1. Indian Theater Its Orgin and Development upto Present Day Chandra Bhan Gupta MLBD 1

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Author Gupta, Chandra Bhan

Title Indian Theatre. 1954.

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THE

INDIAN

THEATRE

THE

INDIAN THEATRE

ITS ORIGIN

AND DEVELOPMENT UP TO THE

PRESENT DAY

BY

CHANDRA BHAN GUPTA, M. A., D. Litt.

Hindu College,

University of Delhi ( India )

Thesis approved by Banaras Hindu University

for the award of the degree of Doctor of Letters in

1949 under the title 'Presentation of Sanskrit Plays.'

MOTILAL BANARASIDASS

Publishers and Booksellers

POST BOX 75, BANARAS.

1954

MUNSHI RAM MANOHAR LAL

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SHANTILAL

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This volume

is

Gratefully inscribed

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the memory

of

the late Professor

S. C. Mukerjee

&

Dedicated

to

Professor

P. L. Vaidya

FOREWORD.

I have had an opportunity of watching the progress of

Dr. Chandra Bhan Gupta's book. I had some connection with

it, while I was Vice-Chancellor at Banaras. It is a matter

of genuine pleasure that he has succeeded in producing a

work of great merit, which provides valuable information and

has much critical material which will provoke thought. The

portion dealing with the contemporary theatre is naturally

incomplete, but that does not detract from the merit of the

whole book. I congratulate the author on giving us such an

informative volume and trust he will continue his scholarly

career with even greater success.

Amaranatha Jha

January 6, 1954.

Extracts from Examiners' Report on the Thesis

"Presentation of Sanskrit Plays"

In this thesis Shri Chandra Bhan Gupta has dealt comprehensively with all aspects of the 'Presentation of Sanskrit Plays' in ancient India. He has drawn his material from the Nātyaśāstra of Bharata and other works on dramaturgy as well as from descriptions and incidents in Sanskrit plays.

He has shed new light on some aspects of the subject. I recommend it for the award of the degree of D. Litt.

V. V. Mirashi

Mr. Chandra Bhan Gupta's thesis 'Presentation of Sanskrit Plays' is a product of great industry, skill and judicious selection of topics. He has utilized the original sources and succeeded in reconstructing a picture of the ancient theatre of India which he takes care to support with documentary evidence.

As regards his main conclusions I feel inclined to agree with him that the origination of Sanskrit drama and theatrical representation was indigenous. He has succeeded in showing the improbability of the theories of foreign influence. I also feel disposed to accept his contention that Indian drama was born and developed in a religious atmosphere just like the Greek drama. But the religious heaven was at work throughout its career, where as it has faded out in Europe. His suggestions for remodelling the National Theatre of India are sage, sober and unbiased.

Satkari Mukerjee

I have carefully gone through Mr. Chandra Bhan Gupta's thesis 'Presentation of Sanskrit Plays.' The thesis is divided into nine chapters dealing, among others, with topics such as objects and objectives of the presentation of plays, types of theatres, scenic arrangement, stage paraphernalia, types of gesticulation, ornaments for the use on stage, paints, dresses, music and dance, stage conventions, troupe, audience, and rasas for the dramatic composition. There is a special chapter on the utility of the study of ancient Indian plays and how this study is useful in shaping the Loka-Nātya or popular theatre.

Mr. Gupta has also discussed the much debated question whether Indian theatre is of indigenous or foreign origin, and has come to the conclusion that it originated in India.

The whole subject is studied in a scientific spirit and contributes to the advancement of knowledge.

P. L. Vaidya

PREFACE

Sanskrit drama in general has received a great deal of attention at the hands of European scholars since the Abhijñanasākuntala was translated into English by William Jones in 1789. The origin of the Sanskrit drama has been the subject of elaborate investigation by professors Von-Schroeder, Pischel, Hertel, W. Ridgeway, Levi, Luders, Konow, Jacobi and Keith, and the significance and value of the Indian theory of dramatic art have been brought out by them. I have also come across certain articles, pamphlets and books in connection with some aspects of the Indian theatre, which I have mentioned in the 'Bibliography.' Mulk Raj Anand's book on 'The Indian Theatre' deals only with the different theatres in modern times in India in a stylish and sketchy way. It has nothing to do with the ancient Indian theatre, and so it cannot establish any connected study of the development of the theatre in India. K K. Yajnik's book on 'The Indian Theatre' deals mainly with the influence of British drama on the Indian stage of today with special reference to western India. A pamphlet entitled 'Ancient Indian Theatre' by D. R. Mankad and the English translation of the Nātyasāstra Chapters I-XXVII by Manomohan Ghosh came out in August 1950 and 1951, respectively. The pamphlet by Mankad has only interpreted the Nātyasāstra's second chapter. There are certain aspects of Indian theatre which have not yet received much attention, for example, the actual scenic arrangement, stage paraphernalia etc. The present study deals with the Indian theory of dramatic art as employed in the actual performance or presentation of a play. The title of this thesis was, therefore, fixed as "Presentation of Sanskrit Plays." It is now published under the title "The Indian Theatre."

A new chapter has been added on 'Dramatic Practice Today.' The thesis will now give the reader, it is hoped,

a connected account of the presentation of dramas in the country from the earliest times to the present day.

I began this thesis in July, 1941, when I registered myself as a regular research student for D. Litt. for a period of three years under the supervision of Dr. S. C. Mukerjee, Mayurbhunj Professor and Head of the Department of Sanskrit at Banaras Hindu University, Banaras. I got every kind of guidance and help from Dr. Radhakrishnan, the then Vice-Chancellor of B. H. U.

In December 1941, I went on a tour of Central India and Bombay and visited the Ellora, Ajanta and Elephenta caves and Sanchi Stūpa etc. In May and June. 1942, I joined the Uday Shankar India Culture Centre, Almora, as a summer student to study histrionics and dancing. I also visited Udaipur to study the dances of the Bhīls.

In 1943, I met Dr. S. K. De, Dr. Belvelkar and Mahā-mahopādhyāya Dr. P. V. Kane at the Oriental Conference at Banaras. They approved the plan of my research and very kindly discussed certain points of my thesis and suggested as to how I should proceed. In 1947 Dr. Mukerjee passed away.

After some time I met Dr. Amaranatha Jha, Vice-Chancellor, B. H. U., who sympathetically provided every kind of facility for my work at B. H. U. and directed me to approach the then Head of the Sanskrit Department, B. H. U. From then I was under the supervision of Dr. P. L. Vaidya, Mayurbhunj Professor and the Head of the Department of Sanskrit, B. H. U., under whose guidance my thesis was recast and presented to the Banaras Hindu University for the degree of Doctor of Letters in 1949.

This thesis mainly depends on the Nātyaśāstra, the Abhinavabhāratī and other works on dramaturgy which are mentioned in detail separately. It is divided into two parts. The first part deals with the 'Ancient Theatre' and has ten chapters: I. The Origin of the Indian Drama; II. Sanskrit Plays; III. Construction of the Theatre;IV. Scenic Representation; V. Paraphernalia; VI. Accessory Arts; VII. The Troupe; VIII. Conventions; IX. Nature and Types of Drama

X. Presentation of Plays. The second part consists of only one chapter [XI] and deals with the 'Dramatic Practice Today' and describes Indian theatres in the various parts of the country. Then comes Epilogue [ chapter XII ]. It gives in brief a resumé of the previous chapters. Then follows 'Bibliography' of standard authentic works and dramas in Sanskrit and articles and works in English on the Indian stage. Lastly the 'Index' will contain mainly terms connected with Sanskrit drama and theatre appearing in the work.

The general plan of the work is arranged in the following manner. Names of all the books as well as Sanskrit words have been italicized. Quotations of translated passages have been given in inverted commas. In the case of dramas, names of books containing translations have not been referred to in the footnotes as those translations are very popular.

Diagrams of different types of theatres mentioned in the Natyasastra and seating arrangement in a palace theatre as mentioned in the Sangitaratnakara are drawn by Shri Vijaya Srivastava according to the plan given by the author.

This work, it is hoped, will prove of great service not only to students of the history of Sanskrit literature but also for the regeneration of a people's theatre, according to national traditions. The threads of the topic of this work are woven in such a manner as to present a systematic account of the presentation of Sanskrit plays for the use of scholars and the public. It suggests the model on which a national theatre in India can be planned.

I am beholden to Late Pt. Madan Mohan Malaviya and Dr. Radhakrishnan, who helped me in the initial stages of my thesis by their encouragement and assistance. I also express my gratitude to Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. P. V. Kane and Dr. Gopi Nath Kaviraj, Dr. S. K De, Dr. S. K. Belvalkar, Dr. P. K. Acharya, Dr. V. Raghavan, Dr. R. K. Yajnik and Mr. D. R. Mankad for their valuable suggestions in the initial stages of my work. My grateful thanks are due to Dr. Bhagavan Das, Dr. V.S. Agarwala, Pt. Vishva Bandhu Shastri,

Mrs. Rukmini Devi Arundale, Pt. Giridhar Sharma Chaturvedi, Pt. Baldeo Upadhyaya and Pt. Sitaram Chaturvêdi, who have given me their valuable opinions on my book.

My heart-felt thanks go to Dr. Amaranatha Jha for his contributing an appreciative ‘Foreword’ to it.

Hindu College,

University of Delhi

1954

Chandra Bhan Gupta

CONTENTS

ANCIENT THEATRE

Chapter

Page

I The Origin of the Indian Drama

A. The Indian Tradition. ... ... 3

B. Genesis of Indian Drama. ... ... 5

C. Theories. ... ... 8

II Sanskrit Plays

A. Significance. ... ... 13

B. Object. ... ... 14

C. Occasions for Enactment. ... ... 21

D. Places for Performance. ... ... 24

III Construction of the Theatre

A. Types and Measurements. ... 30

B. Raṅgupiṭha and Decoration. ... 34

C. Raṅgaśīrṣa, Green Room and Mattavāraṇis. ... 46

D. Pillars and Seating Arrangements. ... 50

E. Doors and Roof. ... 52

IV Scenic Representation

A. The Curtain. ... 55

B. Origin of the Curtain. ... 61

C. Employment of Painting. ... 64

D. Time of Presentation. ... 69

V Paraphernalia

A. Significance of Āhāryābhinaya [Costumes and Make-up] ... 72

B. Pusta [Model Work] ... 73

C. Alaṅkāra [Decoration] ... 77

D. Aṅgaracanā [Painting of the Limbs] ... 82

E. Sañjīva [Living Creatures] ... 86

VI Accessory Arts

A. Music and Orchestra. ... 88

B. Histrionics. ... 94

C. Dancing. ... 98

D. Dialogue. ... 101

xiv

Chapter

Page

VII The Troupe.

A. Roles of Characters [Bhūmikā]

... 104

B. Nātyācāryas

... 106

C. Actors and Actresses

... 108

D. Spectators and Judges

... 111

E. Social Position of Actors and Actresses.

... 115

VIII Conventions.

A. Pūrvarañga.

... 119

B. Religious ceremonies.

... 124

C. Dialects.

... 127

D. Injunctions and Prohibitions.

... 129

IX Nature and Types of the Drama.

A. Nrtta, Nrtya and Nātya.

... 136

B. Major Types of Drama [Rūpakas]

... 139

C. Minor Types [Uparūpakas]

... 144

X Presentation of Plays.

A. Actual Performance.

... 148

B. Portrayal of Sentiment [Rasa]

... 151

C. Success.

... 153

DRAMATIC PRACTICE TODAY.

XI Modern Theatres.

Introduction

... 159

A. The Folk Tradition.

... 160

B. The Madras Theatre.

... 162

C. The Bengal Theatre.

... 164

D. The Marathi Theatre.

... 165

E. The Parsi and the Gujarati Theatre.

... 167

F. The Hindi Theatre.

... 170

G. Idea of a National Theatre.

... 174

XII Epilogue.

... 177

Bibliography.

... 185

Index.

... 195

METHOD

OF

TRANSLITERATION

a अ i इ u उ

ā आ ī ई ū ऊ

ṛ ऋ ṛi ॠ ḷ ऌ

e ए o ओ ai ऐ

au औ ṃ अं h अ:

k क kh ख g ग gh घ ṅ ङ

c च ch छ j ज jh झ ñ ञ

ṭ ट ṭh ठ ḍ ड ḍh ढ ṇ ण

t त th थ d द dh ध n न

p प ph फ b ब bh भ m म

y य r र l ल v व

ś श ṣ ष s स h ह

This method of transliteration is followed throughou

this work for Sanskrit words, books and authors. The wor

'Sanskrit' has been treated like other English words.

Abbreviations used In Footnotes

Abh. Bh. ... Abhinavabharatī

AD ... Abhinayadarpana

AR ... Anargharaghava

AS ... Arthasaśtra

BP ... Bhāvaprakāśana

DR ... Dasarūpa

GOS ... Gaekwad Oriental Series

Kar. M. ... Karpūramañjarī

KM ... Kāvyamala

KP ... Kāvyaprakāśa

KSS ... Kaśi Sanskrit Series

Māl ... Mālavikāgnimitra

MM ... Mālatīmādhava

Mrch ... Mrcchakaṭikā

MS ... Mānasāraśilpaśāstra

ND ... Nāṭyadarpana

NLR ... Naṭakalakṣanaratnakoṣa

NS ... Nāṭyaśāstra

PR ... Pratāparudrīya

Pra. Y. ... Pratijñāyaugandharāyaṇa

PD ... Priyadarśikā

Rat ... Ratnāvalī

RS ... Rasārṇavasudhākara

Śāk ... Abhijñānaśākuntala

ŚR ... Śilparatna

SD ... Sahityadarpana

SR ... Saṅgītaratnākara

URC ... Uttararamacarita

VD ... Viṣṇudharmottara

Vik ... Vikramorvaśīya

ANCIENT THEATRE

CHAPTER I

THE ORIGIN OF THE

INDIAN DRAMA

A. The Indian Tradition

The earliest authority in India on the presentation of plays on the stage is the Nātyaśāstra of Bharata. The mythological character of the traditional account of the origin of the Indian drama given in the Nātyaśāstra forces on us the conclusion that all exact knowledge about it had been lost by the time the Nātyaśāstra was written.

Gods, according to the account preserved in the Nātyaśāstra, entreated Brahmā to produce something to play [ kriḍanīyaka ] which could be seen and also heard, a fifth veda, that would benefit all castes [sarvavārṇika]. Accordingly he took recitation [ pāṭhya ] from the Ṛgveda, song [ gīta ] from the Sāmaveda, the art of acting [ abhinaya ] from the Yajurveda, and sentiment [rasa] from the Atharvaveda and asked Bharata to make known to mankind the new Nāṭyaveda thus produced and bring into practice the precepts with the help of his sons and disciples, and the gandharvas and apsarās, as the actors and actresses, at the 'banner festival of Indra'.

This enraged the asuras from whom mischief was apprehended. Indra, therefore, took the banner and attacked them with the staff. That is why his banner is called jarjara and it is given as a mark of Indra's protection for all stage productions. The asuras had to accept the assurance that the drama was a representation of facts of a general nature and would not be deliberately applied to anybody. The Nāṭyaśāstra refers to two other dramas enacted in very early times on two subjects the 'Churning of Nectar from the Sea' and the 'Burning of Three Cities'.1

1. NS—KM I. 11, 12, 14, 17, 20 b-25, IV. 1-10; KSS I, 11, 12, 14, 17, 54b-60, IV, 1-11; GOS I, 11, 12, 14, 17, 54-59a, IV, 1-11.

The traditional account as furnished by the Abhinaya-darpana is as follows: 'In the beginning Brahmā gave the Nātya-veda to Bharata. Bharata, with groups of gandharvas and apsarās, performed nātya, nṛtta and nṛtya before Śiva. Śiva, remembering his own majestic dance had Bharata instructed in the art by his attendants [ganas]. And before this, out of his love for Bharata, he gave the latter instruction in lāsya through Pārvatī, and in tāṇḍava through Taṇḍu. Then sages spoke of it to mortals. Pārvatī, on the other hand, instructed Uṣā, daughter of Bāṇa, in lāsya. The latter taught the art to the milkmaids of Dvārakā, and they taught it to women of Saurāṣṭra who, in their turn, taught it to women of other countries. In this manner this art was traditionally handed down and came to stay in the world'.1

With regard to the origin of the Nātyaveda, the Bhāvaprakā-śana records two stories. The first is that at the end of the kalpa, Maheśvara created Brahmā and Viṣṇu, and Brahmā created the world. Nandikeśvara came to Brahmā and taught the Nāṭyaveda and its application to him. He said "the Nāṭyaveda may be enacted by Bharata" and disappeared. Brahmā and other gods were pleased and the Tripuradāha-rūpaka was played.

According to the second account, disgusted with the worries of ruling his kingdom, Manu approached Sūryadeva for consolatory advice. Sūryadeva said that in days of yore Brahmā disgusted with his work for mankind went to the Lord of Lords for relief. He was advised to go to Śiva. Śiva asked his pupil Nandikeśvara to teach the Nāṭyaveda to Brahmā. Nandikeśvara taught Brahmā the Nāṭyaveda and its method of representation. He came back to his abode and meditated for a while. Then there appeared before him a muni with five disciples. They were taught the Nāṭyaveda. They put the Nāṭyaveda on the stage and thus pleased Brahmā who gave

1. AD 2-7a.

them a boon. Sūryadeva advised Manu to pray to Brahmā for relief from the troubles experienced by him in sustaining the earth. Then Manu went to Brahmā who knowing his difficulty ordered Bharata to go with Manu to Bhāratavarṣa. Accordingly Bharata came to Ayodhyā with Manu.1

B. Genesis of Indian Drama.

The earliest representation of plays on the stage appears to be associated with the religious observances of the people. In Greece, for example, the drama derived its origin from the hymns which were sung at the festivals of Bacchus. In the Ṛgveda we come across certain hymns in the form of dialogues [samvāda sūktas]2 some of which seem to contain dramatic flavour consisting, as they do, of conversation, speech and repartee. The Vājasaneyī Saṁhitā of the Śukla Yajurveda makes mention of the word śailūṣa which means an actor. It says that a sūta was to be employed for ṇṛtta and a śailūṣa for song.3 The Sāmaveda with the hymns set to tune clearly shows that the art of music was fully developed in the Vedic Age.4 Vedic sacrifices were essentially a mimesis. In the Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇa sacrificial priests are described as dancing. In the same Brāhmaṇa, saṅgīta [ which comprehends music, dance and playing on instruments ] forms a part of yajña-yāgādi5. At the Mahāvrata-stoma rite young maidens danced.6

The Rāmāyaṇa refers to naṭa, nartaka, nāṭaka, dances and theatrical acts in cities and palaces. Bharata, son of Daśaratha, who was upset by bad dreams at his maternal uncle's house, was cheered with songs, dances and joyous nāṭakas.

1. BP III. p. 55, l. 22 and p. 56.

2. Ṛgveda I. 165, 170, 179; III. 33; IV. 18, 42; V. 11; VII. 33; VIII. 100; X. 10, 28, 51–53, 86, 95, 108.

3. Vājasaneyī Saṁhitā XXX. 6.

4. Nirukta 7, 12. 4.

5. Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇa XVII, 8, pp. 77–78; XXIX. 5, pp. 140–141.

6. Kāṭhakam XXXIV. 5.

[ 6 ]

We hear of festivals and concourses [ samājas ] where actors [ naṭas ] and dancers [ nartakas ] delighted themselves.1 The Mahābhārata, like the Rāmāyaṇa, refers to dramatic terms like naṭa, nartaka, gāyakas and sūtradhāra.2

The Harivaṁśa which is a supplement to and a continuation of the Mahābhārata makes explicit reference to the drama. We learn from it of players who produced a drama out of the Rāmāyaṇa legend. It makes direct mention of a dramatic treatment [ nāṭakīrtam ] of the Rāmāyaṇa. We are informed that "the renowned actor represents in a drama 'the birth of the immeasurable Viṣṇu' for the purpose of fulfilling his wish to slay the prince of the rākṣasas". Lomapāda and Daśaratha, in the drama, caused the great muni Ṛṣyaśṛṅga to be brought by Sauta and Rṣyaśṛṅga and Sauta were personated by characteristically dressed actors.3

In some of the Purāṇas also we find references to the representation of plays. In the Śrīmadbhāgavata Purāṇa, reference is made to actors.4 In the Mā.kaṇḍeya Purāṇa, we find Ṛadhvaja, son of king Śakrajit, fond of dramatic performance [ nāṭakābhinaya ] and passing his days delightfully in the cultivation of poetry, music and drama.5

Elaborate Buddhistic evidence about the early existence of drama is available. The Brahma-Jālasutta of the Dīghanikāya contains a list of terms denoting various amusements and shows.6 In the Avadānaśataka there is a clear mention of a rūpaka being enacted on the stage.7

1. Rāmāyaṇa II. 69. 4; II. 67. 15.

2. Mahābhārata I. 51. 15, p. 102; III. 16. 14, p. 55.

3. Harivaṁśa II. 88–93.

4. Śrīmadbhāgavata Purāṇa I. XI, 20,

5. Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa XX. 4b and 6a,

6. Dīghanikāya I. 1. 13.

7. Avadānaśataka II. 24 [75 ], pp. 29-30.

[ 7 ]

The Arthaśāstra supplies us with a good deal of information on the maintenace and working of the nātakamandalīs. In one place we find that if any nātakamandalī came from another country to present a play on the stage, it was required to pay five paṇas [ a particular coin equal in value to 80 cowries ] to the king. In another place it is stated that the king's duty was to provide teachers for women, who acted on the stage, to teach them such arts as singing, dancing, acting, writing, painting, playing on instruments, particularly vīṇā, veṇu and mṛdaṅgī, preparing garlands, ornamenting the body with different materials, and to spend on the above-mentioned items from the treasury of the rājamaṇḍala [ government ]. The sons of gaṇikas [courtesans] and the principal natas were appointed head ācāryas [teachers] for all other stage-players.

In the Arthaśāstra it is also mentioned that the king used to employ natas, dancers, singers, intrumentalists, story-tellers, actors and aindrajālikas [ jugglers ] as spies who would try to reach the enemy-king. Salaries for the different categories of stage-players were fixed. A Kuśilava [ nata ] was to be paid 350 paṇas yearly, while those who were conversant with playing on high class instruments were given 700 paṇas yearly.1 This shows that the stage-craft was highly developed at the time of the Arthaśāstra.

Vātsāyana mentions writers on dramatic art of remote ages whose works are lost save in stray quotations. He describes the recreations of citizens [ nāgaraka ] and refers to the doings of Piṭhamarda, vīṭa, vidūṣaka, kuśilavas etc. Natas appointed by the king were to play nātakas in the temples of Sarasvatī on the days of parva. Natas who came from outside the state to stage plays were treated in the same manner as the natas of the place.2

By the time of the Sūtras, literature on the practice of the histrionic art must have grown in bulk so as to have

1. AS I. II. 27, pp. 305-306; II. V. 3, p. 204; II. VII. 17, p. 354.

2. Kāmasūtra IV. 27-30, pp. 44-57.

created the necessity of codifying laws governing them. Pāṇini mentions naṭasūtras to show that acting had suffi-

ciently developed and formulation of principles of dancing and acting in the form of sūtras was necessary.1

In the Mahābhāṣya we find more effective evidence of the existence of plays when it makes mention of two regular

plays, the Kamsavadha and the Balibandha being acted on the stage. We have phrases in the Mahābhāṣya such

as 'they cause the death of Kamsa', 'they cause the binding of Bali.' The phrase 'rasiko naṭaḥ' in the Mahābhāṣya indi-

cates that the theory of rasa was well-known in the days of Patañjali.2

Coming to the classical period, we find distinct evidence of the representation of plays available with the discovery

of the manuscripts on palm-leaf among the Central Asian finds. One of the plays, Sāriputra-prakaraṇa was found to be

written by Aśvaghoṣa, but no mention of the names of the authors of the other two fragments could be discovered there.

MM Gaṇapati S̄astri of Travancore discovered 13 dramas with similarity of expression and construction and ascribed

them to Bhāsa. These were also found to be the earliest complete specimens of dramatic composition available. From

these it is evident that a long series of dramas were produced and enacted before him.

C. Theories.

The question of the origin of Sanskrit plays has been of much interest to scholars. In this respect various theories have

been propounded. It has been held that the drama [ from 'Greek draina'-to imitate or represent and 'Sanskrit

avasthānukṛtirnātyam'3—the imitation of the circumstances is nāṭya ] originated in Greece. E. Windisch4 is the

exponent of this theory. He relies for his evidence

1. Pāṇini IV. 3. 110; IV. 3. 111; IV. 3. 129.

2. Mahābhāṣya II. pp 36 and 394.

3. DR 1. 7.

4. Keith: 'Sanskrit Drama', P. 57; Windisch 'Der griechische Einfluss im imdischen Drama', ( 1882 ).

on the Mṛcchakaṭika which he held to be the oldest

Indian drama. Attic comedies were available about the third

century B. C. and according to Windisch the Mṛcchakaṭika was

written about the same time. But we know now that the

Sanskrit drama had taken a settled form long before the origin

of the Mṛcchakatiko.

The oldest Sanskrit dramas known to us are of an entirely

different kind and have no similarity with the Greek drama.

Development of a story, shortening of knots and generally

the entire characterization of the Sanskrit drama is

different from that found in Greece. The conflict in the

Sanskrit drama as opposed to the Greek is not based on

the character of the person appearing and no correct

gradation and climax of the opposition is met with in the

former. In its outer form also the Sanskrit drama is different

from the Greek. Sanskrit and several Prākṛta dialects are

employed in the Sanskrit dramas. Moreover, there is no

internal connection whatever between the Greek and the

Sanskrit dramas. The Greek tragedy belongs to the classical

type and the Sanskrit drama is by universal assent admitted

to be romantic.

It has been suggested that ‘yavanikāpatanam’ in a Sanskrit

play has a significant derivative relation to the word

‘yavana’, which name the Indians gave to the Greeks.

While dealing with the question of the origin of yavanikā in

Chapter IV of this book it will be shown that it was not in

the least borrowed from Greece.

Bloch1 believes that he has found support for the Greek

hypothesis in the arrangement of the theatre in the Sītā-

beṅgā cave. He sees in it the imitation of a Greek theatre.

But the points of resemblance are extremely meagre as

there is no arrangement here of prosinium or orchestra as

in the Greek theatre.

To conclude, there is nothing in Indian plays to corres-

pond to the high shoes and limitation in the number of

1. ‘Archaeological Survey of India Report,’ 1903-1904, pp. 123-132.

[ 10 ]

characters that might appear at the sāme time on the stage or the observance of the unities, especially those of time and place. In these respects Indian plays are more analogous to those of Elizabethan England. No importance can be attached to the parallelism between the vidūṣaka who is a Brāhmaṇa and the confidential slave of the Greek stage. Thus they belong to two opposite schools, totally alien to each other in composition, taste and sentiment. Dr. Horace H. Wilson1 declares emphatically 'Whatever may be the merits or defects of the Hindu drama, it may be safely asserted that they do not spring from the same parent, but are unmixedly its own'. Thus the theory of Greek origin is entirely without any foundation and we can say without hesitation that the Sanskrit drama had an indigenous origin entirely free from any foreign influence.

The argument put forward by MM Haraprasāda Sāstrī2 in support of the Maypole theory is that the first Indian play is stated to have been produced at the 'Indradhvaja festival' in which a pole plays a prominent part as the object of worship. This suggested to him the Maypole dance of Europe. He therefore held that the origin of the Indian drama was to be connected with the ceremonies associated with spring festivities coming after the end of the dreary and lifeless winter. Unhappily for this theory, the 'Indradhvaja festival' comes at the end of the rains and indicates Indra's victory over clouds represented as demons.

Dr. Ridgeway's3 theory of the 'cult of the dead' and Dr. Keith's4 'vegetation spirit' theory are equally unfounded. Dr. Ridgeway says that there is a feeling of respect for the

1. Wilson: 'Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hindus', I. XI.

2. Journal and proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, V, pp. 351-361.

3. Ridgeway: 'The Dramas and Dramatic Dances of Non-European Races', P. 211; Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1916, pp. 821-829.

4. Keith; 'Sanskrit Drama', pp. 37-38.

[A]

departed heroes. But Sanskrit dramas are mostly erotic

in sentiment and descriptions of the heroic sentiment

end with the hero's satisfaction in getting the heroine. As

to the 'vegetation spirit' theory, Keith himself could not

maintain the view.

Pischel1 of Germany advances the 'puppet show' theory saying that puppet dance first originated in India.

Puppets are mentioned in Sanskrit literature frequently.

The stage manager in Indian plays is called 'sūtradhāra' [string holder]. This has suggested to Dr. Pischel the theory that

the Indian play was in origin a puppet show. The theory falls flat when we realize that naturally men must have acquired

the art of acting, dancing and speaking in a dramaturgic form before making a show on the stage through puppets.

Moreover this theory is wrongly based on the word sūtradhāra, for the word means a person who in brief and in the form of aphorism describes the plot, hero and sentiment

employed in the drama.

Prof. Luders4 is the exponent of the 'shadow play' theory

Ancient India had also shadow plays wherein moving shadows thrown upon a curtain from behind formed the action of the plot. The shadow Sītā introduced in the Uttararāmacarita

acquired a new theatrical value from this point of view. But we find no reference of chāyānātaka in dramaturgic works

Hence this theory cannot be regarded as explaining the origin of the Indian drama.

Legendary traditions thus indicate that the genesis of the drama lie in the Vedas where all its ingredients, song dance, dialogue and some sort of acting as well are found

They also bring out the fact that the Sanskrit drama was

1. Keith: 'Sanskrit Drama', P. 52; Pischel: 'Die Heimat des puppenspiels', [1902].

2. Mahābhārata, V. 39. 1, p. 179; Bālarāmāyana, V. p. 251.

3. BP X. p. 288, LL. 7-8.

4. Keith: 'Sanskrit Drama', p. 53; Luders: 'Sitzungsberichte der Konigl. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin.' 1916, pp. 698 ff.

5. URC II

introduced to provide a source of pleasure to people of all

castes. The Vedic ritual contained in itself the germs of the

drama as is the case with practically every form of primitive

worship. The ritual did not consist merely of the singing of

songs or recitations in honour of gods; it involved a complete

round of ceremonies in some of which was undoubtedly present

an element of dramatic art. Performers of rites assumed

for the time being personalities other than their own. In a

sense, therefore, it may be said that the Indian drama has

its origin in the Vedic period. However, there is not the

slightest evidence that the essential synthesis and develop-

ment of plot which constitute a true drama were made in the

Vedic Age. On the contrary there is every reason to believe

that it was through the use of the epic recitation that the

latent possibilities of the drama were made patent. From

a study of the Arthaśāstra and the kamasūtra it becomes

evident that in their times the science of stage-craft was highly

developed and that the naṭas were employed by kings for

amusement and for state work. In the Mahābhāsya there is

effective evidence on the existence of a drama and it may

be concluded safely that the Indian drama attained its full

form by the time of Patañjali. Bharata and the commentary

of Abhinavagupta remain the principal authorities on the

ancient stage. Distinct evidence for the presentation of

plays is available in the dramas of Aśvaghoṣa and Bhāsa.

It has been seen clearly that the different theories such

as 'Greek' theory, 'May-pole' theory, theory of the 'cult of

the dead', 'vegetation spirit' theory and theories of 'puppet

and shadow play' are not tenable and cannot explain the

origin of the Sanskrit drama as a whole but deal with its

individual aspects only.

Thus it can be asserted that the Indian drama is a

product of centuries; it was an organism that was continually

in a process of evolution, assimilating into itself many new

and foreign factors and yet preserving its own peculiar

individuality.

CHAPTER II

SANSKRIT PLAYS

A. Significance

According to Bharata, when the peculiarities of life in

a society are connected with certain gestures or when the

actions of gods, ṛsis and kings are represented on the stage it

is a dramatic play.1 This fact is corroborated by the Daśarūpa,

the Rasārṇavasudhākara and the Sāhityadarpana. According

to the Daśarūpa, the drama is the imitation of situations.

It is a show because it is seen. It is a representation

due to the assumption of parts by actors.2 According to the

Sāhityadarpana, poetry is of two sorts—poetry to be seen

and heard, and poetry to be heard only. Of these,

'visible poetry' is that which can be represented, and

this is called rūpaka, from the assumption of form

[ rūpa ] by the actors.3 In the Rasārṇavasudhākara the term

rūpaka is applied to a play on the analogy of rūpaka or

metaphor, because in a play we assume a non-distinction

between characters and the actors representing them.4 The

Nāṭakalakṣaṇaratnakośa defines a play as a performance which

can be dramatised by gestures.5 In a commentary on the

Anargharāghava, the drama is defined as the representation

by gestures of the condition of people as affected by their

pleasurable and unpleasurable feelings.6

In dṛśya kāvyas the audience enjoys something more

than the words uttered by actors and actresses on a stage.

This something consists of the emotion and its intensity

1. NS-KM XVIII. 10-13 ; KSS XX, 10-13 ; GOS XVIII.

10-13.

2. DR I. 7.

3. SD VI. 1-2.

4. RS III, LL. 1-5, p. 209.

5. NLR LL. 8-9, p.1.

6. AR I, commentary p. 9. Here śloka is attributed to Bharata

[ 14 ]

expressed in their intonations, the presentation of their character istic features under the stress of different emotiions, the "temperament" of actors putting an original significance into the lifeless words of the drama, the dress and the decoration of the stage producing an illusion about actual life in different periods and countries.

B. Object

Abhinaya or acting is the representation of high and low characters on the stage under suitable guises. The successful drama should contain suggestiveness in order to conform to the highly cultivated dhvani [ suggestion ] theory of the Sanskrit critics. The finer the suggestion, the higher the enjoyment.1

A representation is to reflect the life of the world as in a mirror. Bharata lays down that all arts and sciences are to be met with there.2 The purpose of a play like that of all poetry is to please and 'to instruct in a pleasing manner in the style of a loving wife,' as Mammata puts it3. The aim of combined pleasure and instruction is to be achieved by inspiring various sentiments [ rasas ] in the audience while the actors imitate the different situations of life in the midst of diverse actions. Bharata says that a plot which has 64 divisions and sub-divisions should get nourishment from the rasas, Bharata instructs the dramatist to bring the incidents of the plot together, each in its own place, solely with reference to the rasa appropriate to each.4 He further says that the essentials of a play, other than rasa and bhāva, are to subserve them. Of these two, bhāvas are there only to nourish and develop rasa. The elements that help us in realizing the main import of a play brought by means of acting are

1. KP I. 3, p. 19; Dhvanyāloka śloka I, p. 9.

2. NS–KM I. 77b-8a; KSS I. 108-114a; GOS I. 112a118a;

3. KP I. 2, P. 6.

4. NS–KM XIX. 52b-53a, 98b-99a ; KSS XXI. 58, 106,

called bhāvas. The bhāvas secure for us [ bhāvayanti ] the

sentiments [ rasān ] which are the very soul of a play.1

Each of the essentials of a play will be taken separately

and it will be shown that they are all used in the Sanskrit

play only to subserve the rasas.

While giving the etymology of abhinaya, Bharata says

that abhinaya is certainly the most prominent of all, as that

is indispensable helping us to visualise the main import

of play Abhinaya has four aspects: the sāttvika [ tem-

perament ], the vācika [ words ], the āṅgika [ gestures ] and

the āhārya [ dresses and make-up ]. On examination it is

found that each of these aspects subserves the highest

dramatic end of the development and manifestation of rasa.2

Bharata emphasizes dramatic realism and idealism under

the heading dharmī. Lokadharmī stands for realism in drama

and nāṭyadharmī for idealism As the drama is a representation

of the world, Bharata just emphasizes propriety in the

presentation of life on the stage. Each act performed, word

uttered and garment worn must all be in agreement with

what is actually found in life. Thus the representation of

life on the stage by the dramatist is realistic. It is

lokadharmī.3

It is the duty of the dramatist to see that his truths are

imaginative truths, not actual truths, that his representations

are ideal and not photographic. The exhaustive treatment

of selection and reticence, dialogue, music, dancing and the

minute turns of gesture and expression and other devices

on the stage make-up adopted by the artist to idealise facts and

help the onlooker to imagine things of his experience

and things outside it—all these come within the scope of

the nāṭyadharmī [ conventional ]. Moreover, if anything used

by people, appears in a play as endowed with a corporal

form and speech, we have what is called nāṭyadharmī.4

1. NS—KM VI. 10, 35, VII. P. 69 Prose; KSS VI. 10, 34,

VII, P. 69 Prose; GOS VI. 10, 38, VII. P. 343 Prose.

2. NS—KM and KSS VIII. 6-9; GOS VIII. 7-10.

3. NS—KM XIII. 50-52; KSS XIV. 69-71; GOS XIII. 70-72.

4. NS—KM XIII. 53-62; KSS XIV. 72-81; GOS XIII. 73-85.

[ 16 ]

Thus the drama is the result of the direct intellectual observation of life by the playwright and his artistic imagination. The end of all these means is manifestly the realization of emotional pleasure by the spectators.

Bharata insists on the dramatist making his characters employ the speech, dress, manners and conduct that are theirs. Local usages regarding costumes, languages, manners and professions differ in the different countries of the world. They are the pravritti or local colour in drama.1

The mental disposition of particular personages in particular situations is their vrtti. There are four vrttis: bhāratī, that which is brought out in words; sātvati, that which is disclosed in conduct, kaiśiki, that which consists of mildness and delicacy and ārabhatī, that which consists of vigorous, strong or even violent words and actions. Bharata details the rasas enjoyed by the spectator in each of these forms of vrtti and says that vrttis are the constituent elements of all dramas and that the ten kinds of dramatic composition are considered to have proceeded from these.2

Bharata deals elaborately with what ought to be the effect of the stage representation on the spectator. The penetrating onlooker must be made to forget himself and his own identity in his absorption in what happens on the stage. Involuntary expressions of appreciation must come from his lips and he must jump to heights of joy or shed tears in uncontrollable sorrow.3

According to Bharata, music, vocal and instrumental is a powerful aid in the realization of rasa by the spectator. He tells us how music aids the spectator's realization of rasa and serves to concentrate his attention on the representation of a play on the stage.4

1. NS—KM XIII. 25b, c and Prose P. 147; KSS XIV. 36b, c and Prose P. 165; GOS XIII. 37 and Prose PP. 205-207.

2. NS—KM XVIII. 4-9a; KSS XX. 4-9a; GOS XVIII. 4-9a; ND I, III. 103, PP. 11, 152.

3. NS—KM and KSS XXVII. 1-18a.

4. NS—KM XXXVI. 16a; KSS XXXVI. 20a,

3

[ 17 ]

Bharata also deals with the acoustic and other arrangements of the theatre and says that there should be nothing in the theatre to hinder the spectators' sight and hearing, and to obstruct in their maximum enjoyment of the emotional pleasure.1

As everything employed in a Sanskrit play points to the arousing of rasa in the spectator, it becomes essential for us to understand the nature, process and essence of rasa very clearly.

Bharata describes the nature of rasa as follows. What are known in ordinary language as causes, effects and auxiliaries of the latent emotion of love and the like come to be spoken of as excitants, ensuants and variants respectively, when found in drama and poetry, and when the latent emotion comes to be manifested by these, it is known as rasa.2 There are different theories regarding the psychological nature of rasa.

Bhatta-Lollata holds the theory of production [utpattivada] which is allied to the Mimamsa school of philosophy. According to it, the sentiment is generated in the personated character and secondarily recognized in the personating actor. The naṭa imitates the original hero and becomes the source of charm to the audience. This theory is open to objection as Bhatta-Lollata fails to recognize that the sentiment must be in the spectator, otherwise he cannot enjoy it.

Sri-Sankuka's theory which is based on inference is called anumitivada and is affiliated to the Nyaya school. According to this doctrine rasa is inferred to exist in the actor, though not really present in him. The emotion, thus inferred, and then sensed by the audience, adds to itself a peculiar charm and fully develops into a sentiment in the spectator. In this theory the actor is identified with the original hero in the same way as the idea of a 'horse' that one has in regard to the picture of a

1. NS-KM II, 24; KSS II, 21; GOS II, 24.

2. NS-KM VI. Prose, P. 62; KSS VI, Prose, P. 71; GOS VI, Prose, PP. 274-289.

horse [ citraturaganyāya]. The objection to this view is that

it is not inference but perception and feeling that add charm.

Bhatta-Nāyaka's theory is based on the threefold

potency of a piece of poetry and is related to the Sāñkhya

philosophy. According to him, the sentiment is due

neither to production [ utpatti ], nor apprehension [ pratīti ].

"What happens is that in potery and drama words are

endowed with a peculiar presentative potency, distinct

from direct denotation [ and indirect indication ]—which

tends to generalize the excitants, ensuants and variants, and

thereby presents to consciousness the 'latent emotion,' which

thereupon comes to be relished by a process of delectation

abounding in enlightment and bliss, due to the plenitude of the

quality of harmony [ sattva ]". According to this view the

relishing of rasa is the outcome of the purely verbal process

of 'generalized presentation.' This is open to the objection

that it makes the unwarrantable assumption of what is called

verbal process.

Finally, we come to the view of Abhinavagupta who

holds that a new potentiality like 'bhojakatva' [ power of

enjoyment ] as enunciated by Bhatta-Nāyaka is not neces-

sary. Its work can be done by suggestion [ vyanjanā ].

Abhinavagupta's theory is rasa-abhivyaktivāda [ theory of

the manifestation of rasa ]. The sentiments already exist

in the form of saṁskāras [predisposition] in the minds of the

cultured [sahrdaya] spectators. It is aroused by the witnessing

of a dramatic performance, or on hearing a poem.

The actions of Arjuna will excite the heroic sentiment.

The explanation offered by Abhinavagupta is as follows:

"In the mind of such spectators as are proficient in the

art of feeling emotion, a particular emotion is already

present in the form of a 'pre-disposition'; thus lying latent,

it becomes patently manifested by such agencies as the

feminine figure and such other objects which, in ordinary

parlance are known as 'causes', 'effects' and 'auxiliaries';

but in poetry and drama, they renounce these names by

reason of their being endowed with the faculty of exciting

[ 19 ]

and so forth, and, on this account, come to be known by

the extraordinary names of 'excitants', 'ensuants' and 'vari-

ants': These excitants and the rest are recognized in their

most generalized forms, not partaking of any restrictions

due to either the affirmation or negation of any of these

specific relationships that are involved in such conceptions

as 'this is mine' or 'this is my enemy's,' or 'this belongs to

a disinterested person' [ where specific relationship is affir-

med ] or 'this is not mine,' 'this is not my enemy's,' 'this

does not belong to a disinterested person' [ whose specific

relationship is denied ]. Though the said emotion actually

subsists in the particular spectator himself, yet by reason of

the generalized form in which it is presented, the man loses,

for the moment, all consciousness of his personality and has it

merged in the universal, and thus representing the mental

condition of all men of poetic sensibility, he apprehends the

said emotion. As it becomes manifested in its most generalized

form, it has no existence apart from its own apprehension. In

fact its essence consists in its being relished, and it lasts as

long as the excitants, ensuants and variants continue to exist.

It is relished in the same manner as a mixed beverage, and

when it is relished, it appears as if it were moving before

the eyes, entering the inmost recesses of the heart, inspiriting

the entire body, and throwing into the background every-

thing else; it makes one feel the rapturous bliss of Brahman;

the emotion thus manifested becomes the source of transcen-

dent charm and is spoken as rasa".1 Thus Sanskrit rhetoric-

ians approach the aesthetic pleasure from the point of

view of the reader or spectator, while European writers

of poetics view it from the poet's standpoint.

A distinction is drawn between sentiment [ rasa ] and

emotion [bhāva]. Emotion may be both pleasant and unpleasant

but a sentiment is always pleasurable and unique. There is

no unpleasantness in a sentiment as it is aroused through a

process of generalization [sādhāraṇīkaraṇa]. This explains why

1. KP Prose, pp. 87-95. For Translation of the passage see

'Translation of Kāvyaprakāśa' by Gaṅgānātha Jhā.

the pathetic [ karuna ] and repulsive [vibhatsa] sentiments find place in the scheme of rasa. They are unpleasant as emotion [ bhāva ] but when generalized become pure aud pleasurable [ ānandamaya ]. In this connection and against the above, Rāmacandra and Gunacandra, authors of the Nātyadarpana, observe that some rasas do produce pain while others produce pleasure. As rasas producing pain, they mention the pathetic [ karuna ], furious [raudra], repulsive [vibhatsa] and terrific [ bhayānaka ]. They assert that the statement that all scenes whether of pathos or of horror invariably cause pleasure is against experience. If pleasure is experienced in all scenes, a spectator should not be alarmed–for being alarmed is not consistent with the feeling of pleasure experienced in witnessing a scene of horror. But the spectator gets alarmed on seeing the scenes of Draupadī's or Sītā's misery. In reply to the question why people go to witness duḥkhātmaka dramas [ whose essence is sorrow ], they say that it is owing to the skill of the poet or the actor.1

But the analogy given by Rāmacandra and Guna-candra does not make any appeal. According to Abhinavagupta, aesthetic pleasure has no reference to the actual feelings common in the world of realities but to dormant mental conditions awakened under certain circumstances. A particular rasa is pleasurable not exclusively because of its nature. The erotic sentiment [śṛṅgāra] is not pleasurable because it is śṛṅgāra but because the reader or the spectator has his mind rid of distractions.2 We agree with Madhusūdana Sarasvatī who opines in this connection that the tears caused by a pathetic situation were to the original character no doubt tears of worldly sorrow [laukika] but to the spectator they were tears only of joy and absolutely transcendental [ alaukika ] in their essence.3

The Sanskrit dramas in their preludes state that the object of their presentation is the pleasure of the audience.

1. ND 109 and Prose, PP. 158-159.

2. Abh. Bh. PP. 289-290.

3. Bhagavadbhaktiraṣāyana III. 5-6, PP, 129-130.

[ 21 ]

Thus in the prelude of the Abhijñānaśākuntala, the manager explains the object of the presentation of the play to the nati clearly; 'Lady, I tell you the real truth until the wise are satisfied with the representation, I do not consider my skill in representation to be perfect. The heart of man although well instructed has no confidence in itself'.1 In the Pāravalīparinaya, the sūtradhāra tells the nati that a play is presented for the pleasure of the cultured.2 In the Dhūrtaviṭasaṃvāda, the object of presentation is said to be the pleasure of the wise and the good.3 In the Mālavikāgnimitra, it is stated that the presentation is for the gratification of all, though their tastes differ in various ways.4 Thus the object of presentation of plays is to bring satisfaction to the audience by evoking in their minds rasa, the transcendental pleasure.

C. Occasions for Enactment

Legendary tradition about the origin of the drama tells us that the practical exhibition of a drama named 'Fall of Asuras' was arranged for on the occasion of the 'Indradhvaja' festival, the sons and disciples of Bharata and gandharvas and apsarās being the actors.5 The first play was enacted on the occasion of the religious festival, the 'Indradhvaja', which comes at the end of the rains and in the beginning of autumn. According to the Abhinayadarpana, nāṭya and nrtta should be witnessed particularly at the time of a festival. Those who desire good luck should cause nrtta to be performed on such occasions as coronation, celebration by a king, a festival, a procession with an image of a god, a marriage ceremony, reception of a friend, entry into a new town or house and the birth of a son, for nrtta is auspicious.6

1. Śak Prelude, 2, P. 6.

2. Pārvatīparinaya I, 5, P. 2.

3. Dhūrtaviṭasaṃvāda prelude, p. 1.

4. Māl. I, 4, P. 7.

5. NS—KM I, 20b-25; KSS I, 54b-60; GOS I, 54-59a.

6. AD, 12b-14, P, 2.

[ 22 ]

From a close study of the introductory scenes in dramas it is evident that the plays were enacted on different occasions according to their nature. They were not only enacted at the annual fairs of temples and festivals in different seasons but were also performed at the pleasure of the poet's patron or before a learned assembly or the village people.

In the prelude of the Uttararāmacarita the sūtradhāra says "Let me address the respectable gentlemen assembled today at the fair of the divine Kālapriyamātha. Let it be known to your honours-there is, as you know well, an illustrious scion of the Kaśyapa's race, bearing the distinctive title of ‘Śrī-Kanṭha,' versed in grammar, mīmāṃsā and logic, Bhavabhūti by name and son of Jātukarṇī, a Brāhmaṇa, whom the Goddess of Speech follows like one enslaved. The Uttara-rāmacarita, a play composed by him, will now be represented."

