1. Law and Practice of Sanskrit Drama Surendra Nath Shastri Chowkambha

तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय

VISVA BHARATI LIBRARY SANTINIKETAN

810.72 Su77 V.1

THE

CHOWKHAMBA SANSKRIT STUDIES

Vol. XIV

THE

LAWS AND PRACTICE

OF

SANSKRIT DRAMA

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE CANONS OF SANSKRIT DRAMATURGY

AND THEIR APPLICATION TO SOME PRINCIPAL

PLAYS IN SANSKRIT

by

SURENDRA NATH SHASTRI

VOLUME ONE

THE

CHOWKHAMBA SANSKRIT SERIES OFFICE

Post Box 8 Vārāṇasi-1 ( India ) 1961

Publisher : The Chowkhambā Sanskrit Series Office, Vārāṇasi—1

Printer : Vidyā Vilās Press, Vārāṇasi—1

Edition : First, 1961.

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THE

LAWS AND PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

A thesis approved for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Arts

at the University of Allahabad

BOOK 1

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

PERTAINING TO

I TYPES OF DRAMA 1

II PRELIMINARIES OF DRAMA 31

III DRAMATIC PLOT 63

IV HERO AND OTHER CHARACTERS 203

V FEELINGS AND SENTIMENTS 231

VI DRAMATIC CONVENTIONS 292

VII DRAMATIC ARTIFICES 319

AT

THE FEET OF MY REVERED GURU,

Rai Ratna Pandita Śri

VINĀYAKA KRSHṆAŚAṄKARA JOSHĪ

OF

INDORE.

PREFACE

The idea of this thesis developed from the fact that the laws of Dramaturgy discussed by the law-makers like Bharata, Dhananjaya, Ramacandra and Gunacandra, Sara-datanaya, Vidyanatha, Singa Bhupala, Visvanatha and Sagarandin have not been so far fully analysed and compared in any one single contribution. Mankad's Types of Sanskrit Drama deals with mere definitions of the Rupakas as given by the dramaturgists, and lays more stress on the Nrtta-plays, their species and evolution. Besides, no attempt is made there to apply these rules to any particular specimens and to examine the practice of the playwrights in this behalf. The other work dealing with the subject is Kulkarni's Sanskrit Drama and Dramatists which has dealt with later dramaturgists only. His method of application of these rules with regard to the Dramas is only in a summary form, e. g. in Kalidasa's Sakuntala he would not make mention of the type of the Prastavana, the requirements of Induction, the Junctural sub-divisions, the dramatic embellishments and so on. Of the modern histories of the Sanskrit literature the most important work dealing with the subject is SANSKRIT DRAMA by Dr. A. B. Keith. He has, no doubt, elaborated certain points like the age of the playwrights, their style and language, and given synopsis of the plays with some outstanding characteristics of the drama, but the aim of the present work is not only the elaboration but also a synthetic survey of the whole matter, which has not been so treated by Dr. Keith. The Table of Contents will show that an attempt is made here for the first time to take a synthetical view of the entire subject and to examine the application of the canons in a methodical way pointing out the omissions and the new additions to the laws observed in the dramatic literature under review. Apart from this little originality, the analysis done here is ex-

pected to present a critical review of the dramaturgical

laws and their general application from the very beginning

of the Art until it became almost standardised by the

master playwrights in Sanskrit.

The age of the dramaturgists and the playwrights is

rather an intriguing point. This is not the main theme of

this thesis to discuss in detail whether the dramatic laws

could have developed in the absence of any dramatic

literature. On the other hand, all well-established rules

and methods followed and recognised by the earlier play-

wrights became the laws of ,conduct for all subsequent

writers. However, the historians have assigned the following

dates to different dramaturgical works :

Bharata's Nātya-sāstra : Circa II cent. B. C. to

V. Cent. A. C.

Abhinava's Bhāratī on the Nāṭya-sāstra : Circa A. C.

975-1015.

Dhanañjaya's Daśarūpaka : Circa A. C. 974-995.

Rāmacandra & Gunacandra's Nāṭya-darpana : Circa

A. C. 1093-1175.

Śāradātanaya's Bhāvaprakāśa : Circa A. C. 1175-1250.

Vidyānātha's Pratāparudrīyam : Circa A. C. 1275-1325.

Śiṅga Bhūpāla's Rasārṇava-sudhākara : Circa A. C. 1330.

Viśvanātha's Sāhitya-darpana : Circa A. C. 1330-1400.

Sāgaranandin's Nāṭaka-lakshana-ratna-kośa: 13th Cent. A.D.

The date of Bhāsa, as is recognised by all the histo-

rians, has to be put between the third century B. C. and

the third century A. D. If the date of Bharata be accept-

ed during the third century A. D., the plays of Bhāsa

must have developed without the guidance of Bharata.

Whether there were any dramaturgists before the third

century B. C. like Kohala, Kṛśāśva, Mātṛgupta, Subandhu,

Aśmakuṭṭa, Nakhakuṭṭa and others is not quite certain ;

but in view of the fact that literature may develop independently of any law-books on Grammar, Poetics and Dramaturgy, the absence of any dramaturgists does not preclude the probability of any regular and uniform development of a pattern by any particular author. Therefore even in the absence of any such laws, Bhāsa could have, in a methodical and uniform manner, written his plays which present diverse patterns of dramatic art. So far as Kālidāsa is concerned, if his time is taken to be the fifth Century A. D., it cannot be overlooked that he was guided to a large extent by the Nāṭya-śāstra of Bharata. This expectation is fulfilled to a great extent as is borne out by the elaborate examination of his plays done in Book II of the present work.

The consideration of the later dramaturgists after the time of Kālidāsa is necessitated for the comparison of Bharata's Laws rather than the application of the later ones.

It is, for this reason, that the present work is divided into two parts : Book I, which is the main theme, deals with a critical examination of the laws of Drama from the earliest time of Bharata to the latest development of different schools irrespective of their application to the works written by the earlier playwrights. Book II, Part I, deals with a detailed examination of a set of uniform laws as applied to the dramas of Kālidāsa; and the second Part of the Book II proposes to examine the plays of Bhāsa and predecessors of Kālidāsa. The application to the works of later playwrights has to be deferred for the present, partly because of their close adherence to the model adopted by the standard earlier authors and partly because the examination of all the existing dramas in a single book is impracticable. All the same, the application of the laws of dramas, though limited at present to the works of Kālidāsa and Bhāsa, amply testifies to the fact that their scheme has greatly influenced the later playwrights in construction of their plays.

Charts appended hereto, it may be hoped, will facilitate a clearer grasp of the detailed ramifications of a stem than the pen-pictures attempted in the descriptive portion. A Thesaurus of the dramaturgical terms added as a fruitful appendix will show the different uses of the same term by the canonists in different context, which, otherwise, may have caused confusion in understanding the subject critically. A Glossary of Technical terms given as Appendix C will serve the average reader.

The Bibliography is necessarily a brief one, for the subject is only incidentally referred to by a small number of modern authors. It is, therefore, added only at the end.

With some diffidence, therefore, it is hoped, in conclusion, that this attempt may show the way how the plays could be critically studied by the modern annotators and research students of the fascinating subject of Sanskrit Dramas and Dramaturgy. It is further hoped that the method of studying the dramas in the light of the demonstration made in Book II will facilitate and advance the intelligent and the scientific study of the dramas as plays rather than pieces of general literature in view of the systematic approach towards the interpretation of the dramatic theories done in the First Book. For the most of the existing commentaries on Sanskrit dramas appear to have missed the point, and deprived the students of understanding the dramas in their proper perspective. It is needless to elaborate the point that the Drama which is the highest development of literature, has a special aspect of its own; and the students of Sanskrit Drama would be decidedly losers if they cannot make the distinction between the aspects of drama and of other branches of poetry, such as the Mahākāvya, Kathās and the like.

If this expectation is fulfilled, this labour of over a decade of years in consultation with the best available resources may be deemed successful.

With this hope the following is added by way of an outline introduction to the subject of Sanskrit poetry, and as an elaboration of the topics enunciated above :

Poetry is one of the finest arts and the rarest too; for the poet not only carves the bust of his fable from popular stories and well-known incidents, but paints the best portraits of social conditions and infuses the music of life in his art, and above all, he is the very architect of his Universe. Poetry has, in essence, a beauty of imagination, yet has a happy combination of realism and idealism with an ultimate purpose of giving an uncommon delight to an appreciative mind. All Poetry is indeed charming, yet the wonder in it varies greatly both in respect of degrees and quality. For it appeals more when it is enjoyed not only through mental contact but also through various senses of perception. In this respect the scenic art of a poet excels the epic one, inasmuch as the former is the imitation of situations represented in actuality, and invokes the sympathy of the spectator who, like the actor, becomes in unison with one who is represented, by virtue of total identity both in purpose and person. Sympathy, which is so essential for enjoyment of beauty, is awakened not only by the audible poetry which the representator there reads, but by seeing the beautiful scenes and hearing music as well. " In the realm of Poetry, dramatic works excel the readable ones "1 is a true compliment to the mimetic art ; for, it not only sublimates the inner self but feasts the perceptive sense also with a rich menu of sweet music and tasteful delineation of characters.

Since lack of propriety ( aucitya ) and system ( riti ) is the one enemy which undoes all art, the least tolerant of this opposing element is the delicate art of representation which demands orderliness first, and everything else only next to it. For purposes of securing freely the charms

1. Kāvyeshu nātakam ramyan

of orderliness, the free art of flying on the pinions of imaginative genius has to put on self-chosen fetters of realism and principles of presentation, technically known as the mis-en-scene. That is why the artist has to limit his scope to well-known facts and popular characters and can only scarcely transgress the established course of events. This creativeness of the artist is not synonymous with arbitrariness, which would only be a weak foundation for his work of art lacking sanction in the popular appeal. His mastery, in fact, lies in mustering all forces of wonder ( camatkāra ) and wedding facts unto them so as to produce a systematic work by author's creative faculty. The problem is still greater with a dramatic artist who imitates reality and has the task of concentrating ' the confused panorama of life into a single, coherent, striking and natural picture.'

In this respect the Sanskrit dramas and dramatists have achieved a hall-mark, and reached a standard which can compare very favourably with the best specimens of art available. For, mostly unlike the dramatic works in other languages the Sanskrit dramas evince a sort of uniformity in respect of their constitution and yet possess freshness of charm in respect of presentation. That is why, it becomes incumbent upon those, who venture to make an aesthetic appreciation, to study the Sanskrit dramas from a constitutional point more than a purely rhetorical one. For this purpose it becomes quite natural to evolve a separate branch of literary criticism which qualifies itself as the dramatic criticism enunciating such principles as govern the mode of representation, and are, therefore, collectively known as dramaturgical laws. It is in the light of these principles that a modern student of Sanskrit Dramas is expected to study them for a proper relish of the element of wonder in them. For this purpose the laws of Dramaturgy have been formulated by the ancients, and a method of dramatic criticism is standardised by them. But of late centuries, this aspect of dra-

xiii

matic study has either been overlooked or done in a confused manner.

Referring to the method of instruction in this behalf in vogue in the most modern days, the course of studies in Sanskrit in this country has been bilateral : one, following the European method, and the other, orthodox oriental one. In the early years, all European scholarship in Indology remained limited to the Vaidika lore and turned to the classical more for purposes of historical inquiry rather than the rhetorical one. That is why there is so great a paucity of works by the European writers on subjects of criticism. Whatever they are, they are mostly limited to mere editorial attempts with, no doubt, very infomative introduction to the subject; and in the field of Dramaturgy that too limited mostly to the post-Bharata writers on the subject. For, it was not until Fitz-Edward Hall completed his editorial work on Dhanañjaya's Daśa-rūpaka in the seventies of the last century Bharata's Nāṭya-śāstra had become available in its complete form. So has been the attempt of Dr. Häas who limited his activities to the study of the Daśarūpaka. To a later writer Viśvanātha, then turned the energies of Dr. Röer who edited the Sāhitya-darpana over which an advance was attempted, by Dr. J. R. Ballantyne who translated some of its portions only to be completed by P. D. Mitra several decades ago. Later on, in this line is the attempt of M. Dillon who edited in the first part of his proposed work the text of Sāgaranandin's Nāṭaka-lakshaṇa-Ratnakośa, and its second volume is to fulfill the promise of its translation. Even on the side of the dramatic texts, in the editions, both the European and the American, all scholarship has confined itself largely to the textual criticism, collation of various manuscripts and the historical data which has, in its own way, advanced the study of literature by opening a new vista of research, although it resulted in throwing the dramaturgical study of the Sanskrit plays into back-ground. Following their method,

even the Indian writers possessed of the Anglo-sanskrit scholarship fell in line with them in mostly translating works into English and giving some historical introduction along the lines which are known as the scientific in this age. In this age of annotation, some modern writers, following the other method of orthodox name, sometimes chose to lay more stress on the grammatical and linguistic study of the plays. From this stage of Translation and Historical Introduction, there arose another trend of studying Sanskrit dramas in the form of their argument being re-told in a pleasant novelistic form. Along this line has been the work of Horrwitz, Indian Drama, and of Sten Konow of the same title, and also of H. H. Wilson, Hindu Theatre, falling in whose wake some Indian writers took themselves to re-telling stories as has been done of Bhāsa's plays by A. S. P. Ayyar. Then grew a tendency to study the demonstrative aspect of the Sanskrit dramas, and attention was drawn towards the Ancient Hindu Stage resulting in a host of books and articles on the Indian Theatre.

The study of the dramas from the critical point of view did not engage the attention of scholars until the great Western Orientalist, Dr. A. B. Keith, the lawyer scholar, for the first time, presented in his SANSKRIT DRAMA the critical estimate of the Sanskrit plays and appended the Theory of Dramaturgy in a brief outline. The work has a classical value no doubt; but it has, at any rate, not gone into the comparative study of the dramaturgical rules as presented by different authorities on the subject, but has summarised in brief the outlines of the dramatic structure as known from the popular canonists. Even in course of his criticism, he makes a brief survey of the date of the dramatist, gives the argument of the play and mentions only broad points relating to characters, style and language of the poet. But no attempt is made even there to apply the rules of dramaturgy or to prove by facts and references the conclusions so scholarly stated there. For instance, where the main style is shown to be the Vaidarbhī in general, no attempt is made to show if the

specimens of other ritis like the Pāñcālī are not there to outnumber those of the Vaidarbhī. Similarly, where a type of the hero is mentioned — perhaps only per chance—it is not shown as to how he deserves to fall into that category. Then again, nowhere there is any reference to the Nāṭika-bheda while estimating any play, nor to the junctural sub-divisions or peculiar dramatic embellishments ( lakshanas, alañkāras, vīthyāñgas, lāsyañgas and the like ). The work, on the whole, does not aim at studying the practice of the play-wrights in the light of the dramaturgical laws or vice versa. Following exactly his pattern, Kulkarṇī has given a work, Sanskrit Drama and Dramatists, the very sub-title of which suggests that it is no work studying dramas dramaturgically, but it deals with ‘chronology, mind and art.’ To follow these works there appears another work by D. R. Mankad, "Types of Sanskrit Drama", which, however, attempts to give in good details the definitions of various types of Rūpakas and Upā-rūpakas and devotes more to the study of the Nrtta plays. The work, however, restricts its scope chiefly to the connotative aspect, and only illustrations show a hue of practical aspect, which has given only a small concern to the minute application of the connotation ( lakshana ) to the denotation ( lakshya ). It, no doubt, makes an approach to several dramaturgists, but a comparative study of all the dramaturgical principles and their application does not principally form its subject-matter. There is another work by Jahagirdar, which also summarily disposes of the subject. M.R. Kale's The Sāhitya-sāra-saṅgraha is only a manual, outlining the sketch of the dramatic corpus of Sanskrit plays. Though various scholars have devoted themselves to the critical study of the Sanskrit Dramas in the fruitful attempts like those of Rāghavan's ‘Women Characters in the plays of Kālidāsa’; S. L. Kātre's ‘Harsha and his three plays;’ Pusalkar's ‘Bhāsa–A Study;’ Gajendragadakar's ‘Veṇīsāmhāra-A Study;’ and the like, yet all these works flow into two channels verily: of the pure theory or of pure criticism, with the result that they

xvi

help the study of the subject of dramaturgical laws only piecemeal. Thus the available works on the subject through the medium of English do not carry a student of dramatic criticism any farther than the older Sanskrit glossators on the Sanskrit Dramas.

In spite of all these long years, it is only a few popular dramas in Sanskrit that have been elaborately commented upon. Among commentators too, the few authentic ones are Jagaddhara ( 1300–1450 A. D. ), Kāṭayavema ( 1381–1461 A. D. ); Rāghava Bhaṭṭa ( 1475–1500 A. D. ); Prthvīdhara ( end of 15th Cent. A. D. ); Rañganātha ( about 1656 A. D. ), Dhuṇḍirāja ( 1731 A. D. ) and Ghanaśyāma ( 1720–1775 A. D. ) and his two learned wives who commented upon Rājaśekhara's Śālabhañjikā, and Rucipati on Murāri's play of Anargha-rāghava. These annotators are in the habit of referring to various features of dramatics in their commentaries and have had the benefit of the views of some older authors whose works are not now available. Their quotations from them are indeed valuable in regard to the study of the principles, but these scholars have always given scant regard to the application of these principles systematically and uniformly. At places their observations have gone to make a synthetic study even less practicable, just as Paṇḍita Jagaddhara has done in his Ṭīkā on the Mālatī-mādhava by dividing and placing junctural divisions irrespective of the range of action in the play. It has been mainly due to the discretionary methods of the glossators, both older and recent, to lay more stress on the poetical beauties as Rīti, Guṇa and Kāvyālaṅkāras than on the application of the dramatic features. In fact, most of the existing commentaries on Sanskrit dramas appear to have missed this point, and keep the students away from understanding dramas in their proper perspective, which is, in fact, distinct from the one, meant for other branches of poetry. Such a distinctive study became inter alia the main point of view of the present writer when he undertook to write an original

Sanskrit commentary, Kalpa-latā on Kālidāsa's Vikramor-

vaśīyam ( N. S. Edn.-1942 ) at the instance of late Rev.

Father R. Zimmermann, Professor of Sanskrit, St. Xavier's

College, Bombay. In course of this attempt the writer

felt that even on perusal of the canonical texts, the finer

distinctions between one dramatic feature and the other

do not at places become decisively clear. The reasons for

this are obvious. For the oldest authority available on

the subject is Bharata, who in his magnum opus on

Dramaturgy has dealt with the principles at length, but

has defined terms without adding suitable illustrations

which could make distinctions clear enough. This diffi-

culty further looms larger especially when the terms

apparently bear names without radical reference to their

connotation as Pushpa, Totaka, Mālā and many others ;

or have confusing titles as Drava and Vidrava, Dishta

and Upadishta and the like; or have synonymous titles

as Drishtānta, Udāharaṇa and Nidarśana. Then there are

confusing readings also in the Text-books either mutilated

or containing copious variants sub-joined to them. Bharata's

close follower among the later cononists is Viśvanātha, who

illustrates his enunciations no doubt, but he presents

there too, a twofold difficulty : firstly, that in most cases

he cites examples from such dramas as are not extant1

and prefers references to his2 or his father's works3 that

are not available for understanding the correct position

taken by him by actually referring to their context; and

secondly, that he takes at times such position4 as is not

tenable even in the opinion of his commentators and uses

at places so ambiguous a language as is capable of varied

interpretations by his commentators as shown in case of

1. Yayāti-vijaya, Jānakī-rāghava, Chalita-rāma, Udātta-rāghava,

Pushpa-dūtikā, Rāmābhinanda, Krtyā-rāvaṇa etc.

2. e. g. Candrā-kalā, Prabhāvatī, etc.

3. e. g. Pushpa-mālā.

4. as he does in case of the Nandī.

2

Patākā, for instance. The fact is equally true of later compilers like Sāgaranandin and Sāradātanaya in this respect. Dhananjaya belongs to that class of writers who do not illustrate their propositions. Here Dhanika's Avaloka is a great help, but it seems that these two brothers had in their view some authorities other than Bharata whose view-point they always bore in mind. Moreover, both Viśvanātha and Dhanika, and a few subsequent writers try to define or illustrate a feature by tacit reference to some particular situation in some particular play in their mind, and overlook the fact that the dramaturgical laws are principally meant for universal application and should be so placed before the readers as may at least become applicable to both the heroic as well as the erotic plays, e. g. to define Samihā as Nr-striyor ihā or Samihā rati-bhogorthā vilitā iti kirtitaḥ can, if limited to conjugal longing, pertain only to the erotic plays, - a view which cannot seemingly be compatible with the general theory of Dramatics. Further, while citing illustrations, the later canonists sometimes refer to a spot which occurs at a later or an earlier stage than the Juncture to which the instance is said to belong. Then again, the texts of dramas made use of by these canonists seem to be different from those available to the modern scholars, and so, proper reference to them does not become feasible as, for example, Viśvanātha quotes that the conversation of Ceṭī and Vidūshaka on the Valabhī in the Vikramorvaśī is the illustration of Prapañca, but such a conversation is not come across in the text as such, and is not capable of being identified without exertion. There are more instances of this type which will not add to the topic in question. So far as the commentators are concerned, the usual practice with old Sanskritists has been never to mention the authority; but only say, "as is said ( yaduktam)" or "So some say (kecit)", which only obstructs the process of identification of the author holding a particular opinion. Sometimes they go to the length of citing the authority, a reference to whom only tends to disappoint

the reader, e. g. Rucipati1 quotes Daśarūpaka to show the four-fold type of Nāndī of which no trace is available in the printed texts of the said book. Such numerous difficulties have been responsible to a very large extent for the subject of Dramaturgy being ignored, which in the first place demands a synthetic study of these divergent views and cogent application of them to the available references without which the theory cannot be sufficiently clear.

Principally to meet this demand, the idea of this thesis originated; for the laws of dramaturgy discussed by the law-makers of different ages have not been fully analysed and compared in a single work, though much work is done on the historical study of the dramas, dealing more with what is about them rather than what is in them. While making, therefore, a synthetic survey of the dramaturgical laws, special care is taken herein to avoid all illustrations from dramas not available for reference, and instead, suitable illustrations have been traced and cited from the popular plays which are well within the reach of every reader and with which he is ordinarily quite familiar. In this respect the present writer has taken into account all the well-known commentators like Rāghava Bhaṭṭa, Kāṭayavema, Prthvīdhara, Rucipati, Jagaddhara, Jīvānanda, Haridāsa, Revatīkānta, Gaṇapati Śāstrī, and other annotators, both European and Indian, and all points of divergence have been briefly elucidated. Moreover, an attempt is made to develop the rudiments of general literary criticism relevant to the studies in the Sanskrit Dramas, and personal views in regard to the interpretation of canons have been added by the writer wherever it became necessary. For this reason, the Articles on Doshas, Metrics and Kāvya-pāka are elaborated here.

1. Vide Anargha-rāghava-tīkā p. 9, line 7. Cf. Dr. Haas clearly says, "No special prescriptions regarding the Nāndī are given in D. R." (Columbia Edn. p. 30, line 31).

Miscellaneous artifices, the Article on the use of the Flora et Fauna, especially dealing with their use as the dramatic pivots, places an original view-point of the writer and its efficacy has been shown while applying the theory to the dramas under review. In order to present a complete critical apparatus before the students of the Sanskrit Dramas, a section on the secondary purpose of Poetry, viz., the didactic one, is added to show how a dramatist employs his wit and satire as a corrective measure against the social evils. In this way, the Book I is attempted to be made as complete and thorough as possible, keeping, however, within the bounds of Bharata's Nāṭya-śāstra in respect of all principles, especially in the matter of such features as are of common application to both the Drśya and the Śravya Kāvyas like Guṇa, Dosha, Rīti and the Kāvyalaṅkāras in general. References to the representatives of the New School are done firstly for purposes of comparative study ; and secondly, for avoiding omission of such particulars as belong to the practice of the modern dramatic criticism. All the same, no attempt is made to develop fully the portions of Alaṅkāras in general and also of the Kāvya-doshas which are elaborated at large by the later poeticians, the nucleus of which, however, is found in Bharata's Nāṭya-śāstra. For detailed study of these subjects Treatises on Principles of Poetics will serve as a good reference. No elaboration is attempted here on principles of theatrical arrangement and the equipment of characters, and their special art of gaits and songs which form the subject-matter of the specialised study of Abhinaya to which the scope of this dissertation dealing with Dramatic criticism is not extended.

In the Second Book, while applying the laws to the dramas under review, a topical investigation into various heads is done in every possible detail in the model made out of Kālidāsa's Śākuntala. The same method is followed in case of his other plays also, which presents the Practice of the Sanskrit dramas as evidenced by the application

xxi

of the principles of the scenic art enunciated by different canonists given in the First Book.

At the end, it may be stated that the present writer is painfully conscious of his inaccess to the works of Kohala, Krśāśva, Śilālin, Śātakarṇa, Subandhu, Aśma-kuṭṭa, Nakhakuṭṭa, Mātṛgupta and other ancient authorities as they are not extant in the manuscript or the published form. Nevertheless, references here and there made by certain authors to these canonists, and to the inextant works like the Nāṭya-pradīpa, the Nāṭya-locana, the Kāvyendu-prakāśa and others have been duly taken into account. No direct consultation of these works could be possible at present for purposes of this thesis. A critical notice of these casual references and quotations, however, affords room to believe safely that further dependence on them is not much likely to supply fresh material for the subject under investigation.

SANSKRIT DEPARTMENT,

University of Allahabad.

SN Shastri

16. VII. '47.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I should like to take this opportunity of thanking all those who have assisted me or lightened my task. I am specially indebted to late Dr. N. V. Thadānī, M. A., D. Litt., Principal, Hindu College, University of Delhi, but for whose constant pursuasion and generous encouragement the present work could have never been undertaken. I am likewise greatly indebted to late Mahāmahopādhyāya Dr. Prasanna Kumāra Āchārya, M. A., Ph. D.(Leyden), D. Litt. (London), Professor of Sanskrit at the University of Allahabad under whose able guidance and supervision the scheme of the present work was outlined and executed.

To my literary associates, Sāhitya-vidyān T. Bhimāchārya, B. A., and Prof. Mohanlal, M. A., Ph. D. (Wales) I owe much for their learned company and discourses which immensely profited the present volume at its various stages. I am grateful to Dr. S. R. Ranganāthan and to my close friend, Dr. S. K. Sāksenā, M. A., Ph. D. (London) of the East and West Center, University of Hawaii (U.S.A.) who looked through the manuscript with great care and benefitted me with some very useful suggestions.

My thanks are due to my devoted pupils, Prof. Shrī Narāyan Nigam, M. A. who assisted me a good deal in my preliminary work; Prof. Rāmāshraya Sharmā M. A. of Delhi who took great pains in preparing the various Charts; and Fraülein Ramā Sāksenā, M. A., Sāhitya-shāstrī, Kāvya-tīrtha, Alexander Humboldt Research Fellow working under me, helped me very much by patiently checking citations and preparing various Appendices; and Dr. Manohar lal Dwīvedī, M. A., Ph. D. of the Saraswatī Bhavana Library, Vārāṇasī, for reading proof-sheets and seeing them through the Press.

I am obliged to my sons, Mr. Chāru Chandra Shāstrī, M. A. and Mr. Nikhilesha Shāstrī, M. A. who have contributed the Glossary, and done, with meticulous care, the heavy task of preparing Indices appended at the end.

Above all, I cannot help recalling the memory of late Mr. T. Shrīnivāsa Rao of Harihar who efficiently carried out the onerous task of carefully typewriting the manuscript of this thesis till he fell an unfortunate victim to a random shot of a policeman in the Chāndni Chowk, Delhi, during the last political disturbances.

Lastly but nowise in the least, I am beholden to the Governing Body of the Hindu College, Delhi for affording me every facility in completing my task, and for an appreciative award of five hundred Rupees to encourage its publication.

My elderly friend, Dr. Vāsudeva Sharaṇa Aggrawāl, M. A., D. Litt., Principal, College of Indology & Dean, Faculty of Arts, Benares Hindu University, has earned my gratitude for his having taken keen interest in suitably bringing out the present volume, without which it may not have seen the light of the day.

At the end, I feel happy in recording thanks to my friend, Shrī Viṭṭhal Dās Gupta, of the Chowkhambā Sanskrit Series Office, Vārāṇasī, who took great pains for producing this Volume so very neatly, and publishing it in his Research Series, the Chowkhambā Sanskrit Studies.

S. N. Shāstrī

SCHEME OF TRANSLITERATION

Whereas all extracts from the original Sanskrit and Prakrit works and also various technical terms and phrases are given in the Roman characters here in the Text, the mode of Transliteration adopted while doing so, is given below for ready reference :

Vowels : The vowel sounds occurring in initial syllables or associated with consononts are written as :

a, ā, i, ī, u, ū, ṛ, ṝ, e, ai, o, au, ṃ, ḥ.

Consononts : ( Basic form to which vowels are added )

Gutturals : k, kh, g, gh, ṅ,

Palatals : c, ch, j, jh, ñ,

Linguals : ṭ, ṭh, ḍ, ḍh, ṇ,

Dentals : t, th, d, dh, n,

Labials : p, ph, b, bh, m,

Semi-vowels : y, r, l, ḷ, v.

Sibilants : ś, sh, s,

Aspirate : h.

In case of Sanskrit words which are accepted in the English vocabulary like Pandit, Sanskrit and others, only popular spellings are adopted and no diacritical marks are used. All Sanskrit words are italicised in the Text except Proper names. Quotations in Sanskrit are, however, not italicised when they are enclosed in parentheses or given within inverted commas.

MODE OF CITATIONS

Citations are given as per List of Abbreviations annexed hitherto, and the Conspectus of the editions of the Texts under reference is given towards the end. In case of the cononical Texts the citations are by reference to Chapters and Verses. Where the verses are not numbered in the Text, references are cited by quoting pages and lines, and the abbreviation 'P.' or 'Pp.' precedes such references according as they refer to a particular page or pages. In case of such Texts as are not divided into Chapters like the N. L. R., citations refer only to the lines in the Text-book as denoted by the Editor in the margin.

In case of the commentaries, the citations refer to the pages of the original Text, and lines are to be counted from the commencement of the comment on the page or the verse below which the comment reads. In case of the Texts of dramas, whether their Edition is the European or the Indian, citations are given according to Prof. C. R. Lanman's Method for citing Sanskrit Dramas prefixed to Vol. XXI of the Harvard Oriental Series : that is, the first figure refers to the number of the Act, the second to the preceding verse, and the third refers to the line counted from the last preceding verse. This mode applies to references to the Prose passages only. To avoid extreme inconvenience in following this method in case of dramas where lines or verses or both are not numbered as in the Nirṇaya Sāgara Editions or the Editions of the Bombay Sanskrit Series, references only to the page and line have, however, been reluctantly made. Verses are indicated as usual by

reference to the Act to which they belong and to their ordinal number. The number of the Act, or the Chapter of books is also shown in ordinal figures and the number of verses or lines is given in cardinal figures.

Run-on references are signified by means of quoting the initial page, line or verse as the case may be. Comparative references are indicated by the abbreviation ‘Cf.’, and references to the preceding pages are made as “Vide P.— supra”, whereas to the following pages as “Vide P.— infra”. For this purpose even Appendices are folioed in continuation of the text. References to the Introduction are made as “ Vide Intrdn. : Page-, the page-number being given in small Roman figures. References to other European Texts are given in terms of only pages and lines. Sundry remarks and cross references open with the direction, “Obs.” which stands for “Observe”, or N. B. which abbreviates “Nota bene”. The abbreviation ‘et seq’ or seqq’. means, ‘and the following’; ‘q. i.’ and ‘r. i.’ respectively denote ‘quoted in’ and ‘recorded in’. Vv. and Ll. indicate ‘verses’ and ‘lines.’

ABBREVIATIONS & SYMBOLS

Abbreviations :

Name of the text referred to

A. B.

Abhinava Bhāratī on Nāṭya-śāstra.

A. D.

Artha-dyotanikā : Ṭīkā on Śākuntala by Rāghava Bhaṭṭa.

A. K.

Abhijñāna Kaumudī : Ṭīkā on Śākuntala by Haridāsa.

A. R.

Anargha Rāghava of Murāri.

A. Ś.

Artha-śāstra by Kauṭilya.

A. Śl.

Ashta-ślokī by Pārāśara Bhaṭṭa.

A. V. C.

Aucitya-vicāra-carcā of Kshemeṇdra.

Agni. P.

Agni Purāṇa.

Al. K.

Alainkāra-Kaumudi of S. N. Shāstrī.

Al. S.

Alainkāra-Sūtra of Ruyyaka.

Al. Sar.

Alainkāra-sarvasva of Mainkhuka.

Al. Ś.

Alainkāra Sekhara of Keśava.

Am. K.

Amara Kośa by Amara Sinha.

Ava.

Avaloka of Dhanika on Daśarūpaka.

Avi.

Avimāraka of Bhāsa.

Ā. K.

Ānanda-Kośa-prahasana.

B. G.

Bhagavad-gītā.

B. P.

Bhāva-prakāśa of Śāradātanaya.

B. R.

Bāla Rāmāyaṇa of Rājaśekhara.

B. T. S.

Bhāva-tala-sparśinī : Ṭīkā on Uttar-rāma-carita by Vīra-Rāghava.

Bh.

Bhāminī Vilāsa of Jagannātha.

Bh. Pr.

Bhoja Prabandha of Ballāla.

Br. P.

Brahma Purāṇa.

Br. S.

Brahma Sūtra of Bādarāyaṇa.

C. C.

Cāṇakya Cāturl : Ṭīkā on Mudrā-rākshasa by Haridāsa.

C. K.

Canda Kauśika of Kshemiśvara.

C. L.

Candrāloka by Pīyūshavarsha Jayadeva.

Ccha. K. Chandah Kaustubha.

Ch. N. Chando Nirukti.

Cha. Ś. Chandaś-sāstra by Piṅgala Nāga.

D. A. Dhvanyāloka by Ānandavardhana.

D. R. Dásárúpaka of Dhanañjaya.

D. V. Dūta-vākya of Bhāsa.

Dh. V. Dhanañjaya-vijaya of Kāñcanācārya.

G. P. Garuḍa-Purāṇa.

K. A. Kāvyānuśāsana by Ācārya Hemacandra.

K. Al. Kāvyalaṅkāra by Vāmana.

K. An. Kāvyānuśāsana by Vāgbhaṭa.

K. B. Karṇabhāra of Bhāsa.

K. D. Kāvya-dākini of Gaṅgānanda.

Kā. D. Kāvyādarśa of Ācārya Daṇḍin.

K. G. R. Kumāra Giri Rājīya : A Ṭīkā on Mālavikāgni-mitra by Kāṭayavema.

K. L. Kalpa-latā : A Ṭīkā on Vikramorvaśī by S. N. Shāstrī.

K. M. Kunda Mālā of Diṅnāga.

K. Mı. Kāvya-mīmāṁsā of Rājaśekhara.

K. P. [ Pr. ] Kāvya Prakāśa of Mammata Bhatṭa.

K. R. Kavi-rahasya.

Kā. L. Kāvyalaṅkāra of Bhāmaha.

Kā. P. Kāvyendu-Prakāśa.

Kar. Karpūra-mañjarī of Rājaśekhara.

Ku. Sam. Kumāra Sambhava of Kālidāsa.

Ku. Pr. ( a ) Kusuma Pratimā : A Ṭīkā on Sāhitya-darpaṇa by Haridāsa.

Kuv. Kuvalayānanda of Appaya Dīkshita.

L. M. Laṭaka-melaka of Śaṅkhadhara.

L. R. Locana-rocinī of Rūpa Gosvāmī on U. N. M.

M. [ Māl. ] Mālavikāgnimitra of Kālidāsa.

M. C. Mahāviracarita of Bhavabhūti.

M. M. Mandāra Maranda of Śrıkṛshṇa Kavi.

M. R. Mudrā Rākshasa of Viśākhadatta.

M. S. Manu Smṛti.

M. V. Madhyama Vyāyoga of Bhāsa.

Mā. Mā. Mālatī Mādhava of Bhavabhūti.

Mah. B. Mahābhārata.

Mṛc. Mṛcchakaṭika of Sūdraka.

N. Nāṭya-śāstra of Bharata. ( N. S. Edn. ).

N. D. Nāṭya-darpana of Rāmacandra & Gunacandra.

N. L. R. Nāṭaka-lakshaṇa-ratna-kośa of Sāgaranandin.

N. P. Nāṭya-pradīpa.

N. R. Nañja-rāja-yaśo-bhūshaṇa of Abhinava Kālidāsa.

N. S. Nāṭya-śāstra of Bharata ( Benaras Edition ).

N. V. Nāṭya-veda ( Kohala ).

Nā. Ś. Nāṭya-śāstra of Bharata ( G. O. S. Edition ).

Nāg. Nāgānanda of Śrīharsha.

P. P. Padma-Prābhṛtaka of Sūdraka.

P. R. Pratāpa-rudrīyam of Vidyānātha.

P. R. K. Pratāpa-rudra-kalyāṇa.

P. S. D. Practical Sanskrit Dictionary by Āpte.

Pr. C. Prabodha-Candrodaya of Kṛshṇa Miśra.

Pr. P. Prākṛta-Piṅgala.

Pr. Rā. Prasanna Rāghava of Jayadeva.

R. C. Rasa-Candrikā of Viśveśvara Pāṇḍeya.

R. G. Rasa-Gaṅgādhara of Paṇḍitārāja Jagannātha.

R. M. Rati-Manmatha of Jagannātha.

R. S. Rasārṇava-Sudhākara of Siṅga Bhūpāla.

Raghu. Raghuvaṃśa of Kālidāsa.

Rat. (na.) Ratnāvalī of Śrīharsha.

Ruc. Rucirā : A Ṭīkā on Sāhitya-darpaṇa by Mm. Śivadatta.

Ṛu. S. Ṛtu-saṃhāra of Kālidāsa.

S. B. Sukha Bodhinī : Ṭīkā on Śākuntala by Jīvānanda.

S. D. Sāhitya Darpana of Viśvanātha.

S. E. D. Sanskrit English Dictionary — Āpte.

S. K. Siddhānta Kaumudī of Bhaṭṭoji Dīkshita.

S. K. A. Sarasvatī-kaṇṭhābharaṇa of Bhojadeva.

S. K. H. Sanskrit-Kaṇṭha-hāra.

S. M. Sāhitya-Mīmāṃsā.of Maṅkhuka.

S. R. Saṅgīta-ratnākara.

S. S. Sāhitya-Sāra of Acyuta Rai.

S. Sid. Sūrya-siddhānta.

S. V. Svapna-Vāsavadattam of Bhāsa.

Śāk. Śākuntala ( Abhijñāna ) of Kālidāsa.

Śr. B. Śrutabodha of Kālidāsa.

Śr. Pr. Śṛṅgāra-Prakāśa of Bhojadeva.

Śr. T. Śṛṅgāra-tilaka of Rudraṭa.

Tait. Up. Taittarīya Upanishad.

T. V. Tāpasa-Vatsarāja of Anaṅga Harsha.

U. N. M. Ujjvala-Nīla-Maṇi of Rūpa Gosvāmin.

U. R. Uttara-rāma-caritam of Bhavabhūti.

V. B. Vāṇī-Bhūshaṇa of Damodara Miśra.

V. J. Vakrokti-Jīvita of Kuntaka.

V. R. Vṛtta-Ratnākara of Bhaṭṭa Kedara.

V. S. Virāja-Sarojinī of Mm. Haridāsa.

V. Ś. B. Viddha-Śāla Bhaṇjikā of Rājaśekhara.

Vāg. Vāgyilāśa compiled by Śrīkrshṇa.

Veṇī. Veṇī-Saṃhāra of Bhaṭṭa Nārāyaṇa.

Vij. Pr. Vijñā Priyā : A Ṭīkā on Sāhitya-darpaṇa.

Vikra. Vikramorvaśīyam of Kālidāsa.

Vim. Vimalā : A Ṭīkā on Sāhitya-darpaṇa by Jīvānanda.

Vv. Vivṛti : A Ṭīkā on Nāṭya-darpaṇa.

Y. P. Yajña-phala of Bhāsa.

Yāj. ( Y. S. ) Yājñavalkya Smṛti.

XXXII

Symbols :

A. Anushṭup list of Bharata's Nāṭya-lakshaṇas.

a. First foot of a verse.

B. Upajāti List of Bharata's Nāṭya-lakshaṇas.

b. Second foot of a verse.

c. Third foot of a verse.

d. Fourth foot of a verse.

S. Long syllable in a metre.

I. Short syllable in a metre.

— → o ← —

CONTENTS

LAWS AND PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

Preface Pp. vii-xxi

Acknowledgements Pp. xxiii-xxiv

Scheme of Transliteration p. xxv

Mode of Citations Pp. xxvi-xxvii

Abbreviations & Symbols Pp. xxviii-xxxii

Table of Contents Pp. xxxiii-xxxvii

Maṅgalācaraṇa p. lxv

BOOK I LAWS OF DRAMA

Chapter I Types of Drama Pp. 1-30

Definition of Nāṭya and its sub-divisions p. 1

Definition of Nāṭaka and other Rūpakas p. 3

Types of Upa-Rūpakas and their definitions p. 26

Chapter II The Preliminaries of Drama Pp. 31-62

Nāndi [ Invocation ] p. 31

Prastāvanā [ Induction ] p. 42

Chapter III The Dramatic Plot Pp. 63-202

Three-fold division of Vastu p. 63

Arthopakshepakas p. 64

Patākā-sthānakas p. 77

Kāryāvasthās & Artha-Prakṛtis p. 81

Sandhis [ Junctures ] p. 89

3

xxxiv

Co-ambulation Theory of Junctures p. 90

Dr̥ṣṭa-nāṣṭa Theory of Junctures p. 94

Sub-divisions of Mukha-sandhi p. 97

Sub-divisions of Pratimukha-sandhi p. 105

Sub-divisions of Garbha-sandhi p. 122

Sub-divisions of Vimarsa-sandhi p. 130

Sub-divisions of Nirvahana-sandhi p. 140

Sandhi-phala p. 149

Sandhyantararas P. 151

Nāṭyā-lakṣaṇas p. 159

Nāṭyālaṅkāras p. 182

Śilpakāṅgas p. 198

Chapter IV Hero and other characters Pp. 203-230

Netā p. 204

General characteristics of the hero p. 205

Anu-nāyaka p. 209

Prati-nāyaka p. 210

Assistants of the hero p. 210

Heroines : their types and sub-types p. 212

Nāyikālaṅkāras p. 221

Associates of the hero and the heroine p. 227

Chapter V Feelings and Sentiments Pp. 231-291

General Outline p. 231

Vyabhicāri-bhāvas p. 234

Sāttvika-bhāvas p. 245

Sthāyi-bhāvas p. 247

Vibhāvas and their types p. 257

Rasa-carvaṇā p. 258

Rasa-vyakti p. 259

Variety of Rasas p. 261

Inter-relation of Rasas p. 285

Psuedo-suggestions p. 288

Chapter VI Dramatic Conventions Pp. 292-318

Regarding

Structure p. 292

Procedure p. 301

Characters p. 304

Rasas p. 306

Names and Addresses p. 309

Use of Languages p. 313

Other Miscellaneous Conventions p. 315

Chapter VII Dramatic Artifices Pp. 319-405

I. Vṛttis ( Bearing ) and their classification p. 319

Kaiśikī Vṛtti and its sub-divisions p. 321

Sāttvatī Vṛtti and its sub-divisions p. 322

Ārabhaṭī Vṛtti and its sub-divisions p. 323

Bhāratī Vṛtti and its sub-divisions p. 325

Vṛttis ( Diction ) p. 326

II. Pravṛtti p. 328

Rules regarding provincial etiquette p. 328

Rules regarding the use of languages p. 334

III. Rīti and its types p. 337

IV. Guṇas p. 342

Number of Guṇas : p. 343

Śabda-guṇas p. 343

Artha-guṇas p. 346

Guṇas according to the New School p. 350

xxxvi

V. Doshas :

Number of Doshas according to Bharata

p. 352

Doshas according to the New School

p. 353

Doshas converting into merits

p. 356

VI. Metrics :

p. 363

(a) General outline

p. 365-388

(b) Classificztion of Metres :

Jāti

p. 365

Vṛttas

p. 367

Classification of Sama-vṛttas

pp. 367-369

Types in the Sama-vṛttas

p. 370

Types in the Ardha-sama Vṛttas

p. 371

Types in the Vishama Vṛttas

p. 383

(c) Rules regarding the suitability of classes

p. 385

(d) Rules regarding the suitability of types

p. 386

VII. Ṇṛtta, Gati and Gīta :

p. 387

(a) Ṇṛtta and its types

pp. 389-398

(b) Lāsyāṅgas

p. 389

(c) Gaits and Postures

p. 390

(d) Gīta : Dhruvās

p. 394

VIII. Recognised Alaṅkāras

p. 395

IX. Use of Flora and Fauna

pp. 398-401

X. Miscellaneous Artifices :

p. 402

Use of wit, humour, satire, and imagination

p. 404

XI. Pāka of Drama and its types

p. 405

xxxvii

Appendices :

A. Charts I-XXXVI pp. 413-454

B. A Thesaurus of Dramaturgical Terms pp. 457-490

C. A Glossary of Technical Terms pp. 493 502

D. A Brief Bibliography pp. 505-506

ndices :

A. A Conspectus of Editions of Books under reference p. 509

B. Index to Quotations p. 518

C. Index to Works & Authors p. 522

D. Subject-Index p. 529

Corrigenda : p. 553

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

A

STUDY

OF

DRAMATIC CANONS

"NA TAT-JÑĀNAM NA TAC-CHILPAM,

NA SĀ VIDYĀ NA SĀ KALĀ !

NA TAT KARMA NA TAD-YOGO,

NĀTAKE YANNA DRŚYATE !!"

— Bharata

śrīḥ

Nāṭya-sāstramidam Rāmyam,

Bharga-vaktram Jaṭādhara //

Akṣha-sūtram Triśūlañca

Bibhrānańca Trilocanam //

— Nṛsimha-prasāda.

śrīḥ

BHĀSHYAKĀRO VIJAYATETARĀM

Mangalācaranam

1

[ Śārdūla-vikrīḍitam ]

Śyāmaṁ sundara-vigrahaṁ tribhuvanādhiśaṁ mudā nartayaṁ,

Lilāyā lalitālayam tata-layaṁ tārunya-helā-yutam /

Mat-svānte rasa-bhāvuke nava-rasaṁ sāraṁ girāṁ saṅgirad,

Rādhāyāḥ pranayollasad-vilasitaṁ lāsyaṁ vidadhyāt sadā //

2

[ Prthvī ]

Sadā yadakhilaṁ manoratha-cayaṁ vinā'pyarthanāṁ

Dhinoti bhuvi maṅgalam vitanute ca tat-sevituh /

Prabhāta-bhava-bhūti-bhā-vibhava-bhāva-bhāvya-dyuti

Praṇaumi vibudha-drumaṁ Guru-padaravinda-dvayam //

THE LAWS AND PRACTICE

OF

SANSKRIT DRAMA

CHAPTER I

TYPES OF DRAMA

KĀVYA is the generic name comprising all forms of poetical compositions in Sanskrit. Two species of Kāvya are recognised: audio-visual (drśya) and aural (śravya). Of the audio-visual again there are two classes : drama or Nāṭya, and representation by gestures with a musical background or Nṛtta.

Drama is the reproduction of certain situations so as to induce in the spectators a sense of identification with the hero and other characters by the way the actors render them.1 Composing a drama is an art of presenting a story in the form of a dialogue, and ‘the elements going to the make-up of a play,’ says Aristotle, ‘consist of the fable, manners, diction, sentiments, decoration and music’.2 Thus drama is a literary piece written for representation on the stage, say, it is largely for a theatre ; and the theatre is a place where people meet to hear the dialogue and to see the action of the play or representation by actors.

Bharata defines representation as that art of an actor by means of which he re-creates the sentiments (rasa) inherent in the original situation forming the theme of the drama under enactment.3 Such sentiments are so re-created that a spectator

1. R. S.—87; D. R. I—7.

2. Poetics—II—iii.

3. N. I—104 ff., M. M. VII—2;

2

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

of taste could only resonate with them. Representation is possible in four ways : physical, verbal, decorative and emotional.1 Physical representation consists of various move-

ments of limbs, hands and feet, breast and waist, head and sides; and of the more delicate expressions conveyed through

eyes, brows and cheeks, and the lip and the chin.2 'This physical action', observes Allardyce Nicoll, 'is absolutely demanded on the stage, and it will be found that those plays

which most frankly embrace the physical action are likely to be most popular'.3 Verbal representation is an imitation of the original speech giving rise to identical feelings in the minds

of spectators.4 In fact, it consists in reproducing the same language in its intonation, pronunciation and pause with such fidelity to the original that the visitors get charged with the

same feelings as the characters themselves. Imitation of the background, appropriate colours and costumes, and all other outward equipment makes decorative representation.5 Emotional

representation is that action of an actor in which he poses the same bearing of mind and carries the same import as that of a character in a manner so realistic that it may appear

natural to him, nay, his own.6

The Nāṭya is also technically known as rūpa or a show because it is a scene. Accordingly it is called a rūpaka, for it contains the assumption of parts by characters.7 There are

ten kinds of rūpakas which are known as nāṭaka, prakaraṇa, bhāṇa, vyāyoga, samavakāra, dima, ihāmṛga, utsṛṣṭika, vīthī and prahasana. Of these types nāṭaka and prakaraṇa are popular

among playwrights. A special reference to their constitution is, therefore, necessary.

1. N. VIII—9; S. D. VI—2 : āṅgika, vācika, āhārya, and sāttvika.

2. N. VIII—12, 13.

3. Theory of Drama — p. 72 ll. 26—29.

4. N. S. XV—2; N. D. I—2.

5. N. S. XIII—2ff, N. D. I—2.

6. N. S. XXV—2; N. D. I—2.

7. D. R. I—7.

[ CHAP. I ]

TYPES OF DRAMA

3

NĀṬAKA

Nāṭaka is the depiction of some event or events in the life of a distinguished prince of saintly character (prakhyāta rājarshi).1 Distinction implies that a nāṭaka should deal only with the past and cannot deal with any present or future event. Future is ruled out because it is not known. For dramatic effect the poet has to select certain events and reject others, modify them or even supplement them from his imagination. The expediency of a political or any other nature may stand in the way of selecting what he requires, for any modification of well-known events or supplying details which are not known to have existed will deprive the depiction of its realistic value. Thus the depiction of the present will restrict the freedom of poetic imagination, which is the very essence of all work of art.

The person chosen as the hero of a nāṭaka may be deemed distinguished if he is well-known in history as Udayana of Kauśambī, or through traditional stories like king Agnimitra of the Śuṅga dynasty, or through the epics, the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahabharata or through Śrīmad-Bhāgavata and other Purāṇas. The familiarity of the audience with the personality of the hero facilitates grasping of the outline of the play without any aid like the one of the printed synopsis provided in modern performances.

According to the Abhinava Bhāratī the distinction may be a quality either of the hero or of the action or of the place of action2. Guṇacandra seems to regard these three aspects as interdependent ones, for according to him the distinction of Kauśambī is because of its association with Udayana, the distinction of Udayana is because of his acquisition of Vasavadattā, and the distinction of this action of his is because of its occurrence in Kauśambī.3 The view of Allardyce Nicoll appears to agree with that of the Abhinava Bharati, for according to him, 'the chief interest of Hamlet is

1. N. S. XVIII—10; S. D. VI—7, 9; R. S. III—130; B. P. p. 222.

2. N. S. ( G. O. S. ) Vol. II—p. 411.

3. N. D. p. 27.

4

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

derived from the figure, the character and the words of the

hero ; in a Mid-summer Night's Dream it is the atmosphere of

the play which makes the comedy memorable......the delicate

aroma of spring-flowering poetry, the fairy world and all its

charms.1 Bharata admits this threefold distinction but adds

one more qualification. According to him the hero of a nāṭaka

should be gallant or udātta, which implies that he should be

of high birth, noble in temperament, sublime in thoughts and

chivalrous in his actions. Above all, balance in every respect

is a prime requisite of a hero's character.2

Gallantry is thus a necessary quality but not the only

quality in a hero who is already stated to be a prince. There

is, however, a divergent view taken by a school of thought

represented by Viśvanātha, Śiṅga Bhūpāla and Śrī Kṛshṇa Kavi,

the author of the Mandāra Maranda who believe that a

Nāṭaka can have only a Dhīrodātta hero, and may not have

a hero of any other class, namely, the lalita, uddhata or

śānta.3 Such a limitation imposed by this school is untenable,

for this view contradicts an explicit statement of Bharata

that the dominant quality of a hero of a nāṭaka may

be either udātta, uddhata, lalita or śānta. Nor is this view

supported by the practice of the playwrights. For instance,

the nāṭakas like Svapna-Vāsavadattam, Ratnāvalī, Tāpasa-

vatsarāja, Pratijñā-yaugandharāyaṇa have dhīra-lalita heroes,

and Veni-saṃhāra has a dhīrodhatta hero in Bhīmasena.

It appears that the fallacy of this school lies in taking the

general term 'udātta' used by Bharata to show that gallantry

is among the necessary qualities of a hero in the special

sense of 'dhīrodātta' which denotes gallantry as the dominant

quality in a hero.

On the other hand, there is a second school of thought

which appears to imply that the dominant quality of a hero

of a nāṭaka can only be gaiety. It means that the hero could

belong only to the dhīra-lalita class. Belonging to this school,

1. Theory of Drama p. 72. ll. 16–20.

2. N. S. XVIII—1.

3. S. D. VI—9, R. S. III—130, M. M. p. 68, line 25.

[ CHAP. I ]

TYPES OF DRAMA

5

Sāgaranandin enjoins that dhiroddhata hero should represnt a god or a superhuman being, a dhīra-lalita is a king, a dhīrodātta is a minister or a commander of forces, and dhīraśānta are Brāhmanas and Vaiśyas.1 Whereas the kings alone are desired to be the herocs of a nātaka, it :an, there-fore, have only dhīralalita heroes. This view is thus at variance with Viśvanātha's view which holds that a hero of a nātaka should be dhīrodātta only. Sāgaranandin's view is equally untenable; for actually among the dramas, plays like the Uttara-rāma-caritam, the Adbhuta-darpanam, the Mālavikā-gnimitram, the Avimārakam, the Bāla-rāmāyanam2 and many others have dhīrodātta heroes. It appears that this view is based upon an improper construction of Bharata's oft-quoted instructions, namely, the gods should be dhīrodhatta, the kings should be dhīra-lalita and so on.3 This is a general instruction which applies to all characters. The former instruction of Bharata is a special one inasmuch as it refers to the heroes only. According to the well-known maxim of interpretation ( Mīmānsā ), if a general principle contradicts a special one, it is the latter that prevails. Evi-dently, Sāgaranandin has overlooked this and preferred the general one to the special.

Ācārya Hemacandra too failed in appreciating the obvious fallacy. He attempts in his Vivṛti4 to explain away the apparent inconsistency between the general and the special dire-tions of Bharata. He believes that the terms, dhīrodātta and others in the aforesaid aphorism of Bharata refer to the different situations of the same hero wherein he shows himself as vchement, gay, quiet or gallant. Hemacandra while doing so leans upon Dhanika's similar statement in his Avaloka.5

1. N. L. R. p. 2.

2. 'Dhīrodattam jayati caritam Rāma-nīmnaśca Vishnoh.' B. R. 1–6.

