without much difficulty be grasped by the audience.

When the song is sung thus, the improvisation or progression begins. The progression of Indian music

is not a work of a rhapsodic improvisation as some-chiefly Western critics-suppose, but it has some well recognised

principles to guide it. It is improvisation in the sense that it needs no rigid preparation as that of the Western

system, in which there are many parts, which without a common understanding and previous direction may run

amuck and entirely spoil the music. In India, 'the artiste himself is both the director and the performer and

hence there is no academicism about him and his songs simply come off.' Thus the improvisation of Indian

music allows greater scope for individual freedom than that of Western music.

Each one of the three unities-referred to in the previous chapter has its own reactions or demands

on the progression of Indian music and let us view them in the same order as the unities themselves.

120

THE ÆSTHETICS OF INDIAN MUSIC [Chapter VII

The first requirement of the first unity is about the correct intonation of all the intervals of the scale of the chosen Rāga. This is secured by a rigorous observation of the principle of tonality referred to in a previous chapter. Incidentally, the drone, being the instrument of reference, must have an unquestioned predominance in the accompaniment. Other instruments of accompaniment have a secondary place in Indian music, as these, on account of the instrument player's unavoidable lag behind the singer, are in most cases unable to accompany the music at all. Under the circumstances, the most they do is either to play the salient notes of the music or simply strengthen the drone. The instruments therefore lose their speciality as accompanying parts and simply converge as it were into the drone.

The next step is to make the best attempt to preserve the quality of the notes employed and make the music as much expressive as possible.

In the case of vocal music this is done by proper voice-training. In Indian music due regard is therefore paid to voice-training, but it is necessary to remember here that voice-training as understood in India is different from voice-training as understood in the West. In Indian music, as each song is cast in one definite mood and employs one scale viz that of the chosen Rāga alone, there are no sudden variations in the power and quality of the voice. On the other hand, it always seeks an opportunity to make a smooth return to the tonic note. In the Western system, however, the music is more of the dance-type and on account of the various parts develops a powerful mass of tone, and effects sudden changes in the mood. Again, imitation of the cries of birds and beasts, of the rustling of the

Chapter VII ]

VOICE-TRAINING

121

leaves or of the thundering of the clouds, of the surging of the billows or of the roaring of a brook, counts as musical performance in the West; whereas such performance has no place in Indian music. It is no wonder, therefore, if the voice production of an Indian performer sounds either hollow or monotonous to a casual listener who is normally trained in a diametrically different tradition. To return to our point, every Indian performer is expected to do his best in training his voice. This is achieved by including in the general training, a practical course in Ālāpa-making or Vocalisation, so necessary for the beginner to attain proficiency in vocalisation and for the advanced student to retain the proficiency once attained.

Voice-training.

The Ālāpa-exercises attach special importance to 'Resonance' and 'Poise' as these are the two essential things that develop the quality of the voice. Proper breath-control secures poise, whereas resonance depends chiefly upon proficiency in immaculate articulation. The Indian musician does not of course prescribe any particular exercises in breathing, but takes care to see that the Ālāpa-exercises are so graded as to develop the power of sustaining the voice with the greatest possible ease. He therefore makes it a point to avoid any jerks or shocks in voice-production and develops his capacity for sustaining the breath long enough by practising the vocalisation to slow time. For the purposes of resonance, proficiency in immaculate articulation is attained by a persistent practice in cleanly reproducing the vowel and consonant sounds occurring in the different words. Thus, every syllable is cleanly attacked and sustained for a while and is then

122

THE ÆSTHETICS OF INDIAN MUSIC [Chapter VII

released with the utmost possible grace and ease. The few

syllables, which satisfy all the expectations of such a

practice, are specially singled out from the rest. The

Nom-Thom lessons are meant for such a practice only.

As these lessons form an integral part of the practical

training of every musician, it is necessary to consider

here the degree of scientific interest attaching to them.

Both vowels and consonants are vocal sounds and

the musical quality of the voice is largely modified

by their presence or absence. When breath, which

throws the vocal chords into action, passes from the

larynx on to the lips, it comes across the various reso-

nating cavities in the mouth and causes the resulting

sound to be amplified. The amplification is further

modified by the position of the tongue and the degree

of the opening or closing of the teeth and the lips.

These cavities consist of the Pharynx or the upper

part of the throat, the soft palate, the hard palate and

the nasal cavity. The teeth and the lips in collaboration

with the tongue can be used with advantage to

produce a good vocal tone. The strain on the

vocal chords can therefore be reduced to a

minimum by the judicious use of these cavities and by

the proper control and adjustment of the tongue, the

teeth and the lips.

Of all sounds, vowels require the minimum of effort;

for, a vowel is breath unimpeded by any of the organs

of articulation 'but only moulded or modified into

different sounds by alterations in the shape of the

mouth. In phonetics, vowels are often classified as

tense, medium or slack. In music however, there is no

need for such a distinction and it is enough to know

whether a vowel is long or short, a single sound or a

Chapter VII ]

VOWELS AND CONSONANTS

123

diphthong. In Indian music, long vowels are preferred

to short and diphthongs to simple ones.

Among the consonants, some are voiced and some

are unvoiced. The voiced consonants are generated by

the vibrations of the vocal chords, but the unvoiced

ones are not so generated. The latter are purely

mechanical sounds either explosive or frictional in nature.

Thus the sound of T, P, etc. is unvoiced and explosive

in nature. That of F, S, Sh, etc. is also unvoiced but is

frictional in character. For every voiced consonant,

there is a corresponding unvoiced consonant possible.

In every day speech, only a few of the probable number

of such sounds are used. Music, however, uses the

unvoiced sounds with a distinct advantage and with an

equal facility and purpose as the other sounds used in

speech.

Of the vowels and consonants, a vowel sound can be

indefinitely sustained without losing its characteristic

effect. A consonant on the other hand is not a persistent

sound, being practically a new way of com-

mencing and ending a vowel sound. The requirements

of a musical note are therefore fully satisfied by a vowel

sound only and on this account all vocalisation consists

in sustaining the vowels in the words, for a desired

period of time. The consonants however lend a further

charm to the quality of a pure vowel sound, by creating

a variety in the attack and release of such sounds. In

Indian music the effect is particularly happy when a

compound consonant fuses into a vowel-diphthong, which

is sustained for some time and then released. Thus some

syllables such as Om, Nom, Thom, Hrom, Noum, Rheem,

Dre, Dhr, Tom, etc. are traditionally used in vocalisa-

tion, as these offer special facility and variety of pro-

nunciation, and are chiefly the syllables used in the

124

THE AESTHETICS OF INDIAN MUSIC [Chapter VII

Alāpa-exercises. The reason why particular consonants are chosen for the purpose of the attack and release of the above syllables, will be clear from the following explanation.

All consonants, except the gutturals, are formed in the front part of the mouth. An easy control over the movements of the front part of the mouth is therefore an advantage in vocalisation. Firstly, it gives ease of pronunciation of a majority of the speech sounds and secondly, it amplifies the sound without the risk of giving a shock to the glottis. On this account the Indian musician makes it a point to place the tone well forward in the mouth. In the case of an average man these muscles get sufficient training even in the course of everyday speech, reading or recitation, and hence the importance of cultivating the habit of good speech, reading or recitation, from the very childhood. In Indian music, however, this training is not left to chance and a course in Nom-Thom or Alāpa-making is invariably prescribed for every student of music. The peculiarity of such a course is that it employs such syllables only, as would always place the tone well forward in the mouth and provide sufficient training for the voice. The syllables of the Nom-Thom-group are, as will be easily seen, of the required nature, as they are formed only in the front part of the mouth. Between themselves they include all the essential vowels both simple and diphthong and employ such consonants only as place the tone well forward in the mouth.

An Ālāpa moves both in pitch and time and is thus a simple form of musical progression, in which the two well-known principles viz. of rhythmic advance and procedure by determinate degrees are honestly followed. It is executed first to a slow, then to a medium and

Chapter VII ]

ĀLĀPA-EXERCISES

125

finally to a fast measure of time. In an Ālāpa the dominant

notes of a Rāga always receive special prominence,

thereby making their comparison or contrast with the

drone, quite distinct.

In the Dhrupada, ( see Chapter VIII ) the Ālāpas

are given with the traditional syllables before the song

proper commences. In the other types, they are given

in the song proper and with the syllables of the words

of the song itself. The Ālāpas are first very short and

always end on the tonic note. Each successive

Ālāpa gradually accommodates more and more syllables

and hence accommodates fresh notes in addition and

stretches over a greater part of the time-measure.

The final link in the Ālāpa ends on the tonic and is

followed by a fixed link, called the Jodāchā ( joining )

Ālāpa, which leads from the tonic to the burden of the

song and thus completes the individual cycle of

Ālāpas.

When the Ālāpas are sung, the Tānas or

regular melodies begin. The difference between an

Ālāpa and a Tāna lies in the fact that in the Ālāpa the

salient notes of the Rāga receive special prominence,

both in magnitude and time, whereas the Tāna

proceeds by equal steps without preference for any

one note. The simple Tānas are sung with a single

vowel-sound advancing in pitch by the steps of the

desired melody. They are followed by what are

called Bol-Tānas i. e. Tānas in which the advance

takes place by the vowel-sounds of the successive

syllables of the words of the song itself.

The progress of both Ālāpas and Tānas takes

place by four successive stages. In the first stage, the

advance is by Ārohi-ascending-steps, in the second,

126

THE ÆSTHETICS OF INDIAN MUSIC [Chapter VII

by Āvarohi-descending-steps, in the third by Sthāyee -stationary steps-the same note repeating itself, and

in the fourth and the last by Samchāri-roaming-steps.

From the very ancient days, Indian theorists, without

exception, have advocated that a fundamental

difference exists between the processes of each of

these stages, in point of both the quality or the

character and the apparent pitch of the notes.

Thus in ascent, as we proceed higher, the notes

become more and more vigorous and individual in

character, whereas in descent the case is the reverse.

Thus the feeling tone or the individual æsthetic value

of the notes is different in the two processes. This

is also one of the reasons why the enharmonic effect

is distinctly felt in Indian music. This is especially

true of the notes which are distantly related to the

primes of the drone-the higher form occurring in the

ascent and the lower one occurring in the descent.

On this account the character of the note, though not

much changing, does change slightly in the two

processes.

In the Sthāyee or stationary form of progression,

the same note is repeated several times over, but,

between two such repetitions the neighbouring note-

usually the one just below-throws its shadow. This

is especially noticeable when the tonic or its Octave

is repeated. In this case the sharp Seventh, acting as

a leading note, as it were, throws its shadow between

two such repetitions.

In the Samchāri i.e. the roaming or complex form

of motion, enharmonic changes do take place and can

be determined by the same rules, only separately

applied to each ascending, descending or stationary

section of the melody. In short, it is not sufficient

Chapter VII ]

THE GLIDE

127

to know the scale of a Rāga, but it is necessary to know

further the different groups of notes, functioning in

the Rāga, with their proper sequence of ascending,

descending, stationary or Samchārī form of motion.

In an Ālāpa, the Meenda or glide is often employed

and it may sometimes extend to a full octave or even

beyond. In the glide, the voice or the note does not

move by steps, but glides on continuously. This may

apparently be considered as violating the well-respected

principle of procedure by determinate degrees or steps.

The contradiction is however only superficial, for, the

motion of a glide has a twofold significance.

In the glide, the voice is stressed just when it passes

up or down through the pitch of the legitimate notes of

the Raga-scale and remains perfectly smooth and gliding

for the rest of its journey. The points of stress, therefore

mark the beginning of fresh steps and thus form a legiti-

mate piece of melody against the gliding background.

Thus in a glide, the principle of procedure by determinate

degrees is truly observed in spirit. In Western

music also, the glide is frequently employed, in spite of

the fact that the general theory of that system does not

tolerate its use. Thus in the solo performances, particu-

larly those on the violin, such glides are frequently

played and as Prof. Blasserna tells us are played with

great effect also. Then the general abomination of the

glide may be due to the fact that in a system which is

keen on harmony, a glide may become a source of great

hindrance. The exact moment of stress seldom happens

to be the same with different people, even in the case of

a single gliding note and shall therefore be grossly missed

in harmony where a number of notes are employed and

are played by different people. To save music from such

a travesty of things the Western system puts a general

128

THE AESTHETICS OF INDIAN MUSIC [Chapter VII

ban on the glide. But as Indian music is homophonic,

there is no such risk and hence it uses the glide freely

and with distinct effect also. In a glide, except for the

moment of stress, there is a general suspension of the

notes and this establishes a sense of stretch or tension

and creates a longing for an early relief being restored.

The relief comes when the moment of stress just arrives

or the suspended note or voice finally resolves into a

well-defined consonant note of the Rāga-scale, usually

the tonic. The glide therefore plays a great æsthetic

role in Indian music and is a very favourite ornament

with all performers.

As will be seen from the explanation of the nature

of a glide, a note becomes legitimate if it receives special

stress and duration or else it is merely a passing note and

does not gather enough moment to make an impression

at all. A note can therefore be pushed into the back-

ground or avoided in two ways, either by omitting it

altogether or by using it merely as a passing note, with-

out any stress or duration. This is what the ancient

theorists of Indian music meant by Varjyatva or omission

of a note. It is either by Alpatva i. e. by lightly passing

over it or by Anabbhyāsa or Langhana, meaning total

omission.

Thus, as remarked elsewhere, every Rāga is a special

æsthetic scheme, having an individuality even in its

physical form. So, in the case of Rāgas which are very

close to one another, utmost care has to be taken to

preserve their individual character intact. This is done

by supplementing the Vādi-Samvādi arrangement and

the melodic specialities or rules of each, by the proper

choice of the Alāpas and Tānas, of their ascending or

descending gamakas motion, and of the use of glides or other

Gamakas.

Chapter VII] RĀGAS AND RASAS

129

We now come to the all important and ever interesting aspect of Indian Music viz. its capacity to make an emotional appeal. The Rāgas and their Rasas—have been a subject of very close attention even from the very early days and ever since have given rise to fantastic notions and surmises about them. Thus, there have been a few who think that music is merely a passing show or a pastime and has nothing to do with the inner mechanism of emotions. There have been others who declare that music can give rise to any and every emotion and can develop it to any degree of intensity. There have been yet others, who would assign this or that emotion to a Rāga, according as it would please them. There is thus a mess of all things, with the result that there have been keen differences of opinion on the point.

The problem of the Rāgas and their Rasas or emotions is not however as elusive as is thought to be, and if attempted with the proper spirit of critical analysis, admits of a fairly rational solution. To begin with, the problem has a threefold aspect. Just as the seer of an object, the object, and the process of seeing are the complements of a single action, the musician (or the listener), the music and the process of performing (or listening) are the complements of one and the same action, resulting in a certain musical appeal.

Hence, the nature and the degree of the emotional appeal may have much to do with the peculiarities of each of these. The performer and the listener have a certain initial freedom of naming or choosing their own material viz. the Rāga and the song etc., but having chosen the material once, they have to accept the law and order of the chosen theme as also its limitations. In music, sound being the medium, both the performer

9

130

THE ÆSTHETICS OF INDIAN MUSIC [Chapter VII

and the listener need have a clear understanding of its

laws and must, from the first, pay due regard to them.

The skill of the performer then lies in interpreting

these laws in as many beautiful ways as possible and

in creating different beautiful orders and patterns, out

of them. Though music thus offers great scope for

personal skill and variety, yet under the veil of this

variety, there is always that gracious presence of a

unity, the unity based upon the observance of the

physical laws. In considering the problem of Rasās

therefore, precedence ought to be given to the laws of

harmony over the likes and dislikes of individuals.

