1. Indian Music History and Structure Emmie Te Nijenhuis Brill

HANDBUCH DER ORIENTALISTIK

Herausgegeben von B. Spuler

unter Mitarbeit von

H. Franke, J. Gonda, H. Hammitzsch, W. Helck, B. Hrouda,

H. Kahler, J.E. van Lohuizen-de Leeuw und F. Vos

ZWEITE ABTEILUNG

INDIEN

HERAUSGEGEBEN VON J. GONDA

SECHSTER BAND

INDIAN MUSIC

HISTORY AND STRUCTURE

LEIDEN/KÖLN

E. J. BRILL

1974

INDIAN MUSIC

HISTORY AND STRUCTURE

BY

EMMIE TE NIJENHUIS

With 14 Plates

LEIDEN/KÖLN

E.J. BRILL

1974

CONTENTS

Preface

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII

Abbreviations

Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII

I. Documentation

I. Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

II. Melody

II. Melody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

III. Rhythm

III. Rhythm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

IV. Composition

IV. Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Bibliography

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

Discography

Discograhy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Index

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Plates 1-14

Plates 1-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . at the end of the book

ISBN 90 04 03978 3

Copyright 1974 by E. J. Brill, Leiden, Netherlands

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or

translated in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, microfiche

or any other means without written permission from the publisher

PRINTED IN BELGIUM

PREFACE

When I was invited to write in this series about Indian music, I realized that a volume of about 125 pages would not suffice to cover this vast field of research. But, since a considerable number of Introductions to Indian Music have already been published during the last twenty years, it would not be wise to write one more book of this type. So instead of discussing superficially the many aspects of Indian music I decided to make a selection of topics to be dealt with.

PREFACE

Without entering into a detailed discussion of the history of the individual rāgas and tālas I have tried to survey the historical development of the Indian tone-, scale-, rāga- and tāla-systems as well as the structure of musical compositions, as described in the various Sanskrit treatises and in modern musicological literature.

PREFACE

Therefore, I warn the reader that he will find neither a lively description of the rich musical life at the famous royal courts, nor a detailed discussion on the music and dance performed in the temples. Instead he will have to face a mass of reference literature. But I hope this publication will contribute to a more critical study of the history and structure of Indian music.

PREFACE

Utrecht 1974

ABBREVIATIONS

NārS. before 1st c. B.C. Nāradīya Śikṣā Sāmavediyā

ABBREVIATIONS

BhN. 1st c. B.C. Nātyaśāstra by Bharata

ABBREVIATIONS

Aum. before 8th c. A.D. Aumāpatam

ABBREVIATIONS

MBrh 8th c. A.D. Brhaddesī by Mataṅga

ABBREVIATIONS

JagSC. 12th c. Saṅgītacūḍāmaṇi by Jagadekamalla

ABBREVIATIONS

NandBh. 12th c. Bharatārnava by Nandikeśvara

ABBREVIATIONS

PārŚS 13th c. Saṅgītasamayasāra by Pārśvadeva

ABBREVIATIONS

SārṅSR. 1210-1247 Saṅgītaratnākara by Sārṅgadeva

ABBREVIATIONS

NārSM. 14th c. Saṅgītamakaranda by Nārada

ABBREVIATIONS

NārCRN. 14th c. Caṇḍimaccaritarāgāṇirūpana by Nārada

ABBREVIATIONS

SudhSS. 1350 Saṅgītopanisatsāroddhāra by Sudhākalasa

ABBREVIATIONS

KuŚR 1433-1468 Saṅgītarāja by Kumbha

ABBREVIATIONS

SubhŚlD. late 15th c. Saṅgītadāmodara by Subhaṅkara

ABBREVIATIONS

RāmSM. 1550 Svarāṅmekalākaṇdhi by Rāmāmatya

ABBREVIATIONS

PuṇḍRM. late 16th c. Rāgaṁjari by Puṇḍarīkaviṭṭhala

ABBREVIATIONS

ŚrīK. late 16th c. Rāsakāumudī by Śrikaṇṭha

ABBREVIATIONS

SomRV. 1609 Rāgavibodha by Somanātha

ABBREVIATIONS

VenkCP. 1620 Caturaḍiprakāśikā by Venkaṭamakhin

ABBREVIATIONS

DāmSD. ca. 1625 Saṅgītadarpaṇa by Dāmodara

ABBREVIATIONS

HrdHK. late 17th c. Hṛdayakautuka by Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva

ABBREVIATIONS

HrdHP. late 17th c. Hṛdayaprakāśa by Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva

ABBREVIATIONS

AhSP. 1665 Saṅgītapārijāta by Ahobala

ABBREVIATIONS

LocRT. late 17th c. Rāgataranginī by Locana

ABBREVIATIONS

ŚrīRT. late 17th c. Rāgattvavibodha by Śrinivāsa

ABBREVIATIONS

TulŚS. 1735 Saṅgītasārāmṛta by Tulasī

ABBREVIATIONS

GovŚC. late 18th c. Saṅgrahacūḍāmaṇi by Govinda

ABBREVIATIONS

PratŚS. late 18th c. Saṅgītasāra by Pratāpaṣiṃha

ABBREVIATIONS

BhātKPM. late 19th c. Kramik Pustak Mālikā by Bhātkhaṇḍe

ABBREVIATIONS

SambD. 20th c. Dictionary of S.I. Music by Sambamoorthy

ABBREVIATIONS

SambH. 20th c. History of Indian Music by Sambamoorthy

ABBREVIATIONS

SambSIM. 20th c. South Indian Music by Sambamoorthy

CHAPTER ONE

DOCUMENTATION

CHAPTER ONE

The oldest document of Indian music is the widely known collection of religious hymns (sāman) meant to be sung during the sacrifices (especially the Soma sacrifice) and called Sāmaveda which, being the textbook of the udāttṛ priest, mostly contains the same hymns (seventy-five excepted) as the Ṛgveda (the collection of verses, ṛc). In the Sāmaveda the Ṛgvedic accents svarita (kà), anudātta (ka, the non-accentuated syllable) and udātta (ká, the chief tone, “raised” accent), probably only used to indicate the rise and fall of the voice instead of fixed musical pitches, are replaced by the symbols 1, 2 and 3. According to Richard Simon 1 amongst others, the primary purpose of both the Ṛgvedic and the Sāmavedic notations was to indicate the grammatical accent, which leaves the problem of the relationship between the notation and the actual recitation or singing unsolved.

CHAPTER ONE

The three Sāmavedic collections that have come down to us, the Pūrvārcikā, the Uttarārcikā and the Āranyakasaṃhitā (a collection to be sung exclusively in the seclusion of a wood (aranya) and only used by some Vedic sects), are in fact the textbooks for the priest-singer who was supposed to know the appropriate melodies by heart. The Pūrvārcikā consists of 585 single stanzas (yoni) invoking Indra and other gods, each sung to a particular melody. The Uttarārcikā, which for the greater part contains songs consisting of three stanzas, is a more complete textbook, since it includes the solo songs (parīsaṁan) usually sung by the Prastotṛ 2 that are not found in the Pūrvārcikā, possibly because their use was not confined to the Soma sacrifice alone.

CHAPTER ONE

Very likely it was for the sake of Vedic students that the songs of the Pūrvārcikā and the Āranyakasaṃhitā were compiled in song books (gāna): the songs of the former collection in the grāmegeyagāna (i.e. the gāna to be sung in a village), and the songs of the latter collection in the āranyegeyagāna (i.e. the gāna to be sung in a wood). These song books provide the musical notation (cypher or syllabic notation) of the melodies, while the words of

CHAPTER ONE

1 Die Notationen der vedischen Liederbücher, in: Wiener Zeitschr. f. die Kunde d. Morgenl. 27 (1913), p. 308.

CHAPTER ONE

2 Compare Lāṭyāyana Śrautasūtra 1. 5. 8 and 1. 6. 1.

DOCUMENTATION

the songs are presented in a more elaborate way than in the ārcikās and samhitās, namely according to the manner in which they are sung, as for instance by prolonging vowels, repeating syllables and inserting interpolations (stobhas, lit. "praises", comparable to the jubili of European plainsong).

DOCUMENTATION

The names of the melodies are mentioned in the first and second prapāṭhaka (i.e. lesson) of the Uttarārcikā, but it was left to the priest-singer to adapt the melodies of the basic stanzas (yoni) to the other stanzas in accordance with the rules of correct liturgical recitation. At a later date this oral tradition of adaptation (īḍha) was laid down in the Puṣpasūtra.3 Finally even study of the Puṣpasūtra no longer sufficed for the Vedic student, since exactly how the melodies of the grāmegeya- and āranyegeyāniṅga were to be adapted was set out in the īḍhāgāna and īḍhyagāna (īḍhya = īḍharahasya; rahasya = āranyaka, i.e. to be used in the wood only) respectively.4

DOCUMENTATION

Several Brāhmaṇas5 and Sūtras6 allude to the singing of particular sāmans and to the playing of musical instruments. Some Śikṣās7 mention the notes or intervals (svara) and the basic scales (grāma) of an ancient musical system which is generally considered to have developed from the Vedic chant. The author of the Nāradīyā Śikṣā8 compares the notes of secular and religious music. He is the first to associate musical notes with particular deities,9 social classes,10 animals,11 and colours12 -- a prevalent concept in Indian musical aesthetics -- as well as with parts of the fingers,13 which reminds us of the Guidonian hand in European music during the Middle Ages.

DOCUMENTATION

1 Edited by Richard Simon, in : Abh. d. Philos.-Philol. Kl. d. Kgl. Bayer. Ak. d. Wiss. 23 (1909), p. 581-780.

DOCUMENTATION

4 For the historical development of the Samavedic texts and their interrelationship compare W. Caland, Pañcaviṁśa-Brāhmaṇa. Calcutta 1931, Introduction. The four gānas laid down according to the Kauthuma tradition are available in an edition prepared by Satyavrata Sāmasrāmi, Bibliotheca Indica. vols. I-V, Calcutta 1874. Vedic music see also: L. Renou, Bibliographie védique, Paris 1931, p. 219; R. N. Dandekar, Vedic Bibliography, I, Bombay 1946, p. 22; II, Poona 1961, p. 41; 496; III, Poona 1973, p. 68; J. Gonda, Vedic Literature, Wiesbaden 1974, ch. VII, 1

DOCUMENTATION

5 Tāṇḍya (= Pañcaviṁśa) Brāhmaṇa 5, 5, 6; 5, 6, 12f. and Jaiminīya Brāhmaṇa 2, 69, 70; 2, 45, 418.

DOCUMENTATION

6 Bhāṣika Sūtra 3, 17. Āpastamba Śrautasūtra 21, 17-19. Lāṭyāyana Śrautasūtra 3, 12, 8 and 4, 1. Sāṅkhāyana Śrautasūtra 15, 10f.; 17, 3.4.

DOCUMENTATION

7 Māṇḍukī Śikṣā 1, 8-11; Yājñavalkyā Śikṣā 1, 6f. Śāṅṅṛṅī Śikṣā 175. Pan̐niyā Śikṣā 12.

DOCUMENTATION

8 Nāradīyā Śikṣā 1, 5, 1-2.

DOCUMENTATION

9 Nāradīyā Śikṣā 1, 5, 130.

DOCUMENTATION

10 Nāradīyā Śikṣā 1, 4, 30f.

DOCUMENTATION

11 Nāradīyā Śikṣā 1, 5, 3.

DOCUMENTATION

12 Nāradīyā Śikṣā 1, 4, 11.

DOCUMENTATION

13 Nāradīyā Śikṣā 1, 7, 3.

DOCUMENTATION

Not only Vedic literature affords proof that music in India dates from very early times; secular literature too, as for instance the great epics, the Mahābhārata14 and the Rāmāyaṇa,15 contains numerous references to the terminology of ancient Indian music.

DOCUMENTATION

Systematic treatment of the theory and instruments of Indian music first appears, however, in a treatise on dramaturgy, Bharata's Nātyasāstra. Why music should be so elaborately dealt with in a treatise on dramatic art is explained by the fact that music had an important function in the ancient Indian theatre. It was performed not only before the play started (during the preliminaries), but also during the course of the play in the form of dhruvā (= dhruvapada) songs.16

DOCUMENTATION

From the time when Bharata wrote his chapters on music (chapters 28-32) of his Nātyasāstra (compiled in the first century B.C. or the first century A.D.) up to the next landmark in the history of Indian music, Matanga's Bṛhaddeśī (ca. eighth century A.D.) which introduces folk material (deśī rāgas) in standardized (i.e. classical) music, only one treatise, the Dattilam (in its extant form a summary of ancient musical theory but originally a larger work), has come down to us, though several ancient authorities on music (Durgasaᶇakti, Viśākhila, Yāṣṭika, Kohala, Tumburu, Kaśyapa, etc.) must have lived during that period, as they are mentioned by later authors.

DOCUMENTATION

Only a vague idea of the music of that period can be gathered from the few minor references found in general literature. The chapters on music in the Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa, the Vāyu Purāṇa and the Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa17 merely reflect the ancient theories described in the Nātyasāstra. Whereas the treatises of the ancient period (the Nāradīyā Śikṣā, the Nātyasāstra and the Purāṇa chapters) only mention five or seven basic rāgas (grāmarāgas), by the commencement of the Middle Ages the Bṛhaddeśī reveals an existing elaborate system of rāgas, consisting of parent rāgas (i.e. the grāmarāgas) and secondary melodic patterns called bhāṣās, bhāṣāṅgus and upaṅgarāgas. It must have taken centuries to develop such an intricate system. Unfortunately we do not know which tradition was handed down by Mataṅga, the author of the Bṛhaddeśī. All we can find are a few

DOCUMENTATION

14 Compare Leela Omcherry, Classical Music in the Mahābhārata, in : Sangeet Natak Academy Journal 5 (July-Sept. 1967), p. 78-88.

DOCUMENTATION

15 Compare P. C. Dharma, Musical Culture in the Rāmāyaṇa, in : Indian Culture 4 (1937-38), p. 447-453.

DOCUMENTATION

16 Compare chapter 4 (composition), p. 117 and note 145.

DOCUMENTATION

17 See Alain Daniélou and N. R. Bhatt, Textes des Purāṇa sur la theorie musicale, vol. I, Pondichery 1959.

DOCUMENTATION

references to ancient rāgas in general literature, some examples of which will be given hereafter.

DOCUMENTATION

Harivamśa 93, 22 refers to a "devagāndhāra" chalikya (= chalika) song. In music of later centuries devagāndhāra is the name of a well known rāga. In the next verse the author of the Harivamśa defines the musical structure of the above mentioned song as "āgāndhāragrāmarāgam", i.e. "being based on the grāmarāga up to the [note] gāndhāra". The fact that the song is elucidated in terms of the ancient system (i.e. the system of grāmarāgas), may indeed indicate that this musical reference dates from the older period. The sixth century prose-romance Vāsavadattā 18 refers to a rāga vibhāṣa sung by the Kārpātika minstrels. Kalidāsa (ca. fifth century) prescribes that the rāga kakubha should be sung in the fourth act of his drama Vikramorvaśiyā. 19 However, these references to rāgas do not conclusively prove that the melodies were already in existence during the ancient period, that is to say, before the time of the Brhaddesī, since the names of the rāgas may have been inserted in the original text by a later copyist.

DOCUMENTATION

A similar problem arises, when we try to date Bharata's Gītālamkāra 20 also known as Vādimattagajankusa. In the introduction to this book (p. VII), Alain Daniélou suggests that the Gītālamkāra must be a very old text -- prior even to the Nāṭyaśāstra -- because it is quoted in various recensions and most probably also in the original version of the Pañcatantra (dated between 300 B.C. and 750 A.D.). I myself, however, could only find the said reference, which is a reference to the 36 varṇas (obviously fore-runners of the later rāgas), 21 in the Pañcakhyānaka recension of the Pañcatantra by the Jaina Monk Pūrṇabhadra, 22 dating from 1199 A.D. In the oldest recension, entitled Tantrākhyāyika, 23 the whole story of the singing ass propounding musical theory is missing. This means that the varṇas of the Gītālamkāra certainly existed before 1199 A.D., but not necessarily before the Nāṭyaśāstra or the Brhaddesī.

DOCUMENTATION

In addition to the above mentioned Sanskrit references there is a famous Tamil poem, the Śilappadikaram, 24 written in the second century A.D. by

DOCUMENTATION

18 Edited by L. H. Gray. Delhi 1962, p. 55, no. 45.

DOCUMENTATION

19 Raja Tagore's Sanskrit Library no. 26, Calcutta 1873.

DOCUMENTATION

20 Edited by A. Daniélou and N. R. Bhatt, Pondichéry 1959.

DOCUMENTATION

21 Compare chapter 14 of the Gītālamkāra.

DOCUMENTATION

22 Critically edited by J. Hertel, Harvard Univ., Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1908, book 5, tale 41.

DOCUMENTATION

23 Edited by J. Hertel, Harvard Univ., Cambridge Mass., 1915.

DOCUMENTATION

24 A. Daniélou, Śilappadikaram (The Anklet Bracelet) by Price Ilangó Adigal (Translation), New York 1965, especially cantos 7 and 8; S. Ramanathan, Cilappatikāratu icai nunukka vilakkam, Madras 1956.

DOCUMENTATION

Prince Illango Adigal, which contains some interesting information about the ancient Karnāṭak modes (paññ) and the early arched harp type of vīṇā (yāḷ).

DOCUMENTATION

So apart from Matanga's Brhaddesī, 25 scarcely any material is at hand regarding Indian music in the early Middle Ages and that work has unfortunately come down to us in an incomplete and rather corrupt manuscript dealing only with the basic scales (grāma), micro-intervals (śruti), notes or intervals (svara), secondary scales (mūrchanā), basic modes (jāti), melodic patterns (rāga) and the structure of musical composition (prabandha). The original work must have been much larger since, in the opinion of later authors (Śnibhabhūpāla, Abhinavagupta, Nānyadeva and Dāmodaragupta in his Kuṭṭinīmata), Matanga was also an expert on musical instruments (especially on the flute), and dramaturgy.

DOCUMENTATION

In the eleventh century several commentaries on the Nāṭyaśāstra appeared. First, at the beginning of the century, Abhinavagupta wrote his Abhinavabhāratī 26 and towards the end of the century Nānyadeva his elaborate commentary, the Bharatabhäṣya, 27 also named Sarasvatīhrdayālamkāra, which is a complete treatise in itself. The dating of Nandikeśvara's two works, Bharatārnava 28 (dealing with dance movements and rhythm) and Abhinayadarpana 29 ("The Mirror of Gestures", a treatise on the emotion (rasa) expressed in dancing), still remains uncertain. A certain Nandikeśvara is quoted by Matanga in connection with the mūrchanās of twelve notes, 30 but I doubt whether the author mentioned by Matanga is the same person as our dance expert. According to M. Rāmakrṣṇa Kavi 31 the Bharatārnava was written after the eleventh century. Personally I would date this work even later, that is to say after the twelfth century, since it often cites the twelfth century author Haripāla.

DOCUMENTATION

In the twelfth century some important works on music were written by royal authors. First to be mentioned are the two Chalukya kings Someśvara and his son Pratāpacakravartin (= Jagadekamalla). King Someśvara

DOCUMENTATION

25 Edited by K. Sāmbasiva Sāstri, Trivandrum 1928.

DOCUMENTATION

26 The Nāṭyaśāstra, with the commentary Abhinavabhārati, edited by M. Rāmakṛṣṇa Kavi and J.S. Pade, 4 vols., Gaekwad's Oriental Series no. 36, 68, 124, 145, Baroda 1926, 1934, 1954 and 1964.

DOCUMENTATION

27 The Bharatabhäṣya of Nānyadeva, edited by Chaitanya P. Desai, vol. I, Khairagarh 1961.

DOCUMENTATION

28 Bharatārnava of Nandikeśvara, with translation in English and Tamil, edited by S. K. Vasudeva Sāstri, Tanjore Sarasvati Mahal Series no. 74, Tanjore 1957.

DOCUMENTATION

29 Nandikeśvara's Abhinayadarpanam, crit. ed. and English transl. by Manomohan Ghosh, Calcutta 1957.

DOCUMENTATION

30 Brhaddesī, p. 32, line 10.

DOCUMENTATION

31 Bharatakosa, Tirupati 1951, Introduction p. III.

DOCUMENTATION

devoted two chapters of his encyclopaedia Mānasollāsa (= Abhilāṣārthacintāmani), compiled in 1131 A.D., to music.32 King Jagadekamalla, who ruled from 1134-1143 A.D., wrote a treatise on music named Samgitacūdāmani.33 Another Chalukya king, Bhimadeva's son Haripāla, of Bhimadeva and Ajayapāla, composed the Samgitasudhākara.34 In 1180 A.D. Somarāja (= Somabhūpāla, one of king Ajayapāla's body guards (vettradhara) wrote a work on music entitled Samgitaratnāvali.35 Another Samgitaratnāvali36 was written about 1240 A.D. by Jāyana, the commander of the elephant forces of Kākatiya Ganapati of Warangel (1198-1263 A.D.).

DOCUMENTATION

During the first half of the thirteenth century Śārngadeva wrote his Samgitaratnākara37 ("The Ocean of Music"), a treatise which has been preserved in many manuscripts and is frequently quoted by later authors. This famous work gives a clear exposition of the theory of Indian music and dance from the ancient period to the date of writing. It became the classic amongst Sanskrit works on Indian music and is often cited as authoritative on contemporary music by musicologists living even after the sixteenth century. As late as 1735 Tulaja, author of the Samgitasārāmrta,38 goes on quoting lenghty passages of that work as if they were still applicable when, as a matter of fact, by that time the Samgitaratnākara must have been quite out of date.

DOCUMENTATION

Although the exact dates cannot be given, it is safe to assume that soon after the Samgitaratnākara, towards the end of the thirteenth century, two other important works on music appeared, the Samgitasamayāsāra39 by the Jain author Pārśvadeva and the Samgitamakaranda40 by Nārada. To a large extent both authors base their opinions on Śārngadeva. The author of

DOCUMENTATION

the Samgitamakaranda however evolves a system of male and female rāgas which is not found in the Samgitaratnākara or in any other classical treatise on music except the Gītalamkāra. This system puts forward in elementary form the well known rāga-rāgini system mostly consisting of six main rāgas and thirty secondary rāginis which was developed by later, especially North Indian, authors.

DOCUMENTATION

To the Jain author Sudhākalasa, who wrote the Sangitopanisatsāro-ddhara41 in 1350, we owe the first iconographical description of rāgas, which personifies the melodic patterns as pseudo-deities of the Jainist religion. However, it is likely that this kind of rāga personification in verses (dhyāna, lit. "contemplation formula") was already in existence before Sudhākalasa's days, as a particular verse42 in the Brhaddesi points in this direction.

DOCUMENTATION

After the fourteenth century there was a freer exchange of culture between the Hindu and Muslim worlds. Musicians from Persian and Arabian countries had begun to take great interest in Indian music.43 About 1375 the author of the Farid-ul-Zamanfil Maarefat-i-Ilham, a treatise on Persian-Arabian music, also wrote a work on Indian music entitled Ghunyat-ul Munya. In it he cites Bharata's Nātyaśāstra and other, less known works on Indian music such as the Samgita Vinoda, the Samgita Mudrā, the Satanak and the Rāgārṇava. Umar Sama Yahya, an Afghan who studied Indian music in India, wrote (in Persian) the Lahjat-i-Sikandar Shahi, quoting from the Samgitaratnākara, the Samgitamataṅga, the Nrttasaṅgraha, the Udbharat (= the Nātyaśāstra), the Sudhanidhiṅgitasamassiya (?) and the Sangita-kalpataru.

DOCUMENTATION

The fourteenth century Sufi noble of Turkish origin, Amir Khusrau, who is said to have introduced the sitār and the tablā in Indian music and invented compositions such as the qaul (now qawwāli) and the taranā, is also alleged to have invented new rāgas by combining Persian and Indian melodies. The story about Amir Khusrau's contest with the Deccan musician Naik Gopal is fictitious, since the latter lived two centuries later during the reign of Akbar. Amir Khusrau composed the Ijaz-i-Khusravi in which the section Harf-i-Siyum is of special interest to musicologists.

DOCUMENTATION

References to music are also made in Khusrau's masnavis Qiran-us-Saadin and Nuh Sipihr, as well as in his other works such as the Hasht Bahisht.

DOCUMENTATION

Although orthodox Muslim religion regarded music with disapproval an exception being the Sufi movement which considered music a means towards realizing God most of the Muhammadan sovereigns showed keen interest in Indian music. Akbar (1555-1605), Jahangir (1605-1627), Shahjahan (1628-1658), Bahadur Shah (1707-1712) and Muhammad Shah (1719-1748) were all patrons of music and art in general. Only Aurangzeb (1658-1707, though fond of music, preferred an ascetic life.

DOCUMENTATION

In the fifteenth century sultan Sāhi of Kāca (forty miles from Allahabad), who was a vassal of king Ibrahim of Jaunpur, was so interested in Indian music that he formed a large library of books on Indian music and dance, and in 1429 A.D. invited famous musical experts to a congress for the purpose of compiling a work (in Sanskrit) on the theory of classical Indian music. The greater part of this work, known as the Sangitasirömani, generally reproduces well established opinions; but in respect of the grāmas it supports a tradition adhered to by only a minority whose views are confined to the Gitālamkāra and a few other works. Umar Sama Yahya's Persian treatise on Indian music, the Lahjat-i-Sikander Shāhi, appeared under the patronage of sultan Sikander Lodi of Delhi (1489-1517).

DOCUMENTATION

Although Hindu kings spent a great deal of time fighting their Muslim conquerors, they did not neglect the arts. Twenty years after the Sangita-siromani (1449 A.D.), the Rajput king Kumbhakarna of Citrakuta wrote the Samgitarāja. This voluminous compilation on the classical theory of music closely follows the Samgitaratnākara, but the dhyānas of the rāgas are obviously borrowed from Sudhāikalaśa's Samgitopanisatsāroddhara. At about the same time the Bengal author Subhamkara probably wrote his Sangitadāmödara. Many of the rāgas mentioned in this work, which only describes them iconographically and omits their musical definition, are not found in the classical rāga system. This divergence in systems may be due to the fact that by this time various regional styles had already developed. The schism between North and South Indian music which may already have originated in Sārngadeva's times (i.e. the thirteenth century)

DOCUMENTATION

and finally resulted in two completely different types of music - the North Indian or Hindustānī style and the South Indian or Karnātak style -- became rigidly fixed by the sixteenth century during Akbar's reign.

DOCUMENTATION

During the beginning of the sixteenth century the famous king Māna Simha Tumāra of Gwalior (1486-1517), who was a patron of music and himself a composer, wrote his Hindi treatise on music, the Mānakutūhala, which was translated into Persian in the seventeenth century by Faqir Ullah.

DOCUMENTATION

In his Svaramelakalānidhi (1550) the Karnātak expert Rāmāmātya presents a new system of rāga classification. This no longer classifies rāgas according to their basic modes (jāti), as the musicologists of the Middle Ages did, but classifies them according to their scales (mela).

DOCUMENTATION

In the second half of the sixteenth century Pundarīkavitthala, a South Indian musicologist who migrated to the North, introduced the Karnātak mela system into Hindustānī music. Pundarīkavitthala is the author of three works on music (Sadrāgacandrodaya, Rāgamālā and Rāgaman-jari) and one treatise on dancing (Nartanānirnaya). His pupil Srīkantha, who was also a South Indian who settled in the North, wrote the Rasakaumudī which reveals his master's influence.

DOCUMENTATION

Alongside this Karnātak mela system, another system of rāga classification was developed by the North Indian authors which was based on six, or more, primary male rāgas and a number of secondary female rāgas (rāgini), some of which are referred to as female even although their iconographic description indicates the opposite. In the sixteenth century this system of rāga classification -- obviously traceable to the ancient notion of male and female rāgas in Nārada's Samgitamakaranda and Bharata's Gitālam-kāra -- is applied in works such as Nārada's Catvārimśacchatarāgani-rūpa-pana, Ksemakarna's Rāganālä and Pundarikavitthala's Rāgamālā.

DOCUMENTATION

An edition and English translation of the Sangitasirömani is being prepared by Pandit Mathura Datt Pant and the present writer.

DOCUMENTATION

Ms. at Lucknow, cf. Nazir Ahmed, The Lahjat-i-Sikander Shahi, in: Islamic Culture 28 (1954), p. 410-417.

DOCUMENTATION

Samgitarāja by Mahārāna Kumbhā, vol. I, edited by Premilata Sharma, Banaras 1963.

DOCUMENTATION

Sangitadāmödara by Subhamkara, edited by G. Sāstri and G. Mukhopadhyāya, Calcutta Sanskrit College Research Series no. 11, text no. 8, Calcutta 1960.

DOCUMENTATION

Ms. in the possession of the Nawab Sahib of Rāmpur

DOCUMENTATION

Ms. of this work (Mankautuhal) and of another work (Rāgdar-pana) by the same author at Aligarh, Muslim University

DOCUMENTATION

Svaramelakalānidhi by Rāmāmātya, edited with intro. and English transl. by M S Ramaswami Aiyar, Annamalai 1932.

DOCUMENTATION

Sadrāgacandrodaya by Pundarikavitthala, edited by D. K. Joshi, Bombay 1916(?)

DOCUMENTATION

Rāgamālā by Pundarikavitthala, edited by D. K. Joshi, Bombay 1916(?)

DOCUMENTATION

Rāgamanjari by Pundarikavitthala, edited by D. K. Joshi, Poona 1918.

DOCUMENTATION

Manuscripts by Nartanānirnaya of Pundarikavitthala are in Tanjore, Baroda, Bikaner and Jammu-Kashmir (Maharāja's Library).

DOCUMENTATION

Rasakaumudi by Srikantha, edited by A. N. Jani, Baroda 1963.

DOCUMENTATION

Catvārimśacchatarāgani-rūpa-pana by Nārada, edited by D. K. Joshi, Poona 1914.

DOCUMENTATION

Manuscripts of Ksemakarna's Rāgamālā in: India Office Library, London, also in Oxford and Bikaner

DOCUMENTATION

Cf. note 52.

DOCUMENTATION

These texts do not mention the musical characteristics of the rāgas, but only contain iconographic or poetic descriptions regarding the pictorial representation of the melodies. But the Rasakaumudi by Śrikanṭha and the Samgitadarpana ⁵⁹ by Dāmodara (probably late sixteenth or early seventeenth century) furnish the iconographic or poetic descriptions (dhyāna) together with the musical definitions (lakṣaṇa) of the rāgas.

DOCUMENTATION

An interesting link between Karṇāṭak and Hindustānī music is the Rāgavibodha,⁶⁰ written in 1609 by the South Indian expert Somanātha. In describing the musical characteristics of the rāgas this author sometimes follows Rāmāmātya's South Indian system. In a number of cases, however, he adopts the opinions of the North Indian author Pumdarīkavitthala, who often deviates from Rāmāmātya's melā system. This explains why some of Somanātha's rāgas are still practised in modern Hindustānī music, while other rāgas of his only figure in modern Karṇāṭak music.

DOCUMENTATION

It is the seventeenth century South Indian musicologist Venkaṭamakhin in his Caturdandiprakāśikā ⁶¹ written in 1620 he changed Rāmāmātya's rāga and melā classification into a system which, with slight modifications influenced by the eighteenth century authors Tulaja (Samgitasarāmrta, 1735) ⁶² and Govinda (Samgrahacudāmani, ⁶³ towards the end of the eighteenth century), is still used in modern Karṇāṭak music.

DOCUMENTATION

But even in the centuries following Venkaṭamakhin the ancient theories of music were not abandoned completely. As a rule later musicologists devoted the greater part of their works to the classification of rāgas and treated the ancient theory of svaras, śrutis, etc. less exhaustively. The seventeenth century author Cikkabhūpāla, however, wrote a large compilation entitled Abhinavabharatasāraśrngraha,⁶⁴ which summarizes the ancient theories discussed in the Nāṭyaśāstra and also refers to medieval and contemporary treatises.

DOCUMENTATION

In the seventeenth century Hindustānī music underwent considerable change. Whereas Pumdarīkavitthala has preserved the Karṇāṭak basic notes

DOCUMENTATION

(śuddha svaras) : sa = d, ri = e, ga = f, ma = g, pa = a, dha = b, ni = c (representing Rāmāmātya's interpretation of the ancient basic scale sadjagrāma : sa = d, ri = e, ga = f, ma = g, pa = a, dha = b, ni = c), seventeenth century North Indian authors, namely Locana (in his Rāgataranginī) ⁶⁵ and Hrdayanārāyaṇadeva (in his Hrdayaprakāśa) ⁶⁶ and Hrdayakautuka ⁶⁷, introduced a new basic scale in Hindustānī music consisting of the notes: sa = d, ri = e, ga = f, ma = g, pa = a, dha = b, ni = c. However not only the basic scale was altered; there was change too in the musical structure of the individual rāgas. Some of the older rāgas became obsolete and new rāgas were invented.

DOCUMENTATION

Hindustānī music never developed such a rigid system of rāga classification as Karṇāṭak music did. Towards the close of the nineteenth century the North Indian musicologist Bhātkhaṇde ⁶⁸ -- obviously influenced by the twelve samsthānas of Locana and Hrdayanārāyaṇadeva -- invented a system of ten thāṭas which has gained general recognition. The peculiarities of Hindustānī rāgas regarding execution ('Aufführungspraxis'), times of performance and aesthetic content obviously defy classification according to purely scalar principles. Many of the modern Hindustānī rāgas in their present form date back to Ahobala's Samgitaparijāta (1665), ⁶⁹ a work which is closely followed by Śrinivāsa's Rāgatattvavibodha. ⁷⁰ Some Hindustānī rāgas are not even older than Pratāpasimha's Sangīt Sār. ⁷¹ a Hindi compilation of the theory of ancient Indian and contemporary Hindustānī music written towards the end of the eighteenth century. Nevertheless a number of rāgas that have retained several of their ancient characteristics are still used in modern Hindustānī music.

DOCUMENTATION

In 1784 the English orientalist Sir William Jones wrote his essay 'On the Musical Modes of the Hindus'. ⁷² Muḥammad Rezā, the author of a Persian

⁵⁹ Samgitadarpana by Dāmodara, edited with introduction and notes in English and Tamil by K. Vasudeva Sastri. Saraswathi Mahal Series no. 34, Madras Government Oriental Series no. 66, Tanjore 1952. Translation of chapter 1 and 2 : A. A. Bake, Bijdrage tot de kennis der Voor-Indische Muziek. Thesis. Utrecht 1930

⁶⁰ Rāgavibodha by Somanātha, edited by M. S. Rāmaswāmi Aiyar. Madras 1933

⁶¹ Caturdandiprakāśikā by Venkaṭamakhin, edited by S. Subrahmanya S̄astri, T. V. Subba Rau and T. L. Venkatarāma. Madras 1934.

⁶² Cf. Note 38

⁶³ Samgrahacud̄amani by Govinda, edited by S. Subrahmanya S̄astri

⁶⁴ Abhinavabharatasāraśrngraha of Cikkabhūpāla, edited by R. Sathyanarayana, Mysore 1960.

⁶⁵ Rāgataranginī by Locana, edited by D. K. Joshi, Poona 1918; complete edition by Baladeva Misra, Darbhanga Raj Press, Darbhanga 1934.

⁶⁶ Hrdayaprakāśa by Hrdayanārāyaṇadeva, edited by D. K. Joshi, Poona 1918.

⁶⁷ Hrdayakautuka by Hrdayanārāyaṇadeva, edited by D. K. Joshi, Poona 1918.

⁶⁸ V. N. Bhātkhaṇde, A Comparative Study of Some of the Leading Music Systems of the 15th, 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries, Bombay 1949; By the same author : Hindustānī Sangītapaddhati, Kramik Pustak Mālikā, vols. I-VI, Hathras 1953-1957, and : Hindustānī Sangītapaddhati, Sangītasāstra, vols. I-IV, Hathras 1956-1957.

⁶⁹ Samgitaparijāta by Ahobala, edited by K. V. Ghosā, Calcutta 1879

⁷⁰ Rāgatattvavibodha by Śrinivāsa, edited by V. R. C. Desai. Gackwad's Oriental Series no. 126, Baroda 1956.

⁷¹ Sangīt Sār, compiled by Pratāp Simha Deo of Jaiipur (1779-1804), I-VII, Poona 1910-1912.

⁷² Published in : Music of India, by W. Jones and N. A. Willard, Calcutta 1793, 134 and second rev. ed. 1962, p. 89-112; and in : Hindu Music from Various Authors, comp. by S. M. Tagore, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Studies XXXI, Varanasi 1965 (Calcutta 1882), p. 125-160.

DOCUMENTATION

treatise on Indian music, the Naghmāt-i-Āṣafī (1813),74 is said to have

DOCUMENTATION

introduced the bilāval scale (comparable to the Western major scale) as

DOCUMENTATION

standard.74 Viṣṇu Nārāyaṇa Bhātkhaṇḍe, to whom we owe the classification

DOCUMENTATION

of Hindustānī rāgas into ten basic scales (thāṭ), wrote several important

DOCUMENTATION

works on Indian music. His Sangīta Śāstra75 deals with the historical

DOCUMENTATION

development and different traditions of the Indian rāgas. In his Kramik

DOCUMENTATION

Pustak Mālikā76 the author illustrates the Hindustānī rāgas and their

DOCUMENTATION

traditional styles (gharāṇa) by furnishing numerous, valuable music examples

DOCUMENTATION

taken from contemporary practice.

DOCUMENTATION

74 Edited by the Bangiya Sahitya Parisad, Calcutta 11842-49; 21916.

DOCUMENTATION

74 Compare O.C. Gangoly, Ragas and Raginis, I, Baroda 1948, p. 67; V.N. Bhātkhaṇḍe,

DOCUMENTATION

A Short Historical Survey of the Music of Upper India, Bombay 1934, p. 35. But compare also :

DOCUMENTATION

G.H. Ranade, Hindustani Music, Poona 21951, p. 12.

DOCUMENTATION

75 Consisting of four volumes, first written in Marāṭhī, later translated into Hindi and

DOCUMENTATION

published by Sangīta Kāryālaya, Hāthras 1956-1957; cf. note 68.

DOCUMENTATION

76 Consisting of six volumes, published by Sangīta Kāryālaya, Hāthras 1953-1957;

DOCUMENTATION

cf. note 68.

CHAPTER TWO

MELODY

CHAPTER TWO

One of the fundamentals of a musical culture is its tone-system that is

CHAPTER TWO

to say the system according to which it divides the octave (Sanskrit :

CHAPTER TWO

saptaka, “series of seven”, as against octave, “series of eight”) into smaller

CHAPTER TWO

intervals. The result of such a division is a series of notes which, if taken

CHAPTER TWO

consecutively in regular ascent or descent, constitute the basic scale of that

CHAPTER TWO

culture. The Indian musical culture is of special interest, since it has in course

CHAPTER TWO

of time developed several completely different basic scales.

CHAPTER TWO

Musical treatises dating from the ancient period and the middle ages call

CHAPTER TWO

the basic scales grāma, which literally means “village” or “community”,

CHAPTER TWO

but in a musical context denotes a “collection of intervals” (svarasamūha).1

CHAPTER TWO

As a rule the term grāma is used for a basic scale from which are derived a

CHAPTER TWO

number of secondary scales (mūrchanā). According to Śārṅgadeva’s commen-

CHAPTER TWO

tator Kallinātha 2 grāma is also “the foundation for pentatonic and hexatonic

CHAPTER TWO

series of notes (tāna), melodic line (varṇa), figuration and ornamentation

CHAPTER TWO

(alaṃkāra) and mode (jāti)”.

CHAPTER TWO

Originally three different grāmas, viz. the ṣadja-, the madhyama- and the

CHAPTER TWO

gāndhāra-grāma, must have existed in ancient India. The last mentioned

CHAPTER TWO

--- probably the oldest --- is seldom referred to by musicologists,3 who allege

CHAPTER TWO

that it disappeared from the human world and is only practised in heaven,

CHAPTER TWO

which suggests that this grāma was already out of use by the early centuries

CHAPTER TWO

of the Christian era.

CHAPTER TWO

The structure of the three ancient grāmas, which are obviously named

CHAPTER TWO

after the notes on which they start, i.e. ṣadja, madhyama and gāndhāra, is

CHAPTER TWO

determined by measuring the intervals between the seven notes of the

CHAPTER TWO

saptaka: ṣadja (abbreviated sa), ṛṣabha (ri), gāndhāra (ga), madhyama (ma),

CHAPTER TWO

pañcama (pa), dhaivata (dha) and niṣāda (ni). The reader should bear in mind

CHAPTER TWO

that in the ancient Indian theory of music ṣadja, ṛṣabha, etc. not only denote

CHAPTER TWO

the notes but also the corresponding intervals below these notes (for

CHAPTER TWO

example: ṣadja is not only the note ṣadja (sa) itself but also the interval

CHAPTER TWO

1 Compare ŚārnSR. I, 4, 1; NāṭySM. I, 1, 49.

CHAPTER TWO

2 Kallinātha on ŚārnSR. I, 4, 1.

CHAPTER TWO

3 NārṢ. I, 2, 6f.; NāṭySM. I, 1, 54f.; ŚārnSR. I, 4, 4f.; MBh. 91.

14

MELODY

between the notes niṣāda and ṣadja, ni-sa). The ancient Indian intervals are

"measured" in terms of micro-intervals (śruti, lit. "audible unit"). In order

to distinguish the three types of grāma the theorists 4 determined the number

of śrutis comprised in each of the seven basic intervals.

ṣadjagrāma

madhyamagrāma

gāndhāragrāma

ni-sa = 4 śrutis

ga-ma = 4 śrutis

ri-ga = 4 śrutis

sa-ri = 3 śrutis

ma-pa = 3 śrutis

ga-ma = 4 śrutis

ri-ga = 2 śrutis

pa-dha = 4 śrutis

ma-pa = 3 śrutis

ga-ma = 4 śrutis

dha-ni = 2 śrutis

ni-sa = 4 śrutis

pa-dha = 3 śrutis

dha-ni = 4 śrutis

sa-ri = 3 śrutis

ri-ga = 2 śrutis

sa-ri = 2 śrutis

In addition to the above mentioned "pure" (śuddha) notes ṣadja, rṣabha,

etc. the following "altered" (vikrta) notes were generally

recognized: the cyuta ("fallen", i.e. one śruti lower) notes cyuta ṣadja,

cyuta madhyama, triśruti or cyuta pañcama, the slightly raised (i.e. one

śruti higher) notes sādhārana gāndhāra and kaiśika niṣāda and the raised

(i.e. two śrutis higher) notes antara gāndhāra and kākali niṣāda.

Theoretically the ancient Indian octave (saptaka) contained twenty-two

śrutis or micro-intervals. Mathematically considered these śrutis are equal,

each śruti being 1/22 of the octave, i.e. 1/22 × 1200 cents 5 = 54,5 cents

-- a micro-interval resembling the ancient Greek enharmonic quartertone

of ratio 32/31 = 55 cents. Calculating the ancient Indian intervals according

to the 22-śruti system (1 śruti = 54,5 cents) -- of course a purely theoretical

calculation only mathematically valid -- the śuddha and vikrta notes

corresponding to these intervals could be reconstructed as follows :

names of notes

śrutis

cents

Western equivalents

śuddha sa

0, but 4 to ś.ni

0

d

śuddha ri

3 to sa

164

e ♭6

śuddha ga

5 to sa

273

f 27

sādhārana ga

6 to sa

327

f ♯27

antara ga

7 to sa

382

f ♯18

cyuta ma

8 to sa

436

f ♯+30

4 For the structure of the ṣadja- and madhyamagrāma compare BhN. 28. 26-29 (Bombay

ed.); Ghosh, Transl. II, p. 8f., ch. 28. 25-28); for the structure of the gāndhāragrāma cf. ŚārṅSR.

I, 4, 4f.

5 For a division of the octave into 1200 cents compare A. J. Ellis, Tonometrical Observations

on some Existing Non-harmonic Musical Scales, in : Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.

1884, p. 368-385.

15

MELODY

śuddha ma

9 to sa

491

g 9

triśruti pa

12 to sa

655

a +43

śuddha pa

13 to sa

709

a -9

śuddha dha

16 to sa

873

b 27

śuddha ni

18 to sa

982

c 18

kaiśika ni

19 to sa

1036

c ♯16

kākali ni

20 to sa

1091

c♯ 9

cyuta sa

21 to sa

1146

c♯ +40

śuddha sa (tāra)

22 to sa

1200

d’

However, it is highly unlikely that equal temperament existed in ancient

Indian music and much more probable that the old melodic instruments

(arched harp, lute and flute) were tuned by ear, which means that only

harmonics of simple frequency ratios (1:2:3:4:5:6:7 etc. up to 16) could

have been used. Daniélou 6 has attempted to reconstruct the ancient Indian

temperament by combining the ancient Greek Pythagorean temperament

(which derives every interval from the cycle of fifths, 3/2 × 3/2 × 3/2 etc.)

with the harmonics 6/5 and 7/4 of just intonation. According to him/the

ancient Indian śuddha and vikrta notes were tuned as follows :

names of notes

śrutis

ratios

cents

Western

equivalents

śuddha sa

0, but 4 to ś.ni

1

0

c

d

śuddha ri

3 to sa

9/8

204

d -4

e -4

śuddha ga

5 to sa

32/27

294

e ♭6

f 6

sādhārana ga

6 to sa

6/5

316

e ♭-10

f -10

antara ga

7 to sa

5/4

386

e 14

f ♯14

cyuta ma

8 to sa

81/64

408

e ♯13

f ♯13

śuddha ma

9 to sa

4/3

498

f 2

g 2

triśruti pa

12 to sa

36/25

631

f ♯-11

g ♯-11

śuddha pa

13 to sa

3/2

702

g 2

a -2

śuddha dha

16 to sa

5/3

884

a 10

b 10

śuddha ni

18 to sa

16/9

996

b ♭4

c 4

kaiśika ni

19 to sa

9/5

1018

b ♭+18

c ♭+18

kākali ni

20 to sa

15/8

1088

b 12

c♯ 12

cyuta sa

21 to sa

243/128

1110

b -10

c♯ -10

śuddha sa (tāra)

22 to sa

2

1200

c’

d’

6 A. Daniélou, The Ragas of Northern Indian Music, London 1968, p. 40f.; Idem, Tableau

Comparatif des Intervalles Musicaux, Pondichéry 1958.

MELODY

For purposes of presenting the ancient Indian notes in Western notation, a d-scale is more convenient than a c-scale since, in representing the ancient Indian pure (śuddha) notes by naturals, it avoids accidentals (flats and sharps) in the case of the basic notes of the sadjagrāma.

MELODY

Comparing Danielou's calculation with the calculation according to the 22-śruti (= 1200 cents) system, the number of cents in Danielou's intervals (to sa) sādhārana ga (6/5), antara ga (7/4), śuddha ma (4/3), śuddha pa (3/2), śuddha dha (5/3) and kākali ni (15/8) corresponds reasonably well with the ancient śruti system. However, the other intervals suggested by him differ widely from their ancient equivalents. For example, his śuddha ga [32/27 = 294 cents] is 21 cents more than the śuddha ga (= 273 cents) in the ancient śruti system. In my opinion Danielou is mistaken when he takes the śuddha ga (22 × 16/9 = 32/27 = 294 cents) as a perfect fifth (downwards) on śuddha ni (16/9 = 996 cents). The latter interval is incorrectly calculated as a perfect fourth on śuddha ma: 4/3 × 4/3 = 16/9 since the ancient Indian theory of consonance7 did not regard the notes ma and ni as consonant (samvādin), which means that they were not in a perfect fourth relationship.

MELODY

The present writer suggests that in the ancient period the Indian musicians might have used the harmonic seventh (7/4 = 969 cents) as śuddha ni and the harmonic minor third (7/6 = 267 cents) as śuddha ga. In conformity with ancient theory these notes (i.e. ga and ni) constituted a consonant relationship, whereas ma and ni did not. The intervals 7/6 and 7/4 may appear to be rather low interpretations of the ancient śuddha ga and śuddha ni, but this becomes less conspicuous, if we consider Rāmāmātya's interpretation of these intervals. Applying the Pythagorean temperament, which he obviously borrowed from the Arabs, to the sixteenth century Karnāṭak vinā (a fretted lute with four playing strings), this South Indian musicologist interpreted these notes (or rather intervals to sa) much lower, that is to say, śuddha ga as 9/8 = 204 cents = f3 and śuddha ni as 27/16 = 906 cents = c3*6.

MELODY

The present writer proposes substituting ri of ratio 11/10 = 165 cents, which is almost equal to the mathematically calculated three-śruti ri (3 × 54,5 cents = 163,5 cents), for Danielou's ri (9/8 = 204 cents). Why should the ancient musicians not have used this harmonic of ratio 11/10, which is an easily recognizable interval when played in the third octave by a wind instrument, for example by a flute. There are grounds for regarding this interval, triśruti rṣabha, as a very significant one in ancient Indian music. Three of these intervals of ratio 11/10 (= 165 cents) constitute a fourth of 495 cents (3 × 165 cents), which very closely matches the perfect fourth 4/3 (= 498 cents) as well as the nine-śruti ma (= 491 cents) of the 22-śruti system, the so-called ma anāśin, "the imperishable ma"8 which was probably a fundamental note in the ancient Indian system. Ri of ratio 11/10 (= 165 cents) can also be used as a basis for calculating the dha which, according to the ancient theory, was consonant, i.e. constituted a perfect fifth of ratio 3/2 with ri (dha = 3/2 × 11/10 = 33/20 = 867 cents). Moreover, the ratio 11/10 is of interest because it entails a division of the string into 11 equal parts, 11 being a factor of the total number of śrutis (22) existing in the octave.