3. Deva dhīrodhattā jñ eyāh, syur dhīra-lalita nṛpāḥ //

Senāpatiramatyśca, dhīrodattau prakīrtitau //

Dhīra-praśāntiśca vijñeyā Brāhmanā Vaiśyastathā' // N. S. XXIV–4

4. K. A. p. 370, line 5.

5. D. R. II–5, 5.

6 LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

Both of them have confused mood with character. For, Bharata has two distinct chapters : one on Vṛttis, and the other on the Prakṛtis. Mood ( Vṛtti ) is a transitory state of mind varying with situations, whereas the latter deal with the dominant qualities in the character of a hero. It is, therefore, erroneous to confuse mental attitudes with the character ( prakṛti ) of the hero which has pre-eminently to be of uniform nature. Obviously, the interpretation of Hemacandra will make the hero of a nāṭaka different in type varying with different states of his mind. Such a view that there may be a hero of inconstant disposition is hardly acceptable to the critics. So far as different modes of behaviour of the hero in different circumstances are concerned, they pertain to the category of Vṛttis or kinds of bearing and could not be confused with his character where Bharata's view is quite clear.

The direction that gods and superhuman beings should be dhīrodhatta and so on, therefore, appears rather to imply the different types of characters in a drama. It could mean that the character of the superhuman beings is in general dhīrodhatta, for as non-mundane characters they are possessed of greater powers which make them presumptive and overbearing in their behaviour. Generally, the kings are comparatively possessed of divers limitations and given to pleasure-seeking habits, their conduct could possibly be more erotic. As the duties of the commanders of forces and high executive officials as ministers call upon them to have qualities of head and heart, their character could ill afford to be anything but of dhīrodātta nature. Brāhmaṇas who are mainly given to devotion to Self, and Vaiśyas who live on commerce, agriculture and cattle-breeding are bound to be mindful of their own occupations, and so they would present only the praśānta character.

The aphorism of Bharata, therefore, seems to describe the vocational temperaments of the different characters, and all that it can claim to mean is to direct the observance of this convention when all or more than one type of such characters happen to form the dramatis personæ of a play : if a drama

has, for instance, a superhuman character, a king, a general

or a minister and a Brāhmaṇa too, then comparatively the

superhuman character ought to be delineated as dhīroddhatta

i.e. more vain, self-esteemed and wrathful, and a king as a lover

of art, given to easy mode of life and of soft nature. If a

general or a minister is to be characterised, he should appear

as a gallant personality with a nerve for action and a brain for

his schemes. A Brāhmaṇa should be presented as a citadel of

quietude and a fountain of benevolence and human kindness.

The instruction of Bharata thus deals with the art of delinea-

tion of different characters in a drama rather than referring

to the hero only as some authors like Sāgaranandin seem to

have understood.1 It follows that the hero of a nāṭaka being

possessed of sublimity of temperament ( udāttaṭā ) may belong

to any four types admitted by Bharata in general terms.2

Bharata does not intend that the hero of a nāṭaka should be

a dhīroddhata or dhīra-lalita only, for there is no express

injunction throughout the Nāṭya-śāstra that the other three

types of heroes are meant for rūpakas other than those of

the Nāṭaka class. Correctly following this view Guṇacandra

makes a modification and says that the kings are of fourfold

nature.3

Then again, the hero of a nāṭaka should be a saintly

prince ( rājarṣi ). It implies that he should be possessed of

balance of mind, devoutness of character and other sage-like

1. The dramatist, however, is free to make a departure from this

convention if it is necessary to do so in the interest of the

dramatic cause, as has Bhavabhūti done in his Paraśurāma

of Mahāvīra-caritam in displaying him as Dhīroddhata, or Kālidāsa in

case of his Durvāsas to introduce the important pivot of

malediction in the Śakuntala. Such a departure is permitted

by Bharata who directs that canons pertaining to language,

demeanour and costumes of characters may be overruled if

it tends to foster the cause of the drama : ‘Bhāshā-prakṛti-

veshadeh kāryataḥ ko3pi laṅghanam.’ N. S. XVIII.

2. N. S. XXIV—2.

3. N. D. V—7.

8

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

virtues worthy of imitation. Approached from the angle of heredity, the term 'Rājā' implies that the hero may be any prince or a kshatriya, whether or not he is a crowned prince and does exercise kingly powers. Most of the plays of Bhāsa and other nāṭakas where the Pāṇḍava princes figure as principal characters are such nāṭakas where heroes are not rulers of the state. It is also borne out by such plays as the Nāgānandam and the Mahāvīra-caritam. Then again, approached from the angle of function, 'Rājā' implies that the hero may be any person exercising ruling powers and is in charge the adminis-tration of the state. Here too, it appears that the term has a vocational sense and it in:lludes all such personages with insignia regis like the ministers who act as regents during the infancy of the kings or the nascent state of their imperialism or during their absence from the state. The view that such a magnanimous person could be a hero of a nāṭaka finds favour with Bharata's dictum cited by Sāgaranandin permitting inclusion of episodes from the lives of gods, men and kings who are indeed great in this world.1 In this list priority of mention secms to be in terms of lesser desirability, for the last menioned ones, viz., the kings are found to be more desirable persons as heroes of nāṭakas. Bharata himself, later on, specificaly mentions that a scion of a kingly class is a fit person whose account may be used for the plot of a nāṭaka. This too is one of the implications of the term 'rājarshi' which suggests that the hero of such plays should be a mortal being. The reason for this preference is both obvious and simple : it is necessary if a nāṭaka is to have its full value as 'criticism of life' and if it purposes to chasten people in their ethical relations. For all poetic compositions have for their aim two things, viz., to teach and to delight.2 To teach that one ought to behave like Rāma and not like Rāvaṇa in this life is one of the prime objects of the Indian Muse. This object can be achieved only by delineating similar mortal

1. N. L. R. 11.—29, 30.

2. 'Sadyah-para-nirvartaye and kintā-sammilita-tayopadeśayuje'—K. P. I—ii; Cf. Aristotle, On Mimesis.

[ CHAP. I ]

TYPES OF DRAMA

characters. If the immortal or the divine character is the hero of a nāṭaka then any marvel could be expected out of him and his conduct could hardly be deemed imitable by human beings. On the other hand, if such a divine hero has mortal limitations and is exposed to feelings of sorrow or terror, and made an object of disgust and laughter, and is subjected to hunger, death and other human frailties then such a delineation is sure to go against the pandemic belief of superiority of gods and leave no chance for any poetic rasa to be relished. For these reasons it would not suit the ends of dramatic representation to admit a divine hero ( divya nāyaka ) to a nāṭaka. The introduction of the superhuman in a drama is, of course, very conducive to its make-up, and is invariably resorted to by the master playwrights. The mortal hero may have the best support of the divine beings. Bharata himself permits that the hero of a drama may enjoy some superhuman patronage.1 For such purposes a dramatist may use a divine character as the leader of the Episode ( patakā ) or the Incident ( prakarī ) as Gaurī is, in the Nāgānanda. The superhuman character may also lend a very material but casual support to the hero in times of distress as does a Vidyādhara in the Avimāraka. Sometimes the hero himself may have the best access to the divine luminaries like Kālidāsa's Dushyanta and Purūraṽas who happen to be the military assistants to the Lord of gods. In such manner and the like, the principal character may be aided and patronised by deities and other celestial powers, but to use them as the hero of a nāṭaka is not deemed, on the whole, suitable. There is, however, a school of thought probably based on a general dictum of the Nāṭya-śāstra which enunciates that the hero of a nāṭaka could be either divine or mortal.2

Viśvanātha goes a step further and says that the hero of a nāṭaka may be a mortal, a divine or a pseudo-divine person.3 He points out the mortal one in Dushyanta, who can, of course, be identified as the hero of the Śākuntala. He illustrates the divine by reference to Śrīkrshṇa and others, and the

1. 'Divyāśrayopetam'—N. XVII—10.

2. M. M. VII. ( p. 68—11. 23—24 )

3. 'Divo'tha divyā-divyo vā gunavān nāyako mataḥ'—S. D. VI, 360.

10

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

pseudo-divine by referring to Rāmacandra and others. Here, in case of the illustrations of the last two classes it does not, by a mere mention of Śrīkṛshṇa and Rāmacandra, become clear as to which of the existing dramas these heroes he means to associate with. It does not, therefore, become possible to ascertain the nature of these specimens indicated by him. In fact, there are a dozen dramas with which Rāmacandra is assosciated, and so are several ones wherein Śrīkṛshṇa figures. Obviously, in none of these dramas the immortal character of Rāma and Kṛshṇa is brought to be borne on the minds of the readers. On the other hand, Kṛshṇa is as much born of mortal womb as is Rāma and the one has done the annihilation of demons as the other. Thus the illustrations of Viśvanātha do not really establish his classification. On the contrary, these dramas make it abundantly clear that so far as Rāma and Kṛshṇa are concerned there is no such distinction as Viśvanātha wants to be accepted. For, in these dramas, Rāma and Kṛshṇa have been wholly represented as behaving like men for all intents and purposes. For example, Śrīkṛshṇa in being the charioteer of Arjuna and in accepting to be a delegate to the camp of Duryodhana1 has assumed as much of a human rôle as is probably meant in case of Rāmacandra acting in obedience to his father's will or in deserting his ideal consort simply for satisfying the public opinion. Moreover, for some reason of divinity in higher or less degree, no distinction can possibly be drawn among Kṛshṇa, Rāma and Dushyanta2, inasmuch as they all descended to the world, lived like human beings, led the path of righteousness to the peoples and ended their mortal career in usual course with variation only in degrees.

What may, as a matter of fact, be meant by the divine characters as the dramatis personæ could not be incarnations of gods in human form who are, for the time being, reduced in the public eye to the mortal scale for all practical purposes

1. Vide Bhāsa's Dūta-vākyam.

2. Observe texts like 'Nā-vishṇuḥ pṛthivī-patih'; 'ashṭānām lokapālānām mātrabhiḥ nirmito nṛpaḥ'; & 'yad yad vibhūtimatsattvam', etc. —B. G. X—41

[ CHAP. I ]

TYPES OF DRAMA

11

of life. But the divine characters, in fact, could only mean actual gods qua gods as Vishṇu, Brahmā, Śiva, Indra, Varuṇa, Kāmadeva and others appearing as such as the heroes.

Then again if Viśvanātha means that the hero of a nāṭaka may be divine and other characters be mortal ones in the same play then the show will, according to his own definition, fall under the category of a trotaka1 and cease to be a nāṭaka.

In fine, for reasons given above the hero of a nāṭaka should be a mortal being. This is what Bharata holds and is also in consononce with the aims and objects of the mimetic art. This however, is, to my mind, possible that there may be a divine hero with all other characters also belonging to divinity with a complete celestial background, as is evidenced by Jagannātha's Rati-Manmatha or the Pārvatī-pariṇaya of Vāmana Bhaṭṭa Bāṇa.

Now, after the discussion in regard to the plot, the place and the nature of the hero, the motive and the sentiments prevailing in a nāṭaka deserve a succinct treatment here. Whereas the sentiments are primarily induced by the motives of action, the latter may be taken up first.

Bharata directs that a nāṭaka should end with the achievement of such objects as pertaining to piety ( dharma ), sensual enjoyments ( kāma ) or wealth ( artha ) by the hero.2 The idea is that the ambition of the hero should cluster round the acquisition of any one or more of the first three principal objects of human existence, viz., purushārtha.3 The fourth object of life, namely, liberation is included in the generi: term of piety or righteousness. The fourth object is, however, separately mentioned by the authors of the Nāṭya-darpaṇa, the Mandāra-Maranda and the Rasārṇava-sudhākara.4 Nevertheless Bharata feels inclined to hold that the res-business of a nāṭaka should concentrate upon those activities of the hero as

1. Vide Uparipaka ( iv ) infra.

2. Tri-varga-prāptih.

3. N. XVIII—11

4. N. D-V; M. M. p. 68 last line; R. S. III.

12

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

inure to his benefit in terms of prosperity and well-being.1 The term, 'various kinds of prosperity' ( nānā-vibhūti ) means that the action in a drama ( nāṭaka ) should be related to the material weal and happiness of the hero. It is only on the basis of this text of Bharata that the later writers on dramaturgy have paraphrased the dramatic motif as 'one bringing the hero the best fruit of life in dharma, kāma or artha.2

Viśvanātha adopts Bharata's text which qualifies the hero as one possessed of several vibhūtis,3 but offers a curious connotation to the expression by explaining the same as 'assisted by great powers ( mahā-sahāyam )'. Such an explanation is repugnant to his own statement, where he admits even a divine character as a hero to a nāṭaka. If such divinities too were to be aided by great powers it will be something not in keeping with the sense of their dignity, and hence unsuited for dramatic representation on grounds of inaptness ( anaucitya ). Moreover, when Bharata's text has already expressed this idea of assistance under a separate clause, 'enjoining the patronage of the divine',4 it will amount to tautology in his aphorism if the adjunct 'possessed of several vibhūtis' is accepted to mean and include piety ( dharma ), wealth ( artha ), pleasure ( kāma ) and absolution ( mokṣa ) out of which wealth and pleasure as the normal pursuits of every individual should constitute the main motif of a dramatic action. With a view to emphasising over this point Bharata particularly adds that a nāṭaka should contain elements of prosperity ( ṛddhi ) and enjoyment ( vilāsa ).5 Prosperity, according to the Abhinava Bhāratī,6 means the acquisition of kingdom and conquest over foes, and places reliance on the opinion of Cāṇakya who recognises invasion, peace and alliance as the merits ( guṇas ) of

1. 'Nānā-vibhūtibhṛ-yutam'--N. XVIII--11.

2. N. D. verse V-b.

3. 'Yuktam nānā-vibhūtiḥ'--S. D. VI--304. Vibhūti is prosperity according to Bharata whereas assistance according to S. D.

4. 'Divyāśrayopetam'--N. S. XVIII--10.

5. N. S. XVIII--11.

6. A. B. on N. S. Vol. II p. 412 lines 18 et seq. .

[ CHAP. I ]

TYPES OF DRAMA

13

administration.1 Pleasure ( vilāsa ) is interpreted to mean all varieties of sensual enjoyment and pursuit of fine arts.

The determination of the object of the hero's pursuit now leads to the next point, namely, the sentiment or the rasa, which is the most important constituent of a nāṭaka. With artha and kāma as the main motif, the ruling sentiment in a nāṭaka could be either heroic ( vīra ) or erotic ( śṛṅgāra ). Of course, there would be other subordinate sentiments as well, which are to be manifested occasionally. Bharata states that a nāṭaka is full of activities and displays divers sentiments and feelings.'2 This occasional introduction of other sentiments provides ample scope for the display of different modes of behaviour ( vṛttis ), which are really feeders like mothers to the entire art.'3 Relying on this statement later writers have mentioned that one sentiment alone, whether the erotic or the heroic, can remain ruling whereas others would remain objects of casual manifestation.4 The Mandāra Maranda while mentioning the erotic alone as capable of being the chief sentiment in a nāṭaka seems to misrepresent the instruction of Bharata. 'A nāṭaka should have for its main sentiment', says the Mandāra Maranda, 'the erotic ( śṛṅgāra ) actuated by motives of dharma, kāma, and artha.5 Thus he expressly enjoins that the erotic alone could be the ruling sentiment in a play of the Nāṭaka pattern. The juxtaposition of the words dharma and artha cannot be supposed to bring in the heroic sentiment; for if such an expression were to imply the heroic sentiment, the word kāma sandwiched between the other two terms could have well nigh suggested the erotic sentiment as well. His text, at the most could, therefore, bear out the sense that the erotic play should also have elements touching piety and wealth introduced here and there in the plot. For this reason writers like Sāradātanaya make a general statement, 'a full drama is the one which contains divers sentiments and embellishments'.6

1. 'Sandhīṛ n1 vigraho yānam duaidhamaṛyah—A. S.

2. 'Nānā-rasa-bhāva-sambhṛtam bahudhnī'—N.S. XVIII—12.

3. N. S. XVIII—4. For details vide Chap. VII—Sec. I infra.

4. S. D. VI--307; R. S. III--131.

5. 'Dharma-kāmārtha-śṛṅgāra-pradhāna-rasa-saṃśrayam'—M. M. VII.

6. 'Rasālaṃkāra-sahitam nāṭakam pūrṇa-lakṣaṇam'—B. P. VIII--12.

14

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

The other requirement of a nāṭāka is that the argument of

the play should be divided in proper measure by acts, and

should have different stages of action, connecting links, and

other characteristics which will be detailed later on under the

heading of conventions.1

In sum, the above-mentioned are the requirements which

differentiate a nāṭaka2 from other specimens of literature

(kāvya) like Kathās and Campūs which may also deal with

a king's account in relation to his achievements in life

(purushārtha). It may be added that a nāṭaka should also

contain representation of both pleasure and pain : for the

human life is an inseparable admixture of the twain, the

weal and the woe.3

In his Bhāvaprakāśa Śāradātanaya adds that Subandhu

divides Nāṭaka into five classes and has different constitution

for them.4 In Subandhu's opinion Nāṭaka is of five species :

pūrṇa, praśānta, bhāsvara, lalita and samagra. Pūrṇa is that

type of drama which has got all the five junctures (sandhis)

marking the different stages of action.5 The second variety of

Nāṭaka, according to him, should also have five junctures,

which are peculiar to itself and noted as Nyāsa, Samudbheda,

Bijokti, Bija-darśana and Anuddista-samhāra. The Svapna-

vāsavadattam is cited as the specimen. Here the erotic is, no

doubt, the salient sentiment, but the state of despair, having ruled

long over the action, seems to have led Subandhu to place this

comedy under the Praśānta type in his novel scheme of classi-

fication of dramas. The third type is the Bhāsvara having still

different set of jun.tures — five in all, but named as Mālā,

Nāyaka-siddhi, Glāni, Parikshaya and Mātrāvaśishta-samhāra.

1. Vide Chap. VII infra.

2. The word Nāṭaka is derived from the root √Nāṭ—nāṭayati sabhyānām

hrdayamiti nāṭakam. Abhinava Gupta, however, derives the term

from the root √Nata', to bend. But grammatically, since the

root does not belong to the ghaṭādi class, the lengthening of the

initial vowel is not possible according to Pāṇini.

3. 'Sukha-duḥkhopapatti-krtam bhavati hi tan nāṭakam nāma'—N. S. XVIII—12,

also XIX—121.

4. B. P. p. 238–241.

5. Vide Chap. III infra.

[ CHAP. I ]

TYPES OF DRAMA

15

The Bāla-rāmāyaṇam of Rājaśekhara is said to present the

sample of this type. The fourth variety is Lalita or graceful play

represented by Kālidāsa's Vikramorvaśīyam. The Lalita too,

has five junctures called Vilāsa, Vipralambha, Viśodhana and

Upa-samihāra. The last one in the scheme of Subandhu is the

Samagra type of Nāṭaka which represents a full-fledged model

of the dramatic art, and possesses all the characteristics of a

dramatic composition. The Mahā-nāṭakam of Hanumat Kavi is

cited as its illustration. It may be observed here that Subandhu

has indeed chosen to give different names to the junctures

constituting the plot of the different categories of the nāṭakas,

yet he agrees to the division of the dramatic plot into five stages

of development of action which forms a common feature all

throughout.

II

PRAKARANA

PRAKARANA is that class of shows ( rūpakas ) in which

a poet plans the entire plot of the play and creates out of his

imagination its hero and other characters as well.1 The origi-

nality of the plot is the main feature of a prakarana which

alone distinguishes it from the Nāṭaka group. In respect of

stages and junctures of action, the different modes of behaviour

and other general conventions, a prakarana agrees with the

nāṭaka. It has, however, certain peculiarities of its own, which

are noted below2 :

The Prakarana deals with an account of a brāhmaṇa, a

minister or a vaiśya. It, therefore, means that the hero of this

type of shows would generally be of dhīra-śānta or of dhirodātta

character. Moreover, certain limitations are to be observed in

the matter of its composition as well; to wit, the hero of the

1. The title, 'Prakarana' is derived as Prakarshena kriyate kalpyate vastu

yasmin iti prakaraṇam. This invention of the plot could be entire or

partial.

2. N. XVIII, 98--100; D. R. III, 44--46; S. D. VI, 224--226; M. M.

p. 70 ll. 20--22; N. D. II, 66--69; B. P. p. 241--17; K. A.

p. 381; N. L. R. 2776.

16

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

play is always to be depicted with human reservations as an ordinary individual, and a middling character as opposed to the semi-divine one like Dushyanta or Purūravas. His paraphernalia as well as his sources of enjoyment should be comparatively modest. No divine character is to be introduced in a prakarana even for a remote assistance. But low characters like slaves and rakes, dancing girls and their paramours, gamblers and gamesters could be used with advantage. The interludes should be invariably conducted on the stage by low characters. The heroine may be a married lady, i.e. the wife of the hero, or may be a courtesan. It is only in rare cases that both the wife and the courtesan are introduced as heroines, as is done in the Mr̨chakatika. Such a blending of two types of heroines in a prakarana finds less favour with Bharata.1

The Kāvyenduprakāśa, on the other hand, classifies prakarana in three types : Simple ( śuddha ), Artificial ( dhūrta ) and Mixed ( miśra ) according to the type of the heroine it contains. When the heroine of the play is a wedded lady it is of the śuddha type. With a courtesan as the heroine it belongs to the dhūrta class; and with two heroines, the wife and a courtesan, it is of the miśra type.2 The Mandāra Maranda adds that in case of the last type of prakaranas, the courtesan should speak in Prākṛt, whereas the married consort would speak in Sanskrit.3 Viśvanātha holds that the motive of the dramatic action should be, no doubt, dharma, artha and kāma, but that should be essentially decadent ( sāpāya ).4 According to Mm. Śivadatta Dādhica the term ‘sāpāya’ means ‘the wealth of the hero should at the end be exhausted’.5 The additional limitation imposed by Viśvanātha has no support in the Nātya-

1. N. XVIII-103.

‘Śuddham dhūrtam miśramīti bhedāstvat trividham punah,

Kulastri-nāyikam śuddham, gaṇikā-nāyikam param,

Pradhānyamubhayor yatra miśram prakaraṇam viduh’//

—Kā. P. r. i. S. D., p. 354 foot-note -3.

3. M. M. p. 70, last line.

4. S. D. Vi. 225.

5. Rucirā on S. D. p. 508, line 15.

[ CHAP. I ]

TYPES OF DRAMA

17

śastra ; and in the practice of the playwrights too, what Viśvanātha holds could be true only in case of the Mṛcchakatika, but does not find application to the Mālatī-Mādhava, nor to the Mallikā-Māruta. Viśvanātha continues to say that in a prakaraṇa the hero should be only of dhīra-praśānta type, and the erotic alone could be the ruling sentiment.

III

BHĀNA

BHĀNA or a monologue is a one-act play wherein the hero speaks for himself as well as for other characters who are imaginary and supposed to speak in absentia. It is feigned as though the speech of the addressee is proceeding from void In fact, while staging a bhāṇa it is only one actor that appears on the stage who addresses to a feigned listener and, for begetting his reply introduces the expression, ‘what, do you say’ ( kim bravīshi ) and himself speaks out the statement of the addressee. That is why it is called a bhāṇa or a monologue.1 The plot of the play is purely a creation of the poet’s own imagination. The body of the play measures to a single act only, and as such, it has only the Opening ( Mukha ) and the Conclusion ( Nirvahana ). To a large extent it contains a description of knavish exploits by a senior parasite engaging a host of other accomplices with him. Rakes and parasites, whores and strumpets, match-makers and procurers form the dramatis personæ with gaiety and mirth as their chief occupation. In their pursuits mainly valour and blissfulness ( saubhāgya ) are depicted. The hero is a gay character ( lalita ) whose mode of behaviour is ruled over by the Bharati Vṛtti. The heroic and the erotic are the main sentiments in a monologue, and as subsidiaries, the furious ( raudra ) and the comic ( hāsya ) could be conveniently introduced. One of the important characteristics of the monologue is the use of all the ten

1. The etymology of the term is, ‘bhanyate gaganoktyā nayakenāva-paravākyatayā iti bhāṇaḥ.’ For defn. vide N. XVIII-160; D. R. III-49; S. D. VI--227; P. P. p.*244, 19; M. M. p. 71; N. L. R. 2843; N. D. vv, 81, 92.

2

18

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

subdivisions of the Gentle dance (lāsyāngas)1. By virtue of predominence of the Bhāratī Vṛtti, various sub-divisions of humour (prahasana)2 find place in a monologue. In other particulars it borrows the pattern from the Nāṭaka.

IV

VYĀYOGA

VYĀYOGA or a Military Spectacle is a type of shows wherein several characters disagree with one another3. A Vyāyoga deals with a popular topic and its chief characters are also well-known (khyāta). The term,‘well-known’ is used here in the same sense as in the case of a Nāṭaka4. The body of the play is shorn of two junctures, the Development and the Pause, and is made up of only three junctures, the Opening, the Progression and the Conclusion. The style is, on the whole, vehement ; and the dispute is related to anything save a woman. The hero of the play is invariably of dhīrodātta nature mostly behaving in a sobre way or the Sāttvatī Vṛtti. The behaviour of his adversary is mostly vehement and characterised by the Ārabhaṭī Vṛtti. The majority of characters in this type of play should be of men. Whereas the entire play has hardly any womonly softness about it there is paucity of female characters. It is a one-act play, and the duration of action is generally limited to the course of one day only. Bharata, however, directs that the hero of a Vyāyoga should not be a divine figure, nor a king, nor a sage5.

1. Vide Chap. VII, Sec. vii (b) infra.

2. Vide Chap. II infra.

3. The title, Vyāyoga is derived as ‘Viśeṣeṇa yujyante pātrāṇi yatra.’ For defn. see N. XVIII-141 ; D. R. III-60 ; B. P. p. 248 ; M. M. p. 72; N. L. R. 2794; N. D. V. 74.

4. Vide p. 3 supra.

5. The term, ‘rījarśi’ is interpreted as a cumulative compound by Abhinava Bhāratī. (G. O. S. Edn., Vol. II. p. 445 line 2). But in practice, it is submitted that it is hardly correct. For it is inconsistent with the original text, ‘Prakhyāta-nāyaka-śarīrah.’ If the hero is a well-known character, there is every likelihood of his

[ CHAP. I ]

TYPES OF DRAMA

19

V

SAMAVAKĀRA

SAMAVAKĀRA is a dramatic representation in which there is fusion of several types of action, characters and motifs.1

It is peculiar in its composite elements, and differs from an average show in several respects noted below :

In the first place it deals with different sets of objects to be verily achieved by demons and deities. The deities here include all the shining ones (devas in the literary sense), that is to say, all orders of divinities, and the semi-divine and the superhuman beings of various classes like the Kinnaras, Vidyādharas, Gandharvas, Aśramukhas and others.

This is the one type of shows which admits a divine hero. It cannot have a mortal hero according to Bharata, Dhananjaya and Sāradātanaya who specifically direct that the hero of a Samavakāra could be one from among gods and demons.2 Viśvanātha, on the other hand, observes that they should be gods and men.3

Thus he differs from the rest of the canonists in admitting human beings and rejecting demons out of the order of heroes prescribed for a Samavakāra.

Then again, according to him the heroes should be well-known. The term, ‘well-known’ seems to be used by him in the same sense in which it is used in case of Nātakas.

He further adds that these heroes should be of the gallant (udātta) type.4 Here again, there appears a difference of opinion in regard to the character of the heroes.

If they are to be gods and demons, the being either a kshatriya or a sage. This possibility is further borne out by such specimens as the famous Vyāyogas of Bhāsa, of the poet Vatsarāja and also the Saugandhikā-haraṇa of Viśvanātha.

1. Etymologically, it means ‘Sangatair-ava-kīrmaiśca arthaih kriyate iti Samavakārah,’ and purports to contain several scattered items of action finally connected with each other.

2. N. XVIII, 114-128; D. R. III, 62-68; M. M. p. 72; B. P. p. 248-250; N. D. p. 124; N. L. R. 2811.

3. S. D. VI, 234–240.

4. S. D. VI, 235 b.

20

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

officials, cannot be found in them, for they bear naturally

a haughty ( uddhata ) temperament and have an overbearing

behaviour. The Abhinava Bhāratt1 has, however, tried to get

over the difficulty by advancing the view that the gods and

demons are to be delineated as overbearing in comparison

to the human conduct, but among themselves they are again

quiet, gay and terrific in their temperaments like Siva, Brahmā

and Nṛsiṁha. Thus, the term, ‘udātta’ is to be interpreted in

a relative sense. A Samavakāra is supposed to have twelve

principal characters or heroes. Here too, the interpretation is

manifold : some canonists believe that all the twelve are

expected to take part in each act of the play, the action of

which is to be divided in three acts only. There are others

like the authors of the Nāṭya-darpana who make a division

of the res-business and hold that a set of four heroes forming

two pairs of adversaries should be int-oduced in each act of

the play. One wonders how this alternate introduction is likely

to culminate in unity of action. In such a case, there would

be a plurality of motives, as Viśvanātha suggests, each being

differently pursued by the three sets of the heroes.

Secondly, Samavakāra has only four junctures, namely,

the Opening, the Expansion, the Pause and the Conclusion, and

the whole range of action is to be spread over three acts only.

It has the absence of Catastrophe or the Vimarsa Sandhi.

Division of action in a Samavakāra would, therefore, be like

this : the Opening and the Expansion are to be concluded in

the first act, and the remaining two junctures would occupy

the second and the third act respectively. It therefore follows

that the duration of action displayed in the first act is expected

to take the longest time, i.e. six muhūrtas,2 the second act

will contain such portion of action as will occupy two muhūrtas,

and the last act will be the shortest, its duration in period

of time taking one muhūrta only. Thus the entire action will

endure nine muhūrtas or eighteen nādikās.

1. A. B. ( G. O. S. ), Vol. II p. 437, ll. 9-11.

2. A muhūrta is equal to two nādikās and is equal to forty-eight minutes.

A nādikā is a ghaṭikā which is of twenty-four minutes. ( Apte -

S. E. D. p. 540 )

[ CHAP. I ]

TYPES OF DRAMA

21

Thirdly, the sentiment ruling over the action of the play should, in view of the type of the heroes leading the action, be chiefly heroic or furious. The gentler sentiments can less prevail, and that too only for a short duration. The erotic sentiment will, however, have its place but only as one of the roots of quarrel and would, therefore, remain as a merely casual and subordinate emotion. Under the circumstances, it is obvious that the play will afford little room for the soft bearing ( Kaiśikī vṛtti ) and more for the heroic and the horrific ones, the Sāttvatī and the Ārabhaṭī.

Fourthly, there is a queer combination of several discordant elements in the plot of a Samavakāra. Bharata says that it always contains three types of horror, three types of passion and three types of deception.1 The types of horror become three according as they spring respectively from an animate object like a lion or a wild elephant ; an inanimate object like a bolt or a lightning ; and from both the living and the lifeless objects as shouts and shrieks in a confusion caused, say, by conflagration or an invasion. The three kinds of passion are pious ( dharma śṛṅgāra ), the voluptuous ( kāma śṛṅgāra ) respectively relate to love with a married consort, for a spinster or an adulteress, and for concubines and harlots who are gained merely for pecuniary consideration. The three types of deception are deception by men, or misconception of things in respect of their intrinsic nature, or misapprehension of a situation. It is also prescribed that the element of passion, if any, should invariably be introduced in course of the first act.

Fifthly, Bharata directs that metres employed in a Samavakāra should be mostly irregular,2 generally consisting of six or seven syllables in a foot. Viśvanātha, on the other hand, prescribes that a Samavakāra should better have long and heavy metres like the Sragdharā.

1. N. XVIII, 115;

2. Vide Chap. VII (6) infra, and N. XIV-38, 56; XV—117 ff.

Lastly, in a Samavakāra there is one more convention : the use of the Drop (bindu) and of the Introductory Scene (preveśaka) is forbidden.1 With these peculiarities a Samavakāra does in other respects follow the scheme of the Nāṭaka, subject, however, to one exception, viz., more copious use of the different members of Vithi and Prahasana should be made in a Samavakāra than what is done in a Nāṭaka.2

VI DIMA

DIMA3 follows the pattern of a Nāṭaka with following reservations :

"It has only four acts and four junctures omitting the Pause (garbha-sandhi). Invariably it contains the furious (raudra) sentiment, and does not admit the comic nor the erotic sentiment. It has sixteen principal characters, one more than the other. They are mostly gods, yakshas, rākshasas, piśācas, and other infernal beings (pretas). Occasionally even the mahārājas4 are also included. The mode of the behaviour of the characters is either heroic (sāttvati) or horrific (ārabhaṭī), which remains conspicuous by deeds of magic, sorcery, duels and exciting feats. It also depicts the solar and the lunar eclipses and the fall of stars and meteors in course of its action. There are no introductory scenes like

1. B. P. p. 250, 4; N. D. p. 125; S. D. VI, 236 b.

2. N. XVI[?]-117.

3. The title, 'Dima' is derived from the noun 'dima or dimba', meaning an affray. It may be derived from the root 'dim - I P' to hurt. As the play is chiefly a struggle it is called Dima.

4. The word, 'mahārāja' denotes a class of divine beings.

आदित्य-विश्व-वसवस्तुधिता मारवरामिला: ।

महाराजिक-?याक्ष रुद्राश्च गददेवताः ॥

विद्याघरोप्सरो-यक्ष-रक्षो-गन्धर्वकिन्नराः ।

पिशाचो इष्टकः सिद्धो भूतोडमी देवयोनयः ॥ Am. K. I-i-10, 11

[ CHAP. I ]

TYPES OF DRAMA

23

the Vishkambhaka or the Praveśaka, and the duration of action extends to a period of four days spread over the four acts of the play" 1. The plot of a Dima should indeed be well-known ( khyāta ).

VII

ĪHĀMRGA

īhāmṛga2 is a one-act play or a play in four acts. The hero is necessarily a vehement ( uddhata ) character, whether a divine or a human being. The whole plot hinges round the acquisition of a woman, mostly a celestial damsel, who is difficult to obtain. There are feuds and combats on her account, leading to a tragic end, though the actual death of the hero is to be tactically avoided from the stage. The plot of the play is of a mixed kind : partly, invented by the poet and partly, legendary. It is necessary to bring the leaders of the episode ( patākā-nāyakas ) on the stage. They could be mortal or divine, but ever-ready to rise to the occasion and help the hero. According to Viśvanātha the number of such auxiliaries should be ten, making a total of twelve characters in all.3

VIII

UTSRṢṬĀṄKA

UTSRṢṬĀṄKA depicts a well-known story, Bharata, however, permits even an imaginary plot to form its basis. It has only mortal characters. Mainly it contains the pathetic sentiment (karuṇa-rasa); and there is a total absence of strife and affrays. It has profuse lamentations of bewailing women, and speeches full of remorse and sorrow, but the end is never tragic.

1. N. XVIII-133-40; D. R. III-72-74; M. M. p. 73; N. D. p. 131; S. D. VI, 241; H. P. p. 221; N. L. R. 2836; R. S. III, :97.

2. It is so named because the hero of the play is in a wild-goose hunt and pursues an unattainable lady, 'Thale mrgavad yasmin sah.'

3. N. XVIII-132; D. R. III-12b; M. M. p. 73; N. D. p. 131; S. D. VI, 245-9; B. P. p. 253; N. L. R. 2839, R. S. III-284.

24

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

There is only one and one mode of behaviour, namely, the Bhārati Vṛtti. It is called an ‘utsṛshtāṅka’ for the reason of absence of other Vṛttis; and as such, it is an isolated piece dealing with the one incident of bewailing of a person whose life is about to end1.

IX

VĪTHĪ

Vīthī is a one-act play2 with a fictitious plot. Although the ruling sentiment is erotic, other suitable sentiments could nevertheless be introduced. It contains only two junctures, the Opening and the Conclusion ; all the same, it evinces within its short compass all the sources of the plot ( artha-prakṛtis ), the germ, the drop, the episode and others3. It contains a regular Induction ( prastāvanā ) and gets introduced with an abrupt dialogue ( udghātyaka ). The characters are only a few, preferably one or two, who would manage the conversation on the stage anticipating replies through speeches from void. According to Kohala it is supposed to have all sorts of characters, both high and low 4. The use of the members of Gentle Dance ( lāsyāṅgas ) in this play is essential according to Bhojarāja whereas it is optional according to Kohala.5 Vīthī has its own thirteen sub-divisions known as Vīthyāṅgas. These Vīthyāṅgas as sub-divisions of the Vīthī which also serves as one of the elements of the Bhārati Vṛtti should be essentially adopted in the preliminary frame-work of the Induction of a

1. ‘Utkramanonmukhā sṛṣṭih yāsām tā utsṛṣṭikāh, tābhit-ankitah-iti’.— Gunacandra—N. D. p. 130 bottom.

2. For defn. vide N. XVIII-132; D. R. III 72b; M. M. p. 72; N. D. p. 131; S. D. VI, 245-249; R. P. p. 253; R. S. III; N.L. R. 2839.

3. Vide Chap. III. infra.

4. ‘Uttama-adhama-madhyābhir yuktā prakṛtibhis tridhā / eka-hāryā dyi-hāryā vā sā Vīthī-iti abhisamjñitā //’ —Kohala. ( r. i. p. N. D. p. ) 321

5. q. i. Bhāvaprakāśa ( ref. p. 251, ll. 6-7 )

[ CHAP. I ]

TYPES OF DRAMA

25

play. They could also be freely used by the playwrights at

almost all the places as and when needed. The title, ‘Vithi’

itself signifies that it is like an avenue open for all kinds of

shows and could profitably be used in all the junctures.

X

PRAHASANA

PRAHASANA is a farce with comic characters. It contains

all the ten sub-divisions of Vithi. It is presented in costumes

suited for comic scenes like the motley dress ; and the langu-

age is also light so as to tickle the audience to laughter.1

The Prahasana is of two kinds : regular (śuddha) and

irregular. (saṅkīrṇa). The former type contains characters

like monks, brāhmaṇas, heretics, servants and parasites ;

whereas the latter contains vehement and low characters like

harlots, strumpets, slaves, villains and hangers-on. There is yet

a third type of farce recognised by the Daśarūpaka and the

Mandāra Maranda. The third type is distinguished by the name

Vikṛta or the modified farce, and contains such characters as

eunuchs, chamberlains and even ascetics presenting a lover’s

character and making speeches full of amorous humour and

dalliances. Dhananjaya further adds that a farce may contain

almost all the six varieties of the comic sentiment.2 Siṅga

Bhūpāla details the different elements of a Prahasana, which

are ten in number3 and could be generally employed in all

types of shows. One of the important characteristics of a

Prahasana is the presence of all the features of Gentle

Dance (lāsya). In regard to other particulars, the junctures

and the modes of behaviour, it follows the pattern of a Bhāṇa.

1. For defn. vide N. VIII-150; D. R. III 54; M. M. p. 71;

B. P. p. 247; S. D. III, 260.62 N. D. p. 128; R. S. III, 268;

N. L. R. 2900.

2. Vide Chap. V infra.

3. Vide Chap. I'. infra.

26

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

These are the ten principal varieties of shows to which may be added a Mahānāṭaka,1 a play of the Nāṭaka pattern with ten or more acts like the Bālarāmayaṇa or the Hanumannāṭaka. There are also a few minor varieties called upa-rūpakas. A few of them have attracted the fancy of the playwrights, and so they also deserve mention here :

1. Nāṭikā2 : It is one of the most popular types of minor forms of plays. It contains a number of female characters. The hero of a nāṭikā is invariably a king, a dhīra-lalita character. The motif of the action is love and acquisition of kingdom. The element of marvel is the chief interest, and both the means and the end are peculiar and strange. The plot is not based on a historical fact, but is created by the invention of the poet. It is spread over four stages of action. Consequently, it has only four junctures with the omission of Pause or the Vimarsa-sandhi. Throughout the play the bearing of the hero is gay and mirthful. He is in the Kaiśikī-vṛtti which is in keeping with the main theme ruled over by the erotic sentiment. Generally, there are more than one spouse to the hero, the queen presenting a very shrewd and formidable character always swaying over her lord. In respect of all the other peculiarities it closely follows the pattern of a nāṭaka.

2. Prakaraṇī3 : It is, in fact, only a diminution of a Prakaraṇa. Its plot is original (utpādya), and its hero is an aristocrat, a minister or a wealthy person. In respect of its constitution, the stages of action and the junctures, it conforms to the form of a nāṭikā. In short, just as a nāṭikā is a smaller size of a nāṭaka so is the prakaraṇī of a prakaraṇa.

3. S. D. VI. 224 a.

4. For defn. vide N. XVIII, 110; D. R. III, M. M. p. 73; B. P. p. 247; N. D. p. 120; S. D. VI, 269-72; R. S. III; N. L. R. 2745.

5. S. D. VI, 306; N. D. p. 112; M. M. p. 73.

[ CHAP. I ]

TYPES OF DRAMA

27

3. Bhāṇī 1 : It is a wee-monologue, a sub-class of Bhāṇas or monologues. It has only a few characters, and only two junctures, the first and the last. It contains mostly the verbal ( bhāratī ) or the gay ( kaiśikī ) bearing. Of all the other characters the heroine of a Bhāṇī is a very noble person. The peculiar feature of a Bhāṇī is its seven sub-divisions ( aṅgas ) which may be used with adavantage in other types of shows as well, including the major ones. They are: 2

Upanyāsa, a casual introduction of the dramatic motif;

Vinyāsa, an insertion of some statement of despair ;

Vibodha, a loss of illusion or clarification of some misunderstanding;

Sādhvasa, a deliberate mis-statement of facts;

Samarpana, a speech full of sarcasm and wilful taunt proceeding from feelings of wrath or grief;

Nivṛtti, a citation of some illustration in support of a statement made ; and

Samhāra, a point of culmination of motif into conclusion.

The Nāṭya-darpana, however, has one more pattern of this type known as Bhāṇaka3. It consists of vehement characters without a female character. The action is, however, accompanied with a melody of song ( tāla and anutāla ).

4. Trotaka : It is a play which is composed of five, seven, eight or even nine acts. It has divine as well as mortal characters, and appearance of the clown ( vidūshaka ) is expected in every act. The only extant work cited as its specimen by all the canonists is Vikramorvaśī. It, therefore, appears that the mixed nature of characters is the only essential point of difference between a trotaka and a nāṭaka ; for, in all other respects, the former agrees in toto with the model of the latter.4

5. S. D. VI, 308-309a; N. D. p.215; B. P. p. 262.

6. S. D. VI. 309b-303a; N. L. R. 3162 et seq.

7. N. D. p. 215.

8. S. D. VI, 273; N. L. R. 2766.

5. Saṭṭaka1 : It is a show which follows the pattern of a nāṭikā with the difference that a saṭṭaka has only one language throughout the play, be it Sanskrit or preferably any one of the Prākṛta dialects. It does not have a Vishkambhaka. The acts in a saṭṭaka are named as ‘javanikāntara.’ The element of marvel dominates over the entire range of its action. Viśvanātha differs from other canonists and denies the use of Sanskrit in a saṭṭaka. He maintains that the whole plot of a saṭṭaka should be couched in Prākṛta. His view seems to be based on the specimen of the Karpūramañjarī alone.

6. Prekshāṇaka : It is a class of plays in which are depicted scenes of great excitement and of marvel presented by numerous characters meeting in a street, a drinking house or at a common place.2 "The hero is mostly a low character" enjoins Viśvanātha, who cites for its specimen the Bālivadha; a play not so far available. The title of the play, however, does not seem to bear out the view of Viśvanātha for the reason that its hero could be surmised in a person no less than Śrī Rāmacandra. It is further held by the canonists that different dialects of the Prākṛta should be used in this type of play, and among them the Śaurasenī is to remain prominent. Its plot is to be woven in three junctures only, omitting the junctures of Development ( garbha ) and of Pause ( vimarśa ). There is no Sūtradhāra to introduce the play : the benedictory song ( nāndī ) is to be sung from behind the screen and then follows the laudation ( prarocanā ), another element of the verbal bearing.

7. S. D. VI, 276; B. P. p. 269; N. D. p. 213 bottom. It may be noted in this connection that the names of the most of these minor plays are mere proper names ( rūdha ), and even if their derivation could be traced to certain roots and analogies, it cannot be happily done without a far-fetched sense as in the case of Saṭṭaka, Troṭaka and others.

8. It is otherwise spelt as ‘prekshanaka’ or even ‘preṅkhaṇaka’. For defn. vide B. P. p. 263 9; N. D. p. 214; S. D. VI, 256; N. L. R. 3192.

[ CHAP. I ] TYPES OF DRAMA 29

7. Chāyā-nāṭaka. There are some published plays like the Dūtāṅgada which bear the generic name of 'Chāyā-nāṭaka' in their colophones, and some of the modern playwrights like Mm. Śankaralal use the name, Chāya-nāṭaka in apposition to the title of the play. Nevertheless, the form of Chāyā-nāṭaka is nowhere defined by any known work on Sanskrit dramaturgy. This class is perhaps a late creation ; and "it is extremely doubtful", observes Dr. Keith,1 "at what date the shadow-drama appeared in India". Its chief characteristics justifying its distinction from other rūpakas, especially the parent one, viz, the nāṭaka, could be generalised only by an analytical examination of a sufficient number of plays thrown in this category; and a fortiori conclusion in regard to the nature and the constitution of such a play would abide by the practice of the playwrights in this beh:lf.

Besides these few types of minor shows described above, there is a long list of sub-shows catalogued by later cononists like Viśvanātha, Rāmacandra and Gunacandra, Śāradātanaya and Sāgaranandin. This list includes ( i ) Goshṭhī, ( ii ) Rāsaka, ( iii ) Prasthāna, ( iv ) Ullāpya, ( v ) Kāvya, ( vi ) Saṅllāpaka, ( vii ) Śri-gadita, ( viii ) Śīlpaka, ( ix ) Vilāsikā, ( x ) Hṛllīśa, ( xi ) Durmallikā, ( xii ) Nāṭya-rāsaka, and ( xiii ) Narttanka.

Thus they number thirteen² in addition to the seven described above and it seems from their nomenclature that some of them belong to the second category of the audio-visual poetry consisting of Nṛtta. Some of the modern playwrights have, no doubt, tried their hands with one or the other of these patterns, but the works traditionally mentioned as illustrations of these thirteen varieties by various canonists are mostly inextant, and treatment of the dramaturgical laws concerning them and their application has to await the availability of such specimens. The practice of the playwrights as visible in some of the speci-

1. Sanskrit Drama p. 214; line 4.

2. Vide B. P. p. 262; et seq.; N. D. pp. 213, 215; S. D. VI, 277–305; N. L. R. II. 3026–3213.

30

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

mens available in the modern Sanskrit literature1 and some older works would be observed later on at its proper place.

There is a well-known saying that ‘Nāṭaka is the original specimen of all dramatic representation’2, all other types of shows, both major and minor, therefore, draw upon nāṭaka for the various elements in their constitution and of embellishment. Thus they follow to a large extent the model of a nāṭaka in respect of the scheme of plot, the use of language, the poetic artifices, the dramatic etiquette and conventions which become responsible for their make-up on the whole. If the model of the pattern becomes known, all other types which follow the pattern in general become easily intelligible. For this reason Bharata and other canonists have dealt with the scheme of nāṭaka at length ; and on the same principle it is discussed in all its details here as well.

1. e. g. Partha-patheyam is designated as Ullāpyā by its author, Prabhunārāyaṇa Simha ( Varanasi, 1957 ), and ‘Savitri-caritam as Chāyā-nāṭaka by Mm. Saṇkaralal ( Bombay, 1939 ).

2. ‘Āhuḥ prakaraṇādīnim nāṭakam prakṛtim budhāḥ’ - M. M. p. 69, 21.

CHAPTER II

PRELIMINARIES OF DRAMA

Before beginning a show, the stage-manager (Sūtradhāra1 ) inspects the theatre and its sorroundings. All the pre-show items of work are collectively called Pūrva-raga-prasādhana or simply Pūrva-ranga.2 According to Bharata it consists of nineteen items. These are directed to be carried out without being noticed by the audience, except the benediction ( nāndī ). It is not, therefore, proposed to describe at length3 any of these items of the Pūrva-ranga except the Nāndī, which is recommeuled specially to be recited before the audience by the Sūtradhāra for averting any evil that may impede the success of his performance.4

I

INVOCATION:NĀNDĪ

Nāndī is defined by Bharata as the utterance of benediction, invoking grace of a deity, a brāhmaṇa or a king for the welfare of the audience and the actors.5 It should be sung by the stage-manager in the fourth note of the gamut. Etymologically, the expression 'Nāndī' is derived from the root, 'nand' to rejoice, and the purpose of its recitation is to rejoice

1. He is designated as the Sūtradhāra for the reason that he bears the entire responsibilty of enacting the play and carries with him, as it were, the string ( sūtra ) of the dramatic performance. He is the actor-in-chief, and assumes the rôle of some character in the play.

2. Etymologically, the term, 'Prva-ranga' means 'stage-in-front' or theatre according to Dhanika—Ava. p. 63, 10.

3. Vide below for further details, and for the full list Appendix A.

4. 'Tadapyaigāni bhūyaṃsi purva-raṅgasya nāṭake /Tathāpyavaśyam kartavyā nāndī vighnopaśāntaye //— B. P. p. 197.

5. N., V. 24.

32

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

all those concerned with the show, be it as audience or actors.1

The benedictory statement may be expressed in a verse or a

group of verses. As it is believed by the Hindu theologians

that there is a good deal of influence of the moon over senti-

mental enjoyment, the mention of the moon is considered a

special merit in a Nāndi verse. Then again, a mention of other

auspicious names like those of a conch, a lotus, a ruddy goose,

a lily and the like is commended.2

The Nāndi should consist of eight or twelve feet according to

Bharata3. The Mandāra Maranda considers a Nāndi to be good,

if it has eight, ten, twelve, eighteen or twenty-two feet. Thus he

does not mean to regulate the measure of the Nāndi, but re-

commends the popular mode to be observed as far as possible.4

Śāradātanaya, however, feels that the Nāndi may have as

many sentences as may be necessary for the expression of

benediction and also incorporates the view of others who

accept the Nāndi of even four feet.5 Singa Bhūpala believes

that the Nāndi may have eight, ten or twelve feet.6 Thus

from a number of authorities, it becomes established that an

eight-footed Nāndi is more in vogue, though the one with four,

ten and more than twelve feet may not become out of order.

The unit of measure for the Nāndi is the foot, which too

is calculated in different ways. Apparently, it seems that metri-

cal foot should be the unit for purposes of calculation; but

in fact, the authorities differ and suggest alternatives in this

behalf. Bharata is silent on the point, but the Nātya-pradīpa has

put together the different views in his oft-quoted couplet7,

which states, "some say that one quarter of a verse is the

1. ‘Nandanti kāvyāni kavīndra-vargaly kuślavāḥ pāriśadaśśa santah /

Yasnad alam sajjana-sindhu-hamsī tasmadiyam sa kathitaha nāndī // N. P.

2. S. D. VI, 25.

3. N. V, 107.

4. M. M. p. 68, 3.

5. ‘Bhavet nāndī vākyaih kvāpi otsakshaya samapadā’ thava -B. P. p. 197, 14.

6. R. S. III.

7. ‘Śloka-pdāa-padam kecit, sub-titantam athāpare /

Pare'āntara-vākyika-svarupam padam-ucire //'—N. P.

[ CHAP. II ] PRELIMINARIES OF DRAMA 33

measure of a foot, the others say that a grammatical word ending in a nominal or a verbal suffix makes a foot, while there are others who believe that the different clauses in the verse constitute the feet of the Nāndī". Abhinava Gupta-pāda has a different measure altogether. He holds that a measure of a foot in the Nāndi does not depend upon the words or clauses contained in it, but it depends on the musical cadence; and the foot ought to be measured in accordance with the beating time. The beating time may, however, be either triangular or quandrangular, i. e. consisting of three sets or four sets. If the foot consists of three sets of beating time then the Nāndi will have the number of feet in multiples of three, i. e. three, six, or twelve. If the foot consists of four sets of beating time, then the Nāndi will have four, eight or sixteen feet in it. Thus the measure of foot is the musical one in the opinion of Abhinava Gupta-pāda.1 He records the opinion of some others also who believe that even a part of a quarter of a verse may be counted as one foot. This may be possible only where there are metrical pauses in every quarter of a verse. Accor-ding to the different opinions, therefore, there are different measures making the Nāndi foot either to be the metrical foot, the grammatical foot, the snytactical foot, the musical foot, or the cæsural foot.

Nāndi is said to be of two types : it is either simple or suggestive. The simple one is known as śuddhā, and is of three kinds according as it contains benediction or obeisance or auspiciousness in its very statement.2 The suggestive type of Nāndi is techni-cally called‘Patrāvalī’.3 It is that type wherein the insertion of the germ (bīja) or some other important episode relating to the plot of the play is made by means of words capable of duplicate rendering or of suggestion through the figure of speech known

1. A. B. Vol. II, 217; Chāyā on S. D. p. 277-8.

'Namaskṛtir māṅgalikī, aśīḥ patrāvalī tathā / Nāndī eaturdhā nirdishtā, naṭakādishu dhīmatā //

q. in Rucirā on A. R. p. 9, line 8.

2. ‘Tasyām bijasya vinyāso, hyabhidheyasya vastunaḥ / Ślesheṇa vā samāsoktyā nāndī patrāvalī tu sā. // N. P. (q.i.A.D.p. 6.)

3

34 LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

as Samāsokti.1 The author of the Kāvyenduprakāśa has got a different point of distinction for the types of the Nāndī. According to him it is of two kinds : Nīlī and Śuddhā. If in the Nāndī verse there is a direct mention or even an indirect reference, be it denoted or suggested, to the moon or the Sun, it is the Nīlī type of Nāndī. Otherwise it belongs to the Śuddhā type.2

As Nāndī is a benedictory verse and conduces to the well-being of all those who are concerned with the play, it has become conventional that the Nāndī verse should be free from blemish from the point of view of the metrical significance as well as of the script. According to the alphabetical Lexicon, it is believed that a particular letter connotes a particular idea of its own and has an individual deity presiding over it. Accordingly, the letter may be auspicious or otherwise. Similarly, the eight metrical feet ( ganas ) have different deities presiding over them, and have different effects, auspicious or inauspicious, as enjoined by the Chandas-Śāstra or the rules of prosody. It has, therefore, become a convention sanctioned in its large practice by poets of eminence that the opening verse ( Nāndī ) should commence with an initial letter of recognised merit.3

1. For Defn. of Samāsokti Vide R. G. p. 495. This may be noted here that Bhāsa has devised a third type of alaṅkāra, viz. Mudrā as a vehicle for suggesting the names of some dramatis personæ in his plays. If the mention of the alaṅkāras, ślesha and samāsokti, is to be construed in essentially restrictive sense then Bhāsa may have a new type by itself, but if the expression ‘Ślesheṇa vā samāsoktyā’ be used in an illustrative sense directing an indirect expression of the germ or the plot of the play, then with the extended connotation I wonder if Bhāsa's Nāndīs could also fall under the 'patrāvalī' class.

2. Ādānam varṇanam vā bhaved yatrendu-sūryayoh / Sa nīlī syāt tadanyā tu śuddheti pariganyate // S. D. p. 278.

