1. Katha Upanishad Carey Centenary Volume Joseph Nadin Rawson Serampur College OUP

Ανακεφαλαιώσασθαι τ πάντα έν τώ Χριστώ

IN GRATEFUL MEMORY OF

WILLIAM CAREY

Missionary, Educationist, Oriental Scholar, Born 17 August, 1761, Founded Serampore College, 1818, Died 9 June, 1834.

THE KATHA UPANIŞAD Carey Centenary Volume

GLORIAM SAPIENTES POSSIDEBU

PUBLISHED BY REQUEST OF THE SENATE OF SERAMPORE COLLEGE 1934.

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON: AMEN HOUSE, EC. 4 EDINBURGH GLASGOW LEIPZIG COPENHAGEN NEW YORK TORONTO MELROURNE CAPETOWN BOMBAJ HUMPHREY MILFORD PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY

श्रौगुरुभ्यो नमः

TO THE

MEMORY OF MY TEACHERS

ARTHUR ANTHONY MACDONELL

AND

JOHN NICOL FARQUHAR,

ALSO TO

SURENDRANATH DASGUPTA

as representing my Indian friends, in the University of Calcutta and elsewhere, who, in gracious hospitality of spirit, have admitted one who was once a stranger to share the riches of the Mother-land, enabling him in some degree to apprehend, what never can be learned from books alone, the living meaning of the past. .

श्रद्वाञ्जलि:।

PREFACE

1. Purpose. The Katha Upanisad, though not the° oldest or perhaps the profoundost, is certainly from its comparativo brevity, ciearness and connectedness, and also from its artistic form and dramatic interest, deservedly the most popular of the Upanisads. As such it has probably seen more editions than any other. Then why add a new one ? . (1) In the first place, though there have been issued in recent years many editions and translations of the chief Upanisads, there has beon & strange lack of commentaries, which, while sotting forth the traditional interpretations, also make an attempt to arrive at an indopendent .udgment as to the moaning in the light of modern knowledge. I have attempted to deal with tho Katha Upanisad as I would with a Biblical text, and my friend Principal S. N. Dasgupta, of the Calcutta Sanskrit College, than whom none should know better, assures mo that ho knows of no similar work. Though deeply conseious of my temerity I am still more conscious of the need of this type of study. I plead a roverent desire to approciate and understand and I shall be justified if I have shown the way to those better qualifiod. (2) Some ten years ago my friend and toncher, Dr. J. N. Farquhar, suggested that I should write for one of his series a book on The Hindu Doctrine of God. The attompt to do so convinced me that certain pre- liminary studies were first necessary. I bogan with a study of what is perhaps the most central documont for Hindu theology,-the Vedānta Satras, making u translation of the commentary of Nimbarka, which in its conciseness and absenco of sectarian potemic seemed to me unique, and comparing also tho interpretations of Sankare, Ramanuja, Madhva, etc., with a viow to discover, if possible, the original meaning of the Sutras and to evaluato tho whole movemont of thought. But it soon became clear that to do this a proliminary study of tho Upanisad texts cited was first necessary, and, for one Upanisel at least, an attempt at an independent valuation. I chose the Katha as most central to the development of Hindu theism. I have therefore entitlod this book, 'A preliminary study in the Hindu Doctrine of God '. (3) I have hopes that this study may be of intorest to students of the History and Philosophy of Roligion generally. It has also a more specific purpose. The Senate of Seramporo College, which dirocts the studies of all the Theological Colleges in India of University grade, has prescribed the Katha Upanisud as one of the texts to be studied by students of the Philosophy of Religion; it is also prescribed for special study by those who take Sanskrit. This book has in mind the needs of both these classes of students. The portion in large type is moro

PREFACE

especially intended for students of the Philosophy of Religion who may be ignorant of, or possess a slight knowledge of, Sanskrit. Linguistic and aritical notes intended for those who are rnaking a study of the Sanskrit toxt, as well as details not needed by those making a genera! , study, are put in small type. The Serampore Senate believes that it is essential that Indian studonts of Christian theology should be trainoc to appreciate India's great heritage of thonght and culture,-that Indian Christian thought must be organically and not merely geographically Indian, and must consciously seek to relate the new to the old. A deracinée theology, like any other rootless plant, can hardly be vita. or vigorous. A truly originil Indian development of Christian theology must of course have its roots in the Christian scriptures and in Christian experience, but it must also spring from knowledge of and reverence for all that is tue in the religious thought and experience of India's past. Henco the prescription of such books as the Katha Upanisad and the Gita in a courso of studies in Christian theology. It is my earnest hope that Hindu students also will find this study of value. They have their own problem of relating new and old, and the lesson of tho Katha Upanisad is still neoded in India to-day. (4) Not only Indian students but also British and American students of theology may find this book of value. For those of them who con- template missionary work in India somothing of the kind is essential, and even for thoso who do not contemplato work in India the study e! certain non-Christian sacred books is necessary for a just appreciation of religious values and should find a place in every theological curriculum. The time has suroly passed when the mere study of manuals of com- parative religion conld he regarded as sufficient. , 2. Scope. This volume consists of (a) an Introduction, (b) the Sanskrit text of the Katha Upanisad printed in Dovanagari, (c) a transliterated text, (d) an original translation, and (e) a commentary. (a) The Introduction is made as brief as possible. Students may, if they wish, omit it at first reading, sinco the attempt is made in the commentary to deal as fully as necessary with all important points n.s they arise in the text. (b) The toxt does rst protend to be critical. I have compared the chief printed editions : A-the Anandasrama edition,. B-the Bombay toxt of Tukarama Javajī, and C-the Calcutta Bibliotheca Indica toxt, and have noted where they differ. I have also endeavoured in such cases to take into account the MSS. evidence cited in A, but this is not of much value. Fortunately the variations are very slight, and in only one case are they important. (c) It may seem redundant to print a transliterated text also, but this has been done for t.e benefit of students who know little or no Sanskrit. South Indian students in particular are not usually familiar with Deva- nagari, but their knowledge of Sanskrit terws in their vernacular enables them to follow the argument with the aid of a transliterated text. For

PREFACE ix

'Western students also who are not Sanskritists the transliteration shoyld" be of help, and may, I hope, lure some of them on to the study of Sanskrit by making a difficult path somewhat easier. , (d) In the translation I have been tempted by the success of my revered teacher, Professor A. A. Macdonell, in his Hymns from the Rigveda, to attempt to indicate the poetry of the Upanisad by rendering it in a free verse, corresponding as nearly as possible to the original metres. This, I am afraid, in many cases only means thatran anustubh verso is rendered by four octosyllabic and a tristubh by four elevon- syllabled lines, but as a correct translation has been my first considera- tion even this measure of adherence to the metre has not always been possible. (e) In the commentary I have endeavoured to approach the text without assumptions, seeking to apprehend the samyinvaya, or the connected meaning of the whole, and guided chiefly by this in the interpretation of the parts. Right through I have of course been indebted to the great commentary of Sankara (A.D. 788-850) from which, wherever helpful, I have freely quoted. Mos later commentators have, however, been far too dominated by Sankara, and this is true not only of Indians but also of Europeans like Gough and Deussen. I too started out under the guidance of Sankara and Deussen, regarding the Upanisad as a monistic Vedanta work with certain dualist (Samkhya) and theistic accommodations, but have been forced to a different conclusion. Tho first adhyaya is a unity in its thought, and the second, though probably somewhat later, occupies substantially the same standpoint. This standpoint I now view as definitely theistic, sometimes emphasizing the unity of all in a way that approaches positive or realistic pantheism but never recognizing the doctrine of illusion, and never therefore teaching the negative idealistic pantheism or acosmism of Sankara. Unfortunately Rāmānuja (c. 1050-1137} did not comment directly on the Katha, but he quotes from it extensively ni-his great commentary on the Vedanta-sūtras,-the Sribhasya, and discusses what is its samanvaya or connected meaning. I have quoted some of the relevant passages. On the whole I believe his interpretations are correct, though he is sometimes too scholastic. I have also consulted and occasionally quoted the Vedānta-sūtra commentaries of Nimbārka (? 1100-1162) and Madhva (90-1278). Madhva's Katha-bhūsya is definitely sectarian and is of little help for the interpretation of the Upanisad. Belonging to the school of Rāmānuja is the Katha-bhāsya of Rangarāmanuja, but this is very late and I have made no use of it. In conclusion I must acknowledge my debt of gratitude to teachers and friends who have helped mo to gain whatever knowledge I have of Indian thought, many of whom have read through the present work at various stages and offered valuable suggestions. My first debt is to two succes- sive occupants of the Boden Sanskrit,chair at Oxford. It was my privi- lege to read Sanskrit for two years with Professor A. A. Macdonell, most

, X PREFACE

gepial and encouraging of teachers, and I have ventured to dedicate this° book first of all to him as a tribute of gratitude from an unworthy pupil. Profeesor F. W. Thomas, who has succeeded,him, has kindly read through the manuscript of the Introduction and the proofs of the text , and commentary and given me most generous help. To two other old Oxford teachers I am also greatly indebted,-to Dr. J. N. Farquhar, late Professor of Comparative Religion at Manchester University, who made such notable contribution to the study of Indian Religion both by his own writings and by the encouragement he gave to others, and to Dr. Clement C. J. Webb, somotime Oriel Professor of the Philosophy of the Christian Religion, for the inspiration of his teaching and friend- ship. In the land of my adoption I owe most to Principal S. N. Das- gupta of the Caleutta Sanskrit College, whose erudition I vainly admire from far but whose friendship has been an unfailing stimulation. An- other friend whose scholarly judgment and knowledge of philology have been of help is Dr. R. L. Turner, Professor of Sanskrit in London Univer- sity. It is impossible to acknowledge all the help received from publish- ed works but I owe a special debt, which will be evident to readers of the Introduction, to a fellow-pupil of Professor Macdonell (though even then far exalted),-Professor A. Borriedale Keith of Edinburgh. To Dr. H. N. Randle of the India Office Library, Dr. Van Manen of the Asiatic Society of Bengal and Dr. Adityanath Mukherji, Registrar of Calcutta Univer- sity, I am grateful for holp with literature, and to Dr. Satkari Mookerjoe of Calcutta University and my colleague Professor H. P. Sengupta of Serampore College, for help in correetion of proofs. The mistakes that remain are my own. If I waited to correct them all this work would never be published. I send it forth in the hope that through the co- operation of friendly crities something more worthy may oventuate.

10th January, 1931. J. N. R.

CONTENTS. Page. Preface 4 vii Abbreviations xiii Introduction To the General Reader General Introduction to the Upanisads, with special reference to the Katha Upanisad 5 1. The Upanisads, their nature and classification 5 2. Relative date and order of development of the Upanişads 8 3. The beginnings of Indian Philosophy in the Rg Veda 12 4. Are the Upanisads a direet development of Rg-Vedie philosophy ? 20 5. The contribution of the Brahmanas 21 6. The new clement in the Upanisads : Salvation by knowledge of the Brahman-Atman. The concepts of the Brahman, Atman, and Purușa .. 24 7. The identification of the Brahman with the Atman. The individual soul 30 8. Do the Upanisads teach that the Brahman- Ätman is knowable ? The general view. The attributes Śankara's answer. commonly aseribed. The mysticism of Yajñavalkya. The teaching of the Katha 35 Special Introduction to the Katha Upanisad- 9. The Katha Upanisad : School and place of composition. Relation to the Tailtiriya Brāhmaņa .. 40 10. The Integrity of the Katha 41 11. The Date of the Kathe 42 (a) Points of contact with Buddhism 42 (b) The Metre of the Katha .. . . 44 (c) Quotations by the Ratha . . 45

xii CONTENTS

(d) Quotations from the Katha 47. (e) Conclusion 48

The Argument .. 49 Text, Translation, and Commentary- First Valli 55 Second Valli .. 79 . Third Valli .. .. 118 Fourth Valli .. 148 Fifth Valli 170 Sixth Valli .. 185

Appendices- I. The Taittiriya Brāhmana account of the Naciketas story .. 214 . . II. The Parable of the Chariot : Parallel Accounts : 216 (1) The Dirghatamas parable 216 (2) The Ailareya Aranyaka parable 216 (3) The Chāgaleya parable .. 218 (4) Buddhist chariot parables 220 (5) The Maitri parable 221 III. The Practice of Yoga in the Gita and Śvetas- vatara, with concluding remarks on the nature of Yoga : Epilogue .. 223 IV. "Faith essential in Yoga " Additional note on Katha vi, 12, 13 .. 228 V. Notes on the Dirghatamas Hymn 229

ABBREVIATIONS

AND BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS FREQUEŃTLY CITED.

I. EDITIONS OF THE SANSKRIT TEXT OF THE KATHA.' . A. Anandaśrama Text Kāțhakopanisat, sa-țīkā-dvaya-sānkara- bhāsyopetā,, (Ānandāśrama Sanskrit Series), Bombay, 1914. B. Bombay (Nirņayasāgara) I šādyastottarasatopanişadah, Tukarama Text. Jāvajī, Nirņayasagara Press, Bombay, 1917. C. Calcutta (Bibliotheca Six Upanisads, viz., Išā, Kena, Katha, Indica) Text. Praśna, Mund. and Mand., edited with tho Commentary of Sankara Ächarya and the Gloss of Änanda Giri. by E. Roer, (B.I. Series), Calcutta, 1850.

. II. TRANSLATIONS, ETC., OF THE KATHA UPANIŞAD.

Arabinda Ghose .. .. The Katha Upanishad, text and trans., Poona, 1919. Böhtlingk .. Drei kritisch gesichtete und übersetzte Upanishad mit erklärenden Anmer .. kungen, toxt, trans., critical notes on Katha, Ait., Praśna, Leipzig, 1891. Charpentier .. Jarl Charpentier: Kathaka Upanisad, Introduction, trans., and notes. (Indian Antiquary, Vol. 57, (1928), pp. 201-7, 221-8; 58, (1929), pp. 1-5. .Deussen, S.U. (or D.) .. Paul Deussen : Sechzig Upanishad's . des Veda, Leipzig, 2nd edition, 1905, reprint, 1921. (Katha, 266-287.) Geldner, V.B. .. K. F. Geldner: Vedismus und Brah- manismus, Mohr, Tubingen, 1928. (Katha, 155 -- 169.) Hillebrandt, A.B.U. .. Alfred Hillebrandt: Aus Brahmanas und Upanisaden, Diederichs, Jena, 1923. (Katha, I-III, 116 l24.) Hillebrandt, T.K. Text-kritische Bemerkungen zur Kathaka und Prasna-Upanisad, Z.D.M.G., Vol. 68. 1914. (on. 579-582).

xiv ABBREVIATIONS

Hume (or H.) .. Robert E. Hume: The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, 2nd edition, Oxford, 193', (pp. 341-361). M.M: Max Muuer .. F. Max Muller: The Upanishads, 2 vols., 1879, 1884. (S.B.E., Vols. 1 and 15.) Mead G. R. S. Mead and J. C. Chattopā- dhyaya: The Upanishads, 2 vols.

Pelly (Katha, Vol. 1), London, 1896. R. L. Pelly: Katha Upanisad, Calcutta, 1924. Ram Mohan Ray .. Raja Ram Mohun Roy: The Kut'h- Opanishud of the Ujoor-Ved, Calcutta, 1819. Röer .. E. Roer: Nine Upanishads translated, B.I., Calcutta, 1853. Regnaud .. Paul Regnaud: Etudes vediques et post-vediques, (Annales de l'Université de Lyon), Paris-Lyon, 1898. (Katha, pp. 57-167.) Śańkara (Unless otherwise stated) Kathopanisad- bhāsya, see A. Śarmā D. S. Sarma: The Kathopanisad and the Gita, Madras, 1932. (Appeared when this book was in the press.) Sarvānanda .. Swami Sarvananda: Katha Upanishad, Madras. Sītārāma Sastri .. .. The Katha and Prasna Upanisads, . Madras, 1923. Tattvabhūșaņa Sitanatha Tattvabhūshana : The Upanishads, Vol. 1, Calcutta, 1900. Tattvabhūșaņa, (Bengali) .. Upanisadah, prathamah khandah, Isū- Kena-Katha - Praśna - Mundaka - Mūņ- dukyeti sat, Calcutta, 1922. Whitney (or W.) .. .. W. D. Whitney: Translation of the Katha Upanishad, (Transactions of the American Philological Association, Vol. 21, pp. 88-112), Boston, 1890.

III. OTHER ABBREVIATIONS, (A. LITERARY).

A. .. Āraņyaka. - A.A. Aitareyu Araņyaka. A.B. Aitareya Brahmuņa. Ait. Aitareya Upanişad. B. Brahmara. Br., B.A.U. .. Brhadāraņyaka Upanisad. .

ABBREVIATIONS XV

B.I. Bibliotheca Indica serics, (published by the Asiatic Society of Bengal). B.R. .. Bohtlingk and Roth's St. Petersburg Lexicon, Sanskrit and German, 7 vols., . 1852-75. Barnett L. D. Barnett: Bhagavad-gita, London, . 1905. Belvalkar, H.I.P. .. Belvalkar and Ranade: History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 2 2, . The Creative Period, Poona, 1927. Bhandarkar, V.S. .. Sir R. G. Bhandarkar: Vaişnavism and Saivism, (Grundriss), Strassburg, 1913. Bloomfield, H.A.V. .. Maurice Bloomfield: Hymns of the Athurva Veda, (S.B.E. 42), 1897. Ch., Chand .. Chāndogya Upanişad. C.Sk. .. Classical Sanskrit. Dasgupta, H.I.P. .. Surendranath Dasgupta: History of Indian Philosophy, Cambridge Uni- versity Press, Vol. 1, 1922, Vol. 2, 1932. (Referenees, unless otherwise stated are to Vol. 1.) Deussen, A.G.P. .. .. Allgcmeine Geschichte der Philosophie, . Vol. 1, part 2, Die Philosophie der Upanisad's, Leipzig, 2nd edition, 1907. Deussen, P.U. .. .. The Philosophy of the Upanishads, (tr. A. S. Geden), Edinburgh, 1919. E.R.E. .. Encyclopadia of Religion and Ethics, Hastings, Edinburgh. . Edgerton, M.Y.S. .. Franklin Edgerton: The Meaning of Samkhya und Yoga, (American Journal of Philology, Vol. 45), 1924. Farquhar, O.R.L.I. .. J. N. Farquhar: Outline of the Religious Literature of India, Oxford, 1920. Geldner, R.V. .. K. F. Geldner: Der Rigveda, (Quellen der Religions Ceschichte), Gottingen, 1923. (Up to iv. 58. Promised complete in H.O.S.) Gough .. A. E. Gough: The Philosophy of the Upanishads, London, 1882. Gitā .. Bhayavad-gītā. Grundriss .. Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie ura Altertumskunde, (Eneyclopædia of Indo-Aryan Resea:ch), Strassburg. H.O.S. .. Harvard Oriental Series. Hill .. .. W. D. P. Hill: The Bhagavadgīta, Oxford, 1928.

.

xvi ABBREVIATIONS

Isa Išā Upanisad. oscob. C. G. A. Jncob: A Concordance of the principal Upgnishads and Bhagavad- Gita, Bombay, 1891. K.B. .. .. Kauşītaki Brahmaņa. Kaus. .. Kauşītaki Upanişad. Katha Katha Upanisad. K.S. .. Kāthaka Samhitā. Kaezi, R.V. The Rigveda, (tr. Arrowsmith), Boston, 1898. Keith, A.A. A. Berriedale Koith: The Aitareya Aranyaka, Oxford, 1909. Keith, R.P.V. .. The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads, H.O.S., 31, 32, 1925. Keith, R.V.B. Rig-Veda Brahmanas, H.O.S. 25, 1920. Keith, S.S. The Samkhya System, Oxford, 1918. Keith, V.B.Y.S. The Veda of the Black Yajus School, H.O.S. 18, 19; 1914. M. or Macdonell, S.G. A. A. Macdonell: Sanskrit Grammar, London, 1911. Macdonell, H.R.V. .. Hymns from the Rigreda, (Heritage of India Series), Calcutta and Oxford. Macdonell, S.D. .. Sanskrit Dictionary, reprinted, Oxford, 1924. Macdonell, S.L. History of Sanskrit Literature, London, 1909. Macdonell, V.G.S. Vedic Grammar for Students, Oxford, 1916. Macdonell, V.R.S. .. Vedic Reader for Students, Oxford, 1917. Macdonell, V.M. .. Vedic Mythology, Grundriss, Strassburg, 1897. Macdonell, V.I. .. Macdonell and Keith, Vedic Index of Names and Subjects, London, 1912. Madhva Madhvacarya: Pūrņaprajna-darsanam, (Vedanta-sūtra-bhasya), Calcutta, 1882. Tr. S. Subha Rau, Madras, 1904. Mahan. .. Mahānārāyaņa Uparisad. Mait. .. Maitri or Maitrayaniya Upanisad. M.S. Maitrāyaņī Samhitā. Mand .. Māndūkya Upanisud. Mund Mundaka Upanişad. Max Muller, A.S.L. .. Ancient Sanskrit .Literature, 2nd edu. London, 1860. Nimbārka Vedānta-pārijata-saurabham nāma brahma-mimāmsā-bhāsyam, Chow- khamba Sanskrit serics, 152, Benares, 1907.

ABBREVIATIONS XVI1

Nimbārka .. Sri-brahma-sutram, bhasya-trayopetan (Nimbārka, Śrinivasa, Keśav Kāśmīri), Brindaban. Oldenberg, Buddha .. Hermann Oldenberg, Buddha, his life, his doctrine, his order, tr. Hoey, Calcutta, 1927. . Oldenberg, L.U. .. .. Die Lehre der Upanishaden, Gottingen, 1915. . Oltramare L'histoire des idees theosophiques dans l'Inde, Paris, 1907. Otto, M.E.W. .. Rudolf Otto: Mysticism, East and West, London, 1932. Peterson, H.R.V. .. Hymns from the Rigveda, (Bombay Sanskrit Series, 36), 1924. Radhakrishnan, I.P. .. Sir S. Radhakrishnan : Indian Philoso- phy, 2 vols., London, 1924. Ranade, C.S. .. R. D. Ranade: Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy, Poona, 1926. Rāmānuja, Sb. The Srībhasya, Ramanujacarya's com- mentary on tho Vedānta-sūtras, Sanskrit text, Bombay Sanskrit Series, LXVIII, 1914. Tr. G. Thibaut, S.B.E. 48, Oxford, 1904; also, (First Pada only) Rangacharya and Varadaraja, Madras, 1899. Rg or R.V. .. Rg-Veda Samhita, Samhita and Pada text with Sayana's commentary, ed. Max Müllor, 4°vols., London, 1890-2. Śańkara, Sb. .. Vedanta-sūtra-bhasya, (Brahma-sūtram" nāma gedanta-darsunam), B.I. Calcutta, 1863 [1890. Tr. G. Thibaut, S.B.E. 34, 38, Oxford, S.B.E. .. Sacred Books of the East, ed. F. Max Müller. Ś.B. .. .. Satapatha Brahmana, (tr. Eggeling, S.B.E. 12, 26, 41, 43, 44). S'vet. Svetāśvatara Upanişad. Sāyaņa .. .. See Rg-Veda Samhita. Tait. .. Taittirīya Upanişad. Tait.Ā. .. Taittiriya Aranyaka. Tait.B. .. Taittirīya Brāhmaņa. T.S. .. Taittirīya Samhita, of tho Black Yajur- Veda. Thibaut .. George Thibaut: Tho Vedanta-sūtras, with the commentary by Sankara- carya, S.B.E. 34, 38; with tho commentary of Ramanuja, S.B.E. 48.

xviii ABBREVIATIONS

Tr. .. Translated by. Upanișad. · V.S. Vajasaneyi Sanhita, of the White Yajur-Veda. V.Sk. Vedic Sanskrit. Warren 1 .. H. C. Warren: Buddhism in Transla- tions, H.O.S. 3; 1896. Winternitz, G.I.L. Geschichte der indischen Litteratur, Leipzig, Vol. i, 1908, ii, 1913. Tr. Mrs. . S. Ketkar, A history of Indian Literature, Vol. i, Calcutta, 1927. Woods .. J. H. Woods: The Yoga-System of Patañjali, (Tr. of Patañjali's Yoga- sūtras, with the Yoga-bhāsya of Vyāsa and the gloss of Vācaspati Miśra). H.O.S. 17, 1927.

B. MOSTLY GRAMMATICAL.

A. Atmancpada. ft. future. n. noun or neuter. ab. ablative. g. genitive. P. Parasmaipada. ac. accusativo. Gk. Greek. pf. perfect. adj. adjective. Heb. Hebrew. pl. plural. . adv. adverb. ibid. in the same place. pp. perfect passive aor. aorist. imperf. imperfect. participle. c. circa, about. impv. imperative. pr. present. cf- confer, compare., in. instrumental. q.v. quod vide, which , cp. comparative. ind. indicative. see. d. dative, died. L. Latin. . singular. f. fominine. i8. locative. s.v. sub voce, under ff. and the following. m .. masculine. the word. v.l. varia lectio, variant reading. άπ. λεγ. άπαξ λεγόμενον, word occurring only once. or. with variations. indicates that'a sandhi has been disjoined.

INTRODUCTION

TO THE GENERAL READER. No one can doubt the importance of the Katha Upanisad in the history of the development of Indian thought,-and this study stresses its significance and maintains its central" position in that development. But has this ancient scripture any living meaning for to-day ? Writing in the Observer, concerning the opening days of tho World Economic Conference, Mr. J. L. Garvin remarks, "The overwhelming fecling was against that peculiar post-war discase- the doctrines of ego-centric nationalism and self-sufficiency. Signor Jung, the lcader of the Italian delegates, coined the epigram of the week, 'Economic isolation means self- mutilation '." 1 But why the qualifying adjectives ? It is not only cconomic isolation that means self-mutilation. Nor are ego-centrism and self-sufficiency merely post-war diseases. The Babylonian account of the Fall says, "Themselves they exalted ", and the Buddha depicts the whole world as in the grip of the demon Ahamkara (Egoism). It is not new moreover that the demon should masquerade as divine patriotism, for naked selfishness .

can never long deceive. So it cloaks itself with herd-feeling and takes a fine name. Nineteen centuries ago Jesus Christ was erucified for sin,-but the particular sin which directly caused his death was (Jewish) ego-centric nationalism. What is new, however, to-day, is the world-wide extent of the destruc- tion wronght by the demon, and the world-wide extent of the glanfour which nevertheless moves men to worship him. So it needs a World Conference to discover that " Isolation is self- mutilation ", and even then men and nations do not act as if they believed it. Consequently our modern world, both east and west, answers very well to the picture of hell drawn in the Isa Upanisad : "Sunless, in truth, are those worlds called, And with blind darkifess covered O'er,

2 INTRODUCTION

To which on passing forth they go- Whatever folk are slayers of the soul." . There is, then, no message that the modern world needs more than the great Upanisad doctrine of Unity (advaiia). "He who sees things (men, communities, nations), as separate, runs to waste after them." "He obtains death after death, who ses things as if separate here." . The disease is patent, what of the remedy ? (Certainly not in Conferences which in endless tarka (argumentation) seem only to discover the iowest common measure of our humanity.) Our first need, so the Upanisads teach, is Vision,-Atma- darsana,-" to see the greatness of the Self ". If we have seen the impotence and futility of our isolated, distracted, ego- centric selves, then, in our dispair, we need to realise that the One Power behind the universe is yet the inmost reality of our own souls and capable there of His fullest manifestation. Vision of God, the Highest Self, is the first and most essential step toward liberation from the obsession of ego-centrism. Secondly-(and this is the special teaching of the Katha U panișad),-Vision must lead to Yoga,-to the yoked life. The Katha Upanisad teaches mysticism, but it is a very practical mysticism. Yoga is in the first place (in St. Paul's language) athlesis,-"the athletic life", an ordered, disciplined training of all our powers much more radical than any merely physical athleticism.2 Men are continually being led astray by uncurbed instinet or desire for pleasure, and only when all our powers are yoked and rightly directed can there be harmonious and victorious living. Now this first type of Yoga is widely recognised as necessary, but the problem that has confronted ethics in all ages is to find power for discipline. The distinctive answer of the Katha, its message for India and the world to-day, is that this power can only spring from a higher Yoga,-the yoga of communion, the yoking of our individual powers with the higher, essential Self, which is their basis as it is the ground of reality of the whole universc.

1 Observer, Juno 18th, 1933. 2 St. Paul does not actually use άθλησις but he usos the vorb άθλέω and other words expressing the same idea. See 2 Timothy ii, 3-5; Phil. iii, 13, 14; 1 Cor. ix, 25.

TO THE GENERAL READER

This answer has been widely misunderstood. In India its effect has been largely nullified, partly through the growth of a totally different conception of Yoga,-a yoga of suppression and trance, and partly because the Upanisadic doctrine of unity has been too often interpreted as a pure metaphysical monism. But Sankara's overstress on oneness, which made him treat all diversity, including human personality, as illusion, brought its nemesis in a.doctrine of two orders of knowledge which made it possible to acquiesce for practical life in a degree of diversity in religious and social life (e.g. in polytheism and caste-division) unparalleled throughout the whole world. In the West a vcry different development of thought has led to very similar practical results. The characteristic teach- ings of the Katha Upanisad are just as essential in Christianity, and nowhere have they been so powerfully set forth as by Jesus himself followed by St. John and St. Paul. Christian theology also gave in more developed form the answer of the Katha regarding the relation between man and God, though with an even more radical recognition of the essential sin of ego-centrism and an attempt, in the doctrine of atonement, to set forth the historic operation of Divine Grace to overcome it. But European thought, in large measure, has treated all this as impractical mysticism. . So ultra-monism and ultra-individualism alike have led to an agnosticism which treats religion as a matter of the imagina- tion. Human life, therefore, has ceased to be divinely based, and, with the weakening everywhere of the tics of custom, chaos has resulted. I know of no escape save by the rediscovery of God, not merely as the philosophic Absolute or the transcen- dent, numinous Other, but as the Spirit,-the very basis of humen personality and its ever-renewing, vitalising power.

(N.B .- The general reader may omit the rest of the Introduction except the Argument. The student of Indian religious philosophy may also perhaps, with advantage, read the Introduction after the Commentary). .

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE UPANIŞADS. The Upanisads, their nature and classification.

It is now fairly well agreed that the word Upanisad is derived from upa (near) +ni (down) +sad (to sit), ie. "sitting down near", and denotes primarily the sitting down of a little group of pupils at the feet of their teacher. The name would thus naturally be transferred to denote the teaching itself thus privately given. We thus obtain the meaning, "secret word ", "secret or mystic meaning or doctrine". This is the most usual meaning in the Upanisads themselves, as for example when Yājñavalkya in Br. ii. 1. 20 says of the Soul (atman) from which all powers and all beings come forth like sparks from fire, "Its upanisad is satyasya satyam",-" Its mystic meaning is 'Reality of reality'." Thirdly the word is used to denote the books in which such secret or mystic teaching, handed down in different schools, was afterward reduced to writing. The Upanisads are philosophical and mystical-religious treatises which form what is called the jñana-kanda or "knowledge. seetion of the Veda. The earlier or karma-kanda (" works- section ") comprises (1) the Samhitas (Hymn-books) or collections of mantras (mostly hymns in praise of the gods), and, especially in the Yajur-veda, sacrificial formulæ, and (2) the Brahmanas (Ritual-books) consisting of directions for the performance of , the sacrificial ritual and explanations of its meaning. There are thus three Hivisions of the Veda, (1) Samhitas or Mantras, (2) Brahmaņas, (3) Upanisads, which "may be roughly characterised as the utterances of poet, priest, and philosopher ". Another way of stating it is that the Brahmanas are ritual appendices to the Samhitas and the Upanisads are usually philosophical appendices to the Brahmanas of which they form a part. Later a fourth division of the Veda, the Sūtras or systematised synonses of ritual. ethics. and doctrine. was added.

6 INTRODUCTION

f The Veda is also fourfold in another way, consisting of the Ry. Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas, and each of these Vedas, in its fourfold division of Samhitā, Brāhmana, Upanisad, and Satra, is preserved in different recensions by various Vedic 'schools (stkhas or caranas). In the case of the Samhitas these recensions do not in most cases differ very greatly. In the case of the Upanisads, however, a number of quite different books wfere composed, redacted and handed. down in the various schools. - It is quite uncertain how many books there were which bore the title "Upanisad". Probably more than 300. Nārāyana's collection (c. 1400 A.D.), which formed the basis of Colebrooke's, contained 52. Prince Dara Shukoh's collection translated into Persian (1656-7), and then translated into Latin by Anquetil Duperron (1801) under the title "Oupnekhat", con- tained about 50.1 The late Muktikā Upanişad gives a list of 108 Upanisads, and this is regarded as authoritative in South and West India. (These 108 have been printed by Tukārāma Jāvajī, Nirņayasagara Press, Bombay, in what is probably the most handy edition of the Sanskrit text. Of European translations Deussen's, Sechzig Upanishad's des Veda is the most compendious.) . Though the number of Upanisads is thus very large most of them are comparatively late, as is seen by the fact that they are sectarian in character. Sankara (c. 800 A.D.) is said to have written commentaries on eleven Upanişads, 1. Brhadā- ranyaka; 2. Chandogya; 3. Aitareya; 4. Taittirīya; 5. Kena; 6. Katha; 7. Īśā; 8. Śvetāśvatara; 9. Muņdaka; 10. Praśna; 11. Māndūkya. Šankara did not apparently write a separate commentary on (12) the Kausitali (commentary by Śankarānanda, c. 1350) or (13) the Mahānārāyana, but he made use of them in his great commentary on the Vedānta- sutras. The addition of (14) the Maitrayaniya or Maitri completes the list of what are often called the classical Upanişads,2 i.e. those generally accepted as ancient and authoritative in the time of the great commentators.3 In addition, evon in their time there were a number of later works (loosely attached to the Atharva-veda) which were regarded as

UPANIȘAD CLASSIFICATION 7

having a claim to rank as Upanisads, and this number ha since been very considerably added to. . Six of the fourteen classical Upanisads are (mainly) written in archaic prose, similar to that of the Brahmanas; five are written in somewhat archaic (pre-epic) metre; and fhree are in later, more classical prose. Deussen interpreted this distinc- tion as chronologically determinative, and in this he has heen very widely followed. .Taking his division4 we may classify as follows :-- I. ANCIENT PROSE UPANISADS.

Veda. School. Upanişads. A. Rg Aitarevin Aitareya Kauşītakin Kauşītaki B. Sāma Tāndin or Kauthuma Chāndogya Talavakāra Kena C. Black Yujur Taittirīva Tailtirīya White Yajur Vājasaneyin Brhadāraņyaka II. EARLY METRICAL UPANISADS. C. Black Yajur Kāțhaka Katha Śvetāśvatara Śvetāśvatara Taittiriya Mahānārāyaņa White Yajur Vājasaneyin D. Atharva ? Śaunaka Mundaka III. LATER PROSE UPANISADS. C. Black Yajur Maitrāyaņī Maitri D. Atharva ? Paippalāda Praśna ? Saunaka Māņdūkya

: 1 For lists o Upanisads in the various collections, see Deussen, S.U.V. 535; Farquhar, O.R.L.I. 364. 2 These 14, with the omission of Mahanarayana, are translated in Dr. R. E. Hume's " The Thirteen Principal Upanishads" (Oxford University Press), which is invaluable for English-speaking students. 3 We may note that Ramanuja makes use of all 14, Sankara of all except the Maitri. Sankara also uses subsidiarily the later Atharvana Upanișads, Jābala and Paingi; and Rāmānuja the Subāla, Cūlika, Jābāla, and Mahā. 4 See P.U. 23-26.

INTRODUCTION

Relative date and order of development of the Upanișads. The six old prose Upanisads are almost unanimously, by most European and modern Indian authorities,1 regarded as the 'oldest. As to the order of composition among these six, Deussen 2 followed by Macdonell3 and Winternitz 4 ranks as follows, 1. Brhadāraņyaka, 2. Chāndogya, 3. Aitareya, 4. Taittirīya, S: Kauşītaki, 6. Kena. The Katha followed by the Isa is regarded as the earliest of the next group. Oldenberg5 takes the Aitareya along with the Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya as the oldest, and follows Indian tradition in suggesting that the Isa should be included in the earliest group. Keith says, "The first place must probably be accorded to the Aitareya ranyaka in its philosophical portion, that is the first three sections of the second book, and probably the Aitareya Upanisad, which fills the remaining three sections of the second book, is not to be dated later than any of the other Upanisads. After these must certainly come the Brhadāranyaka Upanisad in its main portion, books i-iv, and the Chandogya Upanisad ", which is secondary in its versions of matter which it shares with the Brhadaranyaka. Much later and in the following order come the Kausītaki, Tuittiriya, and Kena.6 Belvalkar, however, dissents from these conclusions, urging that " the merely external difference between prose and verse, unless used in conjunction with other more vital differences, does not deserve that exaggerated importance which Deussen assigns to it ".7 He points out 8 that while earlier authorities (including Deussen) have admitted that many of the Upanişads are composite, they have made very little attempt to separate the older from the later sections, and this failure very largely vitiates their attempt to arrange them in chronological order. He himself, applying stylometric tests and considering mutual quotation and ideological development, arranges in four groups very different from Deussen's. I. Brāhmaņic, II. Brāhmano- Upanişadic, III. Upanișadic, ĮV. Neo-Upanișadic.9

1 E.g. Dasgupta, Ranade, Radhakrishnan. 2 P.U. 23. 3 S.L. 226. 4 G.I.L. i. 205. 5 L.U. 341. 6 R.P.V. 498. 7 H.I.P. 90. 8 Ibid. xxiv. 9 Ibid. 135.

UPANIȘAD CHRONOLOGY 9

Omitting Belvalkar's sub-groups, except in group III where we are most concerned, we may condense as follows :- . GROUP I. GROUP II. GROUP III(a). GROUP III(b). GROUP IV. Ait. Ar. i. 1-3 Iśa Katha I. i, ii. Katha II. Ch. vii. Br. i. 1-3. Bāskala.1 Ch. v. 3-10. Tait. ii. 6-8. ,, viii, 13-15. Ch. i, ii. Ait. Br. vi. 2. Ait. Ar. iii. Br. i. 4-6. „ iii. 7 -- 10. Br. v, vi. 4. Kauş. i. Ch. viii. 1-12. Svet. ii, iii, iv. Tait. i. „ vi. 1-3. Katha. I. iii. Br. ii. 2, 3, 5. Mand. . Kena, iii, iv. Ch. iii. . Mund. „ iv. 3-5. Mait. iii-vii. „ iv. 16-17. S'vet. i. Kauș. ii, iii, iv. .. v. 1-2. Praśna (?). Svet. v, vi. Tait. ii. 1-5, 9. Ch. iv, v, 11-24. Mait. i, ii. „, ii, 1-6. ,, vi. Kena i, ii. Br. ii. 1, 4, iii. Chagaleya.1 ., iv. 1-2. Ārseya.1 A systematic chronologicat grouping like this obviously requires detailed discussion such as we cannot possibly give in this brief introduction,-more detailed indeed than that which Belvalkar himself gives. We shall later deal with some of the points raised when we discuss the date of the Katha. For the present, we would concentrate attention on what we take to be the most important point,-the very different position assigned to the Yajnavalkya seetion of the Brhada- ranyaka (ii. 4, iii, and iv.) as compared with the generally accepted chronologies given above. Deussen of course holds that the idealistic monism of Yajñavalkya (which is the founda- tion of that of Sankara) " is the mair doetrine of the Upanişads in the sense that it was (first) definitely formulated and laid down, and that other doctrines (pantheism, cosmogonism, theism), are really deviations from it, caused by the inability of man to remain on the high level of thought postulated in tlee distinction (between empirical reality and the thing in itself), and by the constant effort to apply empirical categories 1 The Bāskala, Chagaleya, and Arseya Epanisads, previously only known from their occurrenco in the Oupnekhat, havo been discovered and edited by Prof. F. O. Schrader, who would date them somewhere botween the old prose and the early metrical Upanisads. Dr. S. P.' Bolvalkar, who has translated them, scems to rark the Baskala still. higher. This, as well as tho position he gives to the Iśa, may well be doubted. (See Four Unpullished Upanisadic Texts, Proceedings of the Third Indian Philosophical Congress, Madras, 1925.)

10 INTRODUCTION

to the thing in itself. From the tendency to regard the universe, how ver, as actually real and an absolute thing, there grew up the view that the Atman is the universe which we know, that is a system of pantheism .... But this standpoint was also liable to difficulties : the identity was difficult to hold fast and gave way to the simpler empirical conception of causality : the Atman produces the Universe, and he enters into it with his self. This doctrine is found, he thinks, nowhere in the Brhada- ranyaka, but in the Chandogya, the Taittiriya, the Aitareya, and later. The pantheism thus passes into cosmogonism. The next stage of thought produces theism : the relation of the Atman to the soul in"man is conceived as no longer one of identity, but as one of some degree of contrast and independence : the Ätman of the individual is set over against the Atman in its highest aspect, tentatively even in some old passages, then definitely and openly in the Katha Upanisad and still more markedly in the Svetasvatara Upanisad. The road was now open for the disappearance of the deity (i.e. in the Sāmkhya) since the individual souls were now independent entities." 1, Or, if we may sum up in Deussen's own words, the doctrine of the Upanisads " begins with a bold and blunt Idealism, and from thence (by accommodation to popular thought) through the phases of Pantheism, Cosmogonism, and Theism, it finally leads to the Atheism of the later Samkhya and eventually to the Apsychism of early Buddhism ".2 Keith characterizes Eeuesen's view of Upanisad development as "a brilliant and attractive theory ", but " one impossible to accept". "The obvious history of the Upanisads, " he says, "would suggest that the cosmogonic is the oldest form of the doctrine of the Brahman or Atman ... The view of Yajnavalkya cannot, save by paradox, be dcemed the earliest view or the dominating view expressed in the Upanisads :.. independent and older are the cosmogonic and pantheistic views which appear in the Aitareya Aranyaka and in the Brahmanas, and the dominating influence of the view of Yājñavalkya ascribed to it by Deussen cannot be established." 3 1 Koith, R.P.V. 509. 2 Deussen, A.G.P., quoted Belvalkar, H.I.P. 89. Sce also P.U. viii. 3 R.P.V. 510, 512.

UPANIȘAD CHRONOLOGY 11

. Even so late an Upanisad as the Svetāśvatara, Keith says " shows no trace of the presupposition of the doctrine of Yajñavalkya : it is adequately explained as the mere development of prirftive . pantheism or cosmogonism ".1 When in addition he repeatedly (in effect) remarks, "The prominence of Yajnavalkya.can hardly be historical "2 one might suppose that he is arguing for the comparatively late date of this "the most charasteristically individual of the doctrines of the Upanisads". Belvalkar, using very much the same arguments as Keith reaches the conclusion, "Upanisadie idealism may thus have come toward the end of the process, and not initiated it ".3 He tries to show that there is a definite and natural evolution of thought. In groups one and two the interest is centred on cosmology. In group three there is a double movement, in one direction toward a more positive theism, in the other toward idealism. In group four this leads toward negativism and maya-vada. Keith on the other hand says, "An advanced and profound doctrine may be early in appcarance, as Yajña- valkya's view in B.A.U .; for philosophy does not present any orderly advance of ideas, and Yājñavalkya was evidently too subtle for his age, which however was strongly influenced by views which it could not wholly adopt ".4 Of these two positions we confess that we feel more inclined to Belvalkar's with its late dating of the Yajnavalkya kanda, but do not feel competent to decide. But whether he is right in his contention that "chronology and logic have thus joined hands ",5 or whether Keith is justified in his opposite contention, both arc agreed on the main point which we wish to make, namely, that the theistic (or panentheistic) cosmogonism of the Katha Upanisad is not a late declension from a pure monistic idealism (which is to Ve regarded as the main teaching of the Upanisads), but is rather on the central and direct line of Upanisad develop- ment, which derives from the Vedie cosmogonism and leads to the Gita and the Sūtras of Badarayana. Conversely, the idealism of Yajnavalkya, which issued in the absolute monism 1 R.P.V. 524. Keith does not like Deusson distinguish betwcen panthe- ism and cosmogonism, but regards them as two aspects of one phase of thought. 2 Ibid. 495. 3 H.I.D. 359. 4 cR.P.V. 498 n. 5 H.I.P. xxv.

12 INTRODUCTION

of Sankara, is an aberrant development from the main teaching. of the Upanişads. It is impossible to give any absolute dates for the Upanisads but the six carly prose Upanisads, in their main portions, the Isa and the first adhyaya at least of the Katha, are almost certainly pre-Buddhistic and may be roughly assigned to the seventh and sixth centuries B.C. (See the discussion of the 'ate of the Katha Upanisad.)

The beginnings of Indian Philosophy in the Rg Veda. The common root of religion and philosophy is seen very clearly in the Rg Veda. Religion is born of the awe and wonder created in the mind of man both by the splendour and mystery of the outer world and by the mysterious events and powers of his own life and being. Philosophy, as Plato said, is also born of wonder. It is the search for meaning and unity amid the seemingly endless variety of the world of our experience. So the Rg Veda is the record of how the Vedic Indians both wondered and adored, and wondered and sought to understand. At first all the nature powers which provoked wonder and awe were regarded as separately existing, and the Vedie Indians worshipped numerous devas or 'shining ones'. Naturally, however, the spirits associated with the greater nature powers were singled out for special worship. The heaven gods (Dyaus, Varuņa), and the sun gods (Sūrya, Savitr, Mitra, Visnu), the gods of the Wind (Vayu) and the thunderstorm (Indra, Rudra), and the god of fire (Agit), thus became the great objects of Vedie worship. While the Vedic Indians never attained to a monotheism like that of the Hebrews, or of the Persians under Zoroaster, nevertheless at a certain time Varuna almost attained such a position. For the most part, however, Vedic Hinduism may be described as polytheism, qualified by what Max Mulfer called henotheism (better kathenotheism), or the worship of various gods treating the one who is immediately being praised as relatively supreme. Various causes tended to the eyolution of a quasi-monotheism or pantheism from this primitive polytheism. It was natural that the various devas presiding over groups of natural pheno- mena should tend to be identified. So the various Sun gods

RG-VEDIC PHILOSOPHY 13

tended to be looked upon as one; and Fire became regarded as one deity in thrce forms and was thus identified with the sun, or celestial fire, the lightning or atmospheric fire, as well as beng the earthly Fire-god, manifest on the altar and in the homes of men. Thus the triune Agni was identified with Surya, Savitr, and all the sun gods, and with Indra, Rudra and Vayu, and all the atmospheric gods. The sun and the fire thus became the great later Vedic symbols for one supreme numinous' or adorable reality. This process was also aided by the fact that many of the names of the gods were deseriptive, e.g. Savitr-inspirer or vivifier; Prajapati-lord of the people; Viśvakarma-world-maker. The name of one god is therefore often applied to another and the two tend to become identified. Philosophical speculation began very early,-how early we cannot say, and in time it led to philosophical discussions. We have records of these in the brahmodya, or theological riddles, with which some of the Brahmins entertained one another and their hcarers when they were assembled for the great sacrifices. The Riddle-hymn of Dirghatamas. One example of a brahmodya which is preserved in the Rg Veda (1. 164.) is the riddle-hymn ascribed to the rsi Dirghatamas. It begins thus : 1. Of this love-worthy priest, ancient of days, Whose middle brother is the hungry-eater, There is a butter-backéd third brother : Here I beheld the Lord of men with seven sons.1* One might not guess at first (for the riddie is distinctly ambiguous), that the Priest and Lord referred to is the Sun (Surya) with his seven solar rays (the Adityas), his brothers being Lightning and the sacrificial Fire. The three are brothers since all are forms of fire,-heaveply, atmospheric, and earthly,-the triune Agni. 1 Both the terms used and the construction are more than ambiguous, and this is reflected in the extraordinary variety of the translations. Cf. Griffith, Hymns of the Rig Veda; M. N. Dutt, Rigveda Samhita; Geldner, Der Rigveda; Regnaud, L'Enigma du Rig-Veda; and also Sayana's Commentary. It has also been translated by Ludwig and Grassmann, and as an Atharva Veda hymn, (ix. 9 and 10) by Henry and Whitney, H.O.S., vol. viii, 552-561. For notes marked * sce Appendix V (page 229), where I have attempted to justify my translation and have also given alternatives.

14 INTRODUCTION

The next riddle is easier, plainly referring to the chariot of the sun with its seven horses. It is the first chariot-parable in Indian literature and has a long progeny, through the chariot- parable of the Katha to the present car of Jagannath.1 2. They yoke the sevon to the one-wheeled car, One horse, with soven names, draws it along ; The three-naved wheel is ageless, never loosened, , Whercon depend all these created beings.2* .The seven horses are the seven solar rays, sevenfold yet one effulgent radiance (or the seven Adityas who are yet one). The one wheel is time, with three naves or axles,-past, present, and future (or else, according to Yaska, the ycar with three seasons). Again, in verse 11, the sun itself as identified with the year is typificd by the wheel, which is then said to have twelve spokes (the months), and on this wheel as it revolves round the heaven stand in pairs seven hundred and twenty children (the nights and days). The hymn is long and the themes discussed various, often in riddles too obscure for any certainty as to the meaning, but the recurring theme which gives a certain unity to the whole is that of the Sun as the symbol of the manifold yet one, the ever-changing yet eternal reality, the source of all life and order. Almost in the fashion of an Upanisad sage Dirghatamas questions about the atman : 4. Who has boheld the First one, boing born, Which being boneless sustains what has bonos ? From earth are breath and blood : where is the soul (atman) ? Who may approach a man who knows to ask this ? 3* Various interpretations are possible, but we venture to suggest that the verse refers to the invisible soul, which though unsub- stantial sustains the body, and equates it with the Primæval one which, coming into manifest being, produces and sustains the world. So he continues : 6. As ignorant I ask of those who know, the sages, -- Not knowing, for the sake of gaining knowledge,- What is that One, in form of the unborn, Who has established firm theso six world-regions.4* [One should not perhaps stress the point here, but the " unborn" (aja) almost becomes a technical name for the ätman (both the individual soul and the supreme Lord) in later literature.] 2

1 See next page. 20 Sce Katha il. 18, Sret. iv. 5, Gītā ii. 20, 21.

THE HYMN OF DIRGHATAMAS 15

. The sun is again introduced in v. 7, under the figure of a bird, as the visible form of the "unborn ". This (after various other figures, including again the sun-wheel, 11-14), leads on to the parable of the birds on the tree, 20-22, which begins, 20. Two birds, close yoked companions, Clasp close the self-same tree ; Of these one eats the sweot fruit, Uneating the other looks on.5* This is interpreted by Sayana as referring to the two forms of the atman, the individual soul and the paramatman, and is quoted in this sense by Mund. iii. 1. 1 and Śvet. iv. 6, and apparently referred to in Katha iii. 1. The seer also recognises his kinship with the whole .wniverse ®* : 33. Heaven is my father and begetter : here's the navel; My kin and mother is the spacious carth. Then comes the verse so often quoted as the real beginning of Indian philosophy : 46. Indram Mitram Varunam Agnim ahur. atho divyah sasuparno Garutmān : Ekam sad viprā bahudhā vadamti, Agnim Yamam Mātariśvānam ahub. They call it Indra, Mitra, Varuna, and Agni, And also heavenly, bcauteous-winged Garutmān : The Real is One, though sages name it variously,- They call it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan.

The Cosmogonic Hymns of the Tenth Book. It is in the tenth book of the Rg Vede that its philosophic ideas are most clearly defined in a number of very striking cosmogonic hymns. We will concentrate mainly on three of these which lay the foundation for much of the thought of the Katha Upanisad. These are (1) The Creation hymn (X. 129) ; (2) The Hiranyagarbha hymn (X. 121); and (3) The Purusa hymn (X. 90).

1 Twenty miles north of Puri is the great Temple of the Sun at Konarak, built in the form of a stone chariot drawn by seven horses. The Jagannath car is a development of tho same idoa. Surya worship was very prevalent in Orissa, though it is difficult to say how far it dates back. It is interesting to noto that legend connects the rsi Dirghatamas with Orissa, making him the real father of Kaksivat, reputed son of King Kalinga. (See Max Mullea, A.S.L. 57.,

16 INTRODUCTION

The Creation hymn (Nasadīya-sūkta) is in many ways the most remarkable hymn in the Rg Veda.

1. Non-being then existed not nor boing, There was no air, nor sky which is beyond it ; What was conccaled ? Wherein ? In whose protection ? And was thore deep unfathomable water ? 2. Death then existed not, nor life immortal ; Of neither night nor day was any token ; By its inherent force the One broathod breathless ; No other thing than that beyond existed. 3. Darkness there was at first, by darkness hidden ; Without distinctive mark this all was water ; Thet which, becoming, by the void was covered, That one, by force of heat (tapas) eame into being. 4. Desire (kama) entered that one in tho beginning, -- Desire that was the earliest seed of mind. The sages seeking in theirhearts with wisdom, Found out the bond of being in non-being. 5. Their ray extended light across the darkness ; But was tho one abovo or was it under ? Creative force was there and fertile power, Below was energy, above was impulse. 6. Who knows for certain ? Who shall here doclaro it ? Whence was it born and whence came this creation ? The gods were born after this world's ereation ; Then who san know from whence it has arisen ? 7. Wherofrom then this creation has arisen, And whether He has or has not produced it, -- He who surveys it in the highest heaven, He only know, or even Ho may know not. 1 Macdonell says : " Apart from its high literary merit this poem is noteworthy for the daring speculations which found utterance in so remote an age. But even here may be traced some of the main defeets of Indian philosophy,-lack of clearness and consistency and tending to make reasoning depend on mere words. " Nevertheless its truly philosophical candour cannot but command our admiration. Summing up the main ideas, the hymn says that before the beginning of determinate, empirical existence the One existed. It was apparently conceived as Spirit, hence the words, "The One breathed 1 Translation from Macdonell, H.R.V., slightly modified by suggestions from his V.R.S.

COSMOGONIC HYMNS OF RG VEDA X 17

breathless". Verse 2 says that nothing else existed, but verse 3 speaks also of primæval matter, pictured as a dark void or abyss of waters (note the similarity to Genesis I. 2). By the power of his own tapas (heat or creative fervour) the One evolved into determinate being. Desire also (possibly another name for tapas) is said to produce thought, and this thought or wisdom manifested in the hearts of sages, enables them in some degree to understand whence they and the whole creation have arisen. Yet the writer of the hymn also confesses that all this is only surmise, for how is it possible to be sure of things which lie so far beyond determinate knowledge.

The Hymn of the Golden Germ (Hiranyagarbha-sūkta). This hymn is far more definitely theistic than the preceding. In it the first existent being is called Prajapati. We have here also the pieture of a chaos of woters, apparently created by the one Lord, but later we are told that He became manifest on them in the form of a golden germ or egg, from which the whole nniverse developed. He is called the one Life or Soul of the gods (devānām asur ekah 1), the true and faithful (satya-dharma), who created the world and ever sustains it, the only God supreme over the gods (devesv adhi deva ekah), the Lord of creatures (Prajapati), giver of life and strength, who rules over all. . 1. Hiranyagarbha came in the beginning, Of every creature born the one sole Lord ; The earth he has supported and the heaven ; What God shall wo adore with our oblation ? 2. Who gave the breath of life and vital power, To whose commands the gods all render homage, Whose shade is death, and also life immortal, --- What god shall we adore with our oblation ? 3. Who by his might alone became tho monarch, Of all that breathes, of all that wakes or slumbers, Of all, both man and beast, the Lord eternal, -- What god shall wo adore with our oblation ? 4. Whose might and majesty these snowy mountains, Tho oceans and the distant streams exhibit, Whoso arms extended are these spreading regions,- What god shall we adore with our oblation ?

1 Cf. the Ruah Elohim (Spirit of God) which, in Genesis i. 2, is said to move upon the face of the waters.

18 INTRODUCTION

5. Who made the heavens bright, the carth enduring, Who fixed the firmament, the heaven of heavens, ١ Who measured out the air's extended spacos, --- What god shall we adore with onr oblation ? 7. When the great waters swept the universe, 'Bringing the Germ, also producing fire, Then He arose, the Ono Life of the gods, --- .. What god shall we adore with our oblation ? 8. Who overlooked the waters in his might, As they brought power and bore the sacrifice, The only God supreme above the gods, What god shall we adore with our oblation ? 9. May He not injure us, the oarth-begetter, Ha who begat the sky,-the true and faithful, He who begat the great and shining waters,- What god shall we adore with our oblation ? 10. Prajapati, thou rulest ovor all, And there is none in all the world beside thee ; Give unto us that pray our hoart's desire. May we become the lords of all good things.1 The Purusa Hymn (Purusa-sukta). The third of the creation hymns, the Purusa-sūkta differs considerably in outlook from the other two. It repeats in rather more concrete form the idca of the Hiranyagarbha hymn of a primæval being, existing before any determinate existence, and then evolving himself or coming to birth in the empirical universe. This being is called the Purusa, i.c. Man or Person, and seems to be conceived as a giant with a thousand heads, eyes, and feet, who filled the whole universe but extended far beyond it,. -the universe being said to be constituted from one-fourth of his body. Here both the immanence and the transcendence of the Supreme Being are expressed. The first stage in creation was apparently the evolution of another being called Viraj (" the resplendent"), which may represent primæval matter,-the "waters" of the Hiranyagarbha hymn. but corresponds better to the Katha Avyakta, (see 132-141),- and again Purușa is said to be evolved from Virāj, just as Hiranyagarbha as the life or soul of the gods and other beings, was born in the matter of his own creation. The second half of the hymn seems to express a different view of creation, representing it as a sacrifice, in which the gods, who strangely appear from nowhere, offer up the Purusa. The various parts 1 With acknowledgments to Kuegi, R.V. and Peterson, H.R.V. .

THE PURUȘA-SŪKTA 19

of the sacrificial victim produced the parts of the universe. His head produced the sky, from his feet came the carth, from bis eyes the sun, and from his mind the moon. In this hymn also we first have mention of the four castes, for we are told that the Brahmana was created from his mouth, the Rajanya" or Ksatriya from his arms, the Vaiśva or agriculturist from his thighs, and the Sudra or lowest caste from his fect. 1. The Person (Purusd) had a thousand hoads, A thousand eyes, a thousand fect; He filled the earth on every side, Yet stood ten fingers length beyond. 2. The Person truly is this all What has been and what is to be; The Lord of immortality, He was all that which grows by food. 3. Such is his greatnoss, and yet moro, Than all this is the Purusa; All beings aro one-fourth of him, -- Thrco-fourths immortal in the heavon. 4. For with throe-fourths ho went on high, One-fourth of him remained below, Thence spread abroad on every side, Over the lifeless and living. 5. From it was Viraj first evolved, Again from Viraj, Purușa : When born he thence stretched far beyond, Behind the earth, also before. 6. With Purusa as offering, The gods performed a sacrifice, Its melted butter was the spring, Summer its fuel, autumn its oblation. 9. From that oblation fully made, Were born the Rg and Sama chants, . From it were born the sacred hymns, From it was born the Yajur Ved. 12. His mouth became the Brahmana, His two arms formed the kingly class, His thighs became the husbandman, From his feet was the Sudrw born. 13. From his mouth was born tho moon, From his eyes the sun was born, Indra and Agni from his mouth, While from his breath was Vayu born.

20 INTRODUCTION

14. From his navel was the mid-world (antariksa) From his head there rolled the sky, From foet the earth, from ear came space (disab) : . Thus fashioned they the worlds.

Are the Upanisads a direct development of Rg-Vedic philosophy ? Et is the opinion of some scholars that the Upanisad doctrines " were not directly developed from the monotheistic tendencies of the later Rg-Vedic speculations ".1 Some regard them as an entirely new development, produced by reaction against, rather than growth from, what had preceded. The theological interest of the Vedic hymns gave place, it is said, to the ritualist interest of the Brahmanas, in which the sacrifice became more powerful than the gods, and the thought of the Upanisads (particularly the doctrine of the atman) developed as a revolt, originally particularly in Ksatriya cireles, against a ritual which had become arid and profitless. Dasgupta agrees with Deussen and Garbe2 in the former view but dissents from them in the latter, pointing out that many of the Upanisadls show signs of development in Brahmin circles, not as an entire revolt from sacrificial ritual to something quite different but rather by a natural development from the ritual by allegorisa- tion and meditation upon its inner meaning. We doubt whether there is such lack of connection as Dasgupta suggests between the cosmogonic hymns of the Rg Veda and the early Upanisads. It is true that Prajapati-Hiranyagarbha is not referred to by name in the carly Upanisads, but the ideas of the myths are clearly referred to in S.B. vi. 1. 1., Br. i. 2, i. 4., Ch. iii. 19, Ait. i; and, as we have said, underlie the whole thought of the Katha. This is obvious in sych passages as iv. 6, 7, but it is also true of iii. 1I, and vi. 7, 8. (There, in the series Puruşa-Avyakta-Mahan atman, we have reference to the One supreme who evolves the other, the many, which is yet non-different from himself, being an expression of his own nature, and then entering into it becomes life or soul. The Samkhya philosophy was probably derived from the ideas of the Purusa-Hiranyagarbha myth by looking on the waters 1 Dasgupta, H.I.P. 52. 2 Doussen, P.U. 17ff., 396ff. Garbe, Beitr. zur ind. Kulturgeschichte, 1ff.

EVOLUTION OR REVOLT? 21

or primitive matter as independently existing, and the Purusa as first coming to determinate consciousness in the intelligence (mahat or buddhi) which is a product of matter (avyakta). With Sankara also the supreme is not a conscious person, but in alliance with an other,-in this case Ignorance, it becomes. an apparent world-soul or deity. Both of these views are later distortions of the Aupanisada teaching which, descending from the Rg-Vedic hymns through such early Upanisad passages as those quoted above, finds expression in the Katha and the Gita in the theistie doctrine of a supreme personal Spirit who expresses himself in nature, which is his own and not an independent principle, and in individual souls who are one with him in that he is the basis of their being and within whom he dwells as inner guide. But this at present is an anticipa- tion. We shall recur to it later.in due course.) The Contribution of the Brähmanas: Dasgupta is right, however, in his emphasis. Upanisad thought is not merely a development of the monotheistic tendencies of later Rg-Vedic speculation. The Brahmanas intervened and their sacrificial ideas coloured, whether by direct development or reaction, the whole trend of subsequent thought. In the Rg Veda the object of devotion was the gods, the sacrifice being merely a means of expressing that devotion and influencing their will in favour of the offerer. By the time of the Yajur Veda and the older Brahmanas the sacrifice itself became the focus of thought and desire, its correct performance in every detail being all important. Even in the Rg Veda the gods were regarded as nourished by the sacrifice,-Indra, for example, is said to have conquered the drought-demons through the inspiring power of the soma. In the Brahmanas, however, this idea is carried much further. The creative activity of Prajapati is represented as exhausting him, so that his power requires to be continually renewed partly by his own tapas or asceticism and partly by the food of the sacrifice.1 Again there are oft repcated stories of how the gods and the asuras competed for world-power, and how the gods only won through the correct knowledge of, the sacrifice.2 1 Cf. Tandya B. iv. 10. 1; Belvalkar, H.I.P. 66. 2 Katha Samhitā, xxii. 9; MTait. S. v. B. 3; Tāņdya B. xviii. I. 2.

