12. Volume 3 — part 12

coutred for battle, wear a covering of iron gilded. *' *• ** He has 20,000 Turk mamUks. « « « It is not the same in India as in Egypt and Syria, where the malihs, amirs, and generals have in their service men whom they maintain out of their own resources. In India the officer has only to care for himself. As to the soldiers, the Sultdn summons them for service, and they are paid from the public treasury. The sums granted to a hMn, a malih, an amir, or a general, are given exclusively for his own personal main- tenance. The chamberlains and other dignitaries ; the military men, such as the kJidns, the maKlcs, and the amirs, all have a rank in proportion to the importance of their employ. The isfah-sdldrs (generals) have no right to approach the Sultan. It is from this class that governors and other similar functionaries are chosen. The khdn has 10,000 horse under his command, the malih, 1,000 ; the amir, 100; and the isfah-sdldr a smaller number. The Mans, maUhs, amirs, and isfaJi-sdldrs receive the revenues of places as- signed to them by the treasury, and if these do not increase, they never diminish. Generally speaking, they bring in much more than their estimated value. The hhdn receives a grant of two lacs of tankas, each tanka being worth eight dirhams. This sum belongs to him personally, and he is not expected to disburse any part of it to the soldiers who fight under his orders. The malik receives an amount varying from 60,000 to 50,000 tankas, the amir from 40,000 to 30,000, and the isfah-sdldr 20,000, or thereabouts. The pay of the officer varies from 10,000 to 1,000 tankas. A mamluk receives 500 tankas, and all receive, in addition, food and raiment, and forage for their horses. Soldiers and mamluks do not receive grants of land-revenue, but draw their pay in money from the public treasury. The officers have villages of which they receive the revenues. As this same traveller observed to me, the revenues of these lands, if they do not increase, certainly do not decrease. Some of the officers receive double, and even more than that, in excess of the estimated value of their grants.

The slaves of the Sultan each receive a monthly allowance for their

maintenance of two mans of wheat and rice, and a daily allowance of

three sirs of meat, with all the necessary accompaniments. Besides,

he receives ten tankas per month, and four suits of clothes every year.

The Sultan has a manufactory, in which 400 silk-weavers are em- ployed, and where they make stuffs of all kinds for the dresses of persons attached to the Court, for robes of honour and presents, in addition to the stuffs which are brought every year from China, 'Irak, and Alexandria. Every year the Sultan distributes 200,000 complete dresses; 100,000 in spring, and 100,000 in autumn. The spring dresses consist principally of the goods manufactured at Alexandria. Those of the autumn are almost exclusively of silk manufactured at Dehli or imported from China and 'Irak. Dresses are also distributed to the monasteries and hermitages.

The Sultan keeps in his service 500 manufacturers of golden tissues, who weave the gold brocades worn by the wives of the Sultan, and given away as presents to the amirs and their wives. Every year he gives away 10,000 Arab horses, of excellent breed, sometimes with saddle and bridle, sometimes without. «* '* ** As to the hacks which the Sultan distributes every year, their number is incalculable. He gives them in lots or by hundreds. Notwith- standing the number of horses in India, and notwithstanding the numbers annually imported, the Sultdn has horses brought from all countries, and buys them at high prices for presents. These animals are consequently always dear, and yield a good profit to the horse- dealers.

The Sultan has under him a ndib, chosen from among the Mans, who bears the title of Amriya, and enjoys, as his official appanage, a considerable province, as large as 'Irak. He also has a wazir, who has a similar large appanage. This officer has four deputies called shah, who receive 20,000 to 40,000 tankas per annum. He has four dabirs, or secretaries, each of whom receives the revenue of a large maritime town. Each of them has under his orders about 300 clerks, the lowest and worst paid of whom receives 10,000 tankas a year. Some of the highest rank have towns and villages, and some have both (pay and lands) to the value of fifty (thousand).

The Sadr-i Jahdn, or Kdziu-l huzdt, which office is held, at the time I am writing, by Kamalu-d din, son of Burhdnu-d din, has ten towns, producing a revenue of about 60,000 tankas. This dignitary is also called Sadru-l Isldm, and is the chief officer of justice. The Shaikhu-l Isldm, who corresponds to our Shaikhu-sh sJim/ukh, has

the same revenue. The Muhtasih, or chief of the police, has a village which brings him in about 800 tarikas.

At the Court of this prince there are 1,200 physicians, 10,000 falconers, who ride on horseback, and cai-ry the birds trained for hawking, 300 beaters to go in front and put up the game, 3,000 dealers, who sell the articles required for hawking, 500 table com- panions, 1,200 musicians, not including the mamluk musicians to the number of 1 ,000, who are more especially charged with the teaching of music, and 1,000 poets skilled in one of three languages, Arabic, Persian, or Indian. All these are men of fine taste, who are included in the establishment of the Court, and receive magnificent presents. If the Sultan hears that one of his musicians has sung before any other person, he has him put to death. I asked my informant what pay these various officers received, but he did not know ; he could only inform me that the table companions of the prince held some of them one, and some of them two towns ; and that each of them, according to his rank, received 40,000, 30,000, or 20,000 tonkas, without taking into account dresses, robes of honour, and other presents.

Accordiug to Shaikh Mubarak, the Sultan gives two audiences daily, in the morning and in the evening, and a repast is then served, at which 20,000 men are present, TcMns, maliks, amirs, isfah-sdldrs, and the principal officers. At his private meals, that is, at his dinner and supper, the Sultan receives learned lawyers to the number of 200, who eat with him and converse upon learned matters. Shaikh Abu Bakr bin Khallal Bazzi told me that he asked the Sultan's cook how many animals were killed daily to supply the royal table, and the reply was 2,600 oxen, 2,000 sheep, without taking into account fatted horses and birds of all descriptions. * * •■'

The amriya has under his charge the army and the people at large. Lawyers and learned men, whether inhabitants of the country»or foreigners, are under the inspection of the Sadr-i Jahdn. The fakirs, whether natives or strangers, are under the Shaikhu-l Isldm. Lastly, all travellers, ambassadors, or others, men of letters, poets, both native and foreign, are all under the dahirs, or secre- taries. ** * *

When the Sultan goes hunting his suite is less numerous. He

only takes with him 100,000 horsemen and 200 elephants. Four wooden houses of two stories are carried in his train by 200 camels. Tents and pavilions of all kinds follow. When he travels from one place to another, for pleasure or for other motives, he takes with him 30,000 horsemen, 200 elephants, and 1,000 led horses, with saddles and bridles worked with gold, and with other trappings of gold, set with pearls and jewels.

The Sultan is generous and liberal, and at the same time full of humility. Abu-s Safa 'TJmar bin Is'hak Shabali informed me that he saw this monarch at the funeral of a faMr of great sanctity, and that he bore the coffin on his shoulders. He is noted for knowing the Holy Book by heart, as also the law book called Siddya, which expounds the principles of the school of Abu Hanifa. He excels in all intellectual accomplishments. He possesses in the very highest degree a talent for caligraphy. He is given to religious exercises, and is careful to regulate his passions. To these advantages he adds literary acquirements. He is fond of reciting verses, com- posing them, and hearing them read, when he readily seizes their most hidden allusions. He likes to consult with learned men, and to converse with men of merit. He is also particularly fond of contending with poets in Persian, a language which he knows perfectly, and understands all its niceties of expression. *****

The stories I have been told of the benevolence and generosity of this Sultan towards strangers, and to all who have recourse to him, pass all belief. ** " '•*

The Sultan never ceases to show the greatest zeal in making war upon the infidels, both by sea and land. ** ** ** Every day thou- sands of slaves are sold at a very low price, so great is the number of prisoners. According to the unanimous statements of the travel- lers I have cited, the value, at Dehli, of a young slave girl, for domestic service, does not exceed eight tanlcas. Those who are deemed fit to fill the parts of domestic and concubine sell fqr about fifteen tanlcas. In other cities the prices are still lower. Abu-s Safa 'Umar bin Is'hak Shabali assured me that he bought a young slave in the flower of his youth for four dirhams. The rest may be understood from this. But stiU, in spite of the low price of slaves, 200,00 tanhas, and even more, are paid for young Indian girls. I

inquired the reason, «««' and was told that these young girls are remarkable for their beauty, and the grace of their manners. '* ** *

According to what I heard from Shabali, the smallest quantity of wine is not to be found either in shops or in private houses : so great is the Sultan's aversion to it and so severe the punishments with which he visits its votaries, Besides, the inhabitants of India have little taste for wine and intoxicating drinks, but content themselves with betel, an agreeable drug, the use of which is per- mitted without the slightest objection. * ** •*

From the information of the learned Siraju-d din Abu-s Safa 'Umar Shabali, it appears that the Sultan is very anxious to know all that passes in his territories, and to understand the position of all those who surround him, whether civilians or soldiers. He has emissaries, called intelligencers, who are divided into a great number of classes. One goes among the soldiers and people. When any fact comes under his notice which ought to be communicated to the Sultan, he reports it to the oiHcer above him ; this one, in like manner, communicates it to his superior ; and so in due course the fact comes to the knowledge of the Sultan. For communicating the events which happen in distant provinces, there are established, between the capital and the chief cities of the different countries, posts, placed at certain distances from each other, which are like the post-relays in Egypt and Syria; but they are less wide apart, because the distance between them is not more than four bow-shots, or even less. At each of these posts ten swift rimners are stationed, whose duty it is to convey letters to the next station without the least delay. As soon as one of these men receives a letter, he runs off as rapidly as possible, and delivers it to the next runner, who starts immediately with similar speed, while the former returns quietly to his own post. Thus a letter from a very distant place is conveyed in a very short time with greater celerity than if it had been transmitted by post, or by camel express. At each of these post-stations there are mosques, where prayers are said, and where travellers can find shelter, reservoirs full of good water, and markets where all things necessary for the food of man and beast can be purchased, so that there is very little necessity for carrying water, or food, or tents.

All through the country which separates the two capitals of the empire, Dehli and Deoglr, the Sultan has had drums placed at every post-station. When any event occurs in a city, or when the gate of one is opened or closed, the drum is instantly heaten. The next nearest drum is then beaten, and in this manner the Sultan is daily and exactly informed at what time the gates of the most distant cities are opened or closed. ** ** ^

I will now speak about the money, and afterwards about the price of provisions, seeing that these are regulated and calculated upon the value of money. Shaikh Mubarak informed me that the red lac consists of 100,000 tanhas (of gold), and the white lae of 100,000 tmikas (of silver). The gold tanka, called the red tanka, is equal to three mislcdh and the silver tanka comprises eight dirhams hashtkdni.^ ^he dirham hashtkdni has the same weight as the silver dirham, current in Egypt and Syria. The value of both is the same, with scarcely the slightest difference. The dirham hasMkdni answers to four dirhams sultdnis, otherwise called dukdnis. A dirham sultdni is worth the third of a dirham shashkdni, which is a third kind of silver coin current in India, and which is worth three-fourths of the dirham hashtkdni. A piece, which is the half of the dirham sultdni, is called yakdni (piece of one), and is worth cixBJital. Another dirham, called dwd%dahkdni (piece of twelve), passes for a hashtkdni and a half. Another coin, called shdnzdahkdni, corresponds to two dirhams. So the silver coins current ia India are six, i.e. the dirham shdnzdahkdni, the dwdzdahkdni, the hashtkdni, the shashkdni, the sultdni, and the yakdni. The least of these pieces is the dirham sultdni. These three kinds of dirhams are employed in commerce, and are taken universally, but there is no one of more general use than the dirham sultdni, which is worth a quarter of the dirham of Egypt and of Syria. The dirham sultdni is equal to eight fals [or/wZii*] ; the jital to four fals ; and the dirham hashtkdni, which corresponds exactly to the silver dirham of Egypt and Syria, is worth thirty-two fals.

The ritl of India, which is called sir, weighs seventy miskdls, which, estimated in dirhams of Egypt, is worth 102f. Forty sirs

' I retain the original spelling, as Mr. Thomas contends that Jcdni, and not gdni, is the true reading. As, however, the Arabic has no g, but uses k for it, this passage decides nothing. See mprd, p. 357.

make one man. They do not know the way of measuring grain in India.