3. Much stress is laid upon this aspect of the benediction by Bhāmaha who examines the script by saying that 'Ka', 'Kha', 'Ga' and 'Gha' bring wealth; 'na' brings glory; 'ca' brings happiness, 'cha' brings affection, and 'ja' begets friends; 'jha' and 'ña' cause fear and death

[ CHAP. II ] PRELIMINARIES OF DRAMA

No combination of letters of opposite effects is permissible in the opening sentence. The observance of this rule tends towards the prosperity of the hero of the play. The belief is based on the text, "with the sanctity of the opening letter there is prosperity of the hero."1 Besides the orthographical choice, the selection of a proper metrical foot for opening the Nandi is equally advised2. It is, however, believed that all the epithets of gods and goddesses are auspicious both metrically and orthographically3. Thus the Sanskrit drama

respectively; ‘ṭa’ and ‘ṭha’ result in despair and misery, ‘ḍa’ fosters beauty, ‘ḍha’ brings splendour, ‘ṇa’ causes wandering; ‘ta’ makes happy, ‘tha’ results in warfare, ‘da’ and ‘dha’ result in pleasure, ‘na’ brings joy, and the letters of the labial class respectively bring pleasure, fear, death, hardships and misery ; ‘ya’ gives riches, ‘ra’ causes burning, ‘la’ and ‘va’ create trouble ; ‘śa’ and ‘sha’ grant happiness, ‘sa’ and ‘ha’ lead to remorse, ‘ḷa’ ends in tragedy and ‘ksha’ culminates in prosperity. This view is embodied in the verse :

"Kaḥ kho go ghaśca lakshmīṁ vitarati ca yaśo nastathā caḥ sukhaṁ chaḥ ; prītim jo mitralābham bhaya-marana-karau jhñau ṇṭa-thau kheḍa-duḥkhe | daḥ śobhāṁ dho viśobhāṁ bhramaṇam-athaca nas tas sukhaṁ thaśca yuddhaṁ ; do dhaḥ saukhyam mudam nas sukha-bhaya-marana-kleśa-duḥkham pavaragaḥ ; yo lakshmīṁ raśca dāham vyasanam-atha ca lavau kshah saṃrddhiṁ karoti" //

K. Al. p. 57.

1. "Akshare pariśuddhe tu nāyako bhūtimi rcchati".

2. The Vṛtta-ratnākara points out that a Molossus (magana) brings in splendour ; a tribrachys (nagana) gives life ; an amphimacre (ragana) brings destruction ; an anapaestus (sagana) results in wandering throughout the country ; a bacchius (yagana) fosters nutrition ; an amphibrachys (jagana) forebodes illness ; an antibacchius (tagana) results in loss ; and a dactylus (bhagana) promotes glory. The text is :

"Uroīṁ mastriguruth Śrīyam vitanute naśca trilo jīvitam, Ro’gnir madhyalaghuḥ kshatiṁ sa pavano deśa-bhramaṁ prāntagaḥ ; Yo vīryādi-laghuḥ bhṛtim dinam-anair madhye gurur jo rujām, Dhatte to’nta-laghuḥ kshayam gurumukho bhas tārakeśo yaśaḥ".—V. R. p. 7.

3. "Devatā-vacakāḥ-śabdāḥ naiva nindyāḥ kadācana | Suddhāste tu matāḥ-sarve gaṇato lipito’pi vā." // K Al. p, 56.

36

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

opens with an auspicious song recited by the Sūtradhāra who thereby invokes the blessings for the successful enactment of the play and for the welfare of the audience.

Despite the specific direction of Bharata that ‘Nāndī should be recited by the Sūtradhāra at the very outset’, there are certain canonists who do not subscribe to this view. Among them the position of Viśvanātha is quite peculiar. He defines and illustrates Nāndī, but at the end he remarks that he has done so only for the sake of recording the opinion of others. His own view is that the Nāndī like any other item of the Pūrva-raṅga should be done outside the stage before the show begins; and, therefore, there is nothing like Nāndī to be incorporated in the body of a drama. What appears as Nāndī in the opening verse of a drama is, in fact, a raṅga-dvāra or a Gateway to the play1.

In support of this view he cites the definition of the raṅga-dvāra2 from the Nāṭya-śāstra and takes it to mean that the raṅga-dvāra is the opening speech of the Sūtradhāra, which presents to the audience the verbal and gesticular representation for the first time. He further asserts that Bharata does not make any mention (nirdeśa)3 that the Nāndī should be done only by the actors4. Here are some other arguments which Viśvanātha seeks to pile up to establish his view : ( i ) the eminent dramatists like Kālidāsa do not provide Nāndī conforming to the definition. This is illustrated by Vikramorvaśī

( ii ) An unidentified authoritiy on dramaturgy is quoted to

1. S. D. — VI — page 279, Ll. 6 et seq. — page 280 bottom.

2. “Yasmād-abhinayastvatra prathamam hyavatāryate / Raṅga-dvāramato jāyam vāgaṅgābhinayātmakam.” // N. V—27.

3. Here it may be noted that the term ‘nirdeśa’ literally means ‘mention’, but Tarka-vāgīśa in his Vivṛti paraphrases ir as a synonym of ‘rule’ (niyama) — S. D. p. 279. Siddhānta Vāgīśa, however, explains it in no happier way by translating the term as an ‘instruction (ādeśa)’ — Kusuma-pratima : S. D p. 295 (ra).

4. Ukta-prakarāyāśca nāndyā raṅga-dvārāt prathamameva naṭair kartavyatayā na maharshiṇā nirdeśah kṛtah. S. D. p. 279.

[ CHAP. II ] PRELIMINARIES OF DRAMA

show that a play should begin with the raṅga-dvāra.1 ( iii ) The

earlier scribes had written the stage-direction, "after the Nāndī,

the Sūtradhāra" at the very top of the script. This implies

that it was not the practice of the playwrights to include Nāndi

in their compositions. Viśvanātha, however, feels embarassed

by the practice of the later scribes who wrote the above stage-

direction not at the top of the text, but after some verse or

verses of benediction. He feels obliged to explain this away,

and he does it by interpreting the stage-direction to mean "the

Sūtradhāra utters the above verse after the Nāndi. In fact, he

has interpolated the word, 'above'.

The whole trend of the discussion of Viśvanātha leads to

the conzlusion that there is no Nāndi verse to be recited by

the Sūtradhāra at the opening of the show as it is usually

believed. According to him like every other item of the Pūrva-

raṅga, even Nāndi is expected to be performed by the actors

without being noticed by the audience, say, much before the

actual commencement of the show. The first verse of the

dramatic composition is simply an utterance of an auspicious

statement by the playwright for the unobstructed completion

of his composition, and it is also recited by the Sūtradhāra

on the stage for the successful completion of his performance.2

This verse being the first to be recited on the stage to the hear-

ing of the audience he calls it the raṅga-dvāra.

This conclusion of Viśvanātha has really embarassed some

of his commentators,3 and it deserves a closer examination

in the light of Bharata's instructions in this behalf :

1. 'Raṅga-dvāram ārabhya kavih kuryāt—' S. D. Ibid.

2. Vide Tarka-Vāgiśa's exposition in his Vivṛti p. 280. Ll. 9-12.

3. Tarka-Vāgiśa has attempted to adjust the incompatible view of

Viśvanātha by saying that where there is Nāndi and no raṅga-dvāra

the latter may be deemed to be super-imposed on the former

under rules of succinctness (tantra); where there is no Nāndi but

only raṅga-dvāra, the former is to be inferred from the result of

the successful completion of the task and where there are many

verses at the beginning of a drama the first couple of verses is

38

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

Bharata deals with the topic of Pūrva-ranga in the fifth chapter of the Nātya-śāstra, his magnum opus on Sanskrit dramaturgy, and enjoins that the performance of the pūrva-ranga before the beginning of a show is essential. The pūrva-ranga consists of nineteen1 subdivisions beginning with pratyā-hāra, collection of the musical instruments and ending with prarocanā, the laudation. Out of these different items, the first nine pertain to the arrangement of the dramatic accessories and trimming them. The tenth is a series of songs making mention of several deities. This is evidently to set up and test the background music with particular attention to the voice of the musicians. The eleventh item is Uthāpana. This concerns the testing and adjusting of the steps, gestures and other physical movements of actors. Since this is the first occasion on which the actors appear on the stage, though still behind the screen, it is called Uthāpana or the virtual start. Then comes the twelfth item of the pūrva-ranga. This is called Parivartana, as it consists of the actors taking a round of the stage and offering obeisance to the deities presiding over the cardinal points (loka-pālas). Then follows the Nāndī, the thirteenth item. It consists of the recitation of the benedictory verse by the Sūtradhāra. After Nāndī, a song technically called Śushkāvakrshṭa is sung. The import of this fourteenth item lies in the elimination of the unrhythmic elements in the musical rendering of the words of the songs.2 Then comes the fifteenth item of the pūrva-ranga, which is called Raṅga-dvāra, the Gateway of theatre. It is so named because it is in reality the last-minute test-rehearsal in which the action and the music are tested as a whole. Then follow the Chārī and the Mahā-

Nāndī and the rest make the raṅga-dvāra. Siddhānta-vāgīśa, however, says that where the definition of Nāndī fits in the initial verse it is Nāndī as in Kālidāsa's Śākuntalam; and in other cases it is raṅga-dvāra. All the same it is evident that the commentators feel inclined towards the acceptance of the Nāndī in the initial verse of a drama... Ibid - S. D. p. 280 ; p. 290.

1. N. -V, verses 6-30.

2. B. P.-VII-Ll. 13-14.

[ CHAP. II ] PRELIMINARIES OF DRAMA

chārī which are meant to charge the atmosphere, as it were, with the erotic or the horrific sentiment according to the needs of the drama under enactment. Then follows the dialogue between the jester (vidūshaka) or an attendant and the Stage-manager which is known as Trigata. This forms the eighteenth item of the Pūrva-ran்ga. The last item is laudation (prarocanā).

Its function is to introduce the drama and its author to the spectators present in the theatre.1

This shows Bharata's direction that Nāndī should be recited without fail just after the ceremony of going round the stage.2 He further instructs that the Nāndī should be recited by the Sūtradhāra "there (tatra)," which specifically means on the stage (raṅga), even as interpreted by Viśvanātha himself. Notwithstanding the instruction so clearly expressed, he states in the same breath, as it were, that the great sage has made no mention of Nāndī to be sung on the stage. Moreover, Viśvanātha steps over the Gleaning song (śushkāvakrshṭa), and calls in the Gateway or the Raṅga-dvāra what in fact is the Invocation or the Nāndī. The definition of raṅga-dvāra on which he relies can not apply to any of the invocatory verses, because they are not meant for any representation (abhinaya), vocal or physical. Moreover in Bharata's enumeration of the elements of the Pūrva-raṅga, Nāndī occurs much earlier than the Raṅga-dvāra. Nor is the raṅga-dvāra the last element to claim that the show commences immediately after it as Viśvanātha seems to seek the word, 'dvāra' to denote.

Thus this approach of Viśvanātha is not warranted by Bharata's aphorisms.

The next objection of Viśvanātha is that the initial verse found in the compositions of the poets like Kālidāsa does not conform to the definition of Nāndī. In support of this statement he cites the opening verse of the Vikramorvaśī as its illustration. It may be recalled here that Nāndī, as defined by Bharata and all other canonists, is a verse of benediction

1. N. Ibid.

2. 'Nityam yasmāt prayujyate'...N., V-24.

40

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

invoked to the grace of a deity, a brāhmaṇa or a king.1 This essential feature of benediction is found in the initial verse of the Vikramorvaśī and also in the verses which open Kālidāsa's Śākuntalam and the Mālavikāgnimitram. Viśvanātha in his objection seems to depend perhaps on the number of feet which are found in a Nāndi verse. It may be pointed out here that the standard of eight or twelve measures is mentioned by Bharata in a subsequent verse2 which contains a procedural direction and forms part of an adjective law of dramaturgy. Surely, it is not a defining verse3 which could give the essential or substantive rule in this behalf. Viśvanātha is carried away in observing this lacuna in Kālidāsa's Nāndīs, probably, because they consist of a single verse of four metrical feet, and on the surface they do not appear to be in conformity with Bharata's statement that 'a Sūtradhāra has to recite the Nāndī, which is embellished with twelve or even eight feet.'4 The quantum of foot is not mentioned by Bharata himself, and in this behalf all scholarship has to depend upon the learned commentators like Abhinava Gupta-pāda or other dramaturgists as Śāradātanaya, Rāmacandra, Siṅga Bhūpāla, Bhojadeva and others. All of them believe that the opening verses in the Sanskrit dramas constitute the Nāndī or Invocation.

As previously observed there are different units recognised for reckoning the Nāndī feet, and with the calculation of the feet in accordance with one measure or the other, the initial verses to Kālidāsa's plays fall under the class of Nāndī even

1. Vide p. 31 supra.

2. 'Nāndīm padair dādaśair-ashṭābhir vā' pyalaṅkṛtām, N., V-107.

3. N., V-24...Ibid.

4. "Padai r dādaśair ashṭābhir vj'pyalaikṛtām" -it may be noted that the procedural nature of the verse is further evident from the word 'alaikṛtām' in the text ; for Bharata means that Nāndī looks splendid with eight or twelve feet. It does not therefore follow that a verse will cease to be Nāndī if it is not beautified by eight or twelve feet and hence this condition does not form part of the "Svarūpa-ghaṭaka lakshaṇa" of Nāndī.

[ CHAP. II ] PRELIMINARIES OF DRAMA

41

in respect of measure.1 Besides this, Viśvanātha seems to take

a niggardly notice of the intitial verses in the plays of Bhava-

bhūti and Rājaśekhara which satisfy the requirements of Nāndi.

At the top of all these, the inaugural verses which amply bear

testimony to their being the Nāndi verses from all points of

view have been overlooked in case of the Veṇī-samhāra and

the Ratnāvalī, the two available dramatic pieces from which

he draws copious illustrations for other dramaturgical canons.

The explanation which he appends to the stage-direction,

'After Nāndi Sūtradhāra', and his reference to the ancient

saribal mode equally fails to stand any test, for all canonists

have very clearly stated that Nāndi is most auspicious and

is an essential part of the play to be enacted on the stage,2

and should be recited at the outset. They further prescribe

that 'after Nāndi should follow the speech of the Sūtra-

dhāra to his attendant or the actress', which forms the

Trigata element of the Pūrva-raṅga according to Bharata.

It may be added here that the grammatical interpretation of

Bharata's injunction, "that the Sūtradhāra should recite Nāndi

always there in the theatre" containing the use of the potential

'pathet' with a locative termination in 'tatre' with a modifying

adjunct 'nityam' suffixed to it ; and the authorities of the

Nāṭya-pradīpa and other canonists supported by a regular

observance of Nāndi by all the dramtürges who specifically use

the word 'Nāndi' in their stage-direction, "after the Nāndi,3 the

1. For further details vide infra, Book II- 'Kālidāsa's Model'.

2. "Tadyapyaṅgāni bhāyanisi—&c."

3. It may be mentioned here that a number of glossators in

their scholia on such dramatic texts wherein the scribes have

given the stage-direction, "Nandyante" at the top of the opening

verse have interpreted the term 'Nāndī' as used not in its

technical dramaturgical sense, but in the literal or lexical

sense. According to the lexicon Nandī means a trumpet or

ḍhakkā, the blowing of which has been a stage-practice to

signal the commencement of the show. Such a practice is in

vogue among the Chakyar's of Kerala and also in the film-theatres

of the present day where the bell is rung. This explanation is

42

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

"Sūtradhāra enters" establish that the initial verse which opens every Sanskrit drama is Invocation (nāndī) and not the Gateway (ranga-dvāra). In fact, each of the various parts of the Pūrva-raga has got a specific purpose and a special deity to propitiate ; and of them "the Nāndī", says Bharata, "propitiates the Moon",1 who represents Delight. Since the aim of all dramatic literature is principally to delight, to feast the eyes, and tickle the sentiments of the learned, the playwrights have established a practice of making Nāndi the first substantive part of the drama to reach the audience, and of making it the very essence of the Pūrva-raga, which has, no doubt, inter alia several other elements possessing individual significance.

II

INDUCTION : STHĀPANĀ

After the recitation of Nāndī, the Sūtradhāra is supposed to get out of the stage and another actor very much resembling him is to enter and introduce the occasion of the enactment of the drama, its title and the author. He is technically called the Establisher (Sthāpaka) or the Introducer. This actor presents the prelude in course of which he has to introduce conveniently the subject-matter of the drama as well. For this purpose he has to behave like a mortal being or a celestial one according to as the characters to be introduced are mortal or celestial ones. He has also to adopt the ways and manners of the characters whom he is going to usher in at the close of the prologue. During this introduction he has to use the Bhārati Vṛtti or the actor's verbal bearing. He is also supposed to refer to the critical sense of the audience in order to please them and to the artistic skill of the actors to create interest of the spectators in the performance. Invariably a song also forms part of the prologue in order to lend a musical background to the dramatic performance which is sung by the actress in attendance of the Establisher, who makes his exit surmised on account of the fact that such a stage-direction is mostly found in such texts as form the repertoire of the actors.

1. N. V. 50.

[ CHAP. II ] PRELIMINARIES OF DRAMA

after the close of the Introduction, which is technically called

the Sthāpanā1 or the Induction.

According to the scheme of the Sanskrit drama the Estab-

blisher, as stated above, appears on the stage after the exit of the

Sūtradhāra and introduces the drama to the audience. The intro-

ductory portion is seldom a monologue, and so the chief actor

(Sthāpaka) is attended by the actress (naṭī) or his associate who

is known as Pāri-pārśvaka2. In the alternative, the clown

(vidūshaka) may attend the Establisher.3

In the course of this dialogue the Establisher has to conduct

himself in the Bhāratī manner (Vṛtti,) which is purely a mode

of vocal operation of the actors who express themselves mostly

in Sanskrit. This manner is called Bhāratī, for it belongs

to the actors who are known in dramatic parlance as Bharatas

that appear as such before the spectators without assuming the

rôle of any character. The female characters, as they usually

speak in the prākṛta, are not ordinarily supposed to assume

the Bhāratī Vṛtti which admits speeches preferably in Sanskrit.

In course of the prelude to all classes of Sanskrit shows, it is

the actor who behaves qua actor and introduces the audience

to the show. It, therefore, becomes evident that the Induction

is entirely the province of the actor's performance and conse-

quently of the Bhāratī Vṛtti.

There are four sub-divisions of the Bhāratī Vṛtti which are

supposed to be present in Induction. They are :

( i ) Laudation (praśocanā) ; ( ii ) Avenue (vīthī) ; ( iii )

Humour (prahasana) and ( iv ) Insertion (āmukha).4

1. It is also known as Praśṭavanā or Āmukha :

"Āmukhum tat tu vijñeyam nāmnā praśṭavanā'pi sā //" S. D. VI.

2. Literally, it means 'one who remains by the side of the actor-in-

chief.'

3. S. D. VI, 31.

4. It may be noted that the whole Induction is presented in the

Bhāratī Vṛtti and hence the 'āmukha, as the fourth sub-division of

the Bhāratī Vṛtti may encompass the entire body of Induction

including praśocanā, Vīthī and prahasana, but what is really meant

Laudation : After the seasonal song is sung and the occasion of the play is stated, the Establisher propitiates the sense of the visitors by introducing a eulogium commending the poetical virtues of the dramaturge and panegyrizing the faculty of critical appreciation of the audience. This element of encomium is called Laudation or prarocanā inasmuch as it helps the Sthāpaka in preparing an attractive atmosphere around him with a result that the audience thereby feel interested in the play which is to be staged before them1. This first element of the Bhāratī Vritti, viz., Laudation is of two kinds : one, pertaining to the living beings and the other referring to the inanimate objects. This eulogy of the living beings may consist of the description of the merits of the author, the qualities of the visitors and the technical skill of the company of actors2. By reference to its tone the eulogy of the living beings may be again of four kinds : Gallant (udātta) as in Kālidāsa's Mālavikāgnimitram ; Vehement ( uddhata ) as in Bhavabhūti's Mālatī-mādhavam; Majestic ( praudha ) as in the plays of Rājaśekhara and Moderate (Vinita) as in Śrīharsha's plays. The Laudation pertaining to inanimate objects may be by reference to time or place, as in Kālidāsa's Śākuntalam and Bhavabhūti's Uttara-rāma-caritam.

Venue : The second element of the Bhāratī Vritti is the Vithi or the avenue. Vithi, as the element of the Bhāratī Vritti is nowhere defined but is made explicit only by means of its well-known thirteen sub-divisions. Dhanika, however, makes the term clear on etymological analogy and states that it bears

by āmukha as the fourth member of the Bhāratī Vritti is, in strictu sensu, the concluding portion of the induction which inserts the germ of the dramatic plot or makes a mention of the dramatic character with whose appearance the show proper is deemed to have started. Hence the term ‘āmukha’ is translated as Insertion or Prastāvanā in a metaphorical sense (upalakshana) as it contains the ‘āmukha’ or Insertion, the last element of the Bhāratī Vritti.

1. ‘Unmukhī-karanam tatra praśaṁsātah prarocanā’ — D. R. III-6.

2. Observe Śrīharsha's plays.

[ CHAP. II ] PRELIMINARIES OF DRAMA

the title Vīthī because it has got a long series of its sub-divisions

and they are found in all dramatic works. The Lexicon1 defines

Vīthī as the way (mārga) or a series (pañkti). Vīthī as the ele-

ment of the Bhāratī Vṛtti satisfies its import by virtue of both

of its meanings which become applicable to it in their tropical

sense.2 For it is the Vīthī because it is common like a high-

way to all the shows; it is again the Vīthī because it has a

series of thirteen sub-divisions, which are noted below :

1. Udghātyaka or abrupt dialogue : it is defined in different

ways by different authors. Bharata defines it as an element

wherein the characters combine a particular set of words of

inexplicit and equivocal sense with words of their own so as

to complete the predication of the original statement and at the

same time to convey its implications in the mind of the sub-

sequent speaker.3 For example, the Sūtradhāra in the Mudrā-

1. A. K. III; also Medinī.

2. It may be noted here that the Vīthī which is the element of the

Bhāratī Vṛtti and consists of its thirteen well-known sub-divisions

is entirely different from Vīthī which is a type of one-act plays

and is described as one of the ten principal shows (vide p. 24

supra). As this Vīthī element of the Bhāratī Vṛtti is an omnibus

element found in all types of shows or rūpakas it may equally

well be found in the one-act play which is its name-sake. The

fact that Bharata and other rhetoricians like Viśvanātha have

described the thirteen sub-divisions below the definition of the

Vīthī type of show does not by itself justify the belief that they

belong to the one-act play called Vīthī and are available every-

where. It is only on account of the priority of sections that they

are just dealt with below the type of the play. This does not

justify the identity of the Vīthī, the element of the Bhāratī Vṛtti

with the Vīthī, a type of play, for the latter is enjoined by

Bharata to have the Kaisikī Vṛtti throughout, and consequently

it cannot be a part of the Bhāratī Vṛtti. It becomes still more

evident when the canonists are found to illustrate the thirteen

members of the Vīthī by citing passages from all sorts of plays

other than those belonging to the Vīthī type. The identical names

have been sufficiently responsible for the confusion.

3. N., XVIII-168.

46

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

rākshasa while conversing with the actress in connection with the Lunar eclipse utters that Ketu wants to overpower the Candra or the moon. This clause is picked up by Cānakya as one referring to Candragupta Maurya, his protegé, and is added by a vehement ejaculation from the latter speaker "who is there that craves to subdue Candragupta so long as I am alive !" In an instance like this it is that striking catchword that adds to the piquancy of the dramatic wonder at its very outset. There is another school of thought to which belong Dhananjaya, Rāmacandra and also Abhinava Gupta-pāda who hold that the Udghātyaka consists in the presentation of a group of pithy words and their synonyms or in a striking catchism. The initial verse of the Mudrā-rākshasa is an example.

2. Avalagita or Continuance : This is defined as that element wherein a different purpose is shown to be served out of an action which never contemplated that purpose to be achieved.1 Daśarūpaka illustrates this feature from Uttara-rāma-caritam by referring to Sītā's abandonment in forest while she had gone out for a sylvan excursion in satisfaction of one of her longings during confinement.2 Viśvanātha, however, defines continuance as an element wherein, in course of the performance of a particular business, some other business akin to the former is found to be done.3 He illustrates this feature by referring to the introduction of Dushyanta who was as much carried away by the speedy antelope as the Sūtradhāra himself was done by the melodious song of the actress in the Śākuntalam.4

3. Prapañca or Compliment. It consists in mutual praise which is untrue and provokes laughter, yet it serves some ulterior purpose.5 For example, the conversation between the king and Susaṅgatā in the Kadaligrha in the Ratnāvalī wherein the

4. N. XVIII-169.

5. D. R. Ava. p. 66-L1. 4-5.

6. S. D. VI-22.

7. Śāk. I-3.

8. N. XVIII-173, D. R. III-15; N. D. 97, B. P. p. 231-1. 6.

latter is jolting at the former who concealed the picture of

of his darling at her approach presents the feature of compli-

ment.1 Avaloka, however, explains this feature as existing in

mutual praise of qualities referring to the untoward deeds2

and illustrates by the statement of Bhairavānanda in the Kar-

pūraman̄jarī3, which is not quite appropriate.

4. Trigata or Triple rendering : It is an element where simi-

larity of sound is capable of yielding more than one sense.

The statement may be a simple assertion or the one promoting

laughter.4 Kālidāsa's Vikramorvaśī presents an illustration of

this element in the twofold interpretation of the resonance of

the king's own speech construed as a response from the moun-

tain.5 Its use is recommended more in course of the Induc-

tion of a play by Śāradātanaya wherein a triad of actors is

supposed to partake in such a conversation.6

5. Chāla or Deception : It is an element to be spotted where

one is misled to believe in words which are seemingly sweet

and friendly; but are, in fact, pinching and unfriendly.7 The

result of such a belief is causing wrath, laughter or deception.

The element of Chāla expressive of wrath and ridicule may be

illustrated by the speech of Bhīma and Arjuna to the ministers-

in-attendence of Duryodhana in the Veṇīsaṃhāra in course of

which they narrate the glory of the Kaurava Prince.8

6. Vāk-kelī or Repartee : This is defined in different ways

by different authors. Viśvanātha defines it as an element exci-

ting laughter by means of two or three replies.9 Daśarūpaka

1. Rat. II–xiv–22 et seq.

2. D. R. Ava. p. 66.

3. Kar. I–23.

4. N. XVIII–179; D. R. III–16; S. D. VI–257; N. D. 98a; P. R. III–32; R. S. VII–168.

5. Vik. IV–51.

6. B. P. p. 231, 10.

7. N. XVIII–178a; D. R. III, 17a; N. D. 98; S. D. VI–257b; P. R. Ibid; R. S. Ibid.

8. Veṇī : V–26.

9. S. D. VI–269 : e. g. Rat. I. xvi–4.

calls it a speech-play arising from replying two or three times as Viśvanātha calls it or from stopping short in the middle of a speech.1 Śiṅga Bhūpāla believes that it consists in completing the predication of a sentence of incomplete predication.2 Vidyānātha and Bharata, however, say that Vāk-keli is simply a conversation in the form of questions and answers.3

7. Adhibala or Outvying : This element is found in a conversation in course of which one seeks to establish one's own point by making supporting statements.4 Daśarūpaka defines it as a dialogue in course of which one speaker outwits the other in his remarks.5 A suitable illustration is found in the Śākuntalam where in the prologue there is a conversation between the actress and the manager, the latter saying, 'Please prepare every actor carefully', the former replying, 'nothing would be amiss due to your skill of enactment', the latter again establishing his point by saying 'till the satisfaction of the learned is gained, I cannot consider my art to have reached perfection'.6

8. Gaṇḍa or Abrupt Remark : This consists in construing a sudden remark of some one else, spoken in a state of flurry as something connected with a point of the hearer.7 Kohala clears the point thus, "when something spoken or usually half uttered by a later speaker at the end of some complete statement of a previous speaker, notwithstanding any need for further predication (ākān̄kshā), such a striking construction of words presents the element of Gaṇḍa."8 It may be remembered there is no syntactical connection, as Mr. Apte9 seems to have understood,

9. D.R. III–17b; e. g. U. R. III–26.

10. R. S. III–169: e. g. A. R. II–6 et seq.

11. N. XVIII–174 : P. R. III–15.

12. N. XVIII–178.

13. D. R. III–18a; S. D. VI–260a; N. D. 96b; B. P. p. 232 Ll. 10 ...

14. Śāk. I–ii ......et seq.

15. S. D. VI–260b; N. D. 97a; D. R. III–18a; B. P. p. 232 L. 11; P. R. III–15–23 ( p. 142 ); R. S. III, 171.

16. Kohala as cited by A. B. p. 459 L. 1 ( Vol. II– G.O.S. )

17. Apte : P. S. D. p. 396 Column III–Line 1.

[ CHAP. II ] PRELIMINARIES OF DRAMA

between the former speech and the latter one, since it is purely a psychological construction quickly done by the nervous mind of the hearer in its state of flurry, fear, anger, deep remorse or similar feelings of intense character. Bharata's definition, however, is very prolix and yet vague and narrow. He calls that element as Gaṇḍa which is made up of an incomplete speech ( bahuvacana ) spoken by a person whose state of perturbance is envisaged in his very features and portends some untoward course of events which is in contradiction with the thought passing through the hearer's mind at the moment.1 The speech is so abrupt as it were a bubble ( gaṇḍa ) and creates a sensational effect on the mind of the hearer. Hence it is called Gaṇḍa. An illustration, which will clarify the point further, may be found in the Uttara-rāma-caritam in the statement of Rāma, who, while describing the charms of Sītā, says, 'what of her is not beloved; if at all there is anything extremely intolerable of her, it is her separation'. At this juncture the portress enters and states, 'your highness ! it is there'.2 Rāma asks, 'who is there ?' The portress replies, 'Durmukha.' Here the construction of an abrupt remark of the portress by Rāma as a statement connected with separation (viraha) purporting to augur that 'separation from Sītā is imminent' presents an example of Gaṇḍa.

9. Nalikā or Enigma : It is just like a tube conveying a hidden humorous remark through an enigmatical expression.3 This is of two types : internal (antar-lāpā) and external (bahir-lāpā). The former has its clue within itself, and the latter has its reference somewhere beyond itself. For example, the speech of the Sūtradhāra in the induction of the Prasanna-rāghavam has a clue to its title in that speech itself and so it is antar-lāpā.4 The other type may be illustrated by a dialogue in

10. N. XVIII-181.

11. U. R. I-38.

12. N. XVIII-174a; S. D. VI-261; N. D. 100a; P. R. III-X-4; D. R. III-19b; R. S. III-172; B. P. p. 232 L. 17.

13. PR. RĀ. I-7.

4

50 LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

the Bāla-rāmāyaṇam where, in course of its induction, reference to the title of the drama is found in a series of sentences.1

10. Asat-pralāpa or Incoherent talk : According to Dhananjaya it exists in a speech which lacks in cogency on account of sloth, insanity or puerility of the speaker.2 e. g. in the Vikramorvaśī3 Purūravasa's begging of the birds, beasts and the mountains his lost beloved in the forest. Bharata defines it as an element which consists in some salutary advice given to an unwise person who is loath to accept it.4 Viśvanātha incorporates both the views while defining this element; he offers two specimens of incoherence5 : ( i ) Lack of cogency in a statement pointed out by Dhananjaya; ( ii ) Lack of cogency in a reply given, as may be seen in the Virāja-sarojinī when the king responds, 'Not this one—No, you are then Sarojinī, for you are behaving so sweet unto me.'6 Thirdly, Viśvanātha holds that a non-acceptance of an advice given to an idiot is also a specimen of Incoherence, as in the statement of Gāndhārī to Duryodhana in the Veṇīsaṃhāra.7 Likewise, Viśvanātha and Śāradātanaya8 adhere to both these views and accept a twofold connotation for asat-pralāpa.

11. Vyāhāra or humorous talk : This consists in such a pithy remark as would be humorous and cause eagerness as well. The effect of such a talk is to serve the purpose of some one, other than the speaker in whom the latter is interested.9 To illustrate, the remark of the jester to Mālavikā going out of stage after demonstrating her dance, ‘please ! be corrected

12. B. R. I-x-4.

13. D. R. III–20a;

14. Vikra. IV-51.

15. N. XVIII–175; it may be noted that A. B. does not offer any suitable illustration to verify the view of Bharata; N. D. 99a.

16. S. D. VI–262; R. S. III–173

17. V–5.

18. Veṇī. V-ii-1 et seq.

19. B. P. p. 232 LL. 21–23.

20. S. D, VI–263 a ; D. R. III–20 b ; N. D. 56 ; P. R. p. 144–7; R. S. III–173a; B. P. p. 232, line 6.

[ CHAP. II ] PRELIMINARIES OF DRAMA

and then go', is full of wit and detains her a whit longer within the sight of her lover and causes eagerness in the mind of Ganadāsa to know where his pupil faltered in her demonstration and engenders the amorous feeling in the mind of Mālavikā as well.1 Bharata,2 however, adds a qualifying adjunct inasmuch as he calls Vyāhāra as a witty remark which presents at the moment something which is to occur later on,3 as for instance, the king in the Ratnāvalī says humorously, " by gazing at this fully blossomed creeper in the garden which is as graceful as a maiden, I shall cause the face of the queen blush with jealous indignation",4 and thereby makes a fortuitous hint to his future acceptance of Sāgarikā as his wife. On the other hand Gunacandra and Rāmacandra in their Vivṛti refer to some authority that chooses to call "that humorous remark a Vyāhāra which pertains to something ludicrous appearing before the speaker at the spot",5 as is pointed out in the words of the Vidūshaka in the Mṛcchakaṭika who prays, 'Great Cāturthika ! take pity on me', and cuts a joke at the expense of Vasantasenā's mother who was suffering from an intermittent malady.6

12. Avasandita ( also Avaspandita ) or Interpretation : This is the interpretation of a speech in a sense different from the one in which it is spoken.7 Such an artifice, according to Bharata,8 consists in a clever interpretation of a statement favourably, when it happens, unwittingly to suggest something otherwise, e. g. the statement of the Sūtradhāra in the Veṇī-saṃhāra foreboding the evil of the Kaurava princes is inter-

13. M. III V-2.

14. N. XVIII-180.

15. Abhinava Bhāratī explains the text (Pratyaksha-Vṛtti) as presenting something there and then which is to happen, as Providence will have it, sometime in future - A. B. p. 458 (Vol. III—G. O. S.).

16. RAT. II-4.

17. N. D. p. 135—L. 11.

18. M. C. IV—xxix.

19. P. R. p. 143-1-3.

20. N. XVIII-170.

preted as a description of the autumnal season.1 It also consists in giving a different interpretation to a statement spoken under the influence of some deep sentiment but requires to be reversed for reasons of practical diplomacy,2 e. g. Vāsavadattā's statement to the hand-maid in interpreting her avoidance of setting in the herb meant for crushing the co-wife while wreathing the marital garland for Padmāvatī in the Svapna play;3 or Dushyanta's retraction from his interest in the ascetic girl shown to the jester while he was returning home earlier than himself.4

13. Mṛḍava or Euphemism : This consists in mildness of statement purporting to soften the course of speech. It lies in turning faults into merits and merits into faults. It refutes the views of others, and establishes the speaker's own view by inventing good reasons for the same.5 The General calling the vice of hunting a distinct merit in the verbal contest with the jester in the Śākuntalam presents an apt example of this artifice.6

These thirteen sub-divisions of the Vīthī are invariably introduced in the course of the Induction of a drama, but it is not necessary that all of them should be brought in there only. They are to be used by the playwright in accordance with his sense of dramatic justice. These sub-divisions could be advantageously used by a dramatürge anywhere in a drama even beyond Induction. Since they are mentioned by different canonists in a varying order, it seems that there is no specific order prescribed according to which they should be put into the plot of the play. They can be repeated even more than

1. VENĪ. I-vi-2.

2. S. D. VI-861 a ; D. R. III-19 a ; N. D. 101 ; B. P. p. 232— L. 14.

3. S. V. III—L1. 64-66.

4. ŚAK. II-xix.

5. N. XVIII-177 ; S. D. VI-265 ; D. R. III-21 ; N. D. 100 ; B. P. p. 233-1. 10; P. R. p. 122-L. 2; R. S. III-174b; N. L. R. 2958.

6. ŚĀK. II-V.

[ CHAP. II ] PRELIMINARIES OF DRAMA

once if it suits the playwright to do so. These members of

the Vithi are the ornamentations of the plot as dramatic arti-

fices; and no steadfast rule in regard to their use is, therefore,

prescribed.

The third element of the Bhārati Vṛtti is prahasana1 or the

comic humour. It stirs the laughing impulse within a man

and tickles his spirit of merriment. The comic element raises

an individual above his normal mood and arouses laughter

which proceeds from witnessing something incongrous. The

incongruity may be social or personal, and may become visible

in some untoward action, moral degradation or an absurd

combination of situations. Oddity in manners, deformity

of physical features, ridiculous use of words and mimicry

generally provoke laughter. It may also be induced by indul-

gence in fun, mockery, and at times in a mild satire as well.

In short, all imitations of the common errors of human life

which are amusing are deemed capable of introducing the

comic element in a dramatic presentation.2

The comic element may be conveniently introduced in

course of Induction, for it is included among the limbs of the

Bhārati Vṛtti by Bharata. Its use at the very outset is condu-

cive inasmuch as it tends to create an atmosphere which is

favourable to a comedy. The comic element could be presented

in ten forms. They are the features (aṅga) of the prahasana,

and the following are their characteristics :

1. Avalagita3 or a Slip-down : It is an element of the comic

which consists in acting derogatory to one's own status or in

1. The prahasana as a sub-division of the Bhāratī Vṛtti is distinct from

the Farce ( Prahasana ), which is a type of a ṛpaka noticed

above. The elements of the comic are, however, common to both,

yet they differ to the same extent to which Vīthī as the sub-

division of the Bhāratī Vṛtti is said to differ from its name-sake,

which is a type of shows.

2. For further details vide Chap. VI 'On Rasas' infra.

3. "Pūrvam ātma-gṛhītāsya samācārasya mohataḥ /

Duṣaṇam tyajanam cātra dvidhā-avalagitam matam" // R. S. III-271

54

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

the abandoning of a course of action or conduct previously taken. The former may be found, so to say, in an ascetic engaged in amorous pursuits, for instance, the monk in the Prabodha-candrodayam, who addresses a nun, "O lovely lady ! how graceful, thy ample breasts."1 The other form may be available, to wit, in a Sannyāsin who renounces his asceticism and enters into a householder's life.

2. Avaskanda2 or Scooping : It consists in an attempt on the part of a group of persons each offering a ridiculous justification for being engaged in an improper action by inventing some connection of their own with it, however remote or impossible it may be, as an apology for such a stooping down. For example, a conversation of an ascetic, a Buddhist monk, and a Jain recluse who go together to a courtesan—an improper and ridiculous action for each one of them—and justify themselves by referring to their respective religious tenets in support of their conduct.3

3. Vyavahāra4 or Jocular dialogue : A humorous conversation among a few characters, whether witty or satirical, presents

4. "Ayi ! Pīna-ghana-stana-śobhanē !"...Pr. C.

5. Avaṡkandastvānekēśām ayogyasyaika-vastunah / Saṁbandhā-bhāsa-kathanāt sva-sva-yogyatva-kalpanā" // R. S.

6. Yatih : Sākṣād bhūtam vadati kucayor antaram dvaita-vādam, Bauddhah : Bhāvo bodha-kshanika-mahimā saugate datta-pādah / Jainah : Bahor mūlē nayati śucitām ārhatī kācidīkṣā, Sarvē : Nābher mūlē prathayati phalam sarva-siddhānta-sāram // A. K.

The Ascetic : The hiatus between the pair of breasts directly asserts the doctrine of duality.

The Monk : A Sentiment which has its glory in its being realised only for a moment is, no doubt, stepping into the Buddhist philosophy ( Kṣanika-Vāda ).

The Jain : A glance at the root of arms, no doubt, leads to the Ārhat's doctrine of purification.

All : At the foot of the navel there seems concentrated the essence of all the doctrines indeed.

4. "Vyavahāras sva-samvādo dvitānām hāsya-kāranam."—R. S. III.

[ CHAP. II ] PRELIMINARIES OF DRAMA

the comic element of Vyavahāra. It is very frequently found

in the conversation of clowns in dramas.

4. Vipralambha1 or Deception : It is that element of the

comic in course of which laughter is provoked by some fraud

practised upon a character by some one under the guise of a

ghost or an imp or any other super-natural being.

5. Upapatti2 or Reasoning : It is a situation where by

flight of reasoning, a ridiculous identity, contrast or any

other relationship is discovered between a well-known subject

and the object of interest under reference.

6. Bhaya3 or Consternation : It consists in the presentation

of undue fear from people like the police constables or high

officials falsely impersonated, which introduces a ludicrous

scene.

7. Anṛta4 or Falsehood : A statement full of sycophancy

or false praise is the element of Anṛta when it provokes laughter.

Siṅga Bhūpāla quotes the view of some other critic who

holds that a self-pane gyric statement is enough to constitute

this element, which may be evidenced by Bhairavānanda's

statement in the Karpūrmañjarī where he praises the epicurean

sect of his own religion.5

8. Vibhrānti6 or Misconception : In this similarity of attri-

butes is a cause of some spectral illusion as a result of which

a character is seen faltering and is by his very nature unable

to arouse sympathy of the spectators for such a delusion.

9. Gad-gada-vāk7 or Choking : It is a pretended choking

of voice or shedding crocodile tears, just to make a fun.

1. ‘Vipralambho vañcanā syād bhūtāveśādi-kaitavo’pi.’—Ibid.

2. ‘Upapattis tu sā proktā yat prasiddhasya vastunaḥ /

Loka-prasiddhyā yuktyā vā sadṛśam hāsya-hetunā’//—Ibid.

3. ‘Smṛtam bhayam tu nagara-śodhakādi-kṛto daraḥ’—Ibid.

4. ‘Anṛtam tu bhaṇed vākyam asatya-stuti-guṇphitam /

Tadev anṛtam ityāhur apare sva-mata-stuteḥ.’ //—Ibid.

5. KAR. I—xxiii.

6. ‘Vastu-sāmya-kṛto moho vibhrāntiriti gīyate.’—R. S. III.

7. ‘Asatya-ruditoṇmiśraṃ vākyam gad-gada-vāg bhavet.’—Ibid.

10. Pralāpa1 or Prattling : It amounts to a prattle when an untoward action is supported as an appropriate action in a mood by a speaker.

These are the ten forms of the comic ( prahasana ), the third element of the Bhārati Vṛtti and can be used with advantage like the members of the Vithi both within the prelude as well as beyond it. No specific order is prescribed for their use; and so, all or as many of them could be introduced once or frequently as may be agreeable to the dramatic needs of the play in hand.

The fourth element of the Bhārati Vṛtti is the Āmukha or the Introduction. In course of the Āmukha, the Sūtradhāra, in a striking manner engages himself with an actress or his associate or the jester in a pithy conversation which purposes to introduce to the audience the author and the title of the play, the occasion of the enactment and also refer to the season in which the action of the play has taken place.

Since it tells of the dramatist and the play, it is also named as Prastāvanā.2 As the actor called Sthāpaka conducts it, it is also called Sthāpanā.3 Among the items which reach the audience Prastāvanā is the one that follows immediately after Nāndi. The Āmukha or Prastāvanā ends with the introduction of any one of the following four items :

i. the story of the play by reference to some main incident, i. e. vastu;

ii. the germ of the action of the play or a hint at the main theme ( bija );

iii. the suggestion of the nucleus of the dramatic plot through a statement capable of duplicate rendering

1. “Pralāpaḥ syād ayogyasya yogyatvenānumodanām.”—Ibid.

2. S. D. Vi-32; N. L. R. 1175; B. P. p. 229-Ll. 5-9; N. D. p. 155; D. R. III-8.

3. Some canonists have tried to differentiate between Sthāpanā and Prastāvanā stating that the former is more elaborate than the latter. In fact, the former is found to be very brief in Bhāsa’s plays.

[ CHAP. II ] PRELIMINARIES OF DRAMA

( ślesha ) or yielding an oblique sense ( dhvani ), i. e. mukham; or lastly,

iv. any character who has his rôle to play in the drama,

i. c. pātra.1

In this manner the play under enactment is introduced to

the audience, and the Sthāpaka makes his exit from the stage.

Thus as the show begins, the Induction ends.2

In the opinion of Viśvanātha the Induction is of five

kinds.3 The kind depends on the particular element with

which the Induction ends. In the first two kinds,

tion ends with one of the first two sub-divisions of the

Avenue ( vithī ), namely, the Abrupt dialogue ( udghātyaka )

or the Continuance ( avalagita ). According as the nature of

the closing feature be, the Prastāvanā is called Udghātyakā or

Avalagitā.

In addition to these two kinds based on features which are

characterised by the mode of talk or the ethical import of the

conversation, Viśvanātha mentions three other varieties based

on certain factors intrinsic to Induction. They are in the

form of Kathodghāta, Prayogātiśaya and Pravartaka.

1. Kathodghāta [ Real Commencement ] : This is that form

of Induction wherein a character of the drama enters on the

stage repeating the actual words of the Sūtradhāra just at the

moment spoken by him, or reproducing the substance of such

a statement. Thus it presents two varieties in the actual prac-

tice of the play-wrights : an example of the first variety is

found in the Ratnāvalī where Yaugandharāyaṇa enters on the

stage while repeating the last śloka in the Prastāvanā which

was just uttered then by the Sūtradhāra5; whereas the second

1. S. D. VI-27.

2. Āmukha bears its name because it pervades right upto the commen-

cement of the drama proper, i. e. Mukha-sandhi.

3. S. D. VI-33.

4. It is translated as the ‘Real Commencement’, for it opens the main

episode of the drama.

5. RAT. I-vi.

58

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

variety could be spotted in the Veṇī-saṁhāra where Bhīmasena

enters on the stage by reference to the statement of the Sūtra-

dhāra towards the end of the prelude.1

The Daśarūpaka, however, adds in this connection that the

statement of the Sūtradhāra which is reiterated by the character

then entering on the stage should always be such as would

correspond to some incident connected with himself.2 The

Kāvyendu-prakāśa clears this view by stating that the reitera-

tion of the speech of the Sūtradhāra should be done with a

view to twisting its sense so that it might apply to some

thought prevailing at the moment in the mind of the entering

character.3

2. Prayogātiśaya 4 [ Personal Presentation ] : This is a

form of Induction wherein the Sūtradhāra introduces a charac-

ter ( pātra ) in so many words as, ‘here enters so and so.’

This reference could be put in the mouth of the one, acting

as the Establisher ( sthāpaka ) even for the purpose of establi-

shing some point of similarity in respect of the state, quality

or action between himself and the one of the dramatis personæ

who is presently to appear on the stage.

According to Dhananjaya Personal Presentation ( prayogāti-

śaya ) admits of both the possibilities, namely, ( i ) a simple

introduction of a character like the one found in the āmukha

of the Kunda-mālā; or ( ii ) introduction by making out some

point of similarity between the Introducer and the character

introduced, as is done by Kālidāsa in his Śākuntalam or Māla-

vikāgnimitram. But Viśvanātha draws here a distinction

between these two modes and calls the former the Prayogāti-

śaya and denominates the latter as the Avalagita kind of pro-

logue. All the same, this is clear that both the canonists are

alike in recognising the difference between the two possibilities

of Personal Presentation but differ only in nomenclature.

1. Veṇī. I-viii.

2. D. R. III-9b.

3. Kā. P. as cited by S. D. p. 285 bottom.

4. Nā-XXI-33; S. D. VI-36; D. R. III-11; N. L. R. 1201.

[ CHAP. II ] PRELIMINARIES OF DRAMA 59

3. Pravartaka1 [ Entrance of Characters ] : This is a type of Induction wherein the entrance of a character is referred to by a suggestion of resemblance between the season or the occasion under description and the nature of the character to be introduced.

Here it may be observed that it is not the tense ( kāla ) of action expressed in the concluding remarks of the Sūtradhāra that qualifies an Induction for admission to the Pravartaka class. For the expression of some tense —past, present or future—is surely to be found in the concluding speech, and as such, this feature, if so accepted, will be enough to vitiate the whole basis of classification. The Nāṭya-śāstra, however, according to the extant readings, directs that in the Pravartaka type of Induction the introduction of a character is done by means of the description of an action ( kārya ) already set in there by the Sūtradhāra.2 Thus it becomes the very converse of the Prayogātiśayā type wherein something different ensues from the action ( prayoga ) already set forth in course of the Induction. Sāgaranandin3 seems to have resorted to some common text with Viśvanātha and Dhananjaya in attributing the point of time as the determining feature of the pravartaka type of Induction. But his illustration from the Sarmishṭhā-pariṇaya distinguishes his view from those of other canonists inasmuch as it implies a different derivation of the term. Here the Sūtra-dhāra proceeds to 'do' something befitting the occasion ( kāla-kṛtya ), and thereby a character is introduced by him incidentally. According to Vidyānātha4 Pravartaka consists in the description of the attributes of the hero or some other character given towards the end of the Induction.

An illustration of the largely accepted definition of the Pravartaka may be found in the closing verse of the Induction

1. Nā - XXII-34; S. D. VI-37; D. R. III-10; N. L. R.-1213.

2. N. XVIII-33; Nā. XXII-34.

3. N. L. R. Line 1215.

4. P. R. p. 145. Line-9.

60

-LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

of the Dhūrta-viṭa-saṁvāda1 or even in that of Śudraka's Padma-prābhrtakam2.

In addition to these five types of Induction enunciated chiefly by Viśvanātha, the Kāvyendu-prakāśa has one more, which he prefers to call the Valita3 or Indirect Introduction, and defines it as the one in which a character is brought on the stage through a description of some phenomenal object. It differs from the last preceding one in so far as it (Pravartaka) introduces a character befitting the seasonal description in hand, whereas the Valita does so by means of a description of some other object. It appears that the Kāvyendu-prakāśa has tried to make the Valita form a residuary class of the Induction to which all anamolous specimens may belong, perhaps to the same extent to which the Prayogātiśaya is made by the older canonists for a similar purpose.

According to the older school headed by Bharata the so-called five kinds which are stated above are mainly the features of the Āmukha out of which two are drawn from among the members of the Avenue (Vīthī) and the three others from what are intrinsic to its own. The text of Bharata reads: " these are verily the five features of Induction.4 The Abrupt dialogue (udghātyaka) and the Continuance (avalagita ) are capable of being used in the early portion of the Induction as well as in course of the play anywhere, besides their characterising the final words of the Induction." Bharata purports to enunciate that these two elements of the Vīthī when found in the concluding words of the prologue (āmukha) become the distinguishing features of the Prastāvanā, for they tend to help in determining the character of the prelude in which the Introducer (sthāpaka) is expected to set forth the nucleus of the fable (vastu), the germ of the plot (bīja), the suggestion of incidents

1. D. V. p. 1. Ll. 9-10.

2. P. P. p. 2. Ll. 6-9.

3. "Yaḥ patrasya praveśas tad Valitam eʼnya-varnanāt." - Kā. P. as cited in S. D. p. 287.

4. "Āmukhāṅgāni paiñca vai." ... N, XX-30.

[ CHAP. II ] PRELIMINARIES OF DRAMA

(mukha), or a character (pātra) of the show. Bharata, in fact, has nowhere stated that these are the five species of the prologue, as does Viśvanātha by saying, "five are the kinds of the Prastāvanā."1

Really speaking, the kinds of the Prastāvanā appear to be only three in number, viz., the Kathodghāta, the Prayogātiśaya and the Pravartaka. These are the kinds recognised by an older authority, the author of the Dasarūpaka.2 The other two kinds enumerated by Viśvanātha are based probably upon a forced interpretation of the word, 'aṅga' occurring in the passage of Bharata referred to above. In fact, his Udghatyaka belongs to the kind of Kathodghāta and the Avalagita to the Prayogātiśaya type of Induction. If the incidence of these two members of the Vīthī were to create a distinct kind of Induction, there seems no reason why the other ones of the same are deemed incapable of doing so. As a matter of fact, any member of the Vīthī, as admitted by Viśvanātha himself, is fit to be used throughout Induction and its mere presence at a particular spot of the Āmukha could hardly be supposed to create a new kind of Induction. For, it is open to any other critic to admit any other member of the Vīthī to create a distinct variety of Induction and thus extend the classification without much appreciable reason. An instance of such an attempt is visible in Sāganandin's view3 that admits the Enigma (nālikā ) also as one of the additional 'aṅgas' of the Amukha and he rightly places his reliance upon the text of Mātṛgupta who instruc ts that 'a wise playwright may constitute the prologue of his play with its own features and also import into it any of the members of the Vīthi.' 4

In fine, the prologue (āmukha ) otherwise known as the prelude (sthāpanā ) or the Induction (prastāvanā ) can be only of three kinds as maintained by the Daśarūpaka.5 The

1. "Pañca prastāvanā-bhidah."....S. D. VI-33.

2. aṅgais - D. R.-III—Lines 8-9.

3. N. L. R. Line 1228. et seq.

4. "Svair aṅgaiscāpi vīthyaṅgaiḥ, prakuryād āmukham budhaḥ."—quoted by Rāghavabhaṭṭa—Ṭīkā On Śak. p. 13-2.

5. D. R. III-9.

62

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

Nāṭya-darpaṇa also makes the point clear in this behalf by showing that the ways of bringing in a character of the show proper to the stage are : ( i ) by adopting (a) the sentence of the Introducer or (b) the purport of his statement ; ( ii ) by accosting one of the dramatis personæ,1 which, in essence, respectively conform to the three types of the Prologue recognised by the Daśarūpaka.

Thus ends the Āmukha which is a portion in prioris to the entrance of a character of the play proper on the stage. It is just like a vow ( saṅkalpa ) which preceeds the performance of every action or which is as important as a holy station ( tīrtha ) is a pre-requisite for every gift.2 Abhinava Kāli-dāsa lays stress on the importance of the Induction by referring to an important text which compares ‘Induction to a drama’ favourably iwith the sacred syllable, Pranava ( ॐ = Om ) prefixed to all what is heard, that is, the ŚRUTI or the Vaidika texts.3

After all these preliminaries are over, then commences the Nāṭya or the res-business of the play under enactment, which otherwise is known as a ( nāṭaka ) or a dramatic piece in its merely readable form. For purposes of literary estimate, be it as a spectator or a reader, every dramatic composition is to be studied and appreciated by reference to its ( i ) subject-matter ( vastu ); characters ( pātra ); and the sentiments ( rasa ) prevailing in it. They form inter alia the three important determinants for its proper evaluation, both individually and comparatively.4

Since the very structure of a drama depends upon the narration of events, and is composed of various episodes and interesting incidents, the subject-matter, the very corpus of the dramatic work, is, in all its forms and varieties, dealt with in the following chapter.

1. N. D. verse 106a.

2. R. S. III, 136-b.

3. N. R. p. 155 Line 8.; S. D. Vi-41 b.

4. D. R. I-xi,—"Vastu-netā rasas teshām bhedakah kramāt."

CHAPTER III

DRAMATIC PLOT

The plot or Vastụ is the story of a play. It is an aggregate of all incidents and episodes brought home to the knowledge of the spectators.