In the prelude of the Anargharāghava the sūtradhāra states that an actor named Kalahakandala enacted a drama in the yātrā in honour of god Puruṣottama.

In the Mālavikāgnimitra, the sūtradhāra says: "I am asked by the learned audience that I should represent on the occasion of the spring festival the play Mālavikāgnimitra, the plot of which has been composed by Kālidāsa. Please therefore begin music." In the Ratnāvalī, the sūtradhāra says; "Enough of prolixity. To-day, on the occasion of the spring festival, being called with great respect by the multitude of kings, who are dependent on the lotus-like feet of our king, the illustrious Srī-Harṣa, and who have come here from regions of the various directions, I was thus addressed: "Our master, Śrī-Harṣa has composed a nāṭikā entitled

1. URC Prelude, P. 3.

2. Yātrā literally means a 'procession', and also a 'pilgrimage'. In the whole of Northern India yātrās are taken out in honour of a deity and they occupy a unique position in Bengal. Huge crowds of all sects of people move in a procession, sing and dance to the glorification of the deity in a temple, street or courtyard,

3. AR Prelude, p. 6.

4. Māl prelude, p. 2.

Ratnāvalī, graced with a novel arrangement of the plot.

We hāve heard about it from hearsay but have not seen

it acted. Out of respect, therefore, for that very king,

the gladdener of the hearts of all people, and with a mind

to favour us, the same should be enacted on the stage by

you with proper acting."1 In the Dūtāṅgada, the sūtradhāra

tells us that the Dūtāṅgada, a shadow play, may be enacted

during the spring festival in the procession of Śrīkumārapāla-

deva.2

In the Vikramorvaśīya, the sūtradhāra says, "Oh

Māriṣa ! this assembly has very often witnessed the plays of

former poets. I shall, therefore, bring on the stage to-day a

new play known as the Vikramorvaśīya. Let the company of

actors be told that they should be very careful about their

respective parts. Actor: As you command, Sir. Sūtradhāra:

I shall now announce to the honourable gentlemen here

with a bow. Either out of curiosity for us, your humble

petitioners, or out of respect for the excellent hero of

the plot, you will please listen with attentive minds to

this play of Kālidāsa."3 In the Prabodhacandrodaya, the sūtradh-

āra says: "We want to enact the play with the action in

which the quietistic sentiment plays an important part. You

should enact the drama, the Prabodhacandrodaya, in front of

the king, Kirtivarma. The king wishes to see the play with

his associates. The king, who has entered the path of

Sāntapatha for his own pleasure, has ordered me to enact

this drama. Therefore, instruct the naṭas to dress themselves

according to the theme."4 The sūtradhāra in the Kundamālā says

"I have been commanded by the audience that I should

stage Kundamālā, the work of the revered poet Diṅnāga,

resident of Arāṭālapura. So having called the noble lady

[ wife ] rendering co-operation in the performance of this

1. Rat prelude, p. 5.

2. Dūtāṅgada p. 2.

3. Vik prelude, p. 3.

4. Prabodhacandrodaya prologue, pp. 13-14.

dramatic composition I betake myself to the stage."1 In

the Kirātārjunīyavyāyoga [ military spectacle ] it is stated that

the drama was enacted at the pleasure of the king.2

Certain plays were enacted only for the amusement of

the village people. The Mahānāṭaka is the best and the only

preserved drama which was improvised by village artists.3

We find explanation for this when we consider that these are

also the prominent features of the yātrās of the modern days.

The view of Wilson and some other European scholars

with regard to the occasion of the enactment of Sanskrit

plays is as follows:

'The dramatic entertainments of the Hindus essentially

differed from those of Modern Europe in the infrequency

of their representation. They seem to have been enacted

only on solemn or public occasions. In this respect they

resembled the dramatic performances of the Athenians, which

took place at distant intervals, and especially at the spring

and autumnal festivals of Bacchus.'4

But in this connection our view is different from that of

the European scholars. Though the occasions mentioned by

the authorities on Sanskrit dramaturgy are of infrequent occur-

rence, the mention of the theatre for general people and

regular troupe of actors and actresses and also the reflection

from the preludes of dramas as to their enactment at the will

of the poet's patron at any time of the year, shows that they

were kept in regular occupation by more frequent representa-

ion than what is generally considered.

D. Places for Performance

The theatre is a place specially designed and equipped

or the presentation of plays. The various terms used in

anskrit for the theatre are nāṭyagrha, nāṭyamaṇḍapa, prekṣāgrha

r prekṣāgāra. The drama and the theatre point to each other's

1. Kundamālā prelude, p. 7.

2. Kirātārjunīyavyāyoga prologue, p. I.

3. Mahānāṭaka 1.5.

4. Wilson: 'Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hindus' I. XIII-XIV.

mutual existence and a dramatic work becomes most impressive when it is enacted on the stage. They constitute a very important chapter in the social and cultural history of a nation.

The Mṛcchakaṭika gives a more graphic description of the ancient Indian society than any other work of that time.

The ancient Indian kings had pleasure gardens, theatres and music halls attached to their spacious palaces, genetally for the entertainment of their queens. Play-wrights and regularly appointed professors and actors were patronised by them.

Histrionics, music and dancing were a part of the education of the high-born ladies. In the Mālavikāgnimitra, Gaṇadāsa and Haradatta were appointed professors and Mālavikā was taught not only dancing but also histrionics.1

In the Śilparatna2, the Kāvyamīmāṃsā3 and the Saṅgītamakaranda4 there is reference to a palace theatre. From the seating arrangement of the theatre described in the Saṅgītaratnākara it is clear that it belonged to a king.

The audience consisted of men of education, culture and artistic sense, such as kings, queens, ministers, court-poets and courtiers.

From an account given in the Saṅgītaratnākara the following information is available: The music hall was decorated in a unique manner.

It was furnished with flowers, flags and jewelled pillars. The president, generally the king, took his seat on a beautiful lion throne in the middle of the auditorium.

To his left, court ladies of the harem were seated, but the chief queens were provided seats to his right.

Behind these chief queens, seats for the chief treasury officers were arranged. Close thereto, honoured astronomers, astrologers, physicians, psychologists, humorous poets and people conversant with a tradition were seated.

To the right of the chief queens were the seats for ministers and military officers of high rank. Fashionable men and women were seated in such a manner as to surround the ladies of the court.

Just behind the king youthful

1. Māl. II 8.

2. ŚR I. XXXIX 35-36a, p. 199.

3. Kāvyamīmāṃsā Prose, pp. 54-55.

4. Saṅgītamakaranda I. 2-7, p. 27.

and beautiful women guards, wearing twinkling bracelets and holding beautiful chowries, were to occupy their places.

Forward guards were seated to the left, having in front the vocal singers,conversationalists, bards and experts in panegyric.

Seats for members of the royal family were provided in the surrounding places. Then there were seats for dexterous guards holding canes.

Armed body-guards used to stand in the four corners of the theatre. In the above manner the audience was provided seats and thus the king used to see the performance.

In this type of ancient theatre1, a diagram of which is given herein, there appears to be no place for the general public.

This is apparently a theatre in the palace itself.

In the Mānasāraśilpaśāstra, there is a reference to the seating arrangement in a temple theatre as also in a palace theatre.

Theatres are said to have been built in continuation of the open courtyard, linking the tank or shed in the temple and the palace.

In the theatre the divine and royal thrones and seats made of wood, stone and brick were arranged in compartments partitioned by low sliding walls.2

Most of the celebrated temples in India had nāṭa-mandiras where dancers and actors propitiated the god or goddess through the representation of their art.

The name nāṭamandira is significant as pointing to the existence of temple theatres.

Paid women dancers were employed in all rich temples and dramas in praise of a deity were represented in festivals.

The Uttararāmacarita was enacted at the annual yātrā in honour of Kālapriyanātha.3

In some of the temples even now dances are prominent items of the daily programme after the evening offerings to the gods.

Devadāsīs dance in temples in Jagannāthapurī and south India even these days.

In ancient India places, halls or yards, were specially provided in temples for dancing, music and recitations.

In the Kailāśa

1. SR VII, 1351-1361a. For diagram See p. 27.

2. MS XLVII. 1-17, pp. 308-309.

3. URC prelude, p. 3.

[

27

]

Diagram

showing

the

seating

arrangement

in

a

PALACE

THEATRE

according

to

S.R.

STAGE

temple at Ellora caves a nāṭamandira hall is easily noticeable. These nāṭamandiras were meant for priests, sādhus, religious and learned men.

Plays were presented to the general public in open courtyards and on improvised stages. The stage was temporarily built and so, evidently, its paraphernalia was very simple.

There was preponderance of singing and dancing and of the comic element. The Māhānāṭaka is the only available drama of this species. The general setting is given by the poet with some excellent poetry. Dialogue is improvised by the actors and actresses.

It is easily understood because the subjects are taken from the Rāmāyaṇa, the Mahābhārata or the Purāṇas. The religious or mythological theme of the Mahānāṭaka, its epic or narrative character, the imperfect nature of its dialogues, its descriptive passages interspersed with elaborate and vivid stage directions, its charms like vaitālika vākyas, its length and extended working out of the story—all these peculiarities find natural explanation when we consider that these are also the prominent features of the yātrās.

As the imperfect dialogues and narrative passages were frequently supplemented by the improvisation of the players it is not surprising that a work meant for such performances increased in bulk, incorporating into itself fine poetic passages from various sources.

CHAPTER III

CONSTRUCTION OF

THE THEATRE

A. Types and Measurements

A detailed account of the interior arrangement of the theatre is given by Bharata. Later authorities also furnish details which show that the main features described by Bharata were adhered to in later times.

According to the Nātyaśāstra, the Śilparatna and the Bhāva-prakāśana, the play-house as made ready for performance may be of three types. The Viṣnudharmottara1 states that the theatre might be of two types, rectangular and square. The square theatres, according to it, should be 32×32 hastas [ cubits ] in area.

In Sanskrit texts dealing with architecture, dimensions of all kinds of buildings are comparative and suggestive and can be altered to suit the requirements of the various kinds of structures. The Śilparatna says that the play-house may be of two or rather three types, divided into four equal parts, either by drawing lines lengthwise or breadthwise externally or from top to bottom, every part or two parts being separated by pillars for the audience and the fourth part, left for the stage proper.2

The architectural details of the nāṭyamaṇḍapa are very clearly laid down in the Nāṭyaśāstra. There are three types of play-house—vikṛṣṭa [ rectangular ], caturasra [ square ] and tryasra [ triangular ].

The Bhāvaprakāśana reads vṛtta in place of vikṛṣṭa,3 but no structural details are given there. One has therefore to rely on the three types given in the Nāṭyaśāstra—vikṛṣṭa.

1. VD III. 20. 4.

2. ŚR I. XXXIX. 60-67, pp. 201-202.

3. BP X. p. 295, LL. 9-18.

caturasra and tryasra.1 The vikrṣṭa is a rectangular theatre according to Abhinavagupta.2

He notes two views about the varieties of theatres. According to one opinion, vikrṣṭa is jyeṣṭha, caturasra is madhya and tryasra is avara. The other divides each of the first type into jyeṣṭha, madhya and avara, thus getting nine types which when measured in hastas and daṇḍas would be eighteen.

Abhinavagupta accepts this opinion and propounds clearly his view about the nine divisions of the theatre. But we should accept the three types of the theatre as they are referred to at various places and are actually defined in the Nāṭyaśāstra.

The only question which arises is that at one place the Nāṭyaśāstra states that jyeṣṭha is 108 hastas, madhya is 64 hastas and kaniya is 32 hastas, and at another place 64×32 hastas is said to be the measurement of the vikrṣṭa type and 32×32 hastas of the caturasra type.

Thus no clear indication about the measurement of the avara type is available. It is therefore difficult to establish any connection between the two statements.

So, to harmonise the statements, it can be said that there were nine varieties, or even eighteen varieties of theatres taking the hasta and the daṇḍa measurements into consideration as stated by Abhinavagupta.

Though Abhinavagupta himself feels that so many divisions have no purpose to serve, yet he refers to them only to maintain a particular standpoint.3

From the Nāṭyaśāstra one can find that the jyeṣṭha type is specially meant for gods, madhya for kings and avara for ordinary people.

Abhinavagupta says that the jyeṣṭha theatre may be used for dramas where gods are heroes, as in Dima, the madhya when kings are heroes, as in Prakaraṇa, and

1. NS-KM II. 8-14; KSS II. 7-11; GOS II. 7-14. In GOS and KM editions, verses 13 and 14 are repeated. The repeated verses in GOS are numbered as 25 and 26 while in KM they are not numbered but written between verses 24 and 25.

2. Abh Bh. I. p. 50.

3. Abh. Bh. I. pp. 50-51.

the avara when ordinary men are heroes as in Bhāṇa and Prahasana.1

When we consider the verse of the Nāṭyaśāstra ‘Pramāṇam Eṣām nirdiṣṭam hastadaṇḍasamāśrayam’2 we find that measurement for the building of theatres was dependent upon the conception of hasta and daṇḍa. What are these measurements ? The Nāṭyaśāstra accepts that the smallest measure is aṇu [ atom ]. The table of measurement according to this authority is as follows. Eight aṇus make one raja [ cardust ], eight rajas one bāla [ hairend ], eight bālas one likṣā [ nit ], eight likṣās one yūkā [ louse ], eight yavas [ barley ], eight yavas one aṅgula, 24 aṅgulas one hasta, four hastas one daṇḍa.3 This list substantially agrees with the one given in the Arthasāstra of kautilya.

From the Mānasāraśilpaśāstra we find that aṅgula [ finger breadth ] and the hasta [ cubit ] measures are in fact of the same category. The finger breadth, equivalent to three-fourths of an inch, is perhaps the earliest unit of measure. It has its own defects, namely, the finger of two persons is hardly of equal breadth and the length of the finger of a person is liable to change owing to various natural causes. Apparently with a view to avoid these defects the finger breadth is ascertained by the measure of certain other objects, atom, cardust, hairend, nit, louse and barley grain. The largest finger breadth is stated to be equal to eight barley grains, the intermediate of seven barley grains and the smallest of six barley grains.4 The aṅgula measure is practically the same in almost all Sanskrit works, such as the Arthaśāstra5, bearing on the subject.

The measuring tape should be made of kārpāsa, vādara valkala or muñja and must have no joints. Wise people

1. Abb. Bh. I. pp. 51-52.

2. NS–KM II. 10a; KSS II. 9a; GOS II. 9a.

3. NS–KM II. 15-19; KSS II. 12-16; GOS II. 15-19.

4. MS II. 20-32, pp. 4-5.

5. AS I. XX. p. 263.

5

[ 33 ]

should employ such thread as cannot be broken. The tape should be handled carefully.1

In constructing a play-house it is necessary, according to Bharata, that the soil should be first examined. It must be even, steady, hard and black or white. The whole field must be ploughed and bones, nails, skulls and such other things taken out. Then in the pusya constellation it must be measured with a white string. After the foundation walls have been constructed the pillars may be erected in the Rohini or the Sravana constellation. Emphasis is thus laid on the selection of hard land, on its purification from bones and bushes and on fixing definite boundaries with a thread, so that the prescribed measurements are adhered to.2

The standard theatre [nātyavesman] is a rectangular building, 64 cubits in length and 32 cubits in breadth, marked out into two equal divisions, the auditorium [raṅgamandala] and the stage [raṅgabhūmi]. The stage is divided into two equal parts—the front and the rear, the latter being the green room. The front part is again divided into two equal parts. Of these two parts the one behind is the head of the stage [raṅgasīrṣa] and the front part is the stage proper where a play is acted. On both sides of the stage proper, two mattavāraṇis, equal in measure to the stage, are constructed. It is clear from the diagram of the rectangular theatre that the auditorium is thus 32×32 cubits, the front stage 8×16 cubits, the back stage 8×32 cubits and the green room 16×32 cubits.8 Abhinavagupta gives two views on the measurements of the stage proper. According to one view, it was 16 cubits in length and 8

1. NS—KM II. 30b-34: KSS II. 28b-32; GOS II. 31-34. Here in GOS numbering is wrong: 31, 32, 33 are repeated.

2. NS—KM II. 27-30a; KSS II. 24-28a, 46a; GOS II. 29-33a, 48a. Here in GOS numbering is wrong, The numbers 31, 32, 33 are repeated but the verses are different.

3. NS—KM II. 36-37, 57-58, 74b; KSS II. 34b-36a, 64b-66a, 69-70, 86b; GOS II. 36b-38a, 66b-68a. 71, 72, 90a, For diagram see p. 35.

cubits in breadth, and according to the other, it was 8

cubits in length and 16 cubits in breadth.1

The caturasra type of theatre is 32 cubits in length and

32 cubits in breadth.2 Abhinavagupta quotes Saṅkuka's opinion

on the divisions of the caturasra theatre. He states: The

whole field 32×32 cubits should be divided lengthwise and

breadthwise into eight equal parts, thus making 64 squares

as is done in a chessboard. The raṅgapīṭha should be in the

four inner squares. In this type the mattavāraṇīs will be

8×8 cubits each and the raṅgaśīrṣa 8×8 cubits [ or 8×32

cubits as there are no walls on the breadth line]. The size of

the nepathyagrha is 4×32 cubits and that of the auditorium

12×32 cubits. This type is also shown in the diagram of

the caturasra theatre.3

The tryasra theatre is in the form of an equilateral

triangle. It is divided into eight parts on each side and

from each dividing point lines are drawn parallel to

those on the side of the equilateral triangle. Thus 64 triangles

are formed. In four triangles in the middle the raṅgapīṭha

is constructed. Behind the raṅgapīṭha is placed the

raṅgaśīrṣa in five triangles [ or 13 triangles in the absence of

walls ] and the nepathyagrha in 15 triangles. Each of the

mattavāraṇīs is constructed in eight triangles. The remaining

triangles are reserved for the audience. This is illustrated

in the diagram of the tryasra type.4 But no exact measurement

of this type of theatre is available in the Nāṭyaśāstra or

the Abhinavabhāratī.

B. Raṅgapitha and Decoration

The height of the theatre invariably depended on the

type of the play to be presented in it. Theatres were

constructed in two storeys having the shape of a mountain

1. Abh. Bh. I, p. 58.

2. NS—KM II, 75-77, 84b-89; KSS II, 87-89, 96b-101; GOS II.

90b-93a, 100-105a

3. Abh. Bh. I. p. 66, For diagram See p. 39.

4. NS—KM II, 90-93a; KSS II, 102-104; GOS II. 105b-108, For

diagram see p. 43.

presenting a change an actor would walk on the stage and take rounds as required by distance.

We may take the Mṛcchakaṭika as an example to illustrate the use of kaksyās on the stage.

In the Mṛcchakaṭika Cārudatta and Maitreya after attending a music concert come to their house. Maitreya says: ‘Well, here is our house. Vardhamānaka, open the door.’

Vardhamānaka says: ‘I hear the voice of the noble Maitreya. The noble Cārudatta has come. So I will open the door for him.’ [ He does so ]. Entering the house they both go to sleep.

Now Śarvilaka enters the stage and looks at the sky joyfully: ‘Why, the moon is setting’. He feels the wall, finds it deteriorated. He measures and surveys the wall with his sacred thread. A snake bites him. He binds his finger with his sacred thread and acts the manifest effect of poison.

He resumes his work shoving in a dummy man at first. With that he enters the house and looking before him says: ‘I see there are two persons sleeping here. All right, I shall open the door as a defensive measure. But hark, the door squeaks as the house is very old. Let me go in search of water. Now where can water be found ?’ [ He goes about in search, brings water and sprinkles it on the door and enters the house and takes ornaments ].

Radanikā [ entering ] ‘Oh, alas, Vardhamānaka is sleeping in the outer rooms’. Śarvilaka wants to kill Radanikā, leaves her because of her being a woman and escapes.

She wakes Maitreya and Cārudatta.

From the above incident one can anticipate the existence of a door on the stage, but in reality there was none. It was all done with gestures. Only Maitreya and Cārudatta enter one kaksyā from another kaksyā. Then Śarvilaka searches for water and brings it.1 Of course, as described

1. Mṛch III. pp. 69-77.

in the Nāṭyaśāstra he must have come the same way through which he might have gone out. Vardhamānaka is said to be sleeping in the outer room when really he might have been sleeping in another kaksyā.

Further, in the same drama a court-scene is represented. Śodhanaka, a court peon, enters and says: 'Officials of the court have commanded me, Śodhanaka, go to the court and lay the seats.' I shall just go to the hall of justice to keep it really. [He walks a few steps and looks before him]. Here is the hall of justice. I will enter. [ He enters and sweeps it and spreads a carpet ]. I have swept the hall of justice and laid the seats. So I shall just go back to the officials to tell them about it. [ He walks a few steps and looks before him ]. 'What ? It is that bad man, the king's brother-in-law, who is coming this way. So I shall avoid his sight and go in another direction.' [ He stands away:

Now enters Samisthānaka, gorgeously dressed. Samisthānaka walks a few steps and looks before him ]. 'Here it is the hall of justice. I shall enter.' [ He enters and looks round ]. 'Why, the seats have been placed. The court officials will come in a moment. I shall take my seat here in this grassy quadrangle and wait.' [ He does so. Śodhanaka walks in another direction and looks before him ]. 'Here come the officials of the court, I will approach them.' [ He approaches them ].

[ Enters the Judge accompanied by the Mayor, the clerk and others ]. Śodhanaka: Please come your Lordship, come this way, please. [ They walk a few steps ]. Here is the hall of justice. May your Lordship enter.' [ They all enter ].

Judge: 'Good Śodhanaka, go out and see if there are any petitioners.'

Śodhanaka goes out and Samisthānaka places his complaint before the judge.

[ 45 ]

Cārudatta and Vasantasenā's mother are called. And the petition is considered.1

From the above it is quite clear that the carpet is spread in the court and the seats are arranged. This is one division [ kaksyā ]. Samsthānaka waits for the officials to come outside the court hall. He is in another division of the stage [ dvitīyā kaksyā ]. The judge, accompanied by the Mayor, the clerk and others, enters. The judge is naturally in front of them all and then others enter according to their rank. The servant who goes out to call Cārudatta and Vasantasenā's mother might have brought them the same way as he had gone.

The use of kaksyās can be shown with reference to other dramas also. Thus from the testimony of the Nātyaśāstra and the actual incidents in the Mṛcchakaṭika, we find that the stage could be used to represent a place where persons sleep and court scenes are enacted and that it was divided into as many apartments [ kaksyās ] as the plot required.

Theatres were decorated with all the oriental splendour, colour and brilliance. The front portion of the stage used to be built of wood and richly decorated with wooden carvings. Garlands were hung on it and ornamental arches added to its grace. The mandapa had windows. The wood work was polished and the walls white washed before pictures were painted on them. The wood work had ūha [ an additional moulding-upper-most portion of a column ], pratyūha [ a supporting member, lowest-most portion of a column ], sañjavana [ quadrangle ], vyāla [ an arch marked with leograph ], salabhañjikā [ an image or figure made of śāla wood i. e. statuettes ], nirvyūhā [ a cross circle ], kuṭhara [ interior window ], vedikā [ pedestal ], yantra [ an architectural member of the bedstead, a band ], jāla [ a latticed window ], gavākṣa [ windows resembling the cow's eye ] piṭha [ pedestal, a pavement ] dharani [ a kind of tree on which pillars are constructed ] kapatāli [ a dove-cote, crown

1. Mṛch IX. pp. 193-197.

work, fillet ] and kuṭṭima [ a pavement ] and stambha

[ column ]. Thus it is decorated with various columns.

After the wood work, come the walls. The column, nāga-

danta [ a kind of window resembling the hood of a cobra ],

vātāyana [ window ], koṇa [ a class of building ], pratidvāra

[ moulding of the base or column of a door ], dvāra [ door,

a gate ] should not come opposite a door leading to the

rangapīṭha.1 Dr. A. K. Coomaraswamy notes some changes

of meaning in the terms quoted above. He thinks that

nirvyūha means 'storey', vedikā 'a railing' and gavākṣa 'an

orḍinaro curved window.'2

C. Rangasirsa, Green Room and Mattavaranis

In the vikṛṣṭa type of theatre the back stage [ i. e.

raṅgaśīrṣa ] is 8×32 cubits and in the caturasra type it is

8×8 cubits. As there are no walls breadthwise it may also be

imagined to be 8×32 cubits. The exact measurements of

the tryasra type are not available.

The raṅgaśīrṣa is built of six pieces of wood and furnish-

ed with two doors leading into the green room. It is

smooth and even like a mirror and decorated with jewels.

Its surface is not like the back of a tortoise or the

back of a fish. The intermediate space is filled with very

fine black earth, having the lustre of a pure mirror and

studded with emeralds, sapphires, corals and other precious

stones, arranged in various designs on the four sides2

The raṅgaśīrṣa is constructed with six planks. According

to Abhinayagupta, attached to the wall of the nepathyaagrha

and raṅgaśīrṣa, two pillars should be erected, each at

a distance of eight cubits from the other. By their side two

1. NS-KM II. 64-74; KSS II. 76-86; GOS II. 78-90a. The

meaning of architectural terms have been taken from 'A Dictio-

nary of Hindu Architecture' by P. K. Acharya and 'A Sanskrit

English Dictionary' by Monier Williams.

2. Indian Historical Quarterly Volume IX, p. 594.

3. NS-KM II, 57b-62a; KSS II, 69b-74a; GOS II. 71b-76a;

other pillars, with a mutual distance of four cubits are raised. They will thus be four and with the upper and lower planks, will make the total six. At this place two doors one for the exit from and the other for entry into the nepathyaagṛha are constructed.

portions of the back stage [ raṅgaśīrṣa ], as Abhinavagupta points out, seem to have been reserved as a place of rest for actors, for maintaining the secrecy of the entrance and exit and for purposes such as prompting, securing some stage effect and storing stage paraphernalia.1

It can be proved easily that the raṅgapīṭha and the raṅgaśīrṣa were two different portions. Scholars, except Monomohan Ghosh, hold that raṅgapīṭha and raṅgaśīrṣa were two distinct parts of the theatre. The Nāṭyaśāstra testifies to this. Again the terms raṅgapīṭha and raṅgaśīrṣa are suggestive of the whole theatre being regarded as one construction. According to Abhinavagupta, there is a curtain between the raṅgapīṭha and the raṅgaśīrṣa.

The raṅgaśīrṣa was of a level higher than the raṅgapīṭha in the vikṛṣṭa type of theatre and of the same level in the caturasra. The raṅgapīṭha and the raṅgaśīrṣa were situated in two different parts of the theatre as they were used for different purposes. The raṅgapīṭha is meant for the actual representation of the plot whereas the raṅgaśīrṣa is left as a place of retirement for actors.

The raṅgaśīrṣa was also used for accommodating the orchestra. In the Nāṭyaśāstra it has been laid down that the musicians should sit in the raṅgaśīrṣa.2

The green room [ nepathyaagrha ] is a part of the main building. Behind the curtain are the quarters of the actors [ nepathyaagrha ]. In the vikṛṣṭa type of theatre the green room is 16×32 cubits and in the caturasra type it is 4×32 cubits. No measurements are available regarding the tryasra type.

The green room is fairly spacious to enable the several characters to attend to their 'make up'. The nepathyaagrha

1. Abh. Bh. I. pp. 62-63.

2. NS—KM XXXIV. Prose, p. 429; KSS XXXIII, Prose, p. 449,

is a place from where sounds are raised to indicate uproar and confusion; here also are uttered the voices of gods and other persons whose presence on the stage is not desirable. In the Mṛcchakaṭika, when Śarvilaka boards the cart with Madanikā and starts on his journey, a voice from behind the curtain is heard, 'who hears ? Who hears ?' The chief of the police issues these commands. 'Here is the cowherd boy named Āryaka, whom a prophecy has declared to be a prospective king. King Pālaka, alarmed on account of his faith in the prophecy, has removed him from his hamlet and has put him in prison. Be diligent, therefore, in your respective posts.'1 In the above passage the confusion and alarm which could not be represented on the stage were reported from the green room. Then, again, in the Ratnāvalī the magician's art which could not be shown on the stage was described through uproar behind the scenes: 'Here in the upper apartment, fire has broken out all of a sudden, imparting to the mansions the beauty of golden turets by its masses of flames; its intense heat is indicated by its scorching the top of the trees in the garden; the pleasure-mountain looks dark like a watery cloud with smoke descending on it; the women-folk are distressed by the heat. Moreover, this fire has sprung up to give veracity, as it were, to the rumour about the queen's being burnt, which was formerly circulated in Lāvaṇaka.3

The Nāṭyaśāstra prescribes that on both the sides of the rangapīṭha, two mattavāranis are to be constructed. Both of them are higher than the rangapīṭha by one and a half cubit. A mattavāranī has four columns. Here it may be noted that the plinth of the auditorium [raṅgamaṇḍala]3 should be equal

1. Mṛch IV. pp. 96-97,

2. Rat IV. 14-15, p. 103.

3. J. Grosset's edition of the NS reads raṅgamaṇḍala but other editions of NS read raṅgamaṇḍapa instead. In our opinion correct reading seems to be raṅgamaṇḍala. Mankad seems not to be right when he says that "these two mattavāraṇis and raṅga-pīṭha should be higher [than the auditorium] by one and a half cubit." [ Mankad's pamphlet on Ancient Indian theatre 1950 ].

7

[ 49 ]

in height to that of the two mattavāranīs. In the vikr̥ṣṭa and

the caturasra types of theatre the mattavāranīs are to be 8×8

cubits each.1

Abhinavagupta says that mattavāranīs in vikr̥ṣṭa theatre

may be eight cubits square. He holds out two distinct inter-

pretations. According to one, the mattavāranīs are one and a

half cubit higher than the raṅgapīṭha, and according to the

other, the raṅgapīṭha and mattavāranīs are of the same height.

Abhinavagupta seems to believe that mattavāranīs were used

as kaksyās.2

Scholars have interpreted the term mattavāranīs differ-

ently. Dr. P. K. Acharya considers the mattavāranīs as

part of the pillars supporting the stage. On the two sides

of the stage, over the four pillars is erected an entablature

[ mattavāraṇa ] one and a half cubits or two feet and

three inches high. This is the total height of the stage

pavilion [ raṅgamaṇḍapas as stated by the commentator ].

But neither the height of the platform nor of the pillar

is mentioned. The actual height of the stage is unspecified.

Some scholars think that mattavāranīs performed the same

functions as the wings of modern theatres. But if we follow

the Nāṭyaśāstra faithfully we find that mattavāranīs were

higher than the raṅgapīṭha and that they were some spe-

cial portions of the raṅgapīṭha because action was

performed on these mattavāranīs. At one place Abhinavagupta

refers to the size of the raṅgapīṭha as 8×32 cubits which, it

seems, includes the mattavāranīs also. In svāṅgas or folk

theatres of Northern India we find even to-day that there

is a structure on both sides of the stage which is supported

by wooden pillars from where some special and exciting

speeches are made and scenes shown. The mattavāranīs could

be used as kaksyās if they were really used in this man-

ner. The kaksyās could be built low or high according

to the requirement of the plot.

1. NS—KM II, 87-88a; KSS II, 64b-65, 99-100a; GOS II, 66b-67.

102b-103,

o Ahh Rh. I. nn. 61-62.

[ 50 ]

D. Pillars and Seating Arrangements

In connection with the caturasra theatre the Nātyaśāstra describes the arrangement of pillars as follows: On the rañgapīṭha there must be ten columns strong enough to bear the burden of the mandapa.1 According to Abhinavagupta, who states the view of Śaṅkuka, four columns, Nos 1, 2, 3 and 4, should be raised at the four corners of the rañgapīṭha.

From the pillars in the āgneya [ south-east ] and nairṛta [ south-west ] directions, two pillars, Nos 5 and 6, each at a distance of four cubits towards the south, should be erected. Two more pillars, Nos 7 and 8, each at a distance of four cubits towards the north should be placed from the pillars in the vāyava [ north-west ] and aiśāna [ north-east ] directions. And from the pillars in āgneyà and aiśānà directions, two pillars, Nos 9 and 10, each at a distance of four cubits towards the east, should be placed. Thus there are ten pillars to support the rañgapīṭha.

In the auditorium [ raṅgamandala ] at first six columns and then eight columns are erected.2 According to Śaṅkuka, Abhinavagupta explains: From the pillars Nos 5 and 6, two pillars Nos 11 and 12 are placed at a distance of four cubits towards the south, at a distance of eight cubits from each other. From the pillars, Nos 7 and 8, two pillars, Nos 14 and 15, should be placed at a distance of four cubits towards the north but they should also be at a distance of eight cubits from each other. Then from the pillars, Nos 5 and 8, two pillars, Nos 13 and 16, should be placed each at a distance of four cubits towards the east.

These are the first six pillars supporting the auditorium.

From pillars Nos 11 and 15, two others, Nos 17 and 18, are placed to the east, each at a distance of four cubits. These pillars are also stated to be at a distance of four cubits from the southern and northern walls. Then at a distance of four cubits, half-way from the eastern wall on

1. NS–KM II, 78–79a; KSS II. 90–91a; GOS II. 93b–94.

2. NS–KM II, 81b–82; KSS II, 93b–94; GOS II. 97–98a.

[ 51 ]

both sides, two pillars Nos 19 and 20 may be placed. And from these pillars, Nos 19 and 20, pillars Nos 21 and 22, 23 and 24 should be placed, each at a distance of four cubits apart. Thus the next eight pillars should be arranged in the auditorium 1 The positions of pillars are marked in the diagram of the caturasra nātyagrha.

This is the arrangement of columns according to Sankuka and others. Abhinavagupta, following Vārtikakāra and Upādhyāya, has explained the arrangement in a different way to signify that the last eight columns should be in the nepāthyagrha. But this view is not found in the Nātyaśāstra and is, therefore, rejected.

The auditorium in the vikr̥ṣṭa theatre was 32×32 cubits, in the caturasra 12×32 cubits and in the tryasra according to the measurement of the theatre. People of different castes were to sit at places indicated by columns of various colours. Brāhmaṇas had the front seats indicated by a white column. Kṣatriyas occupied seats indicated by a red column. Behind them sat Vaiśyas and Śūdras, the former to the north-east and the latter to the north-west, their seats being indicated by yellow and blue columns.2 There were other columns too, perhaps, to accommodate those who were not included in the four castes. Galleries were to be erected one behind the other. Seats in the auditorium were to be arranged in the form of a staircase to ensure visibility. They were to be made of wood and bricks and were to be one and a half feet [ one hasta or cubit ] above the ground. On these the spectators sat.

Thus, as the Nātyaśāstra prescribes different places for the castes and for various strata of society, it becomes clear that the theatres, in ancient India though constructed as a temporary structure, were planned for the general public.

1. Abh. Bh. I, pp. 66-67. For the Positions of Pillars see diagram p. 39.

2. NS—KM II. 48-54; KSS II, 47b-54; GOS II. 49b-56a.

[ 52 ]

E. Doors and Roof

According to the Nātyaśāstra, the vikr̥ṣṭa theatre has two doors leading to the green room from the raṅgaśīrṣa. Between these doors sat players of musical instruments. In the caturasra type a door leads to the raṅgapīṭha The first door is for people to enter the theatre. The second door is in front of the auditorium. In the tryasra type there is one door at the back of the raṅgapīṭha and another in one corner for the entry of the audience.1

Abhinavagupta cites two views about the construction of doors in a theatre. According to one view, there are only three doors, two from the nepathyaagrha leading to the raṅgaśīrṣa and one in the auditorium for the entrance of spectators. According to the other, there are four doors: two in the nepathyaagrha wall, one by which the naṭa enters with his wife 'bhāryāmādāya naṭaparivāraḥ praviśati' and one in the auditorium. Here Abhinavagupta takes 'ekadvārai̇' as a collective use for two doors. Thus there are four doors in the nātyagrha. Others again hold that the theatre had six doors. They believe that two more doors existed on the southern and northern sides of the raṅgapīṭha leading towards the mattavāraṇīs.2 The positions of doors are indicated in the diagrams of all the three types of theatre.

In order to know the directions in the theatre hall it has been mentioned in the Abhinavabhāratī that in the representation of drama that direction should be regarded as the east where the orchestra is situated by the side of the door leading to the green room.

The question has been asked if Indian theatres had roofs or they were open-air theatres as in Greece. In this connection we note that in the 'Nāṭyaśāstra there is only one reference to theatres without roofs. But the theatres in

1. NS—KM II. 57b-58a, 84b-86a, 91-92a; KSS II. 69b-70a, 96b-98a, 103-104a; GOS II. 71b-72a, 100-101, 106b-107.

2. Abh. Bh. I. pp. 69-70. For the positions of doors see diagrams, pp. 35, 39 and 43.

which plays were performed must have had roofs1 There are indications in the Nātyaśāstra which prove the existence of roofs. In the section on arrangement of columns the Nātyaśāstra says that the columns should be śaktā manda-padhārane and drdhānmandapadhārane both expressions meaning "capable of supporting the roof." Bharata further praises a śailaguhākāra theatre, which too suggests the existence of roof. Abhinavagupta, emphasising that the theatre should not be too wide or too narrow, explains its properties of resounding [ anuranana ].1 This again presupposes a roof. The Nātyaśāstra itself frequently uses the term nātyamandapa for the theatre. Thus there were theatres of both kinds—open-air theatres and those with roofs.

Now the question arises whether the structure of the theatre in ancient India was of a temporary or a permanent type.

Bharata's description of theatres, their construction, size and shape, the position of the stage, orchestra and auditorium, indicates that theatres were of a permanent nature. The existence of such a word as prekhṣāgrha or pekkhā-ghara also supports this view.2 Further the Nātyaśāstra states that the playhouse should have the form of a mountain cave and should be two-storeyed.3 The ruins of a cave found in the Rāmgarh hills which seems to have been used for the performance of plays or recitation of poems also support the view that the theatre was of a permanent nature.4 The Meghadūta also refers to Śilāveśma.5 There is, however, no historical record of a permanent theatre in ancient India. As the above-mentioned cave or the śilāveśma could have been a niyāśālā and not a nātyaśālā and as it might have been used as a pleasure house by kings, one cannot say definitely that the theatre was of a permanent nature. It is certain that there were public theatres of a temporary nature in ancient India.

1. Abh. Bh. I, p. 54.

2. Māl I, P. 21.

3. NS—KM II. 69b; KSS II. 81b ; GOS II. 84a.

4. 'Archaeological Survey of India Report', 1903-4, p. 123.

5. Meghadūta I. 25.

[ 54 ]

I cannot agree with Prof. Macdonell when be says: "There were no special theatres in the Indian Middle Ages, and plays seem to have been performed in the concert-room [ saṅgītaśālā ] of royal palaces."1 The above remark of the learned professor seems to be based on a superficial study of the problem and on insufficient data.

1. Macdonell: "A History of Sanskrit Literature," p. 352.

CHAPTER IV

SCENIC

REPRESENTATION

A. The Curtain

In the scenic representation the curtain plays an important part. The word yavanikā or javanikā occurs in the Nāṭyaśāstra in connection with the arrangement of musical instruments required in the presentation of plays on the stage. In the preliminaries (Pūrvaraṇga) for the presentation of Sanskrit plays a great deal of musical practice is done: the arrangement of musical instruments, fixing the position of musicians, examining of musical instruments, setting of wind and stringed instruments to vocal music, and the entrance of dancing girls. All these are to be done behind the screen [ i. e. yavanikā or javanikā ].1 We have said earlier that musicians sit in the raṅgaśīrṣa, between the two doors leading to the nepathyagrha. Thus the curtain cannot be behind the raṅgaśīrṣa but in front of it. So it appears there is a curtain between the raṅgaśīrṣa and the raṅgapīṭha. After the musical instruments are arranged and tuned, the curtain is drawn aside and dances and recitals are given with the playing of musical instruments and a dhruvā song in praise of gods is sung.

The Nāṭyaśāstra has a phrase from which it is clear that the curtain is drawn aside on two sides and not pulled up by pulleys after the dhruvā song. After the curtains are drawn aside the actors, who are instrumental in bringing about

1. NS-KM, KSS and GOS V. 11-21.

the sentiments, enter the stage.1 This indicates that when

the curtain which between the raṅgapīṭha and the raṅgaśīrṣa

is drawn aside, musicians become visible to the audience. In

the Kuṭṭanimata which refers to the performance of the Ratnāvalī

the following occurs: The king with vidūṣaka is on the

raṅgapīṭha. Two maids enter and dance for a while, deliver

a message to the queen and go behind the javanikā. Then the

queen enters with her maid after the tiraskarinī [ curtain ] is

drawn aside.3 Here the word apanītā is quite clearly mention-

ed in the text and it proves that the curtain is drawn

aside according to the requirement of the stage. But in no

case can it be actually removed.

Abhinavagupta says that the yavanikā is hung between the

raṅgapīṭha and the raṅgaśīrṣa.3 With the help of this curtain also

phrases such as apatikṣepeṇa4 [ with a toss of the curtain ] can

be explained. The common view is that the curtain is parted in

the middle. Dr. S. K. De does not agree with this view and

takes the stage direction for hurried entrance apatikṣepeṇa

praviśati in the sense of 'enters without a toss of the curtain.'5

But the real sense of this phrase is lost if we accept Dr. De'-

view. Mankad6 opines that the character of parting the

curtain from the middle given by European scholars to paṭi in

explaining stage direction apatikṣepeṇa has no ground. But

this statement seems not to be correct.

Our view-point becomes clear when the stage directions

nepathye and apatikṣepeṇa so often found in Sanskrit dramas,

are explained in connection with each other ? In the second

act of the Mṛcchakaṭika [ Māthura is shouting from behind

the scenes ] Saṃvāhaka enters with a toss of the curtain in a

1. NS–KM XII. 2b-3a; KSS XIII. 3; GOS XII, 3.

2. Kuṭṭanimata–KM 886-887, P. 107; Bombay 909-910,PP. 358-359.

3. Abh, Bh. I, P. 212; II, P. 130.

4. Halāyudha 2. 154. He gives apaṭi as a synonym of paṭi or

javanikā.

5. Dr. S. K. De's article on "The curtain in Ancient Indian theatre"

Bhāratīya Vidyā Volume IX. 1948.

6. Mankad's pamphlet 'Ancient Indian Theatre', p. 18.

flurry. In the same act Karnapūraka enters in high

glee, 'dressed in gorgeous dress with a toss of the curtain. In

act VI Āryaka enters with a toss of the curtain excited and

with a chain on one leg he walks about. In act VIII the

monk enters with a toss of the curtain. In act X the executi-

oners say: [ Turning towards the nepathyagrha ] This way,

this way, Sir, come here, child, come [ enters Maitreya

with Rohaṣeṇa].1

Voices are heard behind the scenes. In the Pratijñāyau-

gandharāyaṇa the soldier says: “The page has gone to the

tavern and is drinking liquor. Well, you may go. [ Stepping

round ]. Here is the liquor shop. I will just call him.

He, page 1 page !” [voice behind the scene ]. “Now who

is calling me on the high road, page, page?” Soldier: “Here

comes the page, his eyes as red as china roses, full of liquor

laughing aloud and drunk. I won't stand in his way.”

[Stands aside]. [ Enters the page as described].2

In the Avimāraka the stage-manager looks towards the

dressing room and in the same drama, the nurse speaks to a

maid behind the scenes.3

From these examples, it is clear that there is a curtain

between the raṅgaśīrṣa and the raṅgapīṭha as without it apatikṣ-

epeṇa cannot be explained. As there is a wall between the

raṅgaśīrṣa and the nepathyagrha, it is not easy for a nurse to

talk to a maid. So it is quite possible that the maid is in

the raṅgaśīrṣa behind the curtain and not in the nepathyagrha.

Uproar and the voice of gods which are made only in

the green room can be heard distinctly by spectators in the

auditorium. The purpose of the nepathyagrha, raṅgaśīrṣa and

raṅgapīṭha has to be very clearly understood. It has been seen

in chapter III that the nepathyagrha was meant for the

make-up and for the representation of uproars, and the

raṅgaśīrṣa for musicians and prompters, as also for afford-

1. Mṛch II. PP. 46, and 62; VI. P. 142; VIII. P. 190; X. P. 227.

2. Pra. Y. IV. Prose. PP. 94-95.

3. Avimāraka Prose I. PP. 109-110; III. PP 137-138.

ing rest to actors who had done their part or were to

appear on the stage very soon. Whenever the orchestra

is required, the curtain is drawn aside and music is on;

whenever ordinary scenes go on, the curtain is down.

The actual action of the drama takes place on the stage

[ raṅgapīṭha ].

The ancient Indian theatre, it appears, had no drop-

curtain. This can be explained from the peculiar

ending of Sanskrit dramas. Sanskrit dramas never ended

abruptly as is often the case in modern dramas.

The acts, in all Sanskrit dramas, end usually with some

description of the time of the day or with some other

quiet suggestion to the characters on the stage to make for

their exit. This peculiar termination of dramas is due to

the absence of the drop-curtain.

Let us examine the Vikramorvaśīya from this point of view.

At the end of act I the king looks up in the direction of

Urvaśī and describes her in the following words: 'This celestial

damsel, while flying into the sky, violently tears away my

heart, as the female swan, before soaring into the sky,

draws off a film from a lotus stalk the tip of which

has been already cut off.' At the end of act II, the king,

looking up, describes the time which is past midday as

follows: 'Tired of the heat the peacock sits in the cool basin

round the root of a tree; the bee, having forced open the

flower-buds of karnikāra, lies therein; the duck, leaving the

hot weather, resorts to the lotus-plant growing on the brink,

and the encaged parrot in the pleasure-house, being

exhausted, calls for water'. At the end of act III the king

makes a request to Urvaśī: 'Formerly, when I had not

achieved my object, the night seemed to me to increase

a hundredfold; if it increases similarly now when I am in

your company, I shall be blessed.' At the end of act

IV, on a question by Urvaśī as to how he desires to go,

the king says: 'Oh, you gifted with a sportive gait, bear

me home on a new cloud made into a balloon, with

streamers in the form of flashes of lightning and beautified by

fresh painting in the form of the rainbow.' At the end of

act V, there is the benedictory stanza: 'May there be always,

for the welfare of the good, a union of the goddesses of

wealth and learning who are opposed to each other—a union

which is difficult to be found in one place.'1

From this analysis it is clear that the acts ended not

with any dramatic incident so as to require the fall of

the curtain, but with the description of some kind or other.

And there is a definite instruction after every act that

the actors go out. If there were any drop-curtain, there

was no need of the actors leaving the stage; they could

as. well be on the stage while the curtain came down.

But now how to explain scenes where an actor enters

seated or any situation is said to be set on the stage as

soon as a new act begins ? Let us take scenes from

different dramas. In the Mṛcchakaṭika, in act II, the scene

opens with Vasantasenā, seated, deeply in love, and also

Madanikā.

In act IV, a female servant enters. Servant: Madam's

mother has told me to go to madam. Here is madam with

her gaze fixed on a painting. I would just approach. [ She

advances a few steps]. The scene opens with Vasantasenā who

is in the manner described earlier and Madanikā. In act V

Cārudatta enters, seated and full of amorous thoughts.2 In the

drama Avimāraka, Avimāraka enters seated.3 Such instances

can be produced from many other dramas. Instructions such

as ‘praviśati āsanastah’ and the examples quoted above help

us to arrive at the inference that there was some sort of

a curtain which was withdrawn to present the actors to

the audience at the appropriate moment, thus pointing

towards existence of the drop-curtain. But it may also

be quite possible that actors used to come and sit on the

stage. It could then be said that an actor ‘entered seated.’

S. M. Tagore in his ‘The Eight Principal Rasas of the

1. Vik Ending of 1-5 acts pp. 16-17, 50-51, 74-75, 98-99 and 122.

2. Mṛch II, p 42; IV. p 84 ; V. p. 111.

3. Avimāraka II. p. 121.

Hindus' refers to the drop-curtain. He says: 'The scene which hangs before the audience before the commencement of the play, or which drops in the intervals between the scenes is called yabanikā. As in every act and its sub-divisions, scenes are changed, so the drop-scene should also change. In classical times two comely girls appeared and removed the two wings of every scene.'1

While describing the Jogīmārā and Sītābeṅgā Caves, Bloch2 refers to certain holes on two sides of the caves and presumes that they had been provided to facilitate the use of curtains.