22 INTRODUCTION

What wonder then if the priests, whose business it was to know the sacrifice, soon came to be regarded as exercising compelling power even over the gods, and the sacrifice itself became a huge machinery of magic. . But this is not the whole truth. The sacerdotal trade is the worst enemy of true religion, but even among priests it can never quite kill devotion. The stories of Purușa-Prajāpati show that the sacrifice was regarded as having cosmie significance, and the true priest regarded himself as an ally of Prajāpati in his work of sustaining the universe. Moreover there were those who not only had fellowship with him in partaking, with him, of the renewing sacrifice, but who also devoted themselves to meditation upon its symbolic meaning. So, as Belvalkar says, "It can safely be asserted that among the new ideas occurring in the Upanisads there is hardly one that is not implicit in and logically deducible from the ideas present in different portions of the Brahmanas. Thus the continuity of tradition was maintained ; and this circumstance was given an outward expression inasmuch as the Brahmanas, the Āranyakas. . and the Upanisads were made to constitute part of one whole revealed text." 1 The Aranyakas2 or "Forest-books " are appendices to the Brahmanas which form a connecting link between them and the Upanisads. Certain specially sacred rites were performed not in the village but in the seclusion of the forest, and it is probable also that for the purpose of meditation on the mystic meaning of the sacrifice certain priests, and then teachers and their pupils, would retire to the forest. Others regard the Aranyaka as the Brahmana of the Vanaprasthas,-those who, having served their apprenticeship as Brahmin students and performed their duties as householders had retired to the forest for meditation. But, as Keith remarks, this is

1 Belvalkar, H.I.P. 84. 2 Excluding the Brhadaranyaka thore are only three extant Aranyakas, the Aitareya, Kauşītaki or Sānkhūyana, and Taittirīya. The Brhadā- ranyaka Upanisad is both an Aranyaka and an Upanisad, and many Brahmaņas and Upanisads contain portions Āranyaka-like in character but not formally so called, e.g. the Jaimināya Upanisad Brāhmaņa, of which the Kena Upanisad is & part.

SACRIFICIAL SYMBOLISM: YOGA 23

probably a later conception. No clear line can be drawn between Brāhmaņas, Āranyakas, and Upanișads, but the Āraņyakas consist in the main of meditations on the symbolic meaning of the sacrifice. See, for example the meditation on the meaning of the asvamedha or horse sacrifice in the opening section of. the Brhadāranyaka Upanisad. Sometimes such meditations took the place of the actual sacrifice. "Suppose ", askad Janaka of Yajñavalkya,."you had no milk or rice or barley to perform the agnihotra, with what would you sacrifice ? " "With fruits of trees or whatever herbs there were." " If there were none ? " "Then with water." "If there were no water ? " "Then indeed there would be nothing hefe, vet this would be offered,-the truth in faith." (S.B. xi. 3. 1.) There thus grew up the idea of what the Gita later called contemplative sacrifices (dhyana" or jñana-yajñas), and with them the idca of a certain preparatory moral and ascetic dis- cipline was specially associated. This idea later finds expression in the great teaching of Ghora Angirasa to Krsna Devakīputra fwhich may be the original germ of the Gita), which interprets all life as a sacrifice. "When a man (who is a sacrificer) hungers, thirsts, and abstains from pleasure, that is the dīksa (initiatory rite) .... Austerity (tapas), liberality, uprightness, harmlessness, truthfulness,-these are the gifts for the priests." This idea of discipline, taught in connection with the con- templative sacrifices, was not however new. As Prajāpati practised tapas so ought the sacrificer, and this not merely in the sense of physical asceticism : even as early as the Samhitās of the Yajur Veda stress is also laid on a certain mental dis- cipline. So the whole idea of Yoga, which the Katha, a Yajur Veda Upanisad, is the first to teach in any systematic way, may be traced back to the passage which both the Kāthaka and Taittiriya Samhitas and a number of Brahmanas of the Yajur Veda quote from Rg Veda v. 81. 1 : "The sages of the great wise Sage (i.e. Savitr or Prajapati) Yoke their minds and yoko their thoughts." And the whole object of the sacrifice is said to be that- " With mind well yoked are we, By the inspiration of God Savitr, With strength for gainilg heaven."

24 INTRODUCTION

The new element in the Upanisads : Salvation by knowledge of the Brahman-Atman. But while it is true that there is a continuity between the Brahmanas and the Upanisads (and a Yajur Veda Upanişad Sike the Katha emphasises this), nevertheless those who see in the Upanisads a reaction against Brahmanic ritualism are also right. It is very evident that there were many who, like the Hebrew prophets, felt an unbearable 'dissatisfaction with the whole sacrificial system and radically revolted against it, seeking in knowledge a way of deliverance. As the commentators on Vedanta-sūtra iii. 4. 9 say, "The rsis descended from Kavasa said, For what purpose should we study the Veda ? For what purpose should we sacrifice ? Knowing this indeed the ancient ones did not offer the Agnihotra." It is also clear from this passage that the knowledge which they sought was not merely knowledge of the Veda but something new; and that new knowledge was knowledge of the Brahman-Ätman. In one sense neither of these ideas were new,-both can be traced in the Samhitas and find a place in the Brahmana .- But the emphasis of the doctrine was distinctly new, so that we may say that, while the Upanisads teach a Nature-mysticism derived from the Vedie hymns, and a Sacrificial-mysticism derived from the Brahmanas and Aranyakas, their distinctive doctrine is Atman- or Soul-mysticism : since it is at the centre of our inner being, in the Soul, that they find the secret of the universe. The word "Brahman "2 in most of its occurrences in the Rg-vedic Hymns clearly means "prayer", usually in an objective sense, i.e. the sacred word (mantra), and hence it comes to denote the Vedic hymns themselves and then theit sacred potency. In the Atharva-vedu the word first means prayer or magic spell, and then the mysterious power of which these are the expression. As such is it repeatedly coupled with 1 So Koith : "It is impossible to deny that the Ätman-Brahman doctrine has a long previous history in the Brahmanas and is & logical development of the idoa of unity of the Rigveda". (R.P.V. 494.) 2 For a discussion of the derivation and original meaning of brahman see Keith, R.P.V. 442ff .; Belvalkar, H.I.P. 346ff .; Hillebrandt, E.R.E. ii. 796-9; Hertol, IF. xli. 185ff.

BRAHMAN 25

tejas and tapas (brilliance and heat, i.e. energy) as though practically synonymous. It supports the earth, causes the ground to produce life, shines in the sun and fire, and "into it all the gods are woven ".1 As in the Rg Veda the brahman is specially associated with Brhaspati or Brahmanaspati,- "the Lord of prayer ", who is personally called the brāhmana or priest and impersonally the brahman or sacred energy sf the gods, so also in the Atharva-veda it occupies a similar position toward Prajapati, called also Virāj, Prāņa (Life or Spirit), and the Brahmacarin (regarded as a personal form of brahman). Sometimes the personal is given priority and the brahman is said to spring from Prajapati, and sometimes the impersonal is put first and the brahman is said to sustain the Highest Lord.2 What has been said of the A.V. applies also to the early Brahmanas. There Prajapati occupies without doubt the position of supreme Creator-god, but more and more Brahman comes to the fore, not merely as a power attached to prayer or sacrifice, gods or nature, but as the highest principle of the dniverse, the mysterium tremendum, the one mysterious, supremely great and adorable reality. A passage in the Kena Upanisad seems to preserve the memory of the gradual supplanting of the Vedic nature-gods by the one supreme Brahman. There Brahman is represented as appearing to the gods as a mysterious stranger. They deputed Agni to find out who the wonderful being was. The stranger, however, took the initiative and asked Agni, "Who are you and what power have you ?" "1 am Agni", he replied, "and can burn up anything". The stranger put a straw before him and said, "Burn that ". Agni tried with all his might but could do nothing. Vayu was next sent. He, boasting of his power to blow away everything, was challenged to blow away a straw : but his stormiest winds could not move it. Indra the thunderer then rushed toward the strange being but it disappeared before him. Uma, the daughter of Himavat, then appeared, and Indra asked her, "What is this wonderful

1 A.V. xi. 5. 24 (Bloomfield, H.A.V. 217). 2 Contrast A.V. xi. 5 and xix. 53. For other references see my lecture on The concept of Brahman in the Atharva Veda.

26 INTRODUCTION

being ? " "It is Brahman", she said; "In this victory of Brahman, exult ye ". Brahman is thus seen to be that supreme Being through whose power alone the gods enjoy greatness, and without which they can do nothing. As Katha vi. 3 says, " Through fear of Him Agni doth burn, Through fear of Him Sürya gives heat, ' Through fear Indra and Vayn both, With Death as fifth, speed on their way." The Upanisads do not deny the existence of the Vedic gods any morc than did Xenophanes those of the Greeks but they are reduced to the rank of dependent nature-powers. Some rsis however, Ike the radical Yajnavalkya treat them very freely. " How many gods are there Yājñavalkya ? " asked Šākalya. He first gave the traditional answer, 3,306 divine powers, 33 gods. But when further questioned he said successively 6, 3, 2, 11,1 and lastly one only. "What is that One God ?" "Praņa " (Life-power), said he, "Men call him Brahman, the Yon". (Br. iii. 9.) This Upanisad doctrine of Unity, it cannot be too strongly insisted, is not a mere metaphysical speculation : those who thus regard it entirely fail to grasp its value. As against the popular polytheism and materialism it is a liberating gospel. As a unity on.ly it must be looked upon, This undemonstrable, enduring Being. He obtains death after death, Who views things as if separate here. (Br. iv. 4. 20; 19.) As water rained upon a height Runs various ways among the hills, So he who views things as diverse Distractedly runs after them. (Katha iv. 14.) Moreover, though often abstractly stated, it is not to be regarded as merely abstract Unity. It has supreme numinous value, it is a divine Unity; and, as Professor Otto has pointed out,2 this numinous value persists even in interpreters like Sankara who, formally, state it most abstractly. Western scholars have often gone astray through failing to do justice to this aspect. The Upanisads begin then, with what has been called a 1 This is an etymological pun, and is probably satirical. 2 Otto, M.E.W. 103, 112, 145ff.

ATMAN 27

naturalistic pantheism, or more accurately, with the conception of a unitary divine world-ground realistically viewed as the basic substanee and productive, sustaining, immanent energy of all things; and when they attempt to define it they do so naturally first of all in terms of one or other of its most striking manifestations. Thus, frequently in the Brahmanas, and occasionally in preliminary stages of Upanisad discussios, the sun, the fire or akasa (space or ether) are said to be Brahman, Very striking is Bharadvaja's statement in the Arseyu Upani- sad,1 "That light which shines in yonder orb, incessantly throbbing, glittering, flaring, throwing brilliant shimmer and suffusing all, that is my Brahman, .... none can transcend its greatness." Equally striking is Gautama's reply, "You are then merely worshipping what is only the greatness of that other Brahman which is within this (sun) as the 'Golden person, golden haired, and golden bearded, resplendent even. to the finger-tips'" (quotation from Ch. i. 6. 6). Here we have not a return to the Vedic worship of Surya-deva, but the purusa (person or spirit) in the sun is taken as a symbol of Brahman. A further step is taken in the "instruction of the fires " to Upakosala (Ch. iv. 11-13) where the teaching is first given that Brahman is the person in the sun, the moon and the lightning, but Satyakama, his guru, then told Upakosala that the fires had only told him Brahman's environment but he would teach him something deeper. "That person who is seen in the eye, He is Atman,-that is Brahman." (Ch. iv. 15.) The concept of the Atman was probably originally deve- loped independently of that of the Brahman. The etymology of the word has been a matter of much dispute, but the most usually accepted view is that put forward by Bohtlingk-Roth who darive it from an=to breathe, and it is almost certainly cognate with the old High German atum, "breath" (Anglo- Saxon, ædm; Modern German, atem).2

Doussen points out that it is often found in the Rg Veda (especially as the roflexive pronoun, "one's self "), in the form tman, and suggests that atman is a euphonie expansion. He regards it as meaning, "This 1". Keith, however, points out that atman certainly does in four places in the Rg Veda mean "wind " and normally means " the. breath of life". Also that it is far easier to derive the meanings,

28 INTRODUCTION

"self ", "body", and the use as reflexive pronoun, from "wind " or "breath " than vice versa.

Atman, then, seems to have originally meant wind or breath, and then life, soul, self or essential nature. Older words than atman to express the same idea were Asu and Praņa. So, in Rg x. 121. 7, Hiranyagarbha is called "the'one asu (life-breath or spirit) of the gods ". Much more frequently however, prana, the commonest name for the life- breath, is used to denote the chief principle of the universe. Atharva Veda xi. 4, for example, is a hymn to Prana, described as both the roaring wind and the supreme spirit of the universe, Viraj (the lustre), Destr (the guiding power) and Prajāpali (the Lord of all creatures). A theme which continually recurs in the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and carliest Upanisads is the dispute between the devas for precedence (see e.g. S.B. x. 3.3; Jaim. U.B. iv. 11-13; Ait. Ar. ii. 1-3; Br. i. 3; Ch. i. 2). Here the cosmic deities are equated with the prānas, i.c. the life-powers or faculties of man, and the mukhya-prana or chief life-breath is said to be the uktha or chief principle both of man and the uiverse. In Ait. Ar. iii. this chicf prana is called purusa, and just as all the cosmic powers and all the human functions had each its prāna or vital power so they are now said to have purusas,-hence we now read of "the person in the sun", "the person in the eye", etc. Ait. Ar. iv. makes a similar identification of the chief prana with the alman, and henceforward the term prana tends to be dropped in favour of puruşa or atman. Notes to previous page. 1 See Belvalkar, Four Unpublished Upanisad Texts, 18. 2 It has been suggested that ätman may also be cognate with the Greek άτμός (smoke, vapour), and the Homerie αϋτμήν (breath). This however is very doubtful. Uhlenbeck (Etymologuches Worterbuch der altindischen Sprache) denies any connection. Boisacq (Dictionaire etymologique de la langue-grecque qv. aruos) notes that it is donbtful whether the a is long or short. If long ατμός=αετμός (from άημι= Sk. av or va, to blow), and is not connected with atman. If short there may just possibly be connection with atman. aürunv he connects with deTuos, and so not with atman. Prof. R. L. Turner doubts the con- neetion of atman with either of these Greek words. All of these authorities however, agree on the connection of atman with atum.

PURUȘA 29

The term Purusa goes back to the primæval cosmic "Man " or " Person " of Rg Veda x. 90, who through his self- sacrifice created the universe. The etymology of the word is uncertain, but the conception is clearly anthropomorphic, originally denoting man with all his bodily attributes. Then secondarily it was used to denote the inner or essential man,- the soul. But still the term denoted something more concrete than prana or atman. Katha iv. 12 seems to be the earliest mention of the angustha-matra purusa or "thumb-sized person " dwelling in the human heart, yet the conception must be much older, probably prehistorie. Later, through purusa in many cases being used as practically equivalent to prana (:s indicated above), and so used to denote powers or functions, it tended to become depersonalised in meaning ; yet the suggestion of con- crete personality, which was part, of its original meaning, seems to have persisted at least on the fringe of its connotation (and so could be revived by the author of the Katha and those who followed him). .At present our aim is to show the related growth of the ideas of purusa and atman in the early Upanisads. Tho myth of creation given in the Purusa-sūkta is repeated in Atharva x. 7 and S.B. vi. 1. 1. In it all the worlds, the gods and orders of men are formed from the various parts of the primæval Person. The sun came from his eye, the moon from his mind, fire from his mouth, etc. In Ait. i. we have a development of the myth. There we are told that the gods or nature powers when thus created found no fitting home. Hence the creator led a human person to them. Fire then became speech and entered his mouth, the sun became sight and entered his eyes, the moon became mind and entered his heart. The creator (here called Atman) then limself entered the man and thence looked around on all beings. He saw nothing as different from himself. " He saw this very person as veriest Brahman." Here we see the development of a doctrine which goes back to the Hymn of Dirghatamas as well as the Purusa-sukta. There, as we saw, the sage said, "Heaven is my father, carth my kin and mother ". All the parts of the world (the macrocosm) were thus recognised as standing in a relation of kinship with man (the

30 INTRODUCTION

microcosm). Hence, in a different sense from Protagoras, it was recognised that "Man is the measure of all things", or, as Br. i. 4 says in its account of the atma purusavidhah ("Self in the form of a person ") from whom the world evolved,- "One should worship with the thought that He is just one's self, for this self is the footprint (padaniya) of the All, for by it one kiows this All ".

The identification of the Brahman with the Atman. We have advanced, then, from the conception of the prūna or " breath ", which is the life-principle or spirit both of man and the universe, to that of the antaratman purusa (" person who is inner-self ") who is called prāņasya atma (" the soul of praņa"); and from the old mythie conception of the cosmic "Man " to the more spiritual aupanisada purusa (" person taught in the Upanisads"), who is identified with the ātman (Br. iii. 9. 26) and who is in Br. ii. 1. 16 called the vijñānamaya purusa,-" the person who consists of intelligence". What we have said involves implicitly (and in the quotation from Ait. i. 3. 13, explicitly) the identification of this purusa or alman with the Brahman. Let us however trace the process a little further. The second adhyaya of the Brhadāranyaka Upanisad com- mences with an interesting dialogue between the learned and proud Brahmin, Bālāki Gārgya, and Ajātaśatru, King of Kāsi. This dialogue is interesting from two points of view. In the first place we sce the Brahmin, who came to the king to teach him the nature of Brahman, unable to do so, and becoming in his turn the pupil of the king. In the second place we notice that Balaki in his conception of the Brahman sets forth the view of naturalistic pantheism, which, as we have seen, was probably the first stage in the development of the idea. Ajatasatru, on the other hand, while admitting all that' Balaki says, shows that it is quite insufficient. Balaki has defined the Brahman first as the person in the sun (āditye purusa). Then successively as the person in the moon, in lightning, in space (akāsa), in wind (vayu), in fire (agni), in the waters; also as the persos in the mirror, in the shadow, in echo and in the body. The king says in reference to all these, "But is that all ? " When Balaki confesses that he can go no further, the

BRAHMAN=ATMAN 31

king first, according to the parallel version in the Kausītaki U., says, "He who is the maker of all these persons, He verily should be known". Then Ajatasatru took Bālāki to a sleeping man whom he thus addressed, " O great one with white robes ! Soma ! King !",-and thus woke him. The king then asked, "When the man was asleep, where was the intelligent person (vijñānamaya purusa) and whence did he come back ? " Bālāki did not know. Ajatasatru then said, "When the man slept the intelligent person, having drawn in the pranas (i.e. the senses), lay in the cther within the hcart; there enjoying bliss he was at rest .... JJust as a spider sends out its threads and sparks come forth from fire, so from this Self coms forth all vital powers (pranas), all worlds, all gods, all beings. Its secret, name (upanisad) is satyasya satyam (the reality of the real). The pranas are satyam (real). He is their satyam." This is one of the most important passages in the Upanisads. Balaki in his exegesis of Brahman sets it forth as pantheistic world-ground. To the king, however, this is mislcadingly inadequate. If one would come to any adequate comprehension ot Brahman it is best known as intelligent Spirit, the enduring upholder of one's own psychie existence. It is the Soul or Self (atman), and this Self is the souree of all existing things. They are real, but only because it constitutes their reality. We see then, as Deussen says, that " All the thoughts of the Upanisads move round two fundamental ideas. These are (1) the Brahman, and (2) the Atman. As a rule these terms are employed synonymously. Where a difference reveals itself, Brahman appears as the older and less intelligible expression, Atman as the later and more significant; Brahman as the unknown that needs to be explained, Atman as the known through which "the other unknown finds its explanation ; Brahman as the first principle so far as it is comprehended in the universe, Atman so far as it is known in the inner self of man." 1 We have already given several examples but perhaps the most explicit of all is the Sandilya-vidya (S.B. x. 6. 3 and Ch. iii. 14) where it is first stated that, "This whole universe is Brahman " (sarvam khalu idam brahma), and then it is said

1 Deussen, P.U. 3f.

32 INTRODUCTION

that this Brahman is to be identified with the self within,- "This soul of mine within the heart, this is Brahman " (esa me atma antar-hrdaye etad brahma). "If then ", says Deussen, " we hold fast to this distinction of the Brahman as the cosmical principle of the universe, the Atman as the psychical, the fundamental thought of Upanisad philosophy may be expressed by the simple cquation : Brahman =Atman. That is to say,-the Brahman, the power which presents itself to us materialised in all existing things, which creates, sustains, preserves, and receives back into itself again all worlds, this eternal, infinite, divine power is identical with the Atman, with that which, after stripping off everything external, we discover in ourselves as our real, most essential being. "' It is this identity of the Brahman and the Atman which is expressed in the great sayings, tat tvam asi (" That thou art ", Ch. vi. 8. 7) and aham brahmasmi (" I am Brahman ", Br. i. 4. 10),-the central texts of the Vedanta philosophy. Here we must pause to discriminate. What has happened so far is that two diverse and in some degree independently developed conceptions, the Brahman,-the power bchind the universe, and the Atman,-the inmost reality of the individual soul, have been brought into relation, and the Brahman, the world-ground, is viewed as world-soul. But the word atman is ambiguous, since it denotes both the individual and the supreme soul. If we distinguish between Atman as supreme Soul and atman as individual soul (jiva) by the use of a capital for the first, then it is clear that the Upanisads teach Brahman= Ätman, but do they also teach Brahman=Atman=ātman? This of course is Sankara's interpretation. He takes the statements "That thou art " and " I am Brahman" quite literally as the statement of a pure identity. Th reality there is only one Soul, though to the unenlightened, under the sway of anidyā (ignorance) and māya (illusion), there may appear to be many. Deussen also, though in some points he dissents from Sankara's exposition of the Upanisads, agrees with him in the main, and says that their central doctrine is " a daring, uncompromising, eccentric idealism (comparable to that of 1 P.U. 39.

YĀJÑAVALKYA: DEUSSEN'S VIEW 33

Parmenides) ".1 This earliest and most fundamental teaching he finds in the Yājnavalkya discourses of the Brhadāranyaka. Now these do undoubtedly teach that the Atman is (1) the one knowing subject, (2) which is itself unknowable, and (3) which is the sole reality (the world being the apparent projection of its thought). "That Imperishable is the unseen seer, the unthought thinker. Other than it is none that sees; other than it is none that thinks."2 "Thou canst not sec the seer of seeing, thou canst not think the thinker of the thought, thou canst not know the knower of what is known." 3 " Where there is duality, as it were, there one sees another, there one knows another. But where everything has becomejust one's own self, whereby and whom should one see ? whereby and whom should one know? " 4 "These three thoughts", says. Deussen, " are the kernel of the Upanisad teaching, and with it became permanently the kernel of the entire religious and philosophical belief of India ".5 In a sense we may give a qualified acceptance to the latter half of the statement, since the Yajñavalkya doctrine was the basis of that of Sankara, and Sankara's interpretation, till recently, commanded the assent of probably three-quarters of the thinking minds of India. Nevertheless Deussen unwittingly uses the just word when he himself describes it as an " eecentric " idealism, since it is a departure from the central line of Hindu thought which is seen, we hold, in the Katha, the Gita, and the Sūtras of Bādarāyana (most truly interpreted by Rāmānuja and Nimbarka). With regard to the Upanisads we have already in our discussion of their relative date and order of development shown reason to doubt whether the Yajnavalkya sections of the Brhadaranyaka were either so early, so central or so influential as Deussen supposes. He himself is compelled to admit that if the Yajnavalkya teaching is the kernel of the Upanisads, it had (from the point of view of a subjective idealist) a very thick husk.6 Further, that even in the Yajnavalkya sections the idealist position is not consistently upheld, lapsing into a pantheism which was perilously tlose to theism when he des- cribes the Atman as the antaryamin or inner rule.7 Further, 1 P.U. 399. 2 Br. iii. 8. 11. 3 Br. iii. 4. 2. 4 Br. ii. 4. 14. 5 P.U. 400. 6 P.U. 400. 7 .U. 405, 175-6.

34 INTRODUCTION

he admits that Yajnavalkya's views found the consciousness of his contemporaries already occupied with traditional views to which they had to accommodate themselves.1 Chief among these traditional views was the pantheistie or quasi-theistic view of the Brahman-Atman as the evolver and ruler of a real universe which, we maintain, is the direct outgrowth of the teaching of the Samhitas, the Brahmanas and the Aranyakas. The individual soul: Among these traditional views which were accepted by the majority of the Upanisad thinkers, was, we hold, the belief in a plurality of real souls or selves. It is true there is no insistence on this doctrine in the carly Upanisads, and at first sight one might suppose that the one Soul theory was far more widely accepted than is really the case. But that was just because the belief in a plurality of souls was so widely and so implicitly aceepted as to render such teaching unnecessary. All the insistence is therefore upon the unity of the one supreme Self, who is the constitutive reality of the world and of individuals. As we have said before, the doctrine of unity is preached as a liberating gospel. Later, however, when the one Self theory had been sufficiently accepted to make such teaching necessary, the early metrical Upanisads definitely teach a plurality of individual immortal souls. This is not a new teaching as some (e.g. Stcherbatsky,2 Jacobi3) suppose,-it was only a statement of what had long been implicitly accepted. We repeat then that the central doctrine of the Upanisads. " This Atman is that Brahman ", means that self-consciousness, our awareness of our own inner-selves, is a revelation of the nature of Brahman,-the supreme, adorable reality, in that He too is essentially Atman,-the supreme Self. But this is different from saying, as Yajñavalkya and Sankara do, that there is only one knowing Self who is both subjeet and object, for that involves that the Self is unknowable .- that the Self- knowledge which the Upanisads teach must above all be sought, is really unattainable. 1 P.U. 401. 2 Stcherbatsky : The Centrul Conception of Buddhism, 69ff. 3 Jacobi : Die Entwicklung der Gottesidee bei den Indern, 19ff. For an account and criticism set: Keith, R.B.V. 545ff.

SACCIDANANDA BRAHMAN 35

Do the Upanisads teach that the Brahman-Atman is knowable ? We have already very largely answered this question, but must press it further and sum up. We have said that the central thought of the Upanisads is that Brahman is to be known as Atman. So Deussen rightly says, " The general view that lies at the basis of the Upanisads is that Brahman is an object of knowledge ".1' "The Ätman should be seen, com- prehended, reflected on." (Br. ii. 4.) "The Self ... that is what we should search for and endeavour to know." (Ch. viii. 7. 1.) The very object then of the Upanisads is to com- municate the knowledge of the Brahman-Atman as a mcans of salvation, and so they are said to teach the jñana-marga, the way of salvation through knowledge. If we ask what are the attributes commonly ascribed to Brahman, conceived as the reality of the universe and essentially Atman or Self, the orthodox answer is summed up in the word saccidananda (sat cit ananda, i.e. real existence, intelligence and bliss). This word does not oceur in the older Upanişads but the ideas which it expresses are found in Br. iii. 9. 28, where Yājnavalkya says, "Brahman is knowledge and bliss" (vijnanam anandam Brahma), and in Tait. ii, I, where we read, "He who knows Brahman as reality, knowledge, infinite (salyam jñanam anantam), he obtains every wish together with the intelligent Brahman". This latter passage oceurs at the opening of a section called the Ananda-valli in which the whole stress is upon the supreme bliss of Brahman, so that it is a natural conjecture that for anantam we should read anandam. Ait. iii. takes intelligent consciousness (prajñana) as the essential attribute of Brahman, called intelligent Self (prajñatman) and says, '*Everything that heart and mind are,-sensation, pereep- tion, discrimination, conception, understanding, insight, resolve, thought, imagination, feeling, memory, volition, purpose, life, love and will,-all these are names of intelligent consciousness ". On the other hand, as we have seen, Yājñavalkya in the Brhadaranyaka, in teaching which reminds us of Kant's doctrine of the transcendental self, asserts that just because the Seif is 1 P.U. 74.

36 INTRODUCTION

the knower it cannot be known. Over and over again it is said, "That Self is not this, not that (neti, neti) "; and since there is no duality it is impossible to know it; yet at the same time it is said, "Lo verily, it is the Self that must be seen, thought on, pondered on. Lo verily, in the Self's being under- stood this world-all is known " (iv. 5. 6.), and in iii. 8. 10, Yajñavalkya says, "Verily, O Gargi, he who departs from this world not knowing that Imperishable, is pitiable ". Sankara's answer to this puzzle is his doctrine of the two orders of knowledge,-empirical (vyāvahārika) and ultimate or transcerdental (paramarthika), corresponding to which there are two forms of Brahman,-the higher (para) or unqualified (nirguna) Brahman, and the lower (apara) or qualificd (saguna) Brahman. The lower Brahman is knowable, and all the pas- sages in the Upanisads which speak of Brahman in positive terms as world-soul, or psychical principle, or God, Sankara takes as referring to the lower Brahman only. This lower Brahman, though called Isvara (Lord or God), is only empiri- cally real (i.e. as real as the world of our sense-experience), but from the deeper (paramarthika) point of view he is an illusory being, due to the imposition of a principle called Avidyā or Maya upon the real. The only real Brahman is the higher, who is one and without attributes (an undifferentiated unity) and therefore unknowable. So, though Sankara applies to Brahman the epithets sat, cit, ananda, he explains the latter two away, speaking of ananda as the mere absence of sorrow (" bliss without the fruition of happiness ") and regarding cit as abstract intelligence or knowledge, denying that Brahman is a knowing Self. It is perfectly clear, however, that there is no mention of Avidyā or Ajñāna (in the technical sense of a cosmic principle of Ignorance) in any of the older Upanisads, nor yet of Māyā in the sense of illusion. Nor is there any support for Sankara's doctrine of the two orders of knowledge or the two forms of Brahman, which, if imposed, distort the sense of the Upanisads. It is true that there are different ways of conceiving Brahman and Br. ii. 3. 6 docs speak of two forms of Brahman,-the formed (murta) Brahman which is empirically knowablc, .and

ŚAŃKARA AND YĀJÑAVALKYA 37

the formless (amurta) which is not an object of empirical know- ledge. But though Sankara claims the support of this passage, the distinction between the two forms here described and those of Śankara is evident. For the mūrta brahman is just the uni- verse of which the formless Brahman constitutes the Rcality of reality (satyasya satyam). We shall see in our commentary to what desperate expedients of exegesis Sankara has to resort to maintain his position., As Keith says, his whole attempt is "a clever tour de force without final validity, and its ingenuity is as great as its improbability ".1 The Mysticism of Yajnavalkya. It may further, I think, be said that while Sankara's teaching was based upon Yajnavalkya's it does not quite correctly interpret what Yājñavalkya was trying to express. It is difficult to discern in the Yājñavalkya passages any consistent philosophy, but it is evident that his epistemological agnosticism was coupled with and subservient to a mystical religion,-he denies an intellectual understanding of a Self but seeks for an intuitive immediacy of apprehension. "Asa man in the embrace of a beloved wife knows nothing within or without, so this person, when in the embrace of the intelligent Self, knows nothing within or without. Verily that is his (true) form, in which his desire is satisfied, in which the Self is' his desire." (Br. iv. 3, 21.) Specially interesting is the passage in which he teaches that while those who trust in the intellect cannot attain Brahman, yet there is an apprehension of his being by those who are childlike. "Therefore let a Brahmin, flinging away learning, take his stand on childlikeness", though even in that he is not to trust, nor in any state, but in the Self alone. '(Br. iii. 5.) Moreover it is through quietening the strivings of the will and the empirically directed intellect that the condi- tions are realised for the being of Brahman to shine clearly within the individual soul. "Therefore having become calm, subdued, quiet, patiently enduring and collected, one sees the Self just in the self " (iv. 4. 23). The purpose of Upanisad anti-intellectualism. We can- not treat in detail the teaching of the other Upanisads, but . R.P.V. 5080

38 INTRODUCTION

a study of the Isa and Keng (which devote special atten- tion to this subject, and which stress the need for knowing Brahman yet assert that He transcends knowledge), shows that their polemie against knowledge is not based upon any metaphysical puzzle but upon a view of religious knowledge which should be quite familiar to Christians. There is (1) a sense of the uniqueness and surpassing greatness of the Supreme, which makes his apprehension quite distinct from that of finite, empirically discerned objects ; (2) A Socratie (as Christ- taught) humility,-a realisation of ignorance, coupled with earnest search and childlike teachableness ; (3) A realisation that while Brahman is unknowable in the sense of unfathomable, incomprehensible, He may yet be apprehended, and so truly, though partially, known, by those who truly scek. The Katha adds the thought (found also in the Chandogya and Tailliriya), (4) that the nature of religious truth is such that a teacher is necessary to impart it : and goes on also to add that (5) the ultimate source of illumination is Divine grace. The teaching of the Katha, though at first sight somewhat contradictory, is quite clear and consistent, not being com- plicated by the metaphysical puzzle of the unknowability of the knower. It first, like most of the Upanisads, emphasises the mystery and wonder of the Supreme being. "That which is hard to see, entered into the hidden, dwelling in the deep, ... whom many cannot even hear of, whom many even hearing do not know." In characteristic Upanișad language, also, the antinomies which perplex human reason when it strives to understand Him are set forth. " Less than an atom, greater than the great." "Sitting He travels afar, lying He goes everywhere." He thus transcends the limitations of space and time, and yet is "Lord of the past and the future" and evolver and guide of a real universe. He is proclaimed by the Vedas as Brahman, and the sacrifices are means to his partial attainment, but He is above all to be recognised as the Self, "set in every creature's heart ". Yet though so near He is not accessible to the senses or to the unaided intellect. "Not by reasoning is this thought obtainable." For in the first place moral preparation is necessary.

THE TEACHING OF THE KATHA 39

Who has not eeased from evil ways, Who is untranquil, unprepared, And he whose mind is not at peace, By knowledge cannot win to Him. In the second place a spiritual teacher (acarya or guru) is necessary. "Save by another taught there's no way thither This follows from the very nature of spiritual truth, wluch is not a doctrine communicated through words but a light of vision, which requires a receptivity, an attitude of faith, which can best be communicated from one person to another. But the guru's work, though so important, is only preliminary. As in Christianity the Divine vision which brings salvatior can only be the work of Divine grace. Not by instruction may this Self be gained, Nor intellect, nor by much scripture-learning ; Whomso Ho chooses, by him Ile may be gained, To him this Self reveals His own (true) person. Less than an atom, greater than the great, The Self is hid in every creature's heart : The unstriving man beholds Him, freed from sorrow, Through tho Creator's grace ho sees the greatness of the Self.

Very definitely then the Katha Upanisad teaches the knowability of the Self. It is true that, Not in the range of vision stands His form, By outward eye no one soever sees Him. But it is none the less true that for one who seeks in the right way, By hoart, by thought, by mind, He is apprehendod ; Those who know Him thereby become immortal.

SPECIAL INTRODUCTION TO THE KATHA UPANIȘAD. The Katha Upanisad, as its name implies, belongs to the Black Yajur Veda school of the Kathas or Kathakas, and was anost certainly composed in the original home of that school, the furu-Pancala country (the Agra-Delhi district). According to Patanjali,1 the rsi Katha, the traditional founder of the school, was a pupil of Vaisampayana. The Kathaka school now finds its chief home in Kasmir, and the commentary on the Carana-vyuha 2 describes how, on. the separation of the Black Yajur Veda schools, the Kathas and Katha-Kapisthalas spread in the Panjab and Kasmir, the Maitrayanīyas in Gujarat, and the Taittiriyas in the South, while the White Yajur Veda school of the Vajasaneyins spread to the North-east (Kosala and Vidcha, the home of Buddhism). The original home of all of them was however the madhya-desa or Kuru-Pancala country. The Taittiriya Samhita, Brahmaņa, and Aranyaka, continually address themselves to the Bharatas or Kuru-Pañcalas; the Rāmayana (ii. 3. 16) describes the Katha school, together with the Taittiriya, as being in Ayodhyā ;' and Uddalaka Aruni, from whom the father of Naciketas is supposed to be descended, is described in S.B. xi. 4. l, as a Kuru-Pañcāla Brahmin. In the Black Yajur Veda there are normally no separate Brahmanas, the prose explanations of the ritual not being (as in the case of the White Yajur) separated from the Samhitās. The Kathaka Samhita therefore has no Brahmana. In the Taittiriya school, however, in addition to the Brahmana material in the Samhita, there is a supplement dealing with certain sacrifices omitted in the Samhita and this is called the Tailtiriya Brahmana. Macdonell considers that the last three sections of Book iii. of this Brähmana (as well as the first two books of the Aranyaka) originally belonged to the Kathaka school. "The different origin of these parts", he says, is indicated by the absence of the change of y and v to iy and uv respectively, which othefwise prevails in the Taittiriya Brahmana and

1 Mahābhāșya on Pāņini iv. 3. 104. 2 See Keith, Veda of the Black Yajun School, xcii, 3 ibid. xciij.

THE INTEGRITY OF THE KATHA 4.1

Aranyaka. " 1 In one of these Kathaka sections, Tait. B. iii. 11, by way of illustrating the significance of a particular fire- sacrifice called Naciketa, the story is told of a boy, Naciketas, to whom the sacrifice was first revealed by the god of the dead. On this story is based the Katha Upanisad. The Integrity of the Katha. (a) The Katha Upanisad is divided into two adhyāyas, each of three vallis. That the two adhyayas were once distinct units, or rather that the first adhyaya formed a complete Upanisad to which the second was later added is shown by :- (1) The two summings up and phala-srulis (derlarations of the result of the teaching) in iii. 16, 17 and vi. 14, 15. (2) The absence of quotations in the first adhyāya as against their comparative frequeney in the second ; among the latter also are quotations from the first adhyaya. (3) The orderly development of the first adhyāya con- trasted with the comparative absence of plan in the second. (4) The completeness of the first adhyaya in itself. The second makes a new beginning and repeats certain of the teachings of the first, though with differences. (5) The greater development in the conception of Yoga found in the second adhyaya, and the use of technical terms like indriya-dhāraņā, apramatta ; there is develop- ment also in theology, e.g. the conception of the sarva- bhutantaratman, which implies the antaryamin doctrine, and in eschatology. (b) There are also small later additions to the Upanisad, thus formed. (1) vi. 16, 17, and vi. 18 are clearly two later appendices. (2) i. 16-18, may be a later insertion, though this is doubtful. All these parts, however, form a remarkably cohcrent whole so that it is possible for Charpentier to argue for the unity of the Upanisad by saying that the phala-sruti verses, iii. 16, 17 are apparently a late addition, and therefore " do not in the slightest degree prove that the original Upanisad was at an end here ".2 1 S.L. 212. 3 Indian Anttquary, Dec., 1928, p. 229.

42 INTRODUCTION

Belvalkar,1 on the other hand, maintains that the Upanisad is rather more composite than we have suggested, the original Upanisad consisting of vallis i and ii only, valli iii being added after some considerable interval and adhyāya II (vallīs iv-vi) again after rather a shorter interval. This, as to the compara- tme gap between the three parts, does not agree with his . table of grouping, which puts a large mass of Upanisad material, including practically the whole Yajñavalkya section of the Brhadāranyaka, between Katha I and II, and very little between I. i, ii and I. iii. It is true that the third valli forms a characteristic whole, which shows distinct advance in thought, but it also completes the argument of the first two vallis and Belvalkar has shown no adequate reason for separating it. (A possible reason however is given on page 48.)

The Date of the Katha.

(a) Points of contact with Buddhism. (1) Oldenberg2 argued that the Katha must be pre-Buddhist because of the very close similarity between the story of the temptation of Gautama the Buddha by Mara and the story of the temptation of Gautama Naciketas by Mrtyu told so vividly in the first valli of the Upanisad. Keith3 says that this ignores the fact that the story is already fonnd in the Taittirīya Brahmana. This, however, is not the case. The Naciketas legend of course dates back to the Brahmana, which establishes its general priority over the Buddhist legend, but the story of the temptation of Naciketas occurs for the first time in the Upanişad. (2) The prevalence of Nastika-vadins, i.e. those who reply " nasti" "He does not exist "), to the question as to what happens to a man after death (see Katha i. 20), has been taken by some to be an evidence of post-Buddhist date. Here, it is said, we see the influence of the Buddhist doctrine of anattā (an-atman),-the denial that man has an immortal soul. But though Buddha might say of himself as enlightened, " Rebirth has been extinguished, after this life there is no beyond ",4

1 H.I.P. 92, 135. 2 Buddha, (Calcutta, 1927), 53 -- 8. 3 R.P.V. 502. * Sermon in the Deer-Parl, Mahāvagga i. 6, 46.

THE KATHA AND BUDDHISM 43

he does not seem for the ordinary man to have denied a transmigrating entity, and Asoka's ediets show how prevalent the hope of heaven was among the early Buddhists. Later Buddhist thinkers might draw the logical conclusion from the Master's teaching, but Buddha himself was said to have for- bidden his disciples to dwell on the view, " I have not a sel*, just as on the view "I have a self". Certainly tho early Buddhists would have repudiated the title nastika-vadin, for the term is found in Buddhist literature applied to such materialistic teaching as that of Ajita Kesakambalin.1 His was a doctrine of sceptical materialism directed both against Brahmanic ritualism and the doctrines of karman "and the atman. To all he said, " Nasti ",-"there is neither fruit of good or evil. A human being is built of the four elements. When he dies earth returns to earth, the fluid in him to water, the hcat to fire, the breath to air, the indriyani or faculties into space. Fools and wise men alike on the dissolution of the body are cut off, are annihilated ; after death they do not exist". We find his teaching set forth among the views of contemporary philosophers given by Ajatasattu, King of Magadha, as reported in the Samañña-phala-sutta.2 He was thus, if this tradition is corrcct, a contemporary of the Buddha, and this date, the latter half of the sixth century B.c., when such doubts were prevalent but before Buddha's own teaching had spread, is a possible date for the composition of the first part of the Katha Upanisad. Arguing on this ground alone a century later would of course be equally possible, as Buddhism does not seem to have spread in the Kuru-Pañcala country, the probable place of composition of the Upanisad, for some considerable time after Buddha's death. In any case the argument from silence is precarions; the only point we are entitled to make is that as there is no trace of Buddhist ideas in the first adhyaya of the Katha there is nothing to make a pre-Buddhist date impossible. Charpentier 8 views the matter differently. "To me" he says, "it appears that the surroundings are entirely the same that we meet with in the old Buddhism. The question put to Yama in verse i. 20, is exactly the same as that repeatedly 1 Bolvalkar, H.I.P. 452, Dasgupta, H.I.P. 80. 2 Dīgha Nikāya, ii. 3 Ind. Ant. Nov. 1928. n. 207.

44 INTRODUCTION

put to the Buddha, viz. 'does the Tathagata survive after death, or does he not survive ?' In v. 11-12 duhkha and sukha seem to have the same sense of 'unrest' and 'rest' that they have in Buddhist philosophy, as is proved by Professor Stcherbatsky; santi is just as well Buddhist as oeanisadic, etc. It thus seems probable that our text belongs to about the same time as the oldest Buddhist texts-perhaps the fourth century B.C .- and that it originated in the same spiritual surroundings as did these works." The argument is very slight. It is really a matter of impression. (Also Charpentier does not distinguish between the two adhyayas.) Even when we come to the second adhyaya there is no clear indication of contact with Buddhist thought. Even the use of the term apramatta (vi. 11), may be perhaps sufficiently explained by reference to the undistractedness in meditation which Chandogya i. 3, 12, says is necessary to fulfil one's desire. But I cannot resist the impression that the stress on apramāda, vigilant concentration, in the Buddhist discipline as reflected in the Dhammapada, and its importance in the Yoga discipline of the Katha and Mundaka (as later in the Yoga-sutras) are not unconnected. The mention of apramada as one of the three most important ethical requisites in the Bhagavata religion, as seen .in the Besnagar pillar inscription, and the fact that the dhamma of Asoka which consisted in vigilant and unremitting unselfish exertion might equally be charaeterised by the same term, seem significant of the spirit of the age. (b) The Metre of the Katha. An argument for a comparatively early date is afforded by what Keith calls " the really antique character of the metre " of the Katha, Kena, and Isa as compared with the Epic or with such early Buddhist texts as thee Sutta-Nipata. 1 Stcherbatsky 2 seems to take the metrically pre-Buddhist character of the Katha for granted, but Keith points out the difficulty of comparison with texts written in a different language (i.e. Pali) and Charpentier that here " pre-Buddhist " can only mean "pre-Asokan". Keith says that a more secure standard oi comparison is with the Brhaddevata, which is with much plausibility assigned to the fourth century B.C. and suggests that the eetre of the Katha is older.

THE DATE OF THE KATHA 45

(c) Quotations by the Katha. (1) A comparative study of the common and similar passages found in the Katha and other literature brings out very strikingly the originality of the first adhyaya and its difference from the second. Apart from the quotations from the Taittiriya Brähmana with which it begins, I have not been able to trrie any clear quotations. It is true that the saying Anandā nāma te lokas (" Joyless surely are those worlds", i. 3a) occurs also in Br. iv. 4. 11, but one would judge that it was a com- mon saying, describing the penalty for various offences (i.e. " He will certainly go to hell who does so and so ".) Katha i. 8 also contains some phrases which are found almost identically in Br. vi. 4. 12 and the idea behind is similar. But Br. vi. 4 is an appendix to the Upanisad, which, though it contains much ancient Vedic material, is in its present form certainly later than the Katha. (Belvalkar calls it Neo- upanisadic.) We are, I think, justified in saying that Katha I contains no quotations from other Upanisads. (2) The second adhyaya of the Katha, however, quotes several times from the Vedic Samhitas, at least four times (possibly nine) from the Brhadaranyaka, once perhaps from the Taittiriya, and possibly refers to the Kausitaki. Its appendix, vi. 16 . is quoted from the Chandogya (viii. 6. 6). Katha iv. 5b. =vr. Br. iv. 4. 15b. Katha iv. 13d. = Br. i. 5. 23d. iv. 5cd. = Br. iv. 4. 15cd. v. 2. = Rg. iv. 40. 10. iv. 8. = Sāma. i. 2. 3. 7. = Tait. S. i. 8. 15. iv. 9ab. = Atharva. x. 18. 16. v, 7d. ef. Kauş. i. 2. = Br. i. 5. 23ab. v. 9b. = Rg. vi. 47. 18. iv. 9c. =vr. Br. ii. 5. 15. Br. ii. 5. 19. iv. 10cd. = Br. iv. 4. 19cd. vi. 3. =or. Tait. ii. 8. iv. llab. = Br. iv. 4. 19ab. vi. 14. = Br. iv. 4. 7. 4 iv. 12cd. =, Br. iv. 4. 15cd. With regard to the metrical portion of Br. iv. 4 (even by Deussen admitted to be late) it is not clear whether this is prior to the Katha,3 or whether it is (as Belvalkar holds) largely

1 R.P.V. 502. 2 C.C.B. 68. 3 I started out with the presupposition of the priority of the Brhada- ranyaka, even in its metrical portions, and the commentdry sometimes betrays this. I have moved more and moro however toward Belvalkar's view that the Katha is here prior.

46 INTRODUCTION

made up of quotations from the Katha and the Isa, or whether there was a common store of verses which teachers of different schools felt free to use and adapt. Leaving these Br. iv. 4 passages aside it is curious how little definite quotation from Upanisad sources remains. Two of the four remaining Br. passages are originally quotations from the Samhitas. The passage sa evadya sa u svah (Br. i. 5. 23d= Katha iv. 13d) also occurs in the Br. as a quotation from another source, but I have not been able to trace it. Tam devah sarve arpitas (Katha iv. 9c.)=(vr.) asmin ātmani sarve devāh samarpitāh (Br. ii. 5. 15) is the residuum of what seemed at first sight such an impressive list of quotations from the Brhadaranyaka. It is quite possible therefore that the author even of Katha II made no direct use of the text of any other Upanisad.1 On the other hand it seems quite clear that he was in touch with the school of thought represented in the Brhadaranyaka. Among the most charac- teristie doctrines of the Yajnavalkya section is that of the antaryamin or Inner-controller, who dwells in fire, wind and sun, in the breath and bodily powers, and also in mind and under- standing, and yet is other than all these. "He is your Soul, the Inner-controller, the Immortal." (Br. iii. 7.) Our author does not use the word antaryämin, but he speaks of the antarāt- man (Inner-soul) who is also eko vasi (One controller), immanent yet transcendent, in very similar terms. It seems clear that he knew and used Yājñavalkya's conception, adapting it so as to bring out more clearly its theistic nature.

1 Ro the verse in common with Tait. there is really nothing to show that the one Upanisad quotes the other. Notes on page 47 : .- 2 R.P.V. 500. 3 H.L.P. 95. 4 Mundaka and Śvetaśvatara parallels with Kațha. Mund. i. 2. 8. =vr. Katha ii. 5. Svet. ii. 9. ef. Katha iii. 3. ii. 1. 2. ef. iii. 1lb. ,, iii. 18.ab .= ' vi. 17ab. ii. 1. 4. cf. v. 9c. , iii. 13.cd .= vi. 9ed. ii. 2. 10. = v. 15. ,iii. 20. =ur. ii. 20. ili. 2. 3. = ii. 23. , iv. ll.ed. =vr. i. 17cd. ili. 2. 8. cf. vi. S. „ iv. 20. =07. vi. 9. , vi. 12. =vr. v. 12. iii. 1. 1 = S'vet. iv. 6 .* vi. 13.ab .= v. 13ab. v. 15. * (Keith quoting this parallel says, " Mund. apparontly uses Svet ". „, vi. 14. =

But there is nothing to show this.)

KAȚHA AND GĪTĀ 47

(d) Quotations from the Katha. Keith says that " the Isa is clearly dependent on the Katha ",2 and cites Isa 8 cf. Katha v. 13. The case cited is not clear, but Iśa 4, 5, and 6, 7, may be dependent on Katha ii. 21, and iv. 5, 12. Belvalkar holds that Mundaka is intermediate between Katha I and Katha II, holding that Mund. ii. 2. 10 is more original than Katha v. 15.8 Here we dissent. The Mundaka, though probably not much later than Katha II, quotes from and is dependent on both sections of the Katha.4 The Svetasvatara also is clearly dependent on both Katha I and II. It is probably somewhat later than the Mundaka, its theology and its yoga showing much more advance on the Katha than does the Mundaka. Then, in order, probably come Mahanarayana, Praśna and Maitri, the last of which very freely quotes the Katha and expands some of its ideas.

The Gita has a specially close relation to the Katha U panisad, being virtually an expansion of the parable of the chariot. Not only does it frecly quote from the Katha, but it uses its characteristic phrases and adopts and develops its characteristic thoughts.5 It is also clearly dependent on the Śvetāśvatara.

5 The Gita is dependent on the Katha in the fellowing passages : Gītā Katha Gītū Katha ii. 19, 20, on ii. 19, 18. xi. 53, 54, on ii. 23. ii. 29 „ ii. 7. xiii. 31-33 , v. 11. iii. 42 „ iii. 10, 1l. xv. 1 vi. 1. viii. 11 , ii. 15. xv. 6 v. 15. Compare also the following phrases : Gītā Katha Nāyam loko 'sti na parah. (4. 40) Ayam loko nāsti parah. (2.6) Prāk šarīra vimoksaņat. (5. 23) Prāk šarīrasya visrasah. (6. 4) Hanta te kathayişy smi. (10. 19) Tad dhāma paramam mama. (8. 21). Hanta te idam pruvaksyāmi (5. 6) Tad vişnoh paramam padam. (3. 9) Ya idam paramam guhyam, (18. 68). Ya imam paramam guhyam, (3. 17) mad-bhakteşv abhidhāsyati. śrūvayed brahma-samsadi.

Here we have not only obviously reminiscent phraseology which shows a very close acquaintance of the Gitakeva with the Katha, but, allied with it, conscious development of the thought which can surely leave no doubt which way the dependence lies. Yet only ten years ago Sir S. Radha- krishnan could write, "The Katha Upanisad ... quote: freely from the Bhagavadgīta ", and appond a note, "Some cholars are inclined to the

48 INTRODUCTION

Conclusion : The first adhyaya of the Katha shows close acquaintance with the modes of thought prevalent in the Brahmanas and no trace of acquaintance with Buddhist thought, though a strong interest in the problems which moved men during Buddha's time. Spite of its metrical form all the evidence goes to favour a fairly early date, though it obviously does not belong to the earliest group of Upanisads. All this suggests a date some- where about 550 to 500 B.C. In the third valli, however, we have hints for the first time of a new development of thought,-there is explicit recognition of a distinction between the individual and the supreme soul, a doctrine of yoga, and a suggestion of a distinction within the Supreme being which provides a basis for theism. These hints are taken up and developed in the second adhyāya, and then in the Mundaka and Śvetāsvatara Upanisads, and the movement of thought culminates in the theology of the Gila,-the doctrine of Krsna as the Highest Person; of Brahman or the aksara avyakta (cternal unexpressed) as his higher nature, the basis of individual souls and their goal and abode when saved by grace; and of the world as a lower expression of that same nature. The linkage is clear and the whole movement of thought may not have required more than a century.

Katha and Gita (continued from previous page). viow that the Katha is older than the Gita ". (I.P. vol. I. 142.) Indian opinion is curiously inclined to cling to the antiquity of the Gita, oven as against other sastras. Even Principal Dasgupta, who in the first volume of his H.I.P. could write, " Though we may bo slow to beliove such an early date as has been assigned to the Bhagavadgita by Telang (4th century B.c.) yet I suppose that its date could safely be placed so far back as the first half of the first century B.C. or the last part of the second century " (p. 421) now, at the end of his second volume, suggosts that it was pre-Buddhist. But the discussion of this snbject demands another volumo-from him. (Re the relation of the Katha ant the Gita, students may further consult Prof. D. S. Sarma's excellent little book, The Katha and the Gita, Madras, 1932.) Also for a description of the age and circumstances in which the Gita was probably written, the chapter on "The Age of the Gita " in the Introduetion to his Bhagabad Gita.

DATE AND ARGUMENT 49

The Katha then is linked with the Brahmanas on the one side and with the Gita on the other. Intermediate is the third valli which is part of the first adhyaya yet is the fountain-head of the new development. (It is for this reason, no doubt, that Belvalkar suggests an intermediate date for its composition.) As to the date of the Gita there is still much uncertainty, but all the evidence (summarised in the Introduction to Hill's Bhagavadgīta, 1-18), suggests that on the one hand it is post- Asokan and on the other not much later than the Ghasundi and Besnagar inscriptions, i.e. 230 to 150 B.C. If then we may venture to suggest dates which fit the evidence we have been trying to summarize. Katha I may have been composed about 500 B.C. Tiii (if separate) 400 II 350-300 Mundaka 280 Śvetāśvatara 250-200 The Gitā 200 But there are so many elements of uncertainty that all this is still tentative.

The Argument of the Katha. Caveat. A synopsis, if it is not a colourless list of headings, is necessarily also an interpretation. For its justification and also, in places, for material for quito different interpretations, the reader is referred to the commentary. Valli I. The story of Naciketas in the house of Death. 1-9. To keep his father's word Naciketas goes to the house of Death, where for three days he remains unfed. To atone for inhospitality Death offers him three gifts. 10-11. For the First Gift he chooses return to his father. . 12-19. For the Second Gift, knowledge of the Naciketa fire-sacrifice, leading to immortality. 20-29. For the Third Gift he chooses knowledge concerning the meaning of "the great Passing-beyond ". Death tests Naciketas by offering instead all that men usually value,- sons, wealth, power, long life, "and every kind of pleasure. Naciketas rejects them all, for in the presence of Death he bas seen their vanity. He asks again therefore to know the secret of what lies beyond death.

50 INTRODUCTION

Valli II. Death's teaching concerning Immortality,-the dis- cernment and attainment of eternal reality. 1-6. There are two ways,-the way of knowledge and of good, and the way of ignorance and pleasure. Men, deluded by the fair shows of life and grasping at fancied gain, fall into a childish materialism which is the cause of their slavery to death. 7-11. Wonderful and hard to comprehend is the supreme Reality,-unattainable indeed by human reasoning. Such knowledge can only be imparted by a true spiritual teacher to a fit pupib Yama therefore accepts Naciketas as his disciple, but recognises that in one respect he is superior to himself. For Yama, through sacrifice, has obtained the sovereignty of heaven, while Naciketas is rcady to surrender all wealth, heavenly as well as earthly, that he may know ultimate reality. Verses 12 and 13 begin the instruction. The reality Naciketas seeks is very deeply hidden, yet through adhyātma- yoga (spiritual yoking, or meditation on the inner self) its divine nature may be realised. Apprehending it as Spirit a true inquirer like Naciketas attains that which is of supreme value. 14. That is what I want, said Naciketas. I do not ask about religious duties or merits, or their results. I seek to know that which is deeper than all the happenings of time. Tell me about eternal Reality. 15-17. In the first place, replied Yama, cternal Reality is symbolised by the word "Om " which is, or represents, the imperishable Brahman,-the supreme goal, the supreme stay of all, and the only source of true greatness. 18-20. Now look within. Birth and deathenre only bodily changes. There, at the centre of your being, in the undying Soul, is eternal reality. There in your own heart you may, by Divine grace, have a vision of the greatness of the Atman, -your own self, yet the Self of all, and so may be delivered from all sorrow. 21-25. Yet how may the Self be gained ? For ordinary men with ordinary methods He seems a baffling enigma. Keenness of intellect, scripture learning, religious instruction,

ARGUMENT 51

all these by themselves are vain. But to the purified, tranquil, collected soul the Supreme Soul, in grace, manifests himself. Other men, no matter what their social or supposed religious status, are but the food of Death. Valli I1I. The Parable of the Chariot, teaching adhyātma- yoga,-the yoking of the soul with the eternal reality which is its basis. 1-9. The third valli begins by distinguishing two souls, called shadow and light (i.e. the individual and the supreme souls). The relation of the two, and the way by which the individual may yoke all his powers for the attainment of the highest, are set forth in the parable of the chariot. The individual soul is lord of the chariot of the body. Its active powers (the indriyani or " senses", pictured as horses) may be potent for good or evil. Only when well yoked and controlled by mind and reason can they be guided to the right goal (described as " the highest place of Visnu "). Here then we are introduced to the way of Yoga defined later as indriya- dharaņa,-" control of the senses ", i.e. to the yoga of discipline. 10-13. The next section seems to teach a higher yoga,-the yoga of communion. Reason, the "charioteer ", is a faculty of the atman,-the individual soul, called "great " because it is lord of all the faculties. But the soul can only rise to the height of its powers and effectively control the " senses " when it realises that it is the expression of a deeper principle,-the divine nature or energy called Avyakta (" the Unexpressed "), the ground both of the world and of all individual souls. Still more ultimate is the Purusa, the highest Self or " Person ". . 14, 15. This way which goes beyond all outward, empirically describable things, beyond our finite separate personality to the eternal ground of all being, is said to be " sharp as a razor's edge ". Yet for keen, earnest souls it leads beyond death to immortality. 16, 17. Here probably ended the original Upanisad, and these two verses describe the result of its recital. (But it raised problems concerning the nature of the Self and the'meaning of yoga, which a later teacher sought to solve, possibly with reference to discussions in other schoole of the Yajur Veda.)

52 INTRODUCTION

Valli IV. The need for Inner Vision, leading to the perception and attainment of unity. 1, 2. Our normal vision is outward, through the senses to the world: but a certain sage (possibly Naciketas) desiring im mortality turned his vision inward and saw the Self. 3-5. What is meant by the Self ? Verses 3 and 4 define it as the perceiving and knowing subject. But the experiencer, called in verse 5, atman jiva, " the living soul", is not a mere individual. It is one with the eternal Lord, and knowledge of this truth strips away all fear. 6-9. yerses 6-9 quote or refer to a number of Vedie mantras which show that the One Lord, who has entered the human heart as the soul, is also the universal Soul, from which all creation has sprung. He is the supreme life-power, worshipped in the sacrifice through the såcred fire. He is seen also in the sun, which like all nature powers has its being in Him. 10, 11. All beings then, ultimately regarded, are one, and it is failure to realise this unity which is the cause of death. 12, 13. The human soul was popularly supposed to reside as a " thumb-sized person " in the heart. Yet the inner person is not to be viewed as a separate individual, for it is one with the eternal Lord. 14, 15. So, it is repeated, failure to perceive unity leads to distraction and waste. Perception of unity leads to unity. Valli V. The Inner-soul, immanent yet transcendent. 1-8. The Lord of the city of the body is also immanent Lord of the world. He is eternal Brahman yet as individual soul He dwells (like a dwarf) in human bodies. As such He is subject to transmigration, which is determined by knowledge and decds. His essential nature as Self is seensin that He is eternally conscious even in those who are asleep. He is also the Brahman, the eternal world-ground. 9-11. He is, then, the Antaratman,-the one Inner-soul of all beings. Like air and fire he is immanent and all-pervading, " enwrapped in every form". Yet He is also transcendent : none can fully express Him. He also transcends the sorrow and imperfection of the world, being like the sun, which reveals the faults in visible things but is itself untainted by them.

ARGUMENT 53

12-14. As Inner-Soul He stands within the individual soul, and they are truly wise who direct their vision within and find Him there. Such vision alone brings enduring joy and peace. But how is such vision possible. Only as He himself shines into the seeking soul. Valli VI. The way of adhyatma-yoga further expounded. Verses 1-3 begin by comparing the world to an inverted pipal tree, whose unscen root is Brahman. He is the mysterious awful living energy from whom the universe originates and whom its powers must ever obey. 4, 5. Through knowledge of Him a man is saved and fitted for higher life. Such vision is possible in all the worlds through which the soul may pass in its long transmigration, but nowhere is clearer vision possible than here and now, within one's soul. 6-8. In order to obtain this diberating vision a man must penetrate within to the inmost recesses of his being; beyond the senses and instincts, beyond mind, beyond reason to the great soul. Beyond that also to its unexpressed basis (the Avyakta). Beyond that to the highest Person (Purusa). 9 -- 13. That Person, being all-pervading and bodiless, can never appear to outward vision, yet by hcart and thought inward apprehension is possible. The senses and mind must be withdrawn from outward objects, even reason must cease to strive, and, with all one's powers held in control, one must vigilantly concentrate all one's attention within. To do this, faith in the existence of the inmost Person is first necessary, but this leads on to immediate experience in which his inner being, which transcends all description, is made manifest. 14, 15. Thus all the knots that bind the heart are cut. ' Desiring only Brahman one attains Brahman, and so attains to imm ortality. 16-18. Concluding appendices.