By reference to its source, the plot of a play is of three kinds : the well-known (prakhyāta), the devised (utpādya), and the mixed (miśra).1 The plot is said to be well-known if it is derived from the traditional stories or popular legends and refers to the epic or the historical characters. If the story is not drawn upon the mythological or historical sources but is a creation of the poet's fancy, the plot is said to be original (utpādya), which could be illustrated by Bhavabhūti's story of Mādhava or Danḍin's story of Mallikā. The third type of the dramatic plot may be partly original and partly traditional. The plot interwoven with popular episodes and stories created by the poet's imagination is called mixed or quasi-traditional (Miśra).

Sāgaranandin, however, classifies the plot in two categories : one is Borrowed (upātta) or picked up from the tales in the Purāṇas, and the other is Adapted (prati-sanskṛta) or based on traditional stories but modified by the poet according to his own dramatic requirements.2 Whatever be the source, it is always necessary that the plot should culminate into the acquisition of any one or more of the three principal values of human life i. e purushārtha, and that it should be instructive and entertaining.

With reference to characters, the plot of a drama may contain episodes dealing with the mortal society or the celestial

1. D. R. I-15; P. R. p. 103-i; N. R. p. 75 Ll. 2-4; B. P. p. 202. Ll.1 12-13.

2. N. L. R. 47-50.

64

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

one or the both.1 The scenes may have a terrestrial back-ground

or a heavenly one. A sub-terrenean background too is

admissible.

From the point of view of protrayal, the plot of a drama

is again of three kinds, viz., the Indicative (sūcya), the Audible

(śravya), and the Narrative or Visible (unmeya or drśya).2

1. All that is preliminary or subsidiary or lengthy or unin-

resting or incapable of portrayal but needed for connecting

the different episodes of a drama belongs to the Indicative

class of events. There are certain recognised modes for indica-

ting such matters relating to the plot. They are five in number

and are called the Intermediary scenes or Arthopakshepakas

inasmuch as they set forth the subject (artha) of the play.3

( i ) Explanatory Scene (Vishkambha or Vishkambhaka ) :

It presents before the audience those portions of the story

which link the events that have already taken place and those

that are yet to happen.4 It purposes to make a long and short

of past events and acquaint the spectators with them so that

they can easily pick up the yarn of the story and connect the

events that are to follow. Such a scene may be a monologue

or a conversation between two or more characters.

If an Explanatory Scene is presented by such characters of

intermediate status (madhyama) as speak Sanskrit, it is said to

be a pure 'one (suddha vishkambhaka).5 Even a female charac-

ter has to speak in Sanskrit if she is admitted to participate

in an Explanatory Scene.6 An Explanatory Scene is said to be

mixed or (saṅkirṇa, miśra) if it is presented by characters, some

1. D. R. I–16.

2. D. R. I–56; P. R. p. 114 top; B. P. p. 214–L.15; N. D.–X.

3. N. XIX–108; S. D. Vi–45; D. R. I.–58; P. R. p. 114; N. R.

p. 80 6. B. P. p. 214 Line 31; R. S. III–177..; N. L. R. 394.

4. N. XVIII–106; M. M. p. 65; P. R. p. 115 verse 19; S. D. Vi–55;

D. R. I–59; B. P. p. 215, Ll. 2–3; N. D. p. 23; N. R. p. 80 Ll.

8–9; R. S. III–178.

5. All references follow Ref. No. 4 above.

6. N. D. p. 38 Line 7.

[ CHAP. III ]

DRAMATIC PLOT

63

of whom speak in Sanskṛit and others use any of the Prākṛta dialects.

Bhojadeva observes that an Explanatory Scene may be conveniently used in the first Act of the play, or just after the Induction is over. Its use may serve the purpose of narrating earlier events which are to be necessarily known before the main action ( vastu ) is set forth.

( ii ) Introductory Scene (Praveśaka) : The second mode of indication is the use of an Introductory Scene. Its function is almost the same as that of the Vishkambhaka, but it is presented by inferior characters in a language which is not elevated (udātta). It serves the purpose of explaining matters omitted between two Acts.

Kohala prefers its use in the Opening Juncture (mukha-sandhi) of a drama.

It is intended never to be used in the first Act, for its definition clearly prescribes that it is always to be put in between two Acts. In a Praveśaka, Bharata says, all characters should use the Prākṛta language, but Śāradātanaya and Sāgaranandin following Mātṛgupta permit the use of Sanskrit also in case the Praveśaka is conducted by such characters as the ascetics, brāhmaṇas, sages, kañcukins and ṛakes (viṭa).

According to Bharata, the Praveśaka has a five-fold purpose to serve : ( i ) It is meant for indication of time including the season or the part of the day in which the action is taking place; ( ii ) The inner purpose of some particular move is also explained by means of the Praveśaka; ( iii ) A state of bewilderment ( sambhrama ) due to plurality of action or the implicit nature of some momentous acts could be

1. Śr. Pr. ( cited by B. P. p. 215 ).

2. N. V. as cited by A. B, Vol. II. ( G. O. S. ) p. 434. Ll. 5–6.

3. N. XVIII-36; D. R. I-60; S. D. Vi-57; N. D. 26; M. M. p. 66. ll. 6–7; P. R. p. 116 verse 22; N.R. p. 81–17–8; R. S. III. 194; N. L. R. 305–360; B. P. p. 216 ( Śāradātanaya allows certain Sanskrit speaking characters like the Kañcukin, etc. to lead the Praveśaka.

4. N. Ibid. ( Prakṛta bhasha-evarah).

5. B. P. p. 216, Ll. 7–10; N. L. R. Line 315.

5

brought out through a Praveśaka; ( iv ) Sometimes a major endeavour or the attainment of some expedients likely to help the consummation of the principal motif is indicated by a Praveśaka; ( v ) It may also be used for introducing the nucleus of the events of the succeeding act.1 Sāgaranandin observes that a Praveśaka could also be employed for the purpose of intimating long journeys·and sketching the happenings in course of such journeys.2 In fact, it is an effective device for condensing events ranging over a long duration of time. It is employed mostly in such cases where even at the end of an Act the argument could not be completely set forth because of multiplicity of motives and actions.3

The Nāṭya-darpana recommends the use of this scene as well as of the former in four types of shows only, namely, in the Nāṭaka, the Prakarana, the Nāṭikā and the Prakaraṇī.4 Its recommendation seems to be merely a measure of expediency. For the four types of shows chosen by it have a cobweb of events and such a scene becomes essentially necessary to the succintness of the presentation. On the other hand, the Vyāyoga and the Bhāṇa and other shows have, on account of shortness of action, no complication of events; and hence the Intermediary Scenes become out of place there. Vishkambhaka, however, can be conviently used even in short plays at the close of the Prelude.

The statement of the Nāṭya-darpana, therefore, does not amount to an established principle of dramaturgy ; nor has it any support in Bharata's canons, which simply recommend that a Praveśaka should be employed in the Prakaraṇa and the Nāṭaka by wise playwrights.5

1. N. XVIII-37.

2. N. L. R. Line 340.

3. Ibid., Line 328; also N. XVII, 87–88.

4. N. D. I–26.

5. N. XVIII 35. It may be noted here that there are so many variant readings available for this passage whereby it does not become conclusive if at all Bharata means to prescribe any limitation to the use of the Praveśaka.

[ CHAP. III ]

DRAMATIC PLOT

( iii ) The Intimation Scene ( Cūlikā ) : The third mode of indication of events is the use of Cūlikā in which the background events are presented through characters that speak from behind the curtain.1 The characters in the Cūlikā may be of either sex, and the choice of the language is immaterial. The name, Cūlikā is derived from the term Cūḍa meaning a crest, and it signifies that it is supposed to be spoken, as it were from void, from behind the screen, say, the green-room. The expression, "from behind the screen ( nepathye )" is a usual stage-direction to denote the use of Cūlikā. Unlike the Vishkambhaka and the Praveśaka it could be used even in the middle of an Act, and may also find place among the other modes of Introduction ( arthopakshepakas ).2

Abhinava Kālidāsa and the Kāvyenduprakāśa mention that Cūlikā is of two varieties : It is called Khaṇḍa-cūlikā if it consists of intimation of facts from within the curtain by characters whose entrance and exit are not noticed by the audience. This is used in the beginning or the middle of an Act. On the other hand, if the entrance and the exit of the characters to and from the tiring-room ( nepathya ) is within the view of the audience, it is an Akhaṇḍa-cūlikā. This is generally used towards the end, and less frequently, at the beginning of an Act.3

( iv ) Continuation Scene (Añkāvatāra) : The fourth mode of indication is the use of an Añkāvatāra in which the actors intimate the theme and the argument (bijārtha-yukti) of the succeeding Act.4 Where a closing Act and an opening Act are

1. N. XIX-111; N. L. R. 412; S. D. VI-58; P. R. p. 115 verse 20; B. P. p. 219; D. R. I 61b; N. R. p. 80-14; R. S. III-182-87, M. M. p. 66-3; Aśmakuṭṭa agrees with N. D. 26.

2. B. P. p. 219-24.

3. N. R. p. 80·Ll. 17-24; Kā. P. as cited in S. D. p. 293 bottom.

4. N. XXI-115; D. R. I-62; P. R. 116-Ll. 8-11; B. P. p. 218-Ll. 15-20; S. D. VI-58; N. D. 27a; N. L. R. 896; M. M. p. 66, Ll. 7-8; N. R. p. 81-4; R. S. III, 191-93.

It is submitted for critical judgment that the inclusion of the aṅkāvatāra among the Introductory Scenes does not look to be logi-

68 LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

not intervened by an Intermediary Scene, the concluding portion of the former is, in that case, known as the Añkāvatāra. It is not found at the commencement of any Act like the Vishkambhaka or the Praveśaka but only towards the end. One of the features of the Añkāvatāra, in the opinion of Śrīkṛshṇa Kavi, is that the approach of the characters to appear in the subsequent scene is not foreshadowed in course of this scene, but the argument runs on to the following Act without an interruption (i. e. asūcitāñka-pāitram).

( v ) Anticipatory Scene : Añkāsya or Añkamukha : It is a scene in which the subject of all acts is intimated in a nutshell. It is generally used in the first Act of a play, as is done in the Mālatī Mādhavam wherein in course of the talk of Kāman-dakī, a bird's eye view of the entire dénouement is given. This is how Bharata defines the añkāsya or añkamukha as he calls it.1 Dhanañjaya,2 however, defines it as a scene which contains a reference to the subject-matter of the following Act made by the characters at the end of an Act. Dhanika seeks an illustration to this view in the Mahāvīra-caritam Act II in the Scene of Sumantra.3 The Sāhitya Darpana bears out both the views as alternative connotations of the term añkāsya and cites the very examples to illustrate the definitions.4

At any rate it is evident that an añkāsya with its latter connotation has very little to distinguish itself from an añkāvatāra.

cally correct inasmuch as it is an act in continuation of the previous cne. It does not conform to the generic class of the arthopakshepakas, as it does not copulate the two Acts by the thread of missing facts. If the arthopakshepaka were to connote a very general significance so as to include scenes also, then every scene, as it presents some event or the other, will be an arthopakshepaka and the speciality of the class will sink.

1. Nā. XXI-116 —“Sūtranām sakalāñkānām jñeyam aikamukham budhaiḥ.” N. L. R. 406 ; B. P. p. 217 bottom ; M. M. p. 66.

2. D. R. I. 62a; P. R. p. 116 top ; N. R. p. 80 bottom ; N. D. I. 62a.

3. AVA. p. 32, Ll. 22-27.

4. S. D. VI-59b-60.

[ CHAP. III ] A : DRAMATIC PLOT

Besides these five popular modes of introduction of events there is still one more method of doing so by means of inserting an Act within an Act, which is known as a subsidiary Act or the Garbhāñka. It consists in the presentation of a small sub-show containing the pivot or the germ of the dramatic plot. It is set in the midst of an Act of the major part of the play and is very efficacious as a camouflage or an effective mode for introducing any marvel in the story. An example of this is found in the second Act of Rājaśekhara's Bālarāmāyaṇam or garbhāñka or an Embryo Act has to satisfy all the requirements of a show and has a short prelude and its own independent motif which, of course, ultimately helps the fruition of the main cause.1 The Nāṭya-darpaṇa, however, calls garbhāñka to be another name for the añkāvatāra described above, and cites the second Act of the Ratnāvalī by way of its illustration.2

For purposes of convenience, it is recommended that the first two types of Introductory Scenes, namely, Viṣkambhaka and Praveśaka should be used by a playwright when he has to condense matters of long duration and requires sufficient length for the intermediary action. When the matter to be brought out through these scenes is comparatively small, then the añkamukha should be used. If the matter is still less than what could be intimated through an añkamukha, then cūlikā should be used, and when it is of the least duration, añkāvatāra is to be introduced.3 With regard to the situation of the various types of the Introductory Scenes Kumārasvāmī observes in his Ratnāpaṇa that the añkāsya and the añkāvatāra have their situation in the midst of an Act; viṣkambha and praveśaka are placed always without the Act, and cūlikā has its situation both within and without an Act.4

2. The presentable matter is comprised of all important incidents and may be divided into two classes : one, consist-

3. S. D. VI·20.

4. N. D. p. 41, Line 5.

5. Ibid. I-27.

6. Ratnāpaṇa : p. 116, Ll. 9-11.

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ing of a conversation between two or more characters appearing on the stage before the spectators, and the other consisting of a monologue wherein a single character speaks on the stage, and for a response looks at the sky and iterates the other part of the conversation as though he is hearing the reply from the void. The latter talk he opens with the phrase, 'what do you say' or 'do you say so'.1 Both the question and the answer are uttered by only one character in this type of monologue which is known as a 'speech from void' or ākāśa-bhāṣitam.2 According to Nakhakuṭṭa, a monologue anticipating speeches from void can be used in course of the Induction as well as in the body of the drama.3 The matter thus presented to the spectators in either form so as to become audible to them has a technical name, 'prakāśam'.4

3. The subject-matter which is not supposed to be heard by the spectators but remains to be inferred by them so as to get explained in due course is something which is only seen by them on the stage and may be called as visible or dṛśya or unmeya. This class of subject-matter is of four-fold character :

( i ) The first kind of such matter is that which is spoken by a character to himself. It contains his own feelings about a matter or an event which he does not want the other characters to know. It also includes the soliloquies of a character which are of scheming nature. Such portion of the plot is called 'as said to oneself', i. e. 'svagatam' or 'ātmagatam'.5 It is, of course, inaudible to others.

1. "Kím bravîshi iti."

2. Nā-XXVI-80 ; D. K. I.-67 ; N. D. 13b; S. D. VI-140 ; B. P. p. 220, Ll. 3-4 ; N. R. p. 81, Ll. 18-19 ; R. S. III-200 ; M. M. p. 60, Ll. 20–21.

3. "Nepathyoktam śrutam yatra tvakāśa-vacanami tathā / Samśrīyāpi kartavyam āmukham nāṭakādishu" //... S. D. VI-89.

4. S. D. VI-138a ; D. R. I-64 ; N. D. 12a ; B. P. p. 229-18 ; M. M. p. 60 12 ; N. R. p. 81–3 ; R. S. III-297.

5. Nā-XXVI-81-81-82a ; S. D. VI-137 ; D. R. I-64 ; N. D. 12a; B. P. p. 219-18.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT

( ii ) The second type of such matters is what is termed as the 'apavāritam', which is spoken aside to one person to the exclusion of others. It is generally presented on the stage by turning the face of the speaker drawn night to the hearer.1 This is, in fact, a talk in confidence.

( iii ) The third type is an exclusive speech or the 'janānti-kam' which is purported to be heard by all to the exclusion of one or more characters present at the time.8 Such speech is symbolised by screening the hearer or the hearers by means of a twisted slanting palm with first three fingers raised by the speaker by means of curving his third finger.2 Such a posture of the hand of the speaker is called 'tripatāka'.3 Janāntika is, therefore, a sort of personal address.

( iv ) There is still a fourth type. At occasions it becomes necessary to hide a particular scheme or a plot which is yet under contemplation from the audience or the readers until it matures. The concealment of facts is really in the interest of maintaining unity or the uniformity of interest in the plot. At such occasions, the scheme is told secretly to the person concerned and the stage-direction is in the form of "so and so in the ear ( karne evam evam )."4 At its proper place when the scheme materialises, it is, of its own accord, brought home to the audience.5

The three-fold classification of the plot, as mentioned above, has been done by reference to its source, the nature of characters introduced in it, and its mode of representation. But so far as the the constituent elements are concerned, the plot

1. Nā. XXVI-82b; S. D. VI-138a; D. R. I. 66b; B. P. p. 220–1 ; M. M. 60–17 ; N. R. 81.

2. Nā. XXVI-83 ; S. D. VI-139 ; D. R. I-65b-66a ; N. D. 13a ; R. S., III-202 ; B. P. p. 219 Ll. 21–22 ; M. M. p. 69, Ll. 14 16 ; N. R. p. 81, Ll. 15–16.

3. N. IX-26; M.M. p. 60. Ll. 22–25; N.D. p. 31-21; R.S. III-203.

4. The name given to it is 'Karṇe nivedyam'—Nā. XXVI-84.

5. It may be noted that 'svagaṭam' is 'aśrāvya or not to be heard, whereas, the apavārita, the janin'ika and the karṇe nivedya are 'niyata-śrāvya' or to be heard by the few.

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is mainly divided into the one, which is known as the principal (ādhikārika) and the other, which is called subsidiary or the prasaṅgika.

1. Ādhikārika is that portion of the dramatic plot which consists of incidents that are connected with the adhikārin. An adhikārin is that who is possessed of ‘adhikāra’, which is technically defined by Dhananjaya as the ‘possession or enjoyment of the desired result.’ Thus the person whose attainment of a particular object is the main purpose of the plot is known as the adhikārin, and all the episodes directly connected with him constitute the main or the principal part of the plot, which is, therefore, called the ādhikārika or pradhāna.1 The subsidiary part of the plot deals with incidents or activities connected with persons other than the adhikārin. The activities done by such subsidiary characters form the incidental subject in the plot, because such activities of the minor characters purport to fulfil the ends of the motif of the play.2 The doers of the auxiliary tasks may have, if at all, some subsidiary interest of their own, but on the whole, all their activities are supposed to inure to the benefit of the hero or the adhikārin of the play.

The subsidiary (prasaṅgika) portion of the plot is again of three kinds.3 (i) the Episode or Patākā, (iii) the Incident or the Prakarī, and (ii) the Indication of Episodes or the Patākāsthanakas. They are defined by the dramaturgists as follows :

(i) Patākā : It is that portion of the plot which deals with the activities of a person who acts in aid. of the principal cause. It is of sufficient duration (vyāpi) and ranges to a large extent of the execution of the main incident in the plot.*

1. N. XIX-3-5a ; S. D. Vi-43 ; D. R. I-12 ; N. D. 10a ; N. L. R. 224 ; B. P. p. 201, Ll. 5-6 ; M. M. p. 59 Ll. 23–24 ; R. S. III-19.

2. N. XIX-5b ; S. D. VI-44a ; D. R. I-13 ; N. D. 10a ; B. P. p. 201-6 ; M. M. p. 59–25.

3. B. P. p. 201, Ll. 11–12.

4. N. XIX-25 ; S. D. Vi-67a ; D. R. I-13b ; N. D. 29a ; N. L. R. 191 ; B. P. p. 201 Line 13 ; P. R. p. 107 top ; M. M. p. 61-6 ; R. S. III-14.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT 73

The subsidiary portion of the plot, namely, patākā, may have stages of beginning, endeavour, and fulfilment of its own part of the action which may be conveyed only by means of intimation. The different stages of the subsidiary action are not marked separately. They are called 'anusandhis' and remain within the junctures of the main plot.1 The helper in the main cause also is called Patākā(-nāyaka), since his actions are just like a banner signifying the success of the principal character in the achievement of his object.

According to the instructions of Bharata, the element of Patākā should, strictly speaking, cease to pervade beyond the stage of Catastasis ( garbha sandhi ) or the latest by the Epitaxis (vimarśa sandhi).2 In course of the Apodosis ( nirvahana sandhi ), the action in the drama reaches the stage of fulfilment, and so it is deemed high time for the prevalence of the subsidiary action of the Patākā. Although the general practice is to retire the Patākã by the juncture of Development (garbha) or of Pause ( vimarśa, ) still in certain cases—more-likely in Nāṭikās—the patākā may occupy some position even in the juncture of Conclusion (Upasaṃhāra sandhi), as does Yaugandharāyaṇa in the Udayana plays.3

1. N. D. 33b.

2. N. XIX 30 ; S. D. VI-68a ; N. D.-29b ; N. L. R. 194 ; B. P. p. 201, Line 26.

3. The limit prescribed by Bharata for the duration of the Patākā is upto the Garbha or the Vimarśa Sandhi. The limiting sense is denoted by means of the particle 'ā (āḍi)' which is used both in the sense of including as well as excluding the terminus. Hence the rule of Bharata gives a scope for the discretion of the playwright to terminate the operations of the Patākā with the close of the Pratimukha or the Garbha Sandhi or to do so at the end of the Vimarśa Sandhi as well. At any rate, from all points of view, the extent of the action of the Patākā is, no doubt, permitted to prevail in course of the three above-mentioned stages of action, the details of which are discussed below. Abhinava Bhāratī, however, seems to favour even further extension of the Patākā, and holds the view that it can accede even within the Juncture of Conclusion as well.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

The leader of the Patākā may or may not have a personal end to be served in rendering such services as is shown above in furtherance of the cause of the hero. For instance, in all dramas dealing with the earlier life of Rāma, the character of Sugrīva is a Patākā, for all his efforts are meant to foster the cause of Śrī Rāma in regaining his lost wife. Yet he has a gain of his own in the acquisition of his lost kingdom. Similar is the case of Makaranda in the Mālatī Mādhavam, for all his endeavours are for the sake of the hero, but he has all the same a gain for himself in his marriage with Lavaṅgikā which is concomitant with the marriage of Mādhava with Mālatī. But in cases like that of Vidūshaka in the Mālavikāgnimitram there is no personal gain, however, remote, but all the contrivance is meant for securing Mālavikā for Agnimitra. According to Viśvanātha where the leader of the patākā has an interest of his own as well, that much action of the patākā which is to further the main cause would be the Episode proper ( patākā ) in the plot of the play ; whereas that portion which deals with the personal achievement of the leader of the Episode will not be termed as Patākā, e. g. the scene of installation of Sugrīva on the throne of Kishkindhā will not be so termed.1 The Nāṭya-darpana, however, does not appear very

1. "Patākā-nīyakasya syāt na svakīyām phal·niṣṭaram"—S. D. VI 67b.

The language of the text is rather ambiguous, for if that portion of the action which involves the personal acquisition of the leader is not to be included in Patākā, it, then, becomes difficult to find out a sub-division in the plot wherein such subsidiary action may find its position. Despite this difficulty Mm. Śivadatta Śarmā seems to explain the text of Viśvanātha so as to exclude the subsidiary result from the range of Patākā.* Rāmacaraṇa Tarkavāgīśa also holds out the same view.† Mm. Durgāprasāda has an ingenious interpretation to offer. He means that the subsidiary end, when achieved, is only a short phase ; and as it is not Vyāpi it is not Patākā proper. If at

• Rucirā—p. 452, Ll. 5 et seq.

† Vivṛti—p. 297, Ll. 1-6.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT 75

much to favour the point of Patākā having some motive of its own for personal acquisition.1

( ii ) Prakarī is an incident which is casual and occupies a small portion of the dramatis res-business.2 It also helps the main cause but its length of duration is much shorter than

all the term is applied to it, it is only in a secondary sense. In fact, the subsidiary end is not the leader's gain, but is another secondary achievement of the principal hero as his friend's advantage, and so it is beyond the purview of Patākā.* According to Mm. Haridāsa, Viśvanātha purports to say that the leader of the Patākā in the first place has no personal gain to make out of his efforts, yet, if at all there is any gain, it should be all over before the close of the Epitasis, and if at all the Patākā continues to participate into some action upto the Apodosis, it is purely for the hero and meant for the fruition of his ambitions.† It may, however, be submitted that the text of Viśvanātha means that the leader of the Episode may not, in general, have a cause different from the principal one. Whatever is his gain, it is, in fact, the subsidiary gain of the hero himself. In fact, Viśvanātha forbids the presence of more than one motif to exist concurrently in course of an action of the play. The personality of the Patākā is to submerge into that of the hero; and all that the Patākā can expect to have something is only as a meed for his valuable assistance in fulfilling the main motive, so as to mark, along with the success of the hero, a common glory of all and a comedy at all fronts, as is seen in the illustration of Sugrīva's installation which follows Rāma's acquisition of Sītā.‡

1. N. D.—I-29.

2. N. XIX-26; S. D. VI-68b; D. R. I-13b; N. D.-82a; B. P. p. 201-13 ; P. R. p. 107 top ; M. M. p. 61-7.

• Chāyā—p. 296, Ll. 4 et seq.

† Kusuma-pratimaī p. 316, Ll. 6 et seq.

‡ Cf. Shakespeare's 'As you like it' where the hymeneal hymn marks the joys of all : Audrey & Oliver at the end; or of the Pataka and the Prakarī in Gratiano and Lorenzo's rejoicings along with Bassanio's happy acquisition of Portia in the Merchant of Venice.

76 LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

that of Patākā. The leader of Prakari has no personal end to serve at all.1 It has no stages of action for itself and hence no ‘anusandhis’.2 To illustrate, in all the plays dealing with Rāma's life, the performance of Jaṭāyu reveals no interest of his own save the one of helping the cause of Rāma. Likewise the help of Saudāminī in the Mālatī Mādhavam may be deemed a suitable illustration of Prakari. It generally occupies a posterior position to Patākā in the progress of the dramatic plot. ‘Like Patākā’, observes Viśvanātha, ‘prakari does not embody within its purview any fruit or advantage which its leader may have incidentally derived from the assistance so rendered by him.’3 To support this view, the acquisition of absolution by Jaṭāyu is referred to by Tarkavāgiśa.4

Śāradātanaya, however, has a different meaning to attribute to the term ‘prakari’. He defines that just as flowers and rice are the decorations for a sacrificial altar so is Prakari to the plot of a play, which consists of description of some season or other beautiful phenomenon suitable to the occasion.5 But this view of Śāradātanaya does not find support in the Nāṭya Śāstra or any other extant work on dramaturgy.6 Though some

1. R. S. III-14.

2. B. P. p. 234, Line 10.

3. S. D. Vi—69a.

4. Vivṛti-p. 297, Line 10 : It may, however, be added here that none of the extant dramas dealing with the incident of Jaṭāyu brings on stage his acquisition of liberation from the world and hence it seems quite beside the point.

5. B. P. p. 202, Ll. 4 5 ; Mm. Durgāprasāda Dviveda reads as : “Śobhāyai vedikādīnām yathā pushpākshatādayah / Athartu varnanādinām prasaṅge prakarī bhavet” //—Chāyā p. 297. Śāradātanaya does not give any example of this type of his Prakarī, contrary to his ususal practice of illustrating these points with apt denotations from among the classical dramas.

6. If at all this is borrowed from any ancient canonist, it may be Kohala, Mātṛgupta or Subandhu whose works among those of others are not available for reference. At any rate, Rāghava Bhatta invokes the authority of Śāradātanaya to support his

[ CHAP. III ]

DRAMATIC PLOT

77

sort of description which pertains to the season or any other natural phenomenon forms one of the recommended conventions in a dramatic composition, still to allot so important a position to the description of an environment as it may occupy a complete sandhi and be one of the five elements of the plot is a little too much to think. This view hardly seems to be borne out even by the practice of the playwrights. It seems, therefore, sufficiently doubtful to uphold that Sāra-dātanaya ever had this view of allowing the descriptions of seasons to play the rôle of Prakari in a drama. Singa Bhū-pāla who makes a reference to Śārdātanaya's work reads that the position of Prakari in a play is as ornamental as the flowers have on an altar, which seems to be more in keeping with the spirit of the text.1

( iii ) A Patāka-sthānaka is an indication of a matter other than what is contemplated by the mention of something which, though extraneous, tends to oblige the motif of the play. The matter thus indicated may be either means or an end, but it should help the attainment of the main cause in the

contention that the description of the spring season in the sixth Act of the Śakuntala forms the Prakarī, as he does, not to believe the episode of Kanva, the fisherman or Mātali as the point of Prakarī.* Curiously enough, Mm. Śivadatta Śarmā includes this citation of the Śākuntala's reference of the Vi Act into the statement of Śāradātanaya, which is not borne out by the available text of the Bhāvaprakāśa. ( G. O. S. )†

1. A reading of similar import is found in the printed text of the Bhāvaprakāśa ( G. O. S. p. 202, Ll. 4–6 ). It is, however, yet to be found as to which text was relied on by Rāghava Bhaṭṭa, from whom seem to borrow without further reference such scholiasts as Mm. Śivadatta Śarmā‡ and Mm. Durgāprasāda § and others.

• For further details Vide Book II, Chap. I, Sec. VIII Infra.

† B. P. p. 202, Ll. 4 ...

‡ Rucirā : p. 453.

§ Chāyā : p. 297, Foot-note 2, lines 2–5.

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dramatic action. It is an ornament of the dramatic plot and

its use is recommended as often as possible in a drama. No

show is deemed to be perfect unless it is decorated by the

Patākā-sthānaka at least once. It differs from Patākā in the

sense that the former is an intermittent artifice unlike the latter

which contains some continuous matter prevailing over a large

extent of the action. It is, in fact, a point of pivot which

gives at times an interesting turn to the dramatic action and

involves a course of pathetic fallacy as well. Sāradātanaya

adds that this artifice helps a good deal in anticipating the opera-

tions of Patākā1; or a future event is hinted by something under

some pretext or the other. Bharata and Dhananjaya2 expli-

citly define a Patākā-sthānaka as a spot where a sudden

introduction of some extraneous matter indicates, by virtue of

certain common characteristics, something already begun or

is about to begin.

The point of similarity between the indicating matter

and the matter indicated may again be either in respect

of situations ( samvidhāna ) or in respect of attributes ( vīśe-

shana ). Consequently, the patākā-sthānaka is of two kinds :

one, known as ‘tulya-samvidhānaka’ or that which bears similarity

between the matter indicating and the indicated. In this case

the alankāra of anyokti offers the indication. Second, known as

‘tulya-vīśeshanaka’ is that which indicates the matter of simila-

rity of attributes. In this case it is samāsokti or the figure of

suggestion that makes the indication. The author of the Rasār-

nava-sudhākara adds that the former is again of three kinds,

and the latter is a type by itself. Thus the Patākā-sthānakas

are, in all, four in number which is in keeping with the

Bharata’s dictum on the subject.3 No specific names are given

to them, but they are distinguished inter se by the use of the

ordinal numerals prefixed to them. According to Bharata

and his followers they are verily defined as below :

1. B. P. p. 202-Ll. 8 9.

2. N. XIX-31 ; D. R. I-14 ; S. D. Vi-45 ; N. R. p. 120-5.

3. R. S. III-16, B. P. p. 203, Ll. 3-11.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT 79

1. The first (prathama) Patākā-sthānaka consists of an abrupt revelation of facts which result in the acquisition of a desired object. The abruptness is the source of wonder in this case, and it amuses the visitors on account of the unexpected turn that the events take in course of the dramatic action.1 For instance, when Sāgarikā in the Ratnāvalī strangles herself to death, the king Udayana takes her to be Vāsavadattā and relieves her of the noose. A moment later, the hero recognises her and says, 'O ! how, my darling Sāgarikā !'2 Here on account of similarity of situation there occurs an interesting pivot in the action, and so it presents the first and the foremost type of Patākā-sthānaka.

2. It becomes a second (dvitīya) type of Patākā-sthānaka where a statement is full of suggestion on account of its text being capable of giving out more than one sense.3 An example of the same is visible in the Veṇīsaṃhāra where the Stage-manager says, "may the sons of Kuru become svastha along with their servants !"4 The statement arouses the wrath of Bhīmasena, who calls out, "how could the Kauravas become comfortable so long as I am alive !" and then construes the statement by virtue of paronomasia (ślesha) so as to mean that the Kauravas are despatched to heavens, which is only a euphemism for their being killed in the field of battle.

3. The third Patākā-sthānakā presents itself at a spot where a duplicate sense brought forth by means of a play on words suggests an idea which falls in suit with the subject-matter in discourse.5 This is more appreciable when it consists of an equivocal catechism, as is presented in the Chamberlain's dialogue with Duryodhana in the second Act of the Veṇīsaṃhāra

4. N. XIX 32; S. D. VI 46; B. P. 202, Ll-18-19 ; R. S. III–17 ; N. D. 31a; N. L. R. 1007.

5. Rat. III xvi-8.

6. N. XIX 33; S. D. Vi-47 ; B. P. p. 202, Ll. 20–21 ; R. S. III–18; N. D. 31a ; N. L. R. 1016.

7. Veṇī. I–7.

8. N. XIX 34; S. D. VI-48; B. P. p. 202, Ll. 22–23; R. S. p. 113; N. D. 31b ; N. L. R. 1023.

or in the dialogue of Cānakya and Siddhārthaka in the Mudrā-rākshasa.1

4. The fourth (caturtha) patākā-sthānaka becomes available where there is some statement full of pun which is directly related to the subject-matter of the play and brings in suggestively the motive of the action.2 A suitable illustration is found in the Ratnāvalī, where by common adjectives capable of yielding dual sense, reference is made to the acquisition of Ratnāvalī who is put together with Vāsavadattā as her co-wife.3

It may be noticed here that these four patākā-sthānakas can be frequently used by the playwrights according as it suits their sense of dramatic justice. There is no point in making express rules for their use as some seem to prescribe to the effect that these four patākā-sthānakas should be used in succession in the first four Junctures commencing with the Pro-tasis in a drama.4 The Juncture of Conclusion should, therefore, have no Episode-indication according to this school of thought.5 This opinion hardly stands to any reason; for the dramatic embellishments as these artifices are, they can be used in any order and anywhere and as many times as they cater to the taste of the visitors' sense of appreciation and the playwright's art of execution. The view with regard to the free use of these indications is upheld by Viśvanātha and also finds support in the practice of the playwrights.6 The Nātya-darpana reverses the order of the third type into the fourth and the vice versa,7 but as the numerical order has very little to do with the order of merit and use, it is an insignificant divergence from the aphorisms of Bharata.

1. Venī. II-xxiii-2-7; M. R. p. 88-Ll. 1-4.

2. N. XIX-35; S. D. VI-49 B. P. 23-1-2; N. D. 31b; N. L. R. 1034; R. S. Ibid.

3. Rat. II-iv.

4. N. L. R.-1037.

5. Ibid. 997.

6. S. D. p. 291, Ll. 9-10.

7. N. D. vide pp. 45, 46.

[ CHAP. III ]

DRAMATIC PLOT

81

These are the several divisions of the subsidiary plot.

Every thing else is the main theme of the drama which covers

the entire stretch of action of the principal character, who

reaps the fruits of his own labour as well as of the endeavours

of all those who support him. The main action, therefore,

must necessarily have a beginning and an end. But as these

two stages cannot coalesce so as to endure the interest in the

action, the beginning and the end must be intervened by

obstructions, efforts for their removal, success of such efforts

and consequently the ultimate success in the undertaking. It

seems to be the natural course for dispensation of facts if

they are presented with an abiding interest before the spectators

and readers. In view of this psychological phenomenon, the

entire dramatic action is divided into five stages.1 They are

known as Commencement (ārambha), Endeavour (yatna),

Prospect of Success (prāptyāśā), Certainty of Success

(nīyatāpti), and Consummation (phalāgama) or attainment

of fruit.

These stages are defined by Bharata as follows :

1. Commencement (ārambha) :- It is that stage of action

which reveals the inclination and zeal of the principal hero

for achieving the object of his desire. As the will preceeds all

action, it is the expression of a will and an effective will

that pervades the first course of the dramatic action.2

2. Endeavour (prayatna) :- It is a zealous pursuit after

the object of desire that marks the second stage of action.

It also covers the expression of anxiety which is a mental

phenomenon and propels the hero to find and try all sorts of

means to the end.3

1. N. XIX-9; S. D. VI-70; D. R. I 19; N. D. verse 34; B. P.

p. 206, Ll. 1-2; M. M. p. 61, 10; N. R. p. 77, Ll. 8 9;

N. L. R. 57-58; R. S. III—23.

2. N. XIX-10; D. R. I-20a; S. D. VI-71b; N. D. 35a; B. P.

p. 206, Ll. 5-6; M. M. p. 61, 12; P. R. p. 105, Ll. 9; N. R.

p. 101, Ll. 10; N. L. R. 59; R. S. III—23b.

3. N. XIX-11; D. R. I-20b; S. D. VI-72a; N. D. 35a; B. P. p.

3. Prospect of Success ( prāptyāśā ) lies in that stage of action which signifies some hope of hitting the mark though it is fret with chances of missing. There is every suspicion of losing the board, yet anxious endeavours are in full swing; and this stage of action culminates almost in that situation where it begins appearing that there are less misses than hits.

4. Certainty of Success ( niyatāpti ) arises when all impediments that stand in the way of begetting success are removed. It is the fourth and the pen-ultimate stage of action.2 According to Aśmakuṭṭa the failure of the aims of the opponent or the downfall of the rivals is a sign of surety of success for the hero.

5. Consummation ( phalāgama ) : When all efforts of the hero, his counter-part and assistants are crowned with success and bear the result of total acquisition of the desired object, the dramatic action reaches its apex of fulfilment. Thus the achievement of the hero's cause marks the finis of the play, and that is the last stage of action.

Mātṛgupta has aptly drawn the distinction among the various stages of action by reference to the illustration of Rāma's victory against Rāvaṇa. He observes that in an action of the annihilation of Rāvaṇa, the onslaught on Khara and Dūshaṇa is the Commencement. As an opposition, the act of Sītā's molestation arranged by Sūrpaṇakhā has afforded an opportunity for endeavour on both the sides, viz., regaining the lost wife on the part of Rāma and retaining his booty on the part of Rāvaṇa. Then by amity with Sugṛiva, prospect of success

206, Ll. 7–8; M. M. p. 61, 13; P. R. p. 105, 10; N. R. p. 115, 13; N. L. R 66; R. S. III–24a.

1 N. XIX-12; D R I-21a; S. D. 72b; N. D. 35b; B. P. p. 206, Ll. 9–10; M M. p. 61, 14, P. R. p. 106, 1; N. R. p. 136, 3; N L. R. 69; R. S. III–24b.

2. Ibid et seq.; N. R. p. 144, 2; N. L. R. 76.

3. “Arāter apacaya-parampar3, niyatā ca phala-prāptih.”—q. i. N. L. R. 83.

4 N XIX-14; D. R. I-22a, S. D. Vi-73b, N. D. 36b, B. P. p. 206, 13; M. M. p. 61, 16; P. R. p. 106, 3; N. R. p. 153, 13; N L. R. 89; R. S. III–25.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT

is secured. With the destruction of Kumbhakarṇa and the retinue of Rāvaṇa the certainty of success ensues. And lastly, killing of Rāvaṇa by Rāma in the interest of the divine race is the fruit which brings the hero the gain of all the three ends of human existence, viz. Dharma, Artha and Kāma.1

Collateral to the five stages of action, Bharata lays down similarly five elements of plot known as the Artha-Prakṛtis which form the very substrata of the dramatic story. They differ from the Kāryāvasthās inasmuch as they represent subjectively what is displayed by the latter objectively. These elements are the germ ( bija ), the drop ( bindu ), the episode ( Patākā ), the incident ( prakarī ) and the dénouement ( kārya ).2

1. Germ ( bija ) is defined as the cause of dénouement which is manifested at the outset in a very small form, but gradually expands in manifold ways as the action proceeds. This is the first element which corresponds to the first stage of action. This is, therefore, called the very seed of the dramatic theme. For example, Dushyanta's attraction at the first sight of Śakuntalā, or the enthusiasm of Yudhishṭhira ignited by Bhīma's wrath in the Venīsaṃhāra or Cāṇakya's zeal to win Rākshasa for Candragupta, his protegé in the Mudrā-rākshasa may be cited as the illustration of the germ in a dramatic plot. Bīja is, therefore, the source of action which is always placed minutely at the outset and which develops at regular intervals and culminates into the fruition of action.3

Mātṛgupta looks at the bija from three points of view, the consequence, the object and the subject of the action. The seed that develops into fruit is the Phala-bīja, the story of the play is the vastu-bīja, and the hero is, according to him, the artha-bīja.4 According to Sāgaranandin there are three ways of setting in the bija, namely, by means of equivocal expression

1. N. L. R. 102.

2. N. XIX-22; S. D. VI-64; M. M. p. 60, 27; N. L. R. 131; B. P. p. 204, 21; N. D. p. 28.

3. Ibid. et seq ; P. R. p. 106, 5; D. R. I-17a.

4. Chāyā p. 296 – note 1.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

( ślesha ), similarity of episodes ( chāyā ), or direct statement ( upakshepa ).1

2. The germ after being set in once in course of the plot gets for a while dislocated on account of the interruption of several synchronal events. After such a dislocation due to extraneous circumstances, there comes up, as it were a, drop of a certain matter which again helps the germ to shoot up and prevail in the plot. This sudden drop caused by some animate move or an action of a character in a play is called ‘Bindu’, which is defined by Bharata as ‘the cause of resuming the main purpose of the play, when it gets interrupted. It continues to do so covertly right upto the end of the play.2 The Daśarupaka defines it as the cause of resumption of the original theme at the close of some subsidiary event that intervened it.3

3. N. L. R. 139.

4. N. XIX-24; S. D. VI-66; M. M. p. 61, Ll. 4-5; N. D p. 32; P. R. p. 106, 6; D. R. I-17b; N. L. R. 164-5; N R. p. 103, 15; B. P. p. 204.

5. The text of the Daśarūpaka is “avāntarārtha-vicchede bindur atcheda-kāraṇam”, which is translated by Dr Hāas as ‘when the secondary matter is interrupted, the cause of its being resumed is the Expansion ( bindu )’8. Here it may be submitted that the translation of the term ‘vicchede’ as ‘interrupted’ and the solution of the compound ‘avāntarārtha-vicchede’ has presented a misgiving of facts. For it is not the resumption of the secondary matter which is done by Bindu, but it is the resumption of the germ or the original principal matter ( bīja ), which got, as a matter of fact, disturbed by the introduction of a secondary matter in the drama; e. g., the appearance of Gautamī in the first Act and then the proposol of the General for going a-hunting dislocated the theme of Śakuntalā and the King's attraction for her in the Abhijñāna Śakuntalā. After such dislocation or interruption due to the introduction of the secondary matter, when there is once again the resumption of the pursuit of Śakuntalā, there comes in the drop, Bindu or the Expansion. Therefore, if the term ‘viccheda’ in the phrase, then ‘avāntarārtha-vicchede’

• Hāas' Translation of D. R. ( Col. U. P. ) - p. 8 bottom.

[ CHAP. III ]

DRAMATIC PLOT

There are various interpretations suggested for the metaphorical sense which has given the title of Bindu to the second element of the plot. Dhanika calls it Bindu because it spreads over the plot like a drop of oil on the surface of water, thereby suggesting the extending capacity of this element.1 Rāmacandra and Gunacandra adopt this analogy in their exposition of the term.2 More in consonance with the definition, at any rate, is the explanation offered by Siṅga Bhūpa

is to mean interruption, as is intended by Sāgaranandin and Abhinava Kāldasa* and done by Dr. Hāas, the compound will be instrumental, meaning 'interruption by the secondary matter' and not 'of the secondary matter'. Or if the expression 'viceheda' is to mean 'end or close' as is interpreted by some commentaries,† then it will be a genetive ( shashṭhī ) compound conveying thereby the sense that at the close of the secondary matter when the principal matter is resumed by the sudden drop of the action proper, it becomes Bindu. Hence the proper translation would be, "at the end of the secondary matter, the cause of resuming the principal one is the Expansion, which is in keeping with Dhanika's‡ explanation of the text of the Daśarūpaka. Or it may be submitted that the proper interpretation of this Sūtra read with Dhanika's lines would be, that 'the Bindu is that prominent element which is the cause of rejuvenating the germ at the end of some subsidiary action which severed the main theme from further progression', and it may be illustrated from the Ratnāvalī where after the completion of the adoration of Aphrodite which set the main theme aside, the reference to Udayana (Udayanasyendor ivodvīkshate—I—23 ) resumes it and expands it for further development in subsequent stages of action.

1. Avaloka p. 5, Line 15.

2. N. D. p. 46, Line 20.

• N.L.R. 164 ; N. R. p. 103, 15.

† Prabhā p. 9, Line 7; Vimalā p. 402, Line 14; Kusuma-pratimā p. 315, Line 10.

‡ Avaloka p. 5, Line 14.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

the roots of a plant results in the fruit-bearing, similarly such matters as awaken the main cause, if often dropped in, promote the dénouement of the play.1 Thus Bindu is a wide-spreading element.

Summarising all these views Kohala makes the idea very clear when he says that Bindu is that occasional reference to the main motif of action which is, at times, side-tracked on account of digression created by introduction of sub-plots or other under-currents in a play.2

There is a school of thought referred to by Sāgaranandin which holds that the Bindu consists in a constant—say, almost in every Act and Juncture— reminding of the main urge behind the action.3 The said urge may be prompted by reasons of love, insult or enthusiasm which may be found respectively in the erotic, retributive,4 or heroic themes. That the gradual loss of opponents or failure of the impeding stock becoming continually perceptible presents the element of Drop is the observation of the same thought from another angle of vision made by some other scholar cited by Sāgaranandin.5 Śāradātanaya states that Bindu owes its origin either to perverseness or to some adversity, the former resulting from anger and the latter from sadness.6 The view is altogether novel and does not find any support in Bharata or any other canonist noticed above. From the point of view of the constitution of the drama also, it seems both baseless and irrelevant as is shewn by the compiler's omission in illustrating his classification. All the same, Rucipati seems to have some such authority in his mind as Śāradātanaya has, which makes him believe that the Bindu may be available in the nature of perturbance, flurry or mental

1. R. S. III–12.

2. Kohala as cited by B. P. p. 204, Ll. 13–14.

3. N. L. R. Ll. 173–178.

4. Ref. Veṇīsaṃhāra as a specimen of retributive impulse.

5. N. L. R. 183.

6. B. P. p. 204, Ll. 15–20.

[ CHAP. III ]

DRAMATIC PLOT

87

agitation (udvega). He further believes that the reference to

Bindu should be sought in almost every Act of the play.1

3 & 4 : The third element of the plot is the Patākā, and the

fourth one is the Prakari which are discussed under the head-

ing of the subsidiary plot.2 The Patākā and the Prakari are

considered to be eternal (nitya) or necessary limbs of the

dramatic action and they are advised to be inserted as far as

possible (yathā yogam).3 Authors like Singa Bhūpāla and

Viśvanātha insist on the use of these elements in a drama

unless it becomes almost impracticable to have them. Yet

there are oft-quoted expressions found in different glosses

which declare that the elements of the Patākā and the Prakari

are of optional use.4 The Nāṭya-darpana, however, agrees to

the latter view.

At any rate it should be distinctly understood that in case

the Patākā and the Prakari are missing then it stands without

mention that the element of Bindu will prevail in those dramas

to a very wide extent so as to cover the stage of Endeavour,

of Prospect of Success and also of Certainty of Success.

5. The fifth element of the plot is the dénouement or the

Kārya which depicts the cause or the motif of the play. It

is the Kārya of which the attainment is desired, for which all

efforts are directed and the achievement of which closes the

action.5 The objects of achievement which constitute the dénouement

of a play are the three objects of human existence

1. Gloss on A. R. p. 13 last line and top of p. 14. It may be added

here that Rucipati also quotes the definition of Bindu from N. S.

with a quaint reading ‘phala-viccheda-kāranam’, which is incongruous

unless ‘phala-viccheda’ is to mean ‘culmination’.

2. Vide Pp. 50–52 supra.

3. B. P. p. 205–5.

4. N. D. p. 46–14. For further details Vide pp. 91–93 infra.

5. N. XIX–27; S. D. VI–69 ; D. R. I–16b; P. R. p. 107–2 ;

N. D. V. 33 ; R. S. III–17b–18a.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

as noticed above; and the Kārya is said to be simple if it deals with one of them (śuddha) or mixed (miśra) if it is associated with one or more objects.1

The Nāṭya-darpana opines that the use of the five elements may be made freely (yathā-ruci) and does not believe in the existence of these elements et sequence. Their order could be reversed according to him. The order that he chooses for them is Bīja, Patākā, Prakarī, Bindu and Kārya,2 which is not acceptable to other dramaturgists, especially to those who believe in the Co-ambulation theory of Junctures.3 He considers the above pentad not as the sources of plot but only as the means to the end, i. e. the cause of the achievement of the main object. According to him such cause is twofold : animate and inanimate. The latter is again sub-divided into the principal and the sub-ordinate. The germ is the principal one, since everything else depends on it and the dénouement is the subordinate one, perhaps due to the reason that it is attained as a result of the cumulative efforts of all other factors. In the opinion of other canonists, however, the order seems to be reverse. According to them the Kārya is the principal one inasmuch as it is, in fact, the real point of acquisition and the very fruit of all action. Then again, the Nāṭya-darpana classifies the animate cause into two kinds, the principal and the auxiliary. There the principal one is the drop (Bindu) which bears the thread and watches the development of action. The auxiliary is also of two types according as it is imbued with personal interest or devoted entirely to the achievement of the purpose of some one else. Out of these two sets the Nāṭyadarpana4 considers the Bīja as the most prominent of all the inanimate causes and the Bindu among the animate ones.5

1. M. M. p. 61, Ll. 8-9.

2. N. D. verse 25. For details vide Pp. 72–77 supra.

3. Vide page 90 infra.

4. N. D. p. 42, Ll. 2–3.

5. Cf. Mātṛgupta as cited in N. L. R. Line 470.

[ CHAP. III ]

DRAMATIC PLOT

JUNCTURES

A Sandhi is the combination of different phases of the main action with its subsidiaries.1 Thus it is said to mark the component divisions of the dramatic action. With regard to the constitution of these Sandhis there are two schools of opinion:

one holding that the formation of dramatic Junctures depends upon the combination of the different stages of action (avasthā) with the respective Sources of the plot (prakṛti; the other demarcating them in view of the different phases of the dramatic germ sprouting from its initial appearance to its fruition at the end.

According to the first school there are five Sandhis in a drama which respectively copulate each stage of action to its corresponding substratum of the plot. Thus where the germ (bīja) is associated with the commencement of action, it presents the first Juncture known as Opening or Mukha-sandhi, which may, on the analogy of the Greek drama, be termed sandhi the main theme is introduced, the seed of the action is sown.2 After the commencement of the action, it is usual that the main subject is digressed by the under-current of events which intervenes the course of development of the principal action. For such reasons, there starts the stage of Endeavour which is gradually associated with Bindu or the sudden drop of such events as resume the main theme. Thus the meeting point of the stage of Endeavour with the element of Drop starts the Pratimukha Sandhi or the Expansion of the dramatic action.3 The third stage of action, namely, the hope of getting the object is often associated with the Episode which helps in removing impediments that stand in the way of the principal character. In this way the conjunction of

1. R. S. III-26; M. M. p. 61-L. 20; P. R. p. 104, L. 5.; S. D. VI-65a.; B. P. p. 207, Ll. 5 8; N. R. p. 77-Ll. 14-17; N. D. 54-6.

2. e. g. In Act. I, Śak., the hero is attracted of the charms of the young damsel and has a feeling which is gently responded to by the heroine.

3. Vide Śāk. Act ii.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

Prāptyāśā with Patākā presents the third Juncture known as the Development of action, the Garbha-sandhi or Catastasis in a drama.1 The Prospect of success is further put a premium to by the actions of certain minor helpers whose efforts of shorter duration known as incidents ensure the Certainty of success. Thus the stage of Niyatāpti blended with the element of Prakarī brings in the Juncture of Vimarsa-sandhi2 or the Pause, which may be termed as the Epitasis in a drama.3 The surety of success thus anticipated, results in the fruition of the object, and the phalāgama combines with the dénouement ( kārya ) of the play towards its end. It presents the fifth Juncture called the Nirvahana or Upasaṃhāra Sandhi, the Consummation or the Apodosis in a drama.4

The view that the Junctures are meant for catenating the five stages of action with corresponding five elements of plot is held prominently by Dhananjaya, Śinga Bhūpāla and Śāradātanaya,5 who seem to base their opinion more on the strength of the Nāṭyaveda than that of Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra. Their theory, which may be distinctively called as the Co-ambulation Theory of Junctures, can be clearly stated in the following form :

Serial Stage of Element of Juncture

No. Action :

I Ārambha + Bīja (Germ) = Mukha-sandhi

II Prayatna + Bindu (Drop) = Pratimukha-sandhi

III Prāptyāśā + Patākā (Episode) = Garbha-sandhi

IV Niyatāpti + Prakarī (Incident) = Vimarsa-sandhi

V Phalāgama + Kārya (De'nouement) = Nirvahana-sandhi

1. Śāk. latter half of III Act.

2. Also spelt as "Avamarśa Sandhi".

3. For Example. Obs. the oddities in Śāk. Acts IV-VI.

4. Śāk. Act VII. In the Greek dramas as there is a tragic end more in vogue, the last stage may be rightly termed as Catastrophe, but as the Sanskrit dramas are hardly aware of tragic conclusion, the title 'Consummation' would be more significant.

5. D. R. I-22-23; R. S. III-26; B. P. p. 207, Ll. 9 10.

[ CHAP . III ]

DRAMATIC PLOT

91

Dhanañjaya defines them in the following language: He calls Mukhasandhi to be so, as it has the combination of Bīja and Ārambha.1 It is called Pratimukha-sandhi because it has the union of Bindu and Prayatna.2 In course of Garbha-sandhi according to Dhananjaya, there is a regular search for the germ which becomes sometimes visible and at others missing. It is further supposed that there is conjunction of Prāptyāśā and Patākā in this Juncture. Here it may be noted that he is not very definite in his opinion about the necessity of Patākā, as he says, 'there may or may not be the element of Patākā'.3 After the statement he is perhaps reminded of his previous opinion in regard to the principle of co-ambulation as well as of the fact that Patākā is often used by classical playwrights, he adds a clause that there is a greater probability of Patākā becoming available ( Syāt prāpti-sambhavah ).4 The fourth Juncture of Vimarsa shows that

1. D. R. I—30.

2. D. R. Ibid.

3. Ibid. I—36.

4. Prāpti-sambhava means there is a probability of finding Patākā in a play. Dr. Hāas has a translation of this passage, which says, "( In it ) there should be an Episode ( patākā ), or ( else ) there should not be Prospect of Success. ( Prāpti-sambhava = Prāptyāśā )".* According to Dr. Hāas, Patākā is essential, the existence of which is so much emphasised over that without it there can be no hope of success. Will it, then, mean an utter failure of the dramatic action in case in certain plays there be no Patākā and consequently no hope of success ? Dhanika, the author of the Avaloka, on the contrary, explains the text by subdividing the line at : ( i ) 'Patākā syāt na vā' and ( ii ) 'syāt prāpti-sambhavah'. Thus according to him Patāka is optional ( autsargika ), which may or may not be found in a drama. All the same, despite its absence he interprets that Prāpti-sambhava will, of course,† be there. Strangely enough, Dhanika does not clarify the sense of the clause ( ii ) but only illustrates the point by reference to a quotation from the Ratnāvalī, which, in fact, explains the first line of Dhananjaya's text purporting to

• Hāas' Translation on D. R. p. 20, Ll. 7—9 ( Columbia Univ. Edn. ).