But there is no reference to the drop-curtain in the Nātyaśāstra or Abhinavabhāratī. On the contrary 'The Eight Principal Rasas of the Hindus' which hints at the drop-curtain is a modern work and the injunction 'such and such actor enters seated' can be represented without the use of the drop-curtain. Further as Bloch's interpretation of the drop-curtains in the Sītābeṅgā and Jogīmārā caves is not conclusively proved and we have already seen that the ending of acts in Sanskrit dramas does not require any drop-scene, we conclude that no drop-curtain was used in presentation of Sanskrit plays.

The theory of a transverse curtain propounded by Wilson is not supported by facts. He superficially remarks: 'It seems possible, also, that curtains were suspended transversely, so as to divide the stage into different portions, open equally to the audience but screening one set of actors from the other, as if the one were within, and the other outside a house or chamber.'3

A. K. Coomaraswamy thinks there was no drop-curtain. He remarks: 'As for the curtain, of course, there were two curtains, neither of them a drop-curtain, but one over each door-way leading from the nepathyagraha on to and

1. 'The Eight Principal Rasas of the Hindus' pp. 58-59.

2. Bloch: 'Archaeological Survey of India Report,' 1903-1904, p. 123.

3. Wilson: 'Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hindus' I, LXVIII.

[ 61 ]

from the stage, just as in the Chinese theatre even today,

where anyone who cares may see the actor entering with

a toss of the curtain.'1 But it is not clear from where A.

K. 'Coomaraswamy got the idea of the two curtains in

Indian plays. Probably this theory of his is based on mere

conjecture.

Thus from the above analysis we arrive at the conclu-

sion that the ancient Indian theatre had only one curtain

and that it was placed between the rañgasīrṣa and the

rañgapīṭha.

Apart from this one curtain there were probably some

other minor curtains used to partition the kakṣyās. Some

scenes must have been screened from the audience by curtains

and exposed when necessary, for example, the scenes in the

Abhijñānaśākuntala such as kanva's garden, the rājasabhā of

Duṣyanta, the street scene where the fisherman is caught,

the scene half-way up in heaven showing Marica's āśrama,

the king's garden and the king painting the portrait of

Śakuntalā. These are different parts of scenes. They must

have been kept ready and shown with the help of kakṣyās

partitioned by minor curtains. But this can only be a

probability and we are not sure of such scenic representa-

tion in ancient India.

B. Origin of the Curtain

Now the question arises whether the curtain was

imported from outside [i. e. Greece] or it was of Indian origin.

Let us consider the terms yavanikā, javanikā and yamanikā to

get a correct idea about the curtain of the ancient Indian

stage. The Kāvyamālā edition of the Nāṭyaśāstra has the

reading javanikā while the texts of the Kāśī Sanskrit Series,

the Gaekwad Oriental Series and also the Abhinavabhāratī have

the reading yavanikā.2 The edition of Grosset [ 1898 ] has

the form javanikā, but in one of the passages the reading

1. 'Indian Historical Quarterly' Vol. IX Calcutta 1933, p. 594

article on 'Hindu Theatre' by A. K. Coomaraswamy.

2. NS—KM, KSS and GOS V. 11-12.

[ 62 ]

is yavanikā. The form yamanikā is found in some manuscripts of Sanskrit plays and poems. Dr. De has tried to show that yamanikā1 is as much a recognized form of the word for curtain as javanikā or yavanikā.

According to Apte's dictionary the meaning of yavanikā and javanikā is the same i. e. 'curtain'.2 On this point we may note that javanikā is the prākṛta form of yavanikā.3 Let us now take up the word javanikā and look to its etymological meaning. Javana means going fast and it is derived from the root 'ju' by Bhattoji Dīkṣita in his Siddhāntakaumudī.

Pāṇini has the following sūtra 'jucankramyādandramyasṛgrdhj-valaśucalaṣapatapadah ju iti sautro dhāturgataḥ vegeka, javanah4 which shows that the word 'javana' was derived from the root ju. The feminine form of javana is javanī or javanikā. It may mean a curtain which was to be drawn with force. In the Amarakoṣa the meaning of javanikā is given as a curtain or kanāta, as in the following 'pratīsrā javanikā syāttirakṣakarṇī ca sā'5. As to the word yavanikā it can be derived from the root 'yuñ bandhane'6, 'yuñ, yunāti, badhnāti āvrnoti vā anayā iti'7 i. e. any thing by which something is covered from the sight of the spectators, i. e. curtain.

The word yamanikā8 is derived from the root yam 'to stop or restrain' signifying a covering or curtain and the word yamanī, from which yamanikā is directly derived, is traceable

1. Dr. S. K. De's article on "The Curtain in Ancient Indian Theatre." Bhāratīya Vidyā Volume IX. 1948.

2. V. S. Apte 'The Practical Sanskrit English Dictionary'. pp. 450 and 782.

3. The word yavanikā is not included as a synonym of the Curtain by old Indian Lexicographers.

4. Siddhāntakaumudī p. 594; Pāṇini 3-2-150.

5. Amarakoṣa II. 120, p. 152.

6. Siddhāntakaumudī 1480 dhātupāṭha.

7. Commentary to Kuṭṭanīmata, edition by T. M. Tripathi p. 359.

8. Bohtlingk and Roth summarily dismiss the form yamanikā as a scribal mistake for yavanikā and Sten konow take it as merely secondary.

as far back as the Vājasneyī-Samhitā.1 Thus as the words javanikā, yavanikā aud yamanikā all can be derived to mean curtain it can be asserted that the curtain which was used on the ancient Indian stage had an indigenous origin and growth.

Critics hold that yavanikā points to the Greek origin of the curtain as being derived from Ionian or Greek. If the curtain was borrowed from Greece, yavanikā could have had no special application to the curtain of the theatre for there was no curtain in the Greek drama. Windisch contends that [ the curtain was called Greek because it took the place of the painted scenery at the back of the Greek stage. Keith remarks: 'Behind the Indian stage is the painted curtain [ pati, apati tiraskarinī, pratiṣirā ] to which the name yavanikā [prākṛta javanikā] is given, denoting merely that the material is foreign and forbidding any conclusion as to the Greek origin of the curtain itself or the theatre.

Dr. De2 does not agree with the view of Dr. Keith and says that there is no evidence to support this presumption.3

On account of the mention of yavanās and yavanīs and their supposed connection with yavanikā it has been put forward that the Sanskrit drama had Greek influence on it. The Mālavikāgnimitra speaks of yavanās having attacked the army of king Puspamītra when he crossed the Indus.4 In the Abhijñānaśākuntala women yavana attendants, who carried bows in their hands, are represented as constituting some of the king's body-guards.5 Now as to the word yavana it is not universally accepted as meaning only Greek. Keith says: 'It applies to anything connected with the Hellenized Persian Empire, Egypt, Syria, Bactria and it, therefore,

1. Vājasneyī-Samhitā 14.22.

2. Keith: 'Sanskrit Drama', pp. 61 and 359.

3. Dr. S. K. De's article on "The Curtain in Ancient Indian Theatre" Bharati̐ya Vidyā, Volume IX. 1948.

4. Māl V. p. 102.

5. Śāk II. p. 42.

[ 64 ]

cannot be rigidly limited to what is Greek. As applied to the curtain it is an adjective, [ paṭi, apaṭi ] as foreign, possibly as Levi suggests, Persian tapestry brought to India by Greek ships and merchants.1 As to the employment of yavanī girls in Sanskrit dramas as body-guards of kings, Greek drama offers no parallel. It is probable the yavanī women used to draw aside the dissected curtain.

Thus we can assert that the word yavanikā which has javanikā for its Prākṛta form and probably yamanikā as its variant was of purely Indian origin. It is however, quite probable that material imported from Greece might have been used to make curtains.

C Employment of Painting

Painting played a significant role in the secular and religious life of India. The Viṣnudharmottara gives a long account of how the sage Nārāyaṇa in order to put the apsarās to shame created the most beautiful nymph Urvaśī by drawing her out line with mango juice.2 In the above legend the origin of the art of painting is seen in the outlining of a human figure for the purpose of creating a living human form. A similar notion is to be found in the Svapnavāsavadattā where king Udayana and princess Vāsavadattā, with whom he had eloped, are united in marriage by their parents by drawing the portraits of the two on a board. Nurse:-“Thus saith the queen: Vāsavadattā has passed away. To me and to Mahāsena you are as dear as our Gopāla and Pālaka, for from the very first we intended you to be our son-in-law. That is why you were brought to Ujjain. Under the pretext of learning the lute we gave her to you, with no ritual fire as witness. In your impetuosity you carried her off without celebrating the auspicious nuptial rites. So we had portraits painted of you and of Vāsavadattā on a panel, and therewith celebrated the marriage. We send you the portraits and hope they will give you satisfaction.”3 This instance proves that the artist draws from his memory when visualising a portrait.

1. Keith: ‘Sanskait Drama’, p. 61; Levi: le Theatre Indien I. 348.

2. VD I, CXXIX. 1-19.

3. Svapnavāsavadattā VI. prose, pp. 50-51.

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The modelling capacity of the outline is also described in the 'Viddhaśālabhañjikā.'1

The Viṣnudharmottara holds the rules for painting as valid for sculpture also, which may either be hollow or massive. Hollow figures must have stood, among other places, on the stage, where images of gods, demons, yakṣas, elephants, horses, deer and birds made of clay, wood, cloth, leather or iron were placed.2

There were various types of paintings—on walls, on boards and on canvas.3 When a picture is on canvas or board, it is known as paṭa. In Pañcadāśī we read the principles of painting a picture on paṭa. We are told of its four stages: [1] dhauta—to be washed, [2] ghaṭṭita—rubbed with rice, [3] lāñchita—decorated with the help of ink, [4] rañjita —painted with colours proper.4 In the Āryamañju-Śrīmūla-Kalpa we get a description of a paṭa. A picture [paṭa] should be painted on new white cloth, having fringes. It should be two cubits long and one cubit broad. It may be painted on cloth, ātasya or the bark of a tree, which must be true and devoid of any string. It should be painted on a cloth which is not silken. Other articles on which pictures can be painted have also been described.5 Pictures on canvas were sometimes in the shape of rolls, exhibiting continuous representation. Such a roll was spread out by a spy of Cāṇakya before the people in Candanadāsa's house and was exhibited by him with songs in the Mudrārākṣasa : 'Spy:—listen, noble sir. Employed by your noble self to note the doings of others, I entered the house of the jeweller-banker Candanadāsa, roaming with this Yama's canvas which cannot excite suspicion. There opening out the canvas I began singing songs.'6

1. Viddhaśālabhañjikā I. 33, 35, 36, 39, pp. 28-34. Poona edition 1886.

2. VD III. XLIII. 27b-39.

3. ŚR I. XLVI. 26-3½, p. 247.

4. Pañcadāśī VI. 1-3, p. 21.

5. Āryamañju-Śrīmūlakalpa I, p. 131.

6. Mudrārākṣasa I. n. 62.

[ 66 ]

Wall paintings have been referred to in the Nāṭyaśāstra.

After white-washing the walls, pictures were painted on them.

They were generally of men and women. Nooses of creepers

were employed. Incidents from many aspects of life were

drawn.1 Decoration on the stage has been referred to in

chapter III.

Let us now analyse some of the important dramas with

regard to the technique and details of the art of painting in

ancient India. In the Ratnāvalī, Sāgarikā enters with a picture

board and brush. She is love-sick and is engaged in painting.

Susaṅgatā comes and with gentle step stands behind her and

sees with joy, "how, now; she has painted our master. Noble,

Sāgarikā noble: or rather, how can a royal swan find pleasure

except in a tank full of lotuses ? Susaṅgatā comes and

forcibly takes the board. Susaṅgatā: O friend, who is

this that is drawn by you here ? Sāgarikā: Friend, god

Anaṅga. Susaṅgatā: [ smiling ] Oh, your skill. But how is

it then that the picture depicts him alone ? So I too will

draw and make him have Rati by his side [ takes the brush

and pretending to portray Rati, paints Sāgarikā ]."2 From

the above it is quite clear that paintings on board, i. e., paṭa

with human figures, were prevalent in ancient India.

In the Mṛcchakaṭika Vasantasenā is seen with her gaze

fixed on a portrait. The scene actually opens with this incident.

"Vasantasenā: Madanikā, is this portrait of the noble Cāru-

datta faithful to the original? Madanikā: It must be. Vasanta-

senā: How can you know it ? Madanikā: Since Madam's gaze

is fastened on it with so much affection. Vasantasenā after-

wards says to Madanikā: Just keep this picture in my bedroom,

girl, and come quickly with a fan. Madanikā: As you command

me, Madam (takes away the picture)."3

In act I of the Mālavikāgnimitra Vakulāvalikā and Kau-

mudikā describe the circumstances in which the king saw

Mālavikā. 'Vakulāvalikā, listen, the queen had gone to the

1. NS—KM II. 71b-74a; KSS II. 83 b-86a; GOS II. 87-89.

2. Rat II, PP. 30-33.

3. Mṛch IV. PP. 84, 87.

painting hall and was seeing a picture of the teacher on which the colours were still fresh; in the meantime the king came.

Kaumudikā—What then ?

Vakulāvalikā—Then after the customary salutation, the king sat down on the same seat with the queen, and observing Mālavikā quite close to the painted queen in the midst of her attendants, he asked the queen.' This conversation shows that picture halls and paintings were very much in vogue.

Then in act IV there is the portrait of the king, which Vakulāvalikā shows to Mālavikā.1

In act VI of the Abhijñānaśākuntala there is a portrait of Śakuntalā on a board drawn by the king himself. Its graceful and lovely presentation is described here. 'Vidiśaka—Excellent, my friend. The depiction of natural state has become charming by reason of that sweet and beautiful attitude. My eye stumbles, as it were, in the prominences and depressions in the picture. I believe that out of the three ladies painted in the portrait she—who with the end of her hair dropping flowers by reason of the fillet being slackened, with a face on which drops have collected, and with the arms greatly drooping, has been drawn as if a little tired, by the side of the mango-tree, with its new grown leaves fresh with watering—is Śakuntalā. So the other two are her companions. King: you are discerning. In it there is a proof of my passion for her. On the edge of the sketch is seen the black impression of the perspired fingers; and this drop of tear fallen on her cheek is observable by reason of the swelling of the paint.'2

In the Uttararāmacarita the painter is said to have portrayed the life of Rāmacandra up to Sītā's purification on the wall. Lakṣmaṇa: 'victory to your highness: Sire, that painter has, according to your instructions, portrayed your life on this wall. You can see it.' ( They rise and move about ). 'Sītā: '( marking with attention ) Who are these stationed above in a compact line that seem to praise my lord ?' Lakṣmaṇa: 'These are the well-known Jṛmbhaka missiles with their mysterious

1. Māl P. 5, 72-73.

2. Śak VI. 14-15 and Prose, PP. 151, 158-159.

charms.' Lakṣmaṇa: 'Here is the account of the events that occured at Mithilā.' Sītā: 'Oh, here is my lord painted'. Lakṣmaṇa: 'Behold, lady, behold, here is your father with Śatānanda, son of Gotama, the priest of the Janaka family, honouring Vasiṣṭha and others.' The scenes of Sītā's marriage, departure to the forest from Ayodhyā, meeting with Guha at Sṛṅgavera, Bhāgīrathī with flowing waters, penance groves on the bank of mountain brooks, Praśravaṇa at Janasthāna with the river Godāvarī, Pāñcavaṭī, the fight between Jaṭāyu and Rāvaṇa, lake Pampā, and of the countless achievements of Rāma and of the noble monkey and rākṣasas, represented on the wall, were lively and full of vigour.1

In connection with painting we have analysed the following dramas: the Svapnavāsavadattā, the Mudrārākṣasa, the Ratnāvalī, the Abhijñānaśākuntala, the Uttararāmacarita and we come to the conclusion that wall paintings, pictures on board and canvas were popular. In the Ratnāvalī and the Abhijñānaśākuntala pictures on board are found and in the Mudrārākṣasa pictures on canvas and in the Uttararāmacarita wall paintings are referred to. Many portraits and landscapes painted by artists of the royal and the servant class alike are mentioned in almost all the dramas referred to above.

From the above we can arrive at the following conclusions. It is certain that there was at least one curtain between the raṅgapīṭha and the raṅgaśīrṣa and possibly there were other minor curtains to partition the Kakṣyās. When paintings on canvas were popular curtains could easily be available. The colour of the curtain, according to some authorities, must necessarily be in harmony with the dominant sentiment of the play, in accordance with the classification of sentiments already given, but others permit the use of the red in every case.2 Then the walls between the raṅgaśīrṣa and nepathyaagṛha might have been painted to represent the most interesting scenes of the play. Pillars and ceilings of the theatre might also be painted as we find paintings in the Ajantā caves.

1. URC Prose PP. 15, 17, 18.

2. S. M. Tagore: 'The Eight Principal Rasas of the Hindus', PP. 58-59

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D. Time of Presentation

From the Nātyaśāstra it is clear that plays were performed in the morning, afternoon and in the first part (prahara) of the night and also in the fourth part (prahara). That which is pleasing to the ear and which speaks about religion, which is pure or mixed should be represented in the morning. That which is magnificent, full of satva qualities and sounds of musical instruments should be represented in the afternoon. That in which the Kaiśikī style is employed and in which the erotic sentiment predominates and which is full of vocal and instrumental music should be represented in the first part of the night. That which is full of important events and in which the pathetic sentiment predominates should be represented in the fourth part of the night. Plays were not allowed to be presented at midnight, mid-day and at dinner time.1 But if the king ordered plays could be staged without restrictions of time and space.

The time of the performance is not in many cases stated, but in a number of plays such as the Mālatīmādhava2 and the Karṇasundarī3 it is found that it is assumed to be the time when the sun is rising. According to Nilakanṭha, people avoided to see naṭas in the morning.4 It is clear that people did not like to see plays in the morning at least during his life-time.

In the Kīrātārjunīya-vyāyoga5 and in the Rukmin̄īharaṇa,6 the plays are stated to have been presented when the moon is rising. In the former drama the Sthāpaka says it is night fall which is essentially beautiful. This also happens in the Rukmin̄īharaṇa. The Harivamśa makes mention of a dramatic treatment (nāṭakīvrttam) of the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata

1. NS—KM XXVII. 80-84; KSS XXVII, 89-93.

2. MM Prologue P. 4.

3. Karṇasundarī I. 4; PP. 1-2.

4. Mṛch X. Commentary of Pṛthvīdhara P. 249.

5. Kīrātārjunīya-Vyāyoga I-5: P. 2.

6. Rukmiṇīharaṇa Prologue P. 37.

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performed in first part of the night.1 The Nāṭakalakṣaṇaratnakoṣa tells us that a play is to be presented when the moon is rising.2

In most cases dramatic performances were held generally in the afternoon and they lasted for nearly four or five hours. While in a Greek theatre often three tragedies and a comedy were enacted the same day, in India one single, well sustained and systematically evolved drama was presented. Indian seasons allowed the necessary light throughout the day, for as a rule few plays were produced during the rainy season. The use of torches on the stage was not unknown. In the Mṛcchakaṭiku Cārudatta tells Maitreya: ‘So let it be. I shall accompany her myself. Well, then let the torches be lighted so that we may go with confidence on the king's path.’3

From the testimony of the Nātyaśāstra and plays in general it is evident that plays were performed in day time and when the moon was rising. While scenic effect could be very easily produced at night, it is interesting to find how such effect was produced by day also. From a study of the occasions for the performance of the drama in Chapter II we found that plays were generally enacted at annual fairs in temples, at the pleasure of the poet's patron and at festivals rural or urban, public or private. On these occasions, except the dramas which were played at the pleasure of the poet's patron or king etc., there must have been holidays when people used to gather to witness plays by day. Reflections of mirrors might have been used just as lights were used at night. Sanskrit dramas had critical audience as is clear from many precludes of dramas. Bhavabhūti and Kālidāsa must have been understood by the learned people. Imagination played a great part in Sanskrit plays as in Shakespearean plays. The miracle of fire shown by the juggler in the Ratnāvalī must have been left to the imagination of the audience.4

1. Harivaṃśa II. XCIII.
2. NLR 286; P. 91.
3. Mṛch I. Prose; P. 40.
4. Rat IV. PP. 103-106.

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There was a time-limit for a play. The Sanskrit play was to be finished in a fixed time. From the testimony of the Nāṭyaśāstra, we understand that a play was judged by a critic ( prāśnika ) from the point of view of the accuracy of timing ( nāḍikāsiddhi ) since the time when the jarjara was placed in a dramatic performance by the manager ( sūtradhāra ).1

1. NS–KM XXVII. 39; KSS XXVII. 40.

CHAPTER V

PARAPHERNALIA

A. Significance of Āhāryābhinaya

( Costumes and Make-up )

The Sanskrit word abhinaya is made up of the prefix abhi, towards, and the root ni, to carry. Thus it means 'representing' or 'carrying' a play to the spectators. Abhinaya is known to be fourfold: āhārya [dresses and make-up] āṅgika [gestures], vācika [words] and sāttvika [temperament].1 In this chapter we shall deal with āhāryābhinaya [ costumes and make-up ] reserving the other kinds of abhinaya for a later treatment.

In ancient India stage outfit and scenic arrangements were not so elaborate as in modern times. Some sort of scenery and stage machinery are referred to by Bharata. Mechanical contrivances, probably a sort of crane and pulley, worked from the sides [ mottavāraṇīs ], seem to have been used on the stage. Bharata carefully notices the process of stage carpentry [dārukarma] and speaks of machines [yantras] aiding movements to and from the stage. Lattices and windows are described mechanically constructed for the purpose.2

In the Mṛcchakaṭika when Madanikā is sent to bring a fan and when she begins to talk with Śarvilaka, Vasantasenā says: 'Madanikā has tarried long. Where can she be ? [She peeps outside through a latticed window]. What ? She is standing there talking to a man.'3

The presence of several deities seated in aerial vehicles is a noteworthy feature of some of the sanskrit plays. Now when these celestial characters are actually present on the stage and imitate aerial motions, the direction is precise, viz. 'Thus they act' [nāṭayanti]. In act VI of the Uttararāma-carita a pair of resplendent Vidyādharas in an aerial vehicle

1. NS–KM and KSS VIII 6-9; GOS VIII 7-10; VD III 27. 1.

2. NS–KM II 64–74; KSS II 76–86; GOS II 78–90 a.

3, Mṛch IV p. 87.

enters the stage.1 In act VI of the Abhijñānaśākuntala, Sānumati,

a nymph, enters the stage in a celestial car to see the doings of

the king and remains there practically up to the end of

the act.2

As to how these actions and vehicles should be represented

in the play is all described in āhāryābhinaya. In āhāryā-

bhinaya are included subjects such as the preparation and use

of dresses and ornaments, painting of the persons of men and

women, arrangement of hair and depiction of scenes. Writers

on dramaturgy have treated these under four heads i.e., pusta—

model work, alaṅkāra—decoration ( ornaments, garlands and

dresses ), aṅgaracanā—painting the limbs ( colouring, hair and

beard ) and sañjīva—living creatures ( construction of stage

animals ).3 In pusta is described how items are prepared for

representing different scenes. In alaṅkāra the occasion when

a man or a woman should wear a particular kind of ornament

or dress is stated. The kind of painting a person should use

on his or her body in the representation of a particular charac-

ter, the kind of hair women should wear, methods of dressing

the hair in different countries and use of moustaches—all these

are discussed in aṅgaracanā. Under sañjīva we are told how

ani.nate objects other than human beings, should be prepared

for the stage if their presence was needed in connection with

the performance.

B. Pusta ( model work )

Pusta, according to the dictionary of Monier Williams,

means ‘binding’.4 An object prepared after binding different

things together is called pusta. The Nātyaśāstra distinguishes

three forms of pusta: sandhima ( joined ), vyājima ( indicating )

and veṣṭita ( wrapped ).5 Different articles are joined together

with the help of bamboos covered with mat, skin or cloth to

make a sandhima. Rocks, carriages, chariots, aerial cars, horses

and elephants are thus represented on the stage. When objects

1. URC VI. P. 140.

2. Sāk VI. PP. 143-169.

3. NS–KM XXI. 1-4; KSS XXIII. 1-5; VD III, 27. 2-32.

4. M. W. Dictionary. P. 640.

5. NS–KM XXI. 5-8; KSS XXIII. 6-9.

are made to work by mechanical means the term vyājima is used. According to Abhinavagupta things on the stage were made to move by pulling a thread from behind the curtain.1 For example, if the movement of an aerial car, animals or a chariot is to be shown, it would be done by preparing frames of objects with pieces of bamboo and then by covering them with painted cloth, palm-products(talīya), mats(kaliñja), bhenḍa, bees-wax, lac and sheets of mica and be pulled from behind the curtain. Certain other things used on the stage were prepared by wrapping cloth only ( veștita ) or by movements only, if we read ceștita instead of veștita.

The ‘Avaloka’ on the Daśarūpa speaks of elephants being made in this way in Udayanacarita.2 In the Pratijñāyaugandharāyaṇa, Yaugandharāyaṇa says to sālaka: “That, too, is a sign of an intelligent man. Well, a report has reached us that Pradyota intends to hoodwink our king by setting up a blue elephant. I only hope our master's judgment has not already been astray. But oh, how fearful Pradyota must be of the king of the Vatsas. The inefficiency of the vast army is manifest.” 3 To the vyājima puṣta belongs the earthen toy cart in the Mṛcchakaṭika4 and the moving chariot in the Abhijñānaśākuntala.5 Puppets could be made to move about or dance by mechanical arrangements. A puppet impersonating Sītā is actually introduced in the Bālarāmāyaṇa.6

According to Abhinavagupta, when Bharata speaks of his having been instructed by Brahmā to direct the dramatic performance because of his being a sage with a hundred sons, of his having been given an umbrella, crown and throne etc., by different gods, of the appointment of certain divine beings to guard over certain parts of the theatre or certain actors

1. Vyājah sūtrasyā karṣādirūpaḥ kṣepastena nirvṛtto vyājimaḥ. Abh. Bh. XXI. PP. 11-12. ( MSS Saraswati Bhawan Library, Banaras ).

2. Avaloka on DR II. 58a; P. 60.

3. Pra. Y. PP. 58-59.

4. Mṛch, VI. PP. 137, 139.

5. Śāk 1. 6-9 and Prose. PP. 10-13.

6. Bālarāmāyaṇa V. PP. 239, 242-251.

and of the creation of fairies, he simply means to tell the requirements of the stage and the way to manage it.1

Here it will not be out of place to describe the seats for characters on the stage, as these are essential for the representation of different beings in a play.

Gods, kings and chief queens used to sit on thrones ( lit. lion-seat ).

Seats of cane were assigned to ministers, priests and their wives.

The commander of the army, crown prince and the wives of the king other than the chief queen occupied seats called muṇḍāsana

i. e. a chair without arms.

Wooden seats were meant for Brāhmaṇas.

Woollen seats or carpets ( Kālinā ) were used by princes.

Women of the household occupied seats of wood or skin.

The seats for ascetics were according to the rules of the orders they belonged to.

Generally those observing vows, brahmacārīs or ṛṣis used to sit on muṇḍāsana or cane seat.

Other characters used to sit on the ground.

These rules for seats were observed among people in general or in the royal court.

In one's own house one can take any seat according to one's liking.2

Different kinds of weapons were used in the presentation of plays.

The Nāṭyaśāstra prescribes that weapons and armours should be proportionate to the stature of actors and actresses.

Bharata has given the length and breadth of different weapons in tālas or aṅgulas ( measurements ).

Tāla is a short span, measured by the thumb and middle finger.

Bharata speaks of five varieties of spears: Prāsa, śūla, tomara, kunta and bhiṇḍi.

The handle of the prāsa was 20 aṅgulas in length and its pointed blade was six aṅgulas.

The śūla and tomara were each eight tālas in length, while the kunta ( javelin ) was of ten tālas and the bhiṇḍi of 12 tālas.

Out of these five kinds of spears, the prāsa, śūla and tomara were hurled at the opponent while the kunta and bhiṇḍi were not.

The śataghnī and śakti were also among weapons thrown at the opponent.

Their length is stated to be eight tālas.

The bow ( dhanu ) should be eight

1. NS–KM I. 26-29a; KSS I. 61-64; GOS I, 59b-62; Abh. Bh. PP. 27-28.

2. NS–KM XII. 179-189; KSS XIII. 205-217; GOS XII 214-226.

tālas in length and two cubits in breadth at the time of drawing. The śara ( arrow ) should be four tālas in length. The gadā ( mace ) and vajra should be of the same size as the śara. Bharata has further stated that there are three varieties of swords. Of these, the asi was 40 aṅgulas in length, the Kampana made of thin pointed 'pattara' 20 aṅgulas and one 'śabala', the smallest, 16 aṅgulas. The 'Kheṭaka', a kind of shield, is 30 aṅgulas. The cakra ( disc ) should be 12 aṅgulas and the pattisa is of the same size as the prāsa. The daṇḍa should be 20 aṅgulas. The Kaṇaya should be made of bamboos.

The carma ( shield ) is 16 aṅgulas and is for use by both hands. The jarjara should be made of wooden logs with knots, and the chatra ( umbrellas ), cāmara ( chowris ), dhvaja ( banner-staffs ), bhrṅgāra ( water-jars ) should be of the same size as those made for ordinary use. The weapons must not be made of hard or heavy materials such as stone or iron, but of stiff blades of grass, bamboos, lac, skin, cloth and earth. Gestures could very well serve the purpose of hard blows and cuts. The Nāṭyaśāstra prescribes that no missile should be released on the stage and no weapon should pierce or strike any one. They are to be used only to make a gesture of an attack and should simply touch a spot.1 The lightness of weapons made them convenient for being taken from one court theatre to another by a troupe.

The basic conception was to create an illusion rather than to represent real things. Various kinds of weapons described in Sanskrit dramas can easily be represented by means of bamboos covered with cloth according to the shape and size of the weapon.

Statues as those used in the Pratimānāṭaka2 and Viṇā-ghoṣavatī in the Pratijñāyaugandharāyaṇa3 could be made of earth and wood and lac. Extensive use is made of lac to effect colourful representations. In the Bālacarita, the discus, bow, club, conch and sword have been given human form.4 Actors personat-

1. NS—KM XXI, 130b-139; 170-180; KSS XXIII, 154-163, 194-203, 212-214a.

2. Pratimānāṭaka III, P, 277.

3. Pra. Y. I. PP. 63-64.

4. Bālacarita I, P. 522 and V. PP. 550-551.

ing the five weapons must have appeared on the stage adorned with different masks.

B. Alankara ( Decoration )

The second kind of āhāryābhinaya is alañkāra i. e. decoration of persons appearing on the stage. There are three kinds of alañkāra (decoration): [1] ornaments made of coral, diamond, silver and gold; [ 2 ] garlands made out of different kinds of flowers and wreathes and [3] costumes.1 These are differently used in different parts of the body.

Kings and women of distinction freely used ornaments of all sorts for the head, ear, nose, neck, waist, wrist and ankle. They were not, however, genuine and were made of copper, mica or wax, sparkling from a distance and presenting the effect of verisimilitude. The Nātyaśāstra describes the ornaments of men and women according to the country and caste and in due consideration of place and time. It has prescribed four kinds of ornaments according to the method of wearing them. They are : āvedhya, bandhanīya, prakṣepya and āropya. Āvedhya includes the kundala [ ear-rings ] and other ornaments for the ear which are fixed in holes pierced in the skin. Bandhanīya includes aṅgada [ arm-band ] and girdles and prakṣepya includes nūpura [ anklets ] and such other ornaments. Āropya refers to hemasūtra [ gold chains ] and necklaces that are to be worn round the neck.2

Bharata prescribes the following ornaments for men: cūdāmaṇi [ crest-jewel ] and mukuta [ crown ] for the head; Kuṇḍala [ ear-ring ], mocaka [ ear-pendant ] and kīla [ear-top] for the ear; muktāvalī [ pearl necklace ], hārsaka [ a snake-shaped ornament ] and sūtra [ gold thread ] for the neck; vatikā and aṅgulimudrā [ finger-ring ] for the fingers; hastavī and valaya [ bangle ] for the fore-arm; rucika [ bracelet ] and uccitika for the wrist; Keyūra [ armlet ] and aṅgada [ arm-band ] for the upper arm; trisara [ three-stringed necklace ] and hāra [ necklace ] for the neck and chest; tarala and sūtrak

1. NS—KM XXI, 9; KSS XXIII. 10; VD III. 27. 5b-7a.

2. NS—KM XXI. 11-13; KSS XXIII. 12-14.

[ 78 ]

[ golden thread ] for the waist; and suspended jewelled neck-laces and flower-garlands for the entire body.1

Ornaments for women are also described by Bharata. Women were pādapātra on the jaṅghā [ shanks ]; aṅgulīyaka [ toe-rings ] on the toes and tilaka on the big toes. Nūpura, kiṅkiṇī, ratnajāla [ jewel-net ] and ringing kaṭaka ornaments are worn round the ankle. An additional decoration of the feet will be the lac-dye applied on them in various patterns to impart to them the natural colour of Aśoka blossoms.

Ornaments named kañcī with a net of pearls, mekhalā, raśanā and kalāpa are worn round the waist. There is only one string in kañcī, eight strings in mekhalā, 16 in raśanā and 25 in kalāpa. Hāras were found to be of 8, 16, 32, 64, 100 strings. Women used to wear hāras of different jewels on their bosom and round the neck. They are: muktāvalī [ pearl-necklace ], vyālapankti [ snake-group ], ratnamālikā [ jewel-string ], ratnāvalī [ jewel-necklace ] and sūtrakā [ neck-chain ].

Different kinds of ornaments mixed with jewels were worn by ladies on the bosom or the back. On the fingers they used to wear rings. Śaṅkakalāpī [ hastidanti cudiyān ], kaṭaka, patra-pūraka, kharjura, aṅśopitika ornaments were worn by women on the wrists. Aṅgada [ arm-band ] and valaya [ bangle ] were used on the upper arm. The varjura and the svecchitika are ornaments of the fore-arm. Tilaka and patrālekhā adorned their temples. Karṇikā, karṇavalaya, karṇamudrā entwining the ear, dantapatra set with jewels, karṇapūra and karṇo-tkīlaka [ ear-top ] were prescribed for the ears. Bunches of flowers tied to the hair dangled above their eyebrows. They used sikhāpāśa, sikhajāla, khandapātra, cūḍāmaṇi [ crest jewel ], makarikā, muktājāla [ pearl-net ], gavākṣa and śīrṣajāla [ hair-net ] as ornaments for the head. Bharata has not mentioned any ornament for the nose. It appears the reference to such ornaments is lost or ornaments for the nose came into vogue in later times. Ornaments are to be worn according to emotions and sentiments and having a consideration

1, NS—KM XXI. 14·19a; KSS XXIII. 15·21a.

of tradition, measurements of the wearer and physical form.1

The Abhinayadarpana says bells should be made of bronze, copper or silver; they should be sweet in tone, well-shaped, dainty and tied with an indigo string with a knot between each pair of bells. Dancers should have 100 or 200 bells on each foot, or 100 for the right foot and 200 for the left.2

The use of some of these ornaments is referred to in Sanskrit dramas. For instance in the Svapnavāsavadattā, karnacūlikā, an ear ornament,3 and in the Ratnāvalī, nūpura, anklets, kiṅkiṇi-cakravāla and kalaka are mentioned.4

Various sets of ornaments are prescribed for various roles. Vidyādharīs use pearl-studded śikhāpuṭas and śikhaṇḍas. Yakṣīs and apsaras wear ornaments studded with gems. Yakṣīs use only one śikhā [top-knot]. Nāgīs use ornaments of the type usually worn by the divine women and have creeper of pearls and gems with points. The dresses of siddha women are decorated with pearls and emeralds. Padma-maṇi is the ornament for gandharvīs. Ornaments for raṅsasīs have indra-nīlamaṇi. Vaidūrya and pearls go to make up the jewellary of goddesses. Dresses adorned with flowers, jewels and ornamented with vaidūrya are worn by monkey women of divine origin. Women belonging to the south use kumbhīpadaka and vatalāṭika. The ornaments of prostitutes vary according to their country. In vipralambha śṛṅgāra women wear white dress only and do not use any ornaments.5

Over-ornamentation on the stage is discouraged. Gold ornaments are disallowed but ornaments of lac or mica are commended. If an actor or actress is loaded with heavy ornaments he or she is liable to be exhausted. The wearers often get fatigued and may even swoon. Instead of solid gold ornaments those filled with lac and not overloaded with

1. NS—KM XXI. 19b-35; KSS XXIII. 21b-43.

2. AD 29-30.

3. Svapnavāsavadattā P. 19.

4. Rat. I. 16; II. 2 and Prose P. 45.

5. NS—KM XXI. 41-55; KSS XXIII. 49-72a.

jewels are recommended. Gods and men in general are to

use ornaments according to the country and circumstances.1

Mukutas [ crowns ] are included among ornaments as they

are prepared with gold and jewels. They come under the

category of pratisira [ masks ] which are to be used for gods

and men according to their habitation, brith and age. Mukutas

are of three kinds: Kiriti, mastaki and parsivamauli [or parsivagata].

The Kiriti mukuta is the best among the mukutas. It is fitted to

the head like a high-levelled cap. It is made of gold and

studded with jewels. The mastaki mukuta is not as high as the

Kiriti mukuta but is enough to cover the head. It may also be

made of gold and studded with jewels. The parsivamauli mukuta

is only as high as the forehead. It does not cover the whole

head and is also called 'ardhamukuta'. It is made of gold.

Kings usually wear crowns of the mastaki type. It is prescrib-

ed that gods should wear the kiriti, mastaki and parsivamauli

crowns according to their status and age. Generals, crown-

princes and writers should wear parsivamauli mukutas. Gods

in general, gandharvas, pannagas, raksasas and samantas

are to use parsivamauli mukutas. For vidyadharas, siddhas,

caranas, mukutas which could be tied to the hair are prescribed.

Miniters, those in charge of harems, merchants and priests are

to use mukutas covered by the foldings of the turbans [ safa ].

The Natyasastra further prescribes that mukutas to be used on

the stage should not be made of gold and jewels, for if they are

heavy, actors will perspire, be overwhelmed and swoon.

Copper-plates should, therefore, be used in making mukutas.2

It will not be out of place here if we describe briefly how

openings in the pati for the mask, on which various forms of

crowns are set, were made. The pati is to measure 32 angulas

or can have any measurement according to need and be

prepared by using bilva paste on cloth. Masks should be made

with ashes or husks of paddy being mixed with bilva-paste or

some loose form of it. After getting the pati dried up holes

1. NS-KM XXI, 36-40; KSS XXIII. 44-48.

2. NS-KM XXI, 115-123, 181-187 a ; KSS XXIII, 131b-140,

204-210; VD III, 27; 33-37a.

should be pierced into it. An opening six angulas long and an angula wide should be made for the forehead; another opening two angulas long and one and a half angula wide for the cheeks, two openings each three angulas long for the ears and mouth and one of 12 angulas for the neck.1

Ornamentation through garlands is the second kind of alankara. Bharata has named five ways of preparing garlands: veștita, vitata, sanghatya, tepita and pralambita.2 He has not, however, given any details. The Abhinavabharati gives details about the varieties of the garland. The veștita garland is that in which bunches are prepared by folding together green grass, leaves and flowers. Flowers are woven into garlands to make a vitata. The sanghatya is that in which flowers are placed in a row and their stems tied with a thread in such a way that they are not visible. In the tepita, bunches of flowers are taken separately and a garland is prepared after tying each of them with a thread. The pralambita is a single long garland.3 The stage and persons appearing on it are to be adorned with any of these garlands as needed by the situation.

Dress for the characters on the stage is the third item in alankara. There was a conventional stage costume prescribed and it was in keeping with the dress in ordinary life. The costume and appearance of the nata help him in his work. Dress reveals the sex and race, sect or class, social or other position of the character represented. Bharata has mentioned three kinds of dress : śuddha [ undyed or white ], vicitra [ variegated ] and malina [ dirty ]. Ascetics wear garments of rags or bark ; those in charge of the harem reddish [ kaṣāya ] jackets ; warriors gay garments with weapons. Abhira maidens wear dark blue clothes; Vidya-

1. NS—KSS XXIII. 176-186.

2. NS—KM XXI. 10; KSS XXIII. 11 and repeated in 114.

3. Veștitam trnaveșṭanayabhimatam bahumālāveșṭanakṛtam ca vāvi-tatyāveștitanyaslișṭamālāsamūhāmakam vastra dhārabhāvenombhitam saṅghātyam vṛttam vā sya cchidrāntam prakṣiptasūtram bahupuspagucch-om'bhitam vāgrandhibhitṛnmitam vā pralambitam iti jālädiparyatavyā-rākarin.

( MSS. Saraswati Bhawan Library. Banaras ) Abh. Bh. XXI, P. 12,

dharis white clothes; demon women dark clothes; divine beings blue clothes. Dirty clothes indicate madness, distraction, misery or a journey. A woman whose husband has gone out also wears dirty clothes. Uncoloured or white garb is used for one engaged in worship or solemn religious service or one who is a trader [prāpanika]. Gods, dānavas, gandharvas, uragas, yakṣas and rākṣasas as well as lovers and kings normally wear gay, variegated clothes. But the costumes of the kings should be white when due to ominous appearance of any star [nakṣatropapāta] they are engaged in any propitiatory rite.

Costumes and decorations of the sages, the Jain [nirgrantha] and the Buddhist [śākhya] monks, the Tridaṇḍis and Brāhmaṇas well-versed in the Vedas [śrotriya] should be made according to the traditions of the order and respective society. Generally the dress of men and women varied according to their age and status.1

D. Angaracana [Painting of the limbs]

Aṅgaracanā is the third aspect of āhāryābhinaya. It includes dyeing of the limbs of persons appearing on the stage and their style of dressing the hair and beard.2

A keen appreciation of colours is a marked feature of the oriental play, for in the representation of great legendary heroes, divinities and mythical beings, the elements of place, time, age, rank and profession were never lost sight of. As regards painting, the Viṣnudharmottara says the primary colours are of five kinds : white, yellow, black, blue and myrobalan colours.3 But Bharata in the Nāṭyaśāstra speaks only of four primary colours: white [śita], blue [nīla], yellow [pīta] and red [rakta]. It is for the artist to mix these

1. NS—KM XX1, 100 b-114; KSS XXIII, 116-131a.

2. Keśaracanādirāsamantādhriyate poṣyate kāntiryena tadābharanaṁ śikhāvyālādikṣirakarma pulakādiyojanāparicchedah vicitravastuyogeta dveṣādipralambhena kartavyādvijā ca kravyaiṁ deśo anantyādih avasthāratisokādyāstatreti puruṣeṣvevāṅganānāṁ rūpaparivartanasaṁpādanāt makai் varnavartanā kartavyā nastripātreṣviti yāvat.

(MSS. Saraswati Bhawan Library, Banaras) Abh Bh. XXI P. 13.

3. VD. III. 27. 7b-26.

primary colours. The colouring of things witnessed, says the

Viṣnudharmottara, should be true to nature. Great emphasis is

laid on the thousand-fold mixture of colours left to the ima-

gination of the artist, and on the light and dark shade of

every tone. The range of colours must have been wide

enough to show in as subtle a manner as possible the local

colour of objects.

According to the Nāṭyaśāstra there are four fundamental

colours: white, blue, red and yellow—from which others are

developed. For instance, pāṇduvarṇa is developed by mixing

white and blue; Kapotavarṇa by mixing white and blue;

padmavarṇa by mixing white and red; harita by mixing ye'low

and blue ; Kaṣāya by mixing blue and red ; gaura by mixing

red and yellow. When different colours are to be developed

by mixing three or more primary colours, then the strong

colour should be taken in one part and the weak colours in

two parts each. But when the strong colour is blue, then

one part of blue and three parts of other colours should be

taken. As blue is very powerful, its dominance would be

noticeable in the mixture. After carefully preparing different

colours and keeping in view the age, country and caste of

the character, the paint should be employed in such a way

that the character, whom the naṭa represents, should seem

natural.1

Different colours are suitable for kings of different regions.

They are to be either painted lotus colour [ padmavarṇa ], or

reddish yellow [ gaura ] or dark blue [ śyāma ]. The sages

should always be given the colour of plum [ vadara ]. Gay

persons are to use reddish yellow [ gaura ]. Kirātas, Barbaras,

Āndhras, Draviḍas, the people of Kāśī and Kosala, Pulindas

and people of the Deccan are to be coloured brown [asita].

The Śakas, Yavanas, Pallavas, Bāhlikas and people of the

North are generally to be reddish yellow [ gaura ]. Pañcālas,

Śūrasenas, Māgadhas, Uḍhras, Aṅgas, Vaṅgas and Kaliṅgas

are coloured dark blue [ śyāma ] as also Vaiśyas and Śūdras

in general. Brāhmaṇas and Kṣatriyas are to be reddish

1. NS—KM XXI. 57-69a; KSS XXIII. 73b-84a.

[ rakta ] and Vaiśyas and Śūdras dark blue [ śyāma ]. Gods, Yakṣas and Apsaras are to be painted reddish yellow [gaura]; Rudra, Arka [ sun ], Druhina [ Brahman ] and Skanda are to have the colour of gold. Soma, Brhaspati, Śukra, Varuṇa, clusters of stars, ocean, Himālaya, the Ganges when personified are to be painted white [ śveta ] and Angāraka red [ rakta ]. Buddha and fire are to be painted yellow [pīta]. Nara, Nārāyaṇa, Somanāga, Vāsuki, the daityas, dānavas, rākṣasas, guhyakas and piśācas, water and the sky are to be painted dark blue [ śyāma ]. The sick and evil-doers, those who are oppressed by evil stars or have taken shelter in penance and all family men engaged in toilsome work should be made brown [ asita ]. Thus mixtures of paints appropriate to several roles are suggested for people belonging to different provinces, professions and grades of society.1

The dress of actors is carefully regulated especially as regards colour which evidently was regarded as an important item in the matter of sentiments. Each rasa had to be painted in its expressive colour. The erotic [ śṛṅgāra ] was of dark blue [ śyāma ], the comic [ hāsya ] white [ śveta ], the pathetic [ Karuṇa ] ash-coloured [ Kapota ], the furious [ raudra ] red [ rakta ], the heroic [vīra] reddish yellow [gaura], the terrific [bhayānaka] black [Kṛṣṇa], the marvellous [ adbhuta ] yellow [ pīta ] and the repulsive [ vībhatsa ] blue [ nīla ].2

Dressing of hair is another aspect of aṅgaracanā. Elaborate instructions on the subject of keśaracanā are laid down by the Nāṭyaśāstra for different characters. Persons playing the role of ascetic girls are to wear only one braid [ veṇī ] of hair on their head. Maidens of Avantī and Gauḍa wear ringlets. The latter have the śikhāpāśa and the veṇī [ braid ]. Women of the North tie their hair high on the head. Otherwise the plaits are usual. Married women, officers of the king and men of foppish nature should have curly hair. The young women of the Ābhīras put on two braids on their head,

1. NS—KM XXI. 69b-92a; KSS XXIII. 84b-105; ŚR I. XLVI. 134-142; PP. 256-257.

2. NS—KM VI. 42-43; KSS VI. 42-43; GOS VI. 47-48.

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which are covered with a piece of deep blue cloth. Vidyādharīs, Yakṣīs, Apsaras and Nāgīs wear pearls and jewels. Vidyādharīs tie up their hair in the form of a knot at the top, decorated with strings of many pearls, while Yakṣīs are to wear simple śikhā. The nāgīs are at once recognizable by the snake's hoods over their heads.1

Piśācas, mad men, bhūtas, ascetics and those who have not fulfilled their vows leave their hair loose. Buddhist monks [ śākya ], experts in Vedic studies [ śrotrīya ], Jain monks [ nirgrantha ] and other ascetics are to have their heads shaven clean or should have curly or long hair loosely hanging down. Boys have three tufis and so also servants, if their hair is not cut short. The Vidūṣaka [ jester ] is bald or with the kākapada [ crow's foot ].2

In the Raghuvaṁśa, Kālidāsa describes the alaka of Indumatī as having ringlets.3 The three kinds of arrangement of hair in the Meghadūta arc named as alaka [spiral or grizzled locks], simanta [ hair separated in the middle by a straight line ] and cūdāpāśa [ locks tied at the back ].4

Beards come under the scope of aṅgaracanā. After painting the face and other limbs one should provide beards to persons according to their habitation, activity and age. Four kinds of beards are prescribed by the Nātyaśāstra. They may be shaven clean [ śuddha ], dark blue [ śyāma ], carefully trimmed [ vicitra ] and bushy [ romaśa ]. Some shave their beards and moustaches clean and this is called śuddha śmaśru. Some do not take care to have them clean and allow them to grow. This is called romaśa śmaśru [ bushy ]. Those usually shave themselves but do not get time to do so owing to some work are stated as having śyāma śmaśru [ dark blue ]. Fashionable persons get their beard and moustaches trimmed, and they are called vicitra [ carefully trimmed ].