As to th.e price of provisions, wheat, which is the dearest article, sells for a dirham hasMMni and a half the man. Barley costs one dirham the man. Eice, one dirham three-quarters the man; but some sorts of this grain are higher in price. Two mans of peas cost a dirham hasMMni. Beef and goats' flesh are of the same price, and are sold at the rate of six sirs for a dirham suUdni, which is the quarter of a dirham hasMMni. Mutton sells at four sirs the dirham saUdni. A goose costs two dirhams hashtkdnis, and four fowls can be bought for one hashthdni. Sugar sells at five sirs the hashtkdni, and sugar-candy at four sirs the dirham. A well-fatted sheep of the first quality sells for a tanka, which represents eight dirhams hashtkdnis. A good ox sells for two tankas, and sometimes for less. Buffaloes at the same price. The general food of the Indians is beef and goats' flesh. I asked Shaikh Mubarak if this usage arose from the. scarcity of sheep, and he replied that it was a mere matter of habit, for in all the villages of India there are sheep in thousands. For a dirham of the money of Egypt four fowls can be bought of the best quality. Pigeons, sparrows, and other birds are sold very cheap. All kinds of game, birds, and quadrupeds, are extremely plentiful. There are elephants and rhinoceroses, but the elephants of the country of the Zinjes are the most remarkable. ** '* **

Our shaikh, the marvel of the age, Shamsu-d din Isfahan!, gave me the following details. Klitbu-d din Shirazi maintained that alchemy was a positive science. One day I argued with him, and endeavoured to prove the falsity of the art. He replied, "You know very well the quantity of gold that is annually consumed in the fabrication of various articles and objects of many kinds. The mines are far from producing a quantity equal to that which is thus withdrawn. As regards India, I have calculated that for the last three thousand years that country has not exported gold into other countries, and whatever has entered it has never come out again. Merchants 'of all countries never cease to carry pure gold into India, and to bring back in exchange commodities of herbs and gums. If gold were not produced in an artificial way, it would altogether have disappeared." Our shaikh, Shahabu-d din, observed upon this that

what this author asserted of gold going into India, and never coming out again, was perfectly true; but the conclusion which he drew from this fact, as to alchemy being a real science, was false and illusory.

He adds the following statement: "I have heard say that one of the predecessors of the Sultan, after making great conquests, carried off from the countries he had subdued as much gold as required 13,000 oxen to carry."

I must add, that the inhabitants of India have the character of liking to make money and hoard it. If one of them is asked how much property he has, he replies, '' I don't know, but I am the second or third of my family who has laboured to increase the treasure which an ancestor deposited in a certain cavern, or in certain holes, and I do not know how much it amounts to." The Indians are ac- customed to dig pits for the reception of their hoards. Some form an excavation in their houses like a cistern, which they close with care, leaving only the opening necessary for introducing the gold pieces. Thus they accumulate their riches. They will not take worked gold, either broken or in ingots, but in their fear of fraud refuse all but coined money.

The following information I derived from the Shaikh Burhanu-d dfn Abu Bakr bin Khallah Muhammad Bazzi, the Sufi. The Sultan [Muhammad Tughlik] sent an army against a country bordering upon Deogir, at the extremity of that province. It is inhabited by infidels, and all its priaces bear the title of rd [rdi. The reigning prince, finding himself pressed by the troops of the Sultan, made this communication : "Tell your master that if he wiU leave us at peace, I am ready to send him all the riches he can desire ; all he has to do is to send me sufficient beasts to carry the sum he requires." The general sent this proposition to his master, and was ordered to cease hostilities, and to give the rdi a safe conduct. When the rdl appeared before the Sultan, the latter heaped honours upon him, and said: "I have never heard the like of what you have proposed. What is the amount, then, of those treasures that you undertake to load with gold as many beasts of burden as we like to send ? " The rdi replied : "Seven princes have preceded me in the government of my kingdom. Each of them amassed a treasure amounting to seventy

halins, and all these treasures are still at my disposal." The -word baUn^ signifies a very large cistern, into which there is a descent by a ladder on each of the four sides. The Sultan, delighted by this statement, ordered his seal to be put on these treasures, which was done. Then he ordered the rdi to appoint viceroys in his dominions, and to reside at Dehli, He also invited him to turn Musulman, but on his refusal he allowed him to adhere to his own religion. The rdi dwelt at the court of the Sultan, and appointed viceroys to govern his territories. The Sultan assigned him a suit- able income, and sent considerable sums into his territories to be distributed as alms among the iuhabitants, seeing they were now subjects of the empire. Lastly, he did not touch the babins, but left them as they were, under seal.

Ibn Batuta was a native of Tangiers, who travelled over the greater part of Asia, and visited India in the reign of Muhammad Tughlik. Elphinstone's summary of the character and value of this traveller's writings is so brief and so much to the point that it can hardly be improved. He says Ibn Batiita " could have had no interest in misrepresentation, as he wrote after his return to Africa. He confirms, to the full extent, the native accounts, both of the king's talents and of his crimes, and gives exactly such a picture of mixed magnificence and desolation as one would expect under such a sovereign. He found an admirably regulated horse and foot post from the frontiers to the capital, while the country was so disturbed as to make travelling unsafe. He describes Dehli as a most magnificent city, its mosque and walls without an equal on earth ; but although the kiag was then repeopling it, it was almost a desert. 'The greatest city in the world, he said, had the fewest inhabitants.' "

The extracts which foUow have been selected as containing the most important and interesting events and facts which he has recorded about India. His details do not always precisely agree with those

1 Bdtni in Hindi signifies a snake's hole, and in Hindu belief snakes keep guard over hidden treasure.

of the regular historians. He recounted, and no doubt honestly, the iaformation he received from the respectable and well-informed in^ dividuals with whom he was brought in contact ; and there is an air of yeracity about his statements which favourably impresses the reader. In his African home he carefully wrote down that which he had gathered in the free course of conversation. But, while on the one hand he doubtless heard many facts and opinions which the speakers would not have dared to commit to writing and publish, some de- duction must be made on the other side for the loose statements and bold assertions which pass current when there is no probability of bringing them to the test of public judgment. Thus he distinctly relates that Muhammad Tughlik compassed the death of his father by an apparent accident, and he is probably right in his statement, but Bami records the catastrophe as a simple accident, and Firishta only notices the charge of foul play to reject and condemn it.

Ibn Batuta was received with much respect at the court of Mu- hammad Tughlik, and experienced in his own person much of the boundless liberality and some little of the severity of that lavish and savage sovereign. When the traveller arrived in Dehli the king was absent, but the queen-mother received him. He was presented with splendid robes, 2,000 dindrs in money, and a house to live in. On the return of the Sultan, he was treated yet more splendidly. He received a grant of villages worth 5,000 dindrs per annum, a present of ten female captives, a fully caparisoned horse from the royal stables, and a further sum of 5,000 dindrs. Besides this, he was made a judge of Delhi at a salary of 12,000 dindrs a year, and was allowed to draw the first year in advance. After this he received another present of 12,000 dindrs, but he records the fact that a deduction of ten per cent, was always made from these presents. He afterwards got into debt to the amount of 45,000 dindrs, but he presented an Arabic poem to the Sultan iu which he recounted his difficulties, and the Sultan undertook to satisfy his creditors. When the sovereign left Dehli he received further marks of his favour and liberality, but subsequently he fell into disgrace for having visited an obnoxious sTiaihh. His account of his terrors is rather amusing. " The Sultan ordered four of his slaves never to lose sight of me in the audience chamber, and when such an order is given, it is very

rarely that the person escapes. The first day the slaves kept watch over me was a Triday, and the Almighty inspired me to repeat these words of the Kuran : ' God is sufficient for us, and what an excellent Protector ! ' On that day I repeated this sentence 33,000 times, and I passed the night in the audience chamber. I fasted five days in succession. Every day I read the whole of the Kuran, and I broke my fast only by drinking a little water. The sixth day I took some food, then I fasted four days more in sucossion, and I was released after the death of the shaikh. Thanks be to the Almighty 1 " His danger had such an effect upon him, that he gave up his offices and went into religious retirement, but the Sultan sent to recall him, and appointed him his ambassador to the King of China. His ac- count of his journey through India to Malabar where he embarked, is full of interesting matter. Dr. Lee made a translation of Ibn Batuta for the Oriental Translation Fund in 1829, but the complete Arabic text with a French translation has since been published by M. M. Defremery and Sanguinetti. It is from this version that the following Extracts have been taken by the Editor.

The Shaikh Abu 'Abdu-llah Muhammad, son of 'Abdu-llah, son of Muhammad, son of Ibrahim Al Lawati, at Tanji, commonly known as Ibn Batuta, thus declares : — On the 1st of the sacred month of Muharram, 734 h. (12th Sept 1333), we arrived at the river Sind, the same as is called Panj-ab, a name signifying " Five Eivers." This river is one of the largest known. It overflows in the hot season, and the inhabitants of the country sow their lands after the inundation, as the people of Egypt do after the overflow of the Nile. From this river begin the territories of the great Sultan Muhammad Shah, king of Hind and of Sind. * ** *

The barid or post in India is of two kinds. The horse-post is called uldh, and is carried on by means of horses belonging to the Sultan stationed at every four miles. The foot-post is thus arranged. Each mile is divided into three equal parts, called ddwah, which signifies one-third of a mile. Among the Indians the mile is called hos. At each third of a mile there is a village well populated ; outside of which are three tents, in which are men ready to depart.

These men gird up their loins, and take in their hands a whip about two cubits long, tipped with brass bells. When the runner leaves the village, he holds the letter in one hand, and in the other the whip with the bells. He runs with all his strength, and when the men in the tents hear the sound of the bells they prepare to receive him. When he arrives, one of them takes the letter and sets off with all speed. He keeps on cracking his whip until he reaches the next ddwah. Thus, these couriers proceed until the letter reaches its destination.

This kind of post is quicker than the horse-post; and the fruits of Khurasan, which are much sought after in India, are often conveyed by this means. « » » It is by this channel also that great prisoners are transported. They are each placed upon a seat, which the run- ners take upon their heads and run with. « •» »

When the intelligencers inform the Sultan of the arrival of a stranger in his dominions, he takes full notice of the information. The writers do their best to communicate full particulars. They announce the arrival of a stranger, and describe him and his dress. They note the number of his companions, slaves, servants, and beasts. They describe his style of travelling and lodging, and give an account of his expenditure. Not one of these details is passed over. When a traveller arrives at Multan, which is the capital of Sind, he remains there until an order is received from the Sultan for his proceeding to Court and prescribing the kind of treatment he is to receive. * * *

It is the custom of the Sultan of India, Abu-1 Mujahid Muhammad Shah, to honour strangers, to favour them, and to distinguish them in a manner quite peculiar, by appointing them to governments or to places of importance. Most of his courtiers, chamberlains, wazirs, magistrates, and brothers-in-law are foreigners. ** « *

No stranger admitted to Court can avoid offering a present as a kind of introduction, which the Sultan repays by one of much greater value. ** ** When I arrived in Sind, I observed this practice, and bought some horses, camels, and slaves from the dealers. ** •* * Two days' march, after crossing the river Sind, we arrived at Janani, a fine large town on the banks of the Sind. It possesses some fine markets, and its population belongs to a race called Samirah [Sumra], who have inhabited the place for a long time, their ancestors having

established themselves there since the time of its conquest in the time of Hajjaj, son of Yiisuf, as is related by historians in the ac- counts of the conquest of Sind. ** ** ** The people known by the name of Samirah do not eat with any one, and no one must look at them when they eat. They do not connect themselves in marriage with any other tribe, nor will others ally themselves with them. They had at that time a chief named TJnar, whose history I shall relate. * *

We arrived at the imperial residence of Dehli, capital of India, which is a famous and large city uniting beauty and strength. It is surrounded by a wall, the like of which is unknown in the universe. It is the largest city of India, and, in fact, of all the countries subject to Islam in the East.

Delhi is a city of great extent, and possesses a numerous popu- lation. It consists at present of four neighbouring and contiguous cities.

1. Dehli, properly so called, is the old city built by the idolaters, which was conquered in the year 584 h. (1188 a.d.).

2. Siri, also called Daru-1-Khilafat or Seat of the Khalifat. The Sultan gave it to Ghiyasu-d din, grandson of the Khalif 'Abbaside Al Mustansir, when he came to visit him. Sultan 'Alau-d din and his son Kutbu-d din, of whom we shall have to speak hereafter, dwelt there.

3. Tughlikabad, so called from the name of its founder the Sultan Tughlik, father of the Sultan of India whose Court we are now visiting. * *

4. Jahan-panah, Eefuge of the World, specially designed for the residence of the reigning Sultan of India, Muhammad Shah, He built it, and it was his intention to connect all these four cities together by one and the same wall. He raised a portion of it, but abandoned its completion in consequence of the enormous expense its erection would have entailed.

The wall which surrounds Dehli has no equal. It is eleven cubits thick. Chambers are constructed in it which are occupied by the night watch and the persons charged with the care of the gates. In

these chambers also there are stores of provisions called amhdr, magazines of the munitions of war, and others in which are kept mangonels and ra'ddas ("thunderer " — a machine employed in sieges). Grain keeps in these chambers without change or the least deteriora' tion. I saw some rice taken out of one of these magazines ; it was black in colour, but good to the taste. I also saw some millet taken out. All these provisions had been stored by Sultan Balban ninety years before. Horse and foot can pass inside this wall from one end of the city to the other. Windows to give light have been opened in it on the inside towards the city. The lower part of the wall is built of stone, the upper part of brick. The bastions are numerous and closely placed. The city of Dehli has twenty-eight gates. First, that of Badaun, which is the principal. * ** **

The chief Kdzi of Hind and Sind, Kamalu-d din Muhammad, son of Burhanu-d din of Ghazni, Sadr-i Jahdm, informed me how the city of Dehli was conquered from the infidels in 584 (1188 a.d.). 1 read the same date inscribed upon the tnihrab of the great mosque of the city. The same person also informed me that Dehli was taken by the amir Kutbu-d din Aibak, who was entitled Sipdh-sdM/i', meaning General of the armies. He was one of the slaves of the venerated Shahabu-d din Muhammad, son of Sam the Ghorian, king of Ghazni and Khurasan, who had seized upon the kingdom of Ibrahim, son (grandson) of the warlike Mahmud bin Subuktigin, who began the conquest of India.

The aforesaid Shahabu-d din had sent out the amir Kutbu-d din with a considerable army. God opened for him the gates of Lahore, where he fixed his residence. His power became considerable. He was calumniated to the Sultan, and the associates of the monarch strove to inspire him with the idea that Kutbu-d din aimed at becoming king of India, and that he was already in open revolt. Intelligence of this reached Kutbu-d din. He set of with all speed, arrived at Ghazni by night, and presented himself to the Sultan, without the knowledge of those who had denounced him. Next day Shahabu-d din took his seat upon the throne, and placed Aibak below, where he was not visible. The courtiers and associates who had maligned Aibak arrived, and when they had all taken their places, the king questioned them about Aibak. They reiterated their state-

ment that Aibak was in revolt, and said, " "We know for certain that he aims at royalty." Then the Sultan kicked the foot of the throne, and clapping his hands, cried out " Aibak ! " " Here am I," replied he, and came forth before his accusers. They were confounded, and in their terror they hastened to kiss the ground. The Sultan said to them, " I pardon you this time, but beware how you speak against Aibak again." He ordered Aibak to return to India, and he obeyed. He took the city of Dehli, and other cities besides.

Shamsu-d din AUamsh. Shamsu-d din Altamsh was the first who reigned in Dehli with independent power. Before his accession to the throne he had been a slave of the amir Kutbu-d din Aibak, the general of his army and his lieutenant. When Kutbu-d din died he assumed the sovereign power, and assembled the population to take from them the oath of allegiance. The lawyers waited upon him, headed by the Kaziu-1 Kuzat Wajihu-d din al Kasani. They entered into his presence and sat down, the Kdziu-l Kuzdt sitting down by his side, accord- ing to custom. The Sultan knew what they wanted to speak about. He raised the comer of the carpet on which he was reclining, and presented to them the deed of his manumission. The Kdzi and the lawyers read it, and then took the oath of allegiance. Altamsh became undisputed sovereign, and reigned for twenty-eight years. He was just, pious, and virtuous. Among his noteworthy characteristics was the zeal with which he endeavoured to redress wrongs, and to render justice to the oppressed. He made an order that any man who suffered from injustice should wear a coloured dress. Now all the inhabitants of India wear white clothes ; so whenever he gave audience, or rode abroad, and saw any one in a coloured dress he inquired into his grievance, and took means to render him justice against his oppressor. But he was not satisfied with this plan, and said : " Some men suffer injustice in the night, and I wish to give them redress." So he placed at the door of his palace two marble lions, upon two pedestals which were there. These lions had an iron chain round their necks, from which hung a great bell. The victim of injustice came at night and rung the beU, and when the Sultan heard it, he immediately inquired into the case and gave satisfaction to the complainant.

Ruhnu-d din. At his death Snltan Shamsu-d din left three sons : Euknu-d din, who succeeded him; Mu'izzu-d din, and Nasiru-d din, and one daughter named Eaziya, full sister of Mu'izzu-d din. When Euknu-d din was recognized as Sultan, after the death of his father, he began his reign by unjust treatment of his brother, Mu'izzu-d din, whom he caused to be put to death. Eaziya was full sister of this unfortunate prince, and she reproached Euknu-d din with his death, which made him meditate her assassination. One Friday he left the palace to go to prayers. Eaaiya then as- cended to the terrace of the Old Palace, called Daulat-Tchdna, close by the chief mosque. She was clothed in the garments of the wronged, and, presenting herself to the people, she addressed them from the terrace, saying, "My brother has killed his brother, and wishes to kill me also." She then reminded them of the reign of her father, and of the many benefits he had bestowed upon them. Thereupon the auditors rushed tumultuously towards Euknu-d din, who was in the mosque, seized him, and brought him to Eaziya. She said, " The slayer must be slain." So they massacred him in retaliation for his murder of his brother. The brother of these two princes, Nasiru-d din, was yet in his infancy, so the people agreed to recognize Eaziya as Sovereign.

When Euknu-d din had been killed, the soldiers agreed to place his sister, Eaziya, on the throne. They proclaimed her Sovereign, and she reigned with absolute authority for four years. She rode on horseback as men ride, armed with a bow and quiver, and sur- rounded with courtiers. She did not veil her face. She was even- tually suspected of an intimacy with one of her slaves, an Abyssin- ian by birth, and the people resolved upon deposing her and giving her a husband. So she was deposed and married to one of her relations, and her brother, Nasiru-d din, obtained the supreme power.

Ndsiru-d din, son of Shamsu-d din Altamsh. After the deposition of Eaziya, her younger brother, Nasiru-d din, ascended the throne, and for some time exercised royal authority.

But Eaziya arid her husband revolted against him, mounted their horses, and, gathering round them their slaves and such disaffected persons as were willing to join them, they prepared to give battle. Nasiru-d din came out of Dehli with his slave and lieutenant Ghiyasu-d din Balban, who became ruler of the kingdom after him. The opposing forces met, and Eaziya was defeated and obliged to fly. Pressed by hunger and overcome with fatigue, she addressed herself to a man engaged in cultivating the ground and begged for food. He gave her a bit of bread, which she devoured, and then she was overpowered by sleep. She was dressed in the garments of a man ; but when the peasant looked at her as she slept, he perceived under her upper garment a tunic trimmed with gold and pearls. See- ing she was a woman he killed her, stripped her of her valuables, drove away her horse, and buried her corpse in his field. He then carried some of her garments to the market for sale. The dealers suspected him, and took him before the magistrate, who caused him to be beaten. The wretch then confessed that he had killed Eaziya, and told his guards where he had buried her. They exhumed her body, , washed it, and, wrapping it in a shroud, buried it again in the same place. A small shrine was erected over her grave, which is visited by pilgrims, and is considered a place of sanctity. It is situated on the banks of the Jumna, about a parasang from Dehli.

After the death of his sister, Nasiru-d din remained undisputed master of the State, and reigned in peace for twenty years. He was a religious king. He made copies .of the Holy Book and sold them, supporting himself on the money thus obtained. Kazi Kamalu-d din showed me a copy of the Kuran, written by this sovereign, with great taste and elegance. At length his lieutenant, Grhiyasu-d din Balban killed him, and succeeded to his throne.

After Balban had killed his master Nasiru-di'n, he reigned with absolute power for twenty years. He had previously been lieutenant of his predecessor for a similar period. He was one of the best of sovereigns — just, clement {halim), and good. One of his acts of generosity was this : — He built a house to which he gave the name, " Abode of security." All debtors who entered it had their debts

discharged, and whoever in fear fled there for refuge found safety. If a man who had killed another took refuge there, the Sultan bought off the friends of the deceased ; and if any delinquent fled there he satisfied those who pursued him. The Sultan was buried in this building, and I have visited his tomb.

« «* ft The Sultan Shamsu-di'n Altamsh sent a merchant to buy slaves for him at Samarkand, Bokhara, and Turmuz. ' This man purchased a hundred slaves, among whom was Balban. When they were presented to the Sultan, they all pleased him except Balban, who was short in stature and of mean appearance. The Sultan exclaimed, " I wiU not take this one," but the slave cried, " Master of the World, for whom have you bought these servants ? " The Sultan laughed and said, "I have bought them for myself." Balban replied, " Then buy me, for the love of God." " Good," exclaimed the Sultan. So he purchased him and placed him with his other slaves.

Balban was treated with contempt, and placed among the water- carriers. Men versed in astrology told the Sultan that one of his slaves would take the kingdom from his son and appropriate it to himself. They continually reiterated this prediction, but the Sultan in his rectitude and justice paid no heed to it. At length they repeated this prediction to the chief queen, mother of the king's sons, and she told the Sultan of it. The words now made an impression upon him, and he sent for the astrologers and said, " Can you recog- nize, if you see him, the slave who shall deprive my son of the kingdom?" They replied that they had a means by which they could pick him out. The Sultan ordered all his slaves to be brought out, and sat down to review them. They came before him, class after class, and the astrologers looked at them and said, " We have not yet seen him." It was one o'clock in the afternoon, and the water-carriers being hungry, resolved upon collecting a little money and sending some one to the market to purchase food. So they clubbed their dirhams, and sent Balban with them, because there was no one among them who was more despised than he. In the market he could not find what his companions wanted, and so he went to another market. This delayed him, and when it came to the turn of the water-carriers to be passed in review, he had not

come back. His companions took Ms water-bottle and pot, and putting tbem on tbe back of another youth, presented him as Balban. When the name of Balban was called, this youth passed before the astrologers, and so the review passed over without their finding the person they sought. When the review was over, Balban returned, for it was the will of God that his destiny should be accomplished.

Eventually the noble qualities of the slave were discovered, and he was made chief of the water-carriers. Then he entered the army, and became in course of time an amir. Sultan Nasiru-d dm, before he came to the throne, married his daughter, and when he became master of the kingdom he made him his lieutenant. Balban dis- charged the duties of this office for twenty years, after which he knied his sovereign, and remained master of the empire for twenty years longer, as we have already stated. He had two sons, one of them was " the Martyr Khan," his successor designate, and his viceroy in Sind, where he resided in the city of Multan. He was kUled in a war which he carried on against the Tatars and Turks (Mughals). He left two sons Eai-kubdd and Kai-khusru. The younger son of Balban was called Nasiru-d din, and ruled as viceroy for his father at Lakhnauti.

Upon the death of "the Martyr Khan," Balban named Kai- khusru, son of the deceased, as heir to the throne, preferring him to his own son Nasiru-d din. The latter had a son named Mu'izzu-d din, who lived at Dehli with his grandfather. This young man, upon the death of his grandfather, and while his father was living, became successor to the throne under the extraordinary circumstances we will now mention.

Sultdn Mu'izzu-d din, son of Ndsiru-d din, son of Sultdn Oliiydsu-d din Balban.

Sultan Grhiyasu-d din died in the night while his son Nasiru-din was at Lakhnauti, after naming as his successor his grandson Kai- khusru, as we have above stated. Now the chief of the amirs and deputy of Sultan Ghiyasu-d din was the enemy of this young prince, and he formed a plot against him which succeeded. He drew up a document, in which he forged the hands of the chief amirs, attesting that they had taken the oath of allegiance to Mu'izzu-d din, grand-

son of the deceased Balban. Then he presented himself before Kai-khusru, feigning the greatest interest in him, and said: "The amirs have sworn allegiance to your cousin, and I fear their designs against you." Kai-khusru inquired what was best to be done, and the chief of the amirs advised him to fly to Sind and save his life. The prince asked how he was to get out of the city, as all the gates were shut ; and the chief amir answered that he had got the keys and would let him out. Kai-khusru thanked him for his offer and kissed his hand. The amir advised him to take horse immediately, and so he mounted his horse and was followed by his connexions and slaves. The amir opened the gate and let him out, and closed it immediately he had quitted Dehli.

The amir then sought an audience of Mu'izzu-d d{n, and took the oath of submission. The young prince inquired how he could be Sultan, when the title of heir presumptive belonged to his cousin. The chief of the amirs then informed him of the ruse he had used against his cousin, and how he had got him to leave the city. Mu'izzu-d din thanked him for his exertions, and accompanied him to the palace of the king, where he called together the amirs and courtiers who swore allegiance to him in the course of the night. When morning came, the population followed the same course, and the authority Of Mu'izzu-d din was firmly established. His father was still alive, and was in Bengal at Lakhnauti. When he heard of what had taken place, he said, " I am the heir of the kingdom ; how, then, can my son have become master, and have gained absolute power, while I am alive?" He set off for Dehli with his troops. His son also took the field at the head of his army, with the design of repulsing him from Dehli. They met near the town of Karra, on the banks of the Ganges, a place to which Hindus resort in pilgrimage. Nasiru-d din encamped upon the Karra side of the river, and his son, Sultan Mu'izzu-d din, upon the other, so that the river ran between them. They were resolved upon fighting each other ; but God wished to spare the blood of Musulmans, and imbued the heart of Nasim-d din with feelings of pity for his son. So he said to himself, " If my son reigns, it will be an honour to me ; it is only right, then, that I should desire that." At the same time God filled the heart of Mu'izzu-d din with sentiments of submission to

his father. Each of these two princes entered a boat, and, -without any escort of troops, they met in the middle of the river. The Sultan kissed the foot of his father and made his excuses ; and the latter replied, "I give thee my kingdom, and confide the govern- ment of it to thee." Thereupon he took the oath of fidelity, and was about to return to the provinces he possessed, when his son said, "You must certainly come into my kingdom." The father and son proceeded together towards Dehli, and entered the palace. The father placed Mu'izzu-d din upon the throne, and stood before him. The interview which they had upon the river was called "The Conjunction of the Two Auspicious Stars," because of its happy results, in sparing the blood of the people, and in causing the father and son to offer to each other the kingdom, and to abstain from fighting. Many poets have celebrated this incident.

Nasiru-d xli'n returned to his territories, and some years after died there, leaving several children, among whom was Ghiyasu-d dm Bahadur, whom Sultan Tnghlik made prisoner, and whom his son, Muhammad, released after his death. So the kingdom remained in the peaceable possession of Mu'izzu-d din for four years, which were like festival days. I have heard a person who lived at this period describe the happiness, the cheapness of provisions at this time, and the liberality and munificence of Mu'izzu-d din. It was this prince who built the minaret of the northern court of the great mosque at Dehli, which has no equal in the universe. An inhabitant of India informed me that Mu'izzu-d din was much given to the society of women and to drinking ; that he was attacked by a malady which defied all the efibrts of his physicians to cure, and that one side of him was dried up (paralysis). Then his lieutenant, Jalalu-d din Firoz Shah Khilji, rose up against him.

When, as we have just described, Sultan Mu'izzu-d din was at- tacked with hemiplegia, his lieutenant, Jalalu-d din, revolted against him, and, going out of the city, he encamped upon a hill in the neighbourhood, beside a mortuary chapel called Jaishani. Mu'izzu-d din sent out amirs to attack him, but all whom he sent with this object swore fidelity to Jalalu-d din, and enrolled themselves in his

army. The chief rebel afterwards entered the city and besieged the Sultan in his palace for three days. An eye-witness of the fact in- formed me that Sultan Mu'izzu-d dfn suffered from hunger, and could get nothing to eat. One of his neighbours sent him some food to appease his hunger, but the rebellious amir forced his way into the palace and Mu'izzu-d din was killed.

Jalalu-d din succeeded. He was an amiable and good man, and his gentleness made him the victim of an assassin, as we shall presently relate. He continued in peaceable possession of the throne for several years, and built the palace which bears his name. It ■was this building which Sultan Muhammad gave to his brother-in- law, the amir Ghadi, son of Muhanna, when he married him to his sister, an event which will be spoken of hereafter.

Sultan Jalalu-d din had a son named Euknu-d din, and a nephew called 'Alau-d din, whom he married to his daughter, and to whom he gave the government of the towns of Karra and Manikpiir, with the dependent territories. The wife of 'Alau-d din tormented him, and he was continually complaining of her to his uncle (and father- in-law), Sultan Jalalu-d din, until dissension arose between them on the subject. 'Aliu-d din was a sharp and brave man, who had often been victorious, and the ambition of sovereignty took possession of his mind, but he had no wealth but what he won by the point of his sword by despoiling the infidels. He set out to carry the holy war into the country of Deogir (or Daulatabad), which is also called the country of Kataka, of which mention will be made hereafter. Deogir is the capital of Malwa and of Marhata (the country of the Mahrattas), and its ruler was the most powerful of all the infidel kings. In the course of this expedition, the horse of 'Alau-d din stumbled against a stone and threw his rider. 'Alau-d din heard a sort of jingling noise made by the stone. He ordered the place to be dug up, and a considerable treasure was found under the stone, which he divided among his companions. When he arrived at Deogir, the ruler submitted and surrendered the city without fight- ing, making valuable presents to his conqueror. 'Alau-d din re- turned to Karra, but did not send any portion of the spoil to his uncle. Certain persons stirred up the feelings of his uncle against him, and the Sultan summoned him. He refused to go to Court,

and the Sultan then said, " I will go and bring him, for he is to me as a son." Accordingly he set out with his army, and marched until he reached the bank of the river opposite to Karra, at the same place where Sultan Mu'izzu-d din had encamped when he went to meet his father, Nasiru-d din. He embarked on the river to go and meet his nephew. The latter also took boat with the intention of making an end of the Sultan, and he said to his companions, "When I embrace him, kill him." When the two princes met in the middle of the river, the nephew embraced his uncle, and his companions despatched the Sultan as he had instructed them. The murderer seized upon the kingdom, and took command of the troops of his victim.

When he had killed his uncle he became master of the kingdom, and the greater part of the troops of Jalalu-d din passed over to his side. The rest returned to Dehli and gathered round Euknu-d din. The latter marched out to attack the murderer, but all his soldiers deserted to 'Alau-d din, and he fled to Sind. 'Alau-d din took pos- session of the palace and reigned peaceably for twenty years. He was one of the best of Sultans, and the people of India eulogize him highly. He personally examined the affairs of his people, and inquired into the price of provisions. Every day the muhtasih, or inspector of the markets, whom the Indians called rdis or chief, had to attend before him. It is said that one day he questioned the inspector about the dearness of meat, and he was told that it arose from the high tax upon bullocks. He ordered the tax to be abolished and the dealers to be brought before him. He gave them money, and said, " With this buy bullocks and sheep, and sell them ; the price that they fetch must be paid to the treasury, and you shall receive an allowance for selling them." This (order) was carried into execution. And the Sultan acted in a similar way in respect of the fabrics brought from Daulatabad. When com reached a high price he opened the granaries of the State, and sold their stores, until the price came down. It is said that on one occasion the price of corn rose, and he ordered the dealers to sell it at a price which he fixed. They refused to sell it at the price named. He then

ordered that nobody should purchase grain except at the govern- ment stores, and he sold it to the people for six months. The monopolists were afraid that their stocks would be devoured by weevils, and they begged permission to sell. The Sultan gave them leave, but upon condition that they sold at a price lower than they had before refused.

'Alau-d dm never rode on horseback, either to go to public prayer on rridays, or on festivals, or on any occasion whatever. The reason of this was that he had a nephew, named Sulaiman Shah, whom he loved and favoured. One day he mounted his horse to go a-hunting with this nephew, and this one conceived the idea of dealing with his uncle as he, 'Alau-d din, had dealt with his uncle Jalalu-d din, that is, of assassinating him. So when the Sultan alighted to take breakfast, he discharged an arrow at him and brought him down, but a slave covered him with a shield. The nephew came up to finish him, but the slaves told him that he was dead. He, be- lieving them, rode off and entered the women's apartments in the palace. The Sultan recovered from his fainting fit, mounted his his horse, and gathered together his troops. His nephew fled, but he was captured and brought before the Sultan. He slew him, and after that ceased to ride on horseback.

'Alau-d din had several sons, whose names were — 1. Khizr Khan, 2. Shadi Khan, 3. Abu Bakr Khan, 4. Mub^ak Khan, also called Kutbu-d din, who became king, 5. Shahabu-d din. Kutbu-d din was treated unkindly by his father, and received very little notice. The Sultan bestowed honours on all his brothers — that is, he granted them banners and drums ; but on him he conferred nothing. But one day the Sultan said to him, " I really must give you what I have given your brothers." Kutbu-d din replied, "It is Grod who will give it me." This answer alarmed his father, who became afraid of him. The Sultan was then attacked by the malady of which he died. The wife by whom he had his son Khizr Kbas, and who was called Mah-hakk, had a brother namerlrSanjar, with whom she conspired to raise Khizr Khan to the throne. Malik Naib, the chief of the Sultan's amirs, who was called Al Alfi,' be- cause his master had bought him for 1,000 (alf) tanhas, that is,

2,500 African dinars. This Malik Naib got knowledge of the plot and informed the SuMn. Thereupon he gave his attendants this order: "When Sanjar enters the room where I am, I will give him a robe. As he is putting it on, seize him by the sleeves, throw him down, and despatch him." This order was exactly executed.

Khizr Khan was then absent at a place called Sandabat (Sonpat), one day's journey from Dehli, whither he had gone on a pilgrimage to the tombs of certain martyrs buried there. He had made a vow to walk thither on foot, and pray for the health of his father. But when Khizr Khan heard that his father had killed his maternal uncle, he was greatly concerned, and tore the collar of his garment, as the Indians are in the habit of doing when any one dies who is dear to them. His father, on hearing this, was much annoyed, and when Khizr Khan appeared before him, he reprimanded and censured him. Then he ordered irons to be put upon his hands and feet, and gave him into the charge of Malik Naib above mentioned, with orders to convey him to the fortress of Gwalior. This is an isolated fort, in the midst of idolatrous Hindus, at ten days' journey from Dehli, and it is impregnable. I resided there some time. When Malik Naib took the prince to this strong fort, he gave him into the charge of the Tcotwdl, or the commandant, and of the mufrids or zamdnis (regularly enrolled soldiers), and told them not to say that their prisoner was the son of the Sultan, but to treat him honourably. He was the Sultan's most bitter enemy, so they were to guard him as an enemy.

Finally, the Sultan's malady growing worse, he told Malik Naib to send some one to fetch Khizr Khan, that he might proclaim him his successor. Malik Naib acquiesced, but he delayed from day to day to execute the order, and whenever his master inquired about the matter, he replied that his son would soon arrive. He continued to act thus until the Sultan died.

Sultan Shahahu-d din, son of lAldu-d din.

When the Sultan 'Alau-d din was dead, Malik Naib raised Ms younger son, Shahabu-d din, to the throne. The people took the oath of obedience to him, but Malik. Naib kept him under his own direction, and after depriving Abii Bakr Khan and Shadi Khan of

sight, he sent them to Gwalior. He also ordered their brother Khizr Khan, who was imprisoned in the same place, to be blinded. They were imprisoned, as well as Kutbu-d dfn, but the minister spared the sight of the latter. Sultan 'Alau-d din had two slaves, who were his personal attendants; one was called Bashfr and the other Mu- bashir. The chief princess, widow of 'Alau-d din, and daughter of Sultan Mu'izzu-d din, sent for them, recounted the benefits which they had received from their late master, and said, "This eunuch, Malik N&ib, has treated my children in the way you know of, and now he wants to kill Kutbu-d din." They replied, " You shall see what we will do." It was usual for them to pass the night near Malik Naib, and to enter armed into his presence. They went to wait upon him the following night in his Khurram-gdh, as the Indians call a kind of room constructed of planks and hung with cloth. Here the wazir slept ; — on the terrace of the palace during the rainy season. It so happened that he took the sword worn by one of these conspirators, brandished it, and returned it. The slave then struck him with it, and his companion gave him another blow. Then they cut off his head, and, carrying it to the prison of Kutbu-d din, and throwing it down at his feet, delivered him from captivity. The prince went and joined his brother, Shahabu-d din, and stayed with him several days, as if he had been his lieutenant, but at length he resolved to depose him, and carried out his design.

Sultan Kuthu-d din, son of SuUdn Idlau-d din.

This prince deposed his brother Shahabu-d din, cut off one of his fingers, and sent him to G-walior, where he was imprisoned with his brothers. The kingdom came peaceably into the hands of Kutbu-d din, who left Dehli, his capital, to proceed to Daulatabad, forty days' journey distant. The road between these two places is bordered with trees, such as the willow and others, so that the traveller might think himself in a garden. In the space of every mile there are three ddwas, or posting-houses, of which the arrangements have been already de- scribed. At each of these stations the traveller finds all that he needs, as if his forty days' journey lay through a market Thus the road goes on for six months' journey, till it reaches the country of Tilang and Ma'bar. At every station there is a palace for the

Sultan and a comer for the traveller, and poor people have no need to carry with them provisions for their journey.

After Sultan Kutbu-d din had set off on this expedition, certain amirs determined among themselves to revolt against him, and to place a son of his imprisoned brother Ehizr Khan upon the throne. This child was about ten years old, and was near the Sultan. When the latter heard of this plot of the amirs, he took his nephew, seized him by the feet, and dashed his head against the stones till his brains were scattered. He then sent an amir, named Malik Shah, to Gwalior, where the father and uncles of the child were confined, with orders to kill them all. Kazf Zainu-d din Mubarak, Mzi of this stronghold, gave me the following account: — "Malik Shah reached us one morning, whilst I was with Khizr Khan in his prison. When the captive heard of his arrival, he was frightened, and changed colour. The amir came in, and he said to him, ' Why have you come?' and he answered, 'Upon a matter which concerns the Lord of the World.' The prince asked if his life was safe, and he answered 'Yes.' Thereupon the amir went out and called for the hotiodl, or commandant, and his mufrids, or soldiers, to the number of 300; he sent for me, as well as the notaries, and pro- duced the order of the Sultan. The men of the garrison read it, then went to Shahabu-d din, the deposed Sultan, and cut off his head. He was very collected, and showed no sign of fear. Then they beheaded Abu Bakr and Shadi Khan. When they went to decapitate Khizr Khan, he was overcome with fear and stupor. His mother was with him, but the executioners shut the door against her and kUled him. Then they dragged the four bodies to a ditch, with- out either wrapping them in shrouds or washing them. They were exhumed after some years and were interred ia the tombs of their ancestors." The mother of Khizr Khan survived some time. I saw her at Mecca in the year 728 h. (a.d. 1327).

The fort of Gwalior here spoken of is situated on the top of a high mountain, and appears, so to speak, to be cut out of the rock itself. There is no other mountain in face of it. There are sub- terranean cisterns in it, and it contains also about twenty bricked wells. Manjanihs and 'arrddas are mounted on the walls. The passage to the fortress is up a spacious road, which elephants and

horses can ascend. Near tlie gate of the fort there is the figure of an elephant, sculptured in stone, carrying its driver. When seen from a distance, it seems to be a real elephant. At the base of the fortress there is a fine town, built entirely of white hewn stone, mosques and houses alike. No wood is seen except in the doors. It is the same with the palace of the king, the domes and halls. Most of the business men of this town are idolaters, and there are about 600 horsemen of the royal army there, who never cease to fight with the infidels by whom the place is surrounded.

When Kutbu-d din had killed his brothers, and he had become sole master, without any one left to fight with him or revolt against him, Grod raised up against him his favourite servant, the most powerful of his amirs and the highest in dignity, Nasiru-d din Khusru Khan. This man attacked him unawares, killed him, and remained absolute master of the kingdom. But this did not last long. God raised also against him one who dethroned and then kUled him. This was the Sultan Tughlik, as wLU hereafter be fully recorded, God willing !

Khusru Khan was one of the principal amirs of Kutbu-d din. He was brave and handsome. He had conquered the country of Chanderi, and also that of Ma'bar, which are among the most fertile regions of India, and are at a distance of six months' journey from Dehli. Kutbu-d din liked this man very much, and showed great fondness for him; — this was the cause of the Sultan's meeting death at his hands. ** '* ** One day Khusru Khan told the Sultan that several Hindus desired to become Musulmans. It is one of the customs in this country that, when a person wishes to become a convert to Islam, he is brought before the king, who gives him a fine robe and a necklace and bracelets of gold, proportionate in value to his rank. The Sultau told Khusru to bring the Hindus before him, but the amir replied that they were ashamed to come by day on account of their relations and co-religionists. So the Sultan told him to bring them at night.

Khusru Khan gathered a troop of Indians, chosen from among the bravest and greatest; his brother, the Khdm-i Khdndn, was

among them. It was the hot season, and the Sult£a slept on the roof of the palace, having only a few eunuchs around him. When the Indians bearing their weapons had passed four gates of the palace and arrived at the fifth, Kazi Khan, the keeper of the keys, was startled by their proceedirigs, and suspected that they had some evil design in view. So he prevented their entrance, and said he would not let them pass without a distinct order from the mouth of the king himself. Finding themselves thus stopped, they fell upon him and killed him. The noise arising from this contention grew loud and reached the Sultan, who asked what it was, and Khusru Khan told him that it was made by the Indians, who were goming to make their profession. Kazi Khan had opposed their entrance, and hence a tumult had arisen. The Sultan was alarmed and rose to go iato the inner part of the palace, but the door was closed and the eunuchs stood near it. The Sultan knocked at the door. Khusru Khan then seized him in his arms from behind, but the king was the stronger and threw him down. The Indians entered, and Khusru Khan called out to them, " Here he is upon me, kill him ! " So they murdered him and cut off his head, which they threw from the roof of the palace iato the court-yard.

Khusru Khan sent immediately for the amirs and malihs who were not yet aware of what had happened. Each party that entered found him seated on the throne. They took the oath (of allegiance) to him, and when morning came he proclaimed his accession, de- spatched his orders into all the provinces, and sent a robe of honour to each amir. They all submitted to him with the exception of Tughlik Shah, father of Sultan Muhammad Shah, who was then governor of Dibalpur, in Sind. When he received the robe of honour which Khusru had allotted to him, he threw it on the ground and sat upon it. Khusru Khan sent his brother, the Khdn-i Khdndm, against him, but Tughlik defeated him and afterwards killed him, as will be narrated in the account of the reign of Tughlik.

Khusru Khan, upon becoming king, showed great favour to the Hindus, and issued objectionable orders, such as an order prohibiting the slaughter of bullocks, in deference to the practice of the idolatrous Indians, who do not allow these animals to be killed. * « « Such conduct was one of the causes which made Khusru Khan hate-

ful to the Musulmans, and made them incline in favour of TugUik. Khusru's reign did not last long, and the days of his power were not numerous, as we shall relate.

The shaikh and pious imdm Euknu-d din * ** * gave me the following account in his hermitage at Multan. Sultan Tughlik be- longed to the race of Turks called Karauna,^ who inhabit the moun- tains between Siad and the country of the Turks. He was in a very humble condition, and went to Sind as servant of a certain merchant, as his £olwM, or groom. This took place in the reign of 'Alau-d dn, whose brother, TTlu Khan,' was governor of Sind. Tughlik entered his service and was attached to his person, being enrolled among his piddas or footmen. Afterwards he distinguished himself by his bravery, and was entered among the horsemen ; then he be- came a subordinate amir, and Ulu Khan made him his master of the horse. Finally, he became one of the great amirs, and received the title of al malih al ghdzi, "warlike prince." I have seen the follow- ing inscription, which is placed over the sacrarium of the mosque which he built at Multan : "I have fought with the Tatars twenty- nine times, and have defeated them. It is for this that I have been called ' the warlike prince.' "

When Kutbu-d din became king, he made Tughlik governor of the town and district of Dibalpur ; and he made his son (the present Sultan of India) superintendent of the imperial stables. He was called Jaund, the Sun ; when he became king he called himself Muhammad Shah. Kutbu-d din being dead, and Khusni Khan having succeeded, he confirmed Jauna in his office as master of the horse. When Tughlik wanted to rebel, he had 300 comrades in whom he put confidence in the day of battle. He wrote to Kishlu Khan, who was then at Multan, three days journey from Dibalpur, calling upon him for assistance, reminding him of the favours of Kutbu-d din, and urging him to exact vengeance for the murder of that king. The son of Kishlu Khan resided at Dehli, and, con- sequently, he replied to Tughlik that if his son were with him he

' See Jour. Asiatique, Tome II., 1844, pp. 516, 517. D'Ohsson Hist, des Mongols, IV., p. 46. 2 mugh Khkn.

would certainly help his design. Tughlik wrote to his son, Mu- hammad Shah, to inform him of his resolve, and desiring him to fly from Dehli to meet him, bringing with him the son of Kishlu Khan. The young nobleman contrived a stratagem against Khusrii Khan, which was successful. He told him that the horses had grown fat and heavy, and that they required exercise. Khusru Khan accordingly gave permission for taking them out. So the master of the horse mounted on horseback every day, and, followed by his subordinates, he rode about from one to three hours ; he even extended his absence to four hours, so that one day he was out till noon had passed, which is the time when the Indians dine. The Sultan sent out to look after him, but nothing could be heard of him, and he joiaed his father, together with the son of Kishlu Khan.

Tughlik then openly rebelled and collected his forces. Kishlu Khan also joined him with his soldiers. The Sultan sent out his brother, the Khdm-i Khdndn, to give them battle, but they totally de- feated him, and his army passed over to their side. The Khdn-i Khdmdn returned to his brother; his officers were slain and his treasure captured. Tughlik then proceeded towards Dehli. Khusru Khan went out to meet him with his army, and encamped near the city at a place called Asya-bad, that is to say, the windmill. He ordered the treasures to be opened, and he gave away the money by bags, not by weight or definite sums. The battle began between him and Tughlik, and the Indians fought with the greatest fury. Tughlik's troops were defeated, his camp was pillaged, and he remained sur- rounded by his 300 old companions. He cried, ""Whither can we fly? We shall be taken everywhere and killed." The soldiers of Khusru were busy plundering, and were scattered, so that there remained only a few near him. Tughlik and his companions went against him. In this country the presence of the sovereign is al- ways indicated by the umbrella carried over his head. ** * *

When Tughlik and his companions advanced against Khusru, the fight began agaia between them and the Hindus : the Sultan's troops were routed, and none remained near him. He took to flight, dismounted from his horse, threw away his garments and arms, and keeping only his shirt, he let his hair fall upon his shoulders as the

fdleirs of India do. Then lie went into a garden near at hand. The people gathered round Tughlik, who proceeded towards the city. The governor brought him the keys. He entered the palace and lodged in one of its wings; then he said to Kishlu Khan, "Be thou Sultan!" The Khan replied, " Bather you." They disputed together, but at length Kishlu Khan said to Tughlik, " If you refuse to be Sultan, your son will obtain the sovereign power." Tughlik was averse to this, so he accepted the government, and sat upon the royal throne. The nobles and common people took their oaths to him.

After three days Khusru Khan, still concealed in the same garden, was hard pressed by hunger. He came out of his hiding-place and walked about. Then he met the keeper of the garden, and asked him for some food. The man had none to give him, so Khusru gave him his ring and told him to go and pawn it, and buy food. When this person went into the market with the ring, the people had their suspicions, and they took him to the police magistrate. The latter conducted him to Tughlik, to whom he made known who had given him the ring. Tughlik sent his son Muhammad to bring in Khusru, and Muhammad seized him, placed him on a tdtu, or baggage-horse, and brought him to his father. When Khusru went into the presence of Tughlik, he said : " I am hungry, give me something to eat." The new sovereign ordered him to be served with sharbat, food, beer, and lastly betel. When he had eaten he rose and said, " 0 Tughlik, deal with me after the manner of kings, and do not dishonour me." Tughlik complied with his request ; he ordered him to be beheaded, and he was executed on the very spot where he had killed Kutbu-d din. His head and his body were thrown from the roof of the palace, as he had done with the head of his predecessor. Afterwards, Tughlik ordered his corpse to be washed, wrapped in a shroud, and buried in a tomb which he him- self had built. Tughlik was a just and excellent prince, and he enjoyed the sovereign power in peace for four years.

When Tughlik was firmly established in his capital, he sent his son, Muhammad, to make the conquest of Tilang, three months' march from Dehli. He sent with him a considerable army, attached to which were the principal amirs, such as Malik Timur, Malik Tigin, Malik Kafur the seal-bearer, Malik Bairam, and others.

"When Muhammad arrived in Tilang, he was desirous of revolting. He had for a companion a man called 'Ubaid, who was a poet and lawyer. He ordered him to spread a report of the Sultan Tughlik being dead, for he supposed that all men, on hearing this intelligence, would in hot haste tender him their oath of fidelity. This news spread among the soldiers, but the amirs did not believe it. Every one of them beat his drums and revolted. No one remained near Muhammad, and the chiefs wished to kill him. Malik Timur pre- vented them, and protected him. He fled to his father with ten horsemen, whom he called his " faithful friends." His father gave him money and troops, and commanded him to return to Tilang, and he obeyed. But the Sultan was acquainted with his design; he killed the lawyer 'Ubaid, and he ordered Malik Kafur, the seal- bearer, to be put to deatL A tent peg was driven into the ground, and the upper end of it was sharpened. This was driven into the throat of Kafur, who was placed thereon, face downwards, and it came out by one of his ribs. Thus he was left. The other amirs fled to Sultan Shamsu-d din, son of Sultan Nasiru-d din, son of Sultan Grhiyasu-d din Balban, and established themselves at his Court (at Lakhnauti).

The fugitive amirs dwelt with Sultan Shamsu-d din. Soon after- wards he died, leaving his throne to his son, Shahabu-d din. Tliis prince succeeded his father, but his younger brother, Grhiyasu-d din Bahadur Burah (this last word signifies in the Indian language blade), overpowered him, seized upon the kingdom, and killed his brother Katlu Khan, and most of his other brothers. Two of them. Sultan Shahabu-d din and Nasiru-d din, fled to Tughlik, who marched forth with them to fight with the fratricide. He left his son Mu- hammad in his kingdom as viceroy, and advanced in haste to the country of Lakhnauti. He subdued it, made the Sultan Ghiyasu-d din prisoner, and set off on the march to his capital, carrying his prisoner with him.

There was then at Dehli a saint, Mzamu-d din Badauni. Mu- hammad, the Sultan's son, often visited him, to pay him respect in the eyes of his followers and to implore his prayers. The shaikh was subject to ecstatic fits, in which he lost all control of himself. The Sultan's son directed his servants to let him know when the

shaihh was in one of these fits. When lie was seized with a fit the prince was iaformed, and he went to him. As soon as the shaikh saw Mm he exclaimed, " We give him the throne." Afterwards he died while the Sultan was absent, and the Sultan's son, Muhammad, bore his bier upon his shoulder. The father heard of this ; he sus- pected his son and threatened him. Other actions had already aroused suspicions in Tughlik against his son. He was annoyed to see him buy a great number of slaves, and make magnificent presents to secure friends. Now his anger against him increased. The Sultan was informed that the astrologers liad predicted that he would never enter again the city of Dehli on returning from his expedition. He replied by threats against them.

When he came near to his capital, on his return from the expedi- tion, he ordered his son to build for him a palace, or, as these people call it, a hushh, near a river, which runs by a place called Afghanpur. Muhammad built it in the course of three days, making it chiefly of wood. It was elevated above the ground, and rested on pUlars of wood. Muhammad planned it scientifically, and Malik Zada was charged to see the plans carried out. This man was afterwards known by the title of Khwaja-i Jahan. His real name was Ahmad, son of Ayas. He was then inspector of buildings, but he afterwards became chief waxir of Sultan Muhammad. The object which these two persons kept in view in building the hushh was this, — that it should fall down with a crash when the elephants touched it in a certaiu part. The Sultan stopped at this building and feasted the people, who afterwards dispersed. His son asked permission to parade the elephants before him, fully accoutred. The Sultan con- sented.

Shaikh Euknu-d din told me that he was then near the Sultan, and that the Sultan's favourite son, Mahmud, was with them. There- upon Muhammad came and said to the shaihh, " Master, it is now the time for afternoon prayer, go down and pray." I went down, said the shaihh, and they brought the elephants up on one side, as the prince and his confidant had arranged. When the animals passed along that side, the building fell down upon the Sultan and his son Mahmud. I heard the noise, continued the shaihh, and I returned without having said my prayer. I saw that the building had fallen.

The Sultan's son, Muhammad, ordered pickaxes and shovels to be brought to dig and seek for his father, but he made signs for them not to hurry, and the tools were not brought till after sunset. Then they began to dig, and they found the Sult&i, who had bent over his son to save him from death. Some assert that Tughlik was taken out dead ; others, on the contrary, maintain that he was alive, and that an end was made of him. He was carried away at night to the tomb which he had himself built near the city called after him Tughlikdbad, and there he was interred. ** * *

It was to the skilful management of the wazir, Ehwaja-i Jahan, in constructing the edifice which fell upon Tughlik, that he owed the position he held with Sultan Muhammad, and the partiality which the latter had for him. No one, whether wazir or otherwise, enjoyed anythittg like the consideration in which he was held by the Sultan, and never attained the high position which he possessed near him.

When the Sultan Tughlik was dead, his son Muhammad took pos- session of the kingdom, without encountering either adversary or rebel. As we have said above, his name was Jauna ; but when he became king he called himself Muhammad, and received the sur- name of Abu-1 Mujahid. All that I have recounted about the history of the Sultans of India, I heard and learned, or, at least, the greater part, from the mouth of Shaikh Kamahi-d din, son of Burhanu-d din, of Ghazni, chief Mzl. As to the adventures of this king, the greater part came under my own observation while living in his territories.

Muhammad is a man who, above all others,, is fond of making presents and shedding blood. There may always be seen at his gate some poor person becoming rich, or some living one condemned to death. His generous and brave actions, and his cruel and violent deeds, have obtained notoriety among the people. In spite of this, he is the most humble of men, and the one who exhibits the greatest equity. The ceremonies of religion are dear to his heart, and he is very severe in respect of prayer and the punishment which follows its neglect. He is one of those kings whose good fortune is great, and whose happy success exceeds the ordinary limit; but his dis-

tinguisMng characteristic is generosity. I shall mention among the instances of his liberality, some marvels of which the like has never been reported of any of the princes who have preceded him. I call God, his angels and prophets, to witness that all I say about his boundless munificence is the plain truth. • ' **

The palace of the Sultan at Dehli is called Dar-sara, and it has a great number of gates. At the first there is a troop of men posted on guard. ** * * Outside the first gate there are stages on which the executioners sit who have to kill people. It is the custom with this people that whenever the Sultan orders the execution of a person, he is despatched at the door of the hall of audience, and his body remains there three days. •* * ** The third door abuts upon the hall of audience, an immense chamber called Sazd/rsviun, or "the thousand columns." These piUars are of varnished wood, and sup- port a wooden roof painted in the most admirable style. Here people seat themselves, and in this hall the Sultan holds his great public audiences. [^Miquette of the Court. — Mdn^ instances of the Sultan's liherality and generosity. "^

When drought prevailed throughout India and Sind, and the scarcity was so great that the man of wheat was worth six dvadrs, the Sultan gave orders that provisions for six months should be sup- plied to all the inhabitants of Dehli from the royal granaries. **'' The officers of justice made registers of the people of the different streets, and these being sent up, each person received sufficient pro- visions to last him for six months.

The Sultan, notwithstanding all I have said about his humility, his justice, his kindness to the poor, and his boundless generosity, was much given to bloodshed. It rarely happened that the corpse of some one who had been killed was not to be seen at the gate of his palace. I have often seen men killed and their bodies left there. One day I went to his palace and my horse shied. I looked before me, and I saw a white heap on the ground, and when I asked what it was, one of my companions said it was the trunk of a man cut into three pieces. This sovereign punished little faults like great ones, and spared neither the learned, the religious, nor the noble. Every day hundreds of individuals were brought chained into his hall of audience; their hands tied to their necks and their feet

bound together. Some were killed, and others were tortured, or well beaten. It was his practice to have all persons in prison brought before him every day except Friday. This day was to them a day of respite, and they passed it in cleaning themselves and taking rest. God preserve us from evil 1'

The Sultan had a brother named Mas'ud Khan, whose mother was a daughter of Sultan 'AlSu-d din. This Mas'ud was one of the handsomest fellows I have ever seen. The king suspected him of intending to rebel, so he questioned him, and, under fear of the torture, Mas'ud confessed the charge. Indeed, every one who denies charges of this nature, which the Sultan brings against him, is put to the torture, and most people prefer death to being tortured. The Sultan had his brother's head cut off in the palace, and the corpse, according to custom, was left neglected for three days in the same place. The mother of Mas'ud had been stoned two years before in the same place on a charge of debauchery or adultery. ** * *

On one occasion the Sultan sent a part of his army, under Malik Yusuf Bughia, to fight against the Hindus in the mountains near Dehli. Yiisuf started with nearly all his men, but some of the soldiers stayed behind. He wrote to the Sovereign informing him of the fact, and he directed search to be made throughout the city, and every man who had remained behind to be apprehended. Three hundred of them were taken. The Sultan ordered all of them to be killed, and he was obeyed.

One of the most serious charges against this SuMn is that he forced all the inhabitants of DehU to leave their homes. His motive for this act was that the people of Dehli wrote letters full of insults and invectives against the Sultan. They sealed them up, and writ- ing upon them these words, " By the head of the king of the world, no one but himself must read this writing," they threw them at night into the hall of audience. When the Sultan opened them he found that they contained insults and invectives against himself. He decided to ruin Dehli, so he purchased all the houses and inns

from the inliabitants, paid them the price, and then ordered them to remove to Daulatabad. At first they were unwilling to obey, but the crier of the monarch proclaimed that no one must be found in Dehli after three days.

The greater part of the inhabitants departed, but some hid them- selves in the houses. The Sultan ordered a rigorous search to be made for any that remained. His slaves found two men in the streets : one was paralyzed, the other blind. They were brought before the sovereign, who ordered the paralytic to be shot away from a manjanik, and the blind man to be dragged from Dehli to Daulatabad, a journey of forty days' distance. The poor wretch fell in pieces during the journey, and only one of his legs reached Daulatabad. All the inhabitants of Dehli left; they abandoned their baggage and their merchandize, and the city remained a perfect desert.

A person in whom I felt confidence assured me that the Sultan mounted one evening upon the roof of his palace, and, casting his eyes over the city of Dehli, in which there was neither fire, smoke, nor light, he said, " Now my heart is satisfied, and my feelings are appeased." Some time after he wrote to the inhabitants of different provinces, commanding them to go to Dehli and repeople it. They ruined their own countries, but they did not populate Dehli, so vast and immense is that city. In fact, it is one of the greatest cities in the universe. When we entered this capital we found it in the state which has been described. It was empty, abandoned, and had but a small population.

Sultan Tughlik had a nephew, son of his sister, named Bahau-d din Gushtasp, whom he made governor of a province. This man was a brave warrior, a hero ; and when his uncle was dead he refused to give his oath to the late Sultan's son and successor. The Sultan sent a force against him ; * * * there was a fierce battle, * * ** and the Sultan's troops gained the victory. Bah£u-d din fled to one of the Hindu princes, called the Kai of Kambila. ** ** * This prince had territories situated among inaccessible mountains, and was one of the chief princes of the infidels.

When Bahau-d din made his escape to this prince, he was pursued by the soldiers of the Sultan of India, who surrounded the r&i'a territories. The infidel saw his danger, for his stores of grain were exhausted, and his great fear was that the enemy would carry off; his person by force; so he said to Bahau-d'din, "Thou seest how we are situated. I am resolved to die with my family, and with all who wiU imitate me. Go to such and such a prince (naming a Hindu prince), and stay with him ; he wiU defend thee." He sent some one to conduct him thither. Then he commanded a great fire to be prepared and lighted. Then he burned his furniture, and said to his wives and daughters, " I am going to die, and such of you as prefer it, do the same." Then it was seen that each one of these women washed herself, rubbed her body with sandal-wood, kissed the ground before the r&i of Kambila, and threw herself upon the pile. All perished. The wives of his nobles, ministers, and chief men imitated them, and other women also did the same.

The r6A, in his turn, washed, rubbed himself with sandal, and took his arms, but did not put on his breastplate. Those of his men who resolved to die with him followed his example. They sallied forth to meet the troops of the Sultan, and fought tUl every one of them fell dead. The town was taken, its inhabitants were made prisoners, and eleven sons of the r&l were made prisoners and carried to the Sultan, who made them all Musulmans. The Sultan made them amirs, and treated them with great honour, as much for their illustrious birth as in admiration of the conduct of their father. Of these brothers, I saw near the Sultan, Nasr, Bakhtiyar, and the keeper of the seals, who carried the ring with which the Sultan's drinking-water was sealed. His name was Abu Muslim, and we were companions and friends.

After the death of the rdi of Kambila, the troops of the Sultan proceeded towards the country of the infidel with whom Bahau-d din had taken refuge, and surrounded it. This prince said, "I cannot do as the rdi of Kambila did." He seized Bahau-d din, and gave him up to the army of the Sultan. They bound his legs and tied his arms to his neck, and so conducted him to the Sultan. He ordered the prisoner to be taken to the women, his relations, and these insulted him and spat upon him. Then he ordered him to bo

skinned alive, and as his skin was torn off, Lis flesli was cooked with rice. Some was sent to his children and his wife, and the re- mainder was put into a great dish and given to the elephants to eat, but they would not touch it. The Sultan ordered his skin to be Stuffed with straw, and to be placed along with the remains of Bahadur Biira,^ and to be exhibited throughout the country. When these arrived in Sind, of which country Kishlu Khan was then governor, he ordered them to be buried. When the Sultan heard this he was offended, and determined to make away with Kishlu Khan, who was the friend of Sultan Tughlik, and bad helped him in obtaining the supreme power.

As soon as the Sultan was informed of what Kishlu Khan had done in the matter of burying the two skins, he sent for him. Kishlu Khan instantly understood that the Sultan intended to pimish him, so he did not attend to the invitation. He revolted, spread his money about, raised troops, and sent emissaries among the Turks, Afghans, and Khurasanians, who flocked to him in great numbers. His army was equal to that of the Sultan, or even superior to it in numbers. The Sovereign marched in person to fight him, and they met at two days' journey from Multan, in the desert plain of Abuhar. In this battle the Sultan showed great prudence. He placed Shaikh 'Imadu-d din, who resembled him (in person), under the royal canopy, whilst he himself moved off during the heat of the battle with 4,000 men. The enemy endeavoured to take the canopy, thinking it was the Sovereign who was under it. 'Imadu-d din was killed, and they thought that the Sultan had perished. The soldiers of Kishlu Khan were intent only on plunder, and separated from their chief, who was left with only a few men. Then the Sultan fell upon him and cut off his head. When Kishlu Khan's troops knew this, they took to flight.

The Sultan then entered Multan, where he seized the Mzi, Kari- mu-d din, and ordered him to be flayed alive. He brought with him the head of Kishlu Khan, which he caused to be suspended over his own door. I saw it there when I arrived in Multan.

' Ghiy^u-d din Bahidur BiSra, Eing of Bengal, whom he restored to his kingdom,

and afterwards defeated and Mlled. The skin of this victim was torn off and stuffed.

Disaster suffered ly the army in the mountain of KardcMl {in the Himalayas).

This is a vast mountain, three months' journey in length, and ten days' journey from Dehli. Its king was one of the most powerful' of the Hindu princes, and the Sultan of India sent an army to fight with him, commanded by Malik Nakbia, chief of the inkstand bearers. The army consisted of 100,000 horse and a large number of infantry. They took the town of Jidiya, situated at the foot of the mountain, and the places adjacent, making prisoners, plundering, and burning. The infidels fled to the heights of the mountain, abandoning their country, their flocks, and the treasures of their king. The mountain has only one road. Below lies a valley ; above, the mountain itself ; and horsemen can only pass one by one. The troops of the Sultan ascended by this road, and took possession of the town of Warangal, in the upper part of the mountain. They seized upon everything it contained, and wrote to their Sovereign informing him of their victory. He sent them a Tcdzi and a preacher, and ordered them to remain in the country.

When the great rains came on, the army was attacked by disease, which considerably weakened it. The horses died, and the bows grew slack, so the amirs sought permission from the Sultan to leave the mountain during the rainy season, to descend to its base, and to again take up their position when the rains had ceased. The Sultan consented. So the commander Nakbia took all the property he had secured, whether provisions, metals, or precious stones, and dis- tributed them among the troops, to carry them to the bottom of the mountain. When the iafidels found that the Musulmans were re- tiring, they waited for them in the gorges of the mountain, and occupied the defiles before them. They cut down old trees, and cast them from the heights of the mountain, and these killed all with whom they came in contact. The greater part of the men perished, the rest were taken. The Hindus seized the treasures, merchandize, horses, and arms. Of all the Musulmans only three chiefs escaped — ^the commander Nakbia, Badru-d din Malik Daulat Shah, and a third whose name I have forgotten.

This disaster deeply affected the army of India, and weakened it in a marked manner. Soon afterwards the Sultan made peace with

the inhabitants of iihe mountain, on condition, of their paying him a certain tribute. They owned, in fact, the land at the foot of the mountain, and this they could not cultivate without the permission of the Sultan.

Eebellion of the SJiarif JaUht-d dkn in the Pr mince of Mdla/r, etc.

The Sultan had appointed the shwrif, Jalalu-d din Ahsan Shah, to be governor of the country of Ma'bar, which is at the distance of six months' journey from Dehli. This Jalalu-d din rebelled, usurped the ruling power, killed the lieutenants and agents of the Sovereign,, and struck in his own name gold and silver money. On one side of the coins there was impressed the following (letters) : " toe and lie, ye and sin," (these letters, which form the titles of the 20th and 26th chapters of the Kuran, are among the epithets bestowed upon Muhammad,) and (the words) "father oi fakirs and of the indigent, the glory of the world and of religion." On the other face the following : " He who puts his trust in the help of the AU-merciful, Ahsan Shah Sultan." The Sultan, when he was informed of this revolt, set forth to suppress it. * ' **

The elephants which execute men have their tusks covered with sharp irons, resembling the coulter of the plough which turns up the ground, and with edges like those of knives. The driver mounts the elephant, and, when a person is thrown in front, the animal winds his trunk round him, hurls him into the air, and, catching him on one of his tusks, dashes him to the ground, when he places one of his feet on the breast of the victim. After this he does as he is directed by his rider, under the orders of the Sultan. If the Sultan desires the culprit to be cut in pieces, the elephant executes the command by means of the irons above de- scribed ; if the Sultan desires the victim to be left alone, the elephant leaves him on the ground, and (the body) is then stripped of its skin.

The Sultan arrived in the country of TUang, and proceeded to-

wards the province of Ma'bar,, to repress the sharif of the country, who had rebelled. He halted at Badrakot, capital of TUang, three months' march from Ma'bar. Pestilence then broke out in his army, and the greater part of it perished. » « « When the Sultan saw this calamity, he returned to Daulatdbad. ** ** '* On his journey he was taken HI, and the rumour spread that he was dead^ * * ** Amir Hushanj, when he heard this rumour, fled to an infidel prince named Burabrah, who dwelt in lofty mountaias between Daulatabad and KukanTanah (TanaintheKonkan). « « «

Dearth made its appearance in various provinces, and the Sultan proceeded with his troops to encamp on the Ganges at ten days' journey from Dehli. \BebeHion of 'Ainu-l Mulh'] The wazir con- ducted (the prisoner) 'Ainu-l Mulk to the presence of the Sovereign. The rebel was mounted on a bull and was quite naked, saving only a scrap of stuff tied by a string round his waist. * * '* The sons of the amirs surrounded the captive, insulted him, spat in his face, and buffeted his companions. ** ** ** The Sultan directed that the prisoner should be dressed in clothes like those of conductors of pack-horses, that he should have four chains put upon his legs, that his hands should be fastened to his neck, and that he should be given into the custody of the wazir, Khwaja-i Jahan. * ** * The Sultan returned to his capital after an absence of two years and a half. He pardoned 'Afnu-1 Mulk.

During the trme that the Sultan was absent from his capital in his expedition to Ma'bar, a famine arose and became serious. The man of wheat rose to sixty dirhams and more. Distress was general, and the position of affairs very grave. One day I went out of the city to meet the wazir, and I saw three women, who were cutting in pieces and eating the skin of a horse which had been dead some months. Skins were cooked and sold in the markets. When bullocks were slaughtered, crowds rushed forward to catch the blood, and consumed it for their sustenance. ^ ** ** The famine being unendurable, the Sultan ordered provisions for six months to be distributed to aU the population of Dehli. The judges, secre- taries, and officers inspected aU the streets and markets, and sup-

plied to every person proYisions for half a year, at the rate of one pound and a half, Mughribi weight, each. «» *> *

Entry of the Sultan into Behli. The Sovereign mounted his horse to enter his capital. ****** Over his head was carried a parasol, and before him was carried the gMshiya, or saddle-cloth, trimmed with gold and diamonds. Some small balistas were placed upon elephants, and as the Sultan ap- proached the city, gold and silver pieces, mixed, were discharged from these machines among the people.

Appointment as Ambassador. After I had passed forty days in the hermitage, the Sultan sent me some saddled horses, slaves of both sexes, and clothes, and money for my expenses. I dressed myself, and went to wait upon the Sovereign. ** * ** When I arrived, he showed me greater honour than ever he had done before, and said, "I have sent for you to make you my ambassador to the King of China, for I know your love for voyages and travels." He furnished me with all that was necessary, and named the persons who were to go with me.

E.— NOTE TO THE TEANSLATION OE THE TA'ErKH-I FrKOZ SHA'Hr OP ZrA'U-D Dra BAENr.

A full translation of Bami's history of the reign of 'Alau-d din has appeared in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal siuce the one in this work was printed. That translation was made by the late Major Fuller, Director of Public Instruction in the Panjab, and has been revised and annotated by Mr. Blochmann, the editor of the Journal. Those who are curioua may now ascertain the value of the passages omitted from this work. The translation has enabled me to correct one or two slips in my own translation, and mine may, I hope, render a similar service to the other. I proceed to notice some of Mr. Blochmann's notes.

Kilu-ghari. — The proper spelling is said to be Kilokhari. The pages of this work afford abundant evidence of the great unoertaiaty in the spelling of names, both of places and persons. The same was

formerly tlie case in Europe, and although, the printing-press has settled the orthography of most names, it has not in all cases decided the mode of spelling. Add to the various spellings the doubts arising from the defects of the Persian alphabet, where h is nearly always made to duty for itself and g also, and where a single dot changes the power of a letter, the difQculty and hazard of dogma- tizing are sufficiently obvious. The name may be KiloTchari, and indeed Sir H. Elliot has written it so (p. 525 siepro). Syud Ahmad, in the A'sdrvrs Sanddid, also writes it so. But on the other hand, the A'rddsh-i Mahfil calls it Kilugarhf, and this is the spelling of General Cunningham, in his Archaeological Eeport on Dehli. With- out pretending to say which is right, the latter pronunciation is most acceptable to my ear.

Kvihrdm »^. — Mr. Blochmann says the name is properly Guhrdm, and if he has found it written with a g, it is good evidence of what his author thought it to be. Mr. Blochmann condemns me for spelling it incorrectly, Kohram ; but my spelling was Kahrdm, which I have since modified to Kuhrdm, upon the assurance that the local pro- nunciation is Kohram. These Persian writers are not the best authorities upon Hindu names; the vulgar pronunciation is a far better guide to the true etymology, even as the rustic in England is more correct than his betters when he says, Peters'am and Lewis'am, instead of Peter-sham and Lewi-sham.

P. 160. Plain ofJudh. — The reading in the Journal is "(crossed) at the fort of Baghpat, after which he encamped in the plain of Jud." The words in the text are " guzar Mth vhrah hard," i.e. He passed over the ford (guzar) of kdth. This reading is confirmed by one of my MSS., the other one has simply guzar-gdh. For Mth the Journal reads "Baghpat," though no authority is offered. I followed the plain reading of the last-named MS., thinking that hdth might perhaps be ghdt, a Hindi word for ferry or ford. Mr. Bloch- mann notices a " Joondhpoor " on the Jumna, opposite to Baghpat, which he thinks may be Judh.

P. 162. Jdlandhar. — Some variants of this name have been noted. To these may now be added Jarumanj{ir, from Major FuUer's MS. ; and Jdran-manjMr, from Badauni.

P. 165-6. "The accwrsed Zud." Majjor Fuller's MS. agr€es as to " Zud," but adds al'ain, like tte printed text. In my MSS. it is clearly the usual epithet " al Win," the accursed. The real name is Dawa or Daud. See suprd, p. 548.

P. 172. Jhdin Mr. Blochmann says, "Jhayinlies near Ean-

tambhur. It is known under the name of Naushahr (new city), Badanni, i. p. 190. See EUiot, old edition, p. 193." The proximity of Jhain to Eantambhor is clear, for it is said to be within a day's march; but in page 193 supra, Bami speaks of "New City" and Jhain as two distinct places (see also Jour. As. Soc. Beng., 1870, p. 26).

P. 172. Akat Khdn. — ^Mr. Blochmann writes : " I have written Ikit Khdm instead of Uhat, which Major Fuller's translation has. Ikit is Turkish, and means young, and would thus be the opposite of JJlugh, which means old, senior."

P. 172. Bddih. — " The place Badah may be the maitza' of Badah, south-west of the town of Jharsah."

P. 175. " The Sultd/n proceeded to Bantambhor." — ^To this the Journal adds, " and pitched his camp at Ban." Mr. Blochmann adds, " rather on the Ban. Major Fuller's MS. has, correctly, dar ran, instead of the absurd dar dm of the Ed. Bibl. Indioa." One of my MSS. agrees in this "absurd" reading, and the other, still more distinctly, has " darun." The exact words are " dar Bantambhor raft wa dar dia (dariin) lashhargah sdhht," " went to Eantambhor, and there pitched his camp." A few lines lower. Major Fuller's translation runs, " the soldiery used to fill the bags with sand, and throw them into the [raAdne] of the Ean." This second mention of "the Ean" is not to be found in the printed text, nor in either of my MSS. ; they all agree in simply saying, "dar ghdr mi anddhhfand," "and threw them into the holes." Thus neither the printed text nor my two MSS. of Barni afford any countenance to the word Ean. But though Baml is thus silent about the Ean, Mr. Blochmann has ample authority for asserting the existence of such a place. He refers to Badaiini (ii. 207), who says that Akbar attacked Eantambhor from " the top of the hill of Ean, which commands the fort ; " and he quotes the following from the T{izak-i Jahdngiri : " On Monday, I inspected the fort of Eantambhor. There are two mountains oppo-

site to each otlaer : one is called Ban, and the other Tamhhor. Though the fort is on the latter, people call it ' Eantambhor.' It is very strong, and has plenty of water. The Ean also is a strong position ; in fact, the only one from which the fort can be taken." This explanation of the na,me is rather at variance with Oolehrooke's etymology, already quoted in Vol. 11. p. 324. He says it is a corruption of Mana'Sthamharihramarcf, " bee of the piUar of war."

P. 182. Khutas cmd BaUhars.- — The general meaning of these terms is sufficiently obvious from the context, but as I could find no authority for fixing a precise meaning upon them, I left the words untranslated. Major Fuller translated them as "landlords and tenants." Mr. Bloohmann adds in a note, "Baldhar may be Hindustani, and signify a low-caste servant.'^ EMt is a rare Arabic word, signifying a Jim strong man. From the passages below it is quite clear that these terms mean the strong and the weak, and moat probably lanMords and tenants, as translated." Major Fuller says in a footnote that the words are unintelligible to him; and Mt. Bloohmann adds, "If I did not know that Major Fuller's. MS. had hhktah with a kh, I would say that khktah was a blunder for fotah with /. I have never seen these terms used in any other book." The spelling is confirmed by both my MSS.

P. 182. Mr. Bloohmann offers an amendment of Major Fuller's translation in respect of the principles of taxation. My translation differs slightly from both. The author's words from the Print (p. 287), with variants from the MSS., are —

A:jl:u«J sj^f>- '^i'.j^ ji^ ^J^ Jji«)jf [Ij] \ JL^^ -^ SS] j»j^J

jojUj i_--Sii [|.^^] tg/ i.s-'Jj^ tUU- ^ UiJ^ 3 '^ c;?" lPW" J

jJIaj —lyi. ^^jo-j jJ i^f jJ^i j [(^^ji*c] JijkC .jjiUb \i

Both Major Fuller and Mr. Bloohmann translate Gm-mesh by cow in- stead of bitffalo, but the chief difference appears in the subsequent part of the sentence. My rendering is, " The second related to buffaloes

1 According to Wilson'sGlossary, the Baldhar is the Tillage watchman, or sweeper, but Barni speaks of him as a tenant, or payer of reyenue.

and sheep,' and otlier animals from wliicli milk is obtained. A tax for pasturage, at a fixed rate, was to be levied, and was to be demanded for every inhabited house, so that no animal, however wretched, could escape the tax." The last clause is a free rendering of the original words.^ Major FuUer's translation, as amended by Mr. Bloohmann, runs, " They should levy a grazing tax on every animal that gives milk, from a cow to a she-goat. And this grazing tax was established. Also for every house they should demand a dwell- ing tax, so that no opportunity might be left for evasion or sub- terfuge in levying the tax." The passage is very obscure, and, as Mr. Blochmann says, the difficult words are, "as pas i 'hwr khdnalt," etc. I have read the words, " sahunat gari," as a compound, meaning "inhabited." Mr. Bloohmann takes the word garl to mean house- tax. This rendering, however, seems to be inadmissible here. The text tells us that two regulations were made, one concerning the land, the other relating to milch animals. A house-tax would make three regulations instead of two, for a house-tax could not be classi- fied as part of a tax on milch animals. The words " as pas," "in the rear" of every house, probably mean that the back premises were to be searched for the animals. Pasturage in Dehli and Sarhind is scanty, and the practice, as I learn, is to turn the animals out to the common pasturage in the day under the charge of herds- men and boys, and to allow them to come home in the evening.

' The word gosfand means both sheep and goat ; it wotdd have been better if 1 had adopted the latter meaning. 2 The difficulty rests in the words (jS^ and <!ji J^, which, from the way they

are connected, onght to hare a similarity of meaning. For ghaiai, or ghulhat, I can find no satisfactory definition ; it means a young eagle, and this meaning may perhaps be extended to mean any youmg animal. Shutur-garbak is a phrase used to express the extremes of difference or incongruity, as, — a cat and a camel ! or, as in our nursery language, " a Cat and a King ! " (See Roebuck's Proverbs, I. 268). The general sense of the passage, according to this view, would be — " So that no young animal (?) or any one as worthless as a cat compared with a camel, might be passed over in the collection of the tax." Mr. Blochmann has taken it difierently. For ghabat he must have read ghaibat, concealment, and as the ordinary meaning of shuiur-garbah is not in accordance with this, a new acceptation had to be sought ; and this may be, the passing off a bad thing for a good, as a cat for a camel. The construction of the sentence favours Mr. Blochmann's interpretation, but it requires, first, an amendment of the text ; secondly, a probable, but, as far as I know, an unauthorized rendering of shutur-garbah.

Empty stomacts insure a speedy and certain return, thus affording the inspector an excellent opportunity to coimt them in the folds and sheds. There is something, however, to be said on the other side. In the following page of the text (288), and in page 323 (Journal pp. 8 and 47), along with the land measurement and pasture tax, there is a tax mentioned called harhi or garU (masdhat o harU o chardi), which Mr. Blochmann fairly renders as a "house tax." Such may he the meaning of the word garl in the passage before us, though I think the context is against it.

P.- 182. Sharaf Kdk. — Mr. Blochmann says that, according to Major l\iller's MS., the correct reading is Ea'in'i, from Kain, the well-known town in Persia. This is probably right. I followed the printed text; for my best MS. presented the variants of "Sharaf !Ali " and " Sharaf Ed%t" and the other had " Sliaraf Mi."

P. 192. Major Puller and Mr. Blochmann are in difficulties about the pay which 'Alau-d din settled for his horse-soldiers. Their trans- lation says, " I will give 234 tonkas to a Murattab, and 78 tankas to a do-aspah; from the former I shall require two horses, with their corresponding equipments, and from the latter one with its usual gear." So the do-aspah, or i«eo-horse man, is made to have only one horse, and Mr. Blochmann admits in his note that, " to call a man a do-aspah because he joins the army only with one horse is extraordi- nary." The passage is not without its difficulty, and I do not insist upon the exact accuracy of my own rendering ; but it is at least con- sistent with the terms of the text and with common sense. Murattab T consider to be the general term for the fully-accoutred horseman, who was to receive 2347a«i«s per annum, and 78 tankas m addition if he were a do-aspah, with a second horse. So the passage reads, " I would pay them 284 tankas regularly, and I would allow 78 tamkas (in addition) to those who keep two horses, requiring, in return, the two horses with aU the necessary appointments. So also as regards the men of one horse, I would require the horse and his accoutrements." In confirmation of this view, a passage, which I have not translated (p. 319 of the text), says, "hashm i murattab ba dumst si chahdr tankah iva do aspah ba haftdd o hasht tankah Usydr shud wa mustakim gasht," which, as I read it, says, "the allowance of the horseman (murattab) was fixed at 234 tankas, and VOL. III. 40

that of the do-aspah, or two-horse man, at 78 more (lisydr)." Mr. Bloohmanii's translation runs, "a MwaUcib could, be enlisted for 234, and a do-aspah for 78 tankoiS."

P. 193. In line 9 of " Eegulation III,," for " a time when,' read " a quarter where." I gratefully acknowledge this correction, and also one in p. 183. As the latter required a sentence to be re- cast, I have, for the benefit of the reader, cancelled the page.

In p. 97, I have noticed the inaceuracies of the edition printed in the Bibliotheca Indica. Mr. Blochmann makes many corrections, and points out numbcrles? errors; but no doubt, taking into account the imperfect and unsatisfactory MSS. froia which it was taken, he says, " the edition is on the whole good."

Since the printiag of p. 468, a friend has taken exception to my suggested rendering of the word jins by the term specie. The citation of the original word jim indicates its employment in an unusual sense, for the ordinary meaning of the word is things, articles, goods, species. So the interpretation suggested in the passage in question caji ©nly be justified by the terms of the context. The passage runs thus : —

If this passage is tested logically, the ptis of the nahd o jins of the ' The words in bractets are omitted ia one MS.

first clause must be something different from the jins which was received in its stead. It must have been something which could be concealed, or payment could not have been evaded ; and so it could hardly have been grain, for com stacks and granaries could not be hidden, and Timur's soldiers never showed any scruple in helping themselves to all that was wanted in that way. Lastly, the nakd o jins of the first clause is covered in the last clause by the word zar (gold, money) as an equivalent. In the writer's mind it was evidently associated with nakd (cash), and zar (gold). The loose term "valuables" may, perhaps, represent it more nearly than " specie," but it is clearly something allied to money.

STEPHEN AUSTIN & SDKS, PKINTEBS, HEBTPOKD.