† N. R. The emphatic particle 'Eva' is Dhanika's own.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

the germ is in greater bloom as compared to what it appeared in the previous Sandhi, though it is not free from impedi-

state how the germ becomes visible, then disappears, and then again appears thus often playing the will o' the wisp in the dramatic action. Dhanika also makes a sad omission in his Avaloka in observing silence in regard to the alternative element of plot which would prevail in the third Juncture in the absence of Patākā and how he intends to maintain coherence with the original text* which categorically states that 'five Stages of action co-opt with five elements of plot and it is their combination that forms respectively the five corresponding Junctures.

The translation of Dr. Hāas is just the reverse of Dhanika's comment on the text, inasmuch as the latter says that there may or may not be patākā in the Garbha-sandhi, yet the hope of success is there, and surely it is there ( if the phrase 'prāpti-sambhavaḥ' is equivalent of Prāptyaśā as suggested by Dr. Haas )—whereas the former translates that the Garbha-sandhi must have the patākā or else there would be no prospect of success.

Looking to the opinions of other canonists detailed below and also the omission of Patākā in some dramas†, it is submitted that the text of Dhananjaya means that 'the Patākā may or may not be present, as it is optional; all the same 'Prāpti-sambhavaḥ' syāt', which means, 'there is, in general, more probability of its being found in dramas, for the activities of the Patakā go by far towards ensuring success. The phrase 'Prāpti-sambhavaḥ' need not have reference to Prāptyaśā. This suggestion correctly attempts to bring out a cogent interpretation of the text and believes that the explanation of Dhanika and Dr. Hāas are, however, only partially correct. In support of this suggestion it may be worth while to state that in the option, where Patakā is not available in a drama, the stage of Prāptyaśā is associated with the protracted presence of Bindu, the business of which is to shoot up wherever the germ is felt fading in the play. So in such circumstances, Bindu is supposed to fill in the hiatus caused by the absence of Patākā in the plot. This view is supported by

• Refer D. R. I–22.

† For critical Observation of Dramas vide Part II, infra

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT

ments largely due to anger, curse or some other calamity.1 Lastly, the Nirvahana-sandhi is defined by Dhananjaya as a Juncture in course of which all such matters that contained the germ and occurred in the Opening and the subsequent Sandhis and were diffused here and there are brought together to one end.2

Siṅga Bhūpāla,* with whom the authors of the Nāṭya-darpaṇa also seem to agree when they state that since Bīja and Bindu are believed to be of wider prevalence in a dramatic action, they may bridge over the lacunæ wherever found.†

1. Incidentally it may be mentioned here that a similarly dubious situation is left by Dhananjaya in case of the fourth Juncture as well, where, queerly enough, he neither adds Prakarī to be optional like the Patākā, nor declares that the Vimarsa-sandhi is a combination of Niyatāpti and Prakarī as he has been stating such combinations noticed above. The silence does not exactly determine the essential position or otherwise of the Prakarī. It may only lead to the conclusion that its use is optional. Should it be so, which factor is to occupy that duration is a point not elucidated even by Siṅga Bhūpāla. Logically, however, it appears that the absence of Patākā and Prakarī may well fit in the dramatic development in case of minor shows of Vyāyoga, Bhāṇa, Īhāmṛga and others, but in a full-fledged plot of a drama or a Prakaraṇa, the cause can ill afford to remain devoid of the assistance of either or both of these elements, universally recognised by all the dramaturgists.

2. The phrase “Ekārtham upanīyante” is interpreted by some scholars‡ to mean the recollection of all important episodes right from the opening of the drama upto the point. The existence of such recollection culminating in the fruition of the object determines the Nirvahana Sandhi. It may be noted here that this view may have some reality in rare cases as the one in the Satya Hariścandra, but, on the whole, it is likely to be conspicuous more in its breach than in its observance.

1 Vide R. S. III–27b.

† Vide N. D. p. 42, line 3 and p. 48, line 4.

‡ N. D. p. 58, line 22 et seq.

94 LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

This is the view of one school of thought that believes in the Co-ambulation theory, but in view of irregularity in the matter of juxtaposition of these two concurrent phases of dramatic action, the other school does not favour the idea of defining divers Junctures in relation to the Avasthās with Prakrtis; but holds that the Sandhis mark the different phases of the germ like the one of its appearence or disappearence, its partial bloom or its decay, and also its fruition at length. Thus the different situations of the Bīja, the concentrated quintessence of all dramatic action, showing its rise or fall or involving efforts to sprout it and depicting anxious care to vivify it, no sooner than it appears fading or withering, determine the different Junctures that weave the entire dramatic theme. According to this school of thought, the presence of Bindu, Patākā and Prakarī distinctly at particular stages has no significance. It is the purpose, the aim and object of pursuit nursed to its full development that matters, whether be it due to Patākā or or Prakari or Bindu or one or more or all. It leads to the conclusion that according to this school of thought, endorsed even by Bharata's dictum, not only is the use of Patākā and Prakari optional but even their position could be reversed according as it suits the sense of dramatic justice of the playwright.

In the opinion of this school too, believing, as enunciated above, in the Drshya-nashṭā theory there are only five Junctures which are defined in the following terms :

1. Mukha Sandhi : It is a Juncture which discloses the origination of the germ and introduces a variety of matters and of sentiments. It also puts the principal characters to some action in furtherance of the main motif of the play. To illustrate, the first Act of the Vikramorvaśī be referred to, as it contains the germ of love between Purūravas and Urvaśī, displays divers events, manifests different feelings of terror and comic, and the sentiment of Pūrva-rāga, and also opens the stage of the Commencement of action.

2. N. XIX-39 followed by M. M. p. 61, line 63 ; R. S. III-30 ; S. D. VI-76. It may be noted here that some scholars desire

[ CHAP. III ]

DRAMATIC PLOT

2. Pratimukha Sandhi : That Juncture is designated as the one of Progression in course of which the germ that gained ground in Protasis is sprouted, but is visible only partly. Here the germ is in its very delicate existence as it appears only sprouted and then seems as though it has subsided.1 For instance, in the second Act of the Vikramorvaśī where the heroine's approach of her own accord to her fiancé displays the sprouting of the germ of love, the progression of which is soon hampered on account of her sudden departure for Indra's Court where her attendence was urgently required at the performance of the Lakshmī-svayamvara.

3. Garbha Sandhi or Catastasis is that Juncture where the germ which formerly attained the stage of a sprout is further developed, but its growth is attended by frequent hindrance and is anxiously nursed by search and other attempts to juv-enate it.2 The third Act of the Vikramorvaśī, for instance, brings the heroine to the mortal world under malediction and unites the couple, but actual union is obstructed by the presence of the Queen and takes place only after the departure of Citralekhā.

4. Vimarsa Sandhi or Epitasis is that Juncture during which the germ, which has had some development in the past, gets open to greater chances of decay and fears of consequent loss due to some calamity like the one of curse or of seduction.3 It, however, closes invariably with possibilities of re-union. For example, the curse brings in the calamity in the IV Act of the Śākuntala, and it is a self-imposed separation in the fourth Act of the Vikramorvaśī which creates the whole trouble on account of the transformation of the heroine into a creeper due to her entrance into a forbidden grove of penance.

5. Nirvahana or Upasamihāra Sandhi known as Consummation or Apodosis is that portion of a play wherein the germ is

that both Bīja and Bindu should be brought in in course of Protasis, but a majority of opinion is in favour of using them succesively. Obs. N.L.R. 547.

1. N. XIX-40.

2. Ibid. XIX-41.

3. Ibid. XIX-42.

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fully developed and ripens to a stage of fruition. It is a link which demonstrates that the seed with all its good and bad phases is brought up well, and its roots are concentrated so as to yield the fruit of the long longed-for achievement by the principal character.1 The fifth Act of the Vikramorvaśī is a suitable specimen where for the comfort of Purūravas, the hero of the play, the life-long union is granted by Indra who is the custodian of the heroine.

SANDHYĀNGAS or Sub-divisions of Junctures

According to Bharata each one of these Junctures has a number of sub-divisions which are spread throughout its duration.2 Whereas among various schools of dramatic theorists there has been some difference of opinion in regard to the formation of Junctures, necessarily there is a casual difference in the definitions of the various sub-divisions as well.

1. N. XIX-43.

2. Irrespective of further sub-divisions, Mātṛgupta also divides a dramatic action into five junctures, bearing the same popular titles as the Mukha-sandhi and others, but prefers to define them as dealing respectively with the doer ( sādhaka ), the means ( sādhana ), the object ( sādhya ), success ( siddhi ) and consummation ( sambhoga ). According to him each Juncture is a combination of three factors, i. e. there is an element of enthusiasm associated with contemplation of causes and effects and also with the object of acquisition in the Mukha-sandhi; in the Pratī-mukha there is availability of means of acquisition, then the extension of action ( prasāra ) and then application of those means in furtherance of the achievement; the removal of obstruction ( udbheda ), prospect of achievement, and the assistance of friends are the distinctive features of the Garbha-sandhi; fresh rise of impediments, a further cloud, and yet full chances of success due to the reinforcement of action become visible in the Vimarsa-sandhi; and the fulfilment of desires, the acquisition of object and the culmination of actions are the three ingredients of the Nirvahana-sandhi.* Thus Mātṛgupta follows, in other words, the

• N. L. R. Ll. 460–530.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT

97

which is noted at its proper place in course of the discussion now to follow :

A. Sub-divisions of Mukha-Sandhi

1. Suggestion ( Upakshepa ) : Presentation of the germ or sowing of the seed is called Upakshepa.1 It makes the first introduction of the hero's desire, the very nucleus of the dramatic action. It is not necessary that the germ should be brought in by the hero himself, for any one interested in him may make a mention of what he wants to achieve; e. g. the hero himself suggests the germ of action in the Śākuntala, but it is Yaugandharāyaṇa in the Ratnāvalī or Cāṇakya in the Mudrā-rākshasa.2

According to Viśvanātha and Bharata, Upakshepa is that feature of Protasis wherein the very crux of the action is introduced.3 Thus it briefly states the purport of the plot. But the illustration to this feature as pointed out in the statement of

Co-ambulation Theory of Junctures. The illustrations, however, as incorporated by Sāgaranandin to mark these different Junctures shown by Mātṛgupta, are both inapt and untheoritical, for which reason perhaps his view becomes acceptable only on a broad principle of the division of dramatic action. N. L. R. Ll. 530– 534 ; e. g. In the Bhīma-vijaya, an unpublished drama, Bhīma is shown to be the agent ( Sādhaka ), a mace given by Vāsudeva is the means ( sādhana ), the ruin of Duryodhana is the object ( sādhya ) and the gain of kingdom for Yudhishṭhira is the success ( siddhi ) and finally the amorous enjoyment of Draupadī by Bhīma is the last stage of action ( sambhoga ). Here it may be pointed out that the consummation ( sambhoga ) being interpreted as amorous enjoyment is altogether out of place, and seems hardly to bear the view-point of the general application of these rules to other dramatic works.

1. D. R. I-39.

2. For defn. Vide D. R. I-27 ; R. S. III-32 ; B. P. p. 208, 11 ; N. R. p. 92, 12 ; P. R. p. 146, 10 ; M. M. p. 62, 2. For examples Ref. Śāk. I-16 ; Rat. I-6 ( When repeated by Yaugandharāyaṇa ) ; M. R. I-8.

3. N. X[X-68a ; S. D. VI-83a ; N. L. R. 556.

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Bhīmasena, “Oh ! I am alive and the sons of Dhṛtarāshṭra are at ease !” 1 reduces the difference merely to a variety of expression.

(2) Enlargement (Parikriyā or Partkara): The amplification of the germ (bīja) by means of some statement which further explains the situation is called Parikriyā.2 Viśvanātha, however, defines it as a feature showing the expansion of the matter (kāvyārtha) thus sprung up,3 e. g. the expression of the hero's sympathy for the austere job of Śakuntalā in the hermitage expands his affectionate regards for her and presents the element of Parikara in the drama.4

(3) Establishment (Parinyāsa) : It is that feature which displays the development of the Bīja so as to give it some concrete or tangible shape.5 The settlement of the matter so far sprung up in Parikara is the feature of Establishment according to Viśvanātha and a few others.6 To illustrate, the entrance of Śunaśśepa in the Bāla-rāmāyaṇa, which narrates the attempts of Viśvāmitra for tormenting the demons through Rāmacandra, settles the motif of the play and gives a concrete shape to the task of the hero.7

Abhinava Kālidāsa observes Parinyāsa at a spot where some matter already in discourse is otherwise set in so as to refer it to the main motif of the play.8 Sāgaranandin, on the other hand, adds that a matter-of-fact statement may be deemed as Parinyāsa.9 Firmness attained by the Bīja by

1. Veṇī. I-5.

2. N. XIX-68b ; R. S. III-33a ; B. P. Ibid. ; N. D. p. 60, 19 ; D. R. Ibid. ; N. R. p. 92, 24 ; P. R. p. 147, 8 ; M. M. p. 62, 3 ; N. L. R. 568.

3. S. D. VI-83b.

4. Śāk. I-16.

5. N. XIX-69a ; R. S. III-33b ; B. P. p. 208, 13; D. R. Ibid. ; P. R. p. 148, Line 5.

6. S. D. VI-84 ; N. D. p. 61, 2 ; M. M. p. 62, 4 ; N. L. R. 574.

7. B. R. I-17, i-vi.

8. N. R. p. 93, 11.

9. N. L. R. Ll. 503-4.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT 99

further clarification of facts is Parinyāsa in the opinion of the authorities cited by Kāṭayavema and other commentators.1

( 4 ) Allurement (Vilobhana) : The attractive description of some merits of the main characters of the play,2 or a presentation of the good points belonging to the purpose in hand is called Vilobhana.3 For instance, the well-known description of Urvaśī by the hero surmising about her creation is a feature of allurement.4 Similarly, Draupadī praising the resolve of Bhi̇masena, ‘my lord ! what is impracticable when you are in indignation’ is a point of Vilobhana.5

In the opinion of Vīra-rāghava even the description of Bīja is a point of allurment.6 It may be noted here that a mere description of qualities which does not foster the main cause cannot fall within the purview of this sub-division.

( 5 ) Resolve (Yukti ) : The recapitulation of measures already adopted or of those which are to be adopted in furtherance of the dramtic motif is called Yukti,7 as is evident in the proclamation ‘the fire of Yudhishṭhira's wrath is all ablaze in the great woodland of the race of Kurus’.8

Viśvanātha, Siṅga Bhūpāla, Vidyānātha and Srīkrshṇa Kavi seem to believe that the determination of the purpose or purposes of action is the characteristic of this sub-division.9 Such a feature is available in the Bālarāmāyaṇa where a comparision is sought to be established between Paraśurāma and Rāvaṇa who are shown as the common adversaries of Rāma-

1. K. G. R. p. xvii-2 ; Candrikā on P. C. p. xxxvi-12.

2. R. S. III-34a ; M. M. p. 62, 5.

3. N. XIX-69 ; P. R. p. 148, 9 ; B. P. Ibid ; N. D. p. 64, 3 ; D. R. Ibid. ; S. D. Ibid. ; N. R. p. 95, 10 ; N. L. R. 586.

4. Vikra. I-10.

5. Veṅṭ. I-21-1.

6. B. T. S. P. 18-9.

7. N. XIX-70a ; B. P. p. 208, 14 ; N. D. p. 66, 9 ; D. R. I-28 ; N. L. R. 593.

8. Veṅṭ. I-24d.

9. R. S. III-34b ; P. R. p. 154, 1 ; S. D. Ibid ; M. M. p. 62, 6.

candra.1 Viśvanātha observes the point of Yukti in the dialogue between Sahadeva and Bhīmasena which narrates the episode of the supplication for five villages for the Pāṇḍava princes in the Venīsainhāra.2

Even clearance of doubt and consequent determination of an object is Yukti according to Kāṭayavema.3 That Yukti is the determination of all such expedients as have some common purpose behind them is the opinion of Abhinava Kālidāsa.4

In fact, any statement of facts or description of a situation falling under this category is meant to acquaint the audience with such ways and means as are employed by the hero or his assistants for amplification of the dramatic cause and which were not brought on the stage. It is very evident in the play of the Ratnāvalī in the first soliloquy of Yaugandharāyana.5

( 6 ) Attainment (Prāpti) : Getting pleasure is defined as Prāpti. Sāgarikā's elated statement, ‘Oh ! is this the king Udayana whom I was offered by my father !’ in the Ratnāvalī6; or the statement of Draupadī, experiencing joy when Bhīma field of battle and so on, presents an illustration.7

According to Sāgaranandin a mention of the central thought is Prāpti.8 His view is presumably based on some variant reading of Bharata's Sūtra, and if it is accepted, the connotation of Prāpti would very much overlap in essence that of Samādhāna, which is defined below.

1. B. R. II–15.

2. Veṇī. I–15–v to I–17.

3. K. G. R. p. 2, 1.

4. N. R. p. 93, 19.

5. Rat. I–6–x–xix. ( page 13, N. S. Edition ).

6. N. XIX–70b; R. S. III–35a ; B. P. p. p. 208, 15 ; N. D. p. 65, 10; D. R. Ibid. ; N. R. p. 95, 14 ; P. R. p. 154, 7 ; M. M. p. 62, 7 ; S. D. Ibid.

7. Rat. I–23–i ; Veṇī. I–15.

8. N. L. R. 598.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT 101

( 7 ) Settling (Samādhāna) : The re-appearance of the main point or the germ is another sub-division of Protasis. After the stage of Parinyāsa, description of merits and recapitulation of measures is likely to make the readers lose their sight of the main drive. In order to avoid this, the feature of Samādhāna is used to bring back the detracted visitors to the main subject.1 The hero's statement that he was carried away by the tune of the tabor in the Mālavikā is an illustration of this feature.2

( 8 ) Conflict of feelings ( Vidhāna ) : The blending of pleasure and pain is called Vidhāna.3 It is a feature which is meant for avoiding an absolute enjoyment of pleasure and thus contribute reality to the dramatic action. For it makes one realise that every phase of life has two sides : the pleasant and the woeful. The substratum of this conflict of feelings should always be the one and the same individual, e. g., the twofold feeling that Mādhava experiences after finding Mālati in love with himself presents a pleasant conflict.4

( 9 ) Surprise ( Paribhāvanā )5 : It is that element which circumscribes the mind with a feeling of wonder in respect of the main object by reasons of some attractive description.6 Any expression which fills the mind with curiosity is enough to present this feature according to Bharata and Viśvanātha.7 Śiṅga Bhūpāla believes that the expression which appeals as striking on account of the presentation of certain praiseworthy

1. N. XIX-71a ; R. S. III-35 ; D. R. Ibid. ; N. D. p. 61, 24 ; S. D. VI-85a ; B. P. Ibid. ; N. R. p. 97, 26 ; P. R. p. 154, 10 ; M. M. p. 62, 8 ; N. L. R. 605.

2. Māl. I-22.

3. N. XIX-71b ; D. R.-Ibid ; R. S. III-36a ; B. P. p. 208, 16 ; N. D. p. 67, 3 ; S. D. VI-85b; N. R. p. 97, 19 ; P.R. p. 155, 3; M. M. p. 62, 9 ; N. L. R. 609.

4. Mā. Mā. I-28-31.

5. B. P. Ibid. ; N. D. p. 68, 10 ; D. R. 1-29 ; N. R. p, 95, 5.

6. N. XIX-72a ; S. D. VI-86a ; N. L.R. 617.

7. M. M. p. 62, 10 ; P. R. p. 155, 6.

qualities denotes the element of Paribhāvanā,1 an illustration of which is found in an appreciative description of Sītā by Rāvaṇa in the Bālarāmāyaṇa or in the speech of the gambler, ' what, a wooden image !' in the second Act of the Mṛcchakatika.2

( 10 ) Disclosure (Udbheda) : Dasarūpaka defines this element as the one that discloses something which is till then unknown ; and illustrates it by reference to the statement, ' the fire of Yudhishṭhira's wrath is yawning agape in the huge family of the Kurus',4 which is cited by Viśvanātha and the authors of the Nāṭya-darpaṇa to illustrate the feature of Samādhāna. But a majority of canonists defines it as an element which displays the sprouting up5 or a slight progress of the germ.6 The Nāṭya-darpaṇa gives a better example from the Veṇīsaṃhāra in the speech of Bhīmasena who promises the princess of the Pāṇcāla that she would not see once again Vṛkodara without having exhausted the Kauravas.7

Rightly speaking, this feature has been looked at by the two sets of authorities from two different points of view; for, in fact, Udbheda is that sub-division of Protasis which breaks open the germ by disclosing some under-current or a secret point.

( 11 ) Division (Bheda) : There is again a difference of opinion in regard to the connotation of this term. Bheda is that element which encourages some action tending to foster the main cause. This is the opinion of Dhananjaya, Vidyānātha, Siṅga Bhūpāla, Sāradātanaya and Abhinava Kālidāsa.8

1. R. S. III-36b.

2. B. R. I-42.

3. MRC. II-4-vii.

4. D. R. I-29 ; P. R. p. 208, 17 ; e. g. Veṇī. I-24.

5. N. XIX-72b ; S. D. VI-86b ; R. S. III–37a ; N. L. R. 620.

6. N. D. p. 62, 11 ; N. R. p. 100, 1 ; P. R. p.155, 10 ; M. M. p. 62, 11.

7. Veṇī. I-26.

8. D. R. I-29 ; P. R. p. 155, 15; R. S. III-37b ; B. P. p. 208, 18 ; N. R. p. 101-13.

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103

The specimen of this sub-division according to this connotation is frequent among the Sanskrit dramas; and, to quote, one may be referred to in the eulogy of Rākshasa in the soliloquy of Cānakya, which enthuses the latter to extend his efforts for securing a grip over the former.1

Bharata followed by Viśvanātha and Rāmacandra Sūri lays down that Bheda is an element which is meant to dissociate the characters.2 Even with this connotation, the element of Bheda is invariably found in the dramatic works and may be specified in Dushyanta's speech towards the close of the first Act of the Śākuntala.3 Its existence helps the main cause inasmuch as it turns various characters to their own duties after their being put together for some time for some initial task.

There is yet a third opinion about the meaning of Bheda which is supposed to be found in such a move as will remove the obstruction in the growth of the germ.4 Sāgaranandin observes that sorting of main purpose which is jumbled up presents the feature of Bheda.5 *

( 12 ) Resumption (Karaṇa) 6 : It is an element to demonstrate that the characters have begun engaging themselves in

1. M. R. I–15 et. seq.

2. N. XIX–73b ; S. D. VI–87a–ii ; N. D. p. 64, 12 ; M. M. p. 62, 12.

3. Śak. I–33.

4. N. D. p. 65, Ll. 7–8.

5. N. L. R.–626.

• Mr. M. Dillon seems to have confused the view of Sāgaranandin with just its opposite given by Bharata whom he refers to in his marginal notes as its equivalent—Vide N. L. R.-p. 27. ( Oxford Ed. ) ; for N. L. R. reads 'Saṅghātena militāsya bhaṅgo bhedaḥ', and Bharata reads 'Saṅghāta-bhedanārtho yaḥ sa bheda iti kīrtitaḥ'— N. XIX-73.

6. Sāgaranandin spells it as 'Kāraṇa,' but attributes the same con-notation.

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the execution of their undertaking.1 If some task originally started but intervened by some subsidiary or casual action is resumed, then it presents the feature of Karana. For instance, " Well, Pāñcāli ! then we proceed for the annihilation of the family of the Kurus," 2 or the statement of the hero in the Śākuntala, " Oh ! all have gone, I shall also then proceed "3 towards the end of the first Act may serve as an example of the sub-division.

The Nāṭya-darpana records an opinion of some scholar who defines Karana as the suppression of calamities,4 but it appears that it will be inappropriate to introduce such an element towards the close of Protasis which marks the stage of commencement only, and calamities are to loom large only in course of the stage of Endeavour and hence their suppression at this stage would hardly be in keeping with the sense of dramatic development.

These are the twelve sub-divisions which are accepted by all dramaturgists with a slight variation in their order. The order in regard to the first seven sub-divisions is, however, acceptable to all the scholars. Thereafter excepting Śiṅga Bhūpāla who reverses the order, all agree in placing Vidhāna before Paribhāvanā. Then again, Udbheda, then Karana and Bheda is the order accepted by Bharata, Viśvanātha, Dhananjaya and Śāradātanaya, but Karana is placed after Bheda by Viidyānātha and Śiṅga Bhūpāla.5

The dramatic execution, however, will not be found, on minute observation, to be upset in the least, even if facts are arranged according to any one of these orders preferred. For the reversion of the order is permitted by Bharata as well as by Śāradātanaya so as to fit in the plot, the characters, and the

1. N. XIX-73a ; R. S. III-38a ; B. P. p. 208, 17 ; D. R. 1-29 ; N. D. p. 63, 12 ; S. D. VI-86 ; P. R. 155, 6 ; N. L. R. 623 ; M. M. p. 62, 13 ; N. R. p. 101, 23.

2. Veṇī. I-25-iv.

3. Śāk. I-32-xvii.

4. N. D. p. 63 bottom.

5. Vide citations given supra.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT

ruling sentiment.1 Bharata further permits the blending of two or three elements even at one spot, if they could be suitably interfused so as to be in keeping with the state of action in hand.2 Although it is in no sense incumbent upon the playwright to put in all of these sub-divisions or to do so in a particular order, the Nāṭya-darpaṇa, all the same, directs that the first three elements, namely, Upakshepa, Parikara and Pari-nyāsa should bear the order of succession, but other sub-divisions can be used freely with the observance that Udbheda and Karana should appear almost towards the end, and Samādhāna somewhere in the middle of the Juncture.3 Similarly, a playwright is at liberty to omit some of these divisions, if he thinks that it will not prejudice the flow of action. According to Dhanika, Upakshepa, Parikara, Parinyāsa, Yukti, Udbheda and Samādhāna are essential to the proper presentation of the first stage of action, and the use of the rest is only discretionary.4

At the close of the Protasis, the commencement of action culminates into the stage of attempt for acquiring the desired object ; and the seed, the first source of action, develops into a drop (bindu), and these two parallel elements run together in course of this Juncture with the result that the main theme (bīja) is sometimes visible and at others becomes invisible like a flash of lightning. The function of gradual expansion of action is thus spread over throughout the second Juncture by means of its thirteen sub-divisions the nature and scope of which is as follows :

B. Sub-divisions of the Pratimukha-Sandhi

( i ) Craving (Vilāsa) : The first sub-division of the Juncture of Progression is Vilāsa, which is defined as ‘longing for an

1. N. XIX-102 ; B. P. p. 214, 20.

2. N. XIX-103. Such interfusion is advantageously done by Kālidāsa in his Mālavikāgnimitram.

3. N. D. p. 59, Ll. 11-13.

4. Ava. p. 11, Ll. 11-12.

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enjoyment of rati ' by Bharata who is adopted by Viśvanātha.1 The text is explained by Viśvanātha as a desire for a woman or a man or an object of love, who is the exciting cause e. g. in the Śākuntala, " My beloved is in no way easy to obtain ", says Dushyanta only to express his yearning for the heroine.2 In the Mālatī Mādhava also, Mādhava's wistfulness at the sight of the heroine in the third Act is an expression of his longing for her.3

Jīvānanda4 explains the text of Viśvanātha5 as a desire for amorous enjoyments, which is also the purport of the comment of Bhaṭṭācārya.6 Following this sūtra of Bharata, Śāradātanaya has made the idea more explicit by saying, "Vilāsa is an expression of the amorous sports of the loving pair at the honey-moon"7; and the Nāṭya-darpana is equally unequivocal in defining Vilāsa as an expression of wistfulness of a woman for a man or of a man for a woman.8

It is submitted that this view is not much at accord with the general dramaturgic principles if it is limited only to a feeling of amorousness or a desire for a sensual contact with each other in the mind of a couple. For the presence of this feature may be possible in case of the erotic dramas where rules the sentiment of love; but in case of purely heroic dramas and especially in the high-pitched ones like the Kāmsavadha, or in case of political dramas as the Mudrā-rākshasa, or devotional drāmas as the Caitanya-candrodaya and the Prabodha-candrodaya or the quietistic plays like the Bhartrhari-nirveda, it will not be feasible to present the amorous sports of a couple

1. "Samīhā rati-bhogārthā vilāsa iti kīrttitah"—N. XIX-74a ; Cf. S. D. VI-89.

2. Śāk. II-1.

3. Mā. Mā. III- 6 & 7.

4. Vimalā p. 417, Ll. 10–11.

5. "Rati-bhogārthā samīhā "—S. D. Ibid. et seq.

6. Vivṛti p. 305, Ll. 4–5.

7. "Rati-ceshṭā vilāsas syād dampatyor nava-sangame" — B. P. p. 209, 10.

8. "Vilāso nṛ-striyor iha "— N. D. p. 69, Ll. 9–10.

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107

at all. Even if an attempt is made to present this feature in this spirit, it will be nothing short of a serious poetic fault as is done by Bhaṭṭa Nārāyaṇa in the second Act of the Veṇī-samihāra by introducing the scene of Duryodhana's dalliance with Bhānumatī. It becomes repugnant to the flow of the heroic sentiment if the hero or the counter-hero is made to indulge in light sports or be soft, and anxious for sensual sports (samīhā) at an hour when his spirits should, in fact, rise to vehemence. For nothing else is deemed by the rhetoricians as much derogatory as an insertion of an inapproprite element in a Kāvya which tends to pull down the ruling sentiment from its high pitch. It may be incidentally observed here that the problem does not become so serious in such devotional plays as the Jīvānandana or the Vidyā-pariṇaya where the hero, Jīva is anxious to be associated with his beloved Vidyā and so a desire for the union may be metaphorically super-imposed on the characters of the play. But the situation becomes serious in such plays as have no female characters as in the Mudrā-rākshasa; nor can it be argued there that a classical play of the reputation of the Mudrā-rākshasa can do without the first and the foremost element of the Pratimukha Sandhi which is supposed to bring in the germ afresh after the close of the first Juncture. Since the Pratimukha has an element of Drop (bindu) in it, the element of Vilāsa has to be there as a prominent characteristic of this Juncture. In order to avoid facing this difficulty Dhanika has not illustrated this feature by a quotation from the Veṇisaṃhāra, a heroic play from which he always gives examples to alternate with the erotic play of the Ratnā-valī.1 Viśvanātha also resorts to this omission.2 Dhanika has gone still further to the length of discarding the element of Vilāsa from the list of the important features of the Prati-mukha Sandhi, a point in respect of which the Nāṭya-darpaṇa seems to agree with him.3 The other way of avoiding the difficulty is invented by some critics in illustrating this feature

1. Vide Avaloka p. 12.

2. S. D. p. 306 top.

3. For Dhanika vide Ava. p. 16-2 ; N. D. p. 69, Ll. 5-6.

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by depicting the wistfulness of some one for the other, as does Śringa Bhūpāla in pointing out in the Bālarāmāyana, a heroic play, the passion of Rāma for Sītā expressed as “O ! here is this Sītā' in the third Act.1 As the Germ of the dramatic cause in the Bālarāmāyana is the success of Rāma in his early life and the dénouement is of his heroic deeds how the voluptuousness of Rāvana or lust of Rāma constitutes the first feature of the Pratimukha Sandhi is a matter for serious consideration.

In order to provide for such side-tracking, Śringa Bhūpāla defines the element of Vilāsa as an attempt for union 2 and the Mandāra Maranda in the same vein adopts it.3 In order to face this difficulty an unknown rhetorician has defined it as a passion for the object in view.4 Still another course is devised for the same purpose by Haridāsa in his gloss on the Mudrā-rākshasa by showing that the passion for the Royal Splendour (rājya-lakshmi) which Rākshasa is courting, and his anxiety to win the same may be deemed, in a tropical sense, the presentation of amor (rati-icchā) and thus providing for the element of craving in the drama.5 Similar is the attempt of Vidyā-nātha who demonstrates the desire of the Royal Splendour to be associated with Pratāpa-rudra as the specimen of Vilāsa.6

All these attempts go by far to show that the critics feel to some extent the indispensability of the element of Vilāsa ; and for this reason the Sūtra of Bharata, which is, to their mind, so univocally pertaining to the sentiment of Love confronts with a difficulty which seems incapable of being overcome but for such artificial and round-about explanations.

As a matter of fact Bharata never contemplates that it is a conjugal passion that comprises the element of Vilāsa. What he really means is the anxious prompting of mind for

1. B. R. III-20-x & III-23-4.

2. R. S. III-41.

3. M. M. p. 69, 20.

4. Candrikā on P. C. p. 67, Ll. 14-15, “Drshṭārtha-vishayāmihām Vilāsah parieakshate.”

5. C. C. p. 214, 18 ( M. R. II-12 ).

6. P. R. p. 158, 13.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT

enjoying or materialising the object of desire by the hero of the play. For if it is a devotional play the acquisition of the devoted by the devotee is the crux, and the Vilāsa is his anxious desire to be in unison with his object dear and near to his heart. If it is a heroic play, the object of success to which he is so passionately devoted is the theme, and an expression of his ardent desire for getting into a close proximity with the same means Vilāsa. It it is a political drama like the Mudrā-rākshasa, success of the hero's scheme is the nucleus of the enthusiasm, an expression of which is meant to introduce the element of Vilāsa.1 Thus the conclusion is that in Bharata's opinion an anxiety for getting at the object of interest (rati)2 is Vilāsa.

2. Pursuit ( Parisarpa or Parisarpa ) : It is a feature of Progression which depicts the hero's pursuing the object of his desire that gets closer to him at times and then seems to disappear or slip again from his approach.3 It is evident in Purūravas' brief contact with Urvaśī in his palace garden.4

The Sāhityadarpana defines this element as the pursuit of one's object of desire which appears to be out of reach for the moment.5 It omits the element of being visible and then appearing as lost, which is deemed as a qualifying adjunct to the object of desire ( bīja ) by other canonists. Siṅga Bhūpāla defines Parisarpa as a feature that presents a constant reminiscence of the desired object, which becomes, as a

1. P. R. also agrees to this view : vide p. 110, 6.

2. It may be added that the word 'Rati' is used here in its radical sense meaning 'leaning of mind' towards an object which persistently circumscribes the mind of the thinker. By the rhetoricians also ' Rati ' is defined as "ratir mano'nukūle arthe manasaḥ pravanāyitam", meaning 'Amor is that mental devotion to an object which appeals to mind.' Vilāsa may, therefore, be defined as only that element of Expansion which displays the ardent desire of the hero; here, to be associated with or to draw near the object of his desire.

3. N. XIX-74b; D. K. I-32b ; B. P. p. 209, 11 ; P. R. p. 159, 11.

4. Vikra. Act II.

5. S. D. VI-89b ; e. g. vide K. L. p. 64, 18.

110 LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

matter of fact, forgotten on account of the close of the previous Act and the like reasons.1 Śrikrshna Kavi agrees with him.2 The Nāṭya-darpana, however, calls this feature as ‘anusar-paṇa’ and places it as the last sub-division of the second Juncture, but attributes the same connotation to it as Bharata and others do.3

3. Disinterest ( Vidhūta )4 : Canonists differ in their opinion in regard to the definition of Vidhūta. Viśvanātha basing his view on the aphorisms of Bharata holds that it is a non-acceptance of a courtesy or an advance shown by one to another ;5 as is found in the Śākuntala where the heroine says to her friends in the presence of the hero, ‘Enough of detaining the Mahārājā at length who is anxious to be in the midst of his people in the harem,’6 or in the non-acceptance of the conciliatory request of Rāma by Bhārgava who asserts that ‘ the son of Renukā is not capable of being propitiated by such salutations.’7

There is another view forwarded by Dhananjaya and others that defines Vidhūta as unrequitedness due to fruitlessness of efforts.8 As Progression is a Juncture during which the stage of Endeavour ( yatna ) prevails, some of the efforts even go barren, the resultant failure only meaning to non-plus the hero and his mates in the beginning and to cause unrequitedness consequently. It is found, for instance, in the statement of Agnimitra: ‘ all glory of these eyes has sunk in the absence of

1. R. S. III–42.

2. M. M. p. 62, Ll. 21–22.

3. N. D. p. 81, 14.

Also spelt as Vidhūta, Vidhṛta. N. D. calls it Dhinana, adopted as ‘Vidhūnana’ in a variant shown in P. R. ( B. S. S. ).

5. S. D. VI–90 ; N. XIX–75a ; R. S. III–44a ; N. D. p. 70, 17 ; N. L. R. 663.

6. Śak. III–21-xix.

7. B. R. IV–57-vi.

8. D. R. I–33a ; R. S. III–43 ; M. M. p. 62, 23 & 24.

[ CHAP. III ]

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111

Mālavikā's sight.'1 Śāradātanaya defines it as want of respite in the hearts of the loving couple due to lack of sensual gratification.2 This view is obviously unilateral inasmuch as it is possible only in the erotic themes where too such pining in the earlies of the second stage is too rapid and detrimental to the spirit of endeavour. In fact, all what Vidhūta is meant for is to show a slight set-back in the activities of the hero.

Display of disinterest in the main object seems to be the element of Vidhūta in the opinion of Vidyānātha, for he defines it as the upsetting of mind caused by some undesirable incident,3 but illustrates it by reference to Pratāpa-rudra's disinclination towards nomination as a prince.4

4. Torment (tāpana) : “ It is a sort of a check in the move of the principal character due to his inability to find means to further his cause of achievement,” observes Viśvanātha.5 Such a position is experienced by Pūrūravas when he finds no means to get at the celestial nymph and permits in remorse the God of Love to be victorious over him.6 According to the Nāṭya-darpana such a feature is attributed to a sub-division which is named as ‘Rodha’.7 It, however, defines Tāpana as an impending disaster and agrees thus in this respect with the Nāṭya-Śāstra.8

4 A. Pacification (Śama) : There is a school of thought represented by Dhananjaya, Siṅga Bhūpāla, Śāradātanaya, Śrikrshṇa and Vidyānātha that does not recognise ‘Tāpana’ as

1. Māl. II-11.

2. B. P. p. 209, 12.

3. P. R. p. 110, 7.

4. P. R. p. 162, 1.

5. S. D. VI-91a.

6. Vikra. II-11.

7. N. D. p. 71,3. Strictly speaking, the element of Rodha, as defined by N. D. is mid-way between ‘Tāpana’ and Nirodhana of other canonists because N. D. defines 'rodha' in terms of 'ārti' and finds its cause in a check in course of the hero's activities or in some disaster.

8. N. D. p. 76, 17; N. XIX-75b.

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an element of the Pratimukha Sandhi, probably for the reason that such a mental phenomenon is covered by the definition of the Vidhūta according to them. Since the torment and unrequitedness require pacification before a fresh quota of zeal for further efforts can be anticipated; the element of alleviation is extremely necessary to the proper development of action. Hence they believe in the existence of Sama or alleviation as a sequel to Vidhūta, which allays the feeling of unrequitedness.1

Viśvanātha, who does not admit the feature of alleviation in his scheme intends probably to counter-effect the disinterest ( Vidhūta ) by means of a joke which the playwright may introduce at this stage. Bharata, however, does not require the use of alleviation for the apparent reason that he does not define Tāpana as Viśvanātha does. For according to Bharata it is only an appearance of clouds or some chance of mishap that falls under the purview of Tāpana.2

5. Joke ( narma ) : A humorous speech presents the feature of ‘narma’ 3 in the Pratimukha Sandhi, as is available copiously in the Jester’s remarks to Radanikā in the third Act of the Mṛcchakaṭika.4 Sāgaranandin believes this sub-division as indentical with ‘narma’, an element of the Kaiśiki-vṛtti.5 It may be observed in this connection that the introduction of humour may be of great use even in the non-erotic themes for the sake of alleviating the surfeit of any particular sentiment to avoid boredom.

6. D. R. I-33a, ii; R. S. III-44; B. P. p. 209, 13; M. M. p. 62, 25; P. R. 110, 7.

7. It may be noted that 1943 Edn. of N. gives a variant reading in the foot-note which reads for ‘Tāpana’, ‘Samana’ and defines it as ‘tasyopaśamam yat-tu saman nama tad bhavet’, N. p. 316 Fn. No. 10.

8. XIX-76a; R. S. III-45a; S. D. VI-91b; D. R.I-33b, i; B. P. p. 209, 14 ; N. D. p. 74, 1 ; M. M. p. 62, 26 ; N. R. p. 110, 6; P. R. Ibid, also see p. 163, 5.

9. MRC. III-21-ii to 26, 6.

10. N. L. R. Line 672 & then 1310.

6. Amusement ( Narma-dyuti ) : It is an element expressive of a mental satisfaction or a gleam of humour.1 It is seen in the Ratnāvalī in the thrill of Sāgarikā enjoying the joke of her friend Susaṅgatā in the second Act, where she is held up by the hero.2 According to the Nātya-darpaṇa the purpose of this element is to conceal some fault.3 It is evident in the same play in the Jester's remark about the still posture of the thrush comparing her to a Vaidika scholar ready to recite a hymn.4 Bharata has the same view.5 But the Rasārṇava Sudhākara and the Kāvyendu-Prakāśa think that an introduction of humour for purposes of camouflaging anger is Narma-dyuti.6 Humour used for purposes of mitigating or abating anger is Narma-dyuti according to the Mandāra Maranda.7 Vidyānātha and Abhi-nava Kālidāsa hold that an expression of affection ( prīti ) is the element of Narma-dyuti.8 Sāgaranandin, however, defines it only as a joke, just meant for playing a little prank.9

7. Response ( Pragamana10 ) : There are two alternate readings of the text of the Bharata's Sūtra which defines Praga-mana or as otherwise spelt Praśamana. One of the readings11 means that it consists in 'high and low speeches', which seems to be an idiomatic expression for ' harsh and soft words ' used for purposes of conciliation.12 Another reading, which is accept-

8. D. R. I-33b-ii ; S. D. VI-91b-ii ; E. P. Ibid.

9. Rat. II–17-i. N. B. The author of the Prabhā has made a mess of Avaloka while showing this feature, but citing the definition of N., which does not support him. ( Vide Prabhā p. 98, Ll.5-6 ).

10. N. D. p. 75, 17.

11. Rat. p. 77-3.

12. N. XIX–76b.

13. R. S. III–45b; K. P. cited by Chāyā : p. 307, 4.

14. M. M. p. 63, 1.

15. P. R. p. 110, 8 & 163, 11; N. R. p. 110, 15.

16. N. L. R. 674.

17. N. has an alternate title ‘praganana or pragayana’.

18. N. XIX–77a. Fn. ‘Adharottara-vākyam’.

19. Cf. Hindi idiom : Ūnch nīch kahā.

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ed by the editors of the text and also largely depended on by

later canonists, purports to define Pragamana as a statement

consisting of an excellent answer (Uttarottara Vākya).1 The

text, ‘Uttarottara Vākya’ which is adopted ad verbatim by

Viśvanātha has afforded room for different interpretations. The

Vivṛti and the Vimalā explain it as a beautiful response : the

first ‘Uttara’ meaning ‘better’, and the second one meaning

‘a reply.’ 2 The Rucirā differing from them explains it as a

statement which is wonderful of the wonderful and does not

admit any element of reply into the connotation of the term.3

The Kusuma Pratimā, on the other hand, radically derives

the word, and expounds the term ‘pragamana’ as one which

conveys in a dignified manner some elevated sense by way

of a response.4 A conversation consisting of some inquisitive query and its reply is the purport of Sāgaranandin’s

interpretation of the Bharata’s definition of the Pragamana.5

To illustrate his view-point Viśvanātha refers to a fine

conversation between Urvaśī and Purūravas wherein the former

on her approach proclaims the customary address, “ May

your highness be victorious ”. Accepting this greeting with

joyous dignity the King replies, “Mine, indeed, is the victory,

whose greeting is thus uttered by you, my darling !” 6

The Daśarūpaka has no point of excellence in the element of

the Pragamana. It is, according to it, a type of reply which

will expose the responsive affection or any other feeling be-

tween the hero and his counter-part.7 The Mandāra Maranda

and the Rasārṇava Sudhākara have the same view as that of

the Daśarūpaka.8 Dhanika, however, interprets that a conversa-

tion tending to reveal the real interest of the parties is the

1. N. Ibid.

2. Viv. p. 307, 8 ; Vim. p. 420 (sa).

3. Ruc. p. 467, line 13.

4. Kus. Pr. p. 331, 7.

5. N. L. R. 674.

6. Vikra. II-16.

7. D. R. I-34a.

8. M. M. p. 63, Ll. 2–3; R.S. III-46a.

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115

Pragamana.1 This view is adhered to by Vidyānātha and Abhi-nava Kālidāsa.2 An outwitting reply consisting of a series of retorts is 'pragamana' according to the Nāṭya-darpana ; whereas 'even a befitting reply is enough to constitute this element in the opinion of the Bhāva-prakāśa.3

8. Impediment ( Nirodha ) : It is named as Nirodha or Nirodhana by a majority of authors including Bharata, but Viśvanātha calls it Virodha, which is adopted by Vidyanātha and a few others.

Bharata defines the term as a feature presenting a rise of some fresh trouble.4 This view is followed by Viśvanātha, Sāgaranandin and Śiṅga Bhūpāla.5 An illustration of Nirodha in this sense may be found in an attempt of the king Hariś-candra in granting protection to the Vidyās, which invited the wrath of the sage Viśvāmitra at whose sight the King exclaims, "Out of temerity, where have I stepped over a blazing chunk of fire like a blind man." 6 Vidyānātha, Abhinava Kālidāsa and the author of the Mandāra Maranda agree in defining Virodha as an element impeding the course of welfare under some pretext or the other.7 The Daśarūpaka, however, defines it as frustration of a move.8 The Nāṭya-darpana goes a step further

1. Ava. p. 14, line 13.

2. P. R. p. 164, 6 ; N. R. p. 111, 7.

3. N. D. p. 78, 20 ; B. P. p. 209, line 15.

4. N. XIX-77b.

5. S. D. VI-92b-i ; N. L. R. 683 ; R. S. III-46b.

6. C. K. II-22-iii.

7. P. R. p. 110, 9; N. R. p. 110, 20; M. M. p. 63, 4.

8. D. R. I 34 a-ii; B. P. p. 209, 15. It may be observed here that D. R. reads the defn. of Nirodhana as 'hita-rodho nirodhanam' and Dhanika solves the compound in the defining term, hita rodhaḥ9 with genetive case ( hitasya rodhaḥ ), thereby meaning that Frustration is a feature which presents prevention of some good to accrue. It is a loss or postponement of an advantage; and surely not "a prevention or a check to benefit the cause of the hero's purpose",- a sense which is purported to be con-veyed by Dr. Hāas' translation of 'hita-rodha' as 'beneficial pre-

and holds that the resultant calamity ensuing from such frustration is 'rodha'.1 A striking example of such frustration is available towards the close of the third Act of the Mālatī Mādhava where the hero finds his friend Makaranda in a state of swoon and exclaims, " O ! he is unconscious ! mama, save me !" 2

9. Apology ( Paryupāsanam ) : Begging pardon for a fault previously done is called Paryupāsana.3 It is one of the most popular features of the second Juncture and may be illustrated by reference to the apologetic statement of Makaranda addressed to Kāmandakī in the earlies of the fourth Act 4, or in the Vikramorvaśī where the King falls at the feet of Auśinarī.5

An attempt to make amends for the wrong done made by one's own people is Paryupāsana according to Śrikrshna, Vidyānātha and Abhinava Kālidāsa,6 a specimen of which is available in Anusūyā's apology to Durvāsas on behalf of the delinquent heroine in the Śākuntala.7

The authors of the Nāṭya-darpana choose to name this division as 'sāntvana', but define it only as an attempt to appease the angry one.8 Kāṭayavema seems to agree with the title 'vention'.* Such a translation could be possible if the compound could be solved with the dative case, but being inapposite and opposed to the view of the canonist, Dr. Hāas' expression is erroneous here. Pt. Gopala Dutta, however, is to the point when he translates it as 'an incident which bars happiness.'†

1. N. D. 71-3.

2. Mā. Mā. III-line 245 ( B. S. S. ).

3. N. XIX-78 a; R. S. III-47a; S. D. VI-92b; D. R. I-34b-i; B. P. p. 209, 16; N. L. R., 687.

4. Mā. Mā. IV-6 ( L1. 108-11 ).

5. Vikra. II-20 (iti padayoh patati.)

6. M. M. p. 63, 5; P. R. p. 110,10 ; N. R. p. 110, 1.

7. Śak. IV 1-xiii-xvi.

8. No. D. p. 72, 7.

• D. R. ( Col. U. P. ), p. 18, 62.

† D. R. ( Gondol ) p. 51, 6.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT 117

chosen by the Nāṭya-darpana but extends the connotation inasmuch as an attempt to appease a person in the midst of some perplexity or impatience is also included in ‘sāntvana.’1

10. Gallantry (Pushpa) : It is a statement which describes some point of excellence in the principal character,2 e. g. the King in the Ratnāvalī describes the excellence of Sāgarikā, “ O, indeed she is Grace, and her hand too a sprout of Pārijāta”,3 or the acolytes' description of the excellence of Dushyanta in Śākuntala.4 Sāgaranandin adds that such excellence should pertain to some particular action which is referred to in the midst of some other action.5 “ It may also mean some momentous statement,” observes Siṅga Bhūpāla, “ a Viśesha vacana,”6 which is explained by the Chāyā as a statement creative of interest,7 or by the Avaloka as one revealing interest.8 It is so accepted by Abhinava Kālidāsa as well as by the author of the Mandāra Maranda.9

11. Bolt ( Vajra ) :- It consists in a stern or an unpleasant remark.10 Bharata defines it as a curt reply made to one's own face.11 For instance, a stern remark is found in the Śākuntala where the hero calls his Jester a silly lad, and tells him that there is altogether a different tax collected from the ascetics which is in the shape of an inexhaustible merit.12 Similarly, an unpleasant remark is found in the Mālatī Mādhava where the heroine

12. K. G. R. (Māl.) p. 36, 6.

13. N. XIX–78b; S. D. Vi–93a; D. R. I–34b-ii; B. P. Ibid; N. D. p. 71, 21.

14. Rat. II–17.

15. Śāk. II–15 & 16.

16. N. L. R. 691.

17. R. S. III–47b; P. R. p. 166, 7.

18. Chāyā p. 308, Fn. 2.

19. Ava. p. 15–8.

20. N. R. p. 114, 10; M. M. p. 63, 7.

21. P. R. p. 165, 1; N. p. 316, Fn. 19; N. R. p. 111, 15; N. L. R. 697.

22. N. XIX–79a; D. R. I–35a-ii; S. D. VI–93b-i; R. S. III–48a; M. M. p. 63, 6; B. P. p. 209, 17; N. D. p. 79, 15.

23. Śāk. II–13-vi.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

says in the third Act, "Gentleman! you, the very Delight of my eyes, are seen only till this moment," thereby hinting Mādhava that it is no more possible for her to continue life in view of her marriage being settled with Nandana.1 An example of curtness is available in a reply given by Rāmacandra to Paraśurāma, " so you are anxious to receive hospitality," in the third Act of the Bālarāmāyaṇam.2

12. Intimation or Propitiation (Upanyāsa) : In Intimation there is a statement which embodies some strategem (upāya) according to Dhananjaya.3 There is a greater consensus of opinion of many a canonist in agreeing to the view of Bharata which holds that a statement putting forward some argument or a chain of reasoning is Upanyāsa.4 Its illustration is clear in the dialogue of the Jester and Purūravas in course of which the former desires the latter to go and appease the angry queen, but in his turn the latter thinks the move to be improper, and for refuting the suggestion of the former advances a very cogent reason that the empty supplications with a counterfeit of affection never appeal to the mature women just as a cultured gem fails to attract a real jeweller.5 Viśvanātha, whom the Bhāvaprakāśa follows, defines in agreement with Dhanika the element of Upanyāsa or Propitaiton as a statement meant for securing gratification.6 An illustration of the feature in this sense is found in the consoling speech of Susaṅgatā who grants relief to the King in his perplexity.7 The view of Viśvanātha seems to be based on a belief that an attempt for Propitiation should be set in after the fall of Bolt (vajra). It may be added here that the introduction of Propitiation may have some justification in that scheme of dramatic constitution wherein the Bolt precedes it, otherwise in face of almost a similar

13. Mā. Mā. IV-7-i.

14. B. R. IV-60-ii.

15. D. R. I-35a-i.

16. N. XIX-79b; N. D. p. 80, 23; R. S. III-48b; M. M. p. 63, 8; N. L. R. 700.

17. Vikra. II-21.

18. S. D. VI-93b-ii; B. P. p. 209, 18; Ava. p. 15, 15.

19. Rat. II-14-xxx.

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DRAMATIC PLOT

119

element of Paryupāsana being present in the Juncture, the use of Upanyāsa in this sense would be quite out of place. At places even a mediate course may become available, where propitiation is sought by putting forward a cogent reasoning. This golden mean of the two views seems to be more appropriate, a striking illustration of which becomes visible in the Mālatī Mādhava where Mādhava logically concludes his friend Makaranda's union with Madayantikā and appeases him by narrating his adventurous sacrifices for the sake of his beloved.1 All the same, there is still another view forwarded by Abhinava Kālidāsa and Vidyānātha who hold that an expression of the cause of interest ( anurāga ) is the Upanyāsa.2 It is worthy of notice here that Vidyānātha defines Upanyāsa in the same language as Abhinava Kālidāsa does ; but while illustrating it in his own composition, he approaches much nearer to the view of Bharata as stated above, though Kumārasvāmī has tried to stretch it as close as possible to his own definition, but only with a small success.3

Of this divergence of views in regard to the connotation of the feature of Upanyāsa, ample notice seems to be taken by the scholiasts on different dramatic texts who zealously venture to point out this sub-division at different spots with different connotations in the same play, as is, for instance, done by Rāghava Bhatta in his Artha-dyotanikā 4 on the Śākuntala.

13. Congregation ( Varna-samühāra ): It consists in the presentation of the four varnas according to Bharata.5 A host of canonists has interpreted the term 'varna' meaning a caste and so the instruction (sūtra) of Bharata is said to mean that the Varnasamhāra is a congregation of or reference to the four castes.6

14. Mā. Mā. IV-9.

15. N. R. p. 111, 20; P. R. p. 110, 11.

16. P. R. p. 171, 10 and Ratnāpana p. 172-i.

17. Vide A. D. p. 107, 19 for Upanyāsa as propitiation and .p. 108 line 11 for Upanyāsa presenting argument ( Upapatti ).

18. N. XIX-80a.

19. S. S. VI-94a; D. R. 1-35b; R. S. III-49a; B.,P. p. 209, 18; P. R. p. 173, 5.

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An oft-quoted illustration of the feature is found in the Mahā-Parashurāma, “ Look, 'here is an assemblage of the great saints, here is old Yudhājit and also the king Lomapāda with his ministers and so on.” 1 It is there in the Bālarāmāyana also where reference to four castes is done in Paraśurāma's soliloquy commencing with, “ what, do you say who is not surprised at the feat of Dāśarathī in rending Siva's bow,” upto “Rāma, the class-mate of Guha will himself look for Rāma” in the fourth Act.2

Abhinava-guptapāda, however, differs from the above view, and holds that the term 'Varna' in the definition of Bharata means characters and not castes.3 Thus according to him the element of Varna-sañhāra is a congregation of different characters who were dissociated in the past on some mission or the other. This view appears to be more correct and may have wider application than the former one. Varna-sañhāra in this sense may be denoted in the fourth Act of the Mṛcchakaṭika where Vasantasenā sends word to Cārudatta for meeting in the evening, which tends to put together some of the characters of the play.4

The Mandāra Maranda is conspicuous in its view which defines Varṇa-saṃhāra as the dispersing of all characters.5 Though this view is not accepted by all others yet etymologically 'saṃhāra' means disintegration, and so it may rightly mean 'the dispersal of characters.' Moreover it suits better to have such an element at the end of the Juncture which will rank pari passu with Bheda,6 the last element of the Protasis.