कठोपनिषत्।

ओं सह नाववतु। सह नौ मुनक। सह वोयं करवावहै। तेजखिनावधौतमस्तु। मा विद्विषावहै।

ॐ शान्तिः। पान्तिः। प्रान्तिः। Om ! Saha nāv avatu; Saha nau bhunaktu; Saha vīryam karavāvahai; Tejasvi nāv adhītam astu; Mā vidvişāvahai; Om : sāntih, sāntih, sāntih.

THE KATHA UPANIŞAD

Introductory Prayer.

Om ! May He proteet us both ! May He be pleased with us ! With vigour may we work together ! Successful may our study be ! Let there be no variance between us! Om ! Peace! Peace! Peace !

The Introductory Prayer is not part of the Upanisad proper and is not found (or occurs in abbreviated form) in many MSS. It is found prefixed to other Upanisads also, e.g. the 2nd and 3rd vallis of the Taittiriya. Teacher and pupil recite it together before they begin their study. Harmonious co-operation between teacher and pupil in vigorous keen study will, by God's help, lead to success. Tejasvin (keen, bright, energetic, successful) may refer to the brightness and keenness of the study or the splendour of its successful result, or to both.

56 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD

First Valli .- The legend of Naciketas, found in the Taittirīya Brāhmaņa, III. 11. 8 (given in Appendix I, page 214) is taken to provide a dramatic setting for a discussion on the nature and conditions of immortality. The original Brāhmana story is told to explain the origin and title of the so-called Naciketa fire sacrifice and to extol the blessings which it confers. The Brahmin boy, Naciketas, is told by his father in a fit of anger to go to Death. He goes to Yama's house and finds him absent, and so for three days and nights remains there unfed. Yama, on his return, thus convicted of the sin of in- hospitality to a Brahmin, offers three gifts in recompense. For the first Naciketas said, " Let me return alive to my father" For the second, "Tell me how my good works (ista-purte). may not be exhausted". For the third, "Tell me the conquest of re-death (punar-mrtyu)". In answer to both the second and the third questions we are told, " He (Yama) told him this Nāciketa fire".

In Rg-Vedic times men looked forward after death to a happy immortality in which they would unite with the fathers and the gods and enjoy the reward of their good works (istā- purte, "sacrifices and works of charity ") in highest heaven. (See Rg. X. 14, quoted p. 63.) In the Brāhmanas we sce a growing doubt and fear that such happiness may not last. What if the effect of the good deeds wears out and in place of the desired immortality in the next world there comes renewed death ? Hence the priestly teaching that many sacrificial rites are required to save from this : and among these is the Naciketa fire. Still later, in the early Upanisad period, came fear of rebirth on earth (see Keith, R.P.V. 570-3). The author of the Katha Upanisad, teaching in a period when not only the doctrine of transmigration but also materialist and other nastika doubts as to any continuing self had developed, substitutes for Naciketas's third request as given in the Taitti- riya Brahmana (which is only a repetition of the second), the request that he may be taught the real meaning of the "great transition " which men call death, and by this know- ledge may be set free. With the answer to this third question, which begins with the second valli, the Upanisad teaching proper begins. The first valli, with its account of the Naciketa

1-3 FIRST VALLĪ 57

।। प्रथमा वलौ॥I कों॥ उपन्ह वै वाजश्रवसः सर्ववेदसं ददौ। तस्य ह नचिकेता नाम पुत्र आास । १॥

तं ह कुमारं सन्तं दक्षियासु नौयमानासु श्रद्धाऽडविवेभ सोऽमन्यत। २। पौतोदका जग्धतगां दुग्धदोष्दा निरिन्द्रियाः। वनन्दा नाम ते लोकास्तान्स गच्कति ता ददत् ॥ ३॥

Prathamā Vallī.

1 Uśan ha vai Vājaśravasah sarva-vedasam dadan : Tasya ha Naciketā nāma putra āsa. 2. Tam ha kumāram santam daksiņāsu nīyamānāsu śraddhā 'viveśa so 'manyđta. 3. Pītodakā jagdha-trņā, dugdha-dohā nirindriyāh : Anandā nāma te lokās, tān sa gacchati tā dadat.

FIRST VALLI.

Naciketas and his father.

1. Being desirous (of reward) Vajaśravasa 1 gave all his goods (in sacrifice). Now he had a son named Naciketas. 2. Though he was but a boy, as the offerings were being led away faith entered into him, and he thought : 3. Their water drunk, their grass caten, Their milk milked, their strength worn out : Joyless, surely, are those worlds, Tb which he goes who gives these (cows). 1 Or, Usan Vājaśravasa. fire, is simply a dramatic introduction, though it is interesting as representing a type of thought which, first developed in the Brahmanas, still persisted alongside of the thought of the Upanisads and was indeed far more widely prevaieht. 1. Being desirous (usan) : The first word of the Upanisad strikes the key-note of the religion of.the Brahmanas,-desire for earthly or heavenly gain, pfompting sacrifices to the gods

58 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 1-3

and gifts to the priests. The key-note of the Upanisads is sounded in II. 20: "One who is free from desire beholds Him". This is the note also on which the Upanisad ends: When all desires are given up That dwell within the human heart, Then mortal man becomes immortal,- Even here to Brahman he attaineth. Sometimes in the Upanisads and in later literature this liberation from desire tends to be spoken of as the attainment of an infra-human, stone-like indifference. The story of Naci- ketas is valuable as showing that this is not the true way of regarding it. The story links up the religion of the Brahmanas and the religion of the Upanisads and shows that the latter was not merely the antithesis but also the true fulfilment of the former. In the Brahmanas sacrifice had become mechanical and soulless. But there was a right idea behind it. Vajaśra- vasa's vow to give all that he had in sacrifice and in gifts to the priests was only a conventional exaggeration, and he inter- preted it like Ananias. But his son Naciketas, into whose heart faith had entered with the enthusiasm of youth, was shocked when he saw the selection of old cattle his father really offered, and it secmed to him sheer sacrilege. Both to save his father and to keep faith, he felt bound to offer himself. Dedica- tion of the whole self in faith is the true sacrifice. It is desire- less in the sense that it is prompted by no desire of reward, but it leads to "fulfilment of desire " in the highest sense. Re Usan, we have followed the traditional interpretation given by Sankara and all commentators on the Upanisad. In his bhasya on the Taittiriya Brahmana, howevor, Bhattabhaskara Miśra, commenting on Uśan ha vai vājaśravasah, says, Uśan nāma vajaśravaso 'patyam,-" The offspring of Vajasravas named Usan", and this certainly seems a more natural reading of the Sanskrit. There still remains the possibility that the name was invented in Bunyan's fashion to suit the story,-"Mr. Desirous " ; (or perhaps "Willing" or "Zealous"; for in the Brahmana there is no criticism of the offering on the ground that the cows were so poor or that Vajaśravasa was not sincere, but simply a feeling on the part of Naciketas that a son was needed to complete the offering). Note that verses 1, 2, and 4 are in prose, and are an almost exact quotation from the Taittiriya Brahmana. The reflections of Naciketas in verses 3, 5, and 6, are in verse (like the rest of the Upanisad) and are an addition to the original Brahmana story. 3c is a tag which may possibly be quoted from Br. iv. 4. lla, but moro likely is a current saying variously applied in various contexts (ef. also Isa 3).

4-5 FIRST VALLI 59

स होवाच पितरं तत कस्मै मां दास्यसौति। द्वितीयं ततीयं तं होवाच म्त्यवे त्वा ददामौति। ४ ॥

बहनामेमि प्रथमो बहनामेमि मध्यमः। किंखिद्यमस्य कर्तव्यं यन्मयाद्य करिष्यात । ५।

4. Sa ha uvāca pitaram, Tata kasmai mām dāsyasi_iti; Dvitīyam trtīyam 'tam ha uvāca, Mrtyave tvā dadāmi iti. 5. Bahūnām emi prathamo, bahūnām emi madhyamaḥ; Kimsvid Yamasya kartavyam, yan mayā 'dya karişyati.

5. Then he said to his father, "Father, to whom will you give me ? " Twice he asked and thrice. Then (being angry) he answered, "To Death do I give you."

6. (Naciketas thought), Out of many I go foremost, Out of many I go midmost; What, I wonder, does Death need done, That he will do by me to-day.

7. To whom will you give me? Sankara says, Kasmai rtvig-višeşāya dakşiņārtham mam dasyasi-"To whom, i.e. to what particular priest will you give me as a daksiņā or offer- ing ? " The explanation scems reasonable. Naciketas was willing to be given as a servant to make up as far as he could for the defect of his father's offering. His father, however, angered by the persistence of his " priggish " son, bursts forth with the equivalent of an angry Englishman's "Go to hell". His words were probably a mere expression of annoyance but Naciketas, in his piety, takes them literally, and sets out for the house of Yama, the god of death. Quite what we are to understand by this is not clear,-the story in the Tait. B. as well as in the Katha is very sketchily told. In Vedic times Yama's house was conceived as in highest heaven, usually in the sun, and inaccessible to mortals. Max Müller supposes that " the father, having once said so, though

60 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 6

वानुपश्य यथा पूर्वे प्रतिपश्य तथाऽपरे। सस्यमिव मर्त्यः पच्यते सस्यमिवाजायते पुनः । ६।

6. Anupaśya yathā pūrve, pratipaśya tathā 'pare; Sasyam iva martyah pacyate, sasyam iv' ājāyate punaķ.

7. Look back, as (fared) the former men, Look on, so will the after ones : Like corn a mortal ripeneth, Like corn, is hither born again.

in haste, had to be true to his word and sacrifice his son ". Whitney is however probaoly correct when he says, "To suppose anything of the kind is quite out of the spirit of the story. He simply goes, as naturally as in folk-lore stories everywhere people go to the (prosaically) most impossible places."

5, 6. Śankara represents Naciketas, startled at what has happened, going apart to reflect. Is it just that he should have to die ? He has tried to do his duty and cannot help knowing that ho is better than many sons ("Among many I go first"). At least he is not worse than tho average (" Among many I go midmost"). His father has obviously spoken without purpose but thero must be purpose behind. It must be, he roflects, that God has some special need of him. Then, seeing his father full of grief, Naciketas comforts him with the words of verse 6, which following Sankara, we should render, "Look back, how mon of old behaved, Look round, so others now behave." i.e. Your ancestors never falsified their word, and good men to-day never do so. Besides, what gain would there be? Man at best is transitory,-what will happen must have happened vew soon. Do not grieve for what is inevitablo and don't think of breaking your word. We have given Sankara's explanation as it merits consideration, and is followed by practically all Indian commentators, but it is surely moro ingenious than convincing. . We are rather inelined, with Max Müller and Whitney, to regard both, vv. 5 and 6 as a meditation of Naciketas, the subject of both being the same, tho transitoriness of human lifo. After all it is nothing nnique that has happened to him. Ho is one of a large company moving toward the world of the departed,-the first of many who will come after, the midst of many of his contemporaries. Tho important thing is to find but the meaning of it all, for it must have a meaning. Why is Yama singling him out ?- what will ho do through

7 FIRST VALLĪ 61

वैश्वानर: प्रविपात्यतिथिर्ब्राह्मण गटह्दान्। तस्यैतां प्रान्तिं कुर्वन्ति हर वैवखतोदकम् । 9 ।

7. Vaiśvānaraḥ pravisati, atithir brāhmaņo grhān ; Tasya elūm šāntim kurvanti, hara Vaivasvata udakam.

Naciketas in the house of Death.

7. Like unto Fire a Brahmin guest Makes entry into houses: They make this his peace-offering,- " Bring water, O Vaivasvata".

him ? The same idea is repeated in another and more generalised form in verse 6. As Whitney says, "He sends his gaze first along after (anu) his predecessors, and then in the other direction to meet (prati) those who are coming after him," -- all fare alike. Then comes the classic couplet on transmigration, -- man is like corn which ripens and rots that it may be born again. Verse 6 may possibly be an interpolation. It is unnecessary after verse 5. It is an anachronism if we have in view the supposed date of the Naciketas story (Tait. B. mentions punar-mrtyu but not punar-janma). It is dramatieally incorreet in that Naciketas is here representod as al- ready knowing a good deal about "the great, passing-beyond". On the other hand if we view the matter from tho standpoint of the author of the Katha Upanisad, transmigration had by his time become an es- tablished doctrine and stood in the fore-front of men's minds. The Brhadaranyaka had first explicitly taught it, and thereafter all the Upani- sads assume it and seek deliverance from it. It is not unnatural there- fore that it should find mention at this point where Nacikotas is setting out on his search for cternal reality.

Between verses 6 and 7 there is a gap. In the Brāhmana story Naciketas goes to Yama's house at the command of a divine Voice. Sankara however fills in as follows: "Thus addressed, the father sent him to Death to keep his word, and he having gone to the mansion of Yama fasted for three nights, Yama being away. When Yama returned his ministers or wife said to him,"-then follow verses 7 and 8. 7. Vaiśvanara means " belonging to all men ". It is an epithet of Agni, occurring 60 times in the Rg Veda, and is usod to designate fire in all its aspects. Vaivasvata, i.e. Yama, son of Vivasvat (the sun).

62 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 8

आभाप्रतोक्षे सङ्तं सून्टतां चेषापूर्ते पुत्रपश्रूंख सर्वान्। एतडक्के पुरुषस्याल्पमेधसो यस्यानम्रन्वसति ब्राह्मणो महे।८॥ 8. Āśā-pratīkse sangatam sūnrtām, ca istā-pūrle putra-pašūms-ca sarvān, Etad vrńkte purusasya alpa-medhaso, yasya anaśnan vasati brahmano grhe. 8. Hope and expectation, friendship and joy, Sacrifices and good works, sons, cattle, all, -- All this is wrenched from him of little wit In whose house a Brahmin abides unfed. Just as fire is appeased by water, so a Brahmin guest must be pleased with hospitable entertainment, beginning with water to wash his feet, otherwise his presence, like fire, is des- tructive to the house. Note the high position of the Brahmins at this period ; even a god is represented as guilty and liable to great loss if he offends one of them. As the Satapatha Brahmana said, "There are two kinds of devas, the gods in heaven and the Brahmins on earth". (II. ii. 2. 6.) To some extent, however, the Katha may be regarded as a piece of Brahmin propaganda. It represents the supreme knowledge of the Atman as having been divinely revealed to a Brahmin, whereas the older Upanisads represent this knowledge as first attained by Ksatriyas and communicated by them to Brahmins. Thus the Brhadāranyaka and the Chandogya represent the Brah- min sage Gautama Aruni, the teacher of the great Yājñavalkya, as receiving instruction from Pravahana Jaivali, King of the Pañcalas, who says, "This knowledge has never come to Brahmins before you". (Br. vi. 2, Ch. v. 3, esp. 7.) In the Kauşītaki (i. 1) Äruņi is also said to have gone a. punil to King Citra Gārgyāyana, and in Br. ii. 1 and Kaus. iv. the proud Brahmin Gārgya is represented as a pupil of Ajātaśatru, King of Kaśi. (But see Keith, R.P.V. 492-6 and Dasgupta, H.I.P., 31, 33-35.) 8. Sangata=fellowship, friendly intercourse. Sunrta in Vedic Sanskrit means "joy" (see Macdonell, S.D.). In later Sanskrit, especially among the Jains, it meant the virtue of kindly speech. (Sometimes aiso "truth," opp. of anrta.) Śankara interprets, "The fruit resulting from fellowship witb.good men and from true and pleasant speech ".

9 FIRST VALLĪ 63

नमस्ेडस्तु ब्रह्मन् खस्ति मेडस्तु तम्मात्प्रति त्रोन्वरान्वगौव्व । ह ।

9. Tisro ratrīr yad avatsīr grhe me, anaśnan brahmann atithir namasyah, Namas te 'stu brahman svasti me 'stu, tasmāt prati trīn varān vrņīşva.

10. (Yama returns and addresses Naciketas). Since Brahmin, in my house you have abode three nights, Unfed,-a guest who should have been revered, Homage to thee, O Brahmin, welfare to me ! Therefore in recompense choose thou three gifts.

" Sacrifices and good works" (Ista-purte) : ista, pp. of yaj=sacrificed, so thigs sacrificed, sacrifice. purta, pp. of pr=filled, fulfilled, so n. (1) fulfilment, (2) merit or charitable work. Śankara says, istāpūrte-istam yāgajam phalam, pūrtam ārāmādi- kriyajam phalam. " Istam means fruit produced by sacrifice, purtam- fruit resulting from such works as planting gardens, etc." This agrees with the regular Vedic use of the phrase. Cf. for example the great funeral hymn, Rg Veda X. 14, where the departed soul is addressed as follows : Sam gacchasva pitrbhih, sam Yamena, istapurtena parame vioman. "Unite thou with the fathers and with Yama, With the reward of thy sacrifices and good works in highest heaven." (See Macdonell, V.R.S. 170.) Vrnkte, 3 s. pr. A. of vrj, P. vrnakti, to turn, twist. A .= to remove, wrench away (from anyone, g. or ab.). The subject is brahmanah, and the literal translation, " A Brahmin wrenches away all this, (i.e. all the things enumerated in the first half verse) from the man of little under- standing in whoso house he remains unfed". Śankara: vrnkte-avar- jayati, vināsayati. (" Vrnkte=removes, destroys.") With verso 8 cf. Br. vi. 4. 12, where a Brahmin who has been injured curses his injurer with the words, "I take away your sons and cattle (putra-pasums-te adade), I take away your sacrifices and meritorious deeds (iatā-sukrte), I take away your hope and expectation (āśa- parākāśau)".

9. Welfare to me (svasti me astu), i.e. P'ardon me and let me be freed from the sin of inhospitality.

64 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 10, 11

प्रान्तसङ्गल्प: सुमना यथा स्याद्ोतमन्युरगौतमो माभि म्टत्यो। त्वत्प्रष्टषं माभिवदेत्प्रतौत एतत्तरयागं प्रथमं वरं दयो॥१० ॥

यथा पुरस्ताङ्गविता प्रतौत औौदालकिरारुगिमत्पसकः । सुखं रात्रोः भुयिता वौतमन्युस्वां ददृशनिवान्मृत्यमुखात्प्रमुक्कम् । ११॥

19. Šānta-sańkalpah sumanā yathā syād, vīta-manyur Gautamo mā 'bhi mrtyo, Tvat-prasrstam ma 'bhivadet pratīta, etat trayāņām prathamam varam vrņe.

20. Yathā purastād bhavitā pratīta, Auddālakir Arunir mat-prasrstah; Sukham rātrīķ šayitā vīta-manyus, tvām dadrsivān mrtju-mukhāt pramuktam.

The First Gift.

10. (Naciketas said :) That with anxiety allayed and anger gone, Gautama may be gracious to me, O Death,- That he may know and welcome me, by you sent back,- This choose I as the first gift of the three.

11. (Yama replied :) Auddālaki Aruņi having known you Sent back by me, will be just as before : Sweet will he sleep at night, his anger gone, . On seeing you from Death's (dread) maz released.

12. Mat-prasrstah, "sent back by me," is nom. in apposition with the subject, Auddalaki-Aruni. But this gives an unsuitable meaning, since the one sent back is Naciketas, not his father. Sankara intorprets as mayā anujnātah, "permitted er instructed by me". This is quite different from the obvious meaning of the phrase in the previous verse, and cannot be accepted. Böhtlingk amends the text to prasrste, " Hav- ing recognised (you) A-A will be just as before to one by me dismissed". Whitney suggests prasrstam, and we accept his emendation as almost inevitable. Se we render, " Just as before wil! A-A be, having recognised

10, 11 FIRST VALLĪ 65

(you as) one sent back by me". Whitney himself however renders, "As of old shall A-A be cheerful (toward thee) sent forth by me," -- somo- what doubtfully accepting the second meaning of pratita. Pratita, pp. of prati+i, gone toward and therefore (1) rocognised, known, acknowledged, and so (2) convinced, satisfied, cheerful. Com- menting on pratita, in verso 10, Sankara says, pratito labdha-smrtih,-sa eva ayam putro samāgatah ity-evam pratyabhijanan ity-arthah. " Pratīta means recollected, rocognising this is my very own son come back again." On the whole we prefer to follow Sankara here, though Hume and Deus- sen join Whitney in rendering, " cheerful " or "happy," and this gives rather a better order to the sentence. Deussen keeps the reading, mal- prasrstah, but interprets quite differently from Sankara : " Auddalaki Aruņi will be just as before, Happy will he be, released by me (from his words)." If we wish to avoid emendation, this is probably the best rendering.1

Gautama and Auddālaki-Aruni. are names of Vājaśravasa.1 Gautama is probably a clan name, and the other name may mean either Auddalaki, son of Aruna, or the son (or descendant) of Uddālaka and Aruna. What then is his relation to the famous rsi Uddālaka Aruņi, so prominent in Br., Ch. and Kaus .? (Sce note on 7.) Possibly an unworthy son, i.c. Auddālaki, son of Uddālaka, son of Aruņa,-Yājñavalkya being his spiritual descendant. (Sce the traditional list of teachers in the Vāja- saneyi school, Br. vi. 5.) Vājaśravasa is also a patronymic, son or descendant of Vajaśravas, a name which occurs third before Aruņa. But probably the names, which are all patronymics, are not intended to be historical.

'1 See note on Usan (page 58) pointing out that Bhattabhaskara Miśra in his commantary on the Taittiriya Brahmana takes Usan as the personal name of Vajaśravasa. (See A. Mahadeva Sastri's odition, Astaka III, pt. II, 234. (Mysore 1913). Also Macdonell and Keith, V.I. 282.) Charpentier (Indian Antiquary, 1928, pp. 205, 223) considers that the Katha identifies Usan Vajaśravasa, the father of Naciketas, with the famous Uddalaka Aruņi. Auddālaki.Āruņi therefore means Naciketas. So he renders verse 11 " As of old he will be full of joy; (since) the son of Uddalaka Aruņi has (already) been let loose by me", i.e. Yama im- plicitly tells Naciketas that he is already free to go back. So too Hillebrandt, " Aruni, son of Uddalaka, is (herewith) roleased by me". (Aus Brahmanas und Upanisaden, 117) .

66 THE KAȚHA UPANIȘAD 12

खर्गे लोके न भयं किंचनारिति न तत्र त्वं न जरया बिभेति। उभे तौलयाश्ननायापियासे शोकातिगो मोदते खर्गलोके ॥१२॥

12. Svarge loke na bhayam kiñcana asti, na talra tvam na jarayā bibheti : Ubhe tīrtvā 'sanāyā-pipāse, śoka atigo modate svargaloke.

The Second Gift :

Knowledge of the Sacrifice, leading to Immortality. . 12. (Naciketas said :) In the heaven-world there is no fear whatever : Thou art not there, nor does one fear old age : Having crossed over both hunger and thirst, Sorrow o'er-past, one rcjoices in heaven.

12. Thou art not there : i.e. death, in the sense of the cause of decay and fear. But Yama, the god of death, though in later mythology a gloomy and fearful being, was in Vedic times regarded as the leader of men to the joys of the heaven- world, often conceived as located in the sun, where ruled his father Vivasvat. So the great Funeral Hymn, Rg X. 14, says : "Yama was first to find for us the pathway." And the departing soul is addressed as follows : "Go forth, go forth along the ancient pathway, By which our former fathers have departed. Thou shalt behold god Varuna and Yama. .. Leaving behind all blemish." With regard to the joy of the heaven-world Rg IX. 113, says : " Where radianco inexhaustible Dwells, and tho light of heaven is set, Place me, clear flowing one, in that Imperishable deathless world." "Make me immortal in that world, Where dwells the King Vaivasvata, Where stands the inmost shrine of heaven And where the living waters are." When the Katha Upanisad was written, however, this bright faith had passed away. Though Naciketas seems to give

13, 14 FIRST VALLĪ 67

स त्वममिं खर्ग्यमध्येषि म्टत्यो प्रब्रृष्टि तं श्रद्दधानाय मह्म्। खर्गलोका ाम्टतत्वं भजन्त एतद्ितौयेन वयो वरेय। १३।

प्र ते ब्रवोमि तदु मे निबोध खर्ग्यममिं नचिकेतः प्रजानन्। वानन्तलोकाप्तिमथो प्रतिकठां विद्धि त्वमेतं निहितं गुह्ायाम् ॥१४॥

13. Sa wvam agnim svargyam adhyesi mrtyo, prabrūhi tam1 śraddadhānāya mahyam : Svargalokā amrtatvam bhajante, etad dvitiyena vrne vareņa.

14. Pra te bravimi tad-u me nibodha, svargyam agnim Naciketah prajānan : Ananta-lokāptim atho mratisthām viddhi tvam etam nihitam guhāyām.

15. Thyself, O Death, know'st well the heavenly fire, To me do thou declare it, who have faith : (By it) heaven's people share immortal life : This choose I as the second of the gifts.

16. (Death said :) To thee do I declare it, mark me well, Knowing well the heavenly fire, Naciketas : The means of attaining the infinite world And its foundation,-know this hidden in the cave.

expression to it in this verse, it is clear from his later questions that the doubts as to the future life which came in toward the end of the Brähmana period and which developed into the agnosticism of Buddhism, had affected him also. 13 ff. These verses reflect the thought of the Brahmana period. In it the sacrifice became of predominant importance,-more important even than the gods. It was through the power of the sacrifice that the gods were said to have gained the victory over the asuras and to have gained immortality. See for example Satapatha Brāhmana, III. 6. 1, 28 and 29. . 1 13.b. tam, so B. and C. A. "reads tvam but against the weight of cited Mss. evidence.

68 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 14

14. The fire of the sacrifice is called "heavenly," first be- cause it is identical in nature with that Agni which in his heaven- ly form shines in the sun, and secondly because it leads to heaven. "He who sacrifices doubtloss does so that he also may obtain a place in the world of the gods. That sacrifice of his goos forth towards the world of the gods : after it follows the sacrificer. .... He now strides the Visnu strides. Gratifying the gods by sacrifice ho acquires a share among them, and having acquired a share among them he goes to them. .... When one has thus ascended these worlds, that is the goal, that is the safe refuge " (or abode, pratistha). (Satapatha B. I. 9. 3.) The wcrd pratisthu means that on which anything stands or rests, and so "foundation," "abode," "refuge". In the passage just quoted the heaven-world itself, identified with the sun, is spoken of as the pratistha or safe abode of the blessed departed. "He looks up toward the sun, for that is the final goal, that is tho safe refuge." (.B. I. 9. 3. 15.) In our verse however the sacrificial fire is spoken of as the pratistha or support of the heaven world, as later, in II. 11, it is said to be the support of the universe. The phrase "Hidden in the Cave" (nihitam guhayām) is one of the characteristic phrases of the Upanisads.1 It is pos- sible that here it may primarily refer to the fire which is hidden in the fire-sticks until it is set free by friction. (See IV. 8.) But the more usual reference is to the cave of the human heart, -" the cave in the midst of the body " (guhā sarīrasya madhye, Tait. Brāhmaņa, I. 2. 1. 3). The prime meaning then is that Naciketas should know that that fire which is both the means of attainment and the support of the heaven-world is also the vital heat or energy in his own heart. But there is a second and deeper meaning behind which Yama will later make ex- plicit and which forms the central teaching of the Upanisads : fire being the symbol of that ultimate power which is the founda- tion or support of the universe and which may be intuitively known as the inner Self. The Katha Upanisad thus begins with the ritual religion of

1 Like the 'similar phrase guha-hita (II. 12.) it is used in the Rg Veda of tho treasuro (of rain) which the drought-demons (Vrtra, Ahi), hid in the cloud-caves. . See I. 130. 3; X. 71. 1.

15, 16 FIRST VALLĪ 69

the Brahmanas, but then it is shown that it is not the sacrifice itself but realisation of its inner meaning which gives salvation.

लोकादिममिं तमुवाच तस्मै या इछका यावतौर्वा यथा वा। स चापि तत्प्रत्यवदद्यथोक्तमथास्य म्त्यः पुनरेवाह तुछः॥१५॥

तमब्रवोतपोयमायो महात्मा वरं तवेहाद् ददामि भूयः । तवैव नाम्ना भवितायमम्रि: सङ्गं चेमामनेकरूपां गह्दाय । १६।

15. Lokādim agnim tam uvāca tasmai, yā istakā yāvatīr vā yathā vā: Sa ca api tat pratyavadad yathoktam, Atha asya mrtyuh punar ev' aha tustah.

16. Tam abravīt prīyamāņo mahātmā, varam tavaziha adya dadāmi bhūyah: Tava eva nāmnā bhavitā 'yam agniḥ srnkām ca imām aneka-rūpām grhāņa.

17. He told him of that fire, source of the world : What bricks (are required for the altar), how many, and how best arranged ; And he in turn repeated it as told. Then, pleased with him, Death spoke even yet again :

18. Being delighted, the Great-soul addressed him : I give you herc to-day another boon, -- By thy name only shall this fire be called ; Accept also this many-pattern'd chain.

19. That fire, source of the worlds (lokādim ugnim). lokadi=loko +ādi=lokānām adi. Loka means world in the sense of a division of the universe. So there are often said to bo two lokas, carth and heaven ; or three (+air); or seven, variously named. The most obvious rendering of lokadi is source or origin of the worlds. Agni in the Rg Veda is often identified with Prajapati, the ereator. Again in Katha v. 9, we are told that the one Fire, having entered the universe,

15.d. Some Mss. read punar aha, raking the line metrical. 16.d. B. ca mām.

70 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 16

assumed all forms. (Cf. Heracleitus.) Also with regard to the sacrificial fire we are told in Br. i. 2. 7., " This fire is the arka, the worlds are its embodiment". Lokadi might also mean ' first of the worlds'. So Sankara says, " Fire is lokanum adi because it was the first embodied existence". So in the Rg Veda, Agni is often represented as the first born son of Dyaus. Also Ch. vi. 8. 4, says that all other things evolved from fire (tejas) which was itself the first product of essential Being (sat.).

The simplest interpretation is that Yama taught Naciketas the proper arrangement of the fire-sacrifice, glorified in Brah- mana fashion as source and support of the worlds.

16. Max Müller (Introd. S.B.E. XIV, p. xxv), considers that verses 16- 18 are an insertion. "Death had granted three boons to Naciketas and no more. In a later portion of the Upanisad (ii. 3), however, the expression sraka vittamayi occurs, which I have translated by ' the road that leads to wealth'. As it is said that Naciketas did not choose that srnka, some reader must have supposed that a sraka was offered him by Death. Srnka, however, meant commonly a string or necklace, and hence arose the idea that Death must have offered a necklace as an additional gift to Naciketas."

Re Srka, we do not know Max Muller's authority for saying that it commonly means necklace, since apparently it only occurs in these two Katha verses. In this vorse, joined with aneka-rūpa we may infer a meaning like necklace or garland, but in ii. 3, it seems to mean a road. So Sankara in this verse hesitates between the two meanings, "a neck- lace of precious stones " (ratnamayi māla), and "the way or knowledge of works (karmamayi gatih) (i.e. the sacrifice) which is not to bo despised because it is productive of many fruits". Deussen, howevor, suggests "chain," as suiting both cases, here an ornamental chain and in ii. 3, a golden fetter.

We accept Deussen's suggestion and point out in support that srnka may very well be connected with the common word for chain, śrnkhalā, which in Prakrit appears without the aspirate as though fior a Sanskrit form śrnkala. For the variation between s and ś cf. śrgala and srgāla (jackal). (See Turner, Nepali Dictionary, s.v. sanlo.)

The chain is called aneka-rupa, which might be rendered " many- coloured " if reforring to a jewelled chain, but more literally means "multiform", "many-pattern'd". 'This may merely refer to the rich ornamentatioa. of the chain, or the chain may have been a kind of talis- man, engraved with varions mantras or with figures possessing a symbolic (sacred or magic) meaning. This would lend significance to nicayya imam of tho next verse if we interpret it as meaning, as Prof. F. W. Thomas suggests, "gazing at this (chain)".

17,18 FIRST VALLĪ 71

तियाचिकेतस्त्रिभिरेत्य सन्धिं त्रिकर्मक्वत्तरति जन्मम्त्यू। ब्रह्मजजं देवमौदं विदित्वा निचाय्येमां प्रान्तिमत्यन्तमेति ॥१७॥

त्रियाचिकेतस्तयमेतद्विदित्वा य एवं विद्वांख्िनुते नाचिकेतम्। स म्टत्यपाभान्पुरतः प्रगोद्य शोकातिगो मोदते खर्गलोके ॥ १८ ॥

17. Triņāciketas tribhir etya sandhim, trikarma-krt tarati janma-mrtyū: Brahma-ja-jñam devam īdyam viditvā nicāyya imām šāntim atyantam eti.

18. Triņāciketas trayam etad viditvā ya evam vidvāms cinute nāciketam: Sa mrtyu-pāśān purataḥ praņodya śoka atigo modate svargaloke.

19. Who thrice has lit the Naciketa fire, Having attained to union with the three, -- The doer of the triple work, He crosses over birth and death : Knowing the god adorable, Who knoweth what is Brahma-born, Revering (him) one goes for ever to this peace.

20. Having a triple Naciketa, having known this three, He who, thus knowing builds the Nāciketa (fire), Having thrust off before the bonds of death, Sorrow o'er-past rejoices in the heaven-world.

21. The story of Nacikctas as we have said first occurs in the Taitti- riya Brahmana in connection with the Naciketa fire sacrifice. Yama reveals the sacrifice to Naciketas and does him the honour of calling it by his name. Nāciketa is thus treated as an adjectivo derived from Naciketas (i.e. relating or belonging to Naciketas). Whitney points out that in this case the form should be Nāciketasa. Triņaciketa (bahuvrīhi compound) : "Having a triple Naciketa," i.e. "He by whom the fire of the Naciketa sacrifice has been thrice kindled," or, "He who has kindled three Naciketa fires". The Nacileta seems to have been a form of the Agnihotra. For a description of this with its thrce fires (Garhapatya, Ahavaniyg and Daksina) see, e.g. the 2nd kanda of the Satapatha Brahmana. (S.B.E. XII.)

72 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 17,18

17, 18. Union with the three : Having known this three : Sankara explains " the three " of verse 17, with whom one must have union in performing the sacrifice, as "father, mother and spiritual teacher" (acarya), or alternatively "Veda, smrti and good men". The explana- tion is not convincing. The triple work he explains as " sacrifice, study and almsgiving" (ijya-adhyayana-dāna). "This three," of verse 18, he explains differently, referring back to the instruction of Yama in verse 15, "What bricks, how many, and how arranged". 17b. Brahma-ja-jña : Śańkara takes ja and jña as in appo- sition, and interprets as "the omniscient one who is born of Brahman". He takes it as referring to Hiranyagarbha (" the golden germ " from which according to Rg Veda X. 121, the universe developed). This Sankara takes to be a name of Saguna-Brahman. This however is reading much later Vedantic conceptions into the Upanisad. (Sce pp. 88, 133ff.) The most natural interpretation is to take Brahma-ja-jña as a name of Agni, i.c. the knower (jña) of Brahma-ja, i.e. what is born of Brahman, i.e. the universe. That is to say the name is equivalent to Jtavedas (the all-knower)-a con- stant Vedic name for Agni, who is here also called idya (adorable) and deva (resplendent or divine).1 Hume points out that nicãyya may carry a double meaning : "revering" (Agni) and " building up " (the fire which is his symbol). It might also mean "gazing at", "perceiving". (So Śankara comments, tam . . . viditvā šāstratah nicāyya dratvū cagatmabhavena,-"Having known him from scripture and having re- alised him as the self. ")

1 Brahma-jajñam viditvā nicāyya: Quite a different rendering is pro- posed by Hillebrandt (followed by Charpentier), -"Having known and meditated upon (the texts) brahma jajnanam (A.V. iv. I. 1) and devam idyam (some unidentified Agni hymn), he for eternal time goes to this peace". Soe Hillobrandt, T.K. and A.B.U. 118; Charpentier, I.A. (1928). Geldner, (V.B. 158, note 895), also says, " Bocause he has known and beheld the Brahman of the woll-known verses brahma jajnanam, A.V. 4.1." For these texts see Bloomfield, Vedic Concordance, sv. brahma jajñanam prathamam purastät, 656. In most of the passages the reference is to the sun or heavenly fire, called, "the brahman born first in the east " (jajñāna pf. p. A. of jan, cf. Gk. yiynuat,). See for example T.S. iv. 2. 8. d. . (Keith V.B.Y.S. 321) and Ś.B. vii. 4. 1.,14. (S.B.E. 41, 366.)

19 FIRST VALLI 73

एष तेडग्रनचिकेत: खर्ग्यो यमदगथा द्वितौयेन वरेग। एतमयिं तवैव प्रवत्यन्ति जनासस्ततौयं वरं नचिकेतो टगोग्व। १६।

19. Eşa te 'gnir Naciketah svargyo yam avrnīthā dvitīyena vareņa: Etam agnim tava eva pravaksyanti janāsas, Trtīyam varam Nuciketo vrņīsva.

20. This is thy heavenly fire, Naciketas, Which thou hast chosen for the second gift : This fire thine alone will people call : Choose now, O Naciketas, the third gift.

"This peace" (imāni sāntim)-Sankara oxplains as svabuddhi. pratyaksum fantim,-the peaco which is immediately realised in one's own experience. But the phraso "this poace" is grammatically awkward since, apart from verse 7, this is the first referonce to santi. Whitney therefore takos imam santim as governed by nicayya, regarding santim, in the sense of "appeasemont", as referring to the Naciketa fire. "Revering this appeasement he goes to the ondless." Grammatically, however, it would be natural to separate imum and santim, taking imam deictically as referring to srnkam. On the other hand we note that in S'vet. iv. 11, where our verse is partially quoted, nicayya clearly governs devam idyam, and imam santim govorned by eti can only mean "this peace".

Returning to the Three, which the sacrificer has to know and with which he is to be united, we suggest that the reference is to the agni-traya, the three sacrificial fires, but to these as representing or symbolising the triune Agni (trivrt agni) who is later identified with Brahman. See again Satapatha B. I. 9. 3, and after the passage quoted (p. 68) note verses 14 and 15. "He looks or the ahavaniya fire saying, 'We have united with the splendour'. He then looks up toward the sun (the heavenly fire) for that is the final goal, that is the safe resort. To that goal, to that resort, he thereby goes." This whole passage then (Katha I. 12-19) moves within the sphere of ideas of the Brähmaņas, but note the insistence on knowledge of the sym- bolism of the sacrifice by which we pass to the thought of the Upanişads. Read again the note on verse 14.

74 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 20-24

येयं प्रेते विचिकित्सा मनुष्येऽस्तीतेके नायमसतौति चैके। एतद्विद्यामनुश्निषस्वयाऽहं वराकामेघ वरस्ततौयः ।२०॥

देवैरत्रापि विचिकित्सितं पुरा न ह्ि सुविज्ञेयमगरेष धर्मः । धन्यं वरं नचिकेतो दगौव्व मा मोपरोत्सौरति मा सजैनम्।। २१॥

देवैरतापि विचिकित्सितं किल त्वं च म्टत्यो यम्र सुज्ञेयमात्य। वक्का चास्य त्वादृगन्यो न लभ्यो नान्यो वरस्तुल्य एतस्य कखवित् । २॥

भूमेमहदायतनं दणौष्व खयं च जीव परदो यावदिच्कसि।। २३।

एतत्तल्यं यदि मन्यसे वरं दृगौष्व वित्तं चिरजौविकां च। महाभूमौ नचिकेतस्त्वमेधि कामानां त्वा कामभाजं करोमि । २४ ॥

20. Yā iyam prete vicikitsā manusye, astizity-eke, na ayam asti iti ca eke ; Etad vidyām anušistas tvayā 'ham, varāņām eşa varas trtīyah.

21. Devair atra api vicikitsitam purā, na hi sujñeyam anur esa dharmah : Anyam varam Naciketo vrņīsva, mā mā uparotsīr ati mā srja enam.

22. Devair atra api vicikitsitam kila, tvam ca Mrtyo yan na sujñeyam āttha : Vaktā ca asya tvādrg anyo na labhyo, nazanyo varas tulya etasya kaścił. 23. Śatāyusah putra-pautrān vrņīsva, bahūn pašūn hasti-hiraņyam aśvān; Bhūmer mahad āyatanam vrņīsva, svayam ca jīva śarado yāvad icchasi.

23. Etat-tulyam yadi manyase varam, vrņīşva vittam cira-jīvikām ca : Mahābhūmau Naciketas tvam edhi, kāmānām tvā kīma-bhājam karomi.

20-24 FIRST VALLĪ 75

The Third Gift :

Knowledge concerning the great Passing-beyond.

20. (Naciketas said :) This doubt there is about a man departed,- Some say, 'He is,' some, 'He does not exist'; This would I know, instructed well by thee : Of the three gifts, this gift is the third.

21. (Death said :) Even the gods of old on this point doubted, For subtle is this truth and hard to know. Choose then another boon, O Naciketas ! Do not entreat me, give this up I pray !

22. (Naciketas said :) Even the gods indeed on this point doubted, Which thou too say'st, O Death, is hard to know : Of it no other teacher can be found like you, Nor is there other boon to equal this.

23. (Death said :) Centenarian sons and grandsons choose thou, Many cattle, elephants, gold, and horses : Choose thou far-flung dominion of the earth, And live thyself as many autumns as thou wilt.

24. Or, if thou thinkest other boon equal to this, Choose-riches and a long extended life : On the great earth, O Naciketas, be thou (king); Of th ,' desires I make thee free-enjoyer.

25. Nagasti-" he doos not exist". The prevalence of such nastikas or disbelievers in the soul's eternal existence has been considered by some to be an indication of a post-Buddhist date for the Upanisad. Or the reference may be to the Carvakas, a school of materialists which dates from quite ancient times. But such doubts are natural to man in all ages. See Introduction. 21. d. Literally, "Do not importuno me, let this go for me". Ma uparotsih, aor. without augmont usod as impemativo. rudh=to obstruct, aor. 3. s. arotsit. upa +rudh=to besiego, importune.

76 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 25-28

वे ये कामा दुर्लभा मर्त्यलोके सर्वान्कामांफ्कन्दतः प्रार्थयख। इमा रामा: सरथा: सतूर्या न हौदृथा लम्भनीया मनुष्यैः। व्ाभिमंत्रप्रत्ताभि: परिचारयख नचिकेतो मरगं मानुप्रा्तीः ।२५॥

शवोभावा मर्त्यस्य यदन्तकैतत्सर्वेन्द्रियाणं जरयन्ति तेजः। अषि सर्वैं जौवितमल्पमेव तवैव वाह्ास्तव न्टत्यगौते । २६।

न वित्तेन तर्पगौयो मनुष्यो लशयामहे वित्तमद्राक्मा चेत्वा। जौविष्यामो यावदौभनिष्यसि त्वं वरस्तु मे वरगौय: स एवं ।२७॥

वजीर्य तामम्टतानासुपेत्य जोर्यन्म्त्यः क्धःस्थः प्रजानन्। अभिध्यायन्वर्णरतिप्रमोदानतिदोर्घे जौविते को रमेत । २८॥

25. Ye ye kāmā durlabhā martyu-loke, sarvān kāmāms chandatah prārthayasva: Imā rāmāh sarathāh satūryā na hi īdrśā lambhanīyā manusyaih, Ābhir mat-prattābhiķ paricārayasva, Naciketo maraņam mā 'nuprākşīḥ.

26. Śvobhāvā martyasya yad antaka etat sarvendriyāņām jarayanti tejah : Api sarvam jivitam alpam eva, tava eva vāhās tava nrtya-gīte.

27. Na vittena tarpaniyo manusyo, lapsyāmahe vittam adrāksma cet tvā : Jīvişyāmo yāvad īsişyasi tvam, varas tu me varaņīyah sa eva.

28. Ajīryatām amrtānām upetya jiryan martyah kvadhahsthah prajānan, Abhidhyāyan varņa-rati-pramodān atidirghe jīvite ko rameta.

28.b. One Mss. has kvavasthah ; two, kvadhastah. Sankara gives the v.l., kva tadāsthah. Hillebrandt, T.K., adopts kv-avasthah.

25-28 FIRST VALLĪ 77

25. Whate'er desires in mortal world are hard to win,- For all desires at pleasure make request : These lovely girls, with chariots and lutes, Such as are not obtainable by men,- By these, by me bestowed, be waited on : O Naciketas, ask not about dying.

26. (Naciketas said :) Ephemeral things ! They wear away, O Death, Whatever vigour of his powers a man may have. All life, moreover, at the best is bricf : Thine be the chariots, thine the dance and song !

27. Never with wealth can man be satisfied. Shall we get wealth if we have seen thee ? Shall we even live as long as thou shalt reign ? That boon then must I choose, and that alone.

28. Drawing near the agelessness of the immortals, What aging mortal here below that understands, Weighing the joys of beauty and of love, Would delight in an over-long life ?

29. bhūmer mahadāyatanam -- " a groat expanse of oarth". Sankara, -- prthivyāh vistīrņam sāmrājyam. 24. c. translates literally the toxt, mahabhūmau, etc. and the word "king " has to be supplied. Probably we should amend to mahān bhu- mau .- " On earth, O Naciketas, be thou great". 25. The story of the temptation of Naciketas presents points of similarity with that told of Buddha. A vision of Apsarases is suggested. 26. Svobhuvah : "existing till to-morrow," so "things of a day". 27. Śankar wreats lines b, c, as an affirmation,-"We shall obtain wealth if we have seen thee, we shall live as long as thou shalt rule," -- "for how could a man after approaching theo bo poor or short-lived ". Treatod as interrogative howover the sonse is much bettor. So, Muller, Humc, Whitney, etc. With line c. ef. Hebrews, ii. 15, "That he might deliver them who through fear of death wero in all their living subject to bondage". Fear of death is an obsession which destroys both the power and the zest of real living. 28. Ajīryatām-Sankara and others who follow him seem to take this for a g. pl. agreeing with amrtanam. . But why should upetya govern

78 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 29

यस्मिब्निदं विचिकित्मन्ति म्त्यो यत्सांपराये महति बरृद्टि नस्तव्। योडयं वरो गठमनुप्रविळ्ठो नान्यं तस्मान्नचिकेता दगोते। २६।

29. Yasminn idam vicikitsanti Mrtyo, yat sāmparāye mahati brūhi nas tat : Yo'yam varo gūdham anupravisto, Na anyam tasmān Naciketā vrņīte.

30. Tell me this thing whereon they doubt, O Death, What is the meaning of the great transition : - This boon which penetrates the mystery, Naught else than that doth Naciketas choose.

the g .? We have taken as acc. s. of ajiryata (only here). Max Müller suggests ajaryatā and Whitney, ajuryatā or ajūryatā. Kvadhahsthah. (another an. Ney.) we have takon as=ku (deprocatory +adhah-stha (standing below), i.e. on this wretched earth. Two ånat deyoueva in one verse surely suggest a corrupt text. varna. rati (" beauty and love ") : varna-external appearance, colour (so caste), beauty ; rati=sense-delight, soxual pleasure, love. 29. yat samparaye mahati-" what there is in the great passing beyond," i.e. the meaning of the great transition. Samparaya=sam + parā+aya; samparaya, adj. relating to the sam- paraya, noun-the meaning of the passing beyond, the other life or world to which it leads, or (=samparaya) the passing beyond, i.e. death itself. gudham anupraviata : ontered into the hidden, penetrated the mystery.

It is clear from Naciketas's restatement of his question in verse 29 that verse 20 did not fully express his meaning. The question was not merely, "Does a man continue to exist after death ?" It is clear, as Ramanuja points out, that the first two requests are meaningless except as implying a belief in such existence (Sb. I. 2. 12.). In the Brahmana story the question was, How shall one overcome the danger of re-death and so secure immortality ? Here the question is, What is the mean- ing of desth? What is the nature of the state to which death leads ? And this is later seen to mean, What is the nature of eternal Reality ? What is man's relation to it ? and how can he reach it ?

79

SECOND VALLĪ

The Second Valli begins the Upanisad teaching proper; from this point on Death is supposed to be the speaker. There are two ways : the way of good and the way of pleasure, i.e. the way of illusion of a seeming material wealth, obtainable by the senses, which leads to repeated death. To enter the way of good, which is the way of knowledge of true reality, a spiritual teacher is first needed. Verses 10 and 11 next seem to point out that not only must the way of pleasure be given up but also that good which seeks heavenly satisfaction, if the highest good of all is to be obtained. This consists : the vision of the inmost reality by adhyātma-yoga. This reality is symbolised by "Om" and is called Brahman. It is identical with the Atman, the self hidden in the heart. It is both too great and too subtle and deeply hidden to be gained by in- tellectual knowledge yet it reveals itself to those it chooses. Those alone are fit to be chosen who have gone along the way of good to a collected and peaceful mind. The Two Ways,-of good and of knowledge, and of pleasure and ignorance. The Upanisads are said to teach the jñāna- marga, the way of salvation through knowledge, and are often criticised as being too purely intellectual. The criticism is not unfounded, especially if Sankara is taken as guide to their meaning. Knowledge is far too often conceived as intellectual assent to a philosophy of pure monism. It is fair to point out, however, that Sankara, like all the commentators on the Upanișads and Vedānta-sūtras, emphasises preconditions for entering on the way of knowledge which are largely moral in nature. So, commenting on the first verse of the Vedānta- sutras,-"Then therefore the inquiry into Brahman,"-he says that the preconditions for such an inquiry are, (1) Dis- crimination between eternal and transient things; (2) Renun- ciation of the desire for the enjoyment of reward; (3) Acquire- ment of tranquillity, self-control, patient endurance and re- verence (śraddhā) ; and (4) Desire for salvation. (1. Nityānitya- vastu-viveka, 2. ihamutrārtha-phala-bhoga-virāgah, 3. sama- damādi-sādhana-sampat, 4. mumukșutva.) The story of Naci- ketas is, an excellent illustration of these requirements.

80

॥। द्वितोया वहनौ। वन्यच्रेयोऽन्यदुतैव प्रेयस्ते उभे नानार्थे पुरुषं सिनौतः। तयोः श्रेय वाददानस्य साधु भवति शौयतेऽर्याद्य उ प्रेयो दयोते ॥ १ ॥

श्रेय प्रेयस मनुष्यमेतस्तौ संपरीत्य विविनक्नि धौर:। श्रेयो हि धौरोऽभिप्रेयसो वणैते प्रेयो मन्दो योगक्षेमाढगौते ॥२ ॥

नेतां हङ्गां वित्तमयौमवाप्ो यस्यां मज्जन्ति बहवो मनुष्याः॥ ३॥

दूरमेते विपरीते विषची व्विद्या या च विद्येति ज्ञाता। विद्याभोभिनं नचिकेतसं मन्ये न त्वा कामा बहवोऽलोलुमन्त॥ ४ ॥

वविद्यायामन्तरे वर्तमाना: खयं धौरा: परिडतं मन्यमाना: । दन्द्रम्यमाया: परियन्ति मूठा अन्धेनैव नौयमाना यथान्धाः।५ू॥

Dvitīyā Vallī.

1. Anyat śreyo 'nyad uta eva preyas te, ubhe nānārthe puruşam sinītah; [Tayoh] śreya ādadānasya sādhu bhavati, hīyate 'rthād ya u preyo vrnīte.

2. Śreyaś-ca preyaś-ca manusyam etah, tau samparītya vivinakti dhīraḥ; Śreyo hi dhīro [abhi] preyaso vrņīte, preyo mando yoga-ksemād vrņīte.

3. Sa tvam priyān priya-rūpāms-ca kāmān, abhidhyāyan Naciketo 'tyasrāksīḥ; Na etām srkām vittamayīm avāpto, yasyām majjanti bahavo manusyāh.

f. Dūram ete viparīte vișūcī, avidyā yā ca vidyā iti jñātā; + Vidyā-'bhīpsinam Naciketasam manye, na tvā kamā bahavo 'lolupanta.

1-5 SECOND VALLĪ 81

5. Avidyāyām antare vartamānāh, svayam dhīrāh paņditam manyamānāh; Dandramyamāņāh pariyanti mūdhā, andhena eva nīyamānā yathā 'ndhāḥ.

The Two Ways. 1. One thing is the good (sreyas), quite other the pleasant (preyas) : Both these with different aim bind man (to action) : Well is it for him who takes hold of the good ; He fails of his aim who chooses the pleasant.

2. Both the good and the pleasant approach a man : Going all round them the wise discriminates : For good before pleasure a wise man chooses; The fool, for 1 property, prefers the pleasant.

3. But thou, the pleasant and sweet-seeming objects, Examining, O Naciketas, hast renounced, Not having fastened on that chain2 of riches Wherein so many mortals sink to ruin.

4. Far opposite are these two and divergent,- Ignorance and what is known as knowledge : Eager for knowledge deem I Naciketas ; Many delightful things did not distract you.

5. Abiding in the midst of ignorance, Self-wise, thinking themselves learned, Fools go about, rushing round and round, Like blind men led by the blind. 1 Or, to property. 2 Or, Not having taken to that way of riches. 1. Sreyas, ep. of śri, splendour, beauty, fortune, means generally superior. Here, and a number of times in the Gita, it means the morally excellent, the good. . preyas, cp. of priya=dearer; here means the pleasant, that which to most is dearer than the good. "He fails of his aim" or "misses the goal " (hiyate arthad). Many of the Biblical words for sin mark it as a misging of the aim or goal of life. (So Gk. apapria and Heb. NU, hata' and its derivatives.)

82 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 2-5

2. Yoga-kşema is generally interpreted as "getting and koeping ". So Sankara here takes as meaning sariradi-upacaya-raksana-nimittam, i.e. "The fool prefers the pleasant, -such things as cattle, ete. for the pur- pose of fattening and preserving his body". But this doos not bring out the ironic punning of the text. The most usual meaning of yoga- kaema is "property", "possession", "prosperity ". So, the fool, i.o. the worldly-wise materialist, for the sake of getting and keeping, i.e. for property, prefers things which give bodily comfort. But the abla- tive may also mean "in preference to", "rather than". So, the fool to (real abiding) property (i.e. the good) prefers tho pleasant. This agrees with the use of the phrase in Gita ix. 22, whore it is said that Krsna himself undertakes the maintenance of his devotees, or provides their yoga-lesema, i.c. property, security, all that they really need.

"Those men who think on me alone, Who worship me and naught beside, Of these, my constant devotecs, I myself take the maintenance." (Or, " I furnish full prosperity ", Yoga ksemam vahamy aham.)

Our text, we take it, plays on the two meanings of the ablative to point the folly of the materialist view of life. Compare Matthew vi. 19-34.

3. Chain of riches (srnka vittamayi): As we said in commenting on I. 16, the meaning of srnka is uncertain. Sakara trcats it there as meaning "necklaco" and here as meaning "way". Hume, to be con- sistent, renders by "garland" in this verse also, which obviously does not suit the context. Whitney says " The use of majjanti, ' sink' indi- cates that srnka moans something like 'slough' or 'pool'", but that does not suit I. 16. Deussen's 'chain' (Kotte), which might in I. 16 mean an ornamental chain set with jewels and here a fotter, is the only conjecture which suits both cases. Following him we read, "Not having fastened on that chain of riches ". All difficulties would disappear if, following Geldner and Charpentier, we amend majjanti to sajjanti and so read, " Not having fastened on (or accepted) this chain of riches, wherein so many mortals are entangled".

4. Divergent : visuci, f. dual of visvanc (visu=on both sides, and añc=to go or lead).

Distract : alolupanta, 3 pl. imperf. A. intensive of lup, to injure, tear. The intensive is said to have the meaning 'confound' but Whitney thinks it is invented to suit this case. He and Hume take the primary meaning and render " Many desires do not rend thee". (?amend to lolupyante.) We have taken kāmā objectively.

5. Cf. Malthew xv. 14. " If the blind lead the blind, both shall fall into tho ditch." The wards rofer to the obstinate self-conceit of the Pharisees.

6 SECOND VALLI 83

न सांपरायः प्रतिभाति बालं प्रमाद्यन्तं वित्तमोहेन मूढम्। कायं लोको नास्ति पर इति मानो पुनः पुनर्वभमापद्यते मे ॥६।

6. Na sāmparāyah pratibhāti bālam, pramādyantam vitta-mohena mūdham; Ayam loko na asti para iti mānī, punah punar vaśam āpadyate me.

The cause of repeated death. 6. The passing-beyond is not clear to the childish, Careless, befooled with the glamour of wealth : "This world exists, there is no other,"-thinking, Again and again he falls within my power.

6. Na sāmparayah pratibhāti balam: The meaning of the passing- beyond (i.e. death) does not shine (i.e. is not cloar, intelligible) to the child. Child (bala) is here synonymous with fool, and so is rendered "childish ". It ironically refers to the materialistically minded man who prides himself upon his hard sense. It is interesting to contrast this with the quite opposite conception of the child-mind set forth in Brhadaranyaka III. 5. 1. Uşasta asks Yājñavalkya to explain the Brahman who is the self within. Yajnavalkya says negatively, "Thou canst not see the seer of the sight, .. thou canst not know the knower of what is known". How then, asks Kahola, is it possible to come into touch with the inner-self? Yajnavalkya then replied, " Let a Brahmin, casting aside his learning, take his stand on childhood " (pāndityam nirvidya bālyena tisthaset). Here balya (ehildhood) evidently betokens a state of simplicity and intuitional understanding, and the saying may be com- pared with that of Jesus, " Except ye become like little children ye shall not see the kingdom of God". Although the conception of childhood differs in the two passages, the Katha Upanisad, in the verses which follow, resembles the Brhadāranyaka (l.c.) in that it sets small value on argumentative reasoning as a means of reaching the Self. So verse 9 announces very em- phatically, "Not by reasoning (tarka) is this thought to be obtained ". This thought may be the thought of the sāmparāya,

84 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 7-8

the meaning of the great transition beyond death. But it evidently means also the thought of the ultimate reality to which that transition leads if one has becn enlightened and delivered.

अ्वगायापि बङभिर्यो न लभ्यः पूटरन्तोऽपि बह्वो यं न विद्य:। व्स्चर्यो वक्ञा कुशलोऽस्य लब्धाऽडच्चर्यो ज्ाता कुपलानुभियः।।

न नरेशावरेग प्रोक्त एष सुविज्ञेयो बञधा चिन्त्यमानः। कानन्यप्रोक्के गतिरत्र नास्त्यौयान्ह्यतक्यमयाप्रमागात् ।८।।

7 Śravaņāya api bahubhir yo na labhyah, śrnvanto 'pi bahavo yam na vidyuh ; Āscaryo vaktā kušalo 'sya labdhā, āścaryo jñātā kušalānuśistah.

8. Na narena avareņa prokta esa suvijñeyo bahudhā cintyamānab ; Ananya-prokte gatir atra nāsti, anīyān hy atarkyam aņupramāņāt.

The Need of a Spiritual Teacher. 7. He whom many cannot even hear of, Whom many, even hearing, do not know,- Wondrous His teacher, skilful His attainer, Wondrous His knower, skilfully instructed.

8. Not taught by an inferior man can He Be truly understood, though much considered ; Save by another taught there's no way thither, For He is inconceivably subtler than the subtle.

7-9. One of the things on which Hinduism has always most strongly insisted is the need for a guru or spiritual teacher. This has sometimes been extravagantly and unintelligently stated, but in essence it is correct and follows from the very nature of religious truth. 7. Literally, "He who by many is not obtainable evon for hearing". Śankara comments, "Of thousands who seek good, it is only some one like you who becomes th8 knower of the atman". This is due to (1) the subtlety of tho self which is beyond argumentative reasoning or

9 SECOND VALLI 85

नैषा तर्केया मतिरापनेया प्रोक्तान्येनेव सुज्ञानाय प्रेक। यां त्वमापः सत्यष्टतिर्बतासि त्वादृङनो भूयान्नचिकेतः प्रछा ॥। ६ ।

9. Na esā tarkeņa matir āpaneyā, proktā 'nyena eva sujñānāya prestha; Yām tvam āpah satya-dhrtir bata asi, tvādrk no bhūyāt Naciketah prastā.

10. Not by reasoning is this thought obtainable, Though, by another taught, well may one know it, friend : Thou hast obtained it, being true and steadfast ;-... May we find, Naciketas, a questioner like thee !

demonstration, (2) the need of an absolutely sincere and steadfast purpose (satya-dhrti) on the part of the seeker, (3) the need of a guru who him- self has realised the highest. 8. Though much (or manifoldly) considered (bahudha cintya- manah): We have supplied the word " though ". Sankara supplies " be- cause " and obtains an opposite meaning. For him an inferior teacher means a dualist. "Taught by a man of inferior, i.e. worldly, understanding the Aiman is not easily knowable. because He is variously diseussed by disputants. But if the Atman is taught by a preceptor who is free from the notion of duality and has become one with tho Brahman, there is no doubt, .... for there is nothing else knowable." The explanation seems forced : the simplo meaning is that no amount of individual think- ing will supply the place of a good teacher. Ananya-prokte gatir atra nasti : We have rondered, " Not taught by another there is no way thither," i.e. to Brahman or the true Self. Sankara takes ananya-prokte as meaning, "tanght by one who is non- different", -- i.e. who has realised his oneness with Brahman. Then, " there is no way thither" means there is no way beyond Brahman,- knowledge stops there; or else, " there is no further travelling into samsāra ". Almost certainly Sankara is here, as in so many places, forcing his own interpretation upon the text. 8. Subtler than the subtle (aniyan anupramanat) : literally, "more atomic in measure than an atom". Atarkyam may be taken in two senses. (a) It may be used adverbially ; in that case aniyan hi utarkyam anupramanāt will be rondered as above : so M.M., W., H. (6) Sankara, however, takes it as an adjectivo qualifying the subject-" For He is subtler than the subtle and unprovable by argument." So most Indian commentators., This suits the general mean- ing of the passage.

84 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 7-8

the meaning of the great transition beyond death. But it evidently means also the thought of the ultimate reality to which that transition leads if one has been enlightened and delivered.

श्रवसायापि बज्भिर्यो न लभ्यः पूटरन्तोऽपि बष्टवो यं न विद्यः। व्ख्तर्यो वक्का कुशलोस्य लब्धाडस्र्यो ज्ाता कुपलानुश्रियः।७।

न नरेगावरेगा प्रोक्त एष सुविज्ञेयो बञधा चिन्त्यमानः। कानन्यप्रोक्े गतिरत्र नास्त्यगौयान्ह्यतक्यमगाप्रमागात् ।८ ।

7. Śravanaya api bahubhir yo na labhyah, śrnvanto 'pi bahavo yam na vidyuh ; Āścaryo vaktā kusalo 'sya labdhā, āścaryo jñātā kuśalānusistah.

8. Na nareņa avareņa prokta esa suvijňeyo bahudhā cintyamānah : Ananya-prokte gatir atra nāsti, anīyān hy atarkyam aņupramāņāt.

The Need of a Spiritual Teacher. 7. He whom many cannot even hear of, Whom many, even hearing, do not know,- Wondrous His teacher, skilful His attainer, Wondrous His knower, skilfully instructed.

8. Not taught by an inferior man can He Be truly understood, though much considered : Save by another taught there's no way thither, For He is inconceivably subtler than the subtle.

7-9. One of the things on which Hinduism has always most strongly insisted is the need for a guru or spiritual teacher. This has sometimes been extravagantly and unintelligently stated, but in essence it is correct and follows from the very nature ofe religious truth. 7. Literally, "He who by many is not obtainablo even for hearing". Śankara comments, "Of thousands who seek good, it is only some one like you who becomes th8 knower of the atman". This is due to (1) the subtlety of the self which is beyond argumentative reasoning or

9 SECOND VALLI 85

नैषा तर्केगा मतिरापनेया प्रोक्तान्येनैव सुज्ञानाय प्रेक। यां त्वमापः सत्यष्टतिर्बतासि त्वादृडनो भूयान्नचिकेतः प्रछा ॥ ८।

9 Na eşā tarkeņa matir āpaneyā, proktā 'nyena eva sujñānāya prestha; Yām tvam āpah satya-dhrtir bata asi, tvādrke no bhūyāt Naciketah prastā.

9. Not by reasoning is this thought obtainable, Though, by another taught, well may one know it, friend : Thou hast obtained it, being true and steadfast ;- « May we find, Naciketas, a questioner like thee !

demonstration, (2) the need of an absolutely sincere and steadfast purpose (satya-dhrti) on the part of the seeker, (3) the need of a guru who him- self has realised the highest. 8. Though much (or manifoldly) considered (bahudhā cintya- manal) : We have supplied the word " though ". Sankara supplies " be- cause " and obtains an opposite meaning. F'or him an inferior teacher means a dualist. "Taught by a man of inferior, i.e. worldly, understanding the Atman is not easily knowable because Ho is variously discussod by disputants. But if tho Atman is taught by a preceptor who is free from the notion of duality and has become one with the Brahman, there is no doubt, .... for there is nothing else knowable." The explanation seems forced : the simplo meaning is that no amount of individual think. ing will supply the place of a good teacher. Ananya-prokte gatir atra nasti : Wo have rondered, " Not taught by another there is no way thither," i.e. to Brahman or the true Solf. Śankara takes ananya-prokte as meaning, "taught by one who is non- different ",-i.e. who has realised his oneness with Brahman. Then, " there is no way thither" means there is no way beyond Brahman,- knowledge stops there; or else, " there is no further travelling into samsūra ". Almost certainly Sankara is here, as in so many places, forcing his own interpretation upon the text. S. Subtler than the subtle (aniyan anupramanat) : literally, " more atomic in measure than an atom ". Atarkyam may be taken in two sonses. (a) It may be used adverbially ; in that case aniyān hi atarkyam anupramanāt will be rondered as above: so M.M., W., H. (6) Sankara, however, takes it as an adjective qualifying the subject-" For He is subtler than the subtlo and unprovable by argument." So most Indian commentators., This suits the general mean- ing of the passage. .

86 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 10

In verses 7-9, then, the reality reached by the great transi- tion,-the Supreme Self, is with equal emphasis said to be quite unknowable if sought by argumentative reasoning and readily knowable if revealed by a true teacher. This is because the object sought is so "subtle " as to be beyond the reach of the senses and of the understanding based upon sense-per- ception ; also because religious truth is of the nature of an intuition, an immediate apprehension of value, communicated through faith or suggestive illumination from one person to another, but only capable of very partial expression through abstract concepts. This should be borne in mind in our subse- qu-tdiscussion as to whether Brahman is or is not knowable. जानाम्यहं पोवधिरित्यनित्यं न ह्यघ्रवैः प्राप्यते हि ब्रवं तत्। ततो मया नाचिकेतस्चितोऽसिरनित्ैनवयैः प्राप्तवानस्मि नित्यम् :१०॥ 10. Jānāmy aham sevadhir ity-anityam, na hy adhruvaih prāpyate hi dhruvam tat ; Tato mayā Nāciketaś cito 'gnir, anityair dravyaih prāptavān asmi nityam.

Naciketas superior to Yama. The worthlessness of wealth,-heavenly as well as earthly. 10. I know full well that wealth, so called, is transient, For not by the unsteadfast is what is firm obtained : Yet is the Nāciketa fire laid by me,- By transient things I have obtained the enduring. Who is the speaker in verse 10? Max Muller and Hume attribute to Naciketas. (Whitney also, though with some doubt, saying that it is so without recognisable pertinence as to seem an intrusion.) But Naciketas has not yet performed the sacrifice called by his name. Sankara therefore, we judge rightly, attributes the words to Yama, who glorifies the sacri- ficial fire because by it, most transient of transient things, he has obtained the enduring sovcreignty of heaven. Yet he goes on to commend Naciketas because he seeks something more enduring still. 10. sevadhi, n.m., a rare Vedic word. śeva-dhi=treasure-receptacle, treasury, also treasure, wealth. (śeva, like śiva, adj. dear, kind, pre- cious ; n.n. treasure.)

11 SECOND VALLĪ 87

Not by the unsteadfast (na hi adhruvaih) : Hume has, " those who are unstoadfast". We have left the translation ambiguous like tho original, but it should probably be taken as referring to means rathor than men,-to all earth's transient, treasures. Yet : the two halves of the verse aro joined by the word tatah, which usually denotes consecution ("then", "after that"). Sankara takes it as oquivalont to tasmat (" therefore "). So also M.M., H., W., D. But this soems to leave a contradiction between the two halves of the verse, --- a distinct non sequitur. We follow thereforo the suggestion of Ananda- jñana that tatah here should be taken as equivalent to " yet " or "never- tholess". Sarvananda, who agreos, says, "The commentator Ananda- jñana suggests that Yama hore eulogises Naciketas, saying that ho him- self, though fully aware of the ephemeral naturo of karman and its results, and that nothing permanent can be achieved by it, nevertheless perfo. .ed the sacrifice to attain the Yama state (i.e. tho sovereignty of the heaven-world), but Naciketas is his superior sinee he looked boyond to a truer oternity."

कामस्याप्तिं जगतः प्रतिष्ठां क्रतोरनन्त्यमभयस्य पारम्। स्तोममहदुरगायं प्रतिषठां दृष्टा धत्या धौरो नचिकेतोऽत्साक्षौः॥११॥

11. Kāmasyāptim jagatah pratisthām, krator anantyam abhayasya pāram; Stoma-mahad urugāyam pratisthām, [drstvā), dhrtyā dhīro Naciketo 'tyasrāksīh.

12. The attainment of desire, the world's foundation, The endless fruit of rites, the fearless shore, The exceeding praised, the far-stretching, the goal, --- Being wise, Naciketas, firmly hast thou let go.

13. B. anantyam ; stomam mahad. drstva ("having seen "), at the end of line c, has been omitted as hypermetric and redundant. "Kamasya apti : the fulfilment of desiro, that by obtaining which, all desire is satisfied. jagatah pratistha : pratistha means that on which anything stands or rests, so-foundation, abode or refuge. krator anantyam : kratu may mean (1) power or will, (2) sacrificial rites. Hume takes in tho first sense and renders "the endlessness of will" with a note, "or perhaps work'." Sankara takes kralu in the second sense and inserts phalam: " Krator upāsanāyāh phalam ānantyam" --- "The endlessness which is tho fruit of kratu, i.o. worship". abhayasya pāra : the further shore of fearlessness. stoma-mahat : Hume and Deussen render, "The greatness of praise". Max Muller, "That which is magnified by preise". Sankara follows the v.l. stomam mahat, (so B.) "The praiseworthy and great," and says,

88 THE KATHA UPANISAD 11

stomam =stomyam, stutyam. We have taken as a bahuvrihi compound,- "having great praiso". uru-gaya : "wide-going,"-used in tho Rg Veda as an epithet of Soma who is called " wide-spreading " (Rg IX. 62. 13), of Visnu ("far-striding " VIII. 29. 7), and of the wide-spreading glory of the dawn (VI. 65. 6).

What is it, described in such high sounding language, that Naciketas has let go ? Śankara interprets the passage as referring to what he calls the state of Hiranyagarbha (Hairanyagarbha-pada).

Hiranyagarbha-the Golden Germ-is first mentioned in the famous Creation Hymn, Rg X. 121, as the first born of creation, which appeared on the face of the primæval waters and gave rise to the rest of the world. With regard to it Doussen says (P.U., 199) " Because it is the first principle itself which appears in its creation as first-born, therefore the latter also is denoted by Brahman (mase), as though it were Brahman personified." In the text of the older Upanisads this conception is but little developed. It is first developed in the Svetasvatara (iii. 4, iv. 12, v. 2, 3, 5, 6), where the great primæval Purusa is said to develop his own nature and so bchold the birth of Hiranyagarbha, called also the Great Soul (mahat- man) and Brahma. In tho still later Nrsimhottara Upanisad it is called. the Universal Self-conscionsness. Śankara takes it therefore as a name for one aspeet of his Saguna Brahman, and the Hairanyagarbha-pada is the state of those who, not being able to realise the unreality of all that is phenomenal and knowing Brahman not as the One Self within but as a divinity opposed to themselves, worship him by sacrifice and meditation and so obtain aisvaryam,-a lordship and a joy which though illusory from a higher point of viow are yet as real as anything in our experience. Ram Mohan Ray, following this interpretation of Sankara, has trans- lated the verse as follows :-- "Thou, O Nacikotas, hast through firmness refused, though offered, the state of Brahma, which satisfies every desire and which is the support of the world,-the best consequence of the performance of rites, without limit and without fear, praiseworthy, full of superhuman power, extensive and stable."

Śankara's explanation is natural from his point of view but it is an anachronism. A much simpler interpretation is possible if we look at the text not in the light of later Vedantism but of the mode of thought of the Brahmanas. It scems to us almost certain that the passage, with its double use of the word " pratistha," refers back to the description of the sacrifice and the heaven-world obtained by it given in the Satapatha Brāhmuņa I. ix. 3.

11 SECOND VALLI 89

"He who sacrifices assuredly does so with the dosire that there may be a place for him in the world of the gods, .... Tho sacrifice being com- plete it goes forth toward tho world of the gods, and aftor it follows the saerificer ..... He strides the Visnu strides (i.e. from carth, through the intermediate region, to heaven). Having acquired a sharc among the gods (i.o. by sacrifico) he goes thither. When one has thus ascended these worlds, that is the goal, that is the safe abode (pratistha)." " He (tho sacrificer) looks toward the east. He looks with the text, 'We have gone toward the realm of light; we have united with the splendour,'-meaning ' We havo united with the gods'. He then looks up toward the sun, for that is the final goal, that is the safe refuge (pratisthā)."

These passages, with their repeated reference to the wor1d of the gods, particularly the sun, as the final goal or refuge, pra- listha, seem to show that the most natural interpretation of verse 11 is to take it as a description of the Heaven-world attained by the sacrifice, which Naciketas has not cared to claim because of his desire for something better. That is to say, he has renounced the old Vedic ideal of immortality and is seeking the new ideal of the Upanisads,-immediate realisation of unity with the Supreme Being. These two ideals are set in close and sharp contrast in verses 11 and 12, 11 giving the old Vedic ideal of the goal of life and 12 giving the ideal of the Upanişads.

(Additional note.) In fairness to Sankara's interpretation it should porhaps be pointed out that there are certain verses in tho Satapatha Brahmana account which suggest that already at that time & more mystical interpretation was beginning. Eg. I. ix. 3. 10, says, " When one has ascended these worlds, that is the goal, that is the pratistha. The rays of the sun which burns there are the righteons departed, and the highest light-that is Prajapati or the heavenly world". " Also he looks up with the toxt, ' Self-existent art thou, best ray of light. The sun, indeed, is the best ray of light.'" Here in this passage the general reference is still to the Heaven-world as the place of refuge of the doparted, but the statement, 'That is Prajapati' and the ascription of self-existence, point to a personal power behind the hoaven-world as its basis." In Rg IV. 53. 2. Savitr is called Prajapati and in Rg X. 121, Hiranyagarbha is called Prajapati. . There is thus an identification between Prajapati (tho Creator-god), the Sun-god, and Hiranyagarbha. In Epie and Sütra times, i.e. shortly after the time whon the Katha was probably written, the Creator and Father-god was usually known (in popular religion) as Brahma, and the world to which the righteous go as the Brahma-world. There is a certain justification therefore for taking II. 11, as referring

90 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 12

to the state of Brahma or Hiranyagarbha. The difficulty however comes in here. Sankara's Hiranyagarbha is not the "Golden Germ" of the Veda but a very specialised conception,-his name for Saguņa Brahman as illusorily associated with a cosmie subtle body. The root objection to Sankara's interpretation is that it unwarrantably imports into the Upanisad his doctrine of the two-fold Brahman, with its corollary, the doctrine of illusion. (For a fuller treatment of the Hiranyagarbha conception, see pp. 133 and 156.)

तं दुर्दशैं गूठमनुप्रविषं गुहाहितं गन्वरेकं पुरागाम्। अध्यात्मयोगाधिगमेन देवं मत्वा धौरो हर्षभोकी जहाति । १२॥

12. Tam dur-darsam gūdham anupravistam, guhā-hitam gahvarestham purāņam; Adhyātma-yoga adhigamena devam matvā dhīro harşa-šokau jahāti.

Apprehension of the Supreme Being through adhyātma-yoga. 12. He who is hard to see, entered into the hidd'n, Set in the cave, dwelling in the deep, ancient,- Perceiving Cod through spiritual concentration,1 The wise man leaves behind both joy and sorrow.

1 or, Spiritual communion. or, Communion (yoking) with the Essential Self.

Naciketas, in I. 29, has asked to be instructed in the meaning of the great passing-beyond, a boon which he says penetrates the mystery (or, has entered into the hidden). He refuses to be put off with transient earthly joys, or even with the joys of heaven. Yama therefore now spcaks to him of that mysterious divine being, hidden behind all the phenomena of the world and in the depths of his own being, so difficult of access by any ordinary means, yet accessible by what, is called adhyātma- yoga. Entered into the hidden (gūdham anupravișta) : This epithet is used in I. 29 to describe the third boon, the instruction by which Yama will penctrate and make plain the mystery of that which lies beyond death Here it describes the inmost, deepest, reality.

12 SECOND VALLI 91

Set in the cave (guha-hita): This phrase occurs a number of times in the Rg Veda as applied to drought demons (e.g. Vrtra or Ahi, "the dragon ") who lurk in the cloud caves and hold back the waters (see, e.g. II. 11. 5). Here, like the similar phraso nihitah guhāyām (see I. 14); it is used to describe the supreme reality as inner self, the cave being usually regarded as the cave of the heart. (Sankara comments buddhau sthita- "located in the intellect".) Dwelling in the deep (gahvare-stha): Repeats the idea ex- pressed by the preceding phrases, emphasising as strongly as possible the mystery and difficulty of access of the inmost reality which is the object of search. Perceiving God (devam matva) : tam from line a should pro- bably be understood with devam : so we should render, " Per- cciving (or recognising) him as God (or, as divine)". Or deva may possibly be used in its root sense of " shining,"-" per- ceiving that resplendent one". Adhyatma-yoga. This is the only occurrence of the phrase in the Upanisads so there is difference of view as to its exact meaning. Moreover, except for a reference in Tait. II. 4. 1, which does not help, and for the phrase yoga-ksema in II. 2, this seems to be the earliest use of the word yoga in the Upanișads.

As this is a very important passage it may be of intorest to quoto several translations, particularly of the third line. "The wise who, by means of meditation on his Self, recognises tho Ancient, who is difficult to be seen, te., as God." (Max Müller.) . " Regarding (him) as god by study of devotion to the overself." (Whitney.) "By considering him as God through Yoga-study of what pertains to self." (Hume.) "Ho who lays hold of God by means of devotion within his own soul." (Deussen.) "Having known him as God by means of meditation on his Self." (Thibaut, S.B.E. 48, p. 361.) " Knowing the resplendent soul through a mind abstracted from earthly objects." (Ram Mohan Ray.) "Having realised, by the knowledge obtained through spiritual com- munion, that Divine Being." (Tattvabhusana.)

92 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 12

Yoga comes from the root yuj, to join or unite, and signifies both the act or state, and the means of union. A primitive Vedic (and apparently Indo-European) meaning was that of the yoke by which oxen were coupled for ploughing (cf. L. jugum, Gk. Lvyov, Eng. yoke). It is also used of the harness of horses, and so came to mean any kind of equipment or arrangement. More often it meant the act of yoking or harnessing, and so more generally, setting to action. Perhaps the most usual meaning of yoga is therefore, (1) exertion, disciplined activity. With regard to the mind it means (2) meditative concentration or control, i.e. the yoking or uniting of all the powers of the mind for a single end, and then, negatively, as a means to this (2b) abstrac- tion from outward sense objects. So Sankara, combining these two says that " Yoga means deep meditation (samadhana) with thought abstracted from external objects". In the early yoga of the Katha the positive aspect is prominent; in the later yoga of Patañjali,3 the negative, so that yoga comes to mean sense- suppression and the ceasing of bodily activity. The Gita on the other hand usually stresses activity, using voga in sense (1), i.e. activity not merely in meditation but in the ordinary duties of life.2

So far yoga has no religious connotation (and much of the later yoga is only very casually theistic), but we maintain that while in the Kat haUpanisad yoga certainly means yoking in the sense of control through meditative concentration, back of this it also means (3) yoking in the sense of union or communion with God,-the divine reality realised as one's inmost self. So Keith, speaking of the development of the idea of yoga as first clearly revealed in the Katha and Śvetasvatara Upanisads says, "In the conception of Yoga, literally yoking, there seems to be an almost necessary, or at least normal, reference to a fixing of the mind on God". (S.S. 55).1 Adhyätma is used both as a noun and as an adjective. The prefix "adhi " has (1) the primary meaning "above," but it is also used with the sense (2) " within ", and (3) " per- taining to". So the noun adhyātma may mean (1) higher self, (2) inner or essential self. As an adjective the word may mean (3a) spiritual, or (3b) pertaining to the self.4 Here adhyātma-yoga inay, be rendered " spiritual concentra-

12 SECOND VALLĪ 93

tion " or, more specifically, " concentrated meditation upon the Self." Later, the idea of yoking or communion with the Essential Self is farther developed. (See pp. 105, 142, 205.) 1 Re the meaning of Yoga, see Keith, S.S. 54 ff .; R.P.V. 549, 589 ff .; Dasgupta, H.I.P. 226; Edgerton, M.S.Y. 37 ff .; Oltramare, H.I.T. i. 300 ff .; Tuxen, Yoga, 20 ff. Dasgupta points out that "in Panini's time the word yoga had attained its technical meaning, and ho distinguished the root 'yuj samādhau' (yuj in the sense of concentration) from 'yujir yoga' (root yujir in the sense of connecting)". Charpentier (Z.D.M.G. xlv. 846 ff.) considers that neither of these meanings are original but rather "praxis", practical effort (as opposed to Samkhya knowledge and abandonment of action). Edgerton agrees. We have thus throe views as to tho primary sense of yoga : (1) praxis or active effort. (Charpentier, Edgerton.) (2) samadhi or concentration. (Tuxen). (3) yoking or union. (Oltramare, Keith.) The variation is largely due to the section of Yoga literature on which attention is focused. In tho Katha and Svet. yoga is mainly 2+3, in the Gitā 1+3, in the Yoga-sūtras-2. 2 Yoga in the Gita: Note that in the Gita, yoga is used in three (or four) sensos. (1) When used alone yoga usually means karma-yoga or niskāma- karma-yoga, the method of the selfless performance of duty, irrespective of results. This is clearly a development of tho first meaning given above, i.e. disciplined oxertion, as opposed to the samkhya-yoga (or jnana-yoga), the method of samnyasa or abandonment of action and trust in knowledge only. (1b) A subsidiary but very frequent sense of yoga in tho Gita is that of "mothod " or "rule", or more fully " the method of control by means of". So the Gita speaks of the three methods, karma-yoga, jñāna-yoga, and bhakti-yoga. (2) In the sixth adhyaya is described a meditative yoga very like that of the Katha but more distinctly ascotic. . (3) " It must also be borno in mind that for the Gita, unlike the Yoga- sutras, yoga could rotain its fuller, more original contont, control that leads to union with Vasudova-Brahman." (Hill, B. 41.) 3 The Yoga of Patañjali's Yoga-sutras should be carefully dis- tinguished from that of tho Katha and the Gita. It is ontirely a yoga of samädhi in the more negative sonse, a method of control of the bodily and mental powers but not a mothod of union, since no supreme Self was recognised. Its aim was by the restraint or suppression of the activity of the senses and mind (citta-vrtti-nirodha) to realise kaivalya, the release of the self by its isolation from aught beside. It is of this Patañjala Yoga that Otto is speaking when he says that, " Yoga is not a mysticism of union, but purely a mysticism of the soul." (M.E.W. 143.) 3

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4 Adhyātma is used repeatedly in the earlier Upanișads, (e.g. Br. I. 5. 21 ; II. 3. 4; II. 5. 1; III. 1. 10; IIl. 7. 15; Ch. I. 2. 4; I. 5. 3; I. 7. 1; III. 18. 1; Tait. I. 3. 1; Kaus. II. 12; but always in the sense (3b) -- "pertaining to one's self" as opposed to adhibhūta, " pertaining to the material elements," or adhidaira, " pertaining to the deities". In the Gita however the meaning is a combination of (2) and (3). It is applied to Brahman with the sense " essential self." (Gita VII. 28; VIII. 1; VIII. 3; XI. 1. Sankara commenting on VII. 28, -- " They know that Brahman, the whole essential self " (Te brahma tad viduh krts- nam adhyatmam) says "the reality underlying the individual self" (pratyagatma-visayam vastu). The word adhyatma is usod elsewhere in the Katha only once,-in the closing verse which says, "Then Naci- ketas having obtained this knowledge and yoga-vidhi, declared by Death, d so having attained to Brahman, became free from passion, free from death, and so may any other who thus knows the adhyatma". The meaning here seems to be the same as in tho Gita, i.e. "knows the Supreme Self who is also his essential self," thongh it may also be rendered " who knows what relates to tho self".

We append in full Sankara's commentary on the two important verses 12 and 13 : 12. Yam tvam jnātum icchasi atmanam, tam durdarsam-duhkhena darsanam asya iti durdarsam, atisuksmatvat. Gūdham gahanam, anupravistam prakrta-visaya-vikara-vijnanaih pracchannam itigetat. Guhāhitam-guhāyām buddhau hitam nihitam sthitam, latra zupalabhya- mānatvāt. Gahvarestham-gahvare visame aneka anarthasankate tisthati iti gahvarestham. Yata evam gudham anupravisto guha-hitas-ca, ato-'sau guhvaresthah, ato durdarsah. Tam purāņam purātanam adhyātma- yogādhigamena -- visayebhyah pratisamhrtya cetasa ātmani samādhānam adhyātma-yogah, tasya adhigamah, prāptih, tena matvā devam ātmānam, dhīro harsa-sokau, ātmana utkarsa apakarsayor abhāvāt, jahāti. "That " self you wish to know is "hard to see " since it is extremely subtle ; " entered into the hidden", i.e. concealed by the modifications of consciousness duc to material objects; "set in the cave", i.e. located in the intellect (since he is there realised); " dwelling in the deep ", i.c. he stands amid many difficulties, (i.e. in the body). Since he is thus conccaled by material objects and located in the intellect, hence he dwells in a difficult situation, hence he is hard to see. "By attaining that ancient one through adhyalma-yoga", i.e. deep meditation on the self with thought abstracted from external objects, thus "perceiving the divine" Self, "the wise man leaves behind both joy and sorrow ", since there is neither elevation nor depression of the Self. 13. Kiñ-ca "etad" atmā-tattvam yad aham vaksyāmi, tat "śrutvā" acārya-sakāšāt samyagātmabhāvena "parigrhya" upādāya, "martyo" maranadharmā, dharmād-anapetam "dharmyam " " pravrhya "-udyamya, prthak-krtya śuriradeh, ' anum " .- sukymam " etam " ātmānam "apya" prapya, "sa" martyo vidvan "modate", "modanīyam hi " harsanīyum

13 SECOND VALLI 95

एतच्रत्वा संपरिग्ह्य मर्त्य: प्रवह्य धर्म्यमयामेतमाप्य। स मोदते मोदनौयं हि लब्ध्वा विवतं सदा नचिकेतसं मन्ये। १३॥

13. Etat śrutvā samparigrhya martyah, pravrhya dharmyam aņum etam āpya; Sa modate modanīyam hi labdhvā: vivrlam sadma Naciketasam manye.

-as Spirit. 13. Hearing and comprehending this a mortal Extracts its essence,1 gaining that Subtle (Being) : He joys as gaining that which is joy-worthy : An open house, I think, is Naciketas. 1 or, Tears off tho qualified, or, Discerns the Holy, or, Puts off the conventional. 13. The general purport of the verse is clear : it repeats and completes the thought of the previous verse, calling the deep-hidden divine reality, perceived through adhyātma-yoga, "that Subtle Being" (anum etam), i.c. intangible Spirit, as opposed to that which is gross or material. To perceive Him (says v. 12), is to be carried beyond all distracting emotions,- the elation of joy as well as the depression of sorrow,-largely organic in character,-as one realises, in the depths of one's own self, one's unity with the deepest reality who is also Self or Spirit. But does this mean the fading out of all the colour of feeling,-the merging in a characterless absolute,-"the night in which all cows are black " ? This is how the teaching of the Upanisads and the Vedanta has been often interpreted

atmanam " labdhva". Tad-ctad-evam-vidham brahma " sadma" bhavanara " Naciketasam" tvām prati apāvrta-dvāram "vivrtam " abhimukhi- bhūtam "manye" : moksārham tvām manye itigabhiprayah. Again, "having heard" from a roligious teacher " this" truth about the Self which I shall tell you, "and having graspod" or apprehended it truly and entirely as self, "a mortal" man " extracting", i.e. lifting up or separating " the dharmyam" (i.e. that which is possessed of dharma) from the body, etc. so "obtaining that subtle " self,-"he," i.e. tho wise man " rejoices " " because he has obtained the joy-worthy". i.e. the Self, in which one ought to find delight. I think that such & Brahma- abode is wide open to you, Naciketas, [is facing you with open door) : the meaning is, I think you worthy of,salvation.

96 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 13

(see Lanman, p. 207) and Yoga practice has often been directed toward this end. But our text goes on to say that the deepest Being is the highest Value,-the supremely joy-worthy, and to attain Him is to gain supreme, abiding bliss (see V. 12-14). Pravrhya dharmyam: The one difficulty is the interpreta- tion of the phrase pravrhya dharmyam.

Pravrhya is from the root vrh, brh, barh=to pull out or root up (dis- tinguish from similar root=to grow). So pravrhya means " having torn or pulled out," "extracted". See VI. 17, where it is said of the soul, tam svat surirāt pravrhet : "From ones own body one should draw it out, Firmly, as from its sheath (one pulls) a reed." Having heard and comprehended the truth expressed in v. 12, and "having extracted the dharmyam", one attains "that Subtle Being" and so supreme bliss. Dharmyam, which occurs only here in the Upanisads, is an adj. from dharma used as a neuter noun. dharma is from the root dhr=to hold. Hence it means " that which is held fast", so "law", "custom", "anything proper to any state, person or thing." (So justice is the dharma of a king, courage of a warrior, ferocity of a tiger.) Hence philosophically dharma means " charac- teristic quality ". Ethically it is specialised to mean "duty", "right", " virtue", and this in ordinary usage is its most common meaning. dharmya, therefore, may mean (1) ethically -- "lawful", "righteous", " connected with duty". (So three times in the Gita, and once appa- rently="sacred " or "holy " XVIII. 70, also perhaps XII. 20.) Or (2) in a more general philosophical sense it may mean "qualified" or "possessed of a certain character or essential nature". Now one may extract a thing either to get rid of it or to preserve it. So one may regard the dharmyam (whichever meaning wo give it) either (A) as something alien from "that Subtle Being", which is to be pulled off before one can reach it; or (B) as something fundamentally one with the " Subtle", which must be extracted, i.e. discriminated from other things, bofore its real (subtle) nature can be realised. (A) Most European commentators, connecting tho verse with that which follows rather than that which precedes, take the dharmyam as " the qualified", whether (1) ethically, or (2) in the more general philo- sophical sense, and its qualities must be stripped off to attain to absolute, unqualified ("subtle ") boing. So- (1) Hnme " Has torn off what is concerned with the right." Whitney .. "Having flung away what is concerned with duty." (2) M. Müller .. "Who has separated from it all qualities." Deussen "Who has put off what is external."1 The occurrence of the phrase " Apart from dharma and adharma," apparently in an cthical sense; in the next verse favours (1).

13 SECOND VALLI 97

The contrast (or close connection) of the dharmyam and the subtle supports (2). (B) Sankara, whom one might expect to take the above line of ex- planation, lending support as it does to his general position, explains quite differently, in the light of the previous verse, taking dharmyam= anum etam=ātmanam, and interpreting pravrhya dharmyam as " Separat- ing (i.e. clearly distinguishing) the dharmyam, i.e. the Self, from the body, etc. (all that is not-self) and so roalising that subtle one, i.e. the Self ". Śankara defines dharmyam as dharmād-anapetam, not separated from, i.e. possessed of, dharma, which leaves it ambiguous whether it is to be taken in senses (1) or (2). (1) Most of his modern Indian followers take in an cthical sense as the Righteous or Pure onc. So- Arabinda Ghose "When he has separated the Righteous one from the body." Tattvabhūșaņa .. "Having discriminated tho Pure one from other things." Sītārāma Šāstrī .. "Having abstracted the virtuous atman from the body, ete." We havo suggested that dharmyam should be given a numinous rather than an ethical meaning, and in this sense have given the alternative rendering " Discerns the Holy", i.e. the mysterious Being of v. 12, realising Him as Spirit. (2) Taking the moro goneral philosophic meaning Tattvabhūsaņa as an alternative suggests dharmyam=guna-visistham (atmanam), i.e. by discriminating the qualified, i.c. individual embodied Self from its material environment one learns the true nature of the atman and so attains that subtle (i.e. unqualified) Self.2 This gives excellent sense and fits Sankara, but it is eurious that if this is his meaning he did not say so more specifically. On the whole, we are inclined to the simple rendering suggested in the text. Hearing and comprehending that truth about the deepest reality given in v. 12, a man extracts its essential nature, or discerns its real character, and so attains that subtle, i.e. essentially spiritual, Being. Alternatively we suggest either, "Discerns the Holy", or, (bearing in mind the next verse), " Puts off the conventional", i.e. all that is merely customary, whether in thought, morals or religion.

1 Abtat was ausserlich. S.U. 273. 2 This is an interpretation of Tattvabhusana's Bengali commentary. Röer apparently intends a similar meaning: "Having distinguished the (soul as)'endowed with qualities (dharmymm) (from the body) and obtained it in its subtle nature, the mortal rejoices ".

98 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 14

An open house, i.e. for the habitation of the Supreme Self. Cf. Mund. ITI. 2. 3. (which follows a verse identical with Katha II. 23). " Into his Brahma-abodo this Self enters." Also Chand. VIII. 1. 1. Śankara inserts " tram prati " after " Naciketasam", "Such a Brahma- abode is I think wide open to thee, Naciketas". This apparently involves an amendment of the toxt to Naciketase,-"Wide open seems the house to Naciketas". Or to " Naciketo" (voc.), with "tvam prati" understood, making the line metrical. But the text as it stands (pace Whitney who thinks it senseless) gives a good meaning. Alternatively we might punctuate differently and read, "Hearing and comprehonding this, extracting its essence, gaining that subtle being, a man rejoices: so I consider Naciketas one who has obtained a joyful open house."

आान्यन भूताच् भव्याच यत्तत्पश्यसि तद्दद । १४ ।।

14. Anyatra dharmād [anyalra] adharmād, anyatra asmāt krta-akrtāt, Anyatra bhūtat [ca] bhavyāl ca : yat tat paśyasi tad vada.

15. Apart from duty (dharma) and non-duty (adharma), Apart from what is done or not done, Apart from past and future time,- What thus thou seest, that declare.

16. Anyatra (adv.)-as other than, different from, independent of. Adharma is always used in an ethical (or at least quasi-ethical, i.e. logal or social) sense. In this verso therefore Dharma must be used in the samo sense. Thero is however some difforence as to the exact moan- ing. "Independent of good and evil" (Deussen, Gough). "Apart from right and apart from unright " (Hume). "Different from virtue and vice" (Roer, Sastrī, Tattvabhūsana). "Apart from duty, apart from non-duty" (Whitney). It is interesting to note Sankara's different shades of moaning in different contexts, of which Thibaut's translations are a fair reflection. So Sūtra- bhasya I. 2. 11. (T. 118) has "That which thou seest as different from religious duty and its contrary". I. 1. 4 (T. 28), "Different from merit and demerit", with tho comment, "That bodiless entity to which morit and demerit, with their consequentes and threefold time do not apply ". In a number of places however Thibaut considers that dharma and adharma are used in the general philosophical senso and ronders, "That which thou seest as neither this nor that " (231, 248, 251). This is also Max Muller's' rendering. Sankera's comment in the Kathaka-bhasya is given below.

14 SECOND VALLI 99

Anyatra asmāt krta akrtāt. Śankara says, "Krtam=kāryam, effect; akrtam=kāraņam, cause". Just as the previous verse has been interpreted as meaning that one must strip off all attributes to reach the (negatively) Absolute Being, so this verse has been understood as asserting that among those attributes to be stripped are all moral qualities,-that the Supreme Reality is supra-temporal, supra- causal and supra-moral, beyond good and evil. Undoubtedly the Param Brahman of Sankara, like the Absolute of Plotinus, is "beyond the Good". Ethical distinctions, like all other distinctions, belong to the phenomenal world and are tran- scended in the Absolute. We doubt however whether this i., the meaning here. In the first place we note that it is misleading to translate dharma and adharma by " good and evil". This is responsible for much of the disagreement of Indian and European scholars. Dharma usually means "duty " in the sense of what ought to be done under particular conditions : what St. Paul called " the law of commandments contained in ordinances" (Eph. 2. 15), which does not bind the freed man, much less God. Good is for man an infinite ideal, and in God an eternal actuality. Śankara commenting on our verse says, "Other than dharma, means different from acts enjoined by the scriptures and from their results and means of attainment ". In the second place, instead of treating the Upanisad as a collection of disjointed texts let us note the context. Naciketas is dissatisfied with the religion of works, no matter how pro- ductive of prosperity. He has refused even the happiness of the heaven-world obtained by sacrifices and good works, and is seeking that salvation which comes from knowledge of supreme reality. Yama, therefore, seeing he is fit for the revelation, has spoken of that mysterious Divine Being, set in the cave of the heart, which may be gained not by outward works but by adhyatma-yoga, inner concentration. Stripping off extraneous externalities, discerning divine reality, laying hold of its essen- tial nature as Spirit (the different interpretations of v. 13 are complementary), a sincere inquirer like Naciketas may obtain that which is supremely joy-worthy. "That is what I want", says Naciketas. I am not asking about religious duties or works of merit or the results of. doing or not doing them.

100 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 15-17

I wish to know that which is deeper than all the happenings of time. If you know such an eternal reality, which is beyond all worldly expcrience, tell me that.1 Apart from the past and the future : Even if we interpret lines b and c with Sankara as "independent of causality and time", or with Deussen, "independent of becoming and time", this does not necessarily mean that Brahman is here viewed as timeless in the sense that time is an illusion (though that is Śankara's view). "Independent of past and future" means not timeless but eternal, imperishable (aksara). So in Br. iii. 8. 9, discriminate time is derived from the Imperishable, and in Br. iv. 4. 15, and Katha iv. 5. 12. 13, Brahman is spoken of as "Lord of the past and future", i.e. Lord of the time-order. (See note on iv. 13. Also Keith, R.P.V. 560.) सर्वे वेदा यत्पदमामनन्ति तपांसि सर्वाणि च यद्ददन्ति। यदिच्कन्तो ब्रह्मचयं चरन्ति तत्ते पदं संग्रहेय ब्रवौम्योमितेतत् । १५॥ एतद्येवा्षरं ब्रह्म एवद्ेवाच्रं परम्। एतद्येवाक्षरं ज्ञात्वा यो यदिष्कृति तस्य तत् ॥ १६ ।

एतदालम्बनं श्रेष्ठमेतदालम्बनं परम्। एतदालम्बनं जाल्वा ब्रह्मलोके महौयते ॥१७॥ 15. Sarve vedā yat padam āmananti, tapāmsi sarvāņi-ca yad vadanti, Yad icchanto brahmacaryam caranti, tat te padam samgraheņa bravīmi : Om itigetat. 16. Etad hi eva akşaram brahma, etad hizeva akşaram param, Etad hi eva aksaram jñātvā, yo yad icchati tasya tat. 17. Etad alambanam śrestham, etad ālambanam param, Etad ālambanam jñātvā, brahma-loke mahīyate.

1 Yad idrśam vastu sarvz-vyavahāragocarūtītam paśyasi jānāsi, tad vada mahyam .- Šankara.

15-17 SECOND VALLĪ 101

"Om"-the symbol of Brahman. 15. That word which all the Vedas glorify, And which all austere practices proclaim, Desiring which men follow holy living (brahmacarya),- That word to thee I briefly do declare : That (word) is "Om".

16. For truly this word is Brahman, This word indeed is the highest : Knowing indeed this very word, What any man desires is his.

17. This support is best (of all), This support is the highest : Knowing this support a man Grows great within the Brahma-world.

Naciketas has asked to be taught eternal reality. The answer is here given that all revelation and religious practice declare the eternal Brahman, symbolised by the word "(m". Then in verses 18 ff. Yama goes on to declare that that Brahman is the Ätman, the eternal Self. 15. Word (pada) .- Pada means footstep, footprint, sign, word; also place, abode, goal. Sankara here takes it as mean- ing goal (padanīyam, gamaniyam). The goal is Brahman of whom Om is the symbol. Acts of austerity declare Him because they have Him as their goal,-otherwise they would be senseless. Brahmacarya denotes the condition of life of a brahmacarin or religious student. This is first referred to in Rg Veda x. 109, and is described in Atharva Veda xi. 5. It normally lasted twelve years but might be longer. Svetaketu (Ch. U. vi. 1. 2.) was a brahmacarin from 12 to 24. The student lived in the house of his teacher, and served him, tending the house and the cattle, often begging his own and his master's food, looking after the sacrificial fires and studying the Veda. He was required to be chaste, obedient, to drink only water and not to sleep in the daytime (see Āśvalāyana Grhya-sūtra i. 22, 1. 2). The word later became generalised to mean .holy living, particularly continence and self-restraint.

102 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 15-17

16. Word in this verse translates aksara, which may also mean "imperishable". There is thus as in the previous verse a double meaning; there is reference to the word "Om" but still more to that which the word symbolises,-the goal of all study and discipline,-the highest Imperishable One who is our support (alambanam) and only source of true greatness.

Re. Om-Deussen says, "Essentially it was the unknowableness of the first principle of the universe, the Brahman, and the impossibility of expressing it by word or illustration, which compelled the choice of something so entirely meaningless as the symbol Om as a symbol of Brahman". The statement is misleading since, by the timo Om became a symbol of Brahman it had acquired a meaning. The word Om (not found in tho Rg or Atharva Vedas) occurs in the Taittiriya Samhita of the Black Yajur Veda (iii. 2. 9. 6) where it is callod the pranava which, says Keith, indicates the prolongation and nasalisation of the last syllablo of the offering verse, uttered by the hotr. It first becomes frequent in the Brahmanas where it is generally a response by the adhvaryu (offering priest) to cach Rg-Vedic verse uttered by the hotr. It thus corresponds to the Hebrew ' Amen' and like it comes to be used as a solomn " Yes, So bo it". Already by the time of Aitareya Brahmana v. 32, Om, regarded as =AUM, had acquired such numinous value that it is treated as a mystic syllable representing the essence of the Vedas and the universe. Prajapati by tapas created the three worlds and their light-givors: earth, air and sky: Agni, Vayu and Aditya. From these he produced the three Vedas and the three pure sounds: Agni->Rg.>bhuh; Vayu->Yajur >bhuvah; Aditya->Sama->svar. These sacred sounds are called the internal fastenings of the Vedas and expiate any errors in recitation. Again from these, representing their essence A, U, M were produced. So Aum (=Om) represents all these,-the threcfold sacred knowledge, the world-powers and the Ono whence all these proceed. The Aitareya Brahmana does not here attempt an etymological derivation of Om, but it was natural that later some should say A=Agni, U=Vayu, therefore M=the Aditya Mitra. Om is also in Maitri vi. 5 identified with the later trinity, Brahma, Rudra, Visnu. When therefore the Upanisads take Om as the symbol of Brahman the thought behind is surely not, as Deusson suggests, that an unknowable absolute is fitly expressed by an unintelligible word. For the word by usage in worship had been charged with sacred meaning and expressed not something abstract (however difficult of definition), but rather the whole fullness of numinous (mysterious yet adorable) reality. Further, just as AMEN, used as a response to solemn statement or prayer with the meaning, 'It is true' or 'May it be true', is converted by St. John into a most improssive name for God revealed in Christ ("The Amen, the

18, 19 SECOND VALLI 103

faithful and true witness", Rév. iii. 14), so we believe it is not fanciful to say that OM, used originally as a response in worship, becomes in such phrases as Om satyam and Om tat sat, expressive of the Hindu belief in the truth and reality behind all. (See Keith, article "Om", E.R.E., ix; Deussen, P.U., 390-2; Gough, P.U., 67-74. Also Keith, R.V.B., 256. We do not of course deny the absurdities and the magic that have often attached to the use of Om.)

न जायते मियते वा विपख्विन्नायं कुतस्विन्न बभूव कखिवित्। खाजो नित्य: पाश्तोऽयं पुरायो न इन्यते हन्यमाने भरौरे॥१८॥

इन्ता चेन्मन्यते इन्तु इतस्चरेन्मन्यते इतम्। उभौ तौ न विजानौतो नायं हन्ति न हन्यते ॥ १६ ॥ 18. Na jāyate mriyate vā vipaścit, na ayam kutaścit na babhūva kaścit : Ajo nityah śāśvato 'yam purāņo na hanyate hanyamāne śurīre.

19. Ilantā cet manyate hantum, hatas-cet manyate hatam, Ubhau tau na vijānīto: na ayam hanti na hanyate.

The Unborn Eternal Self. 18. The wise (self) is not born and does not die, From naught else comes it nor does aught become : Unborn, eternal, endless, this the Ancient, Is slain not with the slaying of the body.

19. If the slayer think he slays, Or if the slain think he is slain, Both of them do not understand, This slays not, neither is it slain.

Here and in the following verses the answer to both the ques- tions of Naciketas, in I. 29 and II. 14, is given. The meaning of the great transition, that which lies beyond the mystery of death, is just this : the soul or self is eternal and death a mere bodily appearance. Also, that eternal changeless reality of which Naciketas has inquired is just the Soul. These verses are quoted in Gita ii. 20. 19, and form fhe substance of Krsna's

104 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 18, 19

teaching to Arjuna when he hesitates to engage in battle against his kinsfolk.1 In the Gita they occur in a section called Sämkhya-yoga and seem to refer to the eternity and changeless- ness of the individual soul. Here however, in the verses which follow, it is clear that it is the One Supreme Soul (atman) that is referred to as individuating itself and constituting the inner reality of each living being. In verses 15-17, the eternal reality is called Brahman. In verses 20 ff. it is called Atman. We have here then, by implica- tion, the central thesis of the Upanisads,-Brahman= Atman, i.e. the mysterious power behind the world is one with the central reality of our own inner being. So in the Sandilya-vidya (S.B. x. 6. 3 and Ch. iii. 14) it is first stated, "Verily this whole world is Brahman" (sarvam khalu idam Brahma), and then it is said, "This soul of mine within the heart, this is Brahman" (eşa me atmāntarhrdaye etad Brahma). But does this mean, as Yajñavalkya usually taught (Br. ii. 4. 12. 14; iii. 8. 23, etc.) and Sankara taught consistently, that there is really only one Soul, that the Soul is a pure undif- ferentiated Unity, and that all plurality, of souls as well as objects, is an illusion ? It is not till Valli III that the Katha U panisad draws any explicit distinction between the individual and the Supreme Souls, and right through the basic unity of the two, the fact that the individual soul owes all its reality to the

1 Relation of the Katha and the Gita in this passage. It is interesting to note the variations of Gita II. 20 and 19 from Katha II. 18 and 19. Gitā II. 20. c.d. =Katha Il. 18. c.d. and Gītā II. 19. c.d. =Katha II. 19. c.d. Gita II. 19. a.b. has, Ya enam vetti hantūram, yas-cainam manyate hatam. He who thinks of him as slayer, And he who thinks of him as slain. Gītā II. 20. a.b .- Na jāyate mriyate vā kadācit Na ayam bhūtvā bhavitā va na bhuyaḥ. He is not ever born, and nover dies, He came not into being, nor shall come horeafter. Some have thought that the Katha verses are an interpolation from the Gītā. But kadācit for the Vedic vipaścit is surely a deliberate simplifica- tion on the part of the Gitakara : it is improbable that the change took place the other way. The Katha' version of 19. a.b. also seems the more original.

18,19 SECOND VALLI 105

Supreme, is insisted on. But though the writer concentrates attention on the Supreme Soul he seems, even in this valli, to assume the reality of individual souls who see and attain the Supreme. In this connection the name here given to the Soul, i.e. Vipascit, is surely significant.1 This word means literally ' know- ing inspiration' and therefore 'inspiring' or 'inspired', and is used of Savitr in Rg Veda v. 81. 1, in a passage which seems to be the fountain-head of the idea of Yoga : " Yuñjate mano uta yuñjate dhiyo, viprā viprasya brhato vipaścitah." "The sages of the great wise (i.e. inspiring) Sage, Yoke thoir minds and yoke their thoughts." This passage is quoted (and elaborated) again and again in the Samhitas of the Yajur Veda, the Brahmanas, and later in Svet. U .: and in a number of passages Savitr, the life-giving Sun- god, is identified with Prajāpati, and, as in the Gāyatrī, taken as representing the Supreme Being. Especially we should note the central position of this passage in the directions for the piling of the Fire Altar in both the Taittirīya and Kāthaka Samhitās of the Black Yajur Veda. (See Keith, V.B.Y.S., 289.) This surely makes it clear that it is not by accident that the word Vipaścit is here used for the Atman. The whole object of the sacrifice is said to be : "With mind well-yoked are we, By the inspiration of God Savitr, With strength for gining heaven." (Taittiriya Samhita iv. 1. 1. c.) And now the Upanisad goes on to teach that immortality con- sists in the yoking of the individual soul with the Supreme Soul which constitutes its inmost being and inspires it for the highest.

1 Vipaścit comes from the root vip=to quiver or tremble; hence the adj. vip=inwardly stirred, inspired; noun vipas=inspiration; vipaś-cit=know- ing inspiration. Sayana renders by medhavin=wise. It occurs as we have said, . (1) Rg Veda v. 81. 1, and this passage is quotod, V.S. v. 14, xi. 4; T.S. i. 2. 13. 1, iv. 1. 1. d .; K.S. ij. 10, xv. 11; M.S. i. 2. 9, ii. 7. 1; also in the following Brāhmanas, A.B. iv. 30. 4; K.B. xx. 2, xxii. 1; Ś.B. iii. 5. 3. 11; vi. 3. 1. 16; xiv. 1. 2. 8. Also Svet. U. ii. 4. (2) Rg Veda ix. 89. 44; vipaścite pavamanāya gāyata. "Praise the wise (or inspiring) Purifier ",i.e. Soma.

106 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 20

(3) Tait. U. ii. 1. 1 refers to Brahman as identical with the Atman perceived in the soul within, yet transcendant in heaven. "He who knows Him who is hidden in the cave and set in highest heaven, he obtains all desires, together with the wise Brahman (brahmana vipaścita)." (4) Gitā ii. 60 refers to men. "The senses even of a wise man (puru- sasya vipacitah) carry away his mind." अणोरयोयान्महतो महौयानात्मास् जन्तोर्निद्विती गुह्ायाम्। तमक्रतुः पश्यति वौतश्नोको धातुः प्रसादान्महिमानमात्मनः।२०॥ 20. Aņor aņīyān, mahato mahīyān, ātmā 'sya jantor nihito guhāyām: Tam akratuh paśyati vīta-śoko, dhātuḥ prasādāt 1 mahimānam ātmanaḥ. 1 A. dhūtu-prasādāt. Opposite characteristics of the Self : Vision through Grace. 20. Less than an atom, greater than the great, The Self is hid in every creature's heart : The unstriving man beholds Him, freed from sorrow, Through the Creator's grace* (he sees) the greatness of the Self. * Or, With tranquil mind. 20. Less than an atom (anor aniyan): When the alman is thought of as psychical principle its smallness is emphasised. So in v. 3, using old animistic language, it is called "the dwarf", and in iv. 12, "thumb-sized". It is also said to be "smaller than a grain of ricc, or mustard, or millet" (Ch. iii. 14. 3), and here " more atomic than an atom". On the other hand when the Soul is thought of as cosmic its vastness is emphasised. So in ii. 22 it is called " the great, all-pervading Self", and in Ch. iii. 14. 3," greater than the earth, greater than the sky, greater than all these worlds". When the two aspects as here and in the Sandilya-vidya, are set in contrast side by side, it is clear that the atman is regarded as essentially spaceless, i.e. not limited by the form of space. This means, as Sankara remarks, that all things, however small or great, exist only through the Self and apart from the Self have no reality. But it does not mean, as he goes on to say, that all things small or grcat are only names and forms (illusorily) imposed upon it.

20 SECOND VALLĪ 107

The unstriving man (akratuh). Sankara comments, Akratuh= akamah. Max Muller and Roer follow by rendering, " One who is free from desire "; Arabinda Ghosh, "When a man is stripped of wishes"; Hume, " One who is without active will"; Deussen (P.U.), "Indifferent". The latter translation does not give the right colour here. It is true that the Indian religious ideal has often expressed itself in complete inaction and the suppression of all desire and will. But here the negative is for the sake of a positive. If like Sankara we interpret as "desireless", then that means as he says, freedom from those desires for external objects, whether earthly or heavenly, which distract the soul and prevent vision. As in the case of Naciketas it is clear that mumuksutva, desire for salvation, thus becomes all the keener. Yet even desire for salvation may be over-anxious. "Blessed are they that hunger and thirst after righteousness ", said Jesus. "Strive to enter in at the straight gate." But there comes a point where striving must cease and the soul must rest in God alone. Here, then, we have rendered the word akratuh, which might grammatically mean 'actionless ' or ' will-less', by ' unstriving'. It denotes the man whose will is at peace, who possesses what the Greeks called arapaía. Christian ataraxia, the untroubled peace of true faith, of trust which leads to vision, is taught very emphatically by Jesus in the passage in John 14 beginning, Μή ταρασσέσθω ("Let not your hearts be troubled"), and in the Sermon on the Mount with its repeated warning against anxious striving as a hindrance in the way of entrance into the Kingdom of Heaven.

The Grace of the Creator. The first line of Katha ii. 20 suggests the difficulty of knowing Brahman, the infinitely subtle and infinitely great, though as Self He dwells in our own hearts. The third line says that never- theless the man of tranquil unselfish will may have a vision of Him ? How ? Does the fourth line add anything new? Śankara says, No,-it simply further explains ' akratuh' and says that it is through the tranquillity of the senses and the mind that the vision comes. If on the other hand our text is correct the vision is through the.self-revelation of a personal and gracious God.

108 THE KATHA UPANISAD 20

Note that there is here an important difference of reading. (1) dhātuh prasādūt : Bibliotheca Indica text (C) and the Bombay text of Tukarāma Jāvaji (B). (2) dhātu-prasādāt : Ānandasrama text (A) and most Indian editions that follow Sankara's bhāsya. Dhatuh is the genitive of dhatr=sustainer or creator. dhatu means "element" and is interpreted by Sankara as referring to the mental elements,-the mind and the senses. prasada is from the root sad, to sink down. pra+sad=to grow calm, bright, ploased, gracious. So the noun prasada may mean (1) calmness, (2) clearness, (3) kind- ness, grace.

(1) Adopting the first reading, Max Müller .. "By the grace of the Creator". Hume .. .. "Through the grace of the Creator". Whitney .. "By the power of the Creator". Regnaud .. "Par la favour du Créateur". Geldner .. "Durch die Gnade des Sehopfers ".

(2) Adopting the second reading, Rammohan Ray .. " Through the steadiness of the senses ". Röer "By the tranquillity of the senses". Gough .. " In the limpid clearness of his faculties". Sitarama Sastri " With his mind and senses composed".

Hume, in an important note (p. 350) says : "This is an important passage as being the first explicit statement of the doctrine of Grace (prasada). The idea is found earlier in the celebrated Hymn of the Word (Vac), R.V. x. 125.5. c.d. This same stanza occurs with slight verbal variations at Śvet. iii. 20 and Mahānārāyaņa viii. 3 (=Taittirīya Araņyaka x. 10. 1). " Inasmuch as the method of salvation ' through the grace of the creator' is directly opposed to the general Upanisadic doc- trine of salvation 'through knowledge', Sankara interprets dhatuh prasādāt as dhatu-samprasadat, through the tranquillity of the senses' according to the practice of the Yoga method." Now Śankara, it is true, is sometimes rather arbitrary in his interpretations, bending texts to suit his philosophy. Here however, he may not be so arbitrary as Hume suggests. In the first place the difference of reading may date back before his time (Hume does not mention it). In the second place ' tran- quillity' is quite as primary a meaning of prasada as 'grace'.

20 SECOND VALLĪ 109

This Hume admits when he goes on to say, "There is this possibility of different interpretation of the word prasāda ; for it occurs unquestionably in the sense of 'tranquillity', at Maitri vi. 20 and 34; compare also the compounds jñana- prasada, 'the peace of knowledge', at Mund. iii. 1. 8, and varna-prasada, 'clearness of complexion', at Svet. ii. 13. In the Bhagavad-Gita there is the same double use; 'peace', or 'tranquillity' at 2. 64, 65; 18. 37 ; and ' the grace of Krishna', at 18. 56, 58, 62, 73."' Deussen, who generally leans toward Sankara in his interpre- tations, remarks concerning this verse, " Another verse which in all probability promised the vision of the alman concealed in the heart to him who 'by pacifying the organs of sense' has become 'indifferent' (akratu), has received a theistic colouring in Śvet. 3. 20, and Māhānar. 8. 3, in that it represents the knowledge of the atman as received 'by the favour of the creator'." (P.U. 78.) Immediately before this, however, he has recognised that Katha ii. 23 does contain a doctrine of grace, when he says: "The knowledge of the atman cannot be gained by speculation concerning it, but only by a revelation communicated through the teacher. According as the ātman is conceived as a divine person this revelation is represented as an act of his grace." "Not through instruction is the atman won, Not through genius or much book-learning; Only by the man whom he chooses is he comprehended : To him the atman reveals his essence." ii. 23.1 In conclusion, we may sum up with the judgment that apart from verse 23, and following only the general trend of the teaching of the Katha Upanisad so far, Sankara's interpretation of verse 20 would seem to be intrinsically the more probable. Apart from xerse 23 we might conclude with Deussen that the version given in Śvet. 3. 20 and Mahānārāyaņa 8. 3, "Paśyati . . dhātuh prasādāt mahimānam īsam". "Through the grace of the Creator he sees the Lord and his greatness ",-is a later theistic modification. Taken in con- junction with verse 23, however (which Deussen admits does teach a doctrine of grace), we conclude that the reading ' dhatuh prasādāt' represents the original text, and in Katha ii. 20 as in Svet. iii. 20 we should render, " By the grace of the Creator ".

110 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 21,22

It should be noted however that Śankara interprets Katha ii. 23 quite differently and does not admit that it contains a doctrine of grace, and if we were to accept his interpretation there our judgment on ii. 20 might be quite different.2

वसोनो दूरं व्रजति पयानो याति सर्वतः। कसतं मदामदं देवं मदन्यो जञातुमईति ॥२१॥

महान्तं विसुमात्मानं मत्वा धौरो न पोचति ।२२॥

21. Āsīno dūram vrajati, śayāno yāti sarvatah, Kas tam mada-amadam devam mad-anyo jñātum arhati.

22. Aśarīram śarīresu, anavasthesv avasthitam, Mahāntam vibhum ātmānam matva dhīro na śocati.

1 See note on ii. 23 and mark how Deussen hore departs from Sankara's guidance. 2 Thore is another argument for the originality of the reading dhatuh prasadat which is worth mentioning. Regnaud considers that it is a reminiscence of dhātur dyutanāt (Rg Veda X. 181). Dhatur dyutanat savitus-ca visno (h) Rathamtaram a jabhāra Vasisthah, Avimdan te atihitam yad asit Yajñasya dhāma paramam guhā yat, Dhatur dyutanat savitus-ca visnor Bharadvajo brhad a cakre agneh. From radiant Dhatr, Savitr, and Visnu, Vasistha cultivated the rathantara; From radiant Dhatr, Savitr, and visnu,- From Agni,-Bharadvaja brought tho brhat; They found out what was very deeply hidden, That cave which was the high abode of yajña. (Or, The sacrifice's loftiost secret essence.) This certainly fits in with one of the main themes of the Katha. It begins with the sacrifice but seeks to find its inner meaning. It is in- tendod to yoke the mind for perception of and communion with the Self. But for this divine inspiration is neoded. Seo the previous note on the Self as Vipaścit.

21,22 SECOND VALLĪ 111

21. Sitting, He travels afar; Lying, He goes everywhere : Who else than I is able to know That active yet tranquil God ?*

22. The bodiless amid bodies, The stable amid the unstable,- The great and omnipresent Self Knowing, a wise man does not grieve.

• Or, That joyful-joyless deity.

Compare Isa Up. 4, 5. "One motionless, yet swift as thought ; Standing still, He yet o'ertakes all runners. Resting is He and yet restless, Afar is He and yet near; He is within all, And yet yonder outside all."

Deussen (P.U. 149) says, " Here opposite predicates are ascrib- ed to Brahman in such a manner that they mutually cancel one another, and serve only to illustrate the impossibility of conceiving Brahman by means of empirical definitions ". Śankara's comment is much the same,-"He has mutually opposed characteristics, hence, because it is impossible to know him (i.e. for ordinary men with ordinary methods),-' Who else but I can know this joyful-joyless deity ?'. It is only by per- sons like us (Yama), of subtle intellect and learning, that the Self can be known." 3 Śankara, however, does not balance impartially between the anti. nomies. He always inclines to the negative or static side as giving a nearer approach to ultimate reality. So here he goes on to say, "Though fixed in its own ature, because it is invested with qualifying conditions (upadhis) through the motion of the mind and other organs it seems to travel to a distanco. In reality however it remains here alone." 4 Madamada: Whitney, following the St. Petersburg Lexicon, takes as a reduplicated formation from mad=to he intoxicated or excited. So "that

3 Viruddha-dharmavān ato-'kakyatvāj-jnātum,-Kaś tam madāmadam devam, mad-anyo jñātum arhati. 4 Svena rūpena sthita eva san, mana ādt gatisu tad-upādhikatvād dūram vrajati iva. Sa ca iha eva vartate. .

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ever-excited divine one". Deussen also in S.U. apparently takes in the same way, translating, "The god's moving (rolling) hither and thither, Who but I can understand ?" Taking madamada with Sankara as mada amada-visistha we might render 'exhilarated yet sober ', i.e. 'energetic yot tranquil '. We doubt whether the opposites are intended to cancel. We take it that the contrast of the whole verse is between the energy and peaceful stability of the Self. Both are real, but only one who is inspired by the divine Self can understand it. 22. Realising the essential nature of the Self, knowing that though now embodied and therefore subject to change, he is one in nature with the enduring omnipresent Self, a wise man has no need for fear. नायमात्मा प्रवचनेन लभ्यो न मेधया न बजना श्र्तेन। यमेवैष वगते तेन लभ्यस्तस्येष व्रात्मा विद्याते तनूं खाम् ॥ २३॥ 23. Na ayam ātmā pravacanena labhyo, na medhayā na bahunā śrutena, Yam eva esa vrnute tena labhyas, tasya esa ātmā vivrnute tanūm svām. The Supreme Self knowable through self-revelation to a fit person. 23. Not by instruction may this Self be gained, Nor intellect, nor by much scripture-learning : Whomso He chooses, by him He may be gained, To him this Self reveals His own (true) person. 23. There are two roots vr meaning (1) to choose, (2) to cover. (ef. Latin, velle and aperio.) So here vrnute moans chooses; vivrnute= uncovers, reveals. tasya="to him",-genitive instead of dativo of indirect object with verb of showing (Macdonell, S. G., 202. e.) tanum svam =literally "his own body ", i.e. person, or character. This verse teaches that while the Supreme Self is difficult to know, and indeed unknowable by the unaided intellect even though that intellect is dirested to the study of the Scrip- tures, -- yet He is knowable through His own self-revelation to the man whom He chooses. Quiite clearly then, if the translation we have given is correct, this verse teaches a doctrine of Divine Grace and conceives the Supreme Self as personal God.

23 SECOND VALLĪ 113

(N.B .- With the rendering given above Max Müller, Deussen, Hume, Whitney, Geldner, Arabinda Chose, Tattvabhusana, Ranade (C.S. 345) and Radhakrishnan (1.P. 234) substantially agree.)

Sankara, however, interprets quite differently .- He changes the subject in the second half of the verse, taking esa ("he") as meaning not the Self but the man who chooses, i.c. seeks and meditates on, his own inner self, and so obtains it. Yam eva esa vrnute, tena labhyas, literally translated means, "Whom this one chooses, by him he is obtainable ". Śankara comments: Yam eva-svām ālmānam. Eşa-sādhako. "Whom" (Yam) means "his own self". "He" (esa) means "the aspirant". "The passionless man chooses, i.e. meditates on, his own self, and so the self is obtained by the self." So he would render the sccond half of the verse- "It is obtainable by the man who chooses (i.e. sceks) it alone, To him this self shows its own real nature." By this inversion of subject and object Sankara turns a verse which would tell strongly against his doctrine into a means of support. It is very elever exegetical acrobatics, but we doubt whether it can be grammatically justified. Rāmānuja, who supports the interpretation we have given above, takes the first half of the verse to refer to that hearing the seripture (sravana), reflecting on it (manana=pravacana), and steady meditation (nididhyasanu=medha) which are the preliminary stages of knowing God. So, commenting on this verse he says, "By this it is said that the gaining of the Self is not effected by mere hearing, reflection and meditation. 'Whom the Self chooses, by him it may be gained.' Now a chosen one means .e most beloved one. And he is most beloved of the Self by whom the Self is held most dear. That Bhagavan Himself endeavours that this most beloved person should gain the Self, He himself declares : 'To those who aro constantly devoted and worship with love, I give that knowledge by which they reach Me.' (Gita x. 10.) Hence he who possesses steady remembrance (which is a form of direct perception), which is dear" to him above all things because of the inexpressible dearness of its object,-he is

114 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 24

chosen by the Highest Self and by him alone is the Highest Self obtained. Such steady remembrance (dhruva smrti) is denoted by the word ' bhakti'". Rāmanuja's exposition is of course a development rather than a strict exegesis of our text,-but if what we have said is correct it is a legitimate development. Moreover though Ramanuja's own Bhagavatism is some 1,500 years later than the Katha, there is fairly good evidence that the Bhagavata religion was already in existence when the Katha was written and passages like this seem to have been influenced by it or a kindred theistic development.

नाविरतो दुखरितान्नाभान्तो नासमाहित:। नाश्ान्तमानसो वाषि प्रज्ञानेनैनमाप्तयात् । २४।।

24. Na avirato duścaritāt, na asānto na asamāhita, Na aśānta-mānaso vā-'pi, prajñānena enam āpnuyāt.

Additional Note on Śankara's Exegesis of ii. 23. We append Sankara's comment in full. Yadyapi durvijneyo 'yam ātmā, tathā 'py upāyena suvijňeya eva,-ity āha ' Na ayam ātmā pravacanena'-aneka-veda-svīkaranena, labhyo'-jñeyah, 'na' api 'medhayā'-granthārtha-dhāraņa-saktyā, 'na bahunā śrutena' kevalena. Kena tarhi labhyah ? ity ucyate, 'Yam eva'-svātmūnam, 'esa'- sādhako, 'vrnute'-prārthayate, 'tena'-eva ālmanā, varitrā, svayam ātmā 'labhyo'-jñāyate, evam-ity-etat. Niskāmaś-ca ātmānam eva prūrthayate ; atmana cva atma labhyate,-ity arthah. Katham labhyate? ity ucyate, ' Tasya'-ūtmā-kāmasya,-'esa ātmū vivrņute'-prakāsayati,- pāramār- thikim ' svam tanum'-svakīyam yathutmyam,-ity arthah. " Although this self is hard to know, still by proper means it can be well known. So it is said, 'Not by instruction' (pravacana),-i.e. the correct exposition of many Vodas, 'is this salf sbiainablo' (i.e. know- able), 'nor yet by intellect' (medha)-i.e. power of grasping the meaning of books, -- 'nor by any amount of mere scripture-learning'. How then is it obtainable? It is explained as follows: 'Him alone' (i.e. his own self) 'whom he' (i.o. the aspirant) 'choosos' (i.e. seeks), 'by that same self' (i.c. by the seeker) ' is it' (i.e. his own self) 'obtain- able' (i.e. known) -- this is the meaning. Tho passionless man seeks only the self; by the self alone can the self be obtained. How is it obtained ? 'To him' (i.e. to the one who seeks the self) 'that self reveals' (i.e. manifests), 'its own' essential 'form' (i.e. its own 'real nature ')."

24 SECOND VALLI 115

24. Who has not ceased from evil ways, Who is untranquil, unprepared, Or he whose mind is not at peace, By knowledge cannot win to Him.

25. May be either a repetition of the first half of 23,-i.e. one cannot obtain the Self by mere intellectual knowledge; or prajñāna may mean wisdom, saving knowledge, which cannot be had without the moral qualifications here described. Rāmānuja (Srībhasya iv. i. 13) says that " this verse teaches that meditation, which should become more perfect day by day, cannot be accomplished without the devotee having broken with all evil. This is the indispensable condition of pleasing the Lord and winning His grace." Concerning the moral qualifications for the vision of the Self the Mundaka Upanisad says, "This Solf is obtainable by truth, by austerity (tapas). By proper knowledge (samyag-jñana), by the student's life of chastity (brahmacarya ), constantly practised" (iii. 1. 5). "Not by sight is it grasped, nor by speech, Nor by any sense organ, austerity, or work : By the peace (or clear light) of knowledge (jñana-prasada), one's nature purified ---- In that way, by meditating, does one behold Him who is without parts." (iii. 1. 8). Concerning this verse Ranade (C.S. 341) says, "The Mundaka Upanisad tells us that it is only when a perfect katharsis of the whole moral being takes place by the clearness of illumination, that ono is able to realise the immaculate God after meditation." Then, immediately after Mund. iii. 2. 3 (which is identical with Katha ii. 23), and corresponding therefore with our verse, Mund. has Naaya n ūtmā balahīnena labhyo, Na ca pramādāt, tapaso vāpy alingāt; Etair upāyair yatate yas-tu vidvams, Tasya esa ātmā visate brahma-dhāma. "This Soul is not to be obtained by one destitute of fortitude, Nor through slackness, nor without distinctive mark of discipline, But he who strives by these means, being wise,- Into his Brahma-abode this Soul entors." Asamahita, unprepared, unconcentrated, possibly refers back to Br. iv. 2. 1, where Yājñavalkya says to Janaka, "Verily, as

116 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 25

a king about to go on a great journey would prepare a chariot or a ship, even so you have a soul prepared with these mystic doctrines (upanisadbhih samāhita-ātmā)." And the whole passage may have in view Br. iv. 4. 23, "Therefore having this knowledgo, having become calm, controlled, quiet, patiently enduring and collected (śānto dānta uparatas titiksuḥ samāhito) one sees the self just in the Self. One sees everything in the Self. Evil does not overcome him; he overcomes all evil. .... This is the Brahma-world, O king." (Cf. Galatians v. 22, 23). It is right that we should do justice to Hinduism by keeping in mind these moral qualifications which are insisted on in many Upanisad passages. At the same time it remains true that there are numerous other passages in Hindu scripture which teach that morality, though a necessary propædeutic, belongs to the phenomenal world which must be transcended.

यस्य ब्रह्म च क्षत्रं च उभे भवत ओदन: । म्टत्यर्यस्योपसेचनं क इत्था वेद यत्र सः ।२५॥

25. Yasya brahma-ca ksatram-ca ubhe bhavata odanah, Mrtur yasya upaśecanam, ka itthā veda yatra saḥ.

26. For whom the priest and warrior both, Are as a meal of cooked rice, Of which death is the curry-spice : Who knows for certain where He is ?

27. This verse reads like an agnostic interpolation on the part of one who objected to the teaching of the knowability of the Supreme Being contained in the previous verses. It reminds one of Rg Veda x. 129,

"Who knows for certain? 'Who shall here declare it? Whence it was born, and whence came this creation." . If it is not an interpolation but fits into the context, then we must accept Sankara's suggestion that its purpose is to declare emphatically the impossibility of knowing Brahman on the part

25 SECOND VALLĪ 117

of those who lack the qualifications described in the previous verse.1 The vivid picture of Brahman as the universal destroyer reminds one of Brhadāranyaka i. 2. 1, where the creation of the universe is ascribed to Death, Mrtyu being there evidently a name for the Supreme. "In the beginning nothing existed. All was concealed by Death. He thought, Let me be possessed of a body. By worshipping he produced water, foam, earth, fire and air .. ... men, cattle. Whatever he brought forth, that he began to eat. Verily he eats (atti) everything: that is the aditi nature of Aditi" (i.e. the Infinite, here explained as the Eater). In our text however death is not a name of Brahman but is said to be the Destroyer's spice or curry powder as though it were that which gives flavour to an otherwise dull universe. The Brahmin and the Ksatriya are mentioned as the two highest orders of creatures, those regarded as fitted to inquire into the nature of Brahman. Yet after all how little fitted they are. " As for man, his days are as grass, As the flower of the field, so he withereth." (Psalm 103 : 15). "What is man that thou art mindful of him?" (Psalm 8: 4). And yet, in grace, He is mindful. (See Hebrews ii. 9.)

1 And so, adds Ramanuja, lack Divine grace. "The clause, ' Who knows him where he is ?' clearly shows that we have to recognise here the Self (or highest Brahman, which is the topie of the entire section), of whom it has been said that He is hard to know unless He assists us with His grace." (Sb. I. 2. 10.) He further says that the clause, "To whom (or of which) death is a condiment", means that death leads to the reabsorp- tion by Brahman of the entire world in which the Brahmins and Ksatriyas hold the foremost place, death itself also beiftg absorbed in the Eternal.

118

। टतौया वलौ॥ ऋतं पिबन्तौ सुछ्कतस्य लोके गुहां प्रविष्ठौ परमे पराधे। क्वायातपौ ब्रह्मविदो वदन्ति पच्ताग्रयो ये च त्रियाचिकेताः । १॥

Trtīyā Vallī.

1. Rtam pibantau sukrtasya loke, guhām pravistau parame parārdhe : Chāyā-tapau brahmavido vadanti, pañcāgnayo ye ca triņāciketāh.

THIRD VALLI. The Two Selves. 1. Two drink the rta in the righteous world, Lodged in the cave in the high upper realm : Shadow and Light do Brahma-knowers call them,- And those who tend five fires, three Nāciketas.1 1 Pious householders, especially those who tend the Nāciketa firc. The connection of thought seems to be as follows : The First Valli, which is introductory, ends with the third and chief request of Naciketas that he may be taught the meaning of the "great passing-beyond". The Second Valli first points out that there are two ways, the way of pleasure and ignorance which leads to repeated death, and the way of good and of knowledge which alone leads to that which is enduring. This eternal reality, greater than anything this world or the heaven of the gods can give, is deeply hidden but may be obtained, not indeed by ordinary enipirical (scientific) knowledge, but by meditation on one's own inner self. To the one whose will is at peace (from foolish egotistic striving) and thus concentrated, the Supreme Self manifests Himself : other- wise it is impossible for human knowledge to reach Him. The Third Valli again takes up more in desail the question how Brahman,-the Supreme Self, may be known and the goal of immortality attained. The first verse seems to teach that meditation on the inner Self deads to knowledge of the Supreme

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because the Supreme Self dwells in close fellowship with the individual self in the cave of the human intelligence. The parable of the chariot then goes on to set forth the method of yoga, the yoking of all the powers of our nature so that our whole being may be controlled and guided to its goal by the Supreme Person. Ramanuja, whose guidance we have largely followed in the above exposition, summarises Valli IlI as follows: "The sloka, iii. 1, 'There are two drinking, etc.' shows that, as the object of devout meditation and the devotee abide together, medita- tion is easily performed. Then the section, 'Know the Self to be him who drives in the chariot', teaches the true mode of meditation and how the devotee reaches the highest abode of Vişņu." (Śrībhāşya, 1. 4. 6.) This interpretation is not without its difficulties and requires justification in detail, but if the first threc vallis are to be taken as a literary unity it provides the best clue we have discovered to their meaning.

1. " There are two drinking the rta" (rtam pibantau). Rta, from the root ?= to move, means as an adjective ' fitting', 'right ', 'true'. As a noun it is ono of the groat key words of the Veda and means established order, divine law or truth. It signifies the divinely established order of the universe, both natural and moral. Hume here renders 'righteousness'. This is hardly tho right shade of moaning in this contoxt. It probably here refers to that law or divine order connect- ing deeds with their results. So Sankara comments, " Rtam,-satyam avaśyambhāvitvūt karma-phalam pibantau"-"There are two that drink rta, i.e. true becauso inescapable fruit of action".

" In the world of righteousness "-The two words sukrtasya loke naturally go together. Macdonell, S.D. notes the phrase as Vodic and renders as abov referring to heaven. Sankara, howevor, takes sukrta- sya as equivalent to sva-krtasya and construes with rta (phala). So he would ronder-"There are two who eat the fruit of their own deeds". Loke he takes separately as=asmin sarire: "In the world, i.e. in this body". Another possibility is to take sukrtasya loke together but to interpret as svakrtasya loke: so Thibaut in his translation of Ramanuja's Srībhāsya I. 2. 10 (p. 267) has, "There are two drinking their reward in the world of their own works," i.e. the world created by their own deeds. This seems preferablo to Sankara's reading, but we prefer to keep sukrtasya and render-"There are two that drink their recompense in the world of righteousness". .

120 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 1

Who are the two here referred to ? We should probably interpret in the light of a passage which occurs identically in Mund. iii. 1, and Svet. iv. 6 and 7, and goes back to Rg Veda I. 164. 20. (Introduction, p. 15.)

"Two birds, fast bound companions, Clasp close the self-same tree : Of these, one eats the sweet fruit, The other looks on without eating.

On the self-same troe a person, dejected, Grievos for his impotonce, doluded : But when he sees the other, his loved Lord -- And all his greatness-sorrow is departed."

The two birds are evidently the individual soul (jivatman) and the Supreme soul (Paramatman) personified as the Lord (Isa), and the two here referred to are evidently the same, though with less personification. Sankara, Rāmānuja and Nimbārka in their comments on Vedanta-sutra I. 2. 11, all agree in this view. But how can the Supreme Self, which in Svet. and Mund. is said to look on without eating, be here said to drink the recompense or reward of deeds ? Sankara, Ramanuja and Śrinivasa (in his supercommentary on Nimbārka) all explain away the difficulty by citing the example of two men walking under an umbrella, of whom one might loosely say, "There go the umbrella-bearers", whereas only one carries the umbrella. Probably however the intention in our passage is to emphasise the close fellowship of the two selves, spite of the fact that they are so different that they are called "Shadow and Light". The Supreme Self dwells with the individual self in the cave of the heart, making it possible by His fellowship for the indivi- dual to drink the recompense of reward in the world of righte- ousness, and, by sympathy, sharing in that reward. So Madhva quotes the Brhat-Samhita and says, "The Lord Hari dwells in the heart of beings and accepts the pure pleasure arising from their good works",

"In the highest upper sphere"-may indicate that the "cave " of the heart is not to be understood in the bodily sense. Deussen has, "On high, in the world beyond" (". Droben im Jenseits"), which is quite a literal translation of parame parardhe.

THIRD VALLĪ 121 2

The heaven, however, referred to here and in the phrase sukrtasya loke is surely that kingdom of heaven which Jesus said is within us, the deepest and highest reaches of our personality where the human soul holds fellowship with God.

The last line shows that the Katha Upanisad, while extolling the way of meditation or of spiritual knowledge of the Brahma- knowers, does not regard the older way of sacrifice or ritual religion as valueless. Pious householders may also reach a measure of spiritual understanding through due performance of the appointed sacrifices.

यः सेतुरोजानानामच्षरं ब्रह्म यत्परम्। वभयं तितोषतां पारं नाचिकेतं पाकेमदि। २।

2. Yah setur ījānānām, akşaram brahma yat param, Abhayam titīrsatām pāram, nāciketam šakemahi.

3. That bridge for sacrificers, The imperishable highest Brahman, For crossers to the fearless shore : That Naciketa may we master.

Verse 2 continues the theme of 1.d. There are two ways of crossing the river of samsara (over the change and sorrow of this world), (1) the sacrifice, by which (so the Vedas taught) men cross to the heaven of the gods, and (2) the knowledge of Brahman, which is the supreme means. The first is in that it symbolises the second, and should prepare the way for it. So it is said in B.A.U. iv. 4. 22, "Him Brahmins desire to know through sacrifice".

The verse seems tosbe a prayer in which master and pupil unite before commencing the yoga-vidhi which is the real Naciketa,-the new and characteristic contribution that the Kațha Upanisad has to make to human salvation.

122 THE KAȚHA UPANIȘAD 3-7

वत्मानं रथिनं विद्धि शरौरं रथमेव तु। बुद्धिं तु सारथिं विद्धि मनः प्रग्रहमेव च । ३ ॥ इन्द्रियागि इयानाऊविषयांस्तेषु गोचरान्। आर्त्मन्रियमनोयुत्तं भोक्ेताडर्मनौषियः ॥ ४ ।

तस्थेन्द्रियाखयवश्यानि दुषाश्ा इव सारथेः ॥ ५ ॥ यस्तु विज्ञानवान्भवति युक्केन मनसा सदा। तस्येन्रियागि वश्यानि सदश्वा इव सारथेः ॥ ६॥

य्वविज्ञानवान्भवत्यमनस्क: सदाऽग्रुचि:। न स तत्पदमाप्रोति संसारं चाधिगच्कति ॥७॥

यस्तु विज्ञानवान्भवति समनस्कः सदा शुचिः। स तु तत्पदमाप्रोति यस्माङ्गयो न जायते ॥ ८ ॥

3. Atmanam rathinam viddhi, sarīram ratham eva tu ; Buddhim tu sārathim viddhi, manah pragraham eva-ca. 4. Indriyāņi hayān āhur, vişayāms tesu gocarān; Ātmā indriya-mano-yuktam, bhoktā ity āhur manīşiņah.

4. Yas tv avijñānavān bhavaty- ayukiena manasā sadā; Tasya indriyāņy avaśyāni, dustāśvā iva sāratheh.

5. Yas tu vijñānavān bhavati yuktena manasā sadā; Tasya indriyāņi vayāni, sadaśvā iva saratheķ.

7 Yas tv avijñānavān bhartty- amanaskaḥ sadā 'suciḥ; Na sa tat padam āpnoti samsaran ca adhigacchati.

3-8 THIRD VALLI 123

8. Yas tu vijñānavān bhavati samanaskah sadā śucih ; Sa tu tat padam āpnoti yasmād bhūyo na jāyate.

The Parable of the Chariot (Ratha-rūpaka).

3. Know the soul (atman) as lord of a chariot, The body the chariot itself ; Know reason (buddhi) as chariot-driver, And the mind (manas) as bridle and reins.

4. The senses (indriyani), they say, are the horses, The objects of sense (visaya) aro their path ; The soul, yoked with mind and the senses, Learned men call the 'enjoyer' (bhoktr).

5. He who has no understanding, Always of unrestrained mind (ayuktena manasa), His senses are out of control, Like a charioteer's bad horses.

6. But he who has right understanding Always with mind well restrained (yuktena manasa). His senses are under control, Like a charioteer's good horses.

7. He who has no understanding, Careless and ever impure, Never attains to that goal, But goes on to transmigration (samsāra).

8. But he who has right understanding, Always attentive and pure, Attains at length to that goal, Whence he is no more reborn.

The Parable of the Chariot constitutes quite a distinct section vi the Katha Upanisad ard introduces its most charac- teristic teaching. The soul (atmar) is compared to the lord or

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owner of a chariot (rathin), (the chariot being of course the body). There is a driver (sarathi) called buddhi (reason, intellect), or vijñana (true or discriminating understanding). The horses are said to be the indriyani. This word is usually rendered "senses " but " life-powers " would perhaps be more appropriate. They fall into two groups,-the five jñanendriyani or powers of knowing, i.e. the five senses, and the five karmendriyāni or powers of acting,-generally enumerated as the organs of speech, reproduction, evacuation and the hands and the feet (by which is meant not simply the organs themselves but the powers or functions they express). The indriyani are therefore, in modern language, the senses and the instincts.1 As horses must be controlled by the driver by means of bridle and reins (pragraha) so intelligence, the driver of the chariot of the soul needs an instrument, the manas through which it may control the senses and instinets (indriyani). The term " manas " has passed through very various shades of meaning in the course of the long history of Indian thought. It is derived from the root man to think, and at first meant mind in its widest sense as the seat of thought, feeling and will. In this wide sense it is often used as synonymous with soul (atman). This is the meaning in the Rg Veda and it has persisted in popular usage till the present day. Quite early however a narrower specialised meaning was also developed. So in a number of passages in the Brhadāranyaka and Chāndogya, manas is one of the five pranah or organs, i.e. breath (smell), speech, eye, ear and manas. All these are organs or functions of the ätman. "As breathing he is called breath, as under-

1 N.B .-- We have enumerated the indriyani as in the doveloped Samkhya and Vedanta philosophy. The first clear reference to ven indriyani is in Prana iv. 2, which is distinetly later than the Katha. In the earlier Upanisads (Br. and Ch.) indriyam means vital power and pranah is generally used for the organs. These are usually given as five but the five are not our five senses (the jñanendriyani) since speech is almost invariably put first among them. In Br. iii. 2. 2-9, eight organs are mentioned (called grahah, i.e. 'graspors')-breath (prana), speech, hands, eye, ear, tongue, skin and manas. The exact number thought of by the Katha is not clear, but the powers symbolised by the norses must include both those by wLich we become aware of objects and those by which we react upon them.

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standing mind (manas): all these are only names for his effects". (Br. i. 4. 7.) The other organs or powers are how- ever subordinated to the manas. So it is said in Br. i. 5. 3, "I was elsewhere with my mind, therefore I did not see. For only with the mind do we see, and only with the mind do we hear " (cf. Plato: Theaetetus, 184. C.D.). In our passage then the manas is the central organ of the conscious life which shapes into perceptions the impressions of the senses, and also translates these perceptions into conative acts expressed through the organs of action. The mind should be under the control of a higher power,-the reason, intelligence or discriminating understanding (buddhi or vijnana). He who has such a discriminating understanding controlling the impulses of the mind, which is then said to be yoked (yukta), is called vijnanavan (wise, of right understanding); while the man without such a discriminating controlling judgment, whose mind therefore is unyoked (ayukta), is called avijñanavān (without understanding). A controlling understanding makes a man attentive and stcady-minded (samanaska) while without it the mind is inattentive and shifty (amanaska). Such an in- attentive mind cannot control the senses and instincts. Mind in verse 9 means a steady or attentive mind. Plato's Parable of the Chariot .- The Parable of the Chariot reminds one very strongly of Plato's similar parable in the Phædrus.1 " Every soul is immortal. ... For every body which derives motion from without is soulless, but that which has motion within itself has a soul, since that is the nature of the soul." "About its form we must speak in the following manner. To tell what it really is would be a matter quite superhuman and of long discourse but it is within human power and a shorter matter to say what it is like. Let it then be likened to the combined power of a pair of winged horses and a charioteer. Now the horses and charioteers of the gods are all good but those of others are mixed, Our ruling power (ò apxwv) then, drives a pair of horses, one being beautiful and noble and the other quite the opposite in breed and character. Therefore in our case the driyinrg is necessarily difficult and troublesome. . 1 §§ 24-28 in Fowler's Edition, Loeb Library ; pp. 471-9.

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... Now the chariots of the gods, whose well-matched horses obey the rein, advance easily;2 but the others with difficulty, for the horse of evil nature weighs the chariot down, making it heavy and pulling toward the earth the charioteer whose horse is not well-trained. There the utmost toil and struggle await the soul. .. ... Yearning for the upper region but un- able to reach it, they (i.e. earth-bound souls) are carried round and round beneath, trampling upon and colliding with one another, each striving to pass his neighbour. So there is the greatest confusion and sweat of rivalry, wherein many are lamed and many wings are broken through the incompetence of the drivers." The charioteer (o nvioxos) or ruling power (o apxwv) Plato, calls voûs, i.e. intelligence or reason. The two horses symbolise (1) Ovuos the spirited principle of the soul,-the higher emotions, which on the whole side with reason, and (2) τό επιθυμητικόν, the lower, more animal appetites and instincts. These two parables, which must be almost contemporaneous in composition, show differences which are probably too great for any dependence, one way or the other. The Katha parable, for example, differs from Plato's in that it does not explicitly recognise a double nature of our life-activities (the horses); and even if, in accord with later thought, we distinguish two classes of indriyāni, these two classes do not correspond to Plato's and there is no moral difference between them.3 Spite of various differences, however, the Katha Upanisad and the Phædrus agree in the main purpose of the parable.

2 i.e. upward, toward heaven (ύπό την υπουράνιον άψιδα). Cf. St. Paul's conception of the Christian life in Ephesians as ev τοϊς έπουρανίοις. 3 It would be a more serious differenco if we were to treat literally the remark of the Phædrus that the soul is a composite pawer made up of three parts. This is opposed to the trond of the argument on the immortality of the soul which immediately precedes the parable of the chariot and still more opposed to the whole argument of the Phædo which asserts that the soul is one and indivisible. As Fowler says, "It is important to bear in mind that the description of the soul in the Phædrus is figurative, otherwise we are involved in hopeless con- fusion". "It is evident that Plato did not consider the soul a com- posite creature, but a single being. The two horses then represent not distinct parts of tho soul, but modes of the soul as it is affected by its contact with the body." 4 Loeb Library, Plato, Vol. 1., 408, 409.

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They agree in their insistence that the ruling power of the soul, called by the Katha buddhi or vijnana, and by Plato nous, must really rule and set in order and direct to one end all the powers of our nature. So Plato elsewhere (in the Republic, Bk. IV. 4434) remarks, "The just man sets in order his own inner life, and is his own master and at peace with himself; and when he has bound together the three principles within him (i.e. reason, emotion and the sensual appetites), and is no longer many but has become one entirely temperate and perfectly adjusted nature, then he will proceed to act, if he has to act, whether in state affairs or in private business of his own." This is in entire agreement of spirit with the Katha Upanisad, and like it sets forth the true nature of yoga,-not as it is often conceived a kind of magic or a set of rules about breathing and posture but the yoking or complete control of all the powers of our complex psychical and physical nature and their direction to the highest end. विज्ञानसारयिर्यस्तु मनःप्रग्रहवान्नरः। सोऽ्ध्वन: पारमाप्रोति तद्दिष्णोः परमं पदम् ॥ ६। 9. Vijñāna-sārathir yas tu, manah pragrahavān narah, So 'dhvanah pāram āpnoti, tad Vişnoh paramam padam. 9. With reason for chariot-driver, The man who has mind well-reined, Reaches the ond of the journey,- The highest abode of Vișņu. Visnoh paramam padam. The end of the journey is said to be the highest step or place of Visnu. This is a reference to Rg Veda, I. 154., . 1. I will proclaim the mighty deeds of Vișnu, Of him who measured out the earthly spaces : Who, firmly holding up the higher station, Strode out in triple regions, widely-pacing. 4. I would attain to that dear home of his. Where men devoted to the gods rejoice; There is the friendship of the mighty-strider,- In Visnu's highest step a spring of fectar. (" Visnoh pade parame madhva u' sah'*)

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Śankara comments: "What the goal is, is now explained : the man who has discerning intelligence for driver, whose mind is under control and thought concentrated, and who is purc, i.e. the wise man, reaches the end of the road of samsara. That is to say that wise man reaches ' the highest place of Vișnu', i.e. the nature of the all-pervading Brahman, the Paramātman known as Vāsudeva ". This seems to be the first place in the Upanisads in which the personal name Visnu is used for the Supreme Self, but the identification is regularly made in the Gita and later Vaisnava literature. The Katha Upanisad is not a sectarian Vaisnava book (this is the only occurrence of the name Visnu) but it seems to be on the direct line of development of Bhāgavata or Vaișnava ideas.

इन्द्रियेभ्य: परा ह्यर्था कार्थेभ्यख् परं मनः। मनसस्तु परा बुद्धिबुंद्धरात्मा महाग्पर: ।१०॥

पुरषान्न परं किंचित्सा काछा सा परा गति: । ११।

एष सर्वेष भूतेष गूढोडत्मा न प्रकाशते। दृश्यते त्वग्रया बुद्या सूत्या सूप्नदर्णिभिः॥१२॥

यच्केदानसौ प्राजस्यक्के ्ज्ञान वात्मनि। ज्ञानमात्मनि महति नियच्केत्तद्यक्केच्छान्त वत्मनि।१३॥

10. Indriyebhyah parā hy arthā arthebhyaś-ca param manah, Manasas-tu parā buddhir buddher ātmā mahān parah.

11. Mahatah param avyaktam avyaklāt purusah paraḥ, Puruşān na param kiñcit sā kāsthā sā para gatiķ.

12. Eşa sarveşu bhūleșu gūdho 'tmā na prakāsate, · Drśyate to agryzyā buddhyā sūkşmayt sūksma-darsibhih.

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13. Yacched vān-manasī prājñas tad yacchet jñāna ātmani, Jñānam ātmani mahati niyacchet tad yacchet sānta ātmani.

The order of progression to the Highest Person : The Way of Yoga. 10. Beyond the senses are sense-objects, (artha) Beyond the objects is the mind, (manas) Beyond the mind is the reason, (buddhi) Beyond the reason, the great self. (ātmā mahān)

11. Beyond the Great (mahat) is the Unexpressed, (avyakta) Beyond the Unexpressed, the Person, (purusa) Beyond the Person there is nothing; That is the end, that is the final goal.

12. Hidden in all living beings This Self does not shine forth : Yet he is seen by subtle seers, With subtle kcen intelligence.

13. The wise man should restrain speech and mind, He should restrain it in the knowing self, The knowing one he should restrain in the Great Self, That he should restrain in the Self of Peace.

The parable of the chariot has taught that the lower elements of our being must be controlled by the higher if the goal of life is to be attained. An attempt is now made to formulate a progressive order of superiority in these elements, which how- ever does not stop with the individual self but leads beyond it to a cosmic principle or being called the Unexpressed (avyakta), and beyond that again to the ultimate being, the Purusa, who is the final goal. In these verses we meet with a kind of hierarchy of prin- ciples or beings which are described by names which have become technical terms in the later Sāmkhya and Vedānta philosophies, and the difficulty is to avoid being unduly in- fluenced by these later developments of thought in our inter- pretation of the passage.

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Let us note certain preliminary details. First of all, What exactly is the kind of superiority or ultimateness indicated by para? Does it indicate causal priority, and is the series therefore to be regarded as evolutionary ? This is how Ramānuja takes it 1 (so that one point in his attack on a Samkhya interpretation is that in Kapila's system the objects are not viewed as causes of the senses nor the mind as cause of the objects,2 all these being the effects of ahamkara). Or perhaps it would be more correct to say that he considers that the series would have to bo regarded as causal and evolutionary if given a Samkhya interpretation. The statement, "Higher than tho senses are the sense-objects", cer- tainly cannot be interpreted causally. Moreover, however we interpret para, the objects come in rather oddly in a series, the other members of which have to do with the self, and they are omitted in the order of yoking in verse 13. We suggest that the passage is a vidya or meditation in which, starting from the outward life of sense, the aspirant moves inward and upward till he reaches the central and highest reality of his own being. But at the first step comes the reflection that sensation is dependent on objects, and that might havo led to quite another path of meditation such as we have in Br. iii. 8, where one passes from outward nature to the one world-ground,-tho Aksara (Avyakta). But here, in our passage, stopping at the first step outward the aspirant turns inward, reflecting that the life of sense, though depondont on sense-objects, is still more dependent on the mind,-as also are the objects, because "the rela- tion of the senses and their objects (i.o. sense-porception) is based upon the mind ".3 In verse 13, vān-manasi seems to be clearly a dvandva, i.e. "speech and mind". Sankara however says, vak-vacam, manasī-manasi, chānda- sam dairghyam. The suggostion is that in Vedic language manasi may optionally be written for tho usual locative form manasi, while vak is written for vacam. The translation will then be, " A wise man should restrain speech in mind". But this is surely an unnecessary straining of grammar (though Sankara has distinguished followers). Speech here stands for all the indriyani. The dual compound " speech-and-mind" indicates the perceptive (and active) self. Beyond and controlling this is the jñana atman,-the self of knowledge, called for short jñana, which is identical with the buddhi and vijnana of the preceding passage and the sattva of vi. 7. Beyond this the mahan afma. Boyond this the sunta atman, or peaceful self, which is probably to be identified with the avyakta (ef. Praśna v. 7.) or else represents the inmost Self as avyakta purusa combined.

1 Srībhāsya, i. 4. 1. (Th. 357). 2 It is interesting to note that in the theistic Samkhya of the Mokşa- dharma section of the S'anti-parvan of the Mahūbhūrata (Bk. xii, 306. 27-8, Bombay edn.) the mind is spoken of us the cause of the five elements. 3 Śankara, Sb. i. 4. I. (Th. I. 239).

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We will now consider various traditional interpretations. (i) Is a Sāmkhya interpretation permissible ? The Samkhyas maintain that this passage gives scriptural warrant for their philosophy, because there is here enumerated, by the same names and in the same order, the three highest principles of the universe as taught in the Sāmkhya system, i.e. the mahat, avyakta and purusa, and because the whole passage is best interpreted on the supposition that the elements here enumerated are the 25 principles of the Samkhya. The twenty-five principles of the Samkhya are as follows : 4- (1) Avyakta (the unevolved), called also Prakrti (Nature or undiffer- entiated energy-mattor) and Prudhana (or chief principle, since it is the productive cause of all others except Purusa). From this, when its equilibrium (the balance of its three gunas, i.e. moods or constituent elements) is disturbod by the attraction of Purusa, proceeds the evolution or srsti, of the whole of the manifest (the world of exporience), consisting of the following 23 principles. (2) Mahat (the great principle) or Buddhi (intelligence)-the first pro- duct of avyakta. This gives riso to -- (3) Ahamkara (egoism or self-consciousness, the principle of individua- tion). From it are evolvod -- (4) Manas ("mind") --- the central co-ordinating sense-organ, the organ of perception; (5 9) Five buddhindriyani or sense-organs. (10-14) Five karmendriyani or organs of action. (15-19) Five tanmātrani or subtle objects of sense,-the primary elements of touch, sound, colour, taste and smell. Also callod sūksma-bhūtūni or subtle elements, i.e. subtle ether, air, light, water and earth. From these subtle elements are evolved- (20-24) The five sthūla-bhūtani or gross elements, i.e. perceptible ether, air, light, water and earth, and the matorial bodies of which they are the constituents. Lastly, there is the 25th principle- (25) Purusa or spirit-an infinite multiplicity of souls, totally distinct in nature from all the uther principles, being neither producer or produced, though by its influence on Prakrti it produces consciousness and causes the evolution of the manifest world. In itself it is quite inactive, a spectator only, and is compared to a lame man who has to be carried on the shoulder of a blind man (unperceiving matter) before he can do any thing. The simile however is not quite accurate as Purusa though called a spectator, only rides to consciousness through its material instru- ments,-the intelligence and the mind. Essontially then the Samkhya is dualistic-explaining the universe by two fundamental principles,-Purusa (a multplicity of so-called " souls")

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and the one Prakrti, or energy-matter, existing in two forms, unmanifest (avyakta) and manifest (vyakta)-all the other principles, i.e. intelligonce, self-consciousness, mind, tho senses and organs of action and all material objects being only manifestations of Prakrti.

We have given above an outline of the classical Samkhya as it appears in the Samkhya-karika.4 This cannot be dated at the earliest before the fourth century A.D., but the essential features of the system are found in the great Epic (particularly the Anugita and the Moksadharma section, c. 3rd century A.D.). Traces of Samkhya ideas, however, are found much earlier, e.g. the Gita. Can we say that Katha iii. 10-13 is a still earlier expression of them ? We note first the absence in the Katha list of the principle of ahamkāra. This however is not a serious difference for, as Keith remarks in dealing with the early Samkhya of the great Epic, "The distinction between intellect and individua- tion is a slight one and is not normally made. Rather it is assumed that intellect per se involves individuation". (S.S. 35.) Much more serious is the criticism made by Sankara, Ramanuja, and all the chief Vedantic commentators, that the Katha Upanișad does not identify the buddhi and the mahat but specifically distinguishes them. " Beyond the buddhi is the atma mahan" (also called mahat). Moreover in Kapila's system the mahat, which is a manifestation of prakrti could not be called a 'self'. Further, as Sankara remarks, from the general purport of the passage it is obvious that the terms avyakta and purusa as used here mean something quite different from the avyakta and purusa of the Samkhyas. The purusa of the Samkhya is not beyond the avyakta which is an ultimate principle, i.e. there is no Supreme Purusa. If then there are Samkhya ideas in our passage it is not the classical Samkhya but a theistic Samkhya of the type found in the Gita, which recognises a Purusottama or Highest Person. Again as Sankara says, the word avyakta in itself merely indicates something unexpressed, unevolved or unmanifested,

1 See the Samkhya-karika, secs. 22 ff. (Davies, Hindu Philosophy, pp. 54 ff.). Also with its commentary the Tattva-Kaumudi in Ganga Nath Jha's Edn., 60 ff.

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and the fact it occurs here between the mahat and the purusa no more proves that it refers to the pradhana or unintelligent matter of the Samkhyas as cause of the world than the fact that a cow is tied in a place usually occupied by a horse proves that it is a horse. (See Sankara's comment on Vedānta-sūtra I. 4. 1.) Further verse 13 seems to refer to the avyakta as 'the Self of peace' or else it omits to refer to it at all, either of which suppositions would preclude its being the prakrti of the Sāmkhya. Katha iii. 10-13, we conclude, does not give scriptural warrant for the (classical) Samkhya, nor is it permissible to interpret it according to Samkhya ideas. If however, by the Samkhya we mean not merely the atheistic dualism later formulated by Isvara Krsna (the author of the Kārikā) but also the qualified monistic theism called in the Gita by that name, then it is probable that in our passage we have the earliest extant basis for certain Samkhya ways of thought.

(2) Can Sankara's interpretation be adopted ? (a) Re. the Mahat or Mahan Ātmā. In his Kāthaka-bhāşya Saņkara interprets the mahat or mahān alma as referring to Hiranyagarbha, the Great-soul of the universe, the internal principle of the intelligence of all living beings, who is said to be the first-born of Avyakta. In his Sūtra-bhasya I. 4. 1, however, he says, "Higher than the intellect is the Great Self which was represented as Lord of the chariot. The same self is referred to in both passages. The soul is appropriately called 'Great' as it is the master" (i.e. of all its powers represented by the chariot, etc.). He proceeds, however, to give as an alternative the same explana- tion as in the Kāthaka-bhasya: "Or else the phrase 'the Great Self' may here denote the intellect of the first-born Hiranyagarbha which is the basis of all intellects." The conception of Hiranyagarbha: This conception of a world-soul goes back to Rg Veda X. 121,-the Hymn of the Golden Germ. There we read that in the beginning there was a chaos of waters, floating on which appeared Hiranyagarbha- ' the Golden Germ'-the first-born of creation and the creator of all other beings. Concerning the conception Deussen says

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(P.U. 199), "Because it is the first principle itself which appears in its creation as first-born, therefore it also is denoted by Brahman (with a change of gender and accent), as though it were Brahman (nout.) personified " 1. That is to say, Sankara takes the Great Soul, or Hiranyagarbha, as another name for his Saguna Brahman or Isvara, the product of the imposition of avidyā (cosmic ignorance) or māyā (illusion) upon the absolute unqualified Brahman. Deussen goes on to say concerning our passage (see P.U. 201), "To the series of primæval being, primæval waters, and first-born (Brahman, Hiranyagarbha) there corresponds the description of purusa, avyaktam, and mahān ātmā, given after abandoning the mythological form in Kath. 3. 10-11, 6. 7-8, as the three earliest principles. Here, in contrast with the individual atman, the Mahan atma is the soul of the universe, i.e. the 'self-conscious of all' Hiranyagarbha ... For the metaphysical comprehension of the universe this idea is indis- pensable. We know that the entire objective universe is possible only in so far as it is sustained by a knowing subject. This subject as sustainer of the objective universe is manifested in all individual subjeets, but is by no means identical with them. For the individual subjects pass away, but the objective universe continues to exist without them; there exists therefore the eternal knowing subject also (Hiranyagarbha) by whom it is sustained." On this Dasgupta comments (H.I.P. vol. I. 52),-"This seems to me wholly irrelevant, since the Hiranyagarbha doctrine cannot be supposed to have any philosophical importance in the Upanisads". Moreover, we would add, it is gratuitous, for Sankara in his polemic against the Samkhya interpretation of our passage has said, "We must avoid the mistake of abandoning the matter in hand and taking up a new subject ". And he has also said, " Higher than the intellect is the Great Self which was represented as the lord of the chariot. That the same Self is referred to in both passages is manifest." Why then bring in Hiranyagarbha (except as a support for

I Base bráhman, nom. sing. TW bráhma, neuter. ब्रम्मन brahmin, ,,. ,, ब्रक्मा brahma, masc.

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his doctrine of the two forms of Brahman) ? As a commentator Śankara cannot help admitting that the mahān ātma of our text most naturally refers to the individual self, but as a philosopher seeking support for his particular doctrine, he puts forward as an alternative the Hiranyagarbha view.

(b) Re. Avyakta. Following out the principle of interpretation that the beings or principles mentioned in verses 10 and 11 are the same as those spoken of symbolically in the parable of the chariot, Śankara says that avyakta must mean the body (symbolised by the chariot). But the torm avyakta which means ' unmanifest ' cannot refer to the gross body. It must, therefore, mean the subtle body. (Sūtra-bhasya I. 4. 2.) This has Ignorance (avidya) as its cause and is of the nature of illusion (māya), "For Maya is properly called undeveloped or non-manifested since it cannot be defined as that which is or that which is not". (Sutra-b. I. 4. 3. Th. 243.) In support he quotes Svet. iv. 10, "Know that prakrti is māyā". Sankara thus objects to the Sämkhya teaching that avyakla means independent matter or prakrti but interprets it as that illusory power which imposes itself on the supreme Brahman to produce Saguna Brahman and the whole world, of which from the empirical standpoint he is regarded as the soul. All this, however, is a much later theory, imposed upon our text and not naturally deduced from it.

(3) Rāmānuja's interpretation. Ramanuja has a very full discussion of our passage which occupies the greater part of the fourth pada of the first adhyāya of the Srībhasya. (See S.B.E. xlviii, 354-407.) (a) Re. the meaning of the mahat or mahān ātmā. Rāmānuja says that the text under discussion refers only to those entities which have previously appeared in the parable of the chariot. The intellect is compared to the chariot-driver. " Higher than the intellect is the individual self, for that self (symbolised by the owner of the chariot) is the agent whom the intellect serves. And as all this (intellect, mind and senses) is subject to the wishes of the Self the text characterises it as 'the great Self'."

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Then, quoting Katha iii. 12. 13, Ramanuja comments, "This passage, after stating that the Highest Self is difficult to see with the outer and inner organs (of knowledge) unsubdued, describes the mode in which the 'senses,' compared to horses, are to be held in control. He should restrain speech, which stands for the karmendriyāni and jñanendriyani of which it is the first, in the mind; that he should restrain in the know- ing self or buddhi; the knower or intellect he should restrain in the great Self, i.c. the active individual Self (kartr); that he should restrain in the Self of Peace, i.e. that active (individual) self he should restrain in the highest Brahman who is the Inner Ruler (antaryamin) of all. By such a chariot-owner the place of Vișņu must be attained." (I. 4. 1.) Rāmānuja, we conclude, is correct in regarding the mahat or mahān ātmā as the individual self, not however as being a separate and self-sufficient being like the Sāmkhya purusa but as indwelt by the Highest Self.

(b) Re. Avyakta. In brief he says, "The word avyakta does not denote a pradhana (primary matter) independent of Brahman; it rather denotes the body represented as a chariot in the simile". (I. 4. 1.) But how can the term avyakta (unevolved, unmani- fest) denote the evolved body? Like Sankara, Rāmānuja replies that it denotes the elements in their fine or unevolved state, which, entering into a particular condition, become the body. (I. 4. 2.) Then, say the Samkhyas, you have admitted that avyakta means subtle matter, i.e. prakrti or pradhana. Not so, says, Ramanuja. We, by no means, wish to deny prakrti (in the sense of unevolved matter), but we do deny a prakrti of the Samkhya kind-i.e. matter as an ultimate prin- ciple independent of the Lord. For the fact is that it consti- tutes his body or means of manifestation, He himself being both its productive and material cause. So he quotes Gitā ix. 8, "Presiding over nature, (prakrti) which is my own, I send forth again and again this whole company of beings". (See I. 4. 8.) Moreover, even a theistic Samkhya view which admits a Lord as productive and ruling cause, but regards prakrti asso- ciated with Him as the material cause of the world, is not

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admissible. There is only one ultimate cause. So he main- tains, " Prakrti (or avyakta) denotes Brahman in its causal phase, when names and forms are not yet distinguished ". Further, as against Sankara, Avyakta is not māyā,-an illu- sory manifestation of Brahman. It is a real mode (prakāra) or development (parinama) of Brahman, through which Brahman evolves a real universe. (See esp. I. 4. 23-27.) 1 We may note that Madhva and Nimbārka substantially agree with Ramanuja. Madhva says, "The word avyakta, which primarily denotes the supreme Lord alone, also denotes the other (i.e. matter) for it is dependent on Him and like unto a body of the Lord "2. He goes on to say that it is the will or creative purpose of the Lord that is spoken of as prakrti (i.e. avyakta).3 So also Nimbarka, "Through the statement of reflective purpose in the words, 'He thought, may I become many ', (Ch. vi. 2. 3.) Brahman's state of being prakrli or his creativeness is declared ".4 All the chief schools of the theistic Vedanta, then, agree in regarding avyakta, in its higher sense as used in our passage, as a divine hypostasis, the supreme Brahman in its causal aspect, the creative, purposive energy or will of the Supreme Person.

1 Re. Ramanuja's interpretation of avyakta. Thongh justified as against the Samkhyas and Sankara he is too scholastic. Like Sankara he says that the text under discussion only refers to those entities which have previously appoared in the simile of the chariot. Thercfore avyakta must mean the body, symbolised by the chariot itself. This involves the absurdity that the body is higher than the self, and constrains him to go on to explain the body as moaning subtle matter or nature in its unmanifested state as a mode of the Lord. This gives quite good sense, but Ramanuja would probably have said much less about matter if in the Sribhasya ho had beon directly interpreting our passage instead of in- directly discussing its use by the Samkhyas. That this is so seems evident from the way in which he interprets certain Gita passages refer- ring to avyakta (in his (ita-bhasya) without any reference whatever to matter. 2 Sūtra-bhāsya I. 4. 1. 3 Sūtra-bhāsya I. 4. 25. 4 ' Tad aiksata bahu syūm ity abhidya upadesūd brahmanah srantrtva- prakrtitve vartete. I. 4. 24.

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(4) Avyakta in the Gītā and Upanișads. Let us now attempt a more independent treatment based upon the literature nearest in time and thought to the Katha, i.e. the Gita and carly metrical Upanișads. The Gita sometimes uses the word avyakta in what we may call a quasi-Samkhya sense to denote prakrti or subtle matter in the pralaya state, as when it says: "From the unmanifest sprang forth all manifest existence at the coming of day." (viii. 18.) But it goes on to say, "But higher than that Unmanifest Is anothor eternal nnmanifest existence, Which, when all beings perish, does not perish. Unmanifest, Imperishable, (avyakta aksara) is it named, Men call that the highest goal, Attaining which they come not back : That is my highest dwelling-place. That higher (Unmanifest) is the Person (purusa) To be gained by undivided devotion, Wherein do beings abide, Whereby all this is pervaded." (viii. 20-22).3

3 Paras tasmāt tu bhāvo 'nyo 'vyaktāt sanātanah, Yah sa sarveşut bhūtesu naśyatsu na vināśyati. Avyakto 'kşara ity uktas, tam āhuh paramām gatim, Yam prapya na nivartante, tad dhama paramam mama. Purusah sa parab pārtha, bhaktyā labhyas to ananyayā, Yasya antahsthāni bhūtāni, yena sarvam idam tatam. It is curious how variously ' Purusah sa parah ' has been translated. If it were prose it could surely only mean, " That higher (one) is purusa ". Hill renders, "This is the Person Supreme ", and Barnett similarly, "This is the Supreme Malo". We doubt whether this is admissible. but even if it is our interpretation wonld not be affocted. Dr. P. M. Modi (Aksara, 148, 149.) renders verses 20, 21 and 22 as follows: "However, beyond that Unmanifest (technically so called), there is another 'eternal Unmanifest Existence' which does not perish when all beings perish. This (latter) Unmanifest Existence is (technically) called the Immut- able (aksara); (the sagos) call it the Highest Goal. That (Existence) (from which the liberated) after having reached it, do not return, is my Supreme Abode. Higher (than the Immutable) is that purusa obtainable through undivided devotion, in the interior of whom (all) beings rest and by whom all this (visible world) is permeated." I agreo with his general intorpretation, but doubt whether his transla- tion of verse 22 can be grai: matically justified.

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The Gita then uses avyakta in a double sense : (a) lower,-subtle or unevolved energy-matter, not in- dependently existing as in the classical Samkhya but a lower expression of the Lord's nature; (b) higher,-eternal or sanātana avyakta, called also aksara, the Imperishable. It also uses the term prakrti (nature) in much the same double sense: (a) the lower nature,-apara or gunamayi prakrti, and (b) the higher nature,-parā prakrti, of which it is said in vii. 5. that it is " very Life (jīvabhūta), by which this universe is upheld". The lower nature is called in xv. 16. ksara (perishable), since it is subject to pralaya, and the higher, aksara and kutastha (immovably exalted). Then in xv. 18. it is said, "Because I transcend the Perishable and am higher also than the Imperishable (aksarad api ca uttamah) therefore am I known as the Person Supreme (Purusottama) ". Here then as in the Katha the Purusa is said to be higher than the aksara (avyakta). The same is true of viii. 21. since Krsna, who is purusottama, says that the avyakta aksaru is his highest dwelling (dhama paramam) and the highest goal (parama gati) of human life (cf. Katha iii. 9, Visnoh paramam padam). The next verse however (Gita viii. 22.)3 at first sight presents a difficulty, since it identifies the higher avyakta with the purusa and speaks of the latter in terms which in the previous verse have been used of the avyakta. But taken in conjunction with viii. 21. and ix. 4, (which says that it is in the form of avyakta that Krgna pervades the universe), there need surely be no doubt as to the meaning. The avyakta is one with the purusa in that they are not two separate beings, for the avyakta is the Supreme Person's own nature. But though one with the Highest Person or Self there is yet a distinction, for it is that Person, not in its inner being as the One self-subsistent Reality but in its outward movement as the constitutive reality of the many, -- not only the cause of the world but the source and ground and dwelling-place of souls, "in whom we live and move and have our boing". For one whose movement of thought is toward the One it is still therefore possible to say, " Beyond the avyakta is the pyrusa".4

4 1 had reached this point in the exposition and was discussing it with Professor F. W. Thomas, when he introduced me to a work which had

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We have dwelt at some length on the Gita doctrine of the aksara-avyakta because there we see in somewhat developed form, and so are able to realise the significance of the distinetion made by the Katha between purusa and avyakta. Let us note first however that the root of the distinction is found in the old prose Upanisads and possibly goes back to the still older distinction between the atman and the brahman,-the principle of personality and the more impersonal, though numinous, world-ground. These two conceptions, which probably originat- ed independently, were afterward identificd,1 so that in the oarly Upanisads the distinction was practically obliterated. The term purusa (" man " or " person ") goes back of course to the Purusa-sukta (Rg. x. 90) and is probably older than atman. It originally denoted " the human being with his peculiar bodily structure" andis distinctly personal inmeaning.1 Another term which occurs fairly frequently is aksara. This may be an adjective meaning " imperishable" or "immutable " and so is used to qualify Brahman. But, as Modi has pointed out it, it frequently stands alone and becomes a technical term for the eternal world basis,-a predominantly impersonal con- ception. See e.g. Br. iii. 8, "Across what is space (or ether) woven, warp and woof? He said, That O Gargi, Brahmins call the aksara. It is not coarse, not fine, not short, not long, etc." (i.e. avyakta, unexpressed). Contrasted with this we find in Br. iii. 7. a description of the antaryamin, the atman or purusa who is Inner-controller, a distinctly personal concep- tion. This suggestion of a difference between an impersonal

recently been sent to him by the author, Aksara, a forgotten chapter in the History of Indian Philosophy, by Dr. Prataprai M. Modi, Professor of Sanskrit in the Samaldas College, Bhavnagar, an inaugural-disserta- tion for the doctorate of Kiol University, (published at the Baroda State Press, 1932). In my discussion of Avyakta in the Katha and the Gita I thought I had explored new (or forgotten) ground, but I find that Dr. Modi has anticipated me in much that I have said and has pressed into much wider fields in the discussion (" Aksara in the schools of the later Mahabharata and in the Vedanta-sutras. I have written the following paragraph after reading Dr. Modi's treatise. If I had met it beforo I should have made much more use of it, but it is perhaps just as well tha we should have reached our conclusions independently. 1 On these points see Introduction, pages 24-34.

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and a personal absolute is not however maintained, (in Br. iii. 8. 11, and iii. 7. 23, the two are described in identical terms) and nowhere in the old prose Upanisads is there a suggestion that the one is subordinate to the other.1

The Katha Upanisad seems to have originated a new move- ment for distinguishing more clcarly between the aksara and the purusa, definitely subordinating the impersonal to the personal, regarding the former as the nature of the latter, by which He moves to manifestation in a world of matter and finite spirits. This movement may be traced through the other early metrical Upanisads, (i.e. the Mundaka,2 Praśna and Svetaśvatara3) and leads to very important developments in philosophy and theology which cannot be considered here. For our present purpose its chief importance is that it led to the personal theism of the Gīta.

1 "This identification did not satisfy the philosophors of the Earlier Metrical Upanisads, who seem to have gono on reasoning ' How could the personal and the impersonal be identified ? Were they not both of them mnontioned separately in the Oldest Prose Upanisads? If they should be kept separate what should bo their relation ? Can the impersonal be master of the personal? No. The personal must be higher than the impersonal.' This seoms to have been the view prevalent during the age of the Earlior Motrical Upanisads. All of them agree in placing purusa above aksara. (Mund. ii. 1. 1-2; Praśna v. 5. 7; Svet. i. 7-12, v. 1.)" Modi, Aksara, 12, 13. 2 Mundaka ii. 1. 1-2, probably represents the next stage in the movement: Just as, from a well-blazing fire, sparks By thousands issue forth, all of like form, So from the Imperishable (aksara) beings manifold Are born, and thither also go again.

Heavenly, forndess, is tho Person (purusa), He is without and within, unborn, Without breath, without mind (manas), pure, Higher than the high Imperishable. (aksurāt paratah parah). 3 The Svetasvatara aescribes reality as a triad (trividham brahmam, i. 12.) of threo unborns, purusa (isa, deva), aksara (avyakta, higher prakrti), and jiva. Aksara is called aja (female unborn) in contrast with purusa (male), and yoni, i.e. the womb or source of creation; also appa- rently devātma-śakti.

142 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 10-13

(5) Summarising the various views. The Mahat of the Samkhya is the intellect regarded as a mate- rial instrument. Śańkara „ either (a) the individual soul or (b) the soul of the world. Rāmānuja , the individual soul. The Avyakta of the Samkhya is Prakrti, i.e. Nature or independ- ent matter-energy. Śańkara „ Nature or subtle matter-energy regarded as Māyā-an illusory appearance. the Gita „ (a) Nature or subtle matter- and theistic energy as a real mode of Vedānta Brahman. (b) The inexpressible eternal Brahman himself as having such a mode: the Divine Nature as creative cause and ground of subsistence of the world and of individual souls. The Purusa of the Samkhya is a multiplicity of " souls ". Śankara „ Paramātman, the supreme, unqualified Brahman. ,, the Gita , Purusotlama, the highest Self and theistic regarded as supreme personal Vedānta God.

(6) Conclusion. If, for the general reader, we might venture to sum up freely in modern terms, our conclusion would be as follows : The parable of the chariot teaches the necessity of yoga in the sense of the yoking or ordered control of all the elements in our nature so that they may work to a common end. So far it is at one with Plato's parable. But vv. 10-13 carry the Katha teaching beyond Plato's, teaching not merely the yoga of self-discipline but the yoga of myetical religion. Plato regards reason as the highest controlling principle. The Katha says that "beyond reason is the great self". Reason is one of our highest faculties but it is not the whole self, and in our self-discipline we must keep the whole in view. But

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the whole self is more than an individual self. Every stage in the process by which we rise from the life of instinct and sense to the life of scientific understanding and of reason, is a transcendence of our subjective individuality and an entrance into truth which is universal. So with morality, we realise our higher self in which we are one with others in proportion as we control our instinctive and individual desires and satisfactions. But religion puts it the other way. It is through the intuition that we are not merely separate individual selves that we find power to overcome our lower nature. Deep within and fundamental to the indivi- dual self there is another. When first we meet that other it appears mysterious and inexpressible (avyakta). Yet those who feel its reality, centre their thought upon it in recollected meditation and yield themselves to its control for ordered unselfish living, find more and more that that other behind our own lives and the world is not merely a mysterious power or energy but is essentially one with us in nature. "Higher than the unexpressed is the Person." And with that realisa- tion religion comes to full moral as well as full devotional power. It is to this fully religious yoga that the Gita applies the name "Raja-yoga"-the royal rule, and says, "On me be thy mind, to me be thy devotion,-thus having yoked thy soul, making me thine aim, to me shalt thou come". With this we may compare the saying of Jesus, "Take my yoke upon you and learn of me, for I am meek and lowly of heart, and ye shall find rest to your souls". Here the yoke of Jesus means the moral discipline to follow in His steps, but it also means the fellowship which enables one to follow. St. Paul expresses what we may call the lower Christian yoga of self-discipline when he says, "Everyone that striveth for the mastery keeps a grip upon himself in every respect". (râs dè ό άγωνιζόμενος πάντα εγκρατεϋτας; i Cor. 9. 25) but he expresses the higher or royal Christian yoga when he says, "But it is not I (the separate individual) that live, but Christ liveth in me, and the life that I now live in the flesh I live by the faith of the Son of God who loved me and gave himself for me". (Gal. 2. 20.)

144 THE KAȚHA UPANIȘAD 14-17

उत्तिषत जाग्रत प्राप्य वरा्निबोधत। क्षुरस्य धारा निभिता दुरत्यया दुगें पथस्तत्वावयो वर्दान्त ॥ १४ ॥

अपाब्दमस्पश्मरूपमव्ययं तथाSरसं नित्यमगन्धवच्च यत्। वनाद्यनन्तं महतः परं ध्रवं निचाय्य तन्म्त्यमुखात्प्रमुचते।१५॥

नाचिकेतमुपाख्यानं म्तुप्रोत्तं सनातनम् । उक्का श्रुत्वा च मेधावौ ब्रह्मलोके महौयते । १६ ॥

य इमं परमं गुह्यं श्रावयेद् ब्रह्मसंसदि। प्रयतः श्राद्धकाले वा तदानन्याय कल्पते। तदानन्याय कल्पत इति ॥ १७॥

इति प्रथमोऽध्याय: समाप्तः।।

14. Uttisthata jāgrata, prāpya varān nibodhata; Kşurasya dhārā nišitā duratyayā, durgam pathas tat kavayo vadanti.

15. Aśabdam asparśam arūpam avyayam, tathā 'rasam nityam agandhavat ca yat ; Anādy-antantam mahatah param dhruvam, nicāyya tan mrtyu-mukhāt pramucyale.

16. Nāciketam upākhyānam mrtyu-proktam sanātanam; Uktvā śrutvā ca medhāvī brahma-loke mahīyate. .

17. Ya imam paramam guhyam śrāvayed brahma samsadi, Prayatah śrāddha-kāle vā tad ānantyāya kalpate, tad ānantyāya kalpate iti.

Iti prathąmo 'dhyāyah samāptah.

14-17 THIRD VALLI 145

Concluding Exhortation.

14. Arise! awake ! Obtain your boons and understand ! Sharp as a razor's edge and hard to cross, So difficult that path,-sages declare.

15. That soundless, touchless, formless one, unchanging, Is likewise tasteless, odourless, eternal : Endless, beginningless, beyond the Great, abiding,- Discerning That from death's dread maw one finds release.

16. This Naciketas story, Death's immemorial teaching,- Hearing and telling this the wise Grows great within the Brahma-world.

17. Whoso then this highest secret Shall recite in Brahmin-session, Or at śraddha-time devoutly, For eternity prepareth : For eternity prepareth.

It must be admitted that the Katha Upanisad only ad- umbrates, and never fully reaches the kind of conclusion given above. These concluding verses of the Third Valli (and probably of the original Upanisad) make it plain that though, as we hold, the Katha Upanisad is on the main line of development toward a personal theism which resulted in the Gitā, that development, spite of the use of the term " Purusa" for the highest being, had not yet proceeded very far. There is real mystical religion in the Katha Upanisad but the writer after repeated essays toward a positive conception of the Divine repeatedly falls back to negative conceptions like v. 15. Truly he describes the difficulties of such a way, "Sharp as a razor's edge and hard to cross". The way of religion is never easy. " Strive to enter in at the strait gate, for narrow is the gate and straitened the way that leads to life, and few be they that find it",

146 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 14-17

said Jesus. But if His way was strait, how much more that of the Upanişads. Though in verse 11 the purusa is said to be the final goal, it would seem that the Upanisad sage had difficulty in penetrat- ing further than the aksara-avyakta. In the first place the negatively described being of verse 15 is described as " beyond the Great " (mahatah param), which in the context is most naturally taken as technical expression, referring to avyakta. In the second place the Gita clearly has this passage in view when, in chapter xii, it discusses the two ways or goals,-the aksara-gati, or way of meditation upon the nature of the soul, and the purusa-gati, its own distinctive way of devotion to the Highest Person.

1. Those devotees who, constantly yoked, thus worship Thee (i.o. Krsna as purusottama), and those who worship the Imperishable-Unmani- fest (aksara-avyakta),-which of these are better vorsed in yoga ? 2. (The Blessed One said :) Those who have fixed their minds on me, who ever-yoked worship me, who are possessed of supreme faith,-these I consider porfect in yoga. 3. But those who worship the Imperishable (aksara), the Undefinable, the Unmanifest (avyakta), that is omnipresent, inconceivablo, immutably- exalted, unchanging, firm-abiding,- 4. Who hold in control the group of the sonses, whose judgment is in all things balanced, who delight in the good of all beings,-these indeed win to mo. (That is to say, those who follow the avyakta-gati, the Upanigad way of meditation, especially as developed into the Katha way of yoga, may attain the Highest Person. But the way is very difficult.) 5. Greater is the toil of those whose thoughts are fixed on the Unmanifest, for painfully is the way of the Unmanifest won by them that wear the body. 6. But those who, casting all their works on me, intent on me, meditate on me and worship me with single-hcarted dovotion (yoga), 7. Soon will I save them from the ocoan of this life of death (mrtyu- samsara), O son of Pritha, for their thoughts are stayed on me.

Perhaps we might rather say that the way of soul-mysticism (or as the Gita sometimes calls 4t dhyana-yoga) and the way of personal devotion or faith (bhakti-yoga) are not so much alterna- tive as complementary paths. The way of soul-mysticism may lead to the very heights of religious experience, or, without adequate basis, it may lead to a barren ego-centrism or a vague and equally sterile paftheism. It needs as its basis the firm

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objective ground of historic divine revelation. Then, in Christian language, faith in the Son or manifest Word of God, leads on to union with the unmanifest Word or creative will of God which is the true basis of the soul's being. And such union, ever growing more complete as sin, which is creaturely self-will, is done away, issues in the realised communion of the Holy Spirit, which is God's ever renewed self-impartation of his own power, truth and joy, of his eternal life and very being, to the soul which he created and sustains, and now in love indwells. 14. Obtain your boons (prāpya varān) Sankara says varān- prakrstān ācāryān, i.e. most excellent religious teachers. But the primary reference is surely to the boons of Naciketas in which hearers of the Katha who have his devotion and keenness are privileged to share. 17. The śrūddha or funeral feast would be a most appro- priate and solemn time for reciting the Naciketas's story which here finds an appropriate ending. The other three vallis were probably added later.

Here ends the First Adhyaya.

148

। चतुर्थो वल्लो॥ पराच्चि खानि व्यत्टयातवयम्भस्तस्मात्पराड्पश्यति नान्तरात्मन्।

Caturthī Vallī.

1. Parāñci khāni vyatrņat svayambhūs tasmāt parān pasyati na antarātman. Kaścid dhīraḥ pratyagātmānam aiksad āvrtta-cakşur amrtatvam icchan.

Second Adhyāya.

FOURTH VALLI.

The Self is not to be sought through the senses. 1. The Self-existent pierced the senses outward : Therefore one looks without, not at the Inner-self. Desiring immortality a certain sage With eyes averted saw the Self-within. The Self-existent (Svayam-bhu). In Sat. Brah. I. ix. 3. 10, the word is applied to the Sun as symbol of Prajapati. "Self- existent art thou, best ray of light " (see p. 89). Tait. B. III. xii. 3. 1 speaks of Svayambhu Brahman. Br. three times at the end of genealogical lists of spiritual teachers says, " Brah- man is the Self-existent" (II. vi. 3; IV. vi. 3; VI. v. 4). The conception here is obviously theistic. ' The terms Antar-atman and Pratyag-atman seem to be used here for the first time in Upanisad literature. The latter (according to Jacob, C.) is used only here and in the Sarvo- panisad. Both here seem to indicate the One Self or Soul as variously embodied (a difference from the doctrine of the two selves in the previous valli). (Pratyag-atman in later literature generally denotes the individual soul as distinguished from the Supreme Soul, but the two terms here are identical in meaning.)

1 FOURTH VALLĪ 149

Pierced the openings (i.e. of the senses). The eyes and ears are regarded as holes through which the soul can look.

Sankara comments : (In the preceding valli) it has been said that, "This Self hidden in all living beings does not shine forth, yet it is seen (by subtle seers) with keen intellect". Now it is asked, What is the obstacle to the keen intelligence because of which the Self is not (usually) seen ?.. The senses go outward to reveal their objects ....... Therefore the percei - ver sees or perceives external objects (which are not the atman), and not the antaratman. Though this is the nature of the world some wise or discerning man, as though going against the current of a river, sees the pratyagatman,-the Self which is within ....... How he sees is thus ex- plained,- with avrtta caksu. He whose eyes, ears, etc. are averted (vyavrtta) from all the numberless objects of sense is called avrtta-caksu. Thus pre- pared he sees the Inner-self. For it is not possible for the same man to be intent on external objects and to have vision of the Inner-self".

We may agree with Sankara in his last remark if by external objects is meant "objects of desire" (kamah), as in the next verse. But what of the unselfish intentness of the scientist,- or of the artist, who, as Plato says, "uses the beauties of earth as steps along which he mounts upward for the sake of that other Beauty, absolute and everlasting". Sankara, in commenting on the phrase, "The Self-existent pierced the senses", interprets it as meaning that Parameśvara has cursed or injured them 1. It is an estimate such as this which has cursed with sterility much of India's best effort, just as it was the verdict of Genesis, "God beheld everything that he had made and behold it was very good", which prepared the way for modern science. And not only for science but for such a spiritual view of the world as that of Wordsworth, who, to the influence of natural objects revealed by sense owed

"That blessed mood In which the burthen of the mystery, Of all this unintelligible world, Is lightened : While with an eye made quiet by the powor Of harmony, and the deep power of joy, We see into the life of things."

1 Vyatrnat-himsitavān hananam krtavān ityarthah. (Sitārāma Śastrī; "Paramesvara has damned them." Sarma: "God has doomed our senses.")

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Our text does not say like Sankara that the senses are accursed, but it does, at first sight, seem to say they are something to be ignored. This would be quite different teaching from that of the previous valli where the senses are compared to horses which, properly guided, may lead us to our goal. Surely the charioteer must come to grief if he keeps his eyes averted. Valli IV then, if thus interpreted, would be a distinct declen- sion from Valli III. It would teach the negative yoga of sense- suppression instead of the positive yoga of sense-direction. This, however, I am now convinced, would be a misinterpre- tation. It may rather be argued that Valli IV takes the truth stated in the parable of the chariot for granted but stresses the complementary truth reached in the sequel. Coleridge does not contradict Wordsworth when he says : "It were a vain endeavour Though I should gaze for over On that green light which lingers in tho west. I may not hope from outward forms to win The passion and the life whose fountains are within." Spiritual seeking has two movements,-outward to find libera- tion from the narrow, self-seeking self in the vision of God's revelation in the wonder and beauty and harmony of nature, and inward to a deeper vision in which even these are forgot in the surpassing wonder of the immediate self-revelation of God the Spirit in our inmost soul (and outward also again to find and serve God in our fellow men). These two movements, says Dean Inge, are the systole and diastole of the spiritual life, and each is helpless without the other. Indian mysticism under the domination of the doctrine of illusion has too often turned away from all the wonder and beauty of the world and taken only the inward, which has then become a negative path. On the other hand we must remember that the Indian, far more than the Westerner, has always worshipped in the open air,- his temple the river-side, his sacrarient the rising or setting sun, and even where the doctrine of illusion has been most dominant it has seldom succeeded in closing the mind to the suggestions of Nature. Further, though the second adhyaya of the Katha may have been somewhat inffuenced by the school which produced the Brhadāranyaka, the doctrine of illusion is no more to be seen there than in the first adhyaya. One of the

2 FOURTH VALLĪ 151

most interesting features of Valli IV is its use of Vedic nature- symbolism and one of our chief tasks in its exegesis is to show how Sankara misinterprets it in the interest of his illusion doctrine. The correct view of our verse, then, is that it is a summary comment on the final result reached in the first adhyaya. Most men lead a purely outward life, but a certain sage, i.e. Naci- ketas, turned his gaze inward and saw the Self. But though attention is thus focussed on the final stage or result of adhyātma-yoga, there is no intention, we take it, to ignore the necessity of the earlier stages set forth under the simile of the chariot.

पराच: कामाननुयन्ति बालास्ते म्टत्योर्यन्ति विततस्य पाणम्। थ धौरा अम्टतत्वं विदित्वा ब्रवमश्रुवेव्विष्ट न प्रार्थयन्ते॥ २॥ 2. Parācaḥ kāmān anuyanti bālās te mrtyor yanti vitatasya pāśam ; Atha dhīrā amrtatvam viditvā dhruvam adhruvesv iha na prarthayante.

2. The childish follow after outward pleasures,- They walk into the snare of wide-spread death : The wise, then, knowing immortality, Seek not the eternal midst things transient here.

Verse 2. Cf. II. 6 and 10. Dhruvam adhruvesu: Seek not the stable or enduring amid the unstable or transient. Yet II. 10, speaking of the right symbolic use of so unstable a thing as fire, says, "By means of transient things I have obtained the eternal. In its feeling IV.2 may be compared with the hymn, "Swift to its close ebbs out life's little day ; Earth's joys grow dim its glories pass away; Change and decy in all around I see : O Thou who changest not, abide with me." But II. 10 and Blake's Auguries of Innocence are nearer the heights of both Hindu and Christian mystic experience : "To see a woald in a grain of sand, And a heaven in a wild-flower; Hold infinity in the palm of your hand, And eternity in an hour."

152 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 3-4

वेन रूपं रसं गन्धं शब्दाग्स्श्रांख मैथुनान्। एतेनैव विजानाति किमन्र परिभ्निष्यते। एतदैवत्। २॥

खप्रान्तं जागरितान्तं चोभौ येनानुपश्यति। महान्तं विभुमात्मानं मत्वा धौरो न शोचति।8 ॥

3. Yena rūpam rasam gandham śabdān sparšāms-ca maithunān, Etena eva vijānāti: kim-atra parisisyate : Etad vai tat.

4. Svapnāntam jāgaritāntam ca ubhau yena anupaśyati, Mahāntam vibhum ātmānam matvā dhīro na śocati.

Yet the Self is the agent in all perception and knowledge. 3. That by which (one perceives) form, taste, smell, Sounds also and touches of love,- By that also one gains knowledge. What is there here remains (unknown to it) ? This indeed is that.

4. That whereby one both perceives Dream-objects and the waking state,- That great and omnipresent Self Knowing, the wise man grieves no more.

Though the Self is not manifest to the senses yet it is the agent in all sense-perception and in all knowledge, whether in the waking or the sleeping state. It is both all-pervading and all-knowing, and is that supreme Reality concerning which Naciketas has inquired. 3. What is there here remains ? Akim-atra parisisyate?) Max Müller takes as a relative clause, "By that we also know what exists beside". Pelly's rendering, "What else is there in the world ? " takes the passage as teaching a thorough- going idealism. Hume is literal and non-committal, "What is there left over here ?" but may mean the same. We prefer to follow Śankara who temments, "What is there in this world

4,5 FOURTH VALLI 153

remains unknowable by the Self? Nothing so remains,- for everything is knowable by the Self. That Self to which nothing remains unknowable is omniscient." This is that (Etad vai tat): Sankara says, "The meaning is that this is that which was inquired about by Naciketas (about which even the gods were puzzled, and which has been spoken of as 'apart from dharma, etc.' 'the highest place of Visnu', than which there is nothing higher)". If the ultimate reality inquired about is called Brahman (which is very seldom in the Katha), then "This is that (inquired about)" is equivalent to "This (atman) is that (Brahman)" or in the words of Chandogya III. 14. 4, " Esa ma ātmāntarhrdaya, etad brahma" .- "This self of mine within the heart, that is Brahman." This is afterward summarised in Ch. VI. 8. 6, in the phrase, "Tat tvam asi",-"Thou art that ". य इमं मध्वदं वेद व्यात्मानं जीवमन्तिकाव् । ईशानं भूतभव्यस्य न ततो विजुगुभते। एतदैतव् । ५॥

5. Ya imam madhvadam veda ātmānam jīvam antikāt, Īšānam bhūta-bhavyasya na tato vijugupsate : Etad vai tat.

The individual soul is one with the Universal. 5. He who knows this honey-eater,- The living spirit close at hand,- As Lord of future and the past, No longer seeks to hide (through fear) : 1 This truly is that. 1 Or, From Him he does not shrink away. 5. Madhv-ada: Honeg-eater: the individual experiencing soul, compared to a bee, dhtaining pleasure from the various objects of perception. (Sankara says, Madhvoda=karma-phala-bhuja,-"the enjoyer of the fruit of action ".) Ātman jiva=jīvātman: "the living soul", a term generally used to distinguish the self as indlvidual from the Supreme soul (paramātman).

154 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 5, 6

The soul not only experiences pleasure but also pain and fear in the midst of what is apparently a hostile and alien world. But when it realises that it is not a separate individual but is one with that Supreme soul who is Lord and ruler of the whole course of the world, then all cause of fear is removed.

This truly is that : means either as before, This is that which was inquired about, or, This (individual percipient) is that (supreme eternal Lord).

5d. Na tato vijugupsate, recurs Br. iv. 15d., Isa 6d., and Katha iv. 12d. 5c. also=Br. iv. 15c. Tatas may mean "thereafter", "from Him" (i.e. the Atman or God), or (in the Isa) "from them" (i.e. "all beings", at first viewed as alien but now "in the Self"). In the Br. passage it is clearly God from whom one does not shrink away or seek to hide. " When one perceives Him As the Self, as God, clearly, As Lord of the past and the future, One does not shrink away from Him." In our verse and verse 12 the shrinking may be from God, or alien things, or both. When one ceases to shrink from God one fears nothing else. Śankara comments: "Navijugupsate means ' does not wish to hide', be- causo he has attained foarlessness. So long as dwelling in the midst of fear he thinks himself to be non-eternal, he desires to conceal (or protect) himself. But when he knows the Self to be eternal and without a second, then who would wish to hide what ?- and from what ?" Na vijugupsate-na gopāyitum icchati abhaya-prāptatvat. Yāvad hi bhayamadhyastho 'nityam ātmānam manyate, tāvad gopāyitum icchati ātmā- nam. Yadā tu nityam advaitam ātmānam vijānāti, tadā kim kah kuto vā gopāyitum icchet. We doubt whether quite such a simplo doctrine of non-duality or complete monism can be read into our text.

यः पूवें तपसो आतमन्मः पूर्वमजायत' गुछां प्रविश्य तिषठन्तं यो भूतेभिर्व्यफ़यत। एतदवैतव्॥ ६॥

6. Yah pūrvam tapaso jātam adbhyah pūrvam ajāyata, Guhām pravisya tisthantam' uo bhūtebhir ryapaśyata : Etad vai tat.

6 FOURTH VALLĪ 155

6. He who born of old from tapas Was formerly born of the waters,- Entering the cave one sees him stand Who looked forth through the elements : 2 This truly is that. 2 Or, through beings. 6. Max Müller says, "The text of these verses (6, 7) is abrupt, possibly corrupt. The two accusatives, tisthantam and tisthantim, seem to me to require veda to be supplied from verse 5". Hume says, "This stanza contains an ungrammatical form and impossible constructions. The text here, as also in v. 7, is probably corrupt". We have supplied tam with tisthantam, and also pasyati used imper- sonally, continuing the idea of kascid dhirah aiksad of verse 1; We also read jātah for jātam, and vyapaśyat for vyapaśyata. Purvam may be either an adverb meaning "first", "formerly", "long ago", or an adjoctive meaning " before" (governing the ablative). Almost all translators take the first " purvam" adverbially but many, as also Śankara, take the second adjectivally; "was born before the waters". Hume takes it as we have done above. Grammatically both are equally possible but we have taken it adverbially because it fits better the Hiranyagarbha hymn. Śankara does not neod to supply paśyoti because he takes vyapaś- yata as = paśyati, its subject being "yo" in the sense of kaścid dhirah or mumuksuh. This involves taking tisthantam along with bhutebhir. Even so he does not escape the need of supplying at the end-sa etadeva pasyati. Translating under his guidance our version would be as follows : "He (i.e. the Universal Soul) who, first produced from tapas (i.e. Brahman characterised as knowledge, etc.), was produced before the waters (i.e. the five elements),-he who sees Him (i.e. this first-born) who, (after creating bodies), entering the cave (of the heart) remains standing (i.e. perceiving) with the elements (i.e. senses) :- he indeed sees that (i.e. the Brahman which is the subject of discussion)." The objection to Sankara's rendering is that it twists the words out of the order of the text and in so doing destroys the parallelism with the following verse. "Yo bhutebhir vyapasyata" is clearly parallel with "Ya bhūtebhir vyajayata", and no translation which obscures this can be correct. Hume renders . "He who was born ef old from austerity (tapas) Was born of old fron the waters, Who stands entered into the secret place (of the heart), Who looked forth thro igh beings-This verily is that!" This apparently involves reading "listhati" for "tisthantam", but he does not give an amended text. We have purposively left the reference of "Entering the cave" (guham pravisya) ambiguous as in the original. The meaning may be, " Entering, i.e. looking, within oneself one sees Him",. or, "One sees Him who

156 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 6

has entered within one's own inner nature." Both meanings may be intended.

The One born of tapas : Hiranyagarbha ? Śankara says that the subject of the verse is Hiranyagar- bha,-the Universal Soul (sarvatman). We both agree and dissent. (1) It is clear that the idea expressed in our text goes back to the Hiranyagarbha hymn, Rg Veda X. 121 and to the great Creation hymn, Rg. X. 129. For these see the Introduction, pages 16-18. Note especially 129, verses 1-4, and 121, verses 1, 7, 8, 9. See also pages 88-90 and 133-5. The myth appears in various forms in the Brahmanas (see, e.g. Satapatha vi. 1. 1. and xi. 1. 6), and in the Upanisads (see, e.g. Chandogya iii. 19). An interesting though unusual form is that in Brhadaranyaka i. 2 where the first-existent is called Death. "Formerly thoro was nothing here whatever. By Death this was concealed. He made up his mind,-'Let me be possessed of a self (atman, probably here = 'body'). From him as he was praising (arcan) water was produced. The foam of the water hardened and became earth. On it he toiled. From him as he toiled and became heated (tapta, ? performed austerity) fire was produced whoso essence is brillianco (tejas). He made himself threefold-(Agni), Aditya and Vayu. He is that thrice divided life (prāņa)." Here the primitive being evolves himself and becomes manifold, producing the world and the gods. Here tapas is not simply natural heat but the energy of will and of austerity. The "desire" (kama) of Rg. 129. 4 is apparently a different description of the same energy. The developed Hiranyagarbha myth as found stated in the Manu-samhita i. 5-9 is as follows: "This (universe) was formerly immersa in darkness, unperceived, without distinctive marks .... Then tha Self-born Lord (Svayambhur bhagavan), himself at first unexpressed (ayakta), making this (world), i.o. the elements, etc. discernible, became manifest, dispelling the darkness. Wishing to create various offspring from his own body, he first by thought created the waters, and put his seed in them. That seed became a golden egg, in splendour like the thousand-rayed suh. In that egg he himself was born as Brahma, the progenitor (pitamahah) of the whole world." This is of course later than the Katha but practically all the elements in the myth as here given caa be found in earlier literature.

6 FOURTH VALLĪ 157

Philosophically then the Hiranyagarbha myth is an attempt to explain how the first-existent evolved the world from its (or rather his) own being or energy, and then entered into it, becoming manifest as world-soul. We agree with Sankara when he says that the subject of our verse,-the one born of tapas and the waters,-is that Universal Soul referred to in the Hiranyagarbha hymn, etc. Our text is therefore equivalent in meaning to Brhadāranyaka i. 4. 7: "Verily that which is this (i.e. the universe) was then undifferentiated. It became differentiated by name and form ... He then entered in here even to the finger-nail tips." He is manifested in life, speech, sight, mind. But these are only effects. His real nature is best expressed by Atman-Self. "For this self is the padaniya (trace or footprint) of the All," i.e. it is the One Self which is active and conscious in all beings and our own inner nature is therefore the clue to His nature. (2) While we agree with Sankara that the subject of our verse might legitimately be said to bo Hiranyagarbha in that it is the Soul of the world referred to in the Hiranyagarbha hymn and myth, we totally dissent from the view that it is the Hiranyagarbha of his philosophy. For Śankara Hiranyagarbha is a name for Saguna Brahman or Iśvara, a being who possesses only empirical reality, the pro- duct of the imposition of avidya or Ignorance on the highest or Nirguņa Brahman. So here Sankara explains tapas as "the Brahman defined as knowledge", but knowledge here does not imply consciousness. The supreme Brahman only comes to apparent consciousness through the elements or creatures of its (apparent) creation. This is a conception in some ways akin to the Samkhya, where purusa, though called pure intelligence, is not in any distinctive sense conscious, till it rises to self- consciousness through the sense-organs which are evolved from nature (prakrti). We may note, by the way, that both Deussen and Hume interpret the one born of tapas as the Samkhya purusa and Aditi of v. 7 as prakrti. As against both Sankara and the Samkhya interpretation we maintain that the Self-existent of Katha iv. is conceived as, from the beginning, a knowing, eonscious being. It is true that He is described as looking forth through the elements or

158 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 6,7

senses of his creatures, but he does not there for the first time gain consciousness. Moreover, as against Sankara, the evolution of the world and of conscious individuals, is not conceived as an illusory development from a characterless absolute but as a real evolution of the Self-existent. In other words this passage teaches not acosmism but a naturalistic (though idealistic) pantheism. There are a number of passages in the Katha (and in this valli) which seem to favour Sankara, but on the whole we agree with Keith when he says, "We have efforts in the Katha to accept as real and deduce from the Brahman the whole of the spiritual and non-spiritual world, efforts which lead to antinomies regarding the relation of the absolute and individual souls, and end in the abolition of the absolute in the Sāmkhya, (of the individual in Śankara*), and of both absolute and individual in Buddhism ". (R.P.V. 513,* inserted.)

या प्रागोन संभवत्यदितिर्देवतामयौ । गुपां प्रविश्य तिषन्तौं या भूतेभिर्व्यजायत। एतदैतव् ।थ ।

7. Yā prāņena sambhavati, aditir devatāmayī, Guhām pravišya tisthantīm yā bhūtebhir vyajāyata: Etad vai tat.

8. She who arises 1 with life,- Aditi, soul of the gods,- Entering the cave one sees her stand Who was born through the elements : 2 This truly is that.

1 Or, "as Life ". 2 Or, "through beings".

7. Aditi : probably derived from a +diti, not bound, bond- lessness, boundlessness (Macdonell, V.Mi., 121), though Śankara, following Br. i. 2. 5, derives from root ad, to eat. The Adityas are sons of Aditi and she is sometimes called the mother of all the gods,-hence the epithet devatamayi= ' containing all the gods' (Sankara comments Sarva-devātmikā, i.e. the soul of all the gods). Aditi sometimes seems to be a personification of the boundless sky and sometimes of universal Nature (e.g. Rg. i. 89. 10-"Aditi is the sky, Aditi the air,

7 FOURTH VALLI 159

Aditi is mother, father, and son, Aditi is all the gods and the five tribes, Aditi is whatever has been and will be born"). It is in this latter sense of universal Nature (Natura genetrix- Mother Nature) that Aditi is probably used here. Substan- tially this agrees with Deussen and Hume's interpretation of Aditi as prakrti though we deny that the idea is specifically Sāmkhyan (see above). Śankara takes Aditi as another name of Hiranygarbha to express the fact that he is the universal "eater", i.e. enjoyer or experiencer. "That soul of the gods called Aditi, because it eats (i.e. experiences) sounds, etc. is born from the highest Brahman as prāna (Life), i.e. in the form of Hiranygarbha." Anandagiri says that the reference is to another modification of Hiraņyagarbha. (Hiranyagarbhasya eva viśeşanāntaram āha.) If by Hiranyagarbha is meant the being of the hymn (x. 121) who is described as "devanam asur ekah "-"the one Life of the gods", we have no objection. If Aditi represents universal Nature it is not dead unconscious nature but that Life-power which comes to separate life and consciousness through the material elements and the living creatures which are the products of its own evolution. Verses 6 and 7 then state that the creative energy which made the world is present in the material elements he has made as World-Soul, and Ruler. Further as supreme Life-power it is born to separate life in the creatures which are the product of the evolution of the elements. It has entered into the cave of the heart of each conscious creature, so that the wise man, looking within his own heart, realises that his own inner self is an expression of the nature of that energy, life and soul manifest. in Nature, which again is an expression of that eternal reality which is the subject of inquiry.

Additional Note. Ramanuja's interpretation. In tho Sri-bhasya I. 2. 11, Ramanuja connects Katha iv. 7 with "the two entered into the cave" of Katha iii. 1, and says: "To the individual soul there refers iv. 7, 'Who is together with the vital breath, who is Aditi, made of tho deities, who entering into the cave abides therein, who was born variously through the olements'. Aditi here means the indi- vidual soul which enjoys (tti) the fruits of its works; which is associated with the vital breath ; which is made of the deities, i.e. whose enjoyment is dependent on the different sense-organs; which abides in the hollow of

160 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 8

the heart; and which being connected with the elemontary substances, earth and so on, is born in various forms, human, divine, etc. करसयोनिषितो जातवेदा गर्भ इव सुभ्टतो गर्भिशौभि:। दिवे दिव ईद्यो जामवद्धिर्द्वविभान्गिर्मनुष्येभिरमरिः। एतदैतव् ।८।।

8. Aranņyor nihito jātavedā garbha iva subhrto garbhinībhih, Dive dive idyo jāgrvadbhir havişmadbhir manusyebhir agnih: Etad vai tat.

9. All-knowing Agni hidden in the fire-sticks, Just like an embryo borne by pregnant women, Daily should be adored by the awakened,- By mortals offering their oblations. This truly is that.

10. This verse is a quotation from Sama Veda I. i. 8. 7, and is found with slight variation in Rg III. 29. 2. Jatavedas, n.s. Jatavedah: a title of Agni which occurs 120 times in R.V. It apparently means " He who knows (all) beings" (jātam sarvam vetti iti jatavedāh) and so is equivalent to viśvavid and viśvavedas (" all-knowing"), other titles of Agni (see Macdonell, V.M. 97). Hidden in the fire-sticks (aranyor nihitah) : the sacrificial fire, produced by friction of the upper and lower fire-sticks (uttarā and adharā aranī) is regarded as existing previously in the sticks. Offering oblations (havis-mat): the havis was a burnt-offering of grain, soma, milk or butter. One who offers such a sacrifice is called havis-mat. In the Rg and Sāma Veda passages only one class of people is referred to. Men when they wake in the morning offer sacrifice to Agni. Or "awakened" (jāgrvat) may mean "watchful" (so Stevenson, Sama V. p. 12, " By watchful attendant priests"). Śankara however distinguishes two classes: rtviks or karmins, those who follow karman in the sense of the Vedic ritual and offer oblations of ghee, etc., and "awakened" men, i.e. yogins, who offer in the heart contemplation and muditation (dhyāna-bhū- vana). Both in their different ways worship Agni and this (Agni) is that Brahman who is the subject of inquiry.

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यतख्ोदेति सूर्योडस्तं यत्र च गच्कति। तं देवा: सर्वे व्वर्पितास्तदु नात्येति कखवन। एतद्वैतव् । ६।

9. Yataś-ca udeti sūryah astam yatra ca gacchati, Tam devāh sarve arpitās tadu na atyeti kaścana : Etad vai tat.

10. From whence ariseth forth the sun, And whither too he goes to rest, On him all deities are fixed, Beyond that none soever goes. This truly is that.

11. The first two lines are a quotation from Br. I. 5. 23 and also occur Atharva Veda X. 18. 16. In the Br. passage the sun, as representing all the devatah, is said to rise from and set in Prana, who among the cosmic powers (devatah) is specially manifest in the unresting wind (Vayu) and among the psychic powers is the life-breath. Sankara comments : "That prana from which the sun arisos, in which day by day it also sets, that Life or Self (atman) in which all the gods beginning with Agni (speaking of its adhidaiva or theistie aspect) or all the senses beginning with speech (speaking of its adhyatma or psychical aspect) are during the time of their existence fixed, like spokes in the axle of a chariot, -- he is certainly Brahman. This is that Brahman who is the Self of all. Beyond that none soever goes, i.e. no one ceasing to be of that nature becomes other than that." Note that the existence of the ancient Vedie gods is recog- nised by the Upanisads as the old Greek gods are recognised by Epicurus, but they have become shadows of their former selves, all their reality consisting in the One from whom they derive their being. We thus see that verses 5-9, with the continual refrain etad vai tat, first (verse 5) identify the living soul which experiences sensation with the eternal Lord, then (6) the Soul of the uni- verse with the individual percipient soul, and (7) infinite Nature or the supreme life-power with the individual soul in which it is born. In verses 8 and 9 there is no specific reference to the individual,-Fire worshipped in the daily sacrifices as itself

162 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 10, 11

divine is taken as a symbol of Brahman, and the Sun and all the gods (or powers) are said to have their reality in Brahman, but probably we should again interpret the refrain, "This is that", as meaning " This Agni and this Surya, all the gods or adorable nature-powers are or represent that Brahman,-that supreme reality of which you ask, of which it has been said that it is specially manifest in the cave of your own heart.

यदेवेह् तदमुत यदमुत तदन्विह। म्टत्योः स म्ृतमाप्नोति य इष नानेव पश्ति ॥१०॥

मनसैवेदमाप्तव्यं नेह नानास्ति किंचन। मत्यो: स मतुं गष्कति य इष नानेव पशति । ११॥

10. Yad-eva iha tad amutra, yad amutra tad anv iha ; Mrtyoh sa mrtyum āpnoti ya iha nānā iva pašyati.

11. Manasā eva idam āptavyam, na iha nana 'sti kincana ; Mrtyoh sa mrtyum gacchati ya iha nānā iva paśyati.

Failure to realise unity leads to reincarnation. 10. Whate'er is here, that too is there, Whate'er is there, that too is here ; Death after death that man obtains Who sees things as if different here.

11. By mind alone This is to be obtained : There is no difference here at all ; From death to death he travels on Who sees things as if different here.

12. Nana iva, as if different, various, manifold. Iha ('here') usually means in this world, in this contoxt it must mean in the ultimate reality. 10. c.d .= Br. iv. 4. 19. c.d. 11. a.b .= Br. iv. 4. 19. a.b., except that for aptavyam (to be obtained) Br. roads drartavyam (to be perceived). These two verses then are clearly cognate with the teaching of Yājñavalkya to King Janaka in Br. iv. 4. "As a caterpillar

10,11 FOURTH VALLI 163

when it has come to the end of a blade of grass draws itself together for the next step, so with the soul ... Whereto one's mind is attached-the inner self goes thereto. Obtaining the end of his action, whatever he does in this world, he comes again from that world, to this world of action. But as for the man who does not desire. Being very Brahman, he goes to Brahman." Then comes the verse quoted Katha vi. 14, and then the passage on the unity of Brahman as given above, continuing in verse 20 -- "As a unity only It is to be looked upon -.- This undemonstrable enduring being." The passage culminates in the famous saving, "That self is not this, not that" (Sa esa ātman neti neti). Whereas however the Br. passage above makes rebirth (or rather re-death) dependent on desire, this passage traces it back to the very perception of plurality or difference. The doctrine of non-duality could not be stated more emphatically than in these two verses: "Death after death he obtains who sees (things) as if different here". It is curious that with such an emphatic statement of non- difference should be coupled the saying, "By mind indeed 'This is to be obtained" (manasā eva idam āptavyam). If the word "idam" (this) may be interpreted, as Hume interprets it, as meaning "this truth", then there is no difficulty. But Sankara interprets 'idam' as 'Brahman', and Hume also in the parallel passage Br. iv. 4. 19 interprets in the same way. "By the mind alone is It to be perceived" (T.P.U. 143). Our text then is parallel to Katha vi. 9, and teaches that Brahman is knowable by the mind,-not a lower Brahman but the Brahman in whom there is no difference. Yet how the mind can know a pure undifferentiated unity is unin- telligible. Śankara tries to get out of the difficulty by saying, " Before the knowledge of the oneness by the mind prepared by the spiritual teacher and scripture, This, i.e. Brahman, the one essence, should be obtained,-(through such scripture passages as) 'There is the Self alone, nothing else exists'. When obtained, through the removal of.Ignorance (avidya), which is the cause of the perception of difference, then Here, i.e. in the

164 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 11-13

Brahman, there is no difference whatsoever, not even the slightest." (Continued below).

वङुषमात्र: पुरषो मध्य वात्मनि तिषठति। ईभानो भूतभव्यस्य न ततो विजुगुभते। एतद्वैतत् ॥१२॥

वङषमात्र: पुरुषो ज्योतिरिवाघमकः। ईशानो भूतभव्यस्य स एवाद्य स उन्नः। एतद्वैतत् ॥१३॥

12. Angustha-mātrah puruso madhye ātmani tisthati : Īsano bhūta-bhavyasya na tato vijugupsate : Etad vai tat.

13. Angustha-matrah puruso jyotir-iva adhūmakaḥ; Īšāno bhūta-bhavyasya sa eva adya sa u śvah: Etad vai tat. 12c. Some Mss. havo isūnam.

Reassertion of the identity of the individual and the Supreme Self: The angustha-mātra purusa is the eternal Lord.

12. A person the size of a thumb Stands in the midst of the body : Lord of the past and the future : Therefore one does not seek to hide : 1 This truly is that.

13. A person the size of a thumb Like a flame devoid of smoke : Lord of the past and the future,- Alpha and Omega He:2 This truly is that.

1 Or, From Him one doos not shrink away. 2 Or, literally, He is (the same) today and tomorrow. Sankara's position has been represented as similar to that of Herbert Spencer. Just as Spencer maintained that one can know of the existence of the infinite and absolute though otherwise it is unknown, so it is said Sankara maintained

11-13 FOURTH VALLI 165

that we can know the existence of the One though we cannot know anything about it except that it is One. This howevor is not a fair statement of Sankara's position: if an agnostic he is of the type of Mansel rather than Spencer: that is to say, he holds that while Brahman is not proveable by reason Its existence and unity are known by the mind of the prepared seeker through scripture and a qualified spiritual teacher. This knowledge is however only preliminary,-it so dispels invosting Ignorance that the light of Brahman's own self-manifestation is able to shine in the seeker's soul producing not merely intellec- tual knowledge but an immediate realisation of oneness with the Supreme. (See later note on vi. 12.) At bottom he is a mystic, though His mysticism sometimes finds strangely agnostic expression.

12, 13. The term angustha-mātra purușa ("person the size of a thumb"), occurs in the Taittiriya Aranyaka x. 38. 1; Katha iv. 12, 13; vi. 17 ; Svel. iii. 13; v. 8; Maitri vi. 38; Mahānārayana xvi. 3. See also Mahabharata, Vana Parvan, line 16765 (Calcutta edn.), where in the story of Savitri we are told, Tatah Satyavatah kāyāt, pasabaddham vasangatam, Angustha-mātram purusam, niscakarsa Yamo balāt. "Then from the body of Prince Satyavan, Yama with his grim force extracted out. A person of the measure of a thumb,- Bound with his snare and brought in his control."

The thumb-sized person here referred to is obviously the individual soul, called "thumb-sized" because it is conceived of as occupying the cavity of the heart. It is said to stand madhye atmani,-atman here clearly meaning the body. Śankara discusses the meaning of these two verses in his Sūtra-bhāsya I. 3. 24, 25. The question at issue is, Is the person described as angustha-matra the individual or the highest Self? It is natural at first sight to take it as referring to the individual soul for how can the supreme self which is infinite be said to be of the size of a thumb? But then the person here referred to is spoken of as " Lord of the past and future". Moreover the words "This verily is that" expressly idontify it with the Supreme Self. Our passage teaches then

166 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 12, 13

that the soul which is said to be the size of a thumb is in reality Brahman. Ramanuja and Nimbarka agree but add that the highest self can be called thumb-sized because He dwells in the heart of the worshipper.

Perhaps the better way of stating it is to say that the " thumb-sized person is primarily the individual soul but it is here taught that this is not a separate entity in each creature but is the antarätman,-the one eternal Self present in each individual. So the Upanisad ends with the verse : (vi. 17):

A person of the measure of a thumb, The inner-self, dwells in each creature's heart : So from the body one should draw it forth As from its sheath one firmly draws a reed : Then know that as the deathless and the pure.

We remarked at the beginning of the valli on the difference between vallis iii and iv. Valli iii spoke of two selves. Valli iv sets forth a doctrine closely akin to the single self theory which is so prominently associated with the name of Yājña- valkya, and it is perhaps significant that it borrows very largely from the Brhadaranyaka, or draws from the same material.

Lord of the past and the future,-Alpha and Omega He: the last clause translated literally reads, " He alone is to-day, and also to-morrow" (sa eva adya sa u śva), and is a quotation from Br. i. 5. 23. Cf. Rev. i. 8. The one Self is not viewed as a timeless absolute (as with Sankara) but as Lord and ruler of the time-order. This comes out even more strikingly in Br. iv. 4. 15, 16 with which 12. c.d. is connected.

At whose feet time rolling on, In years and days goes by ; ' Whom as light of lights the gods, Adore as immortality : .

On whom the fivefold host of livlag things, And also space depend, -- Him know I, being wise, as my own soul, Tmmortal, the immortal Brahman.

14,15 FOURTH VALLĪ 167

यथोदकं दुर्गे वछं पर्वतेषु विधावति।

यथोदकं शुद्धे शुद्धमासिक्कं तादृगेव भवति । एवं मुनेर्विजानत व्यात्मा भवति गौतम । १५।

14. Yathā udakam durge vrstam parvateşu vidhāvati, Evam dharmān prthak paśyams tān-eva anuvidhāvati.

15. Yathā udakam śuddhe śuddham asiktam tadrg [eva] bhavati, Evam muner vijānata ālmā bhavati Gautama.

Perception of multiplicity and unity, and their results.

14. As water rained upon a height. Runs various ways among the hills, So he who views things as diverse Distractedly runs after them.

15. Just as pure water into pure Poured forth, becomes the very same, --- So, Gautama, becomes the soul Of the sage who really knows.

16. Height : Hume, "rough ground"; durga means a place where it is difficult to go. Here it must mean a mountain ridgo from which rain- water flows in different directions. Dharman prthak pasyan : He who views things as diverse. Hume: He who sees qualities separately, runs to waste after them. Deussen : He who attends to sense-impressions as distinet existences himsolf runs after them. Sankara: He who seos dharman, i.c. different selves as separate, i.e. different in each separate body, runs after them only, responsive to the variety in the bodies, -- i.e. again and again he obtains a separate body.

168 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 14, 15

The interpretation turns on the meaning of dharman. The various meanings of dharma are discussed in connection with ii. 13 (page 96). Philosophically we said dharma means the characteristic quality or nature of anything. Here we take it the meaning is, He who views the natures of things (and therefore things themselves) as quite separate, etc. Sankara limits the things to 'selves' but the text is more general. It insists on the necessity of perceiving the unity of law and nature among the apparently quite separate individual things (and selves) of experience, otherwise there is not only intellec- tual error but moral distraction and running to waste. (If this is too much to read into anuvidhavati we believe that it represents the spirit of the passage.) The continual warnings of the Upanisads against pluralism are wearisome repetitions if regarded only as the enunciation of a metaphysical monism : we only understand them if we credit the writers with some- thing of the moral and religious feeling which animated Xenophanes and the Hebrew prophets in their protest against polytheism.

15. This verse attempts to describe through a simile the state of the soul when liberated through true knowledge (i.e. of oneness with the Supreme Self). Does it become identical with the Supreme ? Yes says Sankara,-the perception of difference due to the limiting conditions (which are the product of Ignorance) having been destroyed then, "Just as pure water poured into pure becomes just such (tādrg eva), i.e. completely of one essence and not otherwise (eka-rasam-eva na anyathā) so also the soul of the sage, i.e. the man practised in meditation, who knows the oneness, becomes just similar (evam-eva bhavati)." The nature of the simile seems to favour Sankara's interpretation of tädrg eva and therefore we have translated it as "the very same". Literally however it means simply "just such" or "exactly similar".

The interpretation given by Rāmānuja and Nimbārka is not therefore excluded by this verse,-i.e. the view that the liberat- ed soul is non-different (i.e. not in any way separate-prthak) but not metaphysically identical with the Supreme. It is one with Him in will and nature (except that it does not share His

14,15 FOURTH VALLI 169

power of ruling the world), but not identical in a sense that would exclude the supreme bliss of the contemplation of the perfection of the Supreme Lord. (See Vedānta-sūtra-bhāsya iv. 4. 17-22.) With our verse we may compare Mundaka iii. 2. 8:

Even as rivers flowing to the ocean Mergo in it and relinquish name and form, Just so the wise, from name and form delivered, Attains unto the highost, heavenly Person.

Prima facie this also teaches the merging of identity. Yet the highest being is conceived theistically. The oneness there- fore cannot be that of bare identity but must permit of personal relationship. It is interesting to note that a Christian mystic with so ardent a personal religion as Bernard of Clairvaux could use a simile like that of our text and say: "As a drop of water poured into wine loses itself and takes the colour and savour of wine, so in the saints all human affections melt away, by some unspeakable transmutation, into the will of God. For how eould God be all in all if anything merely human remained in man? The substance will endure, but in another beauty, a higher power, a greater glory." St. Theresa also says, "Spiritual marriage is like rain falling from the sky into a river, becoming one and the same liquid, so that the river water and the rain cannot be divided; or it resembles a streamlet flowing into the ocean, which cannot afterward be dissevered from it ".

"Lord. we are rivers running to Thy soa, Our waves and ripples all derived from Thee : A nothing we should have, a nothing be, Except for Thee." ... Christina Rosetti.

170

। पच्चमौ वहौ।

पुरमेकादशद्दारमजस्यावक्रचेतसः। कानुषाय म प्रोचति विमुक्श्व विमुच्ते। एतदैतत् ॥ १ ॥

इंसः शुचिषद्वसुरन्तरिक्षसद्ोता वेदिषदतियिर्दुरोगसत्। षद्वरसदृतसद्योमसदजा गोजा ऋतजा वडिजा ऋतं बह्त् ॥२॥

Paňcamī Vallí.

1. Puram ekādasa-dvāram ajasya_avakra-cetasah ; Anusthāya na socati vimuktas-ca vimucyate. Etad vai tat. 2. Hamsah sucisad vasur antariksa-sad, hotā vedi-sad atithir durona-sat ; Nr-sad vara-sad rta-sad vyoma-sad, ab-jā go-jā rta-jā adri-jā rtam brbat.

FIFTH VALLI.

The Lord of the city of the body is Lord of the world.

1. There is a city of eleven gates, Owned by the unborn uncrook'd intelligence : By ruling it one does not grieve, And being freed is freed indeed. This truly is that. 2. The swan in the sky, the Vasu in space, The priest at the altar, the guest in the house : 1 In men and their betters, in right and the sky,- Born in water and earth, born in right and in rock, is the Right and the Great. 1 Or, jar. The Fifth Valli simply reinforces the argument of the fourth that the soul of each indivitual is not a separate soul but is the one eternal Ätman dwelling in each individual as Inner-self

1, 2 FIFTH VALLI 171

(antarātman). The later verses of the valli, however (from v. 12), seem to depart from the one soul theory, and, at least provisionally, speak of two souls,-the antaratman being spoken of as atma-stha (standing in the soul) : an apparent return to the standpoint of the third valli. 1. The eleven-gated city : Bunyan, in his Holy War, des- cribes the human soul as living in a city with five gates, i.e. the five senses. So in the Gita (v. 13) we are told that, " Re- nouncing with the mind all (attachment to the results of) works, the embodied soul sits happily as master in the nine- gated city ". The nine gates of the body there referred to are the two eyes, two ears, two nostrils, mouth, anus and genera- tive opening. The other two to make up eleven are the navel and sagittal suture (vidrti),-the opening at the top of the skull, perceptible only in children, through which the liberated soul is supposed to escape at death. The uncrooked intelligence (avakra-cetas) : unerooked, i.e. up- right, righteous. By implication there must exist, at least in appearance, crooked, perverted (human) intelligences. This verse however says nothing of such. It apparently assumes that there is only one Self eternal and perfect, which is Lord of all bodies, directly, without vicegerents.

Renderings of the second half of the verse vary according to the mean. ing given to anusthaya. Anu + stha means (1) to stand near, (2) to perform, practise, (3) to rule, govern. Sankara takes a modification of the second meaning and interprets anusthāya as dhyātva. "Anusthaya means con- templating that Highest Lord, the master of the city." Following him we should translate, "Contemplating (or meditating on) Him one does not grieve." Like Hume however we prefer the third meaning, which gives a more natural construetion, the object being puram.

We take the verse as resuming the theme of iv. 1, and to some extent also reconciling it with that of the Parable of the Chariot. The senses " pierced outward" are not merely openings from which the soul must turn away; they are like the gates of a city through which its Lord reccives influences from the outer world 'and through which also he acts upon it. As by controlling the gates the Lord of a city dwells in happy peace, secure from attack, so the soul, controlling the senses, is free from sorrow, being free from insurgent desire.

172 THE KATHA UPANISAI 1,2

This is the true freedom which begins even here and leads after death to complete release from the task of controlling a body.

2. This verse, except the last word, occurs Rg Veda iv. 40. 5, and in full in the Taittiriya Samhita of the Black Yajur Veda, i. 8. 15; iv. 2.1;2 the Vajasaneyi Samhita of the White Yajur Veda, x. 24; xii. 14; and the Satapatha Brāhmana, vi. 7. 3. 11.3

As quoted in the Satapatha B. the passage refers to the triune Agni who is identified with the Sun in heaven, Vāyu (wind) in the interspace, and dwells on earth both as the divine priest (symbolised by the sacrificial fire) and as the guest in the homes of men (atithir duronasat).

Here in our text the triune Agni, the supreme energy that sums up all the gods, all the powers of the universe, is implicitly identified with Brahman, who is the universal Atman.

Sankara says: The Self is not a dweller in one city only but dwells in all cities. Ho is hamsa (the swan), i.e. the mover, sucisad-dwelling in the clear (sky) as the Sun (Aditya). He is the Vasn (so called because he animates all) dwelling in the interspace (antariksa) as the Wind (Vayu). As a priest (hota), i.e. as Agni at the altar, i.e. on earth. As a guest, i.e. Soma, he is called durona-sat, i.e. dwelling in a jar; or else duronasat may mean that he dwells in houses as Brahmin guests. Nrsat-dwelling in men; varasat-dwelling in botters, i.e. gods (Satapatha says vara=space) ; rtasat-dwelling in rta, i.e. truth (satya) or the sacrifice (yajña), vyomasat- dwelling in the sky or ether. Ab-jah-born in water in the form of conches, whales, etc .; go-jah -- born of earth as rice and barley, etc .; rta- jah-born as adjuncts of the sacrifice (yajnanga); adrijah-rock-born, born of mountains as rivers. Though the soul of all yet he is rtam-i.e. of unchanging nature, and because he is the cause of all he is called brhot --- great. The meaning of the mantra is that the all-pervading Soul of the world is only One and there is no distinction of self (atma-bheda).

Apart from the interpretation of rta-jah, which we have rendered " born in right" we have on the whole followed Sankars. Keith 2 renders rto -.. "holy order" and Eggeling-"law ". "Right" is intended as including these two meanings, for rta in the Rg Veda signifies that sacred Law or order of the world which is both true, i.e. dependable, and right, i.e. morally good.

2 See Keith : Voda of the Black Yajus School, Vol. I. 127, II. 308. 3 See Eggoling: The Satapatha Brahmana, part II1 (S.B.E. XLI), p. 281.

3-5 FIFTH VALLI 173

ऊध्वें प्रायामुन्नयत्यपानं प्रत्यगस्यति । मध्ये वामनमासोनं विश्वे देवा उपासते। ३ ॥

वास्य विसंसमानस्य भरौरस्थस्य देडिन: । देह्वाद्िमुच्यमानस्य किमत्र परिभनिष्यते । एतद्ैतत् ॥ ४ ।

न प्रागेन नापानेन मर्तो जीवति कखन। इतरेय तु जीवन्ति यस्मिन्नेतावृषा्रितौ॥ ५ ॥

3. Ū rdhvam prāņam unnayati, · apānam pratyagasyati; Madhye vāmanam āsīnam viśve devā upāsate.

4. Asya visramsamānasya śarirasthasya dehinaḥ; Dehād vimucyamānasya; Kim atra pariśişyate. Etad vai tat.

5. Na prāņena na apānena martyo jīvali kaścana; Itareņa tu jīvanti yasminn etāv upāśritau.

6. Upward the outbreath he leadeth, The inbreath downward he casts : The dwarf who is seated in the midst All the devas do worship.

7. When this embodied soul that dwells Within the body, is unloosed And from the body is set free,- What is there here that then remains ? This truly is that.

8. Not by outbreath nor by inbreath Does any man whatever live, But by another do they live On which these (life-breaths) both depend

174 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 3-5

3. Prana and Apana: i.e. the life-breaths or vital powers. Prana is a word of very varied meaning. Originally it meant "breath", then "life", and was also, even as early as the Atharvu Veda, used as a name for the Supreme Being (so=Atman). In the early Upanisads all the vital powers (e.g. speech, breath, eye, ear, manas) are called pranah. Then a distinction is made between the pranah, as forces of unconscious life, and the indri- yani and manus,-the forcos of conscious life. The prunah are distinguish- ed as five,-prāņa, apāna, vyāna, samāna, udana (e.g. Br. i. 5. 3, Tait. i. 7). These are sometimes looked upon as varieties of breath and some- times as powers presiding over different parts of tho body. When prana is used alone it usually means " breath" (both inspiration and expira- tion), but when used with apana it generally means expiration, while apana means inspiration. Apana also came to mean the "wind" or power of digestion and evacuation. For a fuller discussion see Doussen, P.U. 274-280.

The dwarf (vamana): another name for the angustha-matra purusa, i.e. the embodied self. This person within, "nearer to us than breathing" is the Supreme Being whom all the gods or nature powers worship. Sankara however interprets "all the devas" as the senses and vital powers (pranah) which are sub. ject to the person within who is their Lord and worship him by their uninterrupted activity on his account. In any case the main point of the verse is that it leads on to v. 5.

4. "Here", i.e. in the body. Sankara answers, "Nothing remains". For when the soul leaves it, then this assemblage of causes and effects we call the body becomes powerless and perishes. But atra may equally mean there or then. What remains after the soul is freed from the body ? Just the one Self,-the dehin or embodied soul is one with the universal Soul (sarvatman). "This is that."

5. This verse may have in view the Buddhist doctrine of anattā (an-atman) that what we call a person is only an assem- blage of parts, but is more likely to refer to the Cārvāka doctrine.1 Sankara says, the theory may be urged that man lives only by the life-breaths, etc. and is destroyed by their exit,-that a man, like a house, is a combination of parts. But a house does not exist for itself but for one who directs the combination of its parts. So the bodily powers are not self- explanatory : they depend on and exist ior another,-the Soul.

1 See Vedāntnsāra vi, J. 77. Also Introduction, 43.

6, 7 FIFTH VALLĪ 175

हन्त त इदं प्रवच्यामि गुहं ब्रह्म सनातनम्। यथा च मरयं प्राप्य व्यात्मा भवत गौतम । ई ।

योनिमन्ये प्रपद्यन्ते परौरलाय देविनः। स्थागमन्येऽनुसंयन्ति यथाकर्म यथाश्रतम्।।

6. Hanta te idam pravaksyāmi guhyam brahma sanātanam; Yathā ca maraņam prāpya ātmā bhavati Gautama. 7. Yonim anye prapadyante śarīratvāya dehinaḥ; Sthāņum anye 'nusamyanti, yathā karma yathā śrutam.

The Eternal yet Transmigrating Soul. 6. Come then, to you I will declare This hidden Brahman everlasting ; And also, after reaching death, How the soul fares, O Gautama. 7. Some souls go forth into a womb, Unto a new embodiment ; Some enter stationary things : According to their knowledge and their deeds. 6, 7. Soul (v. 6)=atman; Souls (v. 7)=dehinah. The soul or self (atman) which in its essential nature is one with Brahman, becomes a dehin (owner of a deha or body). How this occurs is nowhere clearly stated. Embodiment is not, as with Sankara, an illusion. "In the Upanisads we have, on the one hand the constant efforts to show that there is but one self, and on the other hand the reality of the individual self is constantly insisted on." (Keith, R.P.V. 552.) But embodiment having occurred, souls go on after death to new embodiment-yatha karma-in accordance with their deeds. As Br. iv. 4. 5, says, in one of the earliest statements of the doctrine of transmigration, yathā karma tathā bhavati,-" as one acts so one becoihes". Our verse mentions only two of the kinds of possible embodimant,-as men and trees. For a fuller statement see Chand. v. 10. 7 and Kaus. i. 2.

176 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 8

The nature of rebirth is also said to be "according to know- ledge" (Kauş. i. 2, yathā vidyām, here yathā śrutam), since knowledge is largely determinative of deeds. True knowledge however, of the kind here communicated, leads heyond all rebirth.

We have taken dehinah as nom. pl. agreoing with anye. (So Sankara) Hume takes as gen. sing. "Some go into a womb for the embodiment of a living being." (So apparently also Doussen and Max Müller.)

य एष सुप्रेषु जागर्ति कामं कामं पुरुषो निर्मिमाय:। तदेव शुक्रं तङ्रह्म तदेवाम्टतमुच्यते। तस्मिल्ोकाः श्रिता: सर्वे तदु नात्येति कश्चन। एतद्वैतत् । ८ ।

8. Ya eşa supteşu jāgarti, kāmam kāmam puruso nirmimānaḥ; Tad eva sukram tad brahma, tad eva amrtam ucyate. Tasmin lokāh śritāh sarve, tad u na atyeti kaścana. Etad vai tat.

The Inner Soul is ground of the world. 8. He who is awake in the sleeping, The person who fashions desire on desire,- That is the Pure: That is Brahman: That indeed is called the Immortal; On that do all the worlds depend; Beyond it none soever goes. This truly is that.

S. The Upanisads hold that the oneness of the individual with the supreme Self is more manifest in the sleeping than in the waking state. See for example Chand. vi. 8. 1, where svapiti-"he sleeps" is connected with svam apita-he has entered into himself": "When it is said that the man is asleep, then has he attained to union with the self-existent". Moreover dream-consciousness is regarded as a proof of the existence of the Atman. In sleep the pranah-all the bodily powers, are laid to rest. What is it thon that remains active ?

"Striking down in sleep what is bodily, 'Slecploss he sontemplates the sleeping (organs)."

9,10 FIFTH VALLI 177

"There are no chariots there, no teams (of horses), no roads, but he creates for himself chariots, teams, roads. There are no blisses there or pleasures or delights, but blisses, pleasures, delights he creates for himself" (see the whole passage, B.A.U. iv. 3).

Desire on desire (kāmam kāmam): Kāma primarily means desire but here as in i. 24. 25, "objects of desire", probably as in the B.A.U. passage just quoted, "dream objeets of desire". Sankara, commenting on nirmimanah, i.e. fashioning or creating, adds avidyaya, " by Ignorance ". Ramanuja however objects. Dream-objects, like the objects of our waking consciousness, are creations of the Supreme Person and are only maya, not in the sense of illusion but in the sense of "wonderful".

अभ्निर्यथैको भुवनं प्रविष्ठो रूपं रूपं प्रतिरूपो बभूव। एकस्तथा सर्वभूतान्तरात्मा रूपं रूपं प्रतिरूपो बहिसव । ६।

वायुर्यथैको भुवनं प्रविछ्ो रूपं रूपं प्रतिरूपो बभूव। एकस्तथा सर्वभूतान्तरात्मा रूपं रूपं प्रतिरूपो बह्िस ॥ १०॥

9. Agnir yathā eko bhuvanum pravisto, rūpam rūpam pratirūpo babhūva, Ekas tathā sarva-bhūta-antarātmā, rūpam rūpam pratirūpo bahis-ca.

10. Vāyur yathā eko bhuvanam pravisto, rūpam rūpam pratirūpo babhūva, Ekas tathā sarvabhūtāntarātmā, rūpam rūpam pratirūpo bahis-ca.

The One Inner-soul : Immanent yet Transcendent.

9. As Fire, though one, having entered the world, Adapts itself in form to every form, So the one Inner-soul of every being, Enwrapped in every form is yet outside.

10. As Air, though one, having entered the world, Adapts itself in form to every form, So the one Inner-soul of every being, Enwrapped in every form is yet outside.

178 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 9,10

9, 10. Rūpam rūpam pratirūpo babhūva: literally, "Has become the counterform of every form" so also line d .: "Is the counterform of every form and is outside ".

This is a quotation from Rg Veda vi 47. 18, the famous Maya verse, Rūpam rūpam pratirūpo babhūva, Indro māyabhih pururūpa iyate. It tells, how, in his conflict with the demons,

"Indra went multiform through his magic powers. He became the counterform of every form."

The thought of the passage is, however, probably' more bused on ky x. 51. 1-3, which tells how Agni, fearing to be injurod by continual use in sacrificial worship, hid himself in animals and plants, assuming their forms.

The interest of this verse lies in its teaching of the imman- ence and yet the transcendence of the Supreme Self. The thought is evidently a development of Rg Veda x. 90 (the Purusa-sūkta), where it is said

"The Person had a thousand heads, A thousand eyes, a thousand feet: He filled the earth on every side Yet stood ten-fingers' length beyond.

Such is his greatness, and yet more Than all this is the Purusa : All beings are one-fourth of him; Threo-fourths immortal in the heaven."

The Svetasvatara develops the thought by quoting the Purusa- sūkta and saying,

"By him, the Person, this whole world is filled" "Who utterly transcends this world." (S'vet. iii. 9. 10.)

Śankara says, Bahiś-ca,-svēna avikrtena rūpeņa, ākāsavat. That is to say, The Self, like the ether assumes many forms and yet is outside them in its own unmodified nature. This implies that all modification is in appearance only. But this surely is going beyond the text which intends to preserve transcendence while at the' same time,teaching immanence.

11 FIFTH VALLI 179

सूर्यो यथा सर्वलोकस्य चन्र्न लिप्यते चाक्षषैर्बाह्यदोषेः। एकस्तथा सर्वभूतान्तरात्मा न लिप्यते लोकदुःखेन बाघ्य:।११॥

11. Sūryo yathā sarva-lokasya caksur, na lipyate cākşuşair bāhya-dosaih, Ekas tathā sarvabhūtāntarātmā, na lipyate loka-duhkhena bāhyah.

The Impassive Self, untouched by the world's pain.

11. Just as the Sun, the eye of all the world, Is not defiled by outward faults of vision, So the one Inner-soul of every being Is touched not by earth's pain, being outside it.

12. Śankara says, "If one is the Atman of all he may be regarded as subject to the grief of samsara, therefore this is said. As the sun, manifesting unclean things like dung, is not tainted by their outward visible faults, so the one inner Self of all is not tainted hy the misery of the world, being ontside it. For the world, by ignorance (avidya) superimposed on the Atman, experiences misery arising from desire and karman. but that is not really in the Atman: just as a snake superimposed on a rope (by mistaken imagination) does not really exist as a blemish in the rope. Thus the world having superimposed on the Atman the false notion of deed, agency and fruit of action (kriyā-kāraka-phala) suffers thereby the misery of birth, old- age, death, etc. But the Atman, although the soul of all the world, is not tainted by the misery of the world through such false attribution: because like the rope he is external to the false notion imposed upon him." We quote this explanation more becanse it is so character- istic than because we consider it gives a correct interpretation of our text. Śankara denies the reality of the world's misery : it is an illusion. The, Upanisad admits its reality though it denies that it touches the Self. Sankara's teaching here is based on his acosmism. He denies not only the world's paip but the world itself except as a creation of Ignorance. The teaching of the Katha, though it sometimes seems to

180 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 11, 12

follow the one soul theory (the absolute idealism of Yajña- valkya which is the precursor of Sankara's teaching), is on the whole a panentheism more akin to Rāmanuja's teaching, in which the world, including individual souls, constitutes the body of Brahman, while Brahman is antaratman, not as being the only self, the sole real existence, but as the Self within all selves, their innermost reality (see atma-stha next verse).

To return to our text. It does not deny pain and misery, and it may have been written about the time when another Gautama, the Buddha, saw in duhkha,-human suffering, the one great indubitable fact which bulked so large it almost shut out the vision of all else. Our text however denies that human suffering (loka-duhkha) touches (literally "smears") that Supreme Being who is also our inner-self. May not such teaching have been one reason why Buddha found no use for God or the atman. A reality transcendent in this sonse was too out of touch with the desperate facts of life to be of any practical value.

The doctrine of the impassiveness of God has infected most theologies. Even Christian theology took it over from Aristotle and counted Patripassianism a heresy: and this spite of the teaching of the Old Testament that " In all our afflictions He was afflicted", and of the New, that the cross of Christ is not merely an event in time but is the manifestation of the eternal spirit of God.

एको वशी सर्वभूतान्तरात्मा एकं रूपं बञधा य: करोति।

तमात्मस्थं येऽनुपश्यन्ति धौरास्तेषां सुखं प्ाम्तं नेतरेषाम् । १२।

नित्योऽनित्यानां चेतनख्खेतनानामेको बह्हनां यो विदधाति कामान्।

तमात्मस्थं येऽनुपश्यन्ति धौरास्तेषां शान्तिः शाश्तौ नेतरेवाम्।१३।

12. Eko vaśī sarvabhūtāntarātmā, ekam rūpam bahudhā yah karoli, Tam ātma-stham yo 'nupašyanti dhīrās tesām sukham śāśvatam na itareşām.

12, 13 FIFTH VALLĪ 181

13. Nityo 'nityānām cetanaś cetanānām, eko bahūnām yo vidadhāti kāmān, Tam ātmastham ye 'nupaśyanti dhīrās teşām šāntiņ sāśvatī na itaresām.

14. Some Mas .: Nityo nityānam.

The Vision of God within the soul leads to eternal bliss.

12. The One Controller, Inner-soul of all things, Who makes his one form manifold,- The wise who see Him, standing in the soul, They and no others have perpetual joy.

13. Eternal mid the transient, Conscious mid the conscious, The One amid many who grants their desires,- The wise who see Him, standing in the soul, They and no others have perpetual peace.

14. The One Controller (Eko vasi): This title is a name for the supreme Self only occurs here and Svet. vi. 12, but it goes back in thought to Br. iv. 4. 22. " Verily He is the great, un- born Soul, who is this (person) consisting of knowledge among the senses (pranah). In the ether within the heart lies the Controller of all, the Lord of all, the King of all." (Sarvasya vušī, sarvasya isanah, sarvasya adhipatih.) Our verse is repro- duced in Svet. vi. 12 with the first two lines in the following form :-- "The One Controller of the inaetive many, Who makes the one seed manifold."

Standing in the soul (Atma-stha) : Here surely we have a clear reversion to the two soul stand- point,-Brahman being regarded as the Inner-soul of our individual souls. It is true that atman sometimes means "body". Sankara, while desiring to uphold the one soul stand- point, denies that it means "body" here. He explains it as meaning the Self manifest in the form of intelligence in the buddhi (conditioned intellect) in the ether within the heart. (Tam ātmastham-sva-sarīra-hrdayākāse buddhau caitanya akarena abhivyaktam iti ctat). This exnlanation. however.

. 182 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 13

ultimately involves his illusion doctrine, which, as Rāmānuja remarks, makes nonsense of the Vedas (see Srībhāsya ii. 3. 42, Thibaut 561, 2). Supporting his contention that individual souls stand to the Supreme in a bhedabheda relation, i.e. are eternally distinct but not separate, Rāmānuja several times quotes Katha v. 13 (see Śrībhāsya i. 1. 4; ii. 3. 43).

13. We have translated verse 13 literally keeping the order of the original, but the sense is perhaps better rendered in Thibaut's translation, "He who, one, eternal, intelligent, fulfils the desires of many, non-eternal, intelligent beings". Better still, " grants (or disposes) the objects of desire,"(taking kāmān objectively as in i. 24, 25; v. 8). Deussen sees in this a doc- trine of Divine providence. (P.U. 212.)

Cetanas-cetanānām-"Conscious mid the conscious", " Intel- ligent mid the intelligent". Sankara says, The intelligence of other conscious beings, beginning with Brahmā is due to the intelligence of the Atman (atma-caitanya-nimittena). Yet else- where he denies intelligence of a conscious character to the supreme Brahman.1

Returning to our discussion of atma-stha, we have surely in these verses a doctrine which is not Absolutism nor mere Pantheism but something analogous to the Christian doctrine of the Spirit. We hope to discuss this more fully elsewhere. Here we will only ask whether it is fanciful to compare Svet. vi. 6, which continues the thought of our passage, "Know Him who stands within the soul, the immortal abode of all", with i John iv. 13,-"Hereby know we that we abide in Him and hie in us, because He hath given us of his Spirit." There are of course important differences, but there is surely also an equally important agreement.

तदेतदिति मन्यन्तेऽनिर्देश्यं परमं सुखम्। कथं नु तद्िजानौयां किमु भाति विभाति वा ॥ १४॥

1 See note on cit, Vedantasara, Introdn. Jacob 3-5 or Rawson, Gist of the Vedanta. ,

14, 15 FIFTH VALLĪ 183

न तत्र सूर्यो भाति न चन्द्रतारकं नेमा विद्युतो भान्ति कुतोऽयमभि:। तमेव भान्तमनुभाति सवें तस्य भासा सर्वमिदं विभाति ॥१५ ॥

14. Tad etad iti manyante ' nirdeśyam paramam sukham ; Katham nu tad vijānīyām, kim u bhāti vibhati vā.

15. Na tatra sūryo bhāti, na candra-tārakam, na imā vidyuto bhānti, kuto 'yam agniķ ; Tam-evą bhāntam anubhāti sarvam, tasya bhāsā sarvam idam vibhāti.

14.d. One Ms .: na bhūti vũ.

The Light of the World.

14. "This is that "-thus they recognise, The supreme indescribable bliss. How then may I come to know this ? Does it shine, or does it reflect ?

15. There shines not sun, nor moon, nor any star; These lightnings shine not, how then could this fire ? Him, the resplendent, everything reflects, His shining only all this world illumines.

16. Recognising that this, the Inner-soul, the Dweller in the innermost, the Spirit, is that supreme Reality of which they are in search, the wise or steadfast taste supreme bliss. But how can one know the supreme Reality ? Ordinary knowledge takes place when objects reflect back the light of the mind. Is the Supreme Being such an object or do those who have been pre- pared know it through its own self-luminous manifestation ? (N.B .- This involves taking vibhati here as equivalent to anubhāti-reflect.)

17. No earthly lignu can illumine the Supreme for He is the source of all light. So our knowledge cannot find Him oyt except as He communicates himself as "the master-light of all our seeing." Cf. Revelation xxi. 23

184

॥ षषौ वहनौ॥

ऊध्वमूलोSवाकृश्ाख एषोऽश्वत्यः सनातनः।

तदेव मुक्रं तद्रह्य तदेवाम्टतमुचते।

तस्मिँल्ोका: श्रिता: सर्वे तदु नात्येति कखवन।

एतद्वेतव् ॥ १ ॥

यदिदं किंच जगत्सवें प्राया एअति निःसतम्।

महङ्रूयं व्चमुद्यतं य एतद्दिदुरम्टतास्ते भ्वन्ति । २ ॥

भयादस्याग्रिस्तपति भयात्तपति सूर्यः।

भयादिन्द्रस्न वायुश्च म्टतुर्धावति पञ्चमः ।३॥

Şaşthī Vallī.

1. Ü rdhva-mūlo 'vāk-šākha eşo 'śvatthaḥ sanātanaḥ ; Tad-eva sukram tad brahma tad-eva amrtam ucyate, Tasmin lokāh šritāh sarve, tad-u na atyeti kaścana: Etad vai tat.

2. Yad idam kiñca jagat sarvam prāņc ejati nihsrtam; Mahad bhayam vajram udyatam; ye etad vidur amrtās te bhavanti.

3. Bhayād asya agnis tapati, bhayāt tapati sūryah ; Bhayād indras-ca vāyuś-ca mriyur dhāvati pañcamab.

185

SIXTH VALLI.

The World Tree.

1. With root above and branches down Is this eternal pipal tree. That is the Pure; that is Brahman, That indeed is called the Immortal; On that do all the worlds depend : Beyond it none soever goes. This truly is that.

A picture is here drawn of an aśvattha or pipal tree (Ficus religiosa) with its root upward, presumably out of sight, and its branches hanging down 1. The question arises, what is the point of comparison? Is the whole tree compared to Brahman? This seems the most natural interpretation if we take this verse alone into account. Taken however in conjunction with the next verse which says that the whole world springs from Brahman, we judge, with Sankara, that the unseen root represents Brahman. Sankara says that the tree represents the world of experience (samsara), and the object of this valli is to ascertain the nature of Brahman, the root or cause, by examining the nature of the effect, i.e. the tree of the world. If so one would expect the root to be of the same essential nature as the tree. Yet in describing the tree he says, The tree of samsāra, always shaking to the wind of desire, like the aśvattha tree, has as its branches all the worlds (heaven, the world of the fathers, the world of men, etc.)-with nests thereon built by the birds (i.e. all living beings), reverberating with the singing, laughing and crying produced by mirth and grief, ... changes in its nature every moment, like jugglery, like a mirage, like cloud-cities

I Some confusing the pipal with the banyan have supposed that " branches down" refersoto the aerial rootlets of the banyan which drop down from its branches. Hill also commenting on this passage as parti- ally quoted in Gita xv. (p. 236) is very anxious to turn the tree right side up. This seems only to detract from a striking simile.

186 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 2,3

in the sky, and ultimately vanishes, cut down by the sword of the realisation of the Paramatman. But if the tree is so unreal, what of its root ? That root is said to be the Highest Brahman yet in the same breath the tree is said to be produced from the seed of Ignorance (avidya). That is the fitting source for such a tree. The reality of the world is very explicitly taught in the next verse.

The Great Fear. 2. The whole world, whatever here exists, In Life originates and moves : A great fear! An upraised thunder-bolt !- Those who know that become immortal.

3. Through fear of Him the Fire burns; Through fear (of Him) the Sun gives heat; Through fear, Indra and Vayu both, With Death as fifth, speed on their way.

2, 3. Here Brahman is described as the mysterium tremen- dum, the source and the moving energy of the universe. He is called Prāna-Life-force (élan vital) and the universe is said to originate (literally, "be emitted "-nihsrtam) from Him and to continue to move (vibrate or tremble-ejati) in Him. Evolution is no mechanical process,-the world trembles with awe as it moves to obey that Living One on whom it depends.

Verse 3 is very similar to Tait. ii. 8. 1

Bhīsā asmād vātah pavate, bhīsā udeti sūryah.

"Through fear of Him the Wind doth blow, Through fear of Him the Sun doth rise, Through fear of Him, Fire and the Moon, With Death as fifth speed on their way."

Note on page 187. 4. asakat, 2 aor. of sak, to be able, have power. So, " If a man has been able to know". Tattvabhusan says, aśakat=na śakat (saknuyāt) and translates, " If anyone fails to know it.". So too Sarvananda "usakat=become unable". But this is a granimatical tour de force. visras, V .= falling, decay, dissolution (fr. srams to fall). visrasah (abl.) prak=C. Sk. visramsanat purvem ..

4,5 SIXTH VALLI 187

इछ चेदभकद्वोड़ं प्राकृशरौरस्य विससः। ततः सर्गेषु लोकेषु शरोरत्ाय कल्पते ॥४ ॥

यथादर्णे तथात्मनि यथा खप्ने तथा पित्टलोके। यथाम परीव ददृणी तथा गन्धर्वलीके। कयातपयोरिव ब्रह्मलोके । ५ू ॥

4. Iha ced asakad boddhum prāk śarīrasya visrasah, Tataḥ sargeşu lokeşu śarīratvāya kalpate.

5. Yathā (ā)darše tathā (ā)tmani, yathā svapne tathā pitrloke, Yathā 'psu pari iva dadrse tathā gandharva-loke, Chāyā-tapayor-iva brahma-loke.

4.c. One Ms. sarvesu kalesu (Weber, I.S., 196); Böhtlingk, svargesu lokesu; Geldner, sarvesu lokesu.

Degrees in the vision of Brahman. 4. If here a man has come to know (Him), Ere the falling of the body, Then in the created worlds,* He partakes embodiment.

5. As in a mirror, so (it is seen) in the soul ; As in a dream, so in the Fathers' world; Just as if seen in the waters, So in the Gandharva world; As in shadow and light (it is seen) in the Brahma-world. * Or, Then within the heavenly worlds.

6. sarīratvaya kalpate tay mean "he is fit for embodiment", but klp with the dative commonly means "to partake of". For sargesu we may amend to svargesu,-"in the heavenly worlds",- a much more suitablo meaning. Thers is, however, no MSS. support and one wonders why such an obvious reading should have been changed

188 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 4,5

to one more difficult. The same remark applies to Geldner's emenda- tion. He reads sarvesu and emphasises the possible idea of fitness con- tained in kalpate, rendering, Then indeed in every world, He is fit to bear a body. If we keep the reading sargesu, we may understand it as moaning "other" (and higher) created worlds, e.g. thoso enumerated in the next verse. Either of these interpretations however only mitigates the diffi- culty that this verse contradicts the theory that knowledge of Brahman produces release from reincarnation immediately after death.

Sankara attempts to avoid the difficulty by treating the verse as containing an ellipsis and renders as follows: " If here, in this life, a man is able to know the awe-inspiring Brahman before the falling of the body, he is freed from the bond of samsara: if he is n'ot able to know, then, for lack of knowledge, he takes embodiment in earth and other created worlds". This, however, quite changes the meaning, and it would be better frankly to emend the text and supply a negative. Max Müller says, "I doubt whether it is possible to supply so much (as Sankara), and should profer to read, iha cen nāsakad, though 1 find it difficult to explain why so simple a text should have been misunderstood and corrupted". Ranade (U.P. 327) also reads a negative-"Unless a man can know Him". This certainly seems the simplest way to deal with the text.

Another way to deal with the text is to understand it (as Deussen does) as teaching krama-mukti (salvation by stages). If a man can know Brahman (e.g. by scripture and works) even though he has not attained to that intuitive vision of Him in his own soul which is attained through adhyatma-yoga, he enters on the devayana, or path of the gods, from which there is no return to earth and which leads gradually to the Brahma-world. The difficulty of this interpretation is that it would require us to take the Pitr-loka and the Gandhurva-loka of the next verse as stages on the path. But the Pitr-loka or world of the Fathers is usually represented as the terminus of the other path,-the pitryana, by which, after a period in the world of the Fathers (usually pictured as the moon) souls return to re-incarnation on earth. This difficulty may perhaps be surmounted by regarding our text as following Kausitaki 1. 2, which represents all souls as first going to the moon (or pitr-loka), some returning thence to earth but others going thence by the derayuna through the worlds of Agni, Vayu, Varuna, Indra and Prajapati to the Brahma-world.

The Gandharvas ("angels") are spirits which, in the Rg Veda, are said to dwell in the fathomless spaces of aft (Rg VIJI. 65. 5), but they are also associated with the sun and in Athurva Veda IV. 34. 3 the blest are said to live with them in heaven. In Br. IV. 3. 33, we are told that the bliss of the world of the Fathers is a hundred times the highest bliss of men; the bliss of the Gandharva-world is a hundred

4-8 SIXTH VALLI 189

fold that of the Fathers' world; the bliss of the gods by works a hundred- fold that of the Gandharva-world; the bliss of the gods by birth is a hundred-fold that of the gods by works of merit. Again the bliss of the Prajapati-world is a hundred-fold that of the gods by birth, and the bliss of the Brahma-world and of him who is learned in the Vedas, without crookedness and free from desire, is a hundred-fold the bliss of the Prajapati-world. Here we have a series of stages which may be stages on the devoyana corresponding in some degree with that in Kaus I. 3, and our text may givo a similar but abbreviated series. Further our text is almost certainly connected with Br. IV. 4. 4,-"As a goldsmith taking a piece of gold, reduces it to other and more beautiful forms, just so this soul, striking down the body and dispelling its ignorance, makes for itself other and more beautiful forms, like those of the Fathers, or the Gandharvas, or the gods, or Prajapati or Brahma".

But though it is possible to regard verse 4 as referring to krama-mukti, it is clear from verse 5 that this method of salvation is not taught in the sense of recommended. Almost in the spirit of an evangelical proacher, warning those who would put off the business of salvation to some purgatorial world hereafter, our text says in effect, "Now is the day of salvation". For, as Sankara says, Here, in this world, the vision of the Atman may be as clearly visible as one's own face re- tlected in a mirror, but not in other worlds excopt the Brahma-world. Just as in a mirror one sees oneself very cloarly reflected, so hero, in the soul, i.o. in one's own purified intelligence, a clear vision of the Self may be obtained. As in a dream perception is confused, so indistinct is the vision of the Self in the world of tho Fathers (becauso one is engrossed in the enjoyment of the fruit of one's deeds). Just as in water one sees as if an image of oneself with the parts not clearly defined, so is Self-vision in the Gandharva-world. It is only in the Brahma-world that a vision may be attained clearer than that possible on earth, and that world is hard to reach. The meaning is, therefore, that one should seek to attain the vision of the Self here and now.

इन्द्रियायां एथग्भावसुदयास्तमयौ च यत्।

एथगुत्पद्यमानानां मत्वा धौरो न प्रोचति । ई।

इन्द्रियेभ्य: परं मनो मनसः सत्त्वमुत्तमम् ।

सत्त्वादधि महानात्मा महतोऽव्यक्मुत्तमम्॥७। .

वाव्यक्कान्त पर: पुरुषो व्यापकोर्डलिङ्ग एव च। यं जात्वा मुच्यते जन्तुरम्टतत्वं च. गध्कति ।5 ।

190 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 6-8

6. Indriyāņām prthag-bhāvam, udayāstamayau ca yat, Prthag-utpadyamānānām, matva dhīro na socati.

7. Indriyebhyah param mano, manasah sattvam uttamam ; Sattvād adhi mahūn ātmā, mahato 'vyaktam uttamam.

8. Avyaktāt-tu parah puruso, vyāpako 'linga eva ca, Yam jñātvā mucyate jantur, amrtatvam ca gacchati.

The order of progression to the inmost Self,- to the highest Person.

6. The separate nature of the senses, And that their rising and setting Is of things produced separately (from the self), The wise man notes and does not grieve.

7. Beyond the senses is the mind, Higher than mind is its essence (sattva, i.e. reason) Above that essence is the great self (mahān ātma) Higher than the Great-the Unexpressed (avyakta)

8. Beyond the Unexpressed is the Person, (purusa) All-pervading and bodiless, (alinga) By knowing whom a man is freed, And goes to immortality.

9. How then is the vision of Brahman to be realised in the mirror of the soul? The first thing is to recognise that the senses and their objects are quite distinct from the self. Their fluctuation does not trouble the wise and steadfast man. Verses 7-9 are practically a repetition in slightly modified form of iii. 10-12, and our verse stands. to them in the same relation as the Parable of the Chariot stands to iii. 10-12. Rising and setting: i.e. activity and its cessation in the waking

6-8 SIXTH VALLI 191

and sleeping states. Things separately produced : i.e. the senses are regarded as produced from the subtle elements and not from the self, of which they form the instruments. This verse lends itself naturally to a Sāmkhya interpreta- tion :- the senses belonging to the sphere of prakrti, the first essential to the attainment of salvation, which consists in kaivalya is the recognition of their total separateness from the purusa. We have already discussed, however, whether a dis- tinctively Sāmkhya interpretation of iii. 10, 11, is permissible and decided in the negative. The arguments apply here also. 7, 8. Compåring the series here given with that in iii. 10, 11, we note (1) the omission of the sense-objects, (2) sattva corres- ponds to buddhi, i.e. reason or intelligence. Sattva is either used here untechnically in its primary sense of essence or reality, reason constituting the essence of mind; or semi- technically, the buddhi being called sattva because in it the guna or quality of "goodness" predominates. But with this very doubtful exception there is no trace of the Sāmkhya doctrine of the gunas (sattva, rajas and tamas) before the much later Maitri U panişad.

The Alinga Purușa : The highest being is here called the alinga purusa. The word 'linga' has two main meanings : (1) A mark or sign, particularly a characteristic or distinctive mark. Later special applications of this meaning are- (a) to distinctive sex marks,-so the word is applied to the outward male generative organ, the phallus ; (b) as a logical term linga means an invariable sign which is a basis of inference. (2) The subtle body (sūksma śarira),-the transmigrating entity consist- ing of buddhi, ahamkāra, manas, indriyani, and subtle elements. (This is the sense of the term in the Samkhya philosophy but it is used in the other systems also.) Derivatorily- (a) it sometimes seems to be used in the general sense of 'body' ; (b) it may be applied to anything 'perishable'. .

Alinga may have a corresponding variety of meaning1 but there are two main meanings, (1) without distinctive mark, (2) without subtle body or psychic apparatus. . In seeking to determine the moaning here we note that this

192 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD

seems to be the first occurrence of the term. Rather later occurrences are Mund. iii. 2. 4 and Maitri vi. 31 ; vi. 35 ; vii. 2, in all of which the first meaning is most suitable. Linga occurs in the sense of 'mark' or ' characteristic' in Maitri ii. 5; v.2; vi. 30. 31 ; Gita xiv. 21, and in the sense of ' subtle body', Svet. vi. 9 (probably); Maitri vi. 10. 19. There is however a very important earlier usage in the famous transmigration verse, Br. iv. 4. 6, and as the Katha refers repeatedly to this section of the Brhadāranyaka it probably may be taken as determina- tive of the meaning here.

Tad-eva saktaḥ sahakarmaņā eti, Lingam mano yatra nişaktam asya.

"Where a man's mind and linga (subtle body, i.e. whole psychic disposition are fixed, there he goes, together with his work, being attached to that alone." Here 'lingam' seems clearly to refer to the transmigrating entity. Deussen, com- menting on this verse (P.U. 282), says," Here we meet, apparently already a technical term, the word lingam, by which the adherents of the Samkhya were accustomed later to denote the subtle body." It is perhaps to be taken in the samc meaning in Kath. vi. 8, and Svet. vi. 9, where moreover the ätman is des- cribed as " Lord of the lord of the senses", i.e. lord of the subtle body. Keith (S.S. 18) partially disagrees, preferring to adopt the meaning, " bearing a characteristic mark" in Br. iv. 4. 6, but says that Katha vi. 8 and Svet. vi. 9 may refer to the 'subtle body'. In his later R.P.V. (565), however, he says, "The term linga is apparently used technically to denote the entity which transmigrates as early as the Katha at least." We take it then that the meaning is that while the individual self or person has a psychic organisation (reason, mind, senses) which of itself may be perishable, deep within it, constituting its ultimate reality, there is another Person, which needs no such psychic organs and is not subject to transmigration or decay. Truly knowing that Highest Person the individual self shares in His immortality. . If however the other meaning is preferred (i.e. 'without mark') we should note that this passage cannot be taken as . .supporting the doctrine of a characterless Absolute, which

8 SIXTH VALLĪ 193

could not by any possibility be known. Even Sankara says,2 "He is called alinga, meaning devoid of all empirical attributes ".3 And the Maitri Upanisad which takes alinga in the sense of 'without marks', speaks of " the mark of Him who is without marks" and says, "He is to be apprehended by his own peculiar marks " (vi. 31). "He verily is pure, clean, tranquil, undecaying, etcrnal, etc." (ii. 4).

1 Here are some of the renderings of alinga given by different translator. : Hume: "Without any mark"; Sitarama Sastri: "Devoid of distinctive marks"; Mead: "Far beyond distinction's power"; Max Muller: " Entire- ly imperceptible"; Tattvabhusan : "asarira" ("bodiless"). Deussen (S.U. 286) says that it may mean cither (1) "without mark" (ohne Merkmale), (2) "imporishable" (unverganglich), or (3) "devoid of a subtle body " (ohne foinen Leib).

2 Sankara's comment is as follows :- Avyaktāt tu parah puruso vyāpako, vyāpakasya apy ākāsādeh sarvasya kāranatvāt. Alingah-lingyate gamyate yena tal-lingam buddhyādi, tad- avidyamānam asyasiti so'yam alinga eva. Sarva-samsāra-dharma-varjita ity etat. Yam jnātvā ācāryatah śāstrutaśca mucyate jantur avidyādi- hrdaya-granthibhir jivanneva, patite'pi sarire ' mrtatvam ca gaechati.

"Boyond the Avyakta is the Purusa called 'all-pervading' because it is the cause of all things like the ether which aro all-pervading. Re. alinga -- that by which anything is reached or known is linga, -- such as the buddhi, etc. and just because of its absence in His case He is called alinga. The meaning is, He is devoid of all empirical attributes. Know- ing Him through teacher and seripture, oven while living a man is froed from the knots of the heart, beginning with Ignoranco, and when the body falls he goes to immortality."

The Siva-linga : Though unnecessary for the interpretation of this passage it is interesting to noto that while we have here a statement that the Highest Person is alinga, and while tho Svetasvatara some hundred years or so later identifies that Highest Person with Maheśvara-Siva and says, nniva-ca tasya lingam, "He has no linga at all", India is now full of stone lingas or phallic emblems of Siva. It is truo that as wo have seen S'vet. vi. 9, uses linga in a different sensc, but it could hardly have made the statement if the author wero familiar with the stone phallus as an emblem of Siva. Bhandarkar, V.S. 114, says that he could find no trace in literature o the Siva-linga as an object of worship.before the late Anusasana-parvan of the Mahābhārata (? c. 300 A.D.). He consi* ders that it was borrowed by the Äryas from the aborigines'of tho sub-Himalayan forest region,(Vratyas, Nisadas, ete.).

194 THE KAȚHA UPANIȘAD 9

न संदृषे तिषठति रूपमस्य न चक्षषा पश्यति कखनैनम्।

हृदा मनोषा मनसाऽभिकृल्टप्तो य एतदिदुरम्टतास्ते भवन्ति। ८॥

9. Na samdrse tisthati rūpam asya, na cakşuşā paśyati kaścana enam: Hrdā manīşā manasā 'bhikļpto, ye etad vidur amrtās te bhavanti.

Inner Vision.

9. Not in the field of vision stands His form, By outward eye no one soever sees Him : By heart, by thought, by the mind apprehended : Those who know Him thereby become immortal.

10. Cf. Taittirīya Aranyaka, x. 1. 3, and also, (probably quotod from the Katha), S'vet. iii. 13; iv. 17 ; Mahān. i. 11.

11. This verse is one of the most striking in the Upanisad. Negatively, the first half insists on the utter impossibility of forming a visual image of the Supreme Person ; positively, the second half insists with equal emphasis that there is a way by which the Supreme Person may be apprehended or known. "By heart, by thought, by the mind apprehended."

The Heart (hrd) is in Vedic usage the seat of the emotions and mental activities. No antithesis is therefore intended between heart and mind (in its wider sense). The reference is 'not to a merely emotional religious experience but to an apprehension or intuition of the supreme reality which involves the whole self through the yoga, i.e. yoking or concentrated direction of all its powers. The apprehension by the heart referred to here, then, is something which goes beyond the mere processes of the understanding. "Not by learning or power of intellect (medha) is this Self to be obtained. Only by the man whom He chooses is He obtainable. To him the Self reveals His person." But though mere intellect can never attain Him, nevertheless intelligence or reason is not supersed- "ed. "By thought, by mind He is apprehended."

9 SIXTH VALLI 195

Manīșa is a Vedic word meaning "reflective thought". Śankara interprets as vikalpa-varjita-buddhi,-" Intelligence freed from false notions, ruling as controller of the purposive mind ".

(Note that in V.Sk. the inst. of manisa has the same form as the nom. In C.Sk. it would be manīsayā.)

Manas (see p. 124) in V.Sk. does not mean merely the organ of sense-perception as in later Samkhya and Vedānta usage, or as in the parable of the chariot and the scale of the facultics, iii. 10 ff. and vi. 7, but is often used in a wider sense. It is in this wider sense it is used here and is evidently intended to be synonymous with manīsa. Sankara interprets as manana-rūpeņa samyagdarsana-" true insight in the form of meditation". Abhiklpta (apprehended): A common V. use of the root klp is in the sense 'to share or partake of' (e.g. yajño devesu kalpa- tam, "Let the sacrifice be partaken by the gods"). Sankara explains as abhisamarthita, abhiprakasita, i.e. 'realised' or 'revealed'. Śankara does not attempt to explain away the force of this verse. Instead he says, "The Atman can be known, should be added to complete the sentence" (i.e. "Being realised by heart, thought and mind the atman can be known"). Rāmānuja has a very illuminating reference to our text in its relation to others of similar import in Srībhāsya i. 4 (Sk. text, 159). "I maintain that by such scripture texts as the following,-' He should be heard (i.e. through scripture), re- flected on, steadily meditated upon' (Br. ii. 4.5); 'He who knows Brahman obtains the highest' (Tait. ii. 1. 1); 'Not by the eye is He apprehended nor yet by speech' (Mun. iii. 1.8) but by a pure mind; "By heart, by thought, by mind, He is apprehended" :- it is proved that through the injunction of meditation (dhyana-niyoga) the mind becomes pure, and that the mind so purified gives rise to direct (intuitiye) knowledge of Brahman" (Nirmalom ca mano Brahma aparoksa-jñanam janayati). Compare the greatly simple words of Jesus, " Blessed are tho pure in heart, for they shall see God".

196 THE KAȚHA UPANIȘAD 10, 11

यदा पच्चावतिषन्ते ज्ञानानि मनसा सह। बुड्धिश्च न विचेष्ठति तामाऊः परमां गतिम्॥१०॥ तां योगमिति मन्यन्ते स्थिरामिन्द्रियधारगाम्। अप्रमत्तसदा भवति योगो हि प्रभवाप्ययौ ॥ ११ ॥

10. Yadā pañca avatisthante jñānāni manasā saha, Buddhiś-ca na viceștati 1 Tām āhuh paramām gatim.

11. Tām yogam iti manyante, sthirām indriya-dhāraņām; Apramattas tadā bhavati, yogo hi prabhavāpyayau.

The Way of Yoga further expounded.

10. When the five means of knowledge rest, Together with the knowing mind, And intellect no longer strives,- That is, they say, the highest way.

11. This they consider as Yoga,- The firm control of the senses : Then one becomes concentrated, For Yoga is acquired and lost.2

1 C. vicestate. 2 Or, Yoga is creation and passing away, or, Yoga is beginning and end.

Yoga: In ii. 12, in the phrase adhyatma-yoga, we have the first usage of the word "yoga" in the Upanisads in a philo- sophical or religious sense. The verse emphasised as strongly as possible the utter mystery and inaccessibility of the supreme being yet stated that He might be perceived through adhyātma- yoga.' This theme is taken up and expdunded in the Parable of the Chariot and througheut the third valli. The word yoga is not used, but the nature of yoga is expressed when it is said

10, 11 SIXTH VALLI 197

that the senses and all the powers of one's nature must be yoked (yukta) so that there may be complete restraint or control of the lower by the higher,-the object being the direction and concentration of our whole being upon the goal,-the realisa- tion of that Highest Person who is also our inmost self. Vallis iv and v emphasise this identity in various ways and point out as a prerequisite to Self-realisation what the later Yoga calls pratyahara-the turning aside of the senses, and mind from outward objects with a view to inner concentration. This is the state referred to in verse 10. In verse 11, Yoga is defined as indriya-dhāranā,-the holding tirm of the senses (including the mind). The term is probably here used non-technically, and means very much the same as the yoking and restraint (yama, niyama) of the senses in valli iii. In the developed Yoga however, as set forth in the Yoga- sitras of Patañjali (c. iv century A.D.) the eight parts or angas of yoga are said to be: yama, niyama, āsana, prāņāyāma, pratyāhāra, dhāraņā, dhyāna, samādhi. Here yama has be- come specialised to mean 'abstinence' from injury, falschood, theft, incontinence, and greed, and niyama means such positive religious duties as cleanliness of body and mind, contentment, austerity, study and devotion to God. 1 Asana of course refers to bodily postures and prūņāyāma to the control of breathing, subjects to which the later Yoga devoted disproportionate attention. These are aids to pratyahāra and so to dļāraņā, with which yoga in its higher sense begins. This is the con- centration of the mind in fixed attention upon some symbol or object. In its higher stage it passes into dhyūna,-meditation or contemplation, when the object thought of completely oc- cupies the mind, and this again into samadhi when one is.so absorbed in the object that one loses sight of oneself. Eight centuries intervene between the first exposition of Yoga in the Katha Upanisad and its full formulation in the Yoga- sutras, so that one obviously ought not to be particularly guided in one's interpretation of the former by the latter. It is fairly certain, however, that the astanga-yoga is much earlier than its formulation in the Sūtras, and in any case it is of interest to note its relation to yoga as set forth in our text.

1 Sutra ii. 29 (Woods. 177 ff.):

198 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 11

Apramatta : Resuming our exegesis : As a result of the yoga which consists in dhāranā,-steady control, one is said to become apramatta (concentrated). This too is a technical Yoga term. In Yoga-sūtra i. 30, pramāda, literally "intoxication", "excitement ", but generally used in the sense of " carelessness" is mentioned as one of the distractions that stand in the way of yoga. Apramatta occurs Ch. i. 3. 12 and ii. 22. 2 in the sense "careful", "intent". In Mund. ii. 2. 4, it is used of un- distracted or concentrated attention to one's aim. "The pranava (Om) is the bow, the arrow is the soul, Brahman is called the mark. By the 'undistracted' man it should be pierced : like an arrow he should become one with it." Śvet. ii. 8, mano dhārayeta apramattah, is obviously a development of our passage : "Like a chariot yoked with vicious horses a wise man should control the mind, being 'undistracted'." Apra- matta then means as Sankara says, negatively, free from care- lessness and distraction, and positively, constant endeavour toward complete concentration (apramattah-pramāda-varjitab, samādhānam prati nityam prayatnavān). It is of interest to note the central importance of apramāda (Pali, appamado) in Buddhist ethics. All the virtues are said to have their root in it.1 (Fausböll translates it by ' vigilantia' ; Max Müller, 'earnestness'; Saunders, 'zeal'; I suggest ' keen- ness '.) The whole of the second chapter of the Dhammapada (called by Barua the Apramada-vaga2), is concerned with this root virtue. It begins, in the Pali version,

Appamādo amata-padam, pamādo maccuno padam; Apamattā na mīyanti, ye pamattā yathā matā. "Keenness is the way of immortality, slackness the way of . death; The keen never die, the slack are as if dead already."

The Dhammapada seems to have been accepted at the Council of Asoka in 240 B.C. as a collection of the sayings of Gautama Buddha, and certainly this chapter breathes the spirit of the Buddha and also of his kingly disciple, with his continual exhortation, "Let everyone exert themselves, both small and great."3 4. It is further of interest to note that apramāda is one of the

11 SIXTH VAILI 199

three virtues which, according to the short summary of the ethical requirements of the early Bhägavata faith, given in the second part of the Besnagar pillar inscription (c. 180 B.C.), "lead to heaven ". Nayamti svaga dama cāga (i.e. tyāga) apramāda.4 "Self-control, self-denial, and keen concentration lead to heaven." Though the Katha Upanisad is not specifically a Bhagavata or Vaisnava work it is, we hold, on the general line of development of thought which connects Chāndogya iii. 17 with the Besnagar inscription and the Gitā. Further, on this line of development it is clear that Buddhism is not, as once supposed, an intrusion. The Buddhist ethics and Buddha's own living example help to provide the founda- tion for the ethical yoga here set forth. We may also surmise that the second adhyaya of the Katha may be Asokan in date, though there is no real proof of this.

Yogo hi prabhava apyayau : The fourth line gives a reason for the concentration of attention,-literally " Yoga is an arising and passing away", the meaning of which is ambiguous. (1) Śankara says, Yogo hi yasmāt prabhava apyayau-upajana- apāyadharmakah-iti arthaḥ. " Because yoga has the attributes of being acquired and being lost. Hence the meaning is that to avoid the risk of losing it vigilance is necessary." Hence, following Sankara, Max Muller translates, "For Yoga comes and goes", and Sadananda and Sitarama Sastri, "For yoga can be acquired and lost". The difficulty some have found is that the essential characteristic of yoga is defined at the beginning of the Yoga-sūtra as "the restriction of the fluctuations of the mind" (Yogas citta-vrtti-nirodhah). How can this be if yoga itself fluctuates ?

1 Ye keci kusala dhamma sabbe te appamāda-mūlakā. Noto on Dham- mapada, S.B.E., X., p. 9. 2 Barua and Mitra, Prabrit Dhammapada, 119 ff. 3 Read the whole chapter, Max Muller's Dhammapada, S.B.E., X., 9-11, or Wagiswara and Saunders, The Buddha's Way of Virtue, 24, 25 .. 4 Raychaudhuri, Early History of the Vaisnava Sect, 59. J.R.A.S. 1909, 4 pp. 1051-6, 1087-94.

200 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 11

Even if with Patañjali we regard Yoga simply as mental con- centration the difficulty is more dialectical than real. The mind of the Yogin is liable to fluctuation and therefore his degree of attainment of yoga. As the Yoga-bhāsya (i. 14) says, " Practice when it has been cultivated for a long time and carried out with self-castigation and continence, with knowledge and with faith,-in a word, with earnest attention,-becomes con- firmed",-not otherwise. Ignorance, egoism, desire, aversion and attachment are the five obstacles at the beginning of the path, but not at the beginning only: in various forms they recur,-for every stage of the path there is its own obstacle, and the greater the restraint the greater maybe the recoil. Self-complacence, leading to heedlessness, is the most deadly spiritual foe. So in Yoga-bhasya ii. 34, the devotee in whose mind resentment at injury may arise is bidden to reflect, "Baked in the terrific fire of transmigration I have taken refuge in the virtue of yoga through charity and love to all beings. So if I revert to questionable paths after giving them up, I am a miserable cur, reverting as a dog to its vomit." But the Yoga of the Katha Upanisad differs from Patañjali's Yoga and is not definable as citta-vrtti-nirodhah. There are of course points of agreement, and Patañjali and his successors develop one side of the Katha teaching in a way that is worthy of the attention of all aspirants after spiritual discipline. But the Yoga-sutra and bhasya are painfully lacking in religious motive. True, devotion to God is mentioned along with asceticism and study as a means of attainment, but God has very little real importance in the system. The Yoga of the Katha, on the other hand, is distinctively religious. It in- eludes mental concentration and the firm control of sense and appetite, but recognises that this can only be accomplished by yoking the soul in communion with the Supreme Self. Now religious communion notoriously ' comes and goes'. It cannot, here in this life at least, remain on one level. Hence the higher we rise the greater the need for keen and vigilant attention. "Watch and pray" said, Jesus, "that ye enter not into temptation," for the tighter we hold the reins of the senses, the greater the danger of reaction unless we vigilantly maintain that communion through which alone our strength comes.

11 SIXTH VALLI 201

(2) Another type of interpretation of the phrase Yogo hi prabhava apyayau is indicated by Hume's rendering, "Yoga is the origin and end", and Deussen's, "Yoga is creation and passing away".1 These we reject as involving much later ideas which are foreign to the Katha. ((t) Commenting on his rendering, "Yoga is the origin and the end" Hume says, "Perhaps of 'the world' of beings and experiences, --- hore too, as in Mand 6, where the phrase occurs. That is: the 'world' becomes created for the person when he emerges from the Yoga state, and passes away when he enters into it". The Māndūkya says, "This self is: Brahman, This self has four fourths, i.e. the waking state, the dream- ing state, the state of deep sleep and ' the fourth'." Concerning the self in the third state (susupta-sthana) it is said, "This is Lord of all, this is the all-knowing, this is the inner-controller, this is the source of all, for it is the origin and end of all beings". (Esa yonih sarvasya, prabhara- pyayau hi bhūtanam.) The self in the fourth state is described as un- thinkable, ungraspable, completely ono without a second. For the self in the fourth state then, in that complete samadhi in which yoga culminates. thero is no world. But when the solf passes back into the third state then the world is created in consciousness. This doctrine of absolute idealism, however, is not the doctrine of the Katha Upanisad but is a later development. (b) Deussen gives a similar rendering: "Yoga is creation and pass- ing away", and comments, The world sinks down in Yoga and again is created afresh". He refers howevor not to the Māndūkya passage but to Yoga-sutra i. 35, which reads, "He (the Yogin) gains stability when a sense-activity arises connected with an object, bringing the central organ (citta) into a relation of stability", i.e. an object is needed on which to focus attention. Then, says the Yoga-bhasya, the Yogin will without hindrance acquire faith and energy and mindfulness and concen -. tration (samadhi). But though a lowor sumadhi may be thus acquired, in the higher samadhi all consciousness of objects is transcended. All this, however, is Patañjali's Yoga and is a later development. (c) A third and quite different interpretation of the rendering " Yoga ig the origin and the end", is possible, i.e. that Yoga in its various stages is both the alpha and omega of religion. A similar idea is expressed about bhakti in the Narada-bhakti-sutra, 25, 26. "It is higher than karman, jñāna and yoga: because it is its own result". Also about 'faith' in Romans i. 17 where it is said of Christ's gospel that, "Therein is revealod a righteousness of God from faith unto faith." This possibly is Whitney's interpretation when he translates "Yoga is boginning and end." The objection may be raised that apyaya does not mean 'end' in the senwe of consummation, but if by apyaya we under- stand brahmapyaya (see Svet. vi. 10) this may certainly be the meaning.

1 Yoga ist Schopfung untl vergang. .

202 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 12, 13

(3) Geldner says, "For Yoga is an arising of a new inner- world and a passing away of the outer-world ".1 As an alterna- tive to (1) this is probably best. Whether one has in view (1) the fluctuating character, (2c) the importance, or (3) the difficulty, of Yoga, vigilant keenness is necessary.

नैव वाचा न मनसा प्रामुं पुक्यो न चक्षषा। ग्रस्तौति ब्रवतोऽन्यन कथं तदुपलभ्यते ॥१२॥

अस्तोत्येवोपलब्धस्य तत्त्वभाव: प्रसीदति ॥१३॥

12. Na eva vācā na manasā prāptum śakyo na caksusā; Asti iti bruvato 'nyatra katham tad upalabhyate.

13. Asti ity-eva upalabdhavyas, tattva-bhāvena ca ubhayoh; Astizity-eva upalabdhasya tattva-bhāvaḥ prasīdati.

Faith essential in Yoga.

12. Not by sight can one obtain Him, Nor yet by speech or by the mind: Except by* one who says, ' He is', How can He be experienced ?

.13. He should be apprehended as " He is ", And by His real nature,-in both ways: When He is apprehended as " He is", His real nature is made manifest.

*Or, from (i.e. from a true guru).2

12. Hume's rendering, " How can He be apprehended other- wise than by one's saying 'He is'?" implies a Spencerian

1 denn Yoga ist Enstehen (eiher neuen Innenwelt) und Vergehen (der Aussenwelt). V. B. 168. . 2 See Appendix IV, p. 228.

12 SIXTH VĄLLĪ 203

agnosticism, i.e. the existence of the Absolute may be known but otherwise He is unknowable. Deussen's rendering is similar : "He is'-by this word alone, And in no other way is he comprehended". He treats the verse as a declaration that the atman as knowing subject can never become an object for us, and is therefore itself unknowable. (P.U. 403, 4.) This is surely to misinterpret the emphasis of the verse by ignoring the context. The general subject is the apprehension of the Highest Person through yoga,-it is admitted that He transcends the ordinary means of apprehension, and it is there- fore urged that faith in His existence is an indispensable prerequisite to that immediate experience which comes by the way of yoga. As the writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews says, "He that cometh to God must believe that He is". Such faith is often criticised as an assumption at the start of that which we set out to discover : yet what adventures of discovery in science or in life start in any other way than with a convic- tion of the reality of that which is sought ? Sankara's comment may be condensed as follows: True, Brahman cannot be apprehended by the senses or intellect as specifically this or that. Nevertheless since He is conceived as root or source of the universe He certainly exists (jagato mūlam ity-avagatatvād asti eva). The chain of effects being traced back and back leads to the conviction that real being must exist (i.e. the ontological postulate is inevitable: we cannot conceive of the world as produced from nothing). Those then who, following the general teaching of scripture and having faith, maintain His existence, are able to apprehend Him, but in the case of the atheist or nihilist (nastika-vadin) who maintains that no atman, the source of the world, exists, and that this world-effect, not being inseparably connected with a cause is absorbed into non-existence,-in the case of one who thus sees perversely how can Brahman be truly apprehended ? It is obviously impossfble. Sankara is here arguing against the atheism and nihilism of the Buddhist doctrine of anatman and exhibits a side of his teaching too often ignored by his European expositors :Sankara the mystic and man of faith, as opposed to Śankara the metaphysical agnostin,

204 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 13

13. The most obvious way of rendering the second line is "And by the real nature of both" (so Hume). So too Max Müller renders, "And by (admitting) the reality of both"; and Deussen, "In so far as he is the essence of both". But what in this case is meant by "both"? Two things have not been referred to, so the meaning is decidedly obscure. Inferring a meaning of " both" from the context Hume suggests that they are "his comprehensibility and incomprehensibility"; Max Müller, "the invisible Brahman and the visible world as coming from Brahman"; Mead, "asti and nasti, sat and asat, the manifested and unmanifested aspects of Brahman"; most Indian commentators, "ubhayoh=sopādhika-nirupādhikayoḥ" (the qualified and unqualified Brahman). Surely the plain antithesis of the text is between the astitva (existence) and the tattva-bhava (essence, inner being or real nature) of the Supreme Being. These are the " both " referred to, and the whole difficulty disappcars if ubhayoh is separated from tattva-bhāvena-ca and taken either (1) as a genitive ex- pressing the agent (M. 202. 3)-"He should be apprehended as existent, and by His essential nature,-i.e. by both"; or (2) ubhayoh may be taken as Sankara suggests as a definitive genitive (nirdhūraņārthā sasthī),- "He should be apprehended as existent, And by His real nature: Re. these two- When Ho is apprehended as existent His real nature is made manifest."

Rational faith in the Divine existence should lead on to spiri- tual experience in which His nature is immediately revealed to and apprehended by the believer. This is the end or culmina- tion of truc yoga (spiritual yoking).

At first sight there seems to be a contradiction between verse 12 and verse 9 with its emphatic doclaration that the Highest Person may be apprehended or realised "by the mind". This leads Ranade (U.P. 339, 340) to suggest that in verse 9 we should read a negative right through. "Never has any man been able to visualise God by sight, nor is it possible to realise Him either by the heart, or by the imagination, or by the mind. It is only those who know this sublime truth who become immortal." This is surely almost perversely gratuitous! Manas is in verso 12 used in its narrower meaning of the central organ of ordinary perception, while in verse 9 it is used in a much wider sense (see note on 9).

13 SIXTH VAĻLI 205

This verse brings to a point all that we have previously noted in the teaching of the Upanisad re: the knowability of Brahman. To recapitulate: II. 9 says that He is not to be obtained by argumentative reasoning (tarka) yet when taught by a fit guru He may be well known. II. 12 emphasises the difficulty of seeing Him by any ordinary means, yet says that He may be perceived by adhyātma-yoga. II. 20 and 23 set forth the greatness and subtlety of the Supreme Self and teach that He cannot be obtained by force of intellect, nor even by instruction in and knowledge of Scripture, but also affirm that to the man whose will is at rest in Him there comes, by His grace, d vision in which He makes His person manifest. The Third Valli goes on to speak of the discipline of yoga by which a man's whole being may be unified and concentrated on the realisation of the Highest Person who is our inner and most real Self. This subject is resumed in Valli VI. It begins with the picture of the world tree of which Brahman is the root, and goes on to speak of Brahman as the mysterious life and energy of the universe. This Brahman must be known if we are to escape death and transmigration and attain true, abiding reality, and He may be known, not indeed by the outward ranging senses and striving intellect, but by the thought which has been disciplined and concentrated within upon the Highest who is also the inmost Person, the Inner-Self,-Brahman. Thus, though we may not be able to demonstrate the existence of Brahman (since He is alinga, 'without empirical marks'), we may have a rational conviction of His existence as root or ground of the world and of our own being (as also from seripture and the communicated experience of spiritual teachers). Religion then begins with the conviction or ratioral faith in the Divine existonce and this opens the way to the higher faith of spiritual experience (adhyatma-yoga), in which the real nature or inner being of God, which transcends description, is revealed or immediately realised. The Katha Upanisad does not describe tha stages of this adhyātma or rāja-yoga,* but the Maitri Upanisad and Patanjali

1 Nor does it give any detailed accounft of the practice of yoga. For this as described in the Srgtasvatara and the' Gita see Appendix 1II.

206 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 13-15

later speak of them as dhāranā, dhyāna, and samādhi. Using these terms to express what we conceive to be the nature of the adhyatma-yoga of the Katha we might summarize as follows. In dhāraņā (concentration) the soul, when it has controlled the sense-life, concentrates attention on the thought of God. In dhyana (contemplation) the soul is at rest in the thought of God. In samādhi (ecstasy) the thought of God wholly occupies the consciousness. "The sense of separateness, the conscious- ness of 'I' and 'my', disappears. We attain sayujyata,1 the consciousness of being completely yoked with God." "To him the Self reveals His own person." "His inner nature is made manifest." 2 यदा सर्वे प्रसुच्न्त कामा येडस्य हदि श्रिताः । काथ मर्त्थोऽम्टतो भवत्यत ब्रह्म समस्रते॥१४॥

यदा सर्वे प्रभिद्यन्ते हृदयस्येह ग्रशयः। अथ मर्त्योऽम्टतो भवत्येतावदनुप्नासनम् ॥ १५॥

14. Yadā sarve pramucyante kāmā ye 'sya hrdi śritāh, Atha martyo 'mrto bhavaty atra brahma samaśnute.

15. Yadā sarve prabhidyante hrdayasya iha granthayah, Atha martyo 'mrto bhavaty etāvad anuśāsanam.

15.d. A. etāvad„higanu°

r1 " So when this chariot-rider is liberated from those things wherewith he was filled full and overcome, (i.e. delusion, passion, self-conceit, and attachment to external objects), then he attains complete union (sāyujya) with the Atman." (Maitri iv. 4.) 2 We should remind ourselves once more of the great difference between the fully theistic yoga we have been considering and the yoga of Patañjali. In the latter God (Isvara) is simply a special purusa, untouched by afflictions or the fruits of karman, who assists the devotee by removing the obstructions in the lower stages of yoga. Even then meditation on him is optional. In any case completed (nirifja) samādhi is objectless, a trance supposed to lead to dissolution of the citte' (including intellect, self-consciousness and mind) arid the attainment by the purusa of kaivalya, the freedom of absolute isolation.

14, 15 SIXTH VAĻLI 207

The Consummation of Yoga.

14. When all desires are given up That dwell within the human heart, Then a mortal becomes immortal, Even here to Brahman he attaineth.

15. When are cut asunder all The knots that fetter here the heart, Then a mortal becomes immortal : Thus far is the instruction.

14, 15. These verses refer to the state of samādhi (ecstatic union) in which yoga culminates, in which all separate desires, all self-will is given up. The knots of the heart, which bind it to a lower life, are kāma (self-seeking desire), avidyā (ignorance) and samsaya (fear and doubt). (See Mund. ii. 1. 10, ii. 2. 8.) When self is lost sight of in the vision of God all these knots are finally cut.

Na paśyo mrtyum paśyati, na rogam nazuta duhkhatām ; Sarvam ha paśyah paśyati, sarvam āpnoti sarvaśah.

"The seer does not see death, Nor sickness nor any distress : The seer sees only the All, Obtains the All entirely."

Through such firm recollection (dhruva smrtih), Sanatkumāra taught Narada (Ch. vii. 26. 2) "the knots (of the heart) are unloosed. To such a one, his stains wiped away, is shown the further shore of darkness." What is the nature of the consummation here described ? Lanman has said that, "The great practical aim of all the teaching (of the Upanisads) is, by exterminating in the soul all desires and activity, root and branch, to lead to the realisa- tion of the unity of the soul and the Supreme Soul. This realised it is liberated; and death can only do away with what no longer exists for the emancipated soul, the last false semblance of a differchce between itself and the Supreme."1

1 Transactions of the American Philological Association, Vol XXI, p. xiv.

208 THE KATHA UPANIȘAD 14,15

At first sight our text might seem to justify this statement. But Br. iv. 4. 7, of which it may be a quotation, speaks of the man who is freed from desire not as being entirely impassive but as one "whose desire is satisfied, whose desire is the Self". And Ch. viii. i. 5. 6, distinguishes desires that fetter from "true desires" (satya-kāmāh) that liberate, and speaks of the Supreme Self also as satya-kamah satya-sankalpah (" desiring and purposing truth"). Lanman's words are true of course for many Upanisad texts, but they are by no means generally true, the theistic clement in the Upanisads being much stronger than was once supposed. In particular, the Katha Upanisad, though quoting (in its second adhyūya) from the Brhadāranyaka, and possibly affected in parts by the idealistic monism of Yajñavalkya, is on the whole dis- tinctly theistic. Verse 14, though in its context in Br. accompanied by the comment of Yājñavalkya, "Being very Brahman he goes to Brahman", does not in itself read like an assertion of meta- physical monism. It is rather a statement, in final answer to the third question of Naciketas, that that fellowship with God which is the consummation of spiritual experience is immortality. "This is life eternal, that they might know thee, the only true God." "The soul utterly puts off itself (i.e. its self-centred desires) and puts on divine love; and being conformed to that beauty which it has beheld, it utterly passes into that other glory." (Richard of St. Victor.) Thus far is the instruction: These words seem to mark the end of the enlarged Upanisad (the original Upanisad ending at iii. 17). The remaining verses are a still later appendix.

16,17 SIXTH VAĻLI 209

पूतं चैका च हृदयस्य नाय्यस्ासां मूर्धानमभिनिःस्तैका। तयोध्वंमायन्रम्टतत्वमेति विख्वड्डन्या उत्कमगो भ्वन्ति ॥ १६॥

छभषमात्: पुरुषोउन्तरात्मा सदा जनानां हृदवे संनिविछ्ठः। तं खाच्करौरातपवहेन्मुआ्जादिवेषोकां धैर्येगा। तं विद्याच्छुक्रमम्टतं तं विद्याष्कुक्रमम्टतमिति॥ १७॥

16. Šatam ca ekā ca hrdayasya nādyas, tāsām mūrdhānam abhiniņsrtā ekā; Tayā ūrdhvam āyan amrtatvam eti, visvań anyā utkramane bhavanti.

17. Angustha-mātrah puruso 'ntarātmā, sadā janānām hrdaye samnivistah ; Tam svat sarīrat pravrhet muñjād-iva işīkām dhairyeņa, Tam vidyāt sukram amrtam, tam vidyāt śukram amrtam-iti. 16.d. Two Mas. : viśvag anyū.

The parting of soul from body. 16. A hundred and one are the veins of the heart; Of these one leads up to the top of the head : Rising by this one attains immortality; The others are for going forth in various ways.

17. A thumb sized personage, the Inner-self, Dwells ever in the heart of every creature : Him from one's body one should draw, Firmly, as from its sheath a reed : Him know as the pure, the immortal; Him know as the pure, the immortal. . 16. This verse is taken from Chand. viii. 6.6, There it is said that if a man has lived the chaste life of a student of sacred knowledge (brahmacarya) and so "found the Self", then at time of death his, soul, dwelling in the heart, will pass upward by a vein or artery, known later as susumna (Maitri vi. 21 .--? the carotid vein) to an aperture in the crown of the skull

210 THE KĄTHA UPANIȘAD 16, 17

known as the brahmarandhram or vidrti (the junction of the sagittal and coronal sutures, the opening in the child's skull known as the anterior fontanelle), by which at the beginning of life it first entered. Thence the soul arises by the sun's rays to the sun, which is a doorway to the Brahma-world to those who know, but a stopping place for non-knowers. Śankara, very naturally from his point of view, says that the verse only applies to those who have not attained the imme- diate knowledge of Brahman spoken of in the preceding in- struction,-to those who by knowledge of the lower Brahman and by worship attain a relative immortality. With regard to the liberated man of the preceding section who "even here attains to Brahman", the Brhadaranyaka in the prose part of the section from which Katha vi. 14 may be quoted, says, "His breaths (pranah) do not go forth. Being very Brahman, he goes to Brahman". Yajñavalkya pictures the body of the freed man as it appears to an outward observer, " As the slough of a snake lies on an ant-hill, dead, cast off, even so lies this body". But the man himself " the incorporeal immortal life ", has not departed anywhere : being spirit, attaining Spirit, he is free from the form of space. Chand. viii. 6. 6 and Br. iv. 4. 6. 7, are written, then, from very different view-points. The first with its mixture of quaint physiology and cosmology is naturalistic, the second is the view-point of idealistic metaphysics. To Sankara thesc corres- pond to his vyāvahārika and pāramārthika points of view and he naturally takes vi. 16 as expressing the first. The editor of the Katha, however, does not seem to have minded the dis- crepancy in the points of view of his sources, and pace Sankara he certainly intends vi. 16, b, c, to refer to the completely freed man of 14 and 15. With Sankara we take line d. to mean that the other veins are for leading the unliberated soul to re-embodiment.

17. This verse is distinctly composite, consisting of half a tristubh stanza united with an anustubh. The half verse 17 a, b, is identical with Śvet. iii. 13, a, b, and there the verse is completed by the words found in Kațha vi. 9, c, d: By heart,, by thought, by the mind apprehended : Thost who know Him thereby besome immortal.

18 SIXTH VALLĪ . 211

म्टत्प्रोक्तां नचिकेतोऽथ लब्ध्वा विद्यामेतां योगविधिं च ्तस्म्। ब्रह्मप्राप्तो विरजोऽभूद्विम्टत्युरन्योऽप्येवं यो विदध्यात्ममेव ।१८। इति षढो वलौ समाप्ता।। खों सह नाववतु। सह नौ भुनह। सह वौयें करवावहै। तेजखिनावधौतमख्। मा विद्विषाव है। ॐ पान्तिः। प्रान्तिः। पान्तिः॥ इति कठोपनिषत्समाप्ता।।

18. Mrtyu-proktām Naciketo 'tha labdhvā, vidyām etām yoga-vidhim-ca krtsnam, Brahma-prāpto virajo 'bhūd vimrtyur, anyo'py evam yo vid adhyātmam eva. Iti saşthī vallī samāptā. Om! Saha nāv avatu; Saha nau bhunaktu; Saha vīryam karavāvahai ; Tejasvi nāv adhītam astu; Mā vidvisāvahai; Om! sāntih! sāntih ! sāntiḥ ! 1 Iti Kathopanişat samāptā.

1 Somo Mss. read: Saha nāv-iti sūntiķ.

Conclusion. 18. Then Naciketas having gained the knowledge Declared by Death, and the whole rule of Yoga, . Found Brahman and was freed from evil, freed from death : So may another who thus knows the Real Self. Om! May He protect us both ! May He be pleased with us! . May we act manfully together ! Successful may our study be! Let us not hate one another ! Om ! Peace! Peace ! Peace!

212 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD 18

18. Whitney notes the use of the forms Naciketa and viraja for Naciketas and virajas as an indication of late and careless origin. Max Müller and Böhtlingk suggest that viraja may be a slip for vijara, "free from old age". Taking it as virajas, the meaning may be "free from carth's dust" (see the description of the gods seen by Damayanti, Nala v. 24), or ethically, " free from taint of evil", "free from passion". The final prayer, which repeats the opening, though not a part of the Upanisad is found in most manuscripts.

Here ends The Katha Upanisad.

213

APPENDICES

I. The Taittiriya Brahmana account of the Naciketas Story, is really part of the Introduction. Il. The Parable of the Chariot, is partly introductory and in part gives the later development of the parable. III. The Practice of Yoga in the Git and Śvetaśvatara illus- trates the nature of yoga from the literature nearest in time and spirit to the Katha and leads on to a concluding Epilogue. IV and V are merely supplementary notes which have been placed here rather than in the body of the book so as not to distract the general reader. The book as it stands is obviously incomplete. It was my intention to add two concluding chapters : One on The Doctrine of God in the Katha Upanisad : the other on the whole theistic movement initiated by the Katha, tracing the ideas of purusa, akşara-avyakta, and mahān ātmā through the other early metrical Upanişads, (Mundaka, vetāśvatura and Praśna), the Vedānta- sutras, and the schools of the Mahabharata. Here, in essence, we see the assertion of an internal differentiation within the unity of the Divine Being which presents obvious analogies to the Christian doctrine of the Trinity,-the philosophical object in both cases being to provide a basis for the reality of personality both in God and man, and so for real religious experience. Actually, however, it was from a religious experience of com- munion, which could not but be taken as real, that the philo- sophical doctrine in both cases has grown. We may also see how the concept of the aksara-avyakta has been developed in most untheistic directions into the independent prakrti of the Sāmkhyas and the avidya or cosmic principle of illusion of Sankara's Vedanta. Yet again the avyakta, which as divine creative energy is called in Svet. devātma-sakti, and also the womb (yoni) from which creation is derived, being personified' as female and called sakti and devi is used to provide philosophical justification for that goddess-worship which is perhaps India's most popular religion. All this however *requires much more than two chapters. This book therefese remains a Preliminary Study in the Hindu Doctrine of God, gathering material, which we hope later to develop in more systematic form.

214

APPENDIX I. The Taittiriya Brahmana account of the Nāciketas story, उपन् वै वाजश्रवसः सर्ववेदसं ददौ। तस्य ह नचिकेता नाम पुत्र वस। त ह कुमारँ सन्तम्। दक्षियास नौयमानासु श्रद्धाऽडविवेभ। स होवाच। तत कस्मै मां दास्यसीति। द्वितीय ततीयम्। तँ ह परीत उवाच। म्टत्यवे त्वा ददामीति। तँ ह सोत्यितं वागभि- वदति। १ गौतमकुमारमिति। स होवाच। परेदि म्त्योर्गद्ान्। म्टत्यवे वै त्वाऽदामिति। तं वै प्रवसन्तं गन्तासौति होवाच। तस्य स्म तिखो रात्रौरनाश्वागर हे वसतात्। स यदि त्वा एच्ेत्। कुमार कति रात्री- रवात्मोरिति। तिस इति प्रतिब्रतात्। किं प्रथमाँ रात्रिमाश्रा इति । २ प्रजा त इति। किं द्वितीयामिति। पशूंस्त इति। किं ततौया- मिति। साधुळत्यां त इति, इति। तं वै प्रवसन्तं जगाम। तस्य छ तिसो रातरीरनान्वागटह्द उवास। तमागत्य पप्रच्छ। कुमार कति रत्रीरवात्मौरिति। तिस इति प्रत्यवाच। ३ किं प्रथमाँ रात्रिमाश्रा इति। प्रजां त इति। किं द्वितीयामिति। पश्ूँस्त इति। किं ततीयामिति। साधुळृत्यां त इति। नमस्ते काख्तु भगव इति होवाच। वरं वगोव्वेति। पितरमेव जीवन्रयानीति। द्वितीयं वृणोव्वेति । 8 इछापूर्वयोर्मेSच्ितिं ब्रद्दौति होवाच। तस्मे हैतममिं नाचि- केतमुवाच। ततो वै तस्येषायूर्ते नाक्षौयेते। नास्येषापूर्ते क्षौयेते। योऽमिं नाचिकेतं चिनुते। य उ चैनमेवं वेद। ततीयं दगोघ्वेति। पुनर्म्टत्योरमेडपजितिं ब्रद्ृोति होवाच। तस्मै हैतममिं नाचिकेतसुवाच। ततो वै सोऽप पुनर्म्टतमजयव्। ५ काप पुनर्म्टत्युं जयति। योऽमिं नाचिकेतं चिनुते। य उ चैनमेवं वेद, इति।

TAITTIRĪYA BRĀHMAŅA III. 11. 8. . 215

Being desirous (of reward)1 Vajasravasa gave away all his wealth. Now he had a son named Naciketas. When he was still a boy, as the offerings were being led away faith entered into him. He said, " Father, to whom will you give me ?" Twice he asked and thrice. Then, overcome (with annoyance),2 he said, " To Death do I give you ". As he stood up (to go) a Voice addressed him. It said to young Gautama,3 "He has said, 'Go to Death's house. To Death have I given you'. Go therefore while he is away from home. Stay in his house for three nights without eating. If he should ask you, 'How many nights have you stayed here, boy ? '-say 'Three'. (When he asks) 'What did you eat the first night ?' (answer) 'Your offspring'; 'What the second ?' (answer) 'Your cattle'; 'What the third ?' (answer) ' Your good works '." He went (to Death's house) when he was away from home. He stayed in his house three nights without eating. When he returned he asked him, "How many nights have you stayed here, boy ? " He answered, " Threc." "What did you eat the first night ? " "Your offspring ". "What the second ? " "Your cattle." "What the third ? " "Your good works. " Then he (Yama) said, "I bow to you, Sir. Choose a gift." "May I return living to my father", he said. "Choose a second ". "Tell me how my sacrifices and good works (istā- purte) may be imperishable ", he said. So he explained to him this Naciketa fire. Thereafter his sacrifices and good works did not perish. He who prepares the Naciketa fire and who more -. over thus knows it, his sacrifices and good works do not perish. He said, " Choose a third gift ". "Tell me the conquest of re-death (punar-mrtyu) ", said he. Then he explained to him this Naciketa fire: thus indeed he conquered re-death. He who prepares the Naciketa fire and who moreover thus knows it, he conquers re-death. 1 Following Śankara. But usan here, if an adjective, may mean ' willing", "of his own free-will", or, as "hattabhāskara Miśra says, Uśan may be a proper name, "Now Uśan Vājasravasa (i.e. descen- dent of Vajasravas) gave away all his wealth ". (See p. 58, 65.) 2 Commentary, kruddhe-iva, -- " as though angry ". 3 Gautama-kum ram iti-the translation given above is . doubtful since iti should mark what is said. The,commentator, Bhattabhaskera

216

APPENDIX II.