1. NS–KSS XXIII. 53-56, 64-68, 71a.

2. NS–KM XXI. 124–127; KSS XXIII. 141-148, VD III. 27, 37b-43.

3. Raghuvaṁśa VIII. 53.

4. Meghadūta II, 71 ; see V. S. Agrawala's article in Nāgarī Pracāriṇī Patrikā Kārtika 1997 Samvat,

Ministers, priests, ascetics and persons who have consecrated themselves for any ritual should be clean shaven ( śuddha ). Kings, divine persons, siddhas, vidyādharas, fashionable persons, princes and persons who ordinarily live gayly wear beards carefully trimmed ( vicitra ). Persons in misery and those under religious penances and those who are overtaken by misfortunes wear dark blue beards ( śyāma ). Sages, ascetics and those engaged in sacrifices lasting a long time have bushy beard ( romaśa ).1

Dress, ornaments and painting have a vital role in dramas as they are used with deference to the appropriate sentiment intended to be represented according to customs of the provinces and circumstances and after taking into consideration the age and creed of the people.

E. Sanjīva ( Living Creatures )

Sanjīva, the last aspect of āhāryābhinaya, signifies the appearance of animals on the stage and deals with the preparation of artificial animal forms for the stage. Animate objects which are generally seen on the earth are of three categories: four-footed, two-footed and with no foot.2 Lions, tigers, elephants, horses and other wild animals, birds and serpents could be represented on the stage with the help of bamboos, cloth, wool, Kaliñja, bhenḍa and abhāraka. It is quite evident that there were contrivances to represent the ingress and egress of carriages as in the case of the Mr.cchakat.ika. The artificial elephant in the Svapnavāsavadattā, horse, deer and lion in the Abhijñanaśākuntala are all examples of the sañjīva type of āhāryābhinaya.

Those with many arms, many faces and deformed persons, lions, donkeys, camels, elephants and the like should be prepared with earth, wood, man covered with animal's skin according to the ingenuity of the manager of the theatre. The actor should enter with appropriate feeling, concealing

1. NS—KM XXI. 92 b-99; KSS XXIII. 106-113a; VD III. 27. 27-32.

2. NS—KM XXI. 128-130 a; KSS XXIII. 151b-153; VD III. 27. 44-45a.

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his own form with colouring materials and ornaments. Thus the actor should merge himself completely into the character whose role he is playing. If a man represents an animal, he should assume the feeling of that animal and act the role with appropriate voice, gait, gestures and efforts.1

We refer to the Ratnāvalī to illustrate the sañjīva type of āhāryābhinaya. In Act II the cage of starling (sārikā) is opened by a monkey and there is a hubbub.

'Enters Susaṅgatā with the cage of a starling in her hand.' The monkey's plight is described thus:

"( Behind the scenes )—Dragging under him the remaining part of the gold chain round his neck after it had snapped, and with the circle of small bells jingling on account of the wanton movements of the feet, this monkey here, broken loose from his stable, having crossed the gates, is entering the king's palace, frightening the ladies, with his path followed in haste and confusion by stable keepers.

Susaṅgatā—O ! you who are quite at ease, what have you still to do with the picture-board ? Here is the wicked monkey fond of rice and curds. He has opened the cage of the starling and run away. Medhāvinī [ the sharp-talented bird ] has flown away. Come then, let us quickly follow her. She has caught the words of our conversation and might utter them before any body."

Then the bird is described as having flown away. Vidūṣaka is repeating the words uttered by the starling.2

Thus a monkey and a starling are shown on the stage. A monkey could easily be shown by a man wearing a garment appropriate to a monkey. In some such way a starling also could be presented.

We may therefore assert that though there was no scenery on ancient Indian stage as in modern times, some of the scenes were shown to the audience by preparing the necessary paraphernalia with the help of bamboos, lac, cloth skin, wool, earth, bark of trees, bheṇḍa and abarakā.

1. NS—KM XXVI. 13b-19a; KSS XXXV. 9-14.

2. Rat II. 2 and prose PP. 29, 36, 41.

CHAPTER V

ACCESSORY ARTS

A. Music and orchestra

Sañgīta comprises gīta [ vocal music ], vādya [ instrumental music ] and nartana [ dancing ] and depends upon rhythm [ gītam vādyam tathā nṛtyam yata sthāle pratisthitam ].1 People generally consider saṅgīta and gīta synonymous but there is a marked difference between the two. While saṅgīta is tauryatṛka, the union of song, dance and instrumental music, triple symphony, gīta [ vocal music ] deals with only one aspect and is a combination of svaras [ tones of the musical scale or gamut ].2

According to authorities on the art of music there are also two main distinctions in the theory and practice of saṅgīta. They are recognized by the names mārga [ high style ] and deśī [ popular style ]. Mārga saṅgīta [ gandharva or celestial music ] was employed by the celestial musicians or by sages who knew the theory of sacred music. It is not found in the world at present. Deśī saṅgīta [ terrestrial music ] varies from country to country according to the tastes of the people of a particular region and is a source of pleasure.3 The word mārga should not be thought to have been derived from the root mrg [ to search for ] but should be traced back to mārga [ path ] and then the mārga music could accord to the ancient path i. e. classical, as opposed to music that is current in different places [ deśī ]. The sage, Matanga considers that the word deśī [ popular ] applies to all earthly music. Sound [ dhvani ] goes everywhere in every place and comes to the lips in the form of a ‘melodious movement’ [ varṇa ], giving rise to deśī [ popular ] music. Hence it is called deśī.4

1. S. R. V. 2.

2. Kallinātha’s commentary on S. R. I, I. 21.

3. S. R. I. 22-24. PP. 6-7; Saṅgītapārijāta 20-24, PP. 6-7; Rāgavibodha I. 6-7. PP. 8-9; Saṅgītamakarandaḥ I. 3, P. 1.

4. Bṛhaddesī 2, 11b and 12. PP. 1, 2. ‘deśe deśe pravṛttosau dhvanirdeśīti sanjñitaḥ, ākrāntam dhvaninā sarvam jagat sthāvarajaṅgamam, dhvanistu dvividhaḥ prokto vyaktavyaktivibhāgataḥ, varṇopalambhanād vyakto deśīmukhamupāgataḥ.

12

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The sound of music is called ‘nāda’, intelligible sound, and is said to result from the union of physical breath with the fire of intellect. All music is based upon relations between sounds. According to the Indian theory, the sounds of music are first perceived as relative pitches or intervals and then from the 22 main intervals ( śrutis ) come the seven notes ( svaras ) called ṣaḍja, ṛṣabha, gāndhāra, madhyama, pañcama, dhaivata and niṣāda.1

Śārṅgadeva says: “Sound is first heard as an interval, a śruti; but the resonance that immediately follows, conveying of itself ( without an external aid ) an expression to the mind of the hearer, is called a svara, a musical note.”2 The sound that generates an expression is a svara, a note. The word svara [ note ] denotes that which shines of itself—from rājr (to shine) with the word sva [self] prefixed to it.3 The ornaments of the notes consist in gamakas [ graces ]. “When in singing, a note rises from its own pitch and moves towards another so that the second sound passes like a shadow over it, it is called a gamaka [ grace ].”4

Authorities on music refer each note to the sound of some animal. The cry of an animal tends to be always on the same note. The sound produced by the peacock is at its highest pitch called ṣaḍja. Rṣabha is said to represent the sound of cātaka bird Gāndhāra is the bleat of the goat. Madhyama is the cry of the heron. Pañcama is the note of the cuckoo(kokila). Dhaivata is the croaking of the frog in the rainy season and niṣāda the trumpeting of the elephant.5

Bharata divides svaras [ notes ] into four kinds according to the number of śrutis between them and this has remained the accepted division ever since. They are vāḍī [ sonant ],

1. Rāgavibodha I. 13-14. PP. 12–13; Saṅgītapārijāta 26-27. P. 9; Saṅgītamakarandaḥ I, 10-11. P. 2.

2. SR I, III. 24-26.

3. Bṛhaddeśī 63b, P.12: rājṛ dīptāviti dhātoh svaśabdapūrvakasy ca.

4. Saṅgītasamayasāra 1, 47.

5. Saṅgītamakarandaḥ I. 12-15, P. 2; SR I. III. 48; Bṛhaddeśī commentary on 63. P. 13.

[ 90 ]

samvādī [consonant], anuvādī [assonant] and vivādī[dissonant].1

Vādī [ sonant ] is the king of notes.2 It is the most important note taken in the rāga (ranjayatīti rāgah i.e. that which charms is a rāga ). It is repeated several times in the rāga oftener than the rest of the notes. Vādī is the predominant expression of the rāga: its character determines the mood. It helps one to recognize a rāga and indicates the time of singing it. Samvādī [consonant] is like a minister and is a note less important than vādī and more important than the other notes. “The nature of the consonant ( samvādī ) is to reinforce the sonant ( vādī ) by which the expressiveness of the mode is engendered.”3 The samvādī is almost always a fifth or a fourth above the vādī. This corresponds with an interval of twelve or eight śrutis. The notes of a rāga excluding the vādī and the samvādī are called anuvādī and are said to be the servants in relation to the king and the minister. Vivādī [ dissonant ] notes are like enemies. This note is not natural to a rāga but occurs in it sometimes only accidentally. It is very difficult to use a vivādī note in a rāga without marring its beauty and hence it is left out of the rāga and is called the varjya svara [abandoned note]. Thus the speaking note is called vādī, the note which converses with it is samvādī, that which increases the beauty of the rāga is anuvādī, but that which clashes with it is vivādī.

Our music is traditionally based on the three grāmas named ṣadja, madhyama and gāndhāra. Ṣadja and madhyama grāmas are found on earth while gāndhāra is reserved for heaven. A combination of svaras is called grāma. The three svaras [ notes ] namely udātta [ raised ], anudātta [ not raised ] and svarita [circumflex] of the Veda are not included in the grāma. Ṣadja grāma is the best of all the grāmas.4

Rāgas [ modes ] necessarily depend upon two grāmas

1. NS–KM XXVIII, 22-23, 24 and prose PP. 303-304; KSS XXVIII 19-20, 21 and prose PP. 317-318; SR I. III, 49-52. PP. 43-44.

2. Saṅgītamakarandaḥ 2-7.

3. Brhaddesī commentary on 63. P. 14; yad vādisvarena rāgasya rāgatvam janitamin tannirvāhakatvam nāma samvāditvam.

4. Saṅgītapārijāta 97-98. P, 28; SR I. IV, 1-2.

and are mainly produced from ṣadja grāma. Rāga is the basis

of melody in our music. The notes which are to convey

certain definite emotions or ideas must be carefully selected

from the 22 intervals of the śruti scale and then grouped to

form a mode, a rāga. It is defined as an arrangement of

sounds, which possesses varṇa [ melodic movement ], furnishes

gratification to the senses and is constituted by musical notes.1

The term varṇa [ melodic movement ] refers to the act of

singing and is of four kinds viz. sthāyī [ level ], repetition of

the same sound, ārohī, ascent, avarohī, descent, and sañcārī,

wandering or ascent and descent combined.2 The 12 notes,

seven major and five minor, constitute the octave. The

ascent as well as the descent taken in regular order begin-

ning and ending with a particular note of the octave is

called mūrcchanā.3 "That which spans ( mūrccha ) the scale

of a mode is called mūrcchanā."4

According to ancient musical theory there are three

important notes in the rāga. These are the graha, the amśa

and the nyāsa. The graha is the starting note, the amśa the

predominant and the nyāsa the ending note.5 Today singers

do not observe the rules regarding the starting or ending note

of a particular rāga but they usually begin and end as they

wish. Now amśa is considered all important and thus is

the soul of the rāgu. Śārṅgadeva identifies the amśa, the main

note, with the sonant, the vādī. "Because it is most used

during a performance, the vādī [sonant] is called amśa [ main

note ]."6 This is also supported by Abhinavagupta in the

Abhinavabhāratī. "The amśa svara [ note ] is the same as the

vādī."7 All the characteristics of the rāga are embodied in its

mūrcchanā or ḍhāṭa.

1. SR II. II. 1-9a, P. 155; Rāgavibodha I. I, PP 1-2.

2. SR I, VI, 1-3, P. 65; Saṅgītapārijāta 219-220. P. 56.

3. Saṅgītapārijāta 103. P. 33,

4. Bṛhaddeśī 94. P. 22. mūrchate yena rāgo hi mūrchanetyabhi-

sañjitā. Ārohanāvarohanakrameṇa svarasaptakam,

5. SR I, VII, 30a, 32b and 38b.

6. SR I. VII, 34.

7. Abh. Bh. on NS XXVIII, 23.

Music was an indispensable adjunct of Sanskrit plays.

Theorists state that each sentiment has its appropriate music

and each action its special accompaniment.1 Usually the

Sanskrit drama begins with music and ends with it. During

the enactment of plays also there are various references to the

music performed. In the Ratnāvalī two maids sing dvipadīkhaṇḍa

before the king.2 In the Mālavikāgnimitra, Mālavikā sings and

acts.3 In the Mṛcchakaṭika, Cārudatta goes to attend a musical

concert and while returning explains the beauty of the song of

Rebhila to his associate vidūṣaka, Maitreya. "Really his song was

impassioned, sweet, smooth, clear, and full of emotion, gra-

ceful and charming. To tell the truth, I feel that although

the musical concert is over, I am as it were still listening, as I

walk, to that cadence of the notes of his sweet voice; and to

those well-blended notes of the lute, high-pitched when

following up with the harmonious swell and fall of the sounds

of the syllables ( of the song ), but low towards the close;—

and to the song, sung with due regard to the pitch of sounds,

graceful and repeated twice where the rāga (passion) required

it."4

Examples from other dramas can also be cited to show

what a high place music occupied in the presentation of

Sanskrit plays.

There are four kinds of musical instruments in our

country: stringed instruments, drums, wind instruments and

cymbals—bells and gongs. According to the Nāṭyaśāstra, tatam

comes under the cetegory of stringed musical instruments,

suṣira under wind instruments and avanaddham and ghanam

under instruments of percussion.5 The materials of which

the instruments are made are for the most part those

1. NS–KM XXIX, 12–13; KSS XXIX, 17 and 18; SR I. III, 60.

P. 45.

2. Rat I. 13–15. P. 14.

3. Māl II, 4. P. 26.

4. Mṛch III, 4–5. P. 68.

5. NS–KM XXVIII. 1–15; XXX 1, 2; XXXI 1–4a; KSS XXVIII.

1–14; XXX. 1, 2; XXXI, 1–4.

that are easily procurable. Large gourds, bamboos,

canes, reeds, jackwood, earthen ware, hides of calves, sheep

and buffaloes are used.

The Nātyaśāstra points out that musicians sit in this manner:

the mārdaṅgika facing the east between the two doors of the

green room, the pāṇavika to his left, gāyakas to the south of the

raṅgapīṭha facing the north, gāvikās to his front on the north

facing the south, vainiḳa to their left and two vamśikas to their

right. In all the three types of theatres, players of musical

instruments occupy a place in the raṅgaśīrṣa between the two

doors.1 K. R. Pisharoti is surely wrong when he says : “The

arrangement of the Athenian stage is very simple : it consisted

of a round orchestra, and a low rectangular skene with a pro-

jecting Paraskenia and a low platform stage. Between the

skene and the auditorium lies what is termed the Proskenium

which is understood as the back wall of the stage in front of

which the actors act or as pillars in front of the stage between

the actors and the audience or as the stage. In these respects

this agrees with our theatre, particularly in our having the

mattavāranī and the ṣaḍ-dāruka.”2

Temples have played a great part in the preservation of

musical instruments. Poses as described in the Nātyaśāstra are

found sculptured on the walls of the Naṭarāja temple at

Cidambaram. At Ajantā there is a painting representing the

dance intended to allure Mahājanaka. The principal dancer is

most artistically attired and decked with ornaments of gold and

pearls. The orchestra comprises five artistes, two of them

playing cymbals, one a pair of drums, another a mrdaṅga and

the fifth apparently a guitar. Two women playing the flute

are also found in the painting.3

In our country there are nearly 400 musical instruments

each with a distinct name, shape and quality of tone. The

Nātyaśāstra mentions instruments such as mrdaṅga, paṇava,

1. NS–KM XXXIV, Prose on P.429; KSS XXXIII, Prose on P.449.

2. K. R. Pisharotiś article on ‘The Ancient Indian Theatre’, Rajah

Sir Annamalai Chettiar Commemoration Volume, Annamalai University.

1942. Ajantā Cave No. 1.

dardura, dundubhi, muraja, jhallarī, paṭaha, vamśa, śankha and ḍakkinī.1 According to the “Mirror of Gesture” the following accessories are called the outer life of danseuse : the drum, cymbals of a good tone—the flute, chorus, the drona, lute ( vīṇā ), the bells, and a male singer ( gāyaka ) of renown.2 In the Saṅgītamakarandaḥ ten kinds of vīṇā are described and further on various instruments are mentioned.3 In other treatises on music innumerable other names of instruments are mentioned.

An orchestra was organized at the Udai Shankar India Culture Centre, Almora, in 1941 exclusively with Indian instruments. Orchestras are also arranged today at representations of kathakali and bharata-nāṭyaṁ in South India. As orchestras can be organized with Indian instrumer.ts alone in the modern age and as they help the presentation of a particular rasa and have a rich variety we can conclude that orchestras were similarly organized in ancient India with the help of four kinds of instruments referred to in the Nāṭyaśāstra.

B. Histrionics

Now we come to āṅgikābhinaya, gestures or action with limbs. It is expressed in three ways—by aṅga, pratyaṅga and upāṅga. The head, hands, chest, sides [flanks], waist [hips] and feet are called aṅgas. Some writers consider the neck also as an aṅga. The shoulder-blades, arms, back, abdomen, thigh [calves] and shanks are called pratyangas. Some writers add the wrists, elbows, knees and the neck also to the list of pratyangas. The shoulders, eyes, eye-brows, cheeks, nose, jaws, lips, teeth, tongue, chin and face are called upāṅgas. Then there are the heels, ankles, toes and fingers. Aṅgas, pratyangas and upāṅgas are to be used in every dance. When an aṅga [major limb] moves, the pratyanga and upāṅga also move.4

1. NS—KM XXXIV, 9-16; KSS XXXIII. 2, 10-17.

2. “Mirror of Gesture” P. 35. ed. 1936.

3. Saṅgītamakarandaḥ IV. 6-12, P. 22.

4. AD 42-49a. PP. 6-7; NS—KM VIII. 11-15; KSS VIII. 11-15; GOS VIII. 12-16.

[ 95 ]

Detailed are the directions on āṅgikābhinaya and here Bharata depended upon older natasūtras. The different parts of the body are described and motions and gestures and their significance assigned. The head is described as akampita when it is moved slowly up and down, kampita when the same movement is made quickly1. Each motion has a distinct significance. The glance changes according to the sentiment and the pupils move in different ways to express different sentiments and conditions.2

A series of rules are found on the motions of seven kinds of the brows3, six of the nose4, six of the cheeks5, six of the lips6, seven of the chin7 and nine of the neck.8 Further 24 postures of single hands, 13 of the different combined hands and 64 nrtta hands are described.9 Mudrās, gestures by fingers form the most important and powerful means of expression in a dance. Their richness creates a unique dramatic language and their conventionalised meanings and symbolism lend an added charm and glamour to the art of dancing. Mudrās, gestures by fingers set forth in the Nāṭyaśāstra are said to include the divine actions of celestial dancers and their application to the feelings and aspirations of human beings. We can examine the definition of one or two gestures of the hand to ascertain how they signify different objects. When the four fingers are outstretched parallel to one another and

1. NS—KM VIII. 16–37a; KSS VIII. 16–37a; GOS VIII. 17–40a.

2. NS—KM VIII. 38–51; KSS VIII. 38–51; GOS VIII. 41–55.

3. NS—KM VIII. 112b–122a; KSS VIII. 114–123; GOS VIII. 118b–129a.

4. NS—KM. VIII. 122b–127; KSS VIII. 124–130a; GOS VIII. 129b–136a.

5. NS—KM VIII. 128–132; KSS VIII. 130b–135a; GOS VIII. 136b–141a.

6. NS—KM VIII. 133–138; KSS VIII. 135b–141a; GOS VIII. 141b–147a.

7. NS—KM VIII. 139–144; KSS VIII. 141b–147a; GOS VIII. 147b–153a.

8. NS—KM VIII. 153b–159; KSS VIII. 164–170a; GOS VIII. 170–176a.

9. NS—KM IX. 4–16; KSS IX. 4–17; GOS IX. 4–17a.

[ 96 ]

the thumb is bent, the patākā ( flag ) hand is formed. The hand is held against the fore-head in this manner to express blows, injuries, oppressions, gladness, or haughtiness. The same posture of the hand with the fingers separated from one another and shaken indicate the glare of heat, torrential rain or shower of flowers. When the posture of patākā is kept and the third finger is bent, it is called the tripatākā hand and signifies the bringing or giving something, or dismounting or entry.1 In this manner by stating the definitions of other hands and by describing their significance it can be shown that different things are represented by different gestures of the hand in the presentation of plays.

Further directions are given regarding the chest, flanks, abdomen, hips, thighs, legs and the feet. As a matter of fact the Nātyaśāstra deals elaborately with different cārīs,2 mandalas3 and gatis.4 An attempt to set aright the feet, thighs, chest and abdomen is called cārī. Where an action is made by taking one step it is called carī. As the cārīs connected with different limbs relate to ( vyāyacchante from vyā-yaṁ, stretch out to ) one another they constitute a vyāyāma system. Where two steps are taken it becomes karana and the combination of karanas is said to be khaṇḍa. Three or four khaṇḍas make one maṇḍala. Cārī is employed in dancing, movements, dropping of weapons and in battle. Thus nātya is dependent on cārī. In nāṭya no limb moves without the employment of cārī. According to the Nātyaśāstra, cārīs are 32 in number and are divided into two classes : earthly [ bhauma ] and heavenly [ ākāśagāmī ]. But the Abhinayadarpaṇa has only eight cārīs and they constitute only one class by themselves.5 Maṇḍalas, according to the Nātyaśāstra, are 20 in number and are divided into two classes: earthly [ bhauma ] and heavenly [ ākāśika ], but the

1. NS—KM IX. 17b-30; KSS IX. 18-31; GOS IX. 18-32.

2. NS—KM X. 1–12; KSS XI. 1–13; GOS X. 1–13.

3. NS—KM XI. 1–5a; KSS XII 1–5; GOS XI. 1-6.

4. NS—KM XII 7b-33; KSS XIII. 8-39; GOS XII. 8-40.

5. AD 260-273. PP. 34-36.

13 [ 97 ]

Abhinayadarpana gives only ten of them and does not classify them at-all.1 The Natyasastra and the Abhinayadarpana have no name common in their caris and mandalas. The natyacarya should employ gati [ gait ] having ascertained fully the sthita [ slow ], madhya [ medium ] and druta laya [ quick tempo ]. The gati [ gait ] of nobles should be with steadiness, that of the middle class with medium tempo, while the low class should have quick and copious gait. Different kinds of beings walk in different ways and the gait should also vary according to the situation. Caris, mandalas and gatis, according to their relation to one another, are endless in number and variety. The nata has no room to be original in his gestures, for that is the business of masters [ acaryas ] of the art who know the theory and practice thoroughly. It is the action, not the actor, which is essential to the dramatic art.2

An elaborate description of how animate or inanimate objects can be represented through abhinaya, particularly angabh-inaya, is given in one full chapter on special representation [ citrabhinaya ] in the Natyasastra. It deals with methods of describing through bodily gestures natural phenomena such as dawn, night, twilight, day, the six seasons and the sky; mountains, oceans, stars, moonlight, heat, wind and the mid-day and evening sun, lightning; human beings and animals ; objects stationed in heaven such as gods and bhutas ; expressions of happiness, anger, jealousy, calamity, misery, fear, intoxication, bravery and the various emotions. Different kinds of poisonous effects could be represented on the stage through bodily gestures. Let us now take some examples to show how these were represented by actors and actresses playing different roles. Cold is indicated by people of lower position by contracting their limbs, trembling, clenching their teeth, moving their lips and making a 'si, si' sound. Darkness is indicated by people slipping and groping their way with their hands. A person gets into a carriage

1. AD 298-308. PP. 40-41.

2. "Mirror of Gesture" by A. K. Coomaraswamy, 1917 (ed). P. 3. and 1936 (ed). P. 18.

by raising his eyes and feet and enters a palace by taking

longer paces and raising the feet higher. The act of getting

into water is done by raising the clothes and if the water is

very deep he represents that by outstretching his hands.

Joy is represented by one embracing the other's body,

by smiling eyes as well as by horripilation [ tathālpakathana ],

while anger is indicated by unturned red eyes, biting of lips,

deep breathing and trembling limbs.1 Each and every part

of the body is important to signify some emotion or feeling.

Deep significance lies in the mode in which the head is

shaken, the eyes and brows are moved ; the cheeks, nose,

lips, chin and neck can all be used to convey subtle themes.

All this will be clear from the directions of Rāghavabhaṭṭa

in his commentary on the Abhijñānaśākuntala for depicting the

bramarābādhā [ attack by the bee ], sṛṅgāralajjā [ amorous

bashfulness ] , kusumāvacaya [ gathering of flowers ] and prasā-

dhana or alaṅkāra [ wearing ornaments ].2 Thus there are

many themes which are indicated by means of tokens and

gestures in Sanskrit plays. In reality the art of āṅgikābhinaya

was fully developed and an object, which was not procurable,

must have been represented by means of bodily gestures.

C. Dancing

Dancing in India flourished under royal patronage and

every king and chieftain had his band of musicians, court-

dancers and painters. People of good family used to be

well versed in these arts, and music and dancing formed

an important part of their education. But dancing was not

confined solely to the educated classes. Folk dances in a

multitude of forms has played an important part in the

communal life of the people. Indian dancing is a traditional

art and as such it has fixed ends and ascertained means of

operation. God Śiva in his well known aspect of Natarāja is

pre-eminently the lord of dances. After the destruction of

the sacrifice of Dakṣa, Śiva danced with various gesticulations

to the tune of music. He imitated all the principal gods and

1. NS—KM XXV; KSS XXVI.

2. Rāghavabhaṭṭa in his commentary on Śāk PP. 24, 29, 86, 99.

assumed different postures. These dances were known as pindībandhas.1

The position of hands, feet, waist, flanks, thighs, abdomen, back and chest are vital in dance. Sometimes motion is slow and sometimes quick. These movements are called mātrkā2 or mothers of dance. A combination of three or four of these is a karana or action. One hundred and eight such actions [ Karanas ]3 are enumerated in the Nātyaśāstra. Different combinations of these actions are called angahāras4 or gesticulations. The Nātyaśāstra enumerates 32 such gesticulations. There are four different ways to end the dance gracefully and they are called recakas.5 All these recakas, angahāras and pindībandhas were designed by Śiva after the destruction of the sacrifice of Dakṣa. He taught Tanḍu tāṇḍava.

The temple at Cidambaram where the tāṇḍava is believed to have been performed is one of the most beautiful temples in India, dedicated to Śiva in his aspect of Naṭarāja. In the most inner enclosure is the nṛtta-sabhā or hall of dance. It consists of a stone platform with 56 stone pillars with dance poses exquisitely carved on them. This hall is at least 1,400 years old and is one of the earliest of Indian temple monuments. Towards the gateways there are 108 bas-relief panels, depicting a dance of Śiva and his consort Pārvatī. There are many fine examples of classical dance poses in the temples at Ellorā in Hyderabad, Elephanṭā near Bombay, Bhuvaneśvara near Puri on the Bay of Bengal, and in numerous temples scattered all over South India.

Delighted with the performance of the drama, the Tripuradāha, Śiva ordered Tanḍu to teach Bharata the art of dancing. Sages asked Bharata why the dance was included in a drama.

1. NS—KM IV. 233–242a; KSS IV. 246b–256; GOS IV. 257–266.

2. NS—KM IV. 54b–58; KSS IV. 55b–60; GOS IV. 56–60.

3. NS—KM IV. 32b–54a; KSS IV. 34–55a; GOS IV. 34–55.

4. NS—KM IV. 16b–26a; KSS IV. 18–27; GOS IV. 18–27.

5. NS—KM IV. 231b–232; KSS IV. 240–246a; GOS IV. 250b–256.

matic performance. It did not help the story nor did it produce an emotion. Acting was quite sufficient for those purposes. Bharata's explanation was this: "Dances do not help dramatic action but beautify it. They are very popular, especially on auspicious occasions."1

The Nātyaśāstra recognises two types of dance, tāṇḍava, the violent dance of men, invented by Śiva himself, and lāsya, the tender amorous dance of Pārvatī. Because of its special importance lāsya is carefully analysed into ten parts by the Nātyaśāstra.2 It shows the essential union of song and dance. The divisions of lāsya, of course, appear to ignore their nature as parts of a dance, but it must be remembered that the motions of performers are essential in the performance.

We obtain a clear idea of dancing from a critical study of the first two acts of the Mālavikāgnimitra and first act of the Ratnāvalī.

The science and art of dancing are known as abhinaya-vidyā or nāṭyaśāstra. This is divided into two parts śāstra [ science ] and prayoga [ performance ] The latter is further distinguished into kriyā [ self-acting ] and sañkrānti [ imparting essons in dancing ].

The actual performance consists of two parts, aṅgasauṣṭhava [ graceful contours ] and abhinaya [ gesticulation, expressing entiment ]. Graceful contours can be exhibited in a two-old manner, through viralanepathyā [ thin costume ] and body control.

Then begins the real work of the dancer, Mālavikā, n the present case. She takes up a stanza of four lines, irst hums the tune and afterwards sings it aloud. There-fter she gesticulates with a view to bringing out the sentiment which permeates the piece.

Bhāvas form the most important feature of abhinayavidyā, he two dance masters [ abhinayācāryas ] Haradatta and

1. NS—KM IV. 244-248; KSS IV. 258b-263a; GOS IV. 268b-273a.

2. NS—KM XVIII. 170-181; KSS XX. 138-151; DR III. 52, 53. ?. 73; SD VI. Sūtras 241-251. PP. 393-394.

Gaṇadāsa have been described as two bhāvas incarnate.

Similarly the lesson in abhinaya which is imparted to Mālavikā

by Gaṇadāsa has been described as bhāvika. Any movement

or emotion difficult of representation was called dusprayojya as

an instance of which is given calita, a dance in which the

dancer, whilst representing the sentiments, gives expression

to his own feelings. The success of an actor lies in his

bringing in bodily form a particular emotion. The bhāva

becomes śarīrī when the calita was performed by Mālavikā.

Parivrājikā describes it as faultless art and is full of apprecia-

tion for it.1

The maids, in the Ratnāvalī, dance before the king, who

shows deep appreciation of their art.2

In the Mṛcchakaṭikā also there are references to dancing.

Viṭa: ‘stop there, Vasantasenā, your steps show skill in a dance.’

Samisthānaka calls Vasantasenā a dancing girl [lāsikā].3

In the Balacarita there is reference to a Hallīṣaka dance.

Girls of cowherds, though naturally charming, look extremely

beautiful when dressed up in garments of varied hues.

Young cowherds have drums and are singing. “Dāmodara :

come now, belle of the station, wood garland, crescent

and gazelle, we must do this dance made for herdsmen.

Girls : As you tell us, master. Saṅkarṣaṇa : Dāmaka and

Meghanāda, beat the drums. Both : Right, Master [ All

dance ]. Old Herdsmen : Bravo, that's good. Well sung.

Well danced. I will dance a bit myself. Now I am tired.”4

Thus it can be seen from dramas that dancing was very

popular with spectators.

D. Dialogue

Ancient dramatists gave great importance to dialogues

and proper dramatic delivery. The Nāṭyaśāstra emphasizes

on the choice of words in a play and calls them the body of

1. Māl II. 8. P. 29.

2. Rat I. 16. P. 15.

3. Mṛch I. 17. P. 15; 23. P. 17.

4. Bālacarita III. Pp. 539-540.

the dramatic art [ nātya ]. Vācikābhinaya [ verbal representa-

tion ] mainly consists in the use of proper pronunciation,

modulation, accent and rhythm.1 Use of different dialects

and proper forms of address to persons according to their

ranks or social status are also included. These rules are very

elaborate and are well adapted to bring out the lyrical

qualities of a play and will be discussed in chapter VIII of

this work.

The value of an instructive or entertaining dialogue

was well understood in India and religious scriptures, the

Vedas, the Upaniṣads, the Saṁhitās, the Mahābhārata, the Tantras,

the Purāṇas and even the Jātakas or the Baudha-ākhyānas are in

the form of conversations. In fact another name of the Veda

is śruti—what was heard in conversation. The Nātyaśāstra

insists on weighty dialogue and says the words employed in

dramas should be suggestive, deep in meaning, approved of

by the Vedas and acceptable to all persons.2

The dialogues between Ātreyī and Vāsantī in the

Uttararāmacarita, between Sāgarikā and Susaṅgatā in the

Ratnāvalī, between Kaśyapa and Śakuntalā in the Abhijñānaśā-

kuntala, between Bhīṁsena and Draupadī in the Veṇīsaṁhāra,

between Urvaśī and Pururavas in the Vikramorvaśīya, between

Cāṇakya and Candanadāsa in the Mudrārākṣasa are lively

and deep in meaning. The language of Bhāsa is very simple,

natural and touching, alternating with simple figures of

speech. The language of Kālidāsa is remarkably easy.

Bhavabhūti in the Uttararāmacarita uses somewhat more

difficult language. In his other two plays, and especially

in the Mālatīmādhava, it is more elaborate and difficult.

The Mṛcchakaṭika presents fewer difficulties than any of these

dramas.

Ordinary dialogues in Sanskrit plays are for the greater

part in prose, but reflections or descriptions and poetical

1. NS–KSS XV 1–4; GOS XIV. 1–4; Agnipurāṇa CCCXXXIX.

49b-53. P. 312.

2. NS–KM XXVII. 42–46a; KSS XXVII. 45–49a,

fancy take the form of verse. Many kinds of metre from anuṣṭubh to danḍaka are used by them.1

Intonation [ Kāku ] is change of voice under different emo-tions such as fear, grief and anger. Kāku is a word of negation which is used in a manner implying the affirmative, as in question of appeal. In such cases the intended meaning is suggested by a change of the voice. Slow [ vilambita ] into-nation is desired in the comic, the erotic and the pathetic sentiments. In the heroic, the furious and the marvellous sentiments the excited [ dīpta ] and high [ ucca ] intonations are praised. Fast [ druta ] and low [ nīca ] intonations have been prescribed in the terrible and the odious sentiments.2 Thus the intonation should be made to follow the states [ bhāva ] and the sentiments ] rasa ].

Vīthyaṅgas, the constituent parts of vīthī, are purely of the rhetorical kind. They are often mentioned in the rules of theorists and serve the purpose of enhancing the beauty of presentation of plays.3

1. NS–KSS XV.37-47; GOS XIV. 42-52.

2. NS–KM XVII. 108-118a; KSS XIX. 46-58; GOS XVII. 115-129.

3. NS–KM XVIII. 156-168; KSS XX. 118-133; GOS XVIII. 113b-126a.

CHAPTER VII

THE TROUPE

A. Roles of Characters (Bhūmikā)

We shall now deal with the types of people allowed to play roles in Sanskrit dramas. Actors were selected for their gait, speech, gestures and disposition. Divine personages were represented by persons whose physiques were well built and who spoke delightfully. Those, who were fat and tall, whose voice was deep like thunder and who had terrifying eyes, eyebrows and faces, were selected for the roles of rākṣasas, dānavas and daityas. The roles of princes were assumed by wise actors, of good appearance and voice and of virtuous disposition; of generals and ministers by persons who were brave, clever in conversation and possessed of clear vision; and of chamberlains and learned śrotriyas by persons who had pale eyes and long noses. Persons, who were slow, dwarfish, hunchbacked, of deformed noses or cheekbones, of ugly faces, badly dressed and ill-tempered, played the parts of servants. Wearied persons were represented by those who were lean and thin, while persons in normal health were represented by fat persons. The manager would, however, use his discretion to select actors keeping in view the feeling, actions and nature of the characters. The characters were represented according to their country, dress and appropriate appearance.1

In Sanskrit plays the roles were of three different qualities: anurūpā, similar to the nature of the person represented, virūpā, contrary to the nature, and rūpānusāriṇī. imitative by nature. Anurūpā is that which is represented by an actor of the same age and sex. In virūpā a child plays the role of an old man or an old man takes the role of a child.

1. NS—KM XXXV. 1-20a; KSS XXXV. 1-8.

In rūpanusarinī a man plays the part of a woman. A man's role may be played by a woman and vice versa according to the desire of the manager, but an old man or a boy should not be made to play the role of each other. When a man's role is given to a woman it should be done with great care. Thus the Nātyaśāstra expressly admits of three modes of representation: roles may be taken by persons of appropriate sex and age; roles of the old may be taken by the young and vice versa.1 The assumption of women's roles by men has, curiously enough, very early evidence; for the Mahabhasya mentions the word bhrūkuṁsa which was used to denote a man who was personating a woman.2 The Sūtradhāra in the Ratnāvalī and the Priyadarśikā plays the part of Vatsa, his younger brother that of Yaugandharāyaṇa in the former play3 and that of Dṛḍhavarman in the latter4; in the Malatīmādhava, the sūtradhāra and Paripārśvika assume the roles of Kāmandakī and her pupil Avalokitā, respectively.5 The enactment of women's roles by men was not by any means the normal practice. The naṭī normally plays an important female role as in the Karpūra-mañjarī.6 In the Kuṭṭanimata, where an actual representation of the first act of the Ratnāvalī is described, a woman is found in the role of the princess.7

Bharata states that women are delicate [sukumāra] and hence they should be represented by women alone. Nāṭya should be performed by women well versed in the dramaturgic śastra.8 Learned teachers should instruct women in terms of the Nātya-śāstra for theatrical representation was a delicate [sukumāra] subject. Roles in śṛṅgāra sentiment should be left to women, for they have delicate gestures and well-formed limbs.

1. NS–KM XXVI. 1–5; KSS XXXV. 15–20.

2. Mahābhāsya II. P. 196.

3. Rat I. Prelude Prose P. 7.

4. PD Prelude Prose PP. 3–4.

5. MM Prastāvanā P. 12.

6. Kar. M. Prastāvanā P. 11.

7. Kuṭṭanimata–KM 852–927. PP. 104–110.

8. NS–KM XXVI. 6–13a; KSS XXXV. 21–23a, 24b–29.

[ 106 ]

In nātya, two kinds of performances, sukumāra and āviddha are followed to present emotions and sentiments. Nāṭaka, prakaraṇa, bhāṇa, vīthī and aṅka are varieties of the delicate [ sukumāra ] type. Āviddha is full of war, motions and agitation. It involves too much of cutting, tearing and fighting; there is also the use of indecent language. Hence women should not take any part in it. The styles known as śāṭalī and ārabhaṭī are employed in it. Dima, Samavakāra, Vyāyoga and Īhāmṛga are its species. Their āviddha performances were to be done by devas, dānavas and rākṣasas who were violent by nature and full of vigour.1

B. Nāṭyacāryas

Poets, directors, stage managers, musicians, scene-designers and painters come under the category of nāṭyacāryas, according to the Nāṭyaśāstra. Among nāṭyacāryas, the sūtradhāra is the foremost as he guides actors, arranges the paraphernalia, directs the performance and above all is responsible for the successful presentation of the play. According to the Nāṭyaśāstra, the sūtradhāra should be a master of sciences and arts, know countries, and costumes and customs prevalent in them. He should be well versed in languages, the science of dramaturgy and versification. He should have good knowledge of music, musical instruments, political science, geography, astrology, anatomy, history, law and emotions and sentiments. He should be able to foresee the purport of his own exposition. These are the minimum qualifications of a sūtradhāra. In addition, he is a poet, has excellent memory and intellect, is grave and generous. He should be in good health, sweet-tempered, self-controlled, of a forgiving nature, righteous, not avaricious, truthful and impartial.2

The Sūtradhāra, the chief actor, whose name denotes that he was thought of as an architect conversant with histrionics, is occasionally styled head of the troupe. He is essentially the instructor of the actors and his designation

1. NS—KM XXVI, 20–25; KSS XXXV. 23b–24a, 30–36,

2. NS—KM XXIV. 93–100; KSS XXXV. 45–52.

can be taken to mean a professor. In the Uttararāmacarita,

Bharata is called tauryatrika sūtradhāra, professor of the three

kinds of saṅgīta [instrumental music, song and dance].1 Thus

the sūtradhāra was an important dramatic personage, controlling

the whole company, assuming different roles, sometimes

arranging the scenes, sometimes directing the actors and some-

times himself taking an important role in the plays.

According to the dramatic treatises, the sūtradhāra had two

associates, the sthāpaka and the pāripārśvika. In his attributes

the sthāpaka resembles the sūtradhāra. Immediately after the

preliminaries, another person, similar to the sūtradhāra in

appearance and qualities is to enter and introduce the play, a

function which gives him the designation of the introducer

[ sthāpaka ].2 He does not, however, figure in any of the extant

dramas and so the duties assigned by the treatises to the

sthāpaka must have all been performed by the sūtradhāra

himself.

According to the Nāṭyaśāstra, the pāripārśvika's qualities and

qualifications are second only to those of the sūtradhāra. He

is of middle type, of good form, intelligent and an expert in

the performance of his duties. He has full knowledge of instru-

ments. He is an attendant of the sūtradhāra. He appears in the

prologues of many plays and acts the parts of persons of rank.

He receives the sūtradhāra's orders, passes them on to other

actors and directs the chorus.3

The Nāṭyaśāstra also refers to some ācāryas expert in prepa-

ring materials required for the stage and proficient in directing

actors and actresses. Many types of artisans seem to have been

necessary in the presentation of plays.4

There is the mukutakara who makes crowns [ mukutas ] for

the characters with the help of different materials as stated

in chapter V of this book. He prepares various kinds of

head-dresses also. The ābharaṇakṛt prepares ornaments.

1. URC IV. P. 119.

2. NS–KM V. 149-154; KSS V. 163-168; GOS V. 168b-169a,

172b-177a.

3. NS–KM XXIV. 101b-102a; KSS XXXV. 53.

4. NS–KM XXXV. 26-27, 31-37; KSS XXXV. 72-73, 77-84.

The mālyakṛt makes garlands. The veṣakara prepares dresses. The citrakara paints pictures. The rajaka dyes the dresses. The kāruka prepares things out of lac, stone, iron and wood. He is an artisan who prepares different items of stage paraphernalia. The kuśilava is an expert in the arrangement of musical instruments and also in playing them. The nāṭyakāra leads the characters in a play by directing them in the representation of feelings. The naṭa is the performer of nāṭya and an expert in using the four kinds of musical instruments. He is called naṭa because he represents and imitates the actions of men. He is an expert in the representation of sentiments, feelings and courage. The nāṭakīyā is a beautiful woman who can sing and has the capacity to rouse sentiments. She is familiar with the different kinds of musical instruments and has knowledge of rhythm and tune. The taurika is the head of warriors and trumpeters, an expert in blowing all musical instruments. Thus artisans are named according to the duties they are called upon to perform.

C. Actors and Actresses

There is a great variety of characters, male and female, introduced in Sanskrit plays. Kings, ministers, high officials and attendants often figured very prominantly. Actors and actresses were, however, classified according to their qualifications into superior [ uttama ] medium [ madhyama ] and third rate actors [ adhama ].1 The principal parts in any drama were, however, a few; the king, the vidūṣaka, the parasite, the heroine and her companion were stock types. Theorists give detailed instructions about persons appearing on the stage.

Heroes were [ nāyaka, neṭṛ ] of different kinds according to their qualities. They were light-hearted [ lalita ], calm [ śānta ], exalted [ udātta ] or vehement [ uddhata ].2 The self-controlled and light-hearted hero, dhīralalita, was free from anxiety, fond of the arts, happy and gentle. The hero in the

1. NS—KM XXIV. 85–92; KSS XXIV. 1–8.

2. NS—KM XXIV. 3–5; KSS XXXIV. 17–19; DR II. 1–6a, PP. 35–38; SD III. 35–38. PP. 90–91.

Ratnāvalī is an instance of the dhīralalita hero. The self-controlled 'and calm hero, dhīraśānta, is a Brāhmaṇa or possessed of the generic qualities of a hero. The heroes in the Mālatī-mādhava and the Mṛcchakatika are instances in point. The self-controlled and exalted hero, dhīrodatta, is of great excellence, exceedingly serious, forbearing, not boastful, resolute, assertive and purposeful. The heroes in the Mahānātaka and the Abhijñānaśākuntala are instances of this type. The self-controlled and vehement hero, dhīroddhata, is dominated by pride and jealousy, devoted to witchcraft and deceit, self-assertive, fickle, irascible and boastful. Examples of this type are rarely found. Various other types of heroes are described but as they serve no purpose in the actual presentation of Sanskrit plays we do not go into a detailed study of their characteristics.

Sometimes the hero has an antagonist, and he is the pratināyaka. He is avaricious, stubborn, criminal and vicious like the dhīroddhata hero. He is always painted as passionate and evil-minded.1 Rāvaṇa, the opponent of Rāma, and Duryodhana, the opponent of Yudhiṣṭhira, are pratināyakas.

Among the pleasure companions [narmasaciva, narmasuhṛd] of the hero is the piṭhamarda [ he who rubs his sides ]. He is devoted to the hero and is the hero of an episode [ patākā, prasangika-itivrtta ].2 Sugrīva in the Rāma dramas and Makaranda in the Mālatīmādhava belong to this class.

According to the Nāṭyaśāstra, Viṭa, parasite, is familiar with the ways of courtesans, sweet-tempered, impartial, poetic, able to argue, eloquent and clever. He is amiable in society and versed in arts.3 Vātsyāyana says that the viṭa is a character who squanders away his resources. He is married.4 In dramas, especially in the Mṛcchakaṭika, viṭa plays a great part. In the bhāṇas, however, the actor appears as a

1. DR II, 9 b. P. 40. SD III, 137. P. 149.

2. SD III. 47. P. 96. DR II, 8. P, 40.

3. NS—KM XXIV. 102b-104; KSS XXXV. 54-55; DR II, L 9. P. 40; SD III. 49. P. 79.

4. Kāmasūtra 45, P. 56.

[ 110 ]

viṭa and the role can be taken to have been borrowed directly from the popular stage.

Vidūṣaka, the joker, is the most important stock character in Sanskrit plays. He is a Brāhmaṇa and is described bald-headed, hunch-backed, dwarfish, has protruding teeth, a distorted mouth and yellow eyes. He is dressed in rags and śaṭhī. He is fond of quarrels and takes pleasure in eating and drinking.1 His external appearance, dress and gait are meant to evoke laughter. Moreover, he is the faithful companion and friend of the hero, who calls him a comrade [ vayasya ] and seeks his help in all difficulties, on account of which he often appears very dexterous.