These laws will ever remain what they are and will

not alter like the tastes of individuals. Hence the

problem of the relation between the Rāgas and their

emotional appeal must be considered independently

of the likes and dislikes of men. Further, it must in

no way be considered from the viewpoint of the other

arts, particularly of poetry. Its consideration has

however been vitiated by such wrong notions and the

vitiation is almost complete! Personal likes and dislikes

tacked on unintelligible ancient practices, rivalry for

doing the gigantic or humanly impossible feats, want

of a general education or scientific grounding and a

general conservatism among the artistes are mainly

responsible for this sorry state of things! Those, who

maintain that the problem of the emotional appeal of

the Rāgas admits of no solution, either suffer from the

above defects, or want to take undue liberty with the

laws of harmony: From a purely rational point of

view, however, the laws of harmony ought to primarily

figure in the solution of the problem. Then it may be

for the artiste to give, within the limited freedom allow-

ed, such a setting to the laws as may best serve 'his

motives. True art therefore lies in the intelligent

Chapter VII] APPEAL OF A NOTE

131

interpretation of these laws racher than in taking undue freedom with them, as also in not allowing the other arts to react on them in an unhealthy manner. Thus in analysing the problem of the Rasas, we must look for the seat of the emotional appeal in the laws themselves.

Consonance is the first and foremost consideration upon which the laws of harmony are based. Music therefore employs consonances for a pleasant and hence for a bright effect.

Dissonance, on the other hand, is jarring and deals a shock which the ear protests. So music employes dissonances for an unpleasant or a dull or sad effect.

For the purposes of Indian music, the degree of consonance or disssonace generated by a note is easily determined by simply knowing how the note is related to the Tonic-harmony of the drone. As already investigated in a previous chapter, the resultant notes of this harmony are the first few harmonic upper partials of the fundamental note—which is the most powerful of all. Hence the comparison of a note with the tonic harmony of the drone is primarily a comparison with the fundamental note itself.

Then to determine the character of a note, the following two rules will suffice.

1 The physical appeal of a note is pleasant (bright) or unpleasant (dull or jarring) according as a note is a consonance or a dissonance.

2 The closer the harmonic relationship of the note with the tonic, the greater is the degree of consonance and the further the harmonic relationship, the

132

THE AESTHETICS OF INDIAN MUSIC [Chapter VII

greater is the degree of dissonance, generated by the

notes.

The following table gives the individual character

of each note in relation to the tonic note, as per the

two rules given above:-

1 Absolute consonances :- Unison, and Octave

2 Perfect consonances :- Fifth and Fourth

3 Medial consonances :- Major and Minor

Thirds

4 Imperfect dissonances :- Major Second and

Sixth.

5 Perfect dissonances :- Minor Second,

Minor Sixth,

Major Seventh,

Augmented Fourth..

In Indian music, the Minor Seventh is usually

associated with the Fifth (or the Fourth) and then

it is a medial consonance. In other cases, it belongs

to the class of imperfect dissonances.

These two rules, then determine the individual

character of each note. But as a Rāga does not employ

only one note but necessarily employs a group of at

least five to seven notes, what would be the Rasa or

the feeling tone of the Rāga may seem to remain yet

undecided. But it should be remembered here, that the

Rāga-system is based on the idea that each Rāga is to

give prominence to one particular note in preference to

others and so should become the vehicle of what that

note stands for. Thus in a Rāga, the part played by the

Vādi, being the most emphatic, survives to the end and

maintains its swing and potency all along, by pushing

the clashing detail out of sight, by less emphasis,

Chapter VII] VĀDI, AN INDEX OF RASA

133

attention or prominence. In choosing a Rāga, therefore,

its musical theme or better its emotional appeal is chosen

as well, and the latter is mainly governed by the

character of its Vādi or dominant note. The Vādi note

therefore serves as an index, as it were, of the kind of

appeal a Rāga may put forth.

As there are three types of notes, such as absolute

or perfect consonances, medial consonances and dis-

sonances, the corresponding musical appeal of the respec-

tive Vādi notes will also be of three different types.

The appeal would put on an openly gay and bright

character for consonances, whereas for dissonances, it

would be openly sad and dull or depressing. If the Vādi

happens to be a medial consonance, the appeal would

neither be very bright nor very dull, but would be

intermediate between the two and thus would seem

rather indefinite in character. Under the circumstances,

the uncertainty, in the part played by the medial conso-

nance of the Vādi note, is removed by stressing further

either the consonant or dissonant notes from the re-

maining part of the Rāga-scale.

The consonances can be stressed in two ways, viz.

by giving them individual prominence or by passing over

the dissonant notes lightly or by omitting the latter

altogether. The same is true of the dissonances also.

In this way, if the Vādi is meant to have a bright

appeal, the consonances ought to predominate and if it

is to have a sad or depressing appeal, the dissonances

must receive greater prominence. The appeal would

then be fairly definite in character. It would of course

be not very powerful but would on that account be

subtle and hence would require great skill and insight in

its proper delineation.

134

THE ÆSTHETICS OF INDIAN MUSIC [Chapter VII

In this manner, we can make music as much bright or dull, gay or depressing, as we like, by choosing the Vādi note in a suitable manner and accordingly impress the ear physically. But such music may not necessarily touch the mind nor move the heart. To do so, the mind has to be led from the purely physical into the æsthetic or emotional regions. To stir the mind, a centre of interest must be created and the interest must be further advanced by raising an expectation which when fulfilled offers great relief and makes for joy and pleasure. On the other-hand, the nonfulfilment of an expectation makes one uneasy and sad or miserable.

Interest may be created and further advanced by :-

1 The poetic theme.

2 Certain actions and expressions, as in a dance, or by

3 The power of tones alone.

Drama employs all these three together and is thus a mixed form of art. But in its purest form, each art employs its own medium and does its best in that medium irrespectively of the others. So, poetry employs only words, painting depicts certain postures or scenes, dancing employs only bodily actions and expressions. Similarly, music employs only tones and time, and through them develops the power to make an emotional appeal. In the fitness of things, therefore, the poetic and other bearings, although modifying the musical effect to a certain extent, have a secondary place in the consideration of the æsthetics of music as a pure art. The æsthetics of music must therefore concern itself with the intelligent use of different musical sounds on their acoustic merit only. This

Chapter VII] DELAYING NOTES 135

merit, or the artistic potentiality of a musical note,

depends upon the following :-

1 The harmonic relationship of the note towards

the tonic or fundamental note, as also towards

the other notes of the scale.

2 Individual tonal variations.

3 Individual rhythmic variations.

Thus under the first category, a comparison with

the fundamental discloses the individual character of

a note, as either a consonance or a dissonance and as

previously explained, puts on a pleasant or unpleasant

appeal. Next, the consonance of a note becomes more

bright by associating the note with another which is

less consonant than itself. If the note however is

associated with another more consonant than itself, then

the degree of its consonance is toned down

Similarly, a dissonant note, when associated with

another still more dissonant, appears less dissonant

and when associated with a note which is less dissonant

or comparatively more consonant than itself, appears

more dissonant by the contrast provided.

To make the contrast bold enough so as to easily

attract the attention of a listener, the note, which is

intended to receive greater attention, is distinctly

hinted at, but is deliberately delayed by the inter-

vention of a second note, which is sustained a little

too long. This delay, at a critical moment when a

note of some prominence is clearly hinted at, but is

purposely avoided, establishes a sense of tension, to

which the mind reacts by insisting upon its speedy re-

moval and thereby shows a yet greater preference for

the delayed note. This is a very favourite artifice of the

136

THE ÆSTHETICS OF INDIAN MUSIC [ Chapter VII

Indian singer and corresponds to the ‘appoggiatura’ of the European system. In Indian Music, if the Rāga is intended to have a bright appeal, the tension is removed by making a graceful return to the dominant note of the Rāga or more generally to the prime notes of the drone, which being the most consonant enliven the bright and gay character of the music. If however the Rāga is meant to make a sad or a pathetic appeal, the tension on account of the delaying note is allowed to remain for a much longer time or as in some cases, is not at all removed, nor does the delaying note necessarily lead to a consonance. The uneasiness therefore persists and is further aggravated, thereby making its effect more touching or pathetic.

In short, the notes of the Rāga-scale may be associated together with a double end in view. It may be either for toning up or down the individual character of one of them or may be for the purposes of ‘appoggiatura’. In the latter case, if the delaying notes finally lead to strong consonances, the effect is peculiarly pleasant. Such consonances are none other than the fundamental note and its Fourth or Fifth, which function as the prime notes of the drone. The Indian musician therefore uses the notes just preceding or following the primes for the purpose of leading the music to them. The leading notes are as a rule a semitone below or above the primes. Thus, there are six leading notes in Indian music, two for each prime note. Accordingly, the sharp Seventh and the flat Second act as the upward and downward leading notes for the tonic, the sharp Fourth and the flat Sixth for the major Fifth, and the major Third and the sharp Fourth for the major Fourth. European music uses generally one leading note—the sharp Seventh—for

Chapter VII ] MUSICAL EXPRESSION

137

leading to the next higher note, the Octave. Indian

music, on the other hand, uses both the upward and

downward leading notes with equal facility and uses

not only one or two, but all of them, as required.

The individual character of a note may be further

modified by effecting suitable changes in its tonal

quality and by subjecting it to rhythmic variations.

With the help of such changes it is possible to create

several forms of musical expression, which may

accentuate the appeal of the Rāga. By virtue of the tonal

quality and rhythmic advance, different types of musical

expression have much in common with certain every-

day associations and experiences and on that account,

lead the mind easily into the sphere of parallel

activity and experiences from life. Such musical

expressions, therefore, make the character and extent

of the musical appeal more specific. Thus, bright and

cheerful sounds remind us of joyful things, harsh and

loud sounds, of anger or power, sad and subdued

tones of sorrow, bereavement or fear and so on.

The above experiences are intimately linked up with

changes in the quality of the tone. There are other

experiences which are linked up in a similar manner

with changes in their rhythmic bearings. Thus, steady

and sustained notes remind one of steady and

peaceful things and a rapidly varying voice, of

impatience or hasty action. A strained voice signifies

effort, a checked voice reticence or shyness, and a

well-regulated speech shows clarity of thought and

definiteness of purpose. Thus, by a judicious choice

of the tonal and rhythmic forms of expression, the

mood of a Rāga can be firmly established and music

may truly become a vehicle of an emotional appeal

of various degrees of intensity.

138

THE ÆSTHETICS OF INDIAN MUSIC [Chapter VII

In Indian music, such changes are technically known as 'Gamakas' of which there are a few standard or stock-forms, which form a necessary part of the education of every student of the art.

So far, we have briefly considered the different æsthetic principles and artistic devices, that are usually employed in Indian music to make it fully expressive. Emotion in music must not however be missed for emotionalism. Emotion, if it is to be represented sincerely, must be understood thoroughly; hence it must be always under the control of the singer's mind In its naked form, an emotion may sometimes gather so much force that it may become the cause of acute physical pain or undesirable organic sensations. Under the circumstances, the emotion becomes unbearable and hence unenjoyable. Music does not aim at representing the emotions in their naked form. If music were a blind imitation of life or were meant for awakening the animal instincts in man, it could have hardly provided the kind of gentle enjoyment it provides now, nor could it have made life any the better or nobler for that. In expressing any emotion, music tries to dominate its brute force through artistic expression. As an illustration, it should be noted that Folk-music and dances do put up a very powerful emotional appeal but fail to make any musical effect, worth the name. The emotional power is due to the crude and blind imitation of life in all its acuteness, which however, for want of domination through musical expression, apparently becomes uninteresting and often painful. It is on this account that barbaric or crude forms of music fail to provide any enjoyment 'in which there can be ecstasy without grimace or submission without tears'.

Chapter VII] MUSIC,—NO PASTIME 133

Refined music, therefore, does not stop with the

mere generation of an emotion, but by uniting it with

musical form, conquers its brute force; thus trans-

forming it from a material into an ideal form. The

Rasa or the emotional effect of a Rāga belongs to such

a class of emotions. In the beginning, it seems to merge

into common emotions but really turns out to be such

as finds no existence in nature. This is why the Rasa

problem of the Rāgas has become so naughty. For, to

those who wish that the emotion must appear in all its

acuteness, the Rāga-music would be gentle beyond

toleration. To those who revel in gigantic feats and

musical acrobatics, music may have no value as an art,

but is a matter of mere pastime or sport. There are

others who no doubt consider music as a great and

noble art, but who see no reason why the mood,

instead of remaining the same throughout, should not

change at will, as in the music of the West. The mood

of Western songs does change according to the

impulse of the moment, but at the same time, it should

be remembered that such changes are worked up by

transposition at will, by the introduction of specially

prepared discords not belonging to the scale proper

and by other artistic means which the unities of

Indian music cannot tolerate even for one moment.

On the other hand, Indian music does not allow trans-

position, but insists upon using one and the same scale

throughout, and of that scale also a chosen note or a

particular consonance or dissonance is to predominate

in preference to any other notes. Under these cir-

cumstances, it is no wonder if the mood remains only

of one kind. So long as the Unities of Hindusthāni

music remain what they are, the result cannot be

otherwise. The inability to change the mood at will is

however more than counterbalanced by the several

140

THE AESTHETICS OF INDIAN MUSIC [Chapter VII

æsthetic means at its command, which enable the Indian

system to depict the mood in all its details and to a rare

degree of fineness also.

If one wishes for freedom of change of mood at will,

one shall have to change the fundamental unities first.

As an illustration, it may be stated here, that one and

the same Rāga sung or played according to the system

of the North and that of the South, sounds widely

different. The difference is due to the fact that the

South does not base its Rāga-system on the Vādi-

Samvādi arrangement as understood in the North. The

Northern way easily lends a gentle emotional character

to the Rāga and makes it subtle yet reflective. The

Southern way, on the otherhand with its fast time-

measures and difficult mathematical elaborations and

associations of the notes without preference for any one

of them, makes it a gigantic affair of both mechanical

and intellectual effort. This really justifies our conclu-

sions as to why a Hindusthāni Rāga puts forth a specific

emotional appeal and brings us to the end of this lengthy

but extremely necessary discussion.

CHAPTER VIII

FORMS OF MUSICAL COMPOSITION

Indian music has from time to time evolved a number of forms for the expression of its manifold beauties. Beginning with the Sāma-Gāna which had seven distinct stages in its progression, forms such as the Vṛtta, Chanda, Geeta, and the Prabandha, became current in the years that followed.

The Prabandha consisted of four parts such as the Udgrāha, Melāpaka, Dhruwā and the Ābhoga. The Prabandha form seems to have been current up to the late eleventh century, for, it is to this period of time that the famous Geeta-Govinda of Jayadeva, composed in the Prabandha form, belongs.

These Prabandhas of Jayadeva have however only two parts—the Dhruwā and the Ābhoga—instead of all the four. It thus appears that the Prabandha form also was in a stage of evolution and was replaced in course of time by other forms, such as the Kṛtis and the Bhajanas etc.

There is ground to believe that along with these classical forms of musical composition, there were simultaneously current some other forms also, which were rather free or loose in character and were perhaps the cause of much chaos, for a century or two after Jayadeva.

The first to stop the rot was Rājā Māna (1486-1526 A. D.) who either invented or patronised the famous Dhrupada-style. This style, so well-known and respected even up to this day, was further perfected by great musicians like Naridās Swāmi and his famous disciple-Tānsen, in particular, and found great favour with Akabar's Court.

142

FORMS OF MUSICAL COMPOSITION [Chapter VIII

The Dhrupada-as its meaning indicates-is the strict style. A style to deserve the name strict must of

course contain the essentials of a system in a clear and simple form, and it is so with the Dhrupada-style.