The Parable of the Chariot.

The theme of the chariot recurs many times in the history of Indian religious thought. In Vedic mythology almost all the gods are represented as riding in cars, usually drawn by horses. In the case of the various Sun-gods this imagery is specially prominent and vivid. Sūrya is represented as riding in a golden chariot (ratha) drawn by seven bay mares. Savitr's shining chariot is drawn by two radiant horses. So too to-day, two figures of horses precede the car of Jagannath at Serampore, and four at Puri. This imagery is often treated symbolically and we have a number of chariot parables. That of the Katha is the most famous and important, but it may be of interest to examine some of the others. (1) The Dirghatamas parable. The first chariot parable is that found in Rg Veda I. 164 (sce Introduction, page 13ff.). There the wheeled car with seven horses primarily denotes the sun, but the sun as symbolising the one universal rcality. The sage then gocs on to spcak of that which possesses bone (the body) as sustained by the "boneless", i.e. by an incorporeal reality more fundamental than the blood or the life-breath, i.e. by the atman, the invisible soul. This alman, moreover, not only upholds the body but the whole universe. (2) The Aitareya Aranyaka parable. Ait. Ar. II, i-iii, is considered by Keith1 to be the earliest Upanișad extant. The general theme is the allegorical significance of the five-

Miśra (c. 1188 A.D.) reads Gautama kim kumāram iti, and comments, Aha, he Gautama: kim kumāram iti, kim evam bālam mrtyave dadāsi. Following him we should translato, " As he (Vajasravasa) stood up a Voice addressed him. It said, 'Gautama ! What of the boy ?' ('What kind of son have you given to Death ? Does this befit your Gautama race ? '). He (i.e. the father) said, 'Go to Death's house (that I may not sin). To Death, indcod, have I given you. But go while he is away from home, etc '." Istapurtayor aksitim; "The imperishability of sacrifices and good works". The commentator reads, ksitim=sthānam: "The abiding- place of .. '.good works ".

AITAREYA A. CHARIOT-PARABLE . 217

fold hymn (uktha), sung in connection with the Mahavrata rite, as symbolising the Self. "He who knows himself as the fivefold hymn from whence all springsis wise .... He who knows more and more clearly the Self obtains fuller being. In plants and trees sap only is seen, in animals consciousness. The Self is more and more clear in'man for he is most endowed with intelligence. He knows to-morrow, he knows the world and what is not the world. By the mortal he desires the immortal, being thus endowed. As for animals, hunger and thirst com- prise their knowledge. But this man is the sea, he is above all the world,-whatever he reaches he desires to be beyond it." The chariot parable is introduced abruptly in II. iii. 8, as follows : " Here are those verses : 2 "That fivefold body the undying (aksara) enters, That which the harnessed steeds draw to and fro, In which is yoked the trueness of the true, In that are all the gods in one combined. Which, from the undying, the undying joins,- That which the harnessed steeds draw to and fro, In which is yoked the trueness of the true, In that are all the gods in one combined.

In which revealed the poets did rejoiee, In it, in unity, the gods exist ; Casting asido all evil by this lore, The wise man risen to the world of heaven."

1 Keith, The Aitareya Aranyaka (Oxford, Clarondon Press, 1909), from which the translation given above is quoted. .

2 Tatra ete ślokah, Yad akşaramı pañcavidham sameti, yujo yuktā abhi yat samvahanti, Satyasya sutyam anu yatra yujyate, tatra devūh sarva ekam bhavanti.

Yad akşarād akşaram eti yuktam, yujo yuktā abhi yat samvahanti, Satyasya satyam anu yatra yujyate, tatra devah sarva ekam bhavanti.

Yasmin nāma samatrpyañ chrute 'dhi, tatra devāh sarvayujo bhavanti, Tena pāymānam apahatya brahmaņā, Svargam lokam apyeti vidvan. .

218 APPENDIX II

"There is a chariot of the gods that destroys desire. Its seat is speech, its two sides the ears, the horses the eyes, the driver the mind. This life-breath (prana) mounts upon it. A Rsi says (Rg X. 39. 12), 'Come hithor on what is quicker than the mind', and (Rg VIII. 73. 2), 'On what is quickor than the winking of an eyo '." 1 There is much in this passage that is obscure, but yet it would seem clear that we have here (especially in the verse portion which Keith considers the older), a foreshadowing of some of the most distinctive ideas of the Katha.2 The car of the body, made of the five elements, is drawn by horses, which the prose identifies with the eyes but the verse probably with all the indriyani (described also as devah). The soul,' called in the prose prana and in the verse aksara ("the undying" or "imperishable ") mounts the chariot of the body and so is united with the senses, controlling them by means of his driver, the mind (the buddhi of the Katha) so that they act in unison. In the second verse the soul is called aksarād aksara (" undying from the undying"), and Sayana comments that the first "undying " is prana and the second Brahman. It is Brahman also that is probably described as satyasya satyam (" trueness of the true", "reality of reality"). Brahman therefore or the aksara (avyakta), being the basis of the soul, may truly be said to be yoked in the chariot, controlling all our life-powers to harmony. In verse 3 also, where Keith translates brahmaņā "by this lore ", Sayana says " by this Brahman ". (3) The Chagaleya parable. The Chāgaleya Upanișad also 'speaks of the body as a chariot, sustained by its rider, the soul. The parable is introduced by a story which seems to be based on Aitareya Brāhmaņa ii. 19. Certain Brahmin sages, holding a sacrificial session on the banks of the Sarasvati, debarred Kavasa Ailūșa from initiation because he was the son of a maid-servant. He asked by what right they did this. " Be- cause we are Brahmins, and so it is our right. " What makes

1 Anakāma-māro 'tha deva rathas. Tasya vāg uddhih, srotre paksasī, cakşusī yukte, manah samgranītā. Tad ayam prāņo 'dhitisthati. Tad uktam rşinā, Ā tena yātam manaso javyacā. Nimisas cij javīyaseti. 2 i.c. Yoga and tho akşara-avyakta. Modi seems to havo overlooked this passage which i of obvious importance for the dovelopment of the Aksara doctrine. .

CHĀGALEYA CHARIOT-PARABLE . 219

a Brahmin ? he asked. The birth-rites and initiation (upana- yana), they replied. He then took them to the corpse of the celebrated Brahmin priest, Atreya, which was lying close at hand, and asked, Did he lack birth-rites or upanayana ? Then where are his powers departed ? The Brahmins, being at a loss, asked that Kavasa would teach them. Surely such a low-born one cannot teach the highest persons, he smilingly said, and sent them to the Child-sages (bālisas) of Kurukșetra. The Child-sages showed the Brahmins a chariot, rushing along a road, and then, at the end of the day, the same chariot tumbled down and inert, with its horses unyoked. What is the difference, thoy asked; What has departed from it ? The driver, of course, said the Brahmins. Quite so, said the Child- sages. "The Soul is the impeller of this (body), the senses (karanāni) the horses, the veins the straps, the bones the reins, blood the lubricant, volition the whip, speech the creaking and the skin the outer top.1 And just as the chariot, abandoned by the driver, could not move or creak, so (this body) abandoned by the intelligent self (prajñatman) neither speaks or even breathes ; it just putrifies : and dogs may run at it, crows alight on it, vultures tear it, and jackals devour it." No application of the teaching is made, but its obvious meaning is that tho atman is the one source of power and greatness, and caste and caste-privilege belong merely to the perishable body. The Brahmins, we are told, received the teaching and learned humility. Belvalkar is inclined to date this parable earlier than the" Katha (" judged by language alone ").2 Of this we are doubtful. The account of the balisas is surely dependent on the bālya teaching of Br. iii. 5, and they correspond to the vālakhilyas of Maitri ii. 3.3 But for our purpose the question of priority is not important as the chariot parables of the Katha and the Chāgaleya are obviously independent.

1 Ātmā vā asya pracodayitā, karaņāny aśvāh, sirā naddhayo, 'sthiny upagraha, asrg añjanam, karma pratodo, vākyuım kvāranam, tvag uparaha iti. For the full text and translation see Belvalkar, Four Unpublished Upanisadic Texts. 2 H.I.P. 132. 3 There are several other points of connection botween Chagaleya anc Maitri, e.g. the description of the Atman as pracodayitr (impeller) ano

220 : APPENDIX II

(4) Buddhist chariot-parables. Thereiare several interest- ing Buddhist chariot-parables, all however later than the Katha parable and quite different in their teaching. (a) The Dhammapada parable. The oldest of these Buddhist chariot-parables is that found in the opening verses of the Kharosthi Dhammapada,1 which seem to be taken from the Samyutta Nikāya : "Straight" is the name that road is called, "Fearless" the quarter it leads to; The chariot is named "Silont-runnor ", With wheels of 'right-effort ' well-fitted. "Conscience " is its leaning-board, " Heedfulnoss " its canopy ; " Dharma " I say is its driver, .. Right viows " the horses that draw it. Whoso has such a chariot, Be it wanderer or householder, Be it a man or a woman, By that very same chariot, Is carried right to Nirvana. Here the chariot is the Buddhist teaching which, in its silent spiritual progress, takes one straight to fearlessness, straight toward Nirvana, and the Dharma itself is said to be the charioteer. The metre is the same as that of the Katha parable. (b) The Milinda-pañha parable, The most, famous of the Buddhist chariot-parables is that found in The Questions of King Milinda,2 (c. Ist century B.c.). Milinda (Menander), King of the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom which in India had its centre in Taxila, asks the Buddhist missionary Nagascna what is his name. "I am called Nagasena, he replies, but that is a mere name, a convenient designation, for there is no Ego here to be found." "Then ", replies the king, "there is no Nagasena ". "Pray sire, how did you come here ?" "In a chariot." "What is a chariot? Is it the pole ? " "No." "The wheels ? " "No". "The chariot-body ? " " No ". "Then

the mention of his whip or gond (pratoda) which in Chag. is called karman (probably "acquired disposition " rather than " volition ") and in Maitri, prakrti-maya. 1 See Barua and Mittra, Prakrit Dhammnpada, 98. The rendering is h my own with acknowledgments to Dr. Barua anG Mrs. Rhys Davids. 2 Sec Warren, Buddhism in Translations, 129ff.

BUDDHIST CHARIOT-PARABLES ) 221

there is no chariot." Then the monk goes on to teach the king that just as the word "chariot " is a convenient 'name for the assemblage of pole, axle, wheels, and body, so the word "Nagasena " is only a convenient name for body, sensations, perceptions, consciousness, etc. "In the absolute sense there is no Atman or Ego here to be found." "So the priestess Vagira said in the presence of the Blessed One, "Even as the word ' chariot ' means That members join to frame a whole, So, when the groups appoar to view, We nse tho term, ' A living soul '." Here we note that the very same simile which in the Katha and all Hindu chariot-parables is used to point out that there must be a Self or Soul as the sustainer of the body and the directive power bchind all its activities, is used to teach the opposite Buddhist doctrine, i.e. that of anatta, the denial of any continuing Self. Buddhaghosa in the Visuddhi-magga1 (5th century A.D.) expounds the parable as follows, "Just as the word 'chariot ' is but a mode of expression for axle, wheels, body, pole, and other constituent members, placed in a certain relation to each other, but when we come to examine the members one by one we discover that in the absolute sense there is no chariot,-in exactly the same way the words 'living entity' and 'Ego' are but a mode of expression for the presence of five attachment groups, but when we come to examine the elements of being one by one we discover that in the absolute sense there is no. living entity there to form a basis for such figments as 'I am' or 'Ego'." (5) The Maitri parable. In the Maitri, which is probably the latest of the classical Upanisads, we have a very detafled development of the Katha chariot-parable (ii. 3 to iv. 4). Here there is no distinction made between intelligence or reasor (buddhi) and mind (manas), and it is said, " The charioteer is the mind ". The two classes of indriyāni are clearly dis- tinguished and it is said that "the horses are the organs of action " (karmendriyant) while the senses or organs of perception (jranendriyani) are ljkened to the reins. As in the Chāgaleya. 1 See Warren, B.T. .

222 / APPENDIX II

the soul or self is called the "impeller" or "stimulator" (pracodayitr) of the body. As to the nature of the soul two accounts are given. According to the second prapāthaka there is really only one Soul. "Verily that subtle, ungraspable, invisible one called the Purusa turns in here (in the body) with a part (of himself) ... Now assuredly that part of Him is what the intelligence-mass in every person is-the spirit (ksetra-jña) which has the marks of conception, determination, self-conceit (abhimana)." This would suggest that individual souls are parts (amsa) of the one Purusa, and a picture is given of the Purusa, called Prajapati, differentiating himself and entering in to the living beings he creates that he may enjoy objects. But this is only appearance. The Atman or Purusa seems to wander from body to body but He is only covering himself with a veil of qualities-while remaining fixed like a spectator and self-abiding. "Yea He remains fixed." The third prapathaka gives a different account. It dis- tinguishes between the inner Purusa, the great, immortal Atman, and what it calls the bhūtatman,-the clemental or individual soul. This is called kartr, the doer, while the other Atman dwells apart, pure and unaffected, "like the drop of water on the lotns leaf ", and yet it is called " the causer of action " (karayitr). The individual soul, we are told "is overcome by the qualities (guna) of Nature (prakrti) and goes on to confusedness. Now because of confusedness he sees not the blessed Lord, the causer of action, who stands within oncself (atma-stha). Borne along by the stream of qualities, unsteady, wavering, bewildered, full of desire, distracted, one goes on to a state of self-conceit (abhimanatva). In thinking 'This is I' and 'That is mine', he binds himself with his self, as does a bird with a snare." Here we see certain Samkhya ideas but by no means in a classical Samkhya form, for we are told in the next verse (iii. 3) that the pure Self is not without responsi- bility for this evil state of the individual. " Assuredly the bhūtatman is overcomet by the inner Purusa and beaten by qualities." This agrees with ii. 6.d. ,where the Purusa or Atman, called the "Impeller ", makes use of the whip or goad of prakrti (prakrti-maya pratodana) to drive the body. We may infer (though we are mot directly told) that the over-Soul

MAITRI CHARIOT-PARABLE 223

goads the individual to rush round and round amid the fancied delights of material objects that it may be "fed up" with them (etaih paripūrņa, iii. 5) and also with its self-conceit, and driven to seek salvation. For this the first rule is, as in the Gita, pursuit of one's regular duty. Nothing can make up for lack of this. Then "by knowledge, by discipline (tapas), and by meditation Brahman is apprehended ". "So when this chariot-rider is liberated from those things wherewith he was filled full and overcome, then he attains complete union (sāyujya) with the Atman " (iv. 4).

APPENDIX III.

The Practice of Yoga in the Gīta and Svetāsvatara,

The Katha Upanisad does not give any directions for the practice of Yoga. It is clear, however, that by Yoga it does not mean (as the later Yoga so often did) the production of a hypnotic trance or ecstasy in which knowledge is superseded, but rather a discipline akin to meditative prayer by which all the powers of our being are controlled and concentrated for the vision of the highest. The carliest account of the practice of such dhyana-yoga is probably that given in Gita vi. 10 -- 15. "Abiding in a secret place, alone, with mind and soul controlled, withont craving and without possessions, a Yogin should constantly yoke his soul. Sotting for himself in a clean placo a firm seat, neither too high or too low, with kusa grass, a skin and a eloth spread thereon. There, sitting on that couch, with thought and sense restrained, making his mind intent (ekagra, 'one-pointed'), he should praciise yoga for the cleansing of the sonl. Firm, holding body, head and neck erect and still, gazing at the tip of his nose and not looking around. . Tranquil, free from fear and steadfast in the vow of continence, (brahmacari-vrata), with mind controlled thinking on Me, so should he sit, yoked, intent only on Me. Thus over yoking his soul, the Yogin with mind restrained, attains the peace which culminates in bliss and which abides with Me." The Śvetasvataru Upanişad (ii. 8, 9, 10), gives an almost contemporary and very similar account. "Holding his boxry steady, the three (upper parts) erect, Restraining the senses with the mind in the heart,

224 APPENDIX III

A wiso man with the Brahma-boat should eross over All the fear-producing streams.

Repressing his breathing here (in the body), with movements controlled, One should breathe through the nostrils with diminished breath ; Like that chariot yoked with vicious horses, A wisc man, undistracted, should restrain his mind.

In a clean place, free from pebbles, fire, and gravel, By the sound of water and other surroundings Favourable to thought, not offensive to the eye, In a hidden retreat, sheltered from the wind, he should practise yoga." In both these accounts it is clear that placè and posture are not regarded as important for their own sake, but are only means to secure undistractedness of meditation. On this matter even the much later Yoga-sūtras of Patañjali are content to say, "The posture should be steady and easy " (sthira-sukham asanam). Re breathing, the Gita in the passage quoted says nothing, though in iv. 29, it refers to prūņāyama (restraint of breath) as a kind of sacrifice offered by some ascetics, and v. 27, advocates level, steady brcathing during meditation. The later Yoga, on the other hand, attached exaggerated importance to pranayama, ascribing to it the acquisition of all kinds of super-normal powers, and we see the beginnings of this even in the Svetāśvatara (see ii. 11, 12). The point, however to which we desire to draw attention is that both in the Gita and Svetasvatara the practice of yoga as quoted above is essentially of the nature of contemplative prayer. In commenting on the word Vipaścit (ii. 18, p. 105) and also in our account of contemplative sacrifice in the Introduction, p. 23, we pointed out that the fountain-head of the idea of yoga seems to be found in the prayers to Savitr (whose stimula- ton or inspiration enables the worshipper to " yoke mind and thought "), which occupy a central place in the directions for the piling of the fire-altar both in the Taittiriya and the Kāthaka Samhitas of the Yajur Veda. In introducing its description of yoga, Svet. (ii. 1-7) first quotes these verges :

Yoking first of all the mind And thoughts,for truth, Savitr,

THE PRACTICE OF YOGA 225

Discerning the light of Agni, Brought it down to earth.

With mind well-yoked are we, By inspiration of god Savitr, With strength for gaining heavon.

They yoke thoir minds and yoke their thoughts, Tho sages of the great wise Sage.

With Savitr as inspirer, One should joy in the ancient prayor, If there thou makest thy source, The past besmears thee not.

Whether the brahma purvyam of the last verse be rendered "ancient prayer " or "ancient Brahman" the reference to prayer as the inspiring power for ordered thought and life is very clear. It is tempting to see in "ancient prayer" a reference to the Gayatri, but, whether this is so or not, the use of the term pracodayitr (" stimulator ") of the Atman in both the Chagaleya and Maitri chariot parables is plainly derived from the Gayatri. The Maitri indeed directly quotes,

"Let us meditate upon the adorable splendour of that divine Vivifier (Savitr) : May Ho inspire onr thoughts." (dhiyo yo nah pracodayāt), --

and interprets of the adhyatman saying, " Assuredly the Soul of one's soul is called the Immortal Leader " (vi. 7). .

In the Gita the matter is plainer still. "Unswerving devotion to Me through undivided yoga, resort to a solitary place and distaste for the concourse of men ", in words like these the nature of yoga in its highest aspect as the prayer of communion is made manifest. In the Katha it is true this intensely personal yoga of bhakti is not attained, yet it seems clear that by yoga the Katha, like the Gita, means not cnly the discipline of control but the prayer of communion which inspires it. (Where the Katha definitely falls short of the Gita, however, is that it does not have anything to say about karma-yoga,- the right running of the chariot along the highway of social life.)

226 APPENDIX III

Epilogue.

We have insisted, perhaps ad nauseam, on the religious nature of yoga in the Katha just because, as we have said, yoga has so often meant something quite different in spirit, though making use of somewhat the same outward practices-a negative yoga of suppression rather than a positive yoga of ordered control, a yoga which spite of its formal recognition of Isvara is often essentially atheistic, a yoga which seeks not the illumination of a higher knowledge in communion with God but hypnotic trance or ccstasy in which all things fall away and the self is left isolated, in kaivalya, void of, all conscious content. Even in its higher expression, e.g. in the Yoga- sūtras of Patañjali, this negative yoga, to which so much of India's highest effort has been devoted, has been a sadly sterile aberration. Just because India so greatly needs the positive yoga of control and self-realisation through communion, the essential diversity of the negative yoga of suppression and the extinction of personality must be so strongly insisted on. In conclusion, one might perhaps profitably inquire wherein has lain the great attraction of this negative yoga for the Indian mind. One clue is given in the words of Professor Manilal Dvivedi in his Introduction to The Yoga-sūtra of Patañjali (p. ii), "The rule is clear that extinction of personality is the only way to real progress and peace. When one consciously suppresses individuality .... he becomes part and parcel of the immutable course of nature, and never suffers." This attitude of mind and the negative yoga to which it leads is a relic of Buddhist pessimism. The Buddha, whether consciously or unconsciously, confused the metaphysical and the ethical meanings of ahamkara. He rightly saw that ahamkara, egoism or selfish individualism, is the root-cause of the sin and misery that set the world aflame and he went on to teach that the only way to cure it is to eradicate the notion of ahamkāra in the sense of self-consciqus individuality or personality. This confusion, excusable perhaps in a teaching which had lost God and therefore could not find salvation in recalling man to the diyine basis of his being, was inheritetl by Hindu teachings which professed to condemn Buddhism as atheistic,-by the

EPILOGUE 227

Yoga of Patañjali and also in a different form by the Vedantism of Sankara. It has even in part infected such theistic doctrines as Saivism and Vaișnavism. There was a further inheritance also. Buddha, like the carly Upanişad teachers, believed in the saving power of knowledge applied in a life of discipline. Some of his later followers, despairing of knowledge, sought for a short cut and they seemed to find it in the disappearance of the consciousness both of the outer world and of their own individuality in a state of trance. Hindu negative yoga also took the same fatal short cut. So to-day the same message comes to India's youth as came to Naciketas, " Arise, awake! Obtain your boons and under- stand ! "-the boon of the knowledge of God, promised to those who truly seek, no philosophic abstraction but Soul of our soul, our Creator, Redeemer, and Sustainer; the boon of the knowledge of ourselves, utterly weak and unworthy if we live in selfish isolation, yet sons of God, of infinite worth and unmeasured potency if yoked in communion with Divine wisdom and power ; and the boon of service, of the privilege of using all the powers of our being, raised to their highest through communion with Him, in His service through the service of our fellow-men.

228

APPENDIX IV.

'Faith essential in Yoga.' Additional Note on the interpretation of Katha vi. 12, 13.

Asti ity bruvato 'nyatra katham tad upalabhyate ? We have taken bruvatah as ablative aftor anyatra, and ronder, " Other- wise than (by one) saying, 'Ho is', how is that one apprehended ? " Or, more freely, "Except by one who says, 'He is', how can He be experienced ? " . Professor F. W. Thomas has suggested that it would be better to render, " Otherwise than from one who says, 'He is', " i.c. from a true guru. I note that Geldner also (V.B. 168) adopts the same rendering. "Wie könnte es anders erfasst werden als von einem (Lehrer), der sagt, er ist ?" "How could Ho otherwise be apprehended than from one (i.e. a Teacher) who says, 'He is' ?" Charpentier also who follows him says that he gives the only possible meaning. Among Indian commentators Madhva interprets in the same way. With all doference to such authorities I still venture to think that the rendering I have adopted is grammatically quite as admissible and, on the whole, preferable. In any case the assertion of the need of faith remains, even though it is in the first placo the teacher's faith which is communicated to his pupil. I note that Whitney, Arabinda Ghose, Sitarama Sastri, and Tattva- bhnsan render substantially as I have doue. The gist of Sankara's comment is, Sraddadhanad, anyatra ..... katham tad brahma tattratah upalabhyate ? "Except by a man who has faith, how can Brahman bo truly apprehended ? " Verse 13. Carrying on the idca of teacher and pupil, Professors Thomas, Geldner, and Charpentier all interpret ubhayoh as meaning "for both (teacher and scholar)". So Geldner renders, "Nur mit dem Worf 'er ist' wird er fassbar als das wahre Wosen für beide. 'Er ist', wer ihn so auffasst, dem wird sein wahres Weson klar". "Only with . the statement, . He is ' does He become apprehensible as the true Essonce, for both (teacher and scholar). 'He is', -- who so apprehends Him, to him His true essence (substance or nature) becomes clear ". Thomas renders, "Only by the statemont, 'He is', is He to be known in His true nature, by botheparties ". Geldner however apparently has certain doubts, for he gives the alternative, "as the true essence of both : i.e. of both the personal and the highest, Atman ". He also adds, "according to Raghavendra, how- evera of the Prakrti and Puruss of the Samkhya philosophy ".

229

APPENDIX V.

Notes on the Dirghatamas Hymn.

1* (1) Asya vāmasya palitasya hotus tasya bhrātā madhyamo asty aśnah, Trlyo bhrata ghrtaprstho asya atra gapasyam vispatim saptaputram.

Ancient of days : Geldner, altersgrauen,-hoary with age. The word palita which originally appears to mean grey or pale (cf. Gk. neliTros. rodios, L. pallidus, E. pale), seems at first inapplicablo to the sun, but through the meaning grey-haired, hoary with age, it comes, like modios to mean ancient, venerable. Cf. Daniel's description of the Ancient of days (vii. 9) and Revelation i. 13-16. Also Francis Thompson's Orient Ode. Vāma : ef. the Upakosala-vidya, Ch. iv. 15. 2.

.Lsna is takon by Sayana to mean sarvatra nyapta (all-pervading) and is interpreted as referring to Air (Vayu). Sayana apparently derives from I Vas-to reach, attain, but most modern philologists from 2 as (asnati)-to eat (so B.R., Uhlenbeck), so that it means the voracious (B.R.) or hungry one (Geldner, der Hungrige). B.R. apply to Lightning, but Geldner denies both this and Sayana's interprefation, taking tho three brothers as the three sacrificial fires,-the Ahavanīya, the Daksina and tho Garhapatya, the Daksina being eulled " hungry " because the saerifices come preferably to the Ahavaniya. This is not convincing. There is a certain truth, since the Ahavaniya represents the celestial Agni, the Dakşina is connected with the antariksa and the Garhapatya with the houschold. But, as Keith remarks, the threo forms of Agni explain the three altar fires and not vice versa (K.P.V. 157). Aśna then is probably the lightning fire and may perhaps be regarded as a variant of the more common name asani. Now aśani appears in various passages, e.g. V.S. xxxix. 8, and S.B. vi. 1. 3. 7 as cognate with Rudra or Mahadeva, the destroyer, and thoy are said to be forms of Agni. . Atra (Here) may mean in the first brother (the Sun) or the third brother (so Geldner who says that the Garhapatya firo is Stammherrn (Vispati --. Lord of the race or family). Or again it may refer to all three brothers : so Sāyaņa says atra=atresu bhrātrsu madhye,-taking Vispati as Para- meśvara, the supreme Lord, manifest in three forms.

2 * (2) Sapta yuñjanti ratham ekacakram, eko aśvo vahati saptanāmā ; Triābhi cakram ajaram anarvam yatra sima visva bhuvanā 'dhi tasthuh.

230 APPENDIX V

3 * (+) Ko dadarśa prathamam jāyamanam, asthanvamtam yad anasthā bibharti ; Bhumya asur asrg atmā kva svit, ko vidvāmsam upa gāt prastum etat. Geldner renders line c, " Where is the life-spirit, blood, and soul of the earth". So, in offect, Griffith, Regnaud, and Whitney. Geldner inter- prets of the first living being and mother earth. Sayana of tho avyakta or avyākrta (the prakrti of the Samkhyas or Isvarayatta or "God-dependent" maya of the Vedantins) and the croated or manifest world.

1* (6) Acikitvān cikitusas cid atra kavin prcami vidmane na vidvan, Vi yas tastambha sal ima rajamy ajasya rūpe kim api svid ekam.

5* (20) Dva suparņā sayujā sakhāyā samānam vrksam pari sasvujāte, Tayor anyah pippalam svad" atty anaśnann anyo abhi cākaśīti. Geldner interprets the tree as the tree of knowledge, and the birds as two kinds of seekers after knowledge, -- those who seek the higher wisdom and the non-speculative. 6* So Sayana. Regnaud considers Agni is the speaker. (33) Dyaur me pitā janitā nābhir atra. bandhur me mata prthivi mahiyam. Nabhir atra-' Here's the navel' or connecting link. Sayana says ulro= asmin antarikse-' this mid-world'. Cf. x. 90. 14, and noto that x. 90. 16, is identical with I. 164. 50. Or nabhi may refer to the Sun, the seat of Vivasvat, father of Yama, the first man. (Keith, R.P.V. 113.)

231

INDEX

abhimūna, self-conceit, 222. Analta, Buddhist doctrine, 42-3. Absolute, The, 99, 182, 192. 174, 203. Absolute Idealism, see Idealism. anu, subtle, atom; of Brahman as adhyātma, 92, 94, 225. Ātman, aņīyān aņupramāņāt, adhyātma-yoga, 79, 90-5, 99, 205. subtler than the subtle, 84; adhvaryu, offering priest, 102. anum etam apya, 95; anor Aditi, 117, 157-9. Āditya, 13, 14, 102, 172. aniyan, 106. ananda, bliss, an attribute of advaita, non-dvalism, 2, 26, 168-9. Brahman, 35-6. Agni, 12, 15, 25, 61, 69, 70. 72, 102, Ānanda-vallí, Bliss chapter of 160, 177, 186, 229; Tait., 35. The Triune, 12, 13, 73, 172, 229. Änandajñāna, or Ānandagiri, com- agnihotra, fire-offering, 71. mentator on Sankara, c. 1250, ahamkara, ethically, egoism, 1, 226 : 87, 159. metaphysically, the principle of antaratman, Inner-self, 46, 148, individuation, 131-2, 226. 177-180, 209. aham brahmasmi, '1 am Brahman. antaryāmin, Inner-ruler, 33, 41, 140. 32. apana, in-breath, 173. ahavaniya firc, 71, 229. apramada, vigilant concentration, uja, unborn, 14, 103. 44, 198 ; -Pāli appamūdo. Ajatasatru, King of Kasi, teaching apramatta, undistracted, 41, 44, of, (Br. ii. 1), 31. 198. Ajatasattu, King of Magadha, 43. Apsara, celestial nymph, 77. Ajita Kesakambalin, 43. angustha-matra purusa, thumb. Air, one yet manifold, 177. sized person, 29, 164-6, 209. Aitareya Aranyaka. 10, 22, 28, Aranyakas, Forest-books, 22. 216-8. Aristotle, 180.

Aitareya Brahmaņa, 102, 218. Arseya Upanisad, 9, 27.

Aitareya Upanişad, 6-10, 35. Aruņi, sec Uddālaka, 62, 65.

alsara, word, imperishable, =Om. usamahita, unprepared, 115.

. 100-2; epithet of Brahman, aśna, meaning discussed, 229.

121. Aśoka, 43, 44, 198.

Imporishable, osti, 'He, or it, exists', 75, 202-4. 8 name fo Brahman as basis of the world asu, life-breath or spirit, 17, 28

and of souls, in Br., 33, 140; asura, evil spirit, 21.

in A.A., 217; in E.M.U. 141; Aśvalāyana Grhya-sūtra, 101.

so=avyaktu in Gita, 48, 138ff .. aśvamedha, horse-sacrifice, 23.

146. aśvattha, pipaPtreo, 185.

Aksara, by Dr. P. M. Moli, 140-1. ataraxia, αταραξία, 107. Atharva Veda, 6; Upanişads of, 3; alinga purusa, 141. Brahman in, 24-5; Candharvas Amen, 102. in, 188; quotation from, 45p 161.

232 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD

atheism, 10, 131-3, 203. gained not by learning but by athletie life and yoga, 2. Atman, Self or Soul, in Introdue- self-revelation, 112; by one morally prepared, 115. tion : The two selves, shadow and light, etymology, 27-8; 118. in the Rg Veda, 14; The soul, lord of a chariot, 123; in A.A., symbolised by the kidden, yet seen by subtle seers, uktha, progressively manifest 129; in trees, animals and man, with eyes averted from sense- 217; =the chief life-power, 28; objects, 148; in Ch., the person in the eye, the perceiving subject, 152: 27; Lord of the past and the future, in Br., tho vijñānamaya purusa, 153, 164; the source of life and intelli- born of tapas and the waters, 155; gence and reality of reality, manifest as life, 158; 30.31. source and abiding place of all Is the Atman doctrine a revolt ? deities, 161 : 20. embodied as thumb-sized, yet Related growth of atman and eternal Lord, 164; purusa concepts, 30; Lord of the city of the body, identification with Brahman, 27, 170; 30-4; and omnipresent, 172; Is the Atman knowable ? 35-9; as embodied called dwarf, 173; two forms, individual and Sup- eternal yet transmigrating, 175; reme, jivātman and paramāt- ground of the world, 176; man, 15, 34; immanent yet transcendent, 177; one Self doctrine, 32-4, 104, 166; utouched by pain, 179; no Self doctrine, 42-4. souree of perpetual joy and peace, Atman in the Katha: 181; subtle and difficult to know, 84; light of the world, 183; not obtainable by reasoning, 85; called alinga purusa, 190 ; knowable through a guru, 84-5; kuowledge of whom gives freodom deeply hidden, yet perceptible by and immortality, 190; adhyātma-yoga, 90; not seen by the eye, yet appre- joy of knowing this Spirit, 95; hended by heart and thought, deeper than duty, action or time, 194; 98; through yoga, 196; (Does this mean that the Atman faith leads to vision, 202; * is an unqualified, supra-moral vision to immortality, 207. Absolute ? 95-100.) Atma-stha, standing in the soul, 181. unborn, undying, eternal, 103; Auddālaka Āruņi, name of Vāja- spaceless, hidden ,in the heart, sravasa, 64-5, or a name of 106; Naciketas ? 65. visible through Divine grace, 106; austerity or asceticism, sco tapas. active yet effortless, omnipresent, avidyā, ajñana, Ignorance, 32, 81, *11; 134, 163, 179, 207.

INDEX 233

avyakta, in Katha, 129-146, 190, 213; Sankara's answer : the two Brah- in Gita, 48, 138ff., 146; mans, 36-7. in Sāmkhya, 131; in Śankara, 135; Yajnavalkya's mysticism, 37; in Isa and Kena, 38. in RĀmānuja, 136-7; The teaching of the Katha, in Nimbarka and Madhva, 137. 38-9. Badarayana, author of Vedama- Brahman, in the Katha text: sūtras, 11. bāla, child=fool, 83. symbolised by Om, 101;

bālya, child-like simplicity, 83. bridge to the fearless shore, 121; hiddon, evorlasting, =atman, 175; Balaki Gargya, conversation with Ajātasatru, 30. the puro, immortal, unslceping

Barnett, L. D., 138. inner person, on whom the

Barua, B. M., 198, 220. worlds depend, 176;

Bāşkala Upanişad, 9. comparod to an aśvattha tree, 185;

Belvalkar, S. K., 8-11, 22, 28, 42, ealled Prana (Life), from: which the world evolves, 186; 47. tho mysterium tremendum, 186; Bernard of Clairvaux, 169. attainment of, 207. Besnagar pillar inseription, 44, 199. Naciketas obtained, 211; Birds, Parable of the, 15. sen also Atman in the Katha. Bhāgavata, 44. Brahman, in the Commentary, Bhagavad-gītā, see Gītā. 58, 72, 79, 85, 88, 94, 99, 100-2, bhakti, 114. 104, 107, 11I, 116, 121, 134, Bhakti-sūtra of Nārada, 201. 137, 140, 142, 148, 153, 159, Bhandarkar, Sir R. G., 193. 162-6, 180-1, 185-8, 190, 195, Bhattabhāskara Misra, 58, 203-5, 210. 215-6. Brahman, m.nm. Brahmā, =Saguņa Black Yajur Veda, 40. Brahman, 72, 88, 134, 157. Blake, William, 151. Brahma, the Creator, 89, 102, 156, Böhtlingk, Otto, 64, 187, 212. 189. Brahmacarin, religious student, 101, brahma-nid, Brahma-knower, 118. personal form of Brahman in Brahma-world (brahma-loka), 89 A.V., 25. 116, 145, 189. brahmacarya, 101, 115, 223. Brahmins (brahmana), high position brahma-ja-jña, 72. of, 19, 62; Brahman, in Introduction : Meaning in Rg Veda, 24. taught by Ksatriyas, 62; What makes a Brahmin ? 219. A.V., 24-5. brahmodya, theological riddle, 13. Brāhmaņas, 25. Brhadāraņyaka Upanisad, 5-11,23, The One God, (Yajñavalkya), 26. 30, 32, 33, 35-7, 42, 45, 46, Story in Kenu, 25-6. 61-3, 83, 100, 115-7, 121, 124, The Golden Person in sun, 27. 150, 154, 156, 161-2, 166, Identified with Atman, 17, 30-4. 175-6, 1819 188, 192, 208, 210. Is Brahman knowable? 35-9; Brhaddevatā, 44. - saccidānanda, 35 ; Brhat-samhitā, 120. unknowability of tho knower, Buddha, 42-4, 77, 180, 198, 226 36; Buddhaghosa, 221.

234 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD

buddhi, reason, intellect, 123-5. daksiņa, gift to a priest, 59. 128-32, 191, 221. Dasgupta, S. N., v, vii, x, 20, 48. Buddhist chariot-parables, 220-1; 62, 93, 134. dharma, 220 ; death, (mrtyu), bodily docay, 17, doctrine of anatta. 42-3, 174, 203, 66 ; 226; compared to curry-spico, 116; pre-Buddhist date of Katha ? 75. the meaning of, 77-8. Bunyan, John, 171. Death (Mrtyu), & name of Yama. Carvakas, a school of materialists, 26, 56. 59, 61, 66, 79, 145. 75, 174. 186, 215 ; Caste, origin of, 19. & name for Brahman, 117; Causality, 100. the snaro of, 151, 165. Cave, Hidden in the, (nihitam dehin, the ombodied soul, 173, 175. guhāyām, guha-hita), 68, 91; desire (kama), 16, 17, 58, 107. Lodged in the (guham pravista), 207-8 : 118. objocts of, (kamah), 76-7, 177 ; Entering the (guham pravisya), ronunciation of, (virāga), 79, 207 . 155. fulfilment of, (kāmasyāpti). 87 : Chagaleya Upanisad. 9, 218-20. leads to reincarnation, 163 ; Chandogya Upanisad, 6-10, 23. destroying chariot, 218. 31, 35, 38, 44, 62, 98. 101. Deussen, Paul, ix, 6-11, 20, 27. 104, 106, 153, 156, 175, 176. 31-5, 65, 70, 87, 88, 91, 96. 199, 207-10. 98, 102, 107, 109-111, 120, Chariot (ratha), 77, 122-8, 216- 134, 157, 167, 176, 192-3, 23, 229. 201, 203-4. Charpentier, Jarl, 41, 43, 44, 65, deva, resplondent, divine, god, 17. 72, 82, 93, 228. 72, 91, 11l; devah, name for Childlikeness (bālya), 37, 83. the senses, 173. 217. Child-sages (bālišās), 219. denayana, path of the gods, 188. citta-urtti-nirodha, Yoga defined as, Dhamonapada, 44, 198, 220. 93, 199. dharana, concentration, 197, 206. City, Parable of the, 170-1. indriya-dharana, control of the Coleridge, S. T., 150. senses, 41, 197. control of the senses, ete., 51, 123 - dharma, meaning disenssed, 96 ; 9, 136, 142-3, 196-200, 218. 223, 226. anyatra dharmād, 98-9 ; dharman prthak pasyan, 167-8; Controller, Inner, 33, 41, 140. Buddhist, 220. The One, 181. dharmyam, 96. 'Corogonic hymns of Rg X, 15-20. Dhatr, Creator, 108-110. Cosmogonism, 9, 10. dhatu, element, 108. creation, 16-20 ; Croation-hymn, 16. dhyana, contemplativo meditation, Creator, Prajāpati, 25, 89 ; Brahmā, 197, 206; dhyāna-yoga, way . 89; of meditation ; dhyāna-yajña, Grace of the, 106-110. contemplative sacrifice, 23. Cūlikā Upanisad, 8. Dirghatamas, Vedic seer, 15. daksina (or southern) sacrificial Hymn of, 13-15, 29, 216, 229. fire, 71, 229. 230.

INDEX 235

discipline, need of, 23, 115; Gandharva-world, 187-9. 227; Garbe, Richard, 20. power for, 2. Divino graco, 106, 112; gārhapatyu fire, 71, 229.

election, 112, 113 ; love, 113; Garutman or Garuda, the sun-bird, 15 aetivity and rest, 111; Gautama, i.e. descendant of immanence and omnipresenee, Gotama, 111, 178; applied to Uddālaka Āruņi, 62; omnipotence, lordship, 181. Vājaśravasa, 64, 65; impassiveness, 180. Nacikotas, 167, 175 ; rovelation, 112. teacher of Bharadvāja dtream-consciousness, 176-7. (Arseya), 27. duty (dharma), 98. Buddha, 42, 180, I98. Dvivedi, Manilal, 226. Gāyatri, 105, 225. dwarf (vamana), 173. Geldner, K. F., 72, 82, 108, 113, 187, Dyaus, Heaven-god, 70. 188, 202, 228, 229, 230. Edgorton, Franklin, 93. Genesis, 149. egoism, ego-centrism, 1, 3, 46, Ghora Angirasa, teaching of, 23. 200. Ghose, Arabinda, 97, 107, 228. eko vast, The One Controller, 181. Gita, 18, 20, 23, 47-9, 82, 92, 94, elemental soul (bhūtatman), 222. 96, 103, 104, 106, 109, 113, Epicurus, 161. 138 -- 143, 146, 171, 192, 223-5. etad vai tat, . This truly is that ', God (deva), Prajapati called the 152, 153, 154, 155, 160, 161, one God (deva ekah), 17; 164, 170, 173, 176, 184. Agni called deva idyah, 71; eternal, of the Atman, 103. perceiving God (devam matva), eternity, (or infinity, anantya), 145. 90; Ethies, 98, 99. madamado devah, 110. ethical preconditions for inquiry gods, nourished by sacrifice, 21; into Brahman, 25, 38-9, 79, gupplanting of Vedie gods, 25; 115-6. number of the, 26; ovil, beyond good and, 99. contest of gods and asuras, 21 .; faith, i.o. rovorenco (sraddha), 57, existence of gods recognised, 79. 161; i.o. the ontological postulate, but all fixed in Brahman, 161. 202. Brahman called the one God. Farquhar, J. N., v, vii, s, 7, 26; fear, 66, 186; farlossness, 154. good and evil, do dharma and fearless shore, 87, 121. adharma mean ? 98; firo, source of the worlds, 70; the Absolute beyond, 99. sacrificial, 70, 71, 86; Gough, A. E., ix, 103, 108. altar, 69, 72, 105; guha-hita, set in the cave, 91; symbol of Brahman, 13, 27, sco Cavee 68,161; guņas, Samkhya doctrine of, 191. one yet manifold, 177 .; Grace, Divine, 3, 39, 106, 112. tire-sticks, 160. . Heaven, 56, 59, 63, 66, 71, 89; Gandharvas, 188. Kingdom of, 121. .

236 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD

Hebrews, Epistle to the, 77, 203. Hegel, quoted, 95. jnana-mārga, the way of knowledge, 24, 35, 79. Hill, W. D. P., 49, 93, 138, 185. jnana-yoga (in the Gita), 93. Hillebrandt, Alfred, 24, 65, 72, 76. jñāna-prasāda, the peace of know- Hiranyagarbha, 17, 18, 20, 28. ledge (Mund. iii, 1. 8), 109, 72, 88-90, 133-5, 156-9. 115. Hiranyagarbha-sūkta, Rg X. 121. kaivalya, isolation, in Yoga-sutra, 17, 18. 93, 226. Holy, The, 95. kama, see desire. Honey-eater (madhvada), 153. Kant, Immanuel, doctrine of the hotr, reciting priest, 102. transcendental self, 35. Hume, R. E., 65, 72, 77, 85-7, 91, karman. 175 ; reincarnation, yathā 96, 98, 107, 108, 119, 152, karma. 155, 157, 163, 167, 171, 176. karma-marga, the way of works. 193, 201-2, 204. karma-yoga, Gītā method of salva- Idealism, idealistie monism, 9 -11. tion by selfless performance of 32-4, 180, 208. duty, 93, 225. Ignorance (avidya), 32, 81, 134, Katha, the rsi, 40. 163, 179, 207. Kāthaka Samhitā, 21, 23, 40, 105. Illusion, 32, 36, 100, 104, 150, 179, Kauşītaki Upanişad, 6-9, 45, 62, 182. 175, 188. Immortality, 17, 19, 56, 78, 105. Kavasa Ailūşa, 218. 190, 192, 209. Keith, A. B., x, 8-11, 24, 42, 44. Indra, 12, 15, 25, 178, 186. 47, 62, 93, 100, 102, 105, indriyani, 'senses', 122-5, 129- 158, 172, 175, 192, 216-8, 229. 131, 136, 190, 218, 221. Kena Upanisad, 6-8, 25, 37. indriya-dhāraņā, control of the knowledge of the Brahman-Atman, senses, 41, 197. the way of salvation, 24, 35, Ingo, Dean, 150. 79 Iśā Upanișad, 1, 6-9, 12, 38, 111. Brahman is an object of know- ista-pūrte, sacrifices and good ledge, 35, works, 56, 63, 215. the knowing solf cannot be Iśvara, Lord, Ruler, 36, 134, 157. known, 36, Iśa, 109. two orders of knowlodge, 36, Iśana, 153, 164, 181. moral preconditions of know- Jagannath, "World-Lord ", car of, ledge, 39. 79, 115, 14, 216. Naciketas eager for knowledge, Jatavedas, All-knower, a name of 81; Agni, 72, 160. delivors from sorrow, 111, Jesus Christ, 107, 121, 143, 195, only possible to the elect, 112, 200. saves from fear, 153, jiva, jivatman, the individual soul, leads to union with Brahman, 32, 120, 153. 167, jñāna, knowledge, 5, 24, through self-revelation, 183, a characteristie of Brahman, 35. determines roincarnation, 187, =jnana atman, the self of know- leads to immortulity, 194. ledge (Katha iii, 13), 12 !. . Kşatriyas, instruct Brahmins, 62.

INDEX 237

Lanman, C. R., 96, 207, 208. Metre of the Katha, 44. liberation, from sorrow, 111, Milinda (Menander), 220. from fear, 153, Mitra, 12, 15, 102. from desire, 207, Modi, P. M., 138-141. from tho knots of the heart, 207, Monism, 2, 26, 32-4, 168-9, 180. from evil and death, 211. Morality, seo Ethics. life (breath), see asu, prāna, Müller, F. Max, 12, 59, 60, 70, 77, . light, realm of, 89, 85, 86, 91, 96, 98, 107, 108, Prajapati as highest, 89, 152, 176, 188, 199, 204, 212. Brahmnan the self-luminous light mumuksutva, desire for salvation, 79. of the world, 183. Muņdaka Upanişad, 6-9, 15, 44-9, lightning, 13, 229. 98, 109, 115, 120, 141, 169, linge, meaning of, 191; 192, 207. Śiva-linga, 193. mysterium tremendum, 25, 186. Krsna, 48, 82, 103. mysticism, 2, 3, 24, 37, 146, 165, Krsna Devakīputra (Ch. iii, 17), 169, 203. 23 Nāciketa firo-sacrifice, 41, 56, 71, Macdonell, A. A., is, 8, 16, 40, 62, 121, 215. 112, 119, 160. Nagasena, Buddhist monk, 220. Madhva, vii, ix, 120, 137, 228. name and form, nāma-rūpa, 169. madāmada deva, 111. Narada, seer, 207. Mahabhārata, 132, 165, 193, 213. Nūrada-bhakti-sūtra, 201. Mahānārāyaņu Upanisad, 6-9, 47, Narāyana, list of Upanisads, 6, 108, 165, 194. (S.U.V. 538). Mahan atma, Great soul, 20, 190, Nastikas, 42, 43, 56, 75, 203. Atma mahān, 129, 132-6, Naturalistic pantheism, 27. Mahatman, 88. Nature powers, worship of, 12. mahat, Samkhyu=buddhi, 21, 131. Influenco of, 149-150. =Atma mahan, 129, 132. symbolism in Valli iv, 151ff. Maitri Upanisad, 6-9, 109, 165, Natura genetrix, Mother Nature, 191-3, 205, 209, 221-3. 159. man, the clearest expression of the prakrti, q.v. Atman, 217; Nimbārka, author of Vedanta- usatisfied like the sea ; desires pārijata-saurabha, advaitādvaita the immortal, 217. commentary on the Vedanta- manas, 'mind', 123-5, 129-131, sütras, vii, 33, 120, 137, 166, 990, 195, 221. 168. Māņdūkya Upanişad, 6-9, 201. nirvāņa, 220. manīsã, reflective thought, 195. nididhyasana, steady meditatisn, Mansel, Dean, 165. 113. Manu, Code of, 156. nihitam guhāyām, 68, 91, see Cave. Matarisvān, 15. Oldenberg, H., S. Materialism, 43, 75. Oltramtre, Paal, 93. .Materialists called fools, 82, S3. Om, 55, 79, 100-103, 211. maya, illusion, 32, 6, 184-5, 137, One soul theory, 32-4, 104, 166. 178. 181. maya-vada, doctrine of illusion, 11. Otto Rudolf, 26, 93.

238 THE KATHA UPANISAD

Oupnekhat, 6. pranāh, the life-powers or organs, pain, misory (duhkha), 179, 180. 124. palita, anciont, 229. pranava, a namo for Om, 102. pancagni, having or maintaining five fires, so paňcāgnayah, prāņayama, restraint of broath, 197, 224. pious houscholdors, 118. prasada, grace or tranquillity, 108-9. Panini, grammarian, 4th cent. B.C., Praśna Upanisad, 6-9, 47, 141. 93 'pratistha, foundation or abode, Pantheism, 9, 10, 27, 146, 182. 68, 73, 87-9. Paramūtman, the Supreme Self, 120. Puramesvara, the Supreme Lord, pratyagatman, individual self, 94, 148. 149. pravrhyu, having extracted, pra- Parmenides, 33. vrhya dharmyam, 96. Patañjali, author of Mahābhāsya, Purusa, Man or person, 40; in Rg (Purusa-sukta), 19; suthor of Yoga-sūtras, 92, 93, A.V. and S.B., 29 ; 197, 205, 224, 226. person in the sun, Br. ii. 1, Ch. Patripassianism, 180. i. 6, etc., 27, 30. Pelly, R. L., xiv, 152. person in the eye, Br. ii. 1, Ch. pitr-loka, world of the Fathors, 188. iv. 15, etc., 27, 30. Plato, Phædrus, 125-6 ; A.A., mukhya-praņa=purusa= Republic, 127; Symposium, 149. atman, 28. Plotinus, 149. Br. i. 4, atma purusavidhaķ, 30. pracodayitr, impeller, stimulator, ii. I, vijñānamaya purua, 30. 219, 222, 225. iii. 9, aupanisada purușa, 30. Prajapati, Creator-god, 13, 17, in Katha, angustha-mātra-purusa, 18, 21, 23, 25, 28, 89, 102, 29, 164-6, 209. 105, 148, 188, 222. higher than the avyakta, 129, 190, Prajapati-world, 188-9. than which there is nothing prajnatman, the intelligent self, higher, the end and final goal, 35, 219. 129; Prakrti, nature, matter, of the all-pervading (vyūpaka), 190 ; Samkhya, 131; bodiless (alinga), 190-3 ; Is the Avyakta of tho Katha invisible but apprehonded by prakrti, and if so in what sense? heart and thought, 194; 132-7, knowledge of whom leads io iz the Gitā, para and aparā freedom and immortality, 190, prakrti, 139; parā prakrti, 194. .. Higher Nature=akşara avyaktu, Purusottama, 132, 139. called jīvabhūtā, 139. Radhakrishnan, Sir, S., 47, 113. in the Maitri, the goad oi Rāmānuja, vii, ix, 33, 78, 113-5, prakrti, 222. 119, 120, 128, 135-7, 166, pramāda, slackness, 115. 168, 177, 182, 195. praņa, life-breath, 25, 28, 161, Ram Mohan Ray, 88, 91, 108. 173, 186, 218. Ranade, R. D., 113, 115, 188, 204 .~ - a name for Brahman as Atman, reasou, intolleet (buddhi, vijñana), 161, 186. 123-9, 190-1, 221.

INDEX 239

reasoning, argument (tarka), cannot sāmparāya, passing beyond, transi- reach Brahman, 85, 205. tion, i.e. death and its meaning, rebirth (punar-janma), 56, 61, 162-3, 78, 83. 175-6. Samyutta Nikāya, 220. re-death (punar-mrtyu), 56, 61, samsara, the changing world, the 78, 83, 162-3, 215. cycle of existence, 121, 185; Regnaud, Paul, 108, 110, 230. transmigration, 123. reincarnation, see rebirth. Sāņdilya-vidyā, 31, 104, 106. renunciation of desiro, 79. Śańkara, vii, ix, 3, 6, 7 9, 12, 26, Revelation, 112. 32, 34, 35-7, 59-63, 65, 70, Rg-Vedu, 5-7, 12-20, 23, 24, 56, 72, 77, 79, 82, 84, 85, 88, 92, 63, 66, 88, 101, 105, 108, 110, 94, 97-101, 104, 107, 108, 110, 116, 120, 160, 172, 178, 188. 111, 113, 116, 119, 120, 130, Röer, E., 97, 98, 107, 108. 132-5, 142, 147, 149, 151-161, Rosetti, Christina, 169. 163-168, 171-9, 181-2, 185, Rudra (or Siva), 12, 102, 229. 188, 193, 195, 199, 203, 210, rta, right, divine order, 119, 172. 227, 228. saccidananda, opithet of Brahman, santi, peuce, 55, 72, 211. 35. Sarma, D. S., 149. sacrifice, of the Purusa, 19. Satapatha Brāhmana, 23, 62, 68, renews the power of gods and 73, 89, 104, 148, 156, 172. men, 21. sattva=buddhi, 190. sustains the universe, 22, 68; satyasya satyam, reality of reality, meditation on, 23; 5, 31, 37, 217-8. All life a, 23; Savitr, the stimulator, sun-god, 12, Vājaśravasa's, 57-8 ; 215; 13, 23, 89, 105, 216, 224-5. The purpose of, 67-9; Savitrī, 165. Tho Naciketa, and its result, Sayana, commentator on the Rg- 69-71, 215. Veda (d.c. 1387 A.D.), 15, knowledge through, 121. 105, 218, 229, 239. Saguna Brahman, see Brahman. sūyujya, sayujyata, complete union, Salvation, by knowledge, 24, 190ff. 206, 223. faith needed for, 202. Schrader, F. O., 9. ethical requirements for, 79 scripture learning insufficient, 112. 115-116, 207. senses, see indriyāņi. samādhi, concentration, 93, 201; Sorampore, vii, 216. acstasy, 201, 206-8. Sermon on the Mount, 107. .

Sāma-Veda, 6, 7, 45, 160. Shadow and light, the individual Samhita, collection of hymns, etc., 5. and Supreme selves ? 118ff. Samkhya philosophy, ix, 10, 20, sin, missing the mark, 1, 3, 81. elements in the Katha ? 132-3, Sitarama Sastri, 97, 98, 108, 149, 157, 191; 193, 199, 228. outline of, 131. Śiva (Rudra, Mahādeva), 193. Sāmkhya-kārikā, 132. sleep, the Self manifest in, 176-7. . Samkhya-yoga, in Gitā, 93, 104. Soma, pavamāna, the purifier, 105, samnyasa, abandonmen? of action, the guest in the jar, 172. 93. Spencer,,Herbert, 164.

240 THE KATHA UPANIŞAD

Spirit, 17, 95, 99, 182. Taittirīya Samhitā, 23, 45, 102, 105, éraddha, faith or reverence, 57, 172. 79, 228. Taitlirīya Upanisad,. 6-10, 35, 38, éraddha, funeral feast, 147. 45, 55, 106. śravana, scripture-hearing, 113. Tāņdya Brāhmaņa, 21. S'rībhāsya, Rāmanuja's commentary tapas, heat, asceticism, 16, 17, 21, on the ' Vedanta-sutras, see 23, 101-2, 115, 155-6, 223. Rāmānuja. Tattvabhūșaņa, Sītānātha (written Śrinivasa, commentator on Nim- also as in Bengali without bārka's Vedānta-sūtra-bhāsya, final a's), 91, 97, 98, 186, 193, 120. 228. śrnka, chain, 70, 73, 82. tarka, see reasoning. . St. John, 3. tat tvam asi, That thou art, 32, St. John's Gospel, 107. 153. First Epistle, 182. Tathagata, title of Buddha, 44. St. Paul, 2, 3. teacher (acārya, guru), 55, 72, St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians, need of a, 84-6, 202, 228. . 126. Theism, 9, 10. Galatians, 116. Thibaut, G., 91, 98, 119, 182. i. Corinthians, 2, 143. Theresa, St., 169. Romans, 201. Thomas, F. W., ix, 70, 139, 228. sukrtasya loke, meaning discussed, Thumb-sized person (angustha- 119. matra-purusa, g.v. sūksma sarīra, subtlo body, 191. time, 100, 166. sun, chariot, 14; wheel, 14; transcendonce, divino, 178. eye of the world, 179; transmigration, see rebirth. abode of the blessed, 66, 89, trināciketa, having a triple Nāciketa, 230. 71. symbol of Brahman, 13, 14, Turner, R. L., x, 28, 70. 27, 148, 229. Tuxen, 93. sun-god or gods, 12, 89, 216. Uddālaka Āruņi, sage, =Gautama Surya, sun-god, 12, 13, 161-2, Āruņi, 40, 62, 65. 186, 216. Unity, Upanișad doctrino of, 2, 26, suşumnā, a " vein", 209. 163, 167-9. Svayambhu, self-existent, 148. Upanişad, meaning of, 5. Śvetaketu, son of Uddalaka Upanișads, nature of, 5; · Aruņi, 101. number of, 6; S'vetāśvatara Upanisad, 6-11, 15, list of clussical, 6; 46-9, 88, 92, 105, 109, 120, classification of, 7, 9; 135, 141, 165, 178, 181, 194, date of, 8-12, 49. 223-5. usan, 57, 58, 65, 215. swan (hamsa), i.e. the sun, 170, Vac, Word, hymn to, 108; 172. Taittirīya Āranyaka, 22, 40, 108, divine voice, 215. Vājasaneyi Samhitā, 172. " 165, 194. Vājasanevin school, 7, 40. Trittirīya Brāhmaņa, 40, 42, 45, 56, Vājaśravasà, father of Nacıketas, 58, 65, 71, 148, 214-6., 57, 58, 65, 215.

INDEX 241

. . Vaisampāyana, seer, narrator of the 104, 115, 162, 166, 180, 208, Mahābhārata, 40. 210. Vaiśvānara, a name of Agni, 61. Yajur-Veda, 5, 7, 21, 40, 102, 105; Vaivasvata, son of Vivasvat, i.e. Black, prose explanations mixed Yama, 61. with Samhita; White, separat- Varuņu, 12, 15, 188. ed, 40; schools of Black, 40. Vasu, a class of gods, used of Yama, god of death, 56, 59, 61, Vayu, 172. 66, 165, called Death, q.v. Vāyu, 12, 25, 102, 161, 172, 177, 186. Yoga, 2, 3, 23, 41, 48. Vedānta, ix, 05, 129, 137. derivation, various meanings, Vedanta-sūtras (Brahma-sūtras), 92-3; vii, ix, 24, 33, 79, 120. in the Yajur-Veda, 23, 105, 224 ; Veda, Vedas, 5-7, 101. in the Gita, 93, 223-5. Vedic gods, 12, 25, 26, 161. of Patañjali, 93, 197, 200, 201, schools, 6, 40. 226. Vipaścit, a name for the Atman, in the Katha, 123-147, 150, 196- 103, 224. 208. Virāj, 18, 25, 28. the practice of, 223-5. virāga, ronunciation of desire, q.v. concluding remarks on, 226-7. Vision, of God or the Atman, 2, yoga-kşema, 82. 109, 187, 194. Yoga-sūtras of Patañjali, 199, 224, Vișņu, 12, 68, 88, 102, 119, 127-8. sec also Patañjali. Viśvakarma, world-maker, 13. Yoga-sūtra-bhāsya of Vyāsa, 200. Vivasvat, sun-god, 61, 66, 230. Warren, H. C., 220. Xenophanos, 26. water, 16-18. Yājñavalkya, 5, 9-11, 23, 26, 33, Winternitz, M., 8. 34, 35-37, 42, 46, 62, 65, 83, Wordsworth, 149.

242 THE KATHA UPANISAD

ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA

Page xviii. Square brackets in the transliterated text denote that the words enclosed should be omitted as hypermetrical. P. 9, note 1, read S.K. for S.P. 21, line 11, ,, Kavasa for Kavasa; riso pages 218-9. 45, 8, ,, lokās . „, lokas. 74, , 16, ., sujneyam : so A and majority of MSS .: B.C. have suvijñeyam. 3, sujneyam in Nagarī text also. 98, 16, krtagakrtāt for krta-akrtat. 110, 11, , mada zamadam , mada-amadam. ,, 114, 27, ,, ātma-kāmasya „ atma-kamasya. ,, 122, ,, 19, ,, ālmāor ālma, ? ātmā (=ātmānam) may, like bhokta, be taken as predicative acc. with nom. form, (see Macdonell, V.G.S. 196 8.). But Śankara reads atma in the sense of sarira and takes it as member; of the compound ātma_indriya-mano- yuktam which is adj. qualifying atmanam under- stood, ("the soul, joined with body, senses, and mind, etc."). 126, note 3, delete 4 before Loeb. add It is interesting to note that the car of Jagannäth at Serampore (Mahesh) has two horses, one white and one black, but I have not been able to obtain any traditional explanation of the symbolism. 129, line 3, read [niyacchet].

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