Sāgaranandin considers Varṇa-saṃhāra to consist in slighting, disregarding or concealing an object already

1. M. C. III–5.

2. B. R. IV–55–i to 57.

3. r. i. S. D. p. 300, line 14 et seq.

4. MRC. IV–32–xxi.

5. M. M. p. 63, 9.

6. Vide p. 102, 11 supra.

[ CHAP. III ]

DRAMATIC PLOT

121

described.1 This view is recorded by the Nāṭya-darpaṇa, though not accepted.2 The specimen of the Varṇa-samihāra of this type also becomes available in the Ratnāvalī where Vasantaka remarks of Susaṅgatā as a talkative wench and suggests some gift for her to shut her mouth, lest she should carry the tale of the King's love for Sāgarikā to the queen.3 If this connotation of the Varṇa-samihāra is accepted, even the statement of Dushyanta denying the reality of his interest in the hermit-girl to his departing Jester in the second Act of the Śākuntala will be an instance of Varṇa-samihāra, which, in fact is, according to Bharata, a specimen of the special Juncture called Concealment or Samvṛti.5

These are the thirteen sub-divisions of the Pratimukha Sandhi, out of which Pushpa, Pragamana, Vajra, Upanyāsa and Pari-sarpa are to be necessarily inserted in course of this Juncture according to the Nāṭya-darpaṇa and Dhanika.6 The rest of the sub-divisions are to be utilised in accordance with their suitability to the ruling sentiment in a drama; for instance, since Narma and Narma-dyuti are the members of the Kaiśikī Bearing 7, their presence is more at accord with the erotic or the comic sentiment than with the fierce or the horrific one. Although they can be used regardless of any order of succession, yet the use of the sub-divisions beginning from Vidhūta and ending with Narma-dyuti is recommended to be made ad seriatum.8

It may be recalled here that 'Vilāsa' is very important for introducing the element of drop (bindu) in the second Juncture after the dislocation of the germ by subsidiary action, but the canonists have omitted this, due to their partial definition.

1. N. L. R. 704.

2. N. D. p. 73, 20.

3. Rat. II–13–xxvi ( p. 93 ).

4. Śak. II–19.

5. Vide Book II, Chap. I, Sec. I infra.

6. N. D. Ibid; Ava. p. 16, 2; M. M. p. 63, 10; P. R. p. 110, 12.

7. Vide Chap. VII [ 1 ], infra.

8. B. P. p. 209, 20.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

At the close of the second Juncture, the germ seems to be well-settled; and so the third Sandhi is characterised by that phase of action which shows that the germ is carefully nurtured and all obstacles are weeded out. The Juncture promises the fruition of the germ. It has the following twelve sub-divisions which present the episode in different dramatic phases as detailed below :

C. Sub-divisions of Garbha-sandhi

1. Mis-statement (Abhūtāharaṇa1): A statement full of deception is called Abhūtāharaṇa.2 It is evident in the deceptive statement of Bhāgurāyaṇa, the spy of Cāṇakya, which is used for disintegrating the alliance of Malayaketu and Rākshasa in fourth Act of the Mudrā-rākshasa.3 Vidyānātha adds that such a statment to become Abhūtāharaṇa should be in behoof of the purpose in hand.4 Even a disclosure of a strategem contem-plating to practise some deception falls within the meaning of Abhūtāharaṇa according to Kāṭayavema.5

It may be noted here that any move calculated to be stra-tegic, and used beyond the Juncture of Catastasis or before, will ordinarily be a case of the special feature of Deception called Māyā6 and not Abhūtāharaṇa.

2. Indication (Mārga): It is a statement of truth. It reveals some real purpose or declares a reality or a universal truth.7 An illustration of the first type is found in the Śākun-tala where the King says, ‘O ! the speech of my darling has

3. N. D. calls it Asatyāharaṇa.

4. N. XIX-81a; D. R. I-38b-i; S. D. VI-06a; N. D. p. 91, 7; B. P. p. 210, Ll. 20, 21; N. R. p. 119, 16; M. M. p. 63, 17; N. L. R. 727; R. S. III-52a.

5. M. R. IV-7-xv et seq.

6. P. R. p. 116, 8.

7. K. G. R. p. 40 line 6.

8. Vide Sec. on ‘SANDHYANTARA’ infra.

9. P. R. p. 178, 1; N. R. p. 117, 8; R. S. III-52b; N. XIX-81b; S. D. VI-96b; N. L. R. 730; B. P. p. 210, 22; M. M. p. 63, 18; D. R. I-38b; N. D. p. 90, 11.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT 123

cleared all doubts,1 which, in fact, has revealed the real cause of the heroine's ailment, viz., her passion for Dushyanta. The second type is visible in the Candakauśika where the hero tells the impatient sage, " Kindly accept the amount which I have gained by the sale of my wife and child; for the balance I am making arrangements by auctioning myself to the Cāndāla.2 An instance of the last one is available in the Mudrā-rākshasa where Candragupta states a universal truth that a job of a king is really a source of great discomfort, for the Royal Splendour ( rājya-lakshmī ) it is very difficult to propitiate.3

3. Reflection ( Rūpa ) : In the opinion of the Daśarūpaka and the Sāhitya-darpaṇa, a statement full of reflection is rūpa,4 which is found in the Vikramorvaśī where the King congratulates his one limb, namely, the shoulder which had the good luck of dashing itself against the shoulder of Urvaśī and calls the rest of his body only a burden over the globe.5

The definition of Bharata has also a nearer approach to this view. He defines this element as some inconclusive remark due to a variety of curious things presented at the occasion.6 But the Nāṭya-darpaṇa and the Sudhākara call rūpa to be that feature which consists in an expression of some doubt. It may be instanced in the Mālatī Mādhava by the speech of the hero who says, " what could it be after all ! the voice is so shrill as the shrieks of an afflicted osprey." 7

4. Exaggeration ( Udāharaṇa ) : It is an expression of excellence 8 ; e. g. the excellence of joy felt by Purūravas

5. Śak. III-14-iii.

6. C. K. III-31.

7. M. R. III-5.

8. D. R. I-38b; S. D. VI-96b-ii.

9. Vikra. III-11.

10. N. XIX-82a.

11. For. Defn. Vide N. D. p. 83, 9; R. S. III-52; M. M. p. 63, 17; B. P. p. 210-22; For the Example see Mā. Mā. V-20.

12. N. XIX-82b; D. R. I-39a-ii; S. D. VI-97a; R. S. III-53a; M. M. p. 63, 9; N. D. p. 85, 15; N. L. R. 738; B. P. p. 211, 2; P. R. p. 178, 15; N. R. p. 122, 1; N. D. p. 85, 23.

after attaining Urvaśi is expressed by him to his Clown, " my

dear friend, I have never felt so happy even with my sover-

reignty over this Earth as I do today by placing myself in

the service of my darling's feet." 1 An exaggerated statement

is also a specimen of Udāharaṇa found in Cārudatta's speech

in the Mṛcchakaṭika, " May there be a cloudy day for

a hundred of years with an incessant fall of rain and flashes

of lightning, since I am associated now with my love who is

indeed very difficult to be had by persons of my sort." 2

5. Progress ( Krama ) is the element expressing the reality

of some emotion,3 as is clear in the speech of Dushyanta,

" while my darling is setting words in her billet-doux, her coun-

tenance with an eye-brow raised speaks her affection for me

through her thrilling cheek." 4

The Daśarūpaka differs from the above view of Bharata, and

defines Progress ( krama ) as a feature which shows some

attainment of what one is earnestly thinking about ; 5 and, to

illustrate, Dhanika quotes a passage from the Ratnāvalī where

Vatsarāja has got a feigned Sāgarikā before him.6 All the

same, the Daśarūpaka recognises the view of other scholars who

believe that an acquaintance with the feelings is Krama.7

Sāgaranandin, however, defines Krama as the knowledge of

what is to happen ( bhavishya ),8 and Jagaddhara has a similar

authority to cite in his scholium on the Mālatī Mādhava.9

6. Propitiation ( Saṅgraha ) is a statement which purports

7. Vikra. III-19.

8. MRC. V- 48.

9. N. XIX-83a; S. D. VI–97b; R. S. III-63b; M. M. p. 63, 20;

B. P. p. 211, 3; N. D. p. 85, 23.

4. Śak. III-18.

5. D. R. I-39b-i; P. R. p. 180, 1; N. R. p. 121-3, M. M. Ibid;

also B. P. Ibid.

6. Rat. III-x.

7. D. R. I-39b-ii.

8. N. L. R. 740; also N. D. p. 85, 23 & Levi p. 46.

9. Ṭkā on Mā. Mā. p. 339, 4.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT 125

either to make some conciliation or offer some gift,1 as is evident in the offer of a gold bangle by the King Udayana to his Jester.2

Dr. Haas interprets Propitiation as a reconciliatory present,3 and thus makes the offering of present ( probably ) meant for conciliation as a feature of Catastasis. In fact, it is not 'gift for conciliation' nor 'gift following some curse of appeasement', explains the Kusuma Pratimā,4 that constitutes the characteristic of Catastasis. But the phrase Sama-dāna is to be distributively construed to the effect that it may mean the use of conciliation at places, gift at others and also of other expedients, if necessary. An illustration of pure and simple conciliation coupled with threat appears in the Mahāvracarita where Jaṭāyu 'is accosting Rāvaṇa who is eloping with Sītā and snubbing him for his evil conduct.5

7. Inference ( Anumāna ) : A logical conclusion is Inference.6 It differs from yukti in the sense that it consists in a conclusive determination of facts based upon certain premises, whereas yukti is a mere conjecture and there is no a priori conclusion. An example of 'anumana' is vividly seen in the Svapnavāsavadattam where Vatsarāja feels the warmth of the slab of stone and says, " flowers are trampled over and the bench of stone is also warm; surely, someone must have sit here who is suddenly scared at my appearance."7

8. Request ( Prārthanā ) : It expresses a wish for some

9. N. XIX-83b ; D. R. I-40a ; S. D. Vi-98a ; R. S. III-54a ; M. M. p. 63, 21; B.P. p. 211, 4; N. L. R. 741; P.R. p. 180, 14; N. D. p. 82, 12.

10. Rat. III-4-xxiv ( p. 117 ).

11. D. R. ( Columbia U.P. ) p. 22, Line 13.

12. Kus. Pr. p. 336, line 9.

13. M. C. V-18.

14. N. XIX-84a ; D. R. I-40a-ii ; S. D. Vi-98b ; R. S. III-54 ; M. M. p. 63, 22; B. P. Ibid; N. L. R. 746; P. R. p. 111, 9; N. D. p. 84, 4; N. R. p. 123, 7.

15. S. V. IV-4 ( N. S. Edn. ).

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

enjoyment, festivity or rejoicings.1 An instance is available

in the third Act of the Ratnāvalī where the King invites

his beloved for giving the pleasure of her company.2

This feature is not admitted to the class of the sub-divisions

of the Garbha-sandhi by some canonists like Dhananjaya,

Śiṅga Bhūpāla and Śrīkṛshṇa Kavi who seem to represent

Kohala's school of thought, whereas it is included in this list

by Bharata and Viśvanātha. According to those who belong

to the latter school, there are thus thirteen sub-divisions of the

third Juncture; but then, for the reason that this sportive anxiety

can possibly be a characteristic of only a type of dramas, the

use of this element is deemed optional.

9. Revelation (Kshipti) : What unravels the secret amounts

to Kshipti.3 By the Daśarūpaka and a few other texts a

feature of Ākshepa is accepted in stead of Kshipti, and it is

defined as bringing out the seed which is invisible and inside.4

The definition of the two sets of scholars are almost

synonymous and so it would not be erroneous to identify

Kshipti with Ākshepa, which is even spelt as UtkShepa by

Sāgaranandin.5 Vidyānātha, however, defines Ākshepa as the

pursuit of the desired object.6

To illustrate, Kshipti, in the sense in which Viśvanātha has

chosen to define it, is available in the Śākuntala where the

heroine opens the sluices of her heart before her friends and

admits her attraction for Dushyanta as the cause of her malady;7

and Ākshepa is found in the Pratāparudra-Kalyāṇa where the

priest declares that the Elephant-faced god is himself approach-

ing that way to celebrate the coronation of the king Pratāpa-

rudra.8

1. N. XIX-84b; S. D. VI-98b; N. L. R. 749; N. D. p. 84, 17.

2. Rat. III—11.

3. N. XIX-85a; S. D. VI-99a; N. R. p. 135, 11.

4. D. R. I—42b; B. P. p. 211, 8; M. M. p. 64, 3; N. D. p. 88, 14.

5. N. L. R. 751.

6. P. R. p. 111, line 9.

7. Śāk. III-13-i.

8. P. R. K. III-20.

[ CHAP III ] DRAMATIC PLOT 127

10. Quarrel ( Toṭaka )1: An indignant speech is called Toṭaka or Troṭaka.2 The Nāṭya-darpaṇa defines Troṭaka as an excited speech expressive of any strong emotion, be it due to anger or ecstasy.3 But popularly, the connotation of this element is limited to an angry speech. A reference to the statement 4 of Auśinarī who gives a suitable retort to the coaxing speech of the hero, " why, oh good lady ! should you thus torment your tender body by observances of these vows";5 will offer an illustration of Toṭaka.

11. Outwitting ( Adhibala ): A cunning deception is called Adhibala,6 and its example is found in the Bālarāmāyaṇa where Māyāmaya and Sūrpaṇakhā disguise themselves and practise deception upon Rāma and Vāmadeva.7 A deception practised in furtherance of the purpose in hand is Adhibala in the opinion of Vidyānātha.8 The reversion or nullification of deception is Adhibala according to Sāgaramandin.9

Some authors recorded by the Nāṭya-darpaṇa define Adhibala as a taunting speech, an instance of which is found in the Veṇīsaṃhāra where Bhiṃasena speaks to Dhṛtarāshṭra, " Enough of anger, sire ! you remain witness to the deeds of your sons and grandsons." 10 Adhibala is a presentation of

1. The title means 'that which rends the heart, ( toṭayati i'i ).'

2. N. XIX-85b; D. R. I-40b & 41b; S. D. VI—98b; R. S. III 55a; M. M. p. 63, 23; B. P. p. 211, 6; P. R. p. 186, 18; N. L. R. 755.

3. N. D. p. 91, 20; N. R. p. 134, 2.

4. 'Elasya vratasya ayam prabhāvo yad elīvad vadati āryaputraḥ' —Vikra. p. 130, 6.

5. Vikra. III—13.

6. N. XIX-86a; D. R. I-40b-ii; S. D. Ibid; R. S. III—55b; M. M. p. 63, 24; B. P. 211, 5; N. R. p. 119, 5.

7. B. R. VI–4-x et seq. .

8. P. R. p. 111, 9.

9. N. I. R. 758.

10. N. D. p. 90–4; e. g. Veṇī. V-29.

128 - "LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

greater intellectual strengh of the one of the two parties engaged in an intrigue for taking the other in.1

There are some canonists referred to by the Daśarūpaka and the Mandāra Maranda who believe that a cutting statement like Toṭaka is called Adhibala,2 in which sense, however, Vastu-vicāra speaks to the King in the Prabodha-candrodaya, " Oh ! a five-arrowed warrior of floral bow is to be conquered. What, does it need then my holding weapons ! sure, only with a mental operation I shall uproot passion." 3

The Chāyā, following the Mandāra Maranda notes an opinion of some stray scholar who thinks that the wise critics recognise the association with a dear object as the characteristic feature of Adhibala 4

12. Dismay ( Udvega ) : It is an element that introduces fear which may arise of a king, an enemy, a thief, a fierce animal or the like.5 It is not limited to fear proceeding from an enemy only in the opinion of Dhananjaya and a few other scholars.6 In order to support the view of Dhananjaya, Dhanika took the expression 'enemy' in its widest sense extending it even to a feeling of emulation or jealousy between co-wives.7 In fact, even the most delicate feeling of hesitation, I think, is included in dismay as is found in the Śākuntala, where the heroine says, " my heart trembles for fear of being disregarded." 8

13. Terror ( Vīdrava, also termed as Sambhrama ) : It is an extreme fear and trembling, which may be due to any fright-

14. N. D. p. 89, 11, 13.

15. Referred to in D. R. I-41a ; M. M. p. 63-26.

16. P. C. IV–10 to 15.

17. Chāyā p. 313, 11.

18. N. XIX-86b; S. D. VI-100a; R. S. III-56a; M. M. p. 64, 1 ; N. L. R. 761.

19. D. R. I-42a; B. P. p. 211, 7; P. R. p. 187, 10; N. D. p. 86, 22; N. R. p. 125, 21.

20. Ava. p. 20, Ll. 4, 5.

21. Śāk. III-15-viii.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT 129

ful object.1 For instance, it fills the minds of Mālātī and

Mapāla-kuṇḍalā when they find Mādhava and Aghoraghaṇṭa

crossing swords with one another.2 Sāgaranandin calls Vidrava

to be a cumulative presentation of all the three feelings, namely,

apprehension ( śankā ), fear ( bhaya ) and uneasiness ( trāsa ),

which may be by referen:e to different substrata ( ālambana ).3

Some panic caused by fright and uneasiness is Vidrava in the

opinion of the Nāṭya-darpaṇa, which is more logical inasmuch as

it presents some clear distinction between Udvega and Vidrava.4

Out of these thirteen sub-divisions of Catastasis Dhanika

believes that the Abhūtāharaṇa, Mārga, Toṭaka, Adhibala and

Ākshepa are important; and others may be convenitently used by

the playwright in his works.5 Śrīkṛshṇa Kavī, Vidyānātha

Dhanika.6 One point, however, is worthy of notice in this

connection : Dhananjaya believes that there are only twelve

sub-divisions of the third stage of action, whereas other

canonists desire to divide the Juncture into thirteen sub-

divisions. As the number of these sub-divisions is only

commendatory, the exclusion of one does not matter much.

But on close analysis it appears that Dhananjaya has omitted

Vidrava from his scheme, which he pushes forward to the

Vimarśa Sandhi and places it in juxtaposition with Drava.

The elements of Drava and Vidrava with some variation in

their connotations cannot be conveniently put up by a

playwright unless there is a long gap created by a soft situation

in the midst of the dramatic action. It, therefore, appears

to be more suitable if they are placed in two different

1. N. XIX-87a; D. R. I-42a-ii; S. D. VI-100b; R. S. III-56b;

M. M. p. 4, 2; B. P. Ibid; P. R. p. 111, 10; N. R. p. 118, 11.

2. Mā. Mā. V-31-iii.

3. N. L. K. 766. Observe that Bharata has also a variant read-

ing for the definition of Vidrava stating “Śaṅkā-māyā-trāsah” which

is better than “nrpāgnibhaya-samyuktah,” the latter confusing

Vidrava with Udvega, fear of the king being the overlapping feature.

[ Vide N. S. ( N. S. Edn. ) p. 317, Fn. 13. ]

4. N. D. p. 88, 4.

5. Ava. p. 21, line 3.

6. M. M. p. 94, Ll. 5–6; P. R. p 111, 11; N. D. verse 52.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

Junctures. For this reason, perhaps, some dramaturgists place the element of Vidrava in the third Juncture and yet have twelve sub-divisions only, by omitting Prarthana from their list. 1

The next Juncture is of Epitasis or Vimarśa Sandhi, which is spelt in divers ways as Amarśa, vimarśa or avamarśa Sandhi by different dramaturgists, but the difference is in no way substantial. The fourth Juncture presents the stage of removal of impediments and culminates into certainty of success assured in fulness of time. The efforts in the Pataka that created hopes of success in the previous Juncture are supplemented by the activities in the Prakari, the cumulative effect of which becomes visible in greater hopes for gaining full success, which, in its own turn, is much near at hand.

This Juncture has also, like others, a number of sub-divisions; but no other Juncture seems to present such diversity in their acceptance as is found in the case of the Vimarśa Sandhi. The important ones, however, are as follows :

D. Sub-divisions of Vimarśa-Sandhi

1. Censure ( Apavada ) : Declaring the fault of another is called Apavada.2 It is found in the Mṛchhakatika in the statement of the Rake who laughs at the silliness of the Śakara with the words, " The Earth is loaded with the burden of fools who are only columns of flesh." 3 Declaration of one's own fault is included in the connotation of Apavada in the opinion of the Nāṭya-darpana.4

2. Rebuke ( Sampheta ) : A fiery speech full of anger is rebuke.5 It is found in the Mṛcchakatika where in the eighth

3. For further details vide Vidrava p. 131 infra.

4. N. XIX-88a; D. R. I-45b; M. M. p. 64, 13; S. D. VI-100b; R. S. III-60a; P. R. p. 112, 5; B. P. p. 211, 19; N. R. p. 136, 7; N. L. R. 801.

5. MRC. VIII-6.

6. N. D. p. 94, 14.

7. N. XIX-88b; S. D. VI-102b-ii. D. R. I-45a-ii. M. M. p. 64, 14; P. R. p. 193, 6; B. P. p. 211, 19b; N. R. p. 136, 12; N. D. p. 93, 17; N. L. R. 806.

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131

Act the Rake addresses the Śakāra, "O Villain ! wait a while."1 This element is very popular inasmuch as it directly relates to the motif of the play.2 Śiṅga Bhūpāla thinks that Sampheta is a result of censure, and consists in some statement which touches the evil that has taken place.3

3. Contempt ( Drava or Abhidrava ) : It is a statement which contains disrespectful language used for elders and persons worthy of reverence.4 A notable illustration of this feature is available in the speech of Lava who is satarizing at the greatness of the doings of Śrī Rāmacandra who is referred to as* an elderly personage of such conduct as should not be put to any scrutiny and so on." 5 Viśvanātha, however, holds out Drava as an apology for such transgression due to some grief or excitement.6

4. Tumult ( Vidrava ) : It is defined by Dhananjaya as a feature which shows combating,7 slaying, imprisoning or causing such horror as will amount to tumult.8 An illustration of this feature may be found in the Mahāviracarita where Bāli when killed by Rāma regains his original form of divinity and narrates the story of his being cursed.9 Here slaying has caused tumult. Similarly, conflagration in the harem has done so in the fourth Act of the Ratnāvalī.10

There are scholars who do not believe in the existence of two such elements as Drava and Vidrava in course of one and the same Juncture. Bharata has no position for Vidrava in

1. MRC. VIII-11-iv.

2. Ava. p. 22, 8.

3. R. S. III-60b.

4. N. XIX-89a; D. R. I-45a-ii; M. M. p. 64,16; P. R. p. 194, 8; R. S. III-62a; B. P. p. 211, 20; N. R. p. 136, 28; N. D. p. 92, 24; N. L. R. 813.

5. U. R. V-35.

6. S. D. VI - 133b.

7. Added by P. R. vide p. 136, 19.

8. D. R. I-45b-i ; P. R. 194,2 ; B. P. p. 211, 20.

9. M. C. V-45 et seq.

10. Rat. IV-14.

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his own scheme. Even the examples given above appear as weak ones; and is so, in no less degree, the one, pointed out by Dhanika in the Ratnāvalī where Vāsavadattā makes a mention of Sāgarikā's situation behind the bars when fire has broken out in the inner apartments of the King.1 Such scenes, as a matter of fact, seem to fall within the scope of the Sambhrama discussed above. Like-minded with Dhananjaya, Singa Bhūpāla also maintains Vidrava as one of the elements of the fourth Juncture and includes inter alia conflagration also as one of the elements to cause tumult as shown above.2 He illustrates it by the assisination of Kumbhakarna, the consumption of the figure of Indrajit and senselessness of Rāvana in the ninth Act of the Bālarāmāyana. The Mandāra Maranda also agrees to this view,3 but it affords a point for closer scrutiny as to how far the introduction of Vidrava which encompasses within its scope the presentation of slaying and imprisonment falls in fitness with the dramatic conventions accepted by the extant authorities on Dramaturgy.4

5. Placating ( Śakti ) : Bharata and a host of other canonists define Śakti as an attempt to reconcile a disagreement.5 It may be instanced in the statement of Lava, " Opposition has ceased; an atmosphere of calmness rules " in the Uttara-rāmacaritam.6 Allaying the wrath is Śakti in the opinion of the Nāṭya-darpana.7 In this sense the element is evident in the hero's statement in the Ratnāvalī, 'Her anger has of

6. Ibid. p. 148, Ll. 3, 5.

7. R. S. III–61b.

8. M. M. p. 64, line 15.

9. Vide Chap. VII– Conventions infra. It, however, appears that Vidrava might have been accepted as a sub-division of Avimarśa Sandhi by Kohala who seems to possess quite a good following in later dramaturgists.

10. N. XIX-39b; S. D. VI-104b-i; D. R. I-46a-i; M. M. p. 64, 17; N. L. R. 819 ; P. R. p. 195, 3 ; B. P. p. 211, 21 ; R. S. III-62b ; N. R. p. 143, 2.

11. U. R. VI–11.

12. N. D. p. 100, Line 2.

[ CHAP. III ]

DRAMATIC PLOT

itself pacified."1. The Nāṭya-darpaṇa also records the opinion

of some author who admits command ( ājnā ) in place of

Śakti to the list of the sub-divisions of the fourth Juncture.2

6. Reference ( Prasaṅga ) : A casual utterance of one's

ancestors is Prasaṅga.3 It also includes to refer to oneself

by one's own patronymic name, as it appears in the state-

ment of the hero in the Śākuntala in the fifth Act in

response to the rebuke of the disciples of Kanva, " Perdition

to catch the Pauravas ! Impossible !" 4

According to Śāradātanaya, Prasaṅga is a reference to

something beyond the subject under description.5 This

view is noted by the Nāṭya-darpaṇa as well. But the

Rasāraṇava Sudhākara has just the opposite view, for a

suggestion to the subject-matter in hand is Prasaṅga

according to it, which at any rate, is the direct meaning

of the term in the popular parlance.7

7. Assertion (Vyavasāya) : In the opinion of Bharata and

his followers it is the mention of a resolution or determi-

nation and of the means for carrying it out.6 The Vijña-

priyā clarifies the statement that Vyavasāya consists in the

expression of the fulfilment of the determined vow.9 It is

" Here is Bhīma with his head bent low ( in obeisance to

1. Rat. III–1.

2. N. D. p. 100 bottom.

3. N. XIX–90a; D. R. I–46b-i; M. M. p. 64,19; S. D. VI–104b-ii;

P. R. p. 176, 13; N. R. p. 138, 21 ; N. D. p. 93, 2 ; also

noted by R. S. III–64a.

4. Śāk. V–36-iv.

5. B. P. p. 211, 22 ; N. L. R. 826.

6. Also recorded by N. D. p. 93, 8.

7. R. S. III–62b.

8. N. XIX–90b; S. D. VI–103a; B. P. p. 212, 2; N. D. p. 103, 9;

N. L. R. 824. The text is ‘Pratijñā-hetu-sambhavah,’ explained by

the Vivṛti as Pratijñā, hetu, tayoh sambhavah melanām….

etc,…Vide Vivṛti. on S. D. p. 314 Line 1 et seq.

9. V. Pr. p. 306 (ha).

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

you, Sire ! ), who broke the thigh of Duryodhana and exhausted the Kaurava brothers. " 1

Assertion is declaration of one's own capacities in the opinion of Dhananjaya and a group of other canonists.2 Such an element is Samrambha in Rāmacandra's list of the sub-divisions of the fourth Juncture.3

The Nāṭya-darpana has in this case adopted altogether a new course. It has two different sub-divisions made out of these two opinions about Vyavasāya. In the sense in which Dhananjaya uses the term Vyavasāya, it calls that element to be Samrambha, whereas it accepts a separate element of Vyavasāya in fair agreement with Bharata's view. As it stands, it defines Vyavasāya as an association or contact with what is likely to bring one nearer the goal.4 The feature is illustrated by reference to Yaugandharāyana's association with the magician whose performance is prospective of bringing him nearer to the point of culmination.5

8. Excitement ( Dyuti ) : It consists in reprimanding and inciting the feelings of others.6 In the latter sense it is found in the Mālavikāgnimitra in the speech of the Jester who says, "O friend ! a reptile has fallen on me."7 Dhanika interprets it as an excitement caused in one's mind by threats and provocation by another.8 Contempt is Dyuti according to the Nāṭya-darpana, which is more comprehending and agreed to by Sāgaranandin as well.9

9. Veni. V-28.

10. D. R. I-47a-i ; M. M. p. 64, 21; P. R. p. 197, 12; B. P. p. 212, 1 ; R. S. III-65a ; N. R. p. 137, 17.

11. Vide N. D. Viveka I, verse 56.

12. Ibid. p. 103, 91.

13. Rat. Act IV, p. 169, line 6 to p. 175, line 4.

14. N. XIX-91a; D. R. I-46a-ii; M. M. p. 64, 18; S. D. VI-104a-i; P. R. p. 196, 6 ; B. P. p. 211, 21 ; R. S. III-63a ; N. R. p. 137, 9.

15. Māl. Act IV, p. 80, line 9.

16. Ava. p. 24, line 2.

17. N. D. p. 96, Ll. 10 & 18 ; N. L. R. 829.

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135

9. Dejection ( Kheda ) : There is a set of authorities which believes in accepting Kheda as one of the elements of the fourth Juncture, and defines it as an expression of the loss of spirits on account of mental exhaustion or physical fatigue.1 For example, lassitude is noticed in Purūravas' statement, "Oh ! I am fatigued—I should like to refresh myself with the cool breeze on the banks of this mountain river." 2 Mental exhaustion, however, is perceptible in the Mālatī Mādhava where the hero expresses, ‘My heart is broken.’ 3 Dejection in the form of despair is also Kheda which results in languor, a specimen of which is found in Rākshasa's speech in the Mudrā-rākshasa, "Ah, wretched me ! where do I go now !" 4

10. Prevention (Pratisḥedha or Nishedha): The obstruction in securing the desired object is Prevention.5 Only a few canonists, namely Bharata, Viśvanātha and Sāgaranandin believe in the existence of this feature constituting the fourth Juncture. A striking example of Prevention is, however, found in the speech of despondent Rākshasa, " It is indeed Providence that is hostile to the descendents of Nanda and not this brāhmaṇa ( Cāṇakya ).6

11. Opposition ( Virodhana ) : It is that feature which presents an excitement caused among those that are bewildered.7 Contempt for the excited is an alternative definition suggested by the Bhāvaprakāśa.8 Bhārata, on the other hand, holds that Virodhana is an element which presents an exchange of unpleasant remarks.9 An illustration to this may be found in the Venisam̐hāra in the dialogue between Duryodhana and

12. N. XIX-91b ; S. D. VI–105a ; N. D. p. 96, 20 ; N. L. R. 832.

13. Vikra. IV–51-iv ( p. 199, 4 ).

14. Mā. Mā. IX-12.

15. M. R. VI-6 et seq.

16. N. XIX–92a ; S. D. VI–105 ; N. L. R. 838.

17. M. R. VI–7.

18. M. M. p. 64, 22 ; P. R. p. 198, 3.; B. P. p. 212, 4.

19. B. P. p. 212, 3.

20. N. XIX–92b ; D. R. I–46a–ii ; R. S. III–65b; N. R. p. 138, 8.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

Bhīmasena where the two excited characters rebuke each other.1 Dhanika confuses Virodhana with Chalana by attributing to the former the same characteristics as Dhananjaya does to the latter.2 Singa Bhūpāla also maintains this view, but Viśvanātha and Rāmacandra define Virodhana as an element which signifies some impediment or delay in the fruition of the dramatic cause.3 An illustration of the same may be found in this sense in the Vikramorvaśī where the King refuses to pick up the gem of union ( sañgama mani ).4

12. Disrespect ( Chalanam ) : Śāradātanaya, Vidyānātha and Dhananjaya include the element of Disrespect among the sub-divisions of the Vimarsa Sandhi.5 From the illustrations cited by them it may be concluded that disregard contemplated here is by reference to the principal characters of the play, e. g. the hero or the heroine, or the hero and his counterpart. To illustrate, Rāma amply evinces lack of concern in Sītā when he quits her in the Uttararāma-carita; or in the ninth Act of the Bālarāmāyana Rāma shows disregard for Rāvana and the latter his contempt for the former. Similarly, Vāsavadattā's spite towards Udayana's quest of love is again a specimen of Chalana in the Ratnāvalī. Śrīkrshna Kavi adds that it is only a purposeful disrespect which falls within the compass of Chalana.6 On the other hand, the Nātya-darpana records the opinion of some scholars who think that Chalana is bewilderment.7 In this sense, samhāra in the sixth Act where Yudhiṣṭhira is addressing the Cārvāka, "Please tell me, by all means, O revered Sir, in brief

13. Veṇī. Act V-30 to 34.

14. Vide Ava. p. 25, line 28.

15. S. D. VI-106a ; N. D. p. 97, 15 ; N. L. R. 840.

16. Vikra. IV-43.

17. B. P. p. 211, 1 ; P. R. p. 197, 9 ; D. R. I-46b-ii.

18. M. M. p. 64, 20.

19. N D. p. 95, 16.

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137

or in extenso about my dear boy, of whom to listen here have I lent my attention to thee."1

In the Rasārnava-sudhākara, it is not a simple disregard which is believed to present Chalana, but the author holds that disregard shown towards the culmination of the dramatic motif is really what may constitute Chalana.2 Bharata, Viśvanātha and Gunacandra do not accept this element as a feature of this Juncture, but suggest instead the element of Chādana, which, in fact, views objectively what the former does only subjectively.3

13. Praise ( Vicalanam or Calanam ) is a self-panegyric statement.4 But it should be 'befitting the occasion,' adds Vidyānātha, with whom concurs Abhinava Kālidāsa as well.5 The statement of Miśrakeśi alias Sānumati in the sixth Act of the Śākuntala may serve as an illustration, where she boasts of her capacity to know everything by means of meditation.6

The authorities like Bharata and Viśvanātha among others do not, however, accept the element of Praise as a sub-division of the Vimarsa Sandhi. Logically, of course, such an element is likely to have its position in the scheme of every drama, because after strenuous efforts when one is able to steer through all storms of impediments, one is likely to give vent to one's own feelings of just pride and thus providing room for a complimentary statement.

14. Forbearance ( Chādana ): To put up with an insult or a similar discomfiture for the purpose of securing one's own object is called Forbearance.7 It is found in Dushyanta's

15. Venī. Vī-15.

16. R. S. III-64b ; also accepted by N. R. p. 138, 1.

17. For further particulars vide No. 14 below.

18. D. R. I-48a-i ; M. M. p. 64, 24 ; B. P. p. 212 ; 6 ; R. S. III-66b i.

19. P. R. p. 198, 9 ; N. R. p. 138, 27.

20. Śak. VI-1-lvii.

21. N. XIX-93b; S. D. VI-107.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

putting up with the insults showered upon him in the fifth Act by the disciples of Kanva. The pinch of the insult is acknow-

ledged by himself when he says, " I am all the more insulted."1

In a tropical sense, a beautiful specimen of this element is found in Mādhava's statement expressive of his endurance

of an insult in the shape of indifference shown to him by the Lord of elephants who does not care to respond to

the hit addressed to him.2

The Nāṭya-darpana differs from this connotation of the element of Chādana, and points out that an attempt to reconcile

or do an act which will end the effect of insult is Forbear-

ance.3 He offers only a weak illustration from the Ratnāvalī where the heroine says, " Luckily, this conflagration will

terminate all my miseries." 4 Sāgaranandin holds that only an insulting speech is enough to make for this element, and

he chooses to spell the title as Sādana in place of Chādana.5

15. Projection (Bhāvāntara) : There are some scholars who believe that change of motive is also a sub-division of

the Vimarsa Sandhi.6 It consists of a situation like this :

where one wants to do a deed with a particular motive, there is another person who attempts to further the performance of

that very deed, but with an altogether different motive. In such circumstances the element of projecting the motive (bhāvāntara)

is found. An illustration is cited from the Tāpasa-vatsarāja where minister Yaugandharāyaṇa wants to spare Vāsavadattā

from committing suicide; all the same he orders Viṇītaka, from a different motive, to arrange for the pyre.7

16. Precursion (Prarocanā) : A statement which shows signs of achievement of success 8 or shows proximate success,

17. Śak. V-18-vi.

18. Mā. Mā. IX-34 et seq.

19. N. D. p. 95, 2.

20. Rat. IV-16-xvi ( p. 187 top ).

21. N. L. R. 849.

22. Recorded by N. D. p. 100, 21.

23. T. P. Act VI ( p. 68, line 15 ).

24. N. XIX-94a; S. D. VI-106b; N. L. R. 857; N. D. p. 101 bottom.

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139

as almost achieved1 is Praṅrocanā. For instance, the speech

of Agastya in the Mahāviracarita which points out the success

of the hero against all demons and consequent coronation of

Rāma amounts to Precursor.2 The Nāṭya-darpana recalls that

some scholars define Praṅrocanā as honouring others.3 He

further adds that some omit Praṅrocanā altogether from their

scheme and admit the element of Yukti in its stead.4

17. Summary ( Ādāna ) is the resumé of action.5 The

insertion of this feature helps in bringing to mind afresh the

real motif of the play. An example is available in the Mālatī

Mādhava where Makaranda in his long soliloquy bewails in

sympathy for his friend Mādhava who suffers a gross dis-

appointment in losing his fiancée.6 In the Prabodhacandro-

daya also there is Ādāna in the speech of Sarasvatī who is

telling Māna that the place and pleasure of Kshetrājña depends

on his steadfastness.7 Some commentators read this element

as Ānanda rather than Ādāna, but this choice hardly seems to

suit the definition. Rāmacandra and Gunacandra define the

element as showing the nearness of gaining the fruit.8

These are various sub-divisions of the Vimarsa Sandhi in

regard to the acceptance of which there is a diversity of

opinion among different canonists with a consensus that

all agree to admit only thirteen sub-divisions to mark this

Juncture. Out of them, Apavāda, Śakti, Vyavasāya, Praṅrocanā

and Ādāna are, in the opinion of Dhānikā, indispensable for

1. D. R. I-47b; B. P. p. 212, 5; M. M. p. 64, 23; P. R. p. 198,

35; R. S. III-66a; N. R. p. 141 bottom.

2. "Laṅkā-dvīpa-gatam niśācara-kulam kṛtsnam parābhūyate" -M. C. VI-16.

3. N. D. p. 102, 13, line 14.

4. Ibid. p. 102, 22.

5. N. XIX-93a; D. R. I-48a-ii; M.M. p. 64, 24; S. D. VI-107a-i;

P. R. p. 196, 4; B. P. p. 212, 6; R. S. III-66b-ii; N. R. p. 142,

17; N. L. R. 844.

6. Mā. Mā. IX-38.

7. P. C. V-33.

8. N. D. p. 103, 2.

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the development of the dramatic action.1 The Nāṭya-darpana considers the last four of the above-mentioned as principal ones and makes the use of the rest only discretionary.2

In course of the last and the fifth Juncture the dramatic cause attains fruit. It presents a happy combination of the denouément and the fruit. It is, therefore, named as the Nirvahana or the Upasaṃhāra Sandhi.3 It has fourteen subdivisions of the following description :

E. Sub-divisions of Nirvahana-Sandhi

1. Junction ( Sandhi ) : Towards the close of the drama, the germ ( bija ) once again becomes directly visible in the full-fledged form, and its appearance marks the feature of Sandhi.4 For example, in the Vikramorvaśī the hero gets at the arrow thrown by Āyus and reads his name inscribed in the form 'as of one, born of Urvaśī.'5 This situation brings the King back to his love for Urvaśī and her bearing of his child, which form the very germ of the dramatic cause. In the Śākuntala as well, the element of Sandhi is found on similar lines when Dushyanta meets his child inognito and wonders if "Śakuntalā" could be the name of the mother of the boy.6 Thus it once again brings to the mind of the reader an idea of the original germ, viz., of the hero's affection for the heroine. Hence such passages are deemed to present the element of Sandhi.

2. Ava. p. 27, line 3.

3. N. D. p. 92, verse 57a.

4. It bears the title of Nirvahana Sandhi because it involves the point of culmination. Some scholars name it as the Upasaṃhāra Sandhi because it concludes the play and purports to bring together to one end all matters that took place in the Mukha-Sandhi and in the subsecquent Junctures.

5. N. XIX-95a; D. R. I-57a-i; S. D. VI-110a i; B.P. p. 212, 18a; R. S. III-70a-i; N. D. p. 104, 3; N. R. p. 177, 2; P. R. p. 200 bottom ; M. M. p. 65, 6.

N. B. : Sāgaranandin calls this feature Artha. Vide N. L. R. 861.

5. Vikra. V-7.

6. Śak. VII-20-xiv.

[ CHAP. III ]

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141

2. Vigilance ( Vibodha ) : The second sub-division of

the fifth Juncture is a feature which presents search for

the denouément.1 It is defined by scholars with almost

the same connotation, but is named differently. It is called

Virodha by the Nāṭya-śāstra, the Mandāra Maranda and the

Rasārṇava Sudhākara. The Nāṭya-darpaṇa, on the other

hand, calls it Nirodha, whereas the Ratnakośa chooses to

name it as Anuyoga. In this respect there is no substantial

difference except that the Nāṭya-darpaṇa lays more stress on

the scrutinising aspect of the search than on a simple quest

for the denouément ( Kārya ) of the play.2

An illustration of this feature may be seen in the statement

of Cāṇakya to Rākshasa, " Dear Minister ! are you anxious to

spare the life of Candanadāsa" ? 3 This very query aims at

bringing Rākshasa round, and making him accept the sword

of allegiance on behalf of Candragupta, and that is the

denouément of the play.

3. Hint ( Grathanam ) : It intimates the end of the play

by showing that the fruition of the germ is near at hand,4,

1. N. XIX-95b; D. R. I-51a-ii; S. D. VI-110a-ii; B. P. p. 212,

18b; R. S. III-70a-ii; N. R. p. 140, 16; P. R. p. 202 top ;

M. M. p. 65, 6 ; N. L. R. 886.

2. N. D. p. 105, 3.

3. M. R. VII-14-i to VII-15-i.

4. N. XIX-96a; D. R. I-51b-i; S. D. VI-110b; B. P. p. 212, 19;

R. S. III-79b; N. D. p. 105, 5; N. R. p. 148, 18; N. L. R. 864;

P. R. p. 213 top; M. M. p. 65, 7.

It may be noticed here that the definition of Grathana is given

by Dhananjaya as "Tad-upakshepah", the pronoun "Tat" standing

for Kārya, the denouément of the play. The Sanskrit playwrights

hardly believe in plurality of the denouément or the dramatic

motif, and the dramaturgical canons donot seem to favour the

attempt of weaving causes or objets more than one for the

ends of the dramatic plot. Despite this fact, Viśvanātha, perhaps,

"Upakshepas-tu kāryānām", placing the word ‘Kārya’ in the plural

number, which seems less suitable unless the plural is meant to

e. g., the statement of Śarvilaka in the last Act of the Mṛcchakaṭika, requesting Cārudatta to order what sentence should be awarded to the villain Śakāra, suggests that the finis is almost to follow.1

4. Narration ( Nirnaya ): Relating some past experience amounts to Nirnaya,2 which is evident in the statement of the Buddhist monk, Saṁivāhaka who narrates the story of the rescue of the heroine in the last Act of the Mṛcchakaṭika.3

5. Conversation ( Paribhāshana ): Mutual conversation in which one or more characters participate, and which is significant of the culmination of all efforts into success amounts to Paribhāshana.4 To illustrate, the talk between Upanishad and Śānti Devī in course of which the latter says to the former, " Your enemies are undone; all your ambitions fulfilled "5 may be cited.

Dhanañjaya, in defining Paribhāshana as stated above, has differed from Bharata who defines it as a talk full of censure.6 A clear illustration of such vituperative statement is available in the Śākuntala in the seventh Act where the ascetic lady, when inquired of the name of Sarvadamana's father, replies,

signify the various items of Kārya in the drama. With this reading of Viśvanātha there is the concurrence of the Ratnakośa as well. All the same, Avaloka on the Daśarūpaka states "Kāryasya upanyāsah" and also Viśvanātha himself in his notes below the illustration remarks "kāryasyo'pakshepād iti." Thus the plural may be deemed only a levity of expression in this case, used for purposes of mere metrical adjustment.

1. MRC. X–52–xi.

2. All texts Ibid. et seq.

3. MRC. X–45–vii et seq.

4. D. R. I–52a–i; B. P. p. 212, 22; R. S. III–71a; P. R. p. 204,1 ; M. M. p. 65, 9.

5. P. C. VI–9–i–v. (p. 211).

6. N. XIX–97a; S. D. VI–111 b–1; B. P. p. 212, 21; R. S. Ibid; N. L. R. 874.

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" who would utter the name of him who has deserted his legally wedded wife! " 1

Censuring one's own self is Paribhāshana in the opinion of the Nāṭya-darpana2 who illustrates the view by reference to the hero's speech, " With your delightful glances, O Queen ! grace me, who proved both unloving and shameless."3 Abhinava Kālidāsa, however, differs from this view inasmuch as he thinks that censuring one another is Paribhāshana.4

6. Consolation (Kṛti) : Dhananjaya defines Kṛti as an element which conveys the feeling of pacification due to success in getting the desired objects.5 The purpose of this feature is to show a sort of joy resulting from suppression of all impediments which were so far causing despondency, and also to anticipate that the full attainment of the desired end is not far off. The dialogue between Udayana and his senior consort Vāsavadattā about the acquisition of Ratnāvalī is cited as an illustration of the element of Kṛti by Dhanika, for it removes all uneasiness from the mind of the King.6

The above text of Dhananjaya is translated by Dr. Hāas as "Substantiation of the result attained." 7 This meaning is not borne out by the text under translation. It seems, however, that Dr. Hāas is perhaps influenced by the view advanced by Rāmacandra, Śiṅga Bhūpāla and a few others who define Kṛti as an element which suggests that the object attained has gained ground and is settled with firmer roots.8 Dhanika

1. Śak. VII-20-vi.

2. N. D. p. 106, 4.

3. T. V. VI-6.

4. N. R. p. 148, 11.

5. D. R. I-53a-i ; "Labdhārtha-śamanam Kṛtiḥ"— S. D. VI-111 b-ii also noted by B. P. p. 213, 2a.

6. Avaloka p. 30, line 8.

7. Hāas' Trans. of D. R. ( Columbia U. P. ) p. 31, line 12.

8. "Kṛtir-atha labdhārtha-su-sthīri-karaṇam."—R. S. III-72b, also followed by N. D. p. 107, 17; B. P. p. 213, 26; M. M. p. 63, 13; P. R. p. 207, 9.

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also confirms this view while illustrating Kr̥ti by reference to a passage from the Ven̥isam̥hāra, "Here are sages like Vālmīki and others who have commenced the ceremony of Installation."1 Abhinava Kālidāsa also agrees to the latter view, but reads " Sthiti " in place of " Kr̥ti " as the title of this element.2

With the same connotation as given by Dhananjaya, Bharata has the sixth sub-division of the final Juncture in his scheme which he prefers to call "Dhṛti"3 or "Dyuti".4 There are, however, some such canonists, whom Rāmcandra refers to, as believe in Dyuti to be an element which expresses removal of opposition.5 An example may be had from the Mudrā-rākshasa where Cāṇakya finds that opposition from Rākshasa is sunk no sooner than the latter declares, " There is no other go, well ! here I accept the sword for the Maurya."6 Some canonists, on the other hand, interpret this element as one which shows the subsiding of wrath or indignation,7 or jealousy or any other trouble.8 Kr̥ti in this sense is found in the Ven̥isam̥hāra where Bhīmasena addresses Draupadī, " There lies the King of the Kurus with his body, all gory with trickling blood for putting out the fire ignited by his insult to you."9 Likewise, the sense of womanly jealousy appears to be subsided in the heart of Vāsavadattā no sooner than she comes to know of her relation with Sāgarikā.10

7. Graciousness (Prasāda) : An apology or courtesy is the element of Prasāda which is named as Upāsti or Paryupāsana

8. Ava. p. 30, 11 or Venī. VI-44.

9. N. R. p. 147, 9.

10. N. XIX-97b.

11. The Vārāṇasī Edition of N. S. reads as Dyuti, but the Bombay reading 'Dhṛti' is preferable, for it avoids confusion with its namesake, Dyuti among the sub-divisions of Epitasis.

12. N. D. p. 107 bottom.

13. M. R. VII-16-v.

14. Ref. N. D. 198, 12.

15. N. L. R. 876.

16. Venī. VI-41.

17. Rat. Act IV, p. 198 top.

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by the Nāṭya-darpaṇa.1 It is clearly visible in the attitude of Purusha towards the mother Upanishad in the Prabodha-candrodaya.2 The Nāṭya-darpaṇa further records an opinion of an unidentified author who holds that Praśasti is one among the sub-divisions of the Apodosis, and defines it as a ‘joyous attitude arising from some favourable deed, or an amiable behaviour of another person.’3 An illustration is put forward from the Tāpasa-vatsarāja where Udayana congratulates his minister and his general Rumuṇvān for capturing the prince of the Pāñcālas.4

8. Bliss ( Ānanda ) : The attainment of one’s own desired end results into bliss. It is evident in the speech of Candragupta to Cānakya, “here is Candragupta who is basking cosily in the grace of your good self ”;5 or in the Mr̥c-chakaṭika where Śarvilaka exclaims with joy, “ O ! Luckily you have gone beyond the immeasurable ocean of great calamities. ! ”6

9. Deliverence ( Samaya ) : An escape from misfortune or deliverence from a calamity is Samaya.7 It appears in the Śākuntala where Dushyanta pays his homage to Mārica with the words, “ First I had the accomplishment of my desires ; and afterwards your sight, O revered Sir ! hence unprecedented has indeed been your favour on me.”8 This

10. N. XIX–98a ; D. R. I–52a-ii ; S. D. VI–112a ; R. S. III–71b ; N. L. R. 879 ; P. R. p. 212, 22 ; P. R. p. 204, 8 ; N. R. p. 151, 24 ; N. D. 106-22 ; M. M. p. 65, 10.

11. P. C. VI–11.

12. Vide N. D. p. 107, 15.

13. T. V. VI–7.

14. N. XIX–98b; D. R. I–52b-i; S. D. VI–111a-ii; B. P. p. 213,1a; R. S. III–72a ; N. D. p. 108 bottom ; N. R. p. 153, 18 ; N. L. R. 881; P. R. p. 205, 11; M. M. p. 65, 12. e. g. M. R. VII–16.

15. MRC. X–49.

16. N. XIX–99a; D.R. I–52b-ii; S. D. VI–112b-i ; B. P. p. 213–1b ; R. S. III–7210 ; N. D. p. 109, 8 ; N. R. p. 153, 6 ; P. R. p. 206 bottom.

17. Śāk. VII–29–i.

10

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element is called "Sāma" by the Benares Edition of the Nāṭya-śāstra, though the connotation is the same as that of the Samaya.1 Śrīkṛshṇa Kavi thinks that Samaya is a positive feature and consists in the enjoyment of a feeling of happiness,2 which appears to be more consonant with this stage of action. Sāgaranandin, on the other hand, holds that cessation of hostilities or opposition is Samaya.3

10. Surprise ( Upagūhana ) : Upagūhana or Parigūhana, as the Nāṭya-darpana would like to call it, is an element which introduces some un-foreseen circumstance tending to present some marvel in the play.4 This element is prominent in the seventh Act of the Uttararāmacarita where Prthvī and Gaṅgā bring out Sītā, each holding in hand one child of hers.5 An element of surprise is equally prominent in the Vikramorvaśī where the King wonders, "Oh Lightning !-Ah, here is the revered Nārada." 6

This is one element where there is no divergence or an alternate opinion suggested by any canonist for the reason that it is meant to satisfy the requirements of an important dramatic convention of introducing marvel in the fifth Juncture of a play.7

11. Satisfaction ( Bhāshana ) : Award of consolation or of prize is Bhāshana 8 It includes an appeasing statement or acknowledgment of noble deeds or services done and also conferment of honour richly deserved.9 It is

12. N. S. XXI-103a.

13. M. M. p. 65, 12.

14. N. L. R. 883.

15. N. XIX-99b ; D. R. I-53b ; S. D. VI-113a-i ; R. S. III-73a ; B. P. p. 213, 4 ; N. D. p. 109, 19 ; P. R. p. 212, 6 ; N. R. p. 147, 18 ; M. M. p. 65, 15 ; N. L. R. 889.

16. U. R. VII-17.

17. Vikra. V-18-vii.

18. Vide Chap. VI [ iv ] infra.

19. N. XIX-100a ; D. R. I-53a-ii ; S. D. VI-113a-ii ; P. P. p. 213, 3 ; N. L. R. 891.

20. N. D. p. 111, 6 ; R. S. III-73a.

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available in the speech of Vasishṭha in the tenth Act of the Bālarāmāyaṇa which recapitulates the merits of Rāma's family;1 or in the attempt of Dushyanta for offering once again the signet-ring to Śakuntalā who, however, repudiates its acceptance and prefers a floral adornment in its stead as a token of their re-union.2

Abhinava Kālidāsa reads this element as Ābhāshaṇa and defines it as an expression of greetings or hailing the acquisition.3 This view is shared by Vidyānātha and Śrī-kṛshṇa Kavi and is also used for purposes of citation by Dhuṇḍirāja in his commentary on the Mudrā-rākshasa.4

12 : ( i ) Anticipation ( Pūrva-bhāva ) : An anticipation of the fulfilment of the dramatic cause is Pūrva-bhāva in the opinion of Dhananjaya, Śrīkrshṇa Kavi and Abhinava Kālidāsa.5 For instance, when Yaugandharāyaṇa suggests the offering of Ratnāvalī to Udayana, it anticipates the achievement of the denouément.6

( ii ) Bharata and his followers mention Pūrva-vākya as the twelfth sub-division of the Nirvahana Sandhi instead of the Pūrva-bhāva as stated by others. It consists in making a mention of the action determined to be done in the earlier stages of Protas is. It makes a reference to what has been stated as the principal action ( kārya ) in the opening of a drama.7 For example, on attaining success, Bhīma calls for the handmaid Buddhimatikā and tells her to go and ask

1. B. R. X-102 ( Rāmo dānta-daśananaḥ... )

2. Śak. VII-25-iii-vii.