The Śakāra is an old, popular character and is the brother-in-law of the king. He is irritated without any reason and again appeased, wears gorgeous clothes and jewels, gladly brags of his high connections, but throughout shows himself as ignorant and contemptible. He pronounces śa for sa and speaks māgadhi.2

To the next circle of the hero’s acquaintances belongs the slave ceṭa. According to the Nāṭyaśāstra, the ceṭa is ‘quarrelsome, talkative, physically deformed and knows well whom to respect and whom not.3

To the more distant or outer circle [ bāhya ] of acquaintances belong the commander-in-chief [ senāpati ], the successor to the throne [kumāra], the different ministers [ mantrin, saciva, amātya ], the judges [ prāḍvivāka ], messengers to distant places [ dūta ] and the court priest [ puroḥita ].4

Detailed instructions on the different types of heroines [ nāyikā ], their qualities, situations and relation to the hero are available. They may be divine women [ divyā ], queens

1. NS–KM XII. 121-122, XXIV. 106; KSS XIII. 136-137, XXXV. 57; GOS XII. 137b-139a; DR II. 9. P. 40; SD III. 50. P. 98.

2. NS–KM XXIV. 105; KSS XXXV. 56; DR II. 44b–45a. P. 56; SD III. 52-53. PP. 99-100.

3. NS–KM XXIV. 107; KSS XXXV. 58.

4. NS–KM XXIV. 59b-61a; KSS XXXIV 67-68.

[ nṛpapatnī ], women of good family [ kulastrī ], or courtesans [ gaṇikā ]. In their relation to the hero, they may belong to him [ suīyā ], to another [ anyā ] or to all ( sādhāraṇī ).1 The svīyā type of heroine is found in the Uttararāmacarita—Sītā, the wife of the hero, Rāma. An anyā heroine is either a maiden or a married woman. A married woman should never figure in the principal sentiment, but love for a maiden could be represented in connection with the principal or the subordinate sentiments. An example of the anyā type is found in the Ratnāvalī and the Mālatīmādhava in the love of Vatsarāja for Sāgarikā und Mādhava for Mālatī. In the sādhāraṇastrī type falls the courtesan. The Mṛcchakaṭika refers to a distinct class of very highly accomplished gaṇikās or courtesans, and Vasantasenā, a dancing girl, is introduced as an accomplished heroine with admirable traits of character.

Next to the heroines come their friends, step-sisters, maids and members of the harem. The Nāṭyaśāstra describes them as constituting the inner circle [ abhyantaragaṇa ].2 To this class belongs the principal queen [ mahādevī ], the second queen [ dovī ] and old woman [ vrddhā ]. In addition to these, are woman body guards [ sañcārikā sometimes called yavanī or greek maidens ], women waiting on the king [ anucārikā ] the heroine's personal maids [ paricārikā ] and the door-keeper [ pratihārī ].

There is a third category of roles called napuṁsaka [ neuter ]. Bharata includes in this class learned and skilled Brāhmaṇas [ snātaka ] chamberlains [ kañcukīya, kañcukin ] and eunuchs [ varṣadhara, nirmunda, aupasthāyika ].3

D. Spectators and judges

Sanskrit dramas demanded the full attention of a cultured audience. It is expressly asserted, as in the dramas of Kālidāsa, Harṣa, Bhavabhūti and Viśākhadatta, that

1. NS—KM XXIV. 6b-9; KSS XXXIV. 24-25; DR II. 15-23a. PP. 42-48; SD III. 68-85. PP. 106-120.

2. NS—KM XXIV. 15-17; KSS XXXIV. 29-31.

3. NS—KM XXIV. 50-52; KSS XXXIV. 61-62.

spectators are critical and experienced. In the Mālavikāgni-

mitra the stage manager says : ‘I am asked by the learned

audience to represent on the occasion of the spring festival

the play named ‘Mālavikāgnimitra’. Then on the question

whether the Malavikāgnimitra should be played the manager

says : ‘The wise accept one or the other after examination,

while the judgment of a fool is led by the experience of

others’. Thus the Mālavikāgnimitra requires the audience to

be learned and critical.1

In the Ratnāvalī the stage manager says : ‘Ah. I am

quite sure, the minds of all the spectators have been won

over or are favourably disposed towards us. For, Śrīharṣa is

an eminent poet and ‘this audience here is ever disposed to

appreciate merit ; the story of Vatsarāja is an attractive one

in the world, and we are masters of the histrionic art. Each

of these circumstances leads to the attainment of the desired

object. What to say then when there is a combination of

all advantages through my accumulated luck.’2 Here also

the audience is supposed to be critical as with that quality

alone the merits of a play can be judged.

There is no need to quote any example from Bhava-

bhūti's dramas. He was a great stylist and had a wonderful

command over language. The poetry of his dramas could

only be appreciated by a learned and critical audience.3

In the Mudrārākṣasa, the manager says : ‘Really I have

very great pleasure in acting before an assembly capable

of appreciating the merits of poems. Do you ask why ?

Grain sown by even a fool will thrive if it falls on good soil.

The growth of paddy in clusters does not depend on the skill

of the sower.’4 So in this drama, too, the audience has a

high standard and is critical and able to appreciate merits.

Thus dramas themselves show that the spectators [ sabhāṣad ]

were appreciative of the dramatic art.

1. Māl I. 2 and prose PP. 2-3.

2. Rat I. 5. P. 5.

3. MM IX. 17. P. 184; URC I. 27. P. 27.

4. Mudrārākṣasa I. 3. P. 7.

The Nātyaśāstra requires that the ideal spectator has keen susceptibility and excellent judgment with ability to feel the emotions of characters as depicted by actors. He should be attentive, an expert in handling the four kinds of instruments, have a knowledge of dresses, dialects, gestures and metres. He should be well versed in the śastras and arts and should be religious by temperament. Thus he should have keen intelligence, a capacity to examine and weigh the merits of the performance and participate in the pleasures and sorrows depicted on the stage.

In an assembly [pariṣad or saṁsad] there may be very few who fulfil all these conditions. The spectators can be good, medium and indifferent. They appreciate only that art, dress, action, speech or movement which is intelligible to them. Youths enjoy passionate scenes ; religious-minded persons take pleasure in scenes dealing with salvation. The brave delight in the representation of the vīhatsa and raudra sentiments and of battles. The old are interested in religious stories and purāṇas. Boys, fools and women take pleasure in comic scenes.1 Thus different spectators derive pleasure from different scenes according to their age, country and circumstances.

The Abhinayadarpana characterises the audience as a kalpavrksa—the tree that answers all wishes. The vedas are its branches, śastras its flowers and scholars the bees adorning it.2

There was a very elaborate arrangement for judging in every detail the success of a performance. According to the Abhinayadarpata, the sabhāpati or chief of the audience should be wealthy, intelligent, discriminating, an expert in giving awards, versed in music, versatile, celebrated, having pleasing qualities, well acquainted with gestures expressive of desires and moods, without envy or malice, well disposed to people ; possessed of righteous conduct, kind, patient, disciplined, versed in arts and proficient in abhinaya. His functions are to make pronouncements on the merit of a performance and

1. NS—KM XXVII. 47-60a; KSS XXVII. 50-63a.

2. AD 19. P. 3.

[ 114 ]

to distribute rewards to the sūtradhāra or leader of the troupe

of dancers, musicians and actors.1 The definition of a

sabhāpati is also given in the Saṅgītaratnākara.2

The sabhāpati has advisers. They speak in a dignified

manner, have a desire for fame, understand moods [ bhāvas ]

and are able to distinguish between merits and demerits.

They are versed in arts and polity and are themselves scholars.

They can distinguish a dialect from another and possess poetic

faculty.3

The success of a drama depends on the judgment of the

critic [ praśnika ] who has necessarily to be qualified for the

delicate task of judging the merit of the performance. The

Natyasāstra gives ten kinds of critics [ praśnikas ]: an expert

in sacrifice [ yajñavit ], an actor [ nartaka ], a prosodist

[ chandovit ], a grammarian [ śabdavit ], a king [ rājan ], an

expert in archery [ iṣvastravit ], a painter [ citravit ], a court-

esan [ veśyā ], a musician [ gandharva ] and an officer of the king

[ rājasevaka ]. When there is a conflict of opinion among

spectators, that of the praśnika is listened to.

A critic [ praśnika ] is an expert in his own province—

an expert in sacrifices, a judge in matters of sacrifice, an actor

in acting, a prosodist in complicated metres, a grammarian

in lengthy speeches, a king in connection with dignity,

with the female apartments and royal roles, an archer in the

excellence of the position of the body or general deportment,

a painter in judging the manner of salute and dress, a court-

esan in representation of passionate scenes, a musician in musical

notes and rhythm and an officer of the king in matters of

servitude or courteous demeanour 4

1. AD 17.

2. SR VII. 1345-1350.

3. AD 18.

4. NS—KM XXVII. 60b-61; KSS XXVII. 63b-68a. The text of

NS is corrupt here. Abh. Bh. and KM do not speak much about the

definition of praśnikas. Only KSS gives details. Here in verse 64 of KSS

there should be śabdavit in place of chedvit and here rājan should also be

enumerated in the list of ten praśnikas. In verse 66 there should be

iṣvastravit in place of iṣṭavāk.

We can have a clear idea of the critic [prāśnika] if we closely study the Mālavikāgnimitra and the calita dance scene performed in the sangītas̩ṭalā of king Agnimitra. There is a discussion as to who, Hardatta or Ganadāsa, was the better dance master. Parivrājikā was made the judge. She had a keen insight into gestures and other aspects of representation. She faithfully appreciated the merits of the dance of Mālavikā. She said: ‘All was faultless and in accordance with the rules of the dramatic science. Her limbs, eloquent with expression properly conveyed the sense, and the movement of her feet was perfect in timing. She exactly represented the sentiment. The movement of her fingers was gentle. In the successive development of acting one feeling gave place to another still the interest remained just the same.’1 Critics like Parivrājikā, who could judge every detail of the representation critically and minutely, were to be found witnessing Sanskrit plays.

E. Social Position of Actors and Actresses

We come now to the social position of actors and actresses. The mythological account given by Bharata says that the actors, in a comic vein, made fun of certain holy sages and were cursed with the loss of their status, which, thereafter, came to that of śūdras. King Nahuṣa, of epic fame, was the first to establish a theatre on earth, compelling the heavenly nymphs and songsters to come down to the mortal world where they married and mixed with mortals.2 The story of the curse on actors shows that at the time of Bharata actors as a class had become notorious [nirbrahmaṇa] and their unclean habits [śūdrācāra] were detested and shunned by refined society [nirāhuta]. When they died, their death was unmourned [aśoca].

In the Rāmāyaṇa, an actor, śailūṣa, is found handing over his wife to another.3

1. Māl II. prose and 8. PP. 24 and 29. 2. NS-KM XXXVI. 28-35, XXXVII. 14-18a; KSS XXXVI. 29-37a, 60b-64. 3. Rāmāyaṇa II. 30. 8.

[ 116 ]

The Arthasasastra enjoins that pleasure houses or natyaśālās for natas, nartakas, instrumentalists and reciters of stories and actors should not be built in the heart of villages, lest their plays should hinder the work of the residents of the place. The Kuśilava is described as a śūdra to be banished. The Arthaśāstra mentions Kuśilavas with rūpājivas in connection with song and music.1

Manu seems to have been aware of the influence which the stage exerted on people and he was vehement in denouncing the profession of actors. In fact, he prohibited Brāhmaṇas from becoming actors. Manu imposes only a minor penalty on illicit connections with the wives of actors because they were themselves willing to hand over their wives to others for profit. Manu speaks of the professions of natas, athletes [ bhalla ] and boxers [ malla ] as the lowest means of livelihood and says kuśīlavas should be avoided.2 According to Manu and yājñavalkya the testimony of a kuśilava is not valid and no Brāhmaṇa should accept food from stage artists3—a fact attested by the sūtradhāra in the prologue to the Mṛcchakaṭika, who says he can find none in ujjain to accept his hospitality.4

The law book of Viṣṇu treats actors as āyogava, a mixed caste, representing the fruit of alliances, improper and undesirable, between śūdras and daughters of vaiśyas.5

That wives of actors who served as actresses were of low morals is illustrated in the Mahābhāsya. It says, the women of natas mix with different persons as vowels with consonants.6

The reputation of actors and actresses was low and uncomplementary. Actresses were considered to be leading an immoral life and lexicographers characterised actors as living on the price of their wives' honour [ jāyājīva and rūpājīva ].

1. AS I. ii. 1. P. 114, AS I. i, 3, P, 29, AS I. ii. 27. PP. 305-306.

2. Manusmṛti VIII. 362. P. 330, XII. 45. P. 475, X. 22. P. 401.

3. Manusmṛti IV. 214-215. P. 170, VIII. 65. P. 280; Yājñavalkya-smṛti II. V. 70-71. PP. 667-668, I. VI. 16ob and 161. P. 237.

4. Mṛch I. PP. 9-10.

5. Viṣṇusmṛti XVI, 3, 8. P. 45.

6. Mahābbāsya III. P. 7.

[f 117]

On the other hand, however, actors enjoyed the friendship of great kings and eminent dramatists. Traces of a brighter side of the profession are found and this doubtless can be connected with the gradual elevation of the art from humble origins to the rank of refined poetry.

Bharata ranks as a muni or holy sage. As he is the originator of the dramatic art, actors are called Bharata-putras or sons of Bharata. Almost everything connected with drama or the stage is named after him. The oldest and most authoritative treatise on dramaturgy, the Nātyaśāstra, is ascribed to Bharata. The apsarā Urvaśī, a nymph, plays a scenic role in heaven before Bharata.

An actress was often, if not necessarily, one of the courtesans. In the Mṛcchakaṭika, Vasantasenā is skilled in acting and has in her house maidens learning the art. Vasantasenā is emancipated from her profession of courtesanship and allowed to marry Cārudatta, a learned Brāhmaṇa, by king Śarvilaka thus : 'Noble Vasantasenā, the king is pleased to confer on you the title of wife.'1

Actors are mentioned as welcome guests of princes and intimate friends of poets of status. Bāṇa enumerates actors and actresses among his friends in the Harṣacarita.2 Bhartṛhari refers to their friendship with kings.3

Girls belonging to the higher order of the society, like Mālavikā, were instructed in the art of representation. Mālavikā was made a present of to the queen by her brother, Vīrasena, deeming her fit to be initiated in fine arts.4

In the Ratnāvalī, the manager was treated with great respect by kings and requested to act the drama, in the following words: 'Manager, enough of prolixity. Today, on the occasion of the spring festival, called with great respect by the multitude of kings who have come here from various regions and who depend on the lotus-like feet of our king, the illustrious Śrīharṣa, I was told that the Ratnāvalī should be enacted on

1. Mṛch X. P. 252.

2. Harṣacarita I. P. 19.

3. Bhartṛhari 'subhāṣitratriśati'. Vairāgyaśatakam iii. 56.

4. Māl I, P. 9.

the stage.' Here the words 'great respect' signify that actors were held in high respect by kings.1

Bhavabhūti in the preludes to two of his dramas asserts his friendship with actors.2 Men, who could effectively declaim the stanzas of Bhavabhūti, must have had both education and culture of a high degree and must have been very different from acrobats and jugglers, dancers and others, whose humble occupations account for the censures of law books and the Arthasāstra. When we think that Bharata, the first teacher of the art of acting and the theatre-director of the stage of the gods, is subsequently designated a muni and that in later days men and women belonging to the higher strata of the society appeared on the stage, the conclusion is warranted that respect for the position of actors and their profession was gradually rising.

1. Rat I. P. 5.

2. MM Prelude Prose P. 8; Mahāviracarita Prelude Prose P.3.

CHAPTER VIII

CONVENTIONS

A. Pūrvaraṅga

Bharata devotes one entire chapter of the Nāṭyaśāstra to describing preliminaries of a play [ pūrvaraṅga ]. According to him pūrvaraṅga bears this name because ceremonies connected with it are performed at the beginning of the presentation of play on the stage.1 According to the Sāhityadarpana, the term pūrvaraṅga is significant as it includes that which the actor does before the play is presented in order to remove all hindrances.2 The Avaloka on the Daśarūpa, on the other hand, explains the word as derived from rañj, to satisfy, and says the name owes its origin to the fact that it satisfies one beforehand.3

According to Bharata the pūrvaraṅga has 20 different constituent parts. Out of these the first nine are to be performed behind the curtain and the rest on the stage.4

Pratyāhāra, bringing in of the musical instruments [kutapa]; avataraṇa, placing of singers [ gayaka]; ārambhā, beginning of the rehearsal song of the chorus; āśrāvaṇā, tuning of instruments which are played upon by striking [ atodya ]; vaktrapāṇi, tuning of the wind instruments [ vāḍya ]; parighaṭṭanā, tuning of the stringed instruments [ tantrī ]; saṅghatanā, meant for rehearsing the use of different hand poses for indicating the time-beat; mārgasāritā, playing together of different instruments; āsārita, entrance and practice of the dancing girls;—All these are done behind the curtain.

The parts of the Pūrvaraṅga to be played on the stage are mentioned below. First comes gīta, song in praise of gods

1. NS—KM, KSS, GOS V. 7.

2. SD VI. Sūtra 10. P. 293.

3. Avaloka on DR III. 2. P. 63.

4. NS—KM V. 17-30; KSS V. 17-30a; GOS V. 17-30.

and then utthāpana, song on the setting up of the banner of

Indra [jarjara]. Here the sūtradhāra appears, followed by

two paripārśvikas who carry a water jug [bhringāra] and the

banner of Indra. The sūtradhāra strews flowers, brings in

Indra's banner and cleanses himself with the water of the

jug. After this, is performed parivartana, stalkirg round the

stage with praise of the guardians of the world [dikpālastuti]

and adoration of Indra's banner [jarjarapūjā]. Nandī, praise

or a benediction is next recited by the sūtradhāra in a middling

tone. It consists of 12 or 8 pādas and after each pāda, both

the pāripārśvikas say evamastu [so be it]. Then follow vardha-

māna, an increasing intensity of tāṇḍava [manly dance];

ṣuṣkāvakṛṣṭa, an introduction in which the sūtradhāra recites

some verses in a sonorous voice; the jarjaraślokas, in praise of

the god whose worship is being celebrated, or in praise of a

king or of Brahmā; raṅgadvāra, when the play [abhinaya]

begins, the sūtradhāra recites a new verse and bows before

Indra's banner [jarjara]; carī, different paces and gestures

with an erotic sense; mahācarī, similar paces, but more im-

petuous in degree; trigata, conversation between the sūtra-

dhāra, the vidūṣaka and a paripārśvika in which the vidūṣaka

speaks all kinds of nonsense; prarocanā, announcement of the

contents.

According to Bharata these are the constituent parts of a

regular pūrvaraṅga or a caturasra pūrvaraṅga. The tryasra

pūrvaraṅga is similar but shortened, while in the citra [variega-

ted] pūrvaraṅga strewing of flowers and dance of the gods etc.

are added.1

The pūrvaraṅga is not a part of the drama proper. Bharata

issues a note of warning that there should be some limit to

the dance, song and instrumental music introduced so that

the audience may not lose patience.2

Bhāsa's dramas, the earliest specimen of Sanskrit play,

begin with the direction, ‘nāndyante tataḥ praviśati sūtradhāraḥ’

1. NS—KM V. 139-144; KSS V. 158b-160a, 152-155; GOS V.

155-161.

2. NS—KM V. 146-148, I. 23; KSS V, 160b-162, 158a, I. 57; GOS

V. 164b-167a, I. 56b-57a.

[ i. e. after the introductory music is over, the stage manager enters ]. This is certainly an old specimen of introduction, according to which the nāndī did not form part of the drama proper. In Bhāsa's dramas there are no prarocanās or intimations of the contents.

The well established form of beginning in later dramas shows that the practice had become gradually different, as the nāndī and the prarocanā were incorporated in the drama proper and were composed by the author of the drama. The pūrva-raṅga was greatly shortened by its inclusion as a constituent part of the drama, but its principal parts, including dancing, singing and instrumental music were retained. The usual saying alaṁ ativistarena—enough of formalities—and similar remarks in the beginning of dramas point to this fact. The Sahitya-darpana remarks that in all cases the nāndī must be retained.1

After Bhāsa almost all Sanskrit plays begin with the nāndī. This is followed by the prelude, prastāvanā. This formality of the pūrvarañga is observed in every kind of drama. Hence it is dealt with here in some detail.

The Nātyaśāstra prescribes that the nāndī should have words invoking blessings [ āśīrvacana ]. It should have eight or twelve feet [ pādas ], should be poetically beautiful and should be holy or approved by gods.

The nāndī should be in honour of gods, Brāhmaṇas, the king, or it should please these persons. There must be two pāripārśvikas by the side of the sūtradhāra. While the sūtradhāra recites the nāndī in a middle tone, the pāripārśvikas say evamastu [ so be it] at the end of every foot [ pāda ]. There is also a note that by the proper execution of the nāndī, candra [ moon ] is pleased.2

According to the Abhinayadarpana, after many kinds of charming tunes have been performed in honour of Gaṇapati, the god of the muraja drum and other gods, the dancing girl

1. SD VI. sūtra 10. P. 293.

2. NS—KM V. 50b, 98-104a, KSS V. 51a, 106-112; GOS V. 50b, 109-115a.

should have the permission of her preceptor to begin dressing herself suitably. Then to destroy evils, to protect living creatures, to please gods, to bring edification to the spectators, welfare to the leader of the naṭa group, protection to the dancing girl and to make the teaching of her preceptor fruitful, she begins offering flowers to gods.1

According to the Ādibharata, in addition to Bharata's āśirvacana [ words of blessings ], the nāndī should include salutation [ namaskriyā ]; it should suggest the plot of the play [ kāvyārthasūcaka ] and should have eight or ten pādas.2

In the Agnipurāṇa, we find that the nāndī is one of the 22 divisions of the pūrvarañga. It adds to the words āśirvacana, of Bharata, prayers to elders and benedictions of cow, Brāhmaṇa and King etc. [ gobrāhmaṇaṇatpādi ].3

Abhinavagupta has discussed the various characteristics of the nāndī and has clarified the meanings of certain terms used by Bharata in this connection. He explains the word nitya as suggesting the daily recital of the nāndī i. e. the nāndī should be recited every day the drama is performed, unlike some other items of the pūrvarañga, which may not be practised daily. According to Bharata, the nāndī should be in honour of a god, Brāhmaṇa and king. To this, Abhinavagupta has added that it should also be in honour of a preksāpati i. e. the guest of honour. He adds a note that this nāndī is called prarocanā when it occurs as an element of bhāratīvṛtti.4

In the Daśarūpa, we find that the nāndī should please the audience and that the verses must be sweet.5 In the Nāṭaka-lakṣaṇaratnakośa, it is stated that the nāndī is to be introduced by the stage manager.6

In the Nāṭyaśāstra there is an illustration of the nāndī as given by Bharata. The authors of the Nāṭyadarpaṇa tell us that

1. AD 31-34. Pp. 4-5.

2. Ādibharata as quoted by Rāghavabhaṭṭa in his commentary on Śāk. P. 4.

3. Agnipurāṇa CCCXXXVIII. 8-9.

4. Abh. Bh. I. P. 219.

5. DR III. 4a, P. 63.

6. NLR LL. 1089-1100, PP. 46 and 47.

the nandī should have six or eight pādas and add the terms Sarasvatī, kavi and gunotkīrtana [ praises of merit ] to Bharata's list. The nandī is supposed to remove obstacles in the way of the performance of a play. The Nātyadarpana also says that the nāndī may be composed by the poet or the troupe manager and that it may be recited by the sūtradhāra, sthāpaka or pāripārśvikas.1

According to the Bhāvaprakāśana, the nāndī is derived from Nandi, the bull of Śiva. The dance of the bull ina particular form became worthy of representation. Its worship in that form is called nandī. It is also known as nāndī because it delights the audience. In this context the word nāndī is derived from nand, to please. There must also be the word candra [ moon ] or its synonym in the nāndī verse or the poet, at any rate, should indicate or suggest it. The sūtradhāra should recite it in a tone neither high nor low [ madhya svara ] and there should be eight or twelve pādas or sentences.2

In the definition of the nāndī, the Pratāparudrīya adds the words direct or indirect suggestion of the plot to the words of Ādibharata and others [ kāvyārthasūcaka ]. The nandī, according to it, may have eight, twelve, eighteen or twentytwo pādas.3 The Rasarnavasudhākara gives the same description as the Pratāparudrīya with a difference in the number of pādas. According to the Rasārnavasudhākara, there may be eight, ten or twelve pādas.4

The Sāhityadarpana quotes the Nātyaśāstra and adds that the nāndī should have words signifying auspicious objects like śankha [ conch ], candra [ moon ], abja, koka and kairava [ different kinds of lotuses ] and should contain eight or twelve pādas.5

In the commentary on the Abhijñānaśākūntala, Rāghavabhaṭṭa has quoted definitions of the nandī as given in most of

1. ND IV. PP. 192-193.

2. BP VII. LL. 19-22. P. 196, LL. 1-14. P. 197.

3. PR 34 and following prose PP. 87-88.

4. RS III. 137-138 and examples PP. 265-266.

5. SD VI. II. P. 293.

the works on dramaturgy and has added one more definition according to which the nāndī is composed of poems which please the audience, poets and actors. Here, too, the nāndī is derived from nand, to please.1

Thus the nāndī should have the following characteristics. It should include āśīrvacana, namaskriyā, kāvyārthasūcana; should be in beautiful verse; vedanirmita; should be in honour of gods, Brāhmaṇas, kings, sabhapati, audience, actors; should be recited every day the drama is performed; should have six, eight, twelve, eighteen or twentytwo pādas; the sūtradhāra should recite nāndī in a tone neither high nor low and two pāripārśvikas should stand on his sides and utter the word evamastu [ so be it ] at the end of every pāda; the moon is pleased by a proper recital of the nāndī ; it should contain words like candra, śaṅkha, abja, koka, kairava or their synonyms; should contain guṇotkīrtana; it is derivable from nand; it should be accompanied by offerings of flowers; and be composed by a poet or stage manager.

B. Religious Ceremonies

The entire edifice of the Sanskrit play has a fundamental religious basis. The Nātyaśāstra was spoken of as the fifth veda and Bharata, who wrote it, was regarded as the stage manager of the gods. He is said to have received a revelation of the dramatic art from Brahmā, the creator, who entered into meditation and from the depths of the divine thought brought forth the arts of drama, music and dance for the joy of the universe. According to the Nātyaśāstra, the Nāṭyaveda aimed at the attainment of the four puruṣārthas or objects of human pursuit, namely dharma [ ethical and spiritual development of the individual ], artha [ social and civic life and the acquisition of wealth ], kāma [ conjugal love and sensual pleasure of environment ] and mokṣa [ attainment of salvation ].2

Bharata pays great attention to the forms and ceremonies for worshipping the presiding deities of the theatre. They

1. Rāghavabhaṭṭa's commentary on Śāk I. P. 4.

2. NS—KM, KSS, GOS I. 14.

are : Candra [ moon god ], Lokapālas [ guardians of the world ],

Mārutas, Mitra, Agni [ fire god ], Varuṇa, Ādityas, Rudras,

Bhūtas, Apsarasā, Yakṣinya, the Ocean god, Kṛtānta, Nāgarāja, the

Rod of Yama, Niyati, Mrtyu, Indra, Vidyut [ lightning ], Yakṣas,

Piśācas, Guhyakas, Vajra, powerful Farjara, Brahmā, Viṣṇu,

Śiva, Kārtikeya, Sarasvati and Oṅkāra. The above-mentioned

deities should be worshipped with bali [ offerings ] and

sacrifices.1

Offerings, sacrifices, mantras, herbs, recitation and food

[ bhaksya ] should be offered on the nāṭyamandapa. The show

should not begin before the offerings are made. If this rule

is disregarded, the knowledge of the performer becomes futile

and he goes to the nether world. So the stage manager

should make the offerings with all ardour. If no worship is

offered the dancer or financier, whoever he may be, is

degraded. According to the dramaturgic treatises, he who

makes offerings gets the desired o'bject and goes to heaven.2

Most elaborate forms of worship are prescribed in con-

nection with the erection of the theatre. Brāhmaṇas are to

be fed at every turn, sometimes with rich and sometimes with

ordinary food. In the pusya constellation, a white thread,

strong enough to measure the building, should be laid round

the theatre. If the thread is broken into two pieces, the death

of the proprietor is indicated; if it is broken into three, a poli-

tical disorder will occur in the land, and if it is broken into

four, the master of the dramatic art will perish. To avoid

these, measurement of the theatre should be done on an

auspicious day and Brāhmaṇas propitiated. Deformed and

ugly persons should on no account be employed in any work

concerning the building. Monks and mendicants should not

be allowed to approach the building.

Bharata gives the correct invocation to be used when

laying the foundation of the theatre thus : ‘Oh pillar ! as the

Himālayas are immovably fixed on the ground, be thou

even like them.' In the Rohiṇī or Śravaṇa constellation the

1. NS—KM I. 49-64a; KSS I. 83b-98; GOS I. 82b-97.

2. NS—KM I, 87-93; KSS I, 119-125; GOS I. 125-131.

pillars should be laid and the director of the theatre should observe fast for three days. Jewels, cows and clothes should be distributed in charity.

While erecting the mattavāranis, garlands, clothes and perfumes should be given away in charity. Offerings liked by bhūtas should be given to the different castes [ varṇas ]. Milk should be offered under the pillars of the mattavāranis. Food—rice mixed with pulses—should be given to Brāhmaṇas.

When constructing the raṅgaśīrṣa, jewels and precious stones were laid underneath this [ raṅgaśīrṣa ] by expert builders. On the eastern side of the raṅgaśīrṣa diamond is to be kept ; lapis lazuli on the south ; emerald on the west, coral in the north and gold in the centre.1

Bharata devotes the third chapter of the Nāṭyaśastra to a detailed description of the worship of the gods of the stage. When construction of the theatre is over, cows should live there for a week and Brāhmaṇas recite mantras. The director is to be initiated and after a three-day fast should salute with folded hands prominant gods, divine beings, rājarṣis, munis, and dramatic obstacles and success.

Of the varied aspects of the preliminaries, special importance seems to have been attached to the praise of the world's guardians [ dikpālastuti ] and reverence to Indra's banner. Jarjara or the setting up of the flag-staff of Indra is the most important of the sacred rites on the stage. The flag-staff is erected in the stage in the evening after the mantras have been chanted the day preceding the festivity. On the day of the festivity, all the deities and the flag-staff are worshipped.

Brahmā, Śiva, Viṣṇu, Kārtikeya and the three great serpents Śeṣa, Vāsuki and Takṣaka are supposed to preside in the five knots of the flag-staff. The first part of the staff is wrapped in white linen, the second in blue, the third in yellow, the fourth in red and the fifth in multi-

1. NS—KM II, 30b-35, 38-57a, 62b-63; KSS II, 28b-34a, 36b-56a, 62-69a, 74b-75; GOS II. 33b-39a, 41b-61a, 67-74a, 79b-80.

coloured cloth. Different deities are invoked with different mantras according to the Nātyaśāstra.1

C. Dialects

The atmosphere in Sanskrit plays is characteristically romantic, but a curious element of realism is introduced by the use of many dialects, according to the status of various characters. The gods, most of the Brāhmaṇas and princes spoke pure Sanskrit and female characters Prākṛta. The audience, which could follow the minute variations of dialects, enjoyed this introduction of realism Dramas like the Dūtavākya, where pure Sanskrit is used, or like the Karpūramañjarī, where pure Prākṛta is used, are indeed very rare.

The use of specific dialects for characters seems to be determined on the strength of a rule of Viśvanātha, who, in the Sāhityadarpaṇa says : Yaddeśaṁ nīcapātraṁ tu taddeśyaṁ tasya bhāṣitam.2 But it is not always correct to say that because a character speaks Śaurasenī he or she must be the native of Śūrasena country. The dialect of a character appears to have been fixed by convention, and although in the Mṛcchakaṭika this rule is observed with fair rigidity, one cannot say that it is universal.

According to theorists, Sanskrit is the language of members of the higher castes such as kings, Brāhmaṇas, learned men, ministers and generals.4 Occasionally the senior queen, female ascetics and members of the harem also speak Sanskrit.3 Such is the case with some allegorical female characters in the Prabodhacandrodaya4 and similar other dramas. Sanskrit should also be used when people speak on war and peace, on omens and similar subjects.

1. NS—KM III. 1-15; 31b-32a, 65-67a, 74, 81-83, 93; KSS III. 1-16, 33b-34a, 75-77a, 84, 92-94, 104; GOS III. 1-17a, 34, 75b-77, 84b-85a, 92b-95a, 104b-105a.

2. SD VI. 168 Sūtra. P. 366.

3. NS—KM XVII. 31, 36b-42a; KSS XVIII. 29b-30a, 34b-40a; GOS XVII. 32b-33a, 38-43; DR II. 64. P. 61; SD VI. Sūtra 168. P. 365.

4. Prabodhacandrodaya V. PP. 167-168.

[ 128 ]

Pañcarātra, Brhannālā actually turns from Prākṛta to Sanskrit to describe a fight.1 Women, children and men in 'low stations speak Prākṛta.2

The rules laid down by Bharata for the use of Prākṛta dialects in the Sanskrit plays are simple. According to him, —and Sāgaranandin3 supports him,—the main Prākṛta dialect to be used in dramas must be Saurasenī. However, he allows latitude to writers to use other dialects as the dramatic form of poetic composition draws its characters from different countries. Bharata enumerates seven principal Prākṛta dialects for use in dramas. They are : Māgadhī, Avantijā, Prācyā, Saurasenī, Ardhamāgadhī, Bāhlīka and Dākṣiṇātya. He gives also a list of sub-dialects '[ vibhāsas ] such as Śākārī, Ābhīrī, Caṇḍālī, Śabarī, Drāvidī, Āudrī and Vanaukasī.4 Mahārāṣṭrī has not been mentioned by Bharata nor by Sāgaranandin but by Viśvanātha in the Sāhityadarpana which is a late work belonging to about 1380 A.D.5 Mahārāṣṭrī has in fact no place in Sanskrit dramas and in early days its use seems to be restricted to poetic compositions only.

The principal Prākṛta dialect used in the dramas was Saurasenī, both for prose and verse. It could be used by anybody in the drama. It was famous as the popular dialect of the Doab of the Yamunā and Gaṅgā. According to theorists, it is the language of the heroine, her friends and attendants and generally of women of good families. It is also spoken by ordinary men.

The Vidūṣaka and others spoke Prācyā, which was hardly different from Saurasenī, while rogues employed Avantijā.

Ardhamāgadhī was spoken by slaves [ cetas ] , sons of kings [ rājaputras ] and masters of guilds [ śreṣṭhins ].

1. Pañcarātra II. 29-32; P 400.

2. NS—KM XVII. 32; KSS XVIII. 33b-34a; GOS XVIII. 30b-31a.

3. NLR LL. 2148-2157. P. 90.

4. NS—KM XVII. 46-55; KSS XVIII. 44-54a; GOS XVII. 47b-56; SD VI. 168. PP. 365-366.

5. SD VI. 168 sūtra. P. 365.

17

[ 129 ]

Māgadhī was spoken by inmates of the royal harem, by diggers of subterranean entrances, inn-keepers and watchmen. It was occasionally used by the hero while in difficulty for self-protection. According to the Daśarūpa, Māgadhī and Paiśacī were the languages of the low people.1

Bharata says Dākṣiṇātyā should be spoken by warriors, police officers and gamesters. Ābhīrikā, according to the same source, is the native speech of the Khasas who belong to the north.

Coming to the use of sub-dialects or vibhāṣas, Śakārī was assigned to the Śakāra and the Śakas and other groups of the same nature, and Cāṇḍālī to the Pukkasas and the like. Ābhīrī or Śābarī was prescribed for those who lived in places where elephants, horses, goats, sheep, camels or cows were kept. Drāviḍī was the speech prescribed for forest-dwellers and the like. It has been observed that Ābhīrī and Drāviḍī dialects are not available in any extant dramas. Generally cowherds, outcastes and foresters used their own forms of speech. Even mischievous imps had their appropriate jargon and Piśācas or goblins, when introduced on the stage, spoke a dialect of Prākṛta known as Paiśacī.

The commentary of Pṛthvidhara on the Mṛcchakaṭikā has shown vividly the Prākṛta dialects used in dramas2 and has particularly pointed out that Mṛcchakaṭikā uses four principal Prakrta dialects and three sub-dialects—Saurasenī, Āvantī or Avantijā, Prācyā, Magadhī, Śakārī, Cāṇḍālī and Dhakkī.

D. Injunctions and Prohibitions

We now proceed to examine some of the peculiar but important injunctions and prohibitions laid down by dramaturgic treatises to be observed on the stage.

In order to maintain an idealistic atmosphere not only was a tragic end forbidden but other important and far-reaching restrictions were imposed. Propriety and decorum

1. DR 65-66. PP. 61-62.

2. The commentary of Pṛthvidhara on Mṛch PP. 1-2.

[ 130 ]

were emphasized. Grim realism was not to be presented,

for this would not exalt the mind. Painful, disgusting and

debasing scenes were to be avoided. Long journeys, murders,

fights, revolts in kingdoms, sieges, eating, bathing, kissing,

embracing, loosening the nivi and pressing of breasts were

not to be represented on the stage.1

The older dramatists, however, acted with greater freedom.

Thus in the Ūrubhaṅga of Bhāsa, Duryodhana dies on the

stage2 and in the Mṛcchakaṭikā, Vasantasenā is strangled by

Śakāra.3 The injunctions apparently came to be strictly

adhered to in later times.

The Sanskrit drama does not entirely exclude tragedy.

It excludes the direct representation of death as an incident

and insists on a happy ending. It recognizes some form of

tragedy in its pathetic sentiment [ karuṇarasa ] and love in

separation [ vipralambha sṛṅgāra ]; the tragic interest is almost

central in some plays. In the Mṛcchakaṭikā and the Abhijñāna-

śākuntala, for instance, the tragedy does not indeed occur at the

end but earlier, and in the Uttararāmacarita, where the tragic

element prevails throughout, it occurs in an intensive form

at the beginning of the play. Thus the foremost characteristic

feature of Sanskrit plays is the total absence of the distinction

between tragedy and comedy. It is a mixed composition in

which joy and sorrow, happiness and misery, seriousness

and levity are mixed, and in which good and evil, right and

wrong, truth and falsehood are blended. But towards the end

harmony is always restored and order succeeds disorder,

tranquillity agitation and the mind of the spectator is made

peaceful by the happy termination of the story.

Only sweet and exalted sentiments and emotions are to

be presented on the stage but minute details of the subject

that are deficient in sentiments and unsuitable are to be

reported. Things that are not to be represented on the stage

1. NS—KM XXII. 279-283; KSS XXIV. 285-289.

2. Ūrubhaṅga I. 35. P. 498.

3. Mṛch VIII. Prose P. 183.

and events that extend over a long time are to be related in inter-acts called arthopaksepakas.

Five kinds of inter-acts are distinguished : viṣkambhaka, praveśaka, cūlikā, aṅkāvatāra and aṅkamukha.1

The viṣkambha or viṣkambhaka relates, at the beginning of an act, events which are happening or which have happened. When a longer interval has elapsed between two acts or important events have happened, the new act is introduced with a viṣkambhaka. The Nāṭyaśāstra lays down that it should be introduced in the first of the five joints [ sandhi ]. This practice is not always followed in dramas. What matters is the kind of persons appearing on the stage. These are either the people of the middle class, in which case the viṣkambhaka is called pure [ śuddha ] and is in Sanskrit, or persons appear with people of a lower status in the mixed viṣkambhaka [ saṅkīrṇa ] with Prākṛta as the language.

The praveśaka in relation to the nāṭaka and the prakaraṇa is to occupy a place between two acts. It should not consist of the exploits of the superior and the middling characters and there should be no exalted speech in it. Its language should be Prākṛta.

Voices behind the curtain which relate facts constitute cūlikā.

The remaining two arthopaksepakas are of a somewhat different kind. The aṅkāvatāra comes between two acts or within an act and relates to the purpose of the germ [ bija ]. Bharata explains an aṅkamukha as a preceding allusion to the beginning of an act when this act is separated [ viśliṣṭa ] from it. The Daśarūpa calls it aṅkāśya and explains it as an announcement of the beginning of an act at the close of the preceding one when the matter of the following act is not an immediate continuation of the earlier one.2 The Sāhityadarpana observes, however, that some authorities take it as an aṅkāvatāra and

1. NS–KM XIX. 104-111; KSS XXI. 108-116.

2. DR I. 58–63 a.

explains ańkamukha as an allusion to the entire following contents of a piece inside an act.1

According to the dramatic rules [ natyadharma ] some parts of the matter in hand are to be heard by all persons present on the stage while other parts are not expected to be so heard. The former is known as 'aloud' [ pakaśa ] and the latter 'aside' [ svagata ]. An 'aside' is also called atmagata. The adverbial forms atmagata and svagata occur frequently in stage directions. Other forms of addresses are personal address [ jananta or janantika ] and that spoken in confidence [ apavarita ]. Personal address is mutual conversation in the presence of other persons who are excluded with a gesture by the hand with three fingers raised [ tripataka ]. A confidential speech [ apavarita ] is a secret shared by a person turning round to another and is meant to be heard only by the person addressed. Then there are imaginary conversations [ ākaśabhāṣita ]. When an actor says "What do you say" without the presence of any other actor and appears as if he hears the answer, it is called the ākāśabhāṣita.2 This device is frequently employed in a monologue play [ Bhāṇa ].

The Natyáśāstra prescribes a set of words for calling the different characters according to their position. The words are given in the following : Gods, great sages, persons well versed in different vedas and priests were called by men and women alike as 'bhagavan' [ holy one ]. Kings were called by Brāhmaṇas at their pleasure by their names. A Brāhmaṇa was usually called 'arya' [ noble one ]; a king, 'mahārāja' [ great king ]; a teacher, ācārya [ professor ]; and an old person, 'tata' [ father ]. A minister was called 'amātya' [ councillor ] or 'saciva' [ minister ] by a Brāhmaṇa and 'ārya' [ sir ] by others. Persons of equal status were called by their names. The lord of a chariot was addressed by the charioteer as 'āyuṣman' [ long-lived one ] and an ascetic, 'sādho' [ blessed one ]. A pupil or a son was addressed as 'vatsa' [ child ],

1. SD VI. Sūtras 36-42. PP. 311-313.

2. SD VI. Sūtra 161. P. 361; DR I. 63b-67.

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'putraka' [ son ], 'tāta' [ a term of endearment ] or by the name of his gotra by father or preceptor. A king was called 'deva' [ lord ] by servants and people in general, and as 'bhattāa' [ Prakrta form of bhartā ] [ sire ] by members of his harem and 'rājan' [ king ] by r̥sis [ sages ]. The vidūṣaka was called vayasya [ friend ] by the king. A husband was addressed as 'aryaputra' [ noble one's son ] by his wife in her youth. Wives of king were called 'bhatt̤inī' [ mistress ], 'svāminī', [ madam ] and 'devī' [ lady ] by members of the harem according to their status. A salve girl was called 'hañje' [ hey child ] and a courtesan 'ajjukā'; an old woman 'attā' and the wife 'priye' [ my dear ] in an erotic sentiment. These conventions were faithfully followed in Sanskrit plays.1

Sanskrit dramas are often very long. There are Sanskrit dramas like the Bālarāmāyaṇa of Rājaśckhara which are equal in volume to three dramas of Shakespeare. Dramas are usually divided into acts. The common word for an act is aṅka; only in the sub-class, saṭṭaka, the act is called javanikāntara. According to Bharata, an aṅka is rūdhisaṅbda i. e. he knows no etymology.2 The Avaloka on the Daśarūpa says that the aṅka signifies the mother's lap, because the act helps the develop- ment of the theme.3

The number of acts varies according to the kind of drama. In the principal classes there are at least five and at the most ten acts. In each act the hero must appear, and the number of persons present on the stage should not be too many. Three or four was considered to be a convenient number. This number was, however, often exceeded. Further, a subject treated in one act should not spread over more than one day. Different matters may be pressed together in one act. Every one should leave the stage at the end of an act.4

1. NS-KM XVII. 64-91; KSS XIX, 1-29 a; GOS XVII. 65-94 a.

2. NS-KM XVIII. 14; KSS XX. 14; GOS XVIII. 14.

3. Avaloka on DR III. 30b-31a. P. 70.

4. DR III. 36b-38. P. 71; NLR LL. 295-304.

The Sanskrit drama lays the greatest importance on the successful portrayal of sentiments and does not insist on quick movement of action. There are very few dramas in Sanskrit which cannot maintain the interest in their action. Ancient rhetoricians held that a dramatist should set before him the creation of sentiment [ rasodbhāva ] as his chief object.1 Besides the major plot, Sanskrit critics welcome the development of subsidiary incidents and situations. 'The fundamental 'unity of action' is to be observed, it is true, but only in the Shakespearian sense.

The 'unity of time' was ignored both in theory and practice, but so far as the drama as a whole was concerned, a sense of dramatic propriety demanded that an act should be arranged with a single purpose exemplified by the doings of a single day. Accordingly an act by itself created its own allusion. But between acts many years may elapse; in the Abhijñānaśakuntala, Bharata's growth from birth to boyhood is described2 and in the Uttararāmacarita no less than 12 years pass between the first and second acts.3 Time may slide over 12 or 16 years and the audience may learn of it from the chorus or a short dialogue.

Similarly, the 'unity of place' is not observed. In an act the place is practically the same except for small distances which are suggested by means of some brisk movement on the stage. But change of locality sometimes occurs within the same act, as for example, when a journey through air in a celestial car is performed. Generally in the subsequent act, the scene may open at any other place, even in a celestial region. The concluding stages of a long journey are symbolically represented so that the audience travels and reaches the destination in its imagination and then stays for the act in that locality. The idea of the locality is often picturesquely

1. NS-KM VI. Prose P. 62; KSS VI. Prose P. 71; GOS VI. Prose PP. 274-289.

2. Śāk VII. P. 185.

TRC II. P. 20.

suggested by means of exquisite poetic descriptions. In plays such as the Ratnāvalī, where a royal intrigue is presented, all the acts are confined to the several chambers or gardens of the palace itself. But such a restriction is voluntary on the part of the dramatist and is not imposed on him by the strict rules of dramaturgy.

CHAPTER IX

NATURE AND TYPES

OF DRAMA

A. Nrtta, Nrtya and Nātya

Sanskrit dramaturgists have very early distinguished between the art of histrionics [ nātya ] and the art of dancing [ nṛtya or nrtta ]. As some types of drama are based on nṛtya and others on nātya, it is essential for us to understand clearly these terms before we study the forms of drama and their actual presentation.

Nrtta and nrtya are derived from nṛt and nātya from nat.1 There is reference to nṛt in the Ṛgveda,2 while the earliest use of nat is found in Pānini,3 proving thereby that nṛt was an earlier form. Nat is found to have been used in the senses of dancing and acting.4 Nātya, too, has been assigned both these senses in certain works. That natya had both these senses of dancing and acting is also seen in the Mālavikāgnimitra. It speaks of a nātya called chalika, chalita or calita which was acted to the accompaniment of dance by Mālavikā. It was certainly not a drama, nor was it a mere nṛtya type. As there is express mention of acting according to the prevalent sentiment [ yathārasamabhinayati ] after the stanza recited by Mālavikā, it is obvious that it was a type which involved abhinaya, and this was the technical nature of nṛtya. It seems

1. Pānini IV. 3. 129; V. S. Apte 'Practical Sanskrit English Dictionary.' PP. 534 and 540 : 'nat ac iti nataḥ'; 'nāṭasyedaṁ kṛtyaṁ iti nāṭyaṁ,'

2. Ṛgveda X. 18. 3, 29. 2; VIII. 24. 9.

3. Pānini IV. 3. 110-111.

4. Siddhānta Kaumudī Tiṅanta P. 444. 'Naṭa nṛttau, Itthamev pūrvamapi paṭhitamṛ. Tatrāyaṁ vivekaḥ. Pūrvam paṭhitasyā nāṭyamaṁ thaḥ. Yatkāriṣu naṭavyapadeśaḥ.'

that Kālidāsa recognized the principle that bhāva [ emotion ]

was at the root of 'nrtya' as he called two ācāryas, Ganadāsa

and Haradatta, bhāvas incarnate. Thus also calita was a nrtya

type. Natya here refers to nrtya.1 The Mala vikāgnimitra also

recognizes nātya in the sense of drama. In it nātya is characte-

rized as a composition in which lokacarita [ ways of the world ]

are seen and which necessarily refers to the drama proper,

rather than to an ordinary nrtya.2 The same is the nature of

nātya as used in the Nātakalakṣaṇaratnakoṣa.3 The Bhāvaprakāśana

alone describes nrtta as rasaśrayam [ dependent on sentiment ],

thus equating it with nātya.4

But in order to understand clearly the import of these

terms, we shall have to keep in mind the subtle distinction

between bhāva and rasa. The Daśarūpa, after defining nrtya

and nrtta, adds : 'ādyam padārthābhinayo mārgo deśī tathā param'

i. e. the former, a representation of an object, is called 'high

style' [ mārga ], and the latter 'popular style' [ deśī ]. Similar

meaning is attached to the words nrtya and nrtta in the

Sangītaratnākara, the Pratāparudrīya and the Siddhānta Kaumudī.5

This clearly makes nrtya a more evolved form of nrtta. Nrtta is

the original form of entertainment on which nrtya was an im-

provement. Thus nrtta involved tāla [rhythm] and laya [tune]

only and not bhāva [ emotion ] while nrtya was essentially

connected with bhāva [ emotion ], and producing bhāva

in the minds of the audience is an art far more

advanced than mere 'gatravikṣepa' [ bodily movement ].

Nrtta, thus, is dance, while nrtya is mimetic art.

According to the Natyāśastra, nrtta had no purpose other

than delighting people.6 Abhinavagupta gives the following

1. Māl II. Prose P. 24.

2. Māl I. 4. P. 7.

3. NLR LL. 266-268. P. 12.

4. BP VII. LL. 7-12. P. 181.

5. DR I, 7-9; SR VII. 3b, 17b, 28, 29; PR Nāṭakāprakaraṇa. 1-2,

prose PP. 72-73; Siddhāntakaumudī Tiṇanta P. 444.

6. NS—KM IV. 244 to 248; KSS IV. 258b-263a; GOS IV. 268b-

273a.

divisions of nṛtta : masṛṇa [ tender ], uddhata [ violent ], masṛṇamiśra [ tender but mixed ], uddhatamiśra [ violent but mixed ], that which includes harmonious motions of hands and feet as in ‘recakas and aṅgahāras’, that which includes music leading to abhinaya and that which follows music and vadyatala [ rhythm of musical instrument ] with harmonious motion of the limbs. It will be seen that the first four divisions are based on a principle distinct from the one on which the last three are based. These three can be resolved into two types, one which has pure ‘gatravikṣepa’ [ bodily movement ] and in which hands and feet are moved in harmony with bhandavādya [ play on a musical instrument ] and the second which includes abhinaya, with harmonious motions of limbs to the tune of music. These two types of nṛtta are further taken as distinct from natya as is clear from a passage of the Abhinavabharati1 which says that the first type, which is nṛtta, was quite distinct from nāṭya and the second type, which is nṛtya was useful in nāṭya. Thus both these are distinct from nāṭya.

Abhinavagupta says that the abhinaya required in nṛttakavyas is distinct from the abhinaya required in nāṭya. In nṛttakavyas, nartakī, a female dancer, resorts to aṅgavyāpāra [movement of limbs] by proper gesticulation, movement of eyes etc.; but all this is to attract the king in whose presence she dances. Thus the abhinaya of a nartakī excites the king’s passion, but the abhinaya of a naṭa is to personate somebody and thus he has to show feelings, as experienced by another person and make them manifest on the stage by visible representation. A nartakī does not play any role and has nothing to represent visibly. All that she has to do is to attract the king’s heart by personal appeal, as it were, through her gestures. She does not put on the dress of any other person. Thus āhāryābhinaya is almost absent in her case. Abhinavagupta says his second variety of nṛtta is a sort of abhinaya but it can produce only

1. Abh. Bh. I. PP. 182-184. ‘Prathama bheda laukike svata ntranṛtte doṣnātoṣaṇādau vā Dvitīyaḥ pūrvaraṅgavidhau pariṣiṣṭanṛttalakṣyatayā.’

bhāva ·[ emotion ], not rasa [ sentiment ] which would be evoked only by nātya, and is, therefore, distinct from this second variety of nṛtta.1 Abhinavagupta does not use the term nṛtya but signifies both nṛtta and nṛtya of the Daśarūpa by the use of nṛtta.

From the point of view of evolution, first comes nṛtta, then nṛtya and last nātya. Nṛtta is mere dance, nṛtya has gestures added to it, while nātya has speech too. Nātya incorporated all the three items—dance, music and speech—which are so essential for the successful presentation of a play.

B. Major Types of Drama [ Rūpakas ]

Bharata was conversant with ten kinds of rūpakas, and his divisions and descriptions remained authoritative for later theorists.2 In course of time, they started all kinds of novelties, leading to further divisions and sub-divisions. They have not, however, attempted to alter anything of the ten rūpakas described by Bharata. The novel creations have been classified as sub-classes. The Daśarūpa gives details about natikā for the first time. The Bhāvaprakāśana gives an elaborate description of 20 minor kinds of dramas which are styled uparūpakas. The Sāhityadarpana describes 18 kinds of dramas which are designated as uparūpakas. The Agnipurāṇa mentions 17 minor kinds of dramas in addition to the ten rūpakas.3 But the recognition of uparūpakas signifies that later dramas which did not fit in with Bharata's description of rūpakas were treated and systematised as new kinds of drama. With the exception of the socalled natikā and trotaka, these sub-classes have exercised no apparent influence upon dramatic literature.

The chief point of distinction between rūpaka and uparūpaka is that an uparūpaka mainly deals with bodily gestures and music, which occupy a secondary position in rūpaka. Thus upa-

1. Abh. Bh. I. PP. 177-178.

2. NS—KM XVIII. 1–3a; KSS XX 1–3a; GOS XVIII 1–3a.

3. DR III. PP. 72–73; BP IX. PP. 255–268; SD VI. sūtras 281–299. PP. 412–420; Agnipurāṇa CCCXXXVIII. 1–7.

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rūpaka places greater emphasis on kāyabhinaya [bodily gestures] while rūpaka requires sāttvika temperament and other abhinayas. The Bhavaprakāśana very clearly says that rūpakas were rasatmakā [ dependent on sentiment ] and uparūpakas were bhāvatmakā [ dependent on emotion ]. It calls uparūpakas as nrtyabhedaḥ [ species of nrtya ] aud rūpakas as natyabhedaḥ [ species of natya ]. The distinction that natya is vākyārth- abhinayātmaka and nrtya is padārthābhinayātmaka also points to the same principle.1

Now we shall first describe the major types of drama [rūpakas] and then the minor types [uparūpakas] as given in the dramaturgic treatises.

Nāṭaka : According to Bharata, when the peculiarities of society were sought to be connected with certain gestures or when the actions of gods, ṛsis, kings or of the members of a society were copied, they came to be called a nāṭaka. All vṛttis should be in their proper place in a nāṭaka. According to the Daśa- rūpa, in a nāṭaka the hero should be endowed with attractive qualities of the type known as the self-controlled and exalted [ dhīrodātta ] and should be glorious, desirous of winning fame, very energetic, a preserver of the three vedas [trayī], a ruler of the world, of renowned lineage, a royal seer or a god. The incident for which he is renowned should be made the principal subject of a play. The subject matter should contain the five elements of action corresponding to the five dramatic stages and should be divided into five junctures [sandhis], and these junctures should again be divided into 64 sub-divisions. The patākā, prakarī and viṣkambhaka should be employed. One sentiment, either the heroic or the erotic, is to be made the principal sentiment, all others being made subordinate. The marvellous sentiment should be employed only towards the end.2

1. BP VII. LL. 7-8. P. 180, LL. 7-8 P. 181; VIII LL. 11-12. p. 221, LL. 7-9. P. 255.

2. NS—KM XIX. 118, 123, XVIII. 10-12; KSS XXI. 123, 128, XX. 10-12; GOS XVIII. 10-12; DR III. 22b-27, 33b-34a. PP. 69-71; SD VI. sūtra 6. PP. 388-389; PR Nāṭaka- prakaraṇa 32-33. P. 87; NLR. 12-53. PP. 1-3.

Prakarana : In the prakarana class all the vṛttis can be employed. According to the Daśarūpa, the action should be invented and should take place on the earth. A minister, a Brāhmaṇa, or a merchant, of the type known as self-controlled and calm [ dhīraprasānta ], undergoing misfortunes and having virtues, the search for pleasure and wealth being his chief objects in life, should be the hero. The remaining features such as junctures, introductory scenes and sentiments are as in the nāṭaka. In a prakaraṇa, the heroine may be of two kinds : the high-born wife of the hero or a courtesan. In some plays, there is only the high-born woman; in some plays, only the courtesan; and in some, both. High-born women remain indoors, the courtesan outside, and the two should never meet. Because of these varieties of heroine the prakaraṇa is of three kinds : śuddha, with the wife as heroine; vikṛta, with the courtesan; and saṅkīrṇa, with both. This mixed variety [ saṅkīrṇa ] abounds in rogues.1

Samavakāra: In the samavakāra class also the contents are borrowed from well known [ prakhyāta ] legends of gods and demons. It is to consist of three acts presenting the three kinds of deception, the three kinds of excitements or the three kinds of love. The first act should last for 12 nāḍikās; the second, for four; and the third, for two; a nāḍikā being equivalent to 24 minutes. This kind of drama is called samavakāra because various themes are scattered about [ samavakīryante ] in it. It may have as many as twelve characters.2

Ihamṛga : In the īhāmṛga dramas the story is of a mixed type—partly legendary and partly invented. It is divided into four acts with three junctures. The hero and the opponent of the hero may either be human or divine, without restriction;

1. NS—KM XVIII. 93-47; KSS XX. 49-53; GOS XVIII. 45-49; DR III. 39-42. PP. 71-72; SD VI. sūtras 253-254. PP. 396-397; PR Nāṭakaprakaraṇa 35, P. 88.

2. NS—KM XVIII. 109-123a; KSS XX. 65b-81a; GOS XVIII. 62b-77a; DR III. 62b-68a, P. 75; SD VI. sūtras 257-258, PP. 399-400; PR Nāṭakaprakaraṇa 46-49. PP. 90-91.

they should be renowned persons and of the type known as self-controlled and vehement, the latter committing improper acts by mistake. There are scenes of wrath but the characters are prevented from dashing into battle by some artifice.1

The īhāmṛga, according to the commentary on the Daśarūpa, owes its name to the fact that in it a maiden, who is as difficult to be obtained as a gazelle, is demanded.2

Dima: In the dima the subject must be well known and all the styles may be employed in it except the gay style. Its heroes, 16 in number, should be gods and gandharvas, all of them vehement. It contains all the sentiments except the comic and erotic.3

According to the commentary on the Daśarūpa, the name dima is equivalent to sāṅghāta ‘injuring’, inasmuch as the heroes always come to blows among themselves.4

It is also to include incidents such as an earthquake, fall of meteors, an eclipse of the sun or the moon, battle, personal combat, challenge and angry conflict.

Vyāyoga : To the old popular stage also belongs the vyāyoga which derives its name from the fact that in it many men disagree with one another [ vyāyujyante ]. The plot does not last for more than one day, and there is a lot of fighting and dissention, in which, however, women play no part. It is a one-act play.5

Aṅka : An aṅka or utsṛṭikāṅka is a one-act drama. The plot in it is usually to be well known, but it may

1. C. O. Haas: ‘The Daśarūpa’ A treatise on Hindu Dramaturgy by Dhananjaya. P. 105,

2. NS—KM XVIII. 123b-128; KSS XX. 81b-86; GOS XVIII. 77b-82; DR III. 72b-75. p. 76; SD VI. sūtra 260. P. 401; PR Nāṭaka-prakaraṇa 52-53. p. 92.

3. C. O. Haas. ‘The Daśarūpa’ A treatise on Hindu Dramaturgy by Dhananjaya. pp. 100-101.

4. NS—KM XVIII. 130-134; KSS XX. 88-92; GOS XVIII. 84-88; DR III. 57-60a. p. 74; SD VI. sūtras 25a. PP. 400-401; PR Nāṭaka-prakaraṇa 42-44. Pp. 90.

5. NS—KM XVIII. 135-138a; KSS XX. 94-97a; GOS XVIII. 90-93a; DR III. 60b-62a. p. 75; SD VI. sūtra 256. P. 398; PR Nāṭaka-‘prakaraṇa 45. P. 90.

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sometimes be otherwise. It relates to one's fall and is to be furnished with male characters other than those who are divine. It abounds in the pathetic sentiment and treats of women's lamentations and despondent utterances at a time after battles and violent fighting have ceased to rage. Small plays inserted into dramas are often designated ank̤as.1

Prahasana : The prahasana [ larcical comedy ] has been borrowed from the popular stage. The poet takes the plot from every day life and surrounds it with all kinds of illusions, wordy disputes and dissensions between rogues and worthless persons. There are two kinds of prahasana, the pure [ śuddha ] and the mixed [ saṅkīrṇa ]. In the śuddha type, Śaiva gurus [bhagavat], Brāhmaṇas and persons belonging to various strata of society appear, each one speaking his special dialect or devoting himself to his special calling. In the saṅkīrṇa prahasana, courtesans, slaves, eunuchs, parasites [viṭa] and rogues [dhūrtas] appear. According to the Daśarūpa and the Sāhityadarpana, there is yet a third kind of prahasana, the distorted type [ vikṛta ], where eunuchs and chamberlains appear as gallants.2

Bhāṇa : The bhāṇa has also a popular origin. The piece is acted by a single actor who appears as a man of the world and indeed as the principal viṭa. For this purpose he describes partly his own adventures and partly those of others. He uses the monologue [ākhyāśabhasita] and pretends to see and hear others. He acts, speaks, asks questions and answers on behalf of the imaginary persons. He makes suitable gestures. It is clear that the bhāṇa has developed from the pantomime or the musical dance and this explains why lāsya is employed in it. It is also a one-act play.3

1. NS—KM XVIII. 138b-145; KSS XX. 97b-104; GOS XVIII. 93b-100; DR III. 70b-72a. P. 76; SD VI. sūtra 261. P. 402; PR Nāṭakaprakaraṇa 51. p. 92.

2. NS—KM XVIII. 146–151a; KSS XX 106-111a; GOS XVIII. 101–107a; DR III. 54–56. P. 74; SD VI. sūtras 276–280. PP. 410–412; PR Nāṭakaprakaraṇa. 38–41. P. 89.

3. NS—KM XVIII. 151b–154; KSS XX. 111b–115a; GOS XVIII. 107b–111a; DR III. 49–51. P.73; SD VI. sūtra 255. P. 397; PR Nāṭakaprakaraṇa. 36–37. P. 89.

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Vīthī: Similar to the bhāṇa was the one-act vīthī. The vīthī was acted by two players. The Sāhityadarpana remarks that according to the opinion of an anony mous authority, three actors may also appear, one playing the role of a person placed high in life [ uttama ], another of the middle rank [ madhyama ] and a third one of the lowly [adhama]. In all cases the conversations are with imaginary persons [ākāsabhāṣita].

C. Minor Types [Uparupakas]

Nāṭika: Bharata refers at one place in the Nāṭyaśāstra to a kind of play called the nāṭī or nāṭikā. In nāṭikā, according to the Dasarūpa, the plot is taken from the prakaraṇa, and the hero, who is a renowned king and of the self-controlled and light-hearted type, from the nāṭaka; the principal sentiment is the erotic, with its various characteristics. The heroine is near the hero because of her connection with the harem. Through her hearing and seeing him, a newly awakened passion arises in the hero in regular stages. The hero is apprehensive of the queen. The nāṭikā contains the four sub-divisions of the gay style [kaiśikī] which are represented by the four acts.2

Troṭaka: The troṭaka has five, seven, eight or nine acts. It deals with gods and men and in each act the vidūṣaka appears. The tenth aṅga of the garbhasandhi is called toṭaka or troṭaka and this word signifies 'confused, excited speech.' We also hear of a dance called troṭaka.3

Goṣṭhī : The goṣṭhī is a one-act drama in which nine or ten ordinary men and five or six women appear.4

Saṭṭaka : The Saṭṭaka is nothing but a nāṭikā entirely written in Prākṛta without viṣkambhaka or praveśaka. The acts are

1. NS—KM XVIII. 155; KSS XX. 115b-117; GOS XVIII. 111b-113a; DR III. 68b-70a. PP. 75–76; SD VI. sūtra 262–263. PP. 403–404; PR Nāṭakaparikaraṇa 50. P. 91.

2. NS—KM XVIII. 106 ; KSS XX. 62–63 ; GOS XVIII. 57; DR III. 43–48. PP. 72–73 ; SD VI. sūtra 281. P. 412.

3. NS—KM XIX. 82; KSS XXI. 89; DR I. 40–41. P. 19; SD VI. sūtra 282. P. 413. sūtra 105. P. 338.

4. x1 y2 SD VI. 283. P. 413.

"not called anḵas but javanikāntaras. Like the trotaka, the sattaka also employs a specified kind of dance.1

Nāṭyarāsaka: The nāṭyarāsaka is likewise a one-act piece with changing time and rhythm [bahutālalayasthiti].2 As far as we can judge, it is a kind of ballet and pantomime.

Prasthāna: The prasthāna or prasthānaka has two acts. The Avaloka on the Dasarūpa says that the prasthāna is a kind of imitative dance [nṛtyabheda].3

Ullāpya: The ullāpya is a one-act piece It is full of fighting and asragīta, i. e. background music played from behind the stage with reference to the plot.4

Kāvya: The kāvya contains one-act and is a comedy (hāsya). Different kinds of songs such us khandamātrā, dvipadikā and bhagnatāla are prescribed for it. There are amorous speeches. According to the Avaloka on the Daśarūpa, the kāvya is a kind of imitative dance and is an inter-play of song and dance.5

Preñkhana: In the one-act Preñkhana, there is no sūtradhāra. The nāndī and praṇocanā are sung behind the curtain ( nepathye ).6

Rāsaka: The rāsaka is a one-act piece in which five persons appear. The Avaloka on the Daśarūpa says that it is a kind of nṛtya, with a piece consisting of singing and dancing.7

Samlāpaka: The samlāpaka has one, three or four acts.8

Śṛṅgadita: It has one-act. The name śṛṅgadita is assigned to it because the word śrī often comes up and because the goddess Śrī appears singing and reciting, According to the

1. SD VI. 284. P. 413.

2. SD VI. 285. P. 414.

3. SD VI. 286. P. 414; Avaloka on DR 8. P. 2.

4. SD VI. 287. P. 415.

5. SD VI. 288 P. 415; Avaloka on DR 8 P. 2.

6. SD VI. 289 P. 416.

7. SD VI. 290 P. 416; Avaloka on DR 8 P. 2.

8. SD VI, 291 PP. 416-417.

Avaloka on the Daśarūpa, śrigadita is a kind of mimic dance.1

Śilpaka: The śilpaka has four acts in which all the vrttis are allowed and the comic sentiment is excluded. Descriptions of burning grounds [ śmaśāna ] and similar things are found in it. Probably it was a kind of pantomime.2

Vilāsikā : This species of one-act drama is also called vinayikā by some writers. Others call it durmallikā.3

Durmallī : The durmallī has four acts. The first act lasts for three nādikās and the vīṭa appears in it. The second, in which the vīduṣaka appears, lasts for five nādikās, and the third, with the pīṭhamarda, lasts for six nādikās. The fourth is that in which citizens appear for ten nādikās.4

Prakaranikā : The prakaranikā is a nāṭikā with the hero and heroine drawn from the rank of sarthavahas.5

Hallīṣa : The hallīṣa has one act, with the kaiśikīvṛtti predominating in it. There is plenty of music and dancing in it.6

Bhānikā : The bhānikā is a one-act piece. According to the Avaloka on the Daśarūpa, bhāṇī is a kind of musical dance.7

The Abhijñānaśākuntala and the Veṇīsaṃhāra are specimens of naṭakas; the Mṛcchakatika and the Malatīmādhava, of prakaraṇa; the Pañcarātra of Bhāsa and the Samudramanthana in the Rūpakaśatakam, of Samavakāra; and the Rukmiṇīharaṇa of īhāmṛga. The Tripuradāha is a dima, the Kīrātārjunīya a vyāyoga and the Hāsyacūḍāmaṇi a prahasana. Bhāṇas are preserved in the collection known as the Caturbhāṇi. The Ratnāvalī and the Priyadarśikā are nāṭikās and the Vikramorvaśīya is a troṭaka. There are not many examples of uparūpakas except nāṭikās and troṭakas.

1. SD VI. 292 P. 417; Avaloka on DR 8 P. 2.

2. SD VI. 294. PP. 417–418.

3. SD VI. 295. P. 418.

4. SD VI. 296. P. 419.

5. SD VI. 297. P. 419.

6. SD VI. 298. P. 420.

. x. ou; SD VI. 299. P. 420; Avaloka on DR 8. P. 2.

It is needless to trace the gradual development of upa-rūpakas and rūpakas, because the earliest dramas of Bhāsa and Kālidāsa are in a developed form and we can only suppose that there must have been a large number of dramas, major or minor, in earlier times. These dramas do create an impression that they had already reached the highest stage of dramatic perfection.

CHAPTER X

PRESENTATION OF PLAYS

A. Actual Performance

The Nātyaśāstra presupposes the existence of a large number of dramas enacted in very early times such as 'The Fall of the Asuras,' 'Churning of the Nectar from the Sea' and 'Burning of the Three Cities.'1

Aśvaghoṣa wrote the Śāriputraprakaraṇa, portions of which are available in manuscript. The drama was, it is doubtless, intended for religious edification. Its style is simple. It is probable that it was enacted before the public so as to propagate the Buddhist faith. But it cannot definitely be proved.

The discovery of 13 dramas written by Bhāsa went a great way to prove the high pitch of perfection the Indian stage had reached in ancient days. One cannot but agree with Dr. Winternitz when he says that 'Kālidāsa and Bhavabhūti may be greater poets, greater masters of language than the author of these plays, but I know in the whole of Sanskrit literature no drama that could compare as a stage play with any of the 13 plays ascribed to Bhāsa.'2 Indeed those dramas are the works of a genius who was thoroughly conversant with the technique of the stage and who, it is apparent, knew what actual stage representation is.

The scenes, in which Santuṣṭa, Maitreya, Vasantaka, Śakāra, Sudhākara Madhyama are presented, show that these plays contain sufficient humour essential for a play meant for the stage.

1. NS—KM I. 22, IV. 1–10; KSS I. 56, IV. 1–11; GOS I. 55b-56a, IV. 1–11.

2. Winternitz : 'Some Problems of Indian Literature', chapter on Dāsa P. 129.

Now coming to the dramas of Kālidāsa, we find that

the Malavikagnimitra was performed at a spring festival in

Vidiṣā. The Vikramorvaśīya is found in two recensions. The

difference between the two versions comes into bold

relief in act IV. While the North Indian version contains

a series of apabhramśa verses and directions on the method in

which they should be sung and represented, all this is

wanting in the South Indian recension. This nāṭaka was

also meant for the stage. The Abhijñanaśakuntala is the last and

the best work of Kālidāsa. It has been translated into almost

all the European languages and has been staged in various

parts of Europe and India. Even today the Abhijñānaśākuntala

is staged in all parts of India.1

Further the Avadānaśataka says that a nāṭaka was performed

at the bidding of Krakucchanda in the city of Śobhāvatī by

a troupe of actors. The director undertook the role of the

Buddha and members of the troupe, the roles of monks.2

Itsing, who visited India in the last quarter of the seventh

century, relates that “king Śīlāditya versified the story of the

Bodhisattva Jīmūtavāhana, who surrendered himself for a Nāga.

This version was set to music. He had it performed by a

band accompanied by dancing and acting, and thus popularised

it in his time.”3 This might refer to the Nāgānanda.

In the kuṭṭanimata of Dāmodaragupta, actual performance

of the first act of the Ratnāvalī has been described in detail.4

There are plays within plays as in the Priyadarśikā. Queen

Vāsavadattā desires to have a play represented in which her

own meeting with Udayana in Ujjain is represented.5

1. Māl Prelude I. prose P. 2; Vik Prelude I. 2. P. 3; Śāk.

Prologue I. P. 8.

2. Avadānaśataka II. 75. PP. 29-30; Keith : ‘Sanskrit Drama’

P. 43.

3. Itsing : A record of the Buddhist Religion as practised in India

and the Malay Archipelago ( A. D. 671-695 ). Translated by J. Takakusa.

Oxford, PP. 163-164.

4. Kuṭṭanimata III, KM edition 852-927. pp. 104-110; Bombay

edition 875-928. pp. 336-368.

5. PD III pp. 30-43.

Bhavabhūti is known today for his three plays, the Mahāvīracarita [ or usually called Vīracarita ], the Malatīmādhava and the Uttararāmacarita. The Mahāvīracarita opens with the sentence : 'The audience orders that a drama with certain specified qualities be staged. Later it is stated that the poet is a friend of the actors.' Similarly in the Malatīmādhava, it is said that the audience orders the sūtradhāra to stage a drama, possessing certain characteristic qualities and the poet entrusts his work to actors out of his spontaneous friendship with them. In the Uttararāmacarita, no reference is made to the poet's friendship with actors and the sūtradhāra starts requesting the audience to listen to what he has to say.1

Rājaśekhar's dramas were meant to be acted. He won fame in the court of the Pratihāras of Kānyakubja. In the Karpūramañjarī, which is apparently his first drama, produced at the request of his wife, Avantisundarī, and not at the bidding of the king, his patron, he relates that he bore the title of 'Balakavi' 'Kavirāja.' He calls himself the teacher of Nirbhayarāja. Nirbhayarāja was Mahendrapāla of Kanauj whose inscriptions dated from 893 A.D.-907 A.D. are available. The Bālarāmāyaṇa was produced at his behest, and the unfinished Balabhārata was intended for representation at the court of Mahendrapāla's successor, king Mahipāla, whose inscriptions date from 914 A.D.-917 A.D. References are also available for the staging of the Viddhaśālabhañjikā, the fourth drama of Rājaśekhara.2

In the Anargharaghava, the actor declares that he has come to exhibit a drama superior to that played by a rival and asserts that the dearest desire of a player is to satisfy the public and win back the favour he has lost. This also shows that nāṭakas were sometimes enacted in a spirit of competition.3

1. Mahāvīracarita I. Prologue 2-3 and prose pp. 6-8; MM Prologue prose pp. 8 and 10; URC prelude prose p. 3.

2. Kar. M. I. Prastāvanā 11-12. P. 10; Bālarāmāyaṇa Prologue PP. 2 and 5; Bālabhārata Prologue P. 2; Viddhaśālabhañjikā Prologue PP. 4-5.

3. R Prologue Prose and 3-4. PP. 6-10.

[ 151 ]

There are more popular dramas, the plots of which are loosely constructed out of well known stories from the Mahābhārata or the Purāṇas. A dramatist has composed speeches in 'beautiful verses, the rest being left to the actors on the stage to extemporise. The Mahānāṭaka is an instance in point.

The Dūtāṅgada of Subhaṭa appears to be the oldest among the later shadow plays. It was represented in honour of Kumārapāladeva on March 7, 1243, and certainly on the orders of the Cālukya lord Tribhuvanapāla in Gujarat.1 It contains only one act and treats the same subject as is contained in the seventh act of the Mahānāṭaka. This shows that portions of plays like the Mahānāṭaka were represented on the stage in one form or the other.

Kṛṣṇamiśra, author of the Prabodhacandrodaya, says in the introduction to his nāṭaka that it was produced at the request of Gopāla in the court of king Kīrtivarman whom Gopāla had reinstated in his kingdom, after the Cedi king Karṇa, who had driven him out, had been conquered.2

In South India even now Sanskrit plays are acted. Bhāsa's dramas, the Abhijñānaśākuntala, the Nāgānanda, the Subhadrā Dhananjaya, the Tapti-svayaṁvara, the Mahānāṭaka, the Bhagavadajju and the Mattavilāsa are very popular there.

B. Portrayal of Sentiment [ Rasa ]

Sanskrit plays insist on the portrayal of specific sentiments on the stage, and we should, therefore, clearly understand how each of the sentiments was represented. The eight sentiments found in the Sanskrit dramas are the erotic, the comic, the pathetic, the furious, the heroic, the terrific, the repulsive and the marvellous.

The erotic sentiment [śṛṅgāra rasa] has two aspects; it may be in union or in separation. In union it should be represented with joy in the eyes and face, smiles and sweet words, equanimity and rejoicing and pleasant movements of the limbs. In separation it should be accompanied by self-disparagement,

1. Dūtāṅgada of Subhaṭa I. P. 2.

2. Prabodhacandrodaya Prologue 3 and prose PP. 10-14.

debility, apprehension, envy, weariness, painful reflection, longing, drowsiness, sleep, dreaming, wakening, sickness, derangement, swoons, stupefaction and death.

The comic sentiment [ hāsya rasa ] is produced by strange dresses, ornaments, impudence, fickleness, roguery, senseless drivels, ridicule, description of people's defects etc., and is represented by the movement of the lips, teeth,nose and cheeks, by fully expanded or contracted glances, perspiration, grimaces and by keeping the hands on the hips.

The pathetic sentiment [karuna rasa] is represented through tears, lamentation, drying up of the mouth, change of colour, trembling, sighs and loss of memory.

The furious sentiment [raudra rasa] is shown in bloodshot eyes, prespiration, frowning, gnashing oi teetḥ and biting of lips, blowing of cheeks, wringing of hands, hurling various weapons, cutting asunder the head, the trunk and the arms.

The heroic sentiment [vīra rasa] is represented by calmness, patience, prowess, pride, enthusiasm, influence, masterfulness and by words expressive of challenge.

The terrific sentiment [bhayānaka rasa] is represented by the trembling of hands and feet, restless eyes, change of colour and voice, stupefaction, contraction of limbs, palpitation of the heart and by parched lips, palate and throat.

The repulsive sentiment [ bībhatsa rasa ] is represented by contortions of the face and eyes, the covering up of the nose and lowering of the h:ad followed by uncertain steps.

The marvellous sentiment [ adbhuta rasa ] is represented by eyes opened wide, restless glances, horripilation, perspiration, joy, repeated appreciative exclamations, cries of 'hā, hā' and agitation of fingers or toes.1

1. NS—KM VI. 15 verse; Prose PP. 63-64; 48 verse; Prose 'P. 64-67; 68, 72, 74 verses; Prose P. 68; 76 verse; KSS VI. 15 verse; Prose P. 73; 48 verse; Prose PP. 74-77; 68, 72, 74 verses; Prose P. 78; 76 verse; GOS VI. 16 verse; Prose PP. 301-310; 55 verse; Prose PP. 313-314, 318, 320-321, 325, 327; 84, 89, 93 verses; Prose D 220; 96 verse. See 'English translation of NS chapter VI.' in the NS of Bharata chapter VI. by Subodhacandra Mukerji 1926.

20

[ 153 ]

The Abhijñānaśakuntala, the Uttararāmacarita and the Veṇīsaṃhāra mainly depict the erotic, pathetic and heroic sentiments, respectively. If a nāṭakamandali wants to have the desired effect upon the public, it should employ actors and actresses wearing appropriate dresses, make-up and acting according to these directions.

C. Success

There are certain factors indicative of the success of the presentation of Sanskrit plays. Siddhi [ success ] was of two kinds—Mānuṣī [ human ] and daivikī [ divine ] depending on speech, temperament and gestures, and relating to various emotions and sentiments. Mānuṣī siddhi [human success] has ten features, and the daivikī siddhi [ divine success ] two; and such features consist mostly of various temperaments expressed vocally [ vāṅmayī ] and physically [ śārīrī ]. Vaṅmayī siddhi [ vocal success ] is of eight kinds : smita [ smile ], ardhahāsya [ordinary laughter] atihāsya [excessive laughter], sādhukāra [well done ], ahokāra [ how wonderful ], kāṣṭa [ how pathetic ], pravṛddhanāda [ tumultuous applause ] and avakruṣṭa [ swelling uproar ].

A remark or acting through words of double meaning which produces a smile from spectators comes under smita. Ardhahāsya is a situation in which one laughs ordinarily. If a joker with his intelligence makes a king weep when he is happy or makes him laugh when he is sad, the spectators laugh heartily. This siddhi is called atihāsya siddhi When the dialogue is fine, the spectators say ‘sādhu’, ‘sādhu’ [well done]. This is sādhukāra siddhi. A wonderful scene or event that evokes from the spectators the spontaneous exclamation, ‘aho’ [ how wonderful ] comes under ahokāra siddhi. When a pathetic scene is exquisitely presented, the hearts of the spectators melt and they say : hā kāṣṭam̀, hā kāṣṭam [ how pathetic ]. This is kāṣṭa siddhi. When a very wonderful scene is presented, spectators not only exclaim ‘aho’ [ how wonderful ] but shout ‘bravo, bravo.’ This is pravṛddhanāda siddhi. When a character rebukes or blames another, spectators also sometimes

the despised and they give expression to their hatred by swelling uproar. This is avalruṣṭa or sādhikṣepa siddhi.

Śārīrī siddhi [ physical success ] is said to occur when the hair of spectators stand on ends and they rise on account of excessive delight or begin to crack their fingers. This siddhi is of two kinds. The first kind follows dialogues exciting wonder or enthusiasm and the second, scenes of quarrels and excitement when spectators become one with the naṭa [actor]. If the conduct of the spectators becomes one with the conduct of the actors representing different emotions and sentiments the play may be pronounced to be a really good play.

The daivikī siddhi [divine success] is obtained when an actor identifies himself with a character whom he is impersonating and when there are no obstacles, no noise, no unusual occurrence in the course of the presentation of a play and the auditorium is full. Obstacles may arise from four sources—from the fault of actors, from an enemy, from gods and lastly from portentous calamity.

When an actor assumes a role contrary to his nature or acts contrary to the way in which he should play a certain role or recites a speech of another character by mistake, or does not know the use of artificial objects prepared according to the method described in the āhāryabhinaya, or other things being good speaks in a peculiar tone, obstacles are said to arise from the fault of the naṭa. Sometimes singers and instrumentalists commit mistakes in singing or tuning the instruments, sometimes the dramatist makes mistakes in the production of the nāṭya.

These obstacles may also be included in the first category. When a play is on, some enemies of the actor raise voices of hatred such as 'fie upon thee' or shout very loudly so that the actor's voice cannot be heard, or clap sharply, or throw cowdung or stones at him and thus create obstacles, it is an attack from the enemies. Obstacles arising from the gods are : strong wind, fire, rains, fear from an elephant or a sthpeśī, stroke of lightning, appearance of ants, insects and

ferocious animals. Obstacles resulting from portents [autpatika] are those due to earthquake, storm, falling of meteors and the like. The two kinds of obstacles, which cannot be remedied in the representation of a play, are faults due to a natural calamity and the running out of water from the nadika.

It is understood that in ancient India time was measured by a water vessel of a particular size with a well-defined tube [nāḍikā] at its bottom.

The siddhis [successes] and ghātas [obstacles] are carefully noted before a troupe is declared successful and the proficiency of a nāṭakamandali conceded. The merits and defects of nāṭakamandalīs were recorded by siddhilekhakas [ recorders of successes and obstacles ]. Siddhilekhakas were experts in discriminating the siddhis [successes] and obstacles and they were not all of the same age. Their experience was wide and varied. It was on the recommendation of siddhilekhakas, who observed the performance of every actor of every company and the siddhis and obstacles, that the question of offering the patākā [banner], a kind of trophy, to a nāṭakamandalī was decided. If there was no agreement among siddhilekha-kas as to which troupe should receive the patākā [banner] the opinion of praśnikas [critics] was taken. Praśnikas were considered arbitrators [pañca]. If after taking the opinion of praśnikas two naṭa-kamandalīs were considered to be equal in merit, the king, whose judgment was final, was asked to award the patāka [banner]. If, however, the king also could not come to a decision, the nāṭakamandalīs were both awarded patākās [banners].1

Thus we find that the dramatic art was highly developed in ancient India and that the Sanskrit dramas were actually played on the stage and there was a competition between the naṭakamandalīs in the successful portrayal of their dramatic art which mainly constituted the depiction of a particular

1. NS—KM XXVII. 1-41, 62-67; KSS XXVII. 1-44, 73-79.

rasa [sentiment] in the minds of spectators and there was a sufficiently large number of siddhilekhakas and prāśnikas who would judge their merits and give the patākà [banner] to the victorious nāṭakamaṇḍalī.

DRAMATIC PRACTICE TODAY

CHAPTER XI

MODERN THEATRES

Introduction

A national theatre is a crying need in free India. With

the attainment of independence attempts are being made to

Indianize the administration and education. The feeling is

growing that fine arts such as music, dancing, painting and

above all dramatic art as presented in the theatre should have

State patronage and should be developed on national lines

based on the technique observed on the ancient Indian stage

but modified according to the needs of our times. Even if we

cannot fail to observe that the modern Indian theatre is pro-

foundly influenced by the West, we must not forget that India

had a great national theatre of her own in the past. The

modern Indian stage can certainly be remodelled on the lines

of the stage in ancient India to suit the native genius of the

country.

The development of the stage during the last century

incorporating features from the provincial theatres, from the

primitive Tamil theatre to the most artistic one of Bengal—

reveals a great variety of culture. But a fundamental unity is

found in the midst of this great diversity. Mythological heroes

have commanded reverence throughout the country. Love of

the emotional, the imaginative and the idealistic rather than of

the intellectual and the purely realistic is a national trend.

Sanskrit plays are today seldom performed except in Univer-

sity colleges or in the temples of the South. The stage

in these centres comprises a raised platform in a room or an

open space.

We shall now examine stage conditions, both primitive and

modern, prevailing in the several indigenous theatres before

suggesting how a modern stage should be remodelled for India.

[ 160 ]

A. The Folk Tradition.

Before taking up the different theatres of today, it will not be out of place here if we first examine the exact nature of the various types of popular entertainments prevailing in several parts of India in the medieval period. The degraded forms of folk amusements of the period which consisted in haphazard incidents, loose spectacular representations of the life and deeds of Rāma, Krṣṇa, etc., were the lineal descendants of the most ancient types, bhāṇa and prahasana, which were marked by extreme indelicacy and sensuality, in spite of a certain satirical aim. The bhāṇa and prahasana came into greater prominence after the eleventh century A. D. when the classical drama declined in importance.

In South India, the Bhāgavatam is one of the most ancient folk-plays prevalent. The amours and exploits of Śrīkrṣṇa, dramatic stories of saints like Rāmadāsa, popular ballads such as that of Desinga Raja are represented on the stage of the Telugu-speaking districts of the Madras Presidency. We can have a fairly good idea of a country drama in the South when we see the representations of the ‘Kathākāli’ of the Malabar district. Nalaṭaṅgī is one of the most ancient and fascinating stories acted on the stage for centuries in the Tamil country. Many other medieval stories with a pathetic appeal are also popular in Madras villages.

Yātrās are popular in Bengal and are like "sacred operas frequently produced in connection with the religious processions of the Krṣṇaites."1 Some yātrā troupes specialized in the life story of Rāma. Yātrā is a procession in celebration of a particular festival of a deity and also a holy pilgrimage on foot or in bullock-carts in which people entertained themselves with crude performances representing the glory of a particular deity. Yātrāvalās were formerly in the habit of extemporizing music and dialogues of plays to suit particular festivals and supplied the links of the story by means of the descriptive and narrative passages. In modern Yātrās though secular

1. Dr P. Guhathakurta; ‘Bengali Drama’, London, 1930 p. 4.

themies are admitted yet their religious character and essentially poetic or musical structure continue to exist. During the Gambhīrā festivals many devotees put on different masks and play various parts to please Śiva. Badā Tamāśa, 'the great show' is done on the third day of this festival which extends over five days. In contrast with these rural mask dances, the yatra has some remarkable characteristics. Only male performers take part in it and the performances are done on the bare ground without any scenic representation. Only a long piece of cloth separates the stage from the green room.

Lalita is the most popular type of medieval play in Maharashtra. It is generally connected with a dramatic representation of Daśāvatāram [the ten incarnations of Viṣṇu 1]. It is religious in character and is often enacted during Navaratra. The whole story is described in action and the play is performed in inns or temple halls with the help of a curtain or two. Besides Lalita, several stories of a romantic nature like that of Kaca-Devayānī or Dāmayantīpanta, exhibiting the gradual growth of a secular element based on realistic farce and contemporary satire, are dramatized for village performances.

The Bhavāi is popular in Gujarat. The performance consists of a series of unconnected individual personations of not more than three characters in each scene and exhibits some popular tale. Its origin is essentially religious and Ganapati appears on the stage in the beginning but as the play advances it becomes secular in character. "It is performed in open spaces, in streets and such other public places as courtyards of temples and the like. No stage is required, no scenery, only a poor curtain, occasionally held by two men at each end; a few torches, and a chorus of two or three men helped by crude musical instruments."1 Besides Bhavāi there are several other folk amusements such as singing parties chanting hymns of the glories of the goddess Ambā or the amours of Kṛṣṇa and Rādhā having the element of musical dialogue; then, there is the Harikathā where the story-teller narrates a story in a

1. Sir William Ridgeway : "The Dramas and Dramatic Dances. of Non-European Races" Cambridge, 1915, p. 199.

theatrical manner situated in the centre of the audience; sometimes the whole story of the epics is represented extempore; and occasionally rope dancing and many athletic feats are performed.

The institution of the Rasadhārīs of Muttra and its surroundings is an old one and even today it is alive. During Śravana, Rāsadhārī companies are very busy in such sacred spots as Brindaban but the rest of the year they mostly travel in different parts of the country. They present the dramatic performances on the theme of Kṛṣṇa's exploits.

The Rāmalīlā is performed, in Upper India, on the occasion of the Durgāpūja. Dresses and masks are used appropriate to the different situations and characters. Extracts from the whole Rāmāyaṇa are read through in the course of nearly 20 days and the suitable incidents are simultaneously exhibited.

The devotional medieval romances of Gopichand, Puran and Hakikat are extremely popular with Punjabis. The Nava-tanki performers of the western U. P. also exhibit these shows which are quite popular.

The modern Indian stage in its process of evolution has absorbed the cultural richness of the classical drama, the folk traditions of the medieval times and above all the influence of the West.1 Now we shall take up the different vernacular theatres one by one.

B. The Madras Theatre

In 1890, Krishnamacharya of Bellary founded the first amateur dramatic society in South India, the "Sarasa Vinodini Sabhā." After some time college students started another amateur dramatic institution, "The Sugun Vilās Sabhā." Several improvements of great importance were introduced. In 1893, the 'Museum Theatre' was constructed and 'Kanaiyā and Company' was started. High class gentry began to visit theatres for the first time. Later on, a Boys' company [ Bāla Vinoda Nāṭakasabhā ] and a Women's troupe [ Bālāmaṇī company ], were formed.

1. See "The Indian Theatre" by R. K. Yajnik for the influence of European Theatres on the Modern Indian stage.

[ 163 ]

The Madras theatre in fact includes the Tamil, Telugu and

Kanarese theatres. The Tamil theatre still indulges in medie-

val practices—plaintive songs and acrobatic feats—to arouse

enthusiasm. The professional companies in Tamilnad still take

up mostly mythological themes like Daśāvararam and enact

them in spectacular settings, dazzling scenery and costumes

borrowed from the Parsi stage. Though the actors are not

educated and cultured yet they are superb in depicting

indigenous arts of Dravidian dances and songs.

The Telugu stage is, on the other hand, developing more

rapidly, while going through the mythological, bookish, histo-

rical and social types of productions. The main surviving

folk forms of Andhra current here were as follows : Burrakathās,

consisting of bardic recitals and folk songs; Harikatha, used for

the narration of stories from the epics and the Purāṇas; Veedhi

Bhāgavatam, open theatre performances—The Andhra open-

air stage having a technique like the Kathākāli of Malabar,

the open-air play Terukkūttu in Tamilnad; and also

Tolu Bommalātalu, play by moving leather dolls like the

puppet show in North India. Many efforts were made

regarding theatrical activities in Andhra from 1910 onwards

and natakamaṇḍalīs and theatre halls were established in Tinne-

velly, Bellary, Guntur and Rajahmundry. Effort was made to

enact one-act plays. But in spite of all these activities no

permanent theatre could be established in Andhra.

The Kanarese theatre is making remarkable progress in

Bangalore and some noteworthy companies are coming into

existence in Mysore. Besides Paurāṇic plays, musical recitals

and social farces, some tragedies and translations of Marathi

plays have also been staged.

There are already a number of pioneers of theatre who

have begun to mould a new tradition out of the old. A great

deal of the dance drama perfected by Uday Shankar, as well

as the shadow plays he created after he had revived interest

in the dances of India, are cases in point. ‘The Rhythm of

life’ was, for instance, an amalgam of motifs taken from the

rich storehouse of peoples' memory and transformed through

organization which Shankar had borrowed from Europe. Simi-

larly Rukmini Devi Arundale has established the Kalākṣetra for

revival and propagation of Bharata Nāṭyaṁ in Adyar, Madras.

C. The Bengal Theatre

Bengal has a regional theatre which has gone far ahead

in realizing the ideal of a truc synthesis of old and new forms,

without, of course, actually reviving the old folk theatre.

After producing several Shakespearian tragedies and other

English plays and making certain odd experiments, Bengal

staged the first original play, a social tragedy, Kulinakulasar-

vasva, in March, 1857, at the house of Babu Jayaram Bysack

of Churruckdanga Street, Calcutta. Scenic representation,

which is now in vogue in Bengal, started from this date.

A Bengali version of the Ratnāvalī of Śrī Harṣa was staged

at the first permanent theatre which was constructed in the

country residence of Rājā Pratap Chandra Singh and Rājā

Issur Chandra Singh of Paikpara, at Belgachia, on July 31,

1858. It was played to the accompaniment of a national

orchestra organized on the model of the English theatre. In a

spirit of competition, several private theatres were constructed

by other landlords for invited friends.

Disappointed by the fact that private theatres catered

only to the privileged classes, Girishchandra Ghosh, an eminent

dramatist and the originator of the Bengali theatre, expressed

the idea of a public theatre in strong language for the middle

class run by amateurs. To fulfil his idea he struggled hard

for several years and in the beginning acted in the manner of

yātrāvālās, having at his disposal a very small number of

theatrical accessories. By and by he won laurels in difficult

roles and at last succeeded in establishing a regular theatre

in 1872 which is today known as "The National Theatre of

Bengal." In this theatre which was meant for general public,

actors were kept on salary and the audience got entry by tickets.

Girish directed the course of several kinds of plays, including

Paurāṇic plays like, ‘Hariścandra,’ historical plays like ‘Pratāpa’

and ‘Śivāji’ and social tragedies.

Actresses were introduced in "The Bengal Theatre" for the first time in 1873. At Calcutta 'The Great National Theatre' was built the same year on the style of the European 'Lewis Theatre.'

Then Dvijendralal Ray got unique success in the theatrical activities by introducing realistic types of plays on the stage. Next we come to Rabindranath Tagore who consciously evolved a highly developed, technically efficient style of his own in dramatic writing which owed much to the folk culture of Bengal.

His plays were not so much successful on the stage as those of Dvijendralal Ray, because his dramas were highly poetic and symbolic. In 1944 was produced a play "Homœopathy" written by Manoranjan Bhattacharya, a professional actor and a dramatist of renown.

It was the Bengal famine which shook the whole country that produced the greatest spirit of theatrical activity in Bengal. Under the stress of this exigency was produced a play 'Navanna' [New Harvest] written by Bijon Bhattacharya and produced by the author in collaboration with Shambu Mitra.

The theme of the play, which is in four acts, is the life of a Bengali peasant during the harrowing days of famine when three million died of starvation and disease.

The Bengali stage is highly artistic. The repertory system is followed. Its distinguishing feature is that all feminine roles are played by women. Not only this, but young girls are also employed to play the roles of boys.

The novel use of song and dance is another special feature of the Calcutta stage.

D. The Marathi Theatre.

Like the Bengali theatre, the Marathi theatre began mainly under British influence, but soon emancipated itself from it and established a considerable repertoire which is good as literature as well as for purposes of the theatre.

The Marathi theatre arose in 1843 when Vishnudas Bhave of Sangli brought out the first Marathi drama named Sītā Svayaṃvara on the stage.

Using amorous and tragic themes, he wrote a number of plays which reformed the old medieval performance.

Then the professional Bhave company came into existence. The year 1880-81 is a great landmark in the history of Maharashtra. Musical dramas were enacted on the Marathi stage that year. The Abhijñānaśakuntala translated in Marathi by Kirloskar, a famous dramatist, was enacted for the first time in October, 1880. Kirloskar also wrote original plays ‘Subhadra’ and ‘Rāmarājyavijaya’. He himself appeared in the role of stage manager on the stage. After Kirloskar comes Dewal who is famous not only for musical dramas but also for prose dramas. With his help the Kirloskar Nāṭakamandalī, which came into existence in Kirloskar's time, came to the forefront. From 1895 Kolhatkar dominated the Marathi stage. His drama named ‘Vīratanaya’ is very famous. Its plot is imaginary and its style is in the manner of Western dramatists like Shakespeare. In 1921, the Maharashtra Nāṭaka Maṇdalī staged a drama named ‘Mayecāpūta.’ Several companies such as Aryoddhāraka company in Poona, the Maharashtra company and the Shahunagaravāsī company came into being. Historical plays were written. Next comes Ram Ganesh Gadkari. He wrote mostly social dramas which were quite suitable for stage and highly appreciated by the public. Varerkar dominated the Marathi stage from 1925 to 1935 and wrote social plays in a realistic style. As a leading dramatist, Varerkar gave a tremendous lead to the younger groups which had been re-creating the Maharashtra village theatre through the Powadā [songs in praise of brave people], and the Tamāśā [vulgar plays peformed by low class people]. Varerkar became the president of a nāṭakamandalī of Bombay named Sahakārī Manoranjana Mandala. In this company the actors were mostly labourers and so plays written by them were also staged, after Varerkar assumed presidentship of the company. In 1930-31, the nāṭakamandalī of Hirabai Barodkar on behalf of Nūtana Saṅgīta Vidyālaya was established. In 1941 Rangdekar came on the Marathi stage and his influence is still found on it. He attempted to write action plays of modern type. In 1945 Atre came to the forefront of the Marathi stage. He has a unique art of giving excessive

pleasure, though sometimes of a third-rate order, to the

audience.

Marathi stage festivals were observed with great pomp

and grandeur in 1943, 1944, 1945 and 1947. It was proposed

to build a grand theatre hall in Bombay with the money

obtained in the festivals.

The modern Marathi stage of Poona has no kavi attached

to it. Companies request renowned dramatists to write plays for

them or playwrights allow competent companies to produce

their plays for a royalty. Boys are rarely employed in

adult companies on the Marathi stage. However, several

juvenile companies, with all their members under 18, are

formed. They play light comedies with great success. Women

now come on the stage with men. In 1930-31 Hirabai

Barodkar Nāṭakamandalī employed women to play female

parts for the first time. There are, however, some com-

panies of actresses.

Scenes and costumes in Marathi theatre lack spendour.

It concentrates its effort on natural acting and scientific music.

It follows the system of alternating serious scenes with light

ones. We cannot but remark that gradually religious inspi-

ration is being lost and growth of a secular element based on

realistic farce and contemporary satire is noticed in Marathi

productions. Further, there is found excessive use of songs

on the Marathi stage.

E. The Parsi and the Gujarati Theatre.

The original Bombay theatre was erected on the old Bom-

bay Green [Elphinstone Circle] by the money received through

subscriptions in 1770. In 1842 Jagannath Shankerseth built a

private theatre which was available for European and Indian

productions at a certain daily rent. Later rival companies came

into existence and by studying the history of the 'Sanglikar' [of

Bhave], 'Āltekar' and other companies, we come to the conclu-

sion that they were competing with each other on professional

lines. In these performances most of the incidents and situations

of the ancient epics and legends were employed but numerous

gorgeous curtains began to be used in the Parsi style and some

English farcical devices were introduced. An English version

of the Ahhijñamaśākuntala was staged by the Kālibhāsa Elphi-

nstone Society of Bombay. After this, historical and social

plays began to be presented on the stage from about 1890.

The professional Parsi theatre came into existence in 1870.

Seth Peśtānji Framji established an Original Theatrical

company in Bombay. Khurshedji, Bandiwala, Kawasji

Khatau, Sohrabji and Jahangirji were the principal actors

of this company. After the death of Framji this company was

broken up and almost all the actors opened different compa-

nies in Bombay, Delhi and Calcutta.

The Parsis took up both Gujarati drama and the stage.

They had a practical bent of mind and so put commercial

success based on this formula "give the public what it wants"

above artistic achievement. The Alfred, Madan and Balliwala

and some other companies carried the theatrical activities of

the Parsis for more than half a century.

Here the manager employed the services of a poet [ kavi ]

and an expert musician. Young boys were generally selected

in professional companies for their gifts of song and hand-

some features. Three stock types could be distinguished in

each company : the joker, romantic lovers and the hero's

antagonist. Women were discouraged on the stage. Under

the Western influence, Balliwala made an experiment in intro-

ducing women such as Gohar, Mary Fenton and Mun nibai on

the Bombay stage. Plays continued to be produced through-

out the year.

There was a spirit of competition among companies.

Repertory system was followed by all the companies and effort

was made to add new plays to the old stock. A drop curtain

with gorgeous paintings of mythological characters was used.

The play began with a song sung in chorus. The auditorium

was decorated profusely with brilliant electric lights. Painted

curtains suggested the locality of the setting. Startling changes

of scenes were accompanied by the thunder of gun-shots.

Characiers mostly entered and left the stage by side openings

The language used on the stage was graceful, pointed and sweet Urdu. Here also the system of alternating serious scenes with light ones was in vogue.

Grand dresses and colourful curtains were given more importance in the Parsi theatre than the plot, dialogue and acting. A dramatic company was considered to be good or bad for its curtains and arrangement of scenes. From the point of view of Parsi stage-craft the highest success in the presentation of plays was considered in the arrangement of wonder-striking scenes such as running of railway line, flying aeroplane, cutting the head of a person clearly on the stage. The Parsi theatrical companies did not attach much importance to the realization of sentiment and it was found that the aggrieved actress sang songs in the midst of most tragic scenes. So Parsi theatres, whose sole purpose was to give the public what it wanted, however crude it might be, became purposeless as soon as the talkies were introduced in India. The commercial stage started decaying and the film and the talkie sealed its fate.

The real Gujarati theatre arose in 1861 when Rana-chodbhai, having a repulsion against the plays of Bhavāi mandalis which used to show coarse khyāla moving from village to village, began to render and adapt the Sanskrit pieces in Gujarati. After some time he wrote a popular play called ‘Hariścandara’ and then a social tragedy. Later there arose ‘the Bombay Gujarati Company’ of Dayashanker, ‘the Morbi Company’ of Vaghaji Oza and ‘The Deshi Company’ of Dahyabhai. It was Dahyabhai who gave the modern Gujarati stage its form. The Gujarati middle class is mainly commercial and so Gujaratis after a short while began to ape Parsi modes of representation.

Now efforts are being made to improve the theatrical activities in Gujarat. Women have begun to appear on the Gujarati stage. ‘The Nāṭa Maṇḍala’, inaugurated by the Gujarat Vidyā Sabhā, Ahmedabad, and directed by Jaya-shanker [ Sundarī ] and Dina Gandhi presents ‘Meṇa Gurjarī’ and other Gujarati folk plays in a marvellous manner. The

'Mena Gurjari' is a dance-drama in which the whole story is presented through dances, and there is background music from the beginning up to the end. Such plays cater to the needs of people of good taste.

Now K. M. Munshi has written certain plays which attack corrupt social practices in the country and are imbued with artistic taste. Some of them have been enacted also on the Gujarati Stage. C. C. Mehta, who is a highly talented Gujarati dramatist, has evolved a new technique and his play on the life of the railway workers, 'Āg Gari', has become very popular. Such efforts of Munshi and Mehta not only can improve the standard of Gujarati theatre but also, it is hoped, will bring new life to the theatrical activities of the country as a whole.

By the above study of the theatrical activities in the country we find a fundamental distinction between the Parsi and Gujarati companies on the one hand and the Marathi and Bengali troupes on the other. While the former guard the manuscripts of the plays and mostly do not publish them, the latter respect the authors and realize the dignity of plays as literature. The Marathi and Bengali companies do not thrust extra comical stuff or farcical songs like the Parsi companies. The Marathi and Bengali plays are artistic wholes. The professional theatre in South India is several decades behind the western Indian and Bengali theatres. Hindu mythological plays are still staged there.

F. The Hindi Theatre

The Hindi theatre, a later development, has been influenced by touring Parsi companies and it has been developing in U P. after the appearance of the dramatist, Bhāratendu Harish Chandra. During the Muslim rule in India the main places of dramatic shows were temples and monasteries where on the occasion of festivals people used to entertain themselves mostly by the performance of Rāmalīlā and Kṛṣṇalīlā. Wajid Ali Shah, Nawab of Oudh, was very fond of these rāsamandalīs and patronised many of them in his court. He himself used

to act as Kṛṣṇa while the prostitutes of his court took part of gopīs adorned with ornaments and gaudy dresses. One of his French courtiers arranged songs and dances in the performance of Rasalīla on the model of French opera. Hundreds of male and female musicians and dancers of the Shah's court could participate in the performance. In such attempts we can see the influence of the European stage on the Hindi stage. At the command of the Nawab,an attempt towards presenting new type of theatre was made in 1853 by Imanat who wrote his play 'Indra Sabha' and enacted it at his court with the Nawab in the main role. Thus the Hindi or Hindustani stage has begun mainly under foreign influence and something under the influence of the court-stage patronised by the Nawab. Later, it has been influenced by the Parsi stage.

There is no doubt that effort was made to translate the Sanskrit dramas such as the Karpūramañjarī, the Dhanãñjaya Vijaya and the Mudrārākṣasa. Bhāratendu Harish Chandra wrote some dramas on the model of Sanskrit dramas. Thus the Hindi stage went towards the West while the drama looked towards the East i. e. India.

Bhāratendu considers Jānakī Mañgala to be the first acted drama in Hindi. In 1868 this play was enacted in a Banaras theatre by the effort of Aishvarya? Narayan Singh. This drama is not to be found now.

Bhāratendu himself was an expert in the art of representation and his influence was so great that even in his life-time many of his dramas were enacted on the stage. The dramas of Bhāratendu were a success, because he himself was an actor. Also the dramas of Madhav Shukla, Jagannath Prasad Chaturvedi and Badri Nath Bhatta were liked by all, because all of them had intimate relation with the stage. Shukla and Chaturvedi were themselves successful actors.

With the disappearance of the Parsi theatre, there was no stage properly speaking in North India. Literary dramas began to be written under such circumstances. They were first published, but when staged were not successful. The dramas of Jai Shankar Prasad are instances in point. His

dramas, except Dhruvasvāminī, were not fit to be staged. The dramas, Tilottamā and Candrahāsa of Maithili Sharan Gupta, Karbalā and Prema kī Vedī of Prem Chand are not suitable for staging. The dramas, Vikramāditya, Devatā and Alakā written by Sitaram Chaturvedi have been successfully staged in Banaras from time to time.

Up to this time there is no permanent regular Hindi theatre existing in any part of the country, and whenever Hindi dramas are staged, a temporary stage is erected with the help of bamboos and some curtains or they are performed in meeting places or cinema halls. Hindi plays are enacted in big towns such as Patna, Allahabad,Lucknow, Delhi, Indore, Gwalior, Jaipur, Jubbulpore, Nagpur and Meerut on such temporary stages.

By far the greatest contribution to the Hindi stage has surely been made in recent years by the actor-producer, Prithviraj, who started his Prithvi Theatre in 1945 in Bombay. The circumstances, under which theatrical activities are going on in India. are not very favourable as Prithviraj, a superb actor and director, is not able to establish a permanent theatre in Bombay for showing his plays. He gives only three morning shows at the Opera House over the week-end.

Prithvi Theatre has its own individual characteristics. It does not dazzle the eyes of the spectators like the Parsi theatre but on the other hand is marked with simplicity and naturalness. Prithviraj has worked upon certain memories of his village life as it was found in the Rāsa of North West India and uniting several motifs of the folk play [Navaṭankī etc.], has produced two plays, Dīvāra and ‘Paṭhāna’ dealing with a contemporary theme, communalism. So far the Prithviraj repertory consists of six plays—Dīvāra, Paṭhāna, Gaddāra, Sakuntalā, Āhuti and Kalakāra. Now the special features of each of these plays will be dealt with in brief.

The aim of the play ‘Dīvāra’ is to break down the wall of hatred and misunderstanding that keep apart brothers, neigh-

bours and communities. The play begins with a chorus, the refrain of which is "Hama ek the, hama ek haim hama ek raheñge" [ i. e., we were one, we are one and we shall remain one ]. Prithviraj appears in three roles in 'Dīvāra'.

The message of his play 'Pathāna' is for Hindu-Muslim unity, which is very essential for India. It deals with the story of two families—one Muslim and the other Hindu, living on the frontier. The Muslim Khan sacrifices the life of his only son to save the life of the son of his former Hindu friend, who was murdered in a tribal feud. Prithviraj has tried to introduce into it at one place the principle of modulation of voice [ svara-vaicitrya ]. Some six or seven characters speak in such a lovely manner that ascent or descent of all the seven svaras is heard in order.

'Gaddāra', a political drama, treats the events between 1921-1947 A. D. In this drama, a nationalist Muslim in his weak moments turns to be a Muslim Leaguer but as soon as good sense prevails, he wavers and begins to express his former loyalties to India as a whole. On this he is killed by his co-religionists as a traitor to their cause. This drama has been much criticized by Pakistanis.

'Śakuntalā' as staged by Prithvi Theatre in Hindi is based on the Sanskrit play 'Abhijñānaśakuntala' of Kālidāsa. This version, though not very excellent, can be called on the whole a stage succes.

'Āhuti" is a tragic play depicting the life of an abducted girl at the time of partition of India in 1947. A girl of Rawalpindi, who was betrothed before partition, was abducted by a Pakistani in partition days and was restored to her people by a friendly Muslim. The father of the boy, who with his family found his way to Bombay, refused to disgrace his family by bringing into it an abducted girl. The girl puts an end to her life. Her death turns the lover mad, and he also dies.

'Kalakara' is an artistic play and shows that a human being can undertake most hazardous and wonderful work and even can climb the highest peak of a mountain in order to

achieve his object. The painter and the priest, who are pro-

minent characters in the play, describe their own thoughts on

the present civilization and society reflecting the opposite sides

of life.

Prithviraj has done a real service to the country by bring-

ing life and vigour to the Hindi stage. He has, in fact, been

faithful as an artist by introducing changes according to the

needs of the modern age, which wants maximum enjoyment in

minimum time. Prithviraj shows only those plays which have

been written specially for the Prithvi Theatre and which usually

last for two hours and a half. While presenting his plays, he

does not use curtains except the drop scene. The settings

in his plays are simple and natural. The whole play ‘Pathāna’

is arranged only in one setting which gives the idea of com-

pleteness and nowhere unnaturalness is found. ‘Dīvāra’ is

also enacted in one setting except the last scene which

requires a slight change. Two settings are, of course, required

in ‘Kalākār.’ Thus the theatrical performances of Prithviraj

are very simple, natural and timely, and have a great appeal

to the minds of the cultured.

G. Idea of a National Theatre

In spite of the fact that modern Indian theatres have

made considerable progress, none of the theatres in India is

perfect nor has any of them the capacity of answering the

demands for a national theatre. Some of the lines on which

the foundation of a national theatre can be based are here

suggested.

There is no lack of inspiration in the remnants of the

broken tradition of our theatre. Though India cannot gain

much by reviving the formalism of the ancient theatre, it is

likely that it will gain enormously by inquiring into its old

craft of comedy, tragedy, farce and the morality plays. A

constant return to folk feeling, which is rooted in the real life

of our people, can bring a genuine sense of reality to the

Indian stage today. The Rāsa, the Navaṭankī, the Rāmalīlā, the

Kṛṣṇālīla, the enactment of the victory of the Pāṇḍavas over the Kauravas, the Muharram, the Holi as well as the several harvest dance dramas are the apotheosis of the old drama survivals which are an important reservoir of energy, from which a new living art of the theatre can be made.

It may be suggested here that alongside with the creation of new plays, effort should be made to stage the plays of Bhāsa, Kālidāsa, Bhavabhūti, Tagore, Prasad etc., in the different provincial languages and Hindi. The arrangement should be made for their translation, abridgment and the modification of their language. Really talented and cultured people, who can understand and appreciate dramatic art and who have genuine love for self-sacrifice, should be asked to make arrangements for the establishment of a national theatre in India.

A fundamental unity must be maintained in the direction of the stage-craft followed in different theatres. This can be done by relying on the ideals and culture of the country as a whole. On the ancient stage, feminine roles were generally played by women, but this tradition was discontinued after the Muslim conquest on account of the insecurity of the times and the pardah system. The practice must again be revived in order to bring realism in character and decorum must be maintained. In the Abhijñānaśākuntala, Duṣyanta brings his lips close to his beloved but does not kiss her on the stage. Western life as reflected in European productions in India was perfectly natural in its place, but when it was foolishly aped on the Indian stage, it was bound to result in demoralizing our theatre. The conventional intrigues between lovers and married women common in many French plays, which are being freely followed on the Indian stage, should altogether be stopped.

Preparation of a correct colour-scheme is essential. If colours are prepared according to the the Nāṭyaśāstra and the Viṣṇudharmottara, a high degree of success in the presentation of plays may be attained. The hair, beards, ornaments and dresses described

in Sanskrit dramaturgic books are suitable for plays in any

Indian language. Though modern means of representing

objects can be used, the ancient Indian methods should

not be entirely overlooked.

Construction of the stage cannot be so crude now as in

ancient times, but the ancient technique may be revived to

suit modern conditions. The use of curtains and wings should

be elaborately developed. Music, dancing and histrionics

for the modern stage should be employed on the models of

ancient India. A great number of songs are generally intro-

duced in all possible contexts—fighting heroes and dying

heroines sang on the Parsi stage—and the beauty of native

music is marred by the introduction of European tunes to

the accompaniment of the Indian musical instruments.

This combination of Indian and European music should be

discarded. The practice of introducing everywhere European

patterns of music, dialogue and dancing should also be

abandoned.

India's truly national theatre must be a place, where

purely Indian dramas whose object is to produce rasa in the

minds of the spectators are performed, where a highly deve-

loped colour scheme is employed, where the hair, dress and

other equipment follow the pattern of Indian life, where

classical music, dance and histrionics are encouraged, in short

where the ideals of Indian society are maintained. To

achieve the above ideal the Government of India should

encourage dramatists, dancers and musicians of worth and

reputation. They should also help in the establishment of a

truly Indian theatre where all kinds of plays, whether in

Sanskrit or any modern Indian language, may be performed

according to the requirements of the day.

23

CHAPTER XII

EPILOGUE

The origin and development of Sanskrit plays have been detailed in this work only as an introduction to the elaborate description of the subjects connected with the actual presenta-tion of plays on the stage. The Sanskrit drama is religious in character and Indian in origin. The Sanskrit drama or nāṭya is evolved from ṇṛtta and ṇṛtya and means a representation of situations. Conventions, which were observed on the ancient Indian stage, were peculiar and, as such, had no connection with the practices of the stage prevalent in other countries. The Sanskrit dramas were written partly in Sanskrit and partly in the different Prākṛta dialects. An idealistic atmosphere was maintained on the stage. Not only was a tragic end forbidden, but other important restrictions were also imposed. Propriety and decorum were emphasized and the dramatist had to observe the ‘decencies’ of the stage. Things as should not be represented and events as extended over a long time, were related in inter-acts, the so-called arthopakṣepakas. A certain set of words was used on the stage for calling the different characters. The unities of time and place were not observed in most of the plays and the unity of action was observed in the sense that everything, which was shown on the stage, gave expression to that sentiment for the depiction of which the drama was written. The entire edifice of the Sanskrit play has got a fundamental religious basis. The play begins and ends with benedictions in the form of nāndī and bharatavākya. The actual performance of the play was preceded by preliminaries, the essential aim of which was to secure the favour of the gods for its successful representation. Thus Sanskrit drama with its novel peculiarities and having religious tinge in the course of its beginning, development and conclusion, is purely of Indian origin and is national in character.

Various theories have been advanced by European scholars

to explain the origin of Sanskrit drama, but they all fall

to the ground as they deal with only individual aspects of

Indian drama and do not treat it as a whole. The object of

Sanskrit plays is to bring satisfaction to the audience by

evoking rasa, the transcendental pleasure in its mind. It is

a novel aspect which is not found in the dramas of any other

country. Plays were enacted during fairs, in temples, at general

festivals in different seasons, at the pleasure of the poet's

patron or before the learned assembly and at village festivals

and ceremonies.

The possible correct measurements and the construction

of different parts of the theatre are given in this work after

interpreting and harmonizing the conflicting texts of the

Nātyaśāstra with the help of the commentary written by

Abhinavagupta. It has been shown very carefully that in anci-

ent India plays were enacted in the sañgītaśālā of the palace,

in the courtyard of the temple and in open spaces in villages.

Spectators in the palace theatre consisted of kings, courtiers,

learned Brāhmaṇas and high State officials, in the temple

theatre, of devotees, learned Brāhmaṇas and the general public;

while public theatres were meant for village people and the

public. Bharata's description of theatres, their construc-

tion, size and shape, position of the stage, orchestra, audi-

torium and of elaborate practices to be performed in the

form of preliminaries and religious ceremonies continuing for

many days in connection with presentation of Sanskrit plays,

all support the view that theatres were of a permanent

nature, but as we do not find an archaeological evidence of a

permanent theatre we cannot be definite about this.

It is certain that there were theatres for the general

public built on a temporary basis, as the main spectators

were the populace in such playhouses. Though nine

types, or even 18 types, of theatres can possibly be deter-

mined according to space and time, yet, broadly speaking,

for practical purposes the theatre was of three types i.e.

vikr̥ṣṭa (rectangular), caturasra [ square in form ] and tryasra

(triangular). In it the stage was double-storeyed and it was

divided into kaksyās. Most probably it did not jut out into the auditorium in any case. The decorations on it were to be in harmony with oriental splendour, colour and brilliance.

Regarding the four main pillars in the auditorium it is noteworthy that no pillar was to be in the centre and that the four were dedicated to the four castes, the lowest included. This reveals, curiously enough, a partially democratic basis of Indian theatrical art, four colours being associated with the four castes, white, red, yellow and blue respectively.

There were other columns, too, perhaps for those not included in caste system. Galleries were to be formed one behind the other.

The seats in the auditorium were to be arranged in the manner of a ladder to ensure visibility. They were to be made of wood and bricks, one and a half feet higher above the ground.

There were at least three doors in a theatre, but there could be as many as six doors: two from nepathyagrha leading into rangaśīrṣa, one in the auditorium, one by which the nata enters with his wife, two others existing on the southern and northern sides of rangapīṭha.

As to the roof of the theatre it is quite possible that there were theatres of both kinds—open-air theatre where there was no roof and theatre where there was possibly a roof.

Special attention has been given in outlining the methods of arrangement of scenes and preparation of various kinds of stage paraphernalia.

It is clearly proved that the curtain was not imported from Greece or elsewhere outside India and was definitely of Indian origin and was called by the name of yavanikā, javanikā or probably yamanikā.

There was only one curtain and it was drawn aside and not removed or rolled up. However, there might possibly be minor curtains also which could be used for making divisions i. e. kaksyās on the stage.

Something has also been said about Indian painting in order to show that the curtain must have been coloured according to the rasa of the drama to be enacted.

Four different timings of representation of Sanskrit plays are mentioned which exclude meal timings and midnight hours. However, the plays could be performed at any time by the order of the patron or the king.

[ 180 ]

Animals and other objects which were exhibited on the stage were either made up of bamboos covered with cloth or made up of cloth alone, and in some cases their motion was shown through mechanical means. Weapons and other hard substances were prepared from shellac, mica, cloth, clay etc., and thus were handy. Alaṅkāra, comprising dresses, garlands and ornaments, and aṅgaracana, including colouring of the body, hair and beards, were peculiarly prepared and employed on the stage having due regard to country, age and above all to the main sentiment of the play.

Those objects which could not be represented on the stage by means of materials suggested above due to the absence of the materials or otherwise, were shown through mimicry. The science of histrionics was so much developed and so highly valued as to be taught to high born ladies as an accomplishment. Gestures and movements were not realistic and were often made with reference to imaginary objects. For instance, a gesture might show that a bee was worrying a maiden, though no actual bee would be visible. A particular movement of the body might show a person ascending to or descending from a palace which might not actually be represented on the stage. The code of gestures and movements prescribed for the different limbs was binding on the naṭa [actor]. The naṭa had no room for being original by inventing gestures etc., for that was the business of masters [ācāryas] of the art who knew its theory and practice.

In this work, music, dancing and dialogue—the elements of drama—are treated in a cursory manner, only as far as they are concerned in the presentation of Sanskrit plays. In ancient theatre musicians used to sit in raṅgaśīrṣa between the two doors leading to nepathyāgrha. Music was prevalent on the stage in order to add charm to the special dramatic actions presented on the stage. It may be remarked here with emphasis that the orchestra could be organized on the ancient Indian stage with the help of four kinds of instruments i. e., 'taṭa [ stringed musical instruments ], 'suṣira' [ wind instruments ], avanaddha and ghana [ instruments of percussion i.e. drums, cymbals; bells and gongs].The reason is obvious because various

kinds of instruments, which are required for the performance

of a play on the stage, are Indian in origin and because they

can serve. to strike a particular rasa as desired in a particular

Sanskrit play and because they have a rich variety and are used

even today in orchestral form in South India and at the dances of

prominent dancing masters like Uday Shankar and Ram Gopal.

As to who should play a particular role is a very impor-

tant subject which is treated in this work. In Sanskrit plays,

the roles are of three different nature: ‘anurūpā’, similar to

the nature for the person he is acting, ‘virūpā’, contrary to the

nature for the person he is acting, ‘rūpanusāriṇī’ imitative by

nature. In ‘anurūpa’ women take the roles of women, and men,

those of men. In ‘virūpā’, the child plays the role of an old man

or an old man takes the role of a child. In ‘rūpanusāriṇī’, if a

man plays the part of a female character it is called imita-

tive acting. A man’s role may be played by a woman according

to the desire of the manager, but an old man and a boy should

not be made to play the role of the opposite sex. This item of

work is very significant and valuable as drama is the true

representation of life.

The qualities and usefulness of different nātyācāryas, who

were proficient in one or more branches of art connected

with drama, are also described in this work. This shows the

height of development of dramatic art in ancient India. Elabo-

rate education in the science of dramatic art was imparted by

nātyācāryas to actors and actresses who appeared on the stage.

Well-trained ācāryas used to prepare different materials requi-

ired for the stage.

Actors and actresses were despised as low and were

denied some of the privileges of the highest caste but, on

the other hand, they enjoyed the friendship and love of great

kings and eminent dramatists like Bhavabhūti.

The specialities of spectators and judges are described in

detail as they are peculiar to Sanskrit plays which were

enacted on the stage. This feature of the Sanskrit play signifi-

cantly proves that dramatic art was critically observed and

judged.

Sanskrit plays mostly were intended to be actually presented on the stage. There might be some literary dramas also which were meant for reading only but the number of such dramas was very small. As the aim of every Sanskrit play was to portray one main sentiment, it is carefully shown how different rasas were presented on the stage. The system of advertisement, though crude, was in existence. Arrangement was made for the judgment of the dramatic art which was shown on the stage by two or more theatrical companies. Siddhilekhakas, whose duty was to write the qualities i. e. different kinds of successes [siddhis] and obstacles[ghātas],existed in a sufficiently large number. They used to count them, pronounce judgment and offer patākās [banners] to the winning party. In case there was a conflict of opinion among the siddhilekhakas, reference was made to praśnikas, who were considered to be the best arbitrators in different kinds of dramatic art. If they also failed to give correct opinion about the respective merits of the different companies, the matter was referred to the king whose judgment was final. In case the king also would not be able to pronounce his judgment owing to their equal merits, both the parties were offered patakas.

Thus we can assert that the art of presenting Sanskrit plays on the stage was developed to high excellence in ancient India and that the standard of the taste of cultured and sahṛdaya people was so high that they could appreciate and realize the portrayal of sentiment, the transcendental joy, for the realization of which the drama was specially enacted on the stage.

Such are the characteristic features of the classical theatre of ancient India. From the outset of the history of the Indian drama, bhāna and prahasana flourished side by side with it. But after the rise of the Mohammedan power in India, these species came more into prominence and then they contributed largely to the village drama. Artistic subtlety disappeared and old rules of decorum were violated. Still some of the elements of the ancient school lingered in these medieval dramatic performances. The marked feature of the rural drama consisted

in the introduction of singing and dancing carried to a farcical plane, without any consideration of the time element. The Epics and the Purāṇas formed the main sources of inspiration for classical as well as medieval representations, but in one case there was concentration on a special episode and in the other a clumsy reproduction of all the principal incidents of the Rāmāyaṇa.

Bhāgavatam in South India, Yātrās in Bengal. Lalita in Maharashtra, Bhavāi in Gujarat, Rāsalīlā,Rāmalīlā and Navaṭankī of Upper India and devotional romances of Gopichand, Puran and Hakikat in Punjab are the most ancient folk plays prevalent from medieval times.

Now coming to the modern Indian stage, we feel that there is a gap between the ancient and medieval stage on the one hand and the stage of today on the other. The modern Indian stage has been reared mostly on the influence of the West, but we must not forget that it has certainly imbibed, though to a limited extent, the cultural richness of the classical drama and the folk traditions of the medieval times.

In this work the salient features and main tendencies of different vernacular theatres-the Madras theatre, the Bengal theatre, the Marathi theatre, the Parsi and the Gujarati theatre and the Hindi theatre-have been carefully dealt with and it has been ascertained that the development of the stage in the last century from the primitive Tamil theatre to the most artistic one in Bengal reveals a great variety of culture. While the stock tricks of the stage, such as horror, suspense, surprise, disguise and mistaken identity were exploited by the Gujarati and Parsi stage, the Marathi and the Bengali adapters concentrated more on characterization and on the study of the human mind. Madras theatres still dabble in medieval practices of mythological plays. Though the Hindi or Hindustani theatre has developed under the foreign influence getting impetus at the hands of Wajid Ali Shah, Nawab of Oudh, and further being affected by touring Parsi companies in the beginning, it has followed an independent course. There have been dramatists like Bhāratendu Harish Chandra in the field of Hindi theatre, yet this theatre is still in its infancy.

Luckily, at the present moment, Prithviraj, an actor-producer, is making great efforts in the development of this kind of stage. The language of his dramas is simple and the improvisations made by Prithviraj in the course of playing a prominent role really make the presentation of his dramas lively. Sometimes the mannerisms of Prithviraj become somewhat hackneyed and his peculiar tone gives one an idea that he alone carries the audience with him by his lordly personality and the way of expressing the ideas contained in his dramas. It is feared that no one else would be able to take his place and represent his dramas in a faithful and realistic manner as he does. It is, therefore, suggested that he should not only devote his wholehearted effort in acting and producing a certain play but should prepare certain other people to take his place in an emergency.

The theatrical development in India has got a great setback owing to the popularity of the 'talkies' in Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati and other vernaculars produced by the Indian film companies, which can afford to pay high salaries to actors and actresses and attract them to screen. Even Prithviraj today has to depend for financial reasons on 'talkies' and has to assume different roles on the screen to make up the loss he incurs in the carrying out of his theatrical performances in different parts of the country.

Though there is some theatrical activity in different parts of the country, it is not yet satisfactory. We are making an effort to achieve all round progress, and we should not neglect the theatrical art. The Government of India have begun to encourage dramatists, dancers and musicians and they have nominated Prithviraj, a first class actor, Rukmini Devi, a prominent dancer, to the Parliament as members of the Council of State. That is not enough. The Government should invite well-known artists to co-ordinate the salient features of the different theatres of the country and evolve a unified national theatre for India. Possibly, a beginning in this line has been made by the Ministry of Education in founding an Akademi of Fine Arts with its headquarters at Delhi.

24

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Sanskrit dramas and works on dramaturgy and other allied topics consulted and cited.

1. Agnipurāṇa by Vedavyāsa, Vangavasi Steam Mesina Press, Calcutta, Śaka, 1812.

2. Anargharāghava of Murāri, with commentary of Rucipati, Nirnaya Sagar Press, Bombay, 1929.

3. Abhidhānaratnamālā [a Sanskrit Vocabulary], ed. with a Sanskrit-English Glossary by Th. Aufrecht, Williams and Norgate, 1861.

4. Abhinayadarpaṇa of Nandikeśvara, ed. by Manomohan Ghosh, Calcutta Sanskrit Series No. 5, 1934.

5. Abhinavabhāratī of Abhinavagupta, in manuscript form copied from Mss. Government Oriental Manuscript Library, Madras, contained in Sarasvati Bhawan Library, Sanskrit Government College, Banaras.

6. Amarakoṣa of Amara Sinha, ed. with Hindi notes by Manna Lal, Banaras, 1937.

7. Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya, with commentary Śrīmūla of Gaṇapati Śāstrī, I-1, II; II-III-VII. Trivandrum Sanskrit Series No. LXXIX and LXXX, Trivandrum, 1924.

8. Avadānaśataka, ed. by Dr. J. S. Speyer II, 8-10, St. Petersburg, 1909.

9. Āryamañjuśrīmūla-Kalpa, ed. by Gaṇapati Śāstrī, I Trivandrum Sanskrit series No. LXX, Trivandrum, 1920.

10. Uttararāmacarita of Bhavabhūti, ed. by M. R. Kale, Bombay, 1934.

11. Ṛgveda Saṃhitā, ed. by Maxmuller, Oxford, 1873.

12. Karṇasundarī of Bilhaṇa, ed. by Durgā prasāda Kāśīnātha Paṇḍuraṅga, Nirnaya Sagar Press, K. M., No. 7, Bombay, 1895.

13. Karpūramañjarī of Rājaśekhara, with commentary of

Vāsudeva, Nirnaya Sagar Press, K. M., No. 4, Bombay, 1927.

14. Kāthaka, Von Leopold von Schroeder, Leipzig, 1900.

15. Kāmasūtra of Vātsyāyana, with Jaimaingala commentary, Haridas Gupta Karyalaya, Banaras.

16. Kāvyaprakāśa of Mammaṭa, with commentary by Vāmanācārya, Poona, 1933.

17. Kāvyamīmāṃsā of Rājaśekhara, Gaekwad Oriental Series, ed. by C. D. Dulah and R. A. Sastry, Baroda, 1934.

18. Kuṭṭanīmata of Dāmodaragupta in KM Series, Part III, Nirnaya Sagar Press, Bombay, 1887 and also ed. by T. M. Tripathi, Bombay, 1924.

19. Kundamālā of Diṅnāga, with notes by Vedavyas. The Punjab Sanskrit Book Depot, Lahore, 1932.

20. Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇa, Von B. Lindner I Text Jera, 1887.

21. Caturbhāṇi, Śivapuri, publishers D. G. Sharma and Krishna, Bakerganj Patna, 1922. It contains the following four dramas : Padmaprābhrtaka of Sūdraka, Dhūrtaviṭa-saṃvāda of Iśvaradatta, Ubhayābhisārikā of Vararuci and Pādatāḍitaka of Śyamilaka.

22. Daśarūpa of Dhananjaya, with commentary of Dhanika, Nirnaya Sagar Press, Bombay, 1928.

23. Dīghañikāya, ed. by T. W. Rhys Davids and J. Eastlin Carpenter Vol. I [Pali Text Society], London, 1890.

24. Dūtāṅgada of Subhaṭa, Nirnaya Sagar Press, KM No. 40, Bombay, 1922.

25. Dhvanyāloka of Ānandavardhanācārya, Kāśī Sanskrit Series, Alaṅkāra section No. 5, Banaras, 1940.

26. Nāṭakalakṣaṇaratnakoṣa of Sāgaranandin, ed. by Myles Dillon, Vol. I Text, Oxford University Press, London, 1937.

27. Nāṭyadarpaṇa of Rāma Candra and Guṇa Candra, with their own commentary, Gaekwad Oriental Series, 1929.

28. Nāṭyaśāstra of Bharata [editions of Nāṭyaśāstru: Kāvyamālā Sanskrit Series No. 42, 1894; Kāśī Sanskrit Series No. 60, 1929; Gaekwad Oriental Series Vol. I No. 36,

1926 and Vol. II No. 68, 1934, Chapters I-XIV ed.

by J. Grosset, XVI-XVII by P. Regnaud in his rhéto-

rique Sanskrite, XVIII-XX, XXIV by F. Hall in his

edition of Daśarūpa; Bhāratīya Nāṭyaśāstra written by

Godavari Vasudeva Ketakar in Marathi, Aryabhusana

Press, Poona, 1928.

29. Nirukta of Yāska, with commentary by Durgācārya, Sri-

Venkateshvara Steam Press, Bombay, Samvat 1982.

30. Pañcadaśī by Vidyāraṇyasvāmī, with English translation,

Bombay, 1912

31. Pārvatī-Parinaya of Śrī Bāṇabhaṭṭa, Nirnaya Sagar Press,

Bombay, 1923.

32. Pratāparudrīya of Vidyānātha, with Ratnapana of

Kumārasvāmin, ed. by Chandra Shekhar Shastri, Madras,

1915. Prabodhacandrodaya of Kṛṣṇamiśra, with Candrikā and

Prakāśa commentaries, Nirnaya Sagar Press, Bombay,

1905. Priyadarśikā by Śrī Harṣa, ed. by Jīvānanda Vidyāsāgara,

Calcutta, 1874.

35. Bālabhārata of Rājaśekhara, ed. by Durgā Prasāda and

Parab, KM No. 4. Bombay, 1887.

36. Bāla Rāmāyaṇa of Rājaśekhara, with Jīvānanda commen-

tary, Vaimiki Press, Calcutta, 1884.

37. Bṛhaddesí of Mataṅgamuni, ed. by K. Sambaśiva Śāstrī,

Trivandrum Sanskrit Series No. XCIV, Trivandrum 1928.

38. Bhagvadbhaktiraśāyana of Madhusūdana Sarasvatī, with

Sanskrit ṭikā by Goswami Damodara Shastri, Acyuta

granthamālā II Puṣpa Kāśī, Vikram, 1984.

39. Bhāvaprakāśana of Śāradātanaya, Gaekwad Oriental

Series No. 45, Baroda, 1930.

40. Bhāsanāṭakacakra, ed. by C.R. Devadhar, Poona Oriental

series No. 54, Poona, 1937. It contains the following 13

dramas of Bhāsa : Svapnavāsavadattā, Pratijñāyaugandharāyaṇa, Avimāraka, Cārudatta, Pratimā, Abhiṣeka,

. Pañcarātra, Madhyamavyāyoga, Dūtavākya, Dūtaghatoṭkaca, Karnabhāra, Ūruṭhaṅga and Bālacarita.

41. Manusmṛti by Manu, with commentary by Kullukabhāṭṭa, and ed. by Vāsudeva, Nirnaya Sagar Press, Bombay. 1902.

42. Mahābhārata, I with commentary of Nīlakaṇṭha, Chitra-Shala Press Poona, 1929; III.andV.ed. by S.Sukthankara, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute,Poona, 1941,1937.

43. Mahābhāṣya of Patañjali, ed. by Kielhorn, Bombay, 1883.

44. Mahāviracarita of Bhavabhūti, with commentary of Vira-rāghava, ed. by T.R.Ratnam Aiyar, Nirnaya Sagar Press. Bombay, 1901.

45. Mānasāra Śilpaśāstra, ed. by P.K. Acharya, Oxford University Press, London, 1933.

46. Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa of Vedavyāsa, Calcutta, Śaka, 1812.

47. Mālatīmādhava of Bhavabūti, ed. by M. R. Kale, Gopal Narayana and Co., Kalbadevi Road, Bombay, 1928.

48. Mālavikāgnimitra of Kālidāsa, with commentary of Kaṭa-yavema, Nirnaya Sagar Press, Bombay, 1930.

49. Mudrārākṣasa of Viśākhadatta, ed. by Saradaranjan Ray, Harrison Road, Calcutta, 1929.

50. Mṛcchakaṭika of Śūdraka, with commentary of Pṛthvī-dhara, and notes by M. R. Kale, 1924.

51. Meghadūta of Kālidāsa, with commentary by Mallinātha, ed. by Kāśīnāthā 2nd ed., Poona, 1916.

52. Yājñavalkyasmṛti, Anandashrama Press, Vol. I, 1903; Vol. II 1904.

53. Raghuvaṃśa of Kālidāsa, VI-X sargas, Kāśī Sanskrit Series No. 84, 1987.

54. Ratnāvalī of Śrī Harṣadeva, with notes by M. R. Kale, Bombay, 1925.

55. Rasārṇavasudhākara of Siṅghabhūpāla, ed. by T. Gana-pati Śāstrī, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series. No. L. Trivandrum, 1916.

56. Rāgavibodha of Somanātha, with Sanskrit commentary, Śaḷa, Lahore, 1817.

57. Rāmāyana of Vālmīki, with commentary, Nirnaya Sagar Press, Bombay, 1824.

58. Rūpakasaṭakam, a collection of six dramas of Vatsarāja,ed. by D. Dalal, Gaekwad Oriental Series No. VIII, Central Library, Baroda. 1918. It contains the following six dramas: Kirātārjunīyavyāyoga [ PP. 1-22 ], Karpūracaritabhāṇa [ PP. 23-36 ], Rukmiṇīharaṇa ihāmṛga [ PP. 37-44 ], Tripuradāhadima [PP. 75-119], Hāsyacūḍāmaṇi prahasana [PP. 118-148], Samudramanthana Samavakāra [PP. 148-192].

59. Vikramorvaśiya of Kālidāsa, with Kaṭayavema's commentary and ed. by Cārudeva Śāstrī, Lahore, 1929.

60. Viddhaśālabhañjikā of Rājaśekhara, with commentary of Jīvānanda, Calcutta, 1873 and with Sanskrit ṭīkā and preface by B. R. Arte and K. R. Godbole, Poona, 1886.

61. Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa,ed. by Madhusūdana Mādhava prasāda., Venkateshvar Press, Bombay.

62. Viṣṇusmṛti of Viṣṇu, ed. by Julias Jolly, Asiatic Society, Calcutta, 1881.

63. Śākuntala, Abhijñana, of Kālidāsa, with notes by M. R. Kale, bombay 1934.

64. Śilparatna of Śrīkumāra, ed. by Gaṇapati Śāstrī,I, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series, No. LXXV, 1922.

65. Śuklayajurveda Samhitā [ Vajasaneyī Samhitā ], with Mantrabhāṣya of Uvaṭācārya and Vedadīpabhāṣya of Mahidhara, ed. by Wasudeo Lakṣhmaṇa Śāstrī Pansikar, Nirnaya Sagar Press, Bombay, 1929.

66. Śrīmadbhāgavata Purāṇa, in two khaṇḍas, with Bālabodhinī hāṣāṭīkā by Pt. Govindadāsa Vyāsa 'vinīta' sarivat 1991.

67. Saṅgītapārijāta of Ahobala Pandit, ed. by Kalindajī, Sangit Karyalaya, Hatharas, 1941.

68. Sāṅgīta-Makaranda of Nārada, ed. by Maṅgeśa Rāma Kṛṣṇa Telaṅg, Gaekwad Orienral Series No. XVI, Baroda, 1920.

69. Saṅgītaratnākara of Śārṅgadeva, with Kallinātha, commentary I and II by Maṅgeśa Rama Krṣṇa Telaṅga, Ānandāśrama Sanskrit Granthāvalī No. 35, Bombay, 1896, 1897.

70. Saṅgītasamayasāra of Saṅgītakara Śrī Pārśvadeva, ed. by T. Gaṇapati Śāstrī, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series No. LXXXVII, 1925.

71. Sahityadarpana of Viśvanātha, with commentary by Haridāsa Siddhāntavāgīśabhaṭṭa Vaiṅgabda Nakipur Siddhanta Press, 1335.

72. Siddhānta Kaumudī of Bhaṭṭoji Dīkṣita, with Tattvabodhini, Subodhini, Candrāloka commentaries, Sri Venkatesvar Steam Press, Bombay, 1926.

73. Subhāṣitratīśati by Bhartṛhari, ed. by Vāsudeva, Bombay, 1914.

74. Hanumannāṭaka or Mahānāṭaka, with bhāṣāṭīkā,Lakshmi Venkateshvar Press, Bombay, 1924.

75. Harivaṁśa, with commentary, Bombay, 1895.

76. Harṣacarita of Bāṇabhaṭṭa, ed. by P. V. Kane, Bombay, 1918.

B. Articles and works in English on Indian Stage and kindred topics consulted and cited only where necessary

1. A. C. Woolner and Lakshmana Sarup, ‘Translation of Thirteen Trivandrum plays attributed to Bhāsa’ Oxford University Press, London, Vol. I, 1930 and Vol. II 1931.

2. A. D. Pusalkar, article on ‘Critical study of the works of Bhāsa’, Journal of the University of Bombay, Vol. II Part VI May, 1934.

3. A. K. Coomaraswamy and Duggirala Gopal Krisnayya, ‘The Mirror of Gesture’ translation of Abhinayadarpana, London 1917, New york, 1936.

4. A. K. Coomaraswamy, ‘The Dance of Śiva’, 14 Indian Essays, New York, 1918.

5. A. K. Coomaraswamy, article on 'Hindu Theatre' in Indian Historical quarterly Vol. IX, Calcutta, 1933.

6. Alain Danielon, 'Northern Indian Music', London: Christopherson Johnson Vol. 1. Calcutta, Vishva Bharati. 1949.

7. A. Sankaran, 'Some Aspects of Literary Criticism in Sanskrit literature' or 'The theories of Rasa and Dhvani' Madras, 1929.

8. Bloch, article on 'Caves and Inscriptions in Ramgarh hills', published in 'Archaeological Survey of India Annual Report, 1903-4.

9. Brajendra Nath Banerjee 'Bengali Stage', Ranjan Publishing House', 1943.

10. Cintaharana Cakravarti,articles on 'Saṭṭaka'and 'Bhaṭata-Vākya' in Indian Historical Quarterly. Vol. VII. 1931 and Vol. VI. 1930.

11. C. O. Hass, 'Translation of the Daśarūpa' Columbia University Press, 1912.

12. D. R. Mankad, 'Types of Sanskrit Drama' Urmi Prakashan Mandir Denso Hall, Karachi, 1930.

13. D. R. Mankad, article on 'Hindu Theatre' in Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. VIII, Calcutta 1932, Vol. IX, 1933.

14. D. R. Mankad, 'Ancient Indian Theatre', Charutar Prakashan Vallabh Vidyanagar 1950.

15. E. Clements, "Indian Music" Longmans, Green, & Co. London, 1913.

16. Gaṅgānātha Jhā, 'Translation of Kāvyaprakāśa' of Mammaṭa, Allahabad, 1925.

17. Guha-Thakurta, P, The Bengali Drama, its Origin and Development, London, 1930.

18. Haigh, 'Attic Theatre' III ed.

19. H. N. Das Gupta, 'The Indian stage' Vols. I and II, Calcutta, 1934 and 1938.

20. Harprasad Shastri, article on 'The Origin of Indian Drama' in journal and proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, New Series Vol. V, 1909.

21. Itsing, a record of Buddhist Religion practised in India

and the Malay Archipalego [ 671-695 A. D. ], translated by J. Takakusa, Oxford, 1896.

22. Keith, 'The Sanskrit Drama' in its Origin, Development, Theory and Practice, Oxford, 1924.

23. K. R. Pisharoti's article on 'The Ancient Indian Theatre' published in Rajah Sir Annamalai Chettiar Commemoration Volume, 1941.

24. Levi, 'Le Theatre Indien' Paris, 1890.

25. Luders, 'Sitzungsherischte der Konigl Akademie der Wissenschafter Zu Berlin,' 1916.

26. Macdonell, 'A History of Sanskrit Literature', London, 1905.

27. Manomohan Ghosh, article on 'Problems of the Nātyaśāstra' in Indian Historical Quarterly. Vol VI. 1930.

28. Manomohan Ghosh, article on 'Hindu Theatre'in Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. IX, Calcutta 1933.