It is laid down that in the Dhrupada, there must be no flourishes or embellishments in its progression, and

that it should proceed by determinate steps only. In other words the Dhrupada strictly follows the two well-

known principles viz. of rhythmic movement and procedure by determinate degrees. As already remark-

ed in the preceding chapter, these principles actively figure in the Ālāpa-exercises, which the Dhrupada-

singer in consequence must have thought as a fit prelude to the Chij or song proper. These Ālāpas do

not as a rule employ any fixed time-measure but only observe the broad principle of rhythmic-advance, and

are intended to elaborate the beauties of the chosen Rāga, in all its details. This practice of giving the

Alāpas as a prelude to the song proper perhaps corresponds to the Udgrāha and Melāpaka stages, not met

with or mentioned in the Prabandhas of the Geeta Govinda. Perhaps, they were then too well-known to

need any mention!

To return to our point, the Dhrupada-singer first does his best in elaborating the chosen Rāga with

Ālāpas, sung or played in the order described in the preceding chapter. Next he begins to give his Chij or song

proper, at first to slow time. The poetic composition is so composed and set if necessary as to correctly observe

the sequence of the long and short required by the chosen time-measure. This sequence does not admit of

any variations on any account and at any stage of development. The poetic words of the composition are, as it

were, screwed to a rigid framework in the form of the

Chapter VIII] THE DHRUPADA-STYLE

143

time-measure. So, the song, though remaining academically pure, soon becomes uninteresting. The only

opportunity for some relief is provided when a well-aimed return to the old time-measure is made after

doubling, trebling or sometimes quadrupling the time or tempo of the song. Such changes in the tempo result in

a variety of cross-rhythm and require great precision and personal skill.

The Dhrupada-style requires a manly and powerful voice, which must be further capable of sustaining

its quality, in spite of the variations of time or tempo, mentioned above.

In the old days, a Dhrupada used to have four poetic divisions or parts, but at present it usually possesses only

two and more in exceptional cases only. These parts in their order are known as the Sthāyee, Antarā, Samchāree

and Abhoga.

In the Sthāyee, bass notes are employed on a very large scale and the musical sentences and phrases first

circle round the Vādi or the dominant note of the Rāga and then return to the tonic or the fundamental.

In the second part or the Antarā, the notes from the middle octave and particularly those from its

second tetrachord are given free play, and the musical phrases first lead to the higher Octave and then make

a return to the fundamental.

In the Samchāree or the third part, the music usually starts with the base note of the second tetrachord, then leads to the upper Octave, not with a

straight and simple form of melody, but with artistic twists and turns and the melody thus oscillates, backwards and forwards, as it were. In this part also, the

144

FORMS OF MUSICAL COMPOSITION [Chapter VIII

notes do not go beyond the Octave and usually end on

the tonic or the other prime note of the drone.

In the Ābhoga or the fourth part of the Dhrupada,

the performer employs notes from all the three

registers and tries his best to go to the highest possible

pitch which he can reach with ease and effect.

At present, Dhrupadas consist of only two parts

and it is in the second part or the Antarā that the

performer does his best and compresses everything

that otherwise used to belong to the remaining two

parts.

As already remarked elsewhere, the poetic theme

of a Dhrupada is usually very simple and is musical

first and poetic afterwards.

The chief merit of the Dhrupada-style is in its

strict adherence to the two fundamental principles viz.

of rhythmic advance and procedure by determinate

degrees. The constant aim of the artiste is therefore

to make the highest possible effect with a few simple

clean notes, unaccompanied by any flourishes, shakes

or such other touches of grace. The Dhrupada there-

fore easily preserves the purity of the Rāga. It is thus

a clean and correct form of music and rightly deserves

the name "strict style" conferred on it, and is on

that account held in very high regard by successive

generations of musicians.

The chief defects of the Dhrupada-style are how-

ever its monotony and absolute denial of any scope

for musical grace or delicacy. As no flourishes or

embellishments, by way of Tānas or such other touches

of grace are allowed, the Dhrupada soon becomes a self-

recurring musical feat. Again, the variations of tempo

Chapter VIII ]

THE TARĀNĀ

145

give the upper hand to rhythm over the tonal shades,

which though manly and powerful soon become mono-

tonous and wear out the patience of the listener in a

short time.

Hori, sung in the Dhamār time-measure and on that

account known as Dhamār itself, is another form of

musical composition, which is similar to the Dhrupada

in its structure and progression. The poetic theme of

the Hori usually concerns itself with the playful in-

cidents of the childhood of Lord Shri Krishṇa.

Another form of musical composition is the Tarānā,

which employs only the Ālāpa-syllables, viz. Nom,

Thom, etc. The Tarānā employs tones for their tonal

values and altogther ignores the literary or the poetic

merit of words and so in one sense is an ideal form

of purely musical expression. In the Dhrupada, the

Alāpas which form the prelude are given to a very

slow time and employ no fixed time-measure as such.

The Tarānā is a refined type of such Alāpas, for it

is sung to a fixed measure of time and is further

developed as an independent Chīj or song, of

which the tones and not the words speak. As the

Tarānā is a composition in a strict measure of time

and must put up an appeal without the aid of poetry,

it requires great personal skill and ability of intell-

igent interpretation, on the part of the artiste. Since it

is sung usually to a fast time-measure and employs

numerous types of rhythmic arrangements, it helps

the artiste to develop a subtle yet an accurate sense of

rhythm and a facility of musical improvisation at a

very short notice. Thus in the Tarānā, the slow

Alāpas of the Dhrupada are linked up into different

groups of melodic orders, which serve as model links

for the Tāna and particularly for the Bolatāna, in

10

146

FORMS OF MUSICAL COMPOSITION [Chapter VIII

which the melody fully brings out the vowel and

consonant values of the syllables employed. The

Tāna or the melody consisting of such model links

naturally preserves all the niceties of the Rāga. Other

Tānas, based upon mere permutations and combinations

of the notes of the Rāga-scale, do not possess the same

merit as those described above. On this account, a

few good Tarānās illustrating each Rāga are always in

stock of every classical singer. The Tarānā thus serves

as a training ground in acquiring facility in Tānas and

particularly in Bolatānas, stretching over a fixed interval

of time and on account of its ability to bring out the

vowel and consonant effect fully, can give a good finish

to the voice-training method previously described.

Thumri is another interesting form of musical

composition. A majority of such songs employ scales

which are usually met with in the Folk-songs and

employ, as a rule, notes from the very nine con-

sonances which principally figure in Folk-music. The

Thumri therefore employs such Rāgas as Khamāja,

Kāfi, Mānd, Pilu and others as are derived from

them. It however seldom employs one particular or

pure Rāga, as such, and in such cases employs a

Jillhā or a mixture of two or more Rāga-scales and the

nucleus for the Jillhā is supplied by some one of

the Rāgas referred to, above. There are some

Thumris in Rāgas like Bihāga and Kedār, but such

Thumris are few in number. In fact the Thumri

has a very restricted number of Rāgas to choose from.

It never employs Rāgas which are manly and grave

in nature nor does it employ Rāgas which are awful

or sad and pathetic. Thus there are no Thumris in

Rāgas like Darbāri, Mallhār or Hindol on the one

hand, and in Bhairava, Todi, Mārwā, or Shri Rāga

Chapter VIII ] THE THUMRI 147

on the other. Except perhaps Bhairawi, and Pilu, the

Thumri does not employ a scale with the flat forms of

the second and the sixth degrees and in Bhairawi,

there is a tendency to lightly pass at least over the flat

second. This shows that the Thumri employs

scales in which the nine principal consonances mainly

figure. The nature of such music is therefore

bound to be bright and gay. The Thumri therefore

has usually an amorous theme and describes some love

affair. The Thumri is sung to a fixed time-measure,

usually of sixteen or eight Mātrās. There are other

compositions which are closely allied to the Thumri,

but which employ some other shorter time-measure.

They are on that account known by different names

such as Dādarā, Kaharvā, Rekhtā, and Gazal etc.

Their music though not much differing from that of

the Thumri is not however of the same high order.

The Thumri proper is sung to a slow time and it is

only for removing the monotony of rhythm, that the

time is temporarily doubled or a Tāna is taken as a

finishing stroke and then a return is made to the

slow time.

The whole technique of Thumri-singing lies in

passing from one note to another in a very graceful

manner and particularly in introducing the Octave

and the Fifth, which are deliberately delayed by the

intervention of a less consonant note, used as a lead-

ing note.

The glide also is a very favourite ornament of the

Thumri-singer and is specially helpful in introducing

notes which need special treatment. Thus in a

glide, the more important notes of the Rāga are

stressed and the less important are lightly passed

148

FORMS OF MUSICAL COMPOSITION [Chapter VIII

over. As described in a previous chapter, the glide

by suspending some of the notes is helpful in

establishing a sense of tension which is removed only

when it returns to the dominant note of the

Rāga or to the fundamental or the other prime note

and is on that account freely used to heighten the

effect of the Thumri. The Thumri-form is essentially

emotional in character, in spite of the fact that the

scales used are plain and simple in form. What then

makes the appeal so emotional? It is nothing but an

ability to make the most of the æsthetic value of

each note by a process of either associating, contrast-

ing or suspending such notes in the light of the

poetic theme. In a Thumri most of the æsthetic

processes which have a root in the tonal touches are

therefore actively present. Though simple in form

and scale, the Thumri requires a great mastery of

these delicate processes and hence is the meeting

ground of the best in the Folk as well as the Classical

type of Indian music. It is no wonder therefore

that within its very limited field of Rāgas, the Thumri

is equally popular among both the masses and the more

advanced classes.

The next form of musical composition is the Tappā.

It employs the same Rāgas as those of the Thumri-

form. Its field is therefore very limited. The

Tappā does not aim at a slow or gradual progression

of the theme, which is usually in the Punjābi or

Pushtu-language. Even from the beginning, it revels

in ornamental flourishes at the occurrence of almost

every accented portion of the bar—usually signified

by a long vowel—and builds up the melody by elab-

orate turns and trills rather than by a glide which is

scarcely used in a Tappā. The turns and trills are

Chapter VIII ]

THE TAPPĀ

149

known as 'Murkis' of which there are several

subvarieties, such as Khatkā, Gitkadi, Jamjamā, Sānsa,

Ansa etc. These Murkis are a speciality of the

Tappā and provide good practice in developing vocal

facility in singing several kinds of delicate Tānas. The

one point, to be remembered about the Tānas or

melodic flourishes of the Tappā, is that whether the

Tāna is simple or ornamental, the successive links,

taken up or down, are taken step by step only and

without any break between them. A melodic or orna-

mental phrase begins on a bar and continues over its full

extent. Then another phrase begins on the next bar and

continues over that bar and in this manner the melody

moves over all the four bars or stages or spans of each

cycle of the Tappā-measure. Tappā literally means a

stage or a halting place on a journey and since there are

four such stages in the Tappā measure, the style is named

as Tappā itself.

We now come to the most important form of musical

composition viz. the Khyāl, which, for the last two

hundered years and more, has almost monopolised the

attention of the best musical brains. The Khyāl is com-

posed in a number of time-measures such as the Tilwadā,

Zumrā, Dheemā-Tritāl, Adā-Chautāl, Ektāl, Tritāl,

Zaptāl, etc. The Khyāl has two varieties viz. the Vilambita

or the great Khyāls and the Ekeri or the short ones.

Whatever the variety, a song in either has two divisions

viz. the Sthāyee and the Antarā.

The great Khyāls, of course, employ the longer time-

measures and are sung to slow time. These were first

derived from the Dhrupadas and have therefore to be

developed in the beginning much along the same lines.

The slow, steady and sure development of such Khyāls

enables the music to preserve its serenity and weight as

150

FORMS OF MUSICAL COMPOSITION [Chapter VIII

in the Dhrupada-style. After singing the Sthāyee once

or twice completely, the Antarā is sung once, so as to

enable the listener to grasp the poetic theme without

much trouble. Then a return is made to the Sthāyee.

At the end of the first phrase which usually leads to the

Sam or the chief bar of the Sthāyee, Ālāpas are gradually

appended. The Ālāpas at first extend over two or three

notes only and so are very short. They usually extend

to the Vādi or the dominant note of the Rāga, failing

which to the subdominant or the Samvādi note. The

second Ālāpa is given by adding one more note to the first,

the note to be added being the next higher or lower note,

according as the Ālāpa first ascends or descends. Three

such Ālāpas are given and are followed by the first

phrase, which closes the cycle on the chief bar of the

measure. Then the Ālāpas grow gradually longer and

extend beyond one cycle of the time-measure and a

corresponding change in the point of their start is

previously contemplated over, so as to end them in time

and return the music invariably to the chief bar without

fail. In such Ālāpas the glide is frequently employed

with great effect. After singing the simple types of

both the ascending and descending Alāpas in this manner,

a start is made with the Vakra or more elaborate Ālāpas.

Having done with them also, the Ālāpas are given to

faster--usually—duple time, so that they generate simple

Tānas out of them. When the principal types of such

Tānas are sung, the Sthāyee is sung once again, to indi-

cate the end of the first stage in the progression.

Then the Antarā is sung and a process similar to

that of the Alāpas in the Sthāyee is followed, with

the only difference that such Ālāpas begin on the

base note of the second tetrachord or if the dominant

Chapter VIII ]

THE KHYĀL

151

is very close to it, on the dominant and end on the upper Octave instead of on the tonic note. This may bring to the notice of the reader that there is a close similarity between the Antarā of the Khyāl and that of the Nom-Thom-Ālāpas in the prelude to the Dhrupada.

After elaborating the Ālāpas in all their details, a second return is made to the Sthāyee or the first part of the song. This time, the Ālāpas are elaborated not by lengthening a single vowel sound, but are given with constantly changing vowel sounds, which are further enriched by their association with the consonants occurring in the words. Such Ālāpas are called 'Bol-Ālāpas.' By and by, at the end of each Bol-Ālāpa, small Tānas are appended and these become gradually longer and more frequent. The Tānas replace the Alāpas completely, just when the latter are almost exhausted.

The third stage now begins, when a full and free scope is given to all kinds of Tānas which of course obey the same order of precedence as the Ālāpas, both in the tempo and in the direction of motion. In the Tānas, there is always a point-to-point race between each new step in the melody and each Mātrā or time-span allowed to the note or a group of them and the excellence of the performance lies in the perfect agreement between the two. Such an agreement alone holds the balance of the song. To relieve the monotony of the Tānas, the performer occasionally sustains the most consonant notes such as the Octave and the Fifth and stays on them long enough-say for a half or one whole cycle of the time-measure. In reaching such notes, the major Seventh and the sharp Fourth are often used as leading notes, which brighten the music still further. Another way of

152

FORMS OF MUSICAL COMPOSITION [Chapter VIII

enlivening the effect of the Tānas is to intersperse

them with Gamakas and particularly with glides which

often stretch over an octave and more. These relieve

the listener, for a time, from the rapidly advancing

rhythm. The strong assertion and sustaining of the

fundamental note and its Octave or the Fifth serve

another musical purpose, in that they help the

performer to maintain intact his sense of correct in-

tonation and allow him some time to think over fresh

methods of improvisation.

In the fourth or the final stage, all kinds of Tānas

of both the simple and the Boltāna-type are executed in

all their complex forms. In such Tānas there is usually

a fusion of the two types. They generally employ

quadruple time and embrace as much of the three

registers as may be possible for the performer, who is

expected to do his best, in point of both the elegance

of the performance and the rapidity of time-keeping.

To the second variety belong the Ekeri or short

Khyāls, which are usually in medium Tina-Tāla

and are first sung to medium and then to fast time.