3 N. R. p. 148, 1.

4. P. R. p. 208, 6 ; M. M. p. 65, 14; Vide Dhuṇdirāja's Vyākhyāna on M. R. p. 313, 9 ( Telang's Edn. )

5. D. R. I-53b ; M. M. p. 65, 1.5 ; P. R. p. 209, 1 ; N. R. p. 149, 4.

6. Ratn. IV-19-xxii-xxv.

7. N. XIX-100b; S. D. VI-113b; B. P. p. 213, 4 ; R. S. III-73b, N. D. p. 113 top ; N. L. R. 894.

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Bhānumatī, the wife of Duryodhana to disgrace once again the consort of the Pāṇḍavas.1

13. Termination ( Kāvya-samihāra ): Towards the close of drama it has become a usual mode that some elderly personage who has been helping all along the hero, asks him, " What else should I do for you". Since this question is put up only after the fruition has taken place, there prevails a feeling of complete gratification in the heart of the hero, which is expressed by him in a usual phrase, "Could there be anything sweeter than this ! " This readiness to confer a boon on the part of the senior person responded by a feeling of gratification on the part of the hero marks the termination of the dramatic res-business of a play. Thus it has two parts : one is the element of offering a boon, and the second is the expression of content. Some canonists define the sub-division of Termination ( Kāvya-samihāra ) by reference to the first part2, whereas others do so by reference to the second part.3 In fact, it is the set of both the elements, viz. readiness to do so some further good and the corresponding gratification, that completes the feature of the Kāvyā-samihāra. It has become a favourite element with all playwrights. An instance may, however, be seen in the Rati-manmatha where the DevI addresses Manmatha and says, " Dear one ! what other service should I do unto thee ?" 4

14. Benediction ( Praśasti ): A valedictory pronouncement purporting to pray for the general weal is Praśasti.5 It is otherwise known as the Bharata-vākya, which title signifies more or less the stage-direction meaning that the verse is to

15. Venī : VI-41-i.

16. N. XIX-101a; D. R. I-54a ; S. D. VI-114a ; B. P. p. 215, 5; M. M. p. 65, 7; N. D. p. 113, 13 ; N. R. p. 153, 10 ; N. L. R. 886 ; P. R. p. 217, 11.

17. R. S. III-74a.

18. R. M. V-27-v. [ p. 101.]

19. N. XIX-101b ; D. R. 1-53b-ii ; S. D. VI-114b ; B. P. p. 213, 6; N. L. R. 897 ; N. D. p. 114, 17 ; N. R. p. 153-bottom ; R. S. III, 74 ; M. M. p. 65, 18 ; P. R. p. 113, 11.

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be sung by an actor, or preferably by more than one actors forming a chorus in the melody of which lies embedded the finis of the dramatic enactment. This is available in the last verse of every play; still reference, for example, may be made to the Kundamālā where the sage Vālmīki pronounces benediction by invoking the Grace of God Śiva.1

These are the fourteen sub-divisions which compose the fifth Juncture of a play, and there is consensus of the opinions of different canonists that almost all the sub-divisions are necessary to the proper presentation of the scenes of culmination of the dramatic cause.

If all the members of the five junctures are put together they make the well-known sixty-four sub-divisions of the dramatic plot. Though the use of all the junctural sub-divisions is to be made in keeping with the type of the hero, the dramatic sentiment and the tone of the dramatic plot; still much emphasis is laid on the use of the sixty-four sub-divisions.2 Further stress is laid by the canonists when it is said that no dramatic composition is capable of proper enactment without these sub-divisions ( aṅgas ), just as no man deprived of limbs is competent for any action.3 That play alone bears a beautiful model which is well adjusted with the diverse aṅgas, the use of which is said to foster the dramatic relish.4

Purposes of Sandhis

According to Bharata the use of the junctural sub-divisions tends to serve a six-fold purpose and thereby oblige the execution of the dramatic res-business.5 The main purpose of these sub-divisions is well defined under the following six heads by Bhoja Deva in his Śṛṅgāraprakāśa :6

1. K. M. VI·45.

2. R. S. III-75-77 ; B. P. p. 213, Ll. 7-9.

3. S. D. VI-118 ; B. P. p. 213, 16–21 ; N. XIX-51.

4. S. D. VI-120 ; B. P. p. 213, 22 ; N. XIX-52–53.

5. N. XIX-50 ; P. R. p. 113, 1 ; M. M. p. 65, 20 seqq.

6. Refer B. P. p. 215, 11; Śr. Pr.

( i ) Suitable Arrangment ( Racanā ) : The first purpose sought to be served by means of the junctural sub-divisions is the proper and progressive arrangement of the dramatic plot.1 It contributes to the symmetrical setting of the subject chosen for the dramatic execution with the effect that no particular stage of action remains under-developed nor is it profusely extended, in case care is taken to weave the plot in accordance with the scheme laid down by the Sandhis and their aṅgas.

( ii ) Concealment ( Gupti ) : The sub-divisions are so arranged that their use as prescribed will expose only such aspects of the dramatic motif as is proper to do and will conceal all such matters as are undesirable to be brought on the stage at all or in a particular scene. By maintaining a seasoned balance between actual presentation and suggestion the scheme thus tends to avoid all chances of the failure of sentimental relish, and consequently of marring the enduring interest of the audience.

( iii ) Disclosure ( Prakāśana ) : Conversely, the scheme promotes proper presentation of the items to be disclosed before the spectators. It places in proper perspective every important aspect of the dramatic motif with due emphasis, by weeding out all what is not adequate for presentation.

( iv ) Emotion ( Rāga ) : The dramatic plot extends over a wide range of success and failures. The swing of action buttresses the zest of the characters and also fosters the interest of the visitors in going through different scenes. Thus the rise and fall of emotion and of the dramatic interest to its apex or its nemesis is well marked out by the various sub-divisions which are meant to maintain a uniformity of emotional development, which, in fact, is the crucial test of all dramatic art.

( v ) Surprise ( Āścarya ) : The end of all poetic works and of the scenic art in special, lies in wonder ( camatkāra ), which forms the striking feature in every action. Unless there is an occasional introduction of the element of marvel, the dramatic composition cannot cast its bewitching spell on the

1. D. R. I-55a ; S. D. VI-116-117 ; B. P. p. 213, Ll. 12-14.

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visitors. All pivots, therefore, as envisaged by these various sub-divisions, go by far to leaven the dramatic plot by the introduction of the element of charming surprise at the proper places.

( vi ) Sustaining interest ( Vṛttānupakshaya ) : The sum-total of all the advantages enumerated above lies in creating a sustained interest of the visitors in the dramatic show. Hence sustenance of interest is the top advantage of this scheme.

SANDHYANTARAS

Besides these sixty-four sub-divisions of Junctures, the ancients believe in some special features to be set in the dramatic texture. Their frequent use is prescribed specially in the Nāṭaka which is a model show of all the scenic art. These special features are called "Sandhyantaras" or particular characteristics which are found in the midst of the Sandhis and their members. They donot belong to any particular Juncture or the stage of action, nor to any particular emotion, but they are such elements as generally conduce to the proper weaving of the dramatic plot. They anticipate such possibilities both of fact and of means as are inevitable in the constitution of the plot, either heroic or erotic. They act as inter-links, and can be used with advantage anywhere throughout the play or even more than once, if suitable. They are counted by Bharata1 as twenty-one, which are defined by different canonists as below :

1. Conciliation ( Sāma ) is a statement which is pleasing and also expressive of the speaker's affection.2 A statement which tends to avert some wrong by means of sweet words is Sāma in the opinion of Sāgaranandin.3

2. Offer ( Dāna ) is a gift made by one to another in his sweet memory as a keepsake.4

3. N. XIX-104-107.

4. R. S. III-83a :e.g. Agnimitra appeasing Mālavikā in Māl. IV-14.

5. N. L. R. 937.

6. R. S. III-83b ; N. L. R. 937 : e. g. Mālatī's offer of her garland to Lavan̥gikā in her memory when the former resolved to molest herself. Mā-Mā. VI-11-xii ( p. 268 top ).

3. Disintegration ( Bheda ) consists in disunion of friends caused by diplomatic means.1 It includes a disturbance in the amity of relations subsisting between two parties which ultimately inures to the benefit of the principal characters.

4. Chastisement ( Danda ) consists in threatening a wrong-doer whose indecent action has become visible.2

5. Ready Wit ( Pratyutpanna-mati ) is shown in a clever retort suitable to the occasion, or in divining an ingenious strategem.3

6. Arrest ( Vadha ) : The term ‘vadha’ is not to be understood here in its primary sense, for the presentation of murder or scenes of assisstation to the audience on the stage is unconventional among the Sanskrit playwrights. The term is, therefore, to be understood in its tropical sense, viz., doing away with the mischievous tendency or activities of a possible wrong-doer. It is curbing or murdering of the spirit rather than the individual himself, as is seen in the Venisaṃhāra, where Lord Śrīkṛṣṇa informs Yudhishṭhira of the capture of Duryodhana's friend, Cārvāka by Prince Nakuḷa. Thus the term "Vadha" is more or less used in the sense of corporeal punishment which is the meaning given to the term in the penal law by the ancient Smṛti-writers.4

7. Mis-quotation ( Gotra-skhalita ) : It consists in stating the name of a person other than the one who is relevant to the occasion. It is generally a slip in mentioning a different name due to the engrossing thoughts of the speaker, mostly found in the erotic plays.5

8. R. S. III–84a ; N. L. R. 935; e. g. Kāmandakī's statement creates difference between Mālatī and her father–Mā. Mā. II–8-i.

9. R. S. III–84b ; N. L. R. 940. e. g. Dushyanta's threat to the offending drone in pestering Śakuntalā [ Śak : I–11 & VI–20. ]

10. R. S. III–85a ; N. L. R. 944, e. g. Refer Jester's device for the escape of Mālavikā — Māl. IV-6. ; also p. 70 ( N. S. Edn. )

11. R. S. III–85b ; N. L. R. 942 ; e. g. Veṇī : VI–43-ix.

12. R. S. III–86a ; N. L. R. 949 ; e. g. Urvaśī's mis-quotation of the name of Purūravas for Purushottama while enacting the Lakshmī-svayamvara [Vikra. p. 102, line 4 - Author's Edn. N. S. Press.]

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8. Prowess ( Ojas ) : A statement suggestive of one's own capacities presents the feature of Prowess.1 An alternative title 'tejas' is suggested for this element by Bharata.2 Sāgaranandin however, does not accept this element ; and he seems.justified in rejecting it as it is coverd by the element of 'Vyavasāya', which has exactly the same connotation as Ojas.3 Instead of this, Sagaranandin suggests to include altogether different an element called 'Affliction ( ruj )'. He defines affliction as tortures caused by blows and other bodily injuries, but also records the opinion of other scholars who include even mental afflication or agitation due to bad omen within the scope of 'ruj'.4

9. Determination ( Dhih ) : A regular contemplation of measures till success is at hand constitutes the element of Determination.5 For instance, the Jester's constant attempt in uniting Mālavikā with Agnimitra till he has devised the means of false pretence of a snake-bite to obtain the ring of DhāriṇI for the release of the heroine is Dhih. Similarly, the attempt of Cāṇakya to secure Rākshasa for the Maurya prince's ministry and devising means of Candanadāsa's execution amounts to the mediation of moves ( Dhih ).

Sharp intelligence which is capable of reading the mind of another is "Dhīh" according to Sāgaranandin,6 who refers to Candragupta's intelligence in reading the mind of Cānakya while he was pretending to quarrel with him.7

Bharata has no place for "Dhīh" in his list but reads in its place "Hrih" which means an expression of modesty.8

1. R. S. III-86b : e. g. Refer Kuśa's speech to Dāṇḍāyana - U. R. VI-16. Also vide N. XIX-106b.

2. N. p. 320 Fn. No. 7.

3. Vide p. 133 supra.

4. N. L. R. 968 ; e. g. Jimūtavāhana's physical suffering in the Nāgananda Act V. Also see N. L. R. 969.

5. R. S. III-87a; e. g. Māl. IV-3-vi ; M. R. Act VII.

6. N. L. R. 958.

7. M. R. III-32-iii.

8. N. XIX-106a.

10. Indignation ( Krodha ): "An exhibition of wrath" is Krodha according to Ratna-kośa.1 Siṅga Bhūpāla adds that it should be justified on grounds of some serious offence or blunder.2

11. Enterprise ( Sāhasa ): An adventurous deed which may involve risk of even one's own life, is said to present the feature of Enterprise.3

12. Consternation ( Bhaya ): An un-anticipated horror introduces the element of Bhaya in a Juncture.4

13. Deceit ( Māyā ): Practising deceit in one form or the other, whether by pretence or disguise, 'misrepresentation or jugglary, forms the feature of Māyā in a dramatic action.5 For example, misrepresentation of facts is found in the Śākuntala where Dushyanta conceals himself and his personality in the first Act; disguise is found in the Mudrā-rākshasa where Virādhagupta moves about in the form of a snake-charmer. Yaugandharāyaṇa's move in placing Vāsavadattā as his sister in the hands of Padmāvatī in the Svapna-vāsavadattam is a pretence. The presentatian of the Con-juration Scene in the Ratnāvalī is a specimen of jugglary.

14. Concealment ( Samvaraṇa ): An attempt to repudiate one's own statement, or to construe otherwise what is stated previously is known as Samvaraṇa.6 A clear illustration of the feature is available in the Śākuntala where the King, having first acquainted his Jester with his mind for Śakuntalā, considers at the time of his departure that he is his light-hearted fool unworthy of retaining his confidence, and so

15. N. L. R. 965 ; e. g. Vide Veṇī. I–8.

16. R. S. III–87b; e. g. Vide Ratn. ( Mylapore Edn. p. 104 )

17. R. S. III–88a ; N.L.R. 954 ; e. g. Refer to Mād-hava's recontre with Aghoraghaṇṭa in the Mālatī Mādhava Act V.

18. N. L. R. 957 ; R. S. III–88b-i ; e. g. the nymphs ( apsarās ) shouting for help in the Vikramorvaśī ( Vide p. 7 ), or, the Vidū-shaka shouting for help when attacked by Mātali in the VI Act of the Śākuntalā.

19. R. S. III–88b-ii ; N. L. R. 963.

20. R. S. III–89a.

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conceals his heart by recanting his previous statement by saying, "where is she! brought up in the midst of fawns, and where we! It was all pure jest, dear friend, don't you take it seriously."

Sāgaranandin differs from this definition and thinks that the concealment consists in avoidance of narrating that part of story which is not quite relevant to the occasion.1

15. Mistake ( Bhrānti ) : It is a wrong understanding for want of proper conception of facts.2

16. Assistance ( Dūtya ) : Rendering help in fulfilment of some action which is otherwise difficult to achieve amounts to assistance.3 Even merely conveying a message amounts to assistance in the opinion of Sāgaranandin.4

17. Conclusion ( Hetvavadhāraṇa ) : Determination of certain facts by process of reasoning is Hetvavadhāraṇa.5 Sāgaranandin holds that the element of conclusion consists in falsifying a reasoning ( hetu ).6

18. Vision : ( Svapna ) : A statement which reveals the secret of the speaker who is prating in his dreamy state introduces the feature of Vision in a play.7

19. N. J.. R. 974.

20. R. S. III–89b ; N. L. R. 9i7 : e. g. Yudhiṣṭhira mistaking Bhīma as Duryodhana; or, Duryodhana, being unaware of Bhānu-mati's vision, misunderstands the situation in Veṇī. Act II.

21. R. S. III–90a : e. g. Citralekhā in the Act III of Vikra., or Bakulāvalikā in the Māl. where she accepts to render help to the Jester in bringing out the union of the loving couple. Similar is the office of Kāmandakī in the Mālatī–Mādhava.

22. N. L. R. 983.

23. R. S. III–90b : e. g. Dushyanta reasons out this conclusion in regard to the näive sagacity of the woman-kind by showing the illustrative conduct of the cuckoo who gets her young ones brought up by other birds as ravens—Śāk. V–23.

24. N. I. R. 978 : e. g. Veṇī. III–38.

25. R. S. III–91a ; N.L.R. 985 : e. g. Māl. p. 80, line 3 : Jester uttering in his dream, "O ! Mālavikā, You surpass Irāvatī in strength ! "

156 LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

19. Parchment ( Lekha ) : It is a feature which consists in a written statement expressive of one's own mind.1 In the list of Sāgaranandin Lekha has found no place. Instead of this he admits the element of Treachery ( Upadhi ) which is not so accepted by Bharata and also seems superfluous inasmuch as it finds full scope in 'Māyā' as stated above.2

20. Intoxication ( Mada ) : A state of intoxication due to spirituous liquors and drinks becomes a feature of Mada when presented in course of a dramatic action.3

21. Portrait (Chitra4 ) : It is a feature which marks the presentation of a situation before the mind's eye.5 It is a mental picture appearing before a dramatic character, as has Dushyanta the picture of his beloved Śakuntalā when in course of his remorseful condition he is retrospecting over his own injustice in repudiating her for no reason.6 Ratna-kosa differs from this view of Singa Bhūpāla as it defines that Chitra is the presentation of the desired object by means of a portrait.7

" These interim junctures are to be inserted ", observes Sāgaranandin, "by means of speeches from the void or through written expressions."8 The presentation of these features goes a long way in modelling the dramatic plot, hence they can be freely and frequently used in the fanciful fibres of the fable.

1. R. S. III-91b; e. g. Urvaśī sends a written letter of love to Purūravas in Vikra. Act II, or, Cānakya puts in circulation a sealed letter for disintegrating the forces of Rākshasa.

2. N. L. R. 984, also included by B. P., vide p. 214, 9.

3. R. S. III-92a-i; N. L. R. 991 ; e. g. reference be made to the Mālavikāgnimitra where Irāvatī is seen under a drunken fit.

4. It is read as "Citta" by the N. S. Edition of the Nātya-śāstra; Vide p. 320, line 8. This title supports the connotation given to the term by Siṅga Bhūpāla who gives more striking an attribute to this feature than what Sāgaranandin does.

5. R. S. III-92a.

6. Śāk. Act VI ( Ākāraṇa-parityāgānusayah )

7. N. L. R. 987; e. g. Nāg. II-9.

8. N. L. R. 994-996.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT

157

They can be used with advantage in minor shows as well, for they contain lesser number of junctures and may thus depend on these Sandhyantaras to fill in the missing links. All the same, among later cononists there seems to be a tendency of mini-

sing the importance of these special features, for none of the authors like Dhananjaya, Visvanatha, Ramacandra, Srikrshna Kavi, Vidyanatha and their followers deal with them in their treatises on Dramatics. The reason for their disregard seems to be based on a feeling that these features simply form

an assorted list of emotions, junctural elements and some dramatic situations.1 For instance, consternation, indignation, intoxication and enterprise are the ancilliary emotions; and assistancce and parchment are mere dramatic phases of action.

Hence according to the later school a separate recognition of these features is not acceptable, although there are conservative canonists like Bhojadeva, Saradatanaya and Singa Bhupala who, though sufficiently modern, insist upon the use

and acceptance of the special features as independent characteristics, and thus fall in line with Bharata. Thereby they mean to believe in an effective distinction of spots meant for the "Sandhyantaras", for if their inclusion is sought to be made somewhere within the sub-divisions of the junctures or the ancilliary feelings then there would be little justification in dealing differently with the dramatic characteristics ( Natya-

lakshanas ) and the dramatic figures ( Natyalanikaras ), which are all verily accepted by all schools of thought as varied embellishments of a play.

DRAMATIC EMBELLISHMENTS

In addition to the Junctural sub-divisions which stand as constituent elements of the corpus dramatis, there are several other characteristics recognised by canonists as dramatic embellishments. They are called 'lakshanas' or distinctions which

1. N. D. p. 116, 4 seqq.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

are stated by Bharata1 to embellish the Kāvya. Bharata does not care to define what the lakshaṇa is, nor does he illustrate the different ones, but by what can be gathered from the definitions of various lakshaṇas given by him and other canonists, the exact nature of the lakshaṇas seems to be of beautifying character. They donot form the body of the play ( nāṭya-śarīra ), but act as such features that signify the glory of the dramatic execution.2 In the structure of a play their position is like the "Sāmudrika lakshaṇas" or lineaments of nature which include such marks of grace as the sportive looks and the slow gait and other brilliant features in the body of the finer sex. Just as the latter show the grandeur of the personality of an individual, similarly the existence of the former contributes to the greatness of the drama. In fact, they are the graceful characteristics of every dramatic action, and are recommended for their adept use in the development of the plot. They donot belong to any particular Juncture, and can be freely spread throughout the play. There is no restriction for their use more than once, should the dramatic execution permit such frequency without fear of repetition or monotony.

The influence of the Lakshaṇas has been so great that they have been acknowledged by later rhetoricians as adornments not only of the dramas ( rūpakas ) but also of all poetry in general. This recognition is evident from a separate head allowed to the lakshaṇas by Priyūshavarsha Jayadeva in his treatise on Rhetorics,3 which is by no means a text on Dramaturgy. Similarly, Daṇḍin has also admitted to his list

1. N. XVI-42 : Here the use of the generic term ‘Kāvya’ could be limited to the specific sense pertaining to the subject-matter under treatment, viz. the scenic poetry ( dṛśya-kāvya ), but from a similar use in case of the four figures of speech and metres recognised by Bharata it appears that he uses the term ‘Kāvya’ to denote all poetry in general. ( Vide N. Chap. XV-172 also Chap. XVI-43. )

2. A. B. p. 295, line 9 ; also p. 296, line 2. ( G. O. S., 1934, Vol. II )

3. C. L. Chap. III.

[ CHAP. III ]

DRAMATIC PLOT

of poetic figures these lakshanas1 as described in other

Śāstras, presumably referring to the magnum opus of Bharata

himself. Bharata has in his concluding remark chosen to

call these lakshanas as embellishments of Kāvya. The reason

why lakshanas could secure such a position is not far to

seek : they consist of such striking features and elements

of basic beauty that, in essence, they have contributed to the

formation of several poetic figures of speech enunciated by

the later writers.2

Since the historical study of the various elements of poetics

is not within the scope of the present work, the different

views with regard to the nature and development of the

lakshanas as recorded by the Abhinava Bhārati,3 and their

original and subsequent position in Sanskrit Poetics is not

dealt with at length here.4

[ i ] NĀṬYA-LAKSHAṆAS

The numerical strength of the lakshanas also presents some

diversity. They are counted thirty-six in number by Bharata,

but the Nāṭya-śāstra seems to have been presented to the later

canonists in at least two recensions, each one admitting a set

of only thirty-six lakshanas but with a variation in case of a

few members. Some of them are common to both the lists,

hereinafter distinctly referred to as A List and B List;5 and

in respect of the rest, the two recensions do not corroborate

with one another. This diversity has led to several complica-

tions resulting in a way in the recognition of sixty-four dra-

1. K. D. II–366.

2. Indications along these lines are made below while dealing with

specific lakshanas in case of some striking analogies.

3. A. B. has noted as many as ten views, known as ‘Daśa-pakṣī’

which may be called "Decemviral Theory of Lakshanas" [Vide Nā. Ś.

( G.O.S. Edn. ) Vol. II p. 295, 6 et seq. upto p. 298 end. ]

4. For Historical survey in details vide Dr. Rāghavan's 'Some Con-

cepts of the Alañkāra Śāstra' ( 1942 ), Chap. I.

5. Vide Nā. Ś ( G. O. S. ) Chap. XVI- Appendix pp. 348–364 ; and

Chap. XVI for B List pp. 294–321.

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matic figures by Bhojadeva and Śāradātanaya.1 Viśvanātha

has, ingeniously enough, divided them into two categories :

one, under the caption of "Nāṭya-lakshaṇas" which are retained

only thirty-six in deference to Bharata's dictum; and the

other, under that of the "Nāṭya-alaṅkāras;"2 but he makes a

total of sixty-nine by adding to the second group some charac-

teristics which otherwise form the features of some of the

minor shows.3 Jayadeva recognises only ten of these lakshaṇas

and yet has elected five from each list.4 To the commenta-

tors on various Sanskrit dramas available, both the recensions

of the Nāṭya-śāstra seem to be of acquaintance inasmuch as

Rāghava Bhatta, Jagaddhara and others cite Lakshaṇas as men-

tioned and defined in both the lists. For this reason it becomes

necessary to take notice of such dramatic distinctions first as

are available in both the recensions, which will be followed by

a treatment of those that are alternatively dealt with in the

Nāṭya-śāstra in the two varying groups.

1. Ornament (Bhūshaṇa): It is that remark which expresses

a striking sense by means of poetic excellences and figures;5

e. g. reference may be made to Rākshasa's comparison of

Mahānanda to the Moon among kings, and his bewailing over

the pale light of the Moon in the absence of Mahānanda;6

or to the remark of Cārudatta describing to his friend

Maitreya how the breast of Vasantsenā is being incoronated as

1. Vide A. B. p. 294 foot-note; Śāradātanaya professes to mention

64 Lakshaṇas, but actually enumerates only 54. Vide R. P. p. 223,

L1. 11–22 & p. 224 top.

2. Viśvanātha, however, does not point out any differentia to

distinguish the lakshaṇas from alaṅkāras. But it appears that the

latter enjoy still subsidiary position because he calls dramatic

figures as decoratives, which rank pari passu with other alaṅkāras

the position of which is determined by him as the jewellery worn

by a person.—S. D. Chap. I.

3. S. D. VI–171b–175 & 191–198.

4. C. L. Chap. III.

5. N. XVI-6; S. D. VI-175; N. L. R. 1505; R. S. III-101.

6. M. R. IV-9.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT 160A

a prince by the Kadamba flower showering drops of water over it.1 Agreeing with Bharata, Rūpa Gosvāmin cites an example from the Lalita Mādhava in which Kṛshṇa describes the rise of the Moon with striking figures of speech and poetic excellences of sweetness and perspicuity.2

2. Compression ( Akshara-saṅghāta = Combination of letters ). It consists in a pithy statement which suggests in a striking manner, something which is beautiful.3 An illustration will clear the idea. The hero asks the friends of Śakuntalā in the Arbour Scene, " I hope your friend is not suffering too much". A pithy reply from Priyaṃvadā, "the malady will, however, soon disappear now, as the remedy is available" is amply suggestive of Dushyanta's union4, and presents the dramatic lakshaṇa of Akshara-saṅghāta.

Siṅga Bhūpāla and Rūpa Gosvāmin hold that in the Akshara-saṅghāta the striking suggestion should be of something different from the subject-matter under description through the aid of a double entendre5. To illustrate, Suparṇa in the Lalita Mādhava recalls to Kṛshṇa his beloved Candrā-valī by name, while describing the beauty of the nocturnal sky.6 In fact, these two canonists define Akshara-saṅghāta

1. Mṛc. V-35.

2. "Lakshmīḥ kairava-kānaneshu paritah śuddheṣhu vidyotate,

Sah-mārga-drutī sarva-sarvatra-kule proñmilati kshinātā /

Nakshatrestu kilodbhavatyapaeitiḥ kshudrātmasu prāyikī,

Saṅke Saṅkara-maulir abhiyudayate rājā purastād-diśā //

— Lalita Mādhava IX-10.

3. N. XVI-7; S. D. 176a; N. L. R. 1506; B. P., p. 225, 1-12; C. L. III-1.

4. Śāk. III-21-v-vii.

5. R. S. III-102a; N. C. Verse 173.

6. "Vaktrāṇi bhānti parito harinekaśaṇānām,

Aruddha-harmya-śirasām bhavad-īkshaṇena /

Tair-nirmitāni tarasā Sarasīruhāksha !

Candravalī-paricitāni nabhas-talāni " //

— Lalita Mādhava V-32.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

in terms of what Bharata and Viśvanātha would call the lakshana of Śobhā, for which they have, as of necessity, a different connotation.

Where a pithy statement expresses a good deal of sense it makes for Akshara-sanghāta or Compression according to Acyuta Rai, who seems to lay more stress on the quantitative than the qualitative strength of this feature.1

3. Beauty ( Śobhä ) : According to Viśvanātha and Bharata the dramatic feature of Beauty is said to be found in a statement which conveys some charming sense through a double entendre2 with the result that some unknown fact gets revealed by means of some established facts,3 e. g Dushyanta on his way to Mārica exclaims, “Oh ! the name of the mother of this child is Śakuntalā ! May be, there are several namesakes in this world ” - here the Prākṛta phrase, Sakunta-lāvannam suggests the name of Śakuntalā through the pun, Sakuntalā-vannam 4.

Rūpa Gosvāmin confines this feature to revealing the individual feelings of a young couple,5 and illustrates by citing the address of Rādhā to the Cloud requesting to scare himself away so as to impede the course of catching a glimpse of Kṛshṇa. On the other hand, Kṛshṇa also feels elated to have had a sight of Rādhā and indulges in appreciating the charms of the first bloom of his beloved.6

1. S. S. VII-193.

2. S. D. VI-177a.

3. N. XVI-8; N. L. R. 1513.

4. Śak. VII-20-x-xv.

5. “Śobha sva-bhāva-prakatyam yuvoranyonyam ucyate.” - N. C. 177.

6. Dhāvatyākramitum muhuḥ śravanayoh simānam akshordvayī, Paushkalyam harataḥ kucau valī-gunair abadhyam madhyam tataḥ / Muṣhnītaś-calataṁ bhruvau caranayor udyad-dhanur-vibhrame, Rādhāyās-tanu-pattane nara-patau bōlyabhidhe śīryati // - Lalita Madhava IV.

[ CHAP. III ]

DRAMATIC PLOT

161

Where two young persons admire one another out of affection it presents Śobhā in the opinion of Śiṅga Bhūpāla.1 According to the Rasārṇavasudhākara the definition of Śobhā thus takes into account chiefly the erotic plays, but in case the definition be treated in its illustrative sense, it may mean an admiration of one party for the other (ālambana). This view seems to find favour with Śāradātanaya who defines the term in more general sense and holds that an expression of one's own feeling is Śobhā.2

Jayadeva and Acyuta Rai, on the other hand, opine that even when a well-known flaw is slighted on account of the description of merits it presents the beauty (Śobhā) of expression.3

4. Illustration (Udāharaṇa): Where with a view to establishing a fact under description some other analogous fact is stated, it is characterised as Udāharaṇa.4 For instance, Makaranda refers to the blooming of lotus with the rise of the Sun in order to establishing the spontaneity of affection between Mālati and Mādhava.5

Bharata, however, holds a different view, and means that Udāharaṇa is a feature in course of which there is a clever interpretation or significance of one's own object expressed in a very pithy and pregnant speech.6 To illustrate this feature, reference may be made to the verbal quibble made in the Mudrā rākshasa, where the self-same verse is read out by Malayaketu and Rākshasa by alternating the personal pronouns so as to suggest a different sense.7

1. R. S. III–104a.

2. R. P. p. 225, 9.

3. C. L. III–2 ; S. S. VII–186.

4. S. D. VI–178a ; R. S. III–103b ; B. P. p. 225–10 ; N. L. R. 1578.

5. Mā. Mā I–24.

6. N. XVI–9.

7. M. R. V–19.

11

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

5. Reason (Hetu): It is a concise statement made for establishing a position by according some reason for the same.1

In the opinion of Bharata it is an attractive artifice and is also of frequent occurrence in the Sanskrit dramas.2

Where by denial of several other characteristics one is attributed to a particular object under description, it amounts to Hetu in the opinion of Jayadeva.3

6. Doubt (Samiśaya): Where on account of multiplicity of thoughts uncertainty is implied in the statement of a person who is unaware of the truth, it is said to contain the element of doubt,4 e.g. Malayaketu's desire to know the reason behind the inquiry of Rākshasa in regard to Candragupta's variance with Cānakya in the Mudrā-rākshasa.5

7. Example (Drṣṭānta): It is an interesting illustration put forward for establishing the truth of the fact under reference.6

8. Inset of words (Padoccaya): Where various words are used in different clauses to indicate ultimately one and the same sense, or where an object is described by the use of several metaphorical impositions indicating the presence of a particular attribute in that object, it presents the dramatic figure known as Padoccaya.7 It also includes regular parallel descriptions which bring out a common attribute between the object of description (prakrta) and something else (aprakrta). An illustration will clear the definition of Bharata: and a reference, for instance, be made to the description of

9. N. XVI–10; S. D. VI–178; N. L. R. 1522; R. S. III–102b; B. P. p. 224, 14–i.

10. e.g. Mā. Mā–(B. S. S.). Act. VII (p. 299, Line 6); MRC. IX–22.

11. C. L. III–4.

12. N. XVI–11; S. D. VI–179a; N. L. R. 1596; R. S. III–104b, B. P. 224 Line 15.

13. M. R. IV–10–ii.

14. N. XVI–12; S. D. VI–179b; R. S. III–105a; B. P. p. 224, 14–ii; N. L. R. 1550: e.g. Mā. Mā. X–15; Śaka II–7.

15. N. XVI–22; R. S. III–111; N. L. R. 1595.

[ CHAP. III ]

DRAMATIC PLOT

163

Karpūramañjarī's state of afflicted health due to wistfulness, which is beautifully brought forth by means of a striking parallelism shown in the elongation of the day and night with the measure of the heroine's breath, the dropping of the jewelled bangles with tears, and hopes of life withering along with the frame of her body.1

Viśvanātha, however, calls Padoccaya as a feature which presents an agreement between sound and sense. According to him it is a rhythmic beauty consisting in the structure having the same cadence as the thought contained therein.2 For example, the description of Śakuntalā's person has the same delicacy of structure as the one of sense.3

Thus Bharata lays stress on a beautiful parellelism in sense, whereas Viśvanātha emphasises over the consonance of words with the sense. Bharata believes in the artifice of zeugma or in series of metaphors as Abhinavabhāratī4 puts it, while Viśvanātha believes in that of onomatopoeia as the basis of the dramatic figure of Padoccaya.

9. Inference (Prāpti or Jñapti5) : If by reference to certain peculiarities in an object, some conjecture is made in regard to it in its entirety it amounts to Prāpti. Where the existence of the whole is inferred from even a part of it, though it may be on grounds of semblance only, it is deemed enough to constitute the element of Prāpti6 For instance, the conclusion of Purūravas that the swan has concealed his beloved, for he has adopted her gait, is only a conjecture.7

10. Exaggeration (Atiśaya) : An expression of qualities which are beyond comparision presents the dramatic distinc-

11. Kar. II-9.

12. S. D. VI-180b.

13. Śāk. I-20.

14. A. B. (Vol. II) p. 308, 18.

15. A variant adopted by the Bengal edition of the Sāhityadarpana.

16. N. XVI-13 ; S. D. Vi-182b ; N. L. R. 1536 ; R. S. III-103a.

17. Vikra. IV-33; also vide Śāk. III-5.

tion called Atiśaya.1 The statement of Purūravas raising an

elephant to the high rank of a prince in the Vikramorvaśi

illustrates the point.2 Where some speciality is shown after

pointing several features of similitude with others it becomes

Atiśaya or contrast in the opinion of Śiṅga Bhūpāla with

whom Sāradātanaya concurs.3

11. Narration ( Nirukti ): Relation of past events is

called Nirukti.4 The past event thus narrated should, of

course, be momentous on the occasion, e. g. Mādhava's

reiterating the episode of Mālati's request for the garland of

Bakula through Lavaṅgikā and his instantaneous offer is the

narration of a past event which has a great bearing on the

germ of the dramatic plot.5 Sāradātanaya, however, holds

that a faultless expression or an expression showing absence

of flaw is Nirukti.6

Sāgaranandin, Śiṅga Bhūpāla and Jayadeva, on the other

hand, spell the term as Nirukta, and define it as an etymo-

logical derivative given in support of one's own statement.7

Jayadeva agreeing with Bharata's classification given in the

B list holds that the Nirukta is of two kinds: real (tathya),

and imaginary ( atathya = anṛta ) according as it is proved by

facts, or supported by grammatical formations, or is simply

fanciful.8

12. Declaration ( Siddhi ): There is a good deal of

divergence of opinions among different canonists in regard

to the connotation of the term, Siddhi. Where a mention

of several important characters is made for carrying out an

intended purpose it presents the figure known as Declaration

( Siddhi ) according to Bharata, e. g. in the Śākuntala, the

1. N. XVI–20 ; S. D. VI–185a ; N. L. R. 1580.

2. Vikra. IV 47.

3. R. S. III–114: B. P. p. 224, 3.

4. N. XV`-16 ; S. D. VI–186b.

5. Mā. Mā. I–32–vi…ff.

6. B. P. p. 224, 21–i.

7. N. L. R. 1550; R. S. III–115; C. L. III–6.

8. Ibid.

[ CHAP. III ]

DRAMATIC PLOT

165

statement of the friend of the heroine, " the kings are heard to have several interests" is a reference to other consorts of the King, which has a specific purpose of scanning the feelings of the hero for her.1

Viśvanātha defines this feature as a declaration of qualities verily belonging to several characters as combined in one individual which is so done with a view to conveying some inner sense.2

Śiṅga Bhūpāla has an altogether different definition. According to him Siddhi is an unexpected association with the object of desire,3 which is available in the Mālavikāgnimitra where the King unexpectedly meets Mālavikā on his way to the garden where he was going for keeping his time with Irāvatī.4

"It is that beauty of expression", observes Jayadeva, "which contains a mention of certain well-known facts that are analogous to the subject of description."5

13. Conciliation ( Anunaya ) : It is an accomplishment of one's own purpose by means of sweet words.6 A supplicating speech is also Anunaya according to Śiṅga Bhūpāla.7 Śāradātanaya calls it simply 'naya', and defines it as an appealing or an agreeable statement.8

14. Similitude ( Sārūpya ) : Presentation of similarity by reference to certain attributes observed, heard of, or experienced makes the feature called Sārūpya.9 Viśvanātha, however, holds that the purpose of this feature is to cause agitation, and on the strength of this similarity in structure and constitution there arises a confusion. To wit, Yudhiṣṭhira

15. N. XVI–17; N. L. R. 1558. : e. Śāk. III–22–i.

16. S. D. VI–186b.

17. R. S. III–107b; N. P. 224, 4–ii.

18. Māl. Act. III ( p. 40 N. S. Edn. )

19. C. L. III–8.

20. N. XVI–28; S. D. VI–188b ; N. L. R. 1635: e. g. Vikra. IV–69.

21. R. S. III–118a.

22. B. P. p. 224, 2.

23. N. XVI–35.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

harshly addresses Bhīmasena, “O Wicked Duryodhana !” for his having mistaken his own brother for Duryodhana in the Veṇisaṃhāra. The element of agitation which does not find place in the definition of Bharata has found room in Viśvanātha's connotation perhaps due to his illustration of Yudhiṣṭhira's perturbation as cited above.1 All the same, Sāgaranandin has an alternative definition which says that a conclusion with regard to a particular object on the basis of its qualities once noticed, is the feature of similitude.2 This view takes into account Sārūpya in its logical sense, which is a means of proof ( upamiti pramāṇa ).

15. Interrogation ( Pṛcchā ) : An inquiry in a supplicating language is called Pṛcchā, e. g. Purūravas' attempt to find out the whereabouts of Urvaśī from the cuckoo, or Mādhava's quest for Mālatī in a similar frantic mood.3 Sāgaranandin permits also an inquiry to be made to one's own self in course of a soliloquy.4 Pṛcchā is that beauty of expression where the question itself becomes its answer.5

16. Description ( Guṇakīrtana ) : Viśvanātha defines it as a description of qualities. It is found in Mādhava's charming appreciation of Mālatī's qualities.6 It may, however, be noted here that in case a simple description of merits should constitute this feature, then it will be supposed to be traced only in later descriptions and not in the appreciation of qualities at the first association. For the very first appreciation after the introduction of the germ is the fourth sub-division of Protasis, namely, Allurement ( Vilobhana ). So any other subsequent occasion which gives an opportunity for the appreciation of the merits of a character will amount to Guṇa-kīrtana.

17. S. D. VI-191b; R. S. III-121; N. L. R. 1683.

18. N. L. R. 1688.

19. N. XVI-34 ; B. P. p. 225, 7; S. D. VI-190b : e. g. Vikra. IV-22-ii ; & Mā. Mā. IX-29.

20. N. L. R. 1671.

21. R. S. III-124; e. g. Vikra. IV-51.

22. S. D. VI-192b; B. P. p. 225, 16; N. L. R. 1708.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT 167

Bharata, however, thinks that it is something more than a mere description of qualities. In his opinion Guna-kirtana is a striking artifice which consists in presenting one and the same attribute, or the merit of a character by referring to several names possessing that particular attribute. For example, Vasanti, in the Uttara-rama-carita, reprimands Rama-candra by referring to his sycophant addresses to Sita that describe her as the very second heart of the speaker and a delightful streak of moon-light to his eyes, and so on.1

17. Ambition ( Manoratha ): An expression of some inner desire under some pretence is Manoratha, as for instance, Buddhi-rakshita speaks to Madayantika in her frantic state, " Well how would you feel if you were made a consort by your love as was Rukmini made by Purushottama ?" Mada-yantika replies with a sigh, " how, do you console me ! ", and thus hints that she is not so fortunate as may have the luck of being done so, and thereby conveys her readiness to elope with Makaranda.2

18. Gratefulness ( Priyokti )3: In the A list of Bharata it is the last characteristic, and it consists in a sweet speech full of reverence. It is an expression of gratitude by one character to another, as is found in Dushyanta's speech to Marica.4

In the opinion of Saradatanaya it is also an expression of satisfaction of a superior at the achievements of his juniors. For example, Gauri says in Nagananda, " Long live Jimutavahana ! I am much pleased with you for your doing good to the world even at the cost of your life." 5

Sringa Bhupala thinks that it is a conversation in which a character compliments the other, as is found in Dasaratha's character

1. N. XVI-39; R. S. III-116 ; e. g. U. R. III-26; also MRC. I-48.

2. N. XVI-36 ; S. D. VI-193b; R. S. III-120a; B. P. p. 225, 1 ; N. L. R. 1692.

3. R. S. calls the term as Madhura-bhashana; B. P. calls Praharsha.

4. N. XVI-41 ; S. D. VI-194; N. L. R. 1720; e. g. Sak. VII-30.

5. B. P. p. 226, 6; e. g. Nag. V-33.

168 LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

address to Viśvāmitra in the Anargha-rāghava in which he inquires of the welfare of his distinguished visitor.1

These are the eighteen dramatic distinctions ( lakshaṇas ) which are common to both the lists of Bharata. The remaining eighteen are peculiar to the A list only; and they are not common even with dramatic figures shown by later cano-nists.2 For reasons of their peculiarity, only as dramatic lakshaṇas, the remaining ones are detailed first as given in the A list.

19. Conclusion ( Abhiprāya ) : A supposition of an impossibility of a fact on grounds of parallel instances or an expression of an impossible relationship between two parallels is a beauty of expression called Abhiprāya.3 An illustration will clear the point. The statement of the Jester consoling the wistful King in the Vikramorvaśī concludes an impossiblitity of Urvaśī's betrayal, which is artistically suggested by saying, “would she belie your expectations in fruit-bearing after she has once borne flowers on the plant of your ambition !” 4 The statement of Dushyanta about the attempt of Kaṇva in exacting the ascetical duties from so delicate a person as Śakuntalā being equal to an attempt of cutting the Samī plant with the edge of a lotus leaf is a specimen of the term Abhiprāya in another sense.5

Siṅga Bhūpāla records the opinion of certain scholars who think that Abhiprāya is an expression of one's interest in an object agreeable to him.6

20. Illustrtaiion ( Nidarśana ) : When well-known facts are adduced in order to refute the opinion of others, it amounts to Nidarśana,7 e. g. the statement of Dushyanta esta-

21. R. S. III-123, e. g. A. R. I-25.

22. Vide Chap. III. infra.

23. N. XVI-14; S. D, VI-182a; N. L. R. 1540.

24. Vikra. p. 76, Ll. 1-3.

25. Śak. 1-17.

26. R. S. III-105b; B. P. p. 224, 5.

27. N. XVI-15; S. D. VI-181; N. L. R. 1545; R. S. III-106b; B. P. p. 225, 3.

[ CHAP. III ]

DRAMATIC PLOT

169

blishes the factum of Śakuntalā's celestial birth by citing a negative illustration, “No flash which is tremulously radiant does arise from the surface of the Earth.”1

21. Especiality ( Viśesha or Viśeshana ) is a feature which proves the excellencce, or brings out a peculiarity of one of the two things under comparision so as to present an interresting contrast between two sets of things.2 For instance, in the Mudrā-rākshasa, when Rākshasa has accepted the position of the minister to the King Candragupta, Cāṇakya remarks, “let every one be free from bondage, except the tuft of my hair, which is being tied by me after fulfilling my determined vow.”3

After describing several well-known facts, when something is added anew, it introduces the element of Viśesha according to Śiṅga Bhūpāla.4

22. Analogy ( Tulya-tarka ) Where the surmise of something unknown becomes possible on account of some similarity in circumstances expressed by means of a similie or a metaphor, it presents the element of Analogy.5 A suitable illustration may be found by reference to the statement of Mādhava which expresses his surprise at the modification in the feelings after looking at Mālatī compared with a change found in a moon-stone when it contacts the Moon.6

Differing from Bharata, Viśvanātha defines Tulya-tarka as a surmise made from certain cicumstances which pertain to the matter in question ( prakrta ).7 Purūravas, for instance, in his mental state of frenzy mistakes a river for Urvaśī at the first sight, but, later on, conludes that it is, in fact, a river, or else, how could she leave Purūravas and go of her own accord to the ocean. Just then, he remarks, “Success

1. Śak. I-26.

2. N. XVI-18; S. D. VI-185b; N. L. R. 1563; B. P. p. 224, 20.

3. M. R. VII-7.

4. R. S. III-110.

5. N. XVI-21; N. L. R. 1590; R. S. III-112.

6. Mā. Mā. III-5.

7. S. D. VI-180-a.

170

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

is attained not by despair," which, however, signifies the proximity of the re-union of the hero with Urvaśī.1

1. e. g. Vikra. p. 208, 4. This is the idea of Viśvanātha according to the text adopted by Dr. Röer, but the Bombay Edition of

Mm. Durgāprasāda reads the text as "Prakrti-gāminā" and not "prakrta-gāminā." According to the Bombay reading, Tulya-tarka

is a surmise made from some matter which is collateral with the natural disposition, or coincident with Nature's course. Here

again, the alternative interpretation is possible, for the term "Prakrti" may mean one's own nature or may mean Nature

itself. An illustration from the former point of view may be found in the statement of Kāmandakī ( Mā. Mā. IV-5 ), where

she maintains her natural disposition towards her endeavours in bringing about the marriage of Mālatī and Mādhava ( Tat

sarvathā yatnaḥ prāna-vyayenā'pi mayā vidheyaḥ ). In the latter sense the talk between the Vidūshaka and Dushyanta in the sixth Act

of the Śāk. may be an instance, where the possibility of regaining Śakuntalā is surmised; and the former depends on the very course

of Nature, when he remarks, "No parents can, of course, afford to see for long their daughter suffer the separation from her

lord." ( Śāk. VI-10-xi ).

From the illustrations given by Viśvanātha, neither interpretation seems to be quite perfect. The author gives an example

from the Veṇī. and relates the episode of Bhānumattī's vision in course of which she sees a mongoose devouring one hundred

reptiles. From the significant number of one hundred, she concludes the destruction of one hundred Kauravas at the hands

of the Pāṇḍavas who are repstenteded by the namesake Nakula.

To construe the illustration, the term "Prakrti-gāminā," then, may mean something which goes to conform to the relevant conclusion based upon similar facts. If stretched, it may mean that

mangoose's devouring snakes is a course of nature, which makes her conclude the victory of the righteous claimants in the

Pāṇḍavas against the usurping Kauravas.

For these reasons, prakrta-gāminā seems to be a better reading, though the dramatic features ( lakshaṇas ) seem to include all

artifices in their wide sense and they need not have any limited connotation.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT

23. Description (Dishta or Drṣṭa) : A striking presentation of an object by reference to such time, place or the form as creates interest amounts to the dramatic figure known as Diṣṭa.1 Agnimitra's description of Mālavikā after the demonstration of her dance in the second Act of the Mālavikāgnimitra may be referred to as an illustration to the feature.2

Śāradātanaya and Siṅga Bhūpāla classify dishta into two kinds : direct, when it is made of an object that is present at the spot; and indirect, when it refers to an object in absentia.3

24. Admonition (Apadiṣṭa or Upadiṣṭa) : It is a piece of advice imparted on the lines of the dictates of the Śastras,4 as is found in the well-known precept of the great sage Kanva to Śakuntalā in the Parting Scene; or the Kāmandikī's advice in the sixth Act of the Mālatī-mādhava.5

25. Argument (Vicāra) : Where by process of reasoning, some inference is drawn of a conclusion in regard to certain matters that are not evident, it is characterised as the dramatic feature of Argument.6 For example, the fact that Urvaśī is afflicted by love which is otherwise imperceptible is concluded by Citralekhā in her statement, "Is it not betrayed by her very limbs which stand in good comparision with the faded stalks of lotus !" 7

Siṅga Bhūpāla thinks that an indication of more than one means for the attainment of an object is Argument; whereas a proper presentation of facts is Vicāra in the opinion of Śāradātanaya.8

1. N. XVI-23; S. D. VI-183b; N. I. R. 1605; R. S. III-126.

2. Mal. II-6.

3. R. S. p. 263, 18; B. P. p. 225, 8.

4. N. XVI-24; S. D. VI-184a; N. L. R. 1612; R. S. III-125; B. P. p. 224, 7.

5. Śāk. IV-20; Mā. Mā. VI-18.

6. N. XVI-25; S. D. VI-183a; N. L. R. 1619.

7. Vikra. p. 74 Line 2.

8. R. S. III-113a; B. P. p. 224, Line 18; e. g. Mā. Mā. I-34.

26. Alteration (Viparyaya): It is a change of resolution due to some doubt;1 e. g. the alteration in the conclusion of Makaranda doubting whether it was for good or for bad that Mādhava was taken away by the Yoginī is an instance of Viparyaya.2

Śinga Bhūpāla agreed to by Śāradātanaya takes Viparyaya as a failure of Vicāra in its technical figurative sense, and holds that it consists in presenting several means at the disposal of the speaker and yet his incapacity to serve his purpose.3

27. Deception (Gunātipāta): A statement which points out the action of some one contrary to one's attributes brings in the element of Gunātipāta.4 To illustrate, the observations of Dushyanta are very pertinent when he says that the floral arrows of Cupid and the cool rays of the Moon seem to be otherwise in case of people like him (who are affected by Love).5

Where description of certain facts suggests some consequential events, it becomes Gunābhipāta according to Śinga Bhūpāla, who illustrates the feature by reference to the speech of Bhīma and Arjuna who narrate the past deeds of Duryodhana whom they had approached some time ago, thereby suggesting the truancy of Duryodhana.6 Sāgaranandin, however, adds the element of sternness of speech to the connotation of this feature.7

28. Slip (Bhramśa or Dhvansa): It is that feature which shows some digression from the matter in discourse. A sudden departure from the subject-matter of description is a

29. N. XVI-25; S. D. VI-187b; N. L. R. 1626.

30. Mā. Mā. IX-53-54.

31. R. S. III-113.

32. N. XVI-19; S. D. VI-184b; B. P. p. 224, Line 16.

33. Śak. III-4.

34. R. S. III-114a; e. g. Veñī. V-26.

35. N. L. R. 1569.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT 173

Slip in the opinion of Bharata.1 For instance, reference may be made to the amusing talk between Rāvaṇa and the Bow-bearer of Janaka in the Prasanna-rāghava : Ravana asks, “ Whither is Sītā ” ? Mañjarīka, the Bow-bearer replies, “first here is the bow ( dhanush ), and then will appear the maiden ( kanyā ).” Rāvaṇa remarks “you are a perverted sort of a fellow; even astronomers donot think so, for they have first the Virgin (Kanyā) and then the Archer (dhanush).”2 This digression from the topic of discourse presents the feature of Bhramśa.

Viśvanātha, on the other hand, defines the term in more radical a sense, and calls it a speech of a vain person or of an intoxicated individual who states just the reverse of what he, in fact, means to speak.3 In the Veṇīsaṃhāra, for instance, Duryodhana says out of slip to the ennuch, “Ere long will Pāndu's son through his prowess slay Duryodhana in the battle along with his vassals, his kinsmen, friends, sons and brothers.”4 Here Duryodhana spoke just the reverse of what he intended to do.

29. Garland ( Mālā ) is a series of an offer to do something for another for the purpose of attaining one's own object,5 as for instance, does Dushyanta in offering to do a number of services to comfort the uneasy Śakuntalā.6 This is how Viśvanātha defines the feature of Mālā. But Bharata sees nothing striking in the offer of services, but believes that Mālā is a feature where several points are mentioned seemingly for argument's sake, but the purpose of which, in fact, is the attainment of one's own ends.7 For example, Rāmacandra sweetly describes several virtues of Sītā to appease her in

30. N. XVI-27; R. S. III-118 b; N. L. R. 1631.

31. Pr. Rā. p. 11, Ll. 20-22.

32. S. D. VI-187a.

33. Veṇī. II-5.

34. S. D. VI-139a.

35. Śāk. III-25.

36. N. XVI-29; R. S. III-122; B. P. p. 224, 8; N. L. R. 1642.

apology of his order of deserting her in the Kundamālā.1

Similar feature is visible in the Dhananjaya-vijaya where

Arjuna declares a number of points in favour of taking festively

the opportunity for fighting the Kauravas at the instance of

their robbery of cattle in the domains of Virāṭa.2

30. Complaisance ( Dākshinya ) : Compliance with the

wishes of another in words or in action is the feature of

Complaisance.3 It is very evident in Siddhārthaka's readiness

in accepting a job on a mere request from Cāṇakya in the

Mudrā-rākshasa.4

31. Censure ( Garhaṇa ) : Where there is censure in words

but eulogy in sense, or vice versa, it amounts to the dramatic

feature of Garhaṇa,5 That artifice is also within the purview

of this feature where by declaration of faults some useful

purpose of admiration is served, or by declaration of merits

disgust is caused. Thus it is an artifice both in expression as

well as in effect. For instance, censure purported to eulogy is

found in the Veṇisamhāra in the speech of Kṛpācārya, who fies

on all concerned, only to mean to recapitulate the past d=eds.6

For creating the effect of admiration through the declaration

of fault, reference may be made to the Mālatī Mādhava where

the bark garments of Kāmandakī have turned into nur:ing of

Mālatī ; or the description of Mādhava as the vendor of human flesh has gone to win him the admiration of the

heroine as an adventurer.7

Viśvanātha thinks that a strong reproach of a person by

reference to his faults is the feature of Censure.8 In this

sense, however, an illustration is available in the Mṛcchakaṭikā

1. K. M. I-12.

2. Dh. V. p. 8 verse 16.

3. N. XVI-30; S. D. VI-188a; N. L. R. 1646; R. S. III-108;

B. P. p. 224, 4.

4. M. R. p. 86, Line 1.

5. N. XVI-31; R. S. III-117.

6. Veṇī. III-13.

7. Mā. Mā. X-4-ii; also Act V-27-1.

8. S. D, VI-190a; N. L. R. 1654.

[ CHAP. III ]

DRAMATIC PLOT

175

where Candanaka openly reproaches Viraka for his faults.1 Sāradātanaya holds that Censure is an expression of contempt, be it due to anger, jealousy or self-conceit.2

32. Announcement ( Prasiddhi ) : A declaration of the well-known merits or other qualities inherited by virtue of one's descent is Announcement.3 Purūravas, for example, tells his own high parentage and merits in the Vikramorvaśī.4

To prove one's own statement by well-known truths is Prasiddhi in the opinion of Siṅga Bhūpāla and Sāradātanaya.5

33. Suggestion ( Leśa ) : Conveying an idea by means of comparision is Leśa according to Viśvanātha.6 It may be illustrated by the statement of Duryodhana who refers to the possibility of the Kauravas doing a wrong action which he justifies by comparing it to the one presented in the Pāṇḍavas' defeating old Bhīṣma by leading Śikhaṇḍī in the fore-front.7

Sāgaranandin does not seem to reduce this feature to such a simple scale as this, but believes that Leśa is an artifice which unravels the secret cleverly by using some pithy and suggestive sentences, as is found in the sweet dialogue of Priyamvadā and Śakuntalā respectively saying, "If father Kaṇva were here at the moment !" Śak. "Then what would have happened ?" Priyam. "Could have honoured this distinguished guest by his very best possession"...and so on.8 Bharata has almost a similar view about this feature as has Sāgaranandin, but with this much of variation only that he emphasises over the mode of expression as well, namely,

1. MRC. VI-22.

2. B. P. p. 224, 6.

3. N. XVI-33; S. D. VI-191a; N. L. R. 1664.

4. Vikra. IV-38.

5. R. S. III-108a ; B. P. p. 224, 13 : Note : Here the word "Prasādana" seems to be used in the defn. in a loose sense perhaps as an equivalent of "Prasādhana".