MELODY

But first and foremost the interval ri of ratio 11/10 is of vital importance because without this interval Bharata's well known experiment with the two vinās9 would not be possible. In order to prove the existence of the śruti and especially of the main śruti (pramāna śruti), which constitutes the difference between the four-śruti pa of the sadjagrāma and the three-śruti pa of the madhyamagrāma, the author of the Nāṭyaśāstra (dated first century B.C. or first century A.D.) recommends taking two vinās (most probably arched harps), one of which has fixed (dhruva), while the other has changeable (cala), tuning. First Bharata states that one should lower the pa of the cala-vinā one śruti. Obviously the author cannot use the śruti as a basic interval for measuring the new three-śruti pa whilst at the same time attemping to prove the very existence of the śruti itself. In my opinion however, Bharata's statement does not imply that the three-śruti pa of the madhyamagrāma can be tuned by subtracting one micro-interval (śruti) from the four-śruti pa of the sadjagrāma. Theoretically the three-śruti pa is indeed one śruti lower than the four-śruti pa. In practice, that is to say when produced on the ancient vinā (i.e. the arched harp with 7 or 9 strings10 sounding sa ri ga (ant. ga) ma pa dha ni (kā. ni)) the three-śruti pa must have been tuned as a perfect fourth (4/3 = 498 cents) on ri (11/10 = 165 cents), since

MELODY

7 Compare BhN. 28, 23 (Baroda ed.; Ghośh. Transl. II, p. 5f., ch. 28, 22f.); MBrh. 64, p. 14; ŚārnSR. I, 3, 48-49; KuSR. 2, 1, 214; SomiRV. I, 37 and TulSS. p. 15, I. 14.

MELODY

8 Compare MBrh. 251, p. 68, ll. 11-14; BhN. 28, 72-73 (Bombay ed.; Ghośh. Transl. II, p. 72, ch. 28, 72-73).

MELODY

9 The experiment with the two vinās is obviously meant for the arched harp type of vinā; cf. Simhabhūpāla on ŚārnSR. I, 3, 10-16, vol I, p. 74, l. 10 and KuSR. 2, 1, 95 For the experiment itself compare BhN 28, 27 (Baroda ed. vol. IV, p. 20, l. 3-12); Ghośh. Transl. II, p. 8, 1. 1-21, ch. 28, 24; MBrh. 29, p. 5, l. 2 from the bottom to p. 6, l. 10, ŚārnSR. 1, 3, 18-22; KuSR. 2, 1, 95-111.

MELODY

10 Compare BhN. 29, 118 (Baroda ed.; Ghośh. Transl. II, p. 45, ch. 29, 120), A.K. Coomaraswamy, The Parts of a Vinā, in: J.A.O.S. 50 (1930); Vidvan S. Krishnaswāmi, Research on Musical Instruments of India, in: J.M.A.M. 33 (1962), p. 104; Marcel-Dubois, I.M.I., p. 80 f.; Sachs, M.I.I., p. 138 f.

Handbuch der Orientalistik. II. Abt., Bd. VI

MELODY

according to ancient theory the three-śruti pa of the madhyama grāma was consonant (samvadin) with ri, whilst the śuddha pa or four-śruti pa of the sadjagrāma, which must be tuned as a perfect fifth (3/2) on sa, was consonant with sa, but not with ri. If one subtracts the madhyamagrāma pa calculated according to this method, i.e. 4/3 × 11/10 = 22/15, or 498 cents from the sadjagrāma pa (3/2 = 702 cents), the result is the pramāna śruti of 39 cents, which is much smaller (15,5 cents) than the mathematically calculated śruti of 54,5 cents. On the other hand, since the ancient Indian musicians probably tuned their instruments solely by ear, differences of 15,5 cents are more or less negligible.

MELODY

After prescribing the lowering of pa on the calaviṇā Bharata states that the other strings of this viṇā should be lowered accordingly, which entails retuning the other strings in their sadjagrāma relationship to the new, lowered pa. This procedure has to be repeated three times, so that the whole experiment consists of lowering the strings of the calaviṇā four times. According to Bharata the twice lowered notes ga and ni of the calaviṇā respectively coincide with the notes ri and dha of the dhruva-viṇā, the thrice lowered ri and dha of the first instrument with the sa and pa of the latter and finally, the four times lowered sa, ma and pa of the first instrument with the ni, ga and ma of the latter.

MELODY

It is true that two pramāna śrutis of 39 cents cannot constitute a half tone; neither can three of these śrutis constitute a minor whole tone, nor four of them a major whole tone. But assuming that the ancient Indian tuning was done by ear alone, the pramāna śruti cannot have been an accurate, mathematically correct interval. Furthermore I am inclined to think that the notes sa, ri, ga, (antara ga), ma, pa, dha, ni, (kākali ni) produced on the seven or nine open strings of the arched harp could only have represented simple frequency ratios when tuned by ear. For my part I cannot accept the frequency ratios of the ancient śuddha ri, ga dha, ni and cyuta-sa, ma and pa (= triśruti pa) given by Daniélou. Therefore I suggest the following reconstruction of the ancient Indian notes:

MELODY

names of notes śrutis ratios cents Western equivalents

MELODY

śuddha sa 0, but 4 to ś.ni 1 0 d —

MELODY

śuddha ri 3 to sa 11/10 165 e 35 —

MELODY

śuddha ga 5 to sa 7/6 267 f 33 —

MELODY

sādhāraṇa ga 6 to sa 6/5 316 f #10 —

MELODY

antara ga 7 to sa 5/4 386 f# 14 —

MELODY

cyuta ma 8 to sa 9/7 435 f# +35 —

MELODY

śuddha ma 9 to sa 4/3 498 g 2 —

MELODY

triśruti pa 12 to sa 22/15 663 a 37 —

MELODY

śuddha pa 13 to sa 3/2 702 a — —

MELODY

śuddha dha 16 to sa 33/20 867 b — —

MELODY

śuddha ni 18 to sa 4 969 c — —

MELODY

– kaiśika ni 19 to sa 9/5 1018 c — —

MELODY

– kākali ni 20 to sa 15/8 1088 c# — —

MELODY

– cyuta sa 21 to sa 31/16 1145 c# — —

MELODY

śuddha sa (tāra) 22 to sa 2 1200 d' —

MELODY

It must have been quite easy to play the three ancient grāmas on Bharata's citra-viṇā 11 -- an arched harp with seven strings 12 .

MELODY

In the first place, its seven strings may have produced the following seven suddha notes of the sadjagrāma :

MELODY

svaras sa ri ga ma pa dha ni (sa) śrutis 3 2 4 4 3 2 4 Western notes d e ♭ f g a ♭ b c d

MELODY

Secondly, the madhyamagrāma may have been produced by changing the sadjagrāma pa of four śrutis (709 cents) into the madhyamagrāma pa of three śrutis (655 cents). This lowering of pa could be realized by tuning the pa string as a perfect fourth to the ri string, i.e. 4/3 × 11/10, or 165 cents + 498 cents = 663 cents (which fairly corresponds to the mathematically calculated three-śruti pa of 655 cents). However, Bharata 13 states that the madhyama-grāma could also be produced in another way, that is to say by means of transposition (sampādabheda, lit. "changing of the names [of the notes]"). As a result of this procedure the pa of the sadjagrāma becomes the sa of the madhyamagrāma and the names of the other notes change accordingly. There is only one note which has to be altered: the two-śruti śuddha ga of the sadjagrāma has to be changed into the four-śruti antara ga in order to become the four-śruti dha of the madhyamagrāma, which means that the ga string (of ratio 7/6 = 267 cents) should be tuned as a major third (of ratio 5/4 = 386 cents, which differs very little from the mathematically calculated antara ga of 382 cents). This method of transposition (sampādabheda) is illustrated by the following chart :

MELODY

śrutis 3 2 4 4 3 2 4 sadjagrāma sa ri ga a.ga ma pa dha ni (sa) śrutis 3 4 2 4 3 2 4 madhyamagrāma ma pa dha ni sa ri ga (ma) Western notes d e ♭ f# g a ♭ b c d' f# 14 g a b 11 c 11 d'

MELODY

11 See note 10.

MELODY

12 See note 10.

MELODY

13 BhN. 28, 36 (Bombay ed.; Ghosh, Transl. II, p. 11, ch. 28, 33 f.).

MELODY

This second method of realizing the madhyamagrāma was probably the one used in practice, because by this means the seven strings of the ancient vīṇā when played consecutively produce both the notes of the ṣadjagrāma from sa to ni as well as the notes of the madhyamagrāma, which according to the Nāṭyaśāstra 14 starts from ma and ends on ga, and only necessitates the retuning of the ṣadjagrāma śuddha ga into antara ga (= the madhyamagrāma śuddha dha).

MELODY

Thirdly, in the same way, that is to say again by changing the names (samjñābheda) of the notes of the ṣadjagrāma, the third ancient grāma, the gāndhāragrāma, could be played. This grāma probably the oldest of the three ancient basic scales as it had already become obsolete at the time of the Nāradīya Śikṣā 15 (ca. first century B.C.) can also be derived from the ṣadjagrāma by calling sa and the other notes ga etc. ga being the traditional starting note of the gāndhāragrāma. Since the ancient musicologists do not agree about the construction (i.e. the measurement of the intervals) of the gāndhāragrāma, it is not clear which of the strings has (or have) to be retuned(Śārngadeva) 16 describes two possible reconstructions : one resulting from merely changing the names (samjñābheda) of the notes of the ṣadjagrāma without further alteration: and the other resulting from using the same method of samjñābheda with one alteration (i.e. changing śuddha ga of ratio ' o into sādhārana ga of ratio ' 5 , which becomes the triśruti pa of the gāndhāragrāma). These two methods can be illustrated as follows :

MELODY

method 1 :

MELODY

ṣadjagrāma sa ri ga ma pa dha ni (sa)

MELODY

śrutis 3 2 4 4 3 2 4

MELODY

gāndhāragrāma ga ma pa dha ni sa ri (ga)

MELODY

method 2 :

MELODY

śrutis 3 2 4 4 3 2 4

MELODY

ṣadjagrāma sa ri sādh ga ma pa dha ni (sa)

MELODY

śrutis 3 3 4 3 2 4

MELODY

gāndhāragrāma ga ma pa dha ni sa ri (ga)

MELODY

However, the author of the Samgitamakaranda, 17 who lived at about the same time as Śārngadeva, defines the gāndhāragrāma as follows: "When from ri and from ma one śruti goes to gāndhāra and one śruti from pañcama joins the śrutis of niṣāda, in that case Nārada speaks of gāndhāra-grāma", which results in the following scale :

MELODY

ga 3 ni 3 pa 3 dha 3 ni 4 sa 2 ri 4 (ga)

MELODY

This scale can also be derived from the ṣadjagrāma by means of sampālabheda, if śuddha ga is changed into sādhārana ga and śuddha pa into triśruti pa:

MELODY

śrutis 3 2 4 4 3 2 4

MELODY

ṣadjagrāma sa ri ga sādh ga ma pa pa dha ni (sa)

MELODY

śrutis 3 3 4 3 2 4

MELODY

gāndhāragrāma ga ma pa dha ni sa ri (ga)

MELODY

Western notes d e 18 f 19 g ' a " b " c " d

MELODY

Although only in two of the above mentioned reconstructions of the gāndhāragrāma the number of three-śruti intervals prevails (four intervals of 3 śrutis, two of 4 śrutis and one of 2 śrutis), Danielou 18 ventures to say that the ancient gāndhāragrāma might have been a scale consisting of equal intervals, as is nowadays used in the classical music of Burma and Indochīna. Danielou also suggests that this equidistant scale was only suited for playing on non-fretted instruments (such as the arched harp) and hence disappeared from India when the ancient harp type of vīṇā was replaced by the stickzither-vīṇā in about the sixth century A.D. I admit that the standard interval (= 171 cents) of the equidistant scale closely resembles the ancient Indian three-śruti interval (= 165 cents, ratio ' 1 10 ). I am even ready to accept that the equidistant scale may have been the forerunner of the gāndhāragrāma and goes back to a time before the invention of the 22-śruti system. which does not permit division of the octave into seven equal intervals. Even if one constructs the gāndhāragrāma with six three-śruti intervals, one four-śruti interval will always remain. For example, if by using the previously mentioned method of samjñābheda one tries to derive the gāndhāragrāma from the ṣadjagrāma while changing three notes (and the six adjoining intervals) of the latter, namely śuddha ga into sādhārana ga, śuddha pa into triśruti pa and śuddha ni into kaiśika ni an alteration no ancient author mentions one is left with one four-śruti interval, that is to say the interval pa-dha = ni-sa of the gāndhāragrāma :

MELODY

14 BhN. 28, 26-29 (Bombay ed.: Ghoṣh, Transl. II, p. x f.; ch. 28, 25-28).

MELODY

15 Compare NārŚ. 1, 2, 6; MBrh. 91; ŚarnSR. 1, 4, 5; KuSR. 2, 1, 296; NārSM. 1, 1, 49f.

MELODY

16 ŚārnSR.1. 4, 4.

MELODY

17 Musique du Cambodge et du Laos. Pondichery 1957. p. 3 f.

MELODY

śrutis

MELODY

ṣadjagrāma sa r̥ ga sā,ga ma pa pa dha n̥ kai,ni (sa)

MELODY

śrutis

MELODY

gāndhāragrāma ga ma pa dha ni sa r̥ (ga)

MELODY

Since the ancient gāndhāragrāma did not fit into the 22-śruti system described in the Nāṭyaśāstra, it had probably already fallen into disuse before the first century B.C., that is to say long before the arched harp (which is still mentioned in the Nāṭyaśāstra) was replaced by the stickzither-vinā. Disagreeing with Daniélou who suggests that the equidistant gāndhāragrāma was not suitable for being played on the new type of vinā, I think it much more likely that it was not the gāndhāragrāma - already obsolete before the new vinā was introduced ... but the unequal whole tones (of 3 and 4 śrutis) of the ṣadja- and madhyamagrāma that cāused difficulties when produced on a stringed instrument (stickzither-vinā) which was played in the same way as a lute i.e. by shortening the strings. Moreover, I very much doubt whether any of the ancient grāmas with their unequal whole tones of 4 and 3 śrutis could ever have been played on the thirteenth century fretted vinā.

MELODY

Sārṅgadeva's descriptions of the brhatī-, madhyamā- and laghvikinnarī vinās, and more especially his measurements of distances between the fixed frets of these vinās.19 go to prove that the temperament of stringed instruments had changed since ancient times.

MELODY

The following table (on p. 23) shows the difference between Sārṅgadeva's temperament of the three kinnarī vinās, the interval ratios of whiéh can be derived from the measurements of the fret distances mentioned by him, and the ancient Indian temperament.

MELODY

The notes of the three kinnarī vinās appear to be much higher than their ancient equivalents. In the case of the brhatikinnarī vinā the notes seem to have moved from their original position to the next higher śruti. Especially the fourth (ma) and the fifth (pa) have got such unnatural, high pitches, that one is inclined to think that Sārṅgadeva did not start his scales from the ancient śuddha ṣadja, but from the ancient cyuta ṣadja,20 which is one śruti (i.e. approximately 55 cents) lower than śuddha ṣadja, so that all intervals to sa become unusually wide and the corresponding notes unusually high. On that assumption 50 and 40 cents could be respectively subtracted

MELODY

19 SārnSR. 6, 294-299; 312-316; 321-325.

MELODY

20 Compare p. 15 of this chapter.

MELODY

MELODY

from all the brhati- and madhyamākināri viṇā intervals to obtain more natural intervals.

MELODY

As a result of the 50 cents subtraction the brhatikinnri viṇā intervals ga, ma, pa, dha and ni now come very near to the frequency ratios 6/5 = 316 cents, 4/3 = 498 cents, 3/2 = 702 cents, 5/3 = 884 cents and 16/9 = 996 cents, respectively. Only ri, which according to Śārṅgadeva was an interval of 196 cents (and therefore approaches ratio 9/8 = 204 cents), has now become a very small interval of 146 cents. However, it is interesting to note that this interval is almost identical with an Arabian interval, namely with Al-Fārābi's third fret of the lute (145 cents).21

MELODY

By subtracting 40 cents the madhyamākināri-viṇā intervals ri, ga, ma and dha approach the ratios 11/10 = 165 cents, 4/3 = 498 cents and 33/20 = 867 cents, which according to the present writer respectively represent the ancient śuddha ri, sādhārana ga, śuddha ma and śuddha dha. However the ni of the madhyamākināri viṇā, which has become an interval of 994 cents (approaching ratio 16/9 = 996 cents), does not fit into this ancient series of harmonic intervals,22 and the pa has now become a rather unharmonic fifth of 686 cents.

MELODY

In the case of the laghvīkinnari viṇā a subtraction of 40 to 50 cents would give a very low fourth (478 to 468 cents) and fifth (678 to 668 cents). Therefore one might take the intervals of the laghvīkinnari viṇā as they are handed down by Śārṅgadeva, i.e. without applying any subtraction, and compare them to the nearest harmonic intervals :

MELODY

laghvīkinnari-viṇā intervals nearest harmonic intervals

MELODY

sa = 0 cents 1/1 = 0 cents

MELODY

ri = 239 cents 8/7 = 231 cents

MELODY

ga = 387 cents 5/4 = 386 cents

MELODY

ma = 518 cents 4/3 = 498 cents

MELODY

pa = 718 cents 3/2 = 702 cents

MELODY

dha = 905 cents 27/16 = 906 cents

MELODY

ni = 1007 cents 16/9 = 996 cents

MELODY

sa’ = 1200 cents 2/1 = 1200 cents

MELODY

Unlike the scales of the other two viṇās this scale has a major third (= ancient antara ga) and a very high major second (ri) of 239 cents.

MELODY

21 Compare L. Manik, Das arabische Tonsystem im Mittelalter, Leiden 1969, p. 42, Tabelle 2.

MELODY

22 Compare the ancient Indian consonant theory and Daniélou's interpretation of the ancient Indian ni of ratio 16/9 on p. 15 of this chapter.

MELODY

It seems to me that the smaller measurements of this instrument have increased the inaccuracies in the calculation of the fret distances.

MELODY

Contemporary Arabic temperaments23 probably influenced Śārṅgadeva's experimental kinnari-viṇā temperaments. He may have known the lute temperament of Al-Fārābi († 950)23 and have tried to transmit some Arabic lute intervals to the Indian fretted viṇā. So the brhati- and madhyamākināri-viṇā intervals of ri respectively 196 and 203 cents were possibly imitations of the Arabic index finger fret (i.e. of the fifth fret, named sabbāba) of ratio 9/8 = 204 cents. Similarly, the brhati- and madhyamākināri-viṇā ga of respectively 365 and 359 cents more or less correspond to the Arabic middle-finger fret (i.e. the eighth fret, the so-called Zalzal's middle-finger) of ratio 27/22 = 355 cents. On the Arabic lute as well as on the Indian fretted viṇā the little finger may have produced the fourth of ratio 4/3 = 498 cents, remembering however that this ratio differs from Śārṅgadeva's calculation of this interval (without subtraction) on the three kinnari viṇās. The Arabic ringfinger (i.e. the ninth fret, named binsir) of ratio 81/64 = 408 cents was apparently not used in Śārṅgadeva's viṇā technique.24 Nevertheless though Śārṅgadeva is silent about the application of that finger, it can be assumed that Indian viṇā players used it to produce the antara ga of ratio 5/4 = 386 cents.

MELODY

The above mentioned thirteenth century measurement of the fret distances on three stickzither-viṇās would seem to justify the conclusion that Śārṅgadeva was trying to adjust the ancient basic scales to the new fretted viṇā, just as in Europe several attempts were made to find a temperament to suit the fretted lutes and keyboard instruments. But whereas in Europe the new sixteenth century harmonic style with its many modulations (change of tonic) inevitably led to equal temperament, India had no need of such a temperament since its music never deviated from its primary melodic rāga system based on a fixed tonic, variety being achieved not through modulation but through the vast diversity in melodic patterns (rāga).

MELODY

When describing the tuning of his śuddha-mela-viṇā, the sixteenth century Indian musicologist Rāmāmātya, who reorganized Indian music and laid the foundations for the modern Karnātak rāga system, is obviously referring to the Pythagorean temperament handed down by Arabian theorists.25

MELODY

In determining the relation of the notes to be fixed on the six frets of the

MELODY

23 Compare Manik, o.c., p. 42.

MELODY

24 ŚārnSR. 6. 253 f.

MELODY

25 Compare Manik, o.c., p. 60, fig. 18 and p. 56, fig. 17.

MELODY

four melody strings of that vinā he uses the svayambhu principle,26 i.e. the natural consonance of the harmonic intervals 3/2 (perfect fifth) and 4/3 (perfect fourth) which according to ancient Indian theory are consonant (samvādin). This means that all the intervals contained in Rāmāmātya's scale could be calculated as a power of ratio 3/2 (or 4/3). The result of this so-called Pythagorean temperament is a scale consisting of unequal half tones, that is to say of diatonic half tones of 90 cents (= Pythagorean limma of ratio 256/243) and of chromatic half tones of 114 cents (= Pythagorean apotome of ratio 2187/2048), which represent the twelve śuddha and vikṛta notes of the sixteenth century South Indian system :

MELODY

names of notes ratios cents cents Western equivalents

MELODY

śuddha sa 1 0 90 d

MELODY

śuddha ri 256/243 90 114 e♭10

MELODY

śuddha ga 9/8 204 90 e+4

MELODY

sādhārana ga 32/27 294 114 f16

MELODY

cyuta ga 81/64 408 90 f♯18

MELODY

śuddha ma 4/3 498 114 g2

MELODY

cyuta ma 729/512 612 90 g♯12

MELODY

śuddha pa 3/2 702 90 a+2

MELODY

śuddha dha 128/81 792 114 b♭8

MELODY

śuddha ni 27/16 906 90 b+6

MELODY

kaśika ni 16/9 996 114 c-4

MELODY

cyuta sa 243/128 1110 90 c♯10

MELODY

śuddha sa (tāra) 2 1200 d'

MELODY

In this sixteenth century scale the ancient minor whole tones of three śrutis (sa-ri, ma-cy.pa and pa-dha) are replaced by half tones of 114 or 90 cents; the ancient two-śruti intervals (ri-śu.ga, sā.ga-cy.ma, dha-śu.ni and kai.ni-cy.sa) by half tones of 114 cents, while the ancient one-śruti intervals (śu.ga-sā.ga, cy.ma-śu.ma, cy.pa-śu.pa, śu.ni-kai.ni and cy.sa-śu.sa) are represented by half tones of 90 cents.

MELODY

The following table shows how Rāmāmātya fixed the theoretical intervals (L = limma of 90 cents and A = apotome of 114 cents) of his so-called svayambhu ("natural") temperament on the six frets and the four melody strings of his śuddha-mela-vinā :

MELODY

fret number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 fret distance (cents) 90 114 90 90 114 90 anumandra sa string sa L ri A ga L sā.ga A cy.ma L ma A cy.pa anumandra pa string pa L dha A ni L kai.ni A cy.sa L sa L ri mandra sa string sa L ri A ga L sā.ga A cy.ma L ma A cy.pa mandra ma string ma A cy.pa L pa L dha A ni L kai.ni A cy.sa

MELODY

Although the interval ma-cy.pa is theoretically an apotome (A = 114 cents) in Rāmāmātya's svayambhu temperament, the note cyuta pañcama is tuned slightly lower when produced on the vinā, since it is fixed on the first fret (90 cents from the bridge, meru) of the mandra ma string and on the sixth fret (90 cents from fret number 5) of the anumandra sa and mandra sa strings.

MELODY

Similarly cyuta sa of the mandra ma string is fixed on the sixth fret, although the interval kai.ni-cy.sa is theoretically an apotome (A = 114 cents) in the svayambhu temperament. Rāmāmātya considers it permissible to tune cyuta sa and cyuta mā a little lower, so that these notes coincide with the kākali ni and the antara ga respectively, because the difference is almost negligible (i.e. 114 cents - 90 cents = 24 cents, representing the Pythagorean comma). Rāmāmātya's statement implies that also cyuta ma of the anumandra and mandra sa strings and cyuta sa of the anumandra pa string, fixed on the fourth fret, were tuned rather low (i.e. to make an interval of 90 instead of 114 cents with the preceding fret). This leads to the conclusion that the Pythagorean intervals of 114 and 90 cents between the third and fourth and the fourth and fifth frets must have been interchanged. This method of placing the frets has one disadvantage : the note śuddha ni of the mandra ma string becomes too low, i.e. 24 cents (the Pythagorean comma) lower than its equivalent in the theoretical svayambhu temperament.

MELODY

Rāmāmātya's svayambhu temperament, as well as its realization on the vinā, was accepted by the later sixteenth century Karnāṭak musicologists Puṇḍarīkaviṭṭhala (the author of the Ṣaḍrāgacaṇḍrodaya)27 and Śrīkaṇṭha (the author of the Rasakaumudī)28 who, after migrating to the North, most probably introduced this temperament in Hindustānī music. Somanātha, a South Indian author from Andhra Pradesh, also refers to this temperament in the second chapter of his Rāgavibodha (1609), but in the second list of melas at the end of that work he mentions seventeen notes which remind us of the Arabic 17-tone system of Ṣafī-al-Dīn († 1294).29 Whereas in South

MELODY

26 Compare RāmSM. 3. 18-62.

MELODY

27 See V.N. Bhātkhande, A Comparative Study of Some of the Leading Music Systems of the 15th, 16th, 17th & 18th centuries. Bombay '1941, p. 47 f.

MELODY

28 ŚriRK. 2, 27-46.

MELODY

29 SomRV. 2, 19-27, esp. 33; cf. also Maṇik, o.c., p. 56.

28

India Rāmāmātya's svara nomenclature (i.e. names of the notes) as well as

28

part of his śvayam̉bhu temperament has been preserved up to the present

28

day, a new system was developed in the North towards the end of the

28

seventeenth century.

28

Although we do not know whether Ahobala or Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva

28

invented the new temperament, and which of these two musicologists was

28

the first to change the names of the notes, the new system is clearly described

28

in Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva's Hṛdayaprakāśa as well as in Ahobala's Saṅgī-

28

tapārijāta. Both these authors give accurate measurements for the division

28

of the strings in order to determine the position of twelve notes in the

28

saptaka, and thus enable us to calculate the exact frequency ratios of these

28

notes .30

28

notes

28

ratios

28

cents

28

Western equivalents

28

śuddha sa

28

1

28

0

28

d

28

komala ri

28

27/25

28

133

28

e♭33

28

śuddha ri

28

9/8

28

204

28

e′34

28

śuddha ga

28

6/5

28

316

28

f′36

28

tīvra(tara)ga

28

24/19 (81/64)

28

404 (408)

28

f♯′35

28

śuddha ma

28

4/3

28

498

28

g′2

28

tīvratara ma

28

36/25 (486/337)

28

631 (634)

28

g♯′3434

28

śuddha pa

28

3/2

28

702

28

a′2

28

komala dha

28

18/11

28

853

28

b♭37

28

śuddha dha

28

12/7 (27/16)

28

933 (906)

28

b′3616

28

śuddha ni

28

9/5

28

1018

28

c′38

28

tīvra(tara)ni

28

36/19 (27/14)

28

1107 (1137)

28

c♯′437

28

śu.sa (tāra)

28

2

28

1200

28

d′

28

The numbers placed in brackets in this table represent Bhātkhande's interpretation 31 of the

28

relevant Sanskrit texts.

28

The above mentioned North Indian notes śuddha ri (9/8) and śuddha dha

28

(27/16) correspond with the South Indian notes śuddha ga and śuddha ni

28

respectively. The North Indian komala ri and komala dha are tuned much

28

higher than their South Indian equivalents śuddha ri and dha and approach

28

the ancient Indian śuddha (= triśruti) ri and dha of ratio 11/10 (= 165 cents)

28

and ratio 33/20 (= 867 cents) respectively. The North Indian tīvra ga and

28

tīvra ni differ only slightly in pitch from the theoretically calculated (i.e.

28

30 Compare AhSP. p. 40f., verses 314-332; HrdHP. p. 2 f.

28

31 Bhātkhande, Comparative Study. p. 28 f.

29

calculated according to the śvayam̉bhu temperament) South Indian cyuta ma

29

and cyuta sa, which however must have been pitched a little lower (24 cents)

29

when played on the vīṇā, since Rāmāmātya states that these notes

29

coincide with antara ga and kākali ni respectively.32 The seventeenth

29

century North Indian śuddha ga (6/5) and śuddha ni (9/5) are comparable

29

with the ancient sādhāraṇa ga and kaiśika ni respectively, but are a little

29

(22 cents) higher in pitch then their contemporary South Indian equivalents

29

(i.e. Rāmāmātya's sādhāraṇa ga and kaiśika ni). The intervals ma (4/3)

29

and pa (3/2), which were most probably also used in the ancient period, are

29

obviously common to both North and South Indian music from the

29

sixteenth century onwards. Both the seventeenth century North Indian

29

tīvratama ma (36/25 = 631 cents) and the sixteenth century South Indian

29

cyuta pa (749/512 = 612 cents, on the vīṇā 588 cents) are low interpretations

29

of the ancient three-śruti pañcama (= 12 śrutis from sa = 655 cents, or

29

4/3 × 11/10 = 22/15 = 663 cents).

29

However, it should be borne in mind that all the above mentioned ratios

29

only represent theoretical intervals. Even if a particular string division is

29

indicated as given by Ahobala and Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva, the intervals

29

are not absolutely fixed but are finally determined by the performing

29

musician. As a result of the traditional Indian technique of deflecting (i.e.

29

pulling sidewards) the strings even on instruments with fixed frets (like the

29

North Indian biṅ) the pitch of the basic notes used in the various rāgas

29

depends solely on the instrumentalist's individual interpretation and may

29

even differ in the same rāga from one performance to the other. Since the art

29

of improvisation and the performer's individual interpretation have always

29

been the most important aspects of Indian music, it is unwise to base

29

rigid conclusions on statements found in ancient as well as in modern

29

32 Compare RāmSM. 3, 64-72.

29

33 Compare A. Daniélou, Introduction to the Study of Musical Scales, London 1943, p. 154;

29

Idem, The Rāgas of Northern Indian Music, p. 40 f.; E. Clements, Introduction to the

29

Study of Indian Music, London 1913 (Allahabad 1960, 1967), App. A, which shows the

29

different intonations in the rāgas yaṁam, bhairavi and kāfi. Compare also N.K. Bose, Melodic

29

Types of Hindustan, Bombay 1960. This author calculates the intervals of the notes used in

29

the different rāgas, while using microtones of 22.6 cents (i.e. 1/53 of the octave).

29

34 Compare SāraṅgSR. 6, 262; S. Ramanathan, Raghunātha Mela Vīṇā, in : Journal of the

29

Music Academy Madras 35 (1964), p. 145.

MELODY

ratios such as those mentioned by Ramanathan and other musicologists35

MELODY

are scarcely recognizable (by the human ear at least), since the executing

MELODY

artist usually buries the main notes of a melody under a heap of grace

MELODY

notes (i.e. slides, slurs,(shakes)etc.).

MELODY

Therefore the following table, which names the Indian notes used in

MELODY

various periods and gives their Western equivalents in equal temperament

MELODY

(the differences being indicated in cents), merely provides a survey of the

MELODY

historical development of the purely theoretical basic notes referred to by

MELODY

musicologists.

MELODY

names of notes

MELODY

This table shows that the ancient nomenclature has been preserved in

MELODY

Karnatak musical theory, although the pitch of several of these notes has

MELODY

changed in course of time. Only the tonic (sa), the fourth (ma) and the

MELODY

fifth (pa) appear to have retained constant values. The ancient harmonic

MELODY

major third (antara ga) and major seventh (käkali ni) are still found in

MELODY

modern Karnatak and Hindustani music, but these intervals were interpreted

MELODY

in a different way during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Two

MELODY

35 Ramanathan, o.c., p. 136; C.S. Ayyar, Grammar of Karnatak Music, Madras(?)

MELODY

'1939; '1951; P. Sambamoortby, South Indian Music, Book 1, Madras '1966, ch. 3.

MELODY

interpretations of the minor third (sādhārana ga) and the minor seventh

MELODY

(kaišika ni), that is to say, the ancient and the sixteenth century Karnatak

MELODY

interpretation, are still common in modern Hindustani and Karnatak music.

MELODY

The ancient śuddha ri, ga, dha and ni however changed considerably in course

MELODY

of time. Śuddha ga and ni were lowered almost a semitone, while the

MELODY

śuddha ri and dha were respectively lowered 32 and 53 cents. The ancient

MELODY

cyuta sa (or cyutaṣadja ni) and cyuta ma (or cyutamadhyama ga), referred

MELODY

to by the thirteenth century author Sārngadeva, disappeared after the

MELODY

sixteenth century when Rāmāmātya replaced them by kākali ni and antara ga

MELODY

respectively. Only the seventeenth century North Indian tivra ni and

MELODY

tivra ga remind us of the ancient cyuta notes, because their pitch is

MELODY

higher than their contemporary and modern Karnatak equivalents kākali ni

MELODY

(= modern Hindustani śuddha ni) and antara ga (= modern Hindustani

MELODY

śuddha ga). The ancient triśruti pa, though considerably lowered in course of

MELODY

time, is represented in modern Karnatak and Hindustani music by prati ma

MELODY

and tivra ma respectively. According to the eighteenth century musicologist

MELODY

Tulaja36 the ancient madhyamagrāma pañcama (= triśruti pa or cyutapuñ-

MELODY

cama ma) was commonly known as varālimadhyama, since it was a

MELODY

characteristic note in the rāga varāli.

MELODY

Considering the twelve (or fourteen) Indian basic notes, the temperament

MELODY

and nomenclature of which have now been elaborately discussed from the

MELODY

historical point of view, it becomes clear that the Indian basic scales - the

MELODY

ancient grāmas, the modern Karnatak melas or the modern Hindustani

MELODY

thāts - never contained all the twelve (or fourteen) pure (śuddha) and

MELODY

altered (vikṛta) notes of the octave (saptaka) in one and the same scale.

MELODY

Generally seven notes - in the ancient times sometimes even a smaller

MELODY

number (i.e. five in the grāmarāga pañcama and six in the grāmarāga

MELODY

niṣāda) - constituted a basic scale. Since explanatory theory invariably

MELODY

follows in the steps of musical practice, the theoretical basic scales

MELODY

(grāmas, melas, thāts) must have been abstracted from pre-existing melodies,

MELODY

so that the ancient Indian ṣadja-, madhyama- and gāndhāragrāma were

MELODY

scale-abstracts drawn from well known melodic patterns (rāgas). The oldest

MELODY

literary sources37 do indeed refer to such melodies or melodic patterns,

MELODY

called grāmarāgas.

MELODY

36 TulSS. p. 69.

MELODY

37 NārS. 1, 4, 5-11; BhN. 32, 435 f. (Bombay ed.); Märkandeyapurāna 23, 49-61;

MELODY

A. Daniélou, Textes des Purāṇas sur la Théorie Musicale, vol. 1, p. 106 f.; S. Prajñānānanda,

MELODY

Analysis of Music in the Mārkandeyapurāṇa, in : J.M.A.M. 29 (1958), p. 135; the Kudumiyāmalai

MELODY

Rock Inscriptions, caused to be inscribed by Rāma Varman Maharaja; R. Sathyanarayana,

MELODY

The Kudimiyamalai Inscription on Music, Shri Varalakshmi Academy Publication Series no. 3,

MELODY

Mysore 1957.

MELODY

Mostly the following seven grāmarāgas are referred to : ṣadjagrāma,

MELODY

madhyamagrāma, puñcama-audava, niṣāda-ṣādava, sādhārita, kaiśika and

MELODY

kaiśikamadhyama. The author of the Nāṭyaśāstra, who mentions only the

MELODY

five grāmarāgas to be used in ancient Indian drama,38 calls them gānas,

MELODY

"songs". Gāna is a term that is elsewhere 39 in the Nāṭyaśāstra clearly

MELODY

defined as a vocal composition accompanied by musical instruments : pūrṇa-

MELODY

svaram vādyavicitravarnatristhānagum trilayam trimārgagam | raktam sama-

MELODY

lakṣṇam alaṃkṛtam ca mukham praśastam madhuram ca gānam. "That is a

MELODY

song, which uses all the notes, is accompanied by instruments (vādya), has

MELODY

variegated melodic lines (varṇa), three registers (sthāna), three speeds

MELODY

(laya), three styles (mārga, depending on the division of the main unit of time

MELODY

into smaller time units), [sounds] beautiful (rakta, due to the combination

MELODY

of flute (veṇu) and harp (viṇā)), is balanced (sama, the different beats being

MELODY

indicated by the positions of the hands), smooth (ślakṣṇa, due to its graceful

MELODY

rhythm), contains ornamentations (alaṃkrta, i.e. adorned with grace notes,

MELODY

ālaṃkāras), is praiseworthy, excellent and sweet (madhura, on account of

MELODY

its graceful words)".40

MELODY

The theoretical basic scales ṣadja- and madhyamagrāma may have

MELODY

developed from the ancient songs (gāna) or melodies (grāmarāga). The origin

MELODY

of the mysterious gāndhāragrāma, however, remains ambiguous.

MELODY

In addition to these grāmas, ancient theory developed a system of

MELODY

secondary octave scales (mūrchanās). Taking in turn one of the seven

MELODY

notes of the three grāmas in descending order as the starting point for a

MELODY

new scale, one arrives at twenty-one secondary scales, that is to say

MELODY

seven in each of the three grāmas :

MELODY

ṣadjagrāma-mūrchanās

MELODY

uttaramandrā

MELODY

rajanī

MELODY

uttarāyatā

MELODY

śuddhasadjā

MELODY

matsarikṛtā

MELODY

aśvakrāntā

MELODY

abhirudgatā

MELODY

sa ri ga ma pa dha ni

MELODY

ni sa ri ga ma pa dha

MELODY

dha ni sa ri ga ma pa

MELODY

pa dha ni sa ri ga ma

MELODY

madhyamagrāma-mūrchanās

MELODY

sauvīrī

MELODY

harināśvā

MELODY

kalopanatā

MELODY

śuddhamadhyā

MELODY

mārgī

MELODY

pauravī

MELODY

hṛyakā

MELODY

ma pa dha ni sa ri ga

MELODY

ga ma pa dha ni sa ri

MELODY

ri ga ma pa dha ni sa

MELODY

sa ri ga ma pa dha ni

MELODY

ni sa ri ga ma pa dha

MELODY

dha ni sa ri ga ma pa

MELODY

pa dha ni sa ri ga ma

MELODY

gāndhāragrāma-mūrchanās

MELODY

nāndī

MELODY

ālāpā (or : balāyā)

MELODY

sukhā

MELODY

citrāvatī

MELODY

citrā

MELODY

sumukhi

MELODY

viśālā

MELODY

ga ma pa dha ni sa ri

MELODY

ri ga ma pa dha ni sa

MELODY

sa ri ga ma pa dha ni

MELODY

ni sa ri ga ma pa dha

MELODY

dha ni sa ri ga ma pa

MELODY

pa dha ni sa ri ga ma

MELODY

ma pa dha ni sa ri ga

MELODY

Some authors41 only mention the mūrchanās of the ṣadja- and madhyama-

MELODY

grāma; others,42 obviously recording the old tradition of the Nāradiyā

MELODY

Śikṣā, also refer to the mūrchanās of the gāndhāragrāma. In the Nāradiyā

MELODY

Śikṣā itself five mūrchanās of the ṣadjagrāma, viz. uttaramandrā, rajanī,

MELODY

uttarāyatā, aśvakrāntā and abhirudgatā, and two of the madhyamagrāma

MELODY

are called the mūrchanās of the seers (ṛṣinām).43 These seven are also

MELODY

considered to be the common (laukika)44 mūrchanās. The remaining

MELODY

mūrchanās of the ṣadja- and madhyamagrāma are called mūrchanās of the

MELODY

fathers (pitṛṇām),45 while the gāndhāragrāma mūrchanās are referred to as

MELODY

mūrchanās of the gods (devānām).46 In contrast with later authors the author

MELODY

of the Nāradiyā Śikṣā takes the starting notes of the mūrchanās in ascending

MELODY

order.

MELODY

Ancient tradition defines mūrchamā as the ascent and descent of a series

MELODY

of seven notes produced consecutively,47 "due to which the melody (rāga)

MELODY

assumes its definite form" (lit. : "grows"), yena rāgo mūrchate.48 As appears

MELODY

38 BhN. 32, 435-436 (Bombay ed.); Ghosh, Transl. II, p. 156, ch. 32, 485-486.

MELODY

39 BhN. 32, 441 (Bombay ed.); Ghosh, Transl. II, p. 156, ch. 32, 492.

MELODY

40 For the translation of the Sanskrit terms rakta, sama, ślakṣṇa, alaṃkrta, madhura compare

MELODY

the definitions of NārŚ. 1. 3, 1; cf. also Present Writer, Dattilam, p. 174 f.

MELODY

41 BhN. 28, 27-32 (Baroda ed.); MBrh. 96-101; KuŚR. 2, 1. 1. 316-319.

MELODY

42 ŚarnŚR. 1, 4, 10 f.; 1, 4, 25 f.; ŚarnŚM. 1, 1, 90-96.

MELODY

43 NarŚ. 1, 2, 11-13.

MELODY

44 NārŚ. 1, 2, 14.

MELODY

45 NārŚ. 1, 2, 10.

MELODY

46 NārŚ. 1, 2, 9.

MELODY

47 Compare MBrh. 94, p. 22, 1. 1-4; ŚarnŚR. 1, 4, 9.

MELODY

48 MBrh. 94, p. 22, 1. 3.

MELODY

from Śārṅgadeva's description of rāgas most of these have one characteristic mūrchanā, the starting note of which generally coincides with one of the most important notes, i.e. the dominant (amśa), the initial note (graha) or the final note (nyāsa), in the relevant rāga.

MELODY

Alongside the basic scales (grāma) and their secondary scales (mūrchanās) ancient theory developed another abstraction, the basic mode (jāti, lit.: "origin", but also a universal term for "category", "class", "genus"), which can be regarded as covering all the modal aspects of a particular melody. In ancient times ten modal aspects, the "essentials" (laksana), were generally acknowledged, viz. the predominant note (amśa), the initial note (graha), the final note (nyāsa), the secondary final note (apanyāsa) terminating a section (vidāri) of a song, the highest note (tāra), the lowest note (mundra), the prevalence (bahutva) or the rareness (alpatva) of a particular note, and the hexatonic (ṣādava) or pentatonic (audava) structure. Śārṅgadeva mentions three additional essentials: the final note of the first section of a song (saṃnyāsa), the final note of a verbal theme or text unit (pada) in a division of the song (vinyāsa), and the alternative or intermediate note (antaramārga).

MELODY

The ancient authors refer to the following eighteen jātis -- seven pure or authentic (śuddha), and eleven mixed or composite (vikrta) -- each belonging to one of the two well known basic scales (grāma):

MELODY

ṣadjagrāma-jātis : madhyamagrāma-jātis : śuddha : ṣāḍjī gāndhārī ārsabhī madhyamā dhaivatī pañcamī naisādī vikrta : ṣaḍjakaiśikī ṣaḍjodicyavā ṣadjamadhyamā gāndhārodicyavā raktagāndhārī kaiśikī madhyamodicyavā karmāravī gāndhārapañcamī āndhrī nandayantī

MELODY

The ancient modes (jāti) are accredited with specific aesthetic qualities whereby the predominant note of a jāti, and hence the jāti as a whole, expresses a particular sentiment (rasa), e.g. heroism (vira), fury (raudra), wonder (adbhuta), love (śṛṅgāra), mirth (hāsya), compassion (karuṇa), disgust

MELODY

(bībhatsā), or terror (bhayānaka). Since the above mentioned ten essentials (laksana) and aesthetic qualities (rasa) are attributed not only to jātis but also to rāgas, musicologists are inclined to think that the ancient basic modes (jāti) were the forerunners of the rāgas. At the same time one should not overlook the fact that the rāga is credited with two more qualities which are missing in the characterization of the jāti. It is especially these qualities that enable us to draw a clear distinction between the abstract basic mode, which is the jāti, and the melodic pattern or rāga.

MELODY

A rāga is not only determined by the above mentioned modal essentials (laksana) and aesthetic qualities (rasa), but also by its melodic line (varṇa, lit.: "colour"), which can be ascending (ārohiṇ), descending (avaroḥin), stable (sthāyin), or irregular in movement (saṃcarin), and last but not least a rāga is determined by its ornamentation (alaṃkāra) which covers not only grace notes, but also particular sequences and motifs.

MELODY

In my view the jātis only served for the purpose of classifying the rāgas according to their modal essentials. The term jāti -- in itself a neutral term meaning "origin", or "category", "class", "genus" -- appears in musical theory in various contexts, but is always connected with classification. Besides referring to the basic modes, it indicates special methods for playing stringed instruments and "covered instruments" or membranophones.

MELODY

On the other hand the term rāga is by no means neutral. While indicating a melody or melodic pattern, rāga generally means : 1. "passion", "emotion" or "sentiment", and 2. "beauty", "charm". These connotations relate to its function of expressing an aesthetic sentiment (rasa) and delighting the mind of the listener. From the earliest times rāga must have been associated with rasa, the basic element of ancient Indian aesthetics. Although in the Nāṭyaśāstra (dating from the first century B.C. or the first century A.D.) the eight standardized, stereotyped sentiments (rasa) representing the fundamentals of ancient Indian drama (nāṭya) -- a kind of "Gesamtkunstwerk" in which acting, dancing and music were equally important -- are mentioned in connection with the basic modes (jāti), it was the great variety of melodic patterns (rāgas) developed during the Middle Ages (i.e. from the seventh century A.D. to the sixteenth century) which enabled the musician to express the different nuances of the main rasas. In the tenth century Abhinavagupta, the great commentator on the Nāṭyaśāstra, incorporated the rasas in his theory of salvation. From that time experiencing rasa was

MELODY

Compare BhN. 29, 75-77 (Bombay ed.); Ghosh, Transl. II, p. 43, ch. 29, 105-107 Compare BhN. 34, 148-170 (Baroda ed.); Ghosh, Transl. II, p. 178-182, ch. 33, 129-169. See the definition of MBrh. 281.

36

MELODY

no longer considered a purely aesthetic indulgence but a means of purifying

the mind, or rather of training it to enjoy sentiments (rasa) without personal

attachment -- a yogic exercise in order to obtain final emancipation.

The musician could attain "God-Sound" (nāda-brahman), the "Unmanifested

Essence of Sound" (anāhata-nāda) by means of his correct interpretation

according to the rules of rāga and rasa. Nevertheless a single mistake on his

part would spoil the whole effect of the performance. This reminds us of the

ancient rules of ritualistic music referred to in the Nāradiyā Śikṣā,53 which

states that a wrong musical intonation amounts to a crime whereby one risks

one's life, one's progeny and one's cattle (i.e. the most precious possessions

of ancient Indian man).

Indian music has always figured during religious ceremonies, festivals and

on all important occasions in human life, such as birth, marriage, etc.

As these ceremonies are bound to specific, auspicious times, it is quite

understandable that also the times for performing such music were restricted.

It is safe to assume that certain rāgas were reserved for special occasions and

that their performance was confined to set times. Several ancient pentatonic

and hexatonic series of notes (tāna) were named after religious ceremonies

or sacrifices, e.g. the formula ni-dha-pa-ma-ga-ri was called agnistoma,

ri-ni-dha-pa-ma-ga was known as aśvamedha and ma-ga-sa-ni-dha-pa as

mahāvrata.54 Later Indian rāgas are however rarely named after a festival,

except for the hindola rāga, which is a reminder of the spring festival named

dola.

Ever since the Middle Ages some important rāgas have been associated

with particular seasons. Nānyadeva,55 the eleventh century commentator

on the Nātyaśāstra, states that the rāga bhinnasadja -- the parent rāga of

bhairava rāga -- should be performed in winter, kaiśika in the second half

of winter, hindola in spring, pañcama in summer, and finally the rāgas

ṣadjagrāma and țakka during the rains.

In the thirteenth century Śārngadeva restricts the performance of many

of his rāgas to specific periods of the day. In listing all these rāgas

mentioned by him, I arrived at the following systematic arrangement :

time of performance

type of rāga (gīti)

names of rāgas

morning

1. pure (śuddha or cokṣa)

śuddhasādhārīta

ṣadjagrāma

morning

2. mixed (bhinnā)

śuddhakaisikamadhyama

śuddhapeñcama

bhinnakaisikamadhyama

bhinnatāṇa

bhinnakaisika

bhinnaṣadja

bhinnapañcama

noon

3. skilful (gauḍa)

gauḍakaisikamadhyama

gauḍapañcama

gauḍakaisika

evening

4. passionate (vesāra or rāga)

vesarasāḍava

boṭṭa

mālavapañcama

mālavakaisika

ṭakka

hindola

sauvīra

ṭakkakaisika

any time

5. universal (sādhāraṇa)

rūpasādhārita56

37

MELODY

Examining Śārngadeva's apparently systematic application of performance

times I was unable to trace any relationship between the predominant note

(amśa) in a rāga and its time of performance. The ancient Indian system

which associates the seven notes of the saptakā, viz. sá, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, and ni, with particular rasas, deities, social classes, animals, colours, etc.,

does not establish any particular relation between the musical notes and

the seasons or periods of the day. The modern concept that rāgas performed

at particular hours are characterized by special flat or sharp notes is

probably of recent origin.

The eighth century author Matanga57 has given some definitions of the

above mentioned five types of rāgas. Though somewhat vague, these to

53 NārŚ. 1, 1, 6.

54 Compare MBrh. 106-117.

55 Bharatabhāsya 5. 51-54.

56 In this connection Śārngadeva only mentions rūpasādhārita, although also the rāgas

śuddhakaisika, narttāgā, śāku, kakubha, bhūmnanupañcikamā, and gāndhārapan்cama belong to this

class. Cf. MBrh. 362 f., p. 103, line 7-12; ŚārnŚR. 2. 2, 55-109. The rāgas puṇikamsadābhi-

revagupta and takkanasulhava which MBrh. 358-362 also lists under the sādhārana gītārāgas are according to ŚarnŚR. 2. 1. 15-16 only secondary rāgas (uparāgas).

57 MBrh. 291-293.

MELODY

some extent explain why Sārṅgadeva prescribes a particular time for performing those rāgas. In defining the first two types, i.e. the pure (śuddha) and the mixed (bhinna) gitis, Mataṅga lays stress on the low (mandra) and (the high (tāra) registers (sthānus). In these rāgas, which should be performed in the morning, the range of the melody is obviously rather important. He states that the third category of rāgas, the gauda-gīti rāgas, contain melodies that ascend and descend without interruption, which calls for skill in rendering as does the gauda style of poetry. Noon is apparently considered the most appropriate time for displaying the technical skill typifying the gauda-gīti rāgas. Since evening is generally associated with love and passion, it is understandable that the rāgas of class four, the passionate (veśāra or rāga) gīti, are to be performed in the evening, and since Mataṅga defines the universal (sādhāraṇa) rāgas of class five as a mixture of all the other types of rāgas, they could be performed at any time.

MELODY

Grāma and jāti have become obsolete in Indian music, the term mūrchanā only retained its general meaning of an ascending and descending octave scale, and the term śruti is now only used to indicate the level of pitch or intonation, but the term rāga has preserved several of its ancient connotations. Rāga is still the basic phenomenon of Indian music, though in course of time it has lost many of its ancient modal essentials and modern practice tends to disregard rules about aesthetic qualities (rasa) and times of performance.

MELODY

However some Indian rāgas, the historical development of which can be traced in the musical treatises, have preserved their ancient times of performance up to the present day, for example:

MELODY

1. The modern Hindustānī bhairav observes the same time for performance as its ancient equivalent bhairava, which originated from the ancient morning rāga bhinnasadja.

MELODY

2. Karnāṭagauda, being in ancient times a secondary rāga (upāṅga) of the evening rāga takku, is still an evening rāga in modern Karnāṭak music.

MELODY

3. The rāga kedāra, which in ancient times was also an upāṅga rāga of the rāga gauda, has always been and still remains an evening rāga.

MELODY

4. The modern lalitā rāga -- a popular rāga in the South, but very rare in Hindustānī music -- which should be performed in the early morning between six and nine, is connected with the ancient second lalitā rāga derived from the ancient morning rāga bhinnasadja.

MELODY

5. The modern Hindustānī and Karnāṭak rāgas mālāśri with different basic scales are historically connected with the traditional rāga mālavakaisikā. The latter, sprung from the ancient evening rāga mālavakaisika, has remained

MELODY

a late afternoon rāga, which should be performed between three and six p.m., i.e. during the fourth prahar.

MELODY

6. The rāga naṭa, which has a different basic scale in Hindustānī and Karnāṭak music, is most probably historically connected with the two ancient rāgas naṭṭā which respectively originated from the ancient evening rāgas hindola and veśārasādava. The rāga naṭā has always been and is still performed in the evening.

MELODY

7. Śrīrāga, which has a different basic scale in Hindustānī and Karnāṭak music, was in ancient times a secondary rāga (rāgāṅga) derived from the evening rāga takku. According to most authors excepting Dāmodara, śrīrāga should be performed in the evening.

MELODY

8. The modern Hindustānī varāḍī (barāḍī) is still performed at the same time that applied to the ancient śuddhavaṭika (= batuḷī) which was derived from the ancient evening rāga sauvīra.

MELODY

9. The modern Hindustānī basant is also an evening rāga like the ancient vasanta and its parent rāga hindola.

MELODY

During the Middle Ages, possibly under the influence of tantrism, which links mental processes with images, the melodic patterns (rāgas) were considered to be personifications. Sārṅgadeva was the first to associate the main rāgas with particular celestial bodies and deities :

MELODY

celestial body : rāga : sun (sūrya) śuddhasādhārita rūpasādhārita moon (soma) śuddhakaisikamadhyama bhinnakaisikamadhyama gaudakaisikamadyama venus (bhrgu) śādava vesarasādava saturn (śanaiscara) bhinnapañcama gaudapañcama jupiter (bṛhaspati) ṣadjagrāma mars (bhūmisuta) śuddhakaisika polar star (dhruva) madhyamagrāma dragon's tail (ketu) mālavapañcama dragon's head (rahu) gāndhārapañcama

MELODY

DāmŚD. 2. 95 (A. A. Bake, Bijdrage tot de kennis der Voor-Indische Muziek. Thesis Utrecht, Parijs 1930).

40

deity :

rāga :

Kāma

śuddhapañcama

hindola

Brahmā

bhinnaṣadja

Śiva

bhinnatāṇa

bhinnakaiśika

gaudakaiśika

ṭakkakaiśika

ṣadjakaiśika

boṭṭa

ṭakka

sauṛīra

śaka

Viṣṇu-Kṛṣṇa

bhammañāpañcama

Yama

mālavakaiśika

kakubha

It is interesting to note that Śiva is associated with the highest number of rāgas (ten), while the other gods are only connected with one or two. In ancient Indian literature Śiva is often mentioned as creator of the dance. Śiva is also said to have invented five of the six main rāgas 59 of the famous rāga-rāginī systems, which were considerably developed after the fourteenth century, although they may have originated before the time of Śārṅgadeva.

So far I have been unable to trace Śārṅgadeva's planetary associations with music. Strictly speaking they are not directly connected with the ancient Indian system whereby each note of the octave (saptaka) was related to a particular deity, social class, sentiment (rasa), colour, finger of the hand, verse-metre, 60 or even to a particular asterism (nakṣatra), astrological house (rāśi), and presiding deity of an astrological house (rāśyādhidevatā), 61 but they may have been based on the same general idea. At least the ancient system reflects the microcosmos-macrocosmos idea which, being the result of a magical view of life, is not only typical of ancient Indian thinking, but is also found in ancient Mesopotamia. While some of the above mentioned associations are to be found in other ancient cultures too, as for instance the theory of ethos in the music of ancient Greece and the ancient

59 Compare DāmSD. 2, 10 f.

60 Compare NārŚ. 1, 4, 1 f.; 1, 5, 3; 1, 5, 13 f.; 1, 7, 3; 1, 7, 6 f.; MBrh. 64; 77 f.; 81-85, ŚārṅSR. 1, 3, 46; 1, 3, 54-59; NārSM. 1, 1, 30-39; KuSR. 2, 1, 1, 212; 2, 1, 1, 260-267.

61 NārSM. 1, 1, 42-45.

41

Greek idea of the harmony of the spheres which probably originated in Mesopotamia, it can be claimed that in no other culture were the interrelations between music and other phenomena of the immanent and transcendent world worked out so systematically as in India. However, none of Śārṅgadeva's planets and deities mentioned in connection with particular rāgas corresponds to any of the ancient planets and deities associated with the predominant notes of these rāgas. Only in the case of the rasas is there continuity and after the time of Śārṅgadeva planets are no longer referred to in this context.

The fourteenth century author Sudhākalaśa 62 describes the rāgas iconographically by mentioning the attributes of certain deities of the Jainisṭ pantheon; but none of his rāga personifications actually points to any particular deity. Sudhākalaśa's rāga descriptions are quoted in the fifteenth century work, the Saṅgītarāja by Mahārāna Kumbha.

During the following centuries secular elements were incorporated in these iconographic rāga descriptions or dhyānas (lit. "contemplation formulas"). A number of rāgas still personified a deity (bhairava: Śiva; hindola: Kṛṣṇa: vasanta: Vasanta, the god of spring; khambhāvatī: Brahmā; addāna: Kāmadeva). Some rāgas did not directly personify gods, but represented ascetics or devotees. For example the rāga devagāndhāra represented an ascetic, the rāginīs bangālī and kedārī represented female ascetics. devagiri represented a woman carrying utensils for a religious performance, bhairravi a woman performing a ceremony in a Śiva temple and saindhavi a Śiva devotee clad in red and carrying a trident. But beside these personifications of a religious character, a new type of dhyānas developed which described the rāgas and rāginis as the heroes and heroines of the ancient Indian theatre. The latter generally represent various aspects of the erotic sentiment (śṛṅgāra rasa), but are sometimes manifestations of other sentiments, such as the warrior representing the rāga naṭa who obviously expresses the sentiment of fury (raudra rasa).

This trend gave rise to a vast literature on the personification of rāgas and most musical treatises 63 dating from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries pay attention to this subject. A special class of works, called Rāgamāla, was specifically devoted to this purely aesthetic aspect of music.

However, it was not only literature that was strongly influenced by this development. Besides literary descriptions of the personification of melodic patterns, a special type of painting, the so-called rāgamāla miniatures, came

62 SudhSS. 3, 76-111.

63 For example SubhSD . NārCRN., ŚriRK., SomRV., DāmSD.

42

into being. A considerable number of miniatures, often painted in sets of thirty-six, are accompanied by the relevant (and sometimes irrelevant!) dhyānas quoted from musical treatises.64

42

To this branch of musical aesthetics we owe several so-called rāga-rāginī systems, generally containing six male rāgas representing the chief melodic patterns and a number of rāginis (consorts) and putras (sons) representing the secondary melodic patterns. But these systems are of little use to those attempting a musical classification of the rāgas.

42

Nevertheless the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries produced new systems of ragā classification based on purely musical principles. When owing to the invention of the fretted vinā. the ancient temperament with its unequal whole tones (of 4 and 3 śrutis) was gradually replaced by a new temperament consisting of twelve more or less (but never absolutely) equal half tones within the octave, the melodic patterns (rāga) had to be reclassified in keeping with these new scalar principles. Govinda Diksitar, the author of the Sangitasudhā (1614 A.D.),65 states that Vidyāranya -- a well known Sanskrit author from the Vijayanagar kingdom, who lived from 1320 to 1380 A.D. -- had already used a system of fifteen/melas/in his Sangitasāra. Thus far however, no manuscript of this work has been discovered.

42

In 1550 Rāmāmātya introduced in his Svarāmelakalānidhi a system of twenty basic scales (melu), the notes and names of which were taken from some prominent rāgas of his time, and he classified all the rāgas under these twenty scales. The ten ancient modal essentials (lakṣaṇa), which by that time had been reduced to five (the predominant note or amśa, the initial note or graha, the final note or nyāsa, the hexatonic structure or ṣādava and the pentatonic structure or audava), were no longer considered to be criteria for classifying rāgas. This means that the ancient modal system was now finally replaced by a scalar system. Nevertheless individual rāgas continued to preserve some of their ancient modal essentials (lakṣaṇa), in certain cases even until today. This continuity in the history of Indian rāgas is aptly illustrated by the following rāgas : 1. The Karnāṭak rāga mukhāri (a rāga as well as a melā), which according to the eighteenth century author Tulaja66 is the same rāga as the ancient śuddhasādhārita; 2. Karnāṭak varāṭī (or varālī), i.e. both sāmuvarālī and jhalavarālī; 3. Hindustānī varārī (barārī); 4. Hindustānī bhairavā; 5. Karnāṭak lalitā; 6. Karnāṭak ad Hindustānī dhanāśrī; 7. Hindustānī saindhavī.

42

64 Mostly from Dāmodara's and SubhSD.

42

65 Edited by V. Raghavan, Madras 1940, p. 152 f., verses 413 f.

42

66 TulSS. p. 105.

43

In 1620 Veṅkaṭamakhin corrected Rāmāmātya's mela system by reducing the number of melas to nineteen, obviously because the notes of two of those melas, viz. kedāragauḷa and sāraṅganāṭa, were the same. In the appendix (anubandha) to his Caturdaṇḍiprakāśikā. Veṅkaṭamakhin mentions another system consisting of 72 melas which bear the names of prominent contemporary rāgas and are each considered to be the basic scale of one or more rāgas. This system of 72 melas is almost identical with the modern Karnāṭak mela system in which towards the end of the eighteenth century Govinda, the author of the Sangrahacūḍāmaṇi, changed the names of some melas. It is interesting to note that a number of Veṅkaṭamakhin's melas were already marked with the so-called kaṭapayādi prefixes. This prefix, which indicates in modern Karnāṭak music the number of the mela in the 72-mela system in reverse order, is obtained by using the kaṭapayādi formula which classifies the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet as follows :

43

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 I67ka kha ga gha ṅa ca cha ja jha ña(jṅ) (ṅg) II68ṭa ṭha ḍa ḍha ṇa ta tha da dha na III69pa pha ba bha ma IV70ya ra la va śa ṣa sa ha

43

It is not known who invented this ingenious system of numbering melas by means of kaṭapayādi prefixes. According to Sambamoorthy 71 this invention must have been later than king Tulaja's Sangitasārāmrta (1735), since that work refers to only 21 melas which were named without the prefixes. Furthermore Sambamoorthy 72 states that the so-called kanakāmbari-pheṇa-dyuti nomenclature -- the mela names found in the appendix to Caturdaṇḍiprakāśikā -- though ascribed to Veṅkaṭamakhin, is not his. Despite its doubtful origin, it was this system which was used by the famous Karnāṭak composer Muttusvāmi Diksitar (1775-1835). A second nomenclature also working with the kaṭapayādi prefixes, the so-called kanakāṅgi-

43

67 kāḍavaṛa i.e. a series of 9 letters (gutturals and palatals) starting with ka.

43

68 ṭāḍavaṛa i.e. a series of 9 letters (cerebrals and dentals) starting with ṭa.

43

69 pāḍavaṛa i.e. a series of 5 letters (labials) starting with pa.

43

70 vāḍyastu i.e. a series of 8 letters (semivowels and spirants) starting with ya.

43

71 South Indian Music, III. Madras '1964, p. 50

43

72 o.c., p. 47.

44

MELODY

ratnāṅgi nomenclature, was used by Tyāgarāja (1759 or 1767-1843) and

other Karnātak composers including the nineteenth century composer

Mahāvaiyānātha Ayyar (Śivan), who followed it in composing his famous

rāgamālikā (lit. "garland of rāgas", i.e. a musical composition based on

a series of rāgas) consisting of 72 melas. This second system has become the

standard system of modern Karnātak music.

The numbers of the 72-Karnātak melas can be explained as follows:

There are 12 series of 6 melas, all having the same tonic (śuddha sa) and

fifth (śuddha pa). All melas in the series 1 to 6 have a perfect fourth or

śuddha ma (abbreviated ma), whereas the melas in the series 7 to 12 have

an augmented fourth or prati ma (abbr. mi). With respect to the other notes

of the scale series 7 to 12 duplicate series 1 to 6 respectively. Each series is

determined by the lowest, middle or highest variety of the second (abbr.

ra, ri, ru) and third note (abbr. ga, gi, gu). The six melas of each series are

individually determined according to their use of the lowest, middle or

highest variety of the sixth (abbr. dha, dhi, dhu) and seventh note (abbr. nu,

ni, nu). In order to make a clear distinction between the three varieties of

the notes ri, ga, dha and ni the vowels of these tone syllables are changed, -a

indicating the lowest, -i indicating the middle and -u indicating the highest

variety. For example : ra, ri, ru = d♭, d, d♯ if sa is equated to the Western c;

and ra, ri, ru = e♭, e, e♯ if sa is equated to the Western d.

In short, the structure of the first (i.e. lower) tetrachord (pūrvāṅga) of a

mela is determined by its serial (cakra) number, while the structure of the

second (i.e. higher) tetrachord (uttarāṅga) is determined by the number of the

scale within a particular series (cakra). Multiplying the serial (cakra) number

(after having subtracted one) by the number six and adding the number

of the scale within the series, one arrives at the exact mela(karta) number.

The entire mela system is surveyed in the chart on page 45f.

During the second half of the sixteenth century Puṇḍarikaviṭṭhala

introduced Rāmāmātya's mela system in North India. Generally speaking

Puṇḍarikaviṭṭhala presented that system in is Rāgamañjarī, but he changed

the names and scales of several melas. Another South Indian musicologist

who migrated to the North was Śrīkaṇṭha, who wrote his Rasakaumudī at

about the same time. He reduced Rāmāmātya's twenty melas (as sāraṅ-

gaṅjāṭa and keḷāragauḷa were actually the same scale, there were really only

nineteen different scales) to eleven. This new system resembles the contem-

porary Arabic system of twelve predominant modes (maqām), the scales

Pūrva or śuddha-madhyama melakartas

cakra number pūrvāṅga notes uttarāṅga notes scale number melakarta name melakarta number dha-na 1 kanakāṅgi 1 dha-ni 2 ratnāṅgi 2 dha-nu 3 gānamūrti 3 I ra-ga dhi-ni 4 vanaspati 4 dhi-nu 5 mānavaṭi 5 dhu-nu 6 tānarūpi 6 dha-na 1 senāpati 7 dha-ni 2 hanumattoḍi 8 dha-nu 3 dhenukā 9 II ra-gi dhi-ni 4 nāṭakapriyā 10 dhi-nu 5 kokilapriyā 11 dhu-nu 6 rūpāvaṭi 12 dha-na 1 gāyakapriyā 13 dha-ni 2 vakulābharaṇam 14 dha-nu 3 māyāmalavagaula 15 III ra-gu dhi-ni 4 cakravāka 16 dhi-nu 5 śūryakānta 17 dhu-nu 6 hāṭakāmbari 18 dha-na 1 jhanakāradhvani 19 dha-ni 2 naṭabhairavi 20 dha-nu 3 kīravāṇi 21 IV ri-gi dhi-ni 4 kharaharapriyā 22 dhi-nu 5 gaurimanohari 23 dhu-nu 6 varuṇapriyā 24 dha-na 1 māraraṇjani 25 dha-ni 2 cāru kesi 26 dha-nu 3 sarasāṅgi 27 V ri-gu dhi-ni 4 harikāmbhoji 28 dhi-nu 5 dhīraśamkarābharaṇam 29 dhu-nu 6 nāganandini 30 dha-na 1 yāgapriyā 31 dha-ni 2 rāgavardhani 32 dha-nu 3 gāṅgeyabhūṣaṇi 33 VI ru-gu dhi-ni 4 vāgadhīśvari 34 dhi-nu 5 śūlini 35 dhu-nu 6 calanāṭa 36

Uttara or prati-madhyama melakartas

number

VII

ra-ga dha-na dha-ni dha-nu dhi-ni dhi-nu dhu-nu 1 2 3 4 5 6 sā laga jalārnava jhā lavarālī navanitam pā vanī raghupriyā 37 38 39 40 41 42

VIII

ra-gi dha-na dha-ni dha-nu dhi-ni dhi-nu dhu-nu 1 2 3 4 5 6 gavāmbodhi bhāvapriyā śubhāpantuvarālī ṣadvidhamārgini suvarnāngi divyamani 43 44 45 46 47 48

IX

ra-gu dha-na dha-ni dha-nu dhi-ni dhi-nu dhu-nu 1 2 3 4 5 6 dhavalāmbari nāmanārāyani kāmavardhani rāmapriyā gamanāśramā visvāmbhari 49 50 51 52 53 54

X

ri-gi dha-na dha-ni dha-nu dhi-ni dhi-nu dhu-nu 1 2 3 4 5 6 śyāmalāngi śanmukhapriyā simhendramadhyamā hemavati dharmavati nītimati 55 56 57 58 59 60

XI

ri-gu dha-na dha-ni dha-nu dhi-ni dhi-nu dhu-nu 1 2 3 4 5 6 k āntāmani rsabhapriyā latāngi vācaspati mecakalyāṇī citrāmbari 61 62 63 64 65 66

XII

ru-gu dha-na dha-ni dha-nu dhi-ni dhi-nu dhu-nu 1 2 3 4 5 6 sucaritrā jyotiṣvarūpini dhātuvardhani nāśikābhūṣaṇī kosala 67 68 69 70 71

of which do not however correspond with the Indian melas. Ṣrikanṭha realized that, since according to Rāmāmātya's system in practice the cyuta-madhyama ga (fe. 18, cont.) and cyutasadja ni (ce. 18, cont.) were represented by the same pitches as the lower notes antara ga (fe 16) and kākali ni (ce 14), some of Rāmāmātya's basic scales containing these notes must coincide. Furthermore Ṣrikanṭha refused to accept Puṃdarikavitthala's nomenclature of the four varieties of ri and dha (viz. śuddha, ekagā tika, dvitiyagā tika and tritiyagā tika), two of which coincide with the śuddha and sādhārana (or kaiśika) varieties of the next notes in the scale (ga and ni). However, Puṃdarikavitthala's system of basic notes can be easily recognized in the svara nomenclature expounded in Somanātha's Rāgavibodha (written in 1609 A.D. in Andhra Pradesh). Differences in the names given to the basic notes by these four authors are clarified in the following table. 74

Ṣrikanṭha Rāmāmātya Puṃdarikavitthala Somanātha

śuddha sa śuddha sa śuddha sa śuddha sa

śuddha ri śuddha ri śuddha ri śuddha ri

catuhśruti ri pañcaśruti ri satśruti ri ekagā tika ri dvitiyagā tika ri tritiyagā tika ri tivra ri tivratara ri tivratama ri

śuddha ga śuddha ga śuddha ga śuddha ga

sādhārana ga ekagā tika ga dvitiyagā tika ga sādhārana ga

antara ga cyutama ga tritiyagā tika ga mrduma ga

cyuta ma cyutama ma śuddha ma śuddha ma

ekagā tika ma dvitiyagā tika ma tritiyagā tika ma tivratama ma mrdupa ma

śuddha pa śuddha pa śuddha pa śuddha pa

śuddha dha śuddha dha śuddha dha śuddha dha

catuhśruti dha pañcaśruti dha satśruti dha ekagā tika dha dvitiyagā tika dha tritiyagā tika dha tivra dha tivratara dha tivratama dha

śuddha ni kaiśika ni kākali ni śuddha ni ekagā tika ni dvitiyagā tika ni tritiyagā tika ni kaiśika ni kākāli ni mrdusa ni

cyuta sa cyutasa ni tritiyagā tika ni mrdusa ni

74 Compare Manik, o.c., p. 66 and 106 (Tabelle 10); R. d'Erlanger, La Musique Arabe 3, Paris 1938, p. 135 f.; 386: 397-401; 5, Paris 1949, p. 113-115.

74 The brackets indicate similarity of pitch of the notes.

MELODY

Somanātha's svara nomenclature differs very little from Pumdarikavithala's system. In studying Somanātha's rāgas, I found that this author also borrowed a considerable number of Pumdarikavithala's rāga definitions. Presumably Somanātha. Pumdarikavithala and Śrikanṭha used the same temperament as Rāmāmātya did, i.e. a temperament based on the śrutiambhu (natural harmonic) relation of the perfect fifth (ratio 3/2), since these authors all refer to the same method of tuning of the strings and placing the frets of the vīṇā as Rāmāmātya mentions in his Svaramelakalānidhi. The question remains open as to how far the contemporary Arabic system of 17 tones influenced Somanātha's 17 tones corresponding to his 22 names of the notes (five tones are called by double names).

MELODY

In the śrutiambhu temperament the placement of the frets provided only twelve fixed positions within the octave (saptakā), viz. the positions of the notes śuddha sa, śuddha ri, śuddha ga, sādhārana ga, antara ga, śuddha ma, mṛdupañcama ma, śuddha pa, śuddha dha, śuddha ni, kaiśika ni, kākali; but all other notes including microtonal alterations could be easily produced by deflection (sideward pulling) of the strings.

MELODY

The above mentioned four types of svara nomenclature reveal a tendency to simplify the tone-system by equating the pitch of several notes, for example, tivratara ri (dītīyagārika ri, pañcaśruti ri) = śuddha ga. This simplification is most evident in Śrikanṭha's denomination of notes.

MELODY

Towards the end of the seventeenth century the North Indian musicologists Ahobala and Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva definitely reduced the number of basic notes to twelve. For the first time in the history of Indian music they clearly determined the positions of these twelve notes by indicating the relevant string divisions, a fact which enables us to calculate the exact frequency ratios of these notes. In their svara nomenclature however both authors continue to use the old system containing double names for some notes, i.e. pūrva ga = śuddha ri; tivratara ri = śuddha ga; atitīvrata ga = śuddha ma; pūrva ni = śuddha dha; tivratara dha = śuddha ni. The svara names of Ahobala and Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva are identical except for Ahobala's tīvra ga and tīvra ni, which Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva called tivratara ga and tivratara ni respectively.

MELODY

Although it is not certain whether Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva's Hṛdayaprakāśa was written before or after Ahobala's Saṃgītapārijāta (1665 A.D.), the latter probably came first, since it is a larger and more elaborate work than the Hṛdayaprakāśa which seems to be an abstract. Both these treatises still classify the rāgas according to a system of melas. Following the example set by Śrikanṭha Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva has chosen a relatively small number (only twelve) of melas and has arranged them in the six categories shown hereunder :

MELODY

I. śuddhasvara mela, consisting solely of śuddha notes : sa = d; ri = e+4 cents; ga = f+10; ma = g ; pa = a+2; dha = b+33; ni = c+18.

MELODY

II. ekavikṛta melas, i.e. melas with one accidental :

MELODY

1. melas with tivratara ga = f#4

MELODY

2. melas with komala dha = b47

MELODY

III. dvivikṛta melas, i.e. melas with two accidentals :

MELODY

1. melas with komala dha = b47 and komala ri = eb,33

MELODY

2. melas with tivratara ga = f#4 and tivratara ni = c#7

MELODY

IV. trivikṛta melas, i.e. melas with three accidentals :

MELODY

1. melas with tivratara ga = f#4, tivratara ni = c#7 and ma = g#31

MELODY

2. melas with tivratara ga = f#4, tivratara dha = b#18 (= śuddha ni = c+18) and tivratara ni = c#7

MELODY

3. One peculiar mela called hṛdayaranumā with tivratama ga, tivratama ma and tivratama ni, where one śruti higher than tivratara ga = f#4, tivratama g = g#31 and tivratama ni = c#7 respectively and were probably played in the position of the latter with deflection of the string.

MELODY

V. caturvikṛta melas, i.e. melas with four accidentals :

MELODY

1. melas with komala ri = eb,33, komala dha = b47, tivratara ga = f#4 and tivratara ni = c#7

MELODY

2. melas with atitīvrata ga = f+2 (= śuddha ma = g ), tivratara ma = g#31, tivratara ni = c#7 (= śuddha ni = c+18) and kākali ni = c#7

MELODY

3. melas with tivratara ga = f#+4, tivratara ma = g#+31, tivratara dha = b#+18 and kākali ni = c#+7

MELODY

VI. pañcavikṛta melas, i.e. melas with five accidentals : tivratara ga = f#+4, tivratara ma = g#+31, komala ri = eb,33, komala dha = b47, kākali ni = c#+7

MELODY

This system of melas expounded in the Hṛdayaprakāśa is most probably modelled on Ahobala's much more elaborate scheme presented in the form of a table in the Calcutta edition of the Saṃgītapārijāta.75 According to Ahobala's system each category of melas (1-vikṛta, 2-vikṛta, etc.) has further subdivisions, i.e. heptatonic (sampūrṇa), hexatonic (ṣādava) and pentatonic (auḍava) scales. The tabulated rāgas in the Saṃgītapārijāta total 11340. Although Ahobala does not describe all these rāgas in detail, in the case of 122 rāgas he mentions their musical characteristics (predominant

MELODY

75 Saṃgītapārijāta, Calcutta 1879, table opposite p. 41.

50

note, initial note, final note, heptatonic, hexatonic or pentatonic structure

50

and characteristic melodic lines comparable to the modern Karnāṭak

50

samcāra and Hindustāni pukad) and times of performance. Hṛdayanārā-

50

yanadeva gives a less detailed description of 73 rāgas in his Hṛdayaprakāśa.

50

In another work, the Hṛdayakautuka, he uses a different method to present

50

the same system of 12 melas. There he does not classify these twelve melas

50

according to the number of their accidentals (vikṛta svaras), but refers to

50

them as independent basic scales (saṃsthānas) named after their most

50

representative rāga.

50

saṃsthāna vikṛta svaras scale in Western equivalents

50

bhairavi sometimes komala dha d e-4 f+16 g♭ a+2 b-33 c+18

50

todi komala ri and dha d e♭-33 f+16 g♭ a+2 b♭ c+18

50

gauri komala ri and dha, tivratara ga and ni d e♭-33 f♯+4 g♭ a+2 b♭ c♯+7

50

karnāṭa tivratara ga d e+4 f♯+4 g♭ a+2 b-33 c+18

50

kedāra tivratara ga and ni d e+4 f♯+4 g♭ a+2 b-33 c♯+7

50

imana tivratara ga, ni and ma d e+4 f♯+4 g♯-31 a+2 b-33 c♯+7

50

sāraṅga atitīvrata ga, tivratara ma, dha and ni d e+4 f+7 g♯-31 a+2 b♭-18 c♯+7

50

megha tivratara dha and ni of sāraṅga, and tivratara ga and śuddha ma of karnāṭa d e+4 f♯+4 g♭ a+2 b♭-18 c♯+7

50

hṛdayarāma as in megha, but with 5-śruti ga and ni-76 d e+4 f♯+7 g♭ a+2 b♭-18 c♯+7

50

dhanāśri komala ri and dha, tivratara ga, ma and ni d e♭-33 f♯+4 g♯-31 a+2 b♭ c♯+7

50

mukhāri komala dha d e+4 f+16 g♭ a+2 b♭ c+18

50

pūrva as in imana, but with 4-śruti dha77 d e+4 f♯+4 g♯-31 a+2 b♭-18 c♯+7

50

Almost the same system of twelve thāṭas is found in Locana’s Rāgatarangini,

50

which was more or less contemporaneous with the Hṛdayakautuka.

50

Since in describing the pūrva saṃsthāna Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva replaces the

50

tivratara dha = b♭-18), which he mentioned in his Hṛdayaprakāśa, by the

50

4-śruti dha referred to by Locana in connection with this rāga, presumably

51

to hide = weeding MELODY

51

Locana’s Rāgatarangini served as a model for Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva’s

51

Hṛdayakautuka and was hence written before it. Moreover the fact that

51

Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva omits the rāga dipaka -- which was not clearly defined

51

in the Rāgatarangini, obviously because this “fire” melody was a very

51

dangerous rāga -- and adds a new rāga of his own invention, called

51

hṛdayarāma, also seems to point in this direction.

51

Comparing the systems of twelve basic scales expounded by Hṛdaya-nārāyaṇadeva and Locana with Śrikanṭha’s system of eleven melas, we find

51

that the number of scales with an augmented fourth (prati ma) has increased.

51

Whereas towards the end of the sixteenth century Śrikanṭha only mentions

51

kaḷyāṇa mela, which he obviously borrowed from Puṇḍarikaviṭṭhala, the

51

two seventeenth century musicologists Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva and Locana

51

mention four basic scales with the augmented fourth, namely imana,

51

sāraṅga, dhanāśri and pūrva.

51

From the historical point of view basic scales with an augmented

51

fourth (prati ma) are of particular interest. Some of these scales may

51

indeed be traced back to the ancient māḍhyama grāma, but a considerable

51

number were probably influenced by contemporary Arabic scales. I agree

51

with Brahaspati78 that there is a tendency among Indian musicologists to

51

hide the fact of borrowing from outside and to interpret foreign scales

51

or notes according to their own classical system. Indian theorists always try

51

to explain the augmented fourth a predominant note in contemporary

51

Arabic scales, occurring in eight of the twelve classical māgāmāt -- as

51

cyuta-pañcama māḍhyama: which may theoretically revert back to the

51

ancient trisruti pañcama of the māḍhyama grāma. In many cases however,

51

especially in those Indian rāgas in which the augmented fourth was

51

introduced after the fifteenth century, the tivra ma was probably borrowed

51

from Arabic music. This, for instance, may account for the present scalar

51

structure of the modern Hindustāni rāgas todi, yaman-kalyān, mārvā and

51

pūrvi, though none of these modern Indian basic scales exactly coincides

51

with any Arabian māqām. Only the scale of todi corresponds more or less

51

to the classical zirāfkand of Ṣafiyu-d-Din (= Safi-al-Din): c d e♭ f g

51

(= f♯) a♭ b c.79

51

Somanātha and Puṇḍarikaviṭṭhala are the Indian authors who openly

51

admit the existence of foreign influence in their system. When discussing the

51

rāga turuṣkatodi in ch. 3 of his Rāgavibodha.80 Somanātha mentions

MELODY

twelve (?) rāgas from Persia (parada) and their Indian equivalents: irākha (irāq), huseni (husaini), julupha (?), muwāli (bāsalik), ujjalu (uśśāq?), navaroja (nawrūz), rākharcja (?), hijāji (hijāzi), pañcagraha (?), puṣka (buzurg?), saraparda (?) and again irākha (irāq), which correspond with kurṇātagaṇaḍa, todi, bhairuva, rāmakriyā, āsāvari, vihāgaḍa, desākārā, saindhavi, kalyāṇa-yamana, devakri, velāvali and karnāṭa respectively. I am not able to identify all the given names with the twelve classical Arabic māqāmāt, nor do I find a single instance in which the scales of both sets are identical. Further and more detailed research may solve this problem.

MELODY

During the second half of the seventeenth century many North Indian rāgas assumed the definite form in which they appear today. As far as their scales, modal essentials and times of performance are concerned, many modern Hindustānī rāgas go back to Ahobala's Sangitapārijāta (1665 A.D.). The eighteenth century development can be traced in a Hindi compilation, the Sangitasāra by Pratāpasimha (Mahārājā of Jaipur from 1779 to 1804). But also the seventeenth century author Locana has influenced modern Hindustānī music. Although their names have changed, eight of the twelve samsthānas in Locana's Rāgataranginī still function as basic scales in the modern Hindustānī thāṭ system invented by the vitally important late nineteenth century North Indian musicologist Viṣṇu Nārāyaṇa Bhātkhande (1860-1936). Locana's basic scales bhairavi (with śuddha dha), todi, gauri, karnāṭa, keḍāra, imana, dhanāśri and mukhāri correspond with the scales of the modern Hindustānī thāṭs kāfi, bhairvi, bhairuva, khamāj, bilāval, kalyān, pūrvi and āsāvari respectively.

MELODY

The modern Hindustānī thāṭ kāfi was introduced only in the seventeenth century, although its scale (d-e-f-g-a-b-c) sounds much older and reminds us of the ancient ṣaḍjagrāma d e 3 f 3 g 2 a 2 b 3 c 4. The Appendix to Venkaṭamakhin's Caturdandiprakāśikā (1620 A.D.) mentions kāfi as rāga no. 9 of mela no. 22 (śrirāga mela), a classification also adopted by Tulaja 81 and Govinda. 82 The notes of mela 22 are identical with those of the modern Hindustānī kāfi thāṭ. Towards the end of the seventeenth century Locana 83 and Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva 84 refer to the same scale in connection with todi samsthāna, which is the basic scale of their kāpi rāga, but they add that komal ri and dha may also be used. The modern Hindustānī kāfi is found in Pratāpasimha's Sangitasāra. 85

MELODY

The modern Hindustānī bhairvi thāṭ assumed its present form with komal ri (e2) at a relatively late day. Its present scale (d e2 f g a b c) is only mentioned in musical treatises dating from the latter part of eighteenth century, as for example Pratāpasimha's Samgitasāra. 86 In earlier treatises, both South and North Indian, we find the two following basic scales with tivra ri (i.e. the modern Hindustānī śuddha, or the Karnāṭak kaṭuśruti ri = e): 1. d e f g a b c and 2. d e f g a b2 c. Scale no. 1 is referred to as śrirāga lāṇidhi. 87 Somanātha's Rāgavibodha 88 and Śrikantha's Rasakaumudī 89 Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva 90 lists bhairvi under the śuddhasvara mela (d e f g a b c). Scale no. 2 is referred to as bhairvi mela in seventeenth and eighteenth century South Indian works. 91 The seventeenth century Karnāṭak author Veṅkaṭamakhin 92 states that 5-śruti dha (= b) might be occasionally used in that scale. The seventeenth century North Indian author Ahobala 93 describes the rāga bhairvi as a scale with komal dha (b2). Other seventeenth century North Indian authors 94 state however that komal and śuddha dha may be used alternately in the bhairvi samsthāna. The eighteenth century Karnāṭak author Govinda 95 clearly distinguishes between two types of bhairvi, viz. the hexatonic rāga bhairvi (missing pa) listed under the narabhairvi mela (with Karnāṭak śuddha dha = b2) and the pentatonic-hexatonic śuddhabhairvi (in ascent without ri and pa, in descent without pa) listed under the kharaharapriya mela (with kaṭuśruti dha = b). In ancient times 96 the rāga bhairvi is referred to as a secondary rāga (upāṅga rāga) derived from the rāga bhairuva. Towards the end of the sixteenth century Śrikantha 97 states that bhairvi is mixed with the notes of bhairuva. At about the same time Pumḍarikaviṭṭhala 98 listed the bhairvi rāga under the gauḍi mela (d e2 f2 a b c2), the South Indian equivalent of the Hindustānī bhairuva thāṭ. I suggest that the komal ri (e2) of the modern Hindustānī bhairvi even today sometimes replaced by śuddha ri (e) - has been taken over from bhairuva.

MELODY

81 TulSS. p. 75.

MELODY

82 GovSC. p. 118.

MELODY

83 LocRT. p. 6.

MELODY

84 HrdHK. p. 9, no. 39.

MELODY

85 PrātSS. 7. p. 288.

MELODY

86 PrātSS. 7. p. 25.

MELODY

87 RāmSM. 4. 16-20.

MELODY

88 SomRV. 4. 32.

MELODY

89 ŚriRK. 2. 116.

MELODY

90 HrdHP. p. 4, no. 2.

MELODY

91 VeṅkCP. 4. 124 f.; TulSS. p. 101.

MELODY

92 VeṅkCPApp. mela 20, rāga 9.

MELODY

93 AhSP. 374, no. 16.

MELODY

94 LocRT. p. 4, no. 4 and HrdHK. p. 3, verse 22 f.

MELODY

95 GovSC. p. 110.

MELODY

96 Compare ŚārnSR. 2. 2. 140; KuSR. 2. 2. 2. 148.

MELODY

97 ŚriRK. 2. 116.

MELODY

98 PumḍRM. p. 11, no. 19.

MELODY

Bhairava, a rāga and a thāt(a), is very interesting, because the structure of the rāga as a whole is based on ancient tradition. The modern bhairnva thāt (d e f# g a b c#) has approximately the same notes as the parent rāga of the ancient bhairnva, called bhinnasadja, which is referred to by Matanga, Sārñgadeva and Kumbha.99 The rāga bhairnva has also preserved some of its ancient modal essentials. The ancient predominant note (amiśa) dha mentioned in the early treatises 100 is still an important note (vādin) in the modern Hindustānī rāga bhairnva and the time (the morning) set for its performance is adhered to by all later North Indian and even some South Indian musicologists. The ancient tradition has been handed down by the late sixteenth and seventeenth century authors Srikant.ha, Hrdayanārāya-nadeva, Ahobala and Locana, but they listed bhairnva under the South Indian mñlaragauula or gauri mela.

MELODY

According to Bhātkhande,101 khamāj thāt may have originated from kāmboji, a Karnātak mela and rāga, which seventeenth and eighteenth century South Indian authors 102 describe as a scale consisting of the notes d e f# g a b c and as a mode in which sa functions as predominant, initial and final note. Its scale is generally regarded as being complete, but ni, or ma and ni, or ga and ni, may be omitted in the ascent. Moreover Tulaja 103 states that kāmboji is a secondary rāga (bhāśā) of the ancient rāga kakubha. Kāmboji may indeed have existed in ancient times as it is referred to by Kallinātha,104 the fifteenth century commentator on the Sangitaratnākara, as a bhāśā of kakubha and as a complete rāga with dha as predominant, initial and final note. Although Sārñgadeva does not himself mention this rāga in his Sangitaratnākara, Kallinātha's reference is based on ancient tradition. A rāga kāmboja with the same characteristics is referred to in the eighth century work. Matanga's Brhaddeśi 105 and again in the fourteenth century Kumbhā 106 describes kāmboji as a rāga with those characteristics. But elsewhere 107 that author states that some experts hold that there is another kāmboji which is derived from the parent rāga hindola and has sa functioning as predominant, initial and final note and is devoid of dha and ri. Assuming that this type of kāmboji had the same notes as its ancient

MELODY

parent rāga hindola which contained a kākali ni, the ancient kāmboji omitting ri and dha probably contained the notes d f g a c (and c#). The sixteenth century renovator Rāmāmātya108 describes kāmboji as a mela consisting of the notes d f (= e') f# g a b) c#). If we compare this scale with the scale of the ancient kāmboji springing from hindola, we note a striking similarity but also a difference: Rāmāmātya has added an antara ga (f#). According to him the kāmboji is an evening rāga, which has sa as predominant, initial and final note and is generally complete though ma and ni may sometimes be omitted in ascent. Pumdarikavitthala 109 adopts Rāmāmātya's description of the musical characteristics of kāmboji, but lists this rāga under his kedāra mela (d e f# g a b c#). Somanātha 110 defines his kāmboji mela and rāga in the same way as Rāmaḿātya does in the case of kāmboji, but replaces the pentatonic scale by a hexatonic scale devoid of ni. Srikant.ha 111 in describing the malhāra mela, the basic scale of his kāmadi rāga, slightly changed the traditional (kāmboji) scale by raising the dha (= b) to śad dha ni (c = b'), the minor seventh being equal to the c#, from which later Karnātak as well as Hindustānī authors removed the kākali ni (c#). In 1665 Ahobala 112 defines kāmbo dhī as an evening rāga from which ma and ni are omitted in the ascent. Other North Indian authors of the late seventeenth century namely Hrdayanārāyanadeva 113 and Locana 114 refer to the same scale (d e f# g a b c called karūṇā samsthāna as the basic scale of the rāgas kāmoda, kāmadi and khammā'ci (= khamāi?). This was apparently the final form of the scale which may have been the forerunner of the famous khamāj thāt of Hindustānī music and its Karnātak equivalent the harikāmbhoji mela.

MELODY

Bilāval (Sanskrit velāvali) is also a very old rāga, but its scalar structure has undergone certain changes in the course of time. Its present scale (thāt) goes back to the sixteenth century, when Pumdarikavitthala 115 listed velāvali rāga under his kedāra mela (d e f# g a b c#). The ancient predominant (amśa) dha has retained its position as central note (vādin) in one particular modern Hindustānī bilāval variety, called alhaiyabilāval.116 From the

99 MBrh. 324; SārnSR. 2. 2. 79-81; KuSR. 2. 2. 1. 266-278.

100 See note 99.

101 Samgitasāstra. I. Hathras 31964. p 211.

102 VenkCP. 136-138; VenkCPApp. p. 14, mela 28, rāga 8; TulSS. p. 96 f.; GovSC. p. 138 f.

103 TulSS. p. 96 f.

104 Compare SārnSR. vol. II. p. 132.

105 MBrh. p. 117.

106 KuSR. 2. 2. 1. 701.

107 KuSR. 2. 2, 3. 52.

108 RāmSM. 4. 61 f.

109 PumDRM. p. 12.

110 SomRV. 3, 51 and 4, 34.

111 SŕiRK. 2, 157.

112 AhSP. 410, no. 52, kāmhudhi.

113 HrdIIK. p. 5.

114 LocRT p. 7.

115 PumDRM. p. 12.

116 Compare BhāKPM. 2. 75.

MELODY

sixteenth century 117 onwards all authors consider velāvali to be a morning rāga.

MELODY

Kalyān did not exist in ancient times. It is first mentioned by Pumḍarī-kavitthala 118 as being a rāga and mela consisting of the notes d e f g a b cʒ. This scale is only slightly different from the modern kalyān thāṭ d e f g a b cʒ. After Pumḍarīkavitthala kalyān is always referred to as a mela, but is known by different names, viz. kalyāṇa, imana, imana kalyāṇa, śāntakalyāṇī, mecakalyāṇī. The major sixth of this scale was introduced by Śrīkanṭha. 119 In the case of the rāga, a distinction should be made between kalyān (kalyāṇa or śuddhakalyāṇa) and yaman (imana kalyāṇa), which has its equivalent in the South Indian yamuna kalyāṇa.

MELODY

Although purva means "ancient, old, traditional", the rāga purvī is not mentioned before the sixteenth century. This seems strange, more especially as the scale of the modern Hindustānī purvī thāṭ would correspond fairly well with the ancient madhyamagrāma if kākalī nī and antara ga are added : d e f gʒ′ (= a) b cʒ, in modern equivalents : d e f gʒ (= aʒ) b cʒ. The first author to mention the rāga purvī is Pumḍarīkavitthala. 120 His pūrvī, which he lists under the gaudi mela (d e f g a b cʒ) and which has no augmented fourth (ma tivra = gʒ), developed later into the Karnāṭak pūrvī. The modern Hindustānī purvī with its characteristic augmented fourth is obviously based on Ahobala's pūrvī-sāraṅga. 121 That fourth also appears in Hrdayanārāyaṇadeva's 4-vr̥ta mela no. 3 (d e f gʒ a b cʒ), the basic scale of his rāga purva 122 and in Locana's pūrvā mela (d e f gʒ a b cʒ). 123 The last mentioned two basic scales have however a major second (rī = e) and an augmented sixth (tivratama dha = bʒ) or a major sixth (dha taking one śruti from nī, i.e. catuhśr̥ti dha = b), which do not occur in the modern Hindustānī pūrvī. The latter has the same central listed under the dhīraśaṅkarābharaṇa mela (d e f g a b cʒ). This sāveri obviously dates back to Rāmāmātya's sāverī rāga 130 of the sāraṅgaṇāmr̥ta mela, which has the same scale as the later dhīraśaṅkarābharaṇa. Somanātha 131 also refers to this sāverī rāga, listing it under his mallārī mela, which is also identical with saṅkarābharaṇa. Tulaja, 132 on the other hand, listed both the sāverī and the śuddhasāverī under the mālavagaula mela (d e f g a b cʒ). Ahobala 133 did the same with the rāgas sāverī and āsāvarī, although he speaks of gauri instead of mālavagaula mela. In the history of Indian music āsāvari (asāverī) and sāverī apparently became mixed up. In the modern Hindustānī āsāvarī, dha is the most important note (vādin), while in the modern Karnāṭak asāverī, sa functions as the predominant, initial and final note. Ahobala 134 mentions dha as the predominant note (aṁśa) of isāvarī. However, according to the ancient tradition laid down in the Saṅgītaratnākara, 135 ma was the aṁśa, while dha was merely the final note of the hexatonic variety of sāvarī. In ancient times 136 there was also a rāga sāverī which had dha as aṁśa. Both these ancient rāgas are referred to as secondary rāgas (rāgāṅga) of ragaṅti, a bhāṣā dha as predominant, initial and final note, and probably containing the notes d e f g a b c.

MELODY

117 Compare RāmSM. 5, 50.

MELODY

118 PumJRM. p. 15, no. 46.

MELODY

119 SriRK. 2. 163.

MELODY

120 PumJRM. p. 11, no. 18.

MELODY

121 Compare AhSP. 450.

MELODY

122 Compare HrdHP. p. 14, no. 72.

MELODY

123 LocRT. p. 8.

MELODY

124 AhSP. 450.

MELODY

125 AhSP. 442, no. 82; HrdHP. p. 12, no. 57; HrdHK. p. 5, 45; LucRT1. App.

MELODY

126 PumJRM. p. 10, no. 9.

MELODY

127 VenkCPApp. mela no. 3; GovSC. p. 23.

MELODY

128 VenkCPApp. 15, 23; GovSC. 3, 15, 1.

MELODY

129 GovSC. p. 180.

MELODY

130 Compare RāmSM. 5, 64.

MELODY

131 SomRV. 4. 40

MELODY

132 TulSS. p. 84 and 87.

MELODY

133 AhSP. 442 f., rāgas 82 and 83.

MELODY

134 AhSP. 442, no. 82.

MELODY

135 SārnSR. 2. 2. 111.

MELODY

136 Compare KuSR. 2. 2. 3. 85-87

MELODY

The eight basic scales the historical development of which has been

MELODY

discussed before are all found in Locana's Rāgataranginī, but they are

MELODY

only eight of the ten modern Hindustānī thāts. The remaining two, todi and

MELODY

mārva, do not resemble any of Locana's twelve samsthānas.

MELODY

Of these two thāts, todi (d e♭ f g♯ a b♭ c♯) which shows Arabic influence

MELODY

(cf. note 79) may also be connected with the todivarāli mentioned by

MELODY

Ahobala 137 and Śrīnivāsa.138 This seventeenth century todivarāli was

MELODY

evidently the Karnātak todi combined with the note varālimadhyama (i.e. the

MELODY

ancient trisruti pa, in later times called cyutapañcama ma = g♯) taken from

MELODY

the Karnātak śuddhavarāli mela described by Veṅkaṭamakhin and Rāma-

MELODY

mātaya.139 The note tivra ni (c♯) was a later addition and is referred to in

MELODY

Pratāpasimha's eighteenth century work the Sangītāsāra.140

MELODY

The Hindustānī mārva thāt (d e♭ f g♯ a b♭ c♯) from which pa = a is omitted

MELODY

in the rāga mārva) gives the impression of being a mixture of the seventeenth

MELODY

century maru listed by Puṇḍarikavitthala 141 under his gaudi (= mālavagauda) mela (d e♭ f g♯ a b♭ c♯) and the maru listed under the keḍāra mela (d e

MELODY

f g♯ a b♭ c♯) mentioned by Hrdayanārāyaṇadeva and Locana.142 The origin

MELODY

of the prati ma (g♯) is however ambiguous. There may possibly be some

MELODY

relation between the mārva (or mārvikā) and another Hindustānī rāga

MELODY

called mālavi, the basic scale of which (pūrvi: d e♭ f g♯ a b♭ c♯) corresponds

MELODY

with the ancient ṭakkuḷaiśika (d e f g♯ a b♭ c♯, or in modern equivalents

MELODY

d e♭ f g♯ a b♭ c♯), which was the parent rāga of the ancient māḷava rāgas.

MELODY

The modern Hindustānī system of ten basic scales (thāts) introduced by

MELODY

Bhātkhande is a useful method of arranging the vast field of Indian rāgas

MELODY

according to their scalar structure. Nevertheless it must be admitted that

MELODY

this classification does not hold for the pentatonic and hexatonic rāgas.

MELODY

Owing to the omission of one or two notes it is not possible to list these

MELODY

rāgas under any particular heptatonic scale. Even a study of the historical

MELODY

development of these rāgas is of little avail, since in the history of North

MELODY

Indian music rāga classification changed too often. It is advisable to treat

MELODY

the pentatonic and hexatonic rāgas as separate categories.

MELODY

Nowadays some North Indian musicians, as for instance Ravi Shankar,

MELODY

are inclined to adopt the South Indian classification of 72 basic scales

MELODY

(melas). For my part I doubt whether any appropriate scale system can be

MELODY

devised to cover all the Indian rāgas. Fundamentally speaking these have

MELODY

always been freely improvised melodic patterns based on a particular mode

MELODY

(ancient jāti) and mood (rasa), and were not primarily determined by their

MELODY

basic scales, but first and foremost by their characteristic notes, that is to

MELODY

say by their predominant (amsa) or central (vādin) notes stressed by

MELODY

prolongation or frequent use, by their secondary notes touched lightly (alpat)

MELODY

or omitted altogether (varjya), by notes that were consonant (samvādin)

MELODY

with the central note (vādin) and shared the function (amsa) of that note, by

MELODY

notes that were dissonant (vivādin) with the central note and thus produced

MELODY

a contrasting effect, and sometimes by notes that could not be produced

MELODY

consecutively as in a scale but only in a round-about way (vakra). These

MELODY

characteristic notes or rather modal essentials (lakṣyaṇa) of a rāga invariably

MELODY

form a specific melodic line known as the basic melody of a rāga

MELODY

rāga-saṃcāra of Karnātak music and the pakad of Hindustānī music.

MELODY

137 AhSP. 392.

MELODY

138 ŚrīRV. 7, 79. The Rāgatattvavibodha is a contemporary work, which summarizes the

MELODY

rāga definitions given in the Sangītapārijāta.

MELODY

139 VeṅkCP. 4, 155; RāmSM. 4, 43-45.

MELODY

140 PratSS. 7, p. 192 f.

MELODY

141 PuṇḍRM. p. 10, no. 11. Compare also VeṅkCPApp. 15, 22; TulSS. p. 83; GovSC 3,

MELODY

15, 14.

MELODY

142 HrdHK. p. 16, no. 52 and LouRT. p. 7.

MELODY

excellent del

MELODY

20 0 0.

CHAPTER THREE

CHAPTER THREE

CHAPTER THREE

RHYTHM

RHYTHM

During the last two thousand years Indian rhythm, which is the very backbone of Indian music, has developed the most elaborate and intricate systems that confuse even the trained ear of a Western musician. On the one hand Indian rhythm (tāla) serves as a rhythmical framework for the melodic structure of a composition, in which function it provides an indispensable foundation for the improvised melodic variations; on the other hand, it amounts to a composition in its own right. Just as a rāga is not merely a scale but includes characteristic motifs and melodic phrases, so is a tāla not merely a cycle of beats but includes characteristic rhythmic patterns and phrases. Beside the standard phrase (theka) of a particular tāla we may distinguish general types of phrases such as: the mukhra, a phrase used to replace the last part of the theka; the mohra, also used to replace the last part of the theka but based on a rhythmic and melodic pattern that is repeated thrice and called tihai; the kaida, a rhythmic phrase generally covering one complete rhythmic cycle (tāla-āvarta), used as a starting point for improvisation; the paran, a small rhythmic composition consisting of two or more āvartas and containing various patterns and phrases, not used as a basis for further improvisation; and the tukra, a rhythmic composition consisting of one or more āvartas and ending in a tihai, designed for the purpose of displaying different techniques including syncopated rhythms.

RHYTHM

The independent character of rhythm becomes apparent in drumsoli and in improvisations where the drummer (i.e. the tablā-, pakhvāj-, mrdangam- or ghuṭam- player) makes variations on a rhythmic pattern, while the melody is presented in its simplest form by the other instrumentalist(s) or vocalist(s).

RHYTHM

As melody (rāga) is based on a particular scale consisting of a particular number of notes (i.e. specific pitches) within the octave, so rhythm (tāla) is based on a particular series or cycle consisting of a particular number of beats (i.e. time units) within a certain time space.

RHYTHM

Unlike Western music, Indian music has never forced its rhythm into such an over-simplified system as the Western musical metre, which may have become necessary in order to counterbalance the complicated harmonic and melodic structures of Western music. It is true that simple ¾, 4/4 and 6/8

RHYTHM

metres also exist in Indian music (¾ is comparable to the Karnāṭak sudha, i.e. the tisra jāti of eka tāla; 4/4 and 6/8 to the Hindustānī kharā and dādrā respectively). However, alongside these simple metres a vast number of composite metres are used in both North and South Indian music. The tāla then consists of a relatively high number of beats or time units (akṣara, or mātrā) arranged in sections (āṅga or vibhāga) of 2, 3, 4 or more beats. The first beat of each section is either stressed (tāli, which is marked by a number) or unstressed (khali, indicated by a zero), while the first beat of the most important section, the so-called sam (marked x), has a special accent. In Karnāṭak music the main beat, i.e. the sam of Hindustānī music, is called ghāta; the other stressed beats in a tāla cycle are known as talam; and the unstressed beats are named visarjita, viccu or vissu. Both Karnāṭak and Hindustānī tālas can be indicated by means of numbers representing the number of beats occurring in each section of the cycle. When counting the beats of a Hindustānī tāla according to this method, the number of beats in the unstressed (khali) section(s) or bar(s) should be added to the number of beats in the preceding stressed section or bar.

RHYTHM

For example :

RHYTHM

Hindustānī cautāl :

RHYTHM

x 0 2 0 3 4

RHYTHM

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 = 4 + 4 + 2 + 2

RHYTHM

Karnāṭak lekha, i.e. catuṣra jāti of aṭatāla

RHYTHM

Indian music has evolved special handmovements to point out the rhythmical structure of the different tālas and this means of indication is not confined to purposes of study. Even at a public performance one of the accompanying musicians may disclose, in this way, how the tāla is constructed. The main beat (sam) is marked by a normal clap of the hands or by a slap of the right hand on the thigh; the stressed first beats of the other sections by a softer clap of the hands or slap on the thigh; and the unstressed first beats (khali) of Hindustānī music -- in Karnāṭak music some of the untressed beats ---- by a wave of the right hand or by a soft clap with the palm of the right hand facing upwards. The other beats are counted with the fingers of the right hand alternately touching the thumb or marked by soft claps. A somewhat similar, but more complicated system of beating time existed in ancient times.

RHYTHM

In the old mārgatāla system each mātrā (= laghu, lit. "short syllabe", marked by the symbol l, in the ancient period the smallest time unit) was

RHYTHM

indicated by one of the seven handmovements (pāta).1 Four of these pātas were called "silent" (nihśabda): the āvāpa, a contraction of the fingers with the palm of the hand facing upwards; the viksepa, a swift movement of the hand from the left to the right side with the palm facing upwards (equivalent to the khali of modern Hindustānī music); the praveśa, a contraction of the fingers with the palm of the hand facing downwards; and the niṣkrāma, a stretching movement of the fingers with the palm again facing downwards. Three pātas, on the other hand, were called "audible" (sabdona samyukta), viz.: the sammipāta, a clap produced by both hands, which has its counterpart in the modern Hindustānī sam and the Karnāṭak ghāta; the tāla, a clap by the left hand (probably on the immobile right hand or on the thigh); and the samya, a clap by the right hand (probably on the immobile left hand or on the thigh). In modern times, however, a slap by the right hand on the thigh is called tāli in Hindustānī music and tālam in Karnāṭak music, whereas the ancient tāla was a left handed clap.2

RHYTHM

In the ancient period, the time units (akṣara, lit. meaning "syllable") counted as beats were equated to the laghu, i.e. "short" syllable of poetical metre, also called mātrā and indicated by the symbol l. Two more values were used in the ancient tālas, namely the guru, i.e. the long syllable of poetical metre (indicated by S), which was equal to two laghus (S = ll). and the pluta, i.e. the extra long syllable (indicated by Ṡ or 2), which was equal to three laghus (Ṡ = lll). As in European music so also in Indian music shorter units of time gradually came into use. During the early Middle Ages, that is to say in about the seventh or eighth centuries when the deśitālas were introduced, the druta, which is half a laghu (indicated by 0), becomes a constituent element of tāla. The author of the Sangītamakaranda (dating from the thirteenth century)3 refers to a still shorter time unit called the anudruta, i.e. half a druta (indicated by u). Nowadays these anudrutas are the akṣaras, or tālākṣaras, i.e. the basic time units which determine a tāla, while some longer values such as the guru and the pluta have fallen into disuse in the same way as the longa and maxima of older European music.

RHYTHM

The ancient system of mārgatālas, first discussed in the Nātyaśāstra4 and then referred to in many later musical treatises,5 was based on the following five tālas :

RHYTHM

1 Cf. Vāyu Purāṇa 87, 41; BhN. 31, 33 f. (Bombay and Baroda editions).

RHYTHM

2 Cf. ŚārnSR. 5, 7–10; BhN. 31, 33–37 (Bombay and Baroda eds.).

RHYTHM

3 Cf. NārSM. 2, 3, 96–99.

RHYTHM

4 BhN. 31, 10 f. (Bombay ed.); 31, 8 f. (Baroda ed.).

RHYTHM

5 ŚārnSR. 5, 20–30; PārśvSS. 7, 44 f.; SudhSS. 2, 71 f.; NandBh. (7), 437 f.; JagSC. p. 10 and 34; ŚrīRK. 4, 144 f.

RHYTHM

caccatputa S S l Ṡ

RHYTHM

cācapuṭa S l l S

RHYTHM

ṣatpitāputraka Ṡ l S S l Ṡ

RHYTHM

udghataṭa S S S

RHYTHM

sampakkestāka Ṡ S S S Ṡ

RHYTHM

This relatively small number of tālas could be produced in three different ways (mārga), because the guru (S) was considered to be a variable time value. In fast speed (druta laya), it counted as a single kalā (ekakala) containing two laghu-mātrās or basic units of time (tālākṣara); in medium speed (madhya laya), it counted as a double kalā (dvikala) containing four laghu-mātrās; and in slow speed (vilambita laya), it counted as a quadruple kalā (catuskala) containing eight laghu-mātrās. These three ways of performing the mārgatālas are respectively called citra, vrtti (or : vārttika) and dakṣiṇa. A similar phenomenon is found in Western music. There too, relatively long notes (d or ♩) are used as basic units of time in fast tempo, while in slow tempo the short notes (♩ or ♪) may become the basic units of time. In modern Karnāṭak music the anudruta is regarded as having a variable time value, which may become ekakala, dvikala or catuskala, i.e. respectively containing one, two or four smaller units of time. This means that the anudruta notes or basic units of time (tālākṣara), the number of which determines the tāla, can be split up into one, two or four smaller time units (kalā) to be marked by the drummer and counted as separate beats.

RHYTHM

In the early Middle Ages, when the ancient melody system of grāmarāgas had developed into a new rāga system in which traditional music had assimilated local melodies (deśīrāgas), the ancient rhythmical system of mārgatālas expounded in the Nāṭyaśāstra was replaced by a system of numerous deśitālas. As a rule 108 deśitālas are mentioned, but the structure of these tālas differs slightly from one author to the other.6

RHYTHM

Although it is not possible within the scope of this volume to discuss all these deśitālas, it is interesting to see how the modern Indian tālas developed from this vast field of traditional rhythms. First we may consider the Karnāṭak tālas, which have been systematically arranged in a system of 35 tālas. This so-called sulādi system, which according to Josef Kuckertz7 only dates from the seventeenth century, is most probably based on an older tradition, since the seven main tālas dhruva, mat(h)ya, rūpaka, jhumpa, tripuṭa, aṭa and ēka - each of which has five varieties in the modern sulādi system - are already mentioned in Dāmodara's Sangītadarpaṇa (approxi-

RHYTHM

6 Compare Aum., JagSC., NandBh., ŚārnSR. and SudhSS.

RHYTHM

7 Form und Melodiebildung der Karnatischen Musik Südindiens, I, Wiesbaden 1970, p. 60.

RHYTHM

mately dating from the sixteenth century)8 as the sūdādi tālas: rati (in

RHYTHM

trtīya (= modern triputa) and ekatāla. The term sūdādi possibly derives from

RHYTHM

sūda-ādi. "sūda, etc.", and refers to the three ancient classes of prabandha

RHYTHM

compositions9 called sūda, ādi and viprakīrṇa. So the sūdāditālas may

RHYTHM

originally have been special tālas used in the "sūda and other" ancient

RHYTHM

types of prabandha compositions.

RHYTHM

In the ancient period the dhruva was one of the sālaga-sūda-prabandha

RHYTHM

compositions (sālaga = chāyālaga,10 i.e. "mixed"). The sixteen varieties

RHYTHM

of this dhruva composition11 called jayanta, śekhara, utsāha, madhura,

RHYTHM

nirmāla, etc., were executed in nine different tālas, that is to say each

RHYTHM

variety was executed in one of the following nine ancient tālas :

RHYTHM

āditāla12 I = 4 (i.e. four anudrutās)

RHYTHM

nihsāruka13 I I = 4 + 6 or : 4 + 4 + 2

RHYTHM

pratimantha14 I I S S I I = 4 + 4 + 8 + 8 + 4 + 4

RHYTHM

hayalīla15 I S I = 4 + 8 + 4 or : 0 0 S I = 2 + 2 + 8 + 4

RHYTHM

krīdāitāla16 ō ō = 3 + 3

RHYTHM

laghuśekhara17 I = 6 or : 4 + 2

RHYTHM

jhampa18 ō ō I = 3 + 3 + 4

RHYTHM

ekatāli19 0 = 2

RHYTHM

dvitīya20 0 0 I = 2 + 2 + 4

RHYTHM

None of these ancient tālas corresponds to the dhruvaka,21 which is the

RHYTHM

first of Dāmodara's seven sūdādi tālas. This dhruvaka is apparently syno-

RHYTHM

nymous with the ancient ratitāla.22 The modern Karnāṭak dhruva tāla,

RHYTHM

which contains 14 beats ( 4 + 2 + 4 + 4), can be traced in another

RHYTHM

sixteenth century work, Śrīkanṭha's Rasakaumudi, which describes23 dhru-

RHYTHM

vaka tāla as I I I = 4 + 4 + 4 + 2 or : 4 + 4 + 6. The only difference

RHYTHM

between this tāla and the modern Karnāṭak dhruva is that the series of six

RHYTHM

beats appears at the end of Śrīkanṭha's dhruvaka, whereas in its modern

RHYTHM

equivalent this series is placed at the beginning of the rhythmic cycle.

RHYTHM

In the twelfth century Jagadekamalla24 refers to an identical rhythm,

RHYTHM

but calls it dombili. The thirteenth century author Nandikeśvara25 speaks

RHYTHM

of it as jhombuḍa.

RHYTHM

The ancient mantha, which was also a sālaga-sūda-prabandha com-

RHYTHM

position,26 had six different varieties called : jayapriya, mañgala, sundara,

RHYTHM

vallabha, kalāpa and kamala. Each of these varieties was executed in a

RHYTHM

different kind of mantha tāla. This ancient tāla is mentioned by Śārṅgadeva

RHYTHM

and several other authors as having the structure :27 I I S I I I. In each

RHYTHM

of the six varieties of the ancient mantha prabandha composition the first

RHYTHM

part (I I S) of this tāla changes. The rhythm I S I (jagana) is said to be the

RHYTHM

"essential feature" (ātman) of the manṭha tāla in the first manṭha-

RHYTHM

prabandha variety called jayapriya, similarly S I I (bhagana) in the second

RHYTHM

variety (maṅgala), I I S (sagana) in the third (sundara), S I S (ragana) in the

RHYTHM

fourth (vallabha), I I I (naganā-virāmanta, i.e. nagana with a virāma at the

RHYTHM

end) in the fifth (kalāpa) and 0 ō I (virāmāntadrutadvandvāllaghu) in the sixth

RHYTHM

(kamala). The essential part (S I S) of the ancient manṭha tāla used in the

RHYTHM

fourth variety (vallabha) of the ancient manṭha-prabandha composition

RHYTHM

appears to be analogous to the modern Karnāṭak matya tāla (S I S =

RHYTHM

4 + 2 + 4) and its Hindustānī equivalent śālaphaktā (4 + 2 + 4).

RHYTHM

In the ancient period the rūpaka was also a type of prabandha composition.

RHYTHM

Unfortunately Śārṅgadeva's description28 is somewhat vague as no parti-

RHYTHM

cular tāla is specified for it. Moreover Śārṅgadeva makes no reference

RHYTHM

whatsoever to rūpaka tāla, neither in the context of the rūpaka prabandha

RHYTHM

nor in the chapter on tālas. Nevertheless rūpaka tāla probably did exist in

RHYTHM

the ancient days, since it is defined by the twelfth century author Jagadeka-

RHYTHM

malla29 as a tāla with the structure S S I I = 8 + 8 + 4 + 4, and

RHYTHM

by a still earlier authority30 as S I I = 8 + 4 + 4. However, in course of

RHYTHM

time rūpaka tāla underwent considerable change. In the sixteenth century

RHYTHM

Śrīkanṭha31 describes rūpaka tāla as : 0 I, a rhythm corresponding to the

RHYTHM

8 Edited by K. Vasudeva Sāstri, Madras 1952, no. 34 of Saraswathi Mahal Series, p. 153 f.

RHYTHM

9 Cf. ŚārnSR. 4, 22 f.

RHYTHM

10 ŚārnSR. 4, 311 f.

RHYTHM

11 ŚārnSR. 4, 319 f.

RHYTHM

12 ŚārnSR. 5, 261.

RHYTHM

13 ŚārnSR. 5, 279.

RHYTHM

14 ŚārnSR. 5, 296.

RHYTHM

15 JagSC. p. 25; Aum. p. 42.

RHYTHM

16 ŚārnSR. 5, 281.

RHYTHM

17 ŚārnSR. 5, 293.

RHYTHM

18 ŚārnSR. 5, 294.

RHYTHM

19 ŚārnSR. 5, 290.

RHYTHM

20 ŚārnSR. 5, 261.

RHYTHM

21 DāmSD. p. 153.

RHYTHM

22 ŚārnSR. 5, 296.

RHYTHM

23 ŚriRK. 4, 151.

RHYTHM

24 JagSC. p. 65.

RHYTHM

25 NandBh. 478.

RHYTHM

26 Cf. ŚārnSR. 4, 314; in details : 4, 338.

RHYTHM

27 ŚārnSR. 5, 277 f.; JagSC. p. 62; NandBh. 461; ŚriRK. 4, 150; DāmSD. p. 138.

RHYTHM

28 ŚārnSR. 4, 361 f.

RHYTHM

29 JagSC. p. 31.

RHYTHM

30 Aum. p. 43.

RHYTHM

31 ŚriRK. 4, 150.

RHYTHM

Handbuch der Orientalistik, II. Abt., Bd. VI

RHYTHM

main variety of the modern Karnāṭak rūpaka tāla32 (0 = 2 + 3), on the other hand, which is slightly different, is obviously the forerunner of the modern Karnāṭak tisra variety of rūpaka tāla (2 + 3). Elsewhere33 Dāmodara calls this tāla candanihsāroka or kridātala and other authorities34 too refer to these names in connection with the rhythm 0 . The rhythm of the catusra variety of rūpaka tāla (0 | = 2 + 4) also occurs in the ancient tāla system described in the Ratnākara, although it is there named yatilagna.35

RHYTHM

The ancient jhampa tāla,36 which invariably denotes the rhythm 0 | = 2 + 3 + 4 or : 2 + 7, was especially used in the kalahamsa prabandha.37 The modern Karnāṭak jhampa tāla (7 + 1 + 2) differs from its ancient form in that it has ten instead of nine beats, while the series of seven beats occurring at the end of the ancient tāla cycle appears at the beginning of the tāla cycle in the modern jhampa.

RHYTHM

According to Sārṅgadeva the ancient tāla named addatāli was used in the addatāla-prabandha,41 a composition of the sālaga-sūda-prabandha class. There is some confusion about the structure of this tāla, since Sārṅgadeva himself states42 that addatāli, also known as tripuṭa, has one druta and two laghus 0 | |, whereas all other authors state that this tāla has two drutas and two laghus 0 0 | |. On the whole this rhythm corresponds with the structure of the modern Karnāṭak catusra variety of aṭatāla (4 + 4 + 2 + 2) and its Hindustānī equivalent cautāl (= cārtāl or dhrupad), the only difference being that in these modern Indian tālas the two series of four beats occurring at the end of the ancient addatāli are placed at the beginning of the cycle.

RHYTHM

Sārṅgadeva's tripuṭa, which is synonymous with addatāli, should not be confused with the modern Karnāṭak tripuṭa. This tāla, or rather its tisra variety (3 + 2 + 2) which has its equivalent in the Hindustānī tivra tāla, may have developed out of the ancient tritiya tāla traditionally described43 as 0 0 = 2 + 2 + 3. The final series of three beats occurring in the ancient tāla is now placed at the beginning of the cycle in its modern equivalents.

RHYTHM

In ancient times ekatāli was especially used in the ekatāli prabandha44 listed under the suddha-sūda-prabandha45 or sāluga-sūda-prabandha46 class of compositions. Up to the sixteenth century ekatāli (or ekatāla) is always defined as a rhythm consisting of one druta (0), which is equal to two anudrutās ( ). In modern times, however, the number of beats in this tāla has been doubled. The modern Karnāṭak catusra variety of ekatāla contains four anudruta beats. The modern Hindustānī ektāl, which has twelve beats (4 + 4 + 2 + 2), can be traced back to the sixteenth century ekatāla which, according to Dāmodara,47 has the structure | 0 | = 4 + 2 + 6, or 4 + 2 + 4 + 2. Here part of the final series of 6 beats, that is to say the last series of 4 beats, may have moved to the beginning of the cycle.

RHYTHM

This transference of a series of beats from the end of the rhythmic cycle in the older tāla form to the beginning of the cycle in its modern tāla equivalent may be due to changed opinion regarding the position of the main beat (sam) in the cycle. In modern Indian music this especially stressed beat mostly occurs at the beginning of the rhythmic cycle, whereas in the ancient mārgatālas48 the samnipāta (abbr. sam) generally falls on the last guru-kalā, i.e. to the speed of execution, contains 2, 4 or 8 laghu-mātrās as basic units of time.

RHYTHM

The above mentioned Karnāṭak tālas, the historical development of which can be traced in both ancient and modern musical treatises, are only the main representatives of the seven categories of the modern Karnāṭak tāla system. Since each category has five subdivisions, the whole system comprises thirty-five different tālas which, beside their class name, also have individual names. The general terms indicating the five varieties, viz. tisra ("threefold"), caturaśra ("fourfold"), khaṇḍa ("broken"), miśra ("mix-

32 DāmSD. p. 154.

33 DāmSD. p. 139.

34 SārṅSR. 5, 281; SudhSS. 2, 47; JugSC. p. 14 and 48; NandBh. 464.

35 SārṅSR. 5, 266.

36 Cf. SārṅSR. 5, 294; JugSC. p. 17, 49 and 65; SudhSS. 2, 50; NandBh. 483; SriRK. 4, 151; DāmSD. p. 143 and 154.

37 SārṅSR. 4, 242.

38 SārṅSR. 4, 26.

39 SārṅSR. 4, 324.

40 DāmSD. p. 162.

41 SārṅSR. 4, 348.

42 SārṅSR. 5, 306.

43 JagSC. p. 17; SārṅSR. 5, 261; SriRK. 4, 149; DāmSD. p. 133 and 154.

44 SārṅSR. 4, 24.

45 SārṅSR. 4, 180.

46 SārṅSR. 4, 356 f.

47 DāmSD. p. 154.

48 Compare SārṅSR. vol. III, pp. 17 and 20.

RHYTHM

ed") and samkirṇa ("composite") refer to the structure of, or more precisely

RHYTHM

to the number of beats contained in the main bar or section (aṅga) of a

RHYTHM

particular tāla cycle. The term tisra may derive from tryaśra which, like

RHYTHM

caturaśra, was already used in ancient times. In the Nāṭyaśāstra49 the

RHYTHM

ancient mārgaṭālas caccaṭpuṭa (consisting of four kalās) and cācapuṭa

RHYTHM

(consisting of three kalās) are respectively called caturaśra and tryaśra. In the

RHYTHM

same work50 however, miśra and samkirṇa are only used as synonyms both

RHYTHM

indicating tālas consisting of 5, 7, 9, 10 or 11 kalās. In the Saṅgītacūḍāmaṇi

RHYTHM

(dating from the twelfth century)51 the term khaṇḍa obviously refers to

RHYTHM

tālas in which the bars or sections (aṅga) were "split up" (khaṇḍa) into

RHYTHM

smaller time units such as the druta and anudruta. Sārṅgadeva52 mentions

RHYTHM

khaṇḍa in connection with the deśitālas.

RHYTHM

In modern times the anudruta symbol ∪ indicates 1 beat or aksarakāla,

RHYTHM

i.e. the smallest unit of time, the druta (0) 2 beats, while the laghu (l) may

RHYTHM

indicate 3, 4, 5, 7 or 9 beats. In older notation 3 aksarakālas were indicated

RHYTHM

by the symbol ∪, 4 by l, 5 by Ṭ, 7 by Ṭ, and 9 by §.

RHYTHM

The following table53 is to elucidate the modern Karnāṭak system of

RHYTHM

35 tālas :

RHYTHM

class variety name symbols number of beats

RHYTHM

dhruva tisra maṇi l3 0 l3 l3 3 + 2 + 3 + 3

RHYTHM

caturaśra śrīkara l4 0 l4 l4 4 + 2 + 4 + 4

RHYTHM

khaṇḍa pramāṇa l5 0 l5 l5 5 + 2 + 5 + 5

RHYTHM

miśra pūrṇa l7 0 l7 l7 7 + 2 + 7 + 7

RHYTHM

samkirṇa bhuvaṇa l9 0 l9 l9 9 + 2 + 9 + 9

RHYTHM

maṭhya tisra sāra l3 0 l3 3 + 2 + 3

RHYTHM

caturaśra sama l4 0 l4 4 + 2 + 4

RHYTHM

khaṇḍa udaya l5 0 l5 5 + 2 + 5

RHYTHM

miśra udīrṇa l7 0 l7 7 + 2 + 7

RHYTHM

samkirṇa rāva l9 0 l9 9 + 2 + 9

RHYTHM

rūpaka tisra cakra 0 l3 2 + 3

RHYTHM

caturaśra patti 0 l4 2 + 4

RHYTHM

khaṇḍa rāja 0 l5 2 + 5

RHYTHM

miśra kula 0 l7 2 + 7

RHYTHM

samkirṇa bindu 0 l9 2 + 9

RHYTHM

jhampa tisra kadamba l3 ∪ 0 3 + 1 + 2

RHYTHM

caturaśra madhura l4 ∪ 0 4 + 1 + 2

RHYTHM

khaṇḍa caṇa l5 ∪ 0 5 + 1 + 2

RHYTHM

miśra sura l7 ∪ 0 7 + 1 + 2

RHYTHM

samkirṇa kara l9 ∪ 0 9 + 1 + 2

RHYTHM

tripuṭa tisra śaṅkha l3 0 0 3 + 2 + 2

RHYTHM

caturaśra ādi l4 0 0 4 + 2 + 2

RHYTHM

khaṇḍa duṣkara l5 0 0 5 + 2 + 2

RHYTHM

miśra lila l7 0 0 7 + 2 + 2

RHYTHM

samkirṇa bhoga l9 0 0 9 + 2 + 2

RHYTHM

aṭa tisra gupta l3 l3 0 0 3 + 3 + 2 + 2

RHYTHM

caturaśra lekha l4 l4 0 0 4 + 4 + 2 + 2

RHYTHM

khaṇḍa vidala l5 l5 0 0 5 + 5 + 2 + 2

RHYTHM

miśra loya l7 l7 0 0 7 + 7 + 2 + 2

RHYTHM

samkirṇa dhīra l9 l9 0 0 9 + 9 + 2 + 2

RHYTHM

eka tisra sudha l3 3

RHYTHM

caturaśra māna l4 4

RHYTHM

khaṇḍa rata l5 5

RHYTHM

miśra rāga l7 7

RHYTHM

samkirṇa vasu l9 9

RHYTHM

Some of the modern Hindustānī tālas could also be classified under

RHYTHM

the above mentioned Karnāṭak categories -- a procedure followed by

RHYTHM

Popley54 -- but that leaves out a considerable number of Hindustānī tālas

RHYTHM

which do not fall within those categories. Consequently the present

RHYTHM

writer prefers to enumerate some well known and a few less common

RHYTHM

Hindustānī tālas in the alphabetic order, presenting them in the usual

RHYTHM

modern Hindustānī (transliterated) notation, whereby vertical lines mark

RHYTHM

the bars or sections (aṅga or vibhāga) of one complete rhythmic cycle

RHYTHM

(āvarta) of the tāla; an unbroken series of numbers written in between these

RHYTHM

lines represent all the beats or smallest time units (mātrā) in the cycle; and

RHYTHM

the symbols x and 0 placed over these numbers respectively indicate the

RHYTHM

sam and the khali, while the other numbers in the top line indicate the

RHYTHM

secondary stressed beats (tālī).

RHYTHM

The syllables (bol) written under the numbers refer to particular strokes

RHYTHM

to be given by the drummer (in the following examples only tablā and pakhvāj

RHYTHM

bols are mentioned). Owing to the various styles of drumming (bāj), there

RHYTHM

is no uniformity regarding the standard strokes and drum syllables of the tālas. Generally only the number of beats, the sections and their accentuation in a particular tāla is fixed, while the strokes and bols differ from one style to the other.

RHYTHM

The following list 55 is to acquaint the reader with the general structure of some well known and a few less common Hindustānī tālas :

RHYTHM

Well known Hindustānī tālas :

RHYTHM

adacautāl ( = adacārtāl ) :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 | 2 3 4 | 0 3 | 0 | 4 | 10 13 14 |

RHYTHM

| dhīn tirakita dhīn | dhīn nā tun nā | kat tā tirakita dhīn | nā dhīn dhīn nā |

RHYTHM

addhā ( = sītārkhānī ) :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 3 4 | 2 5 6 7 8 | 0 9 10 11 12 | 3 13 14 15 16 |

RHYTHM

| dhā dhīn . dhā | dhā dhīn . dhā dhā | dhā tin . tā | tā dhīn . dhā |

RHYTHM

cautāl ( = cārtāl or dhrupad ) :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 | 0 3 4 | 2 5 6 | 0 7 8 | 3 9 10 | 4 11 12 |

RHYTHM

| dhā dhā | dhīn tā | kita dhā | dhīn tā | tira kita | gadi gina |

RHYTHM

dādrā :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 3 | 0 | |

RHYTHM

| dhā dhīn nā | dhā tin nā |

RHYTHM

dhamār :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 3 | 0 4 5 | 2 6 7 | 0 8 9 10 | 3 11 12 | 0 13 14 |

RHYTHM

| ka dhi ta | dhi ta dhi ta | dhā . dhā . | ga ti ta | ti ta ki ta | tā . |

RHYTHM

or : | dhā ge ta | dhi ta dhi ta | dhā . dhā . | tā ki ta | tā . |

RHYTHM

55 Viṣṇu Nārāyaṇa Bhātkhaṇḍe, Hindustānī Saṃgit Paddhati, Kramik Pustak Mālikā, I to VI, Hathras 1964, lists of tālas following the Introduction; Nikhil Ghosh, Fundamentals of Rāga and Tāla, Bombay 1968, p. 68-70; R. M. Stewart, an Examination of the Banaras School of Tabla Performance, Hawaii, Thesis M. A. Music, 1965, p. 90-98; Bhagavatīśaraṇa Śarmā, Tāla Prakāśa, Hathras 1970, p. 98-136; Satyanārāyaṇa Vaśiṣṭa, Tāla-Mārtanḍa, Hathras 1967.

RHYTHM

dhumāli :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 | 2 3 4 | 0 5 6 | 3 7 | 8 |

RHYTHM

| dhā dhin | dhā tin | taka dhīn | dhāge tirakiṭa |

RHYTHM

dipcandī :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 3 | 2 4 5 6 7 | 0 8 9 10 | 3 11 12 13 14 |

RHYTHM

| dhā dhin . | dhā dhā dhin . | tā tin . | dhā dhā dhin . |

RHYTHM

ektāl :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 | 0 3 4 | 2 5 6 | 0 7 8 | 3 9 10 | 4 11 12 |

RHYTHM

| dhin dhin | dhāge tirakiṭa tun nā | kat tā | dhāge tirakiṭa | dhin nā |

RHYTHM

jat :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 | 2 3 4 | 0 5 6 | 3 7 8 |

RHYTHM

| tāka dhin | dhāga dhin | tāka tin | dhāga dhin |

RHYTHM

jhaptal :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 | 2 3 4 5 | 0 6 7 | 3 8 9 10 |

RHYTHM

| dhin nā | dhin dhin nā | tin nā | dhin dhin nā |

RHYTHM

jhūmrā :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 3 | 2 4 5 6 7 | 0 8 9 10 | 3 11 12 13 14 |

RHYTHM

| dhin dhā tirakiṭa | dhin dhin dhāge tirakiṭa | tin tā tirakiṭa | dhin dhin dhāge tirakiṭa |

RHYTHM

kavvālī :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 3 4 | 0 5 6 7 8 |

RHYTHM

| dhā dhin dhādhā tin | tā tin dhādhā dhin |

RHYTHM

kharvā :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 3 4 | 0 5 6 7 8 |

RHYTHM

| dhā ge nā tin | na ka dhin nā |

RHYTHM

or : | x 1 2 | 0 3 4 |

RHYTHM

| dhāg tin | tāg dhin |

RHYTHM

rūpak :

RHYTHM

| 1 | 2 3 4 | 0 5 6 7 |

RHYTHM

| dhin . | dhā ge | tin . traka |

RHYTHM

or : | 0 1 2 3 | 1 4 5 | 2 6 7 |

RHYTHM

| tin tin nā | dhin nā | dhin nā |

RHYTHM

sūltāl (= sūlaphāktā) :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 | 0 3 4 | 2 5 6 | 3 7 8 | 0 9 10 |

RHYTHM

| dhā dhā | dhin tā | tira dhā | tira kiṭa | gadi gina |

RHYTHM

tilvāḍā :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 3 4 | 2 5 6 7 8 | 0 9 10 11 12 | 3 |

RHYTHM

| dhā tirakiṭa dhin dhin | dhā dhā dhin dhin | tā tirakiṭa tin tin | 13 14 15 16 |

RHYTHM

| dhā dhā dhin dhin |

RHYTHM

tiṇtāl :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 3 4 | 2 5 6 7 8 | 0 9 10 11 12 | 3 |

RHYTHM

| dhā dhin dhin dhā | dhā dhin dhin dhā | dhā tin tin tā | 13 14 15 16 |

RHYTHM

| dhā dhā dhin dhin |

RHYTHM

tivrā :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 3 | 2 4 5 | 3 6 7 |

RHYTHM

| dhā dhin tā | tira kiṭa | gadi gina |

RHYTHM

Less known tālas :

RHYTHM

āḍāpañctāl (= āḍāpunn) :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 | 2 3 4 | 0 5 6 | 3 7 8 9 10 | 4 11 12 13 | 5 |

RHYTHM

| dhin tirakiṭa | dhin nā | dhin dhin | dhā dhā tun nā | katta tī dhidhī | 14 15 |

RHYTHM

| nādhī dhīnā |

RHYTHM

bhānumatī :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 3 4 | 2 5 6 7 | 3 8 | 4 9 10 11 |

RHYTHM

| dhā tira dhina naka | dhiṭa dhiṭa dhāge | tira | tina gadi gina |

RHYTHM

brahm :

RHYTHM

| x 1 | 0 2 | 2 3 | 3 4 | 0 5 | 4 6 | 5 7 | 6 8 | 0 9 | 7 10 | 8 11 | tira |

RHYTHM

| dhā | tat | dhet | dhina | naka | dhet | dhet | dhina | naka | dhāge | tira | gina |

RHYTHM

| 9 12 13 | 0 14 |

RHYTHM

| kiṭa | gadi | gina |

RHYTHM

or :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 | 0 3 4 | 2 5 6 | 3 7 8 | 0 9 10 | 4 11 12 |

RHYTHM

| dhā dhin | dhin dhā | traka dhin | dhin dhā | traka dhin | dhin dhā |

RHYTHM

| 5 13 14 | 6 15 16 | 0 17 18 | 7 19 20 | 8 21 22 | 9 23 24 | 10 25 26 | 0 27 28 |

RHYTHM

| tī tī | tā tī | tī nā | tun nā | ka tā | dhāge nadhā | traka dhin | gadi gina |

RHYTHM

gujajhampā :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 3 4 | 2 5 6 7 8 | 0 9 10 11 | 3 |

RHYTHM

| dhā dhina naka taka | dhā dhina naka taka | tina naka taka | 12 13 14 15 |

RHYTHM

| dhina | tira kiṭa taka |

RHYTHM

jagajhampa :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 | 2 9 10 | 3 11 12 | 4 13 14 15 |

RHYTHM

| dhā . dhā ge dhā di ga nā | dhu ma | ki ṭa | di ga na |

RHYTHM

jugapāla :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 3 4 5 | 2 6 7 | 3 8 9 | 4 10 11 |

RHYTHM

| dhā dhina naka thum nā | dhuma kiṭa | kiṭa kata | gadi gina |

RHYTHM

jaiy tāl :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 3 4 5 | 0 6 7 8 9 | 2 10 11 | 3 12 13 |

RHYTHM

| dhin nā dhin nā tirakiṭa | tin tin nā tirakiṭa | dhin dhin | dhā taka |

RHYTHM

khemṭā :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 3 | 4 5 6 |

RHYTHM

| dhā dhin taka | tā tin taka |

RHYTHM

or :

RHYTHM

| x 1 2 3 | 4 5 6 |

RHYTHM

| dhāge dhina gina | tāge tina kina |

RHYTHM

lakṣmi :

RHYTHM

| x 1 | 2 2 | 3 3 | 4 5 | 5 6 | 6 7 8 |

RHYTHM

| dhinnā | dhindhā | tirakiṭa dhinnā | dhindhā | tirakiṭa | dhādhā tirakiṭa |

RHYTHM

| 7 9 | 8 10 | 9 11 | 10 12 | 11 13 | 12 14 | 13 15 | 14 16 | 15 | 17 18 |

RHYTHM

| dhādhā | tirakiṭa | dhinnā | dhindhā | tirakiṭa | tunnā | kiṭanāga | tāge | tā | tirakiṭa |

RHYTHM

or :

RHYTHM

|x|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12|13|14|15|16|17|18|19|20|21|22|23|24|25|26|27|28|29|30|31|32|33|34|35|36|

RHYTHM

|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12|13|14|15|16|17|18|

RHYTHM

dhā . ki ta|ta ka|dhu ma|ki|tā ta ka|dhet .|tā .|ki tā ta ka|ga di|gi na|

RHYTHM

matt :

RHYTHM

|x|0|2|3|4|0|4|5|6|7|8|9|or :|

RHYTHM

|1|2|3|4|5|0|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12|13|14|

RHYTHM

|1|2|3|4|5|6|0|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|

RHYTHM

dhā|dhina|naka|dhina|naka|tira|kiṭa|gadi gina|or :|dhī .|nā .|dhī tirakiṭa|dhī nā|tun nā|kat tā|tirakiṭa dhin|

RHYTHM

|6|15|16|17|18|

RHYTHM

nā dhin|dhin nā|

RHYTHM

niśoruk :

RHYTHM

|x|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|3|9|

RHYTHM

|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|

RHYTHM

dhin nā kiṭa taka|dhuma kiṭa taki tata|kā|

RHYTHM

pañcam savārī :

RHYTHM

|x|1|2|3|4|2|5|6|7|

RHYTHM

|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12|13|14|15|

RHYTHM

dhin.tira kiṭadhin. nā. tā.|dhīdhi nādhī dhīnā|tinā tinā trakatunnā kiranāga|kattā dhīdhi nādhī dhīnā|

RHYTHM

pharodast :

RHYTHM

|x|1|2|3|4|0|5|6|7|0|8|9|10|3|4|11|12|5|13|14|

RHYTHM

|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|

RHYTHM

dhin dhin|dhāge tirakiṭa|tun nā|kat tā|dhina kadhā|tirakita dhina|kadhā tirakiṭa|

RHYTHM

puṣṭū (= paśto) :

RHYTHM

|x|1|2|3|2|4|5|6|7|3|2|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|or :|

RHYTHM

|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|

RHYTHM

|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|

RHYTHM

tā ka dhin|dhā dhā|dhā dhin|or :|tin . naka|dhin .|dhā ge|

RHYTHM

rudr tāl:

RHYTHM

|x|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|or :|

RHYTHM

|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12|13|

RHYTHM

dhā tit|dhā|tirakiṭa|dhī nā|tirakiṭa|tun|nā|kat tā|

RHYTHM

|x|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12|13|14|15|or :|

RHYTHM

|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12|

RHYTHM

dhā dhin|tā|tira kiṭa|gadi|gina|

RHYTHM

|11|14|15|or :|

RHYTHM

|x|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12|

RHYTHM

|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12|13|14|15|16|or :|

RHYTHM

dhā .|ki ṭa|ṭa|ka dhu|ma|ki|ṭa ta|ka|ṭa|ka dhā|tā|

RHYTHM

|x|1|2|?|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|

RHYTHM

|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|

RHYTHM

dhā dhira|naka|dhira naka|dhuma|kiṭa|dhira naka|taka|

RHYTHM

|8|9|10|11|12|13|14|15|16|17|

RHYTHM

|11|12|13|14|15|16|17|

RHYTHM

dhuma|kiṭa|taka|dhuma|kiṭa|gadi gina|

RHYTHM

savārī :

RHYTHM

|x|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|11|12|

RHYTHM

|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12|

RHYTHM

dhin nā dhin dhin|dhā dhā tin nā|kat tā|dinnā kattā|

RHYTHM

|4|13|14|or :|

RHYTHM

|x|1|2|3|2|4|5|6|7|0|8|9|10|11|

RHYTHM

|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12|13|

RHYTHM

dhī nā dhīdhi|kata dhīdhi nādhī dhīnā|tikra tunnā tirakiṭa tunnā|

RHYTHM

|3|12|13|14|15|or :|

RHYTHM

|x|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12|13|14|15|16|2|9|10|11|12|13|14|15|16|

RHYTHM

|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12|13|14|15|16|

RHYTHM

dhī tā ka dhī tā ka dhī dhī|tā ka dhī dhī tā ka tī nā|

RHYTHM

|3|17|18|19|20|21|22|23|24|4|25|26|27|28|29|30|or :|

RHYTHM

|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12|13|14|15|16|2|9|10|11|12|13|14|15|16|

RHYTHM

tī nā tri kiṭa dhī nā dhī dhī|nā dhī dhī nā dhī nā|

RHYTHM

|x|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|2|9|10|11|12|13|14|15|16|

RHYTHM

|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|

RHYTHM

dhī . nā . dhī . dhī|nā . dhī dhī nā dhī dhī nā|

RHYTHM

| 3 4 |

RHYTHM

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 | 24 25 26 27 | 28 29 30 31 32 |

RHYTHM

tina tirakiṭa tina tina nā nā tun | nā kat tā tirakiṭa dhī nā dhī dhī nā |

RHYTHM

choṭi savārī :

RHYTHM

| x | 2 | 3 | 4 |

RHYTHM

| 1 2 3 4 . | 5 6 7 8 | 9 10 11 12 | 13 14 15 |

RHYTHM

dhā . gā di | gī nā dhu mā | ki ṭa tā kā | dhin nā tā |

RHYTHM

savārī bari :

RHYTHM

| x | 0 | 2 | 0 | 3 |

RHYTHM

| 1 2 | 3 4 | 5 6 | 7 8 | 9 10 |

RHYTHM

dhī nā | dhī nā | dhīdhī dhinā | dhīdhī dhinā | tā.trakā tunnā |

RHYTHM

| 4 | 5 | 0 | 3 |

RHYTHM

| 11 12 | 13 14 | 15 | 16 |

RHYTHM

tā.trakā tunnā | kattā ṭrakādhina | ginadhāge nadhātirakiṭa |

RHYTHM

savārī bari (in dhrupad) :

RHYTHM

| x | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |

RHYTHM

| 1 2 3 4 | 5 6 7 8 | 9 10 11 12 | 13 14 | 15 16 |

RHYTHM

dhā . ki ṭa | dhu mā ki ṭa | tā ki ṭa tā | kā . | ki ṭa |

RHYTHM

śikhir :

RHYTHM

| x | 2 | 3 |

RHYTHM

| 1 2 3 4 | 5 6 7 8 | 9 10 11 |

RHYTHM

dhā traka dhina naka | thum gā dhina naka | dhumā kiṭa taka |

RHYTHM

| 4 | 5 |

RHYTHM

| 12 13 . | 14 15 16 17 |

RHYTHM

dhet dhā | tīra kiṭa gadi gina |

RHYTHM

udaya :

RHYTHM

| x | 2 | 3 |

RHYTHM

| 1 2 3 4 5 | 6 7 | 8 9 10 11 12 |

RHYTHM

dhā ki ṭa dhī nā | tā kā | tā ki ṭa dhī nā |

RHYTHM

udirṇa :

RHYTHM

| x | 2 | 3 |

RHYTHM

| 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 | 8 9 | 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 |

RHYTHM

dhā . ki ṭa ki ṭa dhin | tī ṭa | tā . ki ṭa tā ka tin |

RHYTHM

It would carry us too far to compare different styles of tablā playing

RHYTHM

such as the Delhi bāj, Ajarādā bāj, Lucknow bāj, Banaras bāj, and Punjāb

RHYTHM

bāj, or to describe other methods of drumming, as for instance, the

RHYTHM

technique of the North Indian pakhvāj (i.e. the drum which accompanies

RHYTHM

the Hindustānī dhrupad style of singing) and the South Indian mṛdaṅga.⁵⁶

RHYTHM

Study of the ancient musical treatises might enable us to trace a

RHYTHM

historical link between the ancient and modern methods of drumming.

RHYTHM

As early as in the Nāṭyaśāstra ⁵⁷ specific syllables indicate particular

RHYTHM

strokes of drumming. In the fourteenth century the Jainist author Sudhā-

RHYTHM

kalaśa ⁵⁸ deals elaborately with tālas and drum syllables in the second

RHYTHM

chapter of his Saṅgitopaniṣatsāroddhara. However an exhaustive study

RHYTHM

of the history and technique of Indian drumming still remains to be

RHYTHM

written.

RHYTHM

As in Karnāṭak music so also has Hindustānī music preserved some very

RHYTHM

old tālas. The Hindustānī tāla pratāpśikhīr (12 + 2 + 3), for instance,

RHYTHM

can be traced back to the ancient tāla pratāpaśekhara which Jagadekamalla ⁵⁹

RHYTHM

already mentioned in the twelfth century as a tāla with the structure S 0 0 =

RHYTHM

12 + 2 + 3. Other early authors ⁶⁰ also refer to this tāla.

RHYTHM

The Hindustānī tāla jagajhampā (8 + 2 + 3) existed too in the

RHYTHM

ancient period. Musicologists have evidently interchanged the names jaga-

RHYTHM

jhampā and gujajhampā. Sārṅgadeva ⁶¹ and Dāmodara ⁶² describe guja-

RHYTHM

jhampā as a tāla with the structure: S 0 0 0 = 8 + 2 + 2 +3 or 8 + 4 + 3.

RHYTHM

Jagadekamalla ⁶³ refers to this rhythm in connection with jagajhampā.

RHYTHM

The Hindustānī tāla brahm (4 + 2 + 4 + 2 + 2 + 4 + 2 + 2 +

RHYTHM

• 4. is apparently based on the seventeenth century brahma tāla, which

RHYTHM

Damodara ⁶⁴ describes as a tāla with the structure: 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 =

RHYTHM

4 + 2 + 4 + 2 + 2 + 4 + 2 + 2 + 4. A similar but slightly

RHYTHM

different rhythm (1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1) is referred to in the Rasaakaumudi. ⁶⁵

RHYTHM

Since the chapters on tāla in the ancient treatises do not always give

RHYTHM

reliable readings, this small difference too may be incorrect.

RHYTHM

The Hindustānī tāla lakṣmī of 36 mātrās (4 + 2 + 2 + 4 + 1 + 1 + 2

RHYTHM

• 4 + 2 + 2 + 1 + 1 + 2 + 1 + 1 + 2 + 2 + 2) resembles the sixteenth

RHYTHM

century lakṣmī tāla, which the author of the Rasaakaumudi⁶⁶ describes as

RHYTHM

⁵⁶ R. E. Brown, The Mrdanga: A Study of Drumming in South India. Thesis. University

RHYTHM

of California, Los Angeles 1965.

RHYTHM

⁵⁷ The Nāṭyaśāstra, transl. by Manomohan Ghosh, II, Calcutta 1961, p. 160 f., ch. 33. 42 ff.

RHYTHM

⁵⁸ SudhSS. 2, 45–74.

RHYTHM

⁵⁹ JagSC. p. 17 and 65.

RHYTHM

⁶⁰ NandBh. 481; SārṅSR. 5. 293 and DāmSD. p. 143.

RHYTHM

⁶¹ SārṅSR. 5. 294.

RHYTHM

⁶² DāmSD. p. 144.

RHYTHM

⁶³ JagSC. p. 53.

RHYTHM

⁶⁴ DāmSD. p. 150.

RHYTHM

⁶⁵ ŚrīRK. 4, 153.

RHYTHM

⁶⁶ ŚrīRK. 4. 155 f.

RHYTHM

00|uu0100uu0u00u01 = 2 + 2 + 4 + 1 + 1 + 2 + 4 + 2 + 2 + 1 + 1 + 2 + 1 + 2 + 2 + 1 + 2 + 4 = 36 anudrutas. Although the

RHYTHM

minor sections (aṅgas or vibhāgas) of these tālas are placed somewhat

RHYTHM

differently (the initial series of four beats, for instance, has moved to the

RHYTHM

end of the cycle!), the general structure and the total number of beats in the

RHYTHM

cycle is the same in the old tāla and its modern equivalent.

RHYTHM

As it is not possible to discuss here all the examples which demonstrate

RHYTHM

the continuity of rhythm in the history of North Indian music, the reader

RHYTHM

is recommended to examine the structure and development of the following

RHYTHM

ancient tālas that have still survived, though they are seldom used in

RHYTHM

Hindustānī music today.

RHYTHM

name67

RHYTHM

modern structure68

RHYTHM

ancient structure69

RHYTHM

antarakriḍā

RHYTHM

2 + 2 + 3

RHYTHM

0 0 ò

RHYTHM

bhagna

RHYTHM

2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 5 + 5 + 5

RHYTHM

0 0 0 0 | | |

RHYTHM

candrakalā

RHYTHM

2 + 2 + 2 + 3 + 3 + 3

RHYTHM

s s s ṣ ṣ ṣ

RHYTHM

catustāala

RHYTHM

4 + 2 + 2 + 2

RHYTHM

s 0 0 0 or 0 0 0 |

RHYTHM

citra

RHYTHM

2

RHYTHM

ù

RHYTHM

gajalila

RHYTHM

4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 2

RHYTHM

| | | |

RHYTHM

gāruḡi

RHYTHM

2 + 2 + 2 + 3

RHYTHM

0 0 0 ò

RHYTHM

ghaṭṭā

RHYTHM

1 + 1 + 2 + 1 + 1 + 2

RHYTHM

0 0 | s

RHYTHM

hamsalila

RHYTHM

2 + 3

RHYTHM

| |

RHYTHM

kandarp

RHYTHM

2 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 8

RHYTHM

0 0 | s s

RHYTHM

laghuśekhara

RHYTHM

5

RHYTHM

|

RHYTHM

madana

RHYTHM

2 + 2 + 8

RHYTHM

0 0 s

RHYTHM

mallaṭāla

RHYTHM

4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 2 + 3

RHYTHM

| | | | 0 ò

RHYTHM

mallikāmoda

RHYTHM

4 + 4 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2

RHYTHM

| | 0 0 0 0

RHYTHM

nandana

RHYTHM

4 + 2 + 2 + 4 + 12

RHYTHM

| 0 0 ṣ or | | 0 0 ṣ

RHYTHM

nāndī

RHYTHM

4 + 2 + 2 + 4 + 4 + 8 + 8

RHYTHM

| 0 0 | | s s

RHYTHM

niḥsāruka

RHYTHM

4 + 4 + 1

RHYTHM

| |

RHYTHM

pratiṭāla

RHYTHM

4 + 2 + 2

RHYTHM

| 0 0

RHYTHM

rājamārtanḍa

RHYTHM

8 + 4 + 2

RHYTHM

s | 0

RHYTHM

rājanārāyaṇa

RHYTHM

2 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 4 + 8

RHYTHM

0 0 | s | s

RHYTHM

rāyavaṅkola

RHYTHM

8 + 4 + 8 + 2 + 2

RHYTHM

s | s 0 0

RHYTHM

67 The Tāla Prakāśa contains some alternative readings which are not always correct :

RHYTHM

rājamandita for rājamārtanda, rājanāyana for rājanārāyaṇa, rāyavaṅka for rāyavaṅkola, saṅghalila

RHYTHM

for saṅhalila, saṅhavikrama for siṅhavikrama, hasanta for vasanta, etc.

RHYTHM

68 Compare note 55.

RHYTHM

69 The structure of the ancient tālas is described in the chapters on tāla of the following

RHYTHM

works: Aum., JagSC., NandBh., ŚārnSR., SudhSS. and DāmSD.

RHYTHM

saṅtāla

RHYTHM

2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2

RHYTHM

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

RHYTHM

simhalila

RHYTHM

4 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 4

RHYTHM

| 0 0 0 |

RHYTHM

siṅhanāda

RHYTHM

4 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 4 + 8

RHYTHM

| s s | s | s

RHYTHM

siṅhavikrama

RHYTHM

8 + 8 + 8 + 4 + 12 + 8 + 4 + 12S S S | ṣ S | S ṣ

RHYTHM

turaṅgalila

RHYTHM

3 + 3 + 2 + 2

RHYTHM

ò ò 0 0

RHYTHM

utsava

RHYTHM

4 + 2 + 2 + 2

RHYTHM

| | ṣ

RHYTHM

vardhana

RHYTHM

2 + 2 + 4 + 11

RHYTHM

0 0 | ṣ

RHYTHM

varṇabhinna

RHYTHM

2 + 2 + 4 + 8

RHYTHM

0 0 | s

RHYTHM

varṇamaṇṭhikā

RHYTHM

4 + 4 + 2 + 2 + 4 + 2 + 2

RHYTHM

| | 0 0 | 0 0

RHYTHM

varṇatāla

RHYTHM

2 + 3 + 3

RHYTHM

| | ṣ ṣ

RHYTHM

vasanta

RHYTHM

2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 4 + 4 + 4

RHYTHM

| | | | s s s

RHYTHM

viṣama

RHYTHM

2 + 2 + 2 + 3 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 3

RHYTHM

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

RHYTHM

yatilagna

RHYTHM

2 + 4

RHYTHM

0 |

CHAPTER FOUR

The classical music of India cultivates composition in a rich variety of forms. This is partly due to differences between regional styles (Hindustānī, Karnāṭak, Bengali, etc.), but also to the fact that classical Indian music has invariably assimilated folk and foreign material as in the case of Hindustānī music where foreign influence (especially Arabian and Persian influence) is particularly marked.

CHAPTER FOUR

North Indian (Hindustānī) compositions

CHAPTER FOUR

First we shall discuss the dhrupad, which is one of India's oldest musical compositions. Its formal structure serves as basis for many other Indian forms of music including the Hindustānī khyāl, ṭhumrī and rāga, and the Karnāṭak kriti, varṇam and padaṃ, as well as for a number of minor works. A dhrupad has always been a serious song of religious, heroic or laudatory character. In ancient days its language was Sanskrit, later it was also sung in Brāj-bhāṣā or in Hindī. In conformity with its solemn character the musical style of a dhrupad is somewhat severe : no ornaments except broad slides (glissandi) are allowed and melodic improvisation on the theme is restricted to variations created by introducing it at different points in the rhythmic cycle. Rhythmically a dhrupad is also limited, as it uses only the less complicated tālas, such as cautāl, dhamār, sūlaphāktā, tivra, dhīma, trītāL, jhaptāl and rūpak. It is sung to the accompaniment of the pakhvāj 1 and the tanpūra.2 Its text is a poem containing four lines, the rhythm of which should be clearly marked in the singing. The musical structure of a dhrupad is as follows :3

CHAPTER FOUR

The ālāpa, an introduction devoid of text and rhythm (tāla), sung to meaningless syllables (aḥ, naḥ, toṃ, noṃ, etc.) or to solmization syllables (sa, re, ga, etc.), and accompanied by the tanpūra alone.

CHAPTER FOUR

1 i.e. the North Indian double-face drum.

CHAPTER FOUR

2 i.e. a long-necked lute with four strings tuned to the tonic and one or more predominant note(s) of the rāga, which are only played on open strings in order to provide a constant drone.

CHAPTER FOUR

3 W. Kaufmann, The Rāgas of North India, Bloomington, London 1968, p. 25 f.

CHAPTER FOUR

The (a)sthāyī, the first line of the dhrupad poem sung to a melody based on the first tetrachord of the middle octave (madhy a saptaka) and the notes of the lower octave (mandra saptaka).

CHAPTER FOUR

The antara, the second line of the poem sung to a melody using the second tetrachord of the middle octave and the notes of the higher octave (tāra saptaka).

CHAPTER FOUR

The saṃcārī, the development, in which the last two lines of the poem are combined with melodic material drawn from the asthāyī and the antara. The ensuing variations built on that melodic material use the notes of all three octaves.

CHAPTER FOUR

The ābhoga, the concluding section of the dhrupad, repeats the melody from the asthāyī. Special rhythmical variations are now introduced in which the time value of the notes is diminished; that is to say they have only half (dugun), one third (tigun) or one fourth (caugun) of their original value.

CHAPTER FOUR

In the asthāyī, antara, saṃcārī and ābhoga the singer is fully supported by the pakhvāj and the tanpūra.

CHAPTER FOUR

Historically speaking the dhrupad is of interest since it is generally regarded as being very old, though it has naturally undergone considerable change in course of time. The term dhrupad possibly derives from dhruvupada, which is already used in the Nāṭyaśāstra (about the first century B.C.) 4 to indicate songs which are fixed (nibaddha) in regard to the number of syllables they contain, the metre (chandas) of the verse, the rhythm of the music (tāla), and the pace (yati).5 In ancient times the term dhruva appears to have been a synonym for "traditional", because the Nāṭyaśāstra 6 uses the term in connection with both religious (or ritualistic) re, pāṇikā and gāthā verses as well as stage songs (madraka, uttopyaka, aparaṇṭaka, prakarī, ovadaka, rovindaka and uttara). However, in most of the early references the term only applies to the well known ancient stage songs that were performed during the preliminaries of a play 7 glorifying the gods. According to the Nāṭyaśāstra,8 dhruva songs are so named because they have a fixed (dhruva) interrelation between words (vākya), melodic curve (varṇa), musical ornamentation (alaṃkāra), pace (yati), way of beginning (paṇi) and speed

CHAPTER FOUR

4 BhN. 32, 34 (Bombay ed.).

CHAPTER FOUR

5 Yati is determined by an increasing, decreasing or stable number of notes filling the basic time-units throughout a composition.

CHAPTER FOUR

6 BhN. 32, 2 (Bombay ed.).

CHAPTER FOUR

7 Cf. BhN. 32, 433 (Bombay ed.; Ghosh, Transl. II, p. 155, ch. 32, 483).

CHAPTER FOUR

8 BhN. 32, 8 (Bombay ed.).

CHAPTER FOUR

Handbuch der Orientalistik. II. Abt., Bd. VI

COMPOSITION

82

COMPOSITION

(laya). Like the modern dhrupad songs, the ancient dhruva songs 9 show preference for simple tālas (i.e. the tryaśra and caturaśra tālas), whereas the more complicated miśra ("mixed") and samkirna ("composite") tālas consisting of 5, 7, 9, 10 or 11 kalās (the ancient basic time units) tend to be avoided.

COMPOSITION

Although there is some doubt about whether the ancient dhruva songs are in any way musically related to the thirteenth century sāla-ga-sūda-dhruva-prabandha, commenting upon prakaranānvitam 10 the fifteenth century author Kallinātha, states that the ancient dhruva songs, called madraka, etc. were incorporated as compositions (prakarana) in Śārṅgadeva's sāla-ga-sūda-dhruva-prabandha compositions. Neither Śārṅgadeva nor Bharata (the author of the Nāṭyaśāstra) says anything about the rāgas, to be used in his dhruva songs. Bharata only states 11 that the six types of dhruva songs (madraka, ullopyaka, etc.) are recognizable by their tālas. The fourteenth century royal author Kumbha(karṇa), however, illustrates his discussion on the ancient stage songs (i.e. Bharata's dhruva songs, madraka, etc.) with musical examples 12 in which each song consists of several main sections (vastu) and a number of rhythmical subsections (mātrā, used here to denote a rhythmical phrase and not the ancient time unit which was equal to half a kalā), each of which is set to a different rāga. It is doubtful whether Kumbhā's examples of the ancient dhruva songs would be at all applicable to contemporary musical practice. His chapter on the sāla-ga-sūda-dhruva-prabandha compositions, 13 which contains no musical examples, gives us no better insight into the compositions of his own time.

COMPOSITION

About the structure of this type of prabandha composition Śārṅgadeva 14 informs us as follows: It has four parts (dhātus) called the udgrāha, the melāpaka, the dhruva, and the ābhoga, from which the melāpaka and the ābhoga may be omitted in smaller works which contain only three or two parts. In all sāla-ga-prabandha compositions an extra section, the so-called antara, is inserted between the dhruva and the ābhoga. 15 Although the dhruva may have been the fixed part or refrain which is never omitted, when defining the sāla-ga-dhruva prabandha, 16 Śarṅgadeva himself

COMPOSITION

9 BhN. 31, 25 (Baroda ed.).

COMPOSITION

10 Cf. ŚārnSR. 4, 313.

COMPOSITION

11 BhN. 31, 367 f. (Baroda ed.; Ghosh, Transl. II, p. 103, ch. 31, 483 f.).

COMPOSITION

12 KuSR. 2, 4, 1, 82 f. (the song section or gitakapariksan.am of the prabandhollāsa, the chapter on musical composition.

COMPOSITION

13 KuSR. 2, 4, 2: the sūdaprabandhaparīkṣaṇam.

COMPOSITION

14 ŚārnSR. 4, 7-9.

COMPOSITION

15 ŚārnS. 4, 9 f.

COMPOSITION

16 ŚārnSR. 4, 315 f.

COMPOSITION

83

COMPOSITION

does not mention the dhruva section at all. He only refers 17 to the following structure : first comes the udgrāha, an introduction containing two similar subsections (khaṇḍa), then the antara, which has only one subsection, the melody of which is based on the notes of the higher octave (tāra); thereafter the udgrāha and antara should be repeated; the final section, the ābhoga, uses material from the udgrāha and the antara, and mentions the name of the composer. 18 The basic elements of this structure are still found in the dhrupad song of modern times. The first part of the modern dhrupad is, however, called the asthāyi; its second part, the antara, is still sung in the higher octave. The second which develops material from the first two parts is now called the sañcāri, while only the last section, which mentions the composer's name, is still called the ābhoga. The modern dhrupad is preceded by an improvised introduction (ālāp), which is not referred to by Śārṅgadeva.

COMPOSITION

We may recognize the structure of the old dhruva-prabandha in the astapadis of Jayadeva's Gītagovinda (twelfth century). But these compositions only contained two parts (i.e. the dhruva and the ābhoga), and only the text and names of the rāgas used have been handed down to us.

COMPOSITION

The oldest specimens of dhrupads that have thus far come down to us are the mystic songs (caryā) of Kānha, Saraha and other Buddhist monks, 19 who probably lived between the tenth and twelfth centuries. These songs, which are written in ancient Bengali and were translated into Tibetan even before the fifteenth century, mostly consist of four to six couplets and a refrain (dhruvapada) repeated after each couplet. At the top of the compositions the name of the rāga and the composer's name are mentioned. Deviating from the practice followed in the dhruva-prabandhas discussed in the Saṃgītaratnākara, the composer's name also occurs in the refrain (dhruvapada) of these mystic songs whereas, according to Śārṅgadeva, it is referred to only in the ābhoga section.

COMPOSITION

An innovation in the ancient dhruvapada or dhrupad composition possibly took place during the reign of Allāuddin Khalji, sultan of Delhi (1296-1316), whose famous court poet, Amir Khusrau, was well versed in both Hindustānī and Persian music. He wrote dhrupad compositions based on Indian folk music. 20 The dhrupad cultivated at this court may also have been influenced

COMPOSITION

17 Cf. also Simhubhūpāla commenting upon these verses, ŚārnSR. vol. II, p. 342.

COMPOSITION

18 Cf. ŚārnSR. 4, 317 and vol. II, p. 342, line 6 of the comm.

COMPOSITION

19 Cf. Prabodh Chandra Bagchi and Śānti Bhikṣu Śāstri, Caryāgīti-koṣa of Buddhist Siddhas, Santiniketan 1956.

COMPOSITION

20 Swāmi Prajñānanda, A Historical Study of Indian Music. Calcutta 1965, ch. IX, p. 176, Abū'l Fazl-i-Allāmi. The Ā'in-i-Akharī, transl. by Colonel H.S. Jarrett and revised by Sir Jadunāth Sarkār, Calcutta 1948, Bibliotheca Indica 270, vol. 3, p. 266 f.

COMPOSITION

by a wandering monk (sādhu) called Baiju Bāvrā, who was invited to attend Allāuddin's court.21

COMPOSITION

Two centurics later Gopāl Nāyak,22 a composer from Devgiri (South India), who used to sing Sanskrit prahandha compositions, started composing Hindi prahandha songs after he migrated to the North. At about the same time the dhrupad was also in high favour at the court of Rājā Māna Simha Tumāra of Gwalior (1486-1525). The king himself, the queen Mrganāyani Devi, and the court musicians Nāyak Bakṣu, Macchu and Banu classicalized the regional variety of the old dhrupad.23

COMPOSITION

Śubhamkara, author of the Samgitadāmodara, who probably lived in the fifteenth century, describes the structure of dhruva(ka) compositions as follows :24 First the udgrāha is sung; then the dhruva; after that come the antara and the dhruva; and finally, the ābhoga and the dhruva. Furthermore this author states that the dhruva must always be sung at the end of the preceding couplet and that the section containing the composer's name is called ābhoga.

COMPOSITION

The fifty-nine songs of the famous collection Kitāb-i-Nauras composed by Ibrahim Adil Shāh II, sultan of Bijapur (1580-1626),25 may also have been compositions in the dhrupad style. These laudatory songs dedicated to Sarasvatī, Gaṇeśa and other Hindu deities as well as to Sayyid Hussain-i-Gesu Daraz (Mohammad), had to be sung to the following seventeen rāgas, which are however called maqāms (Arabian) : bhūpāli (2, i.e. in two instances), rāmkri (2), bhairāva (6), hajiz later named hījeja (1), māru (2), āsāori (2), deśi (1), pūrba (1), barāri (1), todi (4), malār (5), gaurī (2), kalyān (4), dhanāśri (2), kanāra (or karnāṭa 19), kedāra (4), and nauroz (later called navarvecika, 1). At the beginning of each song the particular rāga to be used in

COMPOSITION

21 Nikhil Ghosh, Fundamentals of Rāga and Tāla, Bombay 1968, p. 17 f.

COMPOSITION

22 Most probably this Gopāl Nāyak and the musician who is said to have held a musical contest with Amir Khusrau, are not one and the same person. Cf. M. W. Mirza, Life and Works of Amir Khusrau, Lahore 1962, p. 238, note 3. The story of the musical contest, told by almost every musical author, is already referred to in the Rag Darpan by Faqirullah, Muslim University Aligarh Ms. folio 14 b; cf. A. Halim, History of the Growth and Development of North-Indian Music during the Sayyid-Lodi Period, in : Journal of the Asiatic Society of Pakistan, vol 1, no. 1, Decca 1956, p. 51. Dr. Halim mentions a Gopāl Nāyak, who may have lived during the early sixteenth century, in connection with Bahādur Shāh of Gujarāt (1526-1537), who was also the patron of the famous musician Nāyak Baiju (A. Halim, History, p. 58).

COMPOSITION

23 O. Goswami, The Story of Indian Music, Bombay 1957, p. 123 f.; Nikhil Ghosh, Fundamentals, p. 19; Ain-i-Akbari, vol. 3, p. 265 f.; A. Halim, History and Growth, p. 60 f.; O. C. Gangoly, Rāgas and Rāginiś, vol. 1, Delhi 1948 (= 1935), p. 50 f.

COMPOSITION

24 ŚubhSD, p. 19, lines 11 f.

COMPOSITION

25 Cf. Nazir Ahmed, Kitab-i-Nauras, in Islamic Culture 28 (1954), 1, p. 348 f.; an edition of K.-i-N. by the same, Bharatiya Kala Kendrā, New Delhi 1956.

COMPOSITION

the song is specified, but the various sections of the song are not clearly marked. The name of the first part, which may have been the same as the ancient udgrāha or the modern asthāyi, is nowhere indicated. The second part, which occurs in some songs more than once, is called band or antarā while, in conformity with tradition, the last section is referred to as the ābhoga.

COMPOSITION

During the second half of the sixteenth century four styles of dhrupad singing were in vogue at the court of Akbar the Great (1556-1605). These were :26

COMPOSITION

1. The gaudi or gaudalahāra vāni introduced by Tānsen, Akbar's famous musician, who was a gaudian brahmin before his conversion to Islam. This style is very traditional and has a slow, elephantine gait. It evokes a quiet state of mind (śānta rasa). Bahadur Khān, descended from Tānsen's son Vilās Khān, founded a branch of this school or style in Viśnupur, the so-called Viṣnupur gharānā.

COMPOSITION

2. The khāmakāra vāni introduced by Naubat Khān from Khandār in Rājputāna. This style is full of variety and melodic richness. Its speed is not exaggeratedly slow, and it expresses heroic feeling (vīra rasa) and exhilaration (tivra rasa).

COMPOSITION

3. The nauhāra vāni introduced by Śrichand from Nauhār (Delhi district). This style charms through its simplicity and has an easy, agile gait. The melody often jumps from the first to the third or fourth note. The nauhāra vāni expresses feelings of wonder (adbhuta rasa).

COMPOSITION

4. The dāgara vāni introduced by Brj Chānd from Dagar (Rājputāna). This sweet, pleasing style is a combination of the gaudi and khāmakāra vānis. It expresses feelings of delight and compassion (madhura and karuṇa rasas) and was used in Vṛndāvana by disciples of Hārīdās and by Sarasvatī Devī (the daughter of Tānsen).

COMPOSITION

After Tānsen's death members of his family founded three schools (seni gharānās) :27 Tānsen's son Bilās Khān, a representative of the gaudī-vāni, founded one at Delhi. Another son of Tānsen's, Suratasen, a representative of the dāgara-vāni, founded one at Jaipur. The husband of Tānsen's daughter Sarasvatī Devī, Miśrī Singh, represented two dhrupad styles, viz. the dāgara and khāmakāra vāni.

COMPOSITION

Another famous dhrupad school, the tilmūdi gharānā 28 was founded by Chānd Khān and Suraj Khān in the Punjab. Kathakas (story-tellers) from

COMPOSITION

26 Gosvami, Story, p. 125 f.

COMPOSITION

27 Prajñānānanda, Historical Study, p. 216 f.

COMPOSITION

28 Historical Study, p. 217.

COMPOSITION

Vārāṇasī (Banaras) and Muslim Ustads (teachers) from Kalpī, who were disciples of Hāidār Khān Senī from Lucknow, formed the betiyā gharāna.29

COMPOSITION

In modern times pure dhrupad singing has become very rare. It is cultivated by the four sons of Nasiruddin Khān, that is to say by the (older) Dagar brothers30 Nasir Moinuddin Dagar and Nasir Aminuddin Dagar, and by the (younger) Dagar brothers31 Nasir Faiyazuddin Dagar and Nasir Zahiruddin Dagar.

COMPOSITION

A song with the same musical structure as the classical dhrupad is the hori, or hori-dhamar.32 It was originally a folksong from Vṛndāvana and Mathurā and became the traditional song of the Holī festival33 (February/March), when people sing horis in the streets while sprinkling each other with water coloured red. The general theme of the horī-dhamār is the love between Rādhā and Kṛṣṇa. Although this song has the same musical structure as the dhrupad, it contains more ornamentation than its serious classical example and in addition to the usual bol-tāns, other types of variation, i.e. rhythmical variations, or rather diminutions, figure in it : dugun, tigun and chaugun respectively referring to a twofold, threefold and fourfold division of the basic time unit (mātrā). These time divisions do not however change the basic rhythmical cycle, which in this composition is always dhamār tāla :

COMPOSITION

or : |x 3|0 2|0 |3 |0 | |1 2 3|4 5 6 7|8 9 10|11 12|13 14| |ka dhi ṭa|dhi ṭa dhā .|ga ti ṭa|ṛi ṭa|ṭā .| |dhā ge ṭa|dhi ṭa dhā .|ṭā ki ṭa|ki ṭa|ṭā .|

COMPOSITION

The second large classical Hindustānī composition, the styles and techniques of which vividly contrast with the sobere, severe style of the dhrupad, is the khyāl.

COMPOSITION

Musicologists do not agree about the historical background of the khyāl. Perhaps it would be safe to assume that it was neither a purely Indian, nor a completely foreign (Persian-Arabian) product. Its literary basis may have been the fourteenth century qavali, a regional, devotional Muslim song which attained classical standing when cultivated by the great poet Amir

COMPOSITION

Kusrau. He is accredited with the invention of many Hindustānī musical compositions and instruments.34

COMPOSITION

In the fourteenth century two styles of qavali singing developed : the qāvāl-khaljī (1296-1316 sultan of Delhi); and the kalāvanta-gharāṇa established by Baiju Bāvrā and Brj Chānd (disciples of Haridāsa and Suradāsa at Mathurā).35 Whereas the qavals favoured the religious, devotional type of qavali, the kalavants gave it a more secular turn.

COMPOSITION

The text of the khyāl may also have been influenced by the pachda, an old Hindustānī women's love song.36

COMPOSITION

As a musical composition the khyāl held a unique position right from the beginning. Its name khyāl – Arabic for "imagination" – is probably due to its rich, ornate style of singing and preference for variation. Nevertheless the present author suggests that neither Arabian nor Indian culture can wholly claim the privilege of inventing this peculiar style of singing and elaborate variation technique. Yet some musicologists regard khyāl singing as based on purely Indian principles.

COMPOSITION

According to Jaideva Singh37 this ornate style of singing can be traced to the ancient Indian sādhāraṇa gīti (lit. "universal style of singing"). He links the formal structure of the khyāl with that of the ancient rūpaka and rūpakālapti, which do indeed seem to bear some resemblance to the later khyāl. As in the modern khyāl, in the ancient rūpaka compositions described in the Samgitaratnākara.38 navata, i.e. "freshness", or rather "variety", was the dominant feature. Although the rūpaka and khyāl were different types of composition, the rūpakālapti which forms part of the long ālāp of the modern khyāl does bear some likeness to the ancient rūpakālaptī mentioned in the Samgitaratnākara.39 The latter was more extensive than its modern equivalent since it contained a rāga-ālāpa (exposition of the melodic material of the rāga), a pratigrahaṇikā (exposition of the thematic material of the rūpaka composition comparable to the modern rūpakālaptī occurring in the khyāl), and a bhañjanī (a set of ornamental and figurative variations, which have their equivalents in the modern tānt(a)s of the khyāl). So the ancient rupakālapti contained the whole of the long ālāp as well as the tān section of the modern khyāl.

COMPOSITION

29 Historical Study, p. 218.

COMPOSITION

30 Grammophone Record E A L P 1291.

COMPOSITION

31 Grammophone Record E A S D 1334.

COMPOSITION

32 Cf. Vani Bai Rain, Glimpses of Indian Music, Allahabad 1962, p. 62 f.; V.K. Agarwala, Traditions and Trends in Indian Music, Meerut 1966, p. 50; BhātkhPM. IV, p. 50 f.

COMPOSITION

33 Cf. P. Thomas, Festivals and Holidays of India, Bombay 1971, p. 7.

COMPOSITION

34 See however M.W. Mirza, Life and Works of Amir Khurau, p. 238-240.

COMPOSITION

35 Prajñānānanda, Historical Study, p. 216.

COMPOSITION

36 Gosvami, Story, p. 128 f.

COMPOSITION

37 Jaideva Singh, The Evolution of Khayal, in : Aspects of Indian Music, Delhi 21970, p. 88.

COMPOSITION

38 SārnSR. 4, 361-366.

COMPOSITION

39 SārnSR. 3, 197-202.

COMPOSITION

In the fifteenth century the khyāl was especially cultivated at the court of Jaunpur. Husain Shāh Sharqi (1457-1483 sultan of Jaunpur, 1484-1494 sultan of Bihar), who bore the title of gandharva,40 is alleged to have been a musical genius. He greatly contributed to the development of the khyāl, but also invented new rāgas, such as malhār-śyāma, gaur-śyāma, bhopāl-śyāma (and eight other śyāmas), husaini- or jaunpuri-āsāvari (nowadays named jaunpuri) and jaunpuri-husant.41

COMPOSITION

Towards the end of the fifteenth century, the solemn dhrupad composition in vogue at the court of Rājā Māna Simha Tumāra of Gwālior (1486-1517) was influenced by the more ornate style of khyāl singing introduced by Husain Shāh Sharqi.42

COMPOSITION

Although the khyāl was not officially as much patronized at Muslim courts as the dhrupad was, musicians in the time of Akbar (1556-1605) -- Surāj Khān, Chānd Khān, Bāz Bāhādur (the former king of Mālva who joined the musicians at Akbar's court) and his consort Rūpmatī -- were highly interested in this type of composition. During this period the khyāl adopted the serious style of the dhrupad and was generally in slow speed (vilambit khyāl).43 It became still more popular during the reign of Shahjahan (1628-1658) even though the dhrupad still continued to hold its predominant position. It was only in the mid-eighteenth century that the khyāl finally ousted the dhrupad.44

COMPOSITION

During the second half of the eighteenth century the following regional styles of khyāl singing were practised :

COMPOSITION

1. The Gwālior gharāna, which represents the purest style of khyāl. This school was famous for the care it devoted to voice production, for the clarity of its rendering the asthāyī and antarā sections, for its perfect intonation of the tāns, and for its preference for bol-tāns and grace notes such as the gamak and the khatkā. It is said that Bāde Mohammad Khān, the famous musician at the court of Daulat Rao Sindhia of Gwālior (1794-1827), introduced the use of tāns in khyāl singing.45 His pupils Haddū Khān, Hassu Khān and Nathe Khān. who were related to him (see table below), are said to have evolved the faster type of khyāl.46 The following tables show the family or master-student relationship between the musicians of this school and of some of the other gharānas.47

COMPOSITION

COMPOSITION

2. The Agra gharāna. This style of khyāl singing, which closely resembles dhrupad singing shows preference for neat pronunciation of the words of the song, and for a dignified presentation with beautiful rhythmic patters and bol-tāns. The chief representatives of this school were :

COMPOSITION

year; Chand Khan, Khyāl Gayaki ka Delhi Gharāna (Urdu), Delhi 1966; Ramanlal Mehta, Agra Gharāna (Hindi), Baroda 1969; V. H. Deshpande, Carl Sceshore, Bānis and Gharānas, Nāda Rūpa I, part II, Benares Hindu Univ. 1963, p. 1-11; Idem, Indian Musical Traditions, Bombay 1973.

COMPOSITION

Haji Sujan Khān (a comtemporary of Tānsen, the famous musician at Akbar's court, and a reputed dhrupad and ṣudra singer.

COMPOSITION

Shyāmrang (grandson: dhrupad and dhamār singer, representative of the nauhār vānī)

COMPOSITION

Ghagge Khuda Baksh (son; but stud. of Nathan Pīr Baksh of the Gwalior gharānā)

COMPOSITION

Ghulam Abbas Khān (son)

COMPOSITION

Faiyaz Khān (daughter's son)

COMPOSITION

S. N. Ratanjankar (stud.)

COMPOSITION

3. The Delhi gharāna. In the longer type of khyāl (Hindi: barā-khyāl) this school uses more grace notes and treats the rāga with greater freedom than the Gwālior gharāna does. It tends to treat the shorter type of khyāl (chotā-khyāl) as a romantic composition. The foremost representatives of this school were:

COMPOSITION

Sadarang (pseudonym of Niyāmat Khān, court musician of Mohammad Shah III of Delhi (1719-1748). He was also a bīṅkar (bīṅ player) and dhrupadiya (dhrupad singer). He devised a new style of khyāl in slow speed).

COMPOSITION

Zain-ul-abdin Khān (stud.)

COMPOSITION

Miān Āchpāl (stud.)

COMPOSITION

Tānras Khān (stud.)

COMPOSITION

Ali Baksh and Fatch Ali: (stud.: duo: Alāya Fattu)

COMPOSITION

Umrao (son); Ghulam Ghaus Khān (son; himself not a musician)

COMPOSITION

Abdul Rahīm Khān; Abdul Kārim Khān (sons)

COMPOSITION

4. The Patiali gharāna. Ali Baksh and Fateh Ali, who belonged to the Delhi gharāna and were students of Tānras Khan, a master of that school, also received lessons from a lady-musician Gokhi Bai. After returning to their own town with a new technique of khyāl singing, they founded the

COMPOSITION

Patiali gharānā. They introduced ṭappā-tāns in the khyāl and composed many khyāls in Brāj-bhāṣa and Punjabi dialects. The Patiali gharānā is well known for its ultrafast tāns, which Ali Baksh and Fateh Ali took over from their master Tāṇras Khān. This school trends towards the lighter forms of classical music, such as the ṭhumrī, which can be explained as a romantic revolt against the rigidities of classicism.

COMPOSITION

The Patiali gharānā is represented by the following musicians:

COMPOSITION

Tānras Khān (of the Delhi gharānā)

COMPOSITION

Fateh Ali (stud.: partly of Delhi gharānā). Ali Baksh (stud.: partly of Delhi gharānā)

COMPOSITION

Ali Baksh (stud.)

COMPOSITION

Bāde Ghulam Ali (son: khyāl and ṭhumrī singer)

COMPOSITION

Manawar Ali Khān (son)

COMPOSITION

The famous singers from Pakistan, Salamat Ali and Nazakat Ali (the Ali brothers), also belong to this gharānā.

COMPOSITION

5. The Itrauli gharānā. In Itrauli (Aligarh district) the khyāl was sung in a style which was a mixture of the Delhi, Agra and Gwālior styles. Famous representatives of this school were the lady-musician Kesar Bai Kerkar and her teacher Ustad Alladia Khān, who was a son-in-law of Hassu Khān (of the Gwalior gharānā). Ustad Alladia Khān established a style of his own, which balanced the ultrafast style of the Patiali school and the ultraslow style of the Agra school.

COMPOSITION

6. The Kairānā gharānā. As some musicians of this school were vocalists as well as instrumentalists (especially bīṅ-players), its vocal style has been influenced by instrumental music. Its rendering of the khyāl-ālāp accentuates the vādin (central note) and the samvādin (an important note in the rāga always consonant with the central note), as is done by bīṅkars in the rāg-ālāp. A quiet and peaceful rāga development, careful attention to the rules of music aesthetics and a general sweetness of style are characteristic of this school, which is represented by the following musicians:

COMPOSITION

Ghulam Taqqi (eighteenth century binkar and dhrupadiya from Kairāna in the Mirut district)

COMPOSITION

Sadiq Ali Khān (son)

COMPOSITION

Bande Ali Khān (son; master of bin, sitār, dhrupad and khyāl; son-in-law of Haddu Khān of the Gwalior gharāna)

COMPOSITION

Maharāja of Indore (stud.)

COMPOSITION

The famous artists Abdul Karim Khān, Sawai Gandharva and Amir Khān also belong to this gharāna, although the latter regards himself as a representative of the Indore school.

COMPOSITION

The khyāl of today can be described as follows : Unlike the dhrupad it is a rich, exuberant vocal composition, using different types of variation (tāns), liberal ornamentation (all kinds of shakes, slides or glissandi, and other grace notes) and the more complicated tālas. Its introductory ālāp is rather short; but the real, long ālāp figuring in the composition itself comes in the middle of the khyāl. In the earlier khyāl greater attention was paid to the text; but in the later khyāl the words became a mere framework for the music.48 There are now two types of khyāl : a longer composition (bara khyāl) in slow speed (vilambita), and a shorter composition (chota khyāl) in fast speed (druta). The first type uses tālas such as dhīma, ektāl and jhumrā; the second type, the tālas tīntāl, jhaptāl, etc.49 In present day recitals these two types of khyāl are usually combined, i.e. sung one after another in the same rāga. In this way, after having performed a slow khyāl with its appropriate variations, the musician may display his skill in fast tāns on the theme of a fast khyāl without being compelled to violate the solemn theme of the slow composition in inappropriate fast variations.

COMPOSITION

The khyāl of today has the following structure :50

COMPOSITION

The ālāpa (shorter than in the dhrupad) by soloist (voice or instrument) and accompanying drone (tanpūra).

COMPOSITION

The asthāyi.

COMPOSITION

a. Introductory rhythmical phrase (peskar) by the drummer (tablā).

COMPOSITION

b. Basic rhythmical phrase (theka) in a particular tāla performed by the drummer, and basic melodic phrase in a particular rāga performed by the soloist on the lower notes of the middle octave.

COMPOSITION

The antara. Second melodic phrase on the higher notes of the middle octave and reaching into the higher octave.

COMPOSITION

The asthāyi. Shortened form of the asthāyi containing only one tāla cycle (āvarta) from sam to sam.

COMPOSITION

The ālāpa. Real, long ālāpa by all musicians namely : the soloist (mostly a singer), the drummer (tablā), the drone (tanpūra), and the Indian violin (sāraṅgi), which accompanies the soloist in heterophonic style, i.e. by following the main line of the soloist's melody, and fills his pauses with imitations.

COMPOSITION

a. rāga-ālāpa : exposition of the tone material of the rāga, including important notes which are used frequently (bahut) and rare (alpa) notes, as well as characteristic motifs (pakad), etc.

COMPOSITION

b. rūpaka-ālāpa: short exposition of the formal structure of the whole song containing asthāyi, antara, sañcāri and ābhoga. The soloist competes with the drummer in creating new rhythms. In this part the vocalist uses meaningless syllables (ah, nah) or tone syllables (sa, re, ga, etc.) as text.

COMPOSITION

The asthāyi and antara are here sometimes repeated.

COMPOSITION

The bol-tāns. Figurative and ornamental variations. The vocalist treats the words (Hind. bol) more freely, using them as a mere framework for the music. There are two types of bol-tāns : the longer and the shorter type.

COMPOSITION

The asthāyi and the antara are here repeated.

COMPOSITION

The tāns proper. More complicated variations sung to the meaningless syllables ah and na. These tāns are also of the longer and shorter type.

COMPOSITION

The conclusion. The soloist may either introduce a new melody composed by himself containing an asthāyi and an antara, or he may repeat the first phrase of the original asthāyi on the sam.

COMPOSITION

Having discussed the larger, classical forms, dhrupad and khyāl, we shall now deal with some of the smaller, semiclassical compositions, which are sometimes disregarded by musicologists but are highly appreciated by lovers of music.

COMPOSITION

First to be mentioned is the tappā,51 a Muslim lovesong. This was originally sung by camel-drivers but developed later into a more sophisticated composition. The emperor Mohammad Shah (1719-1748) is said to have been very fond of tappās. Shori Miyan (c. 1810) of Lucknow, who was attached to the court of Nawab Asaf-ud-Daulah of Oudh, contributed a great deal to the development of this song, which he generally based on

COMPOSITION

Pañjābī folksongs. The famous Pañjābī lovestory of Hīr and Rañja became its central theme. In structure the tappā consists of two main melodic episodes (the asthāyī and the antarā) and a number of figurative and ornamental variations (tāns) performed in rapid speed. All grace-notes are used excepting the large (i.e. broad and heavy) shakes (gamak) characteristic of the khyāl.

COMPOSITION

Another important lovesong, probably of a later date than the tappā, is the ṭhumrī.⁵² Its main theme is erotic sentiment (śṛṅgāra rasa) expressed in singing (gīta) to an instrumental accompaniment (vādya) and combined with miming (abhinaya) and dancing (nrtya). A ṭhumrī is generally performed by a female singer and a female Kathak dancer. In keeping with an older tradition, instead of dancing the latter sometimes performs the singing in a seated position and illustrates it with mime. In course of time three styles of ṭhumrī singing developed. At the court of Oudh the so-called Lucknow style --- considered to be the purest style, and richly ornamented with grace notes --- was cultivated by the following musicians: Lalan Piya, Sanad Piya, Qadir Piya, Majuddin and Sadiq Khān. The Nawab of Oudh himself, Wajid Ali Shah, also composed ṭhumrīs. In Banaras the ṭhumrī was influenced by folksongs, such as the kajrī and the caīṭī.⁵³ A third type of ṭhumrī is the Pañjābī ṭhumrī, which adopts the style of Pañjābī folk songs (pahārī and mahiẏa) but borrows its tāns from the tappā. The famous singer Bade Ghulam Ali Khān ⁵⁴ is a representative of this style which has become very popular in modern times. The outstanding khyāl singers, the late Abdul Kārim Khān⁵⁵ and Faiyaz Khān,⁵⁶ representatives of the Kairāṇa and Agra gharānus respectively, were also well known for their ṭhumrī singing. Generally the ṭhumrī, which may combine two or three different rāgas, is based on the rāgas: khumāj, kafī, pilu, mand, tilak-kāmōd, jhinjhōṭī and bhairāvī. Hence it has a leaning towards the lighter rāgas. As a rule the ṭhumrī melody contains many slides and all kinds of small grace-notes, but avoids the larger shakes (gamak). Often a higher pitch, madhyama śruti (i.e. a fourth higher than the musician's usual sa), is taken as starting point, which theoretically means that the madhyama (i.e. the fourth note of the middle octave, madhya saptak) becomes the tonic ṣadja (sa).

COMPOSITION

⁵² Vani Bai Ram, Glimpses, p. 67; Gosvami, Story, p. 133 f.; Daniélou, Inde du Nord, p. 79 f.; Prem Lata Sharma, The Origin of Thumari, in : Aspects of Indian Music, New Delhi ¹1970, p. 73-85.

COMPOSITION

⁵³ Trilochan Pande, Bhojpuri Folklore and Folk Music, in : Hemango Biswas (ed.), Folkmusic and Folklore. An Anthology, 1, Calcutta 1967, p. 19 f.

COMPOSITION

⁵⁴ Gramm. rec. M O A E 5004 and 5005.

COMPOSITION

⁵⁵ Gramm. rec. 33 E S X 3251 and 3253.

COMPOSITION

⁵⁶ Gramm. rec. E A L P 1292.

COMPOSITION

The following rhythm, which is a variety of tīntāl,

COMPOSITION

|x 1 2 3 4 |2 5 6 7 8 |0 9 10 11 12 |

COMPOSITION

|dhā dhin ...kra dhin|dhā dhin ...kra dhin|dhā tin ...kra tin |

COMPOSITION

|3 13 14 15 16 |

COMPOSITION

|tā dhin ...kra dhin|

COMPOSITION

is frequently used in ṭhumrī and tappā compositions. In the case of the ṭhumrī we may also note a preference for the following tālas :

COMPOSITION

dīpcandī :

COMPOSITION

|x 1 2 3 |2 4 5 6 7 |0 8 9 10 |3 11 12 13 14 |

COMPOSITION

|dhā dhin . |dhā dhā dhin . |tā tin . |dhā dhā dhin . |

COMPOSITION

tīlvāḍā :

COMPOSITION

|x 1 2 3 4 |2 5 6 7 8 |0 9 10 11 12 |

COMPOSITION

|dhā tirakiṭa dhin dhin|dhā dhā tin tin |tā tirakiṭa dhin dhin|

COMPOSITION

|3 13 14 15 16 |

COMPOSITION

|dhā dhā dhin dhin|

COMPOSITION

The ghazal⁵⁷ originally a Persian love song, is another type of ṭhumrī sung in Urdu. It uses only one couplet of a poem as text. Its characteristic tālas are the above mentioned dīpcandī, and paṅjābī (= puṣpūtī) :

COMPOSITION

|x 1 2 3 |1 2 3 |

COMPOSITION

|tā ka dhin|tā ka dhin|

COMPOSITION

|1 2 |1 2 3 |

COMPOSITION

|4 5 |4 5 6 7 |

COMPOSITION

|dhā dhā|dhā dhā dhin|

COMPOSITION

or :

COMPOSITION

|x 1 2 3 |2 4 5 |3 6 7 |

COMPOSITION

|tīn . nakā|dhin . |dhā ge |

COMPOSITION

The dādrā⁵⁸ is a small ṭhumrī in rapid speed. It does not use bol-tāns (i.e. variations sung to phrases or words of the song text) and is based on dādrā tāla :

COMPOSITION

|x 1 2 3 |0 4 5 6 |

COMPOSITION

|dhā dhin nā |dhā tin nā |

COMPOSITION

⁵⁷ Cf. Vani Bai Ram, Glimpses, p. 67; Daniélou, Inde du Nord, p. 80; BhāṭKPM. IV, p. 51.

COMPOSITION

⁵⁸ Cf. Gosvami, Story, p. 135 f.; Daniélou, o.c., p. 80.

COMPOSITION

Similarly the khārva is a small thumri based on kharva tāla :

COMPOSITION

| x | 2 0 | 3 | or : | x | 1 2 | 0 |

COMPOSITION

| 1 2 | 3 4 | 5 6 | 7 8 | | dhāg tin | tāg dhin |

COMPOSITION

| dhā ge | nāi tin | na ka | dhin nā | | 1 2 | 3 4 |

COMPOSITION

The rekhtā is a thumri with a text containing a considerable number of couplets (up to twelve).

COMPOSITION

There is a special category of songs which do not have a proper text but are sung to meaningless syllables (nom, tom, etc.) or syllables indicating drum beats (bols) sometimes interspersed with detatched words. This device used in the taranā 59 and the tirvat 60 (a favourite song of boatsmen and porters) is ascribed to Amir Khusrau, who is alleged to have invented the taranā in order to disguise his difficulties with the Sanskrit language. It is however much more likely to be an ancient Indian technique, since it is already referred to in the Nātyaśāstra. 61

COMPOSITION

A somewhat similar principle is met with in the sargam, 62 which uses solfa syllables as text. This song is a simple composition based on a particular rhythmical cycle (tāla) and a particular melodic pattern (rāga).

COMPOSITION

In imitation of the Arabian nauba suite 63 consisting of four parts, viz. qaul, ghazal, taranā and furūdāśt, Indian composers probably introduced the caturanga. But this composition (like its Arabian model also in four parts, 64 viz. khyāl, sargam, taranā and tirvat) never became very popular.

COMPOSITION

A composition shared in common by both North and South Indian music is the rāga. 65 This is an entirely improvised vocal or instrumental composition which may take several hours to perform. In the case of a vocal improvisation, the soloist singer uses meaningless syllables (a-kā-ra or ta-na-ri-na) as text. Tradionally this type of composition is developed along the following lines :

COMPOSITION

First, a non-rhythmical introduction (ālāp or ālāpana) is performed by the soloist while the accompanying drummer (player of tablā or mrdanga) remains silent. This part of the composition aims at preparing the mind of the listener for the specific emotion (rasa) to be expressed in the mode or melodic pattern (rāga) upon which the improvised composition (rāga) is based. With this end in view the ālāp(ana) exposes all the basic melodic elements, the so-called "essentials" (laksana) of the rāga melody that has been selected : its predominant notes (vādin and samvādin), its ascent (āroha) and descent (avaroha), as well as characteristic motifs, themes or musical phrases (pakaḍ). This tone material is first produced in the lower octave (mandra saptaka), always starting from and returning to the tonic sa (i.e. the first note of the middle octave). Then the same material is repeated in the middle (madhya) and upper (tāra) octaves. The notes of the ālāp(ana) are only presented in their melodic context without being obliged to fit into a specific rhythm, and they are adorned with all kinds of musical embellishments, such as slide (Hind. ghasīt; Tamil : jāru), deflection of the strings of a stringed instrument (Hind. mīḍ, mīr or mīnd; Tamil : nokku and oḍukkuḷ), acciacatura (Hind. krintan or kan), turn (Hind. khatkā; Tamil : ravaī), pralltriller (Hind. murkī), mordent (Hind. uḷṭā murkī; Tamil : sphuriṭa), shake (the range of which may vary from a quarter tone to a minor third; Hind. gamak; Tamil : kampita), etc. 66

COMPOSITION

The ālāp procedes with some melodic phrases in a kind of free rhythm which has not yet assumed the form of a particular cycle of beats (tāla-āvarta). This section of the introduction is called jor or joda.

COMPOSITION

In an instrumental rāga improvisation the ālāp is mostly concluded with a jhala. This section consists of alternating the notes of the melody with rapidly plucking the bourdon strings (cikari) of the stringed instruments (especially sitar and sarod). This jhala, which due to its being executed in ultrafast speed works up to a real climax, may also be performed at the end of the whole rāga improvisation.

COMPOSITION

The second part of this improvised composition is based on one or more specific rhythmical patterns (tāla), which afford the drummer (in Hindustānī music playing a pair of tablās; in Karnātak music playing the long, double-face drum named mrdanga) ample scope for all kinds of rhythmical variations. In this section the soloist introduces a melody (Hindustānī gāt, comparable to the Karnātak pallavi) from an existing composition (a classical work or a folksong), or one that he has himself composed. This melody is taken as a starting point for a set of melodic and rhythmic variations. Soloist

59 Cf. Gosvamī, Story, p. 137; Vani Bai Ram, o.c., p. 66; Daniélou, o.c., p. 78 f.

60 Cf. Gosvamī, o.c., p. 137.

61 BhN. 33, 42 (ed. Ghosh), Ghosh, Transl., II, p. 160 f.

62 Cf. Gosvamī, o.c., p. 137.

63 Cf. H. Hickmann, Die Musik des arabisch-islamischen Bereichs, in : Handbuch der Orientalistik, Ergänzungsband 4, Orientalische Musik, Leiden 1970, p. 89.

64 Cf. Gosvamī, o.c., p. 137; Agarwala, Traditions and Trends, p. 55 f.; Ahmad G. Chagla, Muslim Contribution to Indo-Pakistan Music, in : Pakistan Miscellany, Karachi 1952, p. 165; BhātkhPM. IV, p. 52.

65 Cf. Ravi Shanker, My Music, My Life, London 1968, p. 32; P. Sambamoorthy, South Indian Music, Book 4, Madras 31963, p. 9 f.

66 For the Hindustānī musical ornaments compare Nikhil Ghosh, Fundamentals, p. 90 f. For the Karnātak ornamentations compare H.S. Powers, The Background of the South Indian rāga-system, vol. I, Princeton University 1959, ch. VII and p. 197-199.

Handbuch der Orientalistik, II. Abt., Bd. VI

COMPOSITION

and drummer, who is no mere accompanist, are equally important and

COMPOSITION

frequently become involved in a kind of musical contest displaying the skill

COMPOSITION

and inventiveness of each in intricate melodic and rhythmic patterns.

COMPOSITION

Towards the end of the composition the speed is gradually accelerated

COMPOSITION

and sometimes the rhythm is based on a new tāla. Here too, the soloist may

COMPOSITION

introduce new melodies, but he is bound to develop his motifs and themes

COMPOSITION

from the basic notes and characteristic phrases of the fixed melodic pattern

COMPOSITION

(rāga).

COMPOSITION

A number of rāgas (a minimum of four) may be combined in a single

COMPOSITION

composition called rāgamāla or rāgamālikā ("garland of rāgas"). As this form,

COMPOSITION

which is sometimes also used by North Indian musicians, is very popular

COMPOSITION

in the South, it will be discussed later under Karnāṭak compositions.

COMPOSITION

In recent times the musicologists Bhātkhande and Ratanjankar introduced

COMPOSITION

a South Indian type of composition in North Indian music, the so-called

COMPOSITION

lakṣya gitas. Like the Karnāṭak lakṣana-gitas, these short educative songs

COMPOSITION

describe the essential features (lakṣaṇa) of a rāga melody.

COMPOSITION

Next, we may distinguish the following Hindustānī compositions which

COMPOSITION

have a specifically religious character.

COMPOSITION

First the bhajana, a song of praise dedicated to a particular deity, sung

COMPOSITION

in all parts of India. It is always performed by a chorus and accompanying

COMPOSITION

instrumentalists under the direction of a leader (boṛā). Its text often centres

COMPOSITION

round an episode taken from the great epics, the Mahābhārata and the

COMPOSITION

Rāmāyaṇa. Famous poet-musicians such as Tulsidās, Sūrdās and Mirabai

COMPOSITION

have given expression to their religious fervour in this type of composition.

COMPOSITION

Another type of laudatory song dedicated to a particular deity (Kālī,

COMPOSITION

Krṣṇa, etc.) is the kirtana, which is performed by a solo singer and

COMPOSITION

chorus (in the same manner as the responsorial songs of ancient Jewish

COMPOSITION

synagogal music and the Gregorian chant of the early Christian church).

COMPOSITION

In Bengal, due to the influence of the great mystic and innovator of

COMPOSITION

Vishnuism, Caitanya (born in the last quarter of the fifteenth century),

COMPOSITION

the Krṣṇa-kirtana held a prominent position. This kirtana developed along

COMPOSITION

two lines: the simple nāṃ-kirtana for the common folk; and for the educated

COMPOSITION

the more sophisticated līla-kirtana, which demands great skill on the part

COMPOSITION

of the singer and of the drummer (playing the khol). The source of both

COMPOSITION

types is the same: i.e. bhakti or "complete devotion", a state of mind

COMPOSITION

67 Vani Bai Ram, Glimpses, p. 62.

COMPOSITION

68 Van Bai Ram, o.c., p. 62; A. H. Fox Strangways, The Music of Hindostan, Oxford 1914,

COMPOSITION

p. 286.

COMPOSITION

69 A.A. Bake, Kirtan in Bengal, in : Indian Art and Letters, New Series, 21, 1 (1947),

COMPOSITION

p. 34-40.

COMPOSITION

entailing tranquility (śānta), humility (dāsya), friendship (sākhya), motherly

COMPOSITION

love (vātsalya) and finally the mystical experience of union with God.

COMPOSITION

In the nāṃ-kirtana the different names of Viṣṇu in his various manifesta-

COMPOSITION

tions as Hari, Rāma, but especially as Krṣṇa, are sung in endless succession.

COMPOSITION

The central theme of the līla-kirtana is the līla ("love-sports") of Krṣṇa with

COMPOSITION

his beloved Radhā and her comrades, the shepherds and shepherdesses in the

COMPOSITION

groves of Brindavan (Vṛndāvana).

COMPOSITION

by one of the masters of the Caitanya school (Paramānanda Dās,

COMPOSITION

Narottam Dās, Locan Dās, Vṛndāvana Dās, Jñāna Dās, etc.), or by an

COMPOSITION

earlier poet (Jayadeva, Candīdās, Vidyāpati).

COMPOSITION

The kirtans sung during religious meetings are performed as a cycle of

COMPOSITION

songs (pāla, lit. meaning "story"). Some of these cycles which refer to

COMPOSITION

particular seasons or festivals are especially meant to be performed on those

COMPOSITION

occasions, as for instance the holī at the festival of that name, the basanta

COMPOSITION

during the spring season, the jhulan at the festival of swings, etc. The pālas

COMPOSITION

usually describe episodes of Krṣṇa's life; in the goṣṭha, for example, the boy

COMPOSITION

Krṣṇa goes to the meadows with his cows and his flute. In the rās cycle, the

COMPOSITION

rāslīlā, the divine dance of Krṣṇa and the gopīs is the central theme. The

COMPOSITION

māthur, which is less joyous and idyllic than the other pālas, expresses the

COMPOSITION

pains and sorrow of separation when Krṣṇa has left Vṛndāvana to go to

COMPOSITION

Mathurā. The rūp or rūpanurāg describes the final stage of bhakti in which

COMPOSITION

the devotee who has once seen God longs for the mystic union.

COMPOSITION

Every kirtan performance starts with an introductory song, the gaurcan-

COMPOSITION

drikā, which is meant to uplift the devotee into the spiritual sphere. In these

COMPOSITION

introductions a particular episode from the life of the leader of the Bengal

COMPOSITION

vaisṇava mystics, Caitanya, is chosen as the main theme; the choice of

COMPOSITION

episode depending on how closely its spiritual content matches the character

COMPOSITION

of the particular kirtan cycle to be executed. The great kirtan expert, the late

COMPOSITION

Professor Bake, suggests that the gaurcandrikā might be a modification of

COMPOSITION

the nāndī section which precedes Sanskrit dramas.

COMPOSITION

South Indian (Karnāṭak) compositions

COMPOSITION

Compared with North Indian music, at first the Western listener may

COMPOSITION

experience more difficulty in tracing the melodic line in South Indian music,

COMPOSITION

since on account of its florid style --- the performer's exuberant orna-

COMPOSITION

mentation technique --- the main notes of a melody are almost completely

COMPOSITION

obscured by the embellishments. Nevertheless as his ears gradually grow

COMPOSITION

70 Cf. Sukumār Sen, Banglā Sāhityer Itihāsa, vol. 1, part 1, Calcutta '(1970), p. 401 f.

COMPOSITION

71 Bake, Kirtan in Bengal, p. 39.

COMPOSITION

accustomed to the somewhat complicated melodic line of Karnātak music,

COMPOSITION

he will find its compositions easier to follow as regards structure than their

COMPOSITION

Hindustānī counterparts.

COMPOSITION

Concert and educational music

COMPOSITION

As a rule Karnāṭak compositions of this category, though originally being

COMPOSITION

vocal compositions, also admit instrumental performance.

COMPOSITION

First we shall discuss the well known kriti composition, which has been

COMPOSITION

handled by almost every South Indian composer. According to Samba-

COMPOSITION

moorthy 72 the kriti developed out of the older kirtanas composed by the

COMPOSITION

fifteenth century Tãllapakam composers Annamācārya (1408-1503), Pedda

COMPOSITION

Tirumalayyangar (son of the former) and Cinnayya (grandson of the former),

COMPOSITION

who were the first to compose kirtanas consisting of the three sections

COMPOSITION

known as pallavi, anupallavi and carana.

COMPOSITION

Whereas in the kirtana the devotional text prevails, the kriti, which

COMPOSITION

originally shared the same religious character, came to represent absolute

COMPOSITION

music, where the music itself is of more importance than the text. The

COMPOSITION

classical kriti is no longer a purely religious composition. Its subject may be

COMPOSITION

either ethical or didactic. As to its literary form, the kriti's text may be either

COMPOSITION

prose or poetry, while the kirtana has retained its poetical form.

COMPOSITION

In a vocal performance the soloist singer is accompanied by a second

COMPOSITION

singer, a violin player and a rhythmic group. The second singer and the

COMPOSITION

violinist 73 follow the soloist's melodic line in heterophonic style and fill

COMPOSITION

in its pauses with imitations. The rhythmic group 74 lends support to the

COMPOSITION

singers and the melodic instruments by providing the basic rhythm, but

COMPOSITION

from time to time also performs rhythmic variations (including polyrhythmic

COMPOSITION

patterns) within the given rhythmic cycle (tāla-avarta).

COMPOSITION

A classical kriti composition generally has the following structure: 75

COMPOSITION

The ālāpana: Like the longer North Indian compositions, South Indian

COMPOSITION

compositions, such as the kriti, varnam, etc., are preceded by a non-

COMPOSITION

rhythmic introduction which presents the basic melodic material of the

COMPOSITION

rāga to be used in the composition.

COMPOSITION

The pallavi: One or two lines of the text are set to a melody, which is the

COMPOSITION

dominating theme of the composition and which is always based on the

COMPOSITION

elementary melodic curve (samcāra) 76 of the rāga. This is the pallavi

COMPOSITION

theme which, as it is repeated several times throughout the composition,

COMPOSITION

can be regarded as the musical refrain. Immediately after the pallavi

COMPOSITION

theme has been introduced the musician performs a number of varia-

COMPOSITION

tions (samgati). 77 some of which may have been prescribed by the

COMPOSITION

composer. In these variations, each of which is usually executed twice,

COMPOSITION

the pallavi melody is gradually developed from its elementary form

COMPOSITION

("Flachvariante") 78 into more elaborate patterns ("Vollvariante"

COMPOSITION

"überwölbende Variante" and "Spitzenvariante") 79 by means of orna-

COMPOSITION

mentation 80 and figuration. 81

COMPOSITION

The anupallavi: When the pallavi section is finished, the next two lines of

COMPOSITION

the text are set to a melody which is the second important theme of the

COMPOSITION

composition. While the pallavi theme does not usually extend beyond

COMPOSITION

the middle octave, the anupallavi theme, which mostly has its tonal

COMPOSITION

centre in the higher tetrachord of the middle octave, may reach into the

COMPOSITION

higher octave. The anupallavi may be compared with the second theme

COMPOSITION

in the dominant tonality in Western classical music, but it does not

COMPOSITION

produce the same contrasting effect as its Western equivalent. The South

COMPOSITION

Indian pallavi and anupallavi should be respectively regarded as the

COMPOSITION

first and second phrase of one melody, separated by a set of variations

COMPOSITION

on the first phrase. The anupallavi phrase is worked out in the same

COMPOSITION

way as the pallavi's namely the theme is gradually developed in a series

COMPOSITION

of variations (samgati).

COMPOSITION

72 P. Sambamoorthy, History of Indian Music, Madras 1960, p. 62. Regarding the

COMPOSITION

Tāllapakam composers, the reader might compare: P. Sambamoorthy, Dictionary of South

COMPOSITION

Indian Music and Musicians, II, Madras 1959, p. 367; Sambh1. p. 63 and P. Sambamoorthy,

COMPOSITION

South Indian Music, IV, 31963, p. 193.

COMPOSITION

73 who plays a Western violin in the Indian style, i.e. by using a particular slide

COMPOSITION

technique (jāru).

COMPOSITION

74 i.e. musicians playing the long, double face drum (mrdanga), the earthenware pot

COMPOSITION

(ghaṭam) and the tambourine (kanjira).

COMPOSITION

75 Compare P. Sambamoorthy, South Indian Music, III, p. 132-180, especially p. 173.

COMPOSITION

76 The samcāra of Karnātak music is comparable to the pakad of Hindustānī music.

COMPOSITION

77 According to SambH., p. 64 Tyāgarāja was the first composer to introduce sangatiis

COMPOSITION

in his kritis.

COMPOSITION

78 Compare J. Kuckertz, Form und Melodiebildung der karnatischen Musik Südindiens.

COMPOSITION

I, Wiesbaden 1970, p. 127, note 15.

COMPOSITION

79 See note 78.

COMPOSITION

80 i.e. the procedure of adorning the melody with grace notes such as: mordent (sphurita),

COMPOSITION

turn (rūvai), acciacatura in the function of alternating note (janta svara) between two notes

COMPOSITION

of the same pitch, slide (kampita) and deflection (of the strings of a

COMPOSITION

stringed instrument: nokku, udakkal). Musical ornamentation, however, is not confined to the

COMPOSITION

pallavi theme. In Karnāṭak music every melody, or rather, every simple series of notes is

COMPOSITION

invariably presented with some kind of musical embellishment. In Indian music in general, but

COMPOSITION

especially in Karnāṭak music, ornamentation is part of the technique of the performing

COMPOSITION

artist (vocalist as well as instrumentalist).

COMPOSITION

81 The present writer uses the term "figuration" to indicate the procedure of adding

COMPOSITION

musical "figures", i.e. particular motifs or series of notes, to a basic melody or basic

COMPOSITION

musical theme.

COMPOSITION

The citta(i)svara(m) : After the anupallavi has been completed, sometimes a cittasvara follows. This is a kind of "cadenza", sung as a solfeggio on the Indian tone syllables sa, ri, ga, etc. This section consists of a number of musical phrases based on the elementary melodic line of the rāga (rāga-suncāra). When ādi tāla is used, these phrases cover two or four complete rhythmic cycles (tāla-āvarta), and eight or sixteen cycles, when cāpu, tripuṭa or rūpaka tāla is used.

COMPOSITION

The pallavi: After the cittasvara, or when this section has been omitted then immediately following the anupallavi, the pallavi theme is repeated. Here as a rule one of the more developed patterns ("Vollvariante"), i.e. the first or second variation (samgati) of the pallavi theme, constitutes the refrain.

COMPOSITION

The caraṇa(m) : The caraṇa, which usually contains four lines of the text, is an indispensable section of the kriti. Even the older kirtana always had a number of caraṇas which, like the couplets of a strophical song, may all have been set to the same melody. This procedure is still followed in the classical kriti. The melody of the first two lines of a caraṇa may introduce a new aspect of the rāga-suncāra, while the last two caraṇa lines often quote melodic material from the anupallavi. In many cases the complete caraṇa appears to be a development ("Durchführung") of the thematic material of both the pallavi and the anupallavi. The caraṇa section of the kriti sometimes uses a special variation technique called niraval, which can be described as follows: After having performed one or more caraṇas, the soloist may improvise a series of melodic variations on the caraṇa melody. In these variations based on the complete text or on a few lines or words of the caraṇa that has been performed, the melodic line is changed, while the rhythmic structure, or rather the rhythmic arrangement of the words in the rhythmic cycle (tāla-āvarta), is retained intact. Śyāma Śāstri’s kriti composition "Sarojā dala nētri himagiri" provides a beautiful example of this technique, which resembles the talea principle in the isorhythmic motets of the fourteenth century European Ars Nova.

COMPOSITION

The cittasvara: Mostly a lengthy "cadenza" is performed after the caraṇas. This second cittasvara, like the first, may also be sung to mere tone syllables; but when, in a vocal performance, the melody of the first cittasvara following the anupallavi is repeated after the caraṇas, it should be sung to a text (sahitya).82 Sometimes both text and music are

COMPOSITION

82 We may find the same principle in European music of the Middle Ages, that is to say, in the textual tropae to the melismatic melodies of Gregorian chant.

COMPOSITION

capable of being executed in the reverse order (viloma-svara-sāhitya). Cittasvaras generally end up with a beautiful concluding phrase (makuta, lit. meaning "crown"); here the setting of the text uses the device of srotovaha yati83 which means that the number of syllables within the tāla cycle is gradually increased. Cittasvaras usually present a particular aspect of the rāga-suncāra that has not appeared elsewhere in the kriti. Sometimes cittasvaras are the composer’s own creation, but in other cases they have been composed by his students or by later composers. Whereas the first cittasvara following the anupallavi is executed in the same speed as the other parts of the kriti, the speed of the second cittasvara, which comes after the caraṇa, is faster.

COMPOSITION

Towards the end of the anupallavi and the caraṇa occasionally a special technique, the so-called madhyamakāla sahitya is applied, that is to say, the text of one or two tāla cycles (tāla-āvarta) is set syllabically, which increases the number of notes in the āvarta and gives an impression of acceleration, although as a matter of fact the tempo itself has not changed.

COMPOSITION

The pallavi (or anupallavi): At the conclusion of the kriti composition either the pallavi refrain or the anupallavi theme is repeated.

COMPOSITION

The varṇam84 is a classical Karnāṭak vocal composition which is almost as important as the kriti. Due to the fact that this type of composition requires great skill and a detailed knowledge of rāga characteristics (rāgalakṣaṇu), relatively few varṇams have been composed in course of time. The text of a varṇam generally expresses feelings of devotion (bhakti) or love (śṛṅgāra).

COMPOSITION

Its musical structure, which has the same basic elements as the kriti, can be described as follows:

COMPOSITION

The ālāpana: A varṇam usually starts with the commonly met non-rhythmic introduction.

COMPOSITION

The pallavi: This section contains the main theme (pallavi), which has its tonal centre in the first tetrachord of the middle octave, and its variations (samgati).

COMPOSITION

The anupallavi: The section following the pallavi introduces the second theme (anupallavi), which has a higher tonal centre, as in the case of the kriti’s anupallavi, and contains the usual variations.

COMPOSITION

83 The opposite principle, a gradual reduction of the number of syllables within the tāla-āvarta, is called gopuccha yati. The so-called mrdanga yati is a combination of both principles.

COMPOSITION

84 Compare SambII., p. 68 and SambSIM. III., p. 125-132.

COMPOSITION

The mukṭayi svaras : A cadenza-like episode consisting of mere solfa syllables resembling the cittasvara of the kriti composition follows the anupallavi.

COMPOSITION

The pallavi : As in a kriti composition, the first part of a varnam is completed with a repetition of the pallavi theme. Throughout the whole of this first part each āvarta is executed twice but, contrary to the practice followed in the kriti, the variations (sangati), if any, are only executed once.

COMPOSITION

The caraṇa : This section, which constitutes the second part of a varṇam, consists of several lines of the text set to different melodies and a number of solfeggio cadenzas (ettuṅada svaras) up to a maximum of five which gradually increase in length.85 Each line of the text corresponding to one musical phrase of the caraṇa is followed by a solfa passage (ettuṅada svara), after which the preceding line of the caraṇa is repeated.

COMPOSITION

The anubandhu : A coda-like supplementary section, called anubandhu, appeared at the end of the older tāna-varṇams, such as the famous varṇam “Viribōṇi” by Ādiyappayya Paccimiriyam (born 1730), which is performed by practically every student of South Indian music. The anubandhu mostly consisted of a solfa episode and an episode with a regular text. Sometimes however, this coda merely repeated the mukṭayi svaras and the pallavi. Later composers such as Viṇā Kuppayyar preferred to omit this section.

COMPOSITION

In the course of time the following three types of varṇam have emerged :

COMPOSITION

1. The tāna-varṇam, which is the oldest type of varṇam. According to Sambamoorthy86 the above mentioned composition “Viribōṇi” in bhairavi rāga and ata tāla was the first true tāna-varṇam. The famous composers Śyāma Śāstri, Viṇā Kuppayyar, Pallavi Gopālayyar, Svāti Tirunāl, Muttusvāmi Dīkṣitar, Paṭnam Subrahmanya Ayyar and others87 adopted this type of composition. Its name is probably derived from the fact that tānas (i.e. ancient types of musical phrases consisting of a series of notes or scale motifs repeated in sequences)88 are the main feature of a tāna-varṇam. Its passages containing a regular text are relatively few and short whereas its solfeggio passages tend to be more extensive. This type of composition

COMPOSITION

also shows a preference for the longer tāla cycles, such as ādi (4 + 2 + 2), tripuṭa (3 + 2 + 2), aṭa (5 + 2 + 2) and jhaṅpa (7 + 1 + 2).

COMPOSITION

2. The pada-varṇam, also called cauka-varṇam or aṭa-varṇam, is a composition which resembles the padam to be discussed later on. Being the fourth part of the bharat-nāṭyam dance suite,89 the pada-varṇam is a song intended to be danced. Unlike a tāna-varṇam, the text of a pada-varṇam, sung very slowly, is of great importance since it is the basis on which the dancer expresses through gesture (abhinaya) the sentiment (rasa) and its manifestation (bhāva) contained in the words. Generally speaking the entire composition has a text (sahitya), although drum syllables (solkattu) occur incidentally. Mukṭayi svara and ettuṅada svara episodes are first sung to tone syllables, the second time to a regular text. As a rule the dancer performs the text episodes (sahitya) of a pada-varṇam in abhinaya style (i.e. using the language of gesture), and the solfeggios as pure dance (nṛtta). Since the dancer's feet follow the rhythm of the music, a pada-varṇam has less complicated tāla cycles (e.g. the rūpaka tāla = 2 + 4) than a tāna-varṇam has. According to Sambamoorthy,90 Rāmasvāmi Dīkṣitar, the father of the famous composer Muttusvāmi Dīkṣitar, was the first to compose this type of varṇam. His song “Valachi vaccinā nura” in hindola-vasanta rāga and rūpaka tāla is a well known example of a pada-varṇam. Muttusvāmi Dīkṣitar, king Svāti Tirunāl and Mysore Sadaśiva Rao also composed pada-varṇams.

COMPOSITION

3. The rāgamālikā-varṇam is a type of varṇam which is usually classified under the tāna-varṇam; some rāgamālikā-varṇams however belong to the category of pada-varṇams.91 As regards its structure, the rāgamālikā-varṇam is a composition in which the sections (pallavi anupallavi, mukṭayi svara, caraṇa and ettuṅada svara) are composed in different rāgas.

COMPOSITION

The Karṇāṭak composition known as padam (an ancient term referring to the text or “verbal theme”92 of a song) is comparable to the Hindustāni thumri. It is a lovesong of a highly spiritual character dominated by the erotic sentiment (śṛṅgāra rasa) expressed in a variety of emotional situations described by the text. This eroticism is however purely symbolic, since the essence of the padam is religious devotion (bhakti). Therefore the main characters portrayed in the song, the hero (nāyaka), the heroine (nāyikā) and the friend (sakhi), respectively stand for God (Paraṁātman).93 the devotee

COMPOSITION

and his spiritual teacher. The seventeenth century composer Kṣetrayya, who signs Muvva Gopāla to his compositions, is regarded as the father of the Karnāṭak padam.94 and his Telugu padams are still sung at concerts. Another famous composer of padams (in Kanarese) is Purandara Dāsa (1484-1564).

COMPOSITION

Although the padam is sung at concerts of classical music, it is strictly speaking a dance form. In the bharat nāṭyam dance suite this song is usually performed immediately after the varṇam. Its musical structure is as follows : First the singer introduces the main theme or burden of the song (pallavi), which he (or : she) repeats several times without any real variation (saṅgati), while the dancer interprets the line of the poem differently each time. Then the anupallavi theme consisting of two lines is sung. Finally one or more caraṇas consisting of three lines each are executed. While the pallavi theme may be used in the first part of the caraṇa, the last part of the caraṇa is frequently based on melodic material from the anupallavi. If there are more caraṇas than one, all of them are set to the same music. A padam melody generally avoids complicated rāga patterns. Well known rāgas, such as bhairavi, kalyāṇi, kāmbodhi, sāveri and vasanta, are chosen as basic mode. As a rule the padam is in slow tempo, although in a few cases moderate speed is used.95

COMPOSITION

In the nineteenth century 96 a lighter type of Karnāṭak lovesong, namely the jāvali made its appearance. The text of this song, which may be compared with the Hindustānī ghazal, is purely erotic without trace of the padam's spiritual background. The music, usually based on well known rāgas, does not always adhere to the strict rules of rāga. Phrases borrowed from other rāgas may be combined with phrases based on the main rāga. A jāvali has the same three part musical structure as the padam and shows preference for the ādi (4 + 2 + 2), rūpaka (2 + 4) and cāpu (3 + 4) tālas. King Svāti Tirunāl, Patnam Subrahmanya Ayyar, Dharmapure Subbarāyar and many other famous musicians97 have composed songs of this lighter genre.

COMPOSITION

The term gīta(m) covers several types of less complicated compositions especially intended for the student of Karnāṭak music who has just passed his elementary exercises in intervals (svara), rhythm (the ālaṅkāras in the tālas) and ornamentation (gamaka). Gītas are always composed in a steady, moderate speed and any of the seven tālas or their varieties may be used.

COMPOSITION

94 SambH., p. 65.

COMPOSITION

95 SambSIM. III, p. 203.

COMPOSITION

96 SambH., p. 66.

COMPOSITION

97 SambSIM. III, p. 217.

COMPOSITION

The number of notes, however, is limited in the sense that the number of svaras in each rhythmic cycle (tāla-āvarta) -- long notes (dirgha) counting as double svaras -- must equal the number of basic time units (akṣarakāla).

COMPOSITION

There are two main types of gīta :

COMPOSITION

1. The sañcāri-gīta, also known as the sāmānıya-, sādhāraṇa-, or laksya-gīta. The text of this type of gīta praises a deity. Sometimes the text proper is interspersed with meaningless syllables, such as a iya, ti iya, a iyam, vā iyam, called mātrika pādas. The sañcāri-gīta is a continuous composition without sections, repetitions or variations (saṅgati). The so-called pillāri-gītas composed by Purandara Dāsa in praise of Vighneśvara, Maheśvara and Viṣṇu are familiar to every student of Karnāṭak music. Paidāla Gurumūrti Śāstri, who is said to have composed about thousand gītas,98 is also famous for his sañcāri-gītas.

COMPOSITION

2. The laksạṇa-gīta. The text of this type of gīta describes the musical characteristics (laksạṇa) of particular rāgas. When describing one of the principal rāgas (rāgāṅga rāgas) these gītas have three sections : sūtra-khaṇḍa, upāṅga-khaṇḍa and bhāṣāṅga-khaṇḍa. The text of the sūtra-khaṇḍa provides information about the basic notes of the scale (mela) of the main rāga and its classification number, while the second and third sections enumerate the derivative rāgas, that is to say the upāṅga and bhāṣāṅga rāgas respectively. Laksạṇa-gītas have been composed by Govinda Dikṣitar, Veṅkaṭamakhin.99 Paidāla Gurumūrti and Govindācārya 100 amongst others.

COMPOSITION

The svarajāti is another educational composition. It is to be studied after the gītas as preparation for the more intricate varṇam. It has the traditional three part structure (pallavi, anupallavi, caraṇa) and is furnished with a text which may be devotional, heroic or erotic. According to Sambamoorthy 101 the earliest svarajātis, ‘Emayāvatī’ in mūḻaṅgi rāga and composed during the eighteenth century, was a dance composition incorporating phrases (jāti) sung to drum syllables (Tamil : solkaṭṭu; Sanskrit : paṭa). It was the celebrated composer Śyāma Śāstrī (1762-1827) who remodeled the svarajāti for concert performance and omitted the jāti passages. His svarajātis and similar compositions by Ādiyappayya and Svāti Tirunāl 102 are known to every student of Karnāṭak music.

COMPOSITION

98 Compare SambSIM. II, p. 39.

COMPOSITION

99 The author of the musical treatise Caṭurdandiprakāśikā, dated 1620.

COMPOSITION

100 For the laksạṇa-gītas of this eighteenth century musicologist the reader might consult his theoretical work, the Saṅgraha-cūḍāmaṇi, ed. by S. Subrahmanya Śāstri, Madras 1938. Cf. also SambSIM. III, p. 125.

COMPOSITION

101 SambH., p. 67; SambSIM. II, p. 42 f.

COMPOSITION

102 Compare SambSIM. II, p. 43.

COMPOSITION

The jātiśvaram is a pure dance composition which originated in the nineteenth century. It is usually performed as the second item in the bharat nātyam cycle. At first all the three parts (pallavi, anupallavi and caraṇa) of a jātiśvaram were sung to phrases (jāti) consisting of drum syllables (solkaṭṭu), but in later times these were replaced by solfa syllables (swara). Svāti Tirunāl and the Tanjore composers Ponnayya, Śivānandan, Vadivelu and Viṇā Kṛṣṇamācari have written jātiśvaras.103

COMPOSITION

The tillānā is another dance composition,104 which is performed at the end of the bharat nātyam cycle. Sometimes a tillānā is also used to terminate a concert of classical music. Sung to drum and solfa syllables interspersed with isolated words, the tillānā is the counterpart of the North Indian tarana. It has the traditional three part structure (pallavi, anupallavi and caraṇa). Whereas the concert tillānās executed in slow speed are adorned with some variations (saṃgati), the dance tillānās performed in moderate speed are simpler. In the dance cycle the brilliant tillānā, which displays pure dance movements (nṛtta), contrasts with the preceding padam, which contains long expositions in the language of gesture (abhinaya). At concerts of classical music the lively tillānā comes as welcome relief after the long, scholarly pallavi. Most tillānās are composed either in ādi (4 + 2 + 2) or in rūpaka (2 + 4) tāla. Śrinivāsa Ayyangar's tillānā in lakṣmīśa tāla, which has 24 basic time units (akṣarakāla) in the rhythmic cycle (tāla-āvarta),105 and Mahavaidyanātha Ayyar's tillānā in siṃhānanadana tāla, which has 128 akṣarakālas in the āvarta,106 are exceptional forms of tillānā. Svāti Tirunāl, Mysore Sadaśiva Rao, Patnam Subrahmanya Ayyar and the distinguished viṇā expert Viṇā Sesanna of Mysore deserve mention amongst prominent composers of tillānās.107

COMPOSITION

Rāgamālikā. Most South as well as North Indian compositions do not allow use of more than one rāga per composition. The composer or the performing artist is always restricted to the particular rāga that he has once chosen as basic mode and basic melodic pattern for the composition he is about to write or improvise. However in Karṇāṭak music, and incidentally also in Hindustānī music, there is one type of composition which disregards this principle. In this composition, called "garland of rāgas" (rāgamālikā), the sections (pallavi, anupallavi and caraṇas) are based on different rāgas.

COMPOSITION

As suggested by Sambamoorthy108 this musical rāga form may have had its equivalents in early Indian music. The ancient rāgakadambaka, which he alludes to in this connection, is referred to by Śārṅgadeva in his thirteenth century Sanskrit treatise, the Saṃgitaratnākara as being a type of ali-prabandha composition.109 The fifteenth century royal author Kumbhā.110 who gives a more detailed description than Śārṅgadeva111 does, defines the rāgakadambaka as a composition in which different rāgas could be used112 and which consists of six sections.113 The resemblance to the modern Karṇāṭak rāgamālikā, which contains a pallavi, an anupallavi and an obligatory minimum of four caraṇas, is striking. In the ancient rāgakadambaka the first section was repeated several times, just as the pallavi section is in the modern rāgamālikā, and each repetition was followed by one of the other sections.114 Moreover the ancient "garland of rāgas" was also composed in various tālas,115 a device only found in the modern rāgatālamālikā where the sections are set to different rāgas as well as to different tālas. On the other hand the ancient rāgakadambaka used several tālas in the same section, whereas the modern rāgatālamālikā has only one tāla per section.

COMPOSITION

The modern Karṇāṭak rāgamālikā based on various rāgas (the minimum being four) is a lengthy vocal composition which may take a couple of hours to perform. Here it is interesting to note that the celebrated 72-melā-rāgamālikā composed by Mahavaidyanathā Ayyar (1844-1883) in eight days takes two hours to perform. Traditionally the rāgamālikā has the following structure.116

COMPOSITION

The pallavi containing the main musical theme, which is always based on the primary rāga and which is repeated after each section. The anupallavi introducing the second theme based on a new rāga or on

COMPOSITION

103 Compare SambH., p. 68 and SambSIM. II, p. 44.

COMPOSITION

104 For a more detailed description of the Bharat Nāṭyam dance cycle, consisting of 1. alāriṅppu, 2. jātiśvaram, 3. śabdam, 4. varṇam, 5. padam and 6. tillānā the reader may consult Bhavnani, The Dance of India, p. 33-35 and SambSIM. IV, p. 200-203.

COMPOSITION

105 Compare SambSIM. IV, table XIII (p. 152-162), no. 106.

COMPOSITION

106 Compare SambSIM. IV, table XIII, no. 37.

COMPOSITION

107 Compare SambSIM. III, p. 223.

COMPOSITION

108 SambH., p. 61.

COMPOSITION

109 ŚārṅSR. 4, 26.

COMPOSITION

110 KuSR. 2, 4, 3, 22-34.

COMPOSITION

111 ŚārṅSR. 4, 253-256.

COMPOSITION

112 KuSR. 2, 4, 3, 22 : yatra syur bhāraṇo rāgāḥ suād rāgakadambakah.

COMPOSITION

113 KuSR. 2, 4, 3, 23.

COMPOSITION

114 KuSR 2, 4, 3, 25 : anye bhavanti pūrvasmād purvamād uttaraṃttaram.

COMPOSITION

115 viz. the first section in four tālas (cf. KuSR 2, 4, 3, 24) and the following sections in two tālas (cf. KuSR. 2, 4, 3, 25). In ancient Indian music also other types of rāgatālamālikā or pure tālamālikā (i.e. a composition based on several tālas) may have been used The medieval musicologists Śārṅgadeva and Kumbhā discuss these types of composition, called sṛṅga, śrīlaya, pañcāminnava, etc. in their chapters on (vi) prakīrṇa-prabandhaḥ, i.e. complex compositions. Cf. ŚārṅSR. 4, 265 ff. and KuSR. 2, 4, 4, 3 ff.

COMPOSITION

116 Compare SambSIM. III, p. 187 f.; SambH., p. 61 f.

COMPOSITION

the rāga of the pallavi. It is permissible to omit the anupallavi section in a rāgamālikā composition.

COMPOSITION

The citta(i)svara(m) consisting of a series of solfa passages.

COMPOSITION

The caranas, a minimum of four, composed in different rāgas. Each caraṇa has an episode containing a regular text, a solfeggio episode (cittai-svaram), and a traditional final phrase (mukuṭa svara). This phrase, which is based on the rāga of the pallavi, functions as a connecting link between the preceding section using a new rāga and the reintroduction of the pallavi theme, which is repeated after each caraṇa in the original rāga. Occasionally, --- this time with a regular text instead of tone syllables --- the preceding cittai svaram is repeated after the pallavi theme. In that case the pallavi theme is repeated a second time after the repetition of the cittai svaram.

COMPOSITION

The conclusion, a section comparable to the coda in Western music. Here all the rāgas used reappear in inverted order (viloma krama) sung to solfa syllables (vilomacittai svaram). Each rāga passage covers one complete, or half of a, rhythmic cycle.

COMPOSITION

The text of a rāgamālikā may be devotional, erotic, laudatory or educational in character.117 Frequently, it names the rāgas that are about to be used (rāga-mudra) and sometimes even mentions the name of the composition itself, its composer or the composer's patron.

COMPOSITION

A favourite variety of the rāgamālikā, the ghanarāga-tānamālikā, --- consisting merely of tānas 118 set to common, easily recognizable rāgas (ghana rāgas) --- is usually performed at the beginning or in the middle of a programme of Karnāṭak music. The rāgamālikā may also be combined with other forms of composition resulting in combinations such as the rāgamālikā-varṇam, the rāgamālikā-kiṛtana, the rāgamālikā-gīta or rāgamālikā-svarajāti.

COMPOSITION

In composing a rāgamālikā, it is of major importance to choose correctly which rāgas are to be combined in the work. They must always have different basic scales (melas), but their aesthetic content (rasa) should be neither too contrasting nor too similar.

COMPOSITION

Having thus far discussed Karnāṭak compositions for which the most part belong to the realm of precomposed music (kalpita saṅgīta), we shall now examine a type of composition which is to be classified under improvised music (manodharma saṅgīta).

COMPOSITION

The improvised composition called pallavi (not to be mistaken for the

COMPOSITION

117 In the latter case the rāgamālikā text may treat a particular aspect of the theory of music.

COMPOSITION

118 Compare the tānas in the pallavi composition to be discussed after the rāgamālikā.

COMPOSITION

section of that name) is a form of music which has its roots in the musical contests held in India since ancient times.119 It is of special interest to musicologists, since it expounds a wide variety of techniques of musical composition involving complicated melodic and rhythmic structures which are, of course, also met with in precomposed music. A pallavi performance demands great skill on the part of the musician, who has to master these techniques whilst improvising.

COMPOSITION

When a pallavi performance takes the form of a musical contest, the procedure is as follows: One (A) of the two competing musicians starts performing an ālāpana in a rāga of his choice. The second musician (B) must immediately recognize this rāga and invent extempore a musical theme (pallavi) based on it. Next, A must reproduce B's theme without the slightest modification and then add variations to it. If neither musician makes a mistake, the whole procedure starts again with A and B exchanging rôles. The contest is only finished when one of the musicians commits a fault.120

COMPOSITION

The improvised pallavi composition generally has the following structure:

COMPOSITION

The ālāpana, the non-rhythmic introduction is longer and more detailed than that of any other classical Karnāṭak composition (kriti, varṇam, etc.). We may trace its development in the following stages:

COMPOSITION

a. The ākṣiptikā.121 This first part of the introduction discloses the essential notes and the basic melodic line of the chosen rāga. This presentation of the rāga mostly starts from the first note (ṣadja) of the middle octave (madhya sthāyi), proceeds into the lower (mandra) and middle (madhya) octaves, occasionally reaches into the higher (tāra) octave, and finally returns to the initial note (madhya sthāyi ṣadja). This brief sketch of the rāga may serve to assist the listener in identifying the rāga.

COMPOSITION

b. The rāga-vardhani, also called karaṇam.122 According to Samba-moorthy 123 this part of the ālāpana has four phases, each with its own

COMPOSITION

119 Compare SambH. p. 96 f.; Jātaka story, no. 243.

COMPOSITION

120 Compare SambSIM. IV, p. 22.

COMPOSITION

121 This term is already used in ancient Indian theory of music to indicate a particular stage in the rāga development. However, the ancient ākṣiptikā section has a regular text and is set to a particular metrical cycle (tāla), whereas the modern ākṣiptikā has no rhythmic structure at all, and is sung to merely meaningless syllables. Cf. SārnSR. 2, 2, 25 (definition) and vol. II, p. 23 f. (music example).

COMPOSITION

122 This term, which is not clearly defined in SārnSR., also appears at the top of some ancient music examples to indicate the second part of the rāga development.

COMPOSITION

123 SambSIM. IV, p. 11 f.

COMPOSITION

beginning (Tamil : eduppu) and conclusion (muktāyi or vidāri).124 In the first phase of the rāga-vardhani, the rāga development starts from middle sa and is worked out in the lower octave. The notes are adorned with musical ornaments (gamaka) and arranged to form motifs and melodic phrases characteristic of the rāga. In the second and third phases the same development takes place in the middle and higher octaves respectively. The fourth phase is characterized by its ascending and descending scales (mūrchanā) and its fast passages.

COMPOSITION

c. The sthāyi, also called makarini or vartani.125 A series of ascending and descending passages is performed according to the following principle: First descending-ascending passages starting from middle sa, middle ri, etc.; i.e. taking each time a higher starting note (sthāyi svara), are executed. Next come ascending-descending passages starting from high sa, middle ni, middle dha, etc. until middle sa has again been reached. These scale passages, which require a well trained voice of wide range (three octaves), are completed with scale patterns sung rapidly in all three octaves. This works as a climax since, up to this point, on the whole the tempo of the ālāpana has been slow (caukakāla) and only incidentally moderate (madhyama kāla).

COMPOSITION

The tāna. This second section of the improvisation, which always follows the ālāpana section, and is executed in moderate speed, may be compared with the Hindustāni jor or jhala, which immediately follows the ālāp. Like the jor, the tāna section has a basic rhythm which lacks the regular cycle of a particular tāla. The musical phrases of the Karṇāṭak tāna are sung in uniform speed to meaningless words (such as tānamta, tānanna, tānamma,126 etc.), which are sometimes replaced by solfa syllables. Tāna phrases are classified according to their characteristic rhythmic motifs. These special types of tānas are called after human beings or various animals, probably in imitation of their gaits. Samba-moorthy 127 mentions manava (human), aśva (horse), gaja (elephant), markata (monkey), mayūra (peacock), kukkuṭa (cock), mandūka (frog) and cakra (goose) tānas without describing their rhythmical structure.

COMPOSITION

124 In ancient Indian musical theory vidāri denotes the subsection of a song. Cf. SārnSR. 5, 72-74; KuSR. 2, 4, 1, 34-27.

COMPOSITION

125 This term, which is not clearly defined in SārnSR., also indicates an ālāpana section in the ancient music examples. Cf. SārnSR. V, 11, p. 33, 35, etc. SambSIM. IV, p. 16 mentions the term vartani in connection with the tāna section as well.

COMPOSITION

126 In his article "Later Samgita Literature" (Sangeet Natak Akademi Bulletin 17, 1960, p. 10) V. Raghavan points out that according to the Samgita Cintāmaṇi (Ms. in Tanjore Sarasvati Mahal Library, Burnell cat. 11569 a) the syllables ta, na, tam, nam, ta and ham used in singing constitute the so-called pāñcākṣaramanṭra of music.

COMPOSITION

127 SambSIM. IV, p. 16.

COMPOSITION

The pallavi, the third section of the improvised pallavi composition, is intricate and calls for detailed description. In vocal compositions the text of the melody which constitutes the main theme (pallavi) of the improvisation may be religious or secular (i.e. erotic, humorous or even satirical) and, in spite of its brevity, must be a telling phrase. Sometimes the first words of familiar classical songs (kritis or padams) are quoted.128 The melody itself must adhere to the following rules: It may cover from one to four 129 complete tāla cycles and is divided into two equal or unequal parts (aṅga) by an imaginary line (padagarbham or arudi). As a result of this division, there is a point of rest (viśrānti) which coincides with the first drutam note appearing after the dividing line. This particular note (arudi note) must coincide with the initial note, its octave or its consonant (samvādin).130 The position of the final note is usually directly above or below the initial note. A pallavi melody does not always run parallel with the āvartas as it can enter at different points in the cycle.

COMPOSITION

When the melody starts at the beginning of the cycle, which as a rule coincides with the main beat or sam, the start (Sanskrit : graha; Tamil : eduppu) is described as "coincident" (sama); when not the melody starts before the beginning of the rhythmic cycle, or rather before the sam, the start is described as atīta graha; when the melody starts after the sam, the start is described as anāgata graha.

COMPOSITION

The development of the pallavi theme is as follows : 131

COMPOSITION

a. The pallavi melody. In order to familiarize the audience with the main theme of the composition, the melody is sung three or four times at the commencement of the pallavi development, even when the concert is purely instrumental.

COMPOSITION

b. The saṅgatis. After the melody has thus been introduced to the audience, the soloist builds variations on certain phrases of the pallavi theme.

COMPOSITION

c. The anuloma and the pratiloma. Then the soloist accelerates his speed by doubling or quadrupling the number of notes in the āvarta, while the basic rhythm (tāla) remains unchanged. This means that the pallavi theme is performed twice or four times within its original rhythmic cycle(s). This procedure (anuloma) can also be reversed (viloma-anuloma), so that the soloist slows down his speed to use twice or

COMPOSITION

128 Compare SambSIM. IV, p. 23 and 36.

COMPOSITION

129 Pallavis in ādi or jhampa tāla usually contain one or two āvartas, in rūpaka or tripuṭa tāla, however, two to four āvartas. Cf. SambSIM. IV, p. 26.

COMPOSITION

130 Which has mostly a perfect fourth or perfect fifth relationship with the initial note.

COMPOSITION

131 Compare SambSIM. IV, II, p. 31-46.

four times the original number of āvartas for one rendering of the theme.

A variation of this device is the pratiloma which only applies to vocal

music : the soloist sings the pallavi theme in the original tempo whilst

indicating with his hands twice or four times the original number

of āvartas. In the opposite procedure (viloma-pratiloma), without

changing the tempo of his singing, the soloist's hands indicate a twice

or four times slower tempo, so that the pallavi theme covers only half

or a quarter of the duration of his hand-beaten āvartas.

d. The tisram. This term denotes a special rhythmic variation of the

pallavi theme. The basic time units (tāla-aksara) of the āvarta are

subdivided into three smaller time units. This principle, called tisram

gati, is only one of the five varieties of gatibheda, i.e. the Karnāṭak

system of dividing basic time units.132

e. The niraval. This term denotes a type of variation which affords

the soloist wide scope to display his ingenuity. The notes of the

pallavi theme undergo change, but its basic rhythmic structure, i.e. the

rhythmic setting of its text in the rhythmic cycle, remains intact. First

part of the theme, but gradually the whole pallavi theme is developed

in this way. This device resembles the "talea" of fourteenth century

European isorhythmic compositions. Niravals are not confined to pallavi

compositions; they are also found in the caranas of the kritis.133

After finishing a niraval in a pallavi improvisation, the pallavi theme is

repeated in its original form.

f. The kalpana svaras. This episode is a detailed exposition of the

melodic material of the rāga. The length of the musical phrases is

gradually increased. The first phrase contains only one āvarta, whereas

the second and following phrases consist of two, four and eight

āvartas respectively. The musician may divide the basic time units

according to the rules of gatibheda134 and may also apply the five

different varicties (jāti)135 of the tāla. This means that he may divide

the ānga (i.e. the main bar also called laghu and indicated by the sign :

1. into three, four, five, seven or nine basic time units (tāla-aksara). These

divisions are respectively called tisra, caturasra, khanda, misra and

sankīrna jāti. In a vocal performance kalpana svaras are sung to solfa

syllables. However, they are no mere solfeggios but, as in the case of

the North Indian tāns, melodic or rhythmic variations on the pallavi

theme or on parts of it. Although kalpana svaras are typical of a pallavi

improvisation, they also appear in compositions, such as the kriti, where

they may follow the pallavi, anupallavi or the carana theme. The

kalpana svara episode of a pallavi improvisation gives the soloist ample

opportunity to express his skill and inventiveness. It invariably ends

with the traditional final phrase, the so-called "crown" (mukuṭa), which

warns the drummer (mṛdaṅga player) that he has to work up to the

climax.

g. The rāgamālikā. After the kalpana svaras several series of solfa

passages are executed in different rāgas. In imitation of the composition

of that name, this episode is called "garland of rāgas" (rāgamālikā).

Each solfeggio episode in a particular rāga concludes with a solfa

passage in the original rāga followed by the pallavi melody, which is

also sung in the original rāga. Occasionally the pallavi theme, which

retains its original rhythmic structure throughout this episode, appears

in a new rāga. But then some solfa passages as well as the pallavi

theme itself should be performed in the original rāga after the

peculiar presentation of the theme. Sometimes all the rāgas used in the

rāgamālikā episode are reproduced in reverse order, after which the

pallavi melody is repeated in the original rāga. This episode is

concluded with a series of solfa passages presented in the original rāga.

h. The tālamālikā. If a musician performs the pallavi theme and its

variations (kalpana svaras) in different tālas, the presentation is called

tālamālikā in imitation of the composition of that name.

i. The rāgatalamālikā. The pallavi can also be presented in a new

rāga simultaneously with a new tāla. This procedure is called rāgatalā-

mālikā, which is also the name of an independent composition.

The conclusion. At the conclusion of a pallavi improvisation the original

pallavi melody is executed at a slightly accelerated speed. Then a few

āvartas of kalpana svaras are performed at moderate speed (madhyama-

makāla). The improvisation ends in the same ways as it started, that is

with a short ālāpana.

Dramatic music

Having discussed the formal structure of certain Karnāṭak musical compo-

sitions, such as the padavarnam, the padam, the tillānā and the jāti svaram,

which can be suitably performed at either concerts or at dance recitals and

132 SambSIM. III, p. 101 f. mentions divisions (gatibheda, also called naḍai bheda) into

three (tisra), four (caturasra), five (khanḍa), seven (miśra) and nine (saṅkīrṇa) units.

133 Śyāma Sāstri's kriti Saroja dala netri in the rāga śaṅkarābharana sung by Mr. Subbu-

lakshmi (record no. PMAE 501) is a classical example of niraval produced by an excellent

Karnāṭak vocalist. Cf. also SambSIM. IV, p. 74 f.

134 Compare note 131.

135 Compare SambSIM. II, p. 22 f. and 27 f., tables V and VI.

COMPOSITION

hence represent both concert and dramatic music, we now turn to a purely dramatic musical composition known as the geyanāṭak.136 This type of Karṇāṭak composition, the so-called Karṇāṭak opera, also named iśai nāṭakam (Tamil), sangitarūpakam or gānanāṭakam (Sanskrit) is a complex dramatic work combining literature, dance and music. In the geyanāṭaka, which has its roots in the dance drama (nrtyanāṭaka), although there is some pure dancing the language of gesture (abhinaya) predominates, whereas in the dance drama pure dance (nṛtya) and gesture (abhinaya) are equally important.137 In the older South Indian yakṣagāna dance drama, which has kept alive for four hundred years in the Andhra district and Tamilnad,138 true gesture language is absent. The music of this type of dance drama, which is produced by a singer (the bhāgavataṛ, who is at the same time the director of the dancers), two drummers and a musician playing a bagpipe-like instrument (puṅgi), is of special interest, since its rāgas are not the current rāgas of Karṇāṭak music.139

COMPOSITION

Dance dramas (yakṣagāna, kuchipudi nāṭaka,140 bhagavata mela nāṭaka141 and Tamil kuravañji142) as well as Karṇāṭak operas contain a number of compositions called daru,143 which are story-songs based on erotic, historical, epic or puranic themes. Sambamoorthy distinguishes the following types of daru:144

COMPOSITION

1. the entrance song (praveśika or pāṭrapraveśa daru),

COMPOSITION

2. the descriptive song (varṇana daru),

COMPOSITION

3. the musical dialogue (samvāda daru),

COMPOSITION

4. the dialogue with statements and counter statements (uttaraprutyuttara daru),

COMPOSITION

5. the stick-play song (kōlāṭṭa daru),

COMPOSITION

6. the song called koṇangi daru, which is associated with the divine clown (koṇangi dāsari), and

COMPOSITION

7. the musical soliloquy (svagata daru).

COMPOSITION

136 Compare SambD. II, p. 187; SambSIM. IV, p. 196 ff.; SambH., p. 83 ff.

COMPOSITION

137 Compare SambD. II, p. 187, col. 1.

COMPOSITION

138 Compare Ragini Devi, Dance Dialects of India, Vikas Publications, Delhi, London, 1972 p. 133; Bhavnani, The Dance in India, p. 80 f.

COMPOSITION

139 Devi, Dance Dialects, p. 137.

COMPOSITION

140 i.e. dance dramas in Telugu, the language of Andhra district, according to the tradition of Kuchipudi. Compare Rina Singha and Reginald Massey, Indian Dances, Their History and Growth, London 1967, p. 62 f.; Bhavnani, The Dance in India, p. 55 f.

COMPOSITION

141 i.e. a particular type of temple dance drama performed by men of priestly class (bhāgavatas) during the Narasimha Jayanti festival (in May or June). Cf. Singha and Massey, Indian Dances, ch. 6, p. 68 f.; Bhavnani, The Dance in India, p. 79 f.

COMPOSITION

142 i.e. a folk dance drama, performed by the Kuravas, who are Dravidian gypsies. Cf. Singha and Massey, Indian Dances, ch. 7, p. 73 f.; SambSIM. IV, p. 222; Bhavnani, o.c., p. 36.

COMPOSITION

143 Compare SambSIM. III, p. 218.

COMPOSITION

144 See note 143.

COMPOSITION

According to Sambamoorthy and Raghavan,145 daru songs may be in some way connected with the ancient dhruva songs, i.e. the ancient stage songs described in the thirty-second chapter of the Nāṭyaśāstra. Raghavan has clearly stressed the importance of Bharata’s dhruva songs in ancient Indian drama, which editors and historians have long tended to overlook. After mentioning the famous fourth act of Kālidāsa’s Vikramorvaśīya, of which the musical version has come down to us intact, Raghavan cites146 interesting examples of dhruva songs used in Viśvamitra’s Anargharāghava, Rājaśekhara’s ‘Balarāmāyaṇa, Balabharata and Viddhaśālabhañjika, and Harṣa’s Ratnāvalī, the staging of which is discussed by Dāmodaragupta in his Kuṭṭanīmata. Referring to Mataṅga’s Bṛhaddeśī,147 Raghavan148 states that in dhruva songs particular rāgas were required for particular dramatic situations. Another significant reference given by the same author149 is to Nānyadeva’s Bharatabhäṣya (an eleventh century commentary on the Nāṭyaśāstra),150 which specifies the appropriate rāga, tāla and rasa for every dhruva metre mentioned by Bharata. Music was probably of vital importance in early Indian drama. Raghavan suggests151 that it is actually part of the action itself in the first act of the Nāgānanda, in the second act of the Mālavikāgnimitra and in the opening of the Ratnāvalī.

COMPOSITION

Sambamoorthy holds152 that the ancient tradition is continued in the famous bhāgavata-mela nāṭakas composed by Veṅkaṭarāma Śāstrī (ca. 1800)153 and in the kuchipudi dance dramas. Some sacred works, such as Jayadeva’s Gītagovinda (dating from the twelfth century)154 and Nārāyaṇa Tīrtha’s Kṛṣṇalīlātaraṅgiṇī (dating from the sixteenth century),155 which are favourites of the kuchipudi dancers, may possibly be regarded as intermediate links between the ancient and modern dance dramas.

COMPOSITION

In North India the old tradition of the music drama was continued in the kirtaniya nāṭaks.156 These are plays written in Sanskrit and Maithili, con-

COMPOSITION

145 V. Raghavan, Music in ancient Indian drama, in : J.M.A.M. 25 (1954), p. 79-92.

COMPOSITION

146 o.c., p. 85.

COMPOSITION

147 MBrh. p. 89, 93, 95 and 100.

COMPOSITION

148 o.c., p. 88.

COMPOSITION

149 See note 148.

COMPOSITION

150 Nānyadeva, Bharatabhäṣya, handwritten copy of the Poona ms. from Mr. Daniélou’s Institute for Comparative Music Studies at Venice, chapter X.

COMPOSITION

151 o.c., p. 89.

COMPOSITION

152 SambH., p. 92.

COMPOSITION

153 Compare Singha and Massey, Indian Dances, p. 69

COMPOSITION

154 a siṅgāra mahākāvya in Sanskrit consisting of twelve sargas and containing verses (śloka), prose passages and twenty-four songs.

COMPOSITION

155 a dance drama in twelve sections (taraṅga) containing darus, ślokas and prose.

COMPOSITION

156 Compare J.C. Mathur, Traditional Theatre, The Historical Perspective, in : Sangeet Natak 21 (July-Sept. 1971), p. 46-52, especially p. 48.

COMPOSITION

taining vernacular songs (in imitation of the ancient dhruva songs which

COMPOSITION

were always in the Apabhramṣa dialect) set to particular rāgas and tālas

COMPOSITION

and alternating with the dialogues. The fourteenth century farce Dhūrttasa-

COMPOSITION

māgama (originally in Sanskrit, later re-written in Maithili by Jyotiriśvar

COMPOSITION

Thakur),157 which is the oldest vernacular work in North India, probably

COMPOSITION

contained twenty Maithili songs, from which eight are missing. According

COMPOSITION

to the editor these songs, the rāgas158 and tālas159 of which are mentioned

COMPOSITION

by the author, are dramatic pieces in the true sense and bear some resemblance

COMPOSITION

to Jayadeva's Gītagovinda.

COMPOSITION

Karnāṭak opera (geyanāṭakam), which originated from the South Indian

COMPOSITION

dance drama, is represented by the following works :

COMPOSITION

The Rāmanāṭakam by Arunācala Kavirayar (1711-1778). The music of this

COMPOSITION

opera was composed by two of Kavirāyar's disciples, Kodandarāmayyar

COMPOSITION

and Veṅkaṭarāmayyar.160

COMPOSITION

Three operas161 namely Prahlāda Bhakti Vijayam, Nauka Caritram and

COMPOSITION

Sitarāma Vijayam by the famous Karnāṭak composer Tyāgarāja (1767-

COMPOSITION

1847),162 who was the first to eliminate dancing from his dramas.

COMPOSITION

The well known Tamil opera Nandanār Caritram and the three shorter

COMPOSITION

operas Iyarpagai Nāyanār Caritram, Tirunilakaṇṭha Nāyanār Caritram and

COMPOSITION

Kāraikāl Ammaiyār Caritram by Gopālakṛṣṇa Bhārati (1810-1896).163

COMPOSITION

Sacred Music

COMPOSITION

Sacred Indian music opens a vast field of research which does not lend

COMPOSITION

itself to brief discussion. Just as religion influences almost all the activities

COMPOSITION

of Indian life, so does religious music affect practically every branch of

COMPOSITION

Indian music.

COMPOSITION

In regard to Hindustānī religious music we have only examined the

COMPOSITION

bhajana and the kirtana. Detailed discussion of Karnāṭak religious music

COMPOSITION

would far exceed the scope of this book; so for present purposes the

COMPOSITION

following classification, which to some extent also holds for Hindustānī

COMPOSITION

religious music, must suffice :

COMPOSITION

a. Ritualistic music, namely music accompanying the rituals of various

COMPOSITION

Indian religions.

COMPOSITION

b. Non-ritualistic, religious music, including various types of religious

COMPOSITION

hymns.

COMPOSITION

c. Music accompanying discourses of a religious character.

COMPOSITION

d. Music accompanying religious dance dramas.

COMPOSITION

a. Karnāṭak ritualistic music is of special interest, since certain South

COMPOSITION

Indian sects, or rather "branches" (sākhā), for example those of the

COMPOSITION

Kauthumas and Nambudiris, have preserved ancient Vedic traditions164 in

COMPOSITION

their singing of hymns from the Sāmaveda and Ṛgveda. Unfortunately, the

COMPOSITION

connection between the musical notation of the old ritualistic hymns as

COMPOSITION

laid down in the song books (gāna)165 of the Kauthumas, Jaiminīyas and

COMPOSITION

Rānāyanīyas and the living tradition preserved by the priest-singers of these

COMPOSITION

sects is not clear. It should be remembered that in India musical notation

COMPOSITION

has never been accorded the same importance as it holds in Western music.

COMPOSITION

The old religious song books (gāna) may have served the same purpose as

COMPOSITION

notations of classical Indian music. They were most probably merely

COMPOSITION

written down for purposes of study. As in the past, even today Indian

COMPOSITION

singers of classical music usually only jot down the words of songs, bearing

COMPOSITION

in mind the corresponding melodies as taught by several generations of

COMPOSITION

musicians belonging to one particular tradition (gharāṇa).

COMPOSITION

b. South India has produced a rich variety of religious hymns. Here only

COMPOSITION

the kirtana, tēvāram and maṅgalam will be briefly discussed.

COMPOSITION

The kirtana, which is the religious forefather of the classical Karnāṭak

COMPOSITION

kriti composition, was originally a simple song intended for congregational

COMPOSITION

singing. In contradistinction to the classical kriti, which mostly has a three

COMPOSITION

part structure (pallavi, anupallavi and carana), the simpler kirtana merely

COMPOSITION

consists of a pallavi refrain repeated at the conclusion of each carana,

COMPOSITION

and a number of caranas the text of which is sung to the same melody in the

COMPOSITION

same way as the couplets of a strophical song are sung. This type of kirtana

COMPOSITION

is called dvidhatu (lit. "having two melodies", i.e. one for the pallavi and

COMPOSITION

one for the caranas), whereas in the ekadhatu (lit. "having one melody")

COMPOSITION

kirtanas the pallavi and the caranas (sung continuously without repetition of

COMPOSITION

the pallavi have one and the same melody. Using both types of kirtanas, Tyāgarāja, Vijaya Gopāla and Bhadriācala have composed divyanāma kirtanas,106 which are songs in praise of particular deities. In the so-called nāmāvali kirtanas,107 the text of which merely mentions the names and synonyms of a god, the pallavi refrain is sung by the devotees, while the leader sings the caranas. In addition to this style of performance known as the responsorial style, there is the antiphonal style in which the pallavi and the carana are sung by two different groups of devotees.

COMPOSITION

The mangalam 108 is a song of salutation performed at the end of every Karnāṭak concert, opera or bhajana. It has the above mentioned kirtana form consisting of a pallavi and a number of caranas.

COMPOSITION

The South Indian professional temple singers (oḍuvārs) have preserved an ancient tradition in their singing of tēvārams, which are hymns by the three great saint-poets Tirujñānasambandar and Appar (Tirunāvukkarasu) of the seventh century and Sundaramūrti Nāyanār of the ninth century. These hymns were originally sung in the ancient Tamil modes (paṇs) which, according to Sambamoorthy,109 represent ancient rāgas of local origin (deśi rāgus) as described in the eight century musical treatise, the Bṛhaddesī by Mataṅga. The original melodies of these ancient hymns have been lost in course of time. Nowadays the hymns are sung to tunes composed by the eighteenth century pious minstrel Gurusvāmi Desigar of Tiruvarur.110

COMPOSITION

During a religious meeting (bhajana),171 which may last several hours, a cycle of religious hymns consisting of nāmāvali kirtanas, dhyāna ślokas (Sanskrit verses for meditation), maṅgalas, divyanāma kirtanas and other hymns are sung.

COMPOSITION

Many of the Karnāṭak ritualistic and religious hymns, especially the Tamil hymns, that have not been discussed here, can only be studied from the original sources, since scientific literature in English dealing with this subject is not available.

COMPOSITION

c. In this category falls the kālakṣepam,172 a type of entertainment which aims not only at producing a feeling of joyousness but also at purifying the mind of the listener. The discourse, which is the essence of the

COMPOSITION

the kālakṣepam is illustrated with stories from the Purāṇas, the Rāmāyaṇa, the Mahābhārata or from the lives of great saints, and relevant folkloristic or classical songs in different vernaculars.

COMPOSITION

d. In most types of South Indian dance drama, such as the bhagavata mela nāṭaka, kuchipudi dance drama, kathakali, etc., the religious element dominates though episodes of fighting, love scenes and other secular elements are also present. Within the limited scope of this study it would carry us too far to discuss the structure and historical development of all types of Indian dance drama, more especially since excellent literature on this subject has become available during the last twenty years.173

COMPOSITION

173 In addition to the previously cited books on dance the reader may also consult Kapila Vatsyayan, Classical Indian Dance in Literature and the Arts, Delhi 1968.

COMPOSITION

106 Compare SambSIM. 4, p. 190; SambD. 1, p. 121.

COMPOSITION

107 Compare SambSIM. 4, p. 191; SambD. 3, p. 111.

COMPOSITION

108 Compare SambSIM. 4, p. 193; SambD. 3, p. 43 f.

COMPOSITION

109 SambH. p. 73. For a list of the paṇs used in the tēvārams and their modern equivalents the reader might compare SambH. p. 95 f.; R. Rangaramanuja Ayyangar, History of South Indian (Carnatic) Music From Vedic Times up to the Present, Madras 1972.

COMPOSITION

170 Compare Rangaramanuja Ayyangar, History of S. I. Music, p. 56.

COMPOSITION

171 Compare SambD. II, p. 276 f.

COMPOSITION

172 Compare SambD. II, p. 283 f.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Musical treatises in Sanskrit, Hindi, and other languages and translations in modern European languages

A. Musical treatises in Sanskrit, Hindi, and other languages and translations in modern European languages

Ahobala. Sangitapārijāta. I, 1–497, edited by Kāliṡara Vedāntavāgiśa and Śāradāprasādagoṣa, New Sanskrit Press, Calcutta 1879.

—. Sangitapārijāta, I, 1–497, edited by Jīṡānanda Vidyāsāgara, Sarasvati Press, Calcutta 1884.

—. Sangitapārijāta, edited by Rāvaji Śridhar Gondhalekhar, place (?) 1897.

—. Sangitapārijāta, edited with a Hindi comm. by Sangitakalā Kovidā, Sangita Kāryālaya, Hathras ¹1956.

—. Sangitapārijāta, edited with Bengali translation and notes by Śacindranatha Mitra, Calcutta 1959.

Bharata. Gitālamkāra, edition critique, traduction française et introduction par A. Daniélou et N. R. Bhatt, Institut Français d'Indologie, Pondichéry 1959.

—. Nātyaśāstra, edited by Pandit Śivadatta and Kāśināth Pāṇḍurang Parab, Kāvyamālā Series no. 42, Bombay 1894.

—. Nātyaśāstra, with the comm. of Abhinavagupta, edited by M. Rāmakṛṣṇa Kavi and J. S. Pade,

I, Gaekwad's Oriental Series no. 36, Baroda 1926,

II, Gaekwad's Oriental Series no. 68, Baroda 1934,

III, Gaekwad's Oriental Series no. 124, Baroda 1954,

IV, Gaekwad's Oriental Series no. 145, Baroda 1964.

—. Nātyaśāstra, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, Benares 1929.

—. Nātyaśāstra, Nirnaya Sagar Press, Bombay 1943.

—. Nātyaśāstra, edited by Manomohan Ghosh, I, Calcutta 1967; II, Bibliotheca Indica no. 272A, Calcutta 1956.

—. Nātyaśāstra, English translation by Manomohan Ghosh, I, Calcutta ¹1951, ²1967; II, Bibliotheca Indica no. 272, Calcutta 1961.

—. Nātyaśāstra, French translation : Edition Critique du Traité de Bharata sur le Théâtre, by J. Grosset, Paris 1898; commentaire in French by the same author in : Laṡignac, Encyclopedie de la Musique, I, ch. 1–14, Inde, Paris 1924.

—. Nātyaśāstra, German translation : Die Grundelemente der alt-indischen Musik nach dem Bharatiya-natyashastra, Dissertation 1921, by B. Breloer, Bonn 1922.

Bhātkhande, V. N., A Comparative Study of Some Leading Music Systems of the 15th, 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, Bombay ¹1941, Madras ²1949.

—. Kramik Pustak Mālikā, I–VI, Sangīta Kāryālaya, Hathras 1953–1958.

—. Sangīta Śāstra, I–IV, Sangīta Kāryālaya, Hathras 1956–1957.

Bhāvabhatta, Anūpasamgitavilāsa, Anūpasamgitaratnākara and Anūpasamgitāṅkusa, published in one volume by D. K. Joshi and B. S. Sukthankar, Arya Bhusan Press, Poona 1921.

Caturvedi, S., Abhinavātyaśāstra, (a modern Hindi comm. on Abhinavagupta's Nātyaśāstra), I, Banaras ¹1951, Allahabad ²1964; II: Bhāratīya tathā pāścātya raṅgmance, Lucknow 1964.

Cikkabhūpāla, M., Abhinavabharatasārasaṅgraha, edited by R. Satyanārāyaṇa, Śri Varalakṣmi Academies of Fine Arts, Mysore 1960.

Dāmodara, Sangītadarpana, edited by S. M. Tagore, Stanhope Press, Calcutta 1881.

—. Sangītadarpana, edited with Hindi comm. by Viśvambhara Nathabhatta, Sangita Kāryālaya, Hathras 1950.

—. Sangītadarpana, edited with intr. and notes in English and Tamil by K. Vasudeva Śāstri, Government Oriental Series no. 66, Tanjore 1952.

—. Sangītadarpana, English Translation of ch. I and II: Bijdrage tot de Kennis der Voor-Indische Muziek, Thesis, Utrecht, by A. A. Bake, Paris 1930.

Daniélou, A., Textes des Purāṇa sur la Théorie Musicale, I, Pondichéry 1959.

Dattilamuni, Dattilam, edited by K. Śāmbasiva Śāstri, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series no. 102, Trivandrum 1930.

—. Dattilam, A Compendium of Ancient Indian Music, Introduction, Translation and Commentary, by Emmie te Nijenhuis, Thesis, Utrecht, Leiden 1970.

Dikṣita, Govinda, Sangītasudhā, edited by V. Raghavan, Music Academy, Madras 1940.

—. Sangītasudhā, text and free translation by P. S. Sundaram Ayyar and Subrahmanya Śāstri, in : Journal of the Music Academy Madras, I, no. 1–2 (1930, 1932, 1933).

Fakirullah (Saif Khan), Man Kautuhal, Ms. at Muslim Univ., Aligarh.

—. Rāg Darpan, Ms. at Muslim Univ., Aligarh.

Ghanasyāmadāsa, Sangītasārasaṅgraha, edited by Swāmi Prajñānanda, Calcutta 1956.

Govinda, Sangrahasucūdāmani, edited by S. Subrahmanya Śāstri, Adyar Library, Madras 1938.

Haripāla, Sangītasudhākara, Ms. in Tanjore, Mahārāja Serfoji's Sarasvati Mahal Library, and in Baroda.

Jagadekamalla, Kavicakravarti, Sangītacūḍāmani, edited by Dattātreya Kāsinātha Velankar, Gaekwad's Oriental Series no. 128, Baroda 1958.

Kavi, M. Rāmakṛṣṇa, Bharatakośa, A Dictionary of Technical Terms with Definitions Collected from the Works on Music and Dramaturgy by Bharata and Others, Śri Venkateśvara Oriental Series no. 10, Tirupati 1951.

Khan, Muhammad Reza, Nagamāt-e-Asafi (in persian), Ms. at Banaras.

Kṣemakarna, Rāgamālā, Ms. no. 1195 (211) of Asiatic Society of Bengal and Ms. no. 1125-15165 of India Office Library at London.

Kumbhakarna, Rāja of Mewar, Sangītarāja, edited by C. Kunhan Rāja, Ganga Oriental Series no. 4, vol. 1, Bikaner 1946.

—. Sangītarāja (Nrityaratnakośa), edited by R.C. Parika and Priyabalā Shah, Rājasthāna Purātana Granthamālā no. 24, Jaipur 1957.

—. Sangītarāja (Pāthyaratnakośa and Gītaratnakośa), edited by Prem Lata Śarmā, Nepal Rajya Sanskrit Series 5, Banaras 1963.

Locana, Rāgatarangini, edited by D. K. Jośi, Ārya Bhūṣaṇa Press, Poona 1918.

—. Rāgatarangini (complete), edited by Rāja Baladeva Miśra, Darbhanga Raj Press, Darbhanga 1934.

Lodi, S., Lahjat-i-Sikandar Shāhi, Ms. at Lucknow.

Matanga, Brhaddesī, edited by K. Śāmbasiva Śāstri, Trivandrum 1928.

Nandikeśvara, Abhinayadarpana, The Mirror of Gesture, translated into English by A. Coomaraswamy and G. K. Duggirala, Cambridge 1917.

—. Abhinayadarpana, translated by Manomohan Ghosh, Calcutta 1934, 1960.

—. Bharatārnava, edited and translated into English and Tamil by S. K. Vasudeva Śāstri, Tanjore Sarasvati Mahal Series no. 74, 1957.

Nānyadeva, Bharatabhāṣya, I, ch. 1–5, edited with Hindi commentary by Chaṭanya P. Deśai, Indira Kala Sangi Vasavidyalaya, Khairagarh 1961.

—. Bharatabhāṣya, Ms. no. 312 of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona.

Nārada, Caṭārimśacchatarāganirūpana, edited by M.S. Sukthankar, Ārya Bhūṣaṇa Press, Bombay 1914.

—. Sangītamakaranda, edited by Maṅgeśa Rāmakṛṣṇa Telang, Gaekwad's Oriental Series no. 16, Baroda 1920.

124

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

—. Nāradiyā Śikṣā Sāmevediyā. Calcutta 1890.

Nārāyanadeva. Hṛdaya. Hṛdayakautuka. edited by D. K. Josi, Ārya Bhūsana Press, Poona 1918.

—. Hṛdayaprakāśa. edited by D. K. Josi. Ārya Bhūsana Press, Poona 1918.

Narendra. Bhīma. Samgitasudhā. edited by P.S. Sundaram and S. Subrahmanya Śāstri. Madras 1930.

Neog. Mahesvara. An old Assamese work on timing in music, in : J.M.A.M. 22 (1951), p. 147.

Paramesvara. Vinālakṣana and Vināprapāthaka. edited by J.S. Pade, Gaekwad's Oriental Series no. 131, Baroda 1959.

Pārśvadeva. Samgitamayasāra. edited by T. Ganapati Śāstri. Trivandrum Sanskrit Series no. 87, Trivandrum 1925.

Pundarikavithala. Nartananiraya. Mss. at Tanjore, Baroda, Bikaner and Jammu-Kashmir.

—. Rāgamañjari. edited by D. K. Josi. Arya Bhusana Press, Poona 1918.

Rāmāmātya. Svaramelakalanidhi. edited with introd. and transl. in English by M.S. Rāmasvāmi Aiyar. Annamalai University, Cidambaram 1932.

—. Svaramelakalanidhi. Hindi bhāsā tikā sahita, Sangit Kāryālaya, Hathras 1950.

Raman. Varaguna. Cacaputa Venba. edited by S. Dandapāṇi Desikar, Mayuram 1962.

Śārṅgadeva. Samgitaratnākara. edited by Maṅgeśa Rāmakṛṣṇa Telang, 2 parts, Ānandāsrama Sanskrit Series no. 35, Poona 1897.

—. The Samgitaratnākara by Śārṅgadeva with Kallinātha's comm. and English transl. by Kṛṣṇacandra Vedāntacintāmani, Union Press, Calcutta 1920.

—. Samgitaratnākara. edited by S. Subrahmanya Śāstri. The Adyar Library Madras, vol. I, adhyāya 1, 1943; vol. II, adhyāya 2-4, 1944; revised by V. Kṛṣṇamācārya '1959; vol. III, adhyāya 5 and 6, 1951; vol. IV, adhyāya 7, 1953.

—. Samgitaratnākara, English transl. of chapter 7, by K. Kunjunni Rājā and Rādhā Burner. Adyar Library Bulletin vol. 23, 3-4 (1959), Madras 1959.

—. Samgitaratnākara. fragment edited by S.S. Śāstri and English translation of chapter 1 by C. K. Rājā. Adyar Library Series no. 51, The Theosophical Publishing House, Adyar, Madras 1945.

Simha. Tumāra Māna. Rājā of Gwalhor. Māna Kutūhala, Ms. in the possession of the Nawāb Sāhib of Rāmpur.

Simha. Sawai Pratāpa. Rājā of Jaipur, Saṅgitasāra, 7 parts in one volume. Ārya Bhūsana Press, Poona 1910-1912.

Śivan. Mahāvaidya Nātha, Melarāgamālikā. edited by S. Subrahmanya Śāstri, Madras 1937.

Somanātha, Rāgavibodha. edited by Purusottama Gaṇeśa Gharpure, Jagaddhitechi Press, Poona 1895.

—. Rāgavibodha. edited with introd. and transl. in English by M.S. Rāmasvāmi Aiyar. Madras 1933.

—. Rāgavibodha. edited by S. Subrahmanya Śāstri, Adyar Library Series no. 48, Madras 1945.

Somarāja. Samgitaratnāvali. Ms. in Bikaner. Anup Sanskrit Library, Baroda and Calcutta.

Śrikaṇṭha. Rasakaumudī. edited by A.N. Jani, Gaekwad's Oriental Series no. 143, Baroda 1963.

Śrīnivāsa. Rāgatatvavibodha. edited by Vibhukumar S. Desai, Gaekwad's Oriental Series no. 126, Baroda 1956.

Śubhankara. Samgitadāmodara. edited by G. Śāstri and G. Mukhopadhyāya, Calcutta Sanskrit College Research Series no. 11, texts no. 8, Calcutta 1960.

Sudhākalaśa, V. Saṅgitopaniṣatsāroddhara. edited by U.P. Shah, Gaekwad's Oriental Series no. 133, Baroda 1961.

Tānasena. Rāgamāla. in : Prabhudayāl Mital, Saṅgit Samrāṭ Tānsen, Mathurā 1960.

—. Samgitasāra. in : P. Mital, Saṅgit Samrāṭ Tānsen, Mathurā 1960.

Tulaja. Rājā of Tanjore. Saṅgitasāriraṃta. edited by S. Subrahmanya Śāstri, Music Academy, Madras 1942.

Varma, Mahārāja Rāma (Śvāti Tirunāl). Saṅgitakṛtayab. edited by K.S. Śāstri, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series no. 113, Trivandrum 1932.

125

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

B. General literature on music and dance

B. General literature on music and dance

(including some minor references in literary works)

Agarwala, V.K.. Traditions and trends in Indian music. Mirut 1966.

Ahmed, Nazir. The Kitab-i-Nauras, in : Islamic Culture 28 (1954), 1, p. 348f.

—. The Lahjat-i-Sikander Shahi, in : Islamic Culture 28 (1954), 1, p. 410-417.

Ayyangar, R. Rangaramanuja. History of South Indian (Carnatic) Music from Vedic Times up to the Present. Madras 1972.

Ayyar, C.S. The Grammar of South Indian (Carnatic) Music. Madras '1939, '1951.

Bagchi, P.C. and S. Bhikṣusāstri. Caryāgitikosa of Buddhist Siddhas. Santiniketan 1956.

Bake, A.A.. Kirtan in Bengal, in : Indian Art and Lettres, New Series 21, 1 (1947), p. 34-40.

Barkechli, M.. La Musique Iranienne, in : Encyclopédie de la Pléiade, Paris 1960.

—. La Musique Traditionelle de l'Iran. Teheran 1963.

Bhātkhande, V.N.. A Short Historical Survey of the Music of Upper India. Bombay '1917, '1934.

Bhavnani, E.. The Dance in India. Bombay 1965.

Biswas, H. (ed.). Folkmusic and Folklore. An Anthology 1, Calcutta 1967.

Bose, N.K.. Melodic Types of Hindustān. Bombay 1960.

Brahaspati, K.C.. Muslim influence on Venkatamakhi and his school, in : Sangeet Natak Akademi 13 (july-sept. 1969), p. 5-26.

Brown, R.E.. The Mrdanga : a study of drumming in South India. Thesis, Univ. of California, Los Angeles 1965.

Chagla, A.G.. Muslim Contribution to Indo-Pakistan Music, in : Pakistan Miscellany, Karachi 1952.

Clements, E.. Introduction to the study of Indian music. London 1913, Reprints, Allahabad 1960, 1967.

Coomaraswamy, A.K.. The parts of a vinā, in : Journal of the American Oriental Society 50 (1930), p. 244-253; 51 (1931), 284-285; 57 (1937), 101-103.

Danielou, A.. Inde du Nord. Les Traditions Musicales. Buchet Chastel 1966.

—. Introduction to the study of musical scales. London 1943.

—. La musique du Cambodge et du Laos. Pondichéry 1957.

—. Shilappadikaram (The Ankle Bracelet) by Prince Ilangō Adigal. New York 1965.

—. Tableau comparatif des intervalles musicaux. Pondichéry 1958.

Deshpande, V.H.. Indian Musical Traditions. Bombay 1973.

Devi, Ragini. Dance Dialects of India. Delhi, London 1972.

Dharma, P.C.. Musical Culture in the Ramayana, in : Indian Culture 4 (1937/1938), p. 445-454.

Ellis, A.J. assisted by A.J. Hipkins, Tonometrical observations on some existing non-harmonic musical scales, in : Proceedings of the Royal Society of London vol. 37, no. 234 (1884), p. 368-385.

Farmer, H.G.. The Sources of Arabian Music. Leiden 1965.

Fazl-i-Allāmi Abul, The Ā'in-i-Akbarī, translated by Colonel H.S. Jarret and revised by Sir Jadunāth Sarkār, Calcutta 1948.

Fox Strangways, A.H.. The Music of Hindostan. Oxford 1914.

Gangoly, O.C.. Rāgas and Rāginis, a pictorial and iconographic study of Indian musical modes based on original sources, 2 vols. Calcutta '1935, '1948.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ghosh, N., Fundamentals of rāga and tāla with a new system of notation, Bombay 1968.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Goswami, O., The Story of Indian Music, Bombay 1957, Reprint, New York 1961.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Halim, A., Essays on the history of Indo-Pakistan music, Dacca 1962.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

----, History of the growth and development of North Indian music during the Sayyid-Lodi period, in : Journal of the Asiatic Society Pakistan 1 (1956), p. 46-64.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Helmholtz, H., On the sensations of tone : Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen, Longmans & Co. 1885, revised by A. J. Ellis, New York 1954.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hickmann, H., and W. Stauder, Orientalische Musik, Handb. d. Orientalistik, I. Abt., Erg.-band IV, Leiden 1970.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hoogt, J.M. van der, The Vedic chant studied in its textual and melodic forms, Wageningen 1929.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Iyer, S. Venkitasubramonia, Some rare talas in Kerala music, in : Sangeet Natak 14 (oct.-dec. 1969), p. 5-11.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Jairazbhoy, N.A., The rāgas of North Indian music, London 1971.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Jayadeva, Gita Govinda, edited with the comm. Rasikapriyā of Kumbhā and Rasamañjari of Sankaramiśra by Narayaṇa Rāma Ācārya Kāvyatīrtha, Bombay 1949.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

----, Gita Govinda, edited with Hindi comm. by Kedārnātha Śarmā, Banaras 1948.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

----, Gita Govinda, edited with King Mananka's comm. by V.M. Kulkarni, Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Series no. 7, Ahmedabad 1965.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

----, Gita Govinda, translated as : The Loves of Krṣṇa and Rādhā, by G. Keyt, Bombay 1965.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Jones, W. and N. A. Willard, Music of India, 2nd rev. ed., Pasadena (Cal.) 1962. Reissue of "A Treatise on the Music of India" by Willard (1793) and "On the Musical Modes of the Hindoos" by Jones (1834).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kaufmann, W., The Ragas of North India, Bloomington, London 1968.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kaumudi, Mingling of Islamic and indigenous traditions in Indian music, in : Indian Historical Quarterly 26 (1950), p. 129-137.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kothari, K.S., Indian Folk Musical Instruments, Sangeet Natak Akademi, New Delhi 1968.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Krishna Murthy, K., Musical instruments depicted in the sculptures of Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh, in : Journal of the Music Academy Madras 35 (1964), p. 161-167.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Krishnaswami, S., Drums of India through the ages, in : Journal of the Music Academy Madras 38 (1967), p. 72-82.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

----, Musical instruments of India, Delhi, Ministery of Information and Broadcasting, 1965.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

----, Research on musical instruments of India, in : Journal of the Music Academy Madras 33 (1962), p. 100-110.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kuckertz, J., Form und Melodiebildung der Karnatischen Musik Süd-Indiens, I, Darstellung; II, Transkriptionen, Wiesbaden 1970.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

----, History of Indian Music, Madras 1960.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

----, The Operas of Tyagaraja, in : Sangeet Natak 6 (Oct.-Dec. 1967), p. 36-39.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

----, South Indian Music, 6 vols., Madras, I 71966; II 71968; III 61964; IV 1963; V 21963; VI 11969.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

----, Tyāgarāja, National Biography Series, New Delhi 1967.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sathyanārāyaṇa, R., The Kudimiymālamalai inscription on music, Śri Varalakṣmi Academy Publication Series no. 3, Mysore 1957.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Shah II, Ibraham Adil, sultan of Bijapur, Kitab-i-Nauras, edited by Nazir Ahmed, New Delhi 1956.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Shankar, Ravi, My Music, My Life, London 1968.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Śarmā, Prem Lata, The Origin of the thumari, in : Aspects of Indian Music, New Delhi 21970.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Śarmā, Sadaśiva Ratha, Musical Instruments in Orissi dance and temple sculpture, in : Mārg 13 (1960), p. 39-43.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Simon, R., Die Notationen der vedischen Liederbücher, in : Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 27 (1913), p. 305-346.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

----, Das Pañcavidhasūtra, Breslau 1913.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

----, Das Puspasūtra, in : Abh. d. philos.-philol. Kl. d. kgl. bayer. Ak. d. Wiss. 23 (1909), p. 481-780.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Singh, Jaideva, The evolution of the khyāl, in : Aspects of Indian Music, 2nd rev. ed., New Delhi 1970, p. 86-96.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Singh, Thakūr Jaidev, Prabandha and Dhrupadada, in : Aspects of Indian Music 1961.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Singha, R., and R. Massey, Indian dances, their history and growth, London 1967.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Śrivāstava, D., Prācīn bhārat meṅ saṅgīt, Banaras 1967.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Staal, J.F., Nambudiri Veda Recitation, The Hague 1961.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Stewart, R.M., An examination of the Bāṇā performance, Thesis M.A. Music, Univ. of Hawai 1965.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Tarlekar, G.H., Fretted viṇā in Indian sculpture, in : Journal of the Music Academy Madras 36 (1965), p. 170-175.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Thakur, Jyotiśvara, Maithili Dhūrtasamāgama, edited by Śrijakaṇṭha Miśra, Allahabad 1960.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Thomas, P., Festivals and holidays of India, Bombay 1971.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Tyāgarāja (composer), Bibliography of works on Śri Tyāgarāja, in : Sangeet Natak 6 (oct.-dec. 1967), p. 47-57.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Vatsyayan, K., Classical Indian Dance in Literature and the Arts, Delhi 1968.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Raghavan, V., Music in ancient Indian drama, in : Journal of the Music Academy Madras 25 (1954), p. 79f.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ram, Vani Bai, Glimpses of Indian music, Allahabad 1962.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ramanathan, S., Śilappadikārattu isai ṇūlukka vijakkam, Madras 1956.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

----, Raghunātha Mela Viṇā, in : Journal of the Music Academy Madras 35 (1964), p. 143-147.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ranade, G.H., Hindustani Music, an outline of its physics and aesthetics, Sangli 11951, 21951.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ratanjankar, S.N., The Khyāl, Paper read in All India Radio Symposium 1961, in : Aspects of Indian Music 1961.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Roychoudhury, B.N., Hindustani Music and Mian Tansen, Calcutta 19 .(?).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sachs, C., Die Musikinstrumente Indiens und Indonesiens, Berlin 1915.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sāmavedasamhitā, edited by Satyavrata Sāmaśrāmi, Bibliotheca Indica 1-4, Calcutta 1874.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sambamoorthy, P., Catalogue of musical instruments exhibited in the Government Museum Madras, Madras 1962 (1931).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

----, A Dictionary of South Indian Music and Musicians, Madras, I 1952; II 1959; III 1971.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

----, Great Composers II, Madras 21970.

dhamar, dhrupad

EALP 1291, Nasir Moinuddin and Nasir Aminuddin (older Dagar Brothers, vocalists, S. V. Patvardhan (mrdanga).

dhamar, dhrupad

EASD 1334, Nasir Faiyazuddin and Nasir Zahiruddin (younger Dagar Brothers, vocalists), Bithaldas Gujrati (pakvāj).

dhamar

7 EPE 1218, Rahimuddin Khan Dagar (voc.).

thumri, khyāl, hori

7 ERE and

thumri, khyāl, hori

EALP 1278, Kesarbai Kerkar (voc.).

khyāl, thumri, tarana

EALP 1264, EALP 1282 and

khyāl, thumri, tarana

7 ERE 1356, Nazakat Ali and Salamat Ali (Ali Brothers, voc.), Mohammed Ahmed (Sarangi), Abdul Karim Khan (tablā).

thumri

ECLP 2317 and

thumri

ECLP 2550, Lakshmi Shankar and Nirmala Devi (voc.), Nizammuddin Khan (tablā).

thumri

MOAE 5004 and

thumri

MOAE 5005, Bade Ghulam Ali (voc.).

thumri

33 ECX 3251 and

thumri

33 ECX 3253, Abdul Karim Khan (voc.).

thumri, dadra, dhamar-hori

EALP 1292 Faiyaz Khan (voc.).

thumri, hori, caïti, dadra, kajri

ECLP 2334, Girja Devi (voc.), Narayanrao Indorekar (tablā).

khyāl

EALP 1253 and

khyāl

EASD 1331, Amir Khan (voc.), Afaq Hossain Khan (tablā).

khyāl

ECLP 2284, 2360 and

khyāl

D-ECLP 2408, Kumar Gandharva (voc.), Vasant Acharekar (tablā).

ghazal and dadra

EDLP 2752, Begum Akhtar (voc.).

bhajana

EALP 1263, D. V. Paluskar (voc.).

bhajana

7 EPE 1357, Narayan Rao Vyas and others (voc.).

kīrtana

33 ESX, Kāḷi kīrtanas (Bengal), Pannalāl Bhattācārya (voc.).

kīrtana

7 EPE 1646, Tyāgarāja divyānāma kīrtanas; M. D. Ramanathan (voc.), M. S. Gopalakrishnan (violin), T. V. Gopalakrishnan (mrdanga).

kriti

33 ESX 6002, 6004 and

kriti

6010, Madurai Mani Iyer (voc.), T. N. Krishnan (violin), Vellore Ramabhadran (mrdanga).

kriti

SEDE 3648 and

kriti

3658, Madurai Mani Iyer (voc.), V. G. Naicker (violin), P. Subbudu (mrdanga).

kriti

SEDE 3605, Madurai Mani Iyer (voc.), P. M. S. Gopalakrishnan (violin), U. Sivaraman (mrdanga).

Tyāgarāja kritis

ECLP 2345, M. Balamuralikrishna (voc.), M. S. Gopalakrishnan (violin), T. V. Gopalakrishnan (mrdanga).

Tyāgarāja kritis

ECSD 2411 and

Tyāgarāja kritis

ECLP 2349, Radha and Jayalakshmi (voc.), M. S. Anantharaman (violin), G. Dorai (mrdanga), K. M. Vaidyanathan (ghatam).

varnam and kriti

S.MOAE 5012, 5013 and

varnam and kriti

5014, M. S. Subbulakshmi (voc.), Radha Viswanathan (voc.), V. V. Subramaniam (violin), T. K. Murthy (mrdanga), V. Nagarajan (kañjira), T. H. Vinayakaram (ghatam).

rāgamālikā

SEDE 3631 and

rāgamālikā

33 ECX 3253, Chembai Vaidyanatha Bhagavathar.

rāgam, tānam and pallavi

7 EPE 1617, M. Balamuralikrishna (voc.), Lalgudi G. Jayaraman (violin), T. V. Gopalakrishnan (mrdanga).

rāgam, tānam and pallavi

ECSD 2429, M. Balamuralikrishna (voc.), B. V. Kanaka Durga (violin), Tanjore K. Upendran (mrdanga).

Bharat Nāṭya

BM 30 L 2007, The Music of India II, Bharata Natyam and Kathakali.

Bharat Nāṭya

G. U. LDX 74417, Inde I, Bharata Natyam, Yamini Krishnamurti.

Bharat Nāṭya

S.33 ESX 6046, M. L. Vasanthakumari (voc.), Kumari M. Prabhabati (voc. ass.), Sri Vidya (voc. ass.).

Handbuch der Orientalistik, II. Abt., Bd. VI

PERSONS

Abhinavagupta, 5

PERSONS

Āchpāl, Miān, 90

PERSONS

Adigal, Illango, 5

PERSONS

Ādiyappayya, 107

PERSONS

Aḥobāla, 11, 28 f., 48 f., 52-58

PERSONS

Akbar, 7 f., 85, 88

PERSONS

Al-Fārābi, 23-25

PERSONS

Ali, Bāde Ghulam, 91

PERSONS

——, Fateh, 90 f.

PERSONS

——, Nazakat, 91

PERSONS

——, Salamat, 91

PERSONS

Annamācārya, 100

PERSONS

Appar (= Tirunāvukkarasu), 120

PERSONS

Asaf-ud-Daulah, 93

PERSONS

Auranzeb, 8

PERSONS

Ayyangar, Śrīnivāsa, 108

PERSONS

Ayyar, Mahāvaidyanātha, cf. Śivan

PERSONS

——, Patnam Subrahmanya, 104, 106, 108

PERSONS

Bāhādur, Bāz, 88

PERSONS

Bake, A.A., 99

PERSONS

Baksh, Ali, 90 f.

PERSONS

——, Ghagge Khuda, 90

PERSONS

——, Kadar, 89

PERSONS

——, Nathan Pir, 89

PERSONS

Bakṣu, Nāyak, 84

PERSONS

Banu, 84

PERSONS

Bāvrā, Baiju, 84, 87

PERSONS

Bhadrācala, 120

PERSONS

Bharata, 3 f., 9, 17-19, 82, 117

PERSONS

Bhārati, Gopālakṛṣṇa, 118

PERSONS

Bhātḫande, V. N., 11 f., 28, 52, 54, 56-58, 98

PERSONS

Brahaspati, K.C., 5

PERSONS

Brahma, 40 f.

PERSONS

Bua, Balkṛṣṇa, 89

PERSONS

Chaitanya, 98 f.

PERSONS

Chānd, Brj, 85, 87

PERSONS

Chāndidās, 99

PERSONS

Cikkabhūpāla, 10

PERSONS

Cinnaya, 100

PERSONS

Dagar, N.A., 86

PERSONS

——, N.F., 86

PERSONS

——, N.M., 86

PERSONS

——, N.Z., 86

PERSONS

Dāmodara, 10, 63 f., 64, 66 f., 77

PERSONS

Dāmodaragupta, 5, 117

PERSONS

Daniélou, A., 4, 15 f., 18, 21 f.

PERSONS

Dās, Jhāṇa, 99

PERSONS

——, Locan, 99

PERSONS

——, Narottam, 99

PERSONS

——, Paramānanda, 99

PERSONS

——, Vṛndāvana, 99

PERSONS

Dāsa, Purandara, 106 f.

PERSONS

Desigar, Gurusvāmi, 120

PERSONS

Devi, Mrganāyani, 84

PERSONS

——, Sarasvati, 85

PERSONS

Dikṣitar, Govinda, 42, 107

PERSONS

——, Muttusvāmi, 43, 104 f.

PERSONS

——, Rāmasvāmi, 105

PERSONS

Durgasakti, 3

PERSONS

Gandharva, Sawai, 92

PERSONS

Gopāla, Muvva, cf. Ksẹ̣trayya

PERSONS

——, Vijaya, 120

PERSONS

Gopālayyar, Pallavi, 104

PERSONS

Govindā(cārya), 10, 43, 52 f., 57, 107

PERSONS

Gurumūrti, Paidāla, 107

PERSONS

Haridās, 85

PERSONS

Haripāla, 5

PERSONS

Harṣa, 117

PERSONS

Hir, 94

PERSONS

Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva, 11, 28 f., 48, 50-56, 58

PERSONS

Hussain, Nisar, 89

PERSONS

Jagadekamalla (= Pratāpacakravartin), 5 f., 65, 77

PERSONS

Jahāngir, 8

PERSONS

Jayadeva, 83, 99, 117 f.

PERSONS

Jāyana, 6

PERSONS

Jones, William, 11

PERSONS

Joshi, Vasudev, 89

PERSONS

Kālī, 98

PERSONS

Kālidāsa, 4, 117

PERSONS

Kallinātha, cf. comm. on the Saṅgitaratnā-kara, 13, 54, 82

PERSONS

Kāma(deK), 40 f.

PERSONS

Kaśyapa, 3

PERSONS

Kavi, M. Rāmakṛṣṇa, 5

PERSONS

Kavirāyar, Arunācala, 118

PERSONS

Kerkar, Kesar Bai, 91

PERSONS

Khalji, Allāuddin, 83 f., 87

PERSONS

Khān, Abdul Karim, 90, 92, 94

PERSONS

——, Abdul Rahim, 90

PERSONS

——, Ahmad 89

PERSONS

——, Alladia, 91

PERSONS

——, Amir Dās, 92

PERSONS

——, Bade Ghulam Ali, 94

PERSONS

——, Bade Mohammed, 88 f.

PERSONS

——, Bahadur, 85

PERSONS

——, Bande Ali, 89, 92

PERSONS

——, Bilās, 85

PERSONS

——, Chānd, 85, 88, 94

PERSONS

——, Faiyaz, 90, 94

PERSONS

——, Ghulam Abbas, 90

PERSONS

——, Ghulam Ghaus, 90

PERSONS

——, Haddar, 88 f.

PERSONS

——, Haidar, 86

PERSONS

——, Haji Sujan, 90

PERSONS

——, Hassu, 88 f., 91

PERSONS

——, Inayat, 89

PERSONS

Khusrau, Amir, 7 f., 86 f., 96

PERSONS

Kodandarāmamayyar, 118

PERSONS

Kohala, 3

PERSONS

Kṛṣṇa, cf. also Viṣṇu-Kṛṣṇa, 41, 98 f.

PERSONS

Kṛṣṇamācari, Viṇā, 108

PERSONS

Kṣemakarṇa, 9

PERSONS

Kṣẹtrayya (= Muvya Gopāla), 106

PERSONS

Kuckertz, J., 63

PERSONS

Kumbhā(kaṇa), 8, 41, 54, 82, 109

PERSONS

Kuppayyar, Viṇā, 104

PERSONS

Locana, 11, 50-52, 54-56, 58

PERSONS

Macchū, 84

PERSONS

Mahārāja of Indore, 92

PERSONS

Majuddin, 94

PERSONS

Mataṅga, 3, 5, 37 f., 54, 117, 120

PERSONS

Mīrabai, 98

PERSONS

Miyān, Shori, 93

PERSONS

Nandikesvara, 5, 65

PERSONS

Nānyadeva, 5, 36, 117

PERSONS

Nārada, 6, 9, 21

PERSONS

Nāyak, Gopāl, 7, 84

PERSONS

Nāyanār, Sundaramūrti, 120

PERSONS

Paccimiriym, Ādiyappayya, 104

PERSONS

Paluṣkar, Viṣṇu Digambar, 89

PERSONS

Pandit, Shankar, 89

PERSONS

Paramātman, 105

PERSONS

Pārśvadeva, 6

PERSONS

Piya, Lalan, 94

PERSONS

——, Qadir, 94

PERSONS

——, Sanad, 94

PERSONS

Ponnayya, 108

PERSONS

Popley, H.A., 69

PERSONS

Pratāpacakravartin, cf. Jagadekamalla

PERSONS

Pratāpasimha, 11, 52 f., 58

PERSONS

Pumḍarikavitthala, 9 f., 27, 44, 47 f., 51, 53, 55 f., 58

PERSONS

Pūrṇabhadra, 4

PERSONS

Radhā, 86, 99

PERSONS

Raghavan, V., 117

PERSONS

Rāghavdhara, 117

PERSONS

Rāmāmātya, 9 f., 16, 25-29, 31, 42-44, 47 f., 53, 55, 57 f.

PERSONS

Ramanathan, 30

PERSONS

Rañja, 93

PERSONS

Rao, Mysore Sadasiva, 105, 108

PERSONS

Rasul, Miān Ghulam, 89

PERSONS

Ratanjankar, S.N., 90, 98

PERSONS

Rezā, Muhammad, 11

PERSONS

Rūpmāti, 88

PERSONS

Sadarang, cf. Niyāmat Khān, 90

PERSONS

Safi-al-Din (= Safīyu-d-Din), 27, 51

PERSONS

Sāhi, Sultan of Kadi, 8

PERSONS

Sambamoorthy, P., 43, 100, 105, 107, 109, 111, 116 f., 120

PERSONS

Sārṅgadeva, 6, 8, 13, 20, 22-25, 31, 34, 36, 38-41, 54, 65-68, 77, 82 f., 109

PERSONS

Śāstri, Paidāla Gurumūrti, 107

PERSONS

——, Śyāma, 102, 104, 107

PERSONS

——, Veṅkatārāma, 117

PERSONS

Sesanna, Viṇā, 108

PERSONS

Shah, Bahadur, 8

PERSONS

——, Ibrahīm Adil II, 84

PERSONS

——, Mohammad, 8, 93

PERSONS

——, Wajid Ali, 94

PERSONS

Shahjahan, 8, 88

PERSONS

Shankar, Ravi, 58

PERSONS

Sharqi, Husain Shah, 88

PERSONS

Shyāmrang, 90

PERSONS

Simha, Māna, Tumāra of Gwalior, 9, 84, 88

PERSONS

Simhabhūpāla, 5

PERSONS

Simon, Richard, 1 f.

PERSONS

Sindhīa, Daulat Rao, 88

PERSONS

Siṅgh, Jaideva, 87

PERSONS

——, Miśri, 85

PERSONS

Śiva, 40 f.

PERSONS

Śivan (= Mahāvaidyanātha Ayyar), 44, 108 f.

PERSONS

Śivanandan, 108

INDEX

Somabhūpāla (= Somarāja), 6

INDEX

Somanātha, 10, 27, 47 f., 53, 55, 57

INDEX

Somarāja, cf. Somabhūpāla

INDEX

Somesvara, 5

INDEX

Śrichānd, 85

INDEX

Śrikanṭha, 9 f., 27, 44, 47 f., 51, 53–56, 64 f.

INDEX

Śrinivāsa, 11, 58

INDEX

Subbarāyar, cf. Dharmapure, 106

INDEX

Subhankara, 8, 84

INDEX

Sudhākalasa, 7 f., 41, 77

INDEX

Śuratasen, 85

INDEX

Sūrdās, 98

INDEX

Tānsen, 85

INDEX

Taqqi, Ghulam, 92

INDEX

Thākur, Jyotiriśvar, 118

INDEX

Tulsidās, 98

INDEX

Tumburu, 3

INDEX

Tyāgarāja, 44, 118, 120

INDEX

Ullah, Faqir, 9

INDEX

Umrao, 90

INDEX

Vadivelu, 108

INDEX

Vasanta, 41

INDEX

Veṅkaṭamakhin, 10, 43, 52 f., 57 f., 107

INDEX

Veṅkaṭarāmamayyar, 118

INDEX

Vidyāpati, 99

INDEX

Vidyāranya, 42

INDEX

Viśākhila, 3

INDEX

Viṣṇu, 107

INDEX

Viṣṇu-Hari, 99

INDEX

Viṣṇu-Kṛṣṇa, 40, 99

INDEX

Viṣṇu-Rāma, 99

INDEX

Viśvamitra, 117

INDEX

Yahya, Umar Sama, 7

INDEX

Yama, 40

INDEX

Yāst!ika, 3

INDEX

Zalzal, 25

INDEX

68, 77, 81 f., 96, 117; comm. on N., 5, 10

INDEX

35, 117

INDEX

Nauka Caritram, opera by Tyāgarāja, 118

INDEX

Nrttasaṅgraha, 7

INDEX

Nuh Siphir by Amir Khusrau, 8

INDEX

Paṅcakhyānaka, 4

INDEX

Paṅcatantra, 4

INDEX

Prahlāda Bhakti Vijayam, opera by Tyāgarāja,

INDEX

118

INDEX

Purāṇas, 3, 121

INDEX

Pūrvārcika, 1

INDEX

Puṣpasūtra, 2

INDEX

Qiran-us-Saadin by Amir Khusrau, 8

INDEX

Rāgamāla by Ksemakarṇa, 9

INDEX

, by Puṇḍarikaviṭṭhala, 9

INDEX

Rāgamānjari by Puṇḍarikaviṭṭhala, 9, 44

INDEX

7 f., 77

INDEX

Viṣṇu-Rāma, 99

INDEX

Viśvamitra, 117

INDEX

Yahya, Umar Sama, 7

INDEX

Yama, 40

INDEX

Yāst!ika, 3

INDEX

Zalzal, 25

WORKS

Abhilāsārthacintāmaṇi (= Mānasollāsa), 6

WORKS

Abhinavabharatasārasaṅgraha by Cikkabhū-

WORKS

pāla, 10

WORKS

Abhinavabhārati by Abhinavagupta, 5

WORKS

Abhinayadarpaṇa by Nandikeśvara, 5

WORKS

Anargharāghava by Viśvamitra, 117

WORKS

Araṇyakasasamhitā, 1

WORKS

Balabharata by Rājasekhara, 117

WORKS

Balarāmāyana by Rājasekhara, 117

WORKS

Bharatabhāṣya by Nānyadeva, 5, 117

WORKS

Bharatārṇava by Nandikeśvara, 5

WORKS

Brāhmaṇas, 2

WORKS

Brḥaddesī by Mataṅga, 3–5, 7, 54, 117, 120

WORKS

Caturdaṇḍīprakāśikā by Veṅkaṭamakhin, 10,

WORKS

43, 52

WORKS

Catvāriṃśaccatustayarūpaṇa by Nārada, 9

WORKS

Dattilam, 3

WORKS

Dhūrttasamāgama by Jyotiriśvar Thākur, 118

WORKS

Farid-ul-Zamanfil Maarefat-i-Ilham, 7

WORKS

Ghunyat-ul-Munya, 7

WORKS

Gitagovinda by Jayadeva, 83, 117 f.

WORKS

Gitālamkāra by Bharata, 4, 7–9

WORKS

Harf-i-Siyum by Amir Khusrau, 7

WORKS

Harivaṃśa, 4

WORKS

Hasht Bahisht by Amir Khusrau, 8

WORKS

Hṛdayakautuka by Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva, 11,

WORKS

50 f.

WORKS

Hṛdayaprakāśa by Hṛdayanārāyaṇadeva, 11,

WORKS

28, 48–50

WORKS

Ijaz-i-Khusravi by Amir Khusrau, 7

WORKS

Iyarpagni Nāyanār Caritram, opera by Go-

WORKS

pālakṛṣṇa Bhārati, 118

WORKS

Kāraikāl Ammaiyār Caritram, opera by Go-

WORKS

pālakṛṣṇa Bhārati, 118

WORKS

Kitāb-i-Nauras, 84

WORKS

Kramik Pustak Mālikā by V. N. Bhātkhaṇḍe,

WORKS

12

WORKS

Kṛṣṇalīlātaraṅgiṇī by Nārāyaṇa Tirtha, 117

WORKS

Kuṭṭinimata by Dāmodaragupta, 5, 117

WORKS

Lahjat-i-Sikander Shāhi by Umar Sama Yahya,

WORKS

7 f.

WORKS

Muhābhārata, 3, 98, 121

WORKS

Mālavikāgniimitra, 117

WORKS

Mānasollāsa (= Abhilāsārthacintāmaṇi), 6

WORKS

Māṅkutūhala by Māna Siṅha, 9

WORKS

Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa, 3

WORKS

Nāgānanda, 117

WORKS

Nagmāt-i-Āṣafī by Muḥammad Reẓā, 12

WORKS

Nandānār Caritram, opera by Gopālakṛṣṇa

WORKS

Bhārati, 118

WORKS

Nāradīya Śikṣā, 2 f., 20, 33, 36

WORKS

Nartananiṛnaya by Puṇḍarikaviṭṭhala, 9

WORKS

Nātyaśāstra, 3 f., 7, 17, 20, 22, 32, 35 f., 62 f.,

INDEX

Samgītaratnākara by Sārṅgadeva, 6–8, 57, 60,

INDEX

83, 87, 108 f.; comm. on S., 6, 13, 54

INDEX

Samgītaratnāvali by Jāyana, 6

INDEX

by Somarāja, 6

INDEX

Samgītasamuyāsarā by Pārśvadeva, 6

INDEX

Samgīta Sāra by Pratāpasimha, cf. Sangīt Sār

INDEX

by Vidyāranya, 42

INDEX

Samgītasārāmṛta by Tulaja, 6, 10, 43

INDEX

Samgīta Sāstra by V. N. Bhātkhaṇḍe, 12

INDEX

Samgītasironmani by Sāhī, 8

INDEX

Samgītāsudhā by Govinda Dīkṣitar, 42

INDEX

Samgītāsudhākara by Haripāla, 6

INDEX

Samgīta Vinoda, 7

INDEX

Samgrahacūḍāmaṇi by Govinda, 10, 43

INDEX

Saṅgītapariśatsāroddhara by Sudhākalasa,

INDEX

8

INDEX

Saṅgītopaniṣatsāroddhara by Sudhākalasa,

INDEX

9, 44

INDEX

Saṅgīt Sār (= Samgitasāra) by Pratāpasimha

INDEX

11, 52 f., 58

INDEX

Sarasvatīcchdayālamkārī, cf. Bharatabhāṣya

INDEX

Satanak, 7

INDEX

Śikṣās, 2

INDEX

Ślappadikaram by Ilango Adiṅal, 31

INDEX

Sitarāma Vijayam, opera by Tyāgarāja, 118

INDEX

Sudhanidhisangītasamasyā, 7

INDEX

Sūtras, 2

INDEX

Svaramelakalānidhi by Rāmāmātya, 9, 26 f.,

INDEX

29, 42, 48, 53

INDEX

Tantraḵhyāyika, 4

INDEX

Tirunāṉakanṭa Nāyanār Caritram, opera

INDEX

by Gopālakṛṣṇa Bhārati, 118

INDEX

Uttarārcikā, 1 f.

INDEX

Vādimattagajāṅkusa, 4

INDEX

Vāsavadattā, 4

INDEX

Vāyu Purāṇa, 3

INDEX

Viddhaśalabhañjikā by Rājasekhara, 117

INDEX

Vikramorvaśīya 4, 117

INDEX

Samgīta Mudrā, 7

INDEX

Samgītapārijāta by Ahobala, 11, 28, 48 f., 52

SUBJECTS

abhinaya, 94, 105, 116

SUBJECTS

ābhoga, 81–85, 93

SUBJECTS

accents (Vedic), 1

SUBJECTS

accidentals, cf. vikṛtasvaras

SUBJECTS

adacautāl (= adacārtāl), 70

SUBJECTS

ādapadi (= ādappann), 72

SUBJECTS

addāna, 41

SUBJECTS

addatāla

SUBJECTS

(a tāla, cf. addatāli and atatāla), 64

SUBJECTS

(a composition), 66

SUBJECTS

addatāli, cf. addatāla, 66 f.

SUBJECTS

addhā (= sthārkhāni), 70

SUBJECTS

ād!utāla, 64, 69, 102, 105 f., 108

SUBJECTS

aesthetics, 2, 35–42

SUBJECTS

akṣaraka(lā), 61 f., 68, 107 f.

SUBJECTS

āksiptikā, 111

SUBJECTS

alaṅkāra, 32, 35, 81, 106

SUBJECTS

ālāpana, 80, 83, 87, 91–93, 96 f., 100, 103,

SUBJECTS

111 f.

SUBJECTS

alhaiyab!lāval, cf. blāval and velāval, 55

INDEX

āli (prabandha), 64, 66, 109

INDEX

alpa, 59, 93

INDEX

alpatva, 34

INDEX

amśa, 34, 37, 42, 54 f., 57, 59

INDEX

anāsin, 17

INDEX

anga, cf. vibhāga, 61, 66 f., 78, 113

INDEX

animals, 2, 37

INDEX

antara, cf. antara and bain, 81-85, 88, 93 f.

INDEX

antarakrida, 78

INDEX

antaramārga, 34

INDEX

antiphonal (style), 120

INDEX

antra, cf. antara and bain, 85

INDEX

anubandhu, 104

INDEX

anudātta, 1

INDEX

anudruta, 62-64, 67 f., 78

INDEX

anuloma, 113

INDEX

anupallavi, 100-109, 115, 119

INDEX

apanyāsa, 34

INDEX

aparāntaka, 81

INDEX

āranyegeyagāna, 1

INDEX

āroha, 97

INDEX

arudi (= padagarbham), 113

INDEX

āsāori, cf. āsāvari, 84

INDEX

āsāvari

INDEX

(rāga), 52, 56 f.

INDEX

(thāta), 52, 56 f.

INDEX

asāveri, cf. sāveri and suddha sāveri, 57

INDEX

ascetic, 41

INDEX

aṭapadis, 83

INDEX

asterism, 40

INDEX

asthāyi, 81, 83, 85, 88, 92-94

INDEX

atatā(la), cf. addatāla and cautāl, 61, 63, 66,

INDEX

69. 104 f.

INDEX

aṭa-varṇam, cf. pada-varṇam

INDEX

audava, 34, 42, 49

INDEX

augmented fourth, cf. prati ma, tivra(tara)

INDEX

ma, tivratama ma, cyuta pañcama, triśruti

INDEX

pa, mrdupañcama ma

INDEX

avaroh,a, 97

INDEX

āvarta, cf. tāla-āvarta, 69, 93, 103 f., 108,

INDEX

113-115

INDEX

bahu, 93

INDEX

bahutva, 34

INDEX

bain, cf. antara and antara, 85

INDEX

bāj, 69, 76

INDEX

bangāli, 41

INDEX

bara-khyāl, cf. khyāl, 90, 92

INDEX

barāri, cf. varāri, 84

INDEX

basant, cf. vasanta, 39

INDEX

basanta (a pāta), 99

INDEX

batuki (= suddhavarātika), 39

INDEX

bhagana, 65

INDEX

bhagavata mela nātaka, 116 f., 121

INDEX

bhagavatār, 116

INDEX

bhagna, 78

INDEX

bhairava

INDEX

(rāga), 36, 38, 41 f., 52-54, 84

INDEX

(thāṭa), 54

INDEX

bhairavi

INDEX

(rāga), 41, 53, 94, 104, 106

INDEX

(mela : narabhairavi), 53

INDEX

(saṁsthāna), 50, 53

INDEX

(thāṭa), 52 f., 57

INDEX

bhajana, 98, 118, 120

INDEX

bhakti, 98 f.

INDEX

bhammānapañcama, 40

INDEX

bhañjani, 87

INDEX

bhānumati, 72

INDEX

bhārat nāṭyam, 106, 108

INDEX

bhāsā, 3

INDEX

bhāṣāṅga, 3

INDEX

bhāṣāṅga-khaṇḍa, 107

INDEX

bhāva, 105

INDEX

bhinna (gīti), 37

INDEX

bhinnakaśika, 37, 40

INDEX

bhinnakaśikamadhyama, 37, 39

INDEX

bhinnapañcama, 37, 39

INDEX

bhinnasadja, 36-38, 40, 54

INDEX

bhinnatāṇa, 37, 40

INDEX

bhoga, 69

INDEX

bhopāl-syāma, 88

INDEX

bhūpāli, 84

INDEX

bhuvana, 68

INDEX

bilāval, cf. velāvali, 12, 52, 55

INDEX

bin, 29, 90 f.

INDEX

bindu, 68

INDEX

biṅkar, 90-92

INDEX

bodies (celestial), 39

INDEX

bol

INDEX

(drum syllable), 69, 70-76, 86, 95 f.

INDEX

(word), 93

INDEX

bol-tāns, 86, 88, 93, 95

INDEX

boṭṭa, 37, 40

INDEX

bovā, 98

INDEX

brahm, 72 f., 77

INDEX

cācāpuṭa, 63

INDEX

caccatpuṭa, 63

INDEX

caṇṭi, 94

INDEX

cakra

INDEX

(series of melas), 44-46

INDEX

(tāla), 68

INDEX

caṇa, 69

INDEX

caṇambhāśaruka, cf. kriḍatāla, 66

INDEX

candrakalā, 78

INDEX

cāpu, 102, 106

INDEX

carana, 100, 102-110, 114 f., 119 f.

INDEX

cārtāl, cf. cautāl

INDEX

cārya, 83

INDEX

caturanga, 96

INDEX

caturaśra, cf. catusra jāti, 82

INDEX

catuskala, 63

INDEX

catusra jāti, cf. caturaśra, 61, 66-69

INDEX

catuśrāla, 112

INDEX

cauka-varṇam, cf. pada-varṇam

INDEX

cautāl (= cārtāl or dhrupad), cf. atatāla and

INDEX

aḍḍatāla, 61, 66, 70, 80

INDEX

chandas, 81

INDEX

chaugun, 86

INDEX

choṭa-khyāl, cf. khyāl, 90, 92

INDEX

choṭi savāri, 76

INDEX

cikāri, 97

INDEX

citra

INDEX

(mārga), 63

INDEX

(tāla), 78

INDEX

citta(i)svara(m), 102-104, 110

INDEX

classes (social), 2, 37, 40

INDEX

cokṣa (gīti, = suddha gīti), 36 f.

INDEX

colours, 2, 37, 40

INDEX

cyuta pañcama, cf. triśruti pañcama and

INDEX

mrdupañcama, 26 f., 29, 31, 37, 51, 58

INDEX

dādrā, 61, 70, 95

INDEX

daksina, 63

INDEX

daru, cf. dhruva, 116 f.

INDEX

dāsya, 99

INDEX

deflection (of the strings), 29, 48, 97

INDEX

deities, 2, 37, 39, 40 f.

INDEX

desakāra, 52

INDEX

deśi, 84

INDEX

deśīrāgas, 63

INDEX

deśitālas, 62 f., 68

INDEX

devagāndhāra, 4, 41

INDEX

devagiri, 41

INDEX

devakri, 52

INDEX

devotee, 41

INDEX

dhamār

INDEX

(tāla), 70, 80, 86

INDEX

(hori-dhamār), 86-90

INDEX

dhanāśri

INDEX

(rāga), 42, 84

INDEX

(saṁsthāna), 50-52

INDEX

dhātus, 82

INDEX

dhima, 92

INDEX

dhira, 69

INDEX

dhrisaṁkarābharana, cf. saṁkarābharana, 57

INDEX

gandharva, 88

INDEX

gārugi, 78

INDEX

gāṭi, 97

INDEX

gāthā, 81

INDEX

gaṭi, cf. gaṭibheda, 114

INDEX

cārtāl, cf. cautāl

INDEX

dhrupad

INDEX

(tāla), cf. cautāl

INDEX

(composition), cf. dhrupapada, 77, 80-86,

INDEX

88, 90, 92 f.

INDEX

dhrupadiya, 90, 92

INDEX

dhruva

INDEX

(tāla), cf. rati and dhruvaka, 63-65, 68

INDEX

(prabandha section), 82-84

INDEX

(type of prabandha), 66, 83

INDEX

(ancient song), cf. dhrupapada and dāru,

INDEX

81 f., 117 f.

INDEX

dhruvaka

INDEX

(tāla), cf. rati and dhruva, 64 f.

INDEX

(composition), cf. dhruva, 84

INDEX

dhruvapada

INDEX

(composition), cf. dhruva and dhrupad, 81 f.

INDEX

(refrain), cf. dhruva, 83

INDEX

dhumāli, 71

INDEX

dhyāna, 10, 41 f.

INDEX

dhyāna slokas, 120

INDEX

dipaka, 51

INDEX

dipcandi, 71, 95

INDEX

dirgha, 107

INDEX

division (of the strings), 22-25, 28-30, 48

INDEX

divyanāmākirtanas, 120

INDEX

dombili, 65

INDEX

druta

INDEX

(unit of time), 62, 66-68, 113

INDEX

(tempo, speed), 63, 92

INDEX

drut-khyāl, cf. khyāl, 92

INDEX

dugun, 86

INDEX

duṣkara, 69

INDEX

dvidhātu, 119

INDEX

dvikala, 63

INDEX

dvitīya, 64

INDEX

eduppu, cf. graha, 112 f.

INDEX

ekadhātu, 119

INDEX

ekakala, 63

INDEX

ekatā(la), ekatāli, 61, 63 f., 67, 69

INDEX

ekatāli (prabandha), 67

INDEX

ektāl, 67, 71, 92

INDEX

eṭṭugada svaras, 104 f.

INDEX

figuration (i.e. figurative variation), 13, 87,

INDEX

94, 101

INDEX

furūdaśt, 96

INDEX

gajhampā, 73, 77

INDEX

gajalila, 78

INDEX

gamakta), 88, 94, 97, 106, 112

INDEX

gāna, 1 f., 32, 119

INDEX

gānānāṭakam, cf. geyanāṭakam

INDEX

gāndhāragrāma, 13, 20-22, 31-33

INDEX

gāndhārapaṅcama, 39

INDEX

gandharva, 78

INDEX

gārugi, 78

INDEX

gāṭi, 97

INDEX

gāthā, 81

INDEX

gaṭi, cf. gaṭibheda, 114

INDEX

gatībheda. 114

INDEX

gauda

INDEX

(rāga). 38

INDEX

(gīti). 37 f.

INDEX

gaudakaṭisika. 37 f.

INDEX

gaudakaṭisikamadhyama. 37, 39

INDEX

gaudapancama. 37, 39

INDEX

gaudi. a gauri and mālavagauda. 53. 56. 58

INDEX

gaurcandrikā. 99

INDEX

gauri. cf. gaudi and mālavagauda

INDEX

(mela). 54. 56 f.

INDEX

(saṃsthāna). 50, 52, 57

INDEX

(rāga). 84

INDEX

gaur-syāma. 88

INDEX

geyanāṭakam (= isai nāṭakam, saṃgita rūpa-nāṭakam). 110, 118

INDEX

ghanarāga. 110

INDEX

ghanarāga-tānamālikā. 110

INDEX

gharāṇa

INDEX

(general). 85-92. 119

INDEX

(Viṣnupur g.). 85

INDEX

(Seni g.). 85

INDEX

(Tīmandi g.). 85

INDEX

(Beṭiyā g.). 86

INDEX

(Qāwāl g.). 87

INDEX

(Kāḷāvanta g.). 87

INDEX

(Gwālior g.). 88 f., 90, 92

INDEX

(Agra g.). 89 f., 94

INDEX

(Delhi g.). 90 f.

INDEX

(Patiali g.). 90 f.

INDEX

(Itrauli g.). 91

INDEX

(Kairāṇa g.). 91 f., 94

INDEX

ghasit. 97

INDEX

ghātā. 61 f.

INDEX

ghatam. 60

INDEX

ghaṭṭā. 78

INDEX

ghazal. 95 f., 106

INDEX

gīta. 94

INDEX

gītam. 106 f.

INDEX

gīti. 37 f., 87

INDEX

glissando. cf. ghasit and jāru. 80

INDEX

gopis. 99

INDEX

goṣṭho. 99

INDEX

graha. cf. eduppu. 34, 42

INDEX

sama g., 113

INDEX

atīta g., 113

INDEX

anāgata g., 113

INDEX

grāma

INDEX

(gāndhāra-g.). 5, 13, 34, 38

INDEX

(madhyama-g.). 13, 17-20, 22, 31-33, 51, 56

INDEX

(ṣadja-g.). 11, 13, 17-21, 31-33, 39, 52

INDEX

grāmarāga. 3 f., 31 f., 63

INDEX

grāmegeyagāna. 1

INDEX

Gregorian (chant). 98

INDEX

gupta. 69

INDEX

guru. 62 f.

INDEX

gurukalā. cf. guru and kalā. 67

INDEX

hajiz. cf. hījeja. 84

INDEX

haṃsalīla. 78

INDEX

hand (Guidonian). 2, 40

INDEX

hanumatodi. cf. todi. 57

INDEX

harikāṃbhoji. 55

INDEX

hayalīla. 64

INDEX

hero, heroine. 41

INDEX

hījeja. cf. hajiz. 84

INDEX

hindola. 36 f. 39-41. 54 f.

INDEX

hindola-vasanta. 105

INDEX

Hindustānī (style). 8 f.

INDEX

Holi

INDEX

(festival). 86

INDEX

(pāla). 99

INDEX

hori-(dhamār). 86

INDEX

house (astrological). 40

INDEX

hrdayarāma

INDEX

(rāga). 51

INDEX

(saṃsthāna). 50

INDEX

husaini-āsāvari (= jaunpuri-āsāvari or jaun-puri). 88

INDEX

huseni. 107

INDEX

iconography. 9 f., 39-42

INDEX

imana. cf. kalyāṇa. 50-52, 56

INDEX

imana-kalyāṇa. cf. imana and kalyāṇa

INDEX

improvisation. 29, 59 f., 80, 87. 93, 96-98. 111-115

INDEX

isai nāṭakam. cf. geyanāṭakam

INDEX

jagajhampa. 73, 77

INDEX

jaganmanmatha. cf. manmatha and mathyā. 64 f.

INDEX

jaganpāla. 73

INDEX

jaiy tāl. 73

INDEX

jāru. 97

INDEX

jat. 71

INDEX

jāti

INDEX

(mode). 5, 9. 34 f., 38, 59, 106

INDEX

(rhythmic phrase). 107

INDEX

jātisvaram. 108, 115

INDEX

jaunpuri (= jaunpuri-āsāvari or husaini-āsā-vari). 88

INDEX

jaunpuri-basant. 88

INDEX

jāvali. 106

INDEX

jayanta. 64

INDEX

jayapriya. 65

INDEX

jhala. 97

INDEX

jhampa. cf. jhaptāl. 63 f., 66, 69. 105

INDEX

jhaptāl. cf. jhampa. 80, 92

INDEX

jhinjhoti. 94

INDEX

jhombada. 65

INDEX

jhulan. 99

INDEX

jhūmrā. 71, 92

INDEX

joda (= jori). 97, 112

INDEX

kadamba. 69

INDEX

kāfi

INDEX

(thāta). 52

INDEX

(rāga). 38, 52. 84

INDEX

kaṇḍa. 60

INDEX

kaisika. 32. 36. 39

INDEX

kaisikamadhyama. 32, 37. 39

INDEX

kajrī. 94

INDEX

kakubha. 4, 40, 54, 57

INDEX

kalā. 63. 68. 82

INDEX

kalahamsa. 66

INDEX

kālakṣepam. 120 f.

INDEX

kalāpa. 65

INDEX

kalpana svaras. 114 f.

INDEX

kalpita saṃgita. 110

INDEX

kalyāṇa.

INDEX

(mela). 51. 56

INDEX

(thāta). 52, 56

INDEX

(rāga). 56, 84

INDEX

kalyāṇa-yamana. cf. yaman-kalyāṇ. 52

INDEX

kalyāṇi. 106

INDEX

kamala. 65 f.

INDEX

kambhoji

INDEX

(rāga). 54

INDEX

(mela). 54 f.

INDEX

kāmbodhi. 55, 106

INDEX

kāmbodi. 55

INDEX

kāmboja. 54

INDEX

kāmboji. 54 f.

INDEX

kāmoda. 55

INDEX

kāmōdi. 55

INDEX

kampita. 97

INDEX

kaṇ. cf. krintan. 97

INDEX

kanakāmbari-phenadyuti. 43

INDEX

kanakāṅgī-raṅgāṅgī. 43 f.

INDEX

kanāra. cf. karnāṭa. 84

INDEX

kandarpa. 78

INDEX

kāpi. cf. kāfī. 52

INDEX

kara. 69

INDEX

karaṇam. cf. rāga-vardhani. 111

INDEX

karnāṭa

INDEX

(rāga). 52, 84

INDEX

(saṃsthāna). 50, 52, 55

INDEX

karnāṭagauda. 38, 52

INDEX

Karnāṭak (style). 8 f.

INDEX

kaṭapayādi (prefixes). 43

INDEX

Kathak. 94

INDEX

Kathakali. 121

INDEX

kathakas. 85

INDEX

kavvāli. 71

INDEX

kedāra

INDEX

(rāga). 38, 52, 84

INDEX

(saṃsthāna). 50

INDEX

(mela). 55, 58

INDEX

kedāragaula. 43 f.

INDEX

kedāri. 41

INDEX

khali. 61, 69

INDEX

khamāj

INDEX

(thāta). 52, 54 f.

INDEX

(rāga). 94

INDEX

khambhāvatī. 41

INDEX

khammāiici. cf. khamāj. 55

INDEX

khaṇḍa

INDEX

(variety of tāla). 67-69

INDEX

(subsection of composition). 83

INDEX

kharaharapriya. 53

INDEX

kharvā. 61, 71, 96

INDEX

khatka. 88, 97

INDEX

khemaṭa. 73

INDEX

khol. 98

INDEX

khyāl (cf. bara-k., chotā-k., vilambit-k.. drut-k.). 80, 86-94, 96

INDEX

kīrtana. 98 f., 100, 102, 118-120

INDEX

kīrtaniya nātak. 117

INDEX

kridātā. cf. caṇḍāmisāruḷa. 64. 66

INDEX

krintan. cf. kaṇ. 97

INDEX

kriti. 80, 100-104. 111, 113-115, 119

INDEX

Kṛṣṇa-kīrtana. 98 f.

INDEX

kuchipudi nātakā. 116 f., 121

INDEX

kula. 68

INDEX

laghu. cf. laghumātrā and mātra, 61-63. 65 f.

INDEX

laghumātrā. cf. laghu and mātrā. 67

INDEX

laghusekhara. 64, 78

INDEX

laksyaa-gītas. 98, 107

INDEX

laksanas. 10, 34 f., 42, 59 f., 97 f., 103, 107

INDEX

laksmi. 73 f., 77

INDEX

laksmiśa. 108

INDEX

laksya gītas. sañcāri gītas. 98

INDEX

lalitā. 38, 42

INDEX

laya. 32, 82

INDEX

lekha. 61, 69

INDEX

līla

INDEX

(tāla). 69

INDEX

(love-sports). 99

INDEX

līla-kīrtana. 98 f.

INDEX

longa. 62

INDEX

loya. 69

INDEX

madana. 78

INDEX

madhura

INDEX

(tāla). 69

INDEX

(rasa). 85

INDEX

(type of dhruva song). 64

138

madhya

138

(laya), 63

138

(saptaka and sthāna), 81, 94, 97, 111

138

(sthāyi), 111

138

madhyamagrāma, 13, 17-20, 22, 31-33, 51, 56

138

madhyamagrāma (rāga), 32, 37, 39

138

madhyama kāla, 112, 115

138

madhyamakāla-sahitya, 103

138

madhyama śruti, 94

138

madraka, 81 f.

138

mahīya, 94

138

makarini, cf. sthāyi, 112

138

makuṭa (svara), 103, 110, 115

138

malār, cf. malhāra and mallāri, 84

138

mālava, cf. mārvā, 58

138

mālavagauda, cf. mayamalavagaula, gaudi and

138

gauri, 45, 54, 57

138

mālakaisika, 37f., 40

138

mālavapañcama, 37, 39

138

māla(va)śri, 38

138

mālavi, cf. mārvā, 58

138

malhāra, 55

138

malhār-śyāma, 88

138

mallāri, 57

138

mallatāla, 78

138

mallikāmoda, 78

138

māna, 69

138

mandra (saptaka and sthāna), 34, 81, 97, 111

138

mangala, 65

138

mangalam, 119 f.

138

maṇi, 68

138

manodharmasamgita, 110

138

maṇṭha

138

(tāla, cf. jaganamanṭha and maṭhya), 65

138

(type of prābandha), 65

138

māqām, 44, 51 f., 84

138

māravikā, cf. mārvā, 58

138

mārga, 32, 63

138

mārgatāla, 61 f., 67

138

maru, cf. mārvā, 58, 84

138

mārvā

138

(rāga), 51

138

(thāṭa), 58

138

māthur, 99

138

mat(h)ya, cf. muntha, jaganamanṭha and sūlu-

138

phāktā, 63, 65, 68

138

mātrā

138

(unit of time), cf. laghu and laghumātrā,

138

61-63, 69, 86

138

(phase), 82

138

mātrika pādas, 107

138

matt, 74

138

maxima, 62

138

māyāmālavagaula, cf. mālavagauda

138

mecakalyāṇi, cf. kalyāṇa mela

138

megha, 50

138

mela(karta), 9, 31, 42-59, 107, 110

138

melāpaka, 82

138

melarāgamālikā, 109

138

metre (verse-), 40

138

microcosmos-macrocosmos, 40

138

miḍ (= mind or mir), 97

138

miniatures, 41 f.

138

miśra, 67-69, 82

138

mohra, 60

138

mrdangam, 60, 77, 96 f., 115

138

mrdupañcama ma, cf. cyuta pa, triśruti pa,

138

prati ma, tivra ma, 48

138

mukhāri

138

(rāga), 42

138

(saṃsthāna), 50, 52

138

mukhara, 60

138

muklāyi, cf. vidāri, 112

138

muktāyi svaras, 104 f.

138

mūrchanā, 5, 32-34, 38, 112

138

murki, 97

138

nāda, 36

138

nagana-virāmānta, 65

138

nakṣatra, cf. asterism

138

nāmāvali kīrtanas, 120

138

nām-kīrtana, 98 f.

138

nandana, 78

138

nandi (section of Sanskrit drama), 99

138

nāndi (tāla), 78

138

narabhairavi, cf. bhairavi mela

138

naṭa, 39, 41

138

nātya, 35

138

nauba, 96

138

nauroz (= navarvecikā), 84

138

navatāḷa, 87

138

nāyaka, nāyikā, cf. hero, heroine, 105

138

nibuddha, 81

138

niḥsabda, 62

138

niḥsāruka, 64, 78

138

niraval, 102, 114

138

nirmala, 64

138

niṣādaśādava, 32

138

niṣkrāma, 62

138

nisoruk, 74

138

nokku, 97

138

notes, cf. svaras

138

nrtta, 105, 108

138

nrtya, 94, 116

138

nrtyanāṭaka, 116

138

nyāsa, 34, 42

139

odukkal, 97

139

oduvārs, 120

139

ornamentation, 13, 32, 35, 80, 87f., 90, 92-94,

139

97, 99, 106, 112

139

ovenaka, 81

139

pachda, 87

139

pada, 34

139

padagarbham (= arudi), 113

139

padam, 80, 105 f., 108, 113, 115

139

pada-varṇam (= aṭa-varṇam or cauka-var-

139

ṇam), 105, 115

139

pahāri, 94

139

pakud, 50, 59, 93, 97

139

pakhvāj, 60, 69, 77, 80 f.

139

pāla, 99

139

pallavi

139

(composition), 97, 110-115

139

(section), 100-110, 115, 119f.

139

pañcama (rāga), cf. pañcama-audava

139

pañcama-audava, 32, 36 f., 40

139

pañcam savāri, 74

139

pani, 81

139

pānika, 81

139

pans, 120

139

paran, 60

139

parisāman, 1

139

pasto (= puṣṭī), 74, 95

139

paṭa, 107

139

pāṭa, 62

139

patti, 68

139

performance

139

personification, 41

139

peśkar, 92

139

pharodast, 74

139

pillāri-gītas, 107

139

pilu, 94

139

pīlū

139

(rāga), 51, 56

139

(thāṭa), 52, 56, 58

139

pūrvī-sāranga, cf. pūrvi, 56

139

puṣṭi (= pasto), 74, 95

139

putras, 42

139

Pythagorean (temperament), 15 f., 25-27, 29

139

qval (= qavali and qawwāli), 7, 86 f., 96

139

rāga

139

(melodic pattern), 5, 7-11, 25, 29, 31-44,

139

46-60, 82-84, 87f., 90f., 96-98, 101-103,

139

105-112, 115-118, 120

139

(gīti, cf. vesāra), 37

139

(composition), 80, 96-98

139

(tāla), 69

139

rāga-ālāpa, cf. ālāpana

139

rāgakadambaka, 109

139

rāgalakṣaṇa, cf. lakṣaṇas

139

rāgamālā, 41, 98

139

rāgamālikā, cf. rāgamālā, 44, 98, 108-110, 115,

139

ghanarāgatānāmālikā, 110

139

rāgamālikā-gīta, 110

139

rāgamālikā-kīrtana, 110

139

rāgamālikā-svarajāti, 110

139

rāgamālikā-varṇam, 105, 110

139

rāgamudra, 110

139

rāga-rāginī, 7, 9, 40-42

139

ragana, 65

139

rāgānga, 107

139

raganti, 57

139

rāga-samcāra, cf. samcāra and pakad

139

rāgatālamālikā, 109, 115

139

rāgaṇamārtaṇḍa, 78

139

rājanārāyaṇa, 78

139

rāmakriyā, cf. rāmkri, 52

139

rāmkri, 84

139

prati ma (cf. triśruti pa, cyuta pa, varāli ma

139

dhyama), 31, 51, 58

139

pratimāṇṭha, 64

139

pratītāla, 78

139

pravesa, 62

139

pungī, 116

139

pūrba, cf. pūrva, 84

139

pūrṇa, 68

139

pūrva

139

(rāga), 56

139

(saṃsthāna), 50f.

139

(mela), 56

139

pūrvānga, 44-46

139

pūrvārcikā, 1

139

pūrvi

139

(rāga), 51, 56

139

(thāṭa), 52, 56, 58

139

pūrvī-sāranga, cf. pūrvi, 56

139

puṣṭī (= pasto), 74, 95

139

putras, 42

139

Pythagorean (temperament), 15 f., 25-27, 29

139

qval (= qavali and qawwāli), 7, 86 f., 96

139

rāga

139

(melodic pattern), 5, 7-11, 25, 29, 31-44,

139

46-60, 82-84, 87f., 90f., 96-98, 101-103,

139

105-112, 115-118, 120

139

(gīti, cf. vesāra), 37

139

(composition), 80, 96-98

139

(tāla), 69

139

rāga-ālāpa, cf. ālāpana

139

rāgakadambaka, 109

139

rāgalakṣaṇa, cf. lakṣaṇas

139

rāgamālā, 41, 98

139

rāgamālikā, cf. rāgamālā, 44, 98, 108-110, 115,

139

ghanarāgatānāmālikā, 110

139

rāgamālikā-gīta, 110

139

rāgamālikā-kīrtana, 110

139

rāgamālikā-svarajāti, 110

139

rāgamālikā-varṇam, 105, 110

139

rāgamudra, 110

139

rāga-rāginī, 7, 9, 40-42

139

ragana, 65

139

rāgānga, 107

139

raganti, 57

139

rāga-samcāra, cf. samcāra and pakad

139

rāgatālamālikā, 109, 115

139

rāga-vardhani, cf. karanam, 111 f.

139

rāja, 68

139

rājamārtaṇḍa, 78

139

rājanārāyaṇa, 78

139

rāmakriyā, cf. rāmkri, 52

139

rāmkri, 84

INDEX

rasa, 5. 34-38. 401., 59, 85, 94, 97, 105, 110,

INDEX

117

INDEX

sāmaveda, 1. 119

INDEX

samcāra, 50. 59, 101-103

INDEX

adbhuta r., 34. 85

INDEX

samcāri (sancāri), 81, 83, 93

INDEX

bhayānaka r., 35

INDEX

sampati, 101-104, 106-108, 113

INDEX

bibhatsā r., 35

INDEX

sangitarūpakam, cf. geyanāṭakam

INDEX

hāsya r., 34

INDEX

samjñābheda, 19f.,

INDEX

karuna r., 34

INDEX

samkarābharana, cf. dhīraśamkarābharana, 57

INDEX

madhyura r., 85

INDEX

samkirna, 68f., 82

INDEX

raudra r., 34, 41

INDEX

samnipāta, cf. sam, 62, 67

INDEX

sānta r., 85, 99

INDEX

samnyāsa, 34

INDEX

srngāra r., 34, 41, 94, 103, 105

INDEX

sampakkestāka, 63

INDEX

tivra r. 85

INDEX

sampūrna, 49

INDEX

vīra r., 34, 85

INDEX

samsthāna, 11, 50, 52, 57f.

INDEX

rāsīla, 9

INDEX

samskāra, 57

INDEX

rata, 69

INDEX

samvādit(n), 16, 26, 59, 91, 97, 113

INDEX

rati, cf. dhruva tāla, 64

INDEX

sañcāri (= samcāri), 81, 83, 93

INDEX

rāva, 68

INDEX

sañcāri-gita, cf. laksya-gita, 107

INDEX

ravat, 97

INDEX

saṅkha, 69

INDEX

rāyavankola, 78

INDEX

sāntakalyāni, cf. kalyāṇa

INDEX

rc, 1, 81

INDEX

saptaka, 13f., 31, 37, 40, 48, 81, 94, 97

INDEX

rekh tā, 96

INDEX

madhya s., 81, 94, 97, 111

INDEX

responsorial (style), 120

INDEX

mandra s., 34, 81, 97, 111

INDEX

rgveda, 1

INDEX

tāra s., 34, 83, 97, 111

INDEX

rovindaka, 81

INDEX

sāra, 68

INDEX

rudr tāl, 75f.

INDEX

sāraṅga, 50f

INDEX

rūpak(a)

INDEX

sāraṅganāṭa, 43f., 57

INDEX

(tāla), 63-66, 68, 71, 80, 102, 105f., 108

INDEX

sāraṅgi, 93

INDEX

(composition), 65, 87

INDEX

sargam, 96

INDEX

rūpaka-ālāpa (= rūpaka-ālapti), 87, 93

INDEX

sārod, 97

INDEX

rūp (anurāg), 99

INDEX

satpitāputraka, 63

INDEX

rūpasādhārita, 37, 39

INDEX

satīāla, 79

INDEX

ṣaḍava, cf. niṣāda-ṣaḍava, 34, 37, 39, 42,

INDEX

sauvīra, 37, 39f.

INDEX

49

INDEX

savāri, 75

INDEX

sādhārana, 37, 87

INDEX

savāri bari, 76

INDEX

sādhārana-gīta, cf. sañcāri-gīta

INDEX

sāveri and suddhasāveri, 57, 106

INDEX

sādhārita, 32, 36, 39, 42

INDEX

śadjugrāma

INDEX

(tone-system, cf. grāma), 11, 13, 17-21,

INDEX

suddhakalyāṇa, cf. kalyāṇa

INDEX

31-33, 39, 52

INDEX

suddhamevinā, 25-27

INDEX

(rāga), 32, 36

INDEX

suddha pañcama, cf. pañcama and pañcama-

INDEX

śadjukaisika, 40

INDEX

audava, 40

INDEX

sadra, 90

INDEX

sudddhasādhārita, cf. sādhārita

INDEX

sagana, 65

INDEX

sudddhasavaralī, 58

INDEX

sahitya, 102, 105

INDEX

sudddhasvaratika (= batuki), 39

INDEX

saindhavi, 41f., 52

INDEX

sudha, 61, 69

INDEX

śaka, 40

INDEX

sulādi, sūdādi, 63

INDEX

śākhā, 119

INDEX

sūlaphākitā, cf. mathya and sūltāl, 65, 72, 80

INDEX

sakhi, 105

INDEX

sūltāl (= sūlphākitā), 72

INDEX

śākhya, 99

INDEX

sundara, 65

INDEX

śālaga (= chāyālaga; cf. prabandha), 64

INDEX

sura, 69

INDEX

sam, cf. samnipāta, 61f., 67, 69, 93, 113

INDEX

sūtra-khaṇḍa, 107

INDEX

sama, 68

INDEX

sūtras, 2

INDEX

sāman, 1

INDEX

svara(s), 5, 11, 13-34, 36f., 40-59, 106-108

INDEX

sāmānya-gīta, cf. sañcāri-gīta

INDEX

svarajāti, 107

INDEX

(pramāna s.), 17f.

INDEX

svarita, 1

INDEX

(madhyama s.), 94

INDEX

svayambhū, 26-30, 48

INDEX

sthāna (= saptaka; cf. madhya, mandra, tāra

INDEX

tabalā, 7, 60, 69, 76, 92f., 96f.

INDEX

s.), 32, 38

INDEX

ṭakka, 36-40

INDEX

sthāyi, cf. asthāyi, makarini, and vartani, 112

INDEX

ṭakkakaisika, 37, 40, 58

INDEX

sūdādi, cf. sūlādi and sūdaprabandha, 64

INDEX

tāla, 60-79, 80-82, 86, 92, 95-98, 102-109, 113f.,

INDEX

suddha (= coksya), 36f.

INDEX

117f.

INDEX

suddhakaisika, cf. kaisika

INDEX

tāla-āsvarta, cf. āsvarta, 60, 97, 102f., 107f.

INDEX

suddhakaisikamadhyama, cf. kaisika-

INDEX

tālakṣaras, cf. akṣaras, 62f., 114

INDEX

madhyama

INDEX

talam, 61f.

INDEX

suddhakalyaṇa, cf. kalyāṇa

INDEX

tālamālikā, 115

INDEX

suddhasāveri, cf. sāveri and asāveri, 57, 106

INDEX

talea, 102, 114

INDEX

suddhasvaramela, 53

INDEX

tāli, 61f., 69

INDEX

suddhasvaralī, 58

INDEX

tān(tal), cf. bol-tāns, tappā-tāns, 36, 87-89,

INDEX

suddha varatika (= batuki), 39

INDEX

91-94, 104, 110, 112, 115

INDEX

sudha, 61, 69

INDEX

tānamta, tānanna, tānamna, cf. tāna, 112

INDEX

sulādi, sūdādi, 63

INDEX

tāna-varnam, 104f.

INDEX

sūlaphākitā, cf. mathya and sūltāl, 65, 72, 80

INDEX

tanpūra, 80f., 92f.

INDEX

sūltāl (= sūlphākitā), 72

INDEX

tantrism, 39f.

INDEX

sundara, 65

INDEX

tappā, 93-95

INDEX

sura, 69

INDEX

tappā-tāns, 91

INDEX

sūtra-khaṇḍa, 107

INDEX

tāra (saptaka and sthāna), 34, 83, 97, 111

INDEX

sūtras, 2

INDEX

(pramāna s.), 17f.

INDEX

taranā, 7, 96, 108

INDEX

(madhyama s.), 94

INDEX

temperament, 14-31, 42, 471.

INDEX

sthāna (= saptaka; cf. madhya, mandra, tāra

INDEX

tēvāram, 119f.

INDEX

s.), 32, 38

INDEX

thātas, 11f., 31, 50-58

INDEX

sthāyi, cf. asthāyi, makarini, and vartani, 112

INDEX

theka, 60, 92

INDEX

sūdādi, cf. sūlādi and sūdaprabandha, 64

INDEX

thumri, 80, 91, 94-96, 105

INDEX

suddha (= coksya), 36f.

INDEX

tig, 86

INDEX

tithai, 60

INDEX

suddhakalyāṇa, cf. kalyāṇa

INDEX

tlak-kāmod, 94

INDEX

suddhamevinā, 25-27

INDEX

tillānā, 108, 115

INDEX

suddha pañcama, cf. pañcama and pañcama-

INDEX

tilvāḍā, 72, 95

INDEX

audava, 40

INDEX

time of performance, 11, 36-39, 54, 56

INDEX

sadra, 90

INDEX

tintāl, 72, 92, 95

INDEX

sagana, 65

INDEX

tīrat, 96

INDEX

sahitya, 102, 105

INDEX

tīra jāti, cf. tryāstra, 61, 66-69

INDEX

saindhavi, 41f., 52

INDEX

tīram gati, cf. gati and gatibheda, 114

INDEX

śaka, 40

INDEX

tīra, 67, 72, 80

INDEX

śākhā, 119

INDEX

tīratama mā, cf. tīratara mā, tīra mā,

INDEX

sakhi, 105

INDEX

tīrsruti pa, cyuta pa, 47, 49

INDEX

śākhya, 99

INDEX

tīvratara (tara) mā, cf. cyuta pa, tīrsruti pa and

INDEX

śālaga (= chāyālaga; cf. prabandha), 64

INDEX

tīvratama mā, 28-31, 49f., 56

INDEX

sundara, 65

INDEX

todi, cf. hanumatodi

INDEX

sura, 69

INDEX

(rāga), 51f., 84

INDEX

sūtra-khaṇḍa, 107

INDEX

(samsthāna), 50, 52

INDEX

sūtras, 2

INDEX

(thāṭa), 58

INDEX

svara(s), 5, 11, 13-34, 36f., 40-59, 106-108

INDEX

todivarāli, 58

INDEX

svarajāti, 107

INDEX

tripūta, cf. trītiya, 63f., 66f., 69, 102, 105

INDEX

svarita, 1

INDEX

trīsruti pañcama, 14f., 17-22, 29-31, 51, 58

INDEX

svayambhū, 26-30, 48

INDEX

trītal, cf. tīntāl, 80

INDEX

tabalā, 7, 60, 69, 76, 92f., 96f.

INDEX

trītiya, cf. tripūta, 64, 67

INDEX

ṭakka, 36-40

INDEX

trayasra, cf. tīrsa, 68, 82

INDEX

ṭakkakaisika, 37, 40, 58

INDEX

tukra, 60

INDEX

tāla, 60-79, 80-82, 86, 92, 95-98, 102-109, 113f.,

INDEX

turangalīla, 79

INDEX

117f.

INDEX

turuskatodi

INDEX

tāla-āsvarta, cf. āsvarta, 60, 97, 102f., 107f.

INDEX

udātta, 1

INDEX

tālakṣaras, cf. akṣaras, 62f., 114

INDEX

udaya, 68, 76

INDEX

talam, 61f.

INDEX

udgatta, 63

INDEX

tālamālikā, 115

INDEX

udgrāha, 82-85

INDEX

talea, 102, 114

INDEX

udīrna, 68, 76

INDEX

tāli, 61f., 69

INDEX

ullopyaka, 81f.

INDEX

tān(tal), cf. bol-tāns, tappā-tāns, 36, 87-89,

INDEX

ultā murki, 97

INDEX

91-94, 104, 110, 112, 115

INDEX

upānga-khaṇḍa, 107

INDEX

tānamta, tānanna, tānamna, cf. tāna, 112

INDEX

upānga rāgas, 3, 38

INDEX

tāna-varnam, 104f.

INDEX

utsāha, 64

INDEX

tanpūra, 80f., 92f.

INDEX

utsava, 79

INDEX

tantrism, 39f.

INDEX

uttara, 81

INDEX

tappā, 93-95

INDEX

uttarānga, 44-46

INDEX

tappā-tāns, 91

INDEX

uttarārcikā, 1

INDEX

tāra (saptaka and sthāna), 34, 83, 97, 111

INDEX

vādī(tn), 54-57, 59, 91, 97

INDEX

(pramāna s.), 17f.

INDEX

vādya, 32, 94

INDEX

(madhyama s.), 94

INDEX

vaiṣṇava, 99

INDEX

sthāna (= saptaka; cf. madhya, mandra, tāra

INDEX

vakra, 59

INDEX

s.), 32, 38

INDEX

vākya, 81

INDEX

vallabha, 65

INDEX

vāni

INDEX

gauḍi or gaụḍahāra v., 85

INDEX

khāṇḍāra v., 85

INDEX

nauhāra v., 85, 90

INDEX

dāgara v., 85

INDEX

varāḷi (= varāḷi), 42

INDEX

varāḷi madhyama, 31, 58

INDEX

varāri, cf. barāri, 39

INDEX

varāṭi (= varāḷi), 42

INDEX

vardhana, 78

INDEX

variation, cf. tān(as), 60, 80 f., 86 f., 94, 97, 100-102, 106, 108, 113-115

INDEX

varjya, cf. alpa and alpatva, 59

INDEX

varṇa, 32, 35, 81

INDEX

varṇabhinna, 79

INDEX

varṇam, 80, 100, 103-107, 111

INDEX

varṇamanthika, 79

INDEX

varṇatāḷa, 79

INDEX

vartani, cf. sthāyi, 112

INDEX

vasanta

INDEX

(rāga, cf. basant), 41, 106

INDEX

(tāla), 79

INDEX

vastu, 82

INDEX

vasu, 69

INDEX

vātsālya, 99

INDEX

velāvalī, cf. bilāval, 52, 55

INDEX

veṇu, 32

INDEX

vesāra, 37

INDEX

vesāraṣāḍava, 37, 39

INDEX

vibhāga, cf. aṅga, 61, 69, 78

INDEX

vibhāṣā, 4

INDEX

viccu (= vissu), 61

INDEX

vidāḷa, 69

INDEX

vidāri, cf. muklāyi, 34, 112

INDEX

vihaṅgaḍa, 52

INDEX

vikrta (svaras), 15, 26, 31, 491.

INDEX

vikṣepa, 62

INDEX

vilambita laya, 63, 92

INDEX

vilambit khyāl, 88, 92

INDEX

viloma-anuloma, 113

INDEX

vilomacittaisvaram, 110

INDEX

viloma krama, 110

INDEX

viloma-pratiloma, 114

INDEX

viloma-svara-sahitiya, 103

INDEX

viṇā

INDEX

(arched harp), 17-22

INDEX

(stick-zither), 21-25, 29, 42

INDEX

(lute), 16, 25-27, 29, 42, 48, 108

INDEX

vinyāsa, 34

INDEX

violin, 100

INDEX

viṣama, 79

INDEX

visarjita, 61

INDEX

viśrānti, 113

INDEX

viyādhin, 59

INDEX

vrtti (= vāṛttika), 63

INDEX

warrior, 41

INDEX

yakṣagāna, 116

INDEX

yaman, cf. yaman-kalyān and kalyāṇa-yamana, 51 f.

INDEX

yamuna kalyāṇa, 56

INDEX

yati

INDEX

(general), 81

INDEX

(srotovaḥa y., gopuccha y. and mrdaṅga y., 103)

INDEX

yatilagṇa, cf. rūpaka, 66, 79

INDEX

yoni, 1

INDEX

zirafkand, 51