These Khyāls have comparatively lighter themes

such as those of the Thumris. Usually they are

so composed as to accommodate one syllable in one

Mātrā or unit of time or in its smaller subdivisions

There is therefore hardly any scope in such Khyāls

for slow Ālāpas or Tānas and still less scope for a

glide. Such short Khyāls therefore are not ideally

complete units in themselves, in as much as they

are capable of only such development as belongs to

the third and fourth stages in the development of the

bigger Khyāls. The usual practice therefore is that a

bigger Khyāl is fully developed over the first two stages

and is followed by a short one, which develops the third

Chapter VIII] THE KHYĀL

153

and the fourth stages further. The third stage requires

faster time and then it becomes a little awkward and

inconvenient to give a bigger Khyāl with a grave theme

originally meant for a long and slow measure of time.

The bigger Khyāl is then purposely brought to an end

and the remaining part of the progression is given with

the new or the shorter Khyāl, which is then taken up as

a continuation of the bigger one itself. It is for this

reason that the Khyāl style uses a Jodi or pair of songs

to bring out the full beauty of a Rāga. It first uses a

bigger Khyāl for the more serious and steady part of the

development of the Rāga and then a short one for

depicting the lighter and more rapid portion of it.

From the above remarks, it will be seen that there

is great similarity in the development of a Khyāl and

a Dhrupada at least in their first half. As the Khyāl

employs the glide and the other technique of the

Thumri, it incorporates in itself some features of the

Thumri also. In the Khyāl, the Boltānas and Tānas

employing Gamakas remind one of the Tarānas too.

Again as the Khyāl offers full scope for executing

Tānas both short and long, simple and complex, with

trills and shakes and such other forms of grace, it has

much that belongs to the technique of the Tappā.

In short, the Khyāl-style incorporates in itself the

very best of each form of composition and on that

account easily surpasses the other forms. This is the

secret then, why the Khyāl of all forms has been receiv-

ing the homage of all music lovers for the last two

centuries and over.

The forms of musical composition previously de-

scribed may not have been really new forms altogether.

They are really reminiscent of the five forms which were

154

FORMS OF MUSICAL COMPOSITION [Chapter VIII

current in the days of Sārngadeva (early 13th century).

These forms were known by the names, Śuddhā, Bhinnā

Gouḍi, Vesarā and Sādhāraṇi respectively. Śuddhā

means the plain or pure, Bhinnā means the broken

meaning or clear cut notes or steps, Gouḍi means the

sweet, Vesarā means the rapid and Sādhāraṇi means the

golden mean or the form which embodies the essential

features of each of the previous forms. From the detailed

description as given by Sārngadeva, the Dhrupada and

the Dhamār compare well with the first two, the Thumri

with the Gouḍi, the Tappā with the Vesarā and the

Khyāl with the Sādhāraṇi form of musical composition.

Thus the Khyāl may be said to be the Sādhāraṇi or the

golden mean of all the present-day forms of musical

composition.

Besides these, there are several other minor forms

which however are not academic in character and are

often very loose in structure. Their progression has not

therefore the same broad basis as that of the classical

forms and their merit lies chiefly in the poetic rather

than in the musical expression of the theme and in the

rapidity and grace of their rhythm.

CHAPTER IX

SOME SIDE ISSUES AND RETROSPECT

Rasa in Music

Let us now briefly examine the subject of Rasa in music as expounded by our traditionists. According to them, there are nine principal Rasas or types of æsthetic enjoyment, corresponding to the fundamental sentiments of love, laughter, tenderness, anger, heroism, fear, obscenity, surprise and peacefulness or rest and their accompanying emotions. Bharata mentions the first eight but excludes the last one from the list of his Rasas, obviously because a state of continuous rest would not foster the object of a drama which necessarily implies action. As Bharata was mainly concerned with Dramaturgy, the Śanta Rasa was of no use to him in that respect. Is Bharata however justified in specifying eight Rasas in music as well? Music as defined by him consists of song, instrumental music and dancing. The appeal of a song comes mainly from its wording or the poetic sentiment and that of dancing from facial expressions and other bodily movements. Thus excluding the part which refers to instrumental music, Bharata's definition makes music play a role essentially subsidiary to that of poetry or dancing. We have gone ahead of Bharata in considering music as an art of pure sound and rhythm and as one independent of poetry and the other fine arts. Thus love, obscenity and laughter, which can be suggested only by appropriate words and facial expressions and other movements drop out from the Rasas which music in its unaided and pure form can contribute. By itself

156 SOME SIDE ISSUES AND RETROSPECT [ Chapter IX

music is always a clean and godly art and it is only poetry and dancing that frequently contaminate it with voluptuous and obscene words or acting.

Of the remaining five Rasas, the Raudra (anger) and the Bhayānaka (fear) are possible in the case of music with very powerful sounds of an unusual intensity, pitch and roughness. Such music can be only of the mass-type in which a number of performers can easily build up the bold effects, by the massiveness and vigour of music, both vocal and instrumental. The music of the marches, war-songs, Powādās etc. is an instance of this type, commonly cited. There are however numerous occasions in every-day life too, when we happen to come across such music. Thus the music of the shepherds' bands, of the Lejīm, Karadi or Karandhol-players, of the Kadak-Laxmi and the Durug-Murug men and the Dombāris etc. belongs to this type. Such music is however extremely rough and approximate and is therefore far below the minimum of artistic expression necessary from the view-point of refined music and so is out of question. The heroic sentiment, tenderness and surprise are the remaining Rasas from Bharata's list to which the field of classical music is then narrowed down. As for surprise, music can contribute it to any extent, but it comes not from the native qualities of sound and rhythm, but as in magic from the skill in doing the most unexpected, quickly and successfully. So, Adbhuta drops down from the Rasas that music may contribute due to its native qualities. Karuna-the tender, and Veera-the heroic-are the two Rasas that yet remain to be considered from Bharata's list. As explained at some length in.a previous chapter, the appeal of music is openly bright or sad according as it employs consonances or dissonances for its principal notes. The consonances

Chapter IX] RASA IN MUSIC 157

suggest a complete and vigourous accord with the tonic harmony of the drone, whereas the dissonances, on

account of their deviation from it, pointedly suggest a sense of want or destitution leading to pity and pathos.

Concord is however the fundamental quality of all music and so sometimes passes unnoticed. But this is not the

case with a discord, which instantly seizes upon the mind even of the most inattentive listeners-lay or cultured

alike. Even of these two Rasas that spring from the native qualities of musical sounds, the Karuṇa thus out-

weighs the Veer in its quickness, power and unmistakable appeal.

As regards the Śānta Rasa which according to Bharata has no place in Dramaturgy, we have reason to

say that as all music is given always within the limits of artistic enjoyment, it invariably brings a sense of relief

and comfort to its listeners. Music does this more quickly and effectively than any other art. The Śānta

Rasa therefore is a quality inherent in all artistic expression, which, when not mixed up with intentional bold

touches of other sentiments, comes up to the top and caters the joy of ease and comfort and thus affords the

feeling of escape to its listeners. In fact it does much more in the case of cultured and thinking people. It easily

transports their mind to levels of higher consciousness where pain and pleasure lose their acuteness and blend

into the all-pervading harmony and rhythm of universal peace and self-effacement.

What we therefore name as the Śānta Rasa, (as one of the many Rasas ) is really a state or experience which

the listener enjoys as the culmination of the æsthetic appeal.

Music and Poetry :-Music and poetry are two independent but very closely allied arts. For the pur-

158

SOME SIDE ISSUES AND RETROSPECT [ Chapter IX

poses of an artistic effect, each may be employed either

in its pure form or in combination with the other. But

as a rule, every art has certain charms patent to itself

and has also a medium of its own, in which it can show

them better than in any other. When however one art

works in combination with another, the appeal seldom

remains pure and frequently changes the medium of

expression also. There is no doubt that in certain cases

the appeal becomes powerful and rich by such a combi-

nation, but on the whole, it is found that each art is

unduly hampered by the other and finds little scope to

show its beauties at their best. In the few cases in which

the appeal becomes rich, one art really borrows from the

other what does not normally belong to itself. When

however it is expressly desired to explore the possibilities

of a specific art and find out its limitations also, it is

necessary to restrict the study of that art to its pure form

only. In fact, it is this view which has been adopted as

the basis of all consideration in the present work. We

however often come across people who have very vague

ideas about the function of music and who conveniently

ignore this aspect of its study. The cause of all trouble

is in the fact that there are many things common to both

music and poetry and these often obliterate the line of

demarcation between the two. Thus when the art of

writing was not known to mankind, poetry used to be

recited and as a matter of necessity had to use the

medium of sound only. But as music also employs the

same medium it was thought—as even now some think—that

the nature of each art must have been the same. But

really this is not so, since poetry uses words for their sense,

while music uses them for their sound. In the infancy

of every language, there may have been some little agree-

ment between the sound and the sense of words, but as,

we can now see, this agreement must have been of a very

Chapter IX ]

MUSIC AND POETRY

159

elementary character. At present, however, with the

knowledge of the art of writing, words have as much

to do with sight as with sound and poetry may be appre-

ciated to the same extent either by reciting it aloud or by

reading it in a silent manner. The meaning of a word is

the result of an arbitrary choice and hence of convention

and is not in the least dependent on the laws of either

sound or light. Such meaning does not fundamentally

differ if the word is either read or spoken aloud or is spoken

by different persons of different ages etc. Similarly a

clear or sore throat makes no difference in its meaning,

which again remains the same even if read under lights

of different hues. Hence the power behind a word has its

root in our associations which have nothing to do with

the medium of sound or light. Music, on the other

hand, entirely depends upon the medium of sound and

the power behind a musical note or phrase has its

origin in the qualities and processes of musical sound

itself. Hence it is clear that in their pure form music

and poetry are altogether different forms of art. But

with many people, it is the fashion to look down upon

music as the handmaid of poetry or to suppose that "in

the wedding of the arts poetry is the man and music the

woman." In fact poetry can as well be made the

handmaid of music and follow its dictates. In classical

Indian music at least, it is so. As a Rāga is cast in one

mood throughout, only such songs of which the poetic

theme agrees with the mood of the Rāga are eligible for

being sung in that Rāga. Songs of which the poetic

theme is unsuitable for the mood of the Rāga are not at

all eligible, even though they be the best examples

of the poetic art. Here then, music dictates the mood

to poetry and if poetry does not obey, music disregards

the meaning of the words altogether and develops the

mood, purely with its own material and processes.

160

SOME SIDE ISSUES AND RETROSPECT [ Chapter IX

The appeal of music is however primarily based on

the physical effect of consonance and dissonance and is

therefore broadly pleasant or unpleasant in character.

Music therefore supplies the mood but not the cause or

the exact feeling at its bottom, Therefore, it may appeal

to such emotions only of which the nature is openly

bright or sad, Hence consonances may rouse in a broad

manner a feeling such as of joy, pleasure, hilarity etc.

In the same manner a feeling of pain, pathos, destitution

or submission etc. may be awakend, through dissonances.

Poetry, on the other hand, not only supplies the mood

but also the exact feeling. But the inability of music to

awaken a variety of feelings is more than compensated

by its quickness and power to make a given feeling as

specific or delicate and precise as possible. In this respect

the power of music far outweighs that of poetry. 'A

thousand shades of what-in our blundering words, we

must call sadness or mirth-find in music, their distinct

expression.'

Light music:-But as is the common experience,

there are bound to be only a few who can understand the

subtle technique of classical music and fewer still who

may have the good luck of being initiated into its

traditions. To the majority, who cannot have any

opportunity of such a training, the cause of artistic

pleasure must be more specific, direct and tangible

Facial expressions, bodily movements or certain other

gestures appealing to the primary emotions of man, or

a simple poetic idea or a speech serve as good short cuts

in this respect. This is how dancing, and poetic improvis-

ation came to be considered as necessary adjuncts, to

music and among them poetry is the simplest and the

most direct. It is on this account that such music, in

which poetry predominates over the technical (purely

musical) processes of classical music, is easily under-

Chapter IX ]

LIGHT MUSIC

161

stood by the populace and is therefore known as popular or light music. The songs of light music have an obvious time-beat and having no musical technicalities run on along with the poetic words like the horses on a race-course. As light songs do not employ any particular Rāga as such, their music is obviously of the Jhillhā type. In such music the change of the Rāga is necessitated by the impulse of the poetic theme. Light music, therefore, truly acts as the hand-maid of poetry and functions as a via media between the Folk and Classical types. Light music is indeed the starting point of stage-music or the Opera. Another variety of such music which has come into vogue is Film music. The music for the film must be woven out of the emotion and the psychology of the moment and must be part and parcel of the scene or image which is being presented. It must therefore be a thorough representation of the spirit of the picture in point of it's tones and rhythm as well. As these forms of light music constantly undergo a change of mood and technique, classical music, (of which the strong point is to pursue one set mood to a steady and harmonious accompainment as that of a drone,) is not of any use to them. Here, our composers shall have to study the technique not only of Indian but of Western music also.

Concerted music or Orchestra:-At present there is a tendency among Indian artistes towards orchestral music and this also may need the study of Western music, for its growth and guidance. In the absence of such a study, the so-called Indian Orchestras of to-day merely multiply one-part music on a huge scale and evidently fall flat upon the ears of the listeners. There are however some Rāgas which may admit of the harmonic treatment, so essential for con-

11

462

SOME SIDE ISSUES AND RETROSPECT [Chapter IX

certed music. But instead of exploring the potentialities

of the Indian Rāgas in this quarter, some of us, who

have studied harmony, try to apply the non-modal har-

monies of the Western system to Indian music, which goes

not only by modes but by their still finer variations-the

Rāgas also. Adaptation of the Indian Rāgas to concerted

or orchestral music then offers a large field for research

and co-operation to students of Indian as well as

Western music.

Notation:-Concerted music necessarily requires the

casting of each part into accurate notation, and this

brings us to the most important issue of the want of a

commonly-agreed form of musical notation. At present

including the staff-notation of the West, there are about

half a dozen different forms of notation, which can

express the outline of an Indian song in a fairly good

manner. The staff-notation is not however popular

among the Indian artistes and perhaps rightly so, because

the question is not one of adopting notation as a new

feature altogether. For centuries past, Indian music has

been using some form of notation similar in nature to

that of the Tonic-solfa type of the West, and it is out of

this ancient form that the different forms now current

have evolved. Under the circumstances, though there

is no unanimity about adopting a particular form as the

standard one, yet there is perfect agreement in the

rejection of the use of the staff-notation. The want of a

standard form of notation has however checked the pro-

gress of Indian music and has till now served as a good

pretext in turning down the public demand for the

inclusion of music in the courses of regular study. Let it

however be plainly stated here, that Indian music being

of the solo-type is absolutely plain and simple in its form

and does not need a very elaborate type of notation to

Chapter IX ]

MUSIC NOTATION

163

express its general outline. As for expressing its details, however, no amount of skill and insight can design a notation which may serve as a true vehicle even of a small fraction of all that the artiste means. Indian music is fundamentally vocal and much of it is the result of individual improvisation. As is well known the capacity of the voice for inflexion and subtle variation in tone far surpasses that of any instrument and hence the real charms of Indian music are to be met with in vocal music only. They are on this account too subtle to be correctly reproduced by the instruments or accurately and fully recorded into notation.

Under the circumstances, it has been the experience of many thinking people that any form of notation is as good or bad as any other and that a pupil can pick up the several forms, provided he understands the signs and symbols used in a thoroughly intelligent manner. Again the teacher must not stick to any one form of notation and must never make more of notation than of the spirit for which it stands. Otherwise, the pupils—especially young boys and girls—develop preference for one form of notation only—usually the very first taught to them—and develop a mechanical ability of giving long chains of notation, without a grain of any musical quality or sense. Here the old custom of teaching music first by the ear-method is of special value and is followed by many good teachers of music with great advantage. According to that custom, for the first few months a student is taught music by the ear-method and when he develops sufficient delicacy of the ear and voice, to pick up and reproduce accurately all that is taught, he is initiated in the art of appending notation to the pieces already mastered. There is then no danger of the pupil's missing any of the charms of the song, which are

164

SOME SIDE ISSUES AND RETROSPECT [Chapter IX

ordinarily beyond the reach of notation. Again if the teacher makes it a point to express the selfsame song according to the different types of notation, then there is no chance on the part of the pupil to develop preference for any one type, as such. On the other hand, such a practice affords very good help to memory and brings to the notice of the student the relative merits of each form of notation.

In this connection, it may be mentioned here that the Committee1 for Music Education, appointed in 1948, by the Government of Bombay, has fully investigated the question of music-education, in general, and as the result of the unanimity of oral evidence and the other information given by the experts, has proposed for Indian music a standard form of music notation, in particular. As this form embodies the salient features of all the current forms and is yet simple to follow, it has found unanimous approval in the province and as such deserves to be adopted as the standard form of notation for Hindusthāni music throughout India.

The choice of a free principle of style and its effects on Music Systems:-A system of music can start with any free principle of style as its basic principle and then the application of that principle governs all the developments of that system. In this respect, it is interesting to compare the Indian system with that of the West.

Both these systems follow what is commonly known as the principle of tonality. According to this principle whether the music is or is not given in a Rāga, all the tones in a piece of music are connected by their relationship towards one chief tone called the tonic. Broadly speaking the individual relationship of the tones may be one of consonance or dissonance. Thus

Chapter IX] INTRODUCING FOREIGN NOTES.

165

a set of notes all with a consonant relationship towards

the tonic may be chosen, or another of which most

notes are consonant and a few dissonant or vice-versa,

or a third with all dissonant notes. The broad principle

of tonality is not in the least violated so long as the music

honestly observes the given set of relationship of notes.

Thus some sets may be perfectly consonant, some more

or less consonant and others perfectly dissonant. Western

music uses only the consonant sets. Indian music uses

all the three types of sets, only that the dissonant sets

are as a rule not widely used, but are used with special

precautions only.

A set of notes with a given relationship in our

ordinary language however means a scale. Hence the

Western system uses only the consonant scales of which

the notes belong to a cycle of harmonic relationship

which starts from and returns to the tonic note itself.

Its field of action is therefore restricted to the province

of these harmonic scales only, with the result that it

cannot introduce discords or quarter-tones as quickly

and effectively as Indian music. Notes foreign to the

scale have to be first prepared for, before being introduc-

ed and have then to be resolved before making a return to

the original scale. This is really a very laborious process

and requires transposition to different keys. In Indian

music on the other hand, the Rāga-scales freely choose

discordant notes as legitimate members of the scale, and

thus allow a facility and quickness in introducing

discords wherever needed. This makes the appeal of

Indian music almost instantaneous,—though of a set type

also, as no transposition or divergence from the chosen

scale is allowed.

The adoption of harmony as the principle of style,

has reduced the choice of scales to two viz. the Major

156

SOME SIDE ISSUES AND RETROSPECT [Chapter IX

mode and the Minor mode and has deprived the Western

system of a great variety of expression which depends on

a diversity of scales. But this has opened to that system

new avenues of artistic design, in another quarter. Indian

music on the other hand, with its numerous scales,

is very rich in the field of melody, but cannot change its

mood as it has to stick up at one time to one given scale

only, and although the use of a drone lightly hints at

the principle of harmonic relationship, has no harmony

at all in the Western sense of the word.

As for the relative merits of each system the best

way is to reproduce what Dr. Helmholtz says at one

place, "We must not forget that our modern system was

not developed from a natural necessity but from a freely

chosen principle of style; that beside it and before it

other tonal systems have been developed from other

principles and that in such systems the highest pitch of

artistic beauty has been reached by the successful solu-

tion of more limited problems."

The Drone as the starting point of Indian music:-

In a previous chapter attention was already drawn

to the various difficulties in the way of arriving

at the Suddha-scale of Indian Music and in

adopting that scale as the basis of reference for the

purposes of fixing its intonation. These difficulties

however are of a theoretical character only and lose most

of their acuteness in practical music, as every student of

the art first learns it by the ear-method and hence uncon-

sciously masters all the desired niceties of intonation as

required by each particular Rāga. To keep his sense of

tonality firm and quite intact, he further uses a simple

device of employing the drone as an essential harmonic

background to his music. His ideas of intonation are

Chapter IX ]

SEVEN STOCK NAMES

167

therefore linked up with the scales of specific Rāgas in relation to the background of the drone. His language of intonation also goes by Rāga-scales and not by vibration numbers or intervals. When he means a particular degree of sharpness or flatness of a note, he invariably refers to it as the note corresponding to such and such a note in such and such a Rāga and so on. Thus it is that with the help of a few well-known Rāga-scales he fixes his ideas of intonation. But as there are only seven or at the most twelve common names by which the seven notes of the octave are known, all these different variations in the form of a note are broadly known by one of these seven—or twelve—stock names. But this must not be taken to mean that music uses these seven—or twelve—notes only and does not use others besides them. Nor does it mean that if it uses other notes, then their variations are so small that for all practical purposes they can be conveniently neglected. On the other hand, it is found that a student of Indian music,—and one even of a very moderate capacity for that matter, ordinarily uses a much larger number of notes than twelve and all these are appreciated and felt by the ear, as distinctly different notes, both individually and in their relation to the several Rāga-scales, also. Yet Pandit Bhātkhande bases his system of Hindusthāni music on twelve notes only. Mr. Clements is therefore justified when he refers to Pandit Bhātkhande and remarks that though 'the exponent of the Art of Melody recognises twelve notes only, the Art of Melody must not be confused with intonation or the Science of the Shruti.' So, Mr. Clements made it a point to verify the scale of each individual Rāga, with the help of a Dichord, and demonstrated in a practical manner the truth that Indian music uses a far larger number of notes than twelve. Of course the method has a great academic value, but it is not in

168

SOME SIDE ISSUES AND RETROSPECT [ Chapter IX

any way connected with any surviving ancient practices,

nor does it hint at a central principle which serves as a

base of all the physical or æsthetic processes of the Indian

system.

In the present work, however, the employment of

a drone as a necessary back-ground, for all music, has been

made the basis of all the processes of the system and of

the conditions governing the Rāga-system also. As

already mentioned elsewhere, the practice of employing

a drone is a very ancient practice and still serves as the

very basis for maintaining the sense of tonality of the

present-day music also. Further it gives the essential

consonances of the system and discloses that in Indian

Music there is no scale which is ideally consonant and

which at the same time obeys the condition of sym-

metry in its two tetrachords-a condition which

every Rāga-scale is required to obey. The Śuddha

scale of Indian Music is not therefore ain ideally con-

sonant scale. In practice also, we do not come across a

Rāga which employs a perfectly consonant scale, such

as the one given by the Major Mode of the West. The

scales of Indian music are then chosen in a more or less

free manner. Again, the observance of the rules govern-

ing the Rāga-system is not a matter of natural necessity

but is the consequence of referring that system to the

accompaniment of a drone. If the drone were tuned in

ways other than the conventional ones, then even though a

Rāga-scale may remain the same in point of the pitch and

intervals of its several notes, its character does undergo

a total change. This means that the standard of tonality

changes according to the change in the tuning of the

drone, or that the tonality of Indian music is not of a

fundamentally fixed character but appears to be so,

because of the conventional manner of tuning the drone.

Chapter IX ] TUNING THE DRONE IN OTHER WAYS

169

This is why the drone was given the first place among

the unities of Indian music.

Besides the conventional ways of tuning the drone,

it may be tuned in other ways also, such as by taking the

other notes of the scale, for the auxiliary note. Thus the

drone is sometimes of the E-type and is employed in

Rāgās which omit both the major Fifth and the Fourth,

and take the major Third as one of their principal

notes. In such cases the drone does not make much

difference in effect for that particular Rāga, but if

employed for others, in which the major Third is either

absent or has not the same significance attached to it as

in the former, the effect is beyond doubt different and in

most cases spoiled also. This is perhaps the reason why

the third type of tuning viz. the one according to the

Gāndhāra-Grāma, was abandoned even from the very

ancient days. Yet from the academic point of view, it

is desirable that the student should experiment with all

possible types of tuning the drone. This will at once

bring to his notice that theoretically many different

schemes of tonality are possible, and the two in vogue,

being the most harmonious of them all, are consequently

adopted as the standard ones. Of the two again, the

tonality of the G-type being the simpler and more direct

is naturally adopted for almost all the Rāgās and that

of the F-type, in exceptional cases only.

Yet another variation of the drone is to tune the

auxiliary wire to the note which a Rāga essentially

omits and transpose the music to the auxiliary note

as a new base. In Mālkansa, for instance, which

omits the Fifth, the conventional way is to adopt

a drone of the F-type. But according to the present

suggestion, it is to be replaced by the G-type, and the

music is to be transposed to the note G, serving as a new

170

SOME SIDE ISSUES AND RETROSPECT [ Chapter IX

base. It is found that this lends a new charm to the

Rāga, without spoiling any of its beauties, and allows

transposition at will between the old and new bases also.

Similarly in Bhūpa, which omits the Fourth, the drone

may be of the F-type instead of the G-type, which is con-

ventionally employed for that Rāga. If the music is then

transposed to the note F, given by the auxiliary wire

as a new base, the effect of the Rāga is not at all

spoiled but turns out to be really pleasant and of a

novel character also. Of course, such cases may not

be very large in number, but a knowledge of the process

of transposition in music and may perhaps open some

new field for extending the present-day Rāgas in other

directions also.

Retrospect.

Indian music is a very ancient art and has an

interesting history behind it. As in the evolution of

the other arts, feeling, fancy and inspiration played a

great part in its early development and science came on

the scene much later. Hence it is, that science is unable

to explain some of the earlier practices, and their justi-

fication comes only through tradition, inheritance or

association. This being so, the theory of Indian music

could not at any stage of its evolution reconcile itself

wholly with the practice of the Art. The ancient

writers however felt a necessity of bringing the two

as close together as possible and in doing so resorted

to ways and means, which sometimes resulted in diame-

trically opposite interpretations of one and the same

thing. Again a growing art was bound to undergo many

changes in the course of its development. The above

causes explain why the theory and practice of Indian

music did not always go together hand in hand, and

Chapter IX ] MUSIC—THE ART OF ARTS 171

why the writers on Indian music, belonging to different

epochs of time, could not but widely differ from one

another. Another great ordeal, through which Indian

music had to pass, was the reaction of the Mohammedan

culture. But as we now see. its contact with the

Mohammedan culture only extended its possibilities but

allowed its essential features to remain intact, for the

simple reason, that the foundations of the art had be-

come sufficiently solid by that time and that most of the

first generation of the Mohammedan artistes were elderly

Hindus, later on converted to Islam. Last but not the

least, our contact with the sciences of the West had its

own reaction—among other things—on Indian music

also and has provided us with specific and more critical

standards of judgment. As a result, it may be said that

Indian music is largely benefitted by this contact and so

far at least has no cause for any repentance for the

same.

Music, in general, forms a most necessary link in the

great family of Arts and every student of it ought to

know the nature and limitations of its function. For

the purposes of an academic study like the present one,

music must be studied as a pure art and not in its relation

to the other arts.

Music is the least material of all the fine arts and

has a much greater and more absolute freedom in

shaping its material in its own way than the rest of

them. Thus Beethoven used to say that ‘Words are

bound in chains but happily sounds are still free,’

and all good artistes are bound to feel likewise

sometime or other. But as has already been remarked

in the second chapter, musical sound is not completely

free to have its own way and before being able to

172

SOME SIDE ISSUES AND RETROSPECT [Chapter IX

discharge its higher function as an art has to obey certain physical laws of a universal nature. Hence it is said that music is a dual entity and though an art by nature is a science as a matter of exigency. As a science it has to follow the fundamental laws of musical sound, which are the result of purely physical causes and observation and so are universally true. Though it was long, before the laws were known in their modern form, they seem to have always functioned in one form or the other in all known systems of music. This is the reason why the different systems do not materially differ in their view of the general principles of the musical science. The real point of difference between one system and another arises, however, when it is desired to harness these laws to artistic effect. Here there is great scope for personal choice and as previously described, one may adopt any free principle of style as one's starting principle. The choice of such a free principle necessitates the creation of certain unities governing the system. The guiding principle of Indian music is the execution of all music in a given or chosen Rāga throughout and to explore the melodic possibilities of that Rāga, in all their details. This principle, when accepted as the one to start with, requires the choice of an accompaniment like that of the drone or else its tonality cannot remain the same for want of any standard of reference. The choice of a drone again has its own repercussions on the Rāga-system and this is how the first two unities are linked up together. These two, with the help of rhythm, make for the larger unity of Indian music. The first two unities supply the physical quality and mood to the music, while rhythm, the third unity, gives it motion and supplies the emotion and governs its rise and fall. As for the artistic pleasure provided by music, it is the result

Chapter IX ]

MUSIC YOKED TO UTILITY

173

of its appeal to the intellect as well as the emotions,

and that music is considered to be the best, in which

there is a happy combination and equipoise of these two

factors. The development of the scientific side of music

has immensely widened the scope of the intellectual

element in music, while the emotional side is governed

by the physical, psychological and cultural associations of

mankind.

The Æsthetics of music has therefore to deal with

both these aspects of the appeal.

The processes governing the intellectual side of

music are based upon the correct observance of the

scientific principles in general and of the chosen unities

in particular; the emotional side has however a very

limited field to start with, as at first, music has nothing

beyond consonance or dissonance to offer in that respect.

The appeal may therefore be either pleasant or unpleas-

ant but cannot specify a particular emotion as such.

This inability of music is however removed by supple-

menting the pleasant or unpleasant effect by the tonal and

rhythmic variations, which awaken certain psychological

associations and experiences, which lead the mind into the

sphere of parallel activity and experiences from life. The

appeal becomes still more specific, if it is further asso-

ciated with certain cultural practices. Thus, music if

used for prayer will be considered as devotional and if

used for mourning as sad and so on. Here however

there is some need for a little caution, as on its own

merits such music may or may not be really devotional

or sad, but the force of the cultural practices may

often be so great as to dictate the mood to music. In

such cases, music being yoked to utility loses its signi-

ficance as an art and simply becomes the handmaid

or tool of the cultural practice. So, in the realm of

174

SOME SIDE ISSUES AND RETROSPECT [ Chapter IX

music, as a pure art, there is a limit beyond which

cultural associations or poetry-if allowed a free hand-

may replace the processes of music by those belonging

to themselves and present such music in which the

element of music itself is altogether absent!

In order to give full expression to its manifold

beauties, Indian music has developed different forms of

musical composition and each of them is associated with

some special form of musical expression. These forms

however are not elastic enough to admit of a treatment

which the light music of to-day needs. There is there-

fore a tendency to coin out new forms of composition-

which however are not really new but are evolved out of

the fusion of some popular folk-tune with one of the

classical type. Naturally, such compositions do not

employ any one Rāga in particular, but pass from one to

some other in a free manner and often adopt tunes from

European music also. How far this may have its re-

actions on the individual character of classical Indian

music is for the future to decide. But there is at least

one encouraging sign of the times that simultaneously

with this bid for freedom, the number of persons taking

to the academic study of Indian music is also increasing

day by day and promises to maintain intact the high

and noble traditions of classical Indian music, in spite of

these loose tendencies of to-day.

APPENDIX.

REFERENCES.

CHAPTER I

1 (a) पड्जं वदति मयूरो गावो रंभति षड्जभम् ।

अजा वदति गान्धारं कौश्रो वदति मध्यमम् ॥ ३ ॥

पुष्पसाधारणे काले कोकिलो वदति पञ्चमम् ।

अभस्तु धैवतं वक्ति निषादं वक्ति कुञ्जर: ॥ ४ ॥ नारदीशिक्षा.

(b) The Māṇḍuki Śikṣā also quotes the above Ślokas.

(c) The Bṛhatdeśī also quotes the same Slokas,

but with a little variation in the last line.

(d) मयूरवातकच्छागकौश्रकोकिलददुरा: ।

गजक्ष्वससपड्जादीनक्रमादुचारयन्त्यमी ॥ संगीत रत्नाकर.

2 The Ṛgveda Prātiśakhya; the Nāradi and the other Siḳṣās of the Vedic period.

3 The experimental method described by Bharata:-

( page 318, Canto XXV111,-edited by the Kāshi Sanskrit Series.)

मध्यमग्रामे तु श्रुत्यपकृष्ट: पञ्चम: कार्य:। पञ्चमस्य श्रुत्युत्तर्षापकर्षाभ्यां यदत्तरं

मार्दवादायतत्वाद्वा तावत्प्रमाणश्रुति: । निर्देशान्नञ्च समभिव्याख्यास्याम: । यथा

द्रे वीणे तुल्यप्रमाणतन्त्रुपपादनदण्डमूर्छनाभ्यां पड्जग्रामाभ्रिते कार्ये । तयोरन्यतरं

मध्यमग्रामाभिक्री कुर्यात । पञ्चमस्यापकर्ष श्रुति तामेव पञ्चमस्य श्रुत्युत्तर्षेवशात्

पड्जग्रामाभिक्र कुर्यात । एवं भुतिर्पकृष्टा भवति । पुनरपि तदेवापकर्षात गान्धार-

निषादावपि द्वतरसां धैवतरसभौ प्रविशतः श्रुत्यधिकृत्वात । पुनस्तदैवापकर्षदैवर्तर्ष-

अभवितरसां पड्जमषद्वौ प्रविशातः श्रुत्यधिकृत्वात् । तद्वत्तदुनरपकृष्टायां तस्यां

176

REFERENCES

[ Appendix

पञ्चममध्यमषड्जा इतरस्यां मध्यमनिषादगान्धारवन्तः प्रवेक्ष्यन्ति! चतुःश्रुत्यधिक-

त्वात्। एवमनैन श्रुतिद्वैनविधानैन द्वै ग्रामिक्यो द्वाविंशः श्रुतियः प्रत्यवगन्तव्या:।

Translation :—In (obtaining) the Madhyama Grāma,

the Pañcama is to be lowered by one Śruti.

The Pramāṇa

Śruti is the interval between the Pañcama and Pañcama,

raised or lowered by one Śruti, or is equal to its distance

from the Mṛdu or Āyatā forms.

We shall (now) explain

how to demonstrate it, as follows:— “Let two Veenās

exactly alike in point of their strings, sound-boards etc.

be tuned alike, with the Ṣadja Grāma ( intervals.) Of

one of them, change the tuning to that of the Madhyama

Grāma by lowering the Pañcama by one Śruti.

Next,

keeping this altered Pañcama as it is, so lower the

other notes as to make this Veenā give the Ṣadja-Grāma

type of notes.

Thus there is a diminution of one Śruti,

Again by a second diminution, the Gāndhāra and Niṣāda

( of the altered Veenā ) enter into ( coincide with )

Ṛṣabha and Dhaivata of the standard one.

By a third

diminution, the Ṛṣabha and Dhaivata of the altered one

enter into the Ṣadja and Pañcama of the standard one.

Lastly by a fourth diminution, the Pañcama, Madhyama,

and Ṣadja (of the altered one) become Madhyama, Gāndhāra

and Niṣāda respectively of the standard one on account of

a ( total ) lowering by four Śrutis.

The twenty-two

Śrutis of both the Grāmas should thus be understood by

means of this method of Śruti-demonstration.

For practical application of Bharata's method, see

pp. 41–47 in the body of the Third Chapter.

4 रागमार्गस्य यदूयं यथोक्तं भरतादिभिः।

निश्र्म्यते तदस्माभिर्लक्ष्यं (ते) लक्षणसंयुतम् ॥ २७९ ॥ रागलक्षणम्

वृहद्देशी यु. ८९, Trivandrum Edition.

Appendix ]

NAṬI'S SONG

177

5

अबलाबालगोपलैः क्षितिपालैर्निजेच्छया ।

नीयते सानुरागेण स्वंदसे देशिहच्यते ॥ १३ ॥

वृहद्देशी पृ. २.

नादोत्पत्तिलक्षणम्

6

Naṭi's song, in the prelude to the first Act of the

Abhijnāna Śākuntalam.

इसीसि चुद्दि आइ भमरे सुुमार केसर सिहाइं ।

ओदंसअंत दअमाणा पमदा सिरिसि कुमुमाइं ॥ ८ ॥

7 (a)

तवाधिमं गीनरागेण हारिणा प्रसभं हतः ।

एष राजेव दुष्यन्तः सारङ्गेणातिरंहसा ॥

Last verse in the prelude to the first Act of the

Abhijnāna-Śākuntalam.

(b) For a fuller interpretation (of the Śloka)

see the author's article on the subject in the Madras

Music Academy's Journal, Vol. XI pp. 90–94.

8 (a)

लक्ष्माधुना-प्रसिद्धानां संहृतूनां क्रुवेधधुना ॥ ६७ ॥

… … … … … … …

मध्यमग्रामरागोऽयम्

… …

Anandāshrama Edn.

तदुक्तद्रुवा ॥ ६९ ॥

पृ. १८५ संगीत रत्नाकर

मध्यमादिसग्रहांशा

… … … …

पृ. १८६ Ibid.

रागविवेकाध्याय.

(b) How this Madhyamādi happens to be a

variety of Sāraṅga is explained at some length in the

article referred to above, in 7 (b).

9

Ahobala's method of tuning the notes of the

standard scale, by taking different lengths of a wire

under constant tension.

Ahobala's rule :-

पञ्चमभावेन पड्जे ज्ञेयाः स्वराः यथेः ।

गतिभावेन गान्धारे मंसभावेन मध्यमे ॥

12

178

REFERENCES

[ Appendix

The learned should know that the notes (in the two tetrachords) of the Ṣadja Grāma are at the distance of a Fifth. So also the intervals, Ga to Ṇi and Ma to Sā exist between the corresponding notes in (the two tetrachords of ) the Gāndhāra and Madhyama Grāmas respectively.

Verses about the relative langths for the notes:-

स्वरस्य हेतुभूताया वीणायाश्राङ्कुप्रसवतः ।

तत्र स्वरविवोधार्थं स्थानलक्षणमुच्यते ॥

ध्वन्यवच्छेदकवीणायां मध्ये तारकः स्थितः ।

उभयोःपार्श्वयोर्मध्ये मध्यमं स्वरमाचरेत् ॥

त्रिभागात्मकवीणायां पश्चात्‌ः स्यात्तदधिमे ।

षट्कचतुष्टययोर्मध्ये गान्धारस्थ स्थितिभवेत् ॥

सपयोः पूर्वभागे च स्थापनीयोऽथ रिस्वरः ।

सपयोर्मध्यदेशेतु धैवतं स्वरमाचरेत् ॥

तत्रांशाद्वयसहित्यागाद्रिषादस्य स्थितिभवेत् ।: शुद्धस्वराः ॥

The places (nodes) for each note are described on the Veṇā, which generates the notes and which can be (duly) seen with the eyes. The node for the upper Sā or Octave, stands at the mid-point of the open wire, and that for the Ma (the Fourth) should be taken mid-way between the two,—the fundamental and its Octave. Dividing the wire-length into three equal parts the Pancama (the Fifth) is obtained at the first division near the top. The Gāndhāra (the Third) is obtained mid-way between the fundmental and its Fifth. The Re (the Second) is to be placed at the first (of the three divisions) between Sā and Pa, while the Dha (the Sixth) is to be placed between the Fifth and the Octave. Again Niṣāda is at the end of the second (of the three divisions) between the Fifth and the Octave.

Appendix] AHOBALA'S ŚUDDHA SCALE

179

Accordingly the length of the wire for each note

can be easily calculated. Thus taking the length as

36 inches and the vibration number as 240 for the funda-

mental or Sā, the lengths and frequencies of the various

notes of the Suddha scale, according to Ahobala may be

written as:-

Note Length Frequency

Sā (C) 36" 240

Re (D) 32" 270

Ga (E♭) 30" 288

Ma (F) 27" 320

Pa (G) 24" 360

Dha (A) 213⁄3" 405

Ni (B♭) 20" 432

Sā (C) 18" 480

The nodal position for Dha is not specifically stated

by Ahobala and hence there is great difference of opinion

on that point, among the Panjits. "But as Ahobala

states in his first rule that the notes in the two tetra-

chords are to be at an interval of a Fifth, it seems fair to

grant him the benefit of doubt and assume that he well

knew the required position for Dha." This is the latest

view taken by scholars.

For the remaining five or Vikṛta notes of Ahobala,

see the relevant Slokas in Sangita Pārijāta or on page

79 of Pt. Bhātkhande's Paddhati-Vol. II.

10 There were numerous Matas or schools of

musical lore. These were:- Shiva-mata, Kṛṣṇa-mata,

Bharata-mata, Hanumān-mata, Kallināth-māta, Some-

swara-mata, Indra-prastha-mata and many others. The

first four were ancient and of them also the first

180

REFERENCES

I Appendix

two were long out of date even in the days of the

Naghamat-e-Āsafi. Even the Bharata and the Hanumān-

Matas, were not then well understood and hence the

attempt on the part of Mohammed Reza, to write the

Naghamāt-e-Āsafi.

Each Mata started with six basic Rāgas so as to

respectively represent the six parent-scales, which

were thought as essential for developing the system

in full. (For further information on the point, please

see Chapter VI pp. 112-113).

11 C/o comments on page 19, Rāgas of Tanjore

by E. Clements (I. C. S. Retired).

CHAPTER III.

1 (a) Bharata and Matanga consider the Śrutis to

be of five different varieties with five differ-

ent intervals, but do not mention anywhere

the proper names assigned to them.

(b) Śārangdeva and the later authors however

mention the proper names of the twenty-

two Śrutis, and state that the Śruti-

intervals are of five different kinds or Jātis.

तीष्यन्तरा न कषायमधुरा न्योत्थिताग्रतया: ॥

संगीत रत्नाकर ॥

Verse 29, Page 41.

Verses 30-39 (page 41-42 of the Sangita Ratnākar

-Anandāshram-Edition, give the proper names of the

Śrutis, in their serial order, as:-

1 तीवा, 2 कुष्टा, 3 मन्दा, 4 छन्दोवती

5 दयावती, 6 रंजनी, 7 रक्षिका

8 राद्री, ९ क्रोधा

} For C ( सा )

} ,, D ( रे ).

} ,, E ( ग ).

Appendix I

GROSS-MELODIES

181

10 वज्रिणी, 11 प्रसारणी, 12 प्रीति, 13 मार्जनी ,, F ( म )

14 धिनी, 15 रक्ता, 16 संत्रीप्ती, 17 आलापिनी ,, G ( ग )

18 मदन्ती, 19 रोहिणी, 20 रस्या

21 उप्रा, 22 क्षोभिणी

,, A ( ध )

,, B ( नी )

Of course the frequencies of his notes are not known and should not therefore be taken to be those ordinarily represented by the letters C, D, E, F, etc.

CHAPTER IV.

1 Examples of Gross Melodies in folk music:-

(a)

भारती

सुवक्ता दुःखहर्ता वार्ता|ं विन्नाची । तुरवी पुरवी प्रेम क्रपा जयाची ॥

Musical Notation

(i) सासा सासा, सासा सासा, सारे सासानि । रेे रे, रेे रे, रेे, रेे सानीसा ॥

(ii) ,, ,, ,, सारे ,, रे रे, रेेरे, रे रे', ,, ॥

In a group-recitation the note Re varies between its major and minor forms. It seems that oldáge makes the voice prone to prefer the minor form to the major one.

(b) Also refer to Ex. 28 under 7 of this part of the appendix to Chap. IV.

चूर्णिका

2 { For a handy reference see pp. 33-35 of छन्दोरचना

bv Dr. M. T. Patwardhan.

3 आर्थिकं गाथिकं चैव सामिकं च स्वरान्तरम् ।

भौडवं षाडवं चैव संपूर्णमिति सप्तधा ॥

The first three are the ways of chanting the Vedas; the remaining four belong to the secular type of recitation, and music employs the last three alone.

182

REFERENCES

[ Appendix

The number of notes functioning in each type of Vedic Chant is given in the following Sloka:-

एक स्वर प्रयोगो द्वार्चिकस्तवभिधीयते ।

गाथिको द्विस्वरो ज्ञेयस्तिस्वरस्त्वै सामिकः ॥

4. Climax:-

This method of effecting the climax is to be seen in all types of popular and folk-music and deserves careful study as it unfolds the whole technique of making any musical piece effective to any desired degree. As such, the study of this technique must form an essential part of the theoretical portion, a student of classical music has to study.

The following are a few typical instances -

The play-ground method of effecting the climax:-

(a) Girls:-

कं, मेरा, चक्की भोरा, भो भोरा, भो भोरा, continued indefinitely.

(b) Boys:-

हुतुधु, तु, तु तु, तु तु तु तु

In (a), the mnemonic is recited by one girl trying to overtake another running round an agreed pillar, object or person. The underlined part alone is repeated with gradually increasing loudness, pitch and tempo which are governed by the keenness of the pursuit, and thus the pace of the game advances towards a climax.

In (b), a boy who wants to attack his opponent is to commence reciting the mnemonic as soon as he crosses the boundary line separating the two parts of the Hututu Court one for each party. His movements in his opponent's court are governed by similar variations in the under'

Appendix ]

CLIMAX

lined part of his recitation and the climax is reached as in (a) above.

(c) Team-work-method of climax :-

The co-ordination of effort is effected in all team-work whether in industry or in other walks of life, by regulating the movements of the participating persons to the rhythm of a group or mnemonic-song. Quickening of the tempo and increase in the intensity and pitch of the tone advance the pace of the work. If the work employs some type of machinery of which the wheels etc. revolve in a cyclic manner, the mnemonic assumes the form of a regular musical song due to the perfect regularity of the rhythm of revolution.

(d) The Haridāsi-method of climax :-

See as explained in the body of the present chapter, page 67.

5 Sāma-Gāna :-For examples rendered into music all notation refer to the following :-

(1) Rev. Popley's 'The Music of India.'

(2) M. M Academy's Journal Vol. IV pp. 150-152 & Vol. V pp. 2-16.

-also to the 'Ancient Mode of singing Sāmagāna'-a pamphlet about Sā nagāna published by the late Pt. Laxamaṇśāstri Dravid of Poona.

The Deccan College Research Institute of Poona has also taken six records of Sāmans as sung by Pt. Dravid. It, however, appears that Pt. Dravid has clothed the Sāmans in modern apparel.

6 Refer to any collection of modern film-sorngs published into notation, e. g. सिनेमासंगीत, (4 parts) published by Mr. Moholkar of Sholapur.

184

REFERENCES

[ Appendix

7 Examples of Chant, Recitation and Folk music :-

Ex. (a) Private prayer or Arcika style of recitation:-

Written Text :- राम राम राम राम Contd. indefinitely.

Phonetic Text :- रां रां रां रां ,, ,,

Musical Notation :- सा, सा, सा, 'सा ,, ,,

Finding :- Literally monotonous.

Ex. (b) Gāthika style of recitation.

Written Text :- जय विक्रल । जय जय विक्रल } Repeated

Phonetic Text :- जै विठल । जै जै विठल } Several

Musical Notation :- नी निसासा । निनि निसासा } Times.

Finding :- Only two consecutive notes are employed.

All the twentyfour Bhajans in Marāthi like

ग्यानबा तुकाराम, रामकृष्ण हरि etc. given by Mr. L. R. Pāngārkar

in his भक्तिमार्गप्रदीप page 100, XVI Edn. are recited in

the Gāthika style; also the famous चर्पटपञ्चारिका स्तोत्रम्

of Shri Śankārācārya.

Ex. (c) Sāmika Style

Written text :-

राम राम राम राम । सीताराम सीताराम

Phonetic text :-

रां रां रां रां । सीता रां सीता रां

Musical Notation :-

सा सारे ग, मग, मग, । रेग रे सासा सा

Finding :- Only three consecutive notes are employed.

The tune of all the पाढे (Ready-reckoning oral lessons)

tables in Marāthi is exactly the same as that of the

Appendix ]

INDRAWAJRĀ

185

above example. The Sāmika style has influenced the

entire sphere of recitation to be met with in our every-

day life, such as the Nursery-Rhymes, Proverbs, and

other simple songs and ditties.

For Vedic chant of Arcika, Gāthika and Sāmika

styles, one may request a Brāhman-priest to give an

actual demonstration.

(d) Recitation of Metres.

g Group

Ex. 1 इन्द्रवज्रा.

-- v -- v v- v -- -- v-- v v- v--

घ sa रेगगग गगरे ग, सारे । रेगग सारेग, गगरे, गरेसा

Old Lines | Even lines

देसोनि बोळं, हृदया भिरामा । रामापुढें धा, वतसे हुकामा

Ex. 2 उपेंद्रवज्रा

(v--v--, v v--v--)

This has the same number of syllables to a line as

Indrawajrā, and the music notation of its tune is also

exactly the same, though the first syllable here is a short

one.

This is why the two metres are freely and inadvert-

ently mixed up together and are not easily detected by

the listener either.

Ex. 3 For similar reasons, the Metre Indrawansā

(-- v ., v v ., v--, v--) has also the same musical notation.

In general, two metres having the same number of

syllables in each section of their lines are found to have

the same music notation, irrespective of the short or long

cháracter of the syllables.

786

REFERENCES

[ Appendix

Ex. 4 & 5. Thus, स्वागता and रथोद्भता have the

same notation.

– v – v v – v v – – ......Swāgatā.

– v – v v – v – v – ......Rathoddbhatā.

ध्‌सा रे मग, रे मग, ग रे सा रे .....Odd lines.

रे मग रे सा, रे मग मग, ग रे.सा सा .....Even lines.

Ex. 6.

वंशस्थ

v – v – – v – v – – v – – ......

ध्‌सा रे ग मग, ग रे रे सा सा रे । सा रे सा रे ग, ग ग रे, ग रे सा सा

Odd lines | Even lines,

असे जयाला धन तोचि पंडित । कुलीन तो तो चि गुणी बहूश्रुत

Ex. 7.

द्रुतविलंबित

v v v – v v – v v – v – v v v – v v – v –

ध्‌सा रे ग रे ग मग', ग ग रे, सा रे । रे रे मग रे सा रे मग'; ग ग रे सा सा

Odd lines | Even lines.

करि कमंडलु दण्‌ड ह मृगाजिन । त्रिगमाप करी बडु वामन

Ex. 8.

वसंततिलका

– – v – v v – v – – – – v v – v v – v –

ध्‌सा रे ग ग ग रे ग, ग ग रे ग म सा रे । रे रे सा रे सा रे रे ग, ग ग रे ग रे सा

Odd lines | Even lines.

सारी क्षतांकित कळें, निरखो निऽडोळा । कांक्षे अशी तिज पुसे, रसिक राज मोळा ॥

( नী Group )

Ex. 9.

शालिनी

(–––, – v–, ––v– | –––, – v – –v––)

नी नीं नी सा, रे मग रे रे रे सा रे । रे ग्‌ सा नि नि सा रे ग्‌ रे सा सा

Odd lines | Even lines.

सप्तकाळी कॉवळें सज्जनांचें । होतें चित्त क्रोधियं, केडहावें:

Appendix ]

TUNES OF VṚTTAS

187

Ex. 10.

मालिनी

u u u u u - - - - - u - - | u u u u u - - - u - -

नैनिनिनिनिनि निनीसा, रे ग रेग रेसारे।रेग रे रेसा रेनी नी, नी सा रेग रे सा सा।

Odd lines | Even lines.

मधुरतर फळांची, पूर्ण घेवो निगोडी।मज मग रघुनाथा, ठेवितां होय खोडी

Ex. 11.

मन्दाकान्ता

• • • • u u u u - - - u - - u - -

Odd lines रे रे सा सा, नि नि नि नि नि सा, रेग म ग रे सा रे

Even lines म ग म ग म, ग रे म ग म ग म, रे ग म ग रे सा सा

क्वितकान्ताविरहगुरुणा स्वाधिकारात्प्रमत्तः

शापेनास्तंगमितमहिमा वर्षभोग्येण भतुःः

Ex. 12

स्वगधरा

• • • • • • u u u u u - - u - - u - -

Odd lines रे रे सा सा धं नी सा, नि नि नि नि नि नि सा, रे म ग ग रे सा रे

Even lines म ग ग ग ग म रे ग, म ग ग ग ग रे ग, रे ग ग ग रे सा सा

साधूंता त्याग अर्थ, क्षणहि न करवे, आमुचे देव' संत

श्री दे सत्संग आन्हां, जसी वहनि कृपा, काननां दे वसंत.

Ex. 13

शिखरिणी.

u - - - -, u u u - - u u u -

Odd lines निं नान्नी सां ग रे, नि सा रे सारे ग, रे सा नि सां रे

Even lines रेग रे सा नी, नि सा रे सारे ग, रे सा सा रे सा

विसांवा घे कांहीं, उडनि लवलाहि परतला

तृपाळ्याच्या स्कंधीं, बसुनि मणीवें, धी, उतरला

Ex. 14

हरिणी

u u u u - - - - u - u u - u -

All lines रे ग रे सा ध सा ग रे, धं सा रे म ग रे धं सा.

क्षणांहि तुमची देवा, सेवा नसे, घडली मला

REFERENCES

[Appendix

Ex. 15

पृथ्वी

~ - v v v - v - v v v - v - - v -

Odd lines म प ध प म ग, म प ध प म ग, रे ग ग रे सा

Even lines सा रे रे सा रे प, म ग रे सा रे नि, रे ग म ग रे सा.

फळे मधुर खा,वया असति नि,त्य मेवे तसे.

हिरेजडित सुंदररी कनकपं,जरीं ही वसे

Ex. 16 (a) शार्दूलविक्रीडित.

• • • • v v v - - - v - v -

Odd lines सा सारे मम प, मप प्प प धप, प सांडने ध, म धप

Even lines ध ध प म म ग, रे ग म ग रे सा, रे प्पडमग, सा रे सा

म्हातारी उडतां, नये तिजला, माता-मदीया अशी

कोनती काया वंदू नवप्रसव ते, सौति- दिसवी तेशी

Ex. 16 (b) Another old and popular variation of

शार्दूलविक्रीडित

All four lines :-

ग ग़ S S S रेसा ध़, ध़सारे, रेग़रेसासानि, ध़ सारे ग़ ग म म ग

गं गा SSSS मो - मतिगो पतिग़णपति गोविंद गो वर्धनौ

This variation is very old and popular and is tradi-

tionally, and exclusively used in reciting the मंगलाष्टक,

verses or benedictory Slokas blessing the bride and the

bridegroom, while they are being married.

Ex. 17 Metres with one and the same Gana repeat-

ing itself several times in one line.

१ भुजंगप्रयात ~ - - repeating four lines.

२ रगवणी - v - " "

३ सारंग -- v " "

Appendix ]

SAME GAṆA, REPEATED

189

४ मौक्तिक दाम

– –

"

"

५ मोदक

– ˘ ˘

"

"

६ तहलनचन

˘ ˘

"

"

७ विद्याधर

– – –

"

"

८ तोटक

˘ ˘ –

"

"

As one and the same Gaṇa repeats itself in these metres, the element of regularity of rhythm becomes quite evident in their recitation which is plain and simple enough. These metres of the Akṣara Gaṇa category are as it were the joining links between the Akṣara and Mātrā Gaṇa types of the Vṛttas or metres.

The tune of पञ्चचामर is an example of the Mātrā Vṛtta in which the group ˘ – occurs eight times successively in one line and is like a modern marching tune.

Mātrā Vṛttas

Ex. 18 The Mātrā Vṛttas are measured by the total quantity and not by the sequence of long and short syllables. Still they take a group of four Mātrās as a unit and in certain Vṛttas the places of stress and rest are fixed by usage and rather in a singular manner in some cases.

मोरोपंती आर्या-गीत

Notation, सा ग मग, म ग म ग, डे ग, ग ग प, म ग डे, नि डे, ग।

Notation, म ग म ग म गेऽसा, नि नि नि नि डे ग, म ग डे नि डे सा.

Text. हा सीते हा सीवे, टाकुनि जावें, तुवा न रामालां।

राहू तें जेवीं सुधा, देवीं जिरलीस तूं नरा माते ॥?॥

190

REFERENCES

[ Appendix

Ex. 19

साकी ( दोधक ) (Modern चन्द्रकान्त )

Notation, ध् सासा सा रे, रे प म ग, रे ग रे सारे़, ग ग रे

Notation, सा रेरे ग रे, ध् नि नि धुप प ध्ध सासा रेरे ग् सा.

'Text,

त्याच तेऴीच्या काठी आहे क्रोडन-मंदिर ज्याचें

Text,

नीळ मण्याचें चमके सुंदर रत्नखचित जें साचें ॥

Ex. 20

दिगडी

1st two lines,

सा सां नी धपप. म धप म ग रे, सा रे ग् रे ग्, S सा S

कृपासागर तूं, अससि जग, त्वा SSSSS था-

नम्र करितो तुझिया पदें मांSSSSS S था. -

3rd line Notation

ग म प प, प प प ध-प, प प सां नि ध नि ध प म ग म म

असो आम्ही अति पतिन-दुराचा SSSSS री-

Notation रे रे ग् म प प, मधपम गपरे सा रे गू रे ग गा S सा S.

4th line

तूंचि देऊनि बा, सदय आम्हां ता SSSSS री-

Ex. 21.

कामदा

Notation प् ध् सा ध् सा, | नि रे साध ध् नी

1st line

आस ही तुझी, | फार लागली ।

Notation नि रे ग ग रे, | नि रे सा निसा

2nd line

दे दयानिधे, | बुद्धि चांगली ॥

Ex. 22

Hadaga-Dance. (1)

Duet.

Music Notation प् नि नि सा प् | सारे सारे .गग | सारे सा-प्

All lines

माक्यां माहेरचा | वैय्य आणा बाई | वैय्य आ-ण्णा

Appendix ]

OWI

191

Ex 23 Hadaga-Dance. (2)

Notation पडिं डिंते डिंसा । साप् रेग्र रेसा

Refrain माझ्या माहेरीच्या । वाटं गुजरिच्या

Question सा ग रग ग ग ग । गग गरे सारे

तुझ्या ग माहेरच्यानं । तुला काय दिलं ?

Answer ग ग रग ग ग ग । गग गरे रेम।

माझ्या माहेरच्यानं । मला डोला होती

and fresh questions and answers go on in like manner.

Ex 24. अनुष्टुभ्

Notation सा ग रग, रे रग रे, सा ध, सा ग रे, रे रग रे, सा सा.

Notation सा ग रग, रे रग रे, मा व, सारे मारे गरे सामा

1st line कृण्णाय वामुदेवाय हरये परमात्मने

2nd line प्रणत: क्लेशानाशाय गोविंदाय नमो नम:

Ex. 25 Bookish Owi.

उँ नमो जी हेरंबा । सकलादि तूं प्रारंभा

गग गगग रेगग । गगगग ग रेगग

आठवुनि तुझी स्वरुपघोभा । वंदन भावें करीतसे ॥

गगगप रेग रेगम, रेरे । सारेरें गरे, गरे-सामा

Ex. 26 Musical Owi.

1st three lines पहिली माझी ओवी

पहिला माझा नेम

ब्रळसी खाली राम

Notation सासारे, सारे, गरे

4th line पोथी वांचे

रेरे, रेसा

192

REFERENCES

[ Appendix

Ex. 27 The early type of अभंग is exactly like the musical ओवी in its tune,

Compare जीव शिव दोनी । केले एकाकार । बोले ज्ञानेश्वर । तोचि योगी ॥

Ex. 28

Evolved type of अभंग.

घेई घेई माझे वाचे । गोड नाम राघोबाचे मना तेथें धांव घेई । राही राघोबाचे पायां

Music Notation :—सारे रेग्, गुरे सारे। रेग् रेग्, रेग् रेसा

Still Advanced variation :-

सारे गुरे, निधृ नीसा । निसारेगड, रेप मप ग ड रे

In such tunes the note ग may appear either with the major or its minor form giving a gross-melody as in आरति.

उद्धव-जाति

Ex. 29 Such Songs as— उद्धवा शांतवन कर जा take a regular Rāga tune, (as that of Pilu etc.) but then their music is extremely plain and simple in character and serves as but a stepping stone to the tunes of classical music.

8. Mr. A. G. Chagla of M/S. Chagalas, Bunder Road, Karachi, merchant and a scholar of music, who travelled by land-route twice to Europe & back, stayed in Iran, Arabia, Egypt, Eastern Turkistan and other countries for studying their classical as well as folk music.

CHAPTER V

Explanatory note about the basic and chromatic scales used in Indian music:-

The six scales given on page 97 include both the auxiliary notes F and G and are perfectly symmetrical in both the tetrachords and employ at least five major consonances. The remaining two notes also are not very remote in character.

Appendix } SEVEN ESSENTIAL SCALES 193

The next, in point of merit to these, is the following scale which omits G but includes F and is ( fairly ) symmetrical in both the tetrachords.

Scale No. 7:-

C D E F F♯ A B c

240 256 300 320 341⅓ 400 453⅓ 480.

These seven scales serve the purpose of all the present-day Rāgas. Thus:-

Scale No. (1) is employed by Rāgas of the Nata group.

„ „ (2) „ „ „ like Madhyamādi

Scale Nos. (1) and (2) together contribute the scales for Khamāja and Bilāwal groups. Scales derived by combining two such scales are very similar to those of Folk music. Bihāga employs No. (1) with F♯ in addition, the Kalyān-group employs No. (2) with F♯ and B instead of F and B♭ respectively.

Kedār employs No. (2) with F♯ and B in addition. No. (3) is employed by the Kāfi and allied Rāgas. Nos. (1) and (3) combined together contribute the scale for the Mallhār-group.

No. (4) is employed by Rāgas like Asāwari and those of the Kānadā type.

No (5) is employed by the Bhairava-group. The Purvi-group employs No. (5) with F♯ in addition.

No. (6) is employed by Bhairavi. Todi employs No. (6) but with F♯ and B instead of F and B♭ respectively.

No. (7) is employed by Rāgas like Lalita, Puriyā. Mārawā and Hindol etc.

13

194

REFERENCES

(1) In some Rāgas an extra note is often employed

as an accidental, which however may not fit in the

scheme of symmetry between the two tetrachords.

Such a note is however employed for some artistic

purpose, either as a leading note or as one to distinguish

that Rāga from another very close to it.

(2) Again in certain Rāgas there is usually no

agreement among artistes about the degree of flatness or

sharpness of a note taken in a chromatic manner. These

notes being chromatic in character naturally invite

adaptation according to individual capacity, skill or taste

and are therefore bound to be different with different

people. But in all such cases, the artiste tacitly follows

the formula of symmetry and places the other note in the

other tetrachord in such a manner as to provide perfect

symmetry with the note, he first chooses in the first

tetrachord.

CHAPTER VII

Gamakas or Tonal Variations.

भ्वरस्य कम्पो गमकः श्रोत्रचित्तसुखावहः

तस्य भेदास्तु तिरिपः स्फुरितः कंपितस्तथा ॥

लीन आंतोलितवलितानाहतमित्रकुलाहता: ।

उल्लासितः प्लावितश्र गुंफितो मुद्रितस्तथा ॥

मितो मिश्रितः पंचदशोति परिकीर्तिताः: ॥ सं. रत्नाकर ॥

In the above Ślokas, Sārngdeva mentions fifteen

kinds of Gamakas or tonal variations. At present there

are about ten varieties in vogue and a majority of them

are practised in instrumental music only. The Gamakas

are now known by such modern names as, Meenda,

Ghasita, Suntha, Larazā etc. Most of the professionals

Appendix ] MUSIC EDUCATION COMMITTEE

195

make such variations as Gamakas, only through the force

of long association and habit and only a few know their

ical technique.

CHAPTER IX

1. See pp.52-61 of Chapter VI of the Report of

the Committee for Music Education appointed in 1948

by the Government of Bombay.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Nāradi Sikṣā.

Bharata.—Nāṭya Śāstra. Kāshi Sanskrit Series.

Matanga.—Bṛhat Deśī. Trivandrum Sanskrit Series.

Śārṅgadeva.—Sangīta Ratnākara, Anandāśrama-Sanskrit Series.

Works in Sanskrit of:—Rāmānātya, Pundarīka Viṭṭala Somanātha, Bhāvabhaṭṭa, Locana and Śrīnivāsa.

Ahobala. Sangīta Pārijāta.

Nārada. Sangīta Makaranda, Gaekwār Series.

Raghunātha Bhūpāla.—Sangīta Sudhā. Madras Music Academy's Edition.

Vyankatamakhi.—Caturdandi Prakāśikā, Madras Music Academy's Edition.

Pratāpasimha Deva.—Rājhā Govinda Sangītasār, Poona Gāyan Samāja.

Jones. Sir William,—Musical Modes of the Hindus: Asiatic Researches.

Tagore. Sir Shourindro Mohan,—Hindu Music from various authors, Universal History of Music and other works.

Pingale. Bhavanrao,—A Discussion on Indian Music.

Felber. Dr. Edwin,—Die indische, Music der Vedicher und der Klassischen Zeit Wien 1912.

Fox-Strangways.—Music of Hindostān.

Popley. Rev. H. A.—The Music of India.

Danielou. Alain,—Introduction to the Musical Scales. India Society, London.

198

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Danielou. Alain.—Northern Indian Music.

Glynn. Margaret, A.—Analysis of the Evolution of Musical forms. Longmans.

Clements. E.—Lectures on Indian Music. Bombay University.

Clements. E. and Deval. K. B.—Publications of the Philharmonic Society of Western India.

Bhātkhande. V. N.—Hindusthani Sangit Paddhati, 4 Volumes and various other works. Laksya Sangita.

Roy. H L.—Problems of Hindusthāni Music.

Mukerji, D. P.—Modern Indian Culture.

Megroz.—A Guide to Poetry.

Bosanquet.—Introduction to Hegel's Philosophy of Fine Arts.

Santayana. George,—Remarks on Music, in the Life of Reason Series.

MacDougall.—Energies of men.

Helmholtz. (Ellis.)—English Translation of ‘Sensations of Tone.'

Blasserna.—Theory of Sound in its relation to Music.

Miller. D.C.—The Science of Musical Sounds. Mac-millan.

Wood. A.—The Physics of Music. Methuen.

Mills J.—A Fugue in cycles and bels. Chapman and Hall.

Journal of the M. dras Music Academy. Vols I-XVI.

Ayyar, C.S.—A Grammar of South Indian Music. Madras,

INDEX

A

ābhanga 192

Abbhijnān Sākuntalam 5, 177

Ābhoga 141, 143, 144

Accompaniment 35, 73, 78

Adhāranga 10

Adhunā-prasiddha Rāgās 7

āhobala 9, 10, 177, 179

ālāp 124, 125, 142, 145, 150-153,

Jodālāp or joining 125

Amīr Khūshru 8, 9

Amplitude 28, 30

Antarā 67, 143, 149, 150, 151

Anustubh 191

Appeal of music 131, 133, 160, 173

Appoggiatura 136

Ārcika 61, 184

Arohi 125

Art of Melody 167

Āryā-gīti 189

Ascent 126

Auxiliary note 83, 84, 96, 169

Avarohi 126

B

Bājantries 78

Balkriṣṇabuwa. 16, 17

Beats 32, 33

range of 33

Beethoven 171

Bhajan 78, 141

Bharat 3-6, 38, 40, 41, 44, 45, 46,

48, 155, 175, 176, 180

Bhāṭkhande 10, 11, 12, 14, 18, 19,

20, 21, 114, 167, 179

Bhīna 154

Bilawal Scale 12, 13

Blasserna Prof. 127

Bol-Alāpa 151

Tāna 125, 145, 146, 152, 153

Brhatdeśī 4, 6, 175, 176, 177

C

Cadences 57, 58, 60

Chaglā Mr. 192

Chamber-Music 74, 78

Chanda 141

Chandas 61, 62, 64, 65

Chatre, G. L. 16

K. I.. 16

Chīj 20, 142, 145

Chords 35

Chromatic intervals 106

Scales 97

Clements, Mr. 18, 74, 88, 167, 180

Climax 63, 182, 183

Combination notes 87, 90, 93, 94

Conçerted-Music 161

Consonance 34, 36, 47, 160, 173

degrees of :- 34, 131, 132

Consonances-fundamental 87

Consonants, unvoiced 123

voiced 123

Contrast 135

Cultural practices 173

D

Dāhyābhai, Pt. 17

Dancing 6, 78, 134, 155, 169

Danielou, Alain, 21 22

Delaying note 135, 136

200

INDEX

Descent 126

Desi 4

Deval, Mr. 18

Dhamār 145

Dhrupada 125, 141-144, 145

-singer 142

Dhruwā 141

Diatonic scale 37

Dichord 18, 167

Difference-notes 90-93

Dindi 190

Discord 165

Dissonance 33, 34, 36, 132, 133,

160, 173

kinds of 34

Drama 134

Drone 35, 69, 75, 78, 82-90, 92, 93,

98-101, 118, 166-170, 172

the employment of-168

E-type 169

F type 84, 85, 87, 89, 90,

G type 92, 94, 100, 169, 170

Harmony of the-87, 88, 95,

98, 99, 101

Drum type instruments 75, 76

Druta-vilambita 186

Dual entity of Indian Music 26, 172

E

Ear 31, 32, 55, 167

habit of the-32, 73, 82, 85

-method 163

Ektār 76

Ellis, Mr. 15

Emotion 138, 139

Emotional effect of a Rāga 139

element in music 173

Enharmonic forms 69, 101, 126

Essential consonances 95, 168

European-System 25,

F

Fifth 37, 178

Fifths, Scale of 37, 38

Flourishes 142, 144, 148, 149

Folk dances 76, 79

-music 52-54, 68, 69, 71, 72,

76, 81

notes of-69

Songs 53, 54, 56, 66, 68, 72,

74, 79

advanced-74, 79

melodies of-69

theme of-72

Fox Strangways, Mr. 18

Free principle of style 164, 172

Fundamental 31, 35-37, 39, 42, 43,

99, 106

-chords 35

-scales 96, 114

G

Gamakās, 128, 152, 153, 194, 193

Gana Vrittās 64, 66, 71

Gāndhār Grāma 41, 169, 178

Gāthika 61, 184

Geeta 141

Govinda 141, 142

Sutra-Sāra 16

Glide 127, 128, 147, 148, 150, 153

Glottis, shock to the-124

Goswami K. M. 20

Goudi 154

Graha 109

Grāma 3, 41, 100

Grāmic scales 100

Grammar of music 2

H

Hadgā-Dance-Songs 190, 191

Haridās Swāmi 10, 141

Hari Kathā 78

INDEX

Hariṇee 187

Harmonic music 48

„ -relationship, -35, 131,

165, 166

Harmonic partials 31, 33, 34

„ series 35-37

Harmony 35, 38, 165

„ absent in Indian Mus. 78, 166

Harmonies, Greek-?4

Helmholtz, Dr. 166

Hindusthāni S. Paddhati 12, 20

„ Rāga 140

Hipkins, Mr 15

Hori 145

Hymns, religious-70

„ Vedic-1, 2

I

Improvisation 119, 145, 163

Indrawajrā 185

Inharmonic upper partials 75

Instruments of accompaniment

75, 76, 120

„ of the, bell, drum and reed type 76

Instrumental Music 6, 78, 155

Intellectual element in music 173

Intensity 28, 29

Interval 32, 33, 35

Intonation 167

„ of Ind. Music 18

J

Jagannātha 10

Jāmes Jeans, Sir, 100

Jāti 3, 4, 6, 7, 109

Jati Vrttas 66-67

Jayadeo 141

Jilhā 146

Jones Sir William-12

K

Kālidāsa 5

Kāmdā 190

Kannada 58

Khyāl 149-154

„ great-149 to 153

„ small-152, 153

Krishnadhan Banerjee 16, 20

Krishnānand Vyās 15

Krtis 141

L

Lakshya-Sangeeta 19

Larynx 73, 122

Laya 114, 115, 117

„ varieties of-115

Leading notes 136, 137

Light music 160

Loose tendencies 110, 174

Lord Shree Krishna 145

Loudness 28, 29

M

Madhyama Grāma 3, 41, 46, 176,

177, 178

Mahārāshtra 17 68

Mahrāthās 77

Major Chord 35

„ Mode 48, 49, 168

Mālini 187

Mandākrāntā 187

Mandlik V. N. 16

Masking 29

Mass-Music 78

Matanga 4, 5, 6, 180

Mātrā 114, 116

„ -Vrittās 64, 72, 189

Meend 50, 127

Megroz, Mr. 119

Mela Karta-Method 18

Melapaka, 141, 142

202

INDEX

Melody 2, 35

Melodic orders 145

„

-possibilities 172

Metres-longer -70

Microtonal intervals 3, 38

Minor chord 35

„

.. ratios for-35

„

mode 48, 49

Model scale 9, 96

Mohammed Reza 11, 14

Mood of Indian songs 139, 140

„

, European „

139

Mukerji, D P. 197

Murchanās 3, 46

Murkis 149

Musical note 27

„

sound 27, 28

N

Naghamāte Asafī 11, 12, 14, 19, 180

Nātya Shāstra 3, 5, 6

Noise 27

Nqm-Thom 123, 124, 145

„

-lessons 122

Northern system of Indian

Music 6, 8, 19, 111, 113

Notation 162

Nyāsa 109

O

octave 38, 39, 46

Octave 36-39, 87, 106, 143, 144,

151, 178

Opera 3, 161

Orchestra 161, 162

Overtones 31

Owi 191

P

Palestrina 10

Panchtantra 5

Parallel activity 137, 173

Pārijāta 9, 11, 179

Peter, Col. 13

Phil-harmonic Society of

Western India 18

Pingale Bhawanrao 16

Pitch 28, 30, 32, 57, 58, 106

Poetic Theme of Hori 145

Poetry 49, 115 157, 158, 159

Poonā Gāyan Samāja 17

Powādās 77

Prabandhās 141, 142

Pratāp Singha Dev, Maharāja 10

Prayer 70, 173

Prelude 142

Prithwi 188

Puṣṭimarga, Song book of 15

Pythagoras 37

Pythagorean scale 38

Q

Quality 28, 31

Quarter-tones 165

R

Rādhā Govinda Sangitsār 10

Rāga 4-8, 10-12, 19-21, 52, 53, 62,

66, 67, 82, 85, 102-110, 112-7

114, 120, 125, 128-130, 132,

133 136, 137, 140, 142, 146,

147, 148, 159, 161, 162, 164,

166, 167, 169 170, 172

Rāga scales 18, 112, 133, 136, 146,

165, 167

„-System 4, 109, 111, 112, 140

„

„

of the North 111, 113,

„

„

of the South 111, 112

„

way 4

Rāgās clan idea of 114

„

Odawa, Shādāwa,

Sampoprna 103, 112

INDEX

203

Rāgās Shuddha, Chhāyalāga,

Sankerna 103

Purva and Uttar 107, 108

Season and time of-107, 108

Rāga Kalpa-Drūma 13

Rāginis 11, 113

Rājā Māna 141

Rasa—108, 129, 131, 133-157

Ratnākar 5, 6, 7, 11, 46, 175, 177,

180, 194

Renaissance 3

Resonance 29

Rhythm 1, 2, 59, 60, 62, 65, 71, 75,

115, 172

Rhythmic advance 144

Movement 36, 142

Periods 60

Variations 135, 173

Roy. H. L. 197

S

Sadāranga 10

Sādharani 154

Sādja-grāma 3,41,42,45,46,100,176

Sāki 190

Sāma-gāna 64–66, 183

Sāmchāri 126, 127,

Sāmika 61, 184

Samvādi 104, 105, 150

Sangita meaning of–73

Sangeeta-Sāra 10, 11, 12

Sangli 18

Sanskrit 58

Sārṅgadeva 5, 6, 7, 40, 46, 47, 48,

154, 180, 196

Scale of Fifths 37, 38

Semi-classical songs 74

Septimal intervals 88, 95

Seventh harmonic 88

Shālini 186

Shārdul Vikreedita 138

Shikharini 187

Simple ratios 33

Sitar 8, 9

—scale 9

Southern School 8

Sragdharā 187

Sruti-s 38, 47

interval 39

problem of–47

—scale 41–47

Staff-notation 18, 162

Stage Music 161

Sthāyee 126, 143, 150

Successive Fifths 37

Suddha 154

Suddha scale 9, 12, 17

Summation notes 90–93,

Surdās 10

Sympathetic Vibrations 29

T

Tagore 21

Tagore, Rāja S M 16

Tāla-measures 115–117

Tamburā 43, 53, 86, 105

tuning of–86

Tāna 128, 145, 146

Tansen 10, 141

Tappā 148, 149

Taranā 145, 146

Tempered-scale 38, 39

Tempo 115, 143

Tetra-chord,—s. 85, 86, 95, 97,

104, 105

1st 80

2nd 86

—s. Symmetry between 95,

101, 168

204

INDEX

Thumri 146-148

scales of—146

Timbre 28, 31

Tonal relationship 82

„ direct, indirect 83

„ Variations 137, 173

Tonality of Indian Music

„ principle of—120,

Tonic-chord 101

„ harmony of the drone

104, 105, 109, 110, 131

Transposition 165

Tulsidās 10

Tuning fork 29

Tun-tune 76

U

Udgrāha 141, 142

Unities of Indian Music

„ 1st unity Chap. V

„ 2nd „ Chap. VI

„ 3rd „ 114, 117

Unities of Music 24, 81, 82, 102

Universal History of Music 16

Upper partials 31-35, 83, 87-89

V

Vādi 104, 105, 107, 109, 133, 134, 150

Varjyatva 128

Vasantatilakā 186

Vanśastha 186

Vedic hymns 1, 2

„ period 1

Veenā 8, 15, 50

Vesarā 154

Vibrations 30

Vishnu Digambar Pt. 17

Vocal chords 73, 122

„ Music 6, 120,

Voice 28, 73 78

„ -training 121

Vowels 122, 123

Vyañkatmakhi 18, 19

W

Western Music 165

„ science of—47

Willard, N. A. Capt. 12, 13, 14

Y

Yādava Kings 6, 7

ERRATA

Page Line Incorrect Correct

1 4 per ception perception

16 30 India Indian

21 6 Allain Alain

42 16 C c

57 21 Speech pitch

113 23 13 19

155-157 ... Santa Rasa Śānta, Rasa

180 Ref. No. 12 :—Two more, after his demise.