29. Manomohan Ghosh, 'English Translation of the Nātyaśastra, chapters I to XXVII,' Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta, 1951.

30. Monier Williams, 'A Sanskrit-English Dictionary', Oxford Clarendon Press, 1899.

31. Mulk Raj Anand, 'The Indian Theatre', London, Dennis Dohson Ltd.

32. Naidu and Pantab, 'Tāṇḍavalakṣaṇa,' G. S. Press, Madras, 1936.

33. P. K. Acharya, 'A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture,' Oxford University Press, London [University of Allahabad], 1927.

34. P. K. Acharya, article on 'The Play-house of the Hindu Period,' published in Dr. S. K. Aiyangar Commemoration Volume.

35. P. K. Gode, article on 'The Bharata-Ādi-Bha-rata Problem and the MS of Ādi-Bharata in the Government Oriental Library, Mysore'. Annals of the Bhandarkar

25

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Oriental Research Institute, Poona, Vol. XIII, 1931-32

36. Pischel, 'Die Heimat des Puppenspiels', 1902.

37. P. V. Kane, 'Introduction to Sāhityadarpana', The History of Alańkāra Literature, Bombay, 1923.

38. R. K. Yajnik, 'The Indian Theatre', London, 1933.

39. Ridgeway, 'The Dramas and Dramatic Dances of Non-European Races,' Cambridge, 1915.

40. Ridgeway, article on 'Cult of the Dead' in Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1916.

41 Schuyler, 'Bibliography of the Sanskṛit Drama' with an introductory sketch of the Dramatic Literature of India, Columbia University Press, Indo-Iranian Series, Vol. III, 1906.

42. S. C. Mukerjee, 'The Nāṭyaśāstra of Bharata' Chapter VI, ed. with an English translation of Rasādhyāya, Paris, 1926.

43. S. K. De, 'Studies in the History of Sanskrit Poetics' vol. II, 1925.

44. S. K. De, 'The curtain in Ancient Indian Theatre,' published in Bhāratīya Vidyā, Vol. IX, 1948.

45. S. M. Tagore, 'The Eight Principal Rasas of the Hindus' with Murthi and Vrindaka, Calcutta, 1880.

46. Stella Kramrisch, 'Translation of Viṣṇu-dharmottara, Part III,' a treatise on Indian Painting and Image-making, Calcutta University Press, 1928.

47. V. Raghavan, 'The number of Rasas,' Adyar, Madras, 1940.

48. V. Raghavan, 'Some Concepts of Alańkāraśāstra,' Adyar, Madras, 1942.

49. V. Raghavan, articles on 'Ancient Indian Theatre Architecture,' in Journal Triveni of Madras, 1932-35.

50. V. Raghavan, 'Nāṭyadharma and Lokadharma' in the Journal of Oriental Research, Madras, Vol. VII and VIII, 1933, and 1934.

51. V. Raghavan, article on 'Hindu Theatre' in Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. IX, Calcutta, 1933.

52. V. S. Apte, 'The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary,' Bombay, 1924.

53. V. S. Agarwala, 'Study of Rājaghāṭa Toys' in Nāgarīpracāriṇī Patrikā, Kārtika Samvat, 1997.

54. Wilson, 'Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hindus,' Vol. I, 1827.

55. Windisch, 'Der griechische Einfluss im indischen Drama,' 1882.

56. Winternitz, 'Some Problems of Indian Literature,' Calcutta University Press, 1925.

INDEX

A. Sanskrit Dramatic Terms, Works and Dramatists

Aṃśa, 91

Amiśopitika, 78

Akampita, 95

Agnipurāṇa, 122, 139

Añka, 106, 142, 143, 145

Añkamukha, 131, 132

Añkāvatarā, 131

Añkāsya, 131

Añga, 94, 144

Añgada, 77, 78

Aṅgaracanā, 73, 82, 84, 85, 180

Aṅgavyāpāra, 138

Aṅgaśausṭhava, 100

Aṅgabāras, 99, 138

Aṅgula, 32, 75, 76, 80, 81

Aṅgulimudrā, 77

Aṅgulīyaka, 78

Ajjukā, 133

Aṇu, 32

Atihāsya, 153

Attā, 133

Atharvaveda, 3

Advībhūmi, 37

Adbhuta, 84, 152

Anargharāghava, 13, 22, 150

Anucārikā, 111

Anudātta, 90

Anumitivāda, 17

Anuraṇana, 53

Anurūpaṭ, 104, 181

Anuvādī, 90

Anuṣṭubh, 103

Anya, 111

Apaṭi, 63, 64

Apaṭikṣepeṇa, 56, 57

Apanītā, 56

Apabhramiśa, 149

Apavārita, 132

Abaraka, 86, 87

Abhijñānaśākuntala, 21, 61, 63, 67, 68, 73, 74, 86, 98, 102, 109, 130, 134, 146, 149, 151, 153, 166, 168, 173, 175

Abhinaya, 3, 14, 15, 72, 97, 100, 101, 113, 120, 136, 138, 140

Abhinayadarpana, 4, 21, 79, 96, 97, 113, 121

Abhinayavidyā, 100

Abhinavagupta, 12, 18, 20, 31, 33, 34, 37, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 56, 74, 91, 122, 137, 138, 139, 178

Abhinavabhāratī, 34, 52, 60, 61, 81, 91, 138

Abhinayācāryas, 100

Abhivyaktivāda, 18

Amarakośa, 62

Amātya, 110, 132

Arthaśāstra, 7, 12, 32, 116, 118

Arthopakṣepakas, 191, 177

Ardhamāgadhī, 128

Ardhamukuṭa, 80

Alaka, 85, 172

Alankāra, 73, 77, 81, 98, 180

Ārya, 132

Alaukika, 20

Āryaputra, 133

Avakruṣṭa, 153, 154

Āryamañju-Śrīmūla-Kalpa, 65

Avatarana, 119

Āvantī, 129

Avadānaśataka, 6, 149

Āviddha, 106

Avanaddha, 92, 180

Āvedhya, 77

Avantijā, 128, 129

Āśrāyanā, 119

Avarohī, 91

Āsārita, 119

Avaloka, 74, 119, 133, 145, 146

Āhārya, 15, 72

Avimāraka, 57, 59

Āhāryābhinaya, 72, 73, 77, 82

Aśocah, 115

86, 87, 138, 154

Aśvaghoṣa, 8, 12, 148

Āhuti, 172, 173

Asi, 76

Indradhvaja, 10, 21

Asita, 83, 84

Indranīlamaṇi, 79

Asragīta, 145

Indra Sahhā, 171

Ahokāra, 153

Iṣvastravit, 114

Ākāśagāmī, 96

Ihāmṛga, 106, 141, 142, 146

Ākāśabhäṣita, 132, 143, 144

Uccā, 103

Ākāśika, 96

Uccitika, 77

Āg Gārī, 170

Uttararāmacarita, 11, 22, 26,

Āgney a, 50

67, 68, 72, 102, 107, 111,

Ācāryas, 97, 107, 132, 137,

130, 134, 150, 153

Aṅgika, 15, 72

Utsṛṣṭikāṅka, 142

Aṅgikābhinaya, 94, 95, 98

Utthāpana, 120

Ātasya, 65

Utpattivāda, 17

Ātodya, 119

Udayanacarita, 74

Ātmagata, 132

Udātta, 90

Ādibharata, 122, 123

Uddhata, 138

Ābharanaḳrt, 107

Uddhatamiśra, 138

Ābhirī, 128, 129

Upārūpaka, 139, 140, 144, 146,

Ābhyantaragaṇa, 111

147

Āyuṣman, 132

Upāṅga, 94

Āyogava, 116

Upādhyāya, 37, 51

Ārabhaṭī, 16, 106

Ullāpya, 145

Ārambha, 119

Ūrubhaṅga, 130

Āropya, 77

Ūha, 45

Ārohaṇ, 91

Rgveda, 3, 5, 136

Ṛṣabha, 89

Aindrajālika, 7

Aiśāna, 50

Audrī, 128

Autpātika, 155

Aupasthāyika, 111

Kakṣyā, 38, 41, 42, 45, 49, 61,

68, 179

Kakṣyāvibhāga, 38

Kañcukin or Kañcukīya, 111

Kaṭaka, 78

Kaṇaya, 76

Kathākāli, 94, 160, 163

Kanāta, 62

Kapota, 83, 84

Kapotālī, 45

Karaṇa, 96, 99

Karbalā, 172

Karuna, 20, 84, 130, 152

Karṇacūlikā, 79

Karṇapūra, 78

Karṇamudrā, 78

Karṇavalaya, 78

Karṇasundarī, 69

Karṇikā, 78

Karṇotkīlaka, 78

Karpūramañjarī, 105, 127, 150,

171

Kalahakandala, 22

Kalaka, 79

Kalākārā, 172, 173, 174

Kalāpa, 78

Kaliñja, 74, 86

Kallinātha, 88

Kaṣāya, 81, 83

Kaṣṭa, 153

Kampana, 76

Kampita, 95

Kamsavadha, 8

Kāpācā, 85

Kāku, 103

Kāñcī, 78

Kāṭhakam, 5

Kāmasūtra, 12

Kāyābhinaya, 1

Kālapriyanāṭha, 22, 26

Kārruka, 108

Kāridāsa, 22, 23, 70, 85, 102,

111, 137, 147, 148, 149, 173,

175

Kāīna, 75

Kāvya, 145

Kāvyaprakāśa 14, 19

Kāvyamīmāṃsā, 25

Kinkinī, 78

Kinkinī-cakravāla, 79

Kirātārjunīya-vyāyoga, 24, 69,

146

Kiriṭī, 80

Kīla, 77

Kuṭṭanimata, 56, 105, 149

Kuṭṭimā, 46

Kuṇḍala, 77

Kuṭapa, 119

Kunta, 75

Kundamālā, 23

Kumāra, 110

Kumbhīpadāka, 79

Kulastṛī, 111

Kulinakulasarvasva, 164

Kuśilava, 7, 108, 116

Kusumāvacaya, 98

Kuhara, 45

Kṛṣṇa, 84

Kṛṣṇamiśra, 151

Kṛṣṇalīlā, 170, 175

Keyūra, 77

Keśaracanā, 84

Kaiśikī, 16, 69, 144, 146

Kona, 46

Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇa, 5

Kriyā, 100

Kṛdanīyaka, 3

Khaṇḍa, 96

Khaṇḍapātra, 78

Khaṇḍamātrā, 145

Kharjura, 78

Kheṭaka, 76

Khyāla, 169

Gaṇa, 4

Gaṇapati Śāstrī, 8

Gaṇikā, 7, 111

Gadā, 76

Gandharva, 114

Gati, 96, 97

Gaddāra, 172, 173

Gamaka, 89

Gambhīrā, 161

Garbhasandhi, 144

Gavākṣa (window), 45, 46

Gavākṣa (ornament), 78

Gātravikṣepa, 137, 138

Gāndhāra, 89, 90

Gāyaka, 6, 93, 94, 119

Gāyikā, 93

Gīta, 3, 88, 119

Guṇacandra, 20

Goṣṭhī, 144

Graha, 91

Grāma, 90, 91

Gaura, 83, 84

Ghaṭṭita, 65

Ghana, 92, 180

Ghātas, 155, 182

Cakra, 70

Caturasra, 30, 31, 34, 39, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 178

Caturbhāṇī, 146

Candrahāsa, 172

Carma, 76

Calita, 101, 115, 136, 137

Cāṇḍālī, 128, 129

Cāmara, 76

Cārī, 96, 97, 120

Citrakara, 108

Citraturaganāya, 18

Citravīṭ, 114

Citrābhinaya, 97

Cūḍāpāśa, 85

Cūdāmaṇi, 77, 78

Cūlikā, 131

Ceṭa, 110, 128

Ceṣṭita, 74

Chatra, 76

Chandovit, 114

Chalika, 136

Chalita, 136

Chāyānāṭaka, 11

Janānta or Janāntika, 132

Jarjara, 3, 71, 76, 120, 125, 126

Jarjarapūjā, 120

Jarjaraślokas, 120

Javanikā, 55, 56, 61, 62, 63, 64, 179

Javanīkāntara, 133, 145

Jātakas, 102

Jānakī Maṅgala, 171

Jāyājīva, 116

Jāla, 45

Jṛmbhaka, ( missiles ), 67

Jhallarī, 94

Ṭhāṭa, 91

Ḍakkīṇī, 94

Pima, 31, 106, 142, 146

Dārukarma, 72

Dḷakki, 129

Dīkpālastuti, 120, 126

Tanḍu, 4, 99

Digghanikāya, 6

Tata, 92, 130

Diṉnāga, 23

Tantrās, 102

Dīptā, 103

Tantri, 119

Divyā, 110

Tapti-svayaṉivara, 151

Dīyāra, 172, 173, 174

Tamāśā, 166

Dundubhi, 94

Tarala, 77

Durgāpūjā, 162

Talīya, 74

Durmallikā, 146

Tānḍava, 4, 99, 100, 120

Durmallī, 146

Tāta, 132, 133

Duṣprayojya, 101

Tāla, 75, 76, 88, 137, 138, 145

Dūta, 110

Tiraskariṇṭī, 56, 62, 63

Dūtavākya, 127

Tilaka, 78

Dūtāṉgada, 23, 151

Tilottamā, 172

Duhkhatmaka, 20

Tepita, 81

Dṛśyakāvyas, 13

Toṭaka, 144

Deva, 133

Tomara, 75

Devatā, 172

Taurika, 108

Devi, 111, 133

Tauryaṭrka, 88, 107

Deśī, 88, 137

Trigata, 120

Daivikī, 153, 154

Tripatākā, 96, 132

Drāviḍī, 128, 129

Tripuradāha, 4, 99, 146

Druta, 97

Triśara, 77

Drutā, 103

Troṭaka, 139, 144; 145, 146

Dvāra, 46

Tryasra, 30, 31, 34, 43, 46, 47, 51, 52, 178

Dvipadikā, 145

Daṇḍa, 31, 32, 76

Dvipadikhaṇḍa, 92

Dandaka, 103

Dvibhūmi, 37

Dantapatra, 78

Dhanaṉjaya Vijaya, 171

Dardura, 94

Dhanu, 75

Daśarūpa, 13, 74, 119, 122, 129, 131, 133, 137, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146

Dharaṇī, 45

Daśāvatāram, 161, 163

Dharmi, 15

Dākṣiṇātyā, 128, 129

Dhīralalita, 108, 109

Dāmodaragupta, 149

Dhīrapraśānta, 141

Dhīraśānta, 109

Dhīrodātta, 109, 140

Dhīroddhata, 109

Dhūrtaviṭasamivāda, 21

Dhaivata, 89

Dhauta, 65

Dhruvasvāmin, 172

Dhruvā, 55

Dhvaja, 76

Dhvani, 14, 88

Dhvanyāloka, 14

Naṭa, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 17, 23, 52,

69, 81, 83, 97, 108, 116,

122, 138, 154, 179, 180

Naṭarāja, 98, 99

Naṭasū̄ras, 8, 95

Naṭī, 21, 105

Nandikeśvara, 4

Nartaka, 5, 6, 114, 116

Nartakī, 138

Nartana, 88

Napumsaka, 111

Narmasaciva, 109

Narmasuhrd, 109

Navaṭankī, 162, 172, 174, 183

Navanna, 165

Nāgaraka, 7

Nāgānanda, 149, 151

Nāgdanta, 46

Nāṭaka, 5, 106, 131, 140, 141,

144, 146, 149, 150, 151

Nāṭakābhinaya, 6

Nāṭakamaṇḍalī, 7, 153, 155,156,

163, 166

Nāṭakalakṣaṇaratnakoṣa, 13,70,

122, 137

Nāṭakīyā, 108

Nāṭamandira, 26, 29

Nāṭikā, 22, 139, 144, 146

Nāṭī, 144

Nāṭya, 4, 8, 21, 96, 102, 105,

106, 108, 136, 137, 138, 139,

140, 154, 177

Nāṭyagrha, 24, 52

Nāṭyadarpana, 20, 122, 123

Nāṭyadharma, 132

Nāṭyadharmī, 15

Nāṭyamaṇḍapa, 24, 30, 37, 53,

125

Nāṭyarāsaka, 145

Nāṭyaveda, 3, 4, 124

Naṭaveśman, 33

Nāṭyaśālā, 53, 116

Nāṭyaśāstra, 3, 30, 31, 32, -x,

38, 42, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50;

51, 52, 53, 55, 60,61, 66,!69,

70, 71,73, 75, 76, 77, 80, 82,

84, 85, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96;

97, 99,100, 101, 102, 105, 106,

107, 109, 110, 111, 113, 114, 117,

119, 121, 122, 123, 124,126,127,

131, 132, 137, 144,148, 175,178

Nāṭyakāra, 108

Nāṭyācārya, 97, 106, 181

Nāda, 89

Nāḍikā, 71, 141, 146, 155

Nāndī, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124,

145, 177

Nāyaka, 108

Nāyikā, 110

Nirukta, 5

Nirmuṇḍa, 111

Nirāhuta, 115

Nirbrahmaṇa, 115

Niṣāda, 89

Nīla, 82, 84

Nīlakanṭha, 69

Nirvyūha, 45, 46

26

[ 201 ]

Nicā, 103

Nūpūra, 77, 78, 79

Nṛtta, 4, 5, 21, 95, 136, 137, 138, 139, 177

Nṛttakāvyas, 138

Nṛtya, 4, 88, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 145, 177

Nṛtyaśālā, 53

Nṛtta-sabhā, 99

Nṛpatnī, 111

Nepathye, 56

Nepathyagṛha, 34, 35, 38, 39, 43, 46, 47, 51, 52, 55, 57, 60, 68, 179, 180

Nairṛta, 50

Nyāsa, 91

Pañca, 155

Pañcadaśī, 65

Pañcama, 89

Pancarātra, 128, 146

Paṭa, 65, 66

Paṭaha, 94

Paṭi, 56, 63, 64

Paṭī, 80

Paṭṭisa, 76

Paṭhāna, 172, 173, 174

Paṇa, 7

Paṇava, 93

Patañjali, 8, 12

Patākā [Episode], 109, 140

Patākā [Flag hand], 96

Patākā [Banner], 155, 156, 182

Patrapūraka, 78

Patralekhā, 78

Pattara, 76

Padma, 86

Padmamani, 79

Parighaṭṭanā, 119

Paricārikā, 111

Parivartana, 120

Pariṣad, 113

Pāṭḷya, 3

Pāṇavika, 93

Pāndu, 83

Pāṇini, 8, 62, 136

Pāda, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124

Pādapātra, 78

Pāripārśvika, 105, 107, 120, 121, 123, 124

Pārivatīparinaya, 21

Pārśamaulī, 80

Pārśvagata, 80

Piṭha, 45

Piṇḍībandhas, 99

Piṭhamarda, 7, 109, 146

Pīta, 82, 84

Putrakā, 133

Purohita, 110

Puṣya, 33, 125

Pusta, 73, 74

Pūrvarañga, 55, 119, 120, 121, 122

Pūrvarañga [Caturasra], 120

Pūrvarañga [Tryasra], 120

Pūrvarañga [Citra], 120

Pekkhāghara, 53

Paiśācī, 129

Powada, 166

Prakaraṇa, 31, 106, 131, 141, 144, 146

Prakaraṇikā, 146

Prakarī, 140

Prakāśa, 132

Prakhyāta, 141

Prakṣepya, 77

Pratāpa [name of drama], 164

Pratāparudrīya, 123, 137

Pratijñāyāugandharāyaṇa, 57, 74, 76

Pratidvāra, 46

Pratināyaka, 109

Pratimānāṭaka, 76

Pratisīrā, 63, 80

Pratibhārī, 111

Pratyaṅga, 94

Pratyāhāra, 119

Pratyūha, 45

Prabodhacandrodaya, 23, 127, 151

Pramāṇa, 32

Prayoga, 100

Prarocanā, 120, 121, 122, 145

Pralambita, 81

Pravṛtti, 16

Pravṛdhanāda, 153

Praveśaka, 131, 144

Prasādhana, 98

Prastāvanā, 121

Prasthāna, 145

Prasthānaka, 145

Prahasana, 32, 143, 146, 160, 182

Prākṛta, 9, 62, 63,64, 127, 128, 129, 131, 133, 144, 177

Prācyā, 128, 129

Prāḍvivāka, 110

Prāśnika, 71, 114, 115, 155, 156, 182

Prāsa, 75, 76

Prāsaṅgika, 109

Priyadarśikā, 105, 146, 149

Priye, 133

Pṛthvīdhara, 129

Prekṣāgāra, 24

Prekṣāgrha, 24

Prekṣāpati, 122

Preṅkhana, 145

Prema ki Vedī, 172

Baḍā Tamāśā, 161

Bandhanīya, 77

Balibandha, 8

Bāṇa, 4, 117

Bāhya, 110

Bāla, 32

Bālacarita, 76, 101

Bālabhārata, 150

Bālarāmāyaṇa, 74, 133, 150

Bālhīkā, 128, 129

Bilva, 80

Bīja, 131

Bībhatsa, 20, 84, 113, 152

Burrakathās, 163

Bṛhaddeśī, 88, 89, 90, 91

Baudha-ākhyāna, 102

Bhagavadajju, 151

Bhagavadbhaktiraṣāyana, 20

Bhagavan, 132

Bhagnatāla, 145

Bhaṭṭhari, 117

Bhaṭṭa Lollaṭa, 17

Bhaṭṭa Nāyakā, 18

Bhaṭṭā, 133

Bhaṭṭinī, 133

Bhaṭṭoji Dīkṣita, 62

Bhayānaka, 20, 84, 152

Bharata, 3, 4, 5, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 21,30, 33, 53, 72, 74, 75, 76,77, 78, 81, 82, 89, 95, 99,100, 105,107,111,115,117, 118, 119,120, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128,129, 131, 133, 134. 139. 140. 144. 178

Bharata Nāṭyam, 94, 164

Bharataputras, 117

Bharatavākya, 177

Bhalla, 116

Bhavāi, 161, 183

Bhavabhūti, 22, 70, 102, 111, 112, 118, 148, 150, 175, 181

Bhagavat, 143

Bhāgavatam, 160, 183

Bhāna, 32, 106, 109, 132, 143, 144, 146, 160, 182

Bhānikā, 146

Bhānī, 146

Bhāṇḍavādaya, 138

Bhāratī, 16, 122

Bhāva, 14, 15, 19 20, 100, 101, 103, 114, 137, 139

Bhāvaprakāśana, 4, 30, 123, 137, 139, 140

Bhāvātmaka, 140

Bhāsa, 8, 12, 102, 120, 121, 130, 146, 147, 148, 151, 175

Bhiṇḍi, 75

Bhūmi, 37

Bhūmikā, 104

Bhṛṅgāra, 76, 120

Bheṇḍa, 74, 86, 87

Bhojakatva, 18

Bhauma, 96

Bhramarābadhnā, 98

Bhrūkumsa, 105

Makarikā, 78

Maṇḍapa, 37, 45, 50

Maṇḍalas, 96, 97

Mataṅga, 88

Mattavarạṇa, 49

Mattavāranīs, 33, 34, 37, 46, 48, 49, 52, 72, 93, 126

Mattavilāsa, 151

Madhusūdana Sarasvatī, 20

Madhyama, 89, 90

Mantrin, 110

Manu, 116

Manusmṛtī, 116

Mammata, 14

Malina, 81

Malla, 116

Masṛṇa, 138

Masṛṇamiśra, 138

Mastakī, 80

Mahācāṭī, 120

Mahādevī, 111

Mahānāṭaka or Hanumannāṭaka, 24, 29, 109, 151

Mahābhārata, 6, 29, 69, 102, 151

Mahābhāṣya, 8, 12, 105, 116

Mahārāja, 132

Mahārāṣṭrī, 128

Mahāvīracarita or Vīracarita, 150

Mahāvratastoma (rite), 5

Māgadhi, 110, 128, 129

Mātṛkā, 99

Mānasāraśilpaśāstra, 26, 32

Mānuṣī, 153

Māyecāpūta, 166

Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa, 6

Mārga, 88, 137

Mārgasārita, 119

Mārdangika, 93

Māltīmādhava, 69, 102, 105, 109, 111, 146, 150

Mālavikāgnimitra, 21, 22, 25, 63, 66, 92, 100, 112, 115, 136, 137, 149

Mālyakṛt, 108

Mukuṭa, 77, 80, 107

Mukuṭakara, 107

Muktājāla, 78

Muktāvalī, 77, 78

Mudrā, 95

Mudrārākṣasa, 65, 68, 102, 112, 171

Muṇḍāsana, 75

Muraja, 94, 121

Mūrcchanā, 91

Mṛcchakaṭika, 9, 25, 37, 41, 45, 48, 56, 59, 66, 70, 72, 74, 86, 92, 101, 102, 109, 111, 116, 117, 127, 129, 130, 146

Mṛdaṅga, 7, 93

Mekhalā, 78

Meghadūta, 53, 85

Menā Gurjarī, 169, 170

Mocaka, 77

Yajurveda, 3, 5

Yajñavit, 114

Yantra, 45, 72

Yabanikā, 60

Yamanikā, 61, 62, 63, 64, 179

Yava, 32

Yavanikā, 55, 56, 61, 62, 63, 64, 179

Yājñavalkya, 116

Yātrā, 22, 24, 26, 29, 160, 161, 183

Yātrāvālās, 160, 164

Yūka, 32

Rakta, 82, 84

Raghuvarṁśa, 85

Raṅgadvāra, 120

Raṅgapīṭha, 34, 37, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 55, 56, 57, 58, 61, 68, 93, 179

Raṅgabhūmi, 33

Raṅgamaṇḍala, 33, 48, 50

Raṅgamaṇḍapa, 49

Raṅgaśīrṣa, 33, 34, 38, 46, 47, 52, 55, 56, 57, 61, 68, 93, 126, 179, 180

Rajñā, 32

Rajaka, 108

Raṅjita, 65

Ratnajāla, 78

Ratnamālikā, 78

Ratnāvalī (Jewel necklace), 78

Ratnāvalī, (Nāṭikā ), 22, 23, 37, 48, 56, 66, 68, 70, 79, 87, 92, 100, 101, 102, 105, 109, 111, 112, 117, 135, 146, 149, 164

Raśanā, 78

Rasa, 3, 8, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 84, 94, 103, 130, 136, 137, 139, 151, 152, 156, 176, 178, 179, 181, 182

Rasātmaka, 140

Rasārṇavasudhākara, 13, 123

Rasiko Naṭah, 8

Rasodbhāvana, 134

Rāga, 90, 91, 92

Rāgavibodha, 88, 89, 91

Rāghavabhaṭṭa, 98, 123

Rājan, 114, 133

Rajaśekhara, 133, 150

Rajaputras, 128

Rajamandala, 7

Rajasevaka, 114

Rāmacandra, 20

Rāmadāsa, 160

Rāmarājyaviyoga, 166

Rāmalilā, 162, 170, 174, 183

Rāmāyaṇa, 5, 6, 29, 69, 115, 162, 183

Rasa, 172, 174

Rasaka, 145

Rasadhāris, 162

Rasamaṇḍalīs, 170

Rāsalīlā, 171, 183

Rukmiṇīharaṇa, 69, 146

Rucika, 77

Rūdhisabda, 133

Rūpa, 13

Rūpaka, 4, 6, 13, 139, 140, 147

Rūpakaṣaṭkam, 146

Rūpājīva, 116

Rūpānusāriṇī, 104, 105, 181

Reccakās, 99, 138

Romaśa, 85, 86

Rohiṇī, 33, 125

Raudra, 20, 84, 113, 152

Laya, 97, 137

Lalita, 161, 183

Lañchita, 65

Lāsya, 4, 100, 143

Lasikā, 101

Līkṣā, 32

Lokacarita, 137

Lokadharmī, 15

Laukika, 20

Vakṭrapāṇi, 119

Vajra, 76

Vaṭikā, 77

Vatsa, 132

Vayasya, 110, 133

Varjura, 78

Varṇa (colour), 83

Varṇa (melodic movement), 01

Vartalaṭikā, 79

Vardhamāna, 120

Varṣadhara, 111

Valaya, 77, 78

Vamśa, 94

Vamśikas, 93

Vainmayī, 153

Vacika, 15, 72

Vacikabhinaya, 102

Vājaseyī Samihitā, 5, 63

Vadī, 89, 90, 91

Vadya, 88, 119, 138

Vatajana, 46

Vatsyayana, 7, 109

Vanaukasī, 128

Vayava, 50

Vartikakāra, 51

Vikramāditya, 172

Vikramorvaśīya, 23, 58, 102, 146, 149

Vikṛta, 141, 143

Vikṛṣṭa, 30, 31, 35, 46, 47, 49, 51, 52, 178

Vicitra, 81, 85, 86

Viṭa, 7, 101, 109, 110, 143, 146

Viṭaṭa, 81

Vidūṣaka, 7, 10, 56, 67, 85, 87, 92, 108, 110, 120, 128, 133, 144, 146

Viddhaśālabhañjikā, 65, 150

Vinayikā, 146

Vipralambha, 79, 130

Vibhāṣas, 128, 129

Virālanepathya, 100

Virūpa, 104, 181

Vilambitā, 103

Vilāsikā, 146

Vivādī, 90

Viṣkam̉bha or Viṣkambhaka, 131, 140, 144

Viśakhadatta, 111

Viśliṣṭa, 131

Viṣṇusmṛti, 116

Viṣṇudharmaṭṭara, 30, 64, 65, 82, 83, 175

Viśvanātha, 127, 128

Viṇā, 7, 94

Viṇā-ghoṣavatī, 76

Vīthī, 103, 106, 144

Vīthyaṅga, 103

Vīra, 84, 152

Vīratanaya, 166

Vṛtta, 30

Vṛtti, 16, 122, 140, 141, 146

Vṛddha, 111

Vedikā, 45, 46

Veedhī Bhāgavatam̉, 163

Veṇī, 84

Veṇīsam̉hāra, 102, 146, 153

Veṇu, 7

Veśyā, 114

Veṣakara, 108

Veṣṭita, 73, 74, 81

Vaidūrya, 79

Vainika, 93

Vaitālika vākyas, 29

Vaiśyas, 116

Vyañjanā, 18

Vyājima 73, 74

Vyāyāma, 96

Vyāyoga, 106, 142, 146

Vyāla, 45

Vyālapaṅkti, 78

Śakārà, 110, 129, 130

Śakuntalā (a drama), 172, 173

Śakti, 75

Saṅkuka, 17, 34, 50, 51

Saṅkha, 94

Sataghnī, 75

Śabala, 76

Śabdavit, 114

Śara, 76

Saṅkakalāpī, 78

Śākārī, 128, 129

Śābarī, 128, 129

Śāriputraprakaraṇa, 8, 148

Śāṭī, 153, 154

Śārṅgadeva, 89, 91

Śikhaṇḍa, 79

Śikhā, 79, 85

Śikhājāla, 78

Śikhāpāśa, 78, 84

Śikhāpuṭa, 79

Śilpaka, 146

Śilparatna, 25, 30, 65

Śilāveśma, 53

Śivājī, 164

Śīrṣajāla, 78

Śuddha, 81, 85, 86,131, 141,143

Śūdra, 115, 116

Śūdrācāra, 115

Śūla, 75

Śuskāvakṛṣṭa, 120

Śṛṅgāra, 20, 79, 84, 105, 130, 151

Śṛṅgāralajjā, 98

Śailaguhākārā, 37, 53

Śailūṣa, 5, 115

Śaurasenī, 127, 128, 129

Śmaśru, 85

Śyāma, 83, 84, 85, 86

Śravaṇa, 33, 125

Śrigadita, 145, 146

Śrī Harṣa, 22, 111,112,117, 164

Śrīmadbhāgavata Purāṇa, 6

Śrutis, 89, 90, 91, 102

Śreṣṭhin, 128

Śveta, 84

Ṣadja, 89, 90, 91

Ṣad-dāruka, 93

Saṅkrānti, 100

Saṅkīrṇa, 141, 143

Saṅgīta, 5, 88, 107

Saṅghāta, 142

Saṅghātya, 81

Saṅgītapārijāta, 88, 89, 90, 91

Saṅgīta-makaranda, 25, 88, 89,

90, 94

Saṅgītaratnākara, 25, 88,89,90,

91, 92, 114, 137

Saṅgītaśālālā, 54, 115, 178

Saṅgītasamayasāra, 89

Saṅghoṭanā 119

Saciva, 110, 132

Sañcārī, 91

Sañcārikā, 111

Sañjīva, 73, 86, 87

Sañjavana, 45

Saṭṭaka, 133,144, 145

Sattva, 18

Sandhi, 131, 140

Sandhima, 73

Sabhāpati, 113, 114, 124

Sabhāṣad, 112

Samājas, 6

Samavakāra, 106, 141, 146

Samudramanṭhana, 146

Sahrdaya, 18, 182

Sam̉lāpaka, 145

Sam̉vāda sūktas, 5

Sam̉vādī, 90

Ṣaṁsad, 113

Samiskāra, 18

Sam̉hitās, 102

Sāgaranandin, 128

Sātvika, 15, 72, 140

Sātvatī, 16, 106

Sādhāraṇikaraṇa, 19

Sādhāraṇī, 111

Sādhikṣepa, 154

Sādhukāra, 153

Sādho, 132

Sāmaveda, 3, 5

Sādhāraṇastrī, 111

Sārvavārṇika, 3

Sālabhañjikā, 45

Sāhityadarpana 13, 119, 121,

123, 127,128, 131, 139, 143,

144

Siddhī, 153, 154, 155, 182

Siddhīlekhakas, 155, 156, 182

Siddhāntakaumudī, 6,21,36,137

Sita, 82, 84

Sītā Svayaṁvara, 165

Siṁanta 85

Sukumāra, 105, 106

Subhaṭa, 151

Subhadra, 166

Subhadrā Dhanañjaya, 151

Suṣira, 92, 180

Sūta, 5

Sūtra, 77

Sūtrakā, 77, 78

Sūtradhāra, 6, 11, 21, 22, 23,

71, 105, 106, 107, 114, 116,

120, 121, 123, 124, 145,150

Senāpati, 110

Stambha, 46

Sthāyī, 91

Sthāpaka, 69, 107. 123

Sthita, 97

Snātaka, 111

Smita, 153

Svagata, 132

Svara, 88, 89, 90, 91

Svarita, 90

Svapnavāsavadattā, 64, 68, 79, 86

Svāṅga, 49

Svāminī, 133

Svīyā, 111

Svecchītika, 78

Hañje, 133

Harikathā, 161, 163

Hariścandra (a play) 164, 169

Harita, 83

Harsaka, 77

Haivamiśa, 6, 69

Harṣacarita, 117

Hasta, 30, 31, 32, 51

Hastidanti cuḍiyān, 78

Halāyudha, 56

Hallīśa, 146

Hallīṣaka, 101

Hastavī, 77

Hāra, 77, 78

Hāsya, 84, 145, 152

Hāsyacūḍāmaṇi, 146

Hemasūtra, 77

Homoeopathy, 165

B. Theatrical Companies, Artists and Authors

Acharya, P. K., 49

Aishvarya Narayan Singh, 171

Akadami of Fine Arts, 184

Alfred company, 168

Altekar company, 167

Andhra open-air stage, 163

Apte, V. S , 62, 136

Aryoddhāraka company, 166

Athenian stage, 93

Atre, 166

Babu Jayaram Bysack, 164

Badri Nath Bhatta, 171

Bāla Vinoda Nāṭakaśabhā, 162

Balliwala, 168

Balliwala company, 168

Bālāmaṇi company, 162

Bengal Theatre, 165, 183

Bhave company, 166

Bhavāi maṇḍalis, 169

Bijon Bhattacharya, 165

Bloch, 9, 60

Bombay Gujarati company, 169

Bombay Theatre, 167

Bohtlingk, 62

Chaturvedi, Sitaram, 172

Chinese Theatre, 61

Classical Theatre, 182

Coomaraswamy, A. K., 46, 60, 61

Dahyabhai, 169

Dayashanker, 169

De, S. K., 56, 62 63

Deshi company, 169

Desinga Raja, 160

Dewal, 166

English Theatre, 164

Folk dances, 98

Folk Theatre, 49, 164

French opera, 171

Gaṅgānātha Jhā, 19

Gadkari, Ram Ganesh, 166

Ghosh, Girish Chandra, 164

Ghōsh, Monomohan, 47

Gopichand, 162, 183

Great National Theatre, 165

Greek Theatre, 9, 70

Greek theory, 12

Grosset, 48, 61

Gujarati Theatre, 167,169,170,

183

Guhathakurta, P. 160

Harish Chandra, Bhāratendu,

170, 171, 183

Haraprasāda Śāstrī, 10

Hakikat, 162, 183

Harvest dance dramas, 175

Haas, C. O., 142

Hindi Theatre, 170, 172, 183

Hindustani Theatre, 183

Hirabai Barodkar, 166

Hirabai Barodkar Nāṭaka-

mandalī, 167

Indian Film company, 184

Itsing, 149

Jai Shankar Prasad, 171,175

Jagannath Prasad, 171

Jagannath Shankerseth, 167

Jogīmārā cave, 60

Kalahakandala, 22

Kalākṣetra, 164

Kalidasa Elphinstone Society of

Bombay, 168

Kanaiyā and Company, 162

Kanarese Theatre, 163

Keith, A. B., 10, 63

Kirloskar, 166

Kirloskar Nāṭakamaṇḍalī, 166

Kolhatkar, 166

Krishnamacharya, 162

Lawis Theatre, 165

Levi, Sylvan, 64

Lüders, 11

Maithili Sharan Gupta, 172

Madan company, 168

Madras Theatre, 162, 163, 183

Maharashtra company, 166

Maharashtra Nāṭakamaṇḍalī,

166

Marathi Theatre, 165, 167, 183

Manoranjan Bhattacharya, 165

Madhav Shukla, 171

Mankad, 56

Macdonell, 54

Maypole theory, 10, 12

Medieval stage, 183

Mehta, C. C., 170

Morbi company, 169

Monier Williams, 73

Mukerjee, S. C., 152

Munshi, K. M., 170

Museum Theatre, 162

Nata Maṇḍala, 169

Naṭarāja temple, 93

National Theatre, 159,174,175,

176, 184

National Theatre of Bengal,

164

Open-air Theatre, 52, 53, 179

Opera House, 172

Original Theatrical Company,

168

Palace Theatre, 25, 26, 27, 178

Parsi Theatre, 167, 168, 169,

171, 172, 183

Pestanji Framji, 168

Pischel, 11

Pisharoti, K. R., 93

Pillars, Positions of, 51

Prithvi Theatre, 172, 173, 174

Prithviraj, 172, 173, 174, 184

Prem Chand, 172

Public Theatre, 53, 164, 178

Puppet Show, 11, 163

Puppet Play, 12

Puran, 162, 183

Ram Gopal, 181

Ray, Dvijendra Lal, 165

Ranachodbhai, 169

Rangdekar, 166

Rectangular (theatre), 30,31,33

Ridgeway, William, 10, 161

Roth, 62

Rukmini Devi, 164, 184

Sahakārī Manoranjana

Maṇḍala, 166

Sanglikar company, 167

Sarasa Vinodīnī Sabhā, 162

Shadow Play, 11, 12, 23, 151, 163

Shakespeare, 133, 166

Shambhumitra, 165

Shahunagaravasi company,

The, 166

Sītābeṅgā cave, 9, 60

Square (Theatre), 30

Sugun Vilās Sabhā, 162

Tagore, Ravindranath, 165, 175

Tagore, S. M., 59, 68

Tamil Theatre, 159, 163, 183

Talkies, 160, 184

Telugu Theatre, 163

Temple Theatre, 26, 178

Teruvukk-kootu, 163

Tolu Bommalātalu, 163

Triangular (Theatre ), 30

Uday Shankar, 94, 163, 164, 181

Varerkar, 166

Vaghaji Oza, 169

Vernacular Theatres, 183

Vegetation Spirit theory, 10,

11, 12

Vishṇudas Bhave, 165

Wajid Ali Shah, 170, 183

Wilson, H. H., 10, 24, 60

Windisch, E., 8, 9, 63

Winternitz, 148

Yajnik, R. K., 162

CORRIGENDUM

Page 5, line 29, read cheered for eheered

Page 5, line 36, read Kāṭhakam for Kāṭhakarṁ

Page 10, line 5, read attahed for attahed

Page 20, lines 1 and 8, read bībhatsa for vībhatsa

Page 22, line 18, read Puruṣottama for Puruśottama

Page 22, line 27, read Śrī for Srī

Page 25, line 30, read the for thc

Page 63, line 17, read theatre.2 for theatre

Page 77, line 3, read C for B

Page 77, line 27, read Kundala for Knḍala

Page 78, line 4, read wore for were

Page 80, line 6, read birth for brith

Page 84, line 24, read bībhatsa for vībhatsa

Page 92, line 26, read tatam for tatam

Page 92, line 27, read category for category

Page 92, line 28, read avanaddham for avanaddhaṁ and ghanam for ghanaṁ

Page 111, line 3, read svīyā for suīyā

Page 113, line 17, read bībhatsa for vībhatsa

Page 128, line 14, read cāndālī for cāṇdālī

Page 143, line 24, read ākāśabḥāṣita for ākāśabhaṣita

Page 146, line 25, read Rūpakaṣatkaṁ for Rūpakaṣatkaṁ

Page 153, line 32, read Kaṣṭaṁ for Kaṣṭaṁ

Page 155, line 7, read ancient for ancicnt

Page 184, line 21, read depend for depcnd

OPINIONS

I have read with much pleasure and admiration almost all of the thesis on 'Presentation of Sanskrit plays on the Stage,' which won for Dr. Chandra Bhan Gupta his Doctorate from the Banaras Hindu University. He has broken new ground in it. I am not aware of any other work in English which has dealt with the subject. How such presentation originated, what was its object; what the occasions; kinds of theatres; construction of them, decorations, green room, orchestra, curtains, auditorium etc; paraphernalia, how to represent carriages, horses, elephants, reptiles; how to colour hair, beard etc; dancing; dialogue, actors and actresses; spectators and judges;social position of actors and actresses; religious ceremonies connected with presentation of plays; dialects used; portrayal of sentiments and emotions; injunctions and prohibitions; different types of plays; and finally evolution of drama and how far can the ancient Indian stage be successful in modern times-all these multifarious themes are dealt with in the thesis in a lucid, interesting and informing manner.

A number of useful diagrammatic illustrations have also been put in. I would be glad to see this valuable work in print and having a wide circulation amongst literate generally and Indologists specially.

31—1—1952.

Bhagavan Das

I have been much delighted to see the thesis of Dr. Chandra Bhan Gupta on the 'Presentation of Sanskrit plays.' It is. a scholarly work based on a critical and exhaustive study of the Nāṭyaśāstra of Bharata. It also takes note of the evidence about the Indian Theatre from the available dramas and dramatic literature in Sanskrit. It discusses in a lucid manner not only the construction of the stage but

also the scenic representation, accessory arts like music and

dancing helpful in the presentation of plays, the functions and

classes of the actors and professor dramatists, as well as the

stage conventions. The author has also thrown light on the

origin of Indian drama and focussed the Indian evidence

on this point which shows in a satisfactory manner that

the Indian theatre originated and developed in accordance

with Indian needs, conditions and social and religious beliefs.

I consider this a meritorious piece of research work.

26—12—1951.

V. S. Agrawala

The author in his thesis on the ‘Presentation of Sanskrit

Plays’ has undoubtedly treated his subject in a very exhaustive

manner. It has really given me a great pleasure to find that

the bud of preliminary work of this subject which I had seen

and admired eight years ago, has since blossomed forth in the

shape of this full-fledged thesis, quite deservedly approved for

the doctorate. I have highest admiration for the author's

patient, industrious and thorough-going method of work.

16—7—1952.

Vishva Bandhu

This Thesis presented for the Degree of Doctor of Letters

by Chandra Bhan Gupta contains much useful information.

The writer has gone extensively into the original sources and

brought together extremely valuable material which till now,

lay scattered in the various works to which references have

been made in the body of the paper. This must have been

a difficult task. The greatest treatise on Indian Dramaturgy,

Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra, has itself not yet been properly

collated and edited. The commentary, Abhinavabhāratī of

Abhinavagupta, a knowledge of which is so essential to

an understanding of the Nāṭyaśāstra, is available only in one

edition. The pre-Bharata literature on the subject is scattered

through the Vedas, the Purāṇas, the Buddhist Canons etc.

The Post-Bharata contributions have been numerous and

often overlap each other. All this difficulty has been sensibly

tackled and the essential information presented in one connected sequence. The author has also dealt with various western theories as to the debt the Sanskrit drama owes to the Western stage and has shown how the debt is only an imaginary one and that the two schools are independent of each other and have had completely independent lines of development.

The Hindu Śāstras went into great detail over the construction of the theatre; it is of much interest to see that their ideas are still valid with regard to many particulars. The diagrams, which the author has given in this connection, are of particular interest.

Of similar importance is the chapter on the paraphernalia of the stage. How rich the ancient stage was in matters of decor and make-up. The wealth of detail given in connection with Āhāryābhinaya is of importance not only to the Producer of today who can find therein names of materials of make-up which will suit Indian conditions but also to those interested in Jewellery and new types of ornaments. These are described in great detail by Bharata and his chapter on Āhāryābhinaya is one of the most fascinating parts of the Nāṭyaśāstra.

Dr. Gupta has done a great service to his country and to the world of scholars in collecting and disseminating all this knowledge. The critical parts of his study are also interesting because he brings to bear an original intelligence on the problems of the stage both ancient and modern.

5—2—1952.

Rukmini Devi Arundale

डॉ० श्री चन्द्रभानुग्रुपालिखितस्य भारतীয়नाट्यकलाविषयकस्य ग्राङ्ग्लभाषामयस्य महतो निवन्धस्य कतिचिद्देशां ग्रन्थकर्त्रैव मह्यं भावितः। तत् निहितानि नाट्यशालाचित्राणि प्रदर्शितानि। ग्राङ्ग्लभाषा विशेषतोऽ्ज्ञानत्रपि ग्राहं स्पष्टमेतद्वस्तुं शक्रोमि यत्रिबन्धोडयं महता परिश्रमेण लिखितः। धन्यवेश्राणां पद्वतिशास्त्र गौरवास्पद-भूता मननाहरो च। ग्राशासे, विद्वांस एतत् सफलयेयुरिति।

१६-११-१९५२

गिरिधरशर्मा चतुर्वेदी:

I have gone through some portions of 'The Indian Theatre' of Dr. Chandra Bhan Gupta and am delighted to express my opinion about the intrinsic merits of the work. The learned author has laboured hard in collecting his materials from a wide range and from a variety of sources and the result presented here is at once convincing and scholarly, interesting and informative. The work is undoubtedly a mine of information, accurate as well as useful, about everything connected with the ancient theatre of the Hindus and is bound to be a source of inspiration to the general readers as well as to the scholars interested in the history of the ancient Hindu stage and in the development of the modern National Theatre of India.

6—1—1954.

Baldeva Upadhyaya

One of the most authentic and scholarly treatment of the theatrical aspect of the Indian drama has recently appeared under the caption. "The Indian Theatre." The author of this great work is Dr. Chandra Bhan Gupta, M. A., D. Litt. who has taken immense pains and has evinced keen insight in dealing with the various aspects of the problem in hand. Very few scholars have gone beyond a cursory note on the three types of the stage cum-auditorium mentioned by Bharata in his Nāṭyaśāstra though it is evident that those types were never adopted in use as far as historical records bear evidence.

Subsequent stage-artists of different ages started their own conventions, production techniques, stage-settings and other crafts related to the presentation of the plays. Dr. Gupta has very ably surveyed the whole field of Indian-dramatic presentation and has discussed in details the development of the Indian Theatre down to the present day.

I am confident that this work shall be welcomed by all lovers of Indian culture, drama and literature alike, for it will serve as a faithful guide to those who are interested in the rejuvenation of Indian drama. I whole-heartedly congratulate the author for his singular achievement.

23—5—1953,

Sitaram Chaturvedi.