6. S. D. VI-193a.

7. Veṇī. II-4.

8. N. L. R. 1696; e. g. Śāk. I-27 et seq.

176

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

similarity. To wit, the Jester, while asking Dushyanta to keep on with fortitude, says, "O friend ! does it behove you ? the great men are never overpowered with grief ; Lo ! the mountains donot stir even in the midst of gale." 1

Siṅga Bhūpāla does not admit Leśa as one of the dramatic Lakshaṇas, but has in its stead one named by him as "Lekha", and defines it as a statement which contains an epithet competent to convey a sum-total of feelings expressed through gesticulations.2

34. Imposition ( Saṁkshepa or Saṁkshobha ) : Viśvanātha calls it a dramatic feature where one is shown to have placed oneself at the disposol of another.3 In this sense there is an illustration in the statement of Purūravas to Auśinarī, "O Noble lady ! why do you thus exert your tender limbs for no reason ! Is he to be propitiated who eagerly longs for your gracious favour ?"4; or in the Mālatī Mādhava where Makaranda keeps himself entirely at the disposol of Madayantikā.5

Imposing upon oneself something what is not there is Kshobha according to Śāradātanaya.6 But Sāgaranandin defines Saṁkshepa as a feature which shows that a character is imbibing within himself a similar feeling of pleasure or pain as the other character does, but for altogether different reasons.7

An example is offered from the Māyālakshaṇa where Rāvaṇa is comparing himself to have the same feeling as Sītā does, but due to different reasons ?" She is emaciated as she is dragged here, we are reduced on account of Love's affliction; she weeps for her husband, and we do for her; she is miserable for want of weal; we are so for want of union with her;

1. N. XVI-37; e. g. Śāk. VI-8-36... et seq.

2. R. S. III-119.

3. S. D. VI-192a.

4. Vikr. III-xiii.

5. Mā. Mā. VII-ii.

6. B. P. p. '225, 13.

7. N. L. R. 1701.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT 177

still Sītā is not kind to us though we are in similar situations." 1 With this definition of Sāgaranandin, Bharata names this feature as Kshobha2 and not Saṅkshepa3. Siṅga Bhūpāla, however, does not admit Saṅkshepa to the list of the Nāṭya-lakshaṇas, but recognises Kshobha as one of them, though with a different connotation. He defines Kshobha as that feature where cause is found in one place and the effect is seen in another. The general rule of causation is that the cause and the effect co-exist. But disorder in this relation is a disturbance in the rule of Causation, and hence it is a Kshobha.4 To illustrate this view, reference may be made to Udayana's statement in the Ratnāvalī, "O Vāsavadattā ! when the noose is round thy neck, the breath has reached my throat ( just to get out of it )." 5

35. Fulfilment ( Anukta-siddhi ) : Where the purpose is shown to be served in full, without actually asking for it, it makes the feature of Fulfilment.6 For example, in the Kundamālā, Prthvī asks, " Is Jānakī purified ?" At this mere query of Sītā's mother, she is informed in the following sentences, of the union of Rāma and Sītā by former's acceptance of the latter under the bidding of Vālmīki.7

36. Deduction ( Arthāpatti ) : The feature of Arthāpatti is a sweet expression, where some sense other than the denoted one is deduced 8 e. g. Kāmandakī's description of her affection for Mālatī is expressive of her desire for the latter's repeated visits to her.9

37. Ibid. 1703.

2 While defining, N. spells it as "Dochā"—N. 16, 38 & N.S. 17, 38.

3. N. XVI-46.

4. R. S. III–119.

5. Ratn. III-13.

6. N. XVI-40; S. D. VI-194a; N. L. R. 1712; R. S. III-120b; B. P. p. 225, 21.

7. K. M. VI-38.

8. N. XVI-36; S. D. VI-189b; N. L. R. 1657; R. S. III-109; B. P. 214, Ll. 9.

9. Mā. Mā. X-5.

12

178

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

The above-mentioned thirty-six lakshanas close the A. list given in Bharata's Nāṭya-śāstra. Out of these thirty- six, first eighteen are common to both the A. and the B. list and the rest are peculiar to the former only. It then follows that out of those given in the B. list, there are eighteen lakshanas which are not found in the A. list. In fact, the B. list is an assorted set of some features recognised by later canonists as dramatic embellishments or figures (alaṅkāras) and a few lakshanas other than those mentioned in the A. list. Thus, out of the remaining eighteen features given in the B. list, eleven bear the same title as is given to eleven out of thirty-three Nāṭya-alaṅkāras mentioned by Viśvanātha and Sāgaranandin, and seven are such features as are found neither in the A. list of the lakshanas nor in the Nāṭya- alaṅkāras of the later canonists. Since they are so peculiar only to the B. list of the lakshanas, they are dealt with first :

1. *Similitude (Guṇānuvāda) : Where something in- ferior is said to have qualities similar to those possessed by the superior one, it presents the dramatic feature of similitude.1 It is very much like the figure of speech, Similie (Upamā). It is found in Daśaratha's comparison of Kaikeyī with the orb of the Sun and her gait with that of the lion in the Yajñaphala.2 Abhinava Bhāratī records a variant in the reading of the definition of this feature, according to which a description of an object is done through secondary force of expression (Gaunī Vṛtti) by establishing identity with some other object.3 e. g. Dushyanta's description of Śakuntalā as a flower not hitherto smelt, or a young leaf not scratched by nails and so on, or Rāma's description of Sītā as the very goddess of Wealth and so on, in the Uttara-rāma-carita.4 The point of

• If read in continuation with these features that are common with those mentioned in the A. list, this one and the subsequent six may be numbered as 19-25 of the B. list.

1. Nā. p. 305

2. Y. P. II-18.

3. A. B. (on Nā. Vol. II-G. O. S.) p. 305, Foot-note No. 2.

4. Śak. II-11 ; U. R. I-39.

[ CHAP III ] DRAMATIC PLOT 179

distinction between the two definitions of this lakshana is that the former recognises the element of similitude as the feature of wonder ( camatkāra ); whereas the latter does so only when identity between the object of description and the standard of comparision is established. Thus the former brings it nearer to the figure of similie, whereas the latter brings it closer to the metaphor.

Śāradātanaya1 looks at the feature from slightly a different angle of vision, and defines it as the one which contains repeatedly panegyric descriptions of the youthful couple. Presumably he makes an attempt unnecessarily to limit the extent of this feature to the erotic dramas only, unless the youthful couple is intended to include the bellicose pair of heroes as well.2

2. Construction ( Mithyā-adhyavasāya ) : Where, by means of certain objects or relation of objects which is either non-existent or non-true, a determination of an object which is similarly non-existent or untrue, is made, it is said to contain the beauty of expression called “Mithyā-adhya-vasāya.”

Abhinava Bhārati elucidates this by saying that it is a feature found in a statement expressing the determination of some object which is either non-existent or not-true through similarly non-existent or untrue facts.3

This Nāṭya-lakshana4 is much too akin to the Nidarśanā alankāra as recognised by the later poeticians. The feature may be illustrated by reference to the statement of Dushyanta in the Śākuntala where the non-existent relation of instrumentality in chopping the Sami tree is attributed to the edge of a lotus leaf, and thereby, a similar improbability is conveyed regarding Śakuntalā's capacity for performing the austere services in the hermitage.4

1. • B. P. p. 225, line 18.

2. Even then it cannot cover all the heroic dramas, because it is not necessary to have only combatant youths as heroes.

3. N. ( G. O. S. ) XVI-17 ; A. P. p. 307 bottom.

4. Śāk. I-17.

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Abhinava Guptapāda, however, brackets it with the feature of Reversion (Viparyaya) of the A. list.1

Pīyūsha-varsha Jayadeva has altogether different a connotation given to this term. He defines Mithyā-adhyavasāya as a feature which consists of an attempt in achieving a non-existent or improbable end by means of similarly non-existent means;2 and illustrates the same by requesting one to put on a garland of the flōrēs cœli wreathed in a thread of the lunar rays.3

3. Denial (Pratishedha) : Where a prohibition of an undesirable action is suggestively done - not by direct speech but by a clever contrivance - it presents the element of Prateshedha.4 Abhinava Bhārati rightly identifies it with Leśa given above in the A. list.5

4. Suggestion (Nirbhāshana) : A statement, which consists of many clauses expressing several steps of action taken to fulfil different purposes, is said to contain the element of Nirbhāshana,6 which very much resembles the feature of Mālā of the A. list.7

5. Interpretation (Kārya) : Where some defect in an object is shown as a merit, and vice versa, it becomes a lakshana called Kārya.8 It is covered more or less by the feature of Arthāpatti defined in the A. list.9

Śāradātanaya takes the term, Kārya more literally, and defines it as a mention of one's own purpose.10 In such a case there seems little justification for including it among the dramatic embellishments.

1. A. B. (G. O. S. Vol. II). p. 308, 4.

2. C. L. III-7.

3. Ibid.

4. Nā. XVI-23.

5. A. B. (G. O. S. Vol- II) p. 312, Ll. 7-10

6. Nā. XVI-26.

7. A. B. (G. O. S. Vol. II). p. 313, 8

8. Nā. XVI-37.

9. A. B. (G. O. S. Vol. II). p. 319, Ll. 12-16

10. B. P. p. 225, line 22.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT 181

If an action done by one results in a benefit to somebody else, it is Kārya in the opinion of Jayadeva.1 For instance, the statement, " The moon has risen to subside the wrath of the fair-browed ones" contains the element of Kārya, because the rising of the moon here has turned to the benefit of the 'nāyaka', for it has caused his beloved to give up her perverseness. Similarly, even if some incident benefits another, the figure of Kārya will be found there.

6. Transference ( Paridevanam ) : The dramatic figure of Paridevana is available at a spot where something stated about some one with a definite purpose becomes applicable to somebody else for the reason that real facts about the former are quite well-known.2 For instance, in the sixth Act of the Bālarāmāyana, while Vāmadeva is narrating to Daśaratha and Kaikeyī on their return to Ayodhyā, the story of Rāma's exile by a mock-Daśaratha and a mock-Kaikeyī presented in the town by some wily demons, the faults attributed to King Daśaratha and Queen Kaikeyī for banishing Rāma and others virtually become applicable to the demons who impersonated the King and the Queen, for, the fact of their absence from the capital city was well-known to all those who were present there.3

7. Forbearance ( Kshamā ) : Even when insulted in the midst of the respectable company by such harsh words as are capable of arousing anger, harmony of spirits maintained by the hearer is Forbearance. Its presentation in a play is a dramatic figure called Kshamā.4 The King's attitude in the Act V. of the Śākuntala is a vivid specimen of the same.

To conceal a wrong done is Forbearance in the opinion of Śāradātanaya.5

1. C. L. III-11; .e. g. Ibid 11 b

2. Nā, XV1-39 ( Also A. B. below ).

"Narendro vrddhas strī-vaśa iti mayi nyastamayaśo, Nishannā daurātmyaśviti malinita Kekaya-sutā // B. R. VI-15.

4. N. XVI-31.

5. B. P. p. 226, line 6 b.

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From Gunānuvāda to Kshamā, these are seven features which are peculiar to the B. List of the lakshanas inasmuch as they are neither found in the A. List of the Nātya-śāstra nor in the list of the Nātya-alaṅkāras accepted by the later canonists.

Apart from them, there are eleven such lakshanas in the B. list as are not in common with those mentioned in the A. list, but are in common with the Nātya-alaṅkāras given by Viśvanātha. Their connotations and illustrations wherever necessary, are succinctly noted below :

[ ii ] NĀTYA-ALANḰĀRAS

1. Benediction (āśiḥ) : It is an expression of the goodwill of one for another. It may contain a wish for the fulfilment of some ambition1 or a blessing for long life.2 Abhinava Bhāratī cites as illustration the Nāndī verse of the Ratnāvalī, but adds that the entire statement cannot, on the whole, be an āśiḥ; for, the devotional element is the predominating factor in the verse.3 It, therefore, follows that the expreression of some pious wish for the general weal as is generally expressed in the opening or the closing verses of a drama may not ordinarily be decmed to be the specimens of this alaṅkāra.

2. Hit (Ākranda) : It is an expression of a plaintive heart in the form of loud lamentations or bewailing.4 Sāgar-nandin defines it as a lamentation by prostrating oneself on the ground and making repeated shrieks due to loss of fortitude as a result of some bereavement.5 The view of Sāgaranandin is very narrow, for such doleful lamentation is possible only in the pathetic scenes, or in a frantic state of mind, which are not common to all sentiments. It is, therefore, more in fitness of dramatic constitution to believe that ākranda means a shriek or a vocal expression of perturbance,

3. N. XVI-28; N. L. R. 1746; S. D. VI-199a-i.

4. B. P. p. 225, line 4.

5. A. B. ( Vol. I ) p. 314 line 1.

6. S. D. VI-199 a-ii.

7. N. L. R. 1748.

[ CHAP. III ]

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183

be it due to horror, sorrow or an abject disappointment. For it may be accepted evidently as an illustration of ākranda when being pestered by the drone Śakuntalā shouts for help, or when Cārudata bewails over his sad plight in the ninth Act of the Mṛcchakatika.

Bharata has attributed more of an artistic element to the nature of this embellishment when he defines ākranda as an artifice by means of which something that cannot be directly stated is expressed through a description of some parellel phenomenon having a direct reference to one's own desire.1 The title, ākranda is significant inasmuch as it contains an expression of some strong inner urge which cannot be directly stated. Illustrations of this artifice abound in Sanskrit poetry, and Abhinava Guptapāda gives his own composition to illustrate the feature. It is an address of a lady to a sojourner; and the hour is of the moonrise. She says, “Why do you hasten so much hence, O Sojourner ! look at the Night, who, raising her bright head and maintaining ahead a sanguine situation, holds out a hope of kissing the very disc of the Moon.2

This statement is expressive of the speaker's anxious mind to have the pleasure of the hearer's company, which cannot be otherwise directly so stated.

3. Disguise ( Kapaṭa ) : Concealing oneself with some purpose or design amounts to Kapaṭa.3 Viśvanātha calls that eleceieve another and illustrates the point by reference to the Rākshasa leading Lakshmaṇa away by assuming a different form.4 According to this view, Kapaṭa will be possible only in a very

4. Nā. XVI[-19.

5. “Kim pāntha ! tovarase vilokaya niśām ya hyunmukhī pāndurā

Candram cumbitum īhate prakatayantyagre sarāgām sthi!im /

Yadovā nāgara-bhoga-durlalitakair nyastāpi na jāyate,

Grāme grāmya-janopabhoga-subhagam nireyāja-ramyam sukham //

— A. B. ( Vol. I ) p. 309, 14–17

3. N. XVI–30 ; N. L. R. 1752.

4. S. D. VI–199b.

particular type of plot; and such a connotation, therefore, can hardly have a wide application. Kapaṭa is, therefore, to be understood in a wider sense as Bharata does. It may then follow that Dushyanta's attempt to call himself one, who is in charge of law and order ( dharmādhikāra ) in the Paurava's administration, or his attempt to say that the Signet-ring is a gift to him from the King,is as good a deceit as is the attempt of Virādhagupta in assuming the guise of a snake-charmer in the second Act of the Mudrā-rākshasa. Similarly, the hero's attempt to call himself a low-born in Bhāsa's Avimāraka is as good an illustration of the dramatic figure of Deceit as is the act of Saṁvāhaka in standing still in the empty temple and look like a statue in the second Act of the Mṛcchakaṭikā. Then Yaugandharāyaṇa's attempt to announce Vāsavadattā as his sister and place her in the hands of Padmāvatī is as much of Kapaṭa in the Svapna play as is the assumption of the form of Mālatī by Makaranda in the sixth Act of the Mālatī-mādhava.

According to the Abhinava Bhāratī Deceit may be in course of events ( vastu-krama ) by some super-natural power, or in the nature of an enemy action.1 Bhojadeva, however, observes that Kapaṭa lies in deceiving an unwise person by a change of form, be it celestial ( dīvya ) or otherwise.2

4. Repentence ( Paścāttāpa ): An expression of Repentence proceeding from a retrospect of one's own shyness, or inability of availing oneself of an opportunity once had, is a dramatic artifice, a specimen of which may be found in the Śākuntala when Dushyanta feels sorry for his having only raised the downcast face of his beloved and did not caress it; or in the Anutāpānka4 wherein Rāmacandra sadly expresses

5. A. B. ( Vol. I ) p. 315, 5 foll.

6. Ibid Fn. 1 ( Recorded by R. Kavi ).

7. S. D. VI-203a; N. L. R. 1823; B. P. p. 224 line 11.

8. Prof. Dillon in his Edition of N. L. R. (Oxford-1927 p. 146) identifies ‘Anutāpānka’ with the VI Act of the Śakuntala, which no doubt, contains the repentence of the King for the wrongful

[ CHAP. III ]

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185

that he was not fondled by his Queen with whom he shared his bed in vain.

5. Reasoning ( Upapattih ) : To forward an argument for the sake of gaining one's own object is called Upapattih,1 e. g. the statement of the Clown in the Śākuntala showing the unexpected acquisition of the Signet-ring as a specimen of similarly unexpected union with Śakuntalā in future.2

Rejecting different alternatives by showing some reason or the other for the same is Upapattih according to Bharata.3

That Upapattih is the feature where some reason is shown in favour of a particular course of action seems to be the view of Sāgaranandin.4

6. Encouragement ( Protsāhanam ) : To pursuade a person to do some action by using words of encouragement is Protsāhana according to Viśvanātha, e. g. Viśvamitra encour-

ages Rāma to kill the fiend in Tāḍakā, "Why do you shirk from killing her, O Rāma ! thinking her to be a woman ? In fact, she is as dreary as the ghastly Night herself."5

To ask a person to do something from which he is desisting is Protsāhana according to Sāgaranandin,6 and its example may be found in a speech from the void which

repudiation of his wedded wife, still it is not this Act nor this text-book which has anything to do with the quotations extracted therefrom by the Compiler, Sāgaranandin ; and hence it is submitted that the conjecture of Prof. Myles Dillon is incorrect.

1. S. D. VI-203; B. P. p. 225, 19.

2. Śak. Act VI.

3. Nā. XVI-35.

4. N. L. R. 1800. It may be noted in this connection that Sāgaranandin fails in giving a general connotation to this figure. He defines Upapatti as an abandonment of a weapon in hand for the reason that it is useless. Probably he is carried away to describe the feature by reference to the example he has in his mind of Droṇa doing so after Aśvatthāmā's death.

5. S. D. VI-207a.

6. N. L. R. 1763.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

encouraged the king Purūravas to pick up the Gem of Union when he was loathe to do so.1

Bharata thinks that Protsāhana is that artifice in which one encourages another by an indirect expression of his qualities through the description of similar qualities in some other object.2 According to the explanation given by the Abhinava Bhāratī, the artifice of Protsāhana thus serves as the basis of the figure of speech, Aprastuta-praśaṁsā recognised by the modern poeticians.3

7. Boastfulness ( Abhimāna ): It is an expression of self-assertion or determination to carry out the undertaking.4 It is evident in the statement of Duryodhana, "O Mother ! how timid is your speech !"5

According to the Bhāva-prakāśa it is an acceptance of a compliment ( artha ) out of joy or the like feeling.6

"A pursuit of an undertaking upto its end is abhimāna," says Sāgaranandin.7

Bharata, however, observes that when one does not swerve from doing an action even if dissuaded in several ways and also by means of expedient reasoning, the element of boastfulness is said to be found in him. Presentation of this clement in a drama is the lakshana of abhimāna.8

8. Complaisance ( Anuvṛtti ) is gallantry of speech in the opinion of Viśvanātha.9 It is found in the statement

9. Vikra. IV-64.

10. Nā. XVI-10.

11. A. B. ( Vol. II ) p. 303, 16.

12. S. D. VI-208b-i.

13. Veṇī. V-3.

14. R. P. p. 225, 5.

15. N. L. R. 1750.

16. Nā. XVI-8. It may be recalled here that A. B. seems to have a slightly different feature when he illustrates the figure of abhimāna. He perhaps means 'abhimāna' as almost similar to 'Sārāpya' of the A. list.

17. S. D. VI-208b-ii.

[ CHAP. III ]

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187

of Kāmandakī welcoming her senior disciple Saudāminī in the Mālatī Mādhava,1 or in the statement of Anusūyā who is according reception to the King in the Śākuntala.2

Sāgaranandin takes it in a more radical sense and says that it consists in chasing a person who has gone away out of distraction. He points out the feature in Sahadeva's following Bhimaseṇa in the first Act of the Veṇīsaṃhāra.3

Śāradātanaya thinks that the feature consists in doing a deed as desired by the other,4 to which Bharata adds that such performance of action may be out of affection or complaisancy.5

9. Importunity (Yācñā): It is a request made personally or through an agent,6 e. g. Yaugandharāyaṇa begs of Padmayatī to extend her protection to his sister in Vāsavadattā.7

Mutual request for union is Yācñā according to Śāradātanaya, who seems unnecessarily to limit thereby the scope of this lakshaṇa only to the erotic plays.8

According to Bharata Yācñā is an inciting speech likely to provoke anger followed by sweet words, which tend to promote joy in the hearer's mind at the end.9 From the illustration given by the Abhinava Bhāratī it appears that Yācñā is a milder form of Ākranda, its purpose and effect being almost similar.10

1. Mā. Mā. X-21.

2. Śāk. 1-24-vi.

3. N. L. R. 1814.

4. B. P. p. 226, 5.

5. N. XVI-34.

6. S. D. VI-209; N. L. R. 1753.

7. S. V. 1-9.

8. B. P. p. 225, 2.

9. Nā. XVI-22.

10. A. B. p. 311, 5.

10. Allusion ( Ākhyāna ) : Some reference to historical events is called Ākhyāna.1 Mention of merits is also Ākhyāna according to the text of the Bhāva Prakāśa as read by Rāmakrshṇa Kavi.2 According to Bharata Ākhyāna is more beautiful an artifice which consists in the determination of several inter-related facts by means of questions casting doubt about them which is solved by an appropriate answer in return or by means of simple assertion of facts.3

11. Resolve or Aggregation ( Yukti ) : It is a determination to do an undertaking. It is generally supported by showing some reason for doing it.4 According to Jayadeva it is said to establish an excellence of the subject-matter of description by showing some distinctive features.5 Bharata, however, adds that the figure of Yukti is said to be found in a statement wherein the grandeur of something is tried to be established by an aggregate of the individual greatness of its several ingredients which are in harmony with one another.6

Here the title, Yukti is to be understood in its etymological sense which connotes an aggregation ( yojanam from √yuj to join, Cf. jungare ) of the greatness of several items, thus making up the grandeur of the entire whole.

Sāgaranandin observes that the figure of Yukti consists in anticipation of a future event or mention of the same out of an envious feeling.7

The Bhāva Prakāśa does not admit Yukti to the list of dramatic embellishments, and in its stead has ‘Ukṭi’ with an altogether different connotation.8

1. S. D. VI-211b-i; N. L. R. 1777; B. P. p. 225, Foot-note C.

2. B. P. p: 225, 15.

3. Nā. XVI-21; A. B. ( Vol. II ) p. 310, 8, 14.

4. S. D. VI-211b-ii.

5. C. L. III-9.

6. Nā. XVI-36.

7. N. L. R. 1811.

8. Vide p. 197. infra.

[ CHAP. III ] DRAMATIC PLOT 189

The above-mentioned eleven features complete the B. list1 of the Lakshanas as given in the Nāṭya-śāstra of Bharata. These eleven features are, as stated above, common to the list of the Nāṭya-alaṅkāras which are thirty-three in total according to Viśvanātha and Sāgaranandin. The remaining twenty-two figures are defined by them as given below :

12. Intolerance ( Akshamā ) : When the slightest insult is not brooked, it presents the figure known as Akshamā. It also includes, according to Sāgaranandin, the intolerance of the vanity of another, which may not amount to any direct insult to him. Viśvanātha means by this figure an intolerance of an insult given : whereas, Sāgaranandin means that it is a spirit not to tolerate the boastful attitude of another.2 From the former point of view, Śāraṅgarava's attitude towards disacknowledging Dushyanta,3 or Kāmandakī's wrath at Mādhava's submission contrary to the machination devised for Makaranda's marriage with Madayantikā4 is a specimen of intolerance according to Viśvanātha. In the latter sense, there is a sample in Aśvatthāmā's kicking Karṇa at his head in the Veṅīsaṃhāra in response to Karṇa's boastful statement, " What would the son of Droṇa do unto me ? ".5

13. Conceit ( Garva ) : A statement full of presumption is called Conceit. Here also there is a slight difference of opinion between the two canonists : Viśvanātha calls Conceit to proceed from the egotistic vanity, whereas Sāgaranandin calls Conceit to be a just expression of one's self-confidence in regard to one's personal skill or dexterity in art.6 The dra-

14. The B. list thus is comprised of 18 lakshanas which are common to the A. list and 7 such lakshanas as are peculiar to itself plus 11 such lakshanas as are included among the Nāṭya-alaṅkāras recognised by Viśvanātha and others. Thus the B. List completes its list of 18+7+11= 36 lakshanas.

15. S. D. VI-200a; N. L. R. 1818.

16. Śāk. Act-V.

17. Mā. Mā. VI.

18. Veṅī. III-40.

19. Mā. Mā. X-16.

190 LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

matic literature abounds in illustrations : in the former sense Kāmandakī's announcement from behind the screen declaring

how she spared the life of Bhūrivasu is a specimen of Conceit ;1 whereas Vishṇugupta's statement declaring that he uprooted the Mahānandas like the maladies in the heart of

the Earth, or Bharavānanda's proud statement in regard to his esoteric skill in the Karpūramañjarī 2 may serve as examples of Conceit in the latter sense.

14. Effort ( Udyama ) : A resolute intention to do a difficult task is called Effort.3 It is found in the activities of Yaugandharāyaṇa, “Oh, I have hit at the right means !” in the Svapna play.4

15. Shelter ( Āśraya ) : Taking refuge with another for one's own advantage, or joining hands with another for making some common cause amounts to Āśraya.5 For example, Darduraka joins Āryaka, the boy of a herdsman who is foretold to be the next ruler.6

To take shelter with some one superior to oneself is Āśraya according to Sāgaranandin;7 but Śāradātanaya thinks that granting protection to the one who is scared out of fear is Āśraya.8

16. Agitation (Kshobha ) : Viśvanātha defines Kshobha as using insulting speech.9 It is found in Viraka's speech to Capdanaka in the Mṛcchakaṭika.10 But Sāgaranandin defines it as a graduation of feelings due to some unpleasant incident.11

17. M. K. I–13.

18. Kar. I–25.

19. S. D. VI–200b–ii; N. L. R. 1806; B. P. p. 225, 20.

20. S. V. I–8–i.

21. S. D. VI–201a.

22. Mṛc. II–12.

23. N. L. R. 1808.

24. B. P. p. 226, 2.

25. S. D. VI–202b.

26. Mṛc. VI–23.

27. N. L. R. 1760.

[ CHAP. III ]

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It is found by Vatsarāja in Sāgarikā committing suicide referring to which he is told by the Clown, “Oh, friend ! remove this noose.”1

An experience of some feeling which was not hitherto present in the mind of a character is Agitation in the opinion of Śāradātanaya.2

17. Desire (Sprhā) : Being attracted by the innate charms of an object, when one has a craving for it, it amounts to Desire.3 A clear example is found in Mādhava's longing for a sweet embrace by Mālatī in the fifth Act.4 Sāgaranandin does not believe only in a mental action, but goes a step further, and thinks that an expression of an effective desire by means of pursuit after the desired object makes for the dramatic figure of Sprhā5 The adventure of Mādhava in visiting the ghastly environments of the Cremation ground (śmaśāna) in quest of his beloved is a specimen of the same.

18. Hope (Āśāmsā) : An optative expression is called Āśāmsā.6 In course of this, one expresses a longing to get something for oneself, as is found in an eloquent expression of the last wish by Cārudatta at the gallows.7

19. Ratn. p. 141, 7.

20. B. P. p. 225, 13.

21. S. D. VI–202a; B. P. p. 225, 6.

22. Mā. Mā. V–8.

23. N. L. R. 1758.

24. S. D. VI–204a; N. L. R. 1826.

25. Mrc. X–34. It may be observed here that both Viśvanātha and Sāgaranandin offer an illustration to this feature by referring to the statement of Mādhava, " Could I see once again her face, the very auspicious Home of Cupid !" ( Mā. Mā. V–9 ), which is hardly an optative expression. It is, as a matter of fact, a clear expression of the hero's longing (sprhā) for the association with his beloved. Sāgaranandin observes the characteristics of Sprhā in this verse yet repeats it as an instance of Āśāmsā as well, thus ignoring the subtle nicety of distinction between the two. ( Comp. N. L. R. 1759–1826 )

19. Determination ( Adhyavasāya ): An expression of a resolute mind is Adhyavasāya.1 It is found in the statement of Rāvaṇa, "The daughter of Janaka must surely be seen, so that the lord of Laṅkā may rejoice."2

20. Consequence ( Visarpa ): It consists in the presentation of a deed leading to an adverse result,3 like the act of Madayantikā to precipitate a proclivitous fall from the peak of a mountain.4 A hasty statement causing an undesireable effect is Visarpa according to Sāgaranandin.5

21. Demonstration ( Ullekha ): To show a course of action is Ullekha.6 For instance, mention of the purpose of their going out by the two acolytes in the Śākuntala and their direction to the King to visit the hermitage of Kaṇva amounts to Ullekha.7

22. Persuasion ( Uttejanam ): Use of harsh words for applying one to do the needful for the achievement of an aim presents the element of Persuasion.8 It is a sort of whip to a slug to put him to action. An example is found in the exciting speech of the Time-keepers in the Mudrā-rākshasa.9

23. Reproof ( Parivāda ): It is a remonstrance for an inaction or a mistake, for non-feasance or malfeasance,10 e. g. Purūraṽas reprimands the ruddy goose for his silence;11 or Duryodhana reproaches the charioteer for the wrong that he does.12 Falsely finding fault with another is Parivāda

24. S. D. VI–204a–ii; N. L. R. 1880

25. B. R. V–7.

26. S. D. VI–204b.

27. Mā. Mā. X–7, 8.

28. N. L. R. 1782.

29. S. D. VI–205a–i.

30. Śak. I–11–v.

31. S. D. VI–205; N. L. R. 1790.

32. M. R. III–22, 23.

33. S. D. VI–206a–i; N. L. R. 1797.

34. Vikra. IV–39.

35. Veṇī. IV–5.

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according to the text of Śāradātanaya as recorded by M. Rāmakrshṇa Kavi in his edition of the Nāṭya-śāstra.1

24. Conduct ( Nīti ) : To act in accordance with the provisions of the Śāstras is the proper conduct.2 The statement of the Clown to the King, " Enough of clemency, for the guilty should be punished " is an advice for doing something as the Śāstras ordain ;3 or the statement of Dushyanta that the penance grove should be visited in a modest form is in keeping with the rule of conduct laid down by the Scriptures,4 or conventions.5

25. Repetition ( Artha-viśeṣaṇa ) : Repetition of a statement with a view to taunting the hearer is defined as Artha-viśeṣaṇa by Viśvanātha.6 An example may be found in the continuous admonition of Śarvilaka in the fourth Act of the Mṛcchakaṭikā, while he is characterising the general conduct of harlots in special, and the womanfolk in general;7 or in the reprehensive statement of Śāraṅgarava, Kaṇva's disciple who is condemning Dushyanta's sense of disbelief in the unsophisticated lady of Śakuntalā's reputation.8

26. Nṛ. p. 320 bottom. Curiously enough, the text of B. P. published in the same series does not recognise ‘Parivāda’ even among varie lectiones given in the foot-note. B. P. has, however, the title " Apavāda " for the feature of given connotation, which suits better with the sense.

( Vide B. P. p. 225–20 )

2. S. D. VI–206a; N. L. R. 1775.

3. Vikra. V–2–11.

4. Śāk. I–14–v.

5. B. P. p. 225, 11.

6. S. D. VI–207a.

7. Mṛc. IV, 12–17.

8. Sāgaranandin, however, once again dabbles here in defining the term by reference to some particular example in his mind when he says that the Artha-viśeṣaṇa is accepting, rejecting or qualifying a statement by the nod of head or an affirmative interjection ( like huṅkāra ) when something untoward has happened. The definition thus makes it a dramatic figure only of bearing or acquittal of an actor on the stage, for this beauty can only be

13

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26. Apology ( Parihāra ) : Begging pardon for a wrong done is apology.1 It is evidenced by the text of the letter despatched to Mādhava by the king of Padmāvatī in the Mālatī Mādhava.2

Sāgaranandin defines Parihāra as a retraction from one's own statement;3 which is available in the speech of Aśvatthāmā, "I say so out of affliction, not due to any insult from any one, who is valiant."4

27. Indication ( Nivedana ) : When some neglect of duty is shown to a delinquent person, it amounts to Nivedana.5 Reminding of an action already contemplated is Nivedana according to Sāgaranandin and Śāradātanaya.6

28. Aid ( Sāhāyya ) : Rendering assistance in times of difficulty is Sāhāyya.7 For example, reference may be made to realised by the emphatic gesticulation and not otherwise. The reading of dramas, therefore, can hardly permit an appreciation of its charm and so the connotation given by Sāgaranandin becomes of doubtful acceptance, unless it is interpreted only to mean a suggestion of some representation of taunt through a particular gesticulation. ( N. L. R. II. 1763-1766 ). In the opinion of Śāradātanaya, Atha-viseśana is a statement which proves some special facts ( Viśiṣṭa artha ). — B. P. p. 225, 14.

29. S. D. VI-210a; B. P. p. 426, 1.

30. Mā. Mā. X-23.

31. N. L. R. 1804.

32. Veṇī. III. p. 87.

33. S. D. VI-210b.

34. N. L. R. 1794; B. P. p. 225, 17.

The only distinction between S. D. and N. L. R. is due to the change of a vowel in the readings : S. D. has ‘avadhīrita’ whereas N. L. R. has "avadhīrita," and it may not be wrong to surmise that it is due to some scribal error in the Manuscript. Still all the glosses on the S. D. have tried to adjust the reading ‘avadhirita’ meaning ‘avajñāta’ with the illustration, which is one and the same cited both by Viśvanātha and Sāgaranandin from the Rīglavābhyudaya.

7. S. D. VI-208a; N. L. R. 1816.

Vasantasenā's assistance to the gamesters by giving them the ornaments in the hour of their need.1

29. Ecstasy ( Praharsha ) : An expression of an immense joy is Praharsha.2 It is appreciably felt in Dushyanta's expression of joy when he could identify the young boy in the hermitage of Mārīca as his son by Śakuntalā.

30. Narration (Utkīrtana) : It is a relation of past events.3 It is found in the Bālarāmāyana where Rāma is narrating to Sītā the past incidents, " Here was the snake-noose used against your brother-in-law ( Lakshmana ), and so on."

Sāgaranandin differs from Viśvanātha here, and believes that a mention of the purpose of an action, or the action itself which is being undertaken is Utkīrtana; and illustrates it by reference to Bhīma's reply to Sahadeva, " Yes, I have to speak to Pāñcālī.4

31. Direction ( Pravartana ) : Commencement of some pleasant action or of the one which is most appropriate to the occasion is Pravartana;5 e. g. Yudhishṭhira's orders for commencing festivities in the honour of Vishṇu and for the commemoration of the victory of Bhīmasena.6

Sāgaranadin has a different view, and he calls removal of doubt as Pravartana, an example of which is found in the statement of Dushyanta about Śakuntalā, "Oh heart, you may now entertain some hope; for what you considered to be a chunk of fire is, in fact, a gem which is grateful to touch."7

32. Derision ( Utprāsana ) : It is a ridicule expressed to abash a person who is, in fact, a wrong-doer, but poses to be

33. Mrc. Act II.

34. S. D. VI-212a-i; B. P. p. 226, 6; N. L. R. 1821.

35. S. D. VI-209a.

36. N. L. R. 1832; c. g. Veṇī. 1.

37. S. D. VI-211a.

38. Veṇī. Act V.

39. N. L. R. 1756 ; c. g. Śāk. I-27.

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the most righteous pesson.1 For instance, Dushyanta was derided by Śāraṅgarava at the deriliction of his wedded wife.

This figure is not accepted by Sāgaranandin.

33. Instruction (Upadeśa) : It is a didactic suggestion.2

It is found in Priyamvadā's suggestion to Śakuntalā, "Dear one ! it does not behove a hermit to go away, leaving behind a distinguished guest without according him due reception."

This also does not find place in the list of the dramatic figures given by Sāgaranandin.

There are, however, authorities who add alternative embellishments to some of the above mentioned ones which may be taken into account now :

In place of Utprāsana and Upadeśa given above, Sāgaranandin has two different elements namely, 'Ahaṅkāra' and 'Guṇānuvada' which he defines as follows :

(a) Ahaṅkāra : A proud expression of one's consciousness of one's own capacities is an Ahaṅkāra.3 It becomes clear that Viśvanātha defines Garva in terms of Sāgaranandin's Ahaṅkāra who has a different connotation for Garva as shown above.

(b) Guṇānuvāda : It consists in the enumeration of the merits of a person by a character who was previously denounced by another out of sheer conceit and insolence.4

Among the embellishments recognised by Śāradātanaya which are fifty-four in total number, a few are such as are different from the ones discussed above, and hence their separate mention here may not be out of place. They are :

(i) Abhijñāna is a momentous information.5

1. S. D. VI-201b.

2. Ibid. VI-212a-ii.

3. N. L. R. 1828.

4. N. L. R. 1837.

5. B. P. p. 225, 7.

[ CHAP III ]

DRAMATIC PLOT

197

( ii ) Deśa is an inferential knowledge.1

( iii ) Ukṭi is a mention of facts with a purpose of either censuring or praising some person or a thing.2

( iv ) Apavāda is falsely attributing some fault to some one.3

Some recensions of the Nāṭya-śāstra read "Artha" as separate from Anuvṛtti among the dramatic lakṣhaṇas and define Artha as a dramatic figure which presents a combination of several striking things.4

Apart from the thirty-six lakṣhaṇas and thirty-three alankāras of the Nāṭaka which are discussed above, there are fifty-seven features which are the constituents of other types of the rūpakas and yet recommended for being used in a nāṭaka in order to enhance the excellence of the dramatic plot.

Out of the fifty-seven excellences referred to above, thirteen are the sub-divisions of the Avenue ( Vīthī ), which are dealt with above.5 Ten are the sub-divisions of the Gentle Dance ( Lāsya ) which will be discussed under the title of Dance and Music.6 Seven sub-divisions of the Bhāṇikā are also among the ornaments of a nāṭaka and they are defined previously.7

Now remain the twenty-seven sub-divisions of the Śilpaka. Most of them are similar, both in title and connotation or in either, to those already discussed under different classes of dramatic ornaments. Nevertheless, since the canonists have laid stress on their appropriate use in the structure of a drama, they are very succinctly stated below in the same order in which Viśvanātha records them :

1. R. P. p. 226, 6.

2. B. P. p. 226, 3.

3. B. P. p. 225, 10.

4. "Citrartha-samavāyo yah so'rtha ityabhidhīyate"—p. 307, Foot-Note L. 4.

5. Vide. p. 46 ff. supra.

6. Vide. Chap. VII infra.

7. Vide. p. 27 supra.

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ŚILPAKĀṆGAS * :

1. Āśamsā : To long for the acquisition of an object which is not easily accessible is Desire, e. g. Mālavikā's longing for Agnimitra expressed in, "Unattainable is my love...."1

2. Tarka : To interpret a particular situation in terms of one's own feelings is Guess; a striking example being available in Dushyanta's interpretation of all movements of Śakuntalā to refer only to him and her love for him.2

3. Sandeha ( Samśaya ) : An indecision is a doubt. For example, in the Viddha-śāla-bhañjikā, the hero wonders as to who the one could be at the top of the terrace.3

4. Tāpa : It is a grave repentence4 as done by Dushyanta in the VI Act after repudiating Śakuntalā.

5. Udvega is a mental disturbance due to loss or separation of a kinsman as does Dhṛtarāshṭra while addressing Gāndhārī towards the close of the Veṇisaṃhāra.5

6. Prasakti is a close attachment to an object.6 Sāgar-nandin does not recognise Prasakti but inserts Praśasti instead; and seems to indentify it with the last sub-division of the Apodosis or the Nirvahana-Sandhi.7

7. Prayatna is an endeavour which is carried upto the end, and there is no retraction from it till success is got. It is seen in Purūravas' attempt in finding out the whereabouts of Urvaśī in the fourth Act of the Vikramorvaśī.8

• For all the 27 Śilpakāṅgas Vide S. D. Chap. VI. 298–360.

1. N. L. R. 3060, e. g. Māl. II–2. Dullaho piyo...A. B. Vol. II.

2. N. L. R. 3066 : e. g. Śāk. II–2 ( Kāmi svatīm paśyati ).

"Upa prākāāgre prahiṃu nayane tarkaya manāg / anākāśe ko'yam galita-hariṇaḥ śīta-hiraṇaḥ //" V. Ś. B. I–31.

4. N. L. R. 3076 : e. g. Śāk. Act V.

5. N. L. R. 3081 : e. g. Veṇī. V–3.

6. S. D. 298a.

7. N. L. R. 3145.

8. N. L. R. 3046 : c. g. Vikra. Act IV.

8. Grathana is a close contact resulting in the most affectionate understanding between the two parties, as is evidenced in Mādhava's statement about Mālati.1

9. Utkanṭhā is a longing for a loveable object. It is found in the Śākuntala in the statement of the King in appreciation of the heroine.2

10. Avahitthā is a concealment of an object from one who has become aware of it.3

11. Pratipattih is an understanding of what is to be done.4 Sāgaranandin, however, calls it Apratipattih, and defines it as presentation of one, being at one's wit's end, or one's incapacity to know what to do at a particular juncture.5

12. Vilāpa is an expression of grief, e. g. in the Uttararāmacarita, "O Sītā ! my dear companion in my sojourn in the woods of Dandaka." 6

Viśvanātha does not accept Vilāpa but reads instead Vilāsa which may mean amorous pursuit, as is found in case of Avimāraka pining for Kurañgī.7

13. Ālasya is a physical fatigue. An illustration may be found in the Kundamālā where Sītā says, "Oh, dear Lakshmana ! my heavy feet donot proceed any further. Please go ahead and find out how far the Mother Ganges is from here." 8

14. Bāshpa is a flow of tears. It is an outburst of feelings of grief which is often come across in the dramas under the stage-direction "Iti roditi." 9

15. N. L. R. 3055 : e. g. Mā. Mā. I-28.

16. N. L. R. 3038, e. g. Śāk. I-6.

17. N. L. R. 3042.

18. S. D. VI-298, Vide Ajim. D. P. Dviveda's Chāyā.

19. N. L. R. 3094.

20. N. L. R. 3097; e. g. U. R. I-43 ( p. 368 Note. 3 )

21. S. D. 299a.

22. N. L. R. 3089 : e. g. K. M. : I-4, 17.

23. S. D. VI-299a.

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There is an alternative reading to this element which is stated to be "Vāmya", and is recognised by Sāgaranandin who defines the term as an attitude which is perverse or unamenable to all attempts of propitiation or appeasing.1

15. Praharṣa is an ecstatic delight, as is enjoyed by the King Purūravas when he opens his eyes and says, "Ah me, indeed my darling Urvaśī".2

16. Āśvāsa or Āśvāsana is to appease another in the midst of his sorrow.3

17. Mudhatā or Mugdhatā : It is straightforwardness or credulous simplicity. In the Ratnāvali, for instance, "Oh ! in my father's house, God is adored in a picture, but here it is done in person !" 4

18. Sādhanā is a promise to do something for another, as is found in Bhairavānanda's statement for rendering magical help.

19. Anugamana is going joyfully after another who is gone or is ready to go, as does Sītā in the Mahāviracarita.6

20. Ucchvāsa is regaining senses after one has fainted.7 It is repeatedly found in the Uttara-rāma-carita.

21. Vismaya is a suprise which is felt at having unanticipated occurrence.8

22. Prāpti is some blissful acquisition.9 Sāgaranandin, however, has no element like Prāpti in his list. Instead, he has Sūnyatā which means forgetfulness.10 It is found in Rākshasa's forgetfulness of Virādhagupta in the Mudrā-rākshasa.

23. N. L. R. 3101.

24. N. L. R. 3143 : e. g. Vikra. IV-10.

25. N. L. R. 3132.

26. N. L. R. 3086 : e. g. Ratn. I-16.

27. N. L R. 3113 : e. g. Kar. I-25 ( for its result, see Act IV ).

28. N. L. R. 3105 : e. g. M. C. IV-52-i.

29. N. L. R. 3115.

30. N. L. R. 3111.

31. S. D. VI-299b.

32. N. T. R. 3120.

[ CHAP. III ]

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201

23. Lābhā or Pralobha : It is an inducement given by one to the other for gaining one's object ; as does Śakāra in offering one hundred gold mohurs for killing the courtesan.1

24. Sampheta is a wrathful statement. Technically, it means going beyond one's limit out of anger. It is found in the Mṛcchakaṭika, "Get down, Oh, wench ! thou takest away my cows." 2

25. Vaiṣāradya is an expression of one's own skill.3

26. Prabodhana is an awakening or reminding one in respect of what one ought to do.4

27. Camatkāra is a striking deed, a presentation of something marvellous.5

In this way, something like ninety dramatic excellences6 are recognised by the canonists, the appropriate use of which adds to the interest in a drama and beautifies its structure. In the opinion of the conservative canonists like Kohala, the use of ninety features of excellences is deemed a necessary ingredient in the make-up of a Nāṭaka, who declare that " the wise call that composition to be a Nāṭaka which contains thirty-six and ninety excellences in all.7

The plot of a play on the whole, consists essentially of the five elements of the story, five stages of action and various sub-divisions of the Junctures marking different features of

1. N. L. R. 3121 : c. g. Mṛc. VIII.

2. N. L. R. 3130 : e. g. Mṛc. p. 178.

3. N. L. R. 3126.

4. N. L. R. 3137.

5. N. L. R. 3317.

6. It may be noted here that the various features given above demonstrate either some phase of action or a mental attitude, the adept and poetic presentation of which in a drama so as it may create poetic wonder ( camatkāra ), becomes the Nāṭya-bhāṣaṇa or alaṅkāra as the case may be.

7. Vide Chap. VII infra.

the development of the dramatic res-business. The plot may contain a large variety of poetic artifices which contribute the essential element of wonder to the dramatic action. It may also have a number of varied embellishments which foster the sustenance of interest in the action. But the entire success of a dramatic plot and the appreciation of the skill of the playwright depends upon the execution and the quality of persons who figure in his work of art. It is the set of characters that sets in the proper character of a play, and it is their nature with all its subtleties that determines the proper estimate of a composition from a critical point of view. The next topic of study should, therefore, be in respect of the characters of drama.

CHAPTER IV

HERO AND OTHER CHARACTERS

Dramatic characters present a panoramic view of society and the sociological conditions of the land prevailing for the time being. The liveliness or the sombre outlook of the dramatic characters forms an index to the annals of a people's history.1 Their nature and their variety is not only a gallery of amusing social pictures but the vignettes of their life disclose the standard of living and comfort, ways and habits, accomplishments and drawbacks of the nation at large.2 It calls, therefore, for a highly sophisticated art and a catholic taste in the playwright when he assumes the task of drawing the pen-pictures of several individuals whom he chooses to introduce in his work of art. The study in characters and their various patterns opens a leading avenue for investigation in the field of dramatic literature.

The Sanskrit dramatic literature clusters round the axle of the amatory or the heroic sentiment, and the type of characters introduced in a play abide by the ruling sentiment. But whatever the sentiment or the motive of the play be, there is always a principal action or the denouément therein. Whosoever is to enjoy the benefit of all efforts or in whose interest are all movements directed is the person who reaps the real harvest. The motif or the resultant benefit is called the fruit ( phala ) and the enjoyment of the phala is called the adhikāra.3 One who has the adhikāra is, no doubt, the adhikārin, and it is he who becomes virtually the principal character in a drama. He is called the Nctā, Nāyaka or the hero, because the entire dramatic action culminates ultimately

1. N. S. 1–78.

2. Ibid. 1–84, 44.

3. D. R. 1–12.

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into his benefit.1 He, in fact, becomes the substratum of all actions and is the basic or the pendent factor2 (ālambana) of the principal sentiment in a show; and thus ranks foremost for consideration.

NETĀ

A hero may be of different types — nay— as of many types as human beings can possibly be with all shades of difference in their natural disposition and modes of acquittal. So complex is the human nature with its numerous leanings and tendencies that it hardly admits of any division capable of making compartments suitable enough for demarcating lines of classification. Still the ancient scholars have made attempts to determine the broad characteristics of different characters, and they have, in the first place, defined the personal merits of a hero.

The essential qualifications of a hero are enumerated by Abhinava Kālidāsa as generosity, grandeur, high birth, prudence, comeliness, valour and piety.3 These different qualities make him a perfect man. He is maganimous and is an impressive personality. He is adventurous and yet God-fearing. He is eminently regardful of his duty to himself, to his peoples, and to his religion. Without this much of personal equipment none is deemed worthy of being a leading character of a play for want of imitable virtues in him. To these qualities, Siṅga Bhūpāla adds a few more characteristics, as cleverness in conversation, sense of gratefulness, statesmanship, self-confidence, brilliance, love of art and amiability of disposition.4 Profundity of character, sympathetic temperament, sense of emulation and purity are a few features which are added by Ṣṛkṛṣṇa Kavi to the other accepted features of a hero in general.5 Vāgbhaṭṭa, of course, has got the longest

1. N. L. R. 257.

2. S. D. III-57.

3. N. R. p. 2, Ll. 20, 21.

4. R. S. I-62, 63.

5. M. M. VIII-2, 3.

[ CHAP. IV ] HERO & OTHER CHARACTERS 205

list of qualities necessary for a hero, that comprises as many as twenty-eight covetable accomplishments ; 1 but all that is required of a principal character is summed up by Viśvanātha in his text,2 “ Munificent, clever, high born, handsome, youthful, enthusiastic, prompt, devoted by people, powerful and tactful is the nature of a hero.” To be possessed of the Śāstric vision is one of the essential merits of a hero according to Dhanañjaya.3 Gunacandra is still brief in defining a hero who is possessed of the prominent virtues, neither vicious nor befallen in calamities.4

The hero or the principal character is classified into four types ; namely, dhirodātta, dhīra-lalita, dhiroddhata, and dhīra-praśānta.5 Though the naïve tendencies of each of these types depend mainly upon the heredity, social environment and professional career as discussed above,6 still for purposes of dramatic delineation, it is their mode of acquittal, their actual frame of mind, line of thought and action that determines their type according as they disclose, on the whole, the Udātta, the Lalita, the Uddhata or the Praśānta character. All the same, it becomes an essential qualification of a hero that he should be at all events dhīra, i. e. full of fortitude and courage, and should be possessed of the nerve to bear the brunt and withstand all the undulations of the billows that toss him up and down in the tidal waters of human life.

A hero is deemed to be Udātta or of gallant character if he evinces a spirit of tolerance ( kshamā ), gravity of outlook ( ati-gambhīratā ) , absence of boastfulness ( avikatthanah )

1. K. A. Chap. V. p. 62; P. R. I–11, 12.

2. “Tyāgī kr̥tī kulīnas suśīlo rūpayauvanotsāhī / Daksho’nuraktha-lokas tejuaiadgdhya-śīlavān netā // S. D. III–30.

3. D. R. II–2.

4. N. D. VI–160 p. 197.

5. N. S. XXIV–3; S. D. III–31; D. R. II–3; S. S. XI–2; R. S. I–72, 3; B. P. IV p. 92, 2; M. M. p. 76, 29; P. R. V–27; S.K. p. 681, 682; U. N. M. p. 32, 35; K.A. p. 61; N.L.R. 257.

6. Vide Chap. I. p. 4. supra.

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steadfastness in action (sthiratā), exceedingly harmonious mind (mahāsattvalh) and latent self-assertion (nigūḍhāhaṅkāra).1 Vidyādhara desires him to be compassionate and full of sympathy as well (Kṛpāvān).2

A hero is called Lalita or gay if he is free from anxiety, he is fond of fine arts, and happy and gentle.3 Sāradātanaya attributes to him a luxurious life given to amatory pursuits.4 Sweetness of speech, all-pleasing manners (dākshinyam), fastidiousness in dress and other dainties of life and dandysm are the features of the Lalita hero according to Śrīkṛshṇa Kavi.5

A hero is called Prasānta or the calm who is possessed of the general characteristics of a hero shown above.6 Gunacandra specifically defines him to be easy-going, and a straightforward person endowed with all gentlemanly qualities.7 He is modest yet a diplomat; he is kind and gentle.8 Śrīkṛshṇa Kavi observes that high moral character, sense of discrimination, mental equilibrium, clemency and truthfulness are the determining virtues of the Prasānta hero.9

A hero is Uddhata or bold when his character is dominated by jealousy and self-conceit. He is presumptive, treacherous, ficle, tar-tempered, deceitful and vehement.10 The self-pane gyric element is added by Viśvanātha amongst other characteristics of an uddhata hero.11 The Mandāra Maranda believes him to be irascible and full of enterprise.12

1. N. S. XXIV-3; S. D. III-31 etc.

2. P. R. p. 28.

3. D. R. II-3; S. D. III-34.

4. R. P. p. 92 ll.

5. M. M. p. 77-L1. 15.; N. D. I-9 ; S. S. XI-4.

6. D. R. II-4; S. D. III-34.

7. N. D. 19.

8. Ibid.

9. M. M. VIII, Ll. 11, 12.

10. D. R. II-6.

11. S. D. III-33.

12. M. M. p. 77, 22a.

[ CHAP. IV ] HERO & OTHER CHARACTERS 207

'That he has got a taste for magical feats' is the observation of Vidyānātha.1 Acyuta Rai, however, does not accept 'Uddhata' as a type of a hero; for he defines heroes of the first three types only.2

These are the four popular types of heroes who lead other characters whether their action is to pursue for an accomplishment of love or the heroic exploits. Should he be a hero of an erotic composition, his pursuits are all directed to amatory càuses. As polygyny was much in vogue in ancient India and more prominently in the princely order, an amatory hero is further classified into four types according to his conjugal behaviour towards his spouse or spouses. In the first place a hero may be either a monogamist or has more than one spouse at a time. A monogamist makes a class by himself and is called anukūla or faithful like Nala or Rāma. But a polygynic hero has got divided affection amongst his different beloveds and he may behave in different ways with them :

( i ) A hero, when he is enamoured of another woman, may behave gallantly, showering his affection equally on all of his spouses and remain kind to his previous lady-love. Such a hero is said to be Dakshina or the gallant one, like Udayana or Yudhishṭhira.

( ii ) While in pursuit of another woman, a hero, who hides his unfaithfulness from his pervious love and clandestinely approaches the subