1. Indian Aesthetics and Musicology Volume 1 Prem Lata Sharma

INDIAN

AESTHETICS and MUSICOLOGY

(The Art & Science of Indian Music)

PROF. PREM LATA SHARMA

INDIAN

AESTHETICS AND MUSICOLOGY

PROF. PREM LATA SHARMA

INDIAN

AESTHETICS AND MUSICOLOGY

I

INDIAN

AESTHETICS AND MUSICOLOGY

(The Art and Science of Indian Music)

Volume I

Compiled articles of

Prof. (Miss) PREMLATA SHARMA

Emeritus Professor, B.H.U., Ex. Dean, Faculty of Music and Fine Arts

and Head of the Deptt. of Musicology, B.H.U.,

Ex. Vice-Chancellor of Indira Kala Sangeeta Vishwavidyalaya, Khairagarh, M.P.

Fellow & Vice Chairman, Sangeet Natak Akademi, New Delhi

Edited by

Dr. Km. Urmila Sharma

ĀMNĀYA-PRAKĀŚANA, BHARATA-NIDHI, VARANASI

INDIAN

AESTHETICS AND MUSICOLOGY

(The Art and Science of Indian Music)

by

Dr. Prem Lata Sharma

This book is published with financial assistance from

Sangeet Natak Akademi, Delhi

First Edition : 2000

Price

Rs. 500.00 (Rs. Five Hundred only)

$ 30 (Dollar Thirty)

Published by

ĀMNĀYA-PRAKĀŚANA

Bharata-Nidhi (Trust)

Āmnāya, 209/1 Dharmajit Nagar

Karaundi, VARANASI-221 005 INDIA

Sole Distributor

VISHWAVIDYALAYA PRAKASHAN

Chowk, VARANASI-221 001

Printed at

VARANASI ELECTRONIC COLOUR PRINTERS PVT. LTD.

Chowk, VARANASI-221 001

Dedicated with reverence

to

The great Rasika Vāggeyakāra

Pandit VIṢṆU DIGAMBAR PALUSKAR

The saint Music-Maestro

Pioneer of the Renaissance of Indian Music

and

The Parama-Gurudeva of

Prem Lata Sharma

in all her Tapas for the Art and Science of

Sangīta and Nāṭya

as

the perfect disciple of

Pandit OMKAR NATH THAKUR

FOREWORD

A compilation of the articles written by revered Bahenji, Professor Premlata Sharma and their publication in the form of a book has been a long felt need and Dr. Sharma herself was working towards this. The world of music is grateful to her sister, Dr. Urmila Sharma, in bringing out the first volume of the collection. Most of these articles had been published in Nada Rupa and in Indian Music Journal, which have been out of print since long. These articles had been written by her during her tenure as the Head of the Department of Musicology at the Banaras Hindu University. The articles assume greater value and significance considering the fact that during these two and a half decades her major contribution had been in the form of lectures and papers delivered at Seminars and in the form of articles written for journals. She had not written anything in the form of a textbook and these articles, besides breaking new grounds in musicological research, served as sources for the topics that had been prescribed for courses in musicology and music theory. The articles presented in this book relate chiefly to four areas - Aesthetics, texts in Saṅgītaśāstra and Concepts in Ancient Indian music, Hindustani music and comparison of the North and Southern systems of music.

Bahenji's initial research was in Saṃskṛta poetics and she initiated deep study into aesthetics of music too. She had lectured extensively on rasa and music and later advocated the application of the three-guṇa (prasāda, mādhurya and ojaa) concept to music. She made a serious study of Western aesthetics and was drawn to the book “Beautiful in Music” and to the theory of “Autonomy of the arts” of the author Hanslick.

Bahenji's name became synonymous with the study of

Saṁskṛta texts in music and the interpretation of the concepts. She had planned a series of publication of Saṁskṛta texts, namely, Bharata-bhāṣya of Nānyadeva, Rasakaumudī of Śrīkanṭha and Saṅgītarāja of Kumbhakarṇa (Kālasena). She had written introductory articles about these and other texts. The entire Saṅgītarāja was edited and printed although only the first two chapters were published as the first volume. Bṛhaddeśī was re-edited and translated by her with the assistance of Dr. Anil Beohar and published by the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts. Rasakaumudī had, around the same time, come out as a publication under the Gaekwad Oriental Series publications of Baroda edited by Dr. A.N.Jani. Seven chapters of Bharata-bhāṣya, edited by Dr. C.P.Desai, came out as a publication of Indira Kala Sangita Vishwavidyalaya, Khairagarh. However, at the time of her demise, Bahenji was editing the entire text for publication by the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts. Sahasarasa was completely edited by Bahenji and later published by the Sangeet Natak Akademi. The introduction to that also presented an account of the ancient thinking on the verbal element in music. Apart from editing some texts she was writing brief accounts about all the others too.

Sthāyas, Gamakas and Prabandhas had engaged her attention and she was the earliest and perhaps the only scholar to go deeply into the study of Sthāyas. She gave many lectures on gamakas in the contemporary music too, especially those used in Dhrupada. Apart from understanding the Prabandha forms of the Deśī, she enlarged the scope of the term to cover the musical forms of the later systems. She concentrated especially on Dhrupada and Ṭhumari. Her contribution to Dhrupada through the organising of Dhrupada festivals and the editing of Dhrupada Annual Journal is well known. She was also among the earliest scholars to disprove the theory that the scales of the medieval period had faithfully retained the intervallic arrangement of the svaras of the two grāmas. Her

Foreword

presentation on this subject at the Music Academy, Madras had been hailed by Dr.V. Raghavan as 'revolutionary'. She was the first to point out the discrepancies in the descriptions in the writings of the medieval authors (starting with Rāmāmātya) on the placement of Grāmika svaras on the frets of the Viṇā.

She had also collaborated extensively with Professor V.V.Sadagopan of Delhi University and presented talks on Hindustani and Karnatakka systems at his Delhi Sangita Samaj. The Śuddha and Vikṛta svara-s of the medieval texts came to be explained in detail in these talks.

Unlike the scholars of the mid-20th century who concentrated mainly on the melodic details of ancient music, Bahenji had gone into the tāla system too in detail. The organisation of the five mārga tālās in ekakala, dvikala and catuskala states and their role in building the tāla structures underlying Gītakas were studied and explained by her in detail. In her paper presented at the World Sanskrit Conference at Leiden, 1987, she had covered the entire spectrum from Mārga to contemporary period, from Nāṭya-Śāstra to Saṅgītakalādhara (Gujarati).

I must confess at the end that as a student of Bahenji in the Department of Musicology, Banaras Hindu University, I had not realised that much of the understanding of the concepts in ancient, medieval and modern music was an outcome of Bahenji's research. I was under the impression that all these ideas were common knowledge till I met scholars and teachers outside. There are several other papers and articles of Bahenji that need to be published and I am sure the students and scholars will give their support and assistance to Dr. Urmila Sharma in her noble and tireless effort in achieving this.

11.11.2000

Kārtika Pūrṇimā, 2057 Vikrama

18, Fourth Road, R.A. Puram

CHENNAI-5 (Tamilnadu)

N. Ramanathan

Professor and Head

Department of Indian Music

University of Madras

Chennai-600 005

PREFACE

"Indian Musicology with its unique and stupendous literature in Sanskrit offers a vast field for study and research. The approach and methods of Indian Musicology are religio-philosophical. Its perspective is not merely utilitarian or practical, but it aims at the realisation of the highest and eternal good of man, not the psycho-physical being with which we are familiar, but an eternal spiritual entity constituted of pure-consciousness, requiring for its sustenance spiritual substance and environment. The teaching of the Saṅgīta Śāstra is that since Saṅgīta is not the work of physical nature but of man, its study is fruitful only when it proceeds from a proper appreciation of the true nature of man. By implication the methods suitable for study of nature are not suitable for the study of Saṅgīta.

"Even as a study of practical music, the potentiality of Indian Saṅgīta Śāstra for providing guiding principles is very great. In fact, such a study has yet to be undertaken. Very little has yet been done to bring out the practical implications of the Śāstra, much less to study its aesthetic and spiritual aspects."

Written in 1966, these are the words of Professor Prem Lata Sharma who dedicated her whole life for restoring Indian Musicology in its proper place in the study of Indian Music.

Prem lata Sharma was born on 10th May, 1927, in Nakodar, Distt. Jalandhar, East Punjab. She was the only child of her parents. Her father, Pandit Lalchand Sharma, who was a Bachelor in Commerce, worked as an Auditor in the Indian State Railways. Her mother, Shrimati Mayadevi, had received traditional education at home and was well-versed in our shastras. Both of them were devoted Gaudīya Vaiṣṇavas and they brought up their only child, Premlata, in a serene and

Preface

pious atmosphere. She received her primary and secondary

education at home in Delhi along with training in vocal music

and sitar. She passed her High School Examination from

Punjab University in 1938 at the age of eleven. For the next

two years she studied in the University Tutorial Institute and

passed the Intermediate Examination of Delhi University in

1940. Then she joined the Indraprastha Girls’ college for two

years and graduated from Delhi University in 1942.

After this, she spent seven years in studying religious

literature, especially that of the Gaudīya Vaiṣṇavas in Bengali

and Sanskrit, in which her father was also deeply interested.

He resigned his job in the Railways and made himself free to

look after the interest of his daughter in her studies. Vraj

Bhūmi was found to be a better place for intensive study of

Gaudīya Vaishnavism and so the family shifted from Delhi to

Mathura in 1947. At Mathura, Premlata Sharma studied and

became proficient in three important languages–Braj Bhasha,

Avadhi and Maithili which were all required in her pursuit.

She also continued hėr higher studies in Sanskrit and Hindi

Literature, while taking regular training in Music which had

been a hobby with her since childhood. This enabled her to

pass the Inter Examination in Vocal Music of the Academy of

Hindustani Music, Lucknow in 1949.

Considering the aptitude, qualities and potentialities of

his daughter, Pandit Lalchand Sharma decided that she should

continue her higher studies at Banaras Hindu University,

where a College of Music and Fine Arts had started

functioning in 1949-50 with Pandit Omkar Nath Thakur as its

Principal. Premlata Sharma was admitted to this College in the

first batch of students. She was also admitted to the Women’s

College Hostel. Pandit Omkarnath Thakur, who knew Pandit

Lalchand Sharma very well, agreed to be her local guardian.

Premlata Sharma entered the portal of Banaras Hindu

University with the awful feeling that she was going to study

in a great Gurukula and she remembered as to how an inmate

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Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

studying in a Gurukula was required to conduct himself. The

advice given in the Taittiriya Upanishad came to her mind :

ऋतं च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च। सत्यं च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च।

तपश् च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च। दमश् च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च।

शमश् च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च।

She understood that she should carry on her studies in the

University following the right path (Divine Law), speaking

always the truth and doing Tapa with restraint and tranquillity

of mind. She was following an austere life in Mathura also and

she decided to be a Tapasvinī student in the University.

Soon after coming to the University she got herself

admitted as a casual student in the Central Hindu College and

started attending the M.A. classes in Hindi. She had already

completed the course and was going to appear in the M.A.

(Hindi) examination that year. (Provision exists in the

University for women students to appear in the University

Examinations as a private candidate in Arts subjects. So she

appeared in the M.A. (Hindi) Examination in March 1950 and

passed the same). In July 1950, she joined the M.A. Classes in

Sanskrit as a casual student and appeared in the M. A.

(Sanskrit) Examination in March 1951, and came out

successful. Then in July 1951 she got herself registered as a

Ph.D. student in Sanskrit under Dr. P.L. Vaidya who was then

the Head of the Department of Sanskrit in the Central Hindu

College. The subject of her research was : Special study of

Rasashastra and Gaudeeya Vaishnava Darshan.

In order to have a comprehensive knowledge of her

subject she also started attending classes in the Samskrit

Mahavidyalaya of the University where teaching is done

according to traditional methods. Sitting at the feet of Pandit

Mahadeva Sastri Pandey and Pandit T.V. Ramachandra

Dikshitar she studied Sanskrit poetics. Pandit Mahadeva Sastri

was the Head of Department of Sāhitya and Pandit

Ramachandra Dikshitar was the Head of the Department of

Darśana.

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Mahamahopadhyaya Pandit Gopinath Kaviraj acquainted Premlata Sharma with several matters relating to the subject of her research while she learnt the intricacies of Sanskrit grammar from Pandit Brahmadatta Jijnasu.

Acquiring more and more knowledge of Sanskrit language and literature, she completed her thesis and submitted the same in 1954. The title of the thesis was ‘Studies in Bhakti Rasa based on Śri Rūpa Goswāmī’.

The thesis was accepted for the award of the Ph.D. degree of the University and the degree was conferred on her in the Convocation held on 17th December 1954.

Premlata Sharma continued her studies in the Sanskrit Mahavidyalaya and passed the Shastracharya examination in Sahitya in 1955, and obtained the Shastracharya degree of the University the same year.

All these years she had kept up her hobby, the study of Music in the College of Music & Fine Arts, B.H.U. The Music classes used to be held in the evening in the Ruiyya Hostel very near the women’s hostel and there was no difficulty for her in attending the music classes. Pandit Omkarnath Thakur initiated her into Saṅgītaśāstra. Sitting at his feet, she made a systematic and intensive study of Indian Music particularly its theoretical aspect based on Sanskrit texts. Her knowledge of Sanskrit language and literature greatly helped her in making a critical study of the Sanskrit texts relating to Sangītaśāstra. She also became proficient in Vocal Music and she passed the Saṅgītalaṅkāra examination in Vocal Music in 1955. Thus within a period of five years (from 1950 to 1955) she acquired adequate scholarship not only in Sanskrit language and literature but also in Saṅgītaśāstra, both theory and practice.

She also learnt Marathi, Gujarati and some other languages during this period. She could read, write and speak fluently in Hindi, Sanskrit, English, Bengali, Gujarati, Braj Bhāṣā and Avadhi. Punjabi was her mother tongue. She knew a little of Oriyā, Asami and Telugu also.

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Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

With the passing of the Saṅgītālankāra examination of the University, the Tapasyā of Premlata Sharma as a student of the Great Gurukula, the Banaras Hindu University, came to an end by June 1955. Then started her work as a teacher. In August 1955, the University appointed Dr. Premlata Sharma as a lecturer in the College of Music & Fine Arts for teaching music theory to Degree and Post-graduate students in Vocal and Instrumental Music and also for supervising the work of the Research Section. From its inception, the College had three sections in Music, namely, Vocal Music, Instrumental Music and Research Section. Professor Alain Danielou (Shiva Sharan) was working in an Honorary capacity as In-charge of the Research Section. He left India in a year or two and so this responsibility fell on the shoulders of Dr. Premlata Sharma. Dr. C.P. Ramaswami Aiyar was the Vice-Chancellor of the University at that time and he found Dr. Premlata Sharma quite fit for guiding the Research Section which consisted of two Research Assistants, one copyist and one typist.

Dr. C.P. Ramaswamy Aiyar was greatly interested in the Music College and soon after his assuming the office of the Vice-Chancellor of the University in 1954, he appointed a Reorganisation Committee for revamping the music courses and for recommending the requisite number of teaching and other posts for introducing the new courses. Pandit Omkar Nath Thakur was the Convener of this Committee but due to his illness Dr. Premlata Sharma acted as the Secretary of the Committee and the whole report was drafted by her in consultation with Pandit Omkarnathji and other members of the committee. Her administrative capabilities came to light at that time.

In 1956, a full-time post of Reader was created for the Research Section and Dr. Premlata Sharma was appointed to this post on a permanent basis from 1-8-1957 and she became the Head of the Research Section. A resolute and an indefatigable person that she was, she settled down to lay a strong and solid foundation for building up the Department of

Preface

Musicology with the result that in the year 1966, the three

sections of the College were raised to the status of Statutory

Departments, namely, the Departments of Vocal Music,

Instrumental Music and Musicology under the Faculty of

Music & Fine Arts. She functioned as the Head of the

Department of Musicology as a Reader till the beginning of

April 1981 and as a Professor from 8th April 1981 (when a

post of Professor became available for the Department). In

August 1985 she went on deputation from Banaras Hindu

University to serve as the Vice-Chancellor of Indira Kala

Sangita Vishwavidyalaya, Khairagarh for a period of three

years. Her term in that University ended only on 30th

September 1988. During this period she retired from the

service of Banaras Hindu University on 31st May 1987 when

she attained the age of superannuation.

The devotion with which Professor Premlata Sharma

served the cause of Music in general and Musicology in

particular was admirable and exemplary. She initiated serious

studies in the textual tradition of Indian Music, specially of

Sanskrit texts. She also emphasized the study of primary

sources for research in Indian Music. The courses that were

started by her from 1st August 1957 were for the Degrees of

Ph.D., M.Phil. and Master of Musicology. A Diploma course

in Music Appreciation was also introduced. The Diploma

Course in Music Appreciation attracted several foreign

scholars and they joined this course while pursuing their

studies in Sanskrit, Philosophy and Indological subjects in the

Faculty of Arts of the University.

She helped and guided many senior international scholars

like Prof. Harold Powers, University of Princeton (U.S.A.),

Prof. Lewis Rowell, University of Indiana, Bloomington

(U.S.A.), Prof. Anna Radicchi, Sienna, Italy and Dr. Francoise

Delvoye, France.

She supervised the research work of numerous scholars

out of whom twelve were awarded the Ph.D. degree of

Banaras Hindu University during the period of 1966-1985. She participated in more than forty National Seminars in India, gave talks in many Music Conferences and delivered special lectures at many places on subjects relating to Indian music and Musicology.

She taught two courses on Indian Music in a Summer School organised at the University of Rochester, New York (U.S.A.) in July-August 1970, presented a paper in the XII Conference of the International Musicological Society at Berkeley, California (U.S.A.) in August, 1977, taught two courses on Indian Aesthetics and Introduction to Indian Music at the University of North Carolina at Charlette (U.S.A.) in Sept.-Dec. 1978 and also presented a paper at the VII World Sanskrit Conference at Leiden (Holland) in 1987.

She went to Moscow twice, first in October 1966 to attend the Centenary Celebrations of the Moscow Conservatoire as a representative of India, and next in October 1987 to participate in the seminar on Tradition and Modernity held at Moscow as part of the India Festival, as leader of the Indian group.

Thus during the period of her active service in Banaras Hindu University from August 1957 to August 1985, she left no stone unturned to establish the Department as a Centre for the study of Indian Musicology and to get it acclaimed nationally and internationally.

She was not a mere theoretician but also a performing musician. Till the year 1967 or so she was regularly giving music performances particularly with a view to depict and display the śāstraic tradition. She had never been formally initiated into any Gharānā or Bāṇīs of Dhrupada. But she had developed her own style on the basis of śāstras. In the year 1961, when she gave a performance in the Sadarang Music Conference in Calcutta presenting Dhrupada in a style which had crystalised as a result of her own spontaneous singing, newspaper critics and her Gurudeva Pandit Omkarnathji

Preface

publicly expressed the opinion that she was developing on the lines of the Khaṇḍāra Bāṇī which owed its allegiance to the Vishnupur school of Bengal.

The three components of Saṅgīta are Gīta (Vocal Music), Vādya (Instrumental Music), and Nṛtya (Dance). गीतं वाद्यं च नृत्यं च त्रयं संगीतमुच्यते। Professor Premlata Sharma had therefore studied Sanskrit literature relating to Nṛtya and was greatly interested both in its theoretical and practical aspects.

She was similarly interested in the Lokgeeta tradition prevalent in different parts of the country such as Chhakkiyar and Nangiyar Kudiyattam of Kerala, Pandvani Lokgeeta, Rāsa Leela etc. Under the auspices of the College, she arranged many dance performances—Bharatanatyam, Kathak dance, Odissi Dance—and also Kudiyattam, Pandvani and other types of Lokgeeta.

Nāṭya (Drama) does not come under the purview of Saṅgīta. But considering its importance, Professor Premlata Sharma had made a special study of Bharat Muni's Nāṭya Śāstra and she wanted to revivify the art of Sanskrit Drama and show its greatness and beauty to the educated public. For this purpose she formed a forum in the year 1971-72 and named it 'Abhinaya Bhāratī'. With the active support and cooperation of some teachers and students of Department of Sanskrit (Faculty of Arts), Saṃskrit Mahavidyalaya, Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Vasant Kanya Mahavidyalaya, and some artists she was able to organize the 'Abhinaya Bhāratī' very successfully.

To start with, she selected three Dramas-Vikramorvaśīyam (विक्रमोर्वशीयम्) and Mālavikāgnimitram (मालविकाग्निमित्रम्) of Kālidāsa and Uttararāmacarita (उत्तर रामचरित) of Bhavabhūti for enactment. Reviving the system of commencing the drama with a prelude (पूर्वरङ्ग) as mentioned in Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra, she prepared separate preludes for these three dramas, composed the ślokas for invocation, set them to music and also organized the scheme of music for each one of them.

Under the able direction of Professor Premlata Sharma these dramas were enacted by the members of ‘Abhinaya Bhāratī’ in the Kalidasa Utsava at Ujjain with great success winning laurels and trophies for the University. Besides the above-mentioned dramas, several other Sanskrit dramas were enacted by the ‘Abhinaya Bhāratī’ in other places also and the public consisting of eminent Sanskrit scholars, dramatists, musicians and others, admired the performance as unique.

Suffice it to say that Professor Premlata Sharma did her best to serve her Alma Mater and established the Department of Musicology in Banaras Hindu University on a very sound footing before proceeding to Khairagarh for assuming the Vice-Chancellorship of Indira Kala Sangeet Vishwavidyalaya in August 1985.

After completing her assignment in Indira Kala Sangeet Vishwavidyalaya, she returned to Varanasi in the beginning of October 1988. Her mother wanted to spend the remaining days of her life in Varanasi only in a house owned by her daughter and not in a rented house. A suitable built-up house was readily available and she purchased the same spending her entire savings. Along with her aged mother she moved to this house on the 18th of February, 1989, and thus she fulfilled a long cherished desire of her mother to spend the last days of her life in a house acquired by her daughter with her hard earnings only. Mother Mayadevi breathed her last in her own house as desired by her at the age of 84, on the 25th June 1989. Premlataji’s father had become a sanyasi in the year 1967 itself and was staying in some Ashram at Radhakund, Vrajmandal. He attained Goloka on 5-9-1983.

Prof. Premlata Sharma had planned to create a Trust for promoting fundamental research in performing arts with its headquarters at Varanasi. This idea was kept in mind when she purchased the house at Karaundi. The aims and objects of this Trust were soon formulated and the Trust started functioning

Preface

in her own house from the Vijayā Daśamī Day in the year

1989. It took some time to finalise the details of the Trust

Deed and its legal registration could take effect only on August

27, 1993. The objects of the Trust, which was named

‘BHARATANIDHI’, as stated in the Trust Deed are :

(a) To conduct, promote and encourage fundamental

research in performing arts with an inter-disciplinary

and multi-disciplinary approach, covering history,

philosophy, literature, visual arts etc.

(b) To develop an indigenous approach to the above

research, making departure from the ideas and

models borrowed from the West.

In pursuit of the above objectives, the following and

similar other activities were to be conducted independently or

in collaboration with other institutions having similar

objectives :

(i) Publication of the above research work under a

series to be called “Bharata Nidhi Granthamālā”;

(ii) Institution of a series of lectures on the above

subjects under the name “Dr. P.L.Vaidya Memorial

Series”;

(iii) Organisation of Special Performance of music,

drama, recitation etc. under the name “Saṅgītācārya

Pandit Omkarnath Thakur Memorial Performance”;

(iv) Organisation of training/refresher camps under the

name “Lalchand Sharma Memorial Camp”;

(v) Award of research fellowships under the name

“Shrimati Mayadevi Sharma Memorial Research

Fellowships”;

(vi) Undertaking various activities towards cow

protection for the sake of acquiring inner or ‘unseen’

i.e. intangible eligibility for fulfilling the above

objectives; and

(vii) Doing all such other things as may be conducive or necessary for the advancement of the above objects.

In ancient India, when a student having completed his studies in a Gurukula sought the permission of his teacher to leave the Gurukula, the teacher used to instruct him as to how he should conduct himself in his life. The Eleventh Anuvāka of the Śikṣā Valli of the Taittirīya Upanishad is a model of the instructions that a student receives from his teacher. This can be considered as an ideal Convocation Address. The Banaras Hindu University in its rules of procedure for Convocation has provided for the recitation of the above-mentioned portion of the Taittirīya Upanisad in every Convocation when students are presented for award of the degrees. Premlata Sharma was a candidate who received a University degree every year from 1950 to 1955, and she must have made up her mind to follow these instructions scrupulously, particularly the following :

मातृदेवो भव।

पितृदेवो भव।

आचार्यदेवो भव।

अतिथिदेवो भव।

स्वाध्यायान्मा प्रमदः ।

स्वाध्यायप्रवचनाभ्यां न प्रमदितव्यम्

यानि कृत्यानि तानि सेव्यानि नो इतराणि।

यानि स्माकं सुचरितानि

तानि त्वयोपास्यानि । नो इतराणि

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श्रद्धयादेयम्।

अश्रद्धयाडदेयम्

श्रिया देयम्। हिया देयम्।

भिया देयम्। संवदा देयम्।

By instituting Dr. P.L. Vaidya Memorial series, Pandit Omkarnath Memorial Performance, Pandit Lalchand Sharma Memorial Camp and Shrimati Mayadevi Sharma Memorial Research Fellowships, she has perpetuated the names of her acharyas, mother and father.

As already stated the Bharatanidhi Trust started functioning from the Vijaya Dasami Day in the year 1989. The word Bharata encompasses a wider field as can be seen from the objectives stated in the Trust Deed. Bha (भ) stands for Bhāva (भाव), Ra (र) stands for Rāga (राग) and Ta (त) stands for Tala (ताल).

The building where the Bharata nidhi Trust is situated has been named “Āmnāya”, which means ‘Tradition’. So it is a place for acquiring all traditional knowledge.

Professor Premlata Sharma resumed her teaching and research work in her own house ‘ĀMNĀYA’ in October 1989 and she continued the same with all her other activities till the last day of her life. In the year 1993, Banaras Hindu University appointed her as an Emeritus Professor and so she could officially guide the research students of the University. A number of foreign students also studied Nāṭya-śāstra and Saṅgīta-śāstra under her during the period 1990 to 1997. She never charged any fee from any student and strictly observed the tradition of the ancient Gurukulas.

In March 1988, when Prof. Sharma was the Vice-Chancellor of the Indira Kala Sangeet Vishwavidyalaya, Khairagarh, the Government of India (Department of Culture, Ministry of Human Resource Development) appointed a high-powered Committee to review the performance of the National

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Akademis, viz., Lalit Kala Akademi, Sangeet Natak Akademi and Sahitya Akademi, and the National School of Drama. Shri P.N. Haksar was the Chairman of this committee consisting six other members and a member secretary. One of the six members was Prof. Premlata Sharma. The Committee submitted its Report in July 1990. It appears that Prof. Premlata Sharma made a significant contribution in writing this Report and since then Shri P.N. Haksar held her in high esteem. She had returned to Varanasi when the committee started its work and it interviewed more than one thousand scholars, musicians, artists and prominent persons at eighteen important cities in the country, during the period from April 1989 to March 1990. Prof. Sharma visited all these places and then attended all the meetings of the Committee held at New Delhi to finalise the report.

She was awarded the Emeritus Fellowship by the Department of Culture, Government of India, for the period 1989-91. She also functioned as a Consultant for Research Publications, Sangeet Research Academy, Calcutta since 1990. In 1992, she was made a Fellow of the Sangeet Natak Akademi, New Delhi and from April 1994, she worked as Vice-Chairman of the Sangeet Natak Akademi till the last day of her life. During this period she organised and conducted three International Seminars under the aegis of the Sangeet Natak Akademi, namely, (1) on 'Śārṅgadeva' in 1994 at Varanasi, (2) on 'Matanga' in 1996 at Hampi and on 'Rasa' in the year 1997 at Varanasi.

She also arranged many seminars under the auspices of the Bharata-Nidhi at Varanasi. Prominent among them were : (1) National Seminar on the Contributions of Thakur Jaidev Singh (1993) and (2) National Seminar on Pandit Omkar Nath Thakur during his Birth Centenary Celebrations held during the years 1996 and 1997. Music performances were also arranged at Varanasi as a part of the Centenary Celebrations from 27th to 29th January 1997. To mark the Birth Centenary Celebrations of Pandit Omkarnath Thakur, the Department of Posts, India

Preface

issued a commemoration postage stamp in a function held in the

Bharat Kala Bhavan on 24th June, 1997. This was a great

achievement for her and she felt very happy on that day.

Professor Premlata Sharma was essentially a spiritual

person. Having spent her early years in a serene atmosphere in

the midst of saints in the Vraja Bhūmi, she was deep-rooted in

Bhakti. She fully followed Tyagaraja’s advice : “Knowledge of

Sangīta, bereft of devotion, is valueless and cannot secure

salvation (सङ्गीत-ज्ञानमु भक्तिविना सन्मार्गमु गलदे ?). She got an

inspiration that she should dedicate some beautiful pieces of

music for dance before her Iṣṭadeva. Selecting ślokas from

Srimad-Bhāgavata and other literature, she set them to music

and presented five pieces for dance performance. They were :

1. Bharamara-geeta

containing 54 ślokas from the daśama skandha of Bhāgavata, six

padas of Sūrdās, two padas from Padyāvali, two from Dāmodara-

stotra, one śloka and one dohā based on Srilaghubhāgavatāmṛta

and one śloka from Jayadeva’s Gīta-govinda; set to music in fifty rāgas

using six talas.

Dance was performed in Kathak style by Dr. Smt. Ranjana

Srivastava in Srichaitanya-Prem-Samsthan, Vrindavan, in the month

of March 1994.

2.Śrī Kṛṣṇaprasaṅga

containing six padas of Sant Sūrdās with the addition of some ślokas set

to music in eighteen rāgas (including two rāga-mālikās) mostly in

Tritāl. Dance was performed in Kathak style by Dr. Smt. Ranjana

Srivastava in Sri Chaitanya Prem Samsthan, Vrindavan, in March

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Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

3. Śrī Govinda-

Virudāvali

Selected ślokas from Śrī Rūpagoswāmī’s Govindavirudāvali set to music in twenty-three rāgas and various tālas.

The dance was performed at Śrī Govindadevaju Temple, Jaipur in Nov. 1995 by Srimati Jaya Chandra-sekhar and Party under the Direction of Professor C.V. Chandrasekhar, in Bharatanatyam style.

4. Veṇugeeta

containing 20 ślokas of Adhyāya 21 of Daśamaskandha of Śrīmad Bhāgavata, two padas of Sant Sūrdās, one pada of Ghanānanda and one traditional pada (thus four padas in Braj Bhāṣā) set to music in 22 rāgas using six tālas.

The dance was performed in the same Govinda Mandir, Jaipur, by the group of Srimati Kumudini Lakhiya in Kathak style, in November, 1995.

5. Yugmageeta

24 ślokas of Adhyāya 35 of the Daśamaskandha of Śrīmad Bhāgavata set to music in twelve rāgas in various tālas. Srimati Sonal Mansingh performed the dance in Odissi style in Śrichaitanya-prem-samsthan, Vrindavan, in February, 1996.

In the year 1995, a centre for cultural studies by the name of JÑĀNA PRAVĀHA came into existence on the banks of Gangā at Sāmne Ghat, Varanasi opposite Ramnagar Fort. The owner and Managing Trustee of Jñāna Pravāha, Srimati Bimla

Preface

Poddar came in close contact with Professor Premlata Sharma and the friendship between them grew stronger and stronger because the aims and objects of Bharata-nidhi and Jñāna Pravāha had many things in common. Professor Premlata Sharma became a prominent member of the Governing Council of Jñāna Pravāha and she took an active part in the activities of Jñāna Pravāha. She conducted courses there, arranged music and dance performances and seminars also. In the year 1998, she organised a seminar on Saṃskāras which was held on April 9th & 10th, 1998. For the year 1999, she had proposed a seminar on ‘Dhvani’ and she had started making all arrangements for the same. She had also arranged a special seminar on ‘Odissi sangeet and its uses’ in Bhubaneswar from 22nd to 27th November 1998. After attending it she returned to Varanasi on 30th November 1998. She had planned to go to Delhi, Madras, Trichur etc. on the 7th Dec. 1998 when I met her on the 1st of December. I noticed that she was feeling very much tired and sad because of the demise of P.N. Haksar on the 27th Nov. 1998. She had met him on the 22nd November at Delhi while going to Bhubaneswar and next Sunday when she returned to Delhi, she could not see him alive. Considering her condition on that day I requested her to cancel all her programmes and take complete rest. After great persuasion she agreed to cancel her programme at Trichur but said that she would go only to Delhi, Madras. But that could not happen and suddenly she felt some uneasiness in the evening on 4th December and after midnight on that day the noble Soul departed for Goloka.

A determined Srimati Bimla Poddar decided that the National Seminar should be held on the scheduled dates and that the seminar would be dedicated to the memory of Professor Sharma. Preparations for the Seminar continued in full swing. The inaugural function of the National Seminar was duly held in the auditorium of the Jñāna-Pravāha on March, 11, 1999 under the presidentship of Padmabhushan Professor Vidya Nivas Misra.

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Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

Welcoming the distinguished community of eminent scholars from various parts of the country and the distinguished guests, Srimati Bimla Poddar said :

"I owe much to Late Prof. Prem Lata Sharma who not only extended motherly care to me, but in fact became the soul of this Institution even at the cost of her health. She was abundant in her nourishing and we would not have dreamt to do what it is proposing to do, had it not been her zeal, dedication and interest. We are deeply grieved that she passed away after conceiving all the nuances of this seminar. We can never repay her kindness. But, in a very small and humble way we thought it fit to dedicate this seminar to her memory."

"I do not wish to mention much about the scholarly achievements, particularly in the field of pioneering musicology, of Prem Lataji, as you all perhaps know. She was really a scholar which made even Varanasi proud."

A minute's silence was then observed as a token of homage to the soul of Late Bahenji.

Dr. Kapila Vatsyayan, an illustrious scholar and also a close friend of Professor Premlata Sharma, then inaugurated the seminar and delivered the key-note address. Many papers were read in eight sessions of the Seminar and its closing function was held on the 14th of March, 1999. Speaking on that day, Dr. I. Panduranga Rao, who is a renowned scholar, saintly person and also a member of the Governing Council of Jñāna Pravāha said :

"This seminar on DHVANI has very appropriately been dedicated to the memory of Prof. Prem Lata Sharma, the innovative spirit behind the whole exercise of enquiring into the various facets of sound explored in Indian culture. Her dream has come true but she chose to transcend this dream even before it is realized and stepped into the eternal abode of absolute bliss. Every one of us must have felt during the last four days that she has been with us guiding us with silent but eloquent smile. We pray for peace and seek her blissful blessings."

Preface

No doubt we cannot now see Professor Premlata Sharma in flesh and blood but she has become immortal by her writings which provide a great treasure for posterity to carry on valuable research in Indian Musicology. Almost all the monographs, research papers and articles written by Professor Premlata Sharma have been published in various Journals. Dr. Urmila Sharma, Managing Trustee of Bharatanidhi. has taken a decision to collect all of them and publish them in book form for the benefit of all concerned. This is the first publication in this direction. May the Almighty give her the required strength to complete this commendable undertaking.

Prabodhinī Ekadaśī

Samvat 2057

7th November 2000

S. Somaskandan

EDITOR'S NOTE

Inspired and 'charged' by the Almighty— in whom rests his beloved soul of Prem Lata Sharma, my motherlike sister, loving guru, who taught me (by living herself) how to live an ideal human life, who initiated me in every field of knowledge that I could grasp, who brought me up with profound loving care—I could gather myself from the shock of her physical demise and settle down to complete the works that she had started or intended to start.

I was able to complete some of the works in these two years e.g. (1) edited a huge volume of Saṅgītakalādhara (from Gujrati to Hindi) (more than 560 pages), the historical work of Dahyalal Shivram, the Royal musician of Bhavnagar state (published in 1901), explaining the theory and science of Music and dance with the very first established Indian notations of excellent and plenty 'handishes' of various rāgas for vocal and instrumental music, pictographic notations with detailed tables of 143 tālas, some illustrations of different types of 'gatas' in Kathak, notations of some old English songs etc. The photo-ready copy of the book has been handed over to Sangeet Natak Akademi, New Delhi. It is scheduled for publication shortly in Punarnavā Series started by Prem Lata Sharma. (2) Completed with help of Dr. Françoise 'Nalini' Delvoye the First edition of Nūr-Ratnākara (Vol 1, more than 700 pages, of a great scholar (Late) Shahab Sarmadee depicting History of Music—ancient, medieval and contemporary, quite ready to be published by Sangeet Research Akademi, Calcutta.

Some works are nearing completion, e.g.—

(i) Bhaktirasāmṛtasindhu Vol. II of Shri Rūpa Goswami (15th century A.D.) a critical edition with translation in Hindi from Sanskrit, with notes and extensive introduction, being published by Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts;

(ii) Saṅgītanusāriṇī Chandomañjarī of Maula Bakhsh—depiciting 58 meters in four languages (Sanskrit, Hindi,

Editor’s Note

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Marathi, Gujrati) with music notations in various rāgas and tālas. This also is scheduled to be published by S.N.A. New Delhi under Punarnavā Series.

An urgency was felt for bringing out the rare research articles and monographs written by Bahinjee, in book form (it is going to be a series), it was her own intention too. By God’s grace this first volume is coming out. I have categorised these articles according to the subject-matter discussed therein. I have done the entire proof-reading with some assistance of Dr. Niharika Lal, therefore it is quite possible that some mistakes might have remained uncorrected. I crave the indulgence of the learned readers for all my shortcomings.

This compilation is being supplemented with a few glimpses of Bahinjee and some memoirs, as they mention various aspects and facts of her life, and very useful references of her journey in the field of Music and Musicology.

I have received the support and co-operation at all levels from the huge family of friends, disciples, colleagues of Bahinjee in India and abroad and I heartily thank them all. I am feeling deeply indebted specially to-

1. Professor Harold Powers for keeping in touch with loving concern and sending the memoir article throwing sufficient light on the different aspects of Bahinjee’s personality.

2. Professor C.V. Chandrashekhar, as he himself says, was a close brother of Bahinjee and myself. His article contains several moving references to Bahinjee and reminds the sweet days of working together in Abhinaya Bhāratī.

3. Shree N. Pattabhiraman, Editor in Chief, Śruti and Śruti-Foundation for the courtesy of permitting me to include in this book the entire obituary part of Śruti (173, Feb. 99, pages 37-47) for Premlatajee, containing the articles of N. Ramanathan, Leela Venkataraman, himself (N. Pattabhiraman) and a brief article of Harriote Hurie;

4. Professor N. Ramanathan— not only for sending the

foreword for this book, but actually supporting me at every level in the process of this publication and in all efforts for the work being done in memory of our Bahinjee;

5. Ms. Harriote Hurrie– for constantly keeping in touch, and sending the memoir article describing Bahinjee’s everyday behaviour to students and people concerned.

6. Sangeet Natak Akademi– for financial assistance in publishing this book and the courtsy of giving some rare photographs of Premlatajee, from which a few are being printed under the glimpres and one at on the front cover.

7. Dr. Miss Niharika Lal– for going through the entire English proofs once, correcting them. She is blessed by Bahinjee (P.L.S.) as been trained by her in proof reading while she was assisting Bahinjee for seven years.

8. Modi family and Vishwavidyalaya Prakashan Parivar – It would not have been possible for me to bring out this book in time but for the enthusiastic cooperation of Shree Purushottam Das Modi and his sons, Shree Aaurag Modi and Parag Modi, proprietors of the V.V. Prakashan and the staff.

I sincerely thank all those mentioned above.

I desired that Pandit S. Somaskandanjee should write the Preface for this book, as he knew Bahinjee from the day she joined Banaras Hindu University. Bahinjee considered him to be her elder brother and he has been a guardian to both of us.

I simply cannot express the gratitude felt towards Dr. (Mrs.) Kapila Vatsyayan and my Ācāryadeva Shree Shreevatsa Goswamijee for bestowing on me the affection and concern, which is really keeping me alive and fit for the work the Almighty wants me do.

Utpannā Ekādaśī, Mārgasiīrṣa, 2057 vi. Āmnāya, 209/1 Dharmajit Nagar, Karaundi.

VARANASI-221005 Phone : 316460

Urmila Sharma Managing Trustee Bharata-Nidhi (A Trust for Fundamental Research in Performing Arts founded by Prem Lata Sharma)

CONTENTS

Foreword

Preface

Editor's Note

संगीतप्रशंसा

No. of Pages

v-vii

viii-xxv

xxvi-xxviii

अ-ऊ

SECTION I

AESTHETICS AND SCIENCE

1. European Aesthetics of Music and traditional Indian Sangīta Śāstra

3-83

2. Unique and unrivalled characteristics of the Art and Science of Indian Music

84-92

3. Levels of Aesthetics Experience in Music

93-97

4. Rasa Theory and Indian Music

98-108

SECTION II

SOME TECHNICAL TERMS

5. The ancient Grāma system and its distortion in the medieval times

111-125

6. The concept of Sthāya in Indian Sāṅgīta Śāstra (Part I)

(Part II)A Glossary of Sthāyas

126-135

136-160

7. Prabandhas or Compositional patterns of Hindustani Music

161-163

8. Gāndharva

164-170

9. History and origin of Ṭhumrī with special reference to Gharānās and styles

171-185

10. The Ṭhumrī

186-189

11. Gamaka : A study (on the textual and performance traditions in Vocal Music- Hindustani and Karnatak)

190-193

12. Traditional view of Drama (Music and dance as an integral part thereof)

194-200

13.-14. Śāstra and Prayoga :

Contemporary Tāla practice vis-a-vis Śāstric Tradition;

with special reference to Hindustani Music

Part-I

Part-II

201-207

208-224

SECTION III

SYNOPSES OF TREATISES

Some important Books of Indian Saṅgīta Śāstra

(Sanskrit and old Hindi, Vrajabhāṣā)

15. Bṛhaddeśī of Mataṅga

227-247

16. Śrīkaṇṭha's Rasakaumudī

248-305

17. Rasakaumudī of Śrikanṭha

306-321

18. Mānasollāsa or Abhilāṣitārtha-Cintāmaṇi

322-329

19. Nānyadeva's Bharata Bhāṣya

330-340

20. Rāga Kalpadruma

341-348

21. Sahasarasa of Nāyaka Bakhshoo

349-359

SECTION IV

VARIOUS SUBJECTS

23. North-South distinction : A Survey

363-368

24. Bridging the Gulf

369-373

25. Indian Teachers in Rochester

374-376

26. The Music Teacher

377-379

27. Musical Instruments (Indian approach)

380-381

28. Musical Creativity : Its affinity with other

Arts and its uniqueness

382-389

SUPPLEMENT

A. A few glimpses of Prof. Premlata Sharma

391-400

B. Memoirs

401-446

(i) Scholar, Teacher, Colleague, Friend

Harold Powers

403

(ii) Our Behanji

C.V. Chandrashekhar

413

(iii) A great scholar and activist

N. Ramanathan

416

(iv) The Other Persona

N. Ramanathan

433

(v) Without Beginning or End

N. Pattabhiraman

435

(vi) Behenji

Harriote Hurie

438

(vii) Like a Mother

At the Akademi

Leela Venkataraman

442

अ

ई ॐ श्री:

सङ्गीतप्रशंसा*

(ब्रह्मर्षिदैवतप्रणीतश्लोका:)1

सङ्गीतं सामवेदे स्वर-रस-समता-योगतो गायनाहं

गान्धर्वाख्योपवेदे जनजगदधिप्रत्यगात्मप्रसादे ।

सिद्धा: सप्तस्वरास्ते त्रिषवणगुणतो मन्त्रमध्योचतारा

बद्धा: सोपानरूपा: प्रतिपदमुदिता: स्थूलसूक्ष्मातिसूक्ष्मा: ॥ १ ॥

Sangīta subsists in the Gāndharva Upaveda which is a subsidiary constituent of the Sāmaveda, the Veda which is worthy of song on account of being a bestower of pleasure to the inmost self alike of the king and his subjects. In that Sangīta are to be found seven 'Siddha' Svaras which with the association of the three 'Sāvanas' are manifested in gross, subtle and extra-subtle forms and have been categorised in a graduated scale as 'Mandra', 'Madhyā' and 'Tāra' respectively.

स्वर और रस के साम्ययोग से गेय सामवेद में एवं राजा तथा प्रजा के अन्तरात्मा को समान रूप से प्रसन्न करने वाले गान्धर्व उपवेद में संगीत विद्यमान है । उस संगीत में सिद्ध सात स्वर प्रतः, मध्याह्न तथा सायं सवन के योग से स्थूल, सूक्ष्म और अतिसूक्ष्म होने के कारण क्रमश: मन्द्र, मध्य और तार रूप से विभाजित होकर सर्वत्र सोपानरूप से बँधे हुए कहे गए हैं ।

वाण्या प्राणेन नादे प्रणिहितमनसा गायने तत्वस्वराणां

वीणातन्त्रीमृदङ्गश्रुतिनिदनकला - तालसहित्ययोगात् ।

• These nine ślokas in sragdharā metre, depicting the glory and metaphysics of music-written by Revered Brahmarṣi Dāivarata and translated in English and Hindi by P.L.S. are being rendered here as an auspicious beginning of this book and commencement of Āmnāya Prakāsana series.

1. Please find the importance of these ślokas in P.L.S.'s own words on pages 91-92.

आ मृद्लाचरणम्

तद्गानात् स्वात्मनादश्रवणरसमुखाद् वाग्रसैकानुभावे

क्लृप्तः: षड्जादिसंज्ञा सरिगमपधनीत्यादिसड्जेतवर्ण: ॥ २ ॥

सरस्वती ने स्वात्मा में ध्वनित होने वाले नाद के श्रवण से उत्थित रसानुभव के अनन्तर वागरস के अनुभव-रूप उन (सप्त) स्वरों के गान से एवं वीणा-तन्त्री, मृदङ्ग, ‘श्रुति’ को निनादित करने की कला, ताल और साहित्य (गीत का पदात्मक रूप) के सहयोग से स्वरों के नादात्मक गान के विषय में एकप्रचित्त होकर ‘सरिगमपधनि’ इत्यादि संकेताक्षरों से ‘षड्ज’ इत्यादि नाम कल्पित कर लिये हैं ।

एतत् सङ्केतसंज्ञ: प्रणव इव परब्रह्म: सत्स्वराणां

वाचा स्वोच्चवासयोगात् तदनुकरणतो वेदितास्तत्ववेद्या: ।

षड्जस्तत्रर्षभोऽन्य: श्रवणसुखकरो दिव्यान्धारसंज्ञो

मध्यस्थ: पञ्चमोऽन्यो मतिमननपरयो धैवतोऽन्त्यो निषाद: ॥ ३ ॥

परमब्रह्म के संक्षिप्त नाम प्रणव के समान उन सत्स्वरों की सूक्ष्म (सरिगमपधनि) एवं तत्ववेद्य संज्ञाओं को वाणी ने अपने उच्च्वास-योग से एवं उन स्वरों के अनुकरण से सम्यक्‍तया समझ लिया है । उन स्वरों में षड्ज, ऋषभ, श्रवण-सुखद गान्धार, मध्यस्थित मध्यम, पुनः पुनः अनुसन्धेय पञ्चम, धैवत तथा अन्तिम निषाद नाम से ये स्वर भिन्न-भिन्न प्रतीत होते हैं ।

वर्णास्ते वाचकाः स्युस्‍तदनुकृतिपरा: सूक्ष्मसड्जेतरूपा-

सतत्संज्ञाक्षरे तत् परमुपकरणं तत्‍वरस्‍यावलम्बे ।

सङ्गीतप्रशंसा

तस्मात् कण्ठ्यस्वरेण प्रतिविलासदलामाद्यकारेण युक्तं

एकनैवाक्षरेण प्रतिनिदमुखाद् गातुमिष्टं समस्तम् ॥ ४ ॥

The letters Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, and Ni are the subtle

symbols and representative names for the respective ‘Svaras’

and are the primary instruments for the apprehension of those

‘Svaras’ and are also the first letters of the names of those

‘Svaras’ such as Ṣadja, Ṛṣabha etc. In Pāṇini’s ‘Al Pratyāhāra’

are included all the vowels and consonants (from अ to ह) and अ

is the first letter of this ‘Al’. All ‘Svaras’ can, therefore, be

sung with only one vowel-tone अ emitted from the throat.

षड्जादि स्वरों के सूक्ष्म संकेतरूप एवं उन-उन स्वरों के अनुकरण में प्रवण

सरिगमपधनि इत्यादि वर्ण षड्जादि स्वरों के वाचक हैं, उन-उन स्वरों के अवलम्बन में

परम उपकरण हैं तथा षड्जादि स्वर-संज्ञाओं के प्रथम अक्षर हैं (पाणिनि के) अल्

प्रत्याहार में ‘अ’ से ‘ह’ तक सभी स्वरों एवं व्यञ्जनों का समावेश है इस ‘अल्’ का

जो आदि अक्षर अकार है, उसी एक कण्ठ्य स्वर (अक्षर) के योग से ये (सातों) स्वर

गाये जा सकते हैं।

स्वान्तः षड्जादिभेदात् स्वरनिरतमनः प्राणवाकुसंविदाडत्मन्

वाचोपांशुस्वरेण प्रविगलतपसा सूक्ष्मसन्मानसेन ।

सानुस्वारेण तूष्णीं प्रतिपिहितमुखात्रासिकानुस्वरेण

मौनेनान्तः स्वनादश्रवणपरतया गीयतां सामरस्यात् ॥ ५ ॥

Those who apply the mind, speech, consciousness and

soul in the process of concentration on the ‘Svaras’ like Ṣadja,

Ṛṣabha etc. dwelling in their ‘Antaḥkaraṇa’ may sing with

‘Sāmarasya’ and ‘Tapas’,1 quietly intent on hearing within them-

selves their own ‘Nāda’, with the mouth shut, without even a

vibratory movement of the tongue, with minds clear and subtle.1

1. The English and Hindi Translation of verse no. 5 may be read as

follows :-

“O Ātman! quiet gāna (singing) may be performed with svaras like

Ṣadja, Ṛṣabha etc. dwelling within the self with concentration of

mind, ‘Prāṇa’, speech and consciousness on ‘Svara’, with intense

‘Tapas’, with ‘Upāṃśu Svara’, with clear and subtle mind, with

‘Sānusvāra Vāk’, with the mouth shut, with the ‘Anusvāra’ emitting

from the nose, with intentness on hearing within the inner ‘Nāda’

of own self and with ‘Sāmarasya’, ‘Ṣadja’ etc. dwelling within

one’s own self, with …………. ‘Sāmarasya’.”

अपने अन्तःकरण में षड्जादि नाम से स्थित स्वरों में मन, प्राण, वाणी, चेतना तथा आत्मा को निरत करने वाले तथा सूक्ष्म और पवित्र मन वाले (तपस्वी) तप सहित मौन धारण करके अपने ही भीतर अपने नाद को सुनने में तत्पर रहकर सामरस्य से उस उपांशु वाणी से गान करते रहें, जिसमें जीभ का स्पन्दन भी न हो, मुख भी खुला न रहे और (केवल) अनुस्वार सहित नासिका का स्वर हो।

निरध्यासादियोगेन समरसकलया बाह्याभ्यन्तरनादात् ।

स्वान्तवाक्संवरण प्रतिनिशितहृदा प्राणनोचछ्वासनेन ।

साध्यां संगीतशास्त्रे सकलगुणगणे: संहिता सच्चपूर्णा

लोके वेदे च साम्रां स्वररसलया वाक् परा चित्समाना ॥ ६ ॥

The discipline (Sādhana) of the ‘Cit’-like ‘Parā Vāk’ who is replete with ‘Sattvaguṇa’ and is the repository of all good qualities should be cultivated in the fields of the ‘Sañgīta Śāstra’, worldly affairs and the Veda, with unfailing practice and constant contemplation, with the ‘Kalā’ of ‘Sāmarasya’, with vibration of the external instruments– the Viṇā and the like, with the correct sound (Svara) of the indwelling ‘Vāk’, with the vibration of the ‘Prāṇas’ and with a pure heart.

नित्य अभ्यास एवं अनुशीलन आदि के सम्पर्क से, सामरस्य की कला से, बाह्य वीणा आदि वाद्य यन्त्रों के निनाद से, स्वान्तःस्थित वाक् के सम्यक् स्वर से, प्राणों के परिस्पन्द से एवं निर्मल हृदय से उस चित्सदृश समग्र गुणों से युक्त तथा सत्वगुण से पूर्ण परा वाणी की साधना साम, स्वर तथा रस की कला से संगीतशास्त्र, लोक तथा वेद में करनी चाहिए।

वाणी वीणाप्रवीणा चिदनलवदना या चतुष्पादपूर्णा

वेदानां सो चतुष्टयी सुचतुरवचने दिक्चतुष्टयक्रमेण ।

Contd. from previous page–

"हे आत्मन्! स्वर में निरत मन, प्राण, वाक् तथा संचित से, प्रविरल तप से, उपांशु स्वर से, सूक्ष्म सत् मानस से, सानुस्वार वाणी से, मुख बन्द कर के नासिका के अनुस्वारात्मक स्वर से, मौन रहते हुए, अपने ही भीतर अपने नाद को सुनने में तत्पर रह कर अपने भीतर षड्जादि-भेद से स्थित स्वरों से सामरस्य-सह चुपचाप गान किया जाए।"

‘आत्मन्’ को समसमन्त भी समझ सकते हैं। यह वैदिक प्रयोग है, किन्तु यहाँ उस प्रयोग का अनुवाद समझ सकते हैं। तब अर्थ इस प्रकार होगा :--

"अपने भीतर षड्जादि भेद से स्थित स्वरों से.......सामरस्य से आत्मा में गान किया जाए।"

सङ्गीतप्रशंसा

जिह्वाग्रे साड्भुदीर्णा स्वर-रस-वचना वाड्मनःप्राणगुण्या

सौम्या शीर्षण्यरस्या समरसरसनाड्भयेत सर्वाग्रगण्या ॥ ७ ॥

The Speech which is perfect with four ‘Caranas’, whose face is resplendent with the effulgence of ‘Cit’, who is adept in playing the Vīnā, who shines forth as the Divine ‘Vāñmaya’ (word-form) of the four Vedas, whose speech is adroit, who is identical with the varṇas (Akṣaras) emanating from the mouth of the four-faced Brahmā, ‘Svara’ and ‘Rasa’ are whose words, who is invoked by ‘Vāk’ (word), ‘Manas’ (mind) and ‘Prāṇa’ (vital energy), who is of gentle and cool temperament, who bestows the relish of ‘Rasa’ of the best (Śīrṣaṇya) of ‘Upāsakas’, as soon as she appears on the tip of the tongue in an articulated form she occupies the foremost rank on account of the taste of ‘Sāmarasya’.

जो चार चरणों से पूर्ण है, जिसका मुख चित् की ज्योति से भास्वर है, जो वीनावादन में कुशल है, जो चारों वेदों के दिव्य वाड्मय रूप से विराजमान है, जो चतुर्मुख (ब्रह्मा) के मुख-निःसृत वर्णों (अक्षरों) से अभित्रा है, जो सुचतुर वचनों वाली है, स्वर और रस जिसके वचन हैं, जो वाक्, मन और प्राण द्वारा आवाहन करने योग्य है, जो सौम्य है और जो उत्तमोत्तम (शीर्षण्य) उपासकों को रसास्वाद प्रदान करती है, वह वाणी जिह्वा के अग्रभाग पर उच्चरित होते ही सामरसस्य की चर्वणा से सर्वाग्रग्रण्या हो जाती है।

गायत्री वेदमाता स्वररसवचना गायति ब्रह्म पूर्णं

प्रत्यक्षं स्वात्मसंस्थं वितनुते सरसं ब्रह्मानन्दमयादर्शम् ।

गायन्तं त्रायत इति स्ववद्मृतरसे: प्राणसंवित्प्रदानाद्

विद्युज्ज्योतिःश्रिदेन्द्री निजनिखिलजगत्संवित्री प्रकाशयम्॥ ८॥

Goddess Gāyatrī, the mother of the Vedas, possessed of ‘Rasa’ and ‘Svara’ as her speech, continues to bestow the status of Venerable ‘Brahmaṇaspati’ on the possessor of Vedic knowledge singing the entire Veda, by revealing clearly her own essential sprightly and mystic form. With the spurt of the fountains of nectar, bestowing the boon of the ‘Prāṇa’ and ‘Samvit’ she protects her votaries who sing her attributes. Thus may the generous bestower of the gift of ‘Cit’ ever continue to

manifest the lightning (Vidyujjyoti) of her knowledge in the

whole universe just like Prāci (East).

स्वर और रसरूप वचन वाली वेदमाता गायत्री देवी सम्पूर्ण वेद का गान करने

वाले वेदज्ञ को, अपने सरस तथा रहस्यात्मक आत्मतत्व को (उसके समक्ष) स्पष्टतया

प्रकाशित करके, पूज्य ब्रह्मणस्पति का पद प्रदान करती है। वह झरते हुए अमृत के

फुहारों से प्राण और संवित्ति का वरदान देकर अपने गुणों के गायकन की रक्षा करती है।

इस तरह समस्त विश्व को चेतना का उन्मुक्त दान देने वाली ज्ञानमयी प्राची विद्युज्ज्योति

का प्रकाश करती रहें।

वेदात्मा ज्ञानभूमा सकलरससमा सर्वचित्तं सर्वभौमा

वेद्यावेदाभिरामा भगवदवगमा विश्वविद्याविरामा।

सङ्गीतं सर्वविद्यासमसमुदितं "श्रीकलाभारती" सा

स्वीकुयात् पूर्णभावाद् भगवदनुगतं "दैवरात"-भगीतं।॥ ९ ॥

May the Goddess Bhārati of the form of 'Śrīkalā'1 whose

soul are the Vedas, who is the acme of knowledge, who is

perfect in all the 'rasas', who is all-knowing, all-pervading

Śakti', who is beautifully constituted of all the knowable and

unknowable substances, who is the Supreme Lord's

perceptional power, who is the terminus of all the Vidyās,–

graciously condescend to accept this metric 'Saṅgita' sung with

perfect devotion by Daivarāta engaged in recital surcharged

with the delight of all the Vidyās, of the benign qualities of the

Supreme Lord.

वेद ही जिसकी आत्मा है, ज्ञान की जो पराकाष्ठा है, जो सभी रसों से पूर्ण है,

जो सर्वज्ञ-स्वरूप और सार्वभौम शक्ति है, वेद्य और अवेद्य वस्तुतत्वों से जो मनोरम

बनी हुई है, जो भगवान की अनुभावशक्ति है, सभी विद्याओं की जो विरामरुपा है, इस

प्रकार की वह "श्रीकला"-रूपिणी भारती वाग् देवता,—भगवान के गुणानुवाद में लगे

हुए, सभी विद्याओं के समरस से प्रहृष्ट तथा छन्दोमयी वाणी में दैवरात द्वारा गाए हुए

इस सङ्गीत को पूर्ण भाव से स्वीकार करें, ऐसी प्रार्थना है।

1. This may be noted that the very first name given to the new

founded 'Faculty of Music and fine Arts' in B.H.U. (Varanasi) by

Pt. Omkarnath Thakur, was- 'Śrī Kalā Saṅgita Bhāratī'.

SECTION I

Aesthetics and Science

EUROPEAN AESTHETICS OF MUSIC

And

TRADITIONAL INDIAN SAṄGĪTA ŚĀSTRA*

Preliminary Remarks

Aesthetics of music is that branch of musicology which is concerned fundamentally with problems of values in music. As a science responsible for the organisation of knowledge within this area, aesthetics depends upon many related areas of enquiry and draws upon them freely as the occasion demands.

Various branches of the natural and social sciences, the arts and philosophy contribute to its study. In its turn, it makes its own contribution to each of the other branches of knowledge. Its scope includes, besides criticism of music, musical composition, performance and listening.

Indian philosophy of existence accepts a consciousness of double aspect of the material world and of the human being. In one aspect there is a force of Knowledge (occult), and in the other that of Ignorance. Consequently, Indian culture, including literature and arts, accepts a double standard of values, one esoteric and the other exoteric. Unless this basic characteristic of Indian culture is recognised, the significance of Indian art is most likely to be missed.

This warning is addressed equally to foreign readers of ancient Indian treatises on music and to Indians trained according to the methods and tradition of European scholarship. As an example of the pitfall which an Indian may otherwise be led into, Prof. V. N. Bhatkhande’s case may be cited here. Prof. Bhatkhande would appear to have permitted himself to pass

1. Published in Nādarūpa II, January 1963.

some most uncharitable and unmerited strictures against Indian musical treatises and their authors. Having missed to take note of the eternal verities on which the theory of classical Indian music is founded, this gentleman attempted to formulate theory designed to suit the needs of contemporary mediocre and illiterate musicians whose art he would seem to have accepted as the norm or standard of classical music. Traditional authors always tried to bring contemporary practice to conform to fundamental verities accepted in their application to relevant Indian arts or literature. Prof. Bhatkhande, in breaking away from this tradition, broke to pieces the very ideal and foundation of Indian music.

In this article attention will be devoted to some of the basic truths on which the esoteric edifice of Indian culture including Saṅgīta is built up. Comparatively less notice will be taken of the exoteric aspect, for it is the former which imparts to Indian culture its uniqueness. In respect of the latter aspect although a vaster wealth and exactness of formulation and terminology place the Indian theory of music on a higher pedestal than that of other musical systems of the world, as yet not much attention has been devoted to the systematisation of aesthetic principles in their application to music. Even Prof. Bhatkhande, a modern writer, who influenced by Western ideas, systematised according to his notions, a part of the theory of Indian music, omitted to formulate a system of aesthetics of that music.

The aims and objects of the college of Music and Fine Arts,1 B.H.U. lay a special obligation on this institution to undertake a comparative study of the aesthetics of European and Indian music. For various reasons, chief among which is preoccupation with other duties, this study could not be undertaken earlier. It has been possible to devote some attention

1. As it was named formerly; later in 1966 it was split into two separate faculties i.e. ‘Faculty of Music and Performing Arts’ and Faculty of Visual Arts.

European Aesthetics of Music and Traditional...

to this new line of study recently of which the present article is the outcome.

The treatment of the subject in this article is the first attempt at delineating the scope of this subject in its barest outlines. This treatment is admittedly brief. At places, crucial points, indicative of new lines of thought, might appear to have been accorded the barest explanation. This is inevitable in a pioneer conspectorial essay. Apart from the restraint in treading on untrodden ground there is the limitation of an article in a journal. Space for a comprehensive discussion can be found only in a book. Nevertheless, care has been taken to see that the present article does not omit reference to any important relevant topic.

The subject is vast in scope so that each one of the topics can be made the subject of an independent book. Time and facilities permitting, it is intended to continue further study and exposition of the subject as a whole and of individual topics comprised therein, through articles in this Journal or separately in book form.

Approaches to Aesthetics

European literature on Aesthetics in general is extensive. Philosophy deals with it as one division in a large systematic scheme. The problems dealt with by the aesthetics of philosophy are metaphysical and do not deal directly with practical arts. Considerable literature on aesthetics has also been written by men experienced in arts who are not experienced in philosophy. These writers are not concerned so much with metaphysical theories as with practical criteria of values. They include composition, performance and criticism of music.

Methods of Approach

The methods employed by European artist-writers are variously described as artistic, critical, scientific, philosophical,

6

Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

historical, psychological, experimental, eclectic and systematic. Although there are points of conflict among these methods, there is much in common too. For instance the procedure of abstraction and analysis is common to all of them.

Justification of the Analytical Method of Enquiry

Dangers of analysing a work of art is a topic on which much discussion and literature have accumulated. It is suggested that the psychologist employing the method of the physical scientist with the “ideal of control by isolation and disintegrative analysis” is in danger of destroying the very thing he is studying. For example, in studying the effects of intervals apart from the context, the analyst will be reducing the significance of the intervals studied, for the same interval may have different meanings in different contexts. It is true that analysis always omits some thing and is therefore not the whole truth, but nothing is the whole truth in the opinion of the scientist. Science has never claimed wholeness or completeness for its discoveries. The scientist does not claim to know everything at once from all points of view. In listening to a musical composition we cannot know it all i.e. we cannot grasp all its significance at once. We can get some impression of it as a whole but this impression is vague and probably inexpressible.

Definitions of Aesthetics

The word “aesthetics” was for a long time held in Europe to connote after its Greek derivations “perceptive by feeling”. Since the eighteenth century attention came to be riveted on the epistemelogical statement “if the perfect in the world is conceptually grasped through logical thinking we call it truth but if we recognise it by the senses we call it beautiful”. The sensuous knowledge or aesthetics thus came to be recognised as the theory or science of the beautiful. Even this definition cannot be regarded as a final one because the words ‘beautiful’

and 'beauty' have been assigned numerous meanings. One

book gives at least sixteen different definitions.

A fundamental problem, for instance, is whether to

regard beauty subjectively as a quality of experience,

objectively as a quality of an object, or as the quality of

experiences attributed to an object. A notable author Carl E.

Seashore writes in his book entitled "Psychology of Music" as

follows : "Philosophical criticism has tended to centre on the

effort to find a single unitary principle, which would account

for the nature and function of beauty, and thus explain the

nature and purpose of music. This, I think, has resulted in a

succession of failures, and the philosopher of the future will

not attempt that again."

In India there has existed from time immemorial, not

only a universally accepted ideal of absolute unsurpassed

beauty, the fountain-head of all kinds of beatitude, but many

Indians have actually realised that ideal at a level of

transcendence where the subjective and the objective coalesce

into a unique experience of identity with a difference or

semblance of a difference, a state philosophically described as

'Bhedābheda'. Many Indians continue to realise this experience

today. That ideal is 'Svayamrūpa' (Self-Form), Śyāma-Sundara

(Beautiful of Śyāma colour), 'Akhilarasāmṛtamūrtti' (Form

constituted of all nectarine Rasas).

The essential characteristic of 'Rasa' is that it is

exhilarating both to the subject and the object of its

experience. "रसयते रसायते वा" is a broad definition of 'Rasa'. A

more specific definition is that 'Rasa' consists of

'Sthāyibhāva', the emotive state running permanently through

the inmost being, which determines the particular internal

temperament as a dominant characteristic of the emotive state.

Each of the emotive states shows in its composition diverse

sentiments constantly shooting out and changing like the

flamelets that continually come and go and thereby produce

the appearance of the permanent, undivided whole of a flame.

The emotive state is excited by artistic circumstances or situations called 'Vibhāva', 'Anubhāva' and 'Vyabhicārī'.

Kṛṣṇa is accepted as the epitome of 'Rasa'. He has 'Modana' and 'Mohana' 'Mahābhāva' for his Sthāyībhāva, the chief characteristic whereof is an absolute absence or negation of self-gratification and an incessant desire to cater to the gratification of His devotees who in turn possess a similar 'Sthāyībhāva'. At the head of Kṛṣṇa's devotees is his counter-whole Śrī Rādhā whose Sthāyībhāva surpasses even Kṛṣṇa's own in selflessness and is technically known as 'Mādana Mahābhāva'. This is not the occasion to dilate on this aspect of Kṛṣṇa as an aesthetic object. A few of His qualities which serve as Uddīpana Vibhāva for experience of his divinity may, however, be mentioned here in the context of beauty unsurpassed conceptually or perceptually in the whole world. India discovered this beauty and has adhered to it as a defined realisable object from time immemorial whereas the European thinkers still fight shy of defining beauty and its ingredients.

Some of these qualities relating to Kṛṣṇa's figure are unsurpassable 'Saundarya', 'Lāvaṇya', 'Abhirūpatā', 'Mādhurya', 'Mārdava' etc. Other qualities refer to His unsurpassable speech, song and dance. The distinctive featurel of His transcendental beauty is that its experience creates a never-ceasing hankering for its perpetuation and its delight increases with every turn of experience. In this respect it differs from mundane experience, the novelty of which wears off after some time and the intensity whereof diminishes with every successive experience.

The qualities of Kṛṣṇa's figure referred to above, which are elements of His beauty may be briefly explained.

सौन्दर्यम्- भवेत् सौन्दर्यमञ्जानां सत्रिवेशो यथोचितम्।

(भक्तिरसामृतसिन्धु; २.१.३३६)

'Saundarya' is the placement of limbs according to design.

अङ्गप्रत्यङ्गकानां यः सत्रिवेशो यथोचितम्।

सुश्लिष्टसन्धिसम्बन्धः स्यादत्तसौन्दर्यमीर्यते ॥

(उज्ज्वलनीलमणिः, उद्दीपनप्रकरणम्, २९)

This definition is slightly more comprehensive. To the limbs (Āṅga) are added parts of limbs (Pratyaṅga) such as hind-arms, fore-arms and wrists which should be of appropriate thickness, thinness and roundness.

रूपम्—

विभूषणं विभूष्य स्याद् येन तद्रूपमुच्यते।

(भक्तिरसामृतसिन्धुः, २.१.३३८)

'Rūpam' is that which imparts ornamentation to an ornament.

अङ्गान्यभूषितान्येव केनचिद् भूषणादिना।

येन भूषितवद् भाति तद्रूपमिति कथ्यते ॥

(उज्ज्वलनीलमणिः, उद्दीपनप्रकरणम्, २३)

If a figure appears fully decorated or ornamented without any decoration or ornament, it is said to possess 'Rūpam'.

लावण्यम्—

मुक्ताफलेषु छायायास्तरलत्वमिवान्तरा ।

प्रतिभाति यदङ्गेषु लावण्यं तदिहोच्यते ॥

(ibid 26)

Like the lustre emitted from a pearl, the lustre which is every moment emitted from a figure is called its 'Lāvaṇya'.

अभिरूपता—

यदात्मीयगुणोत्कर्षैर्व स्वन्यश्चिकटसस्थितम्।

सारूप्यं नयति प्राज्ञैरभिरूप्यं तदुच्यते ॥

(ibid 31)

'Abhirūpatā' is the power of imparting through the super-excellence of one's own qualities, similarity of 'Rūpam' to an object existing nearby.

माधुर्यम्—

रूपं किमप्यनिर्वाच्यं तनोर्माधुर्यमुच्यते ।

(ibid 34)

10

Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

Some indescribable ‘Rūpam’ of a figure is the Mādhurya.

मादवम्—

मादवं कोमलस्यापि सस्पर्शासहतोच्यते ।

(ibid 35)

Inability to bear the touch of the softest object is stated as Mārdava!

It will be seen from the fore-going discussion that a definition of ‘beauty’ as an object of aesthetic experience does not present any difficulty so far as Indian philosophy is concerned.

Primary and Derived Values of Music

The Philosophy of the Indian Sangīta Śāstra offers possibilities of a cultivation of subjective, musical and derived values all together. This is not possible in ordinary experience.

But not all pleasure can be regarded as aesthetic; the distinction must be made in terms of the aesthetic attitude which may take into account the values attributable to material and form and indirect derived values attributed to experience and facts.

In music, material values are those of the intrinsic orders discovered in the tones e.g. the quality of the tones. As the materials of music are organised into patterns or designs of varying complexity, these values merge into values of form.

The appreciation of sound values on the various levels and in the several dimensions of formal organisation is of primary importance to the musician. The spread and depth of this appreciation depends on technical training and experience.

Derived aesthetic values in music are exemplified by expressiveness i.e. associations that occur by reason of past experience.Intellectual, moral and functional aspects of a work of art may be classed as derived values. The nature of experience changes with the attitude of the individual. For instance, if during a church service attention becomes diverted

from the religious values to the intrinsic values, the experience may become aesthetic. The experience would be religious as long as the attention is on the religious values alone.

Aesthetic value is considered in Europe of the lowest type if the individual is conscious of emotive-conative states aroused within himself as the content of music, rather than lost in the contemplation of these qualities as attributed to the work of art. But if they are attributed to the work of art, they may acquire important, though secondary or derived value. Whenever music is connected with something not music (music with word, opera music and dance) as in functional music, the effectiveness becomes an important but secondary criterion of aesthetic value.

Wagner had put forward a combination of music, drama and dance as superb art. This view was and is still ridiculed as fallacious on the ground that intrinsic musical value decreases as non-musical elements are increased.

Wagner’s view was, however, strictly in accordance with the traditional Indian classical conception of Saṅgīta as a composite art of music (vocal and instrumental) and dance (comprehending the main elements of drama e.g. histrionics). The objection, however, is valid when considered from the point of view of ordinary experience. On the plane of transcendence, however, the mind and senses can apprehend simultaneously musical, dance, and dramatic values along with the religious. On that plane all conflicts are resolved and all contradictions are harmonised.

Aesthetic values in Indian Saṅgīta Śāstra

In Western philosophy, aesthetics has an important place, being concerned with considerations of values. Value is a property attributed to an object by virtue of the fact that it may be perceptually apprehended with pleasure or displeasure. It arises from interest in the perceptual aspects of phenomena, when they are “regarded not as the sign of meaning or of fact,

but only in their own nature". Its measure is the pleasure arising in its experience.

As regards the nature of aesthetic personality, an European philosopher, Eduard Spranger is quoted by A. A. Roback in his book 'Personality' as maintaining the following broad classification in the order of excellence, of different people ranked according to their scales of values :-

(i) The animalistic human creature who thinks only in terms of food and drink and means of satisfying carnal appetites :

(ii) The economic man setting highest values on money and wealth :

(iii) The man of power who evaluates a man's worth according to the power he wields over his fellows :

(iv) The theoretician who aims at fitting every experience of his into a system :

(v) The artist who, bound by sensory images, isolates every experience and contemplates it as if it were something apart from the world, and setting the highest values thereon : and lastly

(vi) The religious man who loses himself in mysticism, in other-worldliness and is not anchored to the spatio-temporal moorings of the theoretician or tied to sensory images of the artist.

Indian thought accepts a somewhat similar classification in its fourfold 'varṇas' of human society. Yet there is a fundamental difference between traditional Indian thought and Spranger's views quoted above, a difference stemming from outlook and approach. In regard to the artist for instance, whereas Spranger would begin from external sensory experience and go within himself, the Indian would begin from within himself and from there come out. That which he would experience within himself will be an entity existing by itself

without any external prop, real and yet absolutely detached from the external. The external he apprehends by a knowledge of identity with the supreme, Tādātmyā; or of knowledge as manifestation of the Supreme, Svayaṁprakāśa; or through a process not of knowledge but of experience of beauty and love as the very Supreme in his Self, Svayaṁrūpa.

Prayojana

The concept of value in Indian philosophy is ‘Prayojana’ which is a term of profound technical significance. Its philosophical definition is ‘यमधिकृत्य पुरुषः प्रवर्त्तति’. The words अधिकृत्य and पुरुषः are important and technical. अधिकृत्य is a grammatical variant of अधिकार which is defined as ‘उत्तरौत्तररमणीयवस्तुस्पृहा’; रमणीय connotes लोकोत्तराह्लादजनकज्ञानविषयः; वस्तु implies प्रमेय which in turn is explained as प्रमातं योग्यः; प्रमा is शब्द बोध or pure or absolute knowledge. ‘स्पृहा’ is ‘अभिष्टार्थप्रवर्त्तनम्’ i.e. pursuit of the desired object. Thus ‘अधिकार:’ would mean the pursuit of transcendental and pure or absolute knowledge productive of perpetually increasing beatitude in which the “Puruṣa” is engaged. In such beatitude infinite truth, beauty and goodness are implicit. It remains, however, to understand the nature of the ‘Puruṣa’.

‘Puruṣa’ in Indian philosophy is variously understood. A definition appropriate for and relevant to the Indian Saṅgīta Śāstra is पुरुषषष्टु (कर्मेन्द्रियपञ्चक- ज्ञानेंद्रियपञ्चक- मनआदिचित्तुष्टय- भूतपञ्चक-काम-कर्म-अविद्याख्याष्टु) वस्तौति। According to this definition “Puruṣa” is that who resides in the eight “Puriṣ” viz. (1) five motor organs (2) five sense-organs (3) the four parts of Antahkarana viz. the mind (Manas), intellect (Buddhi), ego (Ahaṁkāra), and Citta or the instrument of desire (4) five Prāṇas etc. (5) five gross elements (6) Kāma, desire for objects of enjoyment (7) Karma, action productive of ‘Adrṣṭa’ and (8) Avidyā or nescience. This definition of the human soul invests human reality with transcendence, with supra-physical and supra-mental nature. For, the ‘Puruṣa’ is distinct and separate

from, superior to and beyond the eight kinds of substances

including the mind, conscious or sub-conscious, in whom he

dwells and whom he controls, though he himself is controlled by

the Supreme.

The ‘Puruṣa’ is appellated as संगीतपुरुष:, वास्तुपुरुष:, धनुर्वेदपुरुष:,

आयुर्वेदपुरुष: according to the particular Upaveda or Vidyā

predicated of him. Akṣara and Viṣṇu are other names of the

Puruṣa and His chief attribute is that He is beyond time and space

and is all-pervading. This is the fundamental point to be noted in

regard to Indian Saṅgīta Śāstra. The subject or agent of

experience is not of the ordinary nature of ordinary sensuous

knowledge. He is possessed of a transcendental nature called

Prakṛti of three colour ‘Trivarnā’.

The Puruṣa is constituted of “Viśuddha Sattva”. सत्त्वं

त्रिकालाबाधितत्वम् i.e. unobstructed by time, past, present and future.

Although beyond the pale of time, ‘Sattva’ has a sequence in

transcendental time. ‘Viśuddha Sattva’, therefore, means truth

unobstructed by triple time. ‘Viśuddha is वि+शुद्ध, शुद्ध means

दोषास्पर्श: and दोष: means कार्यविरोधी so that विशुद्ध means highly potent

to carry out his will unobstructed by triple time.

Thus both the agent aspiring for aesthetic experience and

the nature of that experience according to Indian philosophy are

transcendental. This transcendence is not the intuitive guess of a

probability as is generally conceived by the Western

philosophers, but is a matter of tangible experience under

prescribed conditions. Such is the प्रयोजन or aesthetics of Indian

philosophy. A further enquiry into its nature will lead to several

grades of aesthetic experience such as ‘Rasa’, ‘Bala’, ‘Vāk’,

‘Prāṇa’, ‘Manas’. That, however, is beyond the scope of this

article. Suffice it to note the essential nature of the human agent

and that of his aesthetic exprience. On account of its infinite

vastness the object of this experience is usually called ‘Brahman’

and ‘Rasa’, ‘Bala’ etc. Its aspects, are known as its Kalās. Music

and fine arts in their transcendence are known as Kalās. The

‘Puruṣa’ who is not the ordinary human personality or “self” of

European Aesthetics of Music and Traditional...

15

Western thought, by constitution wishes to engage himself in pursuit of that pure knowledge which is of ever-increasing beatitude or happiness and not of temporary felicity. That knowledge is स्वयंप्रकाश i.e. self-luminous and illumines knowledge of everything else. For experience of that knowledge the Puruṣa is dependent on God Puruṣottama.

He is pictured in the Purāṇas as asleep (sleep is withdrawal of outer senses in Yoga or communion with God Puruṣottama) in the ‘Ocean’ (of the vast infinity of souls). The suggestion is that the Puruṣa is in communion on the one hand with the Supreme and on the other with the infinite mass of souls. The locus of this experience is ‘Vaikuṇṭha’ where knowledge exists by a process not of differentiation as in the material world but of identity, ‘Tādātmya’. For their ‘Vāsanā’ (the motivation or spring of desire that adapts them to find enjoyment in a particular situation) the Puruṣa and all other souls are dependent on Puruṣottama Vāsudeva.

Realisation of ‘Prayojana.’

The Upavedas assure us that the realisation of such a ‘Prayojana’ is possible in perfect vividness and palpability but the key to it is esoteric. Since the ‘Puruṣa’ is a supramental entity it is but natural for him to function on a supra-mental plane in order to achieve his objective or ‘अर्थ:’ the ‘पुरुषार्थ:’ which term also is an aesthetic concept. This objective is classified under four heads viz. ‘Dharma’, ‘Artha’ and ‘Kāma’ together described as ‘Trivarga’ and ‘Mokṣa’ known as ‘Apavarga’. Arts and literature are the means of their realisation. ‘Gītā’ is philosophically defined as छान्दसाहार्दान्तरतस्स्वरेण गुनकीर्तनम् which means “recital of the benign qualities (of ‘Sambandha’ or ‘Prayojana’ i.e. aesthetic object or aesthetic experience) with ‘Chandas’ (metre) and ‘Svara’.

Indian Saṅgīta Śāstra as an Upaveda is esoteric in its primary content and purpose. It deals with the supra-mental and by a stroke of genius also with the mundane, though secondarily. Its terminology is unparalleled in the whole

world, being so devised that it is as perfectly valid, except for an extremely minor part, in its application to the art of extrovert mental and physical experience as it is to its innate supramental experience. There is practically no classical literature in India dealing exclusively with the philosophy or technique of exoteric art of music.

An attempt was made in recent times by a leader of musical thought in India to devise a theory of the constructional aspect of the art of extrovert music, but he too had to borrow the traditional terminology and made no attempt to deal with the philosophy of that music. A science of aesthetics of the fundamentals of music and styles and forms of music of exoteric experience similar to that attempted in the West has yet to make its debut in our country. Anthologists have been busy in northern India lately collecting notations of broad features of musical compositions (only the “sthāyīs” and “antarās” and not entire performances as actually sung by musicians who are generally ignorant and illiterate). Nobody has so far attempted to enquire into the aesthetic ideas forming the basis of the forms whose notations are recorded.

With these preliminary remarks an attempt may now be made to survey the fields of aesthetics in India and the West. No strict comparison is possible because of a fundamental difference in the nature of the literatures of India and the West. The agent of aesthetic experience in Indian literature, as stated above, is not the ordinary human personality or “self” of modern psychology but a supra-physical and supra-mental entity known as the ‘Puruṣa’ having for field of experience a plane of eternal and ever-increasing beatitude beyond the physical or the mental.

Aesthetic experience of the European Musician

Contrary to this, the agent of aesthetic experience according to Western literature is the human being, albeit cultured, looking for ordinary physical and mental experience

of temporary though profound felicity, basically and substantively, of a far less satisfying nature. The agent of

experience there is not the “Puruṣa” but man in aesthetic attitude. Such a man is neither the transcendental entity like

the Indian ‘Puruṣa’ nor is his field of experience transcendental nor again is he capable of experiencing the ever-increasing

infinite beatitude like the “Puruṣa”. It is clear that whereas on the plane of transcendence, perfection and finality are possible,

they cannot be looked for on the plane of relative occurrences. No finality in the preception or experience of such an aesthetic

entity can, therefore, be expected, his aesthetic attitude itself being an attribute of a relative and not absolute mind.

Consequently, European views on aesthetics of art have not only been constantly undergoing fluctuative changes but

the European philosophy of music has often been confronted with almost insurmountable difficulties as is apparent from the

following views of R. Schumann.

“In no other field is the proof of the fundamentals as difficult as in music. Science argues with mathematics and

logic, poetry possesses the decisive golden word, other arts have chosen Nature as their arbiter borrowing their forms from

her. Music is a poor orphan whose father and mother nobody can name But it is precisely this mystery of her origin which

accounts for the charm of her beauty”.

Superficial and tentative theories

Neither the theoretical philosopher or psychologist nor the practical artist in the West has as yet evolved a final theory

of the aesthetics of music as will be seen from the following running account of the history of aesthetic thought. The

philosopher seems to proceed on the hypothesis that a wrong theory is better than no theory at all. The practical musician,

however, has at least the satisfaction that what he says has the backing of the personal experience of his rational mind even if

that experience does not reveal mysteries. The views of both

these classes are described below. The former may be compared to the “Śāstra Kavis” and the latter to the “Kāvya Kavis” of India. Indian poetics, however, like Indian philosophy of music, is rooted in the supramental whose authority is far more secure and unchallengeable.

For purposes of comparison, the description of Indian aesthetics of the fundamentals of music has been confined to the barest outlines while that of the Western is given in slightly wider detail, for the reason that the latter is a convenient basis for comparison and should be accorded a more detailed description in a preliminary comparative survey.

Views of Western philosophers on the aesthetics of the fundamentals of music as recorded in the history of European literature.

For more than 2000 years European philosophers have tried to solve the mysteries of music and the problems of its content, meaning or expression. These problems arise in part from ambiguity of terminology or inaccurate definition of terms but fundamentally from the inherent complexity of the problem with its several variable factors which provide ample room for caution. Among them, Pythagoras (550 B.C.) explained music as the experience of that universal harmony which is also realised in arithmetic and in astronomy. This was a cosmic view. Plato (400 B.C.) said that music is the most appropriate means of social and political education. Confucius of China also held a similar view which imparted to the philosophy of music a political and social value.

Plotinus (270 A.D.) interpreted music as a mystic and occult power. It is not known whether this power was realised in actual experience by Plotinus as did the Indian ‘Munis’ or it was an imaginative guess of a vague probability.

Boethius (A.D. 524) divided music into three fields (1) Musica mundana (the Pythagorean harmony of the Universe), (2) Musica humana (harmony of the human soul and body) and (3) Musica instrumentalis (music as actual sound). This

classification prevailed in European musical theory for more

than 1000 years until about the 15th century. This value and

ideal of music would seem to have been one of peace and

harmony.

J. Keplar (1619) correlated the musical tones and inter-

vals with the movements of the planets and their astrological

functions. This was a cosmo-theological view.

W. Luibuiz (1646-1716) paved the way for the psycho-

logical method of musical aesthetics by interpreting music as

the unconscious exercise in arithmetic.

A. Schopenhaur (1819) considered music as the purest

incarnation of the “absolute will” and as the expression of the

human feelings (love, joy, horror etc.) in their abstract

interpretation as metaphysical ideas.

G. T. Fechner (1801-87) insisted that music is the

expression of a “general mood” rather than “specific

feelings”.

Finally, C. Stumpf (1883-90) inaugurated. a scientific

study of musical psychology on the basis of experiments and

statistics, especially with regard to the problem of consonance

and dissonance. Stumpf’s procedure sprang from many

investigations along similar lines especially in America. Like

other earlier ones, this method also had its critics, foremost

among them being C. C. Pratt. Thus, while philosophers of

antiquity and of medieval ages in Europe had held broader or

“greater” views assigning place and justification to music in

the universe, the State or in God, the present day interpretation

of musical aesthetics accords with a shallow and very much

narrower conception of aesthetics. This conception ignores all

sublime affiliations and has instead gained a secure place in

everyday life of palpable sensations and feelings.

This short historical survey of fluctuations in the

movement of European opinion on the aesthetics of music

points to an absence of fixity in approach which stems from

20

Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

the conception of the essential nature of the human being. European thought has limited its aesthetic individual to one who is cultivated in musical and other mental knowledge. It seems never to have proceeded far in its investigation into the nature of the human “self”, the degree of whose sublimity is an essential determining factor of the nature and depth of aesthetic experience.

Indian Śāstras accept a combined conceptual and sense-pattern. The ‘Puruṣa’ is capable of taking an all-comprehensive view of his ‘Lakṣmī’ (the ‘Prakṛti’ of three ‘Guṇas’) the evolutes whereof are both partaking of subtle intellectual and sensual on the one hand and of God, (Puruṣottama) on the other. Puruṣottama is the ‘सम्बन्ध’ or real aesthetic object.

Transcendental aesthetic objects have been defined by some of the principal schools of Indian philosophy in their respective terminologies of gradation. In terms of Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava philosophy for instance, three main grades of the transcendental object Kṛṣṇa are recognised. These are Svayaḿrūpa, Svayaḿprakāśa and Tāḍātmyarūpa. With these the individual emancipated soul, the ‘Puruṣa’ is associated as ‘Taṭastha’ and is designated as the ‘Taṭasthā Śakti’ of ‘Kṛṣṇa’. Through the medium of the ‘Puruṣa’, ordinary ignorant souls are enabled to have a certain form of transcendental experience under prescribed conditions.

1. ‘Svayaḿrūpa’ (Self-form of ‘Mādhurya’) is the manifestation of the intrinsically essential form of Kṛṣṇa as the supreme aesthetic object sporting eternally with his self-exhilarating energy (Hlādinī Śakti). In this form, Kṛṣṇa, as the supreme aesthetic object, is inaccessible to the ordinary souls unless they submit unreservedly to and are accepted as a matter of causeless grace by Kṛṣṇa’s self-exhilarating energy. Saṅgīta on this level of experience is, therefore, accessible primarily to those functioning as Kṛṣṇa’s self-exhilarating energy—by constitution or grace. Even the ‘Puruṣa’ or the emancipated soul must submit unconditionally to Kṛṣṇa’s self-

exhilarating energy and obtain the grace of that energy in order to qualify for aesthetic experience of the Svayamrūpa manifestation of the Supreme. The ingredient of the forms of both the aesthetic objects and subjects on this level of transcendence is technically known as Mahābhāva.

2. Svayamprakāśa (self-luminous) is the ‘Aiśvarya’ manifestation of Kṛṣṇa as the supreme aesthetic object. In this experience the ‘Puruṣa’ is eligible by designation. On the part of the individual soul, it implies knowing the self for knowing and making others know the Divine through seeing all existences by a process of inclusion or indwelling of the Divine.

3. ‘Tādātmyarūpa’ is also the ‘Aiśvarya’ manifestation of the Supreme for the experience whereof the ‘Puruṣa’ is eligible by designation. The philosophical definition of ‘Tādātmyā’ is भेदसहिष्णु-अभेद: i.e. identity with a difference. It implies on the part of the individual soul, knowing the self for knowing and making others know, the external world through a process of identity.

Planes of aesthetic experience relative to the three aesthetic objects are respectively known technically as Vṛndāvana, Mathurā and Dvārakā, also Vaikuṇṭha.

Ordinary ignorant souls are incapable of transcendental aesthetic experience, their knowledge being veiled by Kṛṣṇa’s Māyā Śakti. Between them and His Self, Kṛṣṇa has posed a separate distinct energy called the Taṭasthā Śakti, the emancipated soul or the ‘Puruṣa’. This intermediate energy is the medium through which aesthetic experience of a specific kind becomes possible for the ordinary soul through a prescribed process under prescribed conditions. The philosophical definition of ‘Taṭashta’ is तद्भिन्नोऽपि तद्बोधक: i.e. identical with the Supreme but producer of the knowledge of the Supreme for the benefit of the ordinary souls. In Mathurā and Dvārakā the Puruṣa is the ‘Vyūha’ of Vāsudeva while in Vaikuṇṭha He is not only the Vyūha of Vāsudeva but also identifies himself with Vāsudeva’s twenty-four forms relative to the categories of Prakṛti of the same number.

Reverting to the sense level, it can be said that some sense patterns offer the richest aesthetic possibilities; visual and auditory sense material is most suited to aesthetic treatment1. It is more suitable than “taste” or “smell” or “touch” material particularly because it lends itself to more refined and varied qualitative differentiation. Indian Śāstra also recognises the superiority of certain organs over others. The organ of the sense of hearing and the organ of speech are said to be born of ‘Sattvaguṇa’ which is the best of the three ‘Guṇas’ of ‘Prakṛti’.

From the objective point of view, however, the aesthetic object is more “the thing out there”. It is the thing-as-perceived. The response of the organism must be taken into account. Suppose two individuals A and B are exposed to the same stimulus, say a highly organised and complex piece of music. A, because of his peculiar endowment and training in music, gets a profound response whereas B, who has neither natural capacity nor training in music, hears only an in-articulate confusion of sounds. What A responds to is a well-organised significant work of art and what B responds to is something in the consciousness which may not exhibit a high degree of correspondence with the stimulus. Thus any judgments passed by A and B are not based upon the stimulus but on their perception of it.

Indian thought, on the other hand, has always been characterised by a fixity of approach based on the concept of the ‘Ātman’ or the Puruṣa as the human soul, which is an entity with eternal attributes and intrinsically supramental qualities of perception.

Views of Music Artists of Europe

With the foregoing survey of the theories and views held by philosophers and psychologists as a general background the

1. महेन्द्रप्रमुखैर्देवैः किल पितामहः । क्रोडनीयरकमिच्छामो दृश्यं श्रव्यं च यद्‌द्रवेत्‌ ॥ (नाट्यशास्त्र १.११)

following survey of the contributions to the problem made by

the musicians themselves is of interest. The contributions of

the artistes aim at a more detailed penetration into the question

of musical aesthetics with the difference that whereas the

philosophers or theoreticians are inclined to view the problem

in the abstract, the artist is concerned more with the study of

compositions or styles of individual composers and singers.

The theories of European artistes can be conveniently

divided into three groups according to whether they consider

music (a) as an heteronomous art i.e. expression of

extramusical elements or (b) as an autonomous art i.e. the

realization of intrinsic principles and ideas, or (c) as an

interpretative art (hermeneutics).

Music as an heteronomous art

The heteronomous theory postulates that the chief aim of

music is to portray certain typical emotions such as tender,

languid, passionate etc. In spite of its rationalistic features and

schematic methods this theory paves the way for the free

expressionism of the Beethovenian style.

The classes of artists subscribing to this theory describe

music in terms of Affektenlehre (expression of joy, grief,

longing, etc.) of the eighteenth century and its predecessors,

Musica reservata (a style characterised by restriction in the

employment of figurations and ornamental design or pointing

to some secrets of musical technique or indicating the

exclusive character of music written for higher classes of

society) and Maniera (church modes in their authentic and

plagal variety).

In the 17th century, music was frequently interpreted as

an oratorial art based on principles of speech. In the late

Romantic period the interpretation of musical counterpoints

was largely based upon programmatic and allegorical concepts.

Music was understood as a sort of psychological drama. A

more intelligent use of this approach considers music not as a

substratum for the pictorial arts or objects of nature but of finer shades and deeper effects than the ordinary language. Music is related to the life of a composer (e.g. Beethoven's "period of happiness"). The written composition as well as the actual performance is nothing but a means of transferring a psychological situation from the fancy of the composer to that of the listener.

At the present time, although there are many varieties of heteronomous doctrines, one that is most plausible is that moods or affective states expressed in music constitute, or through their expression become, the essential content of music. It regards music as expressive of a content which is non-musical in its essence.

Music an autonomous art

A more recent school of thought which is in strong contrast to all the above noted contribution rejects the allegorical, emotional, programmatic or poetical foundation of musical aesthetics and explains music as a purely musical phenomenon as an autochthonous and autonomous creation which can be understood only in its own terms. This school founded by E. Hanslick formalised the sentence " Music is form moving in sounds". By form is meant all structural and stylistic elements of music. Henslick admits the use of designations such as "powerful", "passionate", "graceful" "tender", etc., but only to illustrate the manipulation of the constructional materials of the musical piece and not to suggest a definite feeling on the part of composer or listener.

Still further in this direction went August Halm who must be considered the most outstanding representative of musical aesthetics of the present day. This musical autonomist says-"If you want to understand the 'invisible' look carefully at the visible". This school advocated the separation of the musical work from the emotional world of both the composer and the listener and the emancipation of the musical thought from

European Aesthetics of Music and Traditional...

25

"sensuous intoxication and hallucination".

Thus, the autonomous views of music regard music as sui generis i.e. its content or meaning is purely musical and cannot be expressed in other than musical terms.

Music as an interpretative art (Hermeneutics)

H. Kretzschner introduced this method of "interpreting" musical motives as the expression of human emotions, feelings etc. Similar in principle to Afflectenlehre-of the 18th century, this method is distinguished by a greater emphasis on scientific methods and on detailed, systematic investigation based on the study of intervals, motion, rhythm, rests etc.

Undoubtedly from the European standpoint there are elements of truth in all the three view-points detailed above and they are complementary rather than contradictory ways of interpreting the significance of musical experience. Musical values must be felt, rather than arrived at, by intellectual process, and feeling in the emotional, intuitive, rather than in the intellectual rational dimension. But this emotional inspiration and experience can only be expressed in the tonal-rhythmic structure of music and has no existence apart from its specific musical expression which is different from linguistic expression, for language can at best only suggest the general character or mood of the music.

Western thought would seem to have failed to evolve an integral overall theory of the aesthetics of music. And from the point of view of Indian aesthetics, this failure is likely to be eternal if Western thinkers do not change their outlook, approach and methods. Unless they take the modern psychology on to the Indian concepts of ‘Prakṛti’ of three ‘Guṇas’, of Māyā and finally Śakti, the mysteries of the nature of music and fine arts will continue to delude them.

Our ancients recognised at the outset that for the ordinary mind such mysteries are दुर्गम i.e. difficult to penetrate into. Hence one of the names they gave to ‘Prakṛti’ was ‘Durgā’ (दुर्गा) i.e. that

which is difficult to comprehend with ordinary intelligence.

In India the problem was solved long ago with an exclusively indigenous and unique outlook, approach and methods. The theory of ‘Nāda’ or ‘Vāk’ comprehends integrally emotions, thought and sound inarticulated as well as articulated, in their origin in transcendence realised in actuality and in a definite sequence of experience. This theory is an evolute of the concept of Puruṣa and Prakṛti. Prakṛti, Māyā and Śakti are three Divine powers each working in its sphere but subordinate to the next. Prakṛti is that power which is roused to action by God through His own power (Māyā) in order to make individual ‘Puruṣas’ witness its play which consists in making the ignorant, worldly-minded souls who are helpless tools in its hands to experience diverse names and forms.

Consequently, we do not notice in Indian literature any evidence of a controversy on the exoteric plane. Whatever disputation is evident in this literature has reference to and is significant of actualised transcendental experience such as is quite foreign to Western experience and thought.

Aesthetics of Indian Exoteric Music

In India, we do not have any systematic literature on the aesthetics of exclusively exoteric music comparable to similar literature in the West. The huge volume of Indian literature on poetics too has esoteric affiliations. Sometimes attempts are made to apply poetic theories to music. Poetry and music being different though allied arts there is not much justification, however, in applying the theory of poetics to detailed discussion of music.

Practical musicians in India, with very few exceptions, have during some time past belonged to a class of ignorant and illiterate performers who could not be expected to theorise on musical values. Hence the absence of a literature on the subject. But we have a plethora of literature on the theory and

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philosophy of music which is possessed of esoteric transcendental aspects in its fundamental nature.

The field of Aesthetics of music

A definition of an aesthetic field presents a difficulty to the European mind. Music may be regarded objectively in terms of things--objects of awareness capable of stimulating expression or subjectively in terms of experience. A musical situation involves "an organism and its environment"; it presents a typical stimulus-response relation. We may speak of variables in objective factors and assume a stable organism with consistent response or conversely, we may consider that variations in response are due to inconsistency in the organism and assume the consistency of the stimulus.

From the standpoint of Indian Saṅgīta Śāstra, either of the assumptions will not lead to the truth, for both the assumptions are false. Neither is an organism nor are the stimuli ever constant or invariable. Indian thought proceeds from the 'Akṣara', the 'unchangeable', which is not an assumed entity but is 'being' at a special level of consciousness realisable and actually realised in esoteric experience and it is from the point of view of the 'Akṣara' that the enquiry is made. The variable factors are 'Kṣara', changeable, and the 'Akṣara-Kṣara' situation is perfectly real and not a creation of imagination.

Whether or not an object is aesthetic depends upon the attitude of the individual. This is specifically illustrated with the example of people on a ferry boat. Those who sit inside and read are simply getting across the river, whereas those who sit out on the deck to enjoy the scenery only regret completing the trip. To the former, crossing the river is a "practical" matter; to the latter, an aesthetic experience.

Aesthetics is concerned, therefore, with the perception of a certain kind of value. This value is found specially in the six major arts, music, dance, literature, architecture, sculpture and painting. Each art has its area and the field of aesthetics

includes the investigation of many diverse problems e.g. the nature of aesthetic experience, the criteria of values, the distinctions among the arts, the role of emotions in aesthetic experience, the problems of material, form and content, meaning or expression, the nature of the creative activity in the work of art and the relation of art to the individual and to society. In musical aesthetics, these problems have their own implications. Of special importance from the European point of view is the question whether music is sui generis, a thing unique in itself or whether it is instead, the vehicle for expressing something else. A very large portion of the literature on musical aesthetics is devoted to this question.

It may be pointed out here that the traditional Indian Saṅgīta Śāstra does not deal with music alone; it deals with the triple arts, music, dance and drama as super-arts offering scope for aesthetic experience in an ‘Akṣara-Kṣara’ situation of actualised transcendence. The concept of such a super art will be at once regarded as fallacious by Western observers who speak from a position or situation in which either the organism or its environment has been assumed as constant unlike the situation or experience of the Indian Saṅgīta Śāstra where the experiencing organism is realised and not merely assumed as constant. In that situation perception is integral, is of the whole at once and not of the parts one at a time. This enables the ‘Akṣara’ to experience the triple arts in their respective terms simultaneously.

As regards the psychological effects of music, modern theory is that the aesthetic state in which we perceive a given work of art as beautiful is produced by our identifying ourselves emotionally with the work of art. The observing subject tends to project himself into the pattern of the work of art. The ‘Akṣara’ of the Indian Saṅgīta Śāstra is different from this conception. He remains perfectly detached from the environment and the ever-increasing joy which he experiences comes from his association not with Prakṛti but with God.

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Among other psychological matters important in the theory of aesthetics are the laws of association, especially in connection with the formation of types, the mechanisation of behaviour through the functions of habit, which although an aid to performance, tends to dull aesthetic enjoyment, the spans of apprehension and attention, which are conditioning factors in formal design and habituation, the long-term development of taste. Some of these matters will be discussed under the following headings.

Aesthetic Experience or Sambandha Tattva

Aesthetic experience has been defined by a western writer as “the awareness of the intrinsic value in a subject-object situation in which the felt qualities of experience are attributed to the object.” This definition is confirmed by the characteristics of aesthetic experience, some of which are briefly referred to below :-

(i) Aesthetic experience is conditioned by both objective and subjective factors. In music, the objective factor is the whole tonal-rhythmic structure of a composition in all its complexity and the subjective factor is the total personality of the individual with all his likes and dislikes, experience, training and natural aptitude.

This relationship may be the ordinary relationship of modern psychology or it may be the ‘Prakṛti-Puruṣa’-relationship, ‘Māyā-Brahman’-relationship or ‘Śakti-Parabrahman’-relationship of Indian Śāstras. Aesthetic experience depends on a kind of immediate intuitive awareness incompatible with discursive language. This awareness has been referred to, somewhat vaguely, as “the emotional faculty” or “feeling”. A writer has suggested the term ‘perceptual intuition’, which he identifies as “the direct awareness of that organisation of data immediately apprehended through the senses or in sense imagery”.

In terms of Indian Śāstras, the realisation of प्रयोजन or

aesthetic experience is possible on a plane of सम्बन्धः which is defined philosophically as प्रतियोगि-अनुयोगि-प्रतीति-अधीन-विषयः। Individual terms in this definition require elucidation. प्रतियोगी means स्वाश्रयसंयुक्तः यस्याभावः स तस्य। It means 'united with

support constituted by self' or 'which belongs to that which has ignorance'. In plain language, the term denotes that knowledge which is self-sustained and to which all ignorance (negation of knowledge) is subordinated. प्रतियोग्य is the abstract noun of

प्रतियोगी and as such it means the state of प्रतियोगी। Similarly अनुयोगी is defined as यस्मिन्नभावः साढ़श्यं वा स तस्य which means 'possessive of that state in which there is no negation of knowledge or which has no other knowledge similar to it. प्रतीति

is defined as प्रहृष्टचित्तत्वम् i.e. exhilarated state of 'Citta'. Taking into account all these connotations, the definition should be somewhat as follows-"that conscious entity which is constituted of knowledge bereft of all ignorance and is unrivalled and which is the object of exhilaration of 'Citta' or emotive mind". Such an object has been defined in the Śāstras variously as Brahman, Paramātman or Bhagawān

(ii) Aesthetic experience of music is different from ordinary experience in that it exhibits an organic structure with a beginning, growth and an end. Any experience-even the intellectual experience of thinking-may have its own aesthetic quality if it partakes of an organic character.

From the point of view of the Indian Śāstras, aesthetic experience of Saṅgīta by the 'Puruṣa' is timeless. It is eternal and perpetually self-exceeding.

(iii) Aesthetic experience of music according to European writers, is the experience of a certain kind of value distinct from moral, religious, political, economic or other non-musical values and is attributed to a musical object. The value is beauty. It concerns feeling rather than reason. It is intrinsic rather than

1. वदन्ति तत्त्वविदस्तत्त्वं यज्ञानमहायम्। ब्रह्मेति परमात्मेति भगवानिति शब्द्यते॥

(श्रीमद्भागवत १.११)

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instrumental, an end in itself rather than a means to something else. It is based on an interest in continuing present experiences rather than in passing on to something not experienced in the present. Indian Śāstras too predicate of aesthetic experience an interest in continuing present experience.

(iv) Aesthetic experience depends on a ‘contemplative’ and not a ‘practical’ attitude. The contemplative attitude leads to no action but the practical tends to induce action of some kind. The aesthetic attitude is commonly characterised in terms of "psychological distance" i.e. the object is regarded for its own sake; apart from practical or other values and our subjective affections are attributed to it. This characteristic of aesthetic experience is also acceptable to Indian Śāstras.

In Indian Musical tradition experience at the level of transcendental ‘Mahābhāva’ (a term of Vaiṣṇava philosophy) is perhaps the highest ideal of aesthetic experience. At this level the distinction between the contemplative and the practical musical and non-musical values disappears.

The Aesthetic Object

From one point of view the aesthetic object is "the thing out there", from another it is something in the stream of consciousness. Speaking generally, the aesthetic object is anything capable of giving rise to an aesthetic experience--the stimulus of the experience. From this broad point of view, the aesthetic object may be anything we can perceive or conceive of, whether concrete or abstract. It may be a sense pattern, a conceptual pattern or a combination of the two.

The sounds organised in music are the potential symbols for meanings which are subjective within the individual and not outside. An aesthetic subject thus becomes the stimulus plus all relevant elaboration by the organism. Nevertheless, for practical purposes, it is more convenient to assume a certain normal response and regard the aesthetic object as anything capable of evoking an aesthetic experience.

Indian Sangīta Śāstra also postulates a variable response dependent on attitudinal factors. Philosophically speaking, सम्बन्ध regulates the nature and quality of प्रयोजन.

The Relation of the Arts

Arts are classified variously. The most common division is in terms of time-space criteria according to which dance, music and literature are classified as temporal and architecture, sculpture and painting as spatial. The temporal arts are further distinguished according to their respective materials. But the spatial arts have a temporal character too as their objects endure in time and as time is required for the perception of individual works. Conversely, dance, though classed as temporal, occurs in space. Literature, too, is spatial in the sense that the mind creates images. In music, the spatial dimension is suggested by the fact that tones have a certain extensity and further there is evidence that they are perceived as a phenomenon higher or lower in space. Moreover, music has its aspect of motion and movement implies space. Thus, although music is most significantly a temporal art, one should not lose sight of its spatial quality.

Indian Śāstras go even further and say that time and space are co-eval and two convertible terms in perception. The soul as Sākṣī in the pure state perceives अव्याकृत आकाश, un-manifested space in which time also is inherent as other than an aggregate on moments.

Apart from the time-space criteria there are others too such as the classification on an auditory-visual basis; or on the principle whether representative i.e. directly expressive or indirectly expressive or according to their respective techniques or functions. Each of these criteria is valuable for bringing out certain similarities and differences among the arts but none is entirely adequate in itself. Particularly troublesome is the classification of mixed arts such as opera, drama or ballet.

India evolved long ago its Nāṭya Śāstra which comprehends all the arts1 each with its own terms and technique but answering a deep generic significance. Philosophically, there are two principles in nature; one of which is mobile and the other immobile. All the arts refer to the former as the subject, and come under the sphere of “Nāṭya” which term is derived from the root ‘Naṭ’ meaning ‘अवस्पन्दनम’ i.e. all that moves or vibrates. Thus according to Indian Śāstras music is one of many arts which deal with objects which are subject to motion or vibration and which collectively bear the generic name “Nāṭya”. All of them can be experienced at graded levels of transcendental super-feeling at the summit whereof is Acintya Mahābhāva (अचिन्त्य महाभाव).

Material of Music :

In European thought, material of art means, first of all, merely the physical stuff from which the artist creates the work of art. In sculpture, the artist works directly with such material as stone or marble; in architecture indirectly through drawings and specification. Music is ordinarily similar to architecture, in that the composer indicates his composition by means of notation which is later realised in performance. Except for certain varieties of music in the southern provinces in India, however, the performer of music never performs directly from notated script. Usually he composes his own music in advance of the performance or even on the spot by first determining the pattern of the music or ‘Rāga’ for a given linguistic piece or specimen of articulated speech. The performer deals with the materials of his art himself, organising them into forms of varying complexity according to his skill and capacity and according to the tradition of the school in which he has been trained. Lately, notations have come into vogue in northern India too, but their purpose is more to preserve good music for

1. न तज्ज्ञानं न तच्छिल्पं न सा विद्या न सा कला। न से योगो न तत्कर्म नाट्येऽस्मिन् यत्र दृश्यते ॥

सर्वशास्त्राणि शिल्पानि कर्माणि विविधानि च । अस्मिन्नाट्ये समेतानि तस्मादेतन्मया कृतम्॥ (ना. शा. १. ११३–१५)

imitation of the barest skeleton of a form into which a huge

amount of elaboration and ornamentation has to be filled by

the artist’s own improvisation. As between sculpture and

architecture, Indian music is thus more akin to the former than

to the latter.

The materials of music are sounds, tones and vocables

with all their qualitative richness and also perhaps silences or

rests. They are both physical (pulsations in the air) and

psychological (sensations) in a complementary sense. In Indian

exoteric music, ‘śruti’ is the elemental spiritual sound which

constitutes the primary stuff of this art. In the Āgamas, ‘śruti’, is

defined as ‘nirapekṣo rav:’ i.e. it is sound in the self, not dependent on

any other support. Similarly, ‘svar’ or tone is defined as “स्वतो

रज्ज्यति इति स्वारः” or ‘स्वतो राजते इति स्वरः’. The implication is that the

esoteric tone is self-delighting or self-luminous independent of

any aid or support, physical or psychological.

A study of the characteristics of sound as the material of

music is the province not of aesthetics but of Acoustics.

Aesthetics can, however, take notice of the generic

characteristics of sounds in isolation apart from their

implications of form and content1. But this is difficult or

almost impossible because it would lead to a discussion of the

intrinsic orders bordering the field of organisation of tones into

formal designs.

For example, the intrinsic order of pitch is expressed in

scales (Grāma and Mūrchanā), of loudness in dynamics; of

quality in the specific tone qualities of the various instruments

hence especially in instrumentation; of duration in agogics

1. Cf. Bharata’s treatment of the aesthetic qualities (Rasa) of the

individual Svaras in isolation :

हास्यभ्रूणार्यो: कार्यों स्वरौ मध्यमपञ्चमौ।

षड्जर्षभौ तथा चैव वीरौद्राद्भुतेषु तु॥

गान्धारवषादश्र कर्तव्यौ करुण रसे।

धैवतकैशव कर्तव्यो बीभत्से सभयानके ॥

(ना. शा. १९. ३८-३९)

(roughly Viccheda or Virāma of Indian Śāstras) and rhythm. These intrinsic orders are basic to further organisation in formal design. Moreover, these qualitative characteristics have expressive significance in many ways as indicated by such adjectives as small, thin and piercing for describing high tones, strong, visible and majestic for loud tones, harsh and strident for tones of a certain quality or lively, spirited and agitated for rapid tones.1

A peculiar distinction between painting and music may be noted in passing. The mixture of a number of different coloured pigments on a canvas presents a total resultant visual effect upon the eye in which the individuality of the constituent elements is almost completely lost. An analogous mixture of musical sounds produces a total effect upon the ear that is susceptible to a reasonable degree of almost automatic discrimination of the constituent elements. The variety and nicety of the discriminative and manipulative possibilities within the several dimensions and intrinsic orders of sounds provide a basis for the formal and expressive richness of music.

In a concert of vocal and instrumental music, the complexity of sounds presented to the ear at a given moment may be tremendous but it is easy to distinguish a great variety of tones of different pitch, loudness, quality and duration. In addition, many relationships of a higher order of complexity may be perceived with little or no effort, and so also intervals, and musical patterns and forms, not to mention extraneous

1. Cf. Matanga's fivefold division of 'Nāda' as 'Sūkṣma', 'Atisūkṣma', 'Vyakta', 'Avyakta', and 'Kṛtrima'. नादोऽयं नादतेर्‌भान्तोः स च पञ्चविधो भवेत्‌॥ सूक्ष्मश्शैवातिसूक्ष्मश्श व्यक्तोऽव्यक्तश्श कृतrimः ॥ सूक्ष्मो नादो गुहावासी हृदये चातिसूक्ष्मकः । व्यक्तोऽव्यक्तस्तालुदेशे ॥ कर्णमध्ये स्थितो व्यक्तोऽव्यक्तस्तालुदेशके । कृतrimो मुखदेशे तु श्रेयः पञ्चविधो बुधैः॥ (बृहद्देशी २३-२५)

sounds from shuffling feet, coughing and passing street cars.

This pre-eminence of Saṅgīta among the arts has been recognised by Indian tradition also.

In considering aesthetics underlying generic differentia of the materials of music, the materials with which compositions are made, the specific musical ideas, the elementary tonal-rhythmic patterns called motives or themes, are perhaps more important than the physical and psychological characteristics of sounds taken separately and in the modes of their combination.

At this level, the approach to the materials of music constitutes the most significant basis for the study of musical material whether in composition, performance or listening. Nevertheless, the physical, psychological and aesthetic approaches are interdependent. Taken together, they constitute the essential frame of reference in terms whereof the musical experience may unfold at higher levels of synthesis, its formal and meaningful or expressive aspects.

Form

The word ‘form’ has at least three distinct meanings (i) that it is the “body” of the work of art regarded as the intermediary between the material and the content, the vehicle for the musical expression of meaning, (2) that it is the structural organisation of the work of art, regarded as the relations between the parts, or the ways in which the materials are moulded or patternised in a particular work or (3) a generic pattern or scheme of organisation common to a number of different works of art, e.g. the sonnet, sonata of fugue of Western music or the Dhrupada, Khyāla, Ṭhumrī of Indian music.

We get very different accounts of form, according to whether we regard it as a function of objects or of experience i.e. whether it is regarded as the structure of things or of perception. Really, form is conditioned both by objective and subjective factors so that the one implies the other. Sometimes

European Aesthetics of Music and Traditional...

it is more illuminating and convenient to think in terms of the objective factor, at others in those of the subjective.

Intrinsic orders and the theory of musical form

These are ordinarily concerned with principles of design which are conditioned by the orders intrinsic to the materials of music and by the psychological nature of the organism. The basic orders constitute the dimensions in terms of which designs or patterns of greater and greater length and complexity are created.

Primary schematisation of the frequency-pitch dimension of tones results in scales. Further elaboration in this dimension leads to the development of such concepts as mode, tonality, cadence, harmony etc. in terms of Western music and Mūrchanā, Jāti and Rāga with all its paraphernalia in Indian music.

Schematisation of the intensity, loudness of dimension, apart from the applications as stress-accent in rhythm has not resulted in typical patterns of form in western music, but the dynamic design of a particular composition constitutes an important formal element. In Indian music there is immense typification and patternisation in this sphere also. The concepts of Tāla as a rhythmic pattern, of ‘Gamakā’ and ‘Kāku’ corresponding roughly to stress-accent patterns, of ‘Prabandha’ as a compositional pattern bear testimony to this fact.

Similar observation applies mutis mutandis to the dimension of tonal quality.

Duration factors are basic in the realisation of both small and large rhythmic patterns; and in this connection it is well to note the rhythmic importance of the agogic factor. Agogic refers specially to the lengthening or shortening of time values or to the increase or diminution of dynamic values. In Indian music this factor is included in the concept of ‘Laya’.

Psychological factors and the theory of Form

Of the psychological factors important in relation to the

problem of form, the factors of attention, memory and types are specially significant.

Sphere of attention refers to (i) the sphere of apprehension of perceptual grasp and (ii) fluctuations of interest or attention. The number of objects that can be attended to or clearly apprehended at one time is limited and if the objective material permits, the mind tends to group numerous details into larger units, thus extending the number of items that can be perceptually grasped. There is also the tendency to shift the attention after a few seconds of attending an unchanging object. It is probably a kind of fatigue phenomenon which may be avoided by appropriate changes in the stimulus.

The limit of the span of apprehension is a determinative factor in the formal organisation of the material of music; e.g. in determining how many centrapetal lines can be successfully followed at one time, and in determining the effective metrical and formal schemes such as the number of beats in a measure, the number of sections which can be included in a movement and the number of movements in a larger form such as a symphony or suite. Similarly, the limit for the fluctuation of attention or spur of interest is the basis of certain principles of design usually discussed under the headings contrast, gradation, theme and variation. A disregard for the psycho-logical limits leads to monotony; these principles suggest ways of avoiding monotony.

The intuiting of a temporal work of art as a whole depends on memory. In the appreciation of a work of spatial art, such as painting, we have the whole before us and in a sense, we work from the whole into parts-in the temporal such as music, we have the parts presented seriatim and in a sense, we work from the parts to the whole. Apprehension of the whole, therefore, depends on memory. The concept of 'bhāvanā' or 'carvanā' of Indian aesthetics takes full account of this process of grasping the whole by contemplating on the parts which come in succession and sink into the subconscious.

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The psychological determinants of recall or memory (the so called laws of primacy, frequency, recency and intensity or vividness), operate in the organisation of the materials of music into forms of higher order or greater complexity. There are corresponding principles in Indian Saṅgīta also as is explained below :

In terms of musical composition these principles might be interpreted somewhat as follows. The first theme presented enjoys the advantage of primacy. The first step of Rāgālapti called Mukhacāla (मुखचाल) is illustrative of the same principle. ‘Graha’ as one of the Rāga Lakṣaṇas also stands for primacy. Other things being equal, the theme to be given emphasis must recur most frequently. ‘Aṃśatva’ and ‘Bahutva’, out of the Rāga-Lakṣaṇas serve this purpose. The material presented in the ‘Coda’ or closing measures of a composition occupies position of proximity in recall. The composite concept of Nyāsa-Apanyāsa, Sanyāsa-Vinyāsa, each constituent term whereof is associated with the closing portions of different Vidārīs (parts) of a composition, corresponds to this principle of recency. Thematic material not emphasised in accordance with one of the other principles may be aided by vividness of presentation--for example, by a solo instrument with an appealing tone-quality.

The Indian Rāga-Lakṣaṇas referred to above are an indication of the comprehensiveness of development of our traditional Saṅgīta Śāstra. Whereas Western musicology has had to borrow terms from modern psychology for explaining the principles underlying musical structure, our Śāstras had long ago evolved a self-sufficing terminology embracing in its spread all these and similar principles.

It is deplorable that Pt. V. N. Bhatkhande, a prominent modern leader of Indian musical opinion, has discredited the aforesaid Rāga-Lakṣaṇas saying that they are obsolete and have lost all significance in contemporary music. Really speaking, these terms have an intrinsic importance and therefore, possess a perpetual significance to music in general.

That the present day practical musicians in India are not generally conversant with these terms does not mean that they do not unconsciously use in their art the unavoidable principles for which these terms stand.

Type

Type, also, is fundamentally a matter of form. Types, roughly speaking, are groups of associated elements constituting recognisable wholes. The constant association of different qualities leads to the formation of the concept. The psychology of the formation of types is that of the development of concepts.

Varieties of types are natural (e.g. plants or animals), formal (e.g. sonnet, novel, sonata fugue), technical types (e.g. technique of performance on the violin, technique of musical composition), utility types (e.g. chairs, dinner music, martial music or religious music). All these types exhibit, in one sense or other, distinct forms and each is, in its own way, a determinative factor in the relevant forms of art.

In music, the concept of the formal types such as the sonnata or fugue, is an abstraction of qualities common to numerous individual compositions in terms of which a particular composition can be intelligently perceived or apprehended. In Indian music, Rāga, Tāla are compositional patterns respectively and these concepts are comprised of un-rivalled typification and patternisation.

The Ideal of art design

In its most extended sense, as distinguished from Nature on the one hand and from science on the other, art has been defined as every regulated operation or dexterity by which organised beings pursue ends which they know beforehand, together with the rules and the result of each such operation or dexterity. The useful arts have their origin in positive practical needs and restrict themselves to satisfying them. The fine arts minister to the sentiment of taste through the medium of the

beautiful in form, colour, rhythm and harmony or melody.

Art to be meaningful must, therefore, have for its ideal fundamental concepts from which principles of art design may be derived. The ideal will be the fountain-source of inspiration for the designer of art and the principles of design adopted by him will inform the execution of the work of art. The deeper this fountain is the more endurable will be the principles of design and more truly artistic will be the works of art based on those principles.

In Europe, the fountain-source of inspiration for art ideals has been the psychophysical nature whereas in India it has been the inmost spiritual nature. Since the latter is profounder in truth and more enduring in time (in fact enduring for all time) the principles of art design have not suffered such vicissitudes of fortune as those in Europe. The Indian theory has been a theory truly regulating the practice of art. In Europe the role of theory has been a chequered one throughout. The following observation in the British Encyclopeadia is noteworthy : “Throughout the history of music, theory and practice have been continually at variance. Every great composer has broken the rules which held good in his time, and theory, after a period of vexation and even anger, has toiled panting after to explain it all. The regularity with which this has occurred has given rise to a false idea regarding musical theory which is very widespread, namely, that the study of it tends to cramp and sometimes entirely destroy the artistic individuality of the student”.

Such a tendency of disregard of theoretical principles of music is not to be found in the traditional Indian literature. The reason is that the foundation on which the Indian theory rests is more solid and secure than in the case with the European theory of music. Theory in India has always been respected as an unfailing guide in evaluating and confirming the merit of all artistic creations; it was never challenged or repudiated by artists. As has been remarked earlier in this article, the only

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Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

exception has been the very recent example of Prof. Bhatkhande who attempted to turn the course of history of Indian music by judging the truths of ancient theory with the touchstone of prevalent decadent art.

All art is inevitably rooted in sensuality but the question how sensuality is interpreted or elaborated by philosophy and religion and what overtones it emits is decisive. The sensuality of the Western philosophy is extrovert and that of the Indian, introvert. The Indian regards the inner senses of the spirit as real as the outer senses of the body. The starting point of the ideal in Indian art is the inner senses while that of the European, the outer. The theory of Indian art is interwoven with the fabric of indigenous philosophy which, unlike European philosophy is indistinguishable from religion. The philosophy of European art is divorced from religion.

Equally with religion the purpose of Indian art is to realise the essential nature of the universe, man and God and their interrelationship. Brahman, Paramātman or Bhagawān is the aesthetic object. Music is a part of almost all religious disciplines through which the individual soul has to realise divine aesthetics as the object of Divine experience. Earlier in this article reference was made to Śrī Kṛṣṇa as the highest ideal of beauty realisable through a process which includes music. That ideal is propounded in Śrīmadbhāgavatam. Śrī Rūpa Goswāmin, the greatest exponent of the teachings of Śrī Kṛṣṇa Caitanya (Gaurāṅga Mahāprabhu) and of the philosophy of Śrīmad-bhāgawatam, has shown in his ‘Bhakti-rasāmṛta-sindhu’ and ‘Ujjvala-nīla-maṇi’ that dance and song are the physical reactions or symptoms (Udbhāsvara Anubhāvas) of divine love experienced by the devotees of Kṛṣṇa. In the divine realm of Vraja, Kṛṣṇa is the only object to whom single-minded selfless love is shown by all entities. These entities have no care for their own gratification and the only purpose they serve is the pleasure of Kṛṣṇa. This situation is ideal to inspire a grand design for art--all diversity serving perfectly

the intention and purpose of the central unity.

The Upaniṣads put forward Brahman or Paramātman as

the aesthetic ideal, each stressing one or the other aspect of the

Supreme. One of the Upaniṣads, the Bṛhadāraṇyaka, teaches

that the diversity in creation is the manifestation of a secret

Delight. And that all things, however heterogenous and

warring they may appear, are held together by a secret

harmony effected in them by the hidden creative Self-delight

of the Supreme. To realise the inter-dependence of things and

beings, human and others, is a step towards a knowledge of

that secret Delight which maintains the diversity for Self-

expression and therefore, for variations in forms of the

essential Self-delight.

It will be seen that Indian religion, whether Pauranic or

Upaniṣadic, provides the ideal to inspire fundamental principle

of art design, viz, the principle of unity in diversity and that

Indian art looks to religion for inspiration of its ideal.

European art also accepts the same principle as the foundation

of art design but has not derived that principle from any

religious ideal. Its concepts and terminology have no

affiliations with religion. Unlike Indian music at its highest,

the ideal European music is not a response of the organism

(initially the inner being) to the stimulus of the Divine within.

Nor are its notes and intervals terms of spiritual experience as

they are of Indian music at its best.

With these observations we may now proceed to deal

with the principles of art design which are the basis of the

theory of the form of music. It will be convenient to pick out

for brief notice, principles as they are expounded in European

literature, making only occasional reference to corresponding

principles of Indian music. A detailed substantiation of the

spiritual significance of the terms and concepts of the latter has

to be deferred to another occasion. This article does not

profess to be a thesis on this specific point but is an attempt to

outline briefly the scope of the European aesthetics of Music

and to state how Indian Saṅgīta Śāstra stands in relation to it.

Principles of Design as Theory of Form of Music

Unity in variety.

"Unity in variety" is the most general principle of

design. Unity denotes the principle or principles of design by

virtue of which the several pieces of music may be recognised

as a single coherent whole, and not a mere succession of

sounds beginning at random and ending where they will.

Coherence and interest are determinative factors in terms

whereof the principles of unity in variety may be realised.

Coherence is conditioned by perceptual grasp; interest by

pleasure. The problem of form thus resolves itself into the

question of how to get and hold attentive interest. The form

must be organised to make the experience pleasurable.

Pleasure depends in part, on its being intelligible-within the

perceptual grasp-and upon its conforming to the other

psychological conditions for attentive interest.

"Unity in variety" implies a certain balance between

unity and variety, for rigid unity leads to monotony, whereas

great variety results in chaos. If unity were all that was needed

the composer might select a particularly pleasing chord and

sound it indefinitely, or if variety were the only factor he

might simply wander from chord to chord with no thought of

patterned relationship. Thus both unity and variety are equally

important.

The Indian ‘Rāga’ system is a perfect illustration of the

principle of “unity in variety” and “variety in unity”. Each

Rāga has a separate individuality of its own as compared to

another, but at the same time the element of variety is so strong

that each Rāga can conveniently include under its purview a

good number of compositional patterns of considerable variety

and also the improvisations by different artistes according to

their training, aptitude, imagination, aesthetic attainment etc.

European Aesthetics of Music and Traditional...

Co-existence in an ideal measure of richness of variety in a strong substratum of unity is the special feature of the Indian Rāga, which renders it unique and unrivalled in the musical systems of the world.

One Western writer names as the main principles leading to unity-those of dominance, harmony and balance and those leading to variety, the corresponding antithetical principles of thematic contrast and rhythm. These principles are noticed briefly in the following paragraphs.

(i) The principle of dominance demands the use of one or two principal ideas in music, one or two primary themes to which other ideas or thematic materials are subordinated in a hierarchical manner. The ‘Mukhya Aṅga’ or ‘Pakara’ of a Rāga, having ‘Aṃśa’ (sometimes Graha also) as its central point, makes use of the principle of dominance in its own way.

(ii) The principle of harmony demands the exploitation of certain similarities among the elements. In music, harmony might be effected by the frequent recurrence of tones of the same pitch, loudness, quality or duration, by the repetition of motives or even of accompaniment figures in different keys or at different pitch levels, or by the use of various freer types of imitation.

(iii) The principle of balance supplies the feeling of rest that arises from the juxtaposition of elements of corresponding dimensions or qualities. In music, examples may be found in the antecedent and consequent phrases of a simpler period; in the two sections of an ordinary binary form; in the disposition of a chord in instrumentation : in the use of tonic and dominant harmonics in a simple harmonics design or in the fairly even mixture of notes of long and short duration. Whatever the elements involved, the principle of balance implies a feeling of equilibrium between them. The concept of ‘Aucitya’ of Indian poetics, which has been adopted by the Saṅgīta Śāstra comprehends inter alia the general implication of the principle of balance.

(iv) The principle of thematic variation affords one of the most effective means of obtaining unity in variety. In music especially, themes may be varied in units of all sizes from a simple motive to whole sections. This is done in immeasurable different ways-by slight changes in patterns of pitch, loudness, quality or duration in the successive appearance of the thematic materials, or in the simultaneous variations in two or more dimensions. In Indian music the various Gamakas, Kāku-bheda, Sthāya-bheda, Laya-Bheda, Sthāna-bheda etc. roughly correspond to the above elements contributing to variety. It may be noted, however, that terms having strictly identical significance with those of Western music are not available in our tradition because there are certain fundamental differences between the two musical systems.

(v) The principle of contrast demands the introduction of new and different thematic material as a foil to previously stated elements. It may be applied to small or large units. Although significant in all the arts, this principle is of particular importance in music, in the middle section of simple ternary forms, in the second theme of the sonata, in the successive sections of the rondo and in the various movements of the sonata or suite of European music. ‘Āvirbhāva’-‘Tirobhāva’ in Rāga Ālapti (elaboration) and Chāyālaga and Saṅkīrṇa Rāgas of Indian music roughly represent the principle of contrast.

(vi) Rhythm, as a constructive principle in European music, is the antithesis of balance, an essentially static idea. It refers to the feeling of movement engendered in the progression from short to long notes, or from unaccented to accented notes or beats and to the swing from one complementary element to the other; for example, from tonic to dominant hermonics (or the reverse), from antecedent to consequent phrases, from high tones to low, from soft tones to low tones or from a thin tone quality to a rich tone quality.

The ‘Tāla’ of Indian music is generally held to be the

corresponding concept of the 'rhythm' of Western music. But really speaking, these terms are not identical; they have only a very rough similarity in connotation. Tāla, in its essence, corresponds to 'metrical' and 'measured' rhythm. Motion pertaining to the pitch quality of musical sound is also implied in 'rhythm' but the former (Tāla) excludes it and is characterised by a conception of cyclic time-movement, a unique richness of intricate variety in unity and unity in variety. Notable authorities on Western music have remarked that the Indian 'Tāla'-system is so highly developed that all other musical systems of the world can be described as merely touching the fringes of its spread and depth. Western experts simply marvel at the almost infinite scope of improvisation in Indian rhythmic patterns. The 'Tāla', just like the 'Rāga', is an unrivalled feature of the Indian musical system.

Obviously, the above-noted principles of organisation are articulated rather than discrete; almost always if not always, they operate in conjunction with each other. One of the highest ideals of formal organisation is a structure in which all the elements or units are so articulated, closely knit and interwoven into an organic whole that the dropping of a single note would be felt as a distinct loss. This ideal may be unattainable, but it suggests the importance in artistic form of organic unity in variety. In Indian music this organic unity is facilitated by the fundamental typical structure of Rāga and Tāla.

Study of form the standpoint of compositional patterns of European and Indian Music

The principal musical forms are generic structural patterns that have been found by experience to afford satisfactory solutions to the problems of formal design. A very brief synoptic account of musicological research in Europe on the problem of this and related subjects is given below.

The most elementary musical idea is the compositional unit consisting of a small number of notes or chords called a

motive. The motive may be enlarged by repetition or developmental methods into a more extended unit--a theme. The various typical designs as the canon, fugue, rondo and sonata grow naturally out of the different measures of treatment of the basic thematic material.

From the contrapuntal method, with its characteristic use of imitation and the simultaneous juxtaposition of "independent" melodies, come the polyphonic forms and from the treatment of melodies according to the harmonic method come the homophonic forms.

A representative procedure in the homophonic forms is to take a short musical idea or motive and extend it by repetition or development into an antecedent phrase and then follow them with a consequent phrase, thus producing a sentence or period. The period is next expanded into a double period by repetition of the material already presented or by the addition of a complementary period of similar dimensions. The double period in turn is extended by its repetition, or by the addition of another double period of corresponding proportions. In this alternation of motives, phrases, periods and double periods--with all the subtleties of theme and variation, similarity and contrast, balance and rhythm, there is a certain periodicity, a rhythm of pattern, called structural rhythm. Some of the typical, well-crystallised forms in relation to the basic principles of design are referred to below.

Fugue exhibits a highly unified, closely knit organised compositional pattern, embodying the principle of dominance and thematic variations, harmony and contrast, balance and rhythm. A few of these relationships are briefly mentioned :-

Dominance is exhibited in the relation of the subject to the counter-subject and to other subsidiary thematic material; in the relation of the central tonality to the auxiliary tonalities and in the relation of the dominant mood to more transient moods.

Thematic variation is found in the modifications of the

subject through change of mode, stretto, domination,

augmentation and their concomittant variations in tonality and

mood.

Harmony is displayed in similarities in the various

intrinsic orders, thematic material and moods.

Contrasts occur in the relationship of the subject to

counter-subject of sets of entrances to attendant episodes and

among the intrinsic orders with their various factors.

Balance takes place between the exposition and corres-

ponding subsequent sections and in numerous compositional

elements at similar levels of organisational integration.

Finally, rhythm in a dynamic structural sense as opposed to the

static implications of balance-is manifested through the

interplay of 'subject' and 'answer', exposition and counter

exposition and in more subtle ways.

Similar analysis may be made of the sonata with its

characteristic exploitation of the developmental idea and of the

rondo with its attendant use of repetition and recitation. In

general it should be noted that the principles of design operate

in the relations of corresponding elements of the same

dimension and at similar organisational levels.

A brief introduction to the aesthetic features of some of

the standard compositional patterns of Indian music is

attempted below. Reference is purposely not made to the

details of technical organisation of musical materials in those

styles as being out of scope in an article on aesthetics.

Dhrupada : This epic pattern tries first to discover the

oneness of the infinity, not merely of the life and world of

physical sense but of all being, all world, all Nature and

cosmos, all the planes of aesthetic experiences, suggestions of

an infinite multiplicity in the infinite oneness. The unity it

strives for is the realised union of the human self with the

Divine, the Yoga, the 'Dhruva-pada' i.e. the status of

immutability or immobility. Then it proceeds to weave into or around that unity a vast wealth of ornament and detail according to well-defined laws, suggestive of spiritual significance. The melodic design of this style is closely interwoven with intricate rhythmic varieties.

If the ear begins and ends by dwelling on form and detail and ornament, the real and the great unity that Dhrupada (or Khyāla) is can never be arrived at, because then the ear will be obsessed by things other than the original oneness which the form, detail and ornament purport to relieve by multitude. The original oneness is not a combined or synthetic or effected unity. It is from which the art begins and to which its work returns. The one-ness is of the self, the cosmic, the infinite in the immensity of world-design, the multitude of its features of self expression, yet the oneness is greater than independent of their totality and in itself indefinable.

A performance in this pattern is divided into two parts,--the first is presented without rhythmic accompaniment and verbal composition, in the melodic pattern of the Rāga with meaningless syllables like ‘Nom Tom Ritanom’1 etc. and the second half is comprised of a verbal-tonal-rhythmic composition embellished with verbal-rhythmic variations. The second half is usually organised in four parts called Sthāyī, Antarā, Sañcārī and Ābhoga. The refrain (the first line of Sthāyī) is repeated after completing the Antarā and similarly after singing the Sañcārī-Ābhoga in one unit. The element of unity is supplied by the patterned melodic structure of the Rāga concerned and the rhythmic pattern of the particular Tāla in which the composition is presented. The network of diversity is woven through improvised Ālāpa and Joḍakāma in

1. These and similar syllables are generally believed to be a distorted form of ‘Mahāvākyas’ (axiomatic pithy phrases having a deep spiritual meaning) like ‘Om Tatsat’, ‘Tattvamasi’, formulated as ‘Tenaka’, one of the six limbs of ‘Prabandha’ by Śārṅgadeva.

the first half preceding the rhythmic portion and through improvised verbal-rhythmic variations in the second half of the performance, there being little scope for tonal ornamentation in the latter except in Bolatāna.

In art, that only is the deepest and the greatest which satisfies the profoundest souls and the most sensitive psychic imaginations, i.e. is “Sādhu-Sammatam”. That triumphs and endures which appeals to the best. In this view Dhrupada and Khyāla are the greatest among Indian compositional patterns.

The philosophical ideas adopted by this style are usually those of ‘Vairāgya’ or ‘Bhakti’. ‘Vairāgya’ is turning from the world not in terror or gloom or cowardice, but beginning in a sense of fatigue or vanity of wordly life, or of something higher, truer, happier than worldly life, it soon passes beyond any element of pessimistic sadness into the rapture of eternal peace and bliss. ‘Bhakti’ is union with the Divine in a mood of loving servitude.

The literary part of Dhrupada is richer in poetic content, more elaborate in extent and more sober and serene in its meaning than that of Khyāla.

Khyāla

The richness of decorative skill and imagination of Dhrupada is turned here to the purpose of another pattern with, however, the ground toned down somewhat of the old epic mass and power. Khyāla is much more mobile than the Dhrupada and is also more lyrical. Its melodic design is much more complex than that of Dhrupada and the scope for rhythmic variations is restricted to a certain degree as compared to Dhrupada. It is believed to have been evolved during the Moghul times but something of its graces must have been developing before the Mohammedan advent.

There are various theories of the origin of this pattern. One of them tries to establish the affinity of the Khyāla’s pattern with Sādhāraṇī Gīti, one of the five Gītis spoken of by

Matañga and Śārṅgadeva. This is probably true as a basic tendency. As a contributory factor, however, the development of the Khyāla style can also be viewed in the light of parallel movements in regard to style in Sanskrit literature. The advent and establishment of the ‘Dhvani’ school in Indian poetics in the 9th and 10th centuries A.D. deeply influenced the values and standards of literature in particular and art in general. The emphasis laid on the supremeness of the suggestive power of words as compared to their primary or indicative powers in poetry and drama did perhaps lend fresh impetus to the recognition of the suggestive power of musical notes independently of the language of words. The tendency of making the linguistic part of vocal performance brief and more or less insignificant and of enriching the musical aspect with more and more complex melodic designs can to some extent be ascribed to the influence of the ‘Dhvani’ school in poetics. In the field of literature this influence brought about a general feeling of greater appreciation of stray verses (Muktakas) replete with suggestiveness. This, among other reasons, was responsible for throwing the epic style somewhat in the background and encouraging the lyrical aspect of poetry. The gradual development of the Khyāla pattern also can be viewed in the light of corresponding musical tendencies and forces in operation in the period succeeding the 10th century A.D.

The aforesaid views point out to the conclusion that the evolution of Khyala need not be ascribed to any foreign influence on our culture. The Persian word ‘Khyāla’ need not be overstretched to prove the foreign origin of this pattern of Indian music. A more reasonable view will be the one which takes note of developments in the fundamental current of the Indian indigenous culture, a notable characteristic whereof is that it borrows the minimum external elements of exotic cultures and tries to attune them to its own occult, more fundamental and never-changing outlook and methods.

A performance in this pattern usually comprises two

parts viz. Vilambita (in slow tempo) and Druta (in accelerated tempo) popularly known as Baḍā Khyāla and Choṭā Khyāla. Sometimes a third part is also incorporated viz. Tarānā (a tonal-rhythmic composition with meaningless syllables, sung in very fast tempo). Each of these parts is comprised of two parts viz. Sthāyī and Antarā. The Sthāyī is repeated many times throughout the performance. Both these arts comprised of tonal-verbal-rhythmic compositions and improvisations. The element of unity is derived from the melodic and rhythmic pattern of Rāga and Tāla respectively and diversity is created through Ālāpa, Bahlavā, Bolatāna, Saragama, Tāna etc. interwoven in the rhythmic structure. Graceful tonal embellishments for which there is scope for a very vast variety within the unitary pattern of the Rāga, is a characteristic feature of this style. The possibilities of such embellishments could not be exhausted by the Dhrupada style because of its comparative rigidity and probably therein lies the reason of the popularity of Khyāla. Bolatāna (tonal-verbal-rhythmic ornamentation) of Khyala is directly derived from the Dhrupada and all other elements of diversity, employed in Khayāla bespeak of a gradual evolution of the element of diversity, wherein is kept intact the unity of Rāga and Tāla. A certain degree of laxity and flexibility, a sense of delicacy or tenderness (not feminity), gracefulness and a fancy for all possible tonal embellishments offering great scope for artistic imagination characterise this compositional pattern.

Ṭhumarī

It totally lacks the virility of Dhrupada and the vigour of Khyāla. It is characterised by a striking note of feminity and its theme is invariably connected with some or the other phase of human love, in a state of separation or union. Only a selected few of the Rāgas of Indian music are fit for a rendering of this pattern. Tonal ornamentation in this style is not an end in itself but is subordinated to the expression of the various shades of

meaning of the words of the composition. The composition is divided into two parts viz. Sthāyī and Antarā, the wordings whereof are very brief. The short verbal phrases of Sthāyī or Antarā are presented with various tonal embellishments and variations. It starts with slow tempo and towards the end, the tempo is suddenly increased. The whole song (Sthāyī and Antarā) is repeated in this accelerated tempo with a number of short ‘tānas’.

Bhajana

This style was evolved in the closing part of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, intended as a religious counterpart of the Ṭhumari, aiming to replace the sensuousness of the latter with devotional content and fervour. Pt. Vishnu Digamber Paluskar, the pioneer of the renaissance of Indian music in the present age had the foremost hand in developing this style. The melodic pattern of this style is to some extent skin to Ṭhumari, but the comparative predominance of the poetic element is a characteristic which distinguishes it from the latter. The refrain or ‘Ṭeka’ or ‘Dhruva’ is repeated after each stanza or Antarā, there being a good number of Antarās (in Ṭhumari there is only one Antarā).

Ghazala

It lacks in musical ornament and detail and is the most sensuous of musical styles. Its motif most often is the eternal dream of a love that survives death. Sometimes the motif takes a social, political or even spiritual turn. When it has a spiritual motif, it rises from the earth without quite leaving it, uplifts the imagination to a certain immaterial charm of the middle world and in the religious mood touches with a devout hand the skirts of the Divine. On the whole, an all-pervading spiritual obsession is absent in this style. There is not here the vast spiritual content of the entire Indian mind, but it is still an Indian mind which in the creation of this style absorbs the

West Asian influence and stress on the sensuous as before in the poetry of Kālidāsa. It is characterised by an interweaving of some pieces of extreme mobility and raciness (when the refrain is repeated) and with other pieces of comparatively lesser mobility. It has a predominant element of poetry full of suggestiveness and very little of melody. The melodic element is very simple in design and complexity.

Qawwālī

It embodies a religious aspiration and fervour lifted to a noble austerity which supports and is not lessened by the subordinated ornaments and grace which are its distinctive features. It is akin to Ghazala in its intermediary pieces having great raciness and mobility. This style is more poetic than melodic in content. In so far as its first part is repeated several times as refrain, it has a resemblance with the European rondo. The refrain is usually sung in chorus. It is a typical form of light music and is generally rendered in individualised tunes and not in any particular Rāga.

Indian Aesthetics of Melodic Patterns of Music

In India, styles and forms of music palpable to the ordinary senses and mind have throughout the period of Sanskrit literature followed patterns set on a transcendental and supramental plane. The latter were realised in their own terms and under esoteric conditions and even if the door to them was not open to all, nobody ever questioned their transcendental and supramantal character. These style-forms or patterns are actually realisable and are realised in their perfect vividness under appropriate conditions. Unlike the Western transcendentalism of intuition or imagination, Indian transcendentalism is real, palpable and vivid.

A few examples may be cited here indicative of the transcendental and supramental character of those fixed melodic patterns.

Deriving their names from colours of the patterns e.g. ‘Gaurī’-‘of white colour’, ‘Nīlāmbari’-‘with blue attire’.

Deriving their names from their location in the transcendental and supramental solar region (with the Sun rising from the place where the gods are born). Kalinga (belonging to the region between the Krṣṇā river and Jagannātha), Gauḍa (belonging to the country beginning from the Baṅga Deśa and running upto the end of Bhuvaneśa). Baṅga-deśa together with the Aṅga Deśa is a country situated within the Prācī region. Prācī is the transcendental space where the trancendental Sun rises and Mālava the region where the planet Mars was born. Also known as Avanti in which region the city of the same name exists, is one of the seven ‘Mokṣa’- giving ‘Purīṣ’

Deriving their names from transcendental seasons- Vasanta, Meghamalhāra.

There are other names signigicant of transcendence, a detailed exposition whereof is out of the scope of the present article. These few generic structural patterns of Indian music illustrative of their peculiar nature may, therefore, be deemed sufficient.

Manners of Treatment of the materials of music

The application of principles of formal design to the materials of the several arts leads to the development of characteristic modes of treatment or technical types and to the crystallisation of the numerous formal or compositional types of each art. The detailed study of these basic techniques and forms in music is the special province of musical theory in the narrow sense. It is in this sense that music theory has been called “ applied music aesthetics”. The significance of these topics in relation to the general problem of form in musical aesthetics is discussed briefly below.

One of the chief manners of treatment of the materials of music may be called melodic (others being harmonic and

contrapuntal). When tones sounded one at a time in succession

are organised into temporal patterns according to certain

artistic principles, the treatment is melodic.

When succession of two or more simultaneously

sounding tones is organised into temporal patterns according

to certain artistic principles, the treatment may be called either

contrapuntal or harmonic, according to whether it is primarily

the simultaneous combination of melodic lines, or the temporal

succession of chords.

It is important to realise that the generic forms are

abstractions of features common to members of a given class,

that they have no particularised existence except that they are

embodied in individual compositions and that their importance

derives largely from the significant role they play in the field

of expression or meaning and value.

Taste in Music : Musical and non-musical factors in the

formation and development of taste

Fundamental criteria of good taste may be established

upon a frame of reference that includes variable factors,

designed to provide norms which would function within limits

on all levels of artistic activity.

In such a frame of reference including variable factors

the following three factors will be relevant and important, viz.

(i) Artistic sensitivity to the materials of art :--tones in

their intrinsic order--if not to the complex at least to the simple

structural units in musical design, tone, quality, scale,

intonation, chord progression, modulation of voice, etc.

(ii) A certain level of training and experience in the

technique of music, and

(iii) A degree of orientation in the essentially non-musical

background which enriches musical experience through derived

values. As regards the orientation through non-musical factors, it

may be said that apprehension of value is enhanced by a liberal

education, by increasing the depth and spread of derived values. Assuming that the other two requirements have been satisfied, viz, artistic sensitivity and training and experience in the art, the person who has a good background in musicology, history, language, literature, philosophy etc. is more likely to attain a full apprehension of indirect or derived values. Among these derived values may also be included knowledge of composer's and performer's life, and the circumstances under which the composition was written. The socio-cultural background and innumerable other related, though non-musical, details make possible the development of more complex and significant standards of good taste.

Thus, though tastes may be individual, they can be judged or compared in terms of such multiple frames of reference. Through musical experience the individual develops consciousness of various types of form and technique which constitute the standard of his taste. The type tends to be an idealisation superior to the average. This applies to types at different levels of complexity. Generally speaking, the greater the natural artistic sensitivity and the broader the training and experience, the more refined will be the taste.

It may be noted that psychological processes of habituation i.e. formation and breaking up of habits prevents the establishment of rigid unchanging standards of musical value. They explain changes in taste during the precesses of history and differences of taste in any particular period.

In Indian Saṅgīta Śāstra, "taste" is understood as 'Rasa' or 'Guna' and a person of taste in generally known as 'Rasika' or 'Guṇī'. Rasa is realised on a supramental plane of consciousness where the distinction of values directly musical and indirectly musical vanishes; where the theory and art of music, drama, dance, literature, philosophy, languages all find scope for an integral experience. The greatest 'Rasikas' were devotees of God,-Thyāgarāja, Sūradāsa, Purandaradāsa, Tulasīdāsa, Mīrābāī etc.

European Aesthetics of Music and Traditional...

‘Guṇa’, one of the basic concepts of Indian poetics has a special philosophical significance. It connotes ‘pramāyā असाधारणकारणम्’ which means “an uncommon cause of pure and absolute knowledge”. guṇagrāhī will, therefore, mean one who has the capacity and aptitude for imbibing pure and absolute knowledge. Another Śāstric qualification of an aesthetic is ‘Sāmājikatva’. समाज means कौतुक (or कौतूहल)-गोष्ठी. The word कौतुक or कौतूहल means आह्लाद or उत्सव so that the artist should have a hankering for liberation, beatitude or happiness. A hankering for ever-increasing bliss is inherent in the very nature of the human soul, the ‘Puruṣa’ the resident in and controller of the eight purīs. Saṅgīta in its essentials is the pastime for the ‘Puruṣa’.

Abhinavagupta, the celebrated Śaiva philosopher and dramaturgist has analysed the constituents of aesthetic personality on the level of ‘Katharṣis’ (the state antecedent to and lower than transcendence) into seven factors in the context of drama as follows. His views are equally applicable to music.

1. ‘Rasikatva’ or taste i.e. “the inborn faculty of discerning the aesthetic elements in a presentation and of finding great satisfaction in aesthetic contemplation”.

2. ‘Sahrdayatva’ or aesthetic susceptibility. It brings about identification with the focus of the artistic situation. It presupposes close and prolonged study of the theory and practice of the art concerned and frequent occasions of witnessing performances or exhibitions of the same.

3. Pratibhā or power of visualisation i.e. the power to clearly visualise the aesthetic image in all its fullness and life. The aesthetic susceptibility can supply only the prerequisites of physical reaction to the stimulating situation. The next qualification for aesthetic experience is, therefore, the power of visualisation i.e. the power to conceive the real aesthetic image with full vividness, on the basis of the given art material which is barely one-third of the total aesthetic situation.

4. Vāsanā, Samskāra or Intellectual background i.e. the

store of impressions of experiences in the unconscious mind.

The power of visualisation cannot function without this

because the subject (the listener of music) must have this store

in the unconscious mind in order to be able to complete the

aesthetic image.

5. Bhāvanā, Carvanā or contemplative habit i.e. the habit

of recalling the aesthetic experiences which have come as parts

in succession in order to realise and grasp the experience as a

whole. This contemplative process has been conceived on the

analogy of ‘Romantha’ or ruminating i.e. chewing of the cud

by an animal.

6. Aptness of psycho-physical state. Every aesthetic

experience presupposes a certain state of the mind and body of

the subject. Appropriate state of health, age etc. go to make

physical aptness for aesthetic experience. Similarly, the mind

should be free from all deep-rooted conditioning elements

which the aesthetic object may not be able to drive away;

without this the identification with the focus of the presented

situation is not possible.

7. Capacity to establish ‘Tādātmya’ or identification with

the aesthetic situation.

Abhinavagupta has also analysed seven impediments to

aesthetic experience. Some of these relate to the subject (who

experiences), others to the object (the art material presented).

These are listed below together with suggestions as to how

each of the impediments can be overcome.

(i) Inability to get at the suggested meaning प्रतिपत्तावयोग्यता,

सम्भावनाविरह:). It arises from the idea of impossibility of the

presented. This can be overcome by (a) ‘Sahrdayatva’ on the

subjective side and (b) the presentation of a well-known story

(in drama), on the objective side. In music, the presentation of

a familiar Rāga can be said to be conducive to the overcoming

of this impediment.

(ii) Subjective and objective limitations of time (Kāla) and space (Deśa). This applies more to drama than to music. In music, the objective limitations are absent to a great extent in the intrinsic nature of the materials which have a more or less universal appeal. As regards subjective limitations, Abhinava-

gupta has recognised the special efficacy of music as a means of bringing about self-forgetfulness in the hearer. In view of this, he has strongly advocated the presentation of music before beginning the actual dramatic performance so that the audience is easily raised to a level of self forgetfulness and subjective universalisation.

(iv) The influence of personal joys and sorrows (निजसुखदुःखादि-विवशीभावः). Here again, music has been spoken of as a powerful means of getting rid of this binding influence.

(v) Lack of clarity due to insufficient stimulus (प्रतीत्य-पायवैकल्यात् स्कुटत्वभावः). For those who do not possess an appropriate training in the aesthetic appreciation of music, an absolute musical presentation may prove to be insufficient in its stimulative capacity. Introduction of non-musical elements such as poetry can make up the deficiency in such cases. The Indian concept of Saṅgīta as a composite art of music (vocal and instrumental) and dance, does include the element of histrionics which is a powerful factor in toning up the stimulative capacity of the musical material presented.

(vi) Subordination of the Principal (अप्रधानता). In order to avoid this the ‘Sthāyībhāva’ or the dominant emotion should be given the prime of position in the midst of the dramatic situation. In music, the main theme or ‘Mukhya Aṅga’ of a Rāga, which centres around the Aṃśa Svara can be said to represent the Sthāyībhāva and the improvisations woven in that pattern can be taken as corresponding to the Sañcārībhāvas.

(vii) Dubiousness of presentation (संशययोगः). In order to obviate this impediment, the materials suggestive of Vibhāva (inciting or arousing factor), Anubhāva (mimetic changes)

and Sañcārī-bhāvas (transient emotions) are presented

together and not in isolation from each other. In music, all

these constituents of Rasa are presented in a universalised

state and the process of universalization (साधारणीकरण) is

more or less eliminated.

Schools of the Art of Music :

[A short description of some of the schools of Western art of

music with parallels (Gharānā’ of North India) from the Indian

scene].

Absolution-Romanticism-Expressionism-Classicism-

New Music :

1. Absolution. Preference for Music divested of

extramusical implications. Extramusical elements are poetic

ideas or pictorial suggestions. Even the text of a song is

considered an extra-musical element. Instrumental music is

considered absolute. Program music and vocal music are contra-

distinguished from absolute music. Apart from instrumental

music, parallel examples from the Indian music field are of

‘gharānās’, of vocalists deploying a preponderance of ‘Tarānā’,

‘Nom Tom Ālāpa’ or ‘Ālāpa’ in Ākāra.

2. Romanticism. The Romantic movement as well as the

term ‘Romantic’ originated in a German literary school of the

late 18th century, formed by writers such as Wackenroder

(1773-98), Ludwig Tieck (1773-1853), Novalis (1772-1801)

who in search for relief from the supposed or real prosiness

and shallowness of their surroundings, went back to the

literature and culture of the Middle Ages, with its valiant

knights, gracious ladies and pious monks adopting the term

“Romanticist” as an expression of the spirit of the romanasque

(German “romanisch) era (11th-12th centuries). In this

movement, musicians took over the general feeling of “longing

for something non-existent”, a propensity for dream and

vision, for the fanciful and emotional. Musical Romanticism

may, therefore, be characterised as an art which emphasises the subjective and the emotional possibilities of music and neglects the formal and structural point of view.

This does not imply that non-Romantic music lacks in emotional appeal. Non-romantic music stimulates emotions through musical qualities. Romanticism tried to cut short the road from the composer to the listener by eliminating what is believed to be mere "unnecessary formalism" in the expectation of increasing by that much the emotional volume.

Like a short circuit (in electricity), music has by this method immensely gained in "high tension" but as might well be expected, at the expense of sustaining power. The appeal of such music wears out rather quickly upon repeated listening, while the greatest works of the Romantic era, are no doubt, those which derive substance and balance from the classical principles of form and structure, e.g. symphonies (instrumental compositions for piano or violin with piano accompaniment consisting of three or four independent pieces called movements, each of which follows certain standards of character and form).

In India, conditions of political and social instability preceding the British regime and of frustration of the British period of history gave rise to a "longing for something non-existent" and desire to seek relief from the prosiness of life by reviving memories of the gaiety of the Moghul times. This tendency gave birth to the Ṭhumrī, Ghazala and Qawālī styles. Of these, Ṭhumrī developed into several Gharānās among which those of Banaras and Lucknow are notable. Similarly the Khyāla style, though of earlier origin, gradually gained pre-eminence in comparison with the Dhrupada style.

3. New music, also known as atonality. Shortly after 1900, there began a reaction against Romanticism which has continuously gained impetus. The movement known as New Music was a radical negation of Romanticism in all its aspects,

technical as well as ideal. No such movement seems to have

taken place in India.

4. Impressionism. Its originator, a Frenchman (Debussy)

felt a revulsion against dramatic dynamism and the heated

atmosphere, pathetic exhibitionism and introspective

emotionalism of the Romantic composers. Painting and poetry

of the contemporary period suggested to him a new type of

music which aims to hint rather than to state, in which there is

a succession of colours instead of a dynamic development and

atmospheric sensations supersede heroic pathos. This music is

said to be vague and intangible as the changing light of the

day, the subtle noises of the wind and the rain.

5. Expressionism. Contradistinctive to Impressionism.

Instead of “impressions gained from the outer world” it turned

to “expression of the inner self”, more properly of the

“subconscious self”. Schools of music in India have always

been mainly expressionist.

6. Classicism. This has various meanings :-

(i) “Music of the first rank or class, in particular the

ancient Greeks and Romans and their culture”.

(ii) “Antithesis to Romanticism”.

(iii) “Music of established value and fame as

distinguished from ephemeral works which quickly

disappear from the programmes.

(iv) For less educated people, it has the somewhat

deterrent meaning of “art music” or “high brow”

music in contradistinction to “popular music” or

“music for entertainment”. The latter connotations

do not deserve serious consideration as they are

deterioratives.

Typical periods of European classical music are the 13th-

16th and 17th centuries. Some of the modern Indian schools or

‘Gharānās’ of classical music relating to ‘Dhrupada’ and ‘Khyāla’

styles are mentioned below. Each ‘Gharānā’ has its distinctive technique and mode of elaboration and ornamentation and was founded by a distinguished musician.

‘Dhrupada’. In this style, the names of four Bānīs or schools are handed down by tradition and those are--Dāgura Bānī, Khaṇḍāra Bānī, Nauḥārā Bānī and Gobarahārā Bānī. The Gharānās of Jaipur, Bengal (specially Vishnupur), Punjab (Pilaur and Hariana), Indore etc. owe allegiance to one or the other of the Bānīs and there appears to be considerable overlapping in the distinguishing features of these Bānīs and Gharānās. Some of the characteristics of the different schools are,--the predominance of rhythmic variations, special emphasis on verbal-tonal embellishments viz. Bolatānas, the preponderant use of Gamakas, delicacy and grace in the rendering of notes and differences in ‘laya’ or tempo (some schools giving preference to ‘Vilambita’ or slow, others to ‘Madhya’ or medium, and still others to ‘Druta’ or quick ‘Laya’ or tempo). It is very difficult to attribute specifically these characteristics to the above-noted Bānīs, the practical or conceptual significance whereof seems to have faded down. The writer of this article has not* had the opportunity of listening to the exponents of the various Bānīs or Gharānās. However, even Pt. Omkarnath Thakur who has listened to various exponents throughout the country and held discussions with them, has expressed a feeling of uncertainty in regard to attributing specific characteristics to the Bānīs. (Vide Saṅgītānjali, Pt. IV, p. 26). It appears that Bānīs have deeper and more comprehensive significance than Gharānās of Dhrupada.

Ordinarily musicians are initiated into the techniques of one or other of the Gharānās. In some cases, however, it would appear that styles develop spontaneously without jnitiation and the musicians concerned are identified with one or the other

• Till the time of writing this article.

Bānīs or Gharānās on the basis of the distinctive features of their styles. For instance, I have never been formally initiated into any of these Gharānās or Bānīs of Dhrupada, yet the style which has crystallised as a result of my own spontaneous singing of Dhrupada is identified with one of the four Bānīs viz. the Khaṛdāra Bānī (to which the Vishnupur school of Bengal is said to owe allegiance). In 1961, when I gave a performance in the Sadarang Music Conference in Calcutta, newspaper critics and my gurudeva, Pt. Omkarnath Thakur, publicly expressed the opinion that I was developing on the lines of the said Bānī which is characterised mainly by richness of intricate rhythmic variations.

Khyāla. ‘Gharānās’ of Gwalior, Agra, Kirānā, Patiala, Jaipur and Rampur are the main schools of this style, the first three being the most widely known. Predominant use of ‘Madhya Laya’ (medium tempo), straight Tānas of ascending and descending order in the three registers and profuse use of Bolatānas on the pattern of Dhrupada,--these are some of the characteristics of the Gwalior school. Raṅgīlā (Romantic) is the epithet of the Agra school which has Nom Tom Ālāpa preceding the main performance with rhythmic accompaniment, intricate Tāna-patterns and rhythmic variations as its distinguishing features. The Kirānā Gharānā is known for its emphasis on elaborate Ālāpa, comparatively lesser use of Tānas and Bolatānas and continuity and flow in tonal variations.

The basis of the Indian theory of art is that even at the lowest levels of experience there is the ‘Kṣara-Akṣara’ situation in which the subject is immutable and eternal whereas the object is subject to change. The Indian mind has exceeded even this dimension and traversed still higher regions in which even the object is ‘Akṣara’ just like the subject. Mind and speech fail to describe the bliss of experience, for instance, at the level of Dwārakā, Mathurā, or Vṛndāvana.

Before passing on to the next topic and by way of general

observation on the above noted European Schools symbolic of

the constantly changing styles of music, it may be remarked

that while each one of these in its philosophies possesses an

element of truth, none takes into account the fundamental

nature of ānanda, none attempts to present an integral,

immutable or eternal basis of existence and experience. The

subject-object situation is one in which the subject is as

mutable as the object and it is clear that European art has not

tackled the problem from the angle of the eternity and

immutability of the subject or the object.

The point is that whereas the Indian mind has throughout

the ages been riveted on eternity and on the one non-changing

principle of aesthetic experience, the European mind has been

struggling all the time in interpreting the vagaries and freaks of

mutation of mental and emotive experience.

Criticism

Criticism implies evaluation accompanied with justi-

fication of the evaluation through intelligent description and

comparison pointing at potential aesthetic values. Criticism is

not appreciation though it is based on it. It leads to an

enhanced appreciation of aesthetic values.

The basic criteria of criticism are found in the

fundamental aesthetic principles of design and must be

oriented to scientific i.e. a systematic and historical frame of

reference. The critic must be sensitive to artistic values in the

medium with which he is dealing. He must have a broad

experience fortified by technical training in the systematic and

historical aspects of the art concerned. He must have an insight

into the fundamental problems of philosophy as he relates the

art to manifold socio-cultural phenomena. Finally, he must

have a command of language adequate to be expressive of

his ideas.

In Indian literature, आलोचना is the term equivalent of

criticism. It has been held to denote विशेषधर्मादीनां विवेचनम् which

means dissertations on a basis of specific ‘dharmas’ or intrinsic qualities. Since ‘dharma’ of an object in its highest sense implies वेदप्रतिपाद्यप्रयोजनवदर्थ:, criticism or आलोचना must necessarily touch the limit of optimum aesthetic experience and for that purpose raise itself to the sublimities of the Vedic and similar supra-mental fields by adopting appropriate methods as standards.

The orthodox style of Western criticism seems to be to dwell scrutinisingly on the technique, on form, on the obvious story of the form and then pass to some appreciation of a beautiful or impressive emotion and idea. It is only in some deeper and more sensitive minds that we get beyond that depth into profounder things. A criticism of that kind applied to Indian art leaves it barren or poor of significance. Here the only right way is to get at once through a total intuitive or revelatory impression or by some meditative dwelling on the whole, ‘Dhyāna’ in the technical Indian term, to the spiritual meaning and atmosphere, make ourselves one with that as completely as possible, and then only helpful meaning and value of all the rest comes out with a complete and revealing force. For here it is the spirit that carries the form, while in most Western art it is the form that carries whatever there may be of spirit.

The characteristic attitude of the Indian reflective and creative mind necessitates in our view of its creations an effort to get beyond at once to the inner spirit of the reality it expresses and see from inside and not from outside. To start from the physical details and their synthesis would appear quite the wrong way to look at an Indian work of art. The more ordinary Western outlook is upon animate matter carrying in its life a modicum of soul. But the seeing of the Indian mind and of Indian art is that of a great limitless, self and spirit, ‘Mahānātmā’ which carries to us in the sea of its presence and living shape of itself, small in comparison to its own infinity,

but yet sufficient by the power that informs this symbol to

support some aspect of that infinite’s self-expression.

Criticism of art is a vain and dead thing when it ignores

the spirit, aim or essential motive for which a type of artistic

creation starts, or when it judges by the external details only in

the light of a quite different spirit, aim and motive. A

comparative criticism has its use, but an appropriate and

essential understanding must precede it if it is to have any real

value. The appropriate and essential understanding must be of

the essential things, of the characteristic way and spirit of the

art observed, which will enable the critic to interpret the form

and execution from that inner centre. Then only can the critic

see how the work of art looks in the light of other standpoints,

in the light of the comparative mind.

Now such a comparative criticism is easy in the wider

and more flexible turn of literature; it is perhaps, much more

difficult in the other arts, when the difference of spirit is deep,

because there is the absence of the mediating word and there is

the necessity of proceeding direct from spirit to tone and

rhythm or line or colour. And this brings about a special

intensity and exclusive concentration of aim and stress of

execution. The intensity of the thing that moves the work of art

is brought out with a more distinct power, but by its very stress

and directness allows for few accommodations and combined

variations of appeal.

In art, the thing meant and the thing done strike deep

home into the soul or the imaginative mind, but touch it over a

smaller surface and with a lesser multitude of point of contact

than in literature. But whatever the reason, it is less easy for a

different kind of mind to appreciate than is the case in

literature.

Indian Art (including Music) and Its Central Motive and

Significance

The foregoing rapid and cursory survey of the fields of

European and Indian Aesthetics of music has perhaps prepared the ground for a few concluding generalisations on the spirit and tradition which has reigned through all changes of style and manner in Indian art distinguishing it from the spirit and tradition of European art. The unity and continuity of the Indian spirit and tradition enable us to distinguish and arrive at a clear understanding of what is the essential aim, inner turn and motive, spiritual method which differentiate the Indian from Occidental art. The following remarks are an adaptation of the views of Sri Aurobindo as set forth in his book entitled “The Significance of Indian Art”. The said book deals primarily with the three arts, Architecture, Sculpture and Painting. The general characteristics of Indian art, however, would appear to be common to music as well as to other arts.

All Indian art is the throwing out of a certain profound self-vision formed by a going within himself by the artist to find out the secret significance of sound, forms or appearances, a discovery of the subject in his deeper self, the giving of soul-form to the vision and a remoulding of the material and natural sound or shape to express the psychic truth of it with the greatest possible purity and power of outline and the greatest possible concentrated rhythmic unity of significance in all the parts of an indivisible artistic whole. There are differences between the arts but they are due to the materials which they handle and the turn which is natural and inevitable to their respective aesthese. Indian art reflects in sound or shape (of man or creature or incident or scene or nature) a permanent and opulent signification of spiritual realities. The art of the musician, for instance, justifies to the spirit the search of the sense of the ear for delight by making its own search for the pure intensities of meaning of the universal sound and its beauty. The indulgence of the ear’s desire in perfection of tone and rhythm becomes an enlightenment of the inner being through the power of a certain spiritually aesthetic Ānanda.

The Indian artist lived in the light of an inspiration which imposed this greater aim on his art and his method sprang from its frontier and served it to the exclusion of any more earthly, sensuous or outwardly imaginative aesthetic impulse.

The unique character of Indian art and its unrivalled appeal spring from the remarkably inward, spiritual and psychic turn which was given to the artistic conception and method by the pervading genius of Indian culture. Indian music, like all Indian art, could not escape from its absorbing motive, its transmuting atmosphere, the direct or subtle obsession of the mind that has been trained to hear, not as others do with only the external ear, but by a constant communing of the mental parts and the inner vision with the self beyond mind and the spirit to which forms are only a transparent veil or a slight index of its own greater splendour.

Notwithstanding its outward beauty and power, there is something in Indian art which seems to escape appreciation or is imperfectly understood and this something is precisely that profounder spiritual intention of which, the things that the ear or the eye and aesthetic sense immediately seize, are only the intermediaries. This explains the remark often made about Indian art that it is conventional or that it lacks inspiration or imagination. The spirit of Indian music par excellence will be missed when it does not strongly impose itself and will not be fully caught even where the power which is put into the expression is too great and direct to allow of denial. Indian music appeals through the physical and the psychical to another spiritual vision from which the artist worked and it is only when this is no less awakened in us than the aesthetic sense that it can be appreciated in all the depth of its significance.

The orthodox Western artist works by a severely conscientious reproduction of the forms of outward nature. The external world is his model, and he has to keep it before his

senses and has to repress any tendency towards a substantial

departure from it or any motive to yield his first allegiance to a

subtler spirit.

His imagination submits itself to physical Nature even

where he brings in conceptions which are more properly of

another kingdom. The stress of the physical world is always

with him and the Seer of the subtle, the creator of mental

forms, the inner Artist, the wide-eyed voyager in the vaster

psychical realms, is obliged to subdue his inspirations to the

law of the Seer of the outward; the spirit that has embodied

itself in the creations of the terrestrial life, the material

universe. An idealised imaginative realism is as far as he can

go in the method of his work when he would fill the outward

with the subtler inner seeing. When, dissatisfied with this

confining law, he would break quite out of the circle, he is

exposed to a temptation to stray into intellectual or imaginative

extravagances which belong to the vision of some intermediate

world of sheer phantasia. His art has discovered rules which

preserve the illusion of physical Nature and he relates his

whole design to Nature’s design in a spirit of conscientious

obedience and faithful dependence. His imagination is a

servant or interpreter of her imaginations; he finds in the

observation of her universal law of beauty, his secret of unity

and harmony and his subjectivity tries to discover in hers by a

close dwelling on the objective forms which she has given to

her creative spirit. The farthest he has got in the direction of a

more intimately subjective spirit is an impressionism which

still waits upon her models but seeks to get at some first

inward or original effect of them on the inner sense and

through that he arrives at some more strongly psychical

rendering.

The European artist does not work altogether from

within-outward in the free manner of the Indian artist. His

emotion and artistic feeling move in this form and are limited

by this artistic convention and are not a pure spiritual or

psychic emotion but usually an imaginative exaltation derived

from the suggestion of life and outward things with a psychic

element or an evocation of spiritual feeling initiated and

dominated by the touch of the outward. The charm that he

imparts is a sublimation of the beauty that appeals to the

outward senses by the power of the idea and the imagination

working on the outward sense appeal and other beauty is only

brought in by an association into that frame. The truth of

correspondence on which he depends is a likeness to the

creations of physical nature and their intellectual, emotional

and aesthetic significances and his works of sound, line and

wave or colour are meant to embody the flow of this vision.

The method of this art is always a transcript from the

visible world with such necessary transmutation as the aesthetic

mind imposes on its materials. At the lowest to illustrate, at the

highest to interpret life and Nature to the mind by identifying it

with deeper things through some derivative touch of the spirit

that has entered into and subdued itself to their forms प्रविश्य य:

प्रतिरूपो बभूव is the governing principle; although the latter aspect

is no longer true of European art in much of its more prominent

recent developments.

The ideal Indian artist sets out from the other end of the

scale of values of experience which connects life and the spirit.

The whole creative force comes here from a spiritual and

psychic vision, the emphasis of the physical is secondary and

always deliberately lightened so as to give an overwhelmingly

spiritual and psychic impression and everything is suppressed

which does not serve this purpose or would distract the mind

from the purity of this intention. His art expresses the soul

through life, but life is only a means of the spiritual self-

expression and its outward representation is not the first object

or the direct motive. There is a real and a very vivid and vital

representation but it is more of an inner psychical life than that of the outward physical life.

The first primitive object of art is to illustrate life and Nature and at the lowest this becomes a more or less vigorous and original or conventionally faithful reproduction, but it rises in great minds to a revelation of the glory and beauty of the sensuous appeal of life or of the dramatic power and moving interest of character, emotion and action. That is a common form of aesthetic work in Europe. In Indian art, however, it has never been the governing motive. The sensuous appeal is there, but it is refined into only one and not the chief element of the richness of a soul of psychic grace and beauty, which for the Indian artist is the true beauty, ‘Lāvanya’. The dramatic motive is subordinated and made only a purely secondary element, only so much is given of character and action as will help to bring out the deeper spiritual or psychic feeling, ‘Bhāva’, and all insistence or too prominent force of these more outwardly dynamic things is shunned, because that would externalise too much the spiritual emotion and take away from its intense purity by the interference of the grosser intensity which emotion puts on the stress of the active outward nature. The life depicted is the life of the soul and not, except as a form and a helping suggestion, the life of the vital being and the body.

The second and more elevated aim of art is the interpretation or intuitive revelation of existence through the forms of life and Nature and it is this that is the starting point of the Indian motive. The Indian begins from within, sees in his soul the thing he wishes to express or interpret and tries to discover the right tone, tempo, line, colour and design of his

1. ‘Lāvanya’ is one of the six-limbs (Ṣaḍāńgas) of Indian painting which have been enumerated in the following śloka quoted in the Jayamańgalā Commentary on Vātsyāyan’s Kāmasūtra (I.3) in the context of sixty-four arts :-

रूपभेदाः प्रमाणानि भावलावण्ययोजनम्। सादृश्यं वर्णिकाभङ्ग इति चित्रं षडङ्गकम्॥

intuition, which when it appears on the physical level, is not a just and reminding reproduction of the tone, rhythm, line, colour and design of physical nature, but much rather what seems to us a psychical transmutation of the natural figure. In reality the songs or shapes that he presents are the form of objects as he has perceived them in the psychical plane of experience and are the soul-figures–‘Ātma-Vastu’–of which physical things are a gross representation and their purity and subtlety reveals at once what the physical masks by the thickness of its casings. The articulated sound, lines and colours sought here are the psychic tones, psychic lines and psychic colours proper to the vision which the artist has gone into himself to discover. This is not the case with the Occidental artist whose immediate fidelity is towards physical Nature which is his idea of true correspondence, ‘Sādrśya’. His interpretation of real existence proceeds on the basis of the forms already given to us by physical Nature and he tries to evoke by the form an idea, a truth of the spirit which starts from it as a suggestion and returns upon it for support and the effort, and then to correlate the form as it is to the physical ear or eye with the truth which it evokes without overpassing the limits imposed by the appearance.

The motive of the Indian artist is not to recall with fidelity something our senses have perceived or could have perceived on the spot, a musical sound, a scene, an interior, a living and breathing person, and give the aesthetic sense and emotion of it to the mind. The Indian artist observes the distinctions of form faithfully but not in the sense of an exact naturalistic fidelity to the physical appearence with the object, of a faithful reproduction of external expression of the world in which we live. His is an awareness of vividness, naturalness and reality but it is more than a physical reality, a reality which the soul at once recognises as of its own sphere, a naturalness of the form to which the physical eye bears witness. The truth, the exact likeness, Sādrśya or the correspondence is there but it

is the truth of the essence of the form, it is the likeness of the soul to itself, the reproduction of the subtle embodiment which is the basis of the physical embodiment, the purer and finer subtle body of an object which is the very expression of its own essential nature, ‘Svabhāva’. The means by which this effect is produced is characteristic of the inward vision of the Indian mind. It is done by a bold and firm insistence on the pure and strong and a total suppression of everything that would interfere with its boldness, strength and purity or would blur over and dilute the intense significance of the articulate sound or the line or colour of a work of art. The details of the outline are filled by a disposition of pure material, and a simplicity of content that enables the artist to flood the whole with the significance of the one spiritual emotion, feeling, his intuition of the moment of the soul, its living self-experience. All is disposed to express that and that alone.

Western mentality comes to Indian art with a demand for something other than what its characteristic spirit and motive intend to give, and demanding that, is not prepared to enter into another kind of spiritual experience and another range of creative voice, sight, imagination, power and mode of expression. Similarly, the Indian comes to the European art with a previous demand for a kind of vision, imagination, emotion or significance which it cannot give.

All great artistic work proceeds from an act of intuition, not really an intellectual idea or a splendid imagination--these are only mental translations--but a direct intuition of some truth of life or being, some significant form of that truth, some development of it in the mind of man.

So far there is no difference between the great European and great Indian work of art. The immense divergence that actually exists between the two, consists in the object and field of the intuitive vision, in the method of working out the sound, sight or suggestion, in the part taken in the rendering by the external form and technique, in the whole way of the rendering

to the human mind, even if the centre of our being to which the

work appeals.

The European artist gets his intuition by a suggestion

from an appearance in life and nature, or if it starts from

something in his own soul, relates it at once to an external

support. He brings down that intuition into his normal mind

and sets the intellectual idea and the imagination in the

intelligence to clothe it with a mental stuff which will render

its form to the moved reason, emotion, aesthesis. Then he

missions his throat, eye and head to execute it in terms which

start from a colourable “imitation” of life and Nature--and in

ordinary hands too often end there--to get at an interpretation

that really changes it into the images of something not outward

in our own being or in universal being which was the real thing

perceived.

Looking at the work of art we have to get back through

the materials of the art to their mental suggestions and through

them to the soul of the whole matter. The appeal is not direct

to the ear or eye of the deepest self and spirit within, but to the

outward soul by a strong awakening of the sensuous, the vital,

the emotional, the intellectual and imaginative being, and of

the spiritual we get as much or as little as can suit itself to and

express itself through the outward man. The objects of this

creative intuition are life, action, passion, emotion, idea in

Nature seen for their own sake and for an aesthetic delight in

them. The direct and unveiled presence of the Infinite and its

godheads is not evoked or thought necessary to the greater

greatness and the highest perfection.

The theory of ancient Indian art at its greatest--and the

greatest gives its character to the rest and throws on it

something of its stamp and influence--is of another kind. Its

highest business is to disclose something of the self, the

Infinite, the Divine to the regard of the soul, the Self through

its expressions, the Infinite through its living finite symbols,

the Divine through his powers. Or the godheads are to be

revealed, luminously interpreted or in some way suggested to

the soul's understanding or to its devotion or at the very best to

a spiritually or religiously aesthetic emotion. When this

hieratic act comes down from these altitudes to the

intermediate worlds behind ours, to the lesser godheads or

genii, it still carries into them some power or some hint from

above. And when it comes quite down to the material world

and the life of man and the things of external Nature, it does

not altogether get rid of the greater vision, the hieratic stamp,

the spiritual seeing, and in most good work--except in

moments of relaxation and a humorous or vivid play with the

obvious--there is always something more in which the seeing

presentation of life floats as in an immaterial atmosphere. It is

not that all Indian art realises this ideal. There is plenty, no

doubt, that falls far short, is lowered, ineffective or even

debased, but it is the best and the most characteristic influence

and execution which gives its tone to an art and by which we

must judge. Indian art is, in fact, identical in its spiritual aim

and principle with the rest of Indian culture.

A seeing in the self accordingly becomes a characteristic

method of the Indian artist and it is directly enjoined on him by

the canon. He has to see first in his spiritual being the truth of

the thing he must express and to create its form in his intuitive

mind. He is not bound to look out first on outward life and

Nature for his model, his authority, his rule, his teacher or his

fountain of suggestion. Why should he, when he has something

quite inward to bring out into experience?

In summing up it can be said that the Indian mind moves

on the spur of a spiritual sensitiveness and psychic curiosity,

while the aesthetic curiosity of the European temperament is

intellectual, vital, emotional and imaginative in that sense and

almost the whole strangeness of the Indian use of tone, line

and mass, ornament and proportion and rhythm arises from this

difference. The two minds live almost in different worlds, are

either not working at the same things, or even when they meet

in the object, see it from a different level or surrounded by a

different atmosphere, and we know what power the point of

view or the medium of vision has to transform the object.

Undoubtedly there is very ample ground for the European's

complaint of the want of naturalism in most Indian art. The

inspiration, the way of seeing is frankly not in a physical sense

vivid, convincing, accurate, graceful or strong, or even the

idealised imaginative imitation of surface or terrestrial nature.

Indian art is concerned with embodying spiritual experiences

and impressions, not with recording or glorifying what is

received by the physical senses.

Conclusion

As was stated at the outset, this article purported to

attempt for the first time in modern musical literature a

comparative study, in outline, of the Aesthetics of European and

traditional Indian music. This task has, perhaps, been

accomplished with some measure of success. Tradition in India

has set a very low value on purely sensuous music howsoever

exquisite qualitatively it may be. Such music has been held to be

positively perilous for the human beings in its psychological,

moral and spiritual effects. Certain birds e.g. the nightingale, or

the cuckoo possess a very beautifully musical voice but for that

reason they are not placed higher than human beings in the scale

of existence. Rather, for certain animals sensuous musical

experience is found to be positively harmful. Moral for the

human being is drawn from their example as in the following

Śloka appearing in a well-known treatise on music.

वनेचरस्तृणाहाराश्चरमृगशिशुः पशुः।

लुब्धो लुब्धकसदृते गीते यच्छति जीवितम्॥

(स्वरमेलकलानिधि, स्वरप्रकरण ४)

The author of ‘Svaramelakalānidhi’, while eulogising in

the preceding and succeeding Slokas, the power of the ‘Svara’

to attract god, man and beast alike, hints in the above Śloka at

the perils of a purely sensuous approach to ‘Svara’.

80

Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

Indian opinion has insistently affirmed that for the realisation of pure music (which as an ideal attracts Western thinkers also), it is essential to rise to the level of pure being, by a process the key to which is held by the spiritual preceptor.

Indian approach to the problem of artistic experience is fundamentally spiritual. In certain Indian philosophical systems, especially the Vaiṣṇava philosophy it is theistic. As among Vaiṣṇava devotees there have been many of the famous musicians of India, Vaiṣṇava philosophy, is of special significance to Indian Saṅgīta. According to Vaiṣṇavite philosophy the individual self (Puruṣa, Sākṣī or Ātmā) which is ‘Cetana’ or conscious, as well as the intellect, senses, body and external sense-objects, which are ‘Jada’, is characterised by sorrow and constant changeability. When through ignorance these ‘Jada’ entities are conceived as parts of one’s self or subject to ones’ own control, the individual self suffers the sorrow and the changes which really belong to them and not to the self.

Cognitive senses are of two kinds (i) the intuitive faculty of the cognitive agent identical with himself and (ii) the ordinary cognitive senses of smell, taste, sight, touch and hearing and ‘Manas’. According to the ‘Pramāṇa Paddhati’ of Jayatīrtha, a Madhvite Vaiṣṇava writer, the cognitive agent perceives the self and its qualities, ignorance, ‘Manas’ and its faculties, and all sense-knowledge, pleasure, pain etc. time and space. The ordinary cognitive senses produce the states of ‘Manas’ and they are like so many instruments which have contact with the object of cognition. The verdict of the intuitive faculty need not necessarily always be objectively valid though it is always capable of correctly intuiting the contents of sense-observation. In God and Yogins, both subjectivity and objectivity is in agreement with facts; in ordinary persons subjectivity may or may not, in a particular case, be in agreement with the objective parts but the faculty is always correct in intuiting what is brought to it by the senses.

Pleasure perceived by the ordinary cognitive sense is

Viṣayānanda. Pleasure perceived by the intuitive faculty, of the cognitive agent, the ‘Ātman’ is ‘Ātmānanda’ or ‘Brahmānanda’. Still higher is ‘Bhajanānanda’ of the devotee who serves the Lord of his soul with the cognitive sense and intuitive faculty of his self to which the ‘Jada’ elements of his being are subordinated. The highest or the purest music is, therefore, that which is dedicated to God. The study of religious philosophy is thus of vital significance to a student of Indian music.

Postscript *

It will not be out of place to consider if Aesthetics can usefully be included in the syllabi of studies under the Faculty of Music of our University.

It will be observed that the subject permits of a systematic study of a definite scope embracing theories based on exact definitions and touches interesting problems relevant to music, fit for study at postgraduate level in a University. If it could be included in the curriculum of our University in a course for a Master’s degree in Musicology such a course would seem to deserve a higher rank in the scale of educational vales in comparison, say to the normal course in theoretical aesthetics studied as part of the M.A. course in philosophy. The distincive advantage of the M.Mus. course over the M.A. will be that it would be studied as a subject of direct and intimate practical interest by students adequately versed in the creative aspect of the art of music, as they will have already studied practical music upto the B.Mus. course. As against this, the M.A. (philosophy) student studies aesthetics in the abstract unrelated to any art in the creative aspect whereof he may be interested. Apart from Aesthetics of music, other interesting subjects fit for inclusion in the M.Mus. course in Musicology will be (i) Musical Pedagogy (ii) Advanced study of ‘Rasa’ (iii) Accoustics of Music (iv) Physiology and

• This portion of the article is being kept intact here just for the sake of historical events and thought. – Ed.

Psychology of music (v) Philosophy and sources of Musical History (vi) Problems and methods of historical research in Music (specially South Indian, which has a historical literature of noted music).

A course comprising these subjects will be substantial, profound and educative enough to claim recognition of fitness for a Master's degree.

One or two observations of practical importance are relevant here. These are concerned with inducements to be offered to students of new lines of study yielding precarious scope for earning a livelihood. University education in music is in an early stage of development in India and the profession of music does not offer chances of earning a livelihood except to the few who can outshine their compeers not only by dint of hard work but also by virtue of natural gifts.

Men of experience and practical knowledge, are agreed that a student graduating in music from a University does not become a stage-musician outright. He has to acquire further intensive training under the personal care of a master artist. This apprenticeship is as necessary or even more in music than say in commerce, engineering, medicine etc. Now apart from the fact that facilities of serving under a master artist are not ordinarily available to most of the graduates in music, the other condition viz. that of natural gifts cannot be satisfied in many cases. This is the first consideration to which I would draw attention.

Music is a part of the humanities and its study should not be penalised by denying to students the same scope of competition and opportunity as is open to the students of other branches of humanities. This is the second consideration deserving notice. The Mudaliar Enquiry Committee also in its report stressed that music should be treated in B.H.U. as a branch of humanities.

A third consideration is that education in music in our

European Aesthetics of Music and Traditional...

University will continue to exist in its precarious condition so long as students are not willing to study music as a full course like other branches of humanities. This willingness will be forthcoming only when music education and music degrees are accorded the same social and legal recognition as other degrees.

In view of the aforesaid considerations it is high time the Union Public Services Commission and the Provincial Public Services Commissions are moved to include music and musicology in their syllabi for competitive examinations and to recognise B. Music and M. Music degrees at par with B.A. and M.A. or B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees. In anticipation of or to obviate any possible objection from the said authorities it will be advisable to include a small course in English in the curriculum for B. Music degree.

Prejudices die hard. There was for a long time unwillingness on the part of universities and Public Services Commissions to grant to degrees in commerce equivalence to corresponding arts and science degrees. Ultimately opinion relented and now degrees in Commerce enable their holders not only to compete like other graduates for admission to public services but also to university courses in law and teaching. It is to be hoped that history does not repeat itself in evoking initially similar reluctance in regard to music degrees.

UNIQUE AND UNRIVALLED CHARACTERISTICS

OF THE ART

AND

SCIENCE OF INDIAN MUSIC*

(The problems which they create for the modern student and

suggestions for effort which may result in an eventual

solution of those problems.)

The art of Indian music has its theory of which a vast

store exists in Sanskrit treatises written steadily through all the

stages of history of Indian Sanskrit literature from Vedic

period down to about the seventeenth century. This literature,

however, deals not only with the exoteric and mundane music

in its theoretical and practical aspects but has also a deeper,

extra-mundane and esoteric significance. This commingling of

the two aspects dealt with simultaneously in one and the same

literary lap or step is the unique manifestation of Indian genius

which in this regard has an unbroken tradition. A study of this

literature shows that at no time of Indian history was any

attempt made to disentangle the mundane art and its science

from the extra-mundane. While the latter was held in supreme

esteem, the former appears to have been tolerated as an

inevitable human pastime for classes not aspiring initially or

primarily for the highest culture leading to the divine but were

expected by example and precept in due course to do so. The

mass also would seem to have accepted the desirability and

value of this ideal and worked towards its achievement not

looking for a separate science of exclusively exoteric music.

The commingling of the divine and the mundane

1. Published in Nāda Rūpa II, 1963

necessarily contained a few anomalies hitherto unnoticed or connived at, which came to surface forcibly with the change in the general social outlook during the last two centuries. They have given rise to a steadily growing widespread scepticism bordering on hostility towards this literature. A serious misunderstanding of the content, nature and scope of the aforesaid composite character of this literature arose out of an abrupt change in social outlook and values as a result of the impact of the cataclysm of scientific discoveries. It led notable thinkers to throw up this literature of millenniums in utter despair as more or less meaningless and invalid.

An evidence of the remarkable and sudden impatience with preceding modes of life, thought and culture produced by the dazzle of science was the attempt made a few decades ago by a prominent leader of musical thought in India who hastily improvised a musical science of his own which in his opinion answered the needs of the prevailing mundane music, an idea whereof he had gathered form compositions collected from contemporary illiterate musicians. In this attempt, he threw overboard completely the aesthetic values which had been steadfastly adhered to throughout Indian history. These values had consistently ignored evanescent changes in styles and forms which were regarded like the leaves of a perpetual tree dying and growing according to the turn of the seasons.

Traditional philosophy had held of real and fundamental importance, a study and realisation of the true nature of the ultimate source of all outward, visible and sensory phenomena. Believing to have aligned himself with the trend of new scientific thought, the Indian author of the new science of music restricted the scope of music to prevailing forms and to the art of contemporary musicians and related its science to the needs of those forms and that art regardless of fixed principles and ideals or purposes of true art, its norms and standards.

The revulsion against traditional Indian literature proceeded from the notion that anything which did not yield to

the process of physical verification and demonstration or mental ratiocination deserved to be condemned as invalid or unscientific. It was believed that the physical sciences and psychology with their logic and methodology were the only valid sciences or branches of scientific knowledge. Traditional Indian thought had regarded the testimony of the word of the man of divine knowledge as perfectly valid. This view is not generally accepted now. The educated mind trained on Western lines has thus denied the validity of the vast traditional Sanskṛit literature which had grown during the millenniums.

Recently, however, some literature has appeared (cf. the works of Sri Aurobindo) to counteract this tendency which it points out is based on a narrow view of the scope and extent of valid knowledge and that the ordinary mind and senses are not the only instruments of all knowledge. It is now beginning to be recognised that apart from the physical sciences with their methods of experimentation and physical verification and demonstration and apart also from modern intellectual philosophy with its methods of ratiocination and epistemology based on concepts of time and space there is a vast field of a deeper, more profound, satisfying and enduring knowledge of several grades open to experience on the supra-physical and supra-mental planes. That knowledge has its own approach and methodology and permits of demonstration only in terms of that approach and methodology. The key to such knowledge is esoteric and at the present time it is the monopoly of India.

This knowledge appears now to be unknown to any other country in the world. Its key is possessed by very few persons even in India. It is a fact, however, that there exist in India, persons who have themselves verified the reality and facts of that esoteric knowledge and can also demonstrate its truths and validity to others under appropriate conditions. They alone can speak with authority on the true significance of traditional Indian treatises which deal with this knowledge as the ideal

and goal of not only music but of all art and literature. Very

little literature in relation to music is as yet, however, available

which gives a systematic and cogent exposition of this view

and which would appeal to the modern mind. However,

scepticism in regard to the validity and meaningfulness of the

exoteric aspect of traditional Indian science of music has been

largely dispelled by recent writings of some magnitude which

have appeared in a form commanding an appeal to the modern

mind. The latest in this field are the comprehensive

publications of Pt. Omkarnath Thakur, at present the foremost

exponent of the art-theory of exoteric music in India.

The beauty and strength of the Indian Saṅgīta Śāstra lie

in its bi-purpose terminology and unless the twofold

significance of that terminology is understood we will be far

removed from a true and complete understanding of the scope

and purpose of this Śāstra. ‘Mokṣa’ or ‘Trivarga’ is the avowed

purpose of this literature. Apart from the avowal explicit in the

texts, a student of comparative study of the Indian and

European music is at once struck by marked dissimilarities in

the methods and outlook of the two systems and in the history

of their growth. The divine and esoteric ideals of Indian art

alone would explain dissimilarities such as the following :

(i) The concepts, doctrines and philosophy of Indian

music, as also its technique, have remained unchanged for

thousands of years but not so those of Western music.

(ii) Western civilisation is characterised by a

materialistic outlook and an acceptance of material values. The

avowed ideal of physical sciences which are the gift of this

civilisation, is to unravel the mysteries of material nature and

their purpose is to wrest the riches and prizes of nature for the

comfort of man. No finality has ever been reached in the limit

of knowledge of material nature; there has been a state of

perpetual restlessness constantly on the lookout for newer and

newer forms of knowledge. In India, however, life has always

been regarded as an opportunity to seek and manifest the

Divine by an enlargement of the limited parts of being into

higher and higher ranges of being.

A penetrating study of the essential nature of the living

being and the possibilities of his serving a divine purpose has

been the special prerogative of India. Since art and culture are

essentially a mode of collective consciousness, each stage of

growth in knowledge of the working of material nature in the

West has signalised a change in social relations and outlook.

New styles and forms of art and music symbolic of these

changes have been appearing, disappearing and reappearing

from time to time.

Indian philosophy, on the other hand, has always

regarded knowledge of material sciences as an instrument for

the realisation of the divine in man. It has constantly affirmed

that an attitude of self-aggrandisement in relation to material

knowledge is contrary to the real and true good of man and is a

bar to the realisation of his relationship with the All-Divine.

Thousands of years ago the Indians realised the Ultimate, the

finale of the reality and truth and beauty of existence. There

has thus been a total absence of the attitude of restlessness for

newer and newer knowledge of the material world.

In the sphere of European music, emphasis has been on

newer and newer styles and forms which seem to have been

regarded as the purpose and goal of art. In India, on the other

hand, forms of material or mental creation have been regarded

as ‘Māyā’ (etymologically, ‘mā’ and ‘yā’, which is not) meaning

that they are not real forms. The form of the Ultimate or the

Divine has been accepted as the real form, the Form of all forms,

the realisation whereof was the goal of all art. Musical patterns

(originally ‘Jātis’, later ‘Rāgas’ and ‘Rāginīs’), crystallised after

their overt or veiled divine affiliations, have been a unique

feature of Indian classical music from the very outset.

(iii) This explains why Indian Sanskrit treatises on music

Unique and unrivalled characteristics of the art and... 89

never attached importance to any system of notation. Their writers never cared to preserve evanescent forms of art for they had a grip over the Eternal and the Supreme Form of all forms. Although new styles and forms were constantly springing up, there has been throughout the millenniums, a remarkable constancy in regard to the themes, topics and conceptional content of those styles and forms. The quest and yearning for the Eternal and Extra-mundane has followed an unbroken tradition. Finally,

(iv) The quest in the West for musical scales too has sprung from a materialistic outlook. In India by an inner and esoteric discipline an ultimate system of musical scales (viz. the ‘Grāma’ system) had been discovered or realised thousands of years ago. And since there could be no scope for a further development of the Ultimate, the only one system of scales has held the ground throughout the ages.

As stated above, since traditional Indian Sanskrit literature on music aims at and is significant equally to the mundane and exoteric on the one hand and the divine and esoteric music on the other, in single treatises couched in terms and language equally applicable to both it is desirable that systematic authoritative expository literature concerning the latter aspect should come into existence. It is a fact that a view confined exclusively to the exoteric angle is inadequate to unravel certain obscurities in this literature. No amount of expert exoteric knowledge or skill can ever loosen knots and mysteries of esotericism.

A few examples of such mysteries encountered in the Indian ‘Sañgīta Śāstra’ may be cited here. Svaras are said to have their Dvīpas (islands), Varṇas (Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya etc., and blue, white etc.), ‘Devatās’, ‘Ṛṣis’ etc. Grāmas and Mūrchanās too have their Devatās. ‘Tānas’ bear names similar to the names of ‘Yajñas’ such as ‘Rājasūya’, ‘Aśvamedha’ ‘Agnistoma’ etc. My experience of collaboration with gurudeva Pt. Omkarnath Thakur in the writing of his books has

90

Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

convinced me that it is not correct, as is sometimes done, to overstretch points in Indian Saṅgīta Śāstra with a view to force conclusions based exclusively on exoteric art. It would be more realistic to concede an esoteric significance for topics or points which are incapable of exoteric experience or explanation. This, however, is only another way of stating the problem and not of solving it. For, if the practical and expert musician is incapable of solving it, equally so is the theoretician, the musicologist or the teacher of music.

It would appear, however, that the musicologist or the university teacher or student can exert himself in the furtherance of studies which will lead to the development of a special kind of literature suited to our present cultural conditions and which may help in an eventual solution of the problem by bringing about a revival of faith in the possibility of musical experience on the transcendental plane and validity of the classical Saṅgīta Śāstra. Such a revival is evidently the immediate problem. The modern educated mind discounts the reality of inspiration derived from supra-mental divine sources and objects by divine musicians not only of antiquity but of even recent times such as Thyāgarāja, Tukārāma, Mīrābāī and Sūradāsa. Under traditional cultural conditions, much of what would now be regarded as a revelation or revolution was accepted as ordinary or commonplace and as such was taken for granted in literature. In keeping with the spirit of renaissance of Indian culture, growth of such literature now would appear to be necessary.

Accordingly, some spade work can be done by scholars if they approach qualified and competent persons who have realised esoteric truths for favour of exposition in simple exoteric terms of those truths and inner disciplines, techniques and processes requisite for their realisation. These expositions will provide materials for the kind of literature which is a prerequisite for the acceptance of correct ideals and for the creation of a proper approach and outlook conducive to the

achievement of those ideals. As this literature develops, a fund of knowledge in commonly intelligible language will grow up in regard to the technique and process of esoteric inner cultures. This literary knowledge will provide clues for a systematic interpretation, with the help of the ‘Āgamas’ and the ‘Nirukta’ of those texts and terminologies which are at present a sealed book.

For the last three years in our University, a scheme has been in force under which it has been our fortune to have the benefit of a series of lectures delivered among others by personages belonging to different schools of religion and philosophy possessing experience at various levels of esoteric divine truths. One of such venerable personages was Maharṣi Daivarata who has treaded the path of Yoga prescribed in the Vedas and achieved perfection in it and is at present running a Yogic Ashram at Gokarṇa in South India. His informative and learned lectures in our University were spread over a period of about four months. I approached him with a request for a brief exposition couched in ordinarily intelligible words of some of the esoteric divine truths relevant to the ideals and traditions of Indian music as enshrined in our Sanskrit texts. He very graciously agreed to oblige me and composed specially for the first issue of ‘Nādarūpa’ a few ślokas* which could be published in the second issue due to certain unavoidable circumstances. I trust these ślokas with their translations will be found informative and instructive and as providing prima facie a philosophically realistic background for an appreciation of Sanskrit texts on music and fine arts.

These ślokas tread a new field of संगीतप्रशंसा under which caption they are being published and commended to our readers. The need for such special literature could not arise in the past for there was a general belief in the genuineness and validity of the claims of the traditional literature as typified by the following śloka :--

• These ślokas are reproduced with their English and Hindi translations at the beginning of this book. —Ed.

लौकिकानां तु साधूनार्थं वागनुवर्तते।

ऋषीणां पुनराद्यानां वाचमर्थोऽनुधावति ॥

In the past readers were completely satisfied with literature which in the view of the modern scholar will be regarded as concealing more than it reveals. The gracious author of the ślokas, however, has tried within the limitations of the subject-matter, to be as explicit and graphic as he possibly could. I am grateful for this and hope readers too will join me in gratitude to him.

LEVELS OF AESTHETIC EXPERIENCE

in

MUSIC*

Categorisation of the levels of aesthetic experience in music has been attempted in an obscure context in our Saṅgītaśāstra, viz., the classification of musicians (specially vocalists) into three categories as Rañjaka, Bhāvuka and Rasika described as follows–(The two former categories in this classification viz. Śikṣākāra and Anukāra have been purposely omitted here as they are not pertinent to our present discussion)–

रसाविष्टस्तु रसिको रञ्जक: श्रोतृरञ्जक: ।

गीतस्यातिशयाधानाद् भावुक: परिकीर्‌त्तित: ॥

(संगीत रत्नाकर, ३. २१, २२)

सुश्रवं गीतमाकर्ण्य भवेद् य: पुलकान्वित: ।

आनन्दाश्रुकणाकीर्ण: सोडयं रसिकगायक: ॥

नीरसं सरसं कुर्वन्निर्भावं भावसंयुतम् ।

श्रोतॄश्वितं परिज्ञाय यो गायेत् स तु भावुक: ॥

चेतोहारि गीतमवीदत्वा श्रोतृपुष्पायम् ।

रङ्ं गीते विधत्ते यो रञ्जक: सोडभिधीयते ॥

(सङ्गीतसमयसार ३. ६१-६३)

Rasika is the highest category represented by those musicians who are immersed in Rasa and are replete with Sāttvika Bhāvas such as Aśru (tears) and Pulaka (thrill, making the hair stand on end). Bhāvuka is the intermediate category represented by those singers who infuse their music with Bhāva, and who sing with a knowledge of the Citta (feelings) of the audience. Rañjaka is the lowest category represented by

1. Published in Indian Music Journal, April, 1964.

those who lend Ranga (emotional colour) to their music.

It is notable that Rañjaka is associated with Ranga (emotional colour), Bhāvuka with Bhāva and Rasika with Rasa. These are, so to say, three stages of aesthetic delight which have been said to bear the analogy of the sense-perception of colour (Ranga), fragrance (Bhāva) and taste (Rasa) respectively. The direct meaning of Ranga is colour, the word being derived from the root Rañja. While explaining the aesthetic significance of Bhāva, Bharata has said that it bears the analogy of fragrance because Bhāva permeates the artistic presentation and the mind of the Sahrdaya just as fragrance permeates the object in which it is seated and also the surroundings of the object.

वागङ्गसत्त्वोपेतान् काव्यार्थान् भावयन्तीति भावाः। भू इति करणे धातुस्तया च भावितं वासितं कृतमित्यर्थः-नरम्। लोकेऽपि च प्रसिद्धम्। अहो ह्यानेन गन्धेन रसनेन वा सर्वमेव भावितमिति। तच्च व्याप्त्यर्थम्।

(ना. शा. ७)

The experience of Rasa has been said to bear the analogy of the sense-perception of taste as is evident from the following quotation from Bharata :-

रस इति कः पदार्थः। उच्यते==आस्वाद्यत्वात्। कथमास्वाद्यते रसः। यथा हि नाना व्यञ्जनसंस्कृतमत्रं भुञ्जाना रसानास्वादयन्ति सुमनसः पुरुषा हर्षादिश्रद्धा-गच्छन्ति तथा नानाभिनयव्यञ्जितान् वागङ्गसत्त्वोपेतान् स्थायिभावानास्वादयन्ति सुमनसः प्रेक्षकाः हर्षादिश्रद्धागच्छन्ति।

(ना. शा. ६)

These analogies are no doubt nothing but an attempt to explain the nature of the different levels of the aesthetic experience through the medium of rough similitudes of ordinary sense-perception. However rough these similitudes may be, they are suggestive of the subtle differences among the said levels of experience. The object of visual perception is the most external out of the three mentioned above in so much as the subject of the perception i.e. he who beholds does not assimilate in himself anything of the object which he sees. In fragrance, the subject assimilates to some extent the object perceived. In taste, the whole object is assimilated and there is

Levels of Aesthetic Experience in Music

a greater degree of effort on the part of the subject who perceives the nicety or the delicacy of the taste. Thus the perception of taste represents the best synthesis of subjective and objective experience and hence the highest level of aesthetic experience has been given its analogy. In music, as in all other arts, the highest classical rank can be accorded to that which leads to an experience of Rasa, the middle position can be accorded to that which gives the experience of Bhāva, and the lowest level can be said to be that which attracts just like Raṅga or colour. If these analogies are stretched a little further they will reveal that the special feature of Rasa (taste) lies in the fact that it is conducive to both Tuṣṭi (delight) and Puṣṭi (nourishment) whereas Bhāva and Raṅga (fragrance and colour) can promote only the former (Tuṣṭi) and not the latter (Puṣṭi).

The above classification takes into account the fundamentals of the graduated levels of aesthetic experience starting with Rañjakatā on the analogy of Raṅga (colour), going further to Bhāva on the analogy of fragrance and culminating in Rasa on the analogy of taste. These three levels may be co-related with ‘light’, ‘light-classical’ and ‘classical’ music which can roughly be said to be conducive to Raṅga, Bhāva and Rasa. Thus the toning down of ‘classical’ music (into ‘light’) can be said to be represented by a tendency towards Raṅga and the toning up of music from ‘light’ to ‘classical’ can be said to be represented by a tendency to go further from Raṅga to Bhāva and from Bhāva to Rasa.

A question may be raised here as to the propriety of this classification because it is general experience that light classical music is more emotional and effective whereas pure classical music is comparatively less appealing. This is an erroneous notion which has its origin in the lamentable loss of emotional appeal from the so-called music. Really speaking, only that music should be called classical which elevates the singer and the hearer to the highest level of aesthetic

experience namely Rasa and at the same time owes due allegiance to the restrictions of form and structure. The emotional restraint of classical music should be such as to allow the greatest degree of suggestiveness. It need not sacrifice formal rules for enriching its emotional aspect but it must strive to make the best use of these rules in order to provide for the best results being obtained by unfolding the latent emotional background of those formal rules. Rāga in our music, is a melodic pattern which has a definite emotional undercurrent known as Sthāyī-Bhāva. Without this pattern, the suggestion of Sthāyī-Bhāva is not possible. It can reasonably be expected that greater adherence to the regulations of this pattern should promote greater unfolding of the emotional potentials of the Rāga. Our Rāga system is conducive to depth and restraint in the emotional aspect of classical music. If this interpretation of classicism is accepted, it may be said that the element of lightness in music comes in where the emotional aspect is not characterized by an adherence to the Sthāyī-Bhāva but by more inclination towards arbitrarily moving here and there in Sañcārī-bhāvas without there being much emphasis on the central point or undercurrent.

In the context of the above discussion of the enotational aspect of music, another point worthy of serious notice in this classification of musicians is that the Rasika is totàlly unmindful of likes or dislikes of his audience; rather he is himself so deeply immersed in the Āsvādana (tasting) of the universalized Bhāva that there is no possibility of his looking to the requirements of his audience. The Bhāvuka sings with a consciousness of the mental tendencies (Citta) of his audience. The Rañjaka is all the more conscious in this respect. It is paradoxical to say that the Rasika who is unconscious of the audience to the greatest degree, is the most successful in carrying the audience with him. The state of perfect universalization experienced by the artiste cannot but exercise deep influence on the audience. This is the ideal for classical

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music. On the other hand, consciousness of the likes or dislikes of the audience which is a characteristic of the lighter tone of music tends to lower the level of aesthetic attainment and tones down the ‘classical’ to ‘light’. This is just a brief introduction to a very interesting topic in our Saṅgītaśāstra’ which still requires deeper contemplation.

RASA THEORY and INDIAN MUSIC*

The implications of the subject Rasa and Indian Music according to my understanding, are that on one hand a general outline of the traditional rasa-theory is to be attempted and on the other hand, the applicability of the said theory to the context of Indian music has to be examined. “Indian music” in this paper will be restricted to rāga-music of the modern times. As the present seminar* is, on the whole, devoted to the discussion of Indian music in the context of modern science and technology, this paper will, naturally, have finally to review the subject in that context.

The word “rasa” has three primary associations of meaning :

1. Of being the object of perception by the sense of taste—“rasanā”.

2. Of being the essence of anything or any being; the earth is known as “rasā” as it holds the essence of life for all creatures– vegetable, human or animal.

3. Of being something liquid or dynamic, as opposed to being solid or static.

The Upaniṣads use the word rasa for that Ultimate Reality which is the basis of Ānanda.

रसौ वै सः । रसं हि एष्यं लब्ध्वाऽऽनन्दी भवति ।

(Taittirīya : 2.7.1)

• It could not be identified, but the mentioned seminar must have been before 1980. - Ed.

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"This (Puruṣa) becomes blissful by the attainment of rasa". This statement is very significant as it suggests that rasa is more fundamental even than Ānanda, which is one of the three aspects of the Ultimate Reality- Sat, Cit, Ānanda. Rasa is as though the essence of these three aspects and is in turn the basis of Ānanda, the most fundamental of the three.

Having seen the primary meanings and philosophical significance of the word rasa, let us now see its usage in aesthetics.

In the Indian tradition, the central point of aesthetics is rasa rather than Beauty; rasa, being the direct source or essence of Ānanda, is the ultimate goal of all artistic creation. Needless to add that it is also the essence of Beauty.

As we all know, the concept of rasa in Indian aesthetics originated and developed in the context of dramaturgy. As drama is a perfect combination of auditory and visual (drśya and śravya) representation, it provides the best scope for the analysis of the process of experience and the nature of aesthetic delight. The vividness, lucidity and concreteness of drama which is an integral representation of life, is not to be found in any other art. It was, therefore, but natural that the concept of rasa evolved in the context of drama. No separate concept of aesthetics was evolved for the specialised arts concentrating only on particular aspects of either śravya or drśya or both. The rasa theory was applied to all of them. But the limitations that go with specialisation as well as the attainment of greater depths or heights made possible by specialisation in one particular medium of art, have to be seriously considered in applying the rasa theory to specialised arts. We shall, therefore, have to consider the limitations and intensive potentialities of music, while reviewing the applicability or the rasa-theory in its context. Before doing that, it is essential to present a brief outline of the rasa-theory.

Bharata, the first extant author on nāṭya and rasa has pointedly referred to the analogy of the perception of “relish”

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or "taste" in the description of the enjoyment of art.

अत्राह रस इति कः पदार्थः। उच्यते - आस्वाद्यत्वात्। कथमस्वाद्यते रसः। यथा हि नानाव्यञ्जनसंस्कृतमत्रं भुञ्जाना रसानास्वादयन्ति सुमनसः पुरुषा हर्षादीन् श्राधिगच्छन्ति तथा नानाभावाभिनयव्यञ्जितान् स्थायिभावान् आस्वादयन्ति सुमनसः प्रेक्षकाः हर्षादीन् श्राधिगच्छन्ति। तस्मात्रात्ररस इत्यभिख्याख्याता।

(Nāṭyaśāstra, G.O.S. 2nd edition, page, 288, 289)

This analogy has two important implications --

1. In enjoyment of art, the subject-object relationship is most intimate just as in the perception of "taste" the contact of subject and object is one of complete identification with or assimilation of the object by the subject.

2. Just as the "taste" of a delicacy is not merely a sum-total of the taste of the ingredients, but is something quite new wherein the ingredients cannot be perceived separately, similarly the content of the enjoyment of art is not a sum-total of the various components of artistic representation, but is quite different. This peculiarity is expressed by the analogy पानकसर्‌-न्याय-i.e. like the rasa or taste of a pānaka or spiced sweet drink.

The ingredients of rasa are- vibhāva (cause), anubhāva (effect), sañcārī bhāva (auxiliary mental states); the proper presentation of these makes the sthāyī bhāva enjoyable (āsvādanīya). The cause and effect relationship inherent in different situations of life, when depicted through drama, tends to free the audience from the bondage of Rāga-Dveṣa (attraction and repulsion), and enables them to relish the bhāva in its universalised साधारणीकृत state without any particularities or limitations of space, time or individual entity (देश, काल, पात्र). Hence artistic enjoyment is alaukika i.e. unlike the common experiences of life. It cannot be equated with memory, imagination or direct experience. That experience brings about the cessation of all mental activity (संविदविश्रान्ति) for the duration of its own existence. It brings about temporary

liberation of the mind from bondages of “I-ness” and makes possible the experience of basic mental states (स्थायि-भाव) in their universalised form. The mind becomes free from all “particular” or binding or limiting factors of a given situation which accompany it in actual life. Thus there is a perfect blending of tāṭasthya (neutrality) and tādātmya (identification) i.e. the audience completely identifies with the given situation and is at the same time detached or neutral because the situation does not affect their actual personal life in any way. This is a combination of bhokṛtva- the state of being the subject of an experience :- (भोक्तृत्व) and sākṣitva- the state of being merely a detached witness:-(साक्षित्व). That is why even painful situations of life become enjoyable in drama.

The earliest extant treatment of the science of music is to be found in Bharata’s Nāṭyaśāstra and there the subject has been dealt with in the context of drama. Music is an important constituent of the pūrvarāṅga or prelude in drama and is also a powerful means of highlighting the important points in a drama. As a part of pūrvaranga, music calms down the mind, frees it from affectations of personal joys and sorrows (निजसुखदुःखविवशीभाव) and equips it with the necessary attitude for receiving the dramatic representation and identifying itself with the various situations represented therein. This function of music is very aptly described by Abhinavagupta in the following words :

निजसुखदुःखादिवशीभूतस्तक कथम् वस्त्वन्तरे संवित् विश्रामयेदिति तत्प्रत्यहृत्य- पोहनाय प्रतिपदार्थनिष्ठः साधारण्या-महिम्ना सकलभोग्यत्वसहिष्णुत्वभिः शब्दादिविषय-मयरातोद्यगानविचित्रमण्डप-पदविदग्धगणिकादिभिरुपरञ्जनं समाश्रितम्। येनाहृदयोडपि हृदयवैमल्यप्राप्त्या सहृदयीभूयते। उक्तं हि ‘दृश्यं श्रव्यं च’।

(Nāṭyaśāstra, G.O.S. Vol. I-2nd ed. p.281)

As a part of drama proper, music is a very powerful means of heightening or deepening the effect of the critical stages of dramatic representation. Speaking in terms of rasa, Bharata in the following passage enjoins the use of different svara-s for different rasa-s.

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हस्त्यृृङ्गारयो: कायौँ स्वरौ मध्यमपञ्चमौ।

षड्जर्षभौ तथा चैव वीररोद्राद्भुतेषु तु॥

गान्धारौ निषादश्च कर्तव्यौ करुणे रसे।

धैवतश्चैव कर्तव्यो बीभत्से सभयानके॥

(Nātyaśāstra, Chowkhamba Ed. 19.38, 39)

It may be observed here that Bharata does not mean the use of isolated svara-s here, but implies that respective svara-s have to be made the amśa svara-s. The following passage will corroborate this observation :

यो यदा बलवान यस्मिन् स्वरो जातिसमाश्रयात्।

तत्प्रयुक्ते रसे गानं कार्यं गेयप्रयुक्तिभि: ॥

मध्यमपञ्चमभूयिष्ठं हस्त्यृृङ्गारयोभयवेत्।

षड्जप्रायकृतं तद्हि वीररोद्राद्भुतेषु च ॥

गान्धारसप्तमप्रायं करुणं गानिमेष्यते।

तथा धैवतभूयिष्ठं बीभत्से सभयानके।

सर्वेष्वंशेषु रसा नियमविधानेन सम्प्रयोज्या: ॥

(Ibid 29.1215)

It has to be borne in mind here that the musical pieces introduced within the drama have a complete background of the given situation represented through the four kinds of abhinaya i.e. the musical representation has not only its visual correlates, but has also the development of the plot in its background.

Bharata has expounded the above rasa-theory of music in the context of jāti-s and jāti-based dhruvā-s (vocal compositions) to be rendered in drama; grāmarāga-s are not elaborately dealt with by Bharata. The authority of Mataṅga has, therefore, to be considered with reference to grāmarāga-s. It is clear beyond doubt from his treatment of grāmarāga-s that he has simply elaborated Bharata’s treatment of this subject and that grāmarāga-s have been treated as part of drama. As Mataṅga’s treatment of deśīrāga-s is lost to us, it is difficult to form a direct opinion about his exposition under this topic. But from indirect evidence it is clear that deśīrāga-s

were not strictly associated with drama as the grāmarāga-s were. The system of rāga dhyāna-s seems to have developed in the context of deśīrāga-s and the roots of this tradition could be traced back to Mataṅga. The following maṅgalācaraṇa śloka found in the beginning of the mutilated section on deśīrāga-s in his text suggests that there must have been some tradition of tāntri c dhyāna-s of deśīrāga-s upheld by Mataṅga.

बन्धूकार्भां त्रिनेत्राममृतकरकलाशेखरां रक्तवस्त्रां

पीनोन्नतजघनप्रवृत्तस्तनभरनमितां यौवनारम्भरूढां॥

सर्वालङ्कारभूषां सरसिजनिलयां बीजसङ्क्रान्तमूर्तिं

देवीं पाशाङ्कुशाभ्यामभयवरकरां विश्वयोनिं नमामि॥

(Brhaddeśī, pp. 140, 141)

This surmise is supported by the references to Mataṅga made by Rāṇā Kumbhā (15th cent.) in the course of the latter's treatment of this subject. The Saṅgītopaniṣat-Sāroddhāra (14th cent.) and Saṅgītarāja (15th cent.) are the two important texts containing a fair record of this tradition. From the 16th century onwards the dhyāna-s given in texts bear an imprint of the system of nāyaka-nāyikā-bheda with some faint remnants of the Tantric tradition scattered here and there. It can, therefore, be safely concluded that the Tantric tradition of rāga-dhyāna continued for more than ten centuries.

The significance of this tradition can be definitely associated with the spiritual basis of musical culture in India. Tantra is the technique of spiritual culture and the musical system based on spiritual cultures or forming part of the same could logically transfer to itself the system of dhyāna-s of Devī-s and Deva-s. Naturally, this tradition could originate and evolve only in rāga-s independent of drama. In a period of decadence of this tradition, another stream of visual contemplation appeared viz. the system of rāga- dhyāna based on nāyaka-bheda. This system could be reasonably justified by the fact that the detachment of music from drama did leave a vacuum as the background of dramatic representation was lacking a visual representation and

rāga-dhyāna filled up the void by supplying a visual corelate for aesthetic contemplation mainly on the part of the musician and to some extent on the part of the listener. Both modern physics and our traditional metaphysics of sound uphold that the objects of visual and auditory perception are not basically different, but are mutually convertible. It is common experience that hearing and seeing are not only mutually supplementary or complementary, but are also capable of replacing each other to a considerable extent. The tradition of rāga-dhyāna was, therefore, nothing far-fetched or fantastic; it was a realistic approach to artistic imagery.

The above observations regarding the tradition of rāga-dhyāna-s pertain only to the basic and original idea behind it. We are not concerned here with the degeneration of this concept of visual contemplation of rāga, an auditory individuality, into poetic fancy or fantasy.

Coming to modern times, the prevalent conditions may thus be summarised :--

1. Rāga-music is completely independent of drama i.e. there is no declared situation of life in the background of music.

2. The tradition of rāga-dhyāna is completely lost and if some stray remnants are rarely found here and there, they are most arbitrary and there is no established norm for the guidence of the musician and the listener.

3. The inclusion of visual representation in music through nṛtya, as a component of saṅgīta is no more valid, as gīta and vādya are presented quite independently.

4. The verbal element in music, which is the only means for suggesting a situation of life for aesthetic contemplation, is either very brief and hence ineffective, or unrelated to the aesthetic potentiality of the particular rāga, or it is totally absent as, for example, in instrumental music. The proper position

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of nirgīta or bahirgīta is not generally kept in view and the abstract nature of instrumental music is glorified without reference to the lack of the possibility of specific representation due to total absence of verbal element.

5. So far as Bharata’s theory of associating the mūrchanā-s of particular svara-s with particular rasa-s is concerned, it may be seriously noted that since grāma, the central point of reference in Bharata’s musical system, is lost for some centuries now, the exposition of Bharata has lost its significance.

The above analysis of the present situation leads us to the following observations regarding the applicability of the rasa-theory to modern rāga-music :-

1. In the absence of representation or tangible suggestion of any specific situation of life, the cause and effect (vibhāva-anubhāva) relationship in terms of the rasa theory can be applied only to tonal structure. On the spiritual plane, the unmanifest sound (Anāhata Nāda) pervading the cosmos and the human microcosm is the cause or basis of svara-s. Accordingly, svara is not the creation of man, but is his discovery. As actual realisation on this plane by the musician or listener is out of question in the present context, we cannot proceed further on this cause and effect relationship. On the common level of experience, it can be safely said that the analysis of cause and effect relationship is impossible within the tonal rendering itself.

2. In the absence of connection with drama, four traditional rasa-s viz. hāsya, raudra, bhayānaka and bībhatsa have to be excluded from the purview of musical representation, because it is impossible to sustain them in music unrelated to drama. They could only appear as transitory phases.

3. In the absence of any specific situation as aesthetic background, even śānta, śṛṅgāra, karuṇa, vīra and adbhuta rasa-s have to be reviewed in the present context. Needless to affirm that their description as found in texts, cannot be applied in toto to present day music. Adbhuta can be identified with all levels of virtuosity. For the remaining four viz. śānta, śṛṅgāra, karuṇa, and vīra, the concept of three guṇa-s is very apt for their description. Druti (melting) and dīpti (incitement) of the citta are two basic categories in which the variety of the aesthetic effect of any art can be broadly condensed. Druti is associated with mādhurya guṇa and is brought about by śānta, śṛṅgāra and karuṇa rasa-s and dīpti is associated with ojas guṇa and goes well with vīra rasa. These two broad categories can logically encompass the aesthetic effect of all rāga-s. The third guṇa viz. prasāda implies the direct, straight or absorbing appeal of a rāga, which can be equally compatible with mādhurya or ojas. In my humble opinion, the vagueness and abstract nature of musical representation can very well be covered logically by these three terms. The fact that the names of rasa-s are very loosely used in the context of present day music, lends support to this opinion.

Taking into consideration the conditions brought about by modern science and technology, the following observations may be pertinent :-

1. Preservation and reproduction of sound have become possible and thereby any musical piece can be repeated any number of times. The possibility of repetition gives better scope for analysis, but is not free from serious hazards. It is liable to make listening less attentive and learning more repetitive. Here is also much possibility of a large amount of dross being preserved indiscriminately along with

what is really worthy of preservation. Proper discrimination in preservation and restricted use in learning is, therefore, highly needed. As for analysis, a strong note of caution may be sounded here against blind following of Western methods.

2. The drśya (visual) element of music, i.e. the performer’s visibility to the audience has been eliminated to a large through radio, gramophone, tape-record etc. This is ideally a loss both for the listener and the performer. The absence of personal communication makes music more abstract for the listener and the performer is handicapped for lack of rapport. He has to perform in a closed studio, where there is no external focus. In television, the loss is the same for the performer but less for the listener.

3. The propogation of sound through microphones and loudspeakers has made possible the presentation of music to huge audiences, where again the chances of personal communication between the audience and the performer are very remote. The artiste is faced not by human individuals but by abstract humanity. The individuals in the front rows are unfortunately not appreciative in general. The loss of tone-quality in reproduction is another important factor.

4. The printing press has given an impetus to the use of musical notation which has both its advantages and disadvantages. The advantages are obvious; the main disadvantages are-undue regard for symbols and deterioration in the concentration involved in learning.

The above observations clearly point out the fact that musical presentation, listening and learning have become depersonalised due to science and techology. The time of being dazzled by the achievements of technology in the preservation and propagation of sound is over and it is high time that objective stock-taking of the situation is attempted and caution

and discrimination exercised in the use of mechanical devices. This country is perhaps the foremost in the vulgar and indiscriminate use of these devices and it is highly imperative to pause and think.

While concluding, let us revert to the rasa concept and in that connection it appears pertinent that the gains and losses of specialisation are taken into account. With the development of music independently of drama, the potentialities of sound have found full scope, but there are certain limitations attached to this situation. Once we accept the limitations, we need not expect the whole paraphernalia of rasa theory that developed in the context of drama, to be directly presentable in our music. If the aesthetic effect of our music is vague in the context of traditional rasa terminology, if it is nebulous, if it evades or defies analysis, there is nothing to fight shy of. Herein lies the beauty or speciality of musical “expression”.

Why should we expect that kind of “expression” from music which could be verbalised? Let us have the courage and conviction to call a spade a spade.

Rasa in its essential form of aesthetic delight is undoubtedly present in music, but its direct analysis in terms of traditional exposition is neither fully possible nor is it warranted. As in other arts, so in music, we have to give due recognition also to lower aesthetic levels. It is not proper to expect the rasa level in all kinds of musical rendering. The levels of “Ranga” and “Bhāva” have been recognised by our old texts, in addition to rasa (cf. Saṅgīta Ratnākara, Chap. III – description of musicians of different levels viz. Ranjaka, Bhāvuka and Rasika). And let us not forget that music is also capable of making an “Ahrdaya” a “Sahrdya” by purifying his heart. This cathartic value of music should not be lost sight of in an attempt to glorify it with the crown of rasa.

SECTION II

Some Technical Terms

THE ANCIENT GRĀMA SYSTEM

and

ITS DISTORTION IN THE MEDIEVAL TIMES*

At the very outset I beg your permission for expressing my deep gratitude to the Music Academy for having afforded me the golden opportunity of addressing such a distinguished gathering of musicologists and musicians as we have here today.

The subject of my paper might appear to be dry and dreary on the one hand, and on the other hand, it might give the impression that I am going to talk about certain obsolete things and thereby give vent to a reactionary tendency of tracing back the steps over ground which we have advanced in developing our musical system. But I may humbly assure you that there is no such thing in my paper and I am sure, will bear testimony to this fact when you have kindly listened to me. This much for the first half of the title of my paper, viz., ‘The Ancient Grāma System’. The second half of the title, viz. ‘Its Distortion in the Medieval Times’ might give the impression that I am going to speak of certain revolutionary things. May I tell you with the permission of Dr. Raghavan that he remarked the other day that I had chosen a revolutionary subject. Yes, I confess that the thesis of my paper is revolutionary in the respect that it embodies an attempt at re-establishing certain truths that fell into oblivion since the medieval times and in the course of this attempt I shall, with all humility, have to hit at the root of certain wrong notions that we have come to adopt

1. Reproduced from The Journal of The Music Academy, Madras, Vol XXXII- I-IV

during the course of time. In that respect I crave the indulgence

of the learned gathering in the cause of the re-installation of

truth.

In every branch of learning there are certain fundamental

elements which have a permanent standing, which are

universally true for all times and places just like arithmetical

principles, and there are other elements which change in

course of time in the natural process of development. In the

light of this general truth it can be said that musical forms can

change, rather they do change. Styles change due to various

reasons, and through the impact of various influences, names

and terminologies change; but there are certain fundamental

principles which admit of no change. The law of consonance or

Samvāda is one of those permanent principles. The usage of

the term Samvādī may change as it has been changed by

certain authors who have used it in Rāga-Lakṣaṇas to denote

the second predominant note of a Rāga, but the interval

representing Samvāda or consonance can never change. The

interval of ‘Sa-Pa’ (Fifth) and ‘Sa-Ma’ (Fourth) can never

change, no matter what name we give to it, and no matter

whether we depict it through 13 or 9 śruti intervals or through

arithmetical fractions such as 3/2 and 4/3. Similarly, the

interval of ‘Sa’ and Antara Gāndhāra or the interval of perfect

third is unchangeable. It is clearly audible from the string of

Mandra Ṣadja in our stringed instruments like the Tambura and

the Vīṇā or Sitar. These Samvādī (consonant) intervals which

are embodied in the upper partials or harmonics cannot be

changed in any time or place.

After this general introduction I come to the Grāma system

which is based on the two main Samvādās, viz. Ṣadja-Pañcama-

Samvāda and Ṣadja-Madhyama-Samvāda. This Grāma system

embodies the kernel of the science of musical scales as

developed by our seers. While discussing this topic, it should

always be borne in mind that Grāma is a scientific or śāstraic

concept and in all branches of learning, the science or theory is

The Ancient Grāma System and Its Distortion in....

113

constructed on the basis of the art or practice for the sake of standardisation, regulation and classification, just as grammar is evolved out of the usage of a spoken or written language. Grāma is, therefore, the grammar of our musical scales and this particular grammar embodies certain fundamental principles which hold good for all times and places.

Bharata, the earliest extant authority on our music, speaks of two grāmas, viz. Ṣaḍja-grāma and Madhyama-grāma. He is silent about the third grāma, viz., Gāndhāra-grāma, which is referred to in Nāradīya Śikṣā, Mataṅga's Bṛhaddeśī and practically all subsequent works. It deserves mention here that all the works which enumerate the Gāndhāra-grāma as the third Grāma, speak of it as prevalent only in ‘Svarga’ (celestial region) and proclaim that it is not used by human beings, स तु मर्त्यैर्न गीयते. It is quite out of place here to try to go into the obscure points of this third Grāma. It will suffice here to say that today a study of the Grāma system has to be confined to two Grāmas which have been propounded by Bharata.

Ṣaḍjagrāma is based on Ṣaḍja-Pañcama-Samvāda, all the notes in this Grāma having the mutual Samvādī interval of Ṣadja-Pañcama-Bhāva or 13 Śruti interval or ‘Sa-Pa’, ‘Ri-Dha’ ‘Ga-Ni’, ‘Ma-Sa’ but the characteristic feature of Madhyama-grāma is Ṛṣabha-Pañcama-Samvāda; in the words of Bharata :

षड्जग्रामे तु संवाद: षड्जस्य पञ्चमस्य च।

संवादो मध्यमग्रामे पञ्चमस्यर्षभस्य च ॥

(N. Ś. 28/21)

Thus Ṣaḍjagrāma has its characteristic feature in Ṣaḍja-Pañcama-Samvāda and Madhyama-grāma in Ṛṣabha-Pañcama-Samvāda. This simple statement of Bharata initiates us into a vast realm of revelation and that is this. Ṣaḍjagrāma has Ṣaḍja-Pañcama-Samvāda, but it has no Ṛṣabha-Pañcama-Samvāda because Ṛṣabha being ‘Triśrutic’ in Ṣaḍja-grāma it has a ten-śruti interval with Pañcama and thus no Samvāda is possible between Ṛṣabha and Pañcama. In Madhyamagrāma, however,

the Ṣadja-Pañcama-Samvāda is violated by establishing Rṣabha-Pañcama-Samvāda. In other words, the Pañcama of Madhyama-grāma is at twelve Śruti-interval from Ṣadja which is not a Samvādī interval and thus it has a Samvādī interval of nine śrutis from Rṣabha. Now I invite the special attention of the learned audience to the importance of this Samvāda-bheda in the two grāmas. In Ṣadjagrāma we arrive at the perfect fifth and in Madhyamagrāma we reduce this perfect fifth so as to make it the perfect fourth of Triśruti-Rṣabha. Now what is the significance of this slight variation? An answer to this pertinent question is available in Bharata’s own words. He says :-

मध्यमग्रामे तु श्रुत्यप्रकृष्ट: पञ्चम: कार्य:। पञ्चमस्य श्रुत्युत्कर्षाभ्यां यदन्तरं

मार्दवादयतत्वाद्द्वा तावत् प्रमाणश्रुति:।

N. Ś. 28.

That is to say, the difference between the Pañcama of Ṣadja grāma and that of Madhyamagrāma comprises the Pramāṇa-Śruti or the standard Śruti. In mathematical calculation, this difference comes to 81/80 which is the same as the ‘Comma Didymus’ of the Greeks. The beauty of Bharata’s exposition lies in the fact that he has evolved such a simple and easy method of arriving at this subtle interval of Pramāṇaśruti through the system of two Grāmas which are based on the simple consonance or Samvada of Ṣadja-Pañcama or Rṣabha-Pañcama (in Ṣadja-Madhyama-Bhāva). The accuracy of this method is beyond question because it is corroborated by mathematical calculation and its simplicity is unrivalled because it is based on the simplest consonant (Samvādī) intervals.

The Pramāṇa-Śruti is the key-note of Bharata’s scientific, accurate and at the same time simple method of arriving at and demonstrating the 22 Śruti intervals. He has expounded the Catuḥśāraṇā on the basis of these two Grāmas and the first step in the Catuḥśāraṇā is the fixation of the verification of the Pramāṇa-Śruti or the standard measure of Śruti. When in the initial stage of Catuḥśāraṇā, no measure of Śruti is available to

us, and when no hypothesis can reasonably be taken for granted, Bharata's method of arriving at the Pramāṇa-Śruti clearly opens the way for arriving at the 22 Śruti intervals. The mathematical precision and unequalled lucidity of Bharata's Catuḥṣāraṇā-vidhi owe their existence to the system of two Grāmas, viz. Ṣaḍjagrāma and Madhyamagrāma. This fact is sufficient to show the permanent value of the Grāma system, because we cannot just afford to label this system as obsolete and out of date unless and until we have evolved a method of arriving at and demonstrating the 22 Śruti intervals which can surpass the Catuḥṣāraṇā-vidhi of Bharata based on the two Grāmas. It is a glowing jewel of our 'Śāstriya' heritage in music which we cannot afford to lose. A full exposition of Catuḥṣāraṇā would require a separate and independent paper. Hence I cannot but close this topic here itself.

Thus we have seen one major utility of the Grāma system, viz., its application in fixing up and verifying the 22 Śruti intervals. Now I wish to draw the kind attention of the distinguished audience towards the other aspect of the Grāma system, viz., the classification of all musical scales prevalent in our Indian Music through Mūrcchanās of the two Grāmas. In this context, the position of Madhyamagrāma has to be understood in a different manner. When Grāma forms the basis of Catuḥṣāraṇā, that is to say, when it is used for the standardisation of the Śruti intervals, relative Apakarṣa or reduction of the Pañcama of Ṣaḍjagrāma is ordained, as explained above; but when we are concerned with the Mūrcchanās of the two Grāmas, no Apakarṣa has to be made for arriving at the Madhyamagrāma, because Apakarṣa or reduction cannot be accepted in actual practice of singing or playing. Hence Bharata says in the context of Mūrcchanā that Madhyamagrāma is derived out of Ṣaḍjagrāma by Samjñābheda, i.e. by changing the name of notes. He says that if the Ṣadja of Ṣadja-grāma is called Madhyama and if the Gāndhāra of Ṣaḍjagrāma is augmented by two Śrutis and

is given the place of Dhaivata we can have Madhyamagrāma

by Samjñābheda.

Just as Madhyamagrāma is obtained in a particular

Mūrcchanā of Ṣadjagrāma, similarly Ṣadjagrāma can be

obtained in that Mūrcchanā of Madhyamagrāma where

Dhaivata is lowered by two Śrutis and is given the place of

Gāndhāra. Thus Grama and Mūrcchanā are interchangeable

terms in the sense that one Grāma is nothing else but a

particular Mūrcchanā of the other. This important point is

elucidated in the following passage of Bharata :--

द्विविधैकमूच्छनासिद्धिः; द्विश्रुतिप्रकर्षाद्धैवतीकृते गान्धारे मूर्छनाग्रमयोर्न्यतरत्वं

षड्जग्रामे। तद्रशान्मध्यमादयो निषादादिमत्वं (निषादादित्वं) प्रतिपद्यन्ते। मध्यमग्रामेऽपि

धैवतमार्दवात् (धैवतामार्दवात्) निषादोत्तरषत्व् (च) द्विविध्यं भवति। तुल्यश्रुत्यनन्तरत्वाच्च

संज्ञान्यत्वम्। चतुः श्रुतिकमतन्तरं पञ्चमधैवतयोः। तद्रद्रान्यारोत्तरषत्वाच्चतुः श्रुतिकमेव

भवति। शेषाक्षरपि मध्यमपञ्चमधैवतनिषादषड्जर्षभ मध्यमादिमत्वं (षड्जादित्वं)

प्राप्नुवन्ति।

(N. S. 28)1

Bharata’s above doctrine of the close relationship of two

Grāmas is corroborated by the following passages from

Dattilam and Sangītarāja of Kumbhā Rāṇā :

ग्रामौँ धैवतीकुर्यात् (व ? द्वि) श्रुत्युत्तर्षणाद् यदिः।

तद्रशान्मध्यमादीनां निषादादीनां यथास्थितान्॥

ततोऽभूूद यावतिथ्येषा षड्जग्रामस्य मूर्छना।

जायते तावतिथ्यैव मध्यमग्राममूर्छना ॥

श्रुतिह्यापकर्षेण गान्धारीकृत्य

धैवतम्।

पूर्ववन्मध्यमादाश्र

भावयेत् षड्जमूर्छना: ॥

(दत्तिलम् २६-२८)

षड्जग्रामभवा एवं मूर्छना मध्यमाश्रिता: ।

नित्रम् मध्यमगा एवं ता: स्यु: षड्जगता यथा ॥

1. The text of this passage has been reconstructed on the basis of

the two editions of Nātyaśāstra published from Kashi and

Bombay; cf. Sangītānjali, Part V by Pt. Omkarnath Thakur, P.

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117

षड्जे श्रुतिद्वयोर्षादान्धारो धैवतीभवेत्।

द्विश्रुत्यपचयाद ग्रामे मध्यमेऽधोगतां ब्रजेत्।

तद्र्शान्मादिका: षड्जे भजन्ते न्यादितां स्वरा:।

नान्याद्या: स्युमदिका: मध्ये श्रुतिसाम्यात्स्वत: स्वरा:।

एवं यावतिथी षड्जग्रामे या मूर्च्छना भवेत्।

तावतिथ्येन सा मध्ये चित्रमात्राभवत् स्वयम्।

वैणिकानामयं पन्था: सुगम: श्रुतिशालिनाम्॥

Sañgītārāja, Gīta Ratna Kośa, Svarā Ullāsa,

Sthānādi-Parīkṣaṇa, 370-374.

It is to be noted that in the context of Mūrchanā, Bharata does not speak of any Apakarṣa-Kriyā. The 14 Mūrchhanās thus arrived at from the two Grāma and their 56 varieties as Pūrṇā, Ṣāḍavā, Auḍavā and Sādhāraṇīkrtā cover practically all possible scales of our Indian music, whether it is Hindusthāni or Karṇātic. This statement also needs elaboration which is impossible within the limits of this paper but it can be established beyond doubt that the Mūrchhanās cover practically all varieties of our musical scales.

Having indicated briefly the double utility and soundness of the Grāma system, I now come to the second half of my subject, viz., its distortion in the medieval times. The concept of Grāma, somehow or other fell, into oblivion since the time of Saṅgīta Ratnākara and in the later works of the medieval times, both of the South and the North, the concept underwent perversion and distortion. Without meaning any offence to those great authors and with due deference, I have to make this statement because it embodies the truth. The following three observations on the treatment of this topic in Saṅgīta Ratnākara will support the above statement :-

(i) The Catuḥṣaṛaṇā-Prakaraṇa of Saṅgīta Ratnākara is most obscure, impractical and inaccurate, because Grāma has been totally abandoned in the treatment of Catuḥṣaraṇā. The tuning of twenty-two strings into twenty-two Śrutis has been ordained in the Saṅgīta Ratnākara but no precise method of

standardising these Śruti intervals has been indicated. This is not a sweeping statement, but it is fully supported by obscure expressions like “manāg ucca, nirantaratā,” etc., which are used in connection with the tuning of the strings. Thus the main purpose of Grāma, viz., the fixation of Śruti intervals has been forfeited in this work.

(ii) The concept of Samjñābheda for arriving at the Madhyamagrāma from the Ṣadjagrāma and vice versa has been abandoned. This has led to the falling of the Grāma system into oblivion and obscurity.

(iii) Thirdly, Ṣadjagrāma has been taken to represent the Śuddha-Svaras or notes and the location of Ṣadjagrāma on the Viṇā has not been clarified.

The three features of the treatment of Svarā, Śruti and Grāma in the Sangita Ratnākara had far-reaching consequences, which may be briefly indicated as follows :-

(1) The precision and lucidity of the Catuḥsāraṇā-Vidhi as propounded by Bharata was lost for posterity and all sorts of confusion arose regarding Śruti-intervals and note-intervals in terms of Śrutis. Many of these confusions have been inherited by us and are still lingering on in our conception of Svarā, Śruti and Grāma.

(2) The exact location of Ṣadjagrāma on the Viṇā could not be accomplished by any writer, although all of them professed that Bharata’s Ṣadjagrāma represented their Śuddha notes.

(3) As the real significance of the Apakrṣṭa-Pañcama of Madhyamagrāma was lost, practically all authors began to proclaim that their contemporary music was restricted to the Ṣadjagrāma only and that Madhyamagrāma had become obsolete. Really speaking, the concept of Grāma is an undivided whole with the Grāmas, Ṣadja and Madhyama, as two inseparable elements. We can describe the two Grāmas as being Vāganthāviva samprktau. Neither of them can be

detached from the other, but the distortion of this basic concept led to the notion that Madhyamagrāma had been lost. This notion came to be in vogue only due to the fact that music authors lost sight of the real purpose of the Grāma system and found it impossible to locate the two Grāmas on the Vīṇā.

The lamentable consequences of the notion that Ṣadjagrāma was representative of the Śuddha notes need little elaboration here. Really speaking, neither of the two Grāmas was originally intended to represent the Śuddha notes. As I said in the beginning, Grāma was the perpetual grammar of our musical scales, but it had nothing to do with the concept of Śuddha and Vikṛta Svaras or notes. The concept of Śuddha or Vikṛta notes implies that a certain set of notes is taken to be the standard or Śuddha for practical purposes and the other note varieties that are higher and lower than the particular Śuddha notes are described as Vikṛta. This is the practical aspect of that concept and in its theoretical aspect it implies that Śuddha notes should be natural, easy-flowing and Samvādamaya or endowed with consonance. The conception that Ṣadjagrāma was the traditional Śuddha-Svarāvali was neither true to the original concept of Grāma as explained above nor was it in conformity with the real implication of the term ‘Śuddha’ scale as it should be. Moreover, the attempts at locating the Ṣadjagrāma taken to be the Śuddha scale on the Vīṇā led to two different kinds of pitfalls that can be noticed in the post-Ratnākara works on music, both of the North and the South. They are as follows :

(1) In the North, authors like Ahobala and Śrīnivāsa and others who followed them failed to locate the Triśruti-Rṣabha and Dhaivata on the Vīṇā. They took the Catuḥśruti-Rṣabha and Dhaivata to be Triśruti and professed all along, contrary to the actual position of their contemporary music, that Ṣadjagrama was their Suddha scale. When serious attempts at reconciliation of theory and actual practice revealed and established in the latter half of the 18th century in the

Sangītasāra compiled by Mahārāja Pratāpasimha Deva of Jaipur and in the first half of the 19th century in Nagmāte Āsafī by Mohammed Raza of Patna, that Bilāvala, and not the so-called Ṣadjagrāma, was the śuddha scale, another wrong notion gradually crept in and that was that the traditional Ṣadjagrāma was replaced by the Bilāvala scale through some foreign influence on the music of the North, East and West of India. That this notion is most unsound and misleading, I shall establish just a little later.

(2) In the South, on the other hand, Mukhārī or Kanakāngī Mela was proclaimed to be representative of Ṣadjagrāma and was said to be the Śuddha scale. In this connection I might just quote a few lines from what Prof. P. Sambamurthi has to say on this point (vide p. 145, Pranava Bhāratī By Pt. Omkarnath Thakur) :

"The Śuddha-Svara-saptaka of Karnātic music is theoretically the Kanakāngī rāga which is the first mela in the scheme of 72 Melakartās; but the concept of Kanakāngī as the Śuddhamela is not more than four-hundred years old. When the scheme of 72 Melakartās was evolved, the lowest variety of each of the notes, Ṛṣabha, Gāndhara, Dhaivata and Niṣāda, were taken as the Śuddha-Svaras. This sounds logical; but before the emergence of Kanakāngī as the Śuddha Mela, the Kāfī Thāt or Kharaharapriyā of the Southern system was the Śuddhamela. Still earlier in ancient Tamil music, the Khamāj, Mela. This Harikāmbhoji-Mela is only the Madhyama Mūrchanā of Ṣadjagrāma or Kāfī Thāt... Kanakāngī is not a very melodious Rāga. It suffers from 'Vivādī Doṣa'. All subsequent musicologists have acquiesced in this concept because logically we have got to subscribe to some proposition which will appeal to our sense of reason."

The Vivādī Doṣa of this Mukhārī or Kanakāngī is quite clear and it cannot be overlooked. Hence it goes without saying that Mukhārī or Kanakāngī does not really represent the Ṣadjagrāma although Rāmāmātya has said :

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षड्जग्रामस्वरा: सप्त मुखरीमात्रभासका: ।

Rāmāmātya's location of the Şadjagrāma or Śuddha notes on the Vīṇā presents the Śuddha scales as Sa-ri-ri-ma-pa-dha-dha-sa, wherein Dviśruti and Triśruti intervals have been taken as Triśruti and Pañcaśruti respectively. (See illustration No. 1 at the end). This scale is neither a representative of Şadjagrāma nor is it really fit to be called Śuddha, because it is not natural, easyflowing and samvādamaya or characterised by consonance.

Having briefly demonstrated the havoc created by the oblivion of the Grāma system in the North and the South, I want to demonstrate briefly how both the Grāmas can be correctly located on the Vīṇā in accordance with the words of Bharata. (Cf. illustration No. 2 at the end.)

As regards the location of Şadjagrāma on the Vīṇā, one phrase and another sentence of Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra are most significant, viz., Pañcamena Śuddhaşādji (N.S. 28th chapter in the context of the enumeration of Mūrcchanās) and सर्वस्वराणां प्रबरो ह्यविनाशी तु मध्यम:, (N.S. 28/69). These two extracts when read together elucidate that Pañcama which is obtained on the second fret by tuning the main string to Madhyama, is the starting point of Şadjagrāma. Perfect Şadjagrāma is obtained from this place.

The ageold tradition of tuning the main string of the Vīṇā to Madhyama has been handed down to us. Rāmāmātya has also followed this tradition while describing the order of tuning the strings of the Śuddha-mela-vīṇā. Şadja is obtained on the 7th fret when Madhyama is located on the main string. This Şadja is the Madhyama of Şadjagrāma which has been described as 'Avināśī' by Bharata. When this Madhyama of Şadjagrāma is taken as the starting point, in other words when the Mūrcchana of Şadjagrāma is constructed, the Harikāmbhojī scale is obtained. This scale is different from Bilāvala or Şañkarābharaṇa only in respect of Niṣāda. The requisite Niṣāda of Bilāvala can be obtained by taking the Antara-Gāndhāra of Şadjagrāma. Madhyamagrāma can be located on the Vīṇā by

taking the Ṣadja of Ṣadjagrāma as Madhyama. The Bilāvala or Śaṅkarābharaṇa scale can be obtained in the Niṣāda Mūrchanā of Madhyamagrāma (cf. illustration No. 3 at the end).

Thus it is established beyond doubt that Śaṅkarābharaṇa or Bilāvala has an unbroken and close connection with both the Grāmas and that we need not hold any foreign influence to be the cause of the prevalence of this natural scale (Śaṅkarābharaṇa). The Grāma system is still alive with us; whether we recognise this fact or not, is a different question.

I have already showed briefly the sound basis of the Grāma system as propounded by Bharata in his Catuḥsāraṇā Prakaraṇa and Mūrchanā in two different contexts. His Grāma system fulfils a double purpose, viz., the standardisation of the Śruti intervals on the one hand and the classification of various scales on the other. After this elucidation it can be safely said that a proper understanding of the Grāma system does not imply any reactionary tendency; it will rather make us worthy of our rich heritage which is unrivalled among the musical systems of the world. This understanding can set at rest all doubts and speculations regarding our tradition of scales and can also resolve the difference of the Śuddha scale of the North and the South. Both systems of our music undoubtedly owe allegiance to Bharata; there is no doubt about it and if the Grāma system of Bharata provides a common meeting place to both of them it should be a most welcome event. I appeal to the Music Academy, Madras, to encourage elaborate discussions and deliberations on this topic of cardinal importance and take the credit of rendering a great service of national importance by resolving our difference of scales through a proper understanding of Bharata on the lines indicated above. ‘Well-begun is half done’, so runs a proverb. I shall deem it a rare, valuable privilege if my humble submission proves to be a good and auspicious beginning. On the model of the motto, ‘Back to Home and Back to God’ let us join hands and say ‘Back to Bharata and Back to Grāma’.

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123

Illustration No. 1

Rāmāmātya's location of

Ṣadjagrāma (Śuddha Svaras) on the Viṇā

The first string from the right

The second string from the right

Actual Śruti Intervals

Imposed Śruti Intervals

Mandara Ma.

Mandara Sa.

Śuddha Pa. Śuddha Dha. Śuddha Ni.

Śuddha Ri. Śuddha Ga.

2 2 2 1

3 2 3 2

124

Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

Illustration No. 2

Ṣadjagrāma and Madhyamagrāma

Ṣadjagrāma

Śruti Intervals

Madhyama grāma

Ni.

4

Ga

Sa.

3

Ma

Ri.

2

Pa

Ga.

2

Ant. Ga.

2

Dha

Ma.

2

Ni

Pa.

4

Sa

3

Ri

Dha.

2

Ga

Ni.

4

Sa.

Ma

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125

Illustration No. 3

Śaṅkarābharaṇa or Bilāvala

Scale in relation to the two Grāmas

Sadja grāma

Madhyama grāma

Śaṅkarā bharaṇa

Śruti Intervals

Ma

Ni

Sa

4

Pa

Sa

Ri

3

Dha

Ri

Ga

2

Ni

Ga

Ma

4

Sa

Ma

Pa

3

Ri

Pa

Dha

4

Ga

Dha

Ni

2

Ant. Ga.

Ni

Sa

Before closing, I take the opportunity of heartily thanking the Music Academy and the learned audience. I also beg your permission to recall with reverential gratitude the illumination received by me from my revered Gurudeva, Pt. Omkarnath Thakur, who has carried on intensive research in this and many other subjects of Indian Music.

THE CONCEPT OF STHĀYA

in

INDIAN SAṂGĪTAŚĀSTRA*

PART I

A Critical and Historical Estimate

[Abbreviations : 1. K. = Kallinātha and his 'Kalānidhi'

commentary on Saṅgītaratnākara. 2. P. = Pārśvadeva, author

of Saṅgītasamayasāra. S = Sudhākara, commentary of Siṃha-

bhūpāla on S. R. 4. S.R. = Saṅgīta Ratnākara of Śārṅgadeva.

5. S. Rāja = Saṅgīta Rāja of Kumbhakarna (Rānā Kumbhā).

6. S.S. = Saṅgīta Sudhā of Raghunātha Bhūpa. 7. S.S.

Sāra = Saṅgītasamayasāra. 8. Chatu. = Chaturdaṇḍiprakāśikā

of Vyaṅkaṭamakhi.]

1. Historical Note

'Sthāya' or 'Ṭhāya' is a very important concept of Indian

Saṅgītaśāstra, which has fallen almost completely into

oblivion. It is akin to Gamaka, but has a much wider scope,

embracing all aspects of musical tone and its embellishments.

Among extant texts, S.R. is the first to mention it and to accord

it a comprehensive treatment in Prakīrṇakādhyāya. S.S. Sāra of

P. which is almost a contemporary work also deals with this

topic and the numerous Deśī names of Sthāya-s (many times

mentioned as Ṭhāya-s) in Mahārāṣṭrī Prākṛta (e.g., Śārīrāché,

Gāṇāché, Chittāché Ṭhāya) that find a place in this text point

to the fact that 'Sthāya' must have been popularly known

1. Reproduced from The Journal of The Music Academy, Madras, Vol

XXXII- I-IV

The Concept of Sthāya in Indian Saṅgīta Śāstra

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among musicians and musicologists in the 12th and 13th centuries A.D. and that there must have been a rich and long tradition of practical subtleties and the finest theoretical analysis behind its Śāstric treatment in S.R. and S.S. Sāra. We shall also see in the course of this paper that the origin of these sources can be traced in Bharata's and Matanga's texts which do not contain a direct reference to it. Contemporary (earlier or later) and posterior texts of S.R. may be grouped as follows according to their treatment or omission of this topic.

1. Those dealing with it in full detail, almost reproducing the text of S.R.

(i) S. Rāja (ii) S.S. Sāra (iii) S.S. It has a special feature, viz., incorporation of important points found in the K. and S. commentaries on S.R. (iv) Saṅgītasārāmṛta of Tulajādhīpa.

2. Those giving a partial treatment : Puṇḍarīka Viṭṭhala's Sadrāgacandrōdaya is the only text in this category; it mentions only seven Sthāya-s.

3. Those that are silent about Sthāya, but many of which deal with Gamaka-s fully or partially (*—sign stands for the omission of Gamaka-s) (i) Nānyadeva's Bharata Bhāṣya (ii) Rāmāmātya's Svaramelakalānidhi (iii) Śubhaṅkara's Saṅgitadāmodara (iv) Śrīkaṇṭha's Rasakaumudī (v) Dāmodara Paṇḍita's Saṅgīta Darpaṇa.

स्थाया अपि भवन्त्यत्र रागस्यावयववात्मनः । प्रसिद्धास्तद्धिदां ते तु नोक्ता विस्तारभीतः । रागाभिव्यक्तिशक्तित्वमनभ्यासेऽपि यदृच्वने: ॥

(Śloka-s 316, 17, Tanjore Edition.)

(vi) Ahōbala's Saṅgīta Pārijāta (vii) Śrīnivāsa's Rāgatattvavibōdha.

4. Those that partially deal with 'Sthāya' under a different name-Somanātha's Rāgavibodha is the only text falling in this category; it mentions twenty Vādanabheda-s in the fifth Viveka and the author's commentary on the

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introductory verse (v. 14) says that there are infinite varieties

of tonal embellishments in Vādana (of Viṇā) called Gamaka

and Sthāya, but only twenty of them will be dealt with by him,

which are most popular in Desī Saṅgīta.

5. Those that give a different meaning to ‘Thāya’ :

Vyaṅkatamakhī’s Chatur is the only text of this type. It devotes

the seventh Prakaraṇa (of seven verses, vide Madras Music

Academy edition) to ‘Thāya’ and defines it as the shifting of

‘Sthāyi-Svara’ in a Rāga, i.e. temporarily allocating the position of

‘Sthāyi-svara’ to a note or notes other than the original ‘Sthāyin’.

Thus it is a special variety of Ālāpa, but is recognised as being

casually mentions ‘Thāya’ along with Ālāpa and Prabandha. Prof.

P. Sambamoorthy (in Kīrtanasāgaram Pt. II)1 defines ‘Thāya’ as a

composed piece (not set to Tāla) delineating the special features of

a Rāga and making use of meaningless syllables like ‘Nom Tom

Ri’, etc. This description applies to the ‘Tānam’ of Karnāṭak Music

today; but the only difference is that Tānam is improvised and not

composed. Prof. Sambamoorthy says that Thāya is completely out

of vogue now. He has cited an illustration in Rāga Nādanāmakriyā

from a MS. deposited in the Saraswati Mahal Library, Tanjore (cf.

Vyaṅkatamakhī’s statement that his Parama Guru Tāṇappāchārya

had composed Thāya-s in all Rāga-s). He also says that these

compositions are very useful for students of both vocal and

instrumental music.

Vyaṅkaṭamakhī seems to have used the word ‘Thāya’ in a

more restricted sense, circumscribing it to variations in Sthāyi-

svara. (cf. P.’s reference to ‘Thāya’ under ‘Anyarāgakāku’ in Pt. II2

of this paper). To sum up :

(i) The concept of ‘Sthāya’ distinctly appears in S.R. for the

1. For Tamil references the author is indebted to Sri Srirangam Kannan,

Lecturer in Vocal Music (Karnatic), Banaras Hindu Univarsity.

2. “A Glossary of Sthāya-s”, is being given after this article. -Ed.

The Concept of Sthaya in Indian Sangita Sastra

129

first time and that too in a full-fledged form.

(ii) The ‘Deśī’ names of ‘Sthāya-s’ mentioned in S.S. Sāra are dropped by all subsequent authors.

(iii) Among later (post-15th cent. A.D.) authors, only those belonging to the South (not, of course, all Southern authors) dealt with the concept and some of them used the term ‘Ṭhāya’ in a different and restricted sense, which has been mentioned by P. under Anyarāgakāku (see Part II). It is notable that authors following S.R. in the treatment of Sthāya were contemporaries of those giving a different treatment. It is, therefore, probable that this term was in vogue for a long period in a wide and restricted sense. The origin of its wider sense can be traced in older texts (preceding S.R.).

(iv) This terminology has now completely gone out of vogue both in the North and in the South.

2. Definition and Scope of Sthāya

S.R. has given a cryptic definition of ‘Sthāya’ as ‘rāgasyaṁāvayaḥ sthāyaḥ’ (iii. 97) i.e., a component, constituent or ingredient of ‘Rāga’ which has two meanings, viz., ‘Rañjakatā’ (the state of being pleasing or charming) in general and a ‘Svarasanniveśa’ (melodic pattern) in particular. This means that ‘Sthāya’ comprises an analysis of the elements of ‘Rañjakatā’ in music and the delineation of ‘Rāga’. A cursory glance at the appended glossary of Sthāya-s (Part II) will corroborate this explanation. P. throws more light on this point (S. S. Sāra 2, 32-37).

यो यथा चालनः स्थायास्तांस्थैव निवेशयेत्।

विचित्रस्य तु गीतस्य यथौचित्योपवेशनम्॥

स्थाया विधेया न तु सैकरूपा बहुप्रकारैर्‌विकृता विभाति ।

विचित्ररुपोऽपि मयूरकण्ठो जगजनप्रीतकरो यथा सः॥ ३३ ॥

स्थायनामानि कथ्यन्ते ...... (91 names are given)

एवमुक्तस्थायशब्दन किनाभिधीयते ?

गत्या गमकयोगेन रागेणान्येन केन वा।

स्वरवृत्ति: स्वरवृत्तिस्थाय इत्यभिधीयते ॥ ३४ ॥

स्थायानां करणान्याहुश्वस्त्वारी स्थानतांके ।

गमको मानमेतेषां लक्षणान्यभिधास्य्महे ॥ ३५ ॥

तत्र स्थायादिवर्णानामाश्रय: स्वरमण्डलः ।

स्थानमित्युच्यते तस्मिस्तुदाहरणमुच्यते ॥ ३६ ॥

गमकः कामिततदिया: ।

स्वादुत्वानुगुणा भवन्ति (हि) यथा शाके रसाः षट् च ते,

रागव्यक्त्यनुकूलका हि गमका रागेऽपि सञ्जायिनः ।

तन्मात्रापरिमाणमेव सुतरां मानं बदन्त्यदरात्,

सङ्गीतकारकर्णधारपदवीमाढौकमानात् परम् ॥ ३७ ॥

The word ‘Svara-vṛtti’ is very important in the above definition of Sthāya. ‘Vṛtti’ is a very well-known term in Sanskrit literature and has been used in various branches of knowledge; e.g., (i) ‘Śabda-vṛtti’ i.e., the potency of words in yielding meaning (ii) Nāṭya-vrtti, four styles of drama (iii) Anuprāsa-vṛtti (of five kinds) based on repetition of consonants or syllables (iv) in ‘Darśana-s’ the ‘Pariṇāma’ or ‘Sambandhaviśeṣa’ of Antahkaraṇa (अन्तःकरणपरिणाम: सम्बन्धविशेष:, इन्द्रियसत्किरक रूपः सम्बन्धविशेष:). In general, Vṛtti stands for being in a particular state or ‘action, movement, function, operation.’ Thus Svaravṛtti comprehends all aspects of the rendering of ‘Svara’. P. speaks of four ‘Karaṇa-s’ or instruments of the operation of Sthāya, viz., (i) ‘Sthāna’ or basis ‘Svaramaṇḍala’ (of a Rāga) which is the ‘Āśraya’ (substratum) of the four ‘Varṇa-s’, (ii) Tāna1, i.e., a ‘Svara’ or Svara-s in a Rāga which are used with Gamaka (iii) ‘Gamaka’-Kampita and the like and (iv) Māna or Mātrāparimāṇa referring to time element.

1. Here ‘Tāna’ seems to bear some similarity with the ‘Tānam’ (Rāgālāpa) of Karnatak music. Pārśvadeva’s definition of ‘Tāna’ can be distinguished from Gamaka only in the sense that it stands with reference to individual Raga-s whereas ‘Gamaka’ is a general term for different kinds of shakes or tremors.

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Thus ‘Sthāya’ includes ‘Gamaka-s’ and all characteristic features in the rendering of Rāga as also time-measure.

3. Classification of Sthāya-s

S.R.mentions 96 varieties of Sthāya and S.S. Sāra gives nearly 90. Many names are different in the two texts and P. has a preference for Deśī names. Some parallels are drawn in my glossary (Part II), but the following classification has been attempted on the basis of S.R. as the text of S.S. Sāra is very corrupt. S.R. has classified Sthāya-s according to their being well known (Prasiddha) or otherwise and distinct (Asaṅkīrṇa-Lakṣaṇa) or otherwise. The classification attempted below presents an analysis of the basic elements of various Sthāya-s. For definitions of the Sthāya-varieties mentioned below, the glossary may be referred to. Some overlapping is unavoidable in this classification.

(i) Based on the order or sequence of Svaras : Seven varieties, viz., शब्द०, स्वरलंघित०, प्रेरित०, उल्लसित०, स्थायुक०, चालि० (भक्ति विशेष), वक्र ।

(ii) Comprising various Analogies for the movement or arrangement of Svaras : Twelve varieties, viz., ढाल०, स्थापना०, गति०, काण्डारणा०, लुलित०, तरङ्कित०, प्रलम्भित०, निःसृत०, प्रति ग्रह्योल्लसित०, भ्रामित०, घटना०, बद्ध० ।

(iii) Based on the Volume or Intensity of Tones : Ten varieties, viz., लवनी०, भृत०, उपशम०, निर्जवन०, कोमल०, सूक्ष्मान्त०, प्रकृतिस्थशब्द०, कला०, आक्रमण०, घनत्व० ।

(iv) Relating to ‘Kampa’ or Shake of Notes : Five varieties, viz., वहनी (its varieties कुट्ट and उत्कृष्ट will be more appropriate in our No. 1 above), घोष०, वह०, दीर्घ कम्पित०, स्थिर०

(v) Referring to Svara (interval) or characteristic Features of Rāga : Seven varieties, viz., स्वर काकु०, राग काकु०, अन्य राग काकु०, अंश०, जीव स्वर०, रागेष्ट०, अपस्वराभास०

(vi) Relating to ‘Sthāna’ (Mandara-Tāra) : Eleven varieties, viz., तीक्ष्ण०, अवस्खलित०, त्रोतित०, सम्प्रविष्ट०, उत्प्रविष्ट०, त्रोतितप्रविष्ट०, क्षित०, संहित०, दीप प्रसन्न०, प्रसन्न मृदु०

(vii) Referring to ‘Laya’ or Tempo : Four varieties, viz., द्रुत०, सम०, अलम्बितम्बक, प्लुत।

(viii) Based on slackness (Śithilatā) or otherwise (Gāḍhatā) of musical rendering. Eight varieties, viz., गाढ०, ललितगाढ०, शिथिल०, लघु०, गुरु०, हस्व०, शिथिलगाढ०, दीर्घ०

(ix) Referring to the Aesthetic Appeal of Svaras: Nine varieties, viz., भजन०, छवि०, रक्त०, करुणा०, चोक्ष०, स्निग्ध०, सुख०, कलरव०

(x) Referring to Musical Instruments : Two varieties : वाद्यशब्द०, यन्त्रज०

(xi) Referring to Timbre : Two varieties, viz., क्षेत्रकाकु०, यन्त्रकाकु०

(xii) Miscellaneous : Twenty-four varieties, viz., देशकाकु०, ध्वनि०, अवधान०, अपस्थान०, विचित्रता०, गात्र०, ललित०, प्रसृत०, उचित०, सुदेशिक०, अपेक्षित०, अक्षराडम्बर०, प्रस्तुताकुष्टित०, वेदध्वनि०, अवघट०, छन्दस्, सुकुमारस्, अन्तर्, आसाधारण०, साधारण०, निराधार०, दुष्कराभास०, निकृति०, मित्र०

A glance at the above classification will give an idea of the comprehensive nature of ‘Sthāya’. ‘Gamaka’ or ‘Kampa’ is only one out of the twelve broad varieties.

4. Origin, Development and Decline of the concept of Sthāya

As stated at the outset of this paper, ‘Sthāya’ has been mentioned and dealt with for the first time in S.R. (among the extant texts). But its origin can be traced in the ‘Alankāra-s’ of Bharata and Mataṅga as also in the ‘Dhātu-s’, (pertaining to Viṇā-vādana) mentioned by Bharata. The following illustrations will fortify this statement. Limitations of space do not favour the required dilation of this important point.

(i) If the seven Alankāra-s of Bharata classified under Sthāyi-varṇa (Prasannādi, Prasannānta, Prasannādyanta, etc.) are taken to stand for the varieties of tonal rendering in Mandra, Madhya, Tāra-Sthāna-s, they can be the basis of our Sthāya-s falling under category (vi) above and if the said Alankāra-s are held to be related to tonal volume or intensity

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as has been done by some scholars, they can be said to be the

origin of Sthāya-s falling under category (iii) above.

(ii) Bharata’s Alañkāra ‘Bindu’ is identical with the

Sthāya ‘Trōṭita’.

(iii) The ‘Sthāya’‘Svaralaṅghita’ refers to the ‘Laṅghana’ of

notes. A number of Bharata’s ‘Alaṅkāra-s’ are formed with

‘Laṅghana’, e.g., Niṣkōṭita, Parivartaka, Āvartaka, Sampradāna,

Hasita, etc.

(iv) The Karaṇa-s and Dhātu-s of Viṇā-Vādana as

mentioned by Bharata in the 29th chapter have been

reproduced by later authors without any modification. They are

broadly based on (a) the order of Tāra-Mandra (b) the order of

‘Laghu-guru’ strokes (c) Intensity of tones dependent on the

force of strokes. All the three elements are duly represented in

the varieties of Sthāya classified above. Six out of the ten

varieties of ‘Bahirgīta’ or ‘Śuṣkavādya’ (instrumental music not

associated with vocal) relate to different combinations of

‘Laghu-Guru’ in a Tāla. This element is also represented in

Sthāya in categories (vii) and (viii) above.

(v) The origin of the Sthāya-s based on ‘Śithilatā’ or

‘Gādhatā’ can be traced in the ‘Gīti-s’ of Bharata, viz.

Māgadhi, Ardhamāgadhi, Pṛthulā and Sambhāvitā based on the

use of different combinations of short and long syllables.

(vi) Some Sthāya-s have their origin in the qualities of

the human voice (Kanṭhaguṇa) mentioned by Bharata. (cf.

Sthāya-s pertaining to Snigdhatā, Ghanatva, Nāda, etc.)

(vii) ‘Kampa’, the basis of ‘Gamaka’ and of some

Sthāyas, also finds a place in some Alañkāra-s, e.g. ‘Kampita’.

In view of the above illustrations, it can be said that

‘Sthāya’ was evolved through an analysis of the various

elements contributing to variety in tonal rendering. ‘Kampa’,

shake or tremor, was independently recognised as ‘Gamaka’

with its fifteen varieties and also as a factor in the formation of

Sthāya-varieties.

The treatment of Sthāya in S.R. represents the concept in

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a full-fledged and highly developed form. The intermediary stages of evolution are not recorded, but there was no development in this respect after S.R. and the terms denoting various Sthāya-varieties seem to have been gradually lost in practical usage. It is most probable that the later texts which reproduce the treatment of Sthāya from S.R. do so just with a view to preserve the Śāstraic tradition rather than to give a place to practical usage.

The decline of the concept of ‘Sthāya’ in Śāstraic and practical tradition is evident in Hindustāni music from the complete loss of the terms associated with it and from their replacement by popular and un-śāstraic terms like Lāga, Ḍānṭa, Mīṇḍa, Murkī, etc. In Karnāṭak music, this decline is evident from the fact that a few Sthāya-s have come to be associated with Gamaka-s (cf. Vyaṅkaṭamakhi’s reference to Ḑola corresponding to the Sthāya Dhāla under ‘Sphurita-Gamaka’ in Chatur. 1.125, 25). In the ‘Daśavidha Gamaka-s’ accepted in Karnāṭak music today the definition of ‘Ullasitam’1 clearly corresponds to the ‘Sthāya’ called ‘Svaralaṅghitā’. The two varieties of ‘Ullasitam’ called ‘Épra jāru’, and ‘Iṟakka jāru’ refer to ‘Svaralaṅghana’ in ascent and descent respectively. S.R. defines Ullasitam simply as Gamaka (Kampa)-prayoga in ascent. The inclusion of simple ‘Ārohaṇa’ and ‘Avarohaṇa’ in ‘Daśavidha Gamaka-s’ also indicates a change in the original connotation of Gamaka which was specifically restricted to Kampa. Thus a change in the definitions of Gamaka-bheda-s as found in S.R. on the one hand, and a loss of most of the terms of ‘Sthāya-bheda’-s from practical usage is obvious in Karnāṭak music.

5. The Importance of Sthāya in Indian Musical Parlance

The importance of ‘Sthāya’ in Indian musical parlance cannot be over-emphasized as it comprehends all perceptible aspects of musical tones and comprises a perfect analysis of the elements of tonal embellishment. The word ‘embellishment’

1. cf. ‘Karnaṭaka Saṅgītam’ (Tamil) by A. Sundaram Aiyar and ‘The Grammar of South Indian Music’ by C.S. Aiyar.

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needs some clarification. ‘Embellishment’ is usually understood

as an external decoration, which is separate from the object of

decoration, but the distinction of ‘Alankara’ and ‘Alankarya’ does

not practically stand in tonal rendering; the ‘embellishment’ is

usually inseparable from the tone itself, it is a natural grace just

like a smile or a bright look in a human being1. The following

verse of Bharata is relevant in this connection :

शशिना रहितेव निशा विजलेव नदी लता विपुष्पेव।

अनलक्ष्यते2 च नारी गीतिरलङ्कारहीना स्यात्॥

‘Embellishment’ of notes implies inherent graces

(Laksana in Poetics) as well as ‘art decoration’ (Alankara in

Poetics) and both of them are covered by ‘Sthaya’. The loss of

this invaluable terminology from our musical parlance is

deplorable as it implies a loss of the Sastraic analysis of the

formal and aesthetic aspects of tonal rendering. A loss of this

terminology does not necessarily imply a loss of practical

embellishments in actual rendering but it does imply a loss of

the scientific and analytical outlook towards elements of

musical variety and a conscious use thereof.

While concluding, it is needless to emphasize the

necessity and value of a revival of the concept and terminology

of Sthaya both in Hindustani3 and Karnataka music for

developing a proper balance of the elements of variety or

diversity and also for adopting a Sastric attitude towards

natural graces and ‘art’-ornaments in tonal rendering.

1. My pointed attention to this aspect was drawn by Prof. V.V.

Sadagopan.

2. The Banaras edition of Natyasastra reads अविभूषितेव च स्त्री but the

above reading seems to be better. अनलक्ष्यते means (अनशब्ददोदो निषेधे,

‘अनोपमा ते बुद्धिः’, इति न लक्ष्यते इत्येवर्थः प्रतिभाति) ‘Laksana’ stands for

natural grace such as a graceful gait or a lionlike waist.

3. Cf. Hindustani Sangita Paddhati Vol. IV p. n. 315 where

Vyakataamakhi’s restricted use of the term ‘Thaya’ has been

reproduced. In popular Hindi usage ठाह or ठाय stands for विलम्बितलय.

A GLOSSARY OF STHAYAS

Sthāya–PART II

The 96 Sthāyas dealt with in Saṅgītaratnākara under four headings are being taken up seriatim. The Lakṣaṇa-s found in Saṅgītaratnākara (III 99-189) have been supplemented wherever necessary, with those from Pārśvadeva's Saṅgītasamayasāra (II 38-128), Raghunātha Bhupa's Saṅgītasudhā (III 165-286) and commentaries on Saṅgītaratnākara by Siṁhabhūpāla and Kallinātha.

The following is an alphabetical list of Sthāya-s which will be useful for reference. The first number in each case refers to the heading and the second to the serial number falling under a particular heading.

अंश॰ II 10 उत्प्रविष्ट॰. III 9 गात्र॰ II 16

अक्षराडम्बर॰ III 2 उत्कृष्ट (वहनी) I 4 गुरु॰ IV 25

अन्तर॰ IV 21 उपशम॰ II 17 घटना॰ IV 4

अन्यरागकाकु॰ I 7 उल्लासित॰ III 3 घनत्व॰ IV 9

(छाया) करुणा॰ II 14 घोष॰ II 32

अपस्थान॰ II 12 कलरव॰ IV 16 चाली॰ (जक़ा) IV 6

अपस्वराभास॰ IV 14 कला॰ IV 2 चोक्ष॰ II 28

अपेक्षित॰ II 31 काकु॰ (छाया) I 7 छवि॰ II 6

अलंकारप्लुत॰III 14 कोण्डविग्रह॰ II 18 छन्दस॰ IV 17

अवघट॰ IV 11 कोमल॰ II 25 छाया॰ I 7

अवधान॰ II 11 क्षित॰ (क्षिप्र॰) III 19 जक़ा (चाली॰) IV 6

अवस्खलित॰ III 6 क्षेत्रकाकु॰ (छाया)I 7 जीवस्वर॰ IV 7

असाधारण॰ IV 29 खुत्त (वहनी) I 4 ढाल॰ I 2

आक्रमण॰ IV 3 गति॰ II 3 तरङ्गित॰ III 4

उचित॰ II 29 गाढ॰ II 20 तीक्ण॰ I 10

• Reproduced from Indian Music Journal No. 4 Oct.-Nov. 1965 and No.5,April-May 1966.

A Glossary of Sthayas

त्रोटित० III 7 प्लुत० IV 12 वेदध्वनि० IV 8

त्रोटितप्रविष्ट० III 15 बद्ध० IV 15 शब्द० I 1

दीप्तप्रसन्न० IV 23 भजन० II 1 शिथिल० IV 10

दीर्घ० IV 28 भृत० II 9 शिथिलगाढ़० IV 27

दीर्घकम्पित० III 12 भ्रामित० III 11 संप्रविष्ट० III 8

दुःखराबास० IV 32 मित्र० IV 23 संहित० IV 19

देशकाकु० (छाया)I 7 यन्त्रकाकु० (छाया)I 7 सम० II 24

दूत० II 8 यन्त्रज० I 6 सलभित० III 5

ध्वनि० II 5 रक्त० II 7 साधारण० IV 30

नाद० II 4 रागकाकु० (छाया)I 7 सुकराभास० IV 18

नि:सृत० III 10 रागेष्ट० IV 13 सुख० IV 5

निकृति० II 13 लघु० IV 20 सुदेशिक० II 30

निराधार० IV 31 ललित० II 22 सूक्ष्मान्त० III 20

निर्जवन० II 19 ललितगाढ़० II 21 स्थापना० II 2

प्रकृतिस्थिरष्ट० IV 1 लबनी० I 3 स्थायक० III 18

प्रतिग्राह्योल्लसित० III 13 लुलित० II 23 स्थिर० III 17

प्रलम्बित० III 5 वक्र० IV 22 स्निग्ध० II 27

प्रसन्नमृदु० IV 24 वह० III 1 स्वर० II 33

प्रसृत० II 26 वहनी० I 4 स्वरकाकु० (छाया)I 7

प्रसृताकुञ्चित० III 16 वाग्शब्द० I 5 स्वरलक्षित० I 8

प्रेरित० I 9 विविधता० II 15 हस्व० IV 26

1.Ten PRASIDDHA (well-known) Sthāya-s with

Asaṅkirṇa (distinct) Lakṣaṇa-s

1.Pertaining to Śabda. मुक्तशब्दप्रतिग्राह्या: स्थाया: शब्दस्य कोतिता: ॥ (S.R.III 112)

पूर्वस्थायो यस्मिन् ध्वनौ मृच्यत उतरस्थायश्रकवालरीत्या तत्रैव प्रतिगृह्यते चेतदा

शब्दस्थाया इति व्यपदिश्यन्त इत्यर्थ: ।(K.)

यस्मिन् स्वरे स्थायविशेषणं स्यात्तत्रैव भूयो ग्रहणं च तस्य ।

तदादिमस्थाय इति प्रसिद्धिस्तं शब्दसम्बन्धमभिप्रयन्ति ॥ (S.S.III 165,166)

This can be interpreted in two ways-(1) in Alañkāra-s like मरिगरि, रिगमग etc., where the succeeding phrase with the

note with which the preceding phrase ends and (2) where a particular note is prolonged and ended rather abruptly and

again taken up in the beginning of a new phrase e.g. धनिसांऽऽऽ,

सन्निरीऽऽऽ. 'Oyāra' mentioned by P. can be taken to bear contradistinction with this as it (Oyāra) implies a return to the starting note e.g. सरिगम मगरिस,

यस्मात् स्वरावृत्तिविधिक्रमात्। तदोयारं समुद्दिष्टं प्रायशारोहि-संश्रयम्॥

(S.S.II 41,42)

2.Pertaining to Dhāla. ढालो मुक्ताफलस्येव चलनं लुठननात्मकम्॥

(S.R.III 113)

करस्थमुक्ताफलवच्च ढालः, शश्वत् स्वराणां चलनात्मको यः ।

वृत्तमौक्तिकवत्काच्चभूते विलसदध्वनौ ।

श्रुतिःप्रवर्तते क्षिप्रे यत्र ढालं तदुच्यते ॥

(S.S. Sara II 46,47)

The rolling movement of a pearl has been cited as an analogy for the rolling or slipping of notes which can best be perceived in straight Avaroha or Ārōha (in a comparatively lesser degree) in fast tempo.

3.Pertaining to Lavani. नमनं त्वतिकोमलम्॥

(S.R. III 113,114)

लवनी, तद्गुणःस्थाया लव्न्या: परिकीर्तिता: ॥

स्निग्धकोमलशब्दस्य विना यत्नेन कम्पनम् ।

लघुत्वेन सहेत्कं यत्तत्नमनं गानकोविदैः ॥ सैव नवणिः॥

(S.S. Sara II 103, 104)

Rendering of Svaras with extra tenderness in descent (नमन) is लवनी P. has added कम्पन or light tremor. This (लवनी नवणि) may have some affinity with Mahārāṣṭrī लवावे (to bow down).

4.Pertaining to Vahani. यतु कम्पनमारोहिण्यवरोहिणि वा भवेत् ।

वहनी साथ सञ्चारण्यपि वा सिथरकम्पन ॥

(S.R. III 114,115)

The kamp or tremor of notes in Ārohi or Avarohaṇi and constant tremor in Sañcāri Varṇa is called Vahani which is subdivided as follows :

(i) That pertaining to Gīta composition.

(ii) That pertaining to Ālāpti.

(iii) That associated with स्थिर (constant) कम्प (on one and the same note).

(iv) That associated with वेग (fast tempo) i.e. with notes moving fast.

A Glossary of Sthayas

वहनी

(निबद्ध०) गीतवहनी

(अनिबद्ध०) आलसिवहनी

स्थिरा वेगाढ्या

स्थिरा वेगाढ्या

हद्या कण्ठया शिरस्या

हद्या कण्ठया शिरस्या

हद्या कण्ठया शिरस्या

खुत्ता उत्फुल्ला

खुत्ता उत्फुल्ला

खुत्ता उत्फुल्ला

खुत्ता

उत्फुल्ला

(v), (vi) and (vii), pertaining to the three vocal centres or regions of the body, viz., abdominal, guttural and cerebral respectively, associated with the three registers (स्थान) viz. Mandra, Madhya and Tāra.

(viii) यस्यामन्तर्विशन्तीव स्वरा: खुत्तेति सा मता। (S.R. III 118) Khuttā is that where the notes appear to be 'getting inward', i.e., where the succeeding note appears to be getting into the preceding one e.g. सरिसस, रिगरिरि, गमगग etc.

(ix) सोत्फुल्लेत्युदिता यस्यां निरीयतीवोपरि स्वरा: ॥ (S.R. III 118). Utphullā is just the opposite of Khuttā, i.e., where the notes appear to be 'coming out' or the succeeding notes naturally flow out of the preceding ones; e.g., सरि, रि ग, ग म, म प, प ध etc. P. describes Vahani in identical terms.

5. Pertaining to Vādyaśabda. रागमग्ना वाद्यशब्दा येषु ते वाद्यशब्दजा: । (S.R. III 119)

वाद्यस्य शब्देष्वपि वाद्यपाटाक्षराणि ते स्यु: टगणादिरुपा: | ते रागसंश्लेषविश्लेषभाज: स्थाया मताश्रेयुतवाद्यशब्दा ॥ (S.S. III 175)

'Vādyaśabda' has been interpreted in S.S. as syllables (पाटाक्षर) associated with musical instruments. Rāga may be taken here to stand for 'Rakti' in general. Where Rakti is created by a special use of the syllables associated with an

instrument e.g., 'Jhālā', in Sitār, 'Tatakāra' in wind instruments or where the syllables of an instrument are used in vocal music, e.g., 'Tana', 'Ri Nôm', etc., in Ālāpa of the Dhrupada style, 'Tānam' of Karnātak music, Tarānā or Tillānā and similar compositions, the Sthāya can be said to be related to Vādya Śabda.

6. Pertaining to Yantra-s (musical instruments). ये यन्त्रेष्वेव दृश्यन्ते बाहुल्याते तु यन्त्रजा: ॥ (S.R. III 120). Those that are found in abundance only in musical instruments, e.g. 'Ghasiṭa' Sūta', etc., of plucked stringed instruments or special bow-techniques of bowing instruments.

[Ghasiṭa-where notes are joined by reducing the length of the vibrating string. Sūta-a kind of Ghasiṭa which drags one tone to another.]

Whereas 'Vādyaśabda' has special significance in the context of syllables associated with instruments, the present type refers to special tonal embellishments which are peculiar to certain instruments.

7. Pertaining to 'Chāyā' or Kāku. 'Kāku' has been used here as a synonym of 'Chāyā' which literally means 'shadow' but seems to imply a special characteristic inherent in timbre, in accentuation, in intonation or in a Rāga or a special characteristic of one Svara or Rāga being transferred to another as will be clear from the following six varieties. P. has given some more synonyms of Chāyā in addition to Kāku, viz. Bhāvanā (scenting or saturation), Rakti (charmingness, pleasingness, loveliness), Bhāṣā (the expressive feature of a Rāga) (S.S. Sāra II 96).

(i) Svarakāku. श्रुतिन्यूनाधिकत्वेन या स्वरान्तरसङ्श्रया। स्वरान्तरस्य रागे स्यात् स्वरकाकुरसौ मता ॥ (S.R.III 122) स्वस्य षड्जस्य चतुः श्रुतेर्यच्छ्रुति यदा स्वीकरुते निषाद: । छायां हि षड्जस्य भजेददानोमेंव निरुक्ता स्वरकाकुराद्या ॥ (S.S. III 179)

It is obvious that 'Svarakāku' pertains to 'Vikṛta Svara-s', where one note enters the sphere of another and thus adopts its

A Glossary of Sthayas

shadow by getting nearer, e.g. Niṣāda gets the Chāyā of Ṣadja when it takes one or more Śruti-s of Ṣadja, i.e., is augmented and gets nearer the latter.

(ii) ‘Rāgakāku’. या रागस्य निजच्छाया रागाकाकुं तु तां विदु: ॥(S.R. III 122)

सा मुख्या प्रोच्यते भाषा गीतलक्षणवेदिभि: ॥

(S.S.Sara II 99)

The special characteristic of a Rāga which distinguishes it from others is ‘Rāgakāku’ e.g., गपरिगडरिस-this phrase of Śañkarā (Hindustānī) having a touch of Rṣabha on Gāndhāra is indispensable for that Rāga. P. has very aptly called it the ‘Mukhyā Bhāṣā’ (main expression) of a Rāga.

(iii) Anyarāgakāku. सातवन्न्यरागाकाकुर्या रागे रागान्तराश्रय: (S.R. III 123).

This is found where one Rāga bears the Chāyā of another; e.g. (i) in Vasanta we have the Chāyā of Lalita in the phrase समडममगड using two varieties of Madhyama successively or (ii) the phrase निपमरि of Sāraṇga invariably running through all varieties of Rāga Kānhaḍā. This is called Uparāgabhāṣā by P. who says that it is popularly known as Ṭhāya.

(iv) Dēśakāku. सा देशकाकुर्या रागे भवेदेशस्वभावत: ॥

(S.R. III 123)

This implies regional characteristics in musical rendering. P. identifies it with Dēśākhyā Bhāṣā of Rāga-s. This is more conspicuous in vocal music or in instruments like Violin or Vīṇā directly following the model of Vocal music, e.g., the embellishments of a vocalist from Punjab and Mahārāṣṭra can be easily distinguished. But it is rather difficult to associate these regional characteristics with Rāga-s, i.e., it is difficult to say that one and the same Rāga is rendered in a different way by a musician from Panjāb or Bengāl. There are, of course, some regional melodies as Māṇḍa of Rājasthāna and Pahāḍi of Punjāb, but Dēśakāku does not seem to refer solely to them, it seems to refer to regional varieties of one and the same Rāga, e.g., Baṅgāla Bhairava, Saurāṣṭra Bhairava.

(v) Kshētrakāku. क्षीरें क्षेत्रमित्युक्तं प्रतिक्षेत्रं निसर्गत:।

रागे नानाविधा काकु: क्षेत्रकाकुरिति स्मृता ॥

(S.R. III 124)

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Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

This refers mainly to the timbre of human voices which distinguishes one voice from another (no two human voices are identical). Apparently, it is difficult to say how the timbre of human voice can have special significance in ‘Rāga’ unless ‘Rāga’ is understood as ‘Rakti’ in general. But serious thought reveals that the timbre of the human voice has its own importance in the aesthetic atmosphere created by a Rāga. Thus, it is not a far-fetched idea to hold that the expression of a Rāga can have characteristic features associated with the timbre of the performing voice. It is common experience that some musicians have a fancy for certain Rāga-s as the timbre of their voice is more suitable for them. P. very aptly explains this as follows :

कस्यचिद् गायनस्यैव रागे कस्यचिद्दृश्यते ॥

रक्तिः स्वभावतस्तज्ज्ञः क्षेत्रकाकर्महीतले ।

(S.S.Sara 101, 102)

(vii) Yantra-kāku. वीणावंशादियंत्रोत्था यन्त्रकाकुः सतां मता। (S.R.125)

This relates to the timbre of musical instruments, which can also have its place in Rāga. For example ‘Bīṇa’ of North India is specially suitable for solemn and grave Rāga-s like Darabārī Kānhaḍā and Malhāra, but Jalataraṅga is just the opposite.

(NOTE : It is notable that P. identifies Rāgakāku with Mukhyā or Mūlā Bhāṣā, Anyarāgakāku with Uparāgabhāṣā or Saṅkīrṇā Bhāṣā which is popularly known as Ṭhāya according to him and Dēśakāku with Dēśākhyā Bhāṣā. Similarly, Svarakāku may be identified with Svarākhyā or Chāyāṃtrāṣrayā Bhāṣā. This identification can go a long way in apprehending the significance of the four types of Bhāṣā of Grāmarāga-s given by Mataṅga and subsequent writers down to Rānā Kumbhā.]

8.Svaralanghita. मध्ये मध्ये स्वरान् भूयोल्लङ्घन् स्वरलङ्घितः ।

(S.R.III 126)

This implies the skipping over of more than one intermediary notes. S.R. enjoins the omission of ‘Bhūri’ (‘many’,

A Glossary of Sthayas

interpreted by Simhabhūpāla as three or four) notes but

'Lañghana' can become conspicuous by the omission of one or

two notes also. Hence S.S. lays down the omission of two or three

notes. Pārśvadêva gives two varieties of this, viz., 'Lañghita' and

'Svaralañghita'.

ईषदाहतिसंयुक्तः स्वरो यत्र विलङ्घ्यते॥

स्वरान्तरक्रमेंऽव लड्डितं तत् प्रचक्षते ॥

(e.g., स रि ग, रि ग म, ग म प etc.)

इयमेव यदैकद्वित्रिस्वरान्तरितं भवेत्।

तदा गीतकलाभिज्ञैः स्वरलङ्घनमीरितम्॥

(S.S.Sara II 52)

This lays down the omission of one, two or three notes.

9. Prêrita. तिर्यङ्गूर्ध्वमधस्ताच्च प्रेरितः प्रेरितैः स्वरैः ॥

(S.R.III 127)

The movement of notes in upward, downward and slanting

or oblique direction is enjoined here. Tiryak (slanting) can be

understood in melodic music only as the 'Vakra Gati', i.e., curved

or winding movement of notes, e.g., सगరిగ-मगरी-रिगमगरीसरिनिस।

10. Tīkṣṇa स्वरः पूर्णश्रुतिस्तारे तीक्ष्णवत्त्वीक्षण उच्यते।

(S.R.III 127)

पूर्णश्रुतियत्र विभाति तारस्थानेपि सूच्यग्रवदेव तीक्ष्णः।

(S.S.III 186)

The sharpness of a whole tone used in the 'Tāra Sthāna'

(upper register has been given here the analogy of a needle-

point, e.g., 'Antara Ga' in 'Tāra'.

II. Thirty-Three PRASIDDHA (well-known) Sthāya-s with

Sañkīrṇa (indistinct) Lakṣaṇa-s.

1. Pertaining to Bhajana. रागस्यातिशयाधानं प्रयत्नाद् भजनं मतम्।

(S.R.III 128)

तदयुक्ता भजनस्य स्यः,

रागाभिव्यक्तिर्भजवणा सुशरीरसमुद्भवा॥

(S.S.Sara II 88)

S.R. emphasises the element of conscious effort in

creating Rāga or Ranjakatā par-excellence. It is common

experience that a performing musician has some special pieces

in his performance where he puts in greater effort in creating

Rakti. This strain cannot and should not remain constant

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Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

throughout a performance. P. on the other hand, emphasises

the element of ‘natural gift’ (Suśarīra).

2. Pertaining to Sthāpanā. स्थापयित्त्वा स्थापयित्त्वा येषां प्रतिपदं कृित:।

(S.R.III 129)

ये स्थापयित्त्वा स्थापयित्त्वा निश्शलीकृत्य प्रतिक्षणं पुनः क्रियन्ते ते स्थापन-

सम्बन्धिनः। (S.)

The movement of notes can be explained here with the

analogy of plodding or walking with heavy steps, pausing a

while at each.

3. Pertaining to Gati. सर्विलासास्स्ति गीतस्य मत्तमातङ्‌वद् गति:।

तद्युक्तास्तु गते: स्थाया:,(S.R.III 129, 130)

The analogy of the gait of an elephant in rut is cited here for

‘Gati’ of Svaras. S.S. adds the adjective ‘Gabhīra’ which can be

interpreted as majesty or solemnity accompanied by intoxication,

i.e., swinging but majestic movement of notes. P. gives a somewhat

different denotation of Gati as :

माधुर्यसहितो गीते श्रुतिमात्रस्तु केवलम्।

स्वराणां सत्रिवेशो यथातुर्यात् सा गतिभवेत्॥

(S.S.Sara II 39)

The element of skill in the arrangement of notes is

emphasised here.

4. Pertaining to Nāda., स्निग्धो माधुर्यमांसल:।

बहुलो येषु नाद: स्याते नादस्य प्रकीर्तितता: ॥

(S.R.III 130)

‘Nāda’ has been used here in a special and restricted sense

denoting the abundance of ‘Snigdha’ (unctuous) and ‘Mādhurya-

mānsala’ (‘fleshy’ with sweetness) musical sound.

5. Pertaining to Dhvani. अतिदीर्घप्रयोगा: स्य: स्थाया ये ते ध्वनेर्मता: ॥

(S.R.III 131)

येषु दीर्घतर: प्रयोगो गमकसन्दर्भस्ते ध्वनिसम्बन्धन:।

(S.)

‘Prayôga’ has been interpreted as ‘Gamakasandarbha’ or an

orderly arrangement of Gamaka-s. ‘Dhvani’ can be taken to imply the

use of long phrases full of Gamaka-s.

6. Pertaining to Chavi. अतिदीर्घप्रयोगा: स्य: स्थाया ये ते ध्वनेर्मता: ॥

(S.R.III 131)

A Glossary of Sthayas

145

छविः कोमलरुग्मती

(S.S.Sara II 96)

'Chavi' denotes tenderness of notes accompanied by splendour. S.R. has defined it thus in the context of Kanṭhaguna-s (good qualities of the voice) :

धातोरविभलकण्ठत्वादः प्राजैःस्पलक्ष्यते।

उज्ज्वलोऽयमिति प्रोक्तश्छविर्विमाननिति से ध्वनि:।

(S.R.III 77)

7. Pertaining to Rakti. रकेऱुत्कर्षतो रक्तेरुक्ता: स्थाया मनीषिभिः ॥

(S.R.III 132)

This refers to the super-excellence of Rakti; it is similar to Bhajana (No.1 above) but the only difference appears to be that the latter implies conscious effort whereas the former does not.

8. Pertaining to Druta. द्रुतस्थान्वरथनमानः ।

उच्चारणं यत्र य(ज)वात् स्वराणां स्थायास्त एते द्रुतशब्दपूर्वाः ॥

(S.S.III 194)

This refers to fast tempo.

9. Pertaining to Bhrta. भृतस्य भरणाद्ध्वने: ।

ध्वनेर्धनत्बेन च जायमानमुच्चारणं स्याद् भृतशब्दवाच्यम्॥

(S.S.III 194)

In Hindi, it is popularly called 'Bharāva' literally meaning 'filling up', implying fullness of volume or intensity. P. gives a somewhat different explanation as the 'filling up of Rāga-s'.

यदृपकेऽसथवा डलसौ वर्तते रागपूर्णणम्।

भरणं तत्समुद्भवं हरणं तद्रिपर्यय: ॥

(S.S.Sara II 86,87)

10. Pertaining to Amśa. रागान्तरस्यान्वयवयो रांगडंशः ॥

(S.S.III 133)

'Amśa' has been used in a special sense here. It does not denote the predominant note of a Rāga, but denotes the particular phrase of a Rāga used in another Rāga. The two extant commentaries on S.R. throw some light on the question as to how this 'Amśa' could be distinguished from 'Anyarāgakāku'.

नवन्यरागाकोरंशस्य च को भेद इति चेत; उच्चते, प्रकृतरागे समवायवृत्या

वर्तमानैवछाया डट्यनसादृश्याद्रागन्तराश्रया सती या प्रतीतये सान्यरागकाकुः। अंशस्तु

प्रकृतरागे हाविद्यमान एवं शोभातिशयाय याचितकंणननन्याेन रागान्तरादुपादाय

संयोगवृत्या डत्र सम्बध्यत इति भेदो दृश्यत: ।

(K.)

K. is more exact and concise in saying that 'Anyarāgakāku' implies 'Samavāya-Sambandha' whereas 'Amśa' implies 'Samyôga-

implies 'Samavāya-Sambandha' whereas 'Amśa' implies 'Samyôga-

Sambandha.' In other words, 'Anyarāgakāku' denotes the Chāyā of one Rāga being inseparably woven into another Rāga; [cf. the examples given under 1-7 (iii) above] and Aṃśa denotes a solitary phrase of a Rāga being used in another Rāga merely as an arbitrary embellishment; e.g., संडनि रि निधडप मपधपडम् is sometimes taken in Kēdāra which does not regularly use निरिनिधडप of Kalyāṇa.

S.R. and P. give seven varieties of Aṃśa in almost identical terms and with identical illustrations, but the limitation of space does not permit a complete treatment of these varieties. Suffice it to cite merely their names. (i) Kāraṇāṃśa the Aṃśa of Kāraṇarāga found in a Kāryarāga. (ii) Kāryāṃśa the Aṃśa of a Kāryarāga found in a Kāraṇarāga. (iii) Sajātiyāṃśa the Aṃśa of a Sajātiya Rāga in another Rāga (iv) Sadṛiśāṃśa the Aṃśa of a similar Rāga in another (v) Asadṛiśāṃśa the Aṃśa of a dissimilar Rāga in another (vi) Madhyasthāṃśa the Aṃśa of a neutral Rāga in another and (iii) Amsamsa the 'Sancāra of one Amsa' in another.

11. Pertaining to 'Avadhāna'. मनसा तद्गते नैव ये ग्राह्यास्तेडवधानजा: । (S.R.III 141)

चेतसो वैय्यये यो गातुं न शक्यते सोडवधानज: ।

Those Sthāya-s that demand full concentration of the mind fall under this type.

12. Pertaining to Apasthāna. 'Apasthāna'--is the opposite of 'Svasthāna'.

आयासेन विना यत्र स्थाने यत् प्रचुरो ध्वनि: । स्वस्थानं तद्ग्रहस्थानं स्वीयासेन तदुद्भवते ।। अपस्थानस्ते स्थाया येडपस्थान-समुद्भवा: ।। (S.R.III 142) आधारबहुल्यवशेन गानं भवत्यपस्थानतया प्रतीतम् । (S.S.III 207)

This implies special effort in voice-production (in vocal music) or in the act of playing on instruments. Bhajana relates to special effort in the creation of Rakti but this relates only to voice production or to reproduction on instruments. It is a well-known fact that each voice and instrument has a special pitch-range which may be called 'Svasthāna'. If that range is violated

i.e. the tonic is not in conformity with that range, the result will be that the voice will be strained and some extra effort may have to be put in while singing or playing on an instrument.

13. Pertaining to Nikṛti (Niṣkṛti ?) S.R. does not define it saying that its significance is clear from the name itself.

न्यूनाधिकत्वोभयवर्जनेन गानं यत् सा निकृतिनिरुक्तिः।

स्थायं विविधमादाय बलात् संस्थापने पुनः

अन्यूनाधिकता तज्ज्ञनिकृतिः परिगीयते ॥

(S.S.Sara II 80,81)

'Niṣkṛti' would be a better reading in view of the above definitions which imply restoration to the original position after the use of various 'Sthāya-s', which may be explained as 'resolution'.

14. Pertaining to Karuṇā.

S.R. does not define this.

गानेन कुयु: करुणां नुणां ये स्थायां निरुक्ताः करुणादिमासते ॥

(S.S. III 209)

करुणारागयोगेन चिन्ता-दीनतयाडथवा।

करुणाकाकु-संयुक्तः स्थायास्ते करुणाभिधः ॥

(S.S.II 67,68)

Those Sthāya-s which arouse 'Karuṇā' (melting of the heart in general) fall under this.

15. Pertaining to Vividhatā or Variety.

स्थाया नानाविधां भङ्गों भजन्तो विविधत्वजाः ॥

(S.R.III 143)

नानाविधां रीतिमुपेयिवांसः स्थायास्ततस्ते विविधत्वजन्याः।

अनेकभङ्गियुक्ताः स्थाया विविधत्वसम्बन्धिनः ॥

(S.)

The following Sthāya-s with Deśī names mentioned by Pārśvadeva explain 'Bhaṅgī' of Svaras in its various aspects.

(i) मोडामोडी—

समुद्रुत्य स्वरोद्नयत्र तेशांग्रणयधः: (?) क्रमात्।

भज्यते सा परिज्ञेया मोडामोडीति संज्ञया ॥

(S.S.Sāra,II 58)

(ii) गुम्फागुम्फी or गुस्थागुस्थी—

सप्त प्रयोगा एकत्र वर्तन्ते चेत्रिरन्तरम्।

स्वरविभङ्गरचिता गुम्फागुम्फीति सोदिता ॥

(S.S.Sāra II 59)

148

Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

16. Pertaining to Gātra.

गात्रस्य गात्रे निरताः। (S.R.III 144)

स्थानेपु येषु प्रतिगात्रभिन्ना रागाः प्रभवन्ति सम्यक्।

गात्रस्य सम्बन्धितया प्रतीतः स्थायाः समस्ता इति वेदितव्यम्॥ (S.S.III 210)

These relate to the characteristic features of the music of each vocalist associated with the peculiarities of his physiological set-up. S. thus explains the difference between Kṣetra-Kāku (1-7. v) and Gātra-Sthāya :

ननु क्षेत्रकाकुसम्बन्धिभ्य एतेषां को भेद:, उच्चते--क्षेत्रकाकुः प्रतिदेहं छायामात्रम्; गात्रजेपु तु स्थायिस्वरूपमेव प्रतिदेहं भिद्यत इति। (S.)

This seems to imply that Kṣetra-Kāku refers merely to differences of timbre of the human voice but ‘Gātra-Sthāya’ denotes all the characteristic ‘Sthāya-s’ peculiar to different human voices; e.g. some voices are more suited for expressing ‘Karunā’ (pathos), others for ‘Tāna-s’ in fast tempo and still others for ‘Kampa’.

17. Pertaining to Upaśama.

कृत्या तीव्रतरं ध्वनिम्।

येषूपशान्तः क्रियते भवन्त्युपशमस्मय ते॥ (S.R.III 144)

This means that the intensity of a tone has to be suddenly decreased or a loud tone has to be ended abruptly. But S. says that it implies an abrupt descent from a tone of high pitch (Atitāra) towards lower (Mandra) tones. S.S. accepts this interpretation.

18. Pertaining to Kāndāranā. S.R. does not explain this saying that it is quite well-known. S. explains it on the analogy of the art of engraving and S.S. follows this explanation which makes use of a visual analogy.

लोके स्तम्भादिषु पदव्याकारोत्किरणं काण्डारणेत्युच्यते। (S.)

काण्डारणास्थायमथामनामः स्तम्भेषु या तक्षकिरूपा।

चित्राकृतिस्तु क्रियते हि सोडयं काण्डारणास्तत्सदृशा विचित्रा: ॥ (S.S.III 213,14)

A Glossary of Sthayas

K. on the other hand says that Kāṇḍa means the three Sthāna-s viz. Mandra, Madhya and Tāra and Kāṇḍārāṇā is that where the notes run through all the three Sthāna-s. S.S. refers to this view also.

काण्डेषु मन्त्रमध्यतोरेष्वासमन्ताद्रणतीति व्युत्पत्या प्रसिद्धेत्यर्थ: ।

19. Pertaining to Nirjavana.

सरलः कोमलो रक्तः क्रमात्रीतोडतिसूक्ष्मत्वम् ।

स्वरः स्यादेषु ते स्थाया: प्रोक्ता निर्जवना न्विता: ॥

येषु स्वरः स्यात् सरलस्तथैव स्याद्रक्तिशाली सुकुमाररूपः ।

अत्यन्तसूक्ष्मत्वमितः क्रमेण स्थाया अमी निर्जवनान्विताश्च ॥

'Nirjavana' is a technical name of the use of straight, tender and pleasant notes, gradually reduced in loudness. P. has called it 'Nijavaḍi' or 'Nijavana' and has emphasised breath-control.

जितश्वासतया गानं नाम्रा निजवर्ण विदुः ।

20. Gāḍha. This is the opposite of slack or Śithila and is popularly known as having 'Kasāva' (कसाव) or 'tightness'.

गाढः शैथिल्यनिमुंक्तः ।

21. Lalitagāḍha.

स एव मृदुतान्वितः । भवेल्ललितगाढस्तु ।

This means the addition of tenderness or gracefulness to 'Gāḍha'.

22. Lalita. ललितस्तु विलासवान् ।

This implies special skill or graceful movement.

23. Lulita. Indicating a tender and swinging movement of notes.

मार्दवाभूषितः प्रोक्तो लुलितः ।

24. Sama. This pertains to medium tempo, neither fast nor slow; it can also be interpreted as the tonal embellishments used in the original tempo of the song or composition, known as बराबर की लय.

25. Komala or full of tenderness.

स्यात् कोमलः सम्भृतसौकुमार्यः,

(S.S.III 219)

26. Prasṛta or widespread; it seems to imply a long-spread-out musical phrase.

प्रसृतः प्रसृतोपेतः,

विस्तीर्णयुक्तः प्रसृताभिधानः ।

(S.R.III 148)

(S.S.III 219)

27. Snigdha or unctuous; the opposite of Rūkṣa or dry.

स्निग्धो रूक्षत्ववर्जितः ।

(S.R.III 148)

28. Cokṣa or bright or shining, P. has called it Cokkhai. This is similar to ‘Chaviman’ (No. 6 in the present heading).

उज्ज्वलो गतिदक्षः,

(S.R.III 149)

29. Ucita or apt, suitable, ‘Aucitya’ is a general quality which is an essential feature of all artistic creation. Its absence has been pronounced as the greatest cause of ‘Rasabhaṅga’ i.e. violation of aesthetic principles.

अनौचित्यादृते नान्यद्रसभङ्गस्य कारणम् ।

प्रसिद्धौचित्यबन्धस्तु रसस्योपनिषत् परा ॥

(Dhvanyāloka III)

30.Sudeśika- that which is appreciated only by ‘Sahridya-s’. There are some fine features of musical rendering which appeal only to an aesthete and not to the common man.

सुदेशिको विदगधानां वल्लभः,

(S.R. 149)

31.Apekṣita.

अपेक्षितस्तु सः ।

स्थायः स्थायेन पूर्वर्ण पूर्त्यर्थं योजभिकांक्षितः ।

(S.R.III 150)

पूर्वर्ण स्थायेन यः स्वपूर्व्यर्थमाकांक्षिते सौदपेक्षितः ।

(S.)

This means that a note or a combination of notes which is essential for bringing about a sense of completeness of the precceding ‘Sthāya’, is ‘Apekṣita’. But S.S. has interpreted it the other way round saying that the precceding Sthāya is required by this Sthāya for its own completion.

A Glossary of Sthayas

151

पूर्वर्थमाकांक्षित यस्तु पूर्वं स्थायं भवेत् सोऽयमपेक्षिताख्यः ॥ (S.S.III 250)

This does not sound logical, but may be interpreted as implying repetition which naturally involves an original phrase.

32. Pertaining to Ghoṣa. The use of Gamaka-s called ‘Vali’, ‘Vaha’ and ‘Vahani’ in the lower register is Ghoṣa.

वलौ वह वहन्या च ये: क्रिग्धमधुरो महान् ।

मन्द्रे ध्वनि: स घोष: स्यात्तद्युक्ता घोषजा मता: ॥ (S.R.III 151)

33. Pertaining to Svara. ‘Svara’ has been used in a very restricted sense, viz., deep and sweet tones in the lower register. The distinction between ‘Svara’ and ‘Ghoṣa’ seems to be very fine; whereas ‘Ghoṣa’ implies some Kampa in the ‘Mandra Sthāna’, ‘Svara’ does not do that.

गम्भीरमधुरस्वाना मन्द्रे ये स्युः स्वरस ते । (S.R.III 152)

III. Twenty APRASIDDHA (obscure) Sthāya-s with Asaṅkirṇa (distinct) Lakṣaṇa-s

1. Vaha.

वहन्त इव कम्पन्ते स्वरा येषु वहस्य ते । (S.R.III 152)

The analogy of a man trembling under a heavy weight carried by him is cited here; it implies tremour with full intensity, not with lightness.

2. Akṣarāḍambara.

अक्षराडम्बरो येषु मुख्यस्ते स्युस्तदन्विताः । (S.R.III 152)

The abundance of Akṣara-s or syllables referred to here can come about in two ways : (i) by pronouncing the solfa syllables in quick succession and (ii) by pronouncing the syllables of the verbal structure of a Gīta in a similar way. Some songs are wholly or partially abundant in ‘Laghu Akṣara-s’ e.g. निपट निलज हट नटखट.

3. Ullāsita. This is one of the 15 Gamaka-s, but is not associated here with Kampa which is an essential feature of ‘Gamaka’. It is described as the order of ascent in fast tempo.

वेगैन प्रेरितैरुल्लासितो मतः । (S.R.III 153)

4. Tarangita. This refers to a wavelike movement of notes.

यत्र गाढ़ातरङ्गान्ति स्वराः स स्यात्तरङ्गितः।

5. Salambita or Pralambita.

परितोदर्ध्भूते कुम्भे जलं डोलायते यथा।

गीते तथाविधः स्थायः प्रोत्कृष्टज्ञः सलम्बितः॥

The analogy of the sound of water in a half-filled jar can be perceived in singing with very deep breath and with extra vigour. It cannot be perceived in fast tempo, nor are all singers capable of demonstrating it.

6.Avaskhalita.

अवस्खलति यो मन्द्राद्वरोहेहण वेगत: । सोऽवस्खलित इत्युक्तः,

This implies an abrupt descent to 'Mandra' and then again a sudden ascent from 'Mandra'; e.g. म ध म ग, रि ग म प ध।

7. Troṭita.

त्रोटितस्तु स्वरे कचित्।

चिरं स्थित्वाडग्रिवत्तारं स्पृष्ट्वा प्रत्यागतो भवेत्॥

When a particular note is prolonged, after that its octave note is touched for a very short while and the original note is reverted to, it is called Troṭita; e.g. सडिड़ड स।

8. Sampravisṭa. घनस्वरोऽडरोहे स्यात् संप्रविष्टः,

When there are closely knit Svaras in descent e.g.

सा रे ग म प ध नि सा। नि ध प म ग रे सा

etc. or when the intensity of notes is full in descent.

9. Utpraviṣṭa. This is just the opposite of the above and implies close Svaras or full intensity in ascent.

तथाविधः । आरोहिण्युत्तप्रविष्टः स्यात्,

10. Niḥsṛṭa.

यत्र स्वराणां नि:शरणमिव,

स्वरास्तु यत्रैव विनि:सरन्ति स्थायस्त्वसौ नि:सरणाभिधानः ।

A Glossary of Sthayas

This seems to imply the flowing out of Svara-s from a particular point; e.g. सडगमपनि स गडगड।

11.Bhrāmita. This may be interpreted as the cyclic movement of notes bearing the analogy of a merry-go-round; e.g. मनिधम मनिधम मनिनि मननिधम etc.

यत्र भ्रमण्तीव खलु स्वराः स स्थायो भवेद् भ्रामितनामधेयः ॥

(S.S.III 229)

12.Dīrghakampita. This obviously refers to long shakes.

यत्र स्वराणां खलु दीर्घकम्पः स्थायः स दीर्घादिमकम्पितः स्यात्॥

(S.S.III 230)

13. Pratigrāhyollāsita.

प्रतिग्राह्योल्लसितः स्यादसौ यः प्रतिगृह्यते।

उत्क्षिप्योत्क्षिप्य निपतत् केलिकन्दुकसुन्दरः ॥

(S.R.III 157,158)

यत्र स्वरास्तुबुधे केल्यामुक्तिक्षये चात्क्षिप्य च गृहीमाणः ।

स्थायं तमेनं परिग्रहपूर्वमुल्लासितं संकथयन्ति सन्तः ॥

(S.S.III 230,231)

Where notes are thrown out like a ball and are again caught up; e.g. in समडगम मसडगु, रिपडप परिडरि, गधडध, धगडग।

14. Alambavilambaka.

द्रुतपूर्वो विलम्बान्तः स्यादलम्बविलम्बकः ।

(S.R.III 158)

That which is sung or played first in Druta Laya and then in Vilambita Laya. This can find a place in a composition, or in Gatibheda (e.g. 1/4, 1/2, 1) or in tonal embellishments.

15. Troṭitapratīṣṭa or Troṭitapraviṣṭa. Breaking in Tāra or Mandra at a particular note and resuming the same in Mandra or Tāra respectively.

स्यात् त्रोतितप्रतीष्ठोऽसौ यत्र स्यात्तारमन्द्रयोः ।

प्रथमं त्रोतितवैकमपरस्य प्रतिग्रहः ॥

(S.R.III 159)

16. Prasṛtākuñcita.

प्रसृताकुञ्चितः स्थायः प्रसृताकुञ्चितध्वनिः ।

(S.R.III 160)

Where the volume is broadened in the beginning and contracted towards the end.

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17. Sthira.

स्थायिवर्णस्थितः कम्पः स्थिर इत्यभिधीयते ॥ (S.R.III 160)

Kampa in ‘Sthāyi-Varna’ i.e. repeated or constant shake on solitary ‘Svara-s’.

18. Sthāyuka.

एकैकस्मिन् स्वरे सिथला सिथला वाथ दृढो दृढौ।।

त्रिषु त्रिष्वथ वा स्थायो रचितः स्थायुको मतः ॥ (S.R.III 161)

Staying on one, two or three Svaras and then proceeding forward; e.g. सड़जरीगड़ गड़, or सरिगड़, रिगड़ गमड़, मपड़, or सरिगड़, रिगमड़ etc.

19. Kṣipta or Ksipra.

ऊर्ध्वः प्रसारितः क्षिप्तः,। (S.R.III 162)

That which is spread out in Tārasthāna. Kṣipta literally means ‘thrown out’ (popularly called फेंक in Hindi). If the reading ‘Ksipra’ of S.S. is accepted it will mean fast tempo, but that will be identical with द्रुत.

20. Sūkṣmānta.

सूक्ष्मान्तोडनन्तैडल्पतां गतः । (S.R.III 162)

This is very much similar to No. 16 above in this group viz. Prasṛitākuñcita, but the latter implies extra-broadening (of volume) in the beginning whereas this may begin in normal intensity.

IV. Thirty-Three APRASIDDHA (Obscure) STHĀYA-S WITH SAṄKĪRNA (Indistinct) LAKSAṆA-S.

1. Pertaining to ‘Prakritistha Śabda’--where the notes are produced with normal intensity without extra force or softness.

शब्दः प्रकाशते येषु धृतिभृत्यादिवर्जितः ।

स्वभावादेव शब्दस्य प्रकृतिस्थस्य ये मताः ॥ (S.R.III 162,63)

विवर्जिताकुञ्चनपूर्णाद्याः स्वाभाविकाः येषु भवन्ति शब्दाः ।

स्थायाः स्वरते प्रकृतिस्थशब्दसम्बन्धिनो गानविदां प्रसिद्धाः ॥ (S.S.III 238)

A Glossary of Sthayas

2. Pertaining to Kalā--implying artificial reduction of intensity.

येषु सूक्ष्मीकृताः शब्दास्ते कलायाः प्रकीर्तिताः ।

(S.R. III 164)

3. Pertaining to ‘Ākramana’-implying the use of extra energy of Prāṇa or breath.

भृशं प्राणप्रतिग्राह्या ये स्युराक्रमणस्य ते ।

(S.R. III 164)

4. Pertaining to Ghaṭanā. This refers to conscious effort in giving a particular form to a ‘Sthāya’ on the analogy of a craftsman who carves out a stone pillar. ‘Kāndāraṇā’ (No. II-18 above) referred to the analogy of engraving on a stone pillar, but this refers to ‘Ghaṭanā’ (or गढ़ना in Hindi) which means ‘giving a form’ (not necessarily embellished).

ते स्थाया घटनाया ये शिल्पिना घटिता इव ।

स्थायास्तु ये वर्धकिकल्प्यमानस्तम्भा इव स्यूर्यघटनादिमास्ते ॥

(S.R. III 164)

5. Pertaining to ‘Sukha’-those that are pleasant to the ear. This bears close similarity to ‘Rakti’ (No. II-7 above), but ‘Rakti’ may be said to be deeper than ‘Sukha’ as the former is not only pleasant but has a potentiality to impart emotional colour to the mind; ‘Sukha’ may be confined to pleasure of the ‘sense-level’.

सुखदास्तु सुखस्य स्यु:,

स्थायास्तु ये श्रोत्रसुखदा: स्युः सुखस्य सम्बन्धितयोदितास्ते ।

(S.R. III 165)

(S.S. III 240)

6. Pertaining to ‘Cāli’ or ‘Jakkā’.

चालिजकैति कीर्तिता। स्थायास्तदन्विताश्राले:,

चालिभिर्विशेषणं स्वराणां चलनं सा लोके जककैति कथ्यते ॥

(S.R. III 165)

(S.)

‘Bhaṅgiviśeṣa’ may be explained as a special crooked or winding course of notes or a special ‘break and turn’ as implied in the ‘Moḍāmodī’ of P. (No. II-15 adove).

7. Pertaining to ‘Jīva-Svara’ : those that centre round the ‘Aṃśa Svarā’ (predominant note) of a Rāga. ‘Aṃśa’ has not

been here used in a restricted sense as is the case in No. II-10 above.

अंशो जीवस्वरो मतः । तत्प्राधान्येन ये गीताः स्थान्या जीवस्वरस्य ते ॥

(S.R.III 166)

8. Pertaining to ‘Vedadhvani’ : bearing similarity with ‘Vedadhvani’-i.e. either staying too long on a note or moving round two or three notes for a long time.

वेदध्वनिनिभध्वाना: स्याया वेदध्वनेर्मताः ॥

(S.R.III 166)

9. Pertaining to Ghanatva : those having ‘Antaḥsāratā’ or fulness or richness of volume.

अन्तःसारो घनत्वस्य, ।

(S.R.III 167)

10. ‘Śithila’ literally means slack i.e. the opposite of Gāḍha’. But S. and S.S. call it the opposite of ‘Ghana’ which does not sound to be correct.

शिथिलो घनत्वप्रतियोग्यर्थः ।

(S.)

11. Avaghaṭa.

दुष्करोऽवघटः प्रोक्तः ।

(S.R.III 167)

That which is very difficult. P. has referred to the element of ‘difficulty’ as ‘Durvāsa,’ which is restricted to pitch-range.

तारमन्द्रसमायोगात् प्रयोगे यत्र दुष्करः ।

वर्तते स तु गीतशैदुर्वासः परिकीर्तितः ॥

(S.S.Sāra II)

12. Pluta. प्लुतोऽत्यन्तविलम्बितः ।

(S.R. III 167)

i.e. in very slow tempo.

13. Rāgeṣṭa. रागोणे, स्वपूण्यर्थी रागोष्ठ इति कीर्तितः ।

(S.R. III 168)

That which is essential for making a particular ‘Rāga’ complete or full.

14. Apasvarābhāsa.

स स्यादपास्वराभासो भात्यपास्वरवतु यः ।

यस्तु सुस्वरेऽप्यपास्वरवदवभाति सौडपस्वराभासः ।

(S.R.III 168)

(S.)

That which appears to be out of tune (Apasvara) in spite of being in tune (Susvara). This is rather difficult to explain, but one explanation may be offered as follows. Sometimes the

A Glossary of Sthayas

musicians (singers or instrumentalists) leave the original tonic for a while and give the position of tonic to some other note. If the listener cannot apprehend this short-time shift of tonic he may not be able to follow what the musician is driving at and may have a feeling of having lost the track and the notes may appear to him to out of tune, though they are really not so.

15. Baddha.

स्थायिस्थास्तु बद्धः स्यात्‌ ।

(S.R.III 169)

This implies a standstill position of a tone e.g. when a note is prolonged and movement seems to be absent (though physically a single tone also implies a succession of vibrations).

यस्तु निगलित इव स्थायिस्थितष्ठति स्थायः स बध्दः ।

यः श्रुतिस्थालबद्ध इवावभाति स्थायं तु तं बध्दमुशन्ति सन्तः ॥

(S.S.III 246)

16. Pertaining to Kalarava:

बहुत्वं मधुरध्वने: ।

(S.R.III 169)

'Bahutva' (abundance) of sweet Dhvani (tones) can be explained in melodic music in terms of the simultaneous tones of many instruments or voices produced in unison or in octave.

17. Chāndasa.

छान्दसोडचतुरप्रियः ॥

(S.R.III 169)

यस्तु छान्दसानामचतुराणामविदगधानां प्रियः सच्छान्दसः ।

(S.)

That which is dear or appealing to the unrefined or uncultured listeners. For example, rivalry between the main musician and the drum-accompanist has a natural appeal for the untrained listeners.

18. Sukarābhāsa.

सुकराभास इत्युको दुष्करः सुकरोपमः ॥

(S.R.III 170)

That which appears to be easy, but is very difficult. All students of music have experience of this. Great masters alone can render difficult pieces in such a way as to make them appear very easy.

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19. Saṃhitā.

घण्टानादवदायातस्तारानमद्रं तु संहितः।

(S.R.III 170)

यो घण्टानादवत् तारानमद्रं यातोडवतीर्णकः ॥

(S.S.III 248)

P. gives a similar definition under the name ‘Avatīrṇaka’. The proceeding of a tone from ‘Tāra’ to ‘Mandra’ accompanied by reduction in intensity just as is the case in the ‘Anuraṇaṇa’ of Ghaṇṭā (Bell).

20. Laghu.

लघुगुरुत्वरहितः।

(S.R.III 171)

The meaning of ‘Gurutva’ and ‘Lāghava’ is not clear here, it may mean either the use of ‘Laghu’ (short) syllables in abundance or an easyflowing way of singing or playing.

21. Antarā.

ध्रुवकाभोगियोगस्तु यः । अन्तरे सोऽन्तरः,

(S.R.III 171)

This is a ‘Dhātu’ (section) of a ‘Prabandha’ (composition), which stands in-between ‘Dhruva’ and ‘Ābhoga’. It is difficult to say why it has been accorded a place in ‘Sthāya-s’ in exclusion of the other Dhātu-s. The only explanation that appears to be plausible is that ‘Antara’ may denote a melodic piece designed for joining ‘Dhruva’ and ‘Ābhoga’ and thus it may be taken to be basically different from the other ‘Dhātu-s’.

22. Vakra :

वक्रो भवेदर्जवहीन एव।

(S.S.III 250)

This is the opposite of ‘Rju’ and implies the use of Svaras in a crooked way.

23. Dīptaprasanna.

सुकरस्तु यः । तारे दीप्तप्रस्तरोडसौ ।

(S.R.III 171,72)

That which is used in ‘Tāra’ (upper register), with ease, so says S.R. but S. and S.S. give a somewhat different interpretation.

यस्तु तारस्थाने सकलोडनूनः सम्पूर्णः प्रतिभाति स दीप्तप्रस्तः ।

(S.)

A Glossary of Sthayas

159

तारे तु यः पूर्णवदेव भाति दीपप्रसत्रं तमुदाहरन्ति।

(S.S.III 250)

This seems to imply a sense of completeness in the ‘Tāra-sthāna’.

24. Prasannamṛdu.

‘Mṛdu’ should be taken here to stand for ‘Mandra’ i.e. easy-flowing and tender tones in ‘Mandra’ are implied here.

सुकरः कोमलध्वनि: । प्रसन्नमृदुरित्युच्तः,

(S.R.III 172)

25. Guru.

गुरुमतो लाघववर्जनम,

(S.S.III 251)

This is the opposite of ‘Laghu’ (No. 20 above) and may stand either for an abundance of long syllables or a sense of heaviness in tone-production.

26. Hrasva--denotes shortness of duration.

ह्रस्वः स्तोकः,

(S.R.III 173)

S.S. define it thus :-

ह्रस्वो मतो यः खलु कम्पवत् स्यात्॥

(S.S.251)

The significance of ‘Kampa’ is not clear here. The explanation of P. for ‘Bokkala’ (a Sthāya-name) seems to be approximate to that for ‘Hrasva’ found in S.R.

स्थायः स्वल्पपरिमाणो बोङ्कल इति कथ्यते ॥

(S.S.Sāra II 120)

27. Śithilagāḍha.

सादत्वहीनः सबललक्ष्य यः स्थायो मतोऽसौ शिथिलादिगाढः।

(S.S.III 252)

क्रमेण गाढतां त्यकत्वा ललितस्वर वर्तनम्।

यच्च गाढमिति प्रोक्तं गीतलक्षणकोविदैः ॥

(S.S.Sāra II)

That which has both Śithilatā (slackness) and Gāḍhatā or Sabalatā (force).

28. Dīrgha. S. reads ‘Dīpta’. ‘Dīrgha’ is the opposite of ‘Hrasva’ and stands for length of duration.

दीर्घो मतो ह्रस्वविलक्षणः स्यात्।

(S.S.III 252)

29. Asādhāraṇa.

शब्दशारीरगुणतः सुकरः सुस्वरौडथवा।

यः कस्यचित्र सर्वेषां सोऽसाधारण उच्यते ॥

(S.R.III 173,74)

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Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

यस्तु कस्यचिदेव पुरुषस्य शब्दगुणेन शारीरगुणेन वा सुकरः, सुखेन कर्तुं शक्यः

सः; सुस्वरः, अपस्वरहीनो वा, न तु सर्वेषां पुरुषाणां सोऽसाधारणः ॥

That which cannot be rendered by all musicians i.e. uncommon.

30. Sādhāraṇa (common).

सदृशो यस्तु सर्वेषामसौ साधारणः स्मृतः ।

31. Nirādhāra.

न वाच्छति वहन्यादि यः स्वनिर्वाहहेतवे ।

उच्यते स निराधारः ।

This seems to be the opposite of ‘Apekṣita’ (No. II-31 above). It can be conceived as the last phrase in a particular section which brings about a sense of completeness and which does not require any other phrase for its completeness. P. has given a similar interpretation for ‘Vidārī’ (a Sthāya name).

आलसिर्विलसत्स्तालकाला विशिष्टतयस्तरा ।

वर्तते चेतिरालम्बः स विदारीति गद्यते ॥

32. Duṣkarābhāsa.

सुकरो दुष्करोपमः । दुष्कराभास इत्युक्तः ।

Artificial rendering of a piece so as to give it an air of being very difficult.

33. Miśra (mixed).

मिश्रणानिमित्तको मतः ।

This includes all mixed varieties and the fifteen Gamakas have also been used in making the mixed varieties. S.R. mentions 36 varieties of ‘Miśra Sthāya’ just by way of illustration and says that infinite varieties can be conceived in this category. Saṅgītarāja mentions 66 varieties further sub-divided as follows according to the number of varieties mixed into

one. Dviyogaja 29 + Triyogaja 16 + Caturyogaja 10 + Pañcayogaja 5 + Ṣaṣaṃyogaja 6 = 66.

PRABANDHAS

or

Compositional Patterns of

Hindustani Music*

(Synopsis of Illustrated Talk)

Owing to obvious limitations, we shall have to concentrate

on Prabandha-s of vocal music only although the term is equally

applicable to instrumental music as Vādya Prabandha-s.

The term Prabandha has been in vogue in Indian musical

parlance since the time of Mataṅga’s Bṛhaddēśī, i.e., in the

early centuries of the Christian era. It was used for denoting

various forms of compositions in Dēśī music which may be

identified with semi-secular music. Today this term is almost

lost from usage; it has been replaced by the popular word

Bandish or Chīj on the one hand and, on the other hand, there

is a rare use of this term in a very restricted sense, i.e., it is

sometimes used for those compositions of the Dhrupad style

which make use of more than one tāla just like Tālamālikā or

for those compositions of the Dhrupad style which comprise

Sargam or solfa syllables and some Pāṭākṣara-s or syllables

associated with various musical instruments in addition to the

usual verbal structure of a musical composition. This is, of

course a very restricted use of this term which literally means a

composition, literary (काव्यबन्ध) or musical or both.

We know that Indian music, especially Hindustani music,

is improvised for most of its part. We do not have musical

compositions comparable to those in Western music where

performance in music is generally limited to interpretation of

the composer. We have melodic patterns in our Rāga-s, and

• Published in Indian Music Journal No. 4, 1965.

rhythmic pattern in our Tāla-s, and the performance is due to improvisation in these patterns. But, all the same, we do have musical compositions which usually form part of any musical performance and which serve the purpose of a basic outline for all improvisations. The potentialities of improvisation around a musical composition were duly recognised, in our old musical texts, as is evident from the term Rūpaka-ālapti used in Saṅgīta-ratnākara, which means improvisation within the Rāga and Tāla of the Rūpaka which is another name for Prabandha. In this sense all the present-day musical compositions are Prabandha-s but, unfortunately, we have lost this usage.

Literally Prabandha means Pra (Prakṛṣṭarūpēṇa) bandha- that in which the parts are strongly tied up into a single whole, i.e., it implies unity which is a fundamental requisite of all artistic creations.

Gāna or Dēśi Saṅgīta has been divided into Nibaddha and Anibaddha gāna. Now Nibaddha can be taken to stand for composed music and Anibaddha for improvised music. Prabandha, Vastu and Rūpaka-these three are synonyms of Nibaddha-gāna, and Anibaddha-gāna is Rāga-ālapti or elaboration of a Rāga in Ālāpa without its being associated with a composed piece. This form of Ālapti is still in vogue in the Dhrupad style when elaboration precedes the rendering of the composition. It naturally follows from the description of Nibaddha and Anibaddha that Nibaddha is Satāla (with Tāla) and Anibaddha is Atāla (without Tāla); but if Nibaddha is taken to mean preconceived or pre-composed music, and Anibaddha is taken to mean just the opposite, i.e., improvised music, then the improvisations that are associated with Prabandha by way of Rūpaka-ālapti will also have to be included in Anibaddha-gāna because inspite of their being rendered with Tāla, they are not preconceived or pre-determined. Similarly, if the Atāla-ālapti preceding the Dhrupad is composed just like ‘Ṭhāya-s’ as referred to by Veṅkaṭamakhin (as composed Rāga-ālāpa-s without Tāla) then

it will have to be included in Nibaddha-gāna although it is

fettered by Tāla. It can, therefore, be said that although

Nibaddha has a natural affinity with Satāla, and Anibaddha

with Atāla, yet both these sets of terms are independent to

some extent, i.e., Nibaddha may sometimes be Atāla and

Anibaddha may be Satāla.

Prabandha or musical composition has been conceived in

our Saṅgīta Śāstra as a human organism and has been described

in terms of Dhātu-s and Aṅga-s. Dhātu-s are the sections into

which a composition is divided and Aṅga-s are the various

elements that go to make it. (Illustration).

Close connection exists between composition and

improvisation. (Illustration).

Styles : Dhrupad, Khyāl, Ṭhumrī (Illustration)

Similarly, the rhythmic structure of a particular

composition within a given style also has considerable

influence on the improvisation, e.g., a Tritāla song starting

from the 9th mātrā and another starting from the 7th or the

12th mātrā will have different patterns of tāna-s. Similarly a

Dhrupad or Dhamār starting from the Sama or one starting

from a different point in the rhythmic cycle will make some

difference in the rhythmic improvisation. (Illustration).

– Delhi Saṅgīta Samāj, 25-4-64

GANDHARVA*

Sadagopan - Premlata - Brhaspati

(A Colloquium)

Sadagopan. It is generally recognized that the word Gāndharva, as applied to the Science and Art of music, is derived from Gandharva, "a race of semi-divine beings". I believe it is reasonable to suppose that the 'semi-divine' Gandharva world is the inner world of the artist--the free, imaginative, intuitive mind from which all artistic creations arise.

But is it not somewhat incongruous for "scientific" studies of music history to give a geographical habitat to the gandharva-s? There are music history books which confuse the word with gāndhāra (which is the term used to denote a sculptural style) and say that the gandharva-s were a semi-divine race settled in the Gāndhāra or Khandahār tract of Afghanistan. Apart from this interpretation being unscientific, I think it is also wrong etymologically to derive gandharva from gāndhāra. Could you, Dr. Bṛhaspati and Dr. Premlata, throw light on this point? We may also perhaps discuss the subject in general.

Bṛhaspati. The fundamental canon of scholarly studies in the Indian tradition is that both the vyutpatti (etymological derivation) and pravṛtti (usage) of words are taken into account. Vyutpatti lends the general meaning of the word, and pravṛtti stands for rūḍhi (traditional usage). Accordingly, I have the following observations on the word gāndharva. The etymological derivation of gandharva is :- गन्धम् अर्वति इति गन्धर्व: (one who can perceive gandha or smell) and gāndharva is that which pertains to the gandharva. In the five bhūta-s (elements), Pṛthvī (earth) is the grossest; gandha being the

• Published in I.M.J. No. 8 Vol. IV-2. 1967

Gandharva

165

attribute of Prthvī, it includes all the other four attributes of

the four previous bhūta-s, viz. śabda (of Ākāśa), sparśa (of

Vāyu), rūpa (of Agni), and rasa (of Jala). The Gandharva has

some special faculty making him superior to the ordinary

human being, by which he is able to perceive through gandha.

There is a reference into a special layer or consciousness where

the intangible (similar to gandha) is perceived as tangible

(अमूर्तस्य मूर्तवद् दर्शनम्). Thus gandharva-s are jīva-s (beings)

of a special category who are comparable to deva-s (divine

beings) because of certain qualities, if not actually deva-s.

According to rūdhi or usage, the word gandharva is used in

the following meanings (according to Amarakośa :-1. तुम्बरूपप्रभृतयो

देवगायना: (I-II) 2. गीतमाधुर्यसम्पन्नः (मनुष्य:) (I-55) 3. मृगजाति: (V-II)

4. घोटकजाति: (VIII-44)

The following verse from Haimakośa quoted in

Mahēśwara's commentary on Amarakośa gives the six

conventional meanings of this word :-

गन्धर्वस्तु नभशरे पुंसकोकिले गायने च।

मृगभेदे तुरगमेऽन्तराभवदेहेच च॥

Premlata. The semi-divine gandharva is said to move

about in the Ākāśa or the sky.

Sadagopan. The sky outside and inside, I suppose--

Bahir-ākāśa and Dahar-ākāśa? That may perhaps explain their

freedom as well as their special association with music--which

is Nāda-Vidyā, and Nāda is the attribute of Ākāśa.

Premlata. Your inference is quite sound. The other

meanings of the word are :-the male cuckoo, the singer, species

of deer and horse and a state of existence where the body is

born at a level intermediate between earth and heaven.

Sadagopan. We are concerned here with the divine,

semi-divine or human beings associated with music.

Contemplation, I believe, is also a special quality of

gandharva-s. Am I right?

Premlata. Yes, certainly; the gandharva is a

contemplative being, and so of refined senses. According to

Nāṭya-Śāstra and Vālmīki-Rāmāyaṇa, there is a gandharva

known as Tumburu who is the draṣṭā (seer) of Dhaivata and

Niṣāda svara-s.

Bṛhaspati. Upasvara (harmonic tone) is the gandha of

svara. Svararises out of āghāta and is tangible or audible as a

gross sound, but Upasvara arises out of anuraṇana (resonance)

and, being too subtle for ordinary perception, it is the gandha of

svara, so to say. The Dhaivata audible as the harmonic of

Madhyama (in modern nomenclature the ‘Svayambhū’ Gāndhāra

audible from Ṣadja) is the subtle gandha of svara, and it was

perhaps Tumburu who had perceived this overtone first; thus he

was a gandharva, i.e. one who could ‘smell’ or perceive subtle

tonal entities. It is a well-recognized idea that Tumburu had

perceived Dhaivata and Niṣāda.

Sadagopan. Gandha, or smell, is here used as a figure of

speech, according to you. It could be, but may I offer another

explanation?

Bṛhaspati. Please do, by all means.

Sadagopan. To smell the subtle smell of the earth, one

may be on the earth but not of it. In other words, the “semi-

divine” musician is one who is or has risen above the drab

earthly level.

Bṛhaspati. You are right. Our Śāstra-s speak of Manusya

gandharva-s and Deva-gandharva-s. Of that a little later. Now, to

proceed with svara-darśana, the seers of the 7 svara-s are known

as follows! All of them may not be recognised as gandharva-s, but

they certainly possess the subtle power of observation of musical

tones and overtones. Thus gandharva-s are closely related with

the original perception of tones. Their intimate association with

the evolution or manifestation of music is therefore

unquestionable.

वहिर्वेधाः शशाङ्कद‍ृश्‌ लक्ष्मीकान्तकश् नारदः ।

ऋषयस्ते ददृशुः पद्मषड्जादिस्तुम्बुरुद्धनी ॥

(SañgītaRatnākara Vol. I, 3/56-57)

Gandharva

167

Premlata. The divinity associated with the gandharva-s can be explained in the above context on the basis of the subtle faculty of extraordinarily subtle perception or observation which is the manifestation of divinity. This faculty is specially associated with the brāhmaṇa-s (seekers of Truth) and hence they are called ‘Bhūdeva-s’, deva-s on this earth. The vyutpatti of deva is :-

दीव्यति क्रीडति यस्माद् रोचते द्योतते दिवि।

तस्मादेव इति प्रोक्तः

—(शब्दस्तोममहानिधिकोशः)

The purport of the above is that deva-s have attributes denoting special faculties of Rōcana or Dyōtana (enlightenment). The divinity of gandharva-s is also of the same category. Our Śāstra-s say that the deva-s conquer death with Brahmacarya (the experience of Truth) and Tapasyā (quest for knowledge). These two guṇa-s immortalise the mortal.

Sadagopan. Yes, we recognize that such divinity can manifest itself even in the mortal human being.

Bṛhaspati. The Taittirīyōpaniṣat speaks of Manuṣya-gandharva-s and Deva-gandharva-s as follows :-

ते ये शतं मानुषा आनन्दा:, स एको मनुष्यगन्धर्वाणामानन्द:| श्रोत्रियस्य चाकामहतस्य च ।

ते ये शतं मनुष्यगन्धर्वाणामानन्दा:, स एको देवगन्धर्वाणामानन्द: श्रोत्रियस्य चाकामहतस्य ।

(तैत्तिरीयोप० II-8)

The enjoyment of Manuṣya-gandharva-s has been spoken of as hundred times richer than that of ordinary human beings and the enjoyment of Deva-gandharva-s has been spoken of as hundred times richer than that of Manuṣya-gandharva-s. Thus the association of Gandharva with the Gāndhāra region is totally ruled out both etymologically and on the basis of convention or usage.

Premlata. The association of the attributes of gandharva-s with human beings has been spoken of by Bharata in the following words while describing the ‘Gandharva-sattvā’ women :

168

Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

गान्धर्वे वाद्ये च नृत्ते च रता हस्ता मुजावती।

गन्धर्वसक्ता विज्ञेया स्निग्धत्वकेशलোচना ॥

(Nātyaśāstra XXII 107)

The ‘Gandharva-sattvā’ woman takes delight in being involved in Gāndharva (Gīta), Vādya and Nṛtta, is fond of cleanliness and has snigdha (unctuous) skin, hair and eyes.

Bṛhaspati. Now, having discussed the nature of gandharva-s, let us consider the Gāndharva pertaining to the gandharva-s. Bharata says :

यतु तन्त्रीकृतं प्रोक्तं नानातोद्यसमाश्रयम्।

गान्धर्वमिति तज्ज्ञेयं स्वरतालपदात्मकम्॥

अत्यर्थमित्ये देवांस्त तथा प्रोतिकारं पुनः।

गन्धर्वांश्च यस्माद्दि तस्माद् गान्धर्वमुच्यते ॥

अस्य योनिर्भवेन्द् गानं वीणा वंशस्तैव च।

(Nātyaśāstra XXVII 8,9)

The following attributes of Gāndharva are evident from the above verses and from Abhinavagupta's commentary on the same :

1. It is constituted of Svarā, Tāla and Pada. Svarā is manifested by the human voice and instruments like Vīṇā, Vīpañcī and Vamśī. Tāla is the substratum of Gīta and is manifested through instruments. Pada is manifested by the human voice. Gāndharva is the collective name of these three. This Gāndharva is regulated by the Gāndharva-Śāstra.

2. It is to be distinguished from Sāma-gāna. The tonal structure of Sāma was in the descending order (avaroḥātmaka) and there was no grāma-vibhāga (classification of grāma-s) in Sāma, but Gāndharva established the classification of grāma-s with the evolution of the ārohāvaroha (ascending and descending order) and with the observation of the Ṣadja-samvādī Pañcama and the Ṛṣabha-samvādī Pañcama.

Sadagopan. Yes, we know that, but these are the physical aspects. There must be, I believe, more significant differences, deeper and subtler, between Sāma and Gāndharva. I think we should discuss Sāma separately later.

Bṛhaspati. Yes, we may. Thirdly, gāndharva is highly propitiatory for the deva-s than Japa, Tapas, Yajña and Upāsanā. This is the adrṣṭaphala (unseen benefit) of Gāndharva which goes mainly to the Prayōktā (performer) and secondarily to the Śrotā (listener). The gāndharva yields delight to the gandharva-s.

Premlata. It is clear that gāndharva refers to systematised music based on Sāma and laukika or secular music prevalent in the various regions. In gāndharva, under svara, the names of the 7 svara-s of Sāma-Prathama, Dvitīya, etc.-became Madhyama, Gāndhāra, etc. Similarly the exposition of Mūrcchanā-s and Jāti-s was made on the basis of grāma-vibhāga (classification of grāma-s) referred to above.

The keen analytical faculty of gandharva-s established the grāma-s, mūrcchanā-s and their auduva (pentatonic) and ṣādava (hexatonic) varieties known as tāna-s. These tāna-s were later given the names of various yajña-s; thus their use was associated with yajña-s after the scientific systematisation of gāndharva. The Jāti-s expounded by Bharata were also devised for broadly classifying the various tunes and melodic phrases prevalent in loka (secular traditions). Seven basic or fundamental melodic structures were systematised as the 7 śuddha-jati-s bearing the names of the 7 svara-s such as, Ṣādjī, Arṣabhī, Gāndhārī, etc. The mixed varieties of these structures were systematised as the 11 Samsargaja-jāti-s, a number of which bear regional names.

This much for the Svaraspect of Gāndharva. In its Tāla aspect, basically two tāla-s were accepted-viz., Cañcatpuṭa and Cācapuṭa. Three varieties of these two were also added and five tāla-s were spoken of in all. In the Pada aspect the 7 śuddha gītaka-s expounded by Bharata formed part of gāndharva.

Bṛhaspati. Another vyutpatti of gāndharva given by Abhinavagupta in his commentary on Nāṭyaśāstra XXVIII-10.

Gandharva

—गां वाचं धारयतीति गान्धर्वम्। यथाह विशाखिलाचार्य:—“पुरा स्वर्गे प्रणष्टां (वाचं) देवेभ्य: (अधारयदिति गान्धर्वम्)”।

Gāndharva, according to this vyutpatti, is that which holds Vāk (the verbal aspect of Gīta). The following Paurāṇika anecdote narrated in Nātyaśāstra V 31-42 explains the above quotation from Viśākhila, according to which gāndharva preserved the lost Vāk for the deva-s.

The asura-s (devils) took great delight in the Nirgīta (devoid of Pada or verbal structure) performance of the sapta-gītaka-s and decided to leave the Gīta to the deva-s. The deva-s took offence at this and approached Nārada, referred to here as a gandharva, asking for his permission to destroy the Nirgīta performance. Nārada pacified them, saying that Nirgīta would help preserve the Gīta, i.e., the Pada could be retrieved on the basis of Nirgīta (Svara-Tāla) whenever needed in future. Thus both Gīta and Nirgīta (or Bahirgīta) form parts of gāndharva.

Premlata. The systematised gāndharva also underwent modification in accordance with Lōka-ruci (popular taste) and regional variations. These modified forms of Rāga, Tāla and Pada were then classified under Deśī and Bharata’s gāndharva was identified with Mārga. Really speaking, even the original gāndharva had taken due cognisance of regional varieties e.g., Jāti names such as Āndhrī, Madhyamōdīcyavā-i.e., the Madhyamā Jāti prevalent in the Udīcī or northern region, etc.).

Sadagopan. Thank you. This again rules out the Gāndhāra (Khandahār) theory. I expect we will be discussing Sāma, Mārga, Deśī, Jāti, etc., in due course.

HISTORY AND ORIGIN OF ṬHUMARĪ WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO GHARĀNĀS AND STYLES*

I-HISTORY AND ORIGIN.

1. General.

Ṭhumarī is the most popular form of North Indian Music cultivated by individuals, as distinguished from the spontaneous music of communities or social groups. It is therefore designated as classical music, as distinguished from folk music. It is comparatively more free from the restrictions of the strict discipline of orthodox classical music. For this reason it is called ‘light’ classical music.

As denoted by its feminine name, Ṭhumarī is characterised by a striking note of tenderness and the theme of its songs invariably is related to some or the other phase of human love in a state of amorous separation or union. Ṭhumarī lacks the virility of musical expression of the Dhrupada and Khāyala styles, both masculine names. The songs in the aforesaid manly styles do not always have love for their theme.

2. Origin of Ṭhumarī.

The most widely current theory attributes the origin of Ṭhumarī to the royal court of Oudh, especially that of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. This causal theory of the origin of a musical style, like all causal theories of interpretation of historical problems, is at best rather partial in compass, if not superficial. Causal theories do not take cognizance of the inner homogenous continuity of human affairs, to which causal factors have to be related to have any real significance. In

• Published in Prajñā (Journal of B.H.U.) Vol. VIII (2) 1963.

order to understand and interpret the basic trend which made

possible the evolution of Ṭhumarī, attention has to be paid to

the continuity of fundamental trends in Indian tradition of classical

music which comes in an unbroken current from very

ancient times and reflects India as an organic and vital cultural

entity with a spiritual foundation too strong for any secular

influence which does not owe loyalty to it.

Historically speaking, the true significance of the

development of a new art-form can only be grasped when its

understanding is related to the preceding cultural trends.

Intrinsically also, any classical musical form has to be judged

with reference to the fundamental concepts of musical theory.

Indian society has nourished such a strong spiritual base for

cultivation of arts that incompatible political or exotic

influences have made only a slight, superficial and evanescent

impact on the fundamental concepts of art which are rooted in

the very soul of the people.

As is well-known, the theory of classical Indian music is

enshrined in our traditional Saṅgītasāstra. In studying any

musical style and its characteristics an attempt has, therefore,

to be made to relate it to the concept of musical forms as given

in that Śāstra.

The main characteristics of Ṭhumarī are noted below.

3. Characteristic features of Ṭhumarī.

The main characteristic features of Ṭhumarī as a musical

style and related facts may be enumerated as under :

(i) The musical effect of Ṭhumarī is dependent on the

poetic content more predominantly than is the orthodox style

of say Khyāla;

(ii) The poetic theme of songs sung in this style deals

most often with Śṛṅgāra rasa, and has sometimes a dual

significance, viz., spiritual and mundane;

(iii) Its lyric form, which is due to the restricted range of

rāgas suitable for its rendering, and to its latitude of

elaboration. It is at present the most lyrical of all forms of

Indian light classical music;

(iv) Judged from the familiar principle of art design 'Unity in diversity', this form dwells more on diversity than on the element of unity running through it of the melodic pattern;

(v) It requires a special quality of voice, natural or cultivated for proper rendering;

(vi) Its association with the 'Kathak' style of dance looked upon as an inferior dance style, led to the exponents of this musical style being assigned a low social status until recently;

(vii) The 'tālas' indentified with this form of music constitute one of its features;

(viii) The embellishments are tonal-verbal for the most part and not purely tonal ones which preponderate in the orthodox classical music.

Let us now proceed to see whether our Saṅgīta Śāstra recognises a musical form or style characterised as above. If it does, it will be reasonable to assume that forms or styles such as the Ṭhumarī are a normal feature of musical evolution from time to time in our country.

2. Ṭhumarī, an ephemeral evolute or a variant out of a long series of forms beginning with 'dhruvās' mentioned in Bharata's Nāṭya Śāstra.

Bharata deals with verbal-tonal rhythmic compositional patterns in the 32nd chapter of Nāṭya Śāstra, entitled Dhruvāvidhāna. He speaks of five type of Dhruvā in the context of drama (Nāṭya) viz., Prāveśikī (प्रावेशिकी), Ākṣepikī (आक्षेपिकी) Naiṣkrāmikī (नैष्क्रामिकी), Sāntarā (सान्तरा) and Prāsādikī or Prasādinī (प्रासादिकी अथवा प्रसादिनी). Prasādinī is described as रङ्गरागप्रसादजननी i.e. that which gives rise to colourful delight (Rañgarāga) and self-engrossing happiness (Prasāda). As is naturally to be expected, this type is specially employed in the delineation of Śṛṅgāra Rasa. The following lines are significant in this context :

प्रसादनं संभ्रमे च तथानुस्मरणेऽपि च। तथातिशयवाक्येषु तथा च नवसङ्गमे॥

गर्वे च प्रार्थने चैव श्रृङ्गाराद्भुतदर्शने ।

ध्रुवा प्रसादिनी कार्या तज्ज्ञैर्मध्यलयाश्रया ॥

It may incidentally be noted here that Bharata has aptly enjoined the use of Madhya laya (medium tempo) in this type of Dhruvā which is specially fit for Śṛṅgāra Rasa, whereas he has enjoined ‘Vilambita laya’ for the Dhruvās suitable for Karuṇa Rasa and Druta Laya for those suitable for Vīra, Raudra, Adbhuta etc.

Mataṅga, the next important extant author after Bharata, has dealt with compositional patterns under Prabandhādhyāya. He speaks of Nādavatī, a type of Gaṇa-Ela (गण–एला) Prabandha, specially fit for Śṛṅgāra Rasa, as follows :

ऋवेदादिसमुद्भूता विचित्रध्वनिरञ्जता।

एला नादवती रम्या वर्णालङ्कारशोभिता ॥

गीयते मृदुतालेन नादयुक्ता पदे पदे।

टकरङ्गी भवेतत्र सर्वोत्तमसुरूपकैः ॥

श्वेतो वर्णक्ष विख्येः श्रृङ्गारः कथितो रसः।

कौशिकीवृत्तिराख्याता पाञ्चालीरतिरिष्यते ॥

The following characteristic features of this type of Prabandha can be noted from the above quotation :

(i) Remarkable beauty and variegated graceful embellishments;

(ii) Deployment of special rhythmic pattern (tāla);

(iii) The universal appeal of the Rāga or melodic pattern of this form. I shall shortly review this feature in some detail;

(iv) The presence of Kaiśikī Vṛtti and Pāñcālī Rīti; the former of these viz., Kaiśikī Vṛtti represents the graceful sportive tendencies of amorous love in drama (कैशिकी, गीतनृत्यविलासादौर्मुदुशृङ्गारचेष्टितैः) and the latter viz., Pāñcālī Rīti, represents a special style of diction which is marked by the absence of compounds on the analogy of which it can be construed that this form makes use of short and sweet embellishments and avoids elaborate and intricate ones.

It will be interesting and useful to review the special features of the Rāga chosen for this compositional form. It may be noted that Ṭakka is an important Grāma Rāga known as ‘Bhāṣājanaka’ i.e. it gives rise to the greatest number of Bhāṣās and Vibhāṣās. Bhāṣā is described as “Ālāpaviśeṣa” or a particular variety of improvised elaboration of a Rāga. It is well-known that only a few Rāgas permit of unrestrained variety in elaboration. Bhāṣā and Vibhāṣā imply a license for such variety as is evident from the following words of Mataṅga regarding these two Gītis or style-forms of rendering Rāgas :-

प्रयोगैर्गात्रजैः श्लक्ṣणैः काकुरकैः सयोजितैः।

कम्पितैः कोमलैर्दैर्घ्यैर्मालवीकाकुनान्नतैः॥

ललितैः सुकुमारैश् प्रयौगैश् सुसंयुतैः।

भाषागीतिः समाख्याता एषा गीतिविचक्षणैः॥

यथा वै रज्यते लोक्तथा वै सम्प्रयुज्यते॥

The last line deserves special notice as it speaks of the ascendancy of “Loka-rañjakatā” over all rules and regulations. Similarly he says for Vibhāṣā Gīti :-

ललितैरबहुभिदैः कम्पितैरौरसैः समैः।

तारातितैरर्मसृणैर्मध्यमदीपितैः॥

गमकैः श्रोतृसुखदैर् ललितैस्तु यदृच्छया।

विभाषागीतिः संयोज्या यथा लोकेऽनुरज्यते॥

Here too the expressions यदृच्छया and यथा लोके ऽनुरज्यते indicate that ‘Rakti’ or ‘Rañjakatā’ and not rule or regulation is the main consideration in ‘Vibhāṣā Gīti’. Thus, such Rāgas as have been described by ancient authors as “Bhāṣā-Janaka” can be understood to permit a degree of loosely restrained elaboration.

Śārṅgadeva gives a similar treatment of Nādavatī, the type of prabandha which we have just spoken of on the authority of Mataṅga. He also speaks of the preference of novelty to conventional rules, in certan varieties of prabandha forms. For example he says :-

नूतनै रूपकं नूत्नं रागः स्थायान्तरेरन्नवः।

धातू रागांशभेदेन मातोस्तु नवता भवेत्॥

That means to say, in certain Rūpakas (compositional forms) the melodic structure (Dhātu) is endowed with novelty through new 'Sthāyas' which may be somewhat extraneous to the intrinsic structure of the Rāga concerned.

This element of novelty is supplied by either the latent potentials of the Rāga itself (Mūlajā Bhāṣā) or by the regional melodies known to the perfomer (Deśajā Bhāṣā) or by the shadow of a different Rāga (Chāyā Bhāṣā) or by the mixture of a number of Rāgas (Saṅkīrṇā Bhāṣā).

Śārṅgadeva's discussion of the varieties of Ālapti, or improvised tonal elaboration is also interesting in this context. He divides Ālapti into Rāgālapti and Rūpakālapti, the former being concerned with Rāgaprakatīkaraṇa, i.e. with unfolding of the tonal potentialities of the Rāga without any reference to the Rūpaka or the verbal-tonal-rhythmic pattern, and the latter being devoted to the Rūpaka itself. Naturally, the verbal content of the Rūpaka gets an important place in Rūpakālapti which expresses the finer shades of significance of words through appropriate tonal variations. Viewed in terms of Śārṅgadeva's definitions of Rāgālapti and Rūpakālapti, Ṭhumarī has to be treated as a musical pattern of the latter forms of Ālapti, and not of the former.

A rough similarity of the 'Bol-Banāva' (बोल बनाव) of Ṭhumarī can be traced to the varieties of Rūpakālapti, mentioned by Śārṅgadeva viz., Pratigrahaṇikā, Sthāyabhañjanī, and Rūpakabhañjanī. When the artist's attention is concentrated more on the tonal-verbal variations with the purpose of expressing musically the suggestions implicit in the words of the songs than in the effective exposition of the Rāga concerned, there is bound to be some deviation from the conventional pattern of the Rāga.

Reverting to the topic of Prabandha, it may be remarked that subsequent writers after Śārṅgadeva either avoided a treatment of Prabandha or were generally content with reproducing Śārṅgadeva's text on the subject almost verbatim.

History and Origin of Ṭhumari with special...

177

It is, therefore, not possible to connect the link of parallel trends with Ṭhumari in our musical tradition relative to the period between the 14th and 17th centuries A.D.

It will not be out of place to give now a short account of the trends in folk music which may be taken to have supplied the raw material for refined and classicised light musical forms like Ṭhumari. Caiti, Biraha and Kajari forms of folk music of the eastern Uttar Pradesh, as also the ‘Padas’ and ‘Ramainis’ of the Kabir-Panthis (who have exercised a marked influence on the folk music of eastern U.P. and Bihar) may be mentioned in this connection. These must have contributed to and inspired the evolution of Ṭhumari in Banaras. The theme of songs of Caiti, Biraha and Kajari is mundane love and that of the music inspired by Kabir and his followers has a double significance of spiritual and mundane love. These have considerably influenced the songs of Ṭhumari, especially of the ‘Poorbī Aṅga.’ Some popular Ṭhumari songs with the following opening lines inspired by the Kabir cult, have a double meaning of spiritual love clothed in the garb of the mundane and may be cited as a typical example :-

१. बाबुल मोरा नैहर छूटोई जाय ॥

२. मैं न लरी थी, श्याम निकस गए आज ॥

३. ये दिन कैसे कटिहैं जतन बताय जेहो ॥

Songs of somewhat similar content of erotic mysticism are known as ‘Padams’ in Karnatak music, and those having mundane love as their theme are called ‘Jāvalīs’ in the South. ‘Lāvanis’ of Mahārāṣṭra are also a variety of erotic folk music. All these forms of folk music on the one hand and classical forms on the other, must have made possible the evolution of light classical forms in all parts of the country as a manifestation of a spontaneous cultural movement...

Ṭhumari will thus be seen as one of the varieties of light classical music emerging at its time as a result of the impact of the classical music on the one hand, and folk music on the

other in Northern India in line with similar developments in

other parts of the country, as an incident in the normal course

of musical history.

As regards the special quality of voice possessed by

women for rendering of light classical forms such as Ṭhumari,

reference may be made to Śārṅgadeva's remarks on the

subject. He mentions Madhura, Cehālā, Komala, Karuṇā,

Snigdhā, Raktimān etc. which are the qualities of the natural

female voice which, generally speaking, have to be cultivated

in the male. When Bharata wrote the following ślokas he had

probably in mind the qualities naturally to be found in males

and females.

प्रायेण तु स्वभावात् स्त्रीणां गानं नृणां च वादनविधिः ।

स्त्रीणां स्वभावमधुरः कण्ठो नृणां बलत्वतः ॥

यतः स्त्रीणां वादगुणो भवति नृणांञ गानमधुरत्वम् ।

जेयः सौडलङ्कारो न हि स्वभावो भवति तेषाम् ॥

Bharata says that it is but natural that the women should

sing and men play on the instruments, because women are

endowed with a sweet voice by nature, and men with a forceful

one. If, however, men are found adept in singing and women in

playing on the instruments the music that should be deemed

ornamental to their respective natures.

The qualities of ‘Komalatā’, ‘Karuṇatva’, etc., are not

compatible with those required for singing the manly style of

Dhrupad. Hence the popular belief that the voice of Dhrupad

singers is unfit for Ṭhumari. This is true as a rule, though there

are exceptions to be found in actual experience. For example,

the late Chandan Chowbey of Mathura was a great singer of

Dhrupada as well as of Ṭhumari. Moreover, in Dhrupada style

itself there are the Dhamāra-Hori forms which have an erotic

content and call for ‘Mādhurya’ of voice.

Similarly Kathak dancers, with whom the origin of

Ṭhumari of Lucknow is associated do not as a rule perform

Ṭhumari, as the voice of dancers is said to become unfit for

graceful singing. However, those dancers who do ‘Adā’ or ‘adhinaya’ while sitting on the stage have been known to be excellent performers of Ṭhumari. (This tradition of Kathak dancers is now dying out.)

5. Literary trends contemporary to the development of Ṭhumari

The fundamental theory of Indian classical music, as indeed of all Indian art and poetry, is grounded in the theory of Nāda-Brahman or Śabda Brahmam and is thus linked with the Vedic religion. Bharata’s Nāṭya-Śāstra, based on Vedic concepts, is the Bible of all branches of Indian art and poetics. Bharata applies the same sets of rules to the triple arts of song, dance and drama. As a consequence of this basic factor, historical developments in the fields of poetry, music and other arts, exhibit a clearly identifiable common trend. Parallels can easily be discerned, for instance, in the fields of music and dance and poetry, and may be cited to explain and elucidate developments in either field.

A very strong upsurge of spiritual poetry centred on divine eroticism of the Vaiṣṇava cult beginning with the poems of Jaideva, Vidyāpati, Caṇḍīdāsa, Jñānadāsa etc. in eastern parts of the country and of Sūradāsa, Nandadāsa, Kumbhanadāsa, Haridāsa-Swāmi, etc. in the western, released literary torrents which inundated northern India with works depicting amorous sentiments, during the period known as the ‘Rīti-kāla’ of literature. Keśava, Bihārī, Deva, Padmākara, Ghanānanda, etc., were the representative poets of this period.

As the aforesaid poetic literature permeated the intellectually middle class society with its middling intelligence and capacity, need must have been felt for a form of music which would be fit for cultivation by the said class and which could be used for expressing the popular poetry of the period.

Ṭhumari was thus expressive in music of the prevailing trend in poetry. A similar development took place in the field of dance. The Kathak variety is a compromise between orthodox forms and folk dance.

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Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

Thus parallel developments are clearly evident in the fields of the three arts, poetry, music, and dance all with an erotic bias. This is a fact which militates against any theory ascribing to the Nawabs of Oudh, the origin of Ṭhumari, which was a form of music evolved during the course of the said triple movement, and cannot be studied in isolation from allied developments. The poetry of the aforesaid class of people was neither pedantic nor commonplace, and represented a comprise between the two extremes. A similar development in the musical field compromising the two extremes of orthodox classical music and folk music was thus a social necessity, which was supplied by Ṭhumari.

6. Aesthetic Value

In its aesthetic content, Ṭhumari abounds in Mādhuryaguṇa and Prasādaguṇa, but lacks the Ojas. (Lest objection be taken to the use of literary concepts in musical analysis it may be remarked parenthetically that the Indian Saṅgītaśāstra has borrowed bodily its aesthetic terminology from other fields including literature and has not got an independent aesthetic terminology of its own.) Mādhurya brings about melting of the heart (Cittadruti) and Prasāda instantaneously permeates the whole consciousness. Ojas on the other hand, is known for brightening or exciting the heart (Citta-dīptikārakah), leading to ‘ātma-vistṛti’ or ‘self-exceeding’. Mammata speaks of these three aesthetic qualities or ‘guṇas’ in the following verses :-

आह्लादकत्वं माधुर्यं श्रृङ्गारे द्रुतिकारणम् । करुणे विप्रलम्भे तच्चान्ते चातिशयान्वितम् ॥ दीप्त्यात्मविस्तृतिहेतुर्नोजो वीरो रसस्थितौ । बीभत्सरोद्ररसयोरस्त्याधिक्यं क्रमेण च ॥ शुष्केन्धनाग्रिवत् स्वच्छजलवत् सहसैव यः । व्याप्रोत्यनृत् प्रसादोडसौ सर्वत्र विहितस्थितिः ॥

According to Mammata, Samyoga, Śṛṅgāra, Karuṇa, Viyoga Śṛṅgāra and Śānta are graded in the successive order of this enumeration for excellence and abundance of Mādhurya.

Karuna (as distinct from Vipralambha Śṛṅgara) and Śānta Rasas as a rule rarely constitute the theme of Ṭhumari songs.

According to Mammata's aesthetics, therefore, Ṭhumārī of Viyoga Śṛṅgāra has to be rated higher than that of Samyoga Śṛṅgāra and Bhajana which delineates Śānta Rasa has to be ranked higher than Ṭhumari.

Before passing on to a discussion of the gharānās and styles of Ṭhumari it will be more convenient to conclude the foregoing discussions in the following summary.

7. Concluding Remarks on the History & Origin of Ṭhumari

From the account of the origin and history of Ṭhumari given in the foregoing paragraphs, it can be concluded that the main characteristics of Ṭhumari viz., latitude in elaboration of Rāgas, predominance of amorous sentiments in songs, greater emphasis on verbal-tonal embellishments rather than on purely tonal ones, preference for the feminine voice, etc., are all features of light musical patterns recognised by the traditional Saṅgīta Śāstra which means that styles resembling Ṭhumari have been in vogue from times immemorial and that Ṭhumari must have had parent styles of which in the absence of notated records no definite information is available.

It has, therefore, to be deemed as one of the ephemeral popular upsurges in the domain of classical music.

The fact of royal patronage of popular varieties of music, is not to be treated as indicative of the genesis of those varieties.

Royal patronage is to be viewed as an incident, however important, in the development of this style, and should not be exaggerated as a genetic element independently of the current of spontaneous art movement of musical expression of the people.

Ṭhumari, therefore, marks one of the occasional manifestations of the indigenous trends in forms and modes of musical expression.

The desire for freedom from rigid restraint of rules of orthodox classical music, or the urge to prefer 'Rakti' or 'Rañjakatā' to the sobriety or solemnity of orthodox

styles, asserts itself normally in society and cannot be

attributed to any single causal historical factor. ‘Thumarī’ is an

example of this perpetual musical urge in human nature. The

rigorous disciplines of classical music appeal to a smaller

group in any civilised society, and larger groups desire to

cultivate less exacting disciplines.

Style forms which originate from the aforesaid urge of

the musical classes which constitute the dividing line between

the aristocracy or orthodox classical music on the one hand

and the ordinary folk music of the masses on the other, appear

and re-appear in history, generally with variations from the

preceding forms in line with the styles of orthodox classical

music and of folk music. Ṭhumarī may be rated lower in the

scale of standards of orthodox classical music, but it has an

important place in present day social life. It is significant that

Ṭhumarī or its religious counterpart, Bhajana, is an almost

essential part of a musical concert these days, without which

no musical treat is deemed completely satisfying to the average

audience. It remains now to offer remarks on the gharānās and

styles of Ṭhumarī.

II-GHARĀNĀS AND STYLES OF ṬHUMARĪ

1. Gharānās.

As regards Gharānās of Ṭhumarī, it may be said at the

outset that there appear to be no special Gharānās of this style-

form of Indian music which like the Gharānās of Dhrupada or

Khyāla can be associated with the names of their founders or

originators. This is the view of all the living musicians whom I

have met. Before writing this paper I specially interviewed

Smt. Vidyādhari Bai, the old celebrated songstress now aged

over 80 years for seeking information on the point. She also

confirmed the belief that there never have been any Gharānās

exclusively of Ṭhumarī.

History and Origin of Ṭhumarī with special...

183

No performing musician is known to have attained eminence in the Indian musical world solely on the strength of his rendering of Ṭhumarī alone. All the musicians celebrated for their merit in excellent rendering of Ṭhumarī, have been exponents primarily of the Khyāla style. Finer shades of rendering Ṭhumarī by notable musicians have never been individualised as distinct Gharānās of Ṭhumarī-singers but have always been identified with the Gharānās of the Khyāla style to which particular musicians owed allegiance.

For example, the late Khan Sahib Abdul Karim Khan, and Khan Sahib Faiyaz Khan, the best known exponents of Ṭhumarī in recent times, owed allegiance to the Kirānā and Agra Gharānās respectively and are not known as founders or followers of any Gharānās of Ṭhumarī separately from their Khyala Gharānās, notwithstanding the fact that their rendering of Ṭhumarī had a much greater appeal for average listeners than their singing of Khyāla.

2. Styles of Ṭhumarī.

Although Gharānās are absent in Ṭhumarī, two regional styles are well known viz., the Poorbi and Pachāhin ‘Aṅgas’, identified broadly with the eastern and western parts of Uttar Pradesh respectively. Banaras has been the centre of the former and Lucknow of the latter. The Poorbi ‘aṅga’ is in vogue in the whole of eastern U.P., some regions of Western U.P. as for example, the Vrajapradesha and also Bihar, and has all along been favoured by the musicians of Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat, Maharashtra etc. and the Pachāhin ‘aṅga’ has been confined more or less to the district of Lucknow, Moradabad, Saharanpur, Meerut and Delhi.

The differentiating element of these two styles has been that whereas Poorbi Aṅga is characterised by a certain grace, tenderness, sweetness and elegance of rendering and flexibility of tonal embellishments, the Pachāhin ‘anga’ is comparatively less tender and somewhat less elastic. This distinction is

prominent equally in the dialectical peculiarities of the regions with which the two styles are identified. The tonal tenderness of Vraja Bhāṣā or Bhojpuri dialect which are the media or expression of Ṭhumarī in the Poorbi ‘Aṅga’ is in marked contrast with the toughness of Khari boli which is the medium of Pachāhin ‘Aṅga’. Apart from the distinction of tonal quality there is a further distinction of the thought content of songs of the two ‘Aṅgas’.

In addition to the Poorbi and Pachhin ‘aṅgas’ of Ṭhumarī there is a third style known as the Punjabi ‘aṅga’ which is quite popular these days. Khan Sahib Barkat Ali Khan and Bade Ghulam Ali Khan are known as the most outstanding exponents of this style. The names of Nazakat Salamat Khan may also be mentioned in this connection. The style is of quite recent development if not in origin. The ancestors or predecessors of contemporary singers of this style of Ṭhumarī were all musicians belonging to the Gharānās of Khyāla. The most notable characteristic of this style is the influence which it bears of the “Ṭappā” style-form which originated in the Punjab, for which reason probably the style has been given its name.

A profuse deployment of successive tonal embellishments, i.e. elaborate turns and trills (‘Murkīs’ woven into ‘tāna’-like patterns) in quick tempo, which is a characteristic feature of Ṭappā has been adopted as its feature in the Punjabi ‘aṅga’ of Ṭhumarī. Although Poorbi ‘Aṅga’ singers also make use of similar Murkīs or Ṭappā Aṅga, they do it with better grace and less elaboration. Another peculiarity of the Punjabi ‘aṅga’ is its most frequent rendering in the ‘Pahāṛī’ pattern of melody.

This brief account of the styles of Ṭhumarī may be concluded with the remark that the Poorbi, Punjabi, and Pachāhin ‘aṅgas’ are generally graded in the descending order of their enumeration for excellence of sweetness, grace and popular appeal.

History and Origin of Ṭhumari with special...

3. Well-known exponents (composers & performers) of Ṭhumari.

An account of the styles of Ṭhumari cannot be considered complete without a mention of the leading composers and performers of this category of music of recent times. A list is given below, which, however, cannot be considered as exhaustive.

Composers : Maharaj Kalika Bindadin, the exponents of Kathak dance in the royal court of Oudh, Kadarpiya, Lalanpiya, Sanadpiya, Bade Ramdas (of Banaras), Prempiya (Pen-name of Faiyaz Khan), Sundarpiya, Rasikpiya etc.

Performers : Ustad Moizuddin Khan, Dhiren Babu, Sri Rama Sumirji, Sri Ramasevakji (from Nepal), Daragahiji, Bade Ramadasaji, Vidyadharibai, Badi Motibai, Mohinibai, Rasoolanbai, Siddhesvaribai, Girijabai, (all from Banaras) Gauharjan, Begum Akhtar, Soni Babu (of Gaya), Ramu Misra (of Gaya, specialist in both Ṭhumari and Ṭappā), Magan Khawas, Srimaribai Narwekar, Indubala, Pyara Sahib, Hirabai Barodekar, Kesarbai Kerkar, Chandrabhaga, Saraswati Rane, Manik Verma, Janaki bai, Kamal Singh, A.N. Bose, Girija Babu Ghosh, Suresh Babu Mane, Roshanara Begum, Abdul Rahim Khan, Nirmala Devi, etc. The names of Abdul Karim Khan, Faiyaz Khan and Bade Ghulam Ali Khan have already been mentioned in the context of Gharānās and styles.

The above names have reference only to vocal music. Ṭhumari is also rendered on plucked instruments like sitar, sarod, etc., on bowing instruments like sarangi, violin etc., and on wind instruments such as flute, shahnai etc. as also on harmonium for which the names of Bhaiya Ganpatrao of Gwalior and Govindrao Tembe of Poona are notable. Except for the absence of linguistic element, all the peculiarities of Ṭhumari as sung vocally are to be found in the instrumental rendering of this style.

(By courtesy of the A.I.R.)

THE THUMARI*

Ṭhumarī (or Ṭhumrī) is the most popular form of Indian music cultivated by individuals, as distinguished from the spontaneous music of communities or social groups. It is therefore designated as classical music, as distinguished from folk music. It is comparatively free from the restrictions of the strict discipline of orthodox classical music. For this reason it may be called ‘light’ classical music.

The main characteristic features of Ṭhumarī as a musical style, and related facts, may be enumerated as under :-

(i) The musical effect of Ṭhumarī is dependent on the poetic content much more predominantly than is the orthodox style of, say, Khyāl;

(ii) The poetic theme of songs sung in this style deals most often with Śṛṅgāra rasa, and has sometimes a dual significance, viz., spiritual and mundane;

(iii) Its lyric form, the restricted range of rāga-s suitable for its rendering, and latitude in elaboration;

(iv) Judged from the familiar principle of art design, “Unity in Diversity”, this form dwells more on diversity than on the element of unity running through it in regard to the melodic pattern;

(v) It requires a special quality of voice, natural or cultivated, for proper rendering;

(vi) Its association with the Kathak style of dance, looked upon as an inferior dance style until recently;

(vii) The tāla-s identified with this form of music constitute one of its features;

• The synopsis of a talk, published in Indian Music Journal No. 6, 1966

(viii) The embellishments are tonal-verbal for the most part and not purely tonal ones which preponderate in orthodox classical music.

Bharata deals with verbal-tonal rhythmic compositional patterns in the 32nd chapter of Nāṭya Śāstra, entitled Dhruvā-Vidhāna. He speaks of five types of Dhruvā in the context of drama (Nāṭya), viz., Prāvēśikī, Ākṣēpikī, Naiṣkrāmikī, Sāntarā and Prāsādikī or Prasādinī. Prasādinī is described as Raṅgarāgaprasādajanani, i.e., that which gives rise to colourful delight (Raṅgarāga) and self-engrossing happiness (Prasāda). As is naturally to be expected, this type is specially allocated to the delineation of Śṛṅgāra rasa.

Mataṅga, the next important extant author after Bharata, has dealt with compositional patterns under Prabandhādhyāya. He speaks of Nādayatī, a type of Gana-Ela Prabandha specially fit for Śṛṅgāra Rasa.

He has noted the following characteristic features of this type of Prabandha :

(i) Remarkable beauty and variegated graceful embellishments;

(ii) Deployment of special rhythmic pattern (tāla);

(iii) The universal appeal of the Rāga or melodic pattern of this form.

(iv) The presence of Kaiśikī vṛtti and Pāñcālī Rīti; the former represents the graceful, sportive tendencies of amorous love in drama and the latter represents a special style of diction which is marked by the absence of compounds.

Trends in folk music also might have supplied the raw material for refined and classical light musical forms like Ṭhumrī. Chaitī, Birahā and Kajrī, forms of folk music of the eastern Uttar Pradesh, as also the Pada and Ramainī of the Kabīr Panthī-s (who have exercised a marked influence on the folk music of eastern U.P. and Bihar) may by mentioned in this connection. These might have contributed to and inspired the

evolution of Ṭhumarī in Banaras. The theme of the songs of Chaitī, Biraha and Kajarī is mundane love and that of the music inspired by Kabīr and his followers has a double significance of spiritual and mundane love. These have considerably influenced the songs of Ṭhumarī, especially of the ‘Pūrabī aṅga’. Some popular Ṭhumarī songs inspired by the Kabīr cult have a double meaning of spiritual love clothed in the garb of the mundane.

The very strong upsurge of spiritual poetry centred on divine eroticism of the Vaiṣṇava cult beginning with the poems of Jaideva, Vidyāpati, Chaṇḍidāsa, Gyānadāsa, etc., in eastern parts of the country and of Sūrdāsa, Nandadāsa, Kumbhanadāsa, Haridāsa Swāmī, etc., in the western, released literary torrents which inundated northern India with works depicting amorous sentiments, in the period known as the Rīti-kāla of literature.

In its aesthetic content, Ṭhumarī abounds in Mādhurya guṇa and Prasādaguna, but lacks the Ojas. (Lest objection be taken to the use of literary concepts in musical analysis, it may be remarked parenthetically that the Indian Saṅgītaśāstra has borrowed bodily its aesthetic terminology from the field of literature and has not got an independent aesthetic terminology of its own.) Mādhurya brings about melting of the heart (Citta-druti), and Prasāda instantaneously permeates the whole consciousness. Ojas, on the other hand, is known for brightening or exciting the heart (Citta-dīptikārakah), leading to ātma-vistṛiti or ‘self-exceeding’.

It can safely be concluded that the main characteristics of amorous sentiments in songs, viz., greater emphasis on verbal-tonal embellishments rather than on purely tonal ones, preference for feminine voice, etc., are all features of “light musical” patterns recognised by the traditional Saṅgīta Śāstra.

The most widely current theory about Ṭhumarī attributes the origin of this musical style to the royal court of Oudh,

The Thumari

189

especially that of Nawāb Wājid Ali Shāh. This causal theory of

the origin of a musical style, like all causal theories of the

interpretation of historical problems, is at best rather partial in

compass, if not superficial. Causal theories do not take

cognizance of the inner homogeneous continuity of human

affairs, to which causal factors have to be related to have any

real significance.

The fact of royal patronage of popular varieties of music

is not to be treated as indicative of the genesis of those

varieties. Royal patronage is to be viewed as an incident,

however important, in the development of this style, and

should not exaggerated as a genetic element independently of

the current of spontaneous art movement of musical expression

of the people.

GAMAKA : A STUDY1

TALK I : THE TEXTUAL TRADITION

1. The term ‘Gamaka’ is not found in Bharata’s Nāṭya Śāstra, except in one solitary text-variant, which must have been a later addition. But ‘Kampa’ (shake?) is mentioned under three Alaṅkāra-s viz. Rechita, Kuhara and Kampita, which are related to the Tāra, Madhya and Mandra Sthāna-s respectively according to one set of readings, which is substantiated by Mataṅga. Another set of readings seems to suggest the temporal aspect or Kāla being the distinguishing feature instead of Sthāna. Abhinavagupta mentions the two points of view as well as a third one which identifies Kāla in Alaṅkāra with Śruti. He also identifies Kampa with the Svarita, which is a 3-Śruti interval according to him. The original version and context of Bharata’s text is not clear, but the Kampita is there without doubt whatever it might have meant.

2. Nānyadeva’s Bharatabhāṣya and Someśvara’s Mānasollāsa are the two texts of the 11th cent. that clearly mention Gamaka and its seven varieties. Two later texts follow them.

Names of seven Gamaka-s

1. Pūrita or Sphurita

2. Kampita

3. Līna

4. Āndolita

5. Tiripa

6. Āhata

7. Tribhinna

Characteristic features

Oscillation

-do-

-do-

-do-

-do-

Stress

Registral variety

Names of texts

1. Bharatabhāṣya

2. Mānasollāsa

3. Saṅgītasamayasāra

4. Saṅgītadāmodara

5. Synopsis of the talk assisted by Ranganayaki Ayyangar for textual references, Ritwik Sanyal for Hindustani vocal tradition and Akhila Krishnan for Karnatak vocal tradition, Published in Indian Music Journal Vol. XI 1975-80

Gamaka : A Study

191

Out of the four texts only Nos. 1 and 3 define Gamaka, but No. 1 is unintelligible. No. 2 simply describes the seven varieties individually. No. 4 simply gives a list.

3. Saṅgīta Ratnākara defines Gamaka, lists and describes its 15 varieties. Most of the later texts follow Sangīta Ratnākara.

Names of Gamaka-s Characteristic features Names of texts

1. Tiripa Oscillation in speed of: 1/4 of druta 1. Saṅgīta Ratnākara

2. Sphurita -do- 2. Saṅgīta Rāja

3. Kampita -do- 3. Sadrāgacandrodaya

4. Līna -do- 1 druta 4. Rāgamālā

5. Andolita -do- 1 laghu or 2druta-s 5. Rasakaumudī

6. Plāvita -do- 1 pluta or 6druta-s 6. Saṅgīta Darpana

7. Vali -do- in different curves 7. Saṅgīta Sudhā

8. Kurula Same as Vali, but softly produced 8.Caturdaṇḍī Prakāśikā

9. Āhata Stress of a higher note 9. Saṅgītasārasvata

10. Tribhinna Registral variety

11. Ullāsita Glide (upwards)

12. Nāmita Glide (downwards)

13. Huṃphita Peculiar voice production

14. Mudrita -do-

15. Miśrita Mixture

16. Demonstration according to the description of Saṅgīta Ratnākara by Shrī Ritwik Sanyal.

-July 31,1978

192

TALK II : PERFORMANCE TRADITIONS OF HINDUSTANI AND KARNATAK MUSIC

A. HINDUSTANI

1. The Dāgara tradition of Dhrupada accepts the following ten Svaralaksana-s out of which Gamaka is one. The name Lakṣaṇa is very significant because of its associations in poetics where it is a parallel of Alañkāra :

2. Akāra, 2. Dāgara, 3. Dhurana, 4. Murana, 5. Kampita, 6. Āndolana, 7 Lahaka, 8. Gamaka, 9. Hudaka, 10. Sphūrti, (Illustration)

3. Rough connections could be identified with the textual tradition, for example :

Textual Oral

Plāvita Dāgara

Ullasita Lahaka (but starting with stress)

Āhata Gamaka (in general sense of stress)

Humphita Hudaka (with a leap)

Sphurita Sphūrti (fast)

Nāmita. Mīṇḍa (both downwards and upwards)

3. In Khayāla, Gamaka stands for extra breath-force in Ālāpa or Tāna (Illustration).

B. KARNATAK

1. Marks of a distinct oral tradition of Daśavidha Gamaka can be seen in Karnāṭak music from the 18th cent.

2. The Daśavidha Gamaka of the oral tradition is recorded at least as early as the last quarter of the 18th cent., in Dikshitar’s composition ‘Minakshī’ in Rāga Purvikalyāṇī.

3. The texts that reflect the oral tradition are :

(a) Saṅgītasārasaṅgraham (Telugu) c.1800 (S.Ssa)

(b) Mahābhārata Cuḍāmaṇi Ch. IV : ‘Saṅgītadi-Rāga-Mela Lakṣaṇam’ (Tamil) (M.C.)

Gamaka : A Study

193

(c) Viṇālakṣaṇam of Parameśvara (date?) (Co. O.S. No. 131)

(V.L.)

4. In 1904/5 Subbarama Dikshitar tried to reconcile the 10 Gamaka-s of the tradition and the 15 Gamaka-s of Saṅgīta Ratnākara in his Saṅgīta Sampradāya Pradarśinī.

5. Books published since then either mention set of 10 or 15 Gamaka-s. List of 10 Gamakas as mentioned in the above three texts :

S.Ssa M.C. V.L.

1. Kampita 1. Ārohaṇa (Sthāyi) 1. Hom(n)mu

2. Mūrchanā 2. Avarohana (Sthāyisvara) 2. Pratihāsam

3. Gala 3. Dāla 3. Simhāvalokanam

4. Svaritamu 4. Sphuritam (Sanchari) 4. Māru (jāru)

5. Pratyāhata 5. Kampitam (Gamaka) 5. Vīti

6. Ṭhāya 6. Āhatam 6. Nokku

7. Jāru 7. Pratyāhatam 7. Paṭa

8. Orika 8. Tripucham (Idai) 8. Orika

9. Nokku 9. Āndolana 9. Gamakam

10. Dhālu 10. Mūrchai (Muktam) 10. Sphuritam

11. Illustration of one of the various versions in the oral tradition by Smt. Akhila Krishnan :

12. Kampita (large and small), 2. Sphurita, 3. Briga,

13. Jāru, 5. Āhata, 6. Orivi, 7. Katri, 8. Nokku, 9. Tripucha

–August 1, 1978

TRADITIONAL VIEW OF DRAMA :

Music and Dance as an Integral Part Thereof

(Synopsis of Illustrated talk, from I.M.J. ibid)

The Nāṭyaśāstra of Bharata embodies the traditional view of drama. It is not only a practical manual for the actor, the director, the producer and the playwright, but also contains the essentials of the philosophy of drama. Abhinavagupta's commentary (the only one extant) has highlighted and elaborated these essentials.

Anukarana, anukīrtana and anudarśana which may be roughly translated as re-creating, re-narrating and re-viewing, are the three key words of the philosophy of drama.1 The translation of anukarana as imitation is misleading, because it implies a distance from reality. Anukarana is not unreal but stands for a re-creation of situations of life with a purpose in view. Thus drama stands for re-doing, re-saying and re-viewing life as a whole. Loka2 is another significant word in this connection and it stands for the factual or the perceptual view of life. It is the bhāva (mental state) and karma (action or behaviour) of loka that is the object to be portrayed in drama. The purpose of this portrayal is upadeśa (education) and vinoda (entertainment)3. The medium of portrayal is dṛśya

लोकवृत्तानुकरणं नाट्यमेतन्मया कृतम्॥ ११२ ॥

ससद्धीपानुकरणं नाट्यमेतद्‌दृश्यविषयि। ११७ ॥

त्रैलोक्यस्यास्य सर्वस्य नाट्यं भावानुकीर्तनम्॥ १०७ ॥

...लोकस्य सर्वकर्मानुदर्शकम्॥ १४ ॥

योडयं स्वभावो लोकस्य सुखदुःखसमन्वितः।

सौदृङ्खाभिनयोपेतो नाट्यमित्यभिधीयते ॥ ११९ ॥

लोकोपदेशनं नाट्यमेतद्‌दृश्यविषयि। ॥ ११५ ॥

विनोदजननं लोके नाट्यमेतद्‌दृश्यविषयि। ॥ १२० ॥

Traditional view of Drama

(visual) and śrāvya (aural)1. Since drama combines all the potentialities of these media, it is the most powerful art that encompasses all situations of life and all levels of human pursuit.2

The enjoyment of drama is described by Abhinavagupta as alaukika, that is to say, unlike any other human experience. By a process of negation he eliminates valid knowledge (samyagjñāna), illusion (bhrānti), doubt (samśaya), indetermination (anavadhārana), non-perseverance (anadhyavasāya), etc. Positively speaking, this experience is equated with āsvādana (tasting) of a situation3. In actual life we are not able to have this taste because either we are too involved in a situation or we are too detached. Āsvādana presupposes a combination of identification (tādātmyā) and detachment (tāṭasthya). This combination is difficult to attain in actual life, but it is easily attained in the enjoyment of drama. Hence the efficacy of drama for purification of the heart.

Coming to the part played by dance and music in drama, it should be noted at the outset that Bharata has spoken of them in two different contexts-1. The pūrvaranga or the preliminaries of drama and 2. the drama proper. According to Abhinavagupta, music and dance stand in their own right (svapratiṣṭhita) in the pūrvaranga4. There they are not employed for highlighting or deepening a dramatic situation. Here there is no question of using them according to

1. क्रीडनीयकमिच्छामो दृश्यं च यद्रवेत्।। १११ ।।

2. न तज्ज्ञानं न तच्चिल्पं न सा विद्या न सा कला।

न स योगो न तत्कर्म नाट्येडस्मिन् यत्र दृश्यते ।। ११६ ।। (Nāṭyaśāstra G.O.S.I.)

33. तत्र नाट्यं नाम लौकिकपदार्थव्यतिरिक्तं तदनुकरप्रतिबिम्बालेख्यसादृश्यरोप-

ध्यवसायोत्प्रेक्षास्वप्रमायेन्र्जालादिविलक्षणं तद्ग्राहककस्य सम्यग्ज्ञान- प्रान्ति-

संशयानवधारणाडध्यवसायविज्ञानभित्र- वृत्तान्तास्वादनरूपसंवेदनसंवेद्यं वस्तु

रसस्वभावमिति वक्ष्यामः ।

4. नाट्ये हि गीतंक चेत्यभयमप्यप्रतिष्ठितम्। ....यथारसं प्रयुज्यमानत्वेन....प्रयोज्य-

चित्तवृत्तिपरतन्त्रम् इह तु गीतमझं च द्वयमपि स्वप्रतिष्ठितम्।

the rasa of the drama (yathā rasa viniyoga). Thus the music and the dance forms prescribed for the pūrvaranga do not need any modification according to the situation in which they are employed. Actually speaking, there is no situation extraneous to the music and dance. But in drama the dramatic situation dictates the nature of the music and dance to be employed therein. The technical name for the unchangeable forms of music is Gāndharva and the flexible forms are classed as Gāna. Although these two names occur in Bharata’s text it is only Abhinavagupta who has brought out their distinction in great detail.

The pūrvaranga consists of: 1. Predominantly instrumental music (nirgīta-s) 2. Song (gīta) 3. Dance (nṛtta and abhinaya, stylised mime), 4. Recitation and Dialogue (pāṭhya). There are ten specific forms of nirgīta, fourteen forms of song (two of which are specifically reserved for use with dance); dance uses the relevant karana-s and aṅgahāra-s, pāṭhya includes recitation of verses composed in different metres as well as prose dialogue. A part of the pūrvaranga is enacted before the opening of the screen and the remaining part after its opening. The two parts are known as antaryavanikā and bahiryavanikā. The order of presentation is as follows :

Antaryavanikā

1. Pratyāhāra - Seating of the musicians with the instruments.

2. Avatarana - Bringing in the female singers (male singers are also implied).

3. Ārambha - Introduction of the voices in the form of parigīta, which has been equated with ālāpa by Abhinavagupta. (The use of the nirgīta for ārambha is implied here).

4. Āśrāvaṇā - one of the forms of nirgīta.

5. Vaktrapāṇi - another form of nirgīta.

Traditional view of Drama

6. Parighaṭṭana - another form of nirgīta.

7. Saṅkhoṭanā - another from of nirgīta.

8. Mārgāsārita - another form of nirgīta.

9, 10, 11. The three āsārita-s (kanisṭha, madhya, and jyestha-)-forms of nirgīta.

Bahiryavanikā

1. Gītavidhi - One of the seven song - forms starting with madraka is prescribed here. It is notable that meaningful song-text is introduced for the first time with the opening of the screen.

2. Vardhamāna - The specific song form meant for dance. We shall describe it in some detail subsequently.

3. Utthāpana - Now enters sūtradhāra with his two attendants. He introduces recitation (pāṭhya) with propitiatory verses.

4. Parivartana - They go round the stage and propitiate the lokapāla-s in all the four directions.

5. Nāndī - Recitation of benedictory verses by the sūtradhāra and prokṣaṇa. One of the attendants of the sūtradhāra is holding a jar (bhrṅgāra) full of holy water. At this point the sūtradhāra calls him by his side and sprinkles the holy water.

6. InstaIlation of the jarjara - (a symbolic representation of Indra's vajra meant for protecting the dramatic performance from all impediments or obstructions) and propitiation of the jarjara.

7. Raṅgadvāra - Introduction, abhinaya of vāc (speech) and aṅga (body, mime) by the sūtradhāra and his attendants.

8. Cārī - Stylised gait which could depict śṛṅgāra or raudra according to the mood of the drama to be presented later.

9. Trigata - Light talk of the sūtradhāra with his attendants representing the director's viewpoint. This is, so to say, the producer's prastāvanā which corresponds to the

198

Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

prastāvanā of the poet (playwright) which in turn comes in the beginning of the drama proper. One of the attendants plays the role of Vidūśaka here.

10. Prarōchanā - The sūtradhāra finally invites the audience to witness the drama.

The above account of the items of pūrvarañga follows the standard version, though there are some optional details available in the Nātya-śāstra. The entire pūrvarañga was reconstructed and produced along with Kālidāsa's drama 'Mālavikāgnimitram', presented by a troupe of Banaras Hindu University at the Kalidasa festival in Ujjain in November, '75. (The present author reconstructed the musical forms and Sri C.V. Chandrasekhar and Dr. Vishwanath Bhattacharya collaborated with her for the dance and dialogue respectively). Since this pūrvarañga included dance it could be said to be the citra variety as different from the śuddha, which does not include dance. It is notable that Bharata has not talked of Rasa in the context of pūrvarañga, but has simply said that in its aesthetic impact, the pūrvarañga could be sukumāra (delicate) or uddhata (strong). These two words could be equated with mādhurya and ojas respectively. This pair of adjectives for the pūrvarañga is very significant as it provides a broad division for the infinite variety of aesthetic situation which could not be covered under specific rasa-s.

As an illustration of the above reconstruction the vardhamāna song which is accompanied by dance is presented here. It is divided into four section called kanḍikā-s. Their details are presented in the following table.

Name Upohana Kalā-s

Viśālā 5 Kalā-s 8

Sañgītā 6 " 9

Sunandā 7 " 16

Sumukhī 8 " 32

Upohana is like a prelude to each kandikā which introduces the melody and is sung with meaningless syllables. Kalā is a time unit equivalent to ten laghu aksara-s. In music, each kalā contains a gana (group) of four mātrā-s in terms of text and melody. We start with the playing of drums and the first dancer enters with a puspāñjali. She goes round the stage following the rhythm of the drum: And as she takes a static pose (sthānaka), the upohana of the first kandikā starts. The song in the first kandikā starts immediately and the dancer performs abhinaya according to the text of the song. When the kandikā is repeated, the dancer simply does angahāra-s and at the end she recedes to a corner of the stage. This movement is called nīskramana by Bharata and Abhinavagupta explains that it is not a complete exit, rather it is partial and stands for the receding of the dancer to the background. As she is receding the upohana of the second kandikā is sung. Again the drum plays and the second dancer enters. She also goes around the stage and she takes a static pose. The singing of the second kandikā follows immediately and the second dancer does abhinaya according to the text. At this point the first dancer does simple angahāra-s. When the second kandikā is repeated both the dancers dance together and this is called pindībandha. There is no regular abhinaya in this. (In the reconstruction under reference only the kandikā-s have been repeated and not the upohana. Bharata's text is very clear about the repetition of the kandikā-s but the repetition of the upohana or otherwise does not seem to be clearly prescribed. We have still kept this question open for further study.)

The first kandikā is also repeated immediately after the repetition of the second and the two dancers continue doing pindībandha. At the end of the repetition of the first kandikā both of them recede to the corner of the stage. And as they are receding, the upohana of the third kandikā is sung. Once again the drums start playing and the third dancer enters. She goes around the stage and takes a static pose. Then follows the

singing of the third kandikā. The third dancer does abhinaya according to the text and the first two dancers do angahāra-s in a corner. When the third kandikā is repeated all the dancers dance together i.e., perform pindībandha. The repetition of the third kandikā is followed by that of the second and the first. As the three dancers are receding, the upohana of the fourth kandikā is sung. Once again the drums play and the fourth dancer enters. She goes round the stage, takes a static pose for a few moments and then follows the fourth kandikā. She is supposed to do abhinaya for the whole of the fourth kandikā but as it is very long, we tried to break the monotony by making the fourth dancer do abhinaya up to the middle of this section and by bringing in the other three dancers one by one for small portions of the second half. Each dancer recedes after she finishes her part of the abhinaya and when the repetition of the fourth kandikā starts, all of them join in the pindībandha. They continue to do so in the repetition of the third, second and first kandikā also. (Illustration of the upohana and kandikā-s)

ŚĀSTRA AND PRAYOGA* I

Contemporary Tāla practice vis-a-vis

śāstraic tradition : with special reference to

Hindustānī music

Present day studies in the lakṣya-lakṣaṇa tradition of tāla are relatively very recent; the main pre-occupation of scholars having been intervalllic and melodic organisation and its component concepts like svara, śruti, grāma, mūrchanā, jāti, rāga, mela etc. Studies in this untrodden field were initiated in the Banaras Hindu University (Department of Musicology) during 1969-79, the scholars being Dr. Subhadra Chaudhari and Dr. N. Ramanathan who worked under the supervision of the author of this paper. These studies were undertaken along with compositional forms like Gītaka-s and Prabandha-s. Dr. Mukund Lath’s work on Dattilam (completed in 1974) also dealt with the ancient tāla system. The present paper is a humble attempt to advance these studies by a few steps through the identification of the process of change and continuity in the lakṣaṇa and lakṣya of tāla upto the present times. This has been a very fascinating study as it has dealt with the process of abstraction and concretisation, of adjustments and innovations necessitated by the developments in the melodic and textual components of music, of liberation and bondage and of interaction between forces of simplification and complexity. It has involved a stocktaking of losses and gains in the above processes, of deviations, hangovers, of meetings and partings, of concisenes and overlappings.

The contemporary musical scene is divided into two main

• Abstract of the paper for the seminar on Śāstra and Prayoga, 1986-87

streams viz. the Hindustani and Karnatic. The apparent differences

between these two that attract the attention of a general student or

observer, could be tabulated as follows.

Context

Hindustani

Karnatic

1. Indication of

the time-span of

a tāla-cycle.

1. Through number of

mātrā-s (smallest time-

units), the duration

whereof is arbitrary.

1. Through Akṣarakāla-s

(syllabic time-units),

the duration whereof is

relatively standardised.

2. Units within

the span.

2. Vibhāga-s (divisions

or sections) Khālī being

one of them i.e. Khālī is

recorded the place of an

independent vibhāga

(section) of a tāla.

2. Traditional units viz.

laghu, druta and anu-

druta in the seven main

tāla-s and also guru

and pluta or even

Kākapada in the few

traditional tāla-s that

are still in vogue apart

from the wellknown

seven, e.g.

Simhanandana.

3. Flexibility of the

time-value of laghu.

3. No such tradition

exists any more;

there is just a faint hang-

over of catasra (a distorted

version of caturaśra) and

tisra (a distorted

version of tryaśra) under-

stood in a non-specific

manner.

3. Each of the seven main

tāla-s has five jāti-s

depending on the time-

value of laghu being of

3, 4, 5, 7 or 9 akṣarakāla-s

4. Identification of

tāla-s through

thekā (set of drum

syllables).

4. Each tāla is identified

with a thekā and there are

quite a few tāla-s that owe

their distinctive identity

only to thekā, all other

things like number of

mātrā-s, vibhāga-s etc.

being common with many

other tāla-s. For example,

4. No such tradition

exists.

Panjābī, Tilawādā,

Addhā, Tinatālā

(all being comprised of 16

mātrā-s and identical

sections of 4 each);

Cautāla-Ekatāla is

another example.

5. Point of

emphasis.

5. ‘Sama’ or the point of

beginning in a tāla.

5. Graha or the point of

beginning of the musical

composition in the tāla-

cycle, which could be and

generally is other than the

beginning of the tālacycle.

6. Special affinity of

some tāla-s with

specific

musical forms.

6. Many of the current tāla-s

are identified with one or

other of the current musical

forms. For example,

Cautāla with the Dhrupada

form so much so that it is

called Dhrupad, Dhamāra

with the Dhamar form,

Ekatāla, Jhūmarā, Tilawādā

with the Khyāl form,

Dīpacandī and Panjābī

being identified with

the Ṭhumri form.

6. No such clear-cut

distinction exists.

7. The function of

drums in accom-

paniment to music.

7. To keep the tāla-s cycle

for the music performer,

specially in the Khyāl and

Ṭhumri forms; in the

Dhrupad form the keeping

of the time-cycle is the

performer’s responsibility.

7. To reproduce the

patterns created by the

performer, the cycle

maintained with the

action of hands by

the performer or other

person(s).

8. Number of

current tāla-s

vis-a-vis the

textual tradition

(śāstra).

8. Very small, but a few

obscure tāla-s like

Brahmāṭāla, Lakṣmīṭāla

and the like still current in

the Dhrupad form.

8. Very small, but a few

tāla-s from the textual

tradition, outside the

limited repertoire of the

seven main tāla-s and a

The following points need to be specially noted for the current day tāla practice in Karnatic music :-

(i) There are a few tāla-s that bear old names e.g. Āditala, Jhampatāla (serial no. 1 and 76 respectively in the 120 Deśī tāla-s described in S.R.) but have a different form. The same is also true of the Jhapatala of Hindustani tradition.

(ii) Apart from tāla-s like Simhanandana that are a legacy of the textual tradition dating back to 13th cent. A.D., if not earlier, there are a few regional tāla-s that are outside the seven Sūlādi tāla-s branded as Karnatic. They may thus be summarised :-

(a) Cāpu tāla-s. Cāpu means a stroke on the drum. These varieties are current in this category, viz:-

Khanda Cāpu where 1 laghu=5 which is split as 1 2/1/2 3, the sounded beat falling on 1, 1, 2 and 2, 3 being unsounded.

Miśra Cāpu where 1 laghu=7 and is split as 1 2 3/1 2/3 4, the sounded beat falling on 1, 1, 3, and 2, 3, 2, 4 being unsounded.

Sankīrṇa Cāpu where 1 laghu=9 and is split as 1 2 3 4/1 2 /1 2 3, the sounded beat falling on 1 and 1 and 2, 3, 4, 2, 2, 3 being unsounded.

(b) The Tiruppugala tāla-s are also outside the seven Sūlādi, e.g.

1 2 3/1 2 3/1 2 3 4 5/1 2 3 4/1 2 3/1 2 3/1 2

The third unit of 5 is sometimes split as 2, 3. The sounded beat falls on the initial component of each unit, the rest being unsounded.

(iii) Each of the seven Sūlādi tāla-s is again fivefold according to five gati-s or movements that represent the splitting

of each akṣara-kāla into 4, 3, 5, 7, 9 i.e. the jāti of a tāla determines the value of one of its component units viz. laghu and the gati dictates the splitting of each akṣara-kāla of the tāla-cycle. Thus 7x5x5=175 varieties are accepted in the seven Sūlādi tāla-s.

The above facts of the current situation, as visible in the two main streams, are being taken as the ground from which a ‘take-off’ into deeper realms of enquiry could be undertaken. The main points of enquiry could thus be formulated.

(1) Mātrā, akṣara are known from the earliest source viz. Nāṭyaśāstra. In fact, they go back to Vedic literature, specially Śikṣās and Prātiśākhyas. How did the change in their application came about? What were the metrical, textual and melodic factors contributing to the above changes? Special identification of the nature and extent of change would form the basis of this enquiry.

(2) What could be the cause of expansion in terms of number of tāla-s in the textual tradition and of the very limited number that has survived in actual practice? This will naturally have to be viewed in relationship with musical forms.

(3) What aspects of the textual tradition have found preference in the Hindustani and Karnatic system? Could one of them be said to be nearer to and the other farther from the Śāstraic tradition? In other words, how far are these two systems rooted in the textual tradition?

The above points of enquiry have prompted a study of the lakṣaṇa tradition on the basis of the following selected texts that represent the various stages or trends of change as well as the stream of continuity.

1. Nāṭyaśāstra (500 B.C. to 200 A.D.) and Abhinava Bhārati of Abhinavagupta (late 10th or early 11th century A.D.). The tāla system expounded herein was later qualified as mārga, as distinct from deśī that was developed as a derived (but not contradictory) corpus.

2. Saṅgītaratnākara (early 13th cent. A.D.) and the

commentaries of Simhabhūpāla (14th cent.) and Kallinātha (15th cent.) presenting deśī in a well-defined and established manner. (Two preceding texts viz. Saṅgītacūdāmaṇi of Jagadekamalla and Mānasollāsa of Someśvara and one almost contemporary text viz. Saṅgītasamayasāra have been emitted here because they are full of textual discrepancies; but they will be referred to occasionally).

3. Bharatārnava (seems to be a little later than S.R.). Important due to the description of the action of hands corresponding to time-units viz., druta, laghu, pluta etc.

4. Saṅgītopaniṣat-sāroddhāra (14th cent. A.D.) is important because (i) it gives pāṭākṣara-s (drum syllables) for all the tāla-s and (ii) groups the tāla-s according to their span of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 30 and 60 mātrā-s.

5. Saṅgītasūryodaya (first half of 16th cent. A.D.) notable for the treatment of the ten prāṇa-s of tāla, wherein mārga-tāla-s have been described under kriyā, mārga and kalā along with deśī tāla-s.

6. Rasakaumudī (later-half of 16th cent. A.D.) Until the publication of Saṅgītasūryodaya, Rasakaumudī was accepted as the first text giving the ten prāṇa-s of tāla, but now this credit goes to the former.

7. Saṅgīta Darpana (late 16th or early 17th cent. A.D.) seems to contain a record of the beginning of the seven sūlādi-tāla-s.

8. Saṅgīta Pārijāta (mid. 17th cent. A.D.) identifies seven tāla-s with seven alaṅkāra-s (svara-patterns). Also important for describing a few tāla-s that are still current in the Hindustani system, e.g. Brahmatāla.

9. Caturdaṇḍī-prakāśikā (mid. 17th cent. A.D.) identifies the seven Sālaga Sūḍa Prabandha-s as Gīta as distinct from Prabandha and identifies eight tāla-s with alaṅkāra-s.

10. Rādhā Govinda-Saṅgītasāra (late 18th cent. A.D.).

Śāstra and Prayoga I

207

Among the last few works composed in the 18th cent.; written in old Hindi (mixture of Brajabhāṣā and Rājasthānī), represents the Sanskrit tradition. Contains important cues to current practice and to the process of change.

11. Saṅgīta Nārāyaṇa (late 17th cent. A.D.) The last work of the Sanskrit tradition, recording important regional traits.

12. 13. Saṅgīta-sāra and Yantra-kṣetra-dīpikā (Bengali, by S.M. Tagore, published from Calcutta in 1879 and 1976 respectively).

13. Gīta-sūtra-sāra (Bengali, by Krishnadhana Bandyopadhyaya, published from Koochbihar in 1885).

(The Bengali works listed above are notable as records of the new application of the terms handed down by the textual tradition).

15. Saṅgīta Kalādhara of Dahyalal Shivarama (Gujarati, first published in 1901 from Bhavnagar). Important for providing links between the textual and oral tradition.

16. Nāda-vinoda of Pannalal Gosvami (Hindi, published from Delhi around 1900). Notable for the use of Persian terminology alongwith the Sanskrit one and also for the absence of the dichotomy between Karnatic and Hindustani.

The above study needs to be supplemented with a study of regional practice-traditions and Persian textual sources as well as Tamil, Telugu and other South Indian textual sources which could not be taken up in the present paper.

ŚĀSTRA AND PRAYOGA* II

Contemporary Tāla practice vis-a-vis

Śāstraic tradition : with special reference

to Hindustānī music

1. Background of Vedic Literature.

The textual record of mātrā and akṣara as conceptual and

perceptual time-units respectively appears in Vedic literature

in treatment of chandas (metre). References to these two are

profusely strewn in Śikṣā-s, Prātiśākhya-s and allied literature.

The gist of these references is that mātrā is a conceptual time-

unit that is concretised or manifested in akṣara (syllable) as

follows :--

1 mātrā = 1 hrasva (short; syllable i.e. one short

vowel with or without a consonant.

2 mātrā = 1 dīrgha (long) " " "

3 mātrā = 1 pluta (prolonged) " " "

1/2 mātrā = 1 consonant.

Thus the relationship between mātrā and akṣara could be

said to be comparable or similar to that between śruti and svara

in gāndharva (non-vedic, but strictly regulated corpus of

music), the former being conceptual and unmanifest and the

latter being perceptual and manifest.

Mātrā has also been sub-divided as aṇu (1/2 or 1/4) and

paramāṇu (1/4 or 1/8) without reference to akṣara.

2. Classical Sanskrit Metres

In laukika (classical) metres there are only two units viz.

laghu and guru that are comparable to hrasva and dīrgha, but

• The paper presented at the seminar

are slightly broader than latter. A hrasva syllable could become

guru if followed by a conjunct (samyukta) one. The pluta has

been dropped here.

3. Tāla in Nāṭyaśāstra

The treatment of tāla in gāndharva (music) as available in

Nāṭyaśāstra has seven features as follows :

(1) The same relationship between mātrā and akṣara is

maintained, as spoken of above, but each akṣara is definitely

associated with a kriyā (action) of the hands and this is the

main characteristic feature of tāla distinguishing it from

chandas.

(2) One mātrā is not equal to one nimeṣa (wink of the

eye) or one short syllable, as is the case in metres, but to five

nimeṣa-s or laghu akṣara-S.

(3) A clear influence of the vārṇika metres is visible. In

these metres, the name of every metre is such as fits into the

form of the metre in the beginning, middle or end. Similarly,

the five tāla-s of N.S. embody their forms in their names.

(4) Guru (2 mātrā-s) or kalā is the main or standard unit

and it is used to denote the total span of a tāla. The five tāla-s

are as followes :

1. Caccatputah S S l Ṣ = 4Kalā-s

2. Cācapuṭah S l l S = 3Kalā-s

3. Ṣaṭpitāputrakah Ṣ l S S l Ṣ = 5Kalā-s

4. Sampakveṣṭakah Ṣ S S S Ṣ = 6Kalā-s

5. Udghaṭṭaḥ S S S = 3Kalā-s

These are known as Yathākṣara (according to akṣara)

forms of tāla-s.

In the above tāla-s, laghu and guru follow the syllables

constituting the name of a particular tāla, but pluta has to be

specially prescribed because it is not indicated by a syllable.

The structure of laghu, guru and pluta could be viewed as

1 + 1 + 1. If guru is considered to be double of laghu, then the process of doubling could not be carried further to pluta. Hence 1 + 1 + 1 seems to be more logical. The function of pluta seems to be either to balance the laghu i.e. to construct the time-value of two guru-s as in tāla no. 1 and 3 above where a pluta is preceded or succeeded by a laghu or to extend the value of guru in order to enhance the total time-value of the span of a particular tāla, as in tāla no. 4 above where five guru-s constituting the name have been extended to six guru-s by prescribing two pluta-s, one each at the beginning and end. In both cases, pluta breaks the monotony of the tāla-structure. In tāla-s no. 1 and 3, pluta lends beauty to the structure and this is perhaps the reason why these two tāla-s have been profusely used in Gītaka-s. Pluta juxtaposed to guru as in no. 4 is not as effective in making the structure beautiful in the sense of being striking as it is when juxtaposed to laghu. No.5 is composed of 3 guru-s only and hence is the least interesting. It is hardly used in the Gītaka-s.

(5) No. 1 of the five tāla-s given above belongs to the caturaśra (literally square) category and the remaining four belong to the tryaśra (literally triangle) category, these being the only two accepted categories.

(6) Each tāla is conceived in three spans, the second span being the double of the original and the third being the double of the second. There are two accepted processes of doubling viz. one known as ekakala, dvikala and catuṣkala and the other known as citra, vārttika and dakṣiṇa mārga-s. The former involves a reference to kriyā-s that are two-fold viz. saśabda (sounded) and niḥśabda (unsounded).

Saśabda (sounded) Kriyā-s (actions).

1. Dhruva, snapping with the middle finger and thumb; this is not an independent action, but it precedes every sounded action.

2. Śamyā, the right hand striking the left hand, notated as Śa.

Śāstra and Prayoga II

211

3. Tāla, the left hand striking the right hand, notated as Tā.

4. Sannipāta, both hands striking ench other, notated as Sam.

Nihśabda (unsounded) Kriyā-s (actions):

1. Āvāpa, closing of fingers on the upward palm, notated as Ā.

2. Niṣkrāma (=exit), opening of fingers with the downward palm, notated as Ni.

3. Vikṣepa (=throwing out), wave of the hand towards the right, notated as vi.

4. Praveśa (=entry), closing of the fingers with the downward palm, notated as Pra.

The basic structure of each tāla is kept intact while doubling the span by prefixing nihśabda (unsounded) kriyā-s to the saśabda (sounded) ones according to the time-value of the latter. For example, a guru of the ekakala form is doubled by prefixing one unsounded kriyā of the value of guru. A laghu of the original form is doubled as one guru only and hence no nihśabda kriyā has to be added. A pluta is doubled by pre-fixing two nihśabda kriyā-s of the value of one guru each. Thus all the units of the ekakala form are ironed out as guru-s in the dvikala form, but the basic structure of units is maintained. It is notable that all tāla-s except no.5 have only saśabda kriyā-s in their original form and in each of their component units. No. 5 has three guru-s as its constituents and in order to demarcate the cycle, the first guru is allotted a nihśabda kriyā.

A few points regarding the placement of kriyā-s should be noted here.

(i) Sannipāta, if present in a tāla in its original form, occurs in the beginning, but in the dvikala and catuṣkala forms it invariably occurs at the end.

(ii) Niṣkrāma and āvāpa are prefixed in trikala form and āvāpa and vikṣepa are further added in the catuskala form.

The above points will be evident in the following charts.

1. Caccaṭputah - 4 Kalā-s

Cat Cat Pu Ṭah

S S I Ṣ

Sam Śa Tā Śa

or Śa Tā Śa Tā

or Tā Śa Tā Śa

2 2 1 3

2. Cācaṭputah - 3 Kala-s

Cā Ca Pu Ṭah

S I I S

Sam Śa Tā Śa

or Śa Tā Śa Tā

or Tā Śa Tā Śa

2 2 1 2

3. Ṣaṭpitāputrakah (also called Pañcapānih, Uttarah)

(6 Kalā-s)

Ṣaṭ Pi Tā Pu Tra Kah (Mirror reflection in two

Ṣ I S S I Ṣ halves)

Sam Tā Śa Tā Śa Tā

3 1 2 2 1 3

4. Sampakveṣṭakah (6 Kalā-s)

Sam Pak Ve Ṣṭā Kah

Ṣ S S S Ṣ

Tā Śa Tā Śa Tā

3 2 2 2 3

Śāstra and Prayoga II

5. Udghāṭṭah (3 Kalā-s)

Ud Chaṭ Ṭah

S S S

Ni Śa Śa

2 2 2

5 Tāla-s in 3 Spans.

(1) Caccatpuṭah

A. Yathākṣara or Ekakala

S S I S

Sam Śa Tā Śa

B. Dvikala

S S S S S S S S

Ni Śa Ni Śa Śa Prā Ni Sam

C. Catuṣkala

S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S

Ā Ni Vi Śa Ā Ni Vi Tā Ā Śa Vi Prm Ā Ni Vi Sam

4 Pādabhāga-s

(2) Cācapuṭah

A. Yathākṣara or Ekakala

S I I S

Sam Śa Tā Śa

B. Dvikala

S S S S S S

Ni Śa Tā Śa Ni Sam

C. Catuṣkala

Ā Ni Vi Śa Ā Tā Vi Śa Ā Ni Vi Sam

3 Pādabhāga-s

(3) Ṣatpitāputrakah

A. Yathākṣara or Ekakala

Ś I S S I Ś

Sam Tā Śa Tā Śa Tā

214

B.Dvikala

S S S S S S S S S S S S

Ni Pra Tā Śa Ni Tā Ni Śa Tā Pra Ni Sam

C.Catuṣkala

S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S

Ā Ni Vi Pra Ā Tā Vi Śa Ā Ni Vi Tā Ā Ni Vi Śa Ā Tā Vi Pra Ā Ni Vi Sam

(4) Sampakveṣṭākah

A.Yathākṣara or Ekakala

S S S S

Tā Śa Tā Śa Tā

B.Dvikala

S S S S S S S S S S S

Ni Pra Tā Śa Ni Tā Ni Śa Tā Pra Ni Sam

C.Catuṣkala

S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S

Ā Ni Vi Pra Ā Tā Vi Śa Ā Ni Vi Tā Ā Ni Vi Śa Ā Tā Vi Pra Ā Ni Vi Sam

Note : This tāla follows Ṣaṭpitāputrakaḥ (no. 3) in its dvikala and catuṣkala spans.

6 Pādabhāga-s

(5) Udghaṭṭaḥ

A.Yathakṣara or Ekakala

S S S

Ni Śa Śa

B.Dvikala

S S S S S S

Ni Śa Tā Śa Ni Sam

C.Catuṣkala

S S S S S S S S S S S S

Ā Ni Vi Śa Ā Tā Vi Śa Ā Ni Vi Sam

3 Pādabhāga-s

The term Pādabhāga (literally, one-fourth part) is relevant in the Dvikala and Catuṣkala varieties of each tāla.

The other process of doubling of tāla-spans is change of

mārga; here the duration of each kriyā (which is generally saśabda) is doubled, without adding any nihśabda kriyā-s mentioned above. Eight special kriyā-s known as mātrā-s are prescribed here as follows/

Marga

Mātrā

1. Citra (each kalā measuring 2 mātrā-s)

2. Dhruvakā (sounded)

3. Vārttika (each kalā measuring 4 mātrā-s)

4. Patitā (falling position of the hand)

5. Dakṣiṇa (each kalā measuring 8 mātrā-s)

6. Dhruvakā

7. Sarpinī (leftward movement of the hand)

8. Patākā (upward movement)

9. Patitā (fallen to the ground)

10. Padmini (downward movement)

11. Visarjitā (outward movement)

12. Vikṣiptā (contracting movement)

13. Patākā

14. Patitā

It is to be noted here that the above special kriyā-s (excepting the first one) have to be suffixed to the original saśabda kriyā-s of a tāla. Thus the span of a tāla could be doubled or quadrupled either by prefixing nihśabda kriyā-s or by suffixing special kriyā-s which are also nihśabda but which are a sequential extension of the saśabda. This extension is not sub-divided into gurus as is the case in dvikala catuskala, where each prefixed kriyā is notated as one guru. It is clear, however, that extension of a saśabda kriyā with a nihśabda one is provided for both as a prefix and suffix. As a prefix, it is definitely measured as guru, but as a suffix, it could be understood as occupying the value of any unit; e.g. a pluta would be extended by one pluta, or a guru would be split into two laghu-s, the second one being nihśabda; a pluta could be split into two and two halves.

216

The above five tāla-s with their kriyā-s, mārga-s etc. were branded as mārga (as distinct from deśī). This distinction of mārga and deśī tāla-s appears in a clear-cut manner in S.R.

(7) The last but not the least notable point with regard to the above tāla-s is that they have been described in terms of Gītaka-s or Prakaraṇa-gīta-s that are specific vocal forms described mainly in terms of tāla-structure. Both N.S. and S.R. describe the above five tāla-s in terms of these vocal forms which means that tāla is not dealt with as a mere abstraction, rather it is concretised in terms of vocal forms. These forms themselves have structures similar to those of tāla-s like ekakala, dvikala, catuṣkala etc., in most of the cases.

4. Deśī Tāla-s

The tāla-s of N.S. described above have only two basic structures; viz. the caturaśra composed of 4, 8, 16 kalā-s (units of one guru each) and tryaśra composed of 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96 kalā-s. Deśī tāla-s are composed of 5, 7, 9, 11 and similar number of units over and above 3, 4 and their multiples. The origin of these numbers is generally traced to a reference in N.S. which is dubious. Apart from this basic difference, there are the following distinguishing features.

(1) The standard unit guru (also known as kalā) was replaced by laghu (one mātrā).

(2) New units like druta (1/2 mātrā), anudruta (1/4 mātrā), and virāma (comparable to the dot of western notation) attached to laghu and druta measuring 1 1/2 and 3/4 mātrā-s respectively (virāma not being an independent unit) were introduced. These new units were thus notated :-

0 = druta, ∪ = anudruta S1 = laghu-virāma and

δ =druta-virāma.

S.R. does not mention anudruta (1/4) but it is found in all later texts. It seems that just as all units of the mārga-tāla-s

Śāstra and Prayoga II

217

could be doubled and quadrupled, similarly they were reduced to half and quarter in deśī tāla-s as follows :

1 (laghu) 1/2 (druta) 1/4 (anudruta)

2 (guru) 1 (laghu) 1/2 (druta)

3 (pluta) 1 1/2 (laghu-virāma) 3/4 (druta virāma)

This explanation for these new units is in consonance with the name Khaṇḍa-tāla that preceded the name ‘Deśī’. ‘Khaṇḍa’ stands for splitting and all the three units of tāla have been twice split as shown above.

(3) Profuse varieties of names and forms have dominated the scene in the textual tradition; each text adding new names, dropping some and describing anywhere between 30 to 200 tāla-s. The author’s own name or his patron’s name was also sometimes given to a tāla. For example, ‘Sārṅgadeva’ in S.R. and ‘Śatruśalya’ in R.K. could be seen. Mathematical possibilities of varieties in a given span were also explored through prastāra on the analogy of chanda-s.

(4) The rigorous regulation of kriyā-s described above was dropped. But it seems that larger units in a given tāla were rendered with a sounded beat followed by or semicircular movement of the hand. That is to say, each unit of a tāla was rendered with a sounded bent and the large units viz. laghu, guru and pluta were extended with a wave or downward movement (touching the ground) of the hand. This seems to bear the influence of the special kriyā-s associated with the three mārga-s i.e. the extension of a time-unit was represented by an unsounded movement of the hand that was not named or specifically prescribed in each case. There is no explicit reference to nihśabda kriyā, barring very few exceptions.

(5) Some tāla-s were described in an identical form, but given different names. This apparent discrepancy was resolved by ascribing a flexible duration to laghu viz. 4, 3, 5, 7 or 9 akṣara-s. Thus the standardisation of mātrā (=laghu) in tāla in terms of five short syllables was dropped. The duration of other units like, guru, druta etc. was changed according to the value given to laghu.

(6) There were many tāla-s that were described in the texts as being composed of only one unit occurring in more than one number; e.g. two or more druta-s or laghu-s. The device that might have been in existence for creating cyclic figures out of such forms is not explicitly recorded in the texts, only a few obscure cues being available here and there.9

(7) Prescription of specific drum syllables for each tāla became evident in the post-S.R. texts. Although the roots of this aspect of tradition could be traced to Abhinavagupta, it gained strength in the context of Deśī tāla-s for various reasons.

(8) The tradition of associating tāla-s with vocal forms was maintained to a great extent, but in a different dimension. The contemporaneous tradition of prabandha-s is relevant here.

(9) The texts bear the impact of a strong bondage with earlier tradition labelled as mārga. Many of them start the treatment of tāla-varieties with the five mārga-tāla-s without labelling them as such, others describe those five under kriyā, mārga and kalā of the ten prāṇa-s (life-principles) of tāla. The very concept of ten prāṇa-s is an attempt at retaining the mārga tradition or adapting it to deśī. This concept bears clear testimony to the fact that no dichotomy between the mārga and deśī is implied.

(10) Stray indications of regional preferences are available in the texts. The seven sūlādi tāla-s deserve special mention here. It is notable that they are composed of only three units; viz. laghu, druta and anudruta, all other units having been dropped out.

(11) Present day practice is directly linked with the deśī tāla system for historical reasons and this system is a link between ancient thought and current practice.

(12) The concept of placing each tāla in the three spans in the ratio 1:2:3 is not recorded, except in ten prāṇa-s.

Śāstra and Prayoga II

5. Contemporary Practice

The contemporary scene has to be viewed with reference to the two main streams accepted today, although there are other notable traditions also is existence, e.g. Manipuri, Odissi. The abstract of this paper lists the main points of comparison or contrast between the above two streams. Here it would be pertinent to review those points in a broader perspective of links with earlier tradition, ancient and medieval, as follows.

(1) Mātrā still exists as a concept in the Karnatic tradition, since the span of each of the seven Sūlādi tāla-s as couched in terms of laghu, druta and anudruta is decoded in terms of mātrā-s alone. But these tāla-s take concrete shape in the form of one or the other of the five jāti-s (depending on the value of laghu as 4, 3, 5, 7, 9) and then they are described in terms of akṣara-kāla-s only; the total number of akṣara-kāla-s is not so important, as is their grouping into 2, 4, 3, 5, 7, 9. The restriction of flexibility to laghu i.e. keeping druta and anudruta unchanged, 2 and 1 akṣara-kāla being allotted to them respectively, is a deviation from the deśī system, where all units changed according to laghu.

In the Hindustani scene, mātrā is the conceptual standard time-unit with an arbitrary time-value depending on the laya (tempo) and it is concretised in terms of numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. Why the concretisation in terms of akṣara-s has been dropped is a pertinent question. It could be conjectured that the strong identification of a tāla-cycle with a specific set of drum-syllables (theka) could be responsible for this phenomenon. In a ṭhekā, each mātrā of the tāla is not necessarily represented by one drum syllable; e.g. in Cautāla, 5 out of the 12 mātrā-s are represented by double syllables, whereas in dhamāra, four out of the 14 mātrā-s are represented by only two syllables. The understanding of akṣara in terms of drum-syllable could not, therefore, be directly linked with mātrā and hence mātrā has become the sole term for the smallest time-unit in tāla. The

direct impact of Mātrika-chanda-s, could also be held responsible for this situation. In Mātrika-chanda-s the total length of the foot of a metre is more important and groupings within that length, if at all prescribed, occupy a secondary position, whereas in Vārṇika chanda-s, the order or sequence of laghu-guru units is more important and the total length of a foot in terms of mātrā-s is automatically regulated. The ancient tāla system was nearer to the Vārṇika chanda-s and that impact has been quite strong also in the desī tāla-s, but the grip of Mātrika chandas would have become stronger because of Mātṛka chanda-s becoming prominent in Prākṛta-s, Apabhraṃśa-s and later regional languages, specially in the various dialects of Hindi. The Hindustani practice and the thinking associated with it, would have, consequently, acquired the idea of viewing a tāla-structure primarily with special reference to its total length and secondarily to its component groups.

This tendency has brought about the situation in which Teental is viewed more as being composed of 16 mātrā-s that as being a pattern of 1, 2, 1 or 2, 4, 2 or 4, 8, 4. Hence sixteen mātrā-s are considered to be divided into 4, 8, 4 or rather 4, 4, 4, rather than being a sum-total of these groupings.

(2) The above point leads to the question of khālī being accepted as an independent unit in the Hindustani system. It has been seen above that unsounded (nihśabda) action has never been accorded an independent status. It is an extension of a sounded beat, as a prefix or suffix. In the desī system it has been a suffix and in mārga it could be either a prefix or a suffix. The idea of according it an independent status could have emerged from the preference for such tāla-s as are clearly divided into two halves, the first half beginning with a sounded beat and the second half with an unsounded one. Teental, Jhaptal, Dhamar are well known examples. Cautāla has two khālī-s, but the second khālī marks the beginning of the second half of the cycle on the 7th mātrā and hence it is considered to be more important than the first one.

Śāstra and Prayoga II

221

So far as written records of this situation are concerned,

till the last quarter of the 19th cent. and even upto the

beginning of the 20th cent. it is not visible. The tradition of

treating khālī as an extension and not an independent unit is

very clearly recorded. Hence it is a very recent phenomenon.

(3) The concept of three mārga-s, though not pronounced

in the present day Hindustani practice, is still alive as a

hangover. In the Karnatic tradition it is more explicit.

(4) The emphasis on ‘sama’ in the Hindustani tradition

and ‘graha’ in the Karnatic tradition, both have roots in the

textual tradition.

(5) The texts written in the North (Delhi and Bhavnagar)

at the end of the 19th cent. do not evince a dichotomy between

the Hindustani and Karnatic systems.

(6) The Hindustani practice still retains the identification

of tāla-s with vocal forms; e.g. dhrupada (the tāla cautāla also

being known by this name) and dhamār both standing for a tāla

and a vocal form performed in that tāla. This is a remnant of

the prabandha-cum-deśī-tāla tradition.

(7) Both the systems of contemporary practice have a

very selected corpus of tāla-s in actual use, although both have

inherited a rich textual tradition profuse with hundreds of tāla-

varieties. The processes of selection have not been completely

identified, but some interesting facts are relevant.

(8) The relegation of the function of keeping the tāla

cycle to the drummer in Hundustani music is a concomitant of

the khyal and its allied form thumri. Dhrupad and Karnatic

music fall in the same line of keeping this responsibility with

the musician. The emphasis on melodic improvisation in the

Khyal and Thumri forms has generated the process of freeing

the musician from keeping the tāla-cycle and relegating it to

the drummer.

222

Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

6. Conclusion

Both the current traditions of Hindustani and Karnatic systems embody deviations from and strong roots in the earlier and later textual tradition. Some of the important stages of the process of change and continuity and some factors influencing regional preferences have been identified in this paper. It is a fascinating field of study and the potential for further breakthroughs is very rich indeed.

Śāstra and Prayoga II

223

Bibliographical Notes.

1. Ṛktantra, Editor : Dr. Suryakant Sastri, Meherchand Lakshmanadas offset works, Delhi, 1970.

2. Gīta-sūtra-sāra (Bengali) Pt. I, by Sri Krishnadhana Bandyopadhyaya, Koochbehar, 1885.

3. Caturdaṇḍīprakāśikā by Vyaṅkṭamakhin, Editors : Pt. S. Subrahmanya Sastri, Sri T.V. Subbarao and Sri T.V. Venkatarama Aiyar, Madras Music Academy, 1934.

4. Nāṭyaśāstra of Bharata, Vol. IV, Editors : Late Ramakrishna Kavi and J.S. Pade, Gaekwad Oriental Series, Baroda, 1964.

5. Nādavinoda (Hindi) by Gosvami Pannalal, Narayandas Jangalimal, Dariba Kalan, Delhi. (Year of publication not mentioned, but published around 1900).

6. Bharatārnava of Nandikeśvara, with Hindi translation by Vachaspati Gairola; Chaukhamba Amarabharati Prakashan, Varanasi, 1978.

7. Mānasollāsa of Someśvara, Vol. III, Editor : G.K. Shrigondekar; Gaekwad Oriental Series, Baroda, 1961.

8. Yantrakṣetradīpikā (Bengali) by S.M. Tagore; Banga Sangita Vidyalaya, Calcutta, 1876.

9. Yājñavalkya Śikṣā, Editor : Late Sri Amarnath Sastri; Dikshit Krishnachandra Sharma, Kashi, 1962.

10. Rasakaumudī of Śrīkaṇṭha, Editor : Dr. A. N. Jani; Gaekwad Oriental Series, Baroda, 1963.

11. Rādhāgovinda-Saṅgīta-Sāra of Maharaj Sawai Pratap Singh, Jaipur, Chapter VI; Pooja Gayan Samaj, 1912.

12. Śukla Yajurveda Prātiśākhya of Kātyāyana, Editor and Pub. Sri Jivananda Vidyasagar Bhattacharya, Calcutta, 1893, (second edition).

13. Saṅgīta Kalādhara (Gujarati) by Dahyalal Shivarama;

Channal D. Nayak, Bhavnagar, second edition, 1938 (first

published in 1901)

14. Saṅgīta Cūḍāmaṇi of Jagadekamalla, Editor : D.K.

Velankar, Gaekwad Oriental Series, Baroda, 1958

15. Saṅgita Darpana by Catura Damodara, Editor, K.

Vasudeva Sastri; S. Gopalan, Saraswati Mahal, Tanjore, 1952.

16. Saṅgīta Nārāyaṇa by Gajapati Sri Narayaṇadeva;

Orissa Sangit Natak Akademi, 1966.

17. Saṅgīta Pārijāta by Ahobala, text reconstructed by

Kamala Devi Nautiyal as part of her Ph. D. thesis submitted in

the Dept. of Musicology, Banaras Hindu University, 1982

(unpublished).

18. Saṅgīta Ratnākara by Śārṅgadeva Vol.II, Editor : Pt.

S. Subrahmanya Sastri, Adyar Library 1944, Vol. III, Editor :

Pt. S. Subrahmanya Sastri, second edition, revised by S.

Sarada, 1986.

19. Saṅgīta Rāja of Rānā Kumbhā, Vol. II (unpublished),

Editor : Prem Lata Sharma.

20. Saṅgīta Śāstra (Hindi) K. Vasudeva Sastri;

Prakashana Shakha, Suchana Vibhaga, U.P., Lucknow, 1958.

21. Saṅgīta-Sāra by S.M. Tagore, Calcutta, 1879.

22. Saṅgīta Sūryodaya by Lakṣmīnārāyaṇa, Editor : Pt.

Kamata Prasad Tripathi; Indira Kala Sangita Vishwavidyalaya,

Khairagarh (M.P.), 1986.

23. Saṅgītānusāra Chandomaṇjarī by Maula Bux :

published by the author for use in music schools (Gāyanaśālā-)

s) in the Baroda State in 1892.

24. Saṅgītopaniṣat-Sāroddhāra, of Vacanacarya Sudhāka-

laśa, Editor : U.K. Shah; Gaekwad Oriental Series, 1961.

25. Sahasarasa (compilation of 1,000 dhrupad texts

ascribed to Bakhshoo), Editor : Prem Lata Sharma, Sangit

Natak Akademi, New Delhi, 1972.

SECTION III

Synopses of Treatises

about some important books on

Indian Musicology

in Sanskrit and old Hindi

III

PREFACE

Studies in the

Aesthetics

of

Indian

Musicology

BRHADDEŚĪ OF MATAṆGA

1. Date and Identity

Mataṅga is a well-known purāṇic and epic figure as a ‘Muni’. His historical identity as a musical author is not yet established. That he is posterior to Bharata is an unassailable fact, not only on account of his references to quotations from Bharata, but also on account of his treatment of subjects like Jāti, Rāga, Prabandha, etc., which is unquestionably later to that of Bharata. As the final word has not yet been said about the date of Bharata and as there is a strong section of scholarly opinion in favour of placing him quite early in B.C., the date of Mataṅga could also be conveniently put somewhere near that. But a reference in Kallinātha’s1 commentary on Saṅgīta Ratnākara to the effect that Rudraṭa (an Alaṅkāra author) is quoted by Mataṅga has led scholars* to be inclined to place him in the 9th century A.D., the accepted date of Rudraṭa. P.V. Kane places Mataṅga in 750 A.D.. But for the solitary reference to Rudraṭa ascribed to Mataṅga by Kallinātha there is nothing against pushing back the date along that of Bharata. In spite of the lack of conclusive evidence regarding his date, Mataṅga happens to be the only link between Bharata and Abhinavagupta2 or even Sārṅgadeva3 and thus his importance in our Saṅgītaśāstra cannot be over-estimated.

2. Textual Notes

The only edition of the text of Brhaddeśī that came out in 1928 in Trivandrum Sanskrit Series No. XCIV (now out of

*. Dr. V. Raghavan, S.N.A. Akademi Bulletin No. 5.

1. Commentator of Saṅgīta Ratnākara (14th cent).

2. Author of Abhinava Bhāratī (10th cent. A.D.), the only extant commentary on Bharata’s Nāṭya śāstra.

3. Author of Saṅgīta Ratnākara (13th cent.) -Ed.

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Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

print) is based on two palm-leaf MSS in Malayalam characters obtained from the Poonjar Raja, North Travancore. Both of them lack the first leaf, one lacks four leaves from the 41st and the other abruptly breaks in the course of Jātiprakaraṇa. The text is very corrupt and breaks off or seems to be in wrong sequence at many places. The quotations from Mataṅga in the two available commentaries on Saṅgīta Ratnākara, viz. those of Simhabhūpāla1 and Kallinātha not only supply some missing links, but also provide valuable material for correcting many readings. The writer of this note has attempted a reconstruction (unpublished) of the text with the help of the above-noted quotations. At some places Kallinātha gives a paraphrase of Mataṅga’s text in his own words which is useful in reconstructing the purport of the corresponding portion in the original text. All the same, the text still remains in a very fragmentary condition and nothing but the discovery of a complete MS can bring to light the contribution of Mataṅga in its entirety. It need not, however, be overlooked that in spite of the fragmentary and extremely corrupt nature of the available text, it is a landmark in the history of our Saṅgītasāstra.

The text is comprised of both verse and prose. There is a controversy among scholars regarding the authorship of the verse and prose portions being identical or otherwise. In the absence of a complete and well-connected text it is not possible to say a final word on this matter.2

The available text runs into 154 pages in print containing 511 verses (excluding quotations from earlier authors) and an almost equal extent of prose portions.

3. References by and to Mataṅga

Mataṅga cites the authority of Kāśyapa, Kōhala, Dattila, Durgāśakti, Nandikeśvara, Nārada, Brahman, Bharata, Yāṣṭika,

1. Commentator of Saṅgīta Ratnākara (15th cent.) -Ed.

2. A critical edition of Bṛhaddeśī is now available, edited by P.L.S. with translation and explanatory notes, published by I.G.N.C.A. (Indira Gandhi National Center for the Arts).—Ed.

Bṛhaddeśī of Mataṅga

Viśvāvasu, Śārdūla and Veṇu (the reading of this name is corrupt in the printed text, p. 5, but the correct reading is available in Kallinātha’s quotation). Almost all the citations are very important as they supply valuable information about the opinion of a number of earlier authorities on major points, who would otherwise have remained either mere names to us or some of whom would not have been known at all. Later authors have depended on Mataṅga’s text for information about many of these earlier authorities. In the case also of Bharata whose text is available to-day in more than one recension, Mataṅga supplies some quotations which are not to be found in any of the extant recensions. For example, the following two statements about the importance of Jāti are not available today in any recension of the Bharata text :-

तथा चाह भरतमुनि:-"जातिसम्भवत्वाद् ग्रामरागाणाम्" इति।

"यत्किञ्चिद् गीयते लोके तत्सर्वं जातिषु स्थितम्" इति वचनात्॥

(Bharata has said : “because Grāmarāga-s are born of Jāti-s”; “whatever is sung in the Loka, all that subsists in Jāti-s”)

Some of the important references to Mataṅga by later authors are listed below :

(1) In Rasārṇava Sudhākara (p. 8 verse 52-54) of Simhabhūpāla; he is mentioned as one of the four sons of Bharata, who wrote on Nāṭya.

(2) Kuṭṭinīmata of Dāmōdaragupta mentions him as an expert in wind instruments (verse 877).

(3) Abhinavagupta refers to him as having propitiated Maheśvara with a bamboo flute, in the commentary on N.S. 30.1 and quotes from him to the effect that flutes can also be made of metal; again in 30.11 he is quoted in the context of different (soft or harsh) tones of playing on the flute in the delineation of different Rasa-s. All these references point to the fact that Mataṅga was held to be an authority on wind instruments. Unfortunately, the portion of Bṛhaddeśī dealing with Vādya is completely lost to us today.

(4) The two commentaries on Sangīta Ratnākara quote him profusely in Svarā and Rāga chapters and once in Prabandha and supply valuable material for text reconstruction.

(5) Nānyadeva1 quotes him about 60 times in the context of Rāgas and Bhāṣā-s and 4 times in that of Vīnā and its Vādana. The original text dealing with Vīnā is lost to-day.

(6) There is a solitary reference to him in Rasaratna-Pradīpikā (P.V. Kane--History of Sanskrit Poeties, p. 57).

(7) Matanga's Vādyādhyāya is mentioned in Jayasimha's Nṛttaratnāvalī.

(8) Mahārānā Kumbhā refers to him in Sangītarāja nine times in the context of Svarā, twenty-five times in that of Rāga, five times in that of Prabandha and a few times in that of Vādya. A notable feature of the references in the context of Rāga is that Kumbhā ascribes to him the authorship of Rāga-Dhyāna-s in relation to Deśī Rāga-s. This is a very important fact in the historical study of the origin of the system of Rāgadhyāna-s. By implication Kumbhā relates to the Śaiva tradition in Rāga-dhyāna-s, as distinct from the Vaiṣṇava tradition.

The above information establishes the vital importance of Matanga as a musical author.

4. General Scheme of the Work

The beginning of the text is missing. The available text abruptly begins with a fragment of the dialogue between Matanga and Nārada, the latter playing the role of an enquirer and the former that of a master. The discussion centres around the elemental aspect of sound (dhvani) and the process of its manifestation. In its manifest form Dhavani is Deśī. Then follows the definition of Mārga and Deśī as distinct musical categories. This is followed by a treatment of ‘Nāda’ according to

1.Author of Bharata-bhāṣya--Ed.

Bṛhaddeśī of Mataṅga

to Yôgic and Tāntric terminology. This introductory portion

leads to the subject matter of the Svara topic which is arranged

under headings comprised of Śruti, Svarā, Mūrchanā, Tāna,

Varṇa, Alaṅkāra, Gīta, Jāti, Rāga, Bhāṣā and Prabandha.

The division of chapters is not well-marked. It appears

that the available text contains fragments of the following six

chapters :

(1) Svarā (the end is not marked) (2) Jāti (the end is not

marked) (3) Rāga (the end is marked) (4) Bhāṣā according to

'Yāṣṭika-mata' (the end is marked) (5) Bhāṣā according to

'Śārdūla-mata' (the end is marked but it is followed by a small

fragment of the text dealing with Deśī Rāga-s once again

bearing the colophon of the end of Bhāṣā). Most probably the

original scheme was to devote one chapter each to Rāga

(Grāmarāga), Bhāṣā and Deśī Rāga.

(6) Prabandha (end is marked). The two conspicuous

omissions are Vādya and Tāla and it is evident that these two

chapters constitute the major loss sustained by the text. Inspite

of the loss of the chapter on Vādya, Mataṅga is traditionally

known to be the pioneer in fixing frets on the Vīṇā, as is

evident from the inseparable association of Mataṅga with

Kinnarī-the Vīṇā with frets.

5. Salient Features of Exposition

The salient features of exposition in this work, which

characterise its distinction from Bharata and determine its

influence on later authors may thus be summarised :

(1) The marked influence of Tāntric or Āgamic philosophy.

Incidentally, it is interesting to note that one of the colophons

gives the name सर्वागम संहिता to the text.

(2) A number of important innovations or additions in the

Svarā chapter, such as—

(a) Mention of the 7-Śruti interval representing Samvāda

(p. 16), reference to the condition of समश्रुतिकता

(identical śruti-interval) in Samvāda which explains Bharata's omission of the Ma-Ni pair from Samvādī pairs. Ma has four-śruti interval and Ni has two-śruti interval and they are, therefore, not included by Bharata under Samvāda pairs, in spite of their 9-śruti interval.

(b) Mention of Sa and Ma as the Grāmaṇī-svara-s of the Ṣadjagrāma and Madhyamagrāma respectively.

(c) Ascribing colour, caste (Varṇa), Dēvatā, Ṛṣi, Bījākṣara, etc., to the seven svara-s. This is clear evidence of the Āgamic influence.

(d) Etymological definitions of Svarā, Śruti, Mūrchanā, Jāti, etc.

(e) Polemic discussion about the mutual relationship of Svarā and Śruti.

(f) Use of symbolic syllables, viz., sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, for the seven svara-s. This marks the beginning of non-Vedic musical notation; long forms of these syllables are used for denoting double time value. सा, री, गा, मा, पा, धा, नी.

(g) Illustrations in the above notation are given for Alañkāra, Jāti and Rāga.

(h) Illustrative charts are provided for Grāma and Mūrchanā.

(i) Use of a remarkable expression in the section on Sāraṇā (demonstrative process for śruti-s) which affords valuable elucidation to Bharata's treatment of the subject; the expression is ‘Kartā’ for the Gāndhāra-Niṣāda in the Cala-Viṇā and ‘Karma’ for the Ṛṣabha-Dhaivata in the Acala Viṇā in the second Sāraṇā. (This point needs some elaboration and that will be provided in the next instalment. i. e. Part II)

(j) A noteworthy addition to the concept of Anuvāda illustrated by the example that Ṣadja and Ṛṣabha are

Bṛhaddeśī of Mataṅga

233

Anuvādī because the use of one in the place of another is not detrimental to Rāga or Jāti (elaboration will follow in the next instalment).

(k) Exposition of 12-Svara-mūrcchanā and ascribing a Mūrcchanā each to all Jāti-s (elucidation will follow).

3. The concept of Mārga-Deśī classification.

4. Elaborate treatment of Grāmarāga-s under five Gīti-s, and Bhāṣā-s of Grāmarāga-s. The treatment of Deśī rāga-s is lost to us to -day.

5. The treatment of nearly 45 Prabandha-s which were later on known as Deśī prabandha-s and which were eventually further classified under three categories, viz., Sūḍa, Ālikrama and Prakīrṇa.

6. Conclusion

In extant musical literature, Mataṅga’s Bṛhaddeśī is the first text dealing with Gīta and Vādya almost independently of Nāṭya. All the points listed under the above heading need elucidation for bringing out the importance of Mataṅga’s work and for assessing the influence wielded by him on later authors.

BRHADDEŚĪ OF MATAṆGA - PART II

In this, the second and last instalment of the synopsis of Mataṅga’s Bṛhaddeśī, it is proposed to take up a somewhat elaborate analysis of the author’s treatment of the following items seriatim. 1. Samvāda-Anuvāda-Vivāda, 2. Svarā-Śruti, 3. Grāma-Mūrcchanā, 4. Mārga-Deśī, 5. Rāga, 6. Prabandha.

1. Samvāda-Anuvāda-Vivāda

Samvāda in our Saṅgītaśāstra is both an acoustic and melodic phenomenon. Acoustically, it has been said by

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Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

Bharata and Matañga that 13-and 9-Śruti intervals represent the Sa-Pa and Sa-Ma Samvāda. Melodically, Matañga makes explicit, what Bharata had said by implication. Students of Bharata know that he has omitted ‘Ma-Ni’ from the Samvādī pairs enumerated by him, in spite of the fact that this pair has a 9-śruti interval. Abhinavagupta (posterior to Matañga) has explained this omission in great detail. (Reference is invited to IMJ No. 7, pp. 60, 61.) But the germ of this explanation has already been supplied by Matañga, who adds the condition of Sama-śrutikatā to the statement of the Śruti-intervals necessary for Samvāda. That means that although acoustically the Śruti-interval is the only criterion for Samvāda, melodically the interval of the Svaraconcerned from their preceding Svaras is also important. Ma has 4-śruti interval from Ga and Ni has only 2-śruti interval from Dha. Melodically, they cannot be said to have Samvāda because correspondence of melodic phrases is not possible without Samaśrutikatā. The phrase ‘Ma-Ga-Ri’ cannot have a reciprocal phrase in ‘Ni-Dha-Pa’, because the Śruti-sequence in one is 4-2-3 and in the other it is 2-3-4. The following passage is relevant to this aspect of Samvāda.

संवादिनस्तु पुनः समश्रुतिकत्वे सति त्रयोदशान्तरत्वेनावबोद्धव्या:। किं तत् संवादित्वं नाम ? यद्वादिस्वरेण रागस्य रागत्वं जनितं तत्रैवाहकत्वं नाम संवादितवम्।... संवादिप्रयोगो यथा-यस्मिन्न् गीते योंडशलेन परिकलिप्तः षड्जस्तस्य स्थानेऽपि मध्यमः क्रियमाणो रागहा न भवेत्। यस्मिन्न् स्थाने मूर्छनावशान्मध्यमः प्रयुक्तः, अस्मिन्न् स्थाने क्रियमाणः षड्जो जातिरागहा न भवेत्। षड्जपञ्चमयोः स्थाने पञ्चमषड्जौ प्रयुज्यमानौ जातिरागहनिकरौ न भवतः। एवं ऋषभधैवत्योः स्थाने धैवतर्षभौ प्रयुज्यमानौ जातिरागविनाशकरौ न भवतः। एवं गान्धारनिषादयोः स्थाने निषादगान्धारौ। ककुभस्य धैवतांशत्वेन रेवगुप्तस्य ऋषभांशत्वेन तदुभयरागजनन्याॠष्यश्रभीजातेऽॠषभांशपरिग्रहात् परस्परसम्बद्धौ च प्रयुज्यमानौ जातिरागविनाशकरौ न भवतः ।

(P.14)

"Sa-Ma-Pa can replace one another, similarly Ri-Dha can represent each other in melodic phrases of Rāga or Jāti and this is the implication of their mutual Samvāda."

Bṛhaddeśī of Mātaṅga

235

The melodic implication of Samvāda finds also a place in the Varjana-Vidhi (वर्जन-विधि) i.e. rule about the omission of Svaras in Jāti-s and Rāga-s. The rule is that the Samvādi of the Amśa Svar of a Jāti or Rāga can never be omitted. This Samvādī has to satisfy both acoustic and melodic conditions.

Thus Ni can be omitted when Ma is Amśa even though there is a 9-śruti interval between the two; similarly, the Ri-Dha of Madhyamagrāma do not have Samaśrutikatā, although they have a 13-śruti-interval. There also the melodic condition of Samvāda is not satisfied. What Bharata had implied, is made explicit by Mātaṅga by the condition of Samaśrutikatā added; and Abhinavagupta has explained the melodic implication through varjana-vidhi.

The addition of 7-śruti interval to the two Samvādī intervals (9 and 13) already spoken of by Bharata, in a singular passage of Mātaṅga (p. 16), appears to be of dubious importance or authenticity, as this addition does not find a place anywhere else in the text; whereas there are several places where it could reasonably be expected to recur. This point has, therefore, still to be kept open for corroboration or rejection.

As regards Anuvāda, Mātaṅga has indicated a make-shift arrangement by saying that Triśruti Svaras can represent Catuḥśruti Svaras in melodic progression. Sa-Ri, Pa-Dha, Ri-Pa are mutually interchangeable (on the Viṇā frets) according to him.

अनुवादिप्रयोगो यथा—षड्जस्थाने ऋषभः ऋषभस्थाने षड्जः प्रयुज्यमानः स्वरूपं भजन् जातिरागहा न भवति। पञ्चमस्य स्थाने धैवतो धैवतस्य स्थाने पञ्चमः प्रयुज्यमानो रागहा न भवेत्। षड्जस्थाने धैवतः प्रयुज्यमानो धैवतस्थाने षड्जः प्रयुज्यमानो जातिरागविनाशकरो न भवति। पञ्चमस्थाने ऋषभः प्रयुज्यमानः, ऋषभस्थाने पञ्चमः प्रयुज्यमानो जातिरागहा न भवेत्।

(P.15)

Thus the explanation of Anuvādī pairs by Mātaṅga indicates a makeshift arrangement, which ignores the difference of the Pramāna-Śruti interval.

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Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

As regards Vivāda, Matanga offers the explanation that

Vivādi-pairs are not interchangeable in melodic progression.

The following passage is relevant :

किं तद् विवादित्वं नाम? वाद्यादिभि: स्वैरंयद् रागस्य वादित्वं संवादित्वमनुवादित्वं प्राप्नं, तद्विनाशकत्वं नाम विवादित्वम्।...विवादिप्रयोगो यथा—

ऋषभस्थाने गान्धार: प्रयुज्यमानो गान्धारस्थाने ऋषभः प्रयुज्यमानो जातिरागहानिकरो भवेत्। धैवतस्थाने निषाद: प्रयुज्यमानो जातिरागहानिकरो भवेत्।

(P.15,16)

All the above illustrations regarding Saṃvāda-Vivāda

relate to the Ṣadjagrāma and that would suffice here. Thus it can

be said that Matanga has made a significant contribution to this

concept both by making explicit what was previously implicit,

and by making some new additions i.e. by giving new dimensions

to it. Specially regarding Anuvāda one has to wonder for a while

why Matanga should have pleaded for the ignoring of the

'Pramāṇa Śruti' interval in that case. The reason would appear to

be twofold : 1. the exigencies of the fretted Vīṇā and 2. the

exigencies of Dēśi Music which was not bound by Grāma.

2. Svarā-Śruti

The following etymological definition of Svara and the

points made by Matanga after that definition as summarised

below have influenced all subsequent authors.

राजू दीसाविति धातोः स्वशब्दपूर्वकस्य च।

स्वयं यो राजते यस्मात् तस्मादेशे स्वरः स्मृतः ॥

(P. 12,śloka 63)

That which is resplendent by itself or which shines forth

by itself is 'Svara'. From Śārṅgadeva onwards 'स्वतो रञ्जयति

श्रोतृचित्तम्' that which is pleasant by itself is Svarā--has been

accepted as the definition of Svaram. This definition is also

introduced by Matanga through the following words :-

ननु स्वर इति किम्? उच्यते रागजनको ध्वनि: स्वर इति। तथा चाह कोहलः—

आत्मेच्छया महितलाद् वायुरुद्गत्निधायते ।

नाडीभित्तौ तथाकाशे ध्वनी रक्तः स्वरः स्मृतः ॥

(P. 12)

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237

That sound is ‘Svara’ which produces ‘Rāga’ (pleasure or attraction). The ‘Vāyu’ (vital air) rises from the ‘ground’ (‘Mūlādhāra’ in the body) and is supported on the surface of the ‘Nāḍī-s’ (nerve centres) and in the ‘Ākāśa’ (ether in the body); it manifests as sound and that sound which is pleasant is ‘Svara’.

This idea has been elaborated by later authors, especially by Śārṅgadeva. After this, Mataṅga poses the question whether ‘Svara’ is one or many (Eka-Aneka), eternal or ephemeral (Nitya-Anitya), pervasive or nonpervasive (Vyāpaka-Avyāpaka) and concludes by saying that ‘Svara’ is both ‘Eka’ and ‘Aneka’; in its unmanifest (Niskala) or undivided state it is one, but in its manifestation as Ṣadja and the like, it is ‘Aneka’. It is always eternal or indestructible (Nitya) and is all pervasive (Vyāpaka) in the human body, right from the ‘ground’ (Mūlādhāra) upto the ‘Mūrdhā’ (cerebral region).

After this, there is a discussion as to how the Vyañjana-s (consonants) associated with Svara names can be called Svara-s (vowels) and in the conclusion there is a very significant statement which establishes that the ‘Svara’-names are simply symbols or technical jargon of the learned (Ācārya-s). This statement is very relevant in the context of our music education today, when unfortunately, the symbol is eclipsing the substance and we seem to have lost the requisite discrimination between the two viz. the symbol and the symbolised (the sound proper).

Then follows the description of Vādī-Saṃvādī, Anuvādī and Vivādī (already noted above) and next comes the enunciation of Ṛṣi-Kula, Devatā, colour, Varṇa (caste), Sthāna (location in the human body), Bījākṣara, etc. of Svara-s. All this is a clear indication of the Tāṇtric influence on Mataṅga and in extant literature, he is the first author to introduce these details except Rasa, which has been given by Bharata. As regards subsequent literature, it is notable that all these details

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are reproduced except the Bījākṣara-s. The following passage of Simhabhūpāla is important and perhaps the solitary instance of a reference to Bījākṣara-s.

ननु स्वराणां 'पद्माभ:' इत्यादि-वर्णनिरूपणमृषिदैवतच्छन्दो निरूपणं च कुत्रोपयुज्यते? स्वरोपासनायामित्यवेहि। यदा स्वराणां बीजै: षड्जादय: स्वरा उपास्यन्ते तदा तेषामृषिदैवतच्छन्दोभि: स्मर्तव्यानी वर्णाश्र ध्येया। अतएव स्वराणां बीजानि युक्तानि मतज्ञेन।

(S.R.1.3.59)

"All these details regarding Svara-s viz. colour, Ṛṣi, Devatā, etc. are significant for the Upāsanā of Svara-s through the Bījākṣara-s because these have to be contemplated upon during Upāsanā".

We know that in the Vedic tradition the Ṛṣi, Devatā and Chandas are important. There seems to be a fusion of the Vedic and Tāṇtric tradition in the background of all those details and this is a subject for specialised research.

The credit of giving etymological derivation of Svara-names for the first time also goes to Mataṅga. For want of space it is not possible here to reproduce these derivations. Suffice it to say that they are very significant and important in the context of the inseparable and integral concept of Svara-Śruti-Grāma-Mūrchanā.

Regarding Śruti, the treatment of Mataṅga is marked by the following points : (a) etymological definition (b) citation of various opinions about the number of Śruti-s and their various classifications (c) a peculiar expression under Sāraṇā and (d) polemic discussion about the relation between Svara and Śruti. All these points are summarised below seriatim :

(a) Etymology

श्रु श्रवणे चास्य धातो: क्तिन् प्रत्ययसमुद्भवे।

श्रुतिशब्द: प्रसाध्योडयं शब्दद्वैभाषिकसाधन: ॥

"That which is heard is Śruti". The word is formed by the Pratyaya 'Ktin' as applied to the root Śru, in the process of

Bṛhaddeśī of Mataṅga

Bhāva of Karma (both grammatical terms).” This is the most comprehensive definition of Śruti that is possible and this could have been behind the later exposition that the first part of a sound characterised by attack (आघात) is Śruti and the second part characterised by resonance (अनुरणन) is Svara (cf. S.R. I. 3.24).

(b) Various opinions about the number and classification of Śruti-s

(i) Śruti is basically one which appears in various forms when the vital air is travelling upwards and attacks different stages, as though it is climbing steps. This is Mataṅga's own opinion.

(ii) Śruti is two-fold--Śvarasruti i.e. the śruti-s ascribed to Śuddha Svara-s and Antara-Śruti i.e. the śruti-s ascribed to Antara Svara-s viz. Antara Ga and Kākalī Ni. This opinion is ascribed to Viśvāvasu.

(iii) Śruti is three-fold according to its association with the three Sthāna-s viz. Mandra, Madhya and Tāra.

(iv) Śruti is three-fold according to the Vaigunya (imperfection) of the senses. This vaigunya is again three-fold-Sahaja (natural), Doṣaja (born of some discrepancy) and Abhighātaja (born of some accident). This seems to relate to the sense-perception of sound.

(v) Śruti is four-fold according to its association with the three Dhātu-s (essential ingredients) in the human body and their mixture (Sannipāta).

(vi) Śruti is nine-fold as the total of 4 + 3 + 2 = 9, the three types of Svara-intervals.

(vii) Śruti-s are twenty-two. Mataṅga mentions this opinion rather disparagingly, but that is rather curious, because while speaking of Sāraṇā he establishes this number itself.

(viii) Śruti-s are sixty-six i.e. 22 × 3 = 66 according to the association of 22 with 3-Sthāna-s.

(ix) Śruti-s are infinite, just like the infinite sounds in Ākāśa

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or the infinite waves and ripples in water caused by the blowing

wind.

(c) Sāranā

The following expression is very important in the

description of the second Sāranā.

पुनर्नपि तद्‌देवापकर्षयेद् तथा गान्थारनिषादौ कर्तारौ पुनरन्यतरस्यां स्थिरवर्णायां

धैवतर्षभौ कर्मतामपन्नौ प्रवेक्ष्यतो द्रि:श्रुत्यधिकत्वात्।

(P.6)

"The ‘Ga-Ni’ of the Cala-Vīṇā are the Kartā-s i.e. they

are active as they are to be so lowered as to make them

identical with the ‘Ri-Ga’ of the Acala Vīṇā which are ‘Karma’

or the object of the act of lowering." This relationship of Kartā

and Karma between the Ga-Ni of the Cala Vīṇā and Ri-Ga of

the Acala Vīṇā respectively deserves attention because it

indicates clearly that the second Sāranā is basically different

from that of the first one. This could set at rest the contention

that Bharata and his followers advocated an identical measure

of lowering in the four Sāranā-s.

(d) Polemic Discussion

Mataṅga has indulged in a long discussion on the relation

between Svarā and Śruti. He poses five possibilities in this

connection and refutes or accepts them as follows :

(i) Śruti and Svarā are identical, like Jāti and Vyakti; this

is not acceptable because Svarā and Śruti are not perceptible

by one process and one is known to rest on the other.

(ii) Svarā is reflected (Vivartita) in Śruti just as the face is

reflected in the mirror; this is fallacious because it implies that the

perception of Svarā is not valid.

(iii) Śruti is Kāraṇa (cause) and Svarā is Kārya (effect)

just like the lump of clay (Kāraṇa) and jar (Kārya); this does

not stand reasoning, because the lump of clay no longer exists

after the jar comes into existence, but Śruti does exist along

with Svarā.

Bṛhaddeśī of Mataṅga

(iv) There is the Pariṇāma of Śruti into Svarajust like that of milk into curd; this is acceptable.

(v) Śruti is the Vyañjaka (luminator) of Svarajust as the candle luminates objects like Ghaṭa; this is also acceptable.

It is not possible here to go into the implications of this discussion due to the limitation of space. The only remark that is pertinent here is that the treatment of Svarajust and Śruti by Mataṅga is very scholastic and bears the influence of grammar, Tantra and Vedānta.

(3) Grāma-Mūrcchanā

The notable points regarding the treatment of Grāma are :

(i) Explanation through an analogy from life (ii) explanation of Bharata's enumeration of Śruti-intervals from Ṛsabha and Pañcama instead of Ṣadja and Madhyama in Ma-grāma respectively (iii) explanation of Bharata's statement about the origin of Grāma. These points are briefly dealt with below.

Analogy from life. The following passage is relevant.

समूहवाचिनौ ग्रामौ स्वरश्रुत्यादिसंयुतौ।

यथा कुटुम्बिनः सर्व एकीभावं वसन्ति हि ॥

सर्वलोकेषु स ग्रामो यत्र नित्यं व्यवस्थितः।

षड्जमध्यमसंश्रयौ तु द्वौ ग्रामौ विश्रुतौ किल।

गान्धारं नारदो ब्रूते स तु मर्त्यैर्न गीयते ॥

(P. 20, sloka 89-91)

The word ‘Grāma’ is taken from ‘Loka’ (life). Just as in life, a number of families live together in a village, similarly Grāma is a grouping of Svarajust, Śruti and the like. There are two Grāma-s (in music), bearing the names Ṣadja and Madhyama. The mention of Gāndhāragrāma and its negation in the context of mortals is also a deviation from Bharata's tradition.

(ii) Enumeration of Śruti intervals. Bharata begins from Ṛsabha in the enumeration of the Śruti intervals in Ṣadjagrāma, instead of doing so from Ṣadja, as

तिस्रो द्वे च चतस्रश्च चतस्रस्तिस्र एव च।

चतसृभ्यो हि श्रुतिभ्यो षड्जाख्यो ग्रेमा प्रदर्शितः॥

(Nāṭyaśāstra 28.22)

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Mataṅga assigns two reasons for this :

भरतस्तु पुनकृत्स्नभादिमण्डलं दर्शयति। किमत्र कारणम्? उच्यते। ग्रामद्र्येऽप्य- नतमूच्छ्नाप्रतिपादनार्थम्। यद्वा ग्रामद्र्येऽपि षड्जमध्यमस्वरौ ग्रामण्यौ भवतः। अन्यस्वरास्तदग्रेसराः इति।

(P.11)

The first reason is that the Mūrcchanā having 'Antara' Svaras can be formed by starting the enumeration from Ṛṣabha (in Ṣadjagrāma). If the enumeration is started from Ṣadja, the Mūrcchanā will end at Niṣāda and Kākalī Niṣāda will not be available, but if it is started from Ṛṣabha, the Mūrcchanā will end at Ṣadja and Kākalī Niṣāda will be available. (Similarly in Madhyamagrāma, if the enumeration is started from Madhyama, the Mūrcchanā will end at Gāndhāra and hence Antara Gāndhāra will not be available, but if Pañcama is the starting point, the Mūrcchanā will end at Madhyama and Antara Ga will be available). The second reason is that 'Ṣadja' and 'Madhyama' are the Grāmaṇī Svaras-s in Ṣadja and Madhyamagrāma respectively, i.e. they are the 'leaders' of the 'village' and the other Svaras come after them.

As regards Mūrcchanā, the notable points of Mataṅga's treatment are :

(i) Etymological definition of Mūrcchanā

(ii) Dvādaśa-Svara-Mūrcchanā-s in addition to Sapta-Svara Mūrcchanā and

(iii) Assigning Mūrcchanā-s to Jāti-s.

(i) The etymological definition of Mūrcchanā is given by Mataṅga in the following words :

मूर्छना-व्युत्पत्ति :-‘मूर्छा मोहसमुच्च्छ्रायो:’। मूर्छते येन रागो हि मूर्छनित्यभिसंज्ञिता॥

(P.22)

"The root 'Mūrcchanā' has two meanings viz. to swoon or to increase. The second meaning is relevant in the context of music. The 'Rāga' increases or is enhanced through Mūrcchanā

Brhaddeśī of Matanga

243

i.e. Mūrcchanā brings out the latent or potent element of variety of the Grāma.

(ii) Dvādaśa-Svara-Mūrcchanā is designed to fulfil the requirement of ‘Mandtra’ and ‘Tāra’. The authority of Nandikeśvara is cited in this respect, to the effect that twelve-Mūrcchanā is useful for the accomplishment of ‘Jāti-Svara-Bhāṣā’ and the like and Tāra-Mandra and the like. Thus Matanga would appear to have followed earlier authority in this context, although it seems to be an innovation as far as Bharata’s treatment of Mūrcchanā is concerned. The opinion followed by Matanga seems to be based on the observation that no Rāga can become manifest in one ‘Sthāna’ alone; hence to obtain three Sthāna-s in a given Mūrcchanā, some Svara-s were added in the beginning and end. Thus Mūrcchanā was accepted as being composed of seven Svaras so far as the exposition of three ‘Sthāna-s’, Krama, Kūṭatāna etc, was concerned and it was said to be composed of seven Svara-s in the context of Rāga, Jāti, etc. The following points are notable in this connection : —

(a) Among later authors, Śārṅgadeva does not even mention the Dvādaśa-Svara-Mūrcchanā although he literally follows Matanga in assigning Mūrcchanā-s to Jāti-s. His commentator, Simhabhūpāla, does take a due note of this concept (S.R.I., 4.15.16) but Kallinātha is silent about it. Mahārāṇā Kumbhā vehemently criticises this concept (Sangītarāja, Vol. I pp. 124, 125). Limitations of space and of the inclusion of technical details are deterrent in going into this point in detail.

(b) There is no other notable contribution on this point in later literature and that is but natural because the roots of the Grāma-Mūrcchanā-system were shaken around the 15th century A.D. when the Mela-system emerged.

(iii) Matanga’s innovation of assigning Mūrcchanā-s to Jāti-s is a corollary of his Dvādaśa-Svara-concept. It is notable that while assigning Mūrcchanā-s to Jāti-s. Matanga

never uses the names of Sapta-Svara Mūrcchanā such as Uttaramandrā and the like, but invariably names the respective Mūrcchanā in association with the initial Svarasuch as Dhaivatādi, Ṛṣabhādi and the like. Kallinātha is not justified in his commentary on S.R. in associating the names of Sapta-Svara Mūrcchanā-s with the names like Dhaivatādi. Mataṅga has clearly said that the Dvādaśa-Svara-Mūrcchanā is useful in the context of Jāti and Rāga and hence the logical conclusion regarding names like ‘Dhaivatādi’ in the context of Jāti-s would be that Mataṅga intends Dvādaśa-Svara-Mūrcchanā there. By assigning particular Mūrcchanā to a Jāti he wants to indicate a particular tuning of the Viṇā which would be suitable for playing the Jāti concerned, in association with its various Amśa Svara-s i.e. he wants to suggest a tuning which could serve the purpose when the Amśa Svara-s of the Jāti were changed. (There are more than one Amśa Svara-s in each Jāti). In this context, the names of the Sapta-Svara-Mūrcchanā could not serve his purpose and hence he has coined separate names.

4. Mārga-Deśī

In the extant literature on music, Mataṅga’s Brhaddeśī is the first text which introduces the concept of Mārga and Deśī classification. The relevant passage in its introductory portion is reproduced below :

अबलाबालगोपालैः क्षितिपालैनिजेच्छया ।

गोयते सानुरागेण स्वदेशी देशिरुच्यते (?) ॥

निबद्धशनिबद्धश्व मार्गोऽयं द्विविधो मतः ।

आलापादिनिबन्धो यः स च मार्गः प्रकीर्तितः ॥

(P.2,śloka 13,14)

"That which is sung with love by women, children, cowherds and kings according to their will in their respective regions, is called Deśī. Mārga is known to be twofold, Nibaddha and Anibaddha."

This passage indicates that art-music or stylised music was

Brhaddeśī of Matanga

245

called Mārga and unsophisticated or unstylised music was known as Deśī. In the treatment of the entire subject-matter in Brhaddeśī, Deśī finds a place in the context of Rāga-s, because they have been grouped as Grāmarāga-s (identified with Mārga and Deśī Rāga-s. Apart from this, the Prabandha chapter of the text could be said to be dealing with Deśī, as in later literature Prabandha was identified with Deśī. It is notable, however, that Matanga does not label Prabandha as Deśī.

In later literature, the concept of Mārga and Deśī held full sway till the Middle Ages when it lost its real significance. Two aspects of this concept developed in later times and are recorded in S.R. viz. (i) Mārga forms part of spiritual culture and is esoteric, whereas Deśī aims at enjoyment and entertainment.

(ii) Mārga is rooted in tradition and Deśī enfolds all deviations and modifications. Obviously the first aspect is deep and internal or subjective and the second is rather superficial and external or objective. In S.R. the bifurcation of Mārga and Deśī has crystallised in five topics viz (i) Rāga-Grāmarāga-s are identified with Mārga and Deśī. Rāgas form a part of Deśī as is the case in Matanga's text. (ii) Tāla-the number and nature of Mārga-Tāla-s is the same as given by Bharata viz. five. Deśī Tāla-s are described as 120 and their number is flexible. (iii) Compositional patterns-the text-oriented Gītaka-s spoken of by Bharata were classified under Mārga as they follow the Mārga-tāla pattern and Prabandha-s were identified with Deśī. (iv) Musical instruments in the description of Paṭaha (a variety of drum)-- a specific measurement is prescribed for Mārga Paṭaha and the measurement of Deśī Paṭaha is optional. This bifurcation is not spoken of with reference to any other instrument. (v) Dance--here too, like instruments, the bifurcation occupies a very insignificant part. Cārī-s (single-step movements of the feet, thighs and waist) are classified under Mārga and Deśī, presumably on the basis of including under Mārga those that

have been spoken of by Bharata and under Deśī those that comprise later developments.

Thus it will be seen that Mataṅga's concept of Mārga and Deśī which started with Rāga-classification was later extended to many other topics and there were also some basic additions.

5. Rāga

This may be said to be the most important topic in the text. The following points deserve mention in this respect.

(i) Two passages of Mataṅga in the introductory portion of the Rāga chapter pose an apparent contradiction. The first passage (p. 81, śloka 279) states that the author intends to speak about the Laksya-Lakṣaṇa of Rāga-mārga, which has not been spoken of by Bharata. The second passage (p. 87) cites the authority of Bharata in the context of Śuddha Rāga-s. This apparent contradiction could be resolved by taking a balanced view to the effect that though Bharata does not elaborate the topic of Rāga, he does mention six or seven names which were later identified with Śuddha Grāma-Rāga-s.

(ii) Citation of several earlier authorities other than Bharata, who is silent on this topic, regarding the number of Gīti-s in which Rāga-s have to be classified. Mataṅga himself accepts seven Gīti-s but later texts beginning with S.R. have accepted the more rational view of Rāga-classification under five Gīti-s and exposition of Bhāṣā-Vibhāṣā and Antara-bhāṣā as varieties and sub-varieties of Grāmarāga-s.

(iii) The section on Deśī Rāga-s is extremely mutilated and virtually lost, but the Maṅgalācaraṇa verse reading as follows suggests that Tāṇtric Dhyāna-s might have been given for Deśī Rāga-s by Mataṅga. This inference is supported by Mahārāṇa Kumbhā's repeated reference to Mataṅga's authority in the context of Tāṇtric Dhyāna-s for Deśī Rāga-s.

बन्धूकाभां त्रिनेत्रामृतकरकलाशेखरां रक्तवर्णा, पीनोत्तुङ्गप्रवृत्तस्तनभरनमितां यौवनारम्भरूढाम्। सवांलड्कारभूषां सरसिजनिलयां बीजसंक्रान्तमूर्ति, देवों पाशाढुशाभ्यामभयवरकरां विश्वयोनिं नमामि॥ (P.140,141)

(iv) Matanga's treatmant of Rāga-s is rich in detail and thus his text is a landmark in the history of Rāga.

6. Prabandha

Matanga's text is the first in extant literature to provide a treatment of Prabandha. Forty-eight varieties of Prabandha are given without any grouping. The three groups viz Sūda, Ālikrama and Viprakīrṇa given in S.R. would appear to be later developments.

Conclusion

Thus we have seen that Matanga's Brhaddeśī is an epoch-making text in the history of Indian Sangītaśāstra. It effectively fills up the long gap between Bharata and Śārṅgadeva and is of immense value to the student and researcher, in spite of being extremely corrupt and mutilated.

—Published in I.M.J. Vol. VI-VII 1–4, No. 11–14 (1970-71)

ŚRĪKANȚHA'S RASAKAUMUDĪ

a Review of Salient Points Taken from Passages

Culled from an unpublished text*

Prefatory Remarks

Śrīkanṭha's Rasakaumudī is a Sanskrit work of the 16th

century A.D. dealing with Saṅgīta (comprehending Gīta,

Vādya and Nrtya) in its first half and a miscellany of

heterogenous subjects like Rasa, Bhāva, Erotics (only

Ṣaḍrtuvarṇana and Ṣoḍaśaśṛṅgāra) and Rājanīti grouped under

the heading ‘Sāhitya’ in the latter half. It is one of the few

works on Saṅgīta having their origin in Western India. It is a

specially important work of its time because it comprehends all

the three aspects of Saṅgīta whereas practically all other works

of its period dealt merely with Gīta. One of the interesting

features of this work is the commingling of cognate subjects

which it presents in its second half. Thus the work is of

considerable importance in a study of the musical literature of

the medieval period of Indian history.

A Ms. copy of Rasakaumudī was presented to Pt.

Omkarnath Thakur, Ex-Principal of our College, by Prof. D. R.

Mankad of Gaṅgājala Vidyāpeetha, Aliabada, in December

1959. Panditji made this copy available to our Research

Section for which courtesy the College is grateful to him. The

Research Section took up the work of reconstructing the

available text. This Ms. Copy is said to have been prepared on

the basis of three Mss. one each deposited in the B.O.R.I.

Poona, the Oriental Institute, Baroda and the private collection

of Prof. Mankad. It was compared with the available portion of

• Reproduced from Nādarūpa, Vol. II, 1963.

Śrīkanṭha's Rasakaumudī

the text in the original Ms. deposited in the B.O.R.I. Poona, but the other two original Mss. could not be obtained for comparison.

Concurrently, the Oriental Institute had been preparing independently a critical version of the text on the basis of Mss. available to them. The fact that the work of reconstructing from an almost identical available Mss. of an authentic text of Rasakaumudī was in progress simultaneusly in the College of Music, B.H.U. and the O.I. Baroda, came to notice after both these institutions had proceeded far in the progress for their task. It became apparent then that although both the institutions could, without any objection in principle, publish separately and independently of each other their respective reconstructed texts, such publication would entail duplication of expense and effort which could be avoided in the larger social interest. Moreover, as the text prepared by the O.I Baroda was expected to be comparatively more complete in certain respects, our Research Section dropped the idea of publishing the text reconstructed by it.

However, at the suggestion of Dr. V. S. Agrawal, Head of the Deptt, of Art and Architecture and Dean, Faculty of Arts, B.H.U., the Director O.I. Baroda kindly agreed to incorporate in their publication an exhaustive introduction to the work written by me. The said introduction has already been supplied to the O.I. Baroda whose reconstructed text with this introduction is expected to be published soon.

That introduction, however, though exhaustive, is of a general nature and has taken the form appropriate to a work which provides the text separately from the introduction. It provides a general estimate of the work and its author. Procedurally, it is out of the scope of such an introduction to pick out for detailed treatment and appreciation, illustrative and representative passages from the text and salient features

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of the author's work. It is proposed to attempt this task in the

present article.

Comments on the Scope and General Scheme of

Rasakaumudī

In the eyes of a class of critics, treatment of Saṅgīta and

Sāhitya in one and the same work may not be appropriate.

Such treatment, however, is not open to objection in principle,

viewed from the standpoint of modern Aesthetics as well as the

traditional Indian Saṅgīta Śāstra as will be seen from the

discussion below which takes into account taste as an element

of aesthetic experience.

Lay opinion often asserts that preference among aesthetic

values is individual and that there can be no rational

justification of taste. Modern science of Aesthetics contradicts

this view and offers criteria for judging artistic activity on all

levels. These criteria comprise a frame of reference which

includes variable factors. One of these factors is artistic

sensitivity to the materials of art and their intrinsic orders and to

the structural units in musical design. This sensitivity is inborn

but may by long practice be cultivated. The second factor is a

certain level of training and experience in the technique of

music. Both these factors are musical in character and provide

the background for primary and direct values.But there is a third

and non-musical factor, which stands for a degree of orientation

in the essentially non-musical background which, it is claimed,

enriches the musical experience through the perception of

derived or indirect values. Thus, if the two other factors in two

individuals are equal, the variation in the third will determine

the quality and level of taste. The person who has a background

in musicology, history, languages, literature, philosophy,

politics etc. is likely much more to attain a full apprehension of

derived or indirect values. Apart from non-musical branches of

knowledge, factual details and circumstances of the author's

life, the conditions under which the work of music was

composed, the socio-cultural background and innumerable

Śrīkanṭha's Rasakaumudī

other related though non-musical details make possible the

development of more complex and significant standards of

taste.

Standard works on Indian Saṅgīta also subscribe to a

similar view. For instance, Bharata and subsequently

Ānandavardhanācārya have affirmed that Rasa, inspite of

being primarily a literary concept, is more significant in the

context of the art of tones (music) than in that of the art of

words (literature). The direct bearing of the concept of Rasa on

Saṅgīta has been recognised and supported by succeeding

tradition over the centuries. Śārṅgadeva, the outstanding

author of medieval times, goes even a step further and includes

the following non-musical elements in addition to Rasa in the

Lakṣaṇas of a Vāggeyakāra (composer of the poetry and music

of songs).

(१) शब्दानुशासनज्ञानम्—

Knowledge of grammar.

(२) अभिधानप्रवीणता—

Proficiency in diction.

(३) छन्दःप्रभेदवेदित्त्वम्—

Knowledge of prosody.

(४) अलङ्कारेषु कौशलम्—

Proficiency in figures of speech.

(५) रसभावपरिज्ञानम्—

Knowledge of Rasa and Bhāva.

(६) देशस्थितिषु चातुरी—

Knowledge of geography and sociocultural conditions of

different countries or regions.

(७) अशेषभाषाविज्ञानम्—

Knowledge of many languages.

(८) साद्रत्वम्—

Susceptibility or artstic sensitivity.

(९) उचितज्ञता—

Sense of proportion or propriety.

(१०) अनुच्छिष्टश्रोक्तिनिर्बन्धः—

Competence to compose poetry in original form or style.

(११) परचित्तपरिज्ञानम्—

Capacity to penetrate into other's hearts.

(१२) सभाजये वाक्पटुत्वम्—

Ready wit and capacity to win victory in public debates.

Thus, both from the points of view of modern Aesthetics and traditional Indian Saṅgīta Śāstra, there would seem to be a reasonable justification for Śrīkanṭha's treatment of poetics and politics in his treatise along with Saṅgīta.

However, a striking feature of Śrīkanṭha's treatment of poetics is that he has picked out for exhaustive, explicit and illustrative treatment one of the ingredients of Sṛṅgāra Rasa viz. Uddīpana Vibhāva in two of its varieties (Ṣaḍṛtu and Ṣoḍaśa Sṛṅgāra). The inordinate length at which he has dealt with these topics would appear to be without a precedent in the works of poetics. As the introductory portion of the second half of Rasakaumudī is not to be found in the available text, it is difficult to say whether he has himself given any reasons for this extraordinary procedure. The only reason apparent from the concluding portion of this work is that he had done this for the pleasure of his patron king. It is possible that the king was more specially interested in these specific topics than in others and that at his behest Śrīkanṭha had written his work.

In regard to Saṅgīta, the topic which deserves special notice in Rasakaumudī is the author's peculiar Rāga-classification. This topic is proposed to be discussed in full detail interalia on a basis of comparison with other contemporary works in this article. The discussion brings into prominence the influence of Nāyaka-Nāyikā-Bheda, primarily a literary concept, on Rāga-Raginī-Dhyāna. It also points to the confusion prevalent in mediaeval times regarding Śuddha

Śrīkanṭha's Rasakaumudī

253

and Vikṛta Svaras. Under ‘Sāhitya’ the following four topics

are dealt with in the available text : (1) Rasa (2) Ṣoḍaśa

Śṛṅgāra (3) Ṣaḍṛtuvārṇana and (4) Rājanīti. The portion

dealing with these topics deserves special study because (i) it

bears testimony to the author's poetic talent which is of a fairly

high order and (ii) it throws light on the purpose behind the

author's attempting a medley of various subjects. It will be

convenient to review the salient features of this work under the

following heads :-

(1) Rāga-classification

(2) Rasa

(3) Ṣoḍaśa-Śṛṅgāra

(4) Ṣaḍṛtu-varṇana

(5) Rājanīti

1. Rāga-Classification

Śrīkanṭha's treatment of division of Rāgas is peculiar as

it embodies a mixture of the contemporary Mela classification

which originated in the South and the Rāga-Rāginī

classification prevalent in his times in other parts of the

country. He classifies 23 masculine Rāgas and 15 feminine

Rāgas (Rāginīs) under eleven Melas and gives Dhyāna

(iconographic contemplation) of each Rāga, which is a

corollary of Rāga-Rāgini classification. In this respect the only

known parallel is available in the ‘Rāgavibodha’ of Somanātha

whose treatment of Rāgas is similar. Somanātha also gives

iconographic accounts of 51 out of the 67 Rāgas classified by

him under 23 Melas. Rasakaumudī was composed before 1596

A.D. as its Ms. copy deposited in the B.O.R.I., Poona bears

this date. Somanātha's Rāgavibodha is believed to have been

composed in 1609 A.D. Thus the latter work is definitely

posterior to the former. Śrīkanṭha's direct influence on

Somanātha cannot be established as there is a wide divergence

in details of Rāga-classification available in the two works, but

it is just possible that Somanātha might have drawn general

inspiration from Śrīkanṭha in regard to Rāga-Dhyānas without

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Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

borrowing details from him. In any case, Śrīkanṭha does enjoy

the privilege of being perhaps, the first author in medieval

times to have conceived a synthesis (albeit rough) of rival

systems of Mela and Rāga-Rāginī classification.

In addition to Rāga-Dhyāna, Śrīkanṭha also enumerates

the Svaras used in each Mela and Rāga and gives brief details

of Graha, Aṃśa, Nyāsa, Alpatva, Bahutva, ‘Varjya Svaras’

(notes to be omitted), ‘Samaya’ (time) and sometimes Rasa and

Mūrchanā of Rāgas. In connection with the Svaras of Melas

and Rāgas it is necessarry to note the names of Svaras given by

him. The following table gives a comparative statement of his

‘Svaras’ along with those of Rāmāmātya, his contemporary

whose influence on him is conspicuous in regard to Svarā and

Mela and also the corresponding names current in Hindustānī

(as distinct from Karnātaka) music to-day.

Śrīkanṭha Rāmāmātya Hindustānī names

1. Śuddha Ṣadja Śuddha Ṣadja Ṣadja

2. Śuddha Rṣabha Śuddha Rṣabha Komala Rṣabha

3. Śuddha Gāndhāra Śuddha Gāndhāra Śuddha Rṣabha

4. Sādhārana Gāndhāra Sādhārana Gāndhāra Komala Gāndhāra

5. Pata Madhyama or Antara Cyuta Madhyama Śuddha Gāndhāra

Gāndhāra Gandhara

6. Śuddha Madhyama Śuddha Madhyama Śuddha Madhyama

7. Pata Pañcama Cyuta Pañcama Tīvra Madhyama

Madhyama

8. Śuddha Pañcama Śuddha Pañcama Pañcama

9. Śuddha Dhaivata Śuddha Dhaivata Komala Dhaivata

10. Suddha Niṣāda Suddha Niṣāda Suddha Dhaivata

11. Kaiśika Niṣāda Kaiśika Niṣāda Komala Niṣāda

12. Pata Ṣadja or Kākalī Niṣāda Cyuta Ṣadja Niṣāda Śuddha Niṣāda

It is clear from the above table that Śrīkanṭha has

accepted only five Vikṛta Svaras for practical purposes.

Theoretically, he has accepted seven out of the twelve Vikṛta

Svaras mentioned by Śārṅgadeva. The same pattern has been

adopted by Rāmāmātya.

The following table will illustrate this point:-

Śrīkanṭha's Rasakaumudī

255

Śārṅgadeva

Rāmāmātya

Śrīkanṭha

Cyuta Ṣadja

Cyuta Ṣadja

Śrutipūrva Ṣadja

Acyuta Ṣadja

Cyuta Ṣadja

Śrutipūrva Ṣadja

Catuḥśruti Rṣabha

Cyuta Ṣadja

Śrutipūrva Ṣadja

Sādhāraṇa Gāndhāra

Sādhāraṇa Gāndhāra

Sādhāraṇa Gāndhāra

Antara Gāndhāra

Antara Gāndhāra

Antara Gāndhāra

Cyuta Madhyama

Cyuta Madhyama

Śrutipūrva Madhyama

Acyuta Madhyama

Cyuta Madhyama

Śrutipūrva Madhyama

Catuḥśruti Pañcama

Cyuta Madhyama

Śrutipūrva Madhyama

Cyuta Pañcama

Cyuta Pañcama

Śrutipūrva Pañcama

Catuḥśruti Dhaivata

Cyuta Pañcama

Śrutipūrva Pañcama

Kaiśika Niṣāda

Kaiśika Niṣāda

Kaiśika Niṣāda

Kākalī Niṣāda

Kākalī Niṣāda

Kākalī Niṣāda

In the context of Rāgas, however, Śrīkanṭha frequently uses the following grouped names also without referring to the constituents of these groups,-Satraya (3 Ṣadjas), Rittraya (3 Rṣabhas), Gatraya (3 Gāndhāras), Matraya (3 Madhyamas), Patraya (3 Pañcamas), Dhatraya (3 Dhaivatas) and Nitraya (3 Niṣādas).

In an attempt at analysing these grouped names, one is struck by the remote and immediate influence of Śārṅgadeva and Rāmāmātya respectively on Śrīkanṭha. The following table presents a twofold analysis of these names, bringing out this double influence seriatim.

Grouped names

Analysis according to

Analysis according to

given by

Rāmāmātya's to alternative

Śārṅgadeva's Vikrta Svaras

Śrīkanṭha

names

Satraya

Śuddha Ṣadja Cyuta Ṣadja and Acyuta Ṣadja

Ṣadja, Pataṣadja (which has been accepted as identical with Kākalī Niṣāda) and Acyuta Ṣadja (? which is not accepted by both Śrīkanṭha and Rāmāmātya).

Rittraya

Śuddha Rṣabha, Catuḥśruti Rṣabha and (?)

Śuddha Rṣabha, Pañcaśruti Rṣabha and Ṣatśruti Rṣabha (the latter two being alternative names of Śuddha Gāndhāra and Sādhāraṇa Gāndhāra respectively).

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Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

Gatraya

Śuddha Gāndhāra,

Sādhāraṇa Gāndhāra and

Antara Gāndhāra

Śuddha Gāndhāra, Sādhāraṇa

Gāndhāra and Pata Madhyama

(identical with Antara Gāndhāra).

Matraya

Śuddha Madhyama,

Cyuta Madhyama,

Acyuta Madhyama

Śuddha Madhyama, Pata

Madhyama (identical with Antara

Gāndhāra) and Acyuta Ṣadja

(? which is not accepted by both

Śrikanṭha and Rāmāmātya).

Patraya

Śuddha Pañcama

Cyuta Pañcama and Acyuta

Pañcama

Śuddha Pañcama, Pata Pañcama

and Catuḥśruti Pañcama (? which

is not accepted by both Śrikanṭha

and Rāmāmātya).

Dhatraya

Śuddha Dhaivata

Catuḥśruti Dhaivata and (?)

Śuddha Dhaivata, Pañcaśruti

Dhaivata, and Ṣaṭśruti Dhaivata.

(the latter two being alternative

names of Śuddha Niṣāda and

Kaiśika Niṣāda respectively).

Nitraya

Śuddha Niṣāda

Kaiśika Niṣāda and

Kākalī Niṣāda

Śuddha Niṣāda, Kaiśika Niṣāda

and Pata Ṣadja (identical with

Kākalī Niṣāda).

The above analysis leads to the following observations regarding these grouped names :-

(i) ‘Ritraya’ and ‘Dhatraya’ can be explained only in terms of alternative names given by Rāmāmātya because Śārṅgadeva does not speak of three Ṛṣabhas or three Dhaivatas. But the very purpose of Rāmāmātya’s innovation of alternative names of Ṛṣabha-Dhaivata is forfeited when three or even two Ṛṣabhas or Dhaivatas are spoken of. His purpose is to avoid the rejoinder of Śuddha Gāndhāra-Sādhāraṇa Gāndhāra, Sādhāraṇa Gāndhāra-Antara Gāndhāra, Śuddha Niṣāda-Kaiśika Niṣāda and Kaiśika Niṣāda-Kākalī Niṣāda by using the alternative names Pañcaśruti Ṛṣabha and Ṣaṭśruti Ṛṣabha for Śuddha Gāndhāra and Sādhāraṇa Gāndhāra respectively and Pañcaśruti Dhaivata and Ṣaṭśruti Dhaivata for Śuddha Niṣāda and Kaiśika Niṣāda respectively in the case of the respective rejoinders. This purpose is totally defeated by speaking of three Ṛṣabhas and three Dhaivatas together.

Śrīkanṭha's Rasakaumudī

(ii) In Gatraya and Nitraya, Śrīkanṭha seems to follow Śārṅgadeva rather than Rāmāmātya because the latter is very particular about avoiding rejoinders of Śuddha and Vikṛta varieties of one and the same ‘Svaras’ through the use of alternative names.

(iii) In regard to the significance of the terms ‘Satraya’, ‘Matraya’ and ‘Patraya’, Śrīkanṭha seems to be under the influence of Śārṅgadeva. But it is very curious indeed that in the context of enumeration of Vikṛta Svaras, he should indirectly reject the Acyuta Ṣadja, Acyuta Madhyama and Kaiśika (Catuḥśruti) Pañcama of Śārṅgadeva by accepting only seven out of the twelve Vikṛta Svaras spoken of by the latter, but when he comes to Rāga Lakṣaṇas he should speak of three varieties each of Ṣadja, Madhyama and Pañcama which are inconceivable without the aforesaid ‘Svaras’ rejected by him.

(iv) These grouped names contain a great deal of illogical overlapping. For example, Pata Ṣadja is included in both ‘Satraya’ and ‘Nitraya’.

After this introductory reference to Śrīkanṭha's Śuddha-Vikṛta Svaras in the context of Svaras, Melas and Rāgas, it will be interesting to tabulate now his Rāga-classification giving a comparative view in relation to Sudhākalaśā's ‘Saṅgīta-Upanisat-Sāroddhāra’ (S.U.S.), Śubhaṅkara's ‘Saṅgīta Dāmodara’ (S. Dam), two earlier contemporaries of his work; Rāmāmātya's ‘Svara-Mela-Kalā-Nidhi’ (S.M.K.N.) a contemporary work; Somanātha's ‘Rāgavibodha’ (R.V.) and Dāmodara Paṇḍita's ‘Saṅgīta Darpana’ (S. Darp.), two later contemporary works.

The following general deductions can be arrived at from the above comparative table :--

(1) Although Śrīkanṭha appears to have drawn inspiration from Rāmāmātya or some other source of southern tradition in the original conception of his plan of Rāga classification under Melas, his

execution is marked by many important deviations and innovations.

(2) Śrīkanṭha’s system of classification of masculine and feminine Rāgas in one and the same ‘Mela’, independently of each other, is not in conformity with the Rāga-Rāginī classification of contemporary, earlier or later authors who have invariably classified feminine Rāgas as wives of masculine Rāgas. His pattern is to be found only in Somanātha’s Rāgavibodha, a later work which but for this feature follows the Mela classification.

(3) The number of masculine Rāgas in Rasakaumudī exceeds that of feminine Rāgas, whereas in all other works giving Rāga-Rāginī classification the number of feminine Rāgas far exceeds that of masculine Rāgas as five or six Rāginīs are ascribed to each Rāga.

(4) Certain names like Gauḍamalhāra, Kāmoda etc. are not found in the five works taken above for comparison. Gauḍamalhāra is a Rāga widely known in present day Hindustānī music. This name leads one to think that Śrīkanṭha had perhaps paid some attention to stray Rāgas unnoticed in other contemporary works.

(5) Śrīkanṭha’s Rāgas (masculine and feminine) bear the influence of both the southern tradition on the one hand and the northern, eastern and western traditions on the other. For example, there are some Rāgas like Mukhārī, Mālavagauḍa etc. which belong to the southern tradition and others like Gauḍamalhāra and Kāmoda which owe their origin to other parts of the country.

(6) The wide range of divergence in regard to Rāgas apparent in all the works of medieval times is striking. No rational ground of this divergence is available because none of the authors has cared to cite any authority or to establish his own standpoint.

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259

All of them seem to have been satisfied with simple enumerations according to their own viewpoint, the basis whereof is not stated anywhere. Our author is no exception to this general trend of the period.

(7) Both masculine and feminine names of Rāgas are found in all works giving Mela-Rāga classification. Śrikanṭha's novelty lies in presenting the Rāgas bearing these names as Puruṣa and Strī Rāgas through the Dhyānas given by him.

The details of Rāga-Lakṣaṇas as given by our author are compressed in the following table.

The following observations arising from Śrikanṭha's Rāga-Lakṣaṇas shown in the above are relevant here :-

(1) The Lakṣaṇas are generally very brief and scanty.

(2) Utter confusion prevails in regard to names of Svaras. The six-Śruti varieties of Gāndhāra and Niṣāda are sometimes mentioned as Sādhāraṇa and Kaiśika and at other times as 'Triśruti' (representing their three-Śruti intervals from Ṛṣabha and Dhaivata respectively). Similarly Kākalī Niṣāda and Antara Gāndhāra are sometimes referred to separately even in cases where 'Sātraya' or 'Matraya' are mentioned. Really speaking, Kākalī (identical with Pata Ṣadja) and Antara Gāndhāra (identical with Pata Madhyama) are included in 'Sātraya' and 'Matraya' respectively.

The full text of Śrikanṭha's Mela-Rāga (Rāginī) classification is reproduced below in order to enable readers to form a first hand idea of his novel treatment of the subject. In connection with Rāgadhyāna one introductory remark is pertinent here. Masculine Rāgas and feminine Rāginīs have been generally presented in the medieval literature on Saṅgīta in different emotional states of Śṛṅgāra Rasa. The system of Rāgadhyāna, since its very inception, bears the marked influence of Nāyaka-Nāyikā-Bheda, a literary concept which developed unprecedented richness of variety and meticulous classification in the medieval times.

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Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

Extracts from Rāgavivekādhyāya (II Chapter) of

Rasakaumudī

Śrikanṭha speaks of the importance of Rāga-Dhyāna in

the following verses :-

ध्यानं विना रागसमूहमेतं गायन्ति रागे( ऽ )निपुणा जना ये।

संगीतशास्त्रोक्तफलानि रागास्तेभ्यः प्रयच्छन्ति कदापि नैव॥

अतो मया रागकदम्बकस्य निगद्यते ध्यानमिदं यथोक्तम्।

दृष्ट्वा मुनीनां मतमेव सर्वं संगीतशास्त्रोक्तफलस्य सिद्ध्यै॥

९. अथ मुखarikāmel:

यत्र शुद्धाः स्वराः सत्त भवेयुरविश्रृङ्काः ।

स स्थानमुखarikāmel: सजातीयाः भवन्त्यतः॥

मुखारीलक्षणम्—

सन्यासांशग्रहा पूर्णा मुखारी गीयते सदा।

क्तिचिद्रमकरैःक्ता कष्टसाध्या सुभृद्धिभिः॥

मुखारीध्यानम्—

शिखण्डधम्मिल्लमिलितहपिङ्गीं प्रपञ्चयन्ती चलदद्कुलीभिः ।

चतुर्भुजा चारुचकोरनेत्रा मुखारिका चन्द्रमुखी विभाति ॥

इति मुखारीविवेकः ।

२. अथ मालवगौडमेल:

शुद्धाः सरिमपाः शुद्धो धः पतादिसमध्यमौ।

मेले मालवगौडस्य रागस्यापि तदा भवेत्॥

मालवगौडमेलान्तर्गतरा‌गः—

पतन्समासालवो गौडः सौराष्ट्री गुर्जरी पुनः।

महारारी बहुली पाली गौडी पञ्चमभैरवी ॥

भवन्त्यनेनैपि कर्णाटकझालालालितादयः ॥

मालवगौडलक्षणम्—

रागः स्थामालवो गौडो निषादत्रयमण्डितः ।

रिपहीनः कृचित्सार्यं रजनी तस्य मूर्छना॥

मालवगौडलक्षणम्—

उत्कुष्टवक्षोरुहनम्रकान्तकान्तासमालिङ्गिततगौरगात्रः ।

हेमस्फुरत्कुङ्डलमण्डिततास्यो विराजते मालवगौडरागः ॥

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261

सौराष्टिकलक्षणम्—

पूर्णा सौराष्ट्रीका षड्जत्रयेण समुपाश्रिता।

गायकैर्गीयते सायं ऋचित्पत्रयभूषिता ॥

सौराष्ट्रीध्यानम्—

उज्ज्वलपीतस्तनलोलहारा कर्णोत्पलालिध्वनिदत्तचित्ता ।

प्रियान्तिकं याति विलोलबाहुः सौराष्ट्रीका कुडुमलिसगह्रा ॥

This Dhyāna seems to point to 'Abhisārikā Nāyikā'.

गुर्जरीलक्षणम्—

ग्रहांशन्यासरि: पूर्णा प्रातर्गेया तु गुर्जरी।

बहुलीमिश्रता नित्यं षड्जहीना ऋचिद् भवेत्॥

गुर्जरीध्यानम्—

इन्दीवरश्यामतनुः सुकेशी पाटीरपत्रावलिचारुतल्पा ।

श्रुतिस्वरव्यूहविभागरम्या तन्त्रीमुखान्मञ्जुलगुर्जरीयम्॥

This 'Dhyāna' bears the indistinct mark of affinity with 'Vāsakasajjā Nāyikā'.

महारीलक्षणम्—

पत्रयेण युता प्रातर्महारी रिविवर्जिता।

वर्षास्वपि विशेषेण प्रगेया सुखदायिनी ॥

महारीध्यानम्—

मृणालतन्वी पिककण्ठनादिनी गानच्छलेन स्मरति प्रियं स्वकम्।

विपक्चिकामञ्जुलपाणिरुत्तमा महारिका यौवनभारसत्रता ॥

बहुलीलक्षणम्—

मध्यमांशग्रहण्यासा रिध्वहीनाथवाड्नया ( २ ) (निपा) ।

प्रगेya बहुली प्राज्ञै: सन्ध्यायामिति निर्णय: ॥

बहुलीध्यानम्—

दूर्वादलश्यामलभव्यगात्रा शश्यातलस्थापितनव्यपत्रा ।

प्रसूनमालापरिबद्धकेशा विलासिनीं बहुली विभाति ॥

पालीलक्षणम्—

षड्जग्रहांशा सन्यासा गरिका पालिका मता।

गानजैर्गीयते सायं कतिभिर्गमकैर्युता ॥

पालीध्यानम्—

पाली ललाटोदितचन्दलेखा प्रफुल्लराजीवसमक्तनेत्रा ।

भागीरथीपोतजटाकलापा चकास्ति मुक्ताफलचारुहारा ॥

गौडीलक्षणम्—

सत्रया धगरिक्का स्याद् गौडी सर्वाङ्मनोहरा।

गायकैर्गीयते सायं गौडी गभीरा गुम्फिता ॥

गौडीध्यानम्—

रसालनव्याडुरकरन्पूरा कादम्बिनी श्यामलमञ्जुदेहा।

पीयूषनि:स्पन्दमृदुस्ननाद्या गौडीति युक्ताधिककौतुकेन ॥

पञ्चमलक्षणम्—

पञ्चमांशग्रहण्यासो राजते रागपञ्चमः ।

रिरिक्को गीयते प्रातः सत्रयेणाथवा युतः।

उच्यते केनचित्पूर्णः श्रृङ्गारसदीपकः ॥

पञ्चमध्यानम्—

रक्ताम्बुजाक्षीओडुरणचारुचोरो युवा सुवेषो रतिरङ्गयुक्तः ।

प्रत्युषकाले विजयी नितातं स पञ्चमाख्यः कलकण्ठभाषी ॥

भैरवलक्षणम्—

यदोऽंशग्रहण्यासः षड्ज एव निगद्यते ।

रिपास्तो भैरवो रागः प्रभाते स प्रगीयते ॥

भैरवध्यानम्—

गङ्गाधरशेखरकलोत्तमाङ्को भुजङ्गमव्यूहविराजिताङ्घः ।

शुभ्राम्बरः शूलविभूतिधारी स भैरवाख्यो जयति प्रकामम्॥

Almost all other authors give the Dhyāna of Bhairava in similar terms.

बड्ढाललक्षणम्—

गत्रयेण मनोज्ञोडसौ बड्ढालो रिरिवर्जितः ।

पूर्णों मत्रयुक्को वा कल्लिनाथमतं त्विदम्॥

Baṅgāla Rāga has been described in Saṅgīta Ratnākara 2.2. 160-61, but Kallinātha's commentary on this portion is not available. It is not known how the author refers to Kallinātha in this context.

बड्ढालध्यानम्—

भस्मोज्ज्वलाड्कसुरतनुरनारिकवर्णो जटाकलापं शिरसा दधानः ।

कक्षास्थलस्थूलवलत्करण्डो बड्ढालरागः कथितस्तपस्वी ॥

ललितलक्षणम्—

सग्रहण्याससंयुक्तः सांशः पञ्चमवर्जितः ।

प्रातः प्रयुज्यते नित्यं पूर्णः कैरपि सम्मतः ॥

धत्रयेण समायुक्तो मतोऽन्यो ललितो बुधैः ॥

Śrīkanṭha's Rasakaumudī

263

ललितध्यानम्—

ससच्चदानां कुसुमैरविचित्रो गौरो युवा पड्विजपत्नेत्रः ।

विभाति नित्यं ललिताभिधानः प्रसन्नवक्त्रः सविलासवेषः ॥

॥ इति मालवगौडमेलसम्भवा रागः ॥

3. अथ श्रीरागमेलः

चतुःश्रुति रिधौ यत्र भवेतां नियतं स्वरौ।

साधारणोऽपि गान्थारो निषादः कैशिकी पुनः ॥

वीणिकविषये शुद्धाः षड्जमध्यमपञ्चमाः।

श्रीरागस्यापि मेलोऽयं गदितो गायकोत्तमैः ॥

Here the reference to Catuhśruti Ṛṣabha Dhaivata is worthy of note. These names convey the real interval of these notes, but they are not found anywhere else in the whole of the text. As our author is influenced by Rāmāmātya who does not speak of these intervals, this stray reference is curious. Śārṅgadeva's 'Catuhśruti Ṛṣabha-Dhaivata' are not accepted by Śrīkanṭha and here he seems to refer to the actual four-Śruti interval of Ṛṣabha-Dhaivata, independent of Cyuta Sa-Pa respectively.

श्रीरागमेलान्तर्गतराागः —

श्रीरागो मालवश्री च धन्यासी भैरवी ततः।

देवगान्धाररागाद्याः प्रभावत्यपरे ततः ॥

श्रीरागलक्षणम्—

दिनान्ते गीयते षड्जग्रहांशन्यासशोभितः ।

आदामूर्छनया पूर्णः श्रीरागो वा ध्वनोगृज्झितः॥

श्रीरागध्यानम्—

कनकपर्मतिस्तरुणोदरुणाम्बरः कर्णावर्तसीकृतनवयपल्लवः ।

षड्जादिसेव्यः क्षितिपालसुन्दरः श्रीरागनामा नितरां विभासते ॥

मालवश्रीलक्षणम्—

पूर्णा चरित्रयोपेता मालवश्री: सदा भवेत् ।

रिधाल्पा रसशृङ्गारवर्द्धनी चित्ररञ्जनी ॥

मालवश्रीध्यानम्—

प्रफुल्लरकोत्पलपाणिरेशा मन्दस्मितोदारसितगल्लयुग्मा ।

स्वर निषण्णा सहकारमूले विभाति नित्यं किल मालवश्रीः ॥

भैरवीलक्षणम्-

षड्जत्रयेण संयुक्ता सदा पूर्णा प्रगीयते ।

भैरवस्वरसंमिश्रा भैरवी रिपुमुद्रिता ॥

भैरवीध्यानम्-

सुवर्णवर्णा घनवाद्यहस्ता विशालनेत्रा द्विराजवक्त्रा ।

नित्यं स्थिता स्फाटिकचारुपीठे कैलासशृङ्गे किल भैरवीयम्॥

धन्यासिकलक्षणम्-

धन्यासिका प्रभाते डसौ षड्जत्रितयमण्डिता ।

रिधहीना रसे वीरे गीयते गायकोत्तमैः ॥

धन्यासीध्यानम्-

नीलोत्पलश्यामलमूर्तिरेषा प्रियं लिखन्ती विरहेण युक्ता ।

श्रीखण्डचर्चाविलसत्कुचास्या धन्यासिका भाति मनोज्ञवेशा ॥

Dhan yāśi is presented here as a Nāyikā in separation (Virahotkanṭhitā).

देवगान्धारलक्षणम्-

सप्तमी देवगान्धारः षड्जत्रयविभूषितः ।

गायकैर्गीयते नित्यं शोभां धत्ते निरन्तरम्॥

देवगान्थारध्यानम्-

गन्धर्वविद्याधरकर्तृकत्राणां नितम्बिनीभिः परिवेष्टितोऽसौ ।

नृत्योत्सवे प्रीतिमुपैति देव-गान्थाररागो नितरां प्रसिद्धः ॥

४. अथ विशुद्धनटमेलः

निगौ त्रिश्रुतिको यत्र पताकौ षड्जमध्यमौ ।

विशुद्धनटमेलोऽसौ शुद्धाः षड्जमपञ्चमाः ॥

विशुद्धनटमेलजन्यरागः:-

शुद्धनटाद्यस्तस्माज्जायन्तेऽन्ये मनोहराः ।

शुद्धनट्लक्षणम्-

शुद्धनटः स विज्ञेयो ग्रहांशन्यासषड्जकः ।

गमकैर्गीयते सार्यं यस्याद्या मूर्छना मता ॥

शुद्धनटध्यानम्-

तुरङ्गमारुतविशालबाहुर्विशुद्धचामीकरचारु वर्णः ।

रणे प्रतापी रधिरार्द्रदेही विराजते शुद्धनटाख्यरागः ॥

इतिशुद्धनटमेलविवेकः ।

Śrīkanṭha's Rasakaumudī

265

This is an exception to the general trend of 'Dhyāna' as it

is marked by the absence of direct or indirect reference to

Śṛṅgāra Rasa.

५. अथ कर्णाटगौडमेलः

शुद्धा: समगपा यत्र शुद्धो निः पतमध्यमः ।

निः कैशिकी च कर्णाटगौडमेलोड्यमुख्यते ॥

कर्णाटगौडमेलजन्यरागः—

शुद्धबज्जालसामन्ततोडीघण्टारवादयः ।

अन्ये भवेयुरेतस्माद्रागा रसिकरञ्जकाः ॥

कर्णाटगौडलक्षणम्—

निषादत्रितयं यत्र संपूर्णो वा रिधोज्झितः ।

दिनान्ते गीयते नित्यं कर्णाटोडीयं सुखावहः ॥

कर्णाटगौडध्यानम्—

राजिवनेत्रः पृथुलातपत्रः पद्मं वहन् दक्षिणहस्तकेन ।

स्तुत्यो नृपः कित्तिचारणैः कर्णाटरागः करवालपाणिः ॥

Here also the absence of any reference to Śṛṅgāra-Rasa is

noteworthy.

(शुद्ध) बज्जाललक्षणम्—

मध्यमांशग्रहण्यासो बज्जालः शुद्ध ईरितः ।

संपूर्णो गीयते प्रातः सर्वरागविचक्षणैः ॥

बज्जालध्यानम्—

मनोज्ञवेशः कमनीयकेशः प्रफुल्लनेत्रः शरदिन्दुवक्त्रः ।

सदा विलासी नवगेहवासी बज्जालनामा रविकल्पधामा ॥

सामन्तलक्षणम्—

सामन्तः सत्त्रयेणासः सप्तस्वरविभूषितः ।

गेयः प्रभातकालेऽसौ काकलयन्तररञ्जितः ॥

सामन्तध्यानम्—

करधृतकरवालः शत्रुसंनदोहकलः प्रधानविधिकरलः प्रौढकीर्त्या विशालः ।

हृदय निहितमालः कुडुमव्यासभालः स्फुरति धरणिपालः ख्यातसामन्तरागः ॥

This is another instance of Dhyāna devoid of 'Śṛṅgāra.'

तोडी लक्षणम्—

तोडी मत्रयसंयुक्ता गातव्या दिवसोदये ।

मन्याहता पककम्पा च गायकस्वान्तरज्ञनी ॥

तोडीध्यानम्

मृणालकुन्देन्दुसमानगात्री विलसदेहा हरिचन्दनेन।

विनोदयन्ती विपिने कुरङ्गं तोडी विप्रेन्द्रैर्धती कराभ्याम्॥

The association of Todi with deer is almost universal with all authors and is pictorially represented in many paintings.

घण्टारलक्षणम्

धैवतांशग्रहण्यासो भवेद् गाम्भारवर्जितः ।

घण्टारवोडयं विख्यातः सर्वदा गीयते बुधैः ॥

घण्टारवध्यानम्

करे दधानः किल शङ्खमेकं वामे च घण्टां कलनादरम्याम्।

धौतान्तरं (म्रृरं) चारुकटीप्रदेशे घण्टारवोडयं हरिभक्तमुख्यः ॥

इति कर्णाटमेलोदद्वा रागः ॥

This is a novel instance of ‘Bhakti-Rasa’ in Rāga-Dhyāna.

2. अथ मल्हारमेलः

शुद्धौ सगौ मपौ शुद्धौ पतादिकौ मसौ पुनः ।

त्रिश्रुति: स्यात्निषादौपि मल्हारस्यापि मेलनम्॥

मल्हारमेलजन्यरागा:-

अत्रैव गौडमल्हारकामोदीप्रमुखा मताः ।

मल्हारलक्षणम्

धैवतांशग्रहण्यास: षड्जपञ्चमवर्जितः ।

मल्हारो गीयते प्रातर्गानविद्याविशारदैः ॥

मल्हारध्यानम्

वीणातिवाद: कलकण्ठनाद: सुवर्णवर्णः सुरदार्ज्जकर्णः ।

काश्मीरचित्र: शरदिन्दुवक्त्रो मल्हारनाम नितरां विभाति ॥

No reference to the rainy season is made in the ‘Dhyāna’ of this seasonal Rāga.

गौडमल्हारलक्षणम्

उभयोगौडमल्हारमल्हाराभिधयोर्मितः ।

किंचिद्धिभेदो भेदझर्रन्योन्यं रसपुञ्जयोः ॥

गौडमल्हारध्यानम्— ( ? ) missing.

कामोदीलक्षणम्— ( ? ) missing.

Śrikanṭha's Rasakaumudī

कामोदीध्यानम्—

पीताम्बरा काकलिनादीन्यं सुकेशपाशा विपिने रुदन्ती।

विलोकयन्ती भयमुद्रहन्ती कामोदिका नाथमनुस्मरन्ती॥

This is a pathetic desctiption of a Nāyikā in separation.

॥इति मल्हारोद्धवा राग:॥

९. अथ देशाक्षिकामेल:

पतादिकौ समौ यत्र गान्धारावलिर्वतिभवेत्।

विशुद्धा: सम्पन्यु: स्युमेलेऽपि देशाक्षिकोद्रवे॥

देशाक्षिकालक्षणम्—

पूर्णा देशाक्षिका जेया भूषिता गत्रयेण च।

वीरे रसे प्रयोज्या सा प्रात:काले प्रगीयते॥

देशाक्षीध्यानम्—

सम्पूर्णशीतांशुमनोजवक्त्रा प्रफुल्लरजीवविलोलनेत्रा।

प्रांशु: प्रसत्रा सविलासबहुदर्शशिक्षिकेयं गदिता मुनीन्द्रै:॥

॥इति देशाक्षिकामेल:॥

१०. अथ कल्याणमेल:

यत्र शुद्धौ सपौ स्यातां गनी च सप्तौ सपौ।

साधारणोऽपि गान्धारो मेल: कल्याणसम्भव:॥

कल्याणमेलजन्यरागा:—

एतस्मादपि कामोदहमीराद्या भवन्ति हि।

कल्याणलक्षणम्—

त्रिषड्जो गीयते सायं पूर्ण: कल्याणसम्भव:।

रित्रयेणाथवान् युक्त: प्रोक्त: सङ्गीतवेदिभि:॥

कल्याणध्यानम्—

करे कृपाणं तिलकं ललाटे धत्ते प्रविश्ट: समरे प्रचण्ड:।

आरक्तवर्णस्तपनীয়भूष: कल्याणरागो मुनिना प्रतिष्ट:॥

Vīra Rasa is conspicuous here.

कामोदलक्षणम्—

कामोदो गीयते पूर्णो निषादौ शत्रयान्वित:।

ईषद्भेदो बुधै: प्रोक्त: कल्याणाख्यहमीरयो:॥

कामोदध्यानम्—

पीताम्बर: फुल्लसरोजनेत्रो नितिम्बनीमण्डलमध्यवर्ती।

युवा मनोज्ञ: स्मितभासुरास्य: कामोदरागो नितरां विभाति॥

268

हमीर—missing.

११. अथ सारङ्गमेलः

विशुद्धौ षड्जगान्धारौ तथा मध्यमपञ्चमौ ।

पताद्यौ च समौ यत्र निषादः कैशिकी पुनः ॥

सारङ्गलक्षणम्—

सारङ्गरागमेलेऽस्मिन्न्सारङ्कप्रमुखो भवेत्।

सारङ्गो गीयते पूर्णः षड्जत्रयविराजितः ॥

मध्याह्हकालतः पश्चाद् गीतद्विश्वरञ्जकः ॥

सारङ्गध्यानम्—

प्रसूनमालापरिबद्धके शो वीनां दधानो लसदंसदेशे ।

समं प्रियाभिः सहकारमूले सारङ्गरागे रसिको विभाति ॥

॥इति सारङ्गमेलः ॥

S.No.

Name of the Mela

Total No. of Rāgas

No. of masculine Rāgas

Name of masculine Rāga

Name of the feminine Rāgas

No. of the feminine Rāgas

Comparative view Remarks

Name of the work compared

1

Mukhārikāṇa

1

....

Mukhāri

9

S.Dam. S.Darp. S.Up.S. S.M.K.N. R.V.

Not found Not found Not found Identical Identical

2

Mālavagauda Mela

12

6

Mālavagauda

Saurāṣṭrī Gurjari

6 7

S.Dam. S.Darp/ S.Up.S. S.M.K.N. R.V. S.Dam. S.Darp. S.Up.S. S.M.K.N. R.V.

Not found Not found Not found Not found Not found Not found Not found Under Mallārimela Not found

3

Pañcama

One of the wives of Megha Rāga One of the Bhāsās of Bhairava Rāga

10 11

S.Dam. S.Darp. S.Up.S. S.M.K.N. R.V. S.Dam. S.Darp.

Not found Not found Not found One of the wives of Megha Rāga Bhairava Rāga Identical

4

Bhairava

Malhāri

9

S.Dam. S.Darp. S.Up.S. S.M.K.N. R.V.

Not found Not found Not found One of the six main Rāgas Not found Identical As one of the wives of Megha Rāga

270

Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

S. No.

Name of the Mela

Total No. of Rāgas

No. of masculine Rāgas

Name of masculine Rāga

Name of the work compared

Remarks

Comparative view

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Bangāla

Talita

S.Darp.

S.Up.S.

S.M.K.N.

R.V.

Not found

Not found

Not found

Not found

do

Bahuli

Pāḷi

S.Dam.

S.Darp.

S.Up.S.

S.M.K.N.

R.V.

Not found

Not found

Not found Bauli in the

Named Bauli

same Mela

Identical

Not found

Not found

Not found

Not found

Under the name Pāḍi

Rāga

A one of the Bhāṣās of Natta-Nārāyaṇa

Rāga Malahāri in S.M.K.N.

Named Mela Mallari

Named Mela Mallari under name

No. of the feminine Rāgas

Name of the feminine Rāga

Under Bhairava Mela

Not found

Not found

Not found

Not found

Not found

In the name of Lalitā (fem.)

Under Suddha Rāmakri

Melahudha Rāmakri

S. No.

Name of the Mela

Total No. of Rāgas

No. of masculine Rāgas

Name of masculine Rāga

Name of the work compared

Remarks

No. of the feminine nine Rāgas

Name of the feminine nine Rāga

Name of the work compared

Remarks

1

Śrīrāga Mela

5

2

Karnāṭa

S.Dam. S.Darp. S.Up.S. S.M.K.N. R.V.

Not found Not found Not found

9

Gauḍi

S.Dam. S.Darp. S.Up.S. S.M.K.N. R.V.

One of the wives of Mālavaśrīka Rāga By the name of Gaurī as a wife of Mālavaśrīka Rāga One of the Bhāṣās of Śrīrāga In Śrīrāga Mela Gauda under Mallārī Mela

2

Devagāndhāra

3

2

Karnāṭa

S.Dam. S.Darp. S.Up.S. S.M.K.N. R.V.

One of the six main Rāgas do Identical Identical

8

Mālavakaisika Rāga

S.Dam. S.Darp. S.Up.S. S.M.K.N. R.V.

One of the wives of Śrī Rāga Not found Ideantical Ideantical

3

Śrīrāga Mela

5

2

Dhanyāśī

S.Dam. S.Darp. S.Up.S. S.M.K.N. R.V.

In the name of Devagāndhārī (Fem.)

11

Dhanāśri

S.Dam. S.Darp. S.Up.S. S.M.K.N. R.V.

One of the wives of Śrī Rāga by the name Dhanāśri

S. No. 1 Name of the Mela 2 Total No. of masculine Rāgas 3 Name of masculine Raga 5 Comparative view Name of the work compared 6 Remarks 7 No. of the feminine Rāgas 8 Name of the feminine Rāga 9 Comparative view Name of the work compared 10 Remarks 11

4 Viśuddha-nāṭamela 1 Śuddhanāṭṭa Not found S.Dam. S.Darp. S.Up.S. One of the main Rāgas 1 Todi Not found S.Dam. S.Darp. S.Up.S. Rāga by the name Todīka

5 Karnāṭagauda Mela 5 Karnāṭagauda Not found S.Up.S. Identical S.M.K.N. R.V. Not found

Not found S.Darp. One of the wives of Mālavakaśika of Nāṭa-Nārāyaṇa

One of the wives of Bhairava Rāga Dhanāśikā Identical do Identical

Bhairavi Identical do

S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Name of the Mela

Total No. of masculine Rāgas Name of masculine Rāga Name of the work compared Remarks

No. of the feminine Rāgas Name of the feminine Rāga Remarks Comparative view

1 Sāmanta 3 Sāmanta S.Dam. S.Darp. S.Up.S. S.M.K.N. R.V. Not found Not found In Sāmanta Mela In Sāmanta Mela Not found Not found 9 In Kannada Gauda Mela by the name Turuska Todi Turuskaṭoḍi under Kamāgauda and Toḍi under Toḍi Mela R.V. 10 S.M.K.N.

Śrikanṭha's Rasakaumudi 273

S. No.

Name of the Mela

Total No.of masculine Rāgas

Name of masculine Rāga

Name of the work compared

Remarks

Comparative view

6

Vasantāragamela

2

1

Vasanța

S.Dam. S.Darp. S.Up.S. S.M.K.N.

One of the six main Rāgas do

S.Up.S. S.M.K.N. R.V.

Śuddha Vasanța under Sāranganāṭa Mela Identical

Not found

7

Rāgakedāramela

4

3

Kedāra

S.Dam. S.Darp. S.Up.S.

Not found Not found

S.M.K.N.

In the name of Kedāra Gauda

8

R.V.

Under Mallāri Mela

9

Bhūpāli

S.Dam. S.Darp.

One of the wives of Megha Rāga

10

Rāga

S.Dam. S.Darp. S.Up.S. S.M.K.N. R.V.

Nine feminine Rāgas compared

11

Not found

By the name Bhūpāla Not found

S.M.K.N. R.V.

Hindola Mela Under Mallāri Mela One of the wives of Bhairava Rāgas One of the wives of Hindola An unclassified male Rāga In Śri Rāga Mela Under Mallāri Mela

274

Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

Śrīkanṭha's Rasakaumudī

S.No. Name of the Mela Total No. of Rāgas No. of masculine Rāgas Name of masculine Rāga Name of the work compared Remarks No. of the feminine nine Rāgas Name of the feminine nine Rāga One of the wives of Naṭṭa Nārāyana One of the wives of Dipaka One of the Bhāṣās of Megha Rāga

1 Malhāramela 3 2 Malhāra Śaṅkarābharana S.M.K.N. In the name of Śuddha Naṭa R.V. 1 Kāmodi S.Dam. S.Darp S.Up.S. S.M.K.N. Not found Not found

2 S.Dam. Under Mela R.V.

3 S.Darp. Not found Unclassified Rāga S.Dam.

4 S.Up.S. Not found S.Darp.

5 R.V. Not found In Śrī Rāgāri Mela S.Up.S.

6 S.M.K.N. Under Mallāri Mela S.M.K.N.

7 Not found R.V.

8 Not found Unclassified Rāga 2 S.Dam.

9 By the name Malhārī S.Darp.

10 By the name Malhārī in Mālava Gauda Mela S.Up.S.

11 Same under Mela of Gauḍa Malhāra S.M.K.N.

Not found R.V.

Not found S.Dam.

S.Darp.

S. No.

Name of the Mela

Total No.of Rāgas

No. of masculine Rāgas

Name of masculine Rāga

Comparative view Remarks

Name of the work compared

1

Pūrṇadeśākṣikā

1

Not found3

Not found4

Not found5

Identical

Identical

9

Desākṣī

2

1

Kaiyāṇa

Not found

Not found

Not found

Identical

10

Kālyāṇa

2

2

Kaiyāṇa Kāmoda

Not found

Not found

Not found

Not found

Not found

Not found

Not found

Not found

S.Dam. S.Darp. S.Up.S. S.M.K.N. R.V.

S.Dam. S.Darp. S.Up.S. S.M.K.N. R.V.

276

Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

Śrīkanṭha's Rasakaumudī

277

S. No.

Name of the Mela

Svaras of the Mela

Masculine and Feminine Rāgas under Mela

Svaras of Rāgas

Grahañsa Nyāsa Varjya Svaras

Time

General

1

Mukhārikā

All Śuddha Svaras

Mukhāri

All Śuddha Svaras

Ṣaḍjatraya and sometimes Patraya

Ṣaḍja

Ri

Evening

Embellished with a number of Gamakas and difficult to perform

2

Mālavagauda

Sa-Ri-Ma-Pa-Dha-Śuddha, Sa-Pa-Ma

Saurāṣṭrika

Gurjari

Patraya

Ṣaḍja

Ri

Morning

Specially fit for performance in rainy season

3

4

Malahāri

Bahuli

Pahili

Gaudi

5

Ri-Dha

Ga

Ga-Dha

6

Ṣaḍja

Ma Sa

7

Ṣaḍja

Ma Sa

8

Ṣaḍja

Ri

9

Ri-Pa

Pūrṇa

Pūrṇa, sometimes devoid of Ṣaḍja

Ri

10

Evening

Raijāni Mürchanā

11

Evening

Embellished with some Gamakas

Evening

Gambhīra-Gumphita

S. No.

Name of the Mela

Masculine and Feminine Rāgas under each Mela

Svaras of the Mela

Graha

Amśa

Nyāsa

Varijya Svaras

Time

Ṛṅgāra Rasa

1

Śrī Rāga

Catuḥśruti Ṛi-Dha, Sāḍhāraṇa Gāndhāra, Śuddha Mālavāśrī Kākalī Niṣāda, Śuddha

3 = Śrī Rāga

Pa

Sa

Sa

Sa

Satraya

Morning

Nityapūrṇa according to some Pūrṇa

2

Pañcama

Lalita

Śrī Rāga

Pa

Sa

Sa

Satraya

Evening

Sometimes Mürchāná

3

Bhairava

Bāṅgāla Bhairava

Dha-Ga

Sa

Sa

Satraya

Morning

Adyā Mürchāná

4

Ri-Dha-Alpa

Ri-Pa-Mudrita (Mixture with Bhairava)

Pūrṇa

Sa

Sa

Satraya

Morning

Vīra Rasa Sampūrṇa

5

Satraya

Dhatraya (Matraya according to Kallinātha)

Gatraya

Ri-Dha

6

Pa

Sa

Sa

Satraya

7

Pa

Sa

Sa

Satraya

8

Pa

Sa

Sa

Satraya

9

Ri (Pūrṇa according to some) Ri-Pa

Ri or Pūrṇa

Pa

10

Morning

11

Dhanyāśikā Devagāndhāra

General

S. No. 1 Name of the Mela 2 Svaras of the Masculine and Feminine Rāgas under each Mela 3 Svaras of Rāgas 4 Ādyā Mūrchanā 11 General Time Variya Svaras Aṃśa Graha

Viśuddhanāṭa Viśuddhanāṭa Triśruti Ga-Ni (Sādhāraṇa, Kaiśika Ni) Pata Sa-Ma, Śuddha Sa-Ma-Ga-Pa- Ni, Pata Madhyama, Kaiśika Ni ...... Nitraya Sa Sa Evening Ri-Dha Pūrṇa Ma-Ni-Āhaṭa (Name of a Gamaka) and Pa- Kampita Sometimes Pūrṇa, Vira-Raudra- All times Morning Ga Ri-Pa Ma-Ni or Ri-Pa Ri-Pa

Karnaṭagauda Karnaṭagauda Śuddha Bangāla Sāmanta Toḍi ...... Satraya, Antarā-Kākaḷi Maṭraya ...... Dha ...... Sunrise Sometimes(?) Pūrṇa, ...... Satraya Bhūpāḷi Kedāra Rāga

Vasanṭa Vasanṭa Ghanaṭava- Śuddha Sa-Ga-Ma-Pa- Dha, Triśruti Ga-Ni Śuddha, Pata Sa-Ma Sa-Ma-Pa-Ga-Ni Kedāra

Ādyā Mūrchanā, full of Gamakas Sometimes Pūrṇa Evening Morning Morning Sunrise Sometimes(?) Pūrṇa, All times Morning ...... Evening

Ma-Ni-Āhaṭa (Name of a Gamaka) and Pa- Kampita -Vira-Raudra- Adbhuta Rasa. A 'Sahāya' (helper) of Kāma-deva Śānta Rasa

280

Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

S. No. Name of the Mela Svaras of the Mela Masculine and Feminine Rāgas under each Mela Svaras of Rāgas Graha Aṃśa Nyāsa Svaras Variya Svaras Time General

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

8 Malhāra Śuddha Sa-Ga-Ma-Pa, Pata Sa-Ma, Tiśruti (Kaiśika) Ni Dha Velāvali Nātanārāyaṇa Śaṅkarābharāṇa Malhāra Gaudamalhāra Satraya Satraya .... .... .... Dha .... Dha .... .... Dha .... .... Ri-Pa .... Sa-Pa All times(?) Sunrise Morning Some difference between Malhāra and Gaudamalhāra ‘lakṣaṇa’ verse missing

9 Deśākṣikā Pata Sa-Ma, Tiśruti Ga, Śuddha Sa-Ma-Pa, Ga-Ni Kāmodi .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... Morning Vīra Rasa missing

10 Kalyāṇa Pata Sa-Pa, Śāntāhāra Gaṅdhāraṇa .... .... .... Gatraya .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... Evening (initial stage) .... .... ....

.... .... .... .... .... .... Pūrṇa .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... Night .... .... ....

.... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... Satraya or Ritraya Satraya .... .... Satraya .... .... .... Pūrṇa .... .... .... .... .... .... Midday Pūrṇa

Kānoda Hamira Sāraṅga .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... Missing .... .... ....

Śrīkanṭha's Rasakaumudī

281

In connection with Rāga-Dhyāna a detailed comparison with Somanātha's Dhyānas based on relevant illustrations would have been interesting. But such a comparison is not possible within the limited space at our disposal here. However, the following general observations can aptly be made on the basis of a cursory comparative consideration of the treatment of Rāga-Dhyāna by these two authors :-

(i) Whereas Śrīkanṭha has given the Dhyāna of each Rāga just after giving its Lakṣaṇa, Somanātha has devoted a separate section to ‘Dhyāna’ after completing the Lakṣaṇas of all Rāgas.

(ii) Śrīkanṭha has not made any exception in giving Dhyānas but Somanātha has selected fifty-one out of his seventy six Rāgas for giving Dhyānas.

(iii) As regards the poetic worth of his Dhyānas, Śrīkanṭha can generally be said to have excelled Somanātha.

(iv) Somanātha explains his Rāga-Dhyānas in terms of Nāyaka-Nāyikā-Bheda, in the commentary on his own work Rāgavibodha. Thus the significance of Nāyaka-Nāyikā-Bheda to the terms of Saṅgīta, implicit in other works on Saṅgīta has been explicitly brought out by him. Somanātha's work is generally known for its Mela classification, but his explanation of Rāga-Rāginī-Dhyāna is not particularly noted. Śrikanṭha has not made such an explicit reference to Nāyaka-Nāyikā Bheda, although his Rāga-Dhyānas too bear the marked influence of this concept.

In the concluding portion of ‘Rāgaviveka’, our author has defined Sampūrṇa, Auḍava and Ṣāḍava as well as Śuddha, Chāyālagā and Samkirṇa-the traditional varieties of Rāgas in the following verses. He has also ascribed six Rāgas to six seasons and six seasons to six parts of the cycle of day and night in ‘Siśira’, perhaps by way of an example, as follows-

282

Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

Season

Rāga

Period in day

and Night

inŚiśira

Season

Śiśira

Bhūpāla

Pūrvāḥṇa

Vasanta

Vasanta

Madhyāḥṇa

Griṣma

Bhairava

Divasaānta

Varṣā

Megha

Rātryardha

Śarat

Pañcama

Rajaniśeṣa

Hemanta

Natanārāyaṇa

Nityam (in all periods)

Tuṣārāgama

(Hemanta)

Śiśira

औदवः पञ्चभिः प्रोक्तः स्वरैः षड्भिसतु षाडवः।

सम्पूर्णः सस्वभिस्वैव त्रिधा रागा बुधैर्मता: ॥

रागास्ते त्रिविधाः: प्रोक्ताः शुद्धाः छायालगास्ततः ।

सकोर्णाश्च पृथक् तेषां लक्षणं प्रतिपाद्यते ॥

अन्यै रागैर्न युक्ता ये शुद्धास्ते परिकीर्तिताः ।

छायालगा मताः प्राज्ञैः पररक्तियुताश्च ये॥

रक्तियुक्ता ये तु सद्भिोणास्ते निरूपिताः ॥

ऋतुरागा:—

भूपालः शिशिरे वसन्तसमये गेयो वसन्तो मुदा

ग्रीष्मे भैरवसंज्ञकोऽतिसुभगो वर्षासु मेघाभिधः ।

रागो रागविदां वरैः किल शरत्काले पुनः पञ्चमो

हेमन्ते च नटाटप्रोदितरुचिरो नारायणाख्यः क्रमात्॥

पूर्वाह्नं सुधियो वसन्तसमयं मध्याह्नकालं पुन-

ग्रीष्मं वारिधरागमं च दिवसस्यान्त्यं विभागं तथा।

रात्र्यर्ध शरदं वर्दन्ति रजनिशेषं तुषारागमं

नित्यं शैशिरके दिनेऽपि नितरामित्यं ऋतुभिः कल्पना ॥

II Rasa

Only an incomplete portion of the Rasavarnanādhyāya of

Rasakaumudi extending over ten verses is available in our text.

The first two of these apparently deal with Śāpahetuka

Vipralambha and Protsyapatikā Nāyikā respectively. These

verses appear to be an insignificant remnant of the author's

detailed and comprehensive treatment of Śṛṅgāra Rasa which

is lost to us. The next eight verses are illustrative of the eight

traditional Rasas (including Śānta and excluding Śṛṅgāra).

Śrikanṭha's Rasakaumudī

Extracts from Rasavarnanādhyāya (Chapt. VII) of

Rasakaumudī

( शापहेतुकविप्रलब्धः )—

मार्गे हन्त शकुन्तला स्थितवती स्नातुं प्रवाहोदके

तत्रैवाडलितः शल्थो विगलिता मुखे णुपर्णपुटा।

राज्ञा वीक्ष्य न मुद्रिकां तदखिलं शापादहो विस्मृतं

नास्यास्यास्तागृहं न वा पतिगृहे मध्ये स्थिता दुःखिता॥

( प्रोत्स्यत्पतिका नायिका )—

दृष्टापि भ्रमरवलीढकुसुमां कादम्बशाखाशिखा-

कान्ते कार्यवशाद्रुदेशगमनं कर्तुं प्रवृत्ते सति।

तस्या: कडकणशून्यपाणियुगलेनान्तीय गुरूवज्ञया

माझील्य: कलशो विलोचनपयःपूर्ण: पुरः स्थापित:॥

हास्यरसो यथा—

कश्चित् सम्बन्धिनोहे बहुतरदिवसान्तरं दैवयोगाद्

आयातो लज्जया स प्रचुरतरमहो भोजनं नैव चक्रे।

रात्रौ क्षुत्क्षामदेहः शल्थतरगुडभुक् तूलराशौ पपात

ध्वान्ते प्रातः स्वरूपं हसति परिजनो वीक्ष्य जामातरं तम्॥

This illustration has a mark of originality in comparison with the hackneyed theme of हास्यरस The word हसति is an explicit reference to laughter which is depreciated by Indian poetics.

करुणरसो यथा—

प्रादुर्भूतः प्रबलदहनो वानरेंद्रस्य पुच्छाद्

उड्डीनास्ते नभसि सभयं राक्षसा वायुवेगात्।

अन्तःपुङ्गवने विधुरादेव गन्धर्वकन्या-

स्तासां तैस्तैः करुणवचने: प्रस्तरो द्वावमेति॥

The reference to करुण is open to the same objection as above.

रौद्ररसो यथा—

येन स्वीयविशालबाहुबलिनो(ना)मम्भेघनादो हतः

किं वा यैरनुमोदितं च हसितं च दृष्टं च युद्धस्थले।

एषोडहं कुपितः करोमि सहसा तेषां शिरोभिद्रुवं

संग्रामे ककुभां बलिं हुतमरे भृत्याय स्वन्दनम्॥

वीररसो यथा—

सन्ध्यावन्दनतत्परेण हतता लाञ्छूलबद्धो भवान्

पारावारजलेषु येन बलिना विभ्रामितो बालिना॥

284

Indian Aesthetics and Musicology

एकैनेव शरेण हन्त! स मया नीतः कृतान्तालये

रे रे रावण! सोऽहमेष समरे त्वं सावधानो भव ॥

भयानकरसो यथा—

कर्णाकृष्टशरासनोपरि शरं व्यापारयन्तं मुहु- व्यर्धं वीक्ष्य पुनः पुनः प्लुतगतिं संपादयत्सत्वरम्‌। बाणाधानाभिया पलायनपरः संकोचयनं विग्रहं

विस्तीर्णननाननिरगर्तैनवतुर्णैव्याजप्रोति मार्गं मुगः ॥

This verse is a fine illustration of our author's poetic talent

but the explicit reference to fear (भिया) is objectionable.

बीभत्सरसो यथा—

प्रेतः कच्छन पूतिगन्धिगलितं शूलात्पफुल्लं शवं

स्वीयांङ्गू विनिधाय मांসলपलं जघ्वा हृदादिस्थितम्‌। दंष्ट्राभिः क्रमशोड्डिस्थिसंस्थपलं भुक्त्वापि तृप्तो भवन्

नो किंचित्तदनन्तरं स जठराद भूङ्के तथान्त्रादिकम्‌॥

अद्भुतरसो यथा—

काञ्चनप्रतिमकल्पपूःः सरमसे बाजं पुरः पश्यतां

सर्वेषां किल रोपितं क्षितितले वृक्षोड भवत्तक्षणात्‌। शाखापल्लवपत्रपुष्पचयवान जातो निमेषादहो

सर्वेभ्यस्तदनन्तरं फलमपि स्थित्वा रसलं ददौ॥

अथ वीरम—

व्यापारव्यग्रपाणित्रयवलिसरलताकुञ्चिताडSवर्त्नाभि- व्यालोलश्रोणिपालिप्रकटितमदना नीविर्बन्धं विधाय।

आपीतश्वेतनीलस्फुटकुसुमलतापल्लवालीविचित्रं

रक्तप्रान्तं विधत्ते कनकचयचमत्कारिकौशेयवस्त्रम्‌॥

अथ हारः—

सद्वृत्तस्थूलचन्द्रघृतच चमक्विकार मुकावली- मादाय प्रान्तयुग्मं विकसितकमलद्रोहिहस्तद्वयेन ।

हारे माणिक्यमध्यप्रचुरतरलस्त्रीलरलान्तरालं

प्रोत्कर्णं कम्बुकण्ठी ग्रंथितमविरलं पट्टसूत्रेण धत्ते ॥

सद्वृत्तमुक्तावलीं

नानारनिबद्धहारलतिकां धत्ते कुरङ्गेक्षणा।

यूनां तुङ्कुचाझले विचरतां चेतोमुगणानाममुं

पाशं निर्भरबन्धनाय मदनव्याधस्य मन्ये परम्‌॥

The above verse contains a very fine Utprekṣā on Hāra.

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285

अथ तिलकम्—

आदौ पडिलकेशस्य तिलकं श्रीखण्डचर्चा ततः ।

तन्मध्ये किल कुठुमस्य रचनां कस्तूरिकाया: पुनः ।

धृत्वा दर्पणमष्टिममलं दृष्ट्वास्यबिम्बं मुदा चक्रे चन्द्रमुखी मनोज्ञपरतत्यर्थमुद्रामिव ॥

The Upamā of 'Tilaka' with the seal of Kāmadeva is notable.

दृष्ट्वा काञ्चनदर्पणे विधुमुखी वक्त्रस्य बिम्बं सखी-

हस्ताम्भोरहहेमपात्रमिलितं पाटीरपडूगोदिकम् ।

आदाय क्रमशो लिलेख तिलकं लावण्यलीलापयः-

पूर्णे यौवनपल्लवे मदकलप्रोमत्तहंसोपमम् ॥

This is another 'Upamā' of 'Tilaka', illustrating the author's fertile poetic imagination.

अथ कुण्डलम्—

रतालीखचित्रं सुवर्णघटितं प्रान्तस्फुरन्मौक्तिक-

श्रेणीकान्तिविराजितं श्रुतियुगे ताटङ्कयमं दधौ ।

तेन प्रोज्ज्वलमाननं मृगदृशः स्वैरं समुज्जृम्भते

चक्रेन्द्रद्रविभूषितं किमु रथः कन्दर्पभूमीपते: ॥

The Utprekṣā for two 'Karnakuṇdalas' as two wheels of the chariot of Kandarp is beautiful.

अथ पुष्पमाल्यम्—

उन्नीलनसुधमाध्वीबहुलपरिमलाहुतनानादिगन्त-

भ्राम्यद्भृङ्गरीकदम्बं सुललितकुसुमावबधलम्बायमानम् ।

माल्यं जग्राह तुङ्गस्तनकलशपरिरण्यासि पूणेंन्दुवक्त्रा

मालामागुम्फितां किं बलमथनवधूर्नन्दनोद्यानपुष्पै: ॥

Nearly twelve verses are missing here and the succeeding portion starts with कज्जुकी. Thus description of अञ्जन, अञ्जन, रत्नाभरण, नासामुक्ता, काञ्ची, कङ्कण (वलय) and नूपुर is missing.

अथ कज्जुकी—

तत्कालतव्रया प्रसारितकरद्नद्वारविन्देक्षणा

हेमप्रोज्ज्वलपट्टसूत्ररचितै: पीतांशुकैरिन्निर्मिताम् ।

आदायोरसि कञ्जुकों कुचयुगप्रोत्फुल्लमध्यस्थलां

पश्चाद्बन्धनमाततान विलसत्पृष्ठा मनोहारिणी ॥

अथ ताम्बूलम्—

कर्पूरादिसुवासितातिमधुरे ताम्बूलमेणीदृश:

चर्वन्त्या: खबिदरे सुन्दरतरो बिम्बाधरो राजते ।

पीयूषाधकमञ्जुलस्मितसुधाराधाराभिरापूरितः

किं सन्ध्या परिपूर्णचन्द्रकिरणैर्युका समुज्जृम्भते ॥

The commingling of red and white colour in the Nāyikā’s

lips is beautifully described by the poet.

अथ चातुरी—

शृङ्गारः क्रमशस्त्रिबाणगुणिता वामभ्रुवोर्वर्णिता

बाध्या एवं भवन्ति तेन हि पुनः कोऽप्यन्तरद्दण्डो मतः।

शृङ्गारः किल चातुरी निगदिता सर्वोत्तमा घोडशी

सर्वे निष्फलतां प्रयान्ति नितरां णीदूषस्तां विना ॥

शृङ्गारे: किमनध्व्यरत्ननिवहस्वर्णादिभिर्निर्मिते:

शृङ्गारो यदि चातुरी निरुपमा वामभ्रुवां विद्यते ।

सा चेत्‌नास्ति मनागपि प्रियतमस्यान्तःप्रमोदप्रदा

शृङ्गारे: किमनध्व्यरत्ननिवहस्वर्णादिभिर्निर्मिते: ॥

The above is an excellent illustration of Lāṭānuprās.

चाञ्चल्यं नयनाञ्चले विकसितं स्मेराननांभोरुहं

पीयूषाधकमञ्जुलं मृतुपदोपन्यासमल्पं वचः ।

उत्कृष्टस्तनगोपनं सचकितं चीनांशुकेन द्रुतं

लीलाम्भोरुधुनूनां वरतनोरित्यादिका चातुरी ॥

उन्मत्तद्विपमन्दमन्दगमनं वक्रेक्षणालोकनं

हस्तान्दोलनलोलकद्बणरुणत्कारप्रपञ्चं वचः ।

भूव्लीलाभ्रमं समं प्रियतमे नीहार(?)कोपक्रमः

शृङ्गारस्य हि मण्डनं वरतनोश्लाघ्यमित्यादिकम्॥

विज्ञत्वं विनये नये मनसिजक्रिडाकलाभिज्ञता

भर्तर्येव रतिद्रया परिजने लज्जा गुरूणां पुरः ।

सर्वाङ्गेन सखीगणे सरलता स्पर्धा सपत्नीजनैः

पाकादिष्वपि कौशलं कुलवधूचातुर्यमित्यादिकम्॥

The author has thus given a detailed exposition of Cāturi

which is the only one psychological element aptly introduced

by him in Ṣoḍaśa Śṛṅgāra.

IV Ṣaḍṛtuvarṇana

Ṣaḍṛtuvarṇana has been traditionally accepted as an

indispensable part of a Mahākāvya (epic). In Indian Sanskrit

literature, ‘Ṛtusamhāra’, ascribed to Kālidāsa, is the first poetic

work written with the express object of describing Nature in

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respect of the six seasons of the year. According to some critics,

it is perhaps the first poem of its kind in world literature.

Ṛtusamhāra and Śrīkanṭha's Ṣaḍṛtuvarṇana would appear to

stand out as a distinct class of Sanskrit literature, there being

hardly any other work similar in conception or execution or

design. There is every possibility of our author having derived

general inspiration from Ṛtusamhāra in planning his work. A

brief comparison of the plan and execution of the two works

may not, therefore, be out of place here.

Nature is regarded in Sanskrit literature as significant to

poetry either as a frame or setting of life, or as ornamentation

in the world life picture or as a living presence to the spirit. In

Indian poetry, Nature has no place as an independent or

lifeless existence. Kālidāsa in his Ṛtusamhāra has described

Nature as a frame or setting of life in general and human love

in particular. “With glowing appreciation of the beauties of

Nature, in which erotic scenes are interspersed, the poet

adroitly inter-weaves the expression of human emotions”.

Although Śrīkanṭha can be said to have followed

Kālidāsa in the basic conception of Nature in poetry, his

treatment of life in the setting of Nature is more or less

circumscribed in human love and that too with reference to

kings in the major part. It is but natural that in such an

extremely restricted field of poetic creation as has been chosen

by Śrīkanṭha, the poet is bound to lack the height of

imagination, the vitality and vigour, the richness of diversity,

the warmth of humanism and the freshness of observation,—

indispensable characteristics of true poetry. Our author is thus

a victim to an initial artistic error in not conceiving and

executing a design rich with diversity and well-knit with unity

and in displaying a degree of coldness of human emotions.

Although his Ṣaḍṛtuvarṇana as a whole is poor in poetic merit,

its worth lies in those passages where he has freed himself

from the restriction of the scope of his description and has

depicted Nature as a background of life in general or human

love in general without any reference to kings, a microscopic minority of humanity. For example, when he describes the common man's lot he displays far better literary acumen.

His opening verses of Vasanta bear the distinctive mark of a free approach to the subject. The description of Griṣma which follows next, though elaborate, is very poor in poetic content in comparison to that of other seasons as it is exclusively devoted to the king's amorous sports and life in general has been totally ignored. Kālidāsa's description of Griṣma is very rich with the pulsation of life; his keen observation touches many aspects of animal and vegetable kingdom. In the description of practically all the seasons, Kālidāsa has woven many tokens of metaphorical amorousness in Nature. But Śrīkanṭha's attempt in this respect is most insignificant and trivial.

Generally speaking, Śrīkanṭha has not been able to sustain the warmth and vigour with which he started the description of Vasanta, the king of seasons. It must, however, be remembered that Śrīkanṭha could not be expected to have overcome the influence of his period and in view of the decadence of Sanskrit literature which characterised that period, his poetic worth should not be under-estimated. He presents stray instances of poetic conceit and imagery in the conventional and stereotyped objects of description, flashes of effective phrasing, streaks of lifelike depiction, charm of simple diction and an artistic sense of the consonance and cadence of syllables lending melodious musicality to his poetry.

In sum, although Śrīkanṭha had in all probability drawn inspiration from the work of Kālidāsa and had tried to model his Ṣaḍṛtuvarṇana on the pattern of Ṛtusamhāra, his genius being mediocre, his performance covering one-third of the size of his model, could not be expected to come up to the level of the great poet. Considering however, the decadent times in which he lived, his work has to be accepted as of

Śrīkanṭha's Rasakaumudī

commendable merit on account of its apt diction, deployment of syllables giving fine melodious sound-effects and its suggestive imagery.

As remarked above, Śrīkanṭha's merit is mediocre at places where he indulges in describing Ṣaḍṛtu as an Uddīpana Vibhāva of Śṛṅgāra Rasa with reference to kings.But at several places he has secured for himself greater scope for flights of imagination by describing Ṣaḍṛtus as an Ālambana Vibhāva. A full text of the portion of his book dealing with the topic of Ṣaḍṛtuvarṇana reproduced below is likely to be of interest to readers, more so because it comes from the pen of an author of Saṅgītaśāstra.

Indian traditional thought has postulated the power of ‘Svaras’ to suggest and impart the aesthetic experience which is associated with the six seasons of the year. This view is the basis of the seasonal Rāgas. In deference to this line of thought also there would appear to be some justification for a musically minded writer on poetics to indulge in an extensive treatment of the nature of seasonal experience and with aesthetic attitude relative to such experiences.

षडृतुवरर्णनम्

ऋतूनां वर्णनं युक्ल्या नवमे क्रियते क्रमात्।

ऋतवो विविधैर्भोगैैरत्नन्ति मुदं यतः ॥

The above verse clearly indicates the author's viewpoint of treating Ṣaḍṛtu as Uddīpana Vibhāva.

ऋतुषु ऋतुषु योग्यं वेषमादाय दिव्यं

रचयति किल लास्यं नर्तकी चारुनेत्रा।

नव-नव-रतिनाथ-प्रौढरत्नप्रमोद-

प्रकटितकमीयास्पष्टचेष्टाभिरामा ॥

This verse implicitly illustrates the above observation regarding the author's purpose of describing the six seasons as a setting or frame for the king's experiences of love in particular.

९. वसन्तवर्णनम्-

नित्यं भूरिभुजझझसझमरतां दृष्टा प्रियां दक्षिणां

श्रीखण्डैैरपि मञ्जुलां सुलिलितां मुक्ताफलाव्दैरपि।

सन्त्यकं कृतनिश्ययोऽपि पवनः कान्तामुदीचों परां

गन्तुं कोकिलमित्रवर्यवचनापेक्षः क्षणं तिष्ठति ॥

आद्योद्याननिकुञ्जकुन्दलतिकासक्त्यकास्यकुला द्विरेफावली

माकन्दं परितः प्रयाति मुकुलैर्नव्याड्कुरैर्मञ्जुलम्।

उद्ग्रीवं चिरविस्मृतं परभृतैः संगीतमभ्यस्यते

यन्मध्ये पदमर्पितं वनमधौ स्वैरं वसन्तश्रिया ॥

The above two verses are remarkable examples of the excellence of our author's poetic talent.

भृङ्गीसड्घीतरतरङ्गप्रचलितकुसुमोद्भूतभूमाध्वीभाजामाकन्दादितुमानां बहुलपरिमलैः पुञ्जैध्मध्यप्रदेशम्।

वासन्तीनां परागैः पवनविलुलितैः पूर्णपीताऽऽड्कुरांग

पुष्पोद्यान वसन्ते प्रकटयति मुहुः भूमिले नैव केशाम्॥

स्वच्छन्दं मधुपानमतमधुपा गुञ्जन्ति कुञ्जोदरे

वापीतटसमीरणः कसुमितां वल्लीन धुनितेऽधुना।

माकन्दे च कुहुः कुहुरिति मुहुः कूजन्ति पुन्स्कोकिलः

पुष्पोद्यानमतः परं नरपतिनरीसखः सेवन्ते ॥

Here the author has explicitly referred to the kings amorous sports.

पुष्पोद्यानवरितगमनव्याकुलानेकनारी-

हस्ताम्भोजे कनकरचितं भाति पत्रं विचित्रम्।

ताम्बूलानां विमलपयसाम्रागादिकानां

चैत्रक्रीडाकृतुकितमनो - मेदिनीनायकस्य ॥

पुष्पोद्यानस्य मध्ये मृगमदपङ्कभूरिस्निग्ध-

भूयानारूपैनेके: किसलयकुसुमैर्निर्मितानाल्पतल्पे।

कान्तावक्लारविन्दसरितपरिमलं चित्रितं लोचनाभ्यां

हेम्रः पात्रेण चैत्रे पिबति नरपतिःवर्णीमेढक्नाभिः ॥

उद्यानस्यैव मध्ये कुसुमतरुले स्पष्टरोलम्बचेष्टे

पीत्वा मधुं प्रियाभिः समम्मृतमिवात्यकनोऽभिरिन्द्रः।

व्यक्तानन्देन युको मधुमधुरवचःकोमलाभिः कथाभिः

स्वैरं मध्याहकाले गमयति नृपतिः कोविदः कामशास्त्रे ॥

गन्धद्रव्यविलेपनं वितनुते भूयो वसन्तागमे

कर्पूरादिसुवासितेन पयसा स्नाति प्रियाभिर्‌वृतः।

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गोधूमादिपुराणमत्रममलं भुक्ते च हित्वा गुडं

जीर्णक्षौद्रमपि स्वकीयहितकृत् वैद्यान्वितः सर्वदा ॥

In the above verses the author's poetic talent is reflected as being of a mediocre worth because he has confined himself exclusively to the description of the kings' sports and his poetic imagination has not found full play.

२. ग्रीष्मवर्णनम्—

Griṣma is not generally described in detail by poets, Kālidāsa's 'Ṛtusamhāra' being a notable exception. But Śrīkanṭha has given a considerably long description of this season. However, he has not been able to detach himself from the obsession of kings' sports in this context.

मार्तण्डोऽतिप्रचण्डः सकलजनमनोहारिरिम्बो हिमांशुः

सर्वत्र श्रीणवीरा निरवधिसुलिलस्यन्दनाहालसम्राट् ।

रम्या जाता दिनान्ते व्रजति च शनकैर्यत्र शान्तिं मनोभूः

स्वैरं स ग्रीष्मकालो भुवि सुखमवनीनायकस्यैव धत्ते ॥

उन्मीलत्पाटलालीलसुलितकुसुमस्रग्सौरभ्यभवैः

कासाराभ्यर्णभूमौ प्रसृतिपवनः कम्पयित्वा वनानि ।

सद्योतीतं भुरि ध्वान्तो रचयति नितरां सीम्नि मल्लीलतानां

भूपो ग्रीष्मे विधत्ते युवतिजनसखः काममम्भोविहारम् ॥

भूपालो जलयन्त्रमन्दरमधि स्थित्वा प्रसूनावली-

शय्यायां कलकण्ठकण्ठलननारागं समाकर्णयन् ।

पाटीरद्रवचर्चितासुभगः कान्तकाराम्भोरुह-

व्यालोलविलसज्जनेन वजितवपुमध्येऽहिकोलं नयते ॥

द्राक्षामण्डपदधस्तात् सुभगसमुदयव्या्सचारोर्ध्वभागात्

श्रीखण्डोशिरतोर्मैर्गुमदललितैभूर्जैरसिक्तभूमौ ।

मल्लीलव्यूहप्ररोहप्रचलदलहतादित्यचण्डप्रभाभ्यां

गीतैर्‌नृत्यैर्विनोदैर्विलसति वनिताचक्रगोचक्रवर्ती ॥

रम्भास्तम्भोरुकम्राः कनकगिरिसमुत्थितवक्षोजयोनिप्र-

राकापूर्णेन्दुवक्त्रा विकसितकमलद्रोहिनेत्रद्युताल्या ।

तन्व्यो वेदिमध्य्या पृथुतरजघना सर्वसौन्दर्ययुक्ता

मुक्ताहारादिकस्य स्फुरति वरतनुमण्डनस्य मण्डनस्य ॥

श्रुत्वा सीमन्तिनीं तर्लतरकरे झङ्कृतिं कडूकरणा-

मुद्रां चारु चक्रुः संचालितचपलाश्चक्रवाकाः बलाकाः ।

रोलम्बाः स्वीयजातिध्वनिरिति नयनहृन्मुद्रीक्ष्य सद्यः

पद्भ्रान्त्या विलोला वदनमधिकारं धुन्वतीनां निपेतुः॥

क्रीडाकौतुकतत्परेण धरणींनाथेन सार्द्धं स्त्रियः

पुष्पोद्यानसरोरवस्य सलिलाभ्यन्तः प्रविश्टा दृत्तम्।

तासामनङ्कमुदीधिरखिलं पदेरुहं मुद्रितं

भृङ्गं रात्रिधिया पतन्ति नयने नीलोत्पलस्य भ्रमात्॥

The above two verses are good examples of भान्तिमान अलङ्कार but the explicit reference to भ्रान्ति by the words भ्रान्त्या and भ्रमात् does not meet with the approval of the rules of Poetics.

तस्या वक्त्रं विकचकमलं प्रोज्ज्वलं सौरभाढ्यं

नेत्रद्वन्द्वं मदभरमदोत्तरोलम्बकल्पम्।

धम्मिल्लोडपि स्तिमितकुटिलश्यामलः शैवलाभः

कासारान्तः स्फुरति नृपते: पद्मिनी पद्मनीव ॥

The above verse contains a beautiful ‘Pūrṇopamā’.

कस्याचित्करपद्मरुजे सुललितं लीलारविन्दं ददौ

कस्याचिज्जलकेलिकौतुकवशात्रीलोत्पले कर्णयोः।

कस्याचिच्चयोरुपान्तनमिलितं हारं मणौलोचने

कस्याचिद्दृशवश्लिष्टदूषणं पाणौ प्रियायै प्रियः ॥

त्यकूवा केलिसरोहुरुं विकसितं हस्तारविन्दोपरि

स्वच्छन्दं मकरन्दमतमधुपा गच्छन्ति वामभ्रुवः।

हित्वा च स्फुटनीलपद्मरुजयं कर्णावतंसीकृतं

प्रसक्तघ्राणमञ्जुलाक्षियुगलस्योर्ध्वं पतन्ति धुवम्॥

The above verse is a fine feat of poetic imagination.

पश्चात्प्रयद्गदबाधिता विधुमुखी हस्ताम्बुजे तन्वती

प्रोवाच त्वरितं प्रियं प्रति प्रतित्राहेति दीनं मुहः।

श्रुत्वा कतरभाषितं प्रियतमो भृङ्गं निवार्य द्वुतं

तामालिङ्ग्य दृढं चुचुम्ब वदनं तस्याः शङ्काहतज्वलम्॥

The streak of dramatic element in the above verse is notable.

चञ्चत्काञ्चनकङ्कणध्वनिभिरस्फारस्मितत्रिस्रण-

व्यालोलाकुलिपाणिपल्लवपयःक्षेपं मुहुस्तन्वती।

अन्योन्यं वदनाम्बुजोपरिलक्रीडाकाकुतुकात्

तन्वङ्गी निखिला तनोति नृपते: कासारमध्ये मुदम्॥

बिम्बोष्ठाधरशोणिता समगमत्रेन्द्रिये निर्भरं

धावल्यं चलितं तयोस्तदुपरि प्रयोद्भवद् व्यतयः।

लग्नं चीननिचोलमद्रविषये सर्वाङ्कं दृश्यते

भूभृत्जलकेलिवेशरुचिरा नार्यो मदनं तन्वते॥

Śrīkanṭha's Rasakaumudī

कासाराज्जलकेलितसहदय: सीमन्तिनीभि: समं

द्राक्षाणां वलयक्षतौ क्षितिपतिः प्रोत्याय तस्थौ क्षणम्।

तं वेषं त्वरितं विहाय नृपतेयोग्यं गृहीत्वाखिलं

श्रीखण्डाद्यनुलेपनं युवतिभिः सार्धं चकार द्रुतम्॥

स्वैरं नाना परिमलपदार्थरागं विधत्ते

मध्ये डप्याहः कुसुमनिवहारब्धतल्पे च निद्राम्।

सौधोत्सङ्गे हिमकरकरासङ्गशीतलातिमुग्धं

दुग्धं रात्रौ पिबति नृपतिः शङ्करास्वादयुक्कम्॥

कर्पूरागरुचन्दनोद्भववलिघूर्णितरागोज्ज्वला

प्रोतुङ्गस्तनभारभङ्गुरतनुर्वेदवीव मध्ये कृष्णा।

सौधागारनिविष्टपुष्पशयने चन्द्रांशुनिक्षालिते

राज्ञा कामकलाकलापकुशला भाग्येन भोग्या भवेत्॥

वर्षावर्णनम्—

The first three verses in the description of Varṣā are not indicative of Uddīpana Vibhāva of Śṛṅgāra Rasa.

हर्षं संजनयन् कृषीवलमनोमध्यें पुरा निर्भयं

पक्ष्वात् सूर्यकराभितप्ततनुभृत्सन्तोषमृत्यादयन्।

दग्धानां दवपावकैः शिखरिणां तापोपशान्तिक्षमो

नीलग्रीवसुखावहः समुदितः कालः पयोदागमः॥

अद्य श्यामलवारिवाहनिहवव्यां नभोमण्डलं

दृष्टा ताण्डवमातनोति नितरां मादनम्यूरावली।

हित्वा सम्प्रति पाटलां मधुकरो नष्टप्रसूनां गतो

नीपालीं गतयौवनामिव वर्धं कामी न वोढुं पराम्॥

श्यामोदामपयोध्र्वनिनिनदैरत्यन्तभीमं

नभः श्वेतातकचारुच्शृङ्खलव्यहाररम्या द्रुमाः।

अत्युक्तप्णितनीलकण्ठमथिमुज्रोद्गीर्णगैर्निकैकुली-

जाता भूमिधरा धरातिमधुरा मुग्धैस्तुर्णैरन्नुने:॥

धूपैर्धूपितमुग्धमन्दिरमधिप्रोत्कृष्टतूलातले

कर्पूरादिसुवासिते शशिमुखीपीनस्तनालङ्कृते।

स्वच्छन्दं शयनं करोति सुकृती तादृक्पटीभिः पुटी-

कृत्याज्ञानिमनोजकेलिकुशलस्ताम्बूलपुर्णाननः॥

प्रादुर्भूतशिलीन्द्रवृन्दरुचिरा बाष्पोद्गमं तन्वती

स्वच्छन्दं क्षितिरिन्द्रगोपपटलो पूर्णाक्षीरगोज्ज्वला।

प्रोज्जृम्भद्विरदर्शनादमुखरा धाराजलप्लाविता

शब्ददृष्टिविशालपङ्ककलुषा वर्षासु जाताधुना॥

जीमूतोदरभूरिदीर्घपरुषप्रोद्भूतभोममध्यविनि

श्रुत्वा काचन कामिनी सचकितं भत्तुर्मालिङ्गति।

कान्तोडपि धुतमादरेण रभसादलिङ्ग्य पीन्स्तनौ

तां कान्तामधिकं चुचुम्ब चपलापाङ्गं चलद्भ्रूलताम्॥

The following three verses are again marked with an absence of Śṛṅgāra Rasa. They are indicative of the poet’s keen observation and natural description of the common man’s lot in the rainy season.

श्रुत्वा ध्वानं सभयचकितं भूरि कादम्बनीनां

श्रेणीबद्धा शिखरिशिखराद्राजहंसा द्रवन्ति।

दृश्यन्ते च प्रतिदिशमविग्रहूका बालाका

नीलाम्भोदे सुरधनुरपि क्रापि चित्रं विभाति ॥

नद्यो जाता: कलुषसलिला: पादपाः पूर्णपूर्णा

झर्झावातैरपलचपलाचित्राश्चारुमेघाः।

ग्रामादग्रामं व्रजति न जनो दृश्यते नार्कबिम्बं

छत्रं गृहं पवनरहितं सेवते सर्वलोकः॥

प्रायः पदभ्यां न चलति जर्नो जीर्णधान्यानि भुढे

कूपस्याम्भः पिबति सुरभिद्रव्यसेवां विधत्ते।

धत्ते नित्यं वसनममलं धूपितं गन्धधूपैः

प्रावृट्कालो जनयति सुखं भाग्यभाजां जनानाम्॥

शरद्वर्णनम्

In the description of Śarat the poet has given almost equal importance to the Uddipana and Ālambana aspects of Ṛtu as a Vibhāva.

नद्यो निर्मलवारिवीचिसुभगा वर्षाऽल्पायेऽभवन्

फुल्लाम्भोरुहकानने मधुकरा माध्यान्ति पीत्वा मधु।

हंसा: सारसपङ्कयोदपि नलिनीपात्रान्तराले समं

कान्ताभिः कलसिज्जितं मदभरन्मत्ता मुहुस्तन्वते॥

प्राची कुडुमपङ्करागरुचिरां संपाद्य कान्तामिव

स्वैरं तटुचपर्वततटे दत्वा करं सादरम्।

मुद्राभ्जनतत्परः कुमुदिनीपुष्पोच्चयानामयं

सायं भाति हि रागिणां कुतुकिनामनन्दनो विधुः॥

मुकाहारं मलयजरसोऽरकरपूरवर्चा

स्फूर्जच्चन्द्रप्रतिमवसनं चन्द्रिकां सायमिन्दोः।

Śrīkanṭha's Rasakaumudī

295

सौधागारं विहतसलिलं शर्करामृदधुग्धं कान्तां रम्यां शरदि भजते भाग्यवान्‍नेव भोगी।।

मन्दं मारुतकिमितैर्‍विकसितैः काशौदिशः प्रोज्ज्वलाः

शुभ्रैरभ्रकदम्बकैरतिरामाकाशमुजृम्भते ।।

प्रायः पङ्कलड्डूहीनधरणी धत्ते जनानां मुदं

जां संमपूरवमेव शरद्‍ प्रतिपद्‌प्राणिनाम्।।

प्रायः सवैं विदधति जनाः सादरं तीर्थयात्रां तु

युद्धं कर्तुं ब्रजति रिपुणा साधर्म्यमुरुश्रोपि ।

देवपूजामपि वितनुते सोत्सुकः सर्वलोकः

शोकः केशमपि न शरदि स्वान्तमध्ये विभाति।।

फुल्लाम्भोरुहेणुपिङ्गलचलद्व्रीचीविलोलाः खगाः

कान्ताभिरामनातुरातिरचतुरा कूजन्ति केलिपराः।

पाठीनादिपिराहतं च सलिलं यस्‍योद्वर्मायाति तत्

केषां नो विदधाति शारदसरः सन्तोषमुचैस्तराम्।।

कादम्बः कलकूजितातिसुभगां कान्तामदूरे स्थितां

संभाष्योरुतरङ्गसङ्गततिलां चक्रे मृणालं ददौ।

तत्प्रशाद्‌ वरटापि चाटुचटुला भुक्तावशेषेण विशं

भर्तृश्रृङ्गपुटे ददाति सदयं चञ्चुपुटेन हुतम्।।

The above is a good illustration of ‘Svabhāvokti’.

माध्वीमुग्धमपि प्रस्तुतकमलं भृङ्गोदरेध्मुरायितं

त्यक्रवा संपृति कैरवस्य विपिने गुञ्जान्‍समागच्छति

किंचासत्रियोगकोमिलयुनं चञ्चुपुटाभ्यामहो

धृतवैकं विश्रम्पिताक्षियुगलं प्राच्यां पर्णे सीदति।।

ज्योत्स्नाव्यूहविभूषिताड्‌मधुरम्‍ध्‍वेन्‍दुमज्‍ञसुप्रभा

नैवेयं प्रतिभाति तारकगणे: पूर्णा कृता शर्वरी।

कल्लोलै रतिपूरितैर्‍बहुविधैरापूरितो

बुद्धैदुर्ग्‍धाम्भोनिधिरेष वासुकिफणानिद्रायितश्रीपतिः।।

The above verse is a very beautiful illustration of अपह्नुति

rich with poetic imagination.

बन्धूकासनबाणपुष्पपटलोमाध्वीपरागान्वितो

वापीरोधसि वायवीयपवनः सच्छदं प्रासवान्।

दृष्टः कुटजरत्रिविष्टभुजगाद्‌नेन संमूर्छ्छतो

मन्दं मन्‍दमलिन्‍दसुन्दरवधूस्‍वेदोदगमं गाहते।।

हेमन्तवर्णनम्—

उद्यन्‍ सुप्रसन्नं सुललितलवलालोक्‍षिप्रुत्पुष्पः

गुञ्जद्रोलम्बकुज्‍ञाप्रकटकलकलोडगीर्णकर्णप्रमोदम् ।।

मन्दं मन्दं कुबेराचलपवनचलत्पादपालिप्रसूनं

सर्वेषामेव चित्ते प्रकटयति मुदं वर्धीयित्या मनोजम्॥

अत्युद्यामहिमेन हन्त निखिलं पङ्केरुहाणां वृन्दं

दग्धं कृत्वापि जलाशयेड्जकुसुमं स्वप्रेष्टपि न दुश्यते।

तस्मादेव सरोवरस्य सविधे कोप्येकबुद्धो मनाइ

नायात्येव हि लाभलोभमनसा सर्वे भजन्ते जनाः॥

The above is an appropriate illustration of अर्थान्तरन्यास.

वातज्रं यत्र तैलं मदमुदितवधूटज्झवक्षोजसद्ध:

काश्मीरस्याऽऽरागो सुललितलवलोमसुग्धताम्बूलभागः।

धूपैः कृष्णागरूणां ललितपरिमलैर्विसितं तल्पगेहं

हेमन्तो भाग्यवन्तं सुखयति न पुनर्भाग्यहीनं कदाचित्॥

The author's view of हेमन्त being of comfort only to the well-to-do classes and not the poor masses is a view which has been expressed by many poets including Kālidāsa.

कृत्वा व्यायाममुच्चैः कुशलजनसखः स्नाति तस्मै पयोऽधि-

भुङ्क्ते पुष्टं च मांसं पिबति युवतिभिर्मद्यमव्यग्रचित्तः।

वस्त्रैरुप्स्वभावैरविच्छिन्नशयने प्रावृत्तो याति निद्रां

सर्वैरैव प्रकारैर्भवति सुकृतिनः शीतकालः सुखाय॥

नानानूननधान्यभोगमधुना कुर्वन्ति सर्वे जनाः

तस्माद्वार्कृतोष्मारुभवने तन्वन्ति निद्रां पुनः।

प्रातःकालदिवाकररीयकिरणं गृह्णन्ति पृष्ठोपरि

प्रायो ग्रामजना भवन्ति सुखिनः स्वल्पव्ययेन ध्रुवम्॥

The common man's cheap and easily accessible means for warding of cold are described above.

प्रातः प्रांशुप्रियङ्गुदुमदरवि

दलत्पुष्पसौरभ्यभव्यः कोविदाराश्रमीरः।

स्वच्छन्दं कम्पयित्वा चकितमृगदृशः सीत्कृतिव्यग्रमुख्याः

रोमाञ्चोद्रेकदवत्या विलुलितचिकुरं गाहते वान्तमाल्यम्॥

कान्तिं पूर्वानुरूपां किरति नहि मनाइ मण्डलं चण्डभानोः

न क्रोशद्न्ति स्मरार्तास्तुहिनकरकशलीते पुष्पतल्पे।

प्रेच्चैः प्राप्रोति हासं दिवमनुदिवसं दिग्वर्णना हिमेन

प्रायः सर्वोऽपि शीतं त्यजति निजकलां हन्त! कालस्वभावात्॥

पाकागाराद् गुदानां वियदति मलिनं श्यामलो धूतधूमैः

सर्वरपाकधान्यैर्धरणिरतितरां गौरवर्णा विभाति॥

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हस्ताभ्यां मर्दीयत्वा दिशि दिशि तुषिकाभर्जितं धान्यमुष्यां

फूत्कारैर्निस्तुर्यं तत् सरभसमधुना निर्भरं चर्वयन्ति॥

The villagers' snack of roasted corn is described in a very realistic and simple manner above.

शिशिरवर्णनम्—

प्रादुर्भूता हिमानी मकरगतवौ निर्भरं सर्वलोका:

सेवन्ते यत्र वह्नि प्रतिगृहमधुना भूरि गुस्सा गवाक्षा:॥

किंच्वैतस्यां प्रयाति ध्वुमखिलजनो वर्मणस्स्वभावं

दीर्घां रात्रिं युवानो युवतिकुचटटीसङ्क्षोभरत्नायन्ति॥

धत्ते क्षीणतमेकहारमधुना कण्ठे सुकण्ठी परं

काष्ठां काष्ठानिर्मितां वितनुते मध्ये सुमध्यां नहि॥

गाढालिङ्गनवामनीकृतकुचा निद्रातितुष्टस्तनी

प्रस्तिग्धाग्रधूपितमित: कायं करोति प्रिय:॥

The first half of the third foot of the above verse has been borrowed from a verse in Amarusataka (quoted in Kāvyaprakāśa VII Ullāsa, 310).

चन्द्रस्याघनचन्द्रिकां युवतय: कुतrapi भर्त्रा समं

सेवन्ते ग(?)णसीप्रि पुष्पशयने केलिकलाकौतुकात्।

किंच क्रिपे सरोवरस्य सलिले नो दृश्यते पङ्क्रुजं

भूष्णा: कुन्दमरन्दतुन्दिलतरा गुञ्जन्ति कुञ्जोदरे॥

भूमावास्तरणं विनैव शयित: प्रोचेरनाच्छादिते:

प्रायो भग्रमग्रभितिभवने निद्राति नैव क्षणम्।

अन्योऽन्याहतदन्तपङ्क्तिनिनदैरालिङ्ग्य जानुद्रयं

रड्: कम्पितविग्रह: शिव! शिव! प्राप्नोति कष्टं महत्॥

The poor man's miserable lot in the cold season is described above.

तुषारकरतारकप्रकरकान्तरदय

स्फुटं

तुषारसमुदयत: स्फुरति नैव पूर्व यथा॥

दिवाकरकरा: पुन: प्रचुरकोद्रु:खापहा

दिवामुखसमृद्धता दधति नैव किंचिद्गुणितम्॥

एकत्र स्थगयन्नि हन्त मदनक्रीडाकला: कामिनां

अन्यत्र प्रबलो न नश्यति रथाझानां वियोगानल:॥

इत्यं हन्त! बलाबलं दिनकर: स्वान्तैर्विचार्य ध्रुवं

मन्दं मन्दमुपैति पूवाशिखरप्रोत्थृशृङ्गारपार॥

Śrīkanṭha’s poetic imagination is superb in describing the late sunrise of Śiśira.

V Rājanīti

In the last (tenth) chapter bearing this name, the author has given a short description of some of the traditional principles of Rājanīti (statecraft). Oddly his main theme is the daily routine of the private life of kings. This theme has no affinity with Sangīta or Sāhitya. The inclusion of this heterogeneous element can be explained only by the author’s intention to make his work useful or gratifying for kings generally (indirectly his own patron king) as expressed in the following verse :-

श्रीकण्ठनाम्रा रचिता नरेन्द्रयोग्या रसाला रसकौमुदीयम्।

नवार्थभव्या रसिकेन सेव्या काव्यानुसन्धानविधानधन्या ॥

The epithet नरेन्द्रयोग्या is specially significant.

He speaks of the special attraction of his work for kings in glowing terms as follows :--

अस्तीयं रसकौमुदी रसविदां सन्तोषसम्पादिनी रे धीरा: ।

धरणीतलेड़ातिविपुले यत्रापि कुतrapि च ।

आस्ते क्षोणिपति: सुरदुमसमो दाता रसग्राहक-

स्त्रैनां पठतो जनस्य सुलभा गाढ़ेयसिद्ध: करे ॥

The available text of his Rājanīti varṇana is reproduced below as being illustrative of the above remarks.

Extracts From Rājanītivarṇanādhyāya (X Chap.) of

Rasakaumudī

यो जानाति समग्रनीतिमखिलां कन्दर्पलीलाकलां

वैदग्धीं मधुराझणाशतयुतो नित्यं वदान्योत्तम: ।

नानालंकृतिमञ्जुल: सुवदन: संपूर्णवित्तान्वितो

नाट्यं तस्य महीपतर्विंनुते शोभां परां नान्यथा ॥

That the author gives equal importance to कन्दर्पलीलाकला along with राजनीति is clear from the above verse.

The ‘summum bonum’ of the king’s life, according to our author, appears to be the aesthetic delight of Nāṭya.

Śrikanṭha's Rasakaumudi

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The follwing verses describe the king's daily routine.

उत्थाय प्रातरेव प्रतिदिनमवनीनायको देहधर्मं

कृत्वा स्नानं च विष्णो: स्मरणमथ शिरोवेष्टनं चारु बद्ध्वा।

कुर्यात् कस्तूरिकादैः सुललिततिलकं दर्पणे वीक्ष्य बिम्बं

श्रुत्वा पाझ्ऱावाक्यं श्रुतिशिववचनं नित्यदानं च दद्यात्॥

आचाराद्दिज-वृद्धदत्त-निखिलव्याधिप्रयोग्यौषधं

भुक्त्वा पुष्पसुवासितेन पयसा प्रक्षाल्य वक्त्रान्तरम्‌।

कड्ढोलत्रुटिचन्दनलवङ्घाद्यैर्दिवि मिश्रीकृतं

ताम्बूलं हितसेवकार्पितमतो भुञ्जीत भूमिपतिः ॥

कर्पूरागरुकेसरादिरचितव्यक्ताझ्ऱारागोज्ज्वल:

चोलालङ्करणादिकं नरपतेरोग्यं गृहीत्वाखिलम्‌।

एकान्ते श्रुतलोचचेष्टितकथाश्रवणानान्ततर्पं

गच्छेत् सेवकसित्रसहितो भूपः सभामण्डपम्‌॥

आदाय प्रणतिं क्रमेण निखिलैर्भृत्यैरमात्यैः कृतां

नानाचित्रविचित्रवण्टनविलसत्सिंहासनेऽऽ‌ राजते ।

चषच्छामरवीतः परिवृतः पार्श्वद्वये खड्गिभि:

शृङ्वन् बन्दिजयध्वनि नृपवरो रम्यातपत्रान्वितः॥

The following verse puts forward a view as to what should be regarded as an appropriate treatment to be meted out by a king to different people according to their worth and merit.

कञ्चिन्नमस्तकधूननेन तदनु भ्रूभङ्गमात्रेण च

स्मेरोपाझ्ऱतरङ्गितेन मधुरालापप्रचारेण च।

सम्भाव्य त्वरितं सभातलगतं लोकं समस्तं यथा-

योग्यं भाग्यविधिश्वरोक्तवचनान्याकर्ण्य कार्यं चरेत्॥

The fight of elephants witnessed by the king is described below.

घण्टाघर्घरघोरघोषमधुपव्‌यालोलगण्डस्थलान्‌

एकद्वित्रिचतुर्मदगजानानीय संसक्तः।

उद्दामांकुशहस्तस्थितभटयोर्येन संयुक्यो:

दन्तादन्तितयोर्दयोरपि महायुद्धं क्षणं पश्यति ॥

A description of the king's horses follows-

आनीतास्तदनु स्फुरण्मणिमयैः पृष्ठासनैर्निर्भूषिता

भास्वत्काञ्चनाशृङ्गैर्लानियमितग्रीवाश्वलतासिका:।

उत्कर्षाद्विलकसरौ लघुलघुक्षिप्तैइन्द्रशशाङ्कभतां

बारं बारमधोमुखं कृतवतो हेषां शिरो धूननम्‌॥

The ways and means of संधि and साम, दान, भेद, दण्ड are described in the following verses.

शत्रूणामधिकं बलं क्षितिभुजामलोक्य नानाविधं सैन्यं भूরি विधाय भासुरभटं योधं समागच्छताम्‌।

सार्थं तैः सहसा महोत्समचरणे भूनायकः कृत्वा मन्त्रमनेकनीतिनिपुणः संधि करोतિ ध्रुवम्‌॥

संधिं नैव कदापि यः प्रकुरुतेऽपि योधं समागच्छति प्रौढाहंकृतिमान्‌ महोग्रबलवान्‌ द्वेष्टातिदुष्टो नृपः।

दत्वा चारुहयात्रवोत्क्रमगजान्‌ किञ्चिद्‌ धनं वा पुनः शीघ्रं तेन समं विचारचतुरः प्रीतिं प्रकुर्वीत पुनः॥

सर्वींषेन महानतीव बलवात्रो सामदानैरपि प्रीतिं किचिदुपैति कैवलमसौ राष्ट्रग्रहे सज्जते।

तं शत्रुं प्रति गूढमन्र्निपुणः कुर्वीत्मनीषी नृपः स्वच्छन्दं विधिभेदमेव सहसा सर्वैः प्रकारैरपि ॥

भूरिद्रव्यभरोक्टकोटशतगभूनैर्धारणाधीश्वरः शत्रूणां कटकस्थवीरगणितद्दे भेदं प्रकुर्वीत्स्मृदः।

किज्चिन्मैः कपटैः सहस्रवणासाधैरनेकैरपि क्षोणीमण्डलपालनाय नितरां ध्वंसाय नित्यं हि षाम्‌॥

रात्रावेव तदीयान्‌द्रितबलाभ्यतः प्रविश्य क्षणात्‌ क्षित्त्वा शत्रुमसूच्यं किल रिपोः सैन्यं दुतं नाशयेत्‌।

अत्युग्रौघधिगूर्णपर्विविधप्रोदामन्त्रोदरे निक्षिप्य ज्वलनं सपक्षकटकं चौरो भटः सन्दहेत्‌॥

The loot and plunder indulged in by the victor in the vanquished state are described below.

इत्थं मत्तगजेन्द्रवाजिनिधनैः सैन्यस्थदाहैरपि ग्रामाणामपि लुठ्ठनैर्न परितो भाण्डारचौरैरिरापि।

प्रत्यर्थी वशमुपेत्य कुरुतेऽपि चाटूक्तिमुचैस्त्वरां यत्रीतं मम देहि वैरमथुना मास्त्वावयोर्मित्रता ॥

साम्ना नैव कदापि यस्य मनसि प्रीतिः समुत्पद्यते नो वा चारुरहम्मत्करिणां वित्तस्य दानैरपि।

नैवानेकविधानभेदकरणैः शाम्येम्ननाग्यो रिपुः कुर्वीत प्रति सत्वरं क्षितिपतिदण्डं हठान्मन्रवित्‌॥

उदामोन्मदवारणव्यतिकरव्यालोलघण्टारवं चष्छत्क्षीरपयोदधिवीचिविशदव्यालगदश्वावलीम्‌।

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नानाचित्रचतपटोत्कररथव्यूहान् गृहीत्वा चमूं

पादातैर्बहुविधैर्भृतां नरपतिर्दण्डाय रात्री व्रजेत्॥

मातङ्गाश्वरस्थौघपत्तिनकरस्थूलास्यवैश्वानरा:

त्रोप्यं शानितसरशरविपुलं सैन्यं गृहीत्वा द्रुतम्

युद्धं यस्तुमुलं करोति युगपत्क्ष्मासुचवा समस्तायधं

स्वच्छन्दं विजयी स एव भवति क्षोणीपतीनां वर: ॥

The next verse is incomplete.

The factors which make a king invincible are enumerated below.

दुर्लड्ढेच्या यस्य दुर्गा: स्फुरदुरुकारिणश्रारुचछतुरङ्गा:

कोशाः संपूर्णवत्ता रथसुभटतनुत्राणबहुयत्नवृन्दम्।

धर्मो बुद्धेर्नियोगी विविधबुधजनामन्त्रणो गूढमन्त्रा:

क्षोणीशक्ति: समग्रा स किल नरपतिदुर्ज्जय: स्यादरीणाम्॥

The causes which make a king easily succumb to his enemies are described below.

यदेेशे बहुपातकं समभवदुर्भिक्षमुचैस्तरां

किज्जान्‍यच्चिरकालशुष्कविटप: सूते नवीनाड़ुरम्।

उल्काया: पतनं निशाक्षं रुदितं शत्रौ मुहुर्गौरव:

पाषाणप्रतिमाश्र सोडन्यनृपते: साध्य: प्रयासं विना ॥

The minister has a heavy duty of guiding the king which is described as follows :--

भर्त्तुर्दृष्टि पुरातनं भूशमहो नव्यं जनं काङ्क्षति

प्रामाण्यं तनुते न वाप्तवचने क्रोधं विना कारणम्।

युक्तो बुद्धिविचार्य्यंणं कुरुत नित्यं कुपथ्यं त्यजेत्

एवंभूतनृपो बुद्धिसचिवो वैद्यो यथा व्याधितम्॥

After this brief treatment of Rājanīti our author turns to the private life of the king and dwells upon it in great detail with special reference to amorous sports.

दृष्ट्वा दन्तावलानामसफलकवतां चेष्टितं घोटकानां

मल्लानां बन्दिगीतों विशति परिजनै: साधर्म्यमन्तर्गृहाणाम्।

कृत्वा स्नानं प्रसूनप्रकरपरिमलोद्वारिगड्गोदकेन

व्यादत्ते चीनचोलं ललितमणिलसत्पादुकालङ्कृताङ्ग्री ॥

सौवर्णस्थापनोपरिकनकमये भाजने वाटिकाभि:

प्रोद्दीप्तप्रीतभागे रजतविरचितं काञ्चनीयं च पात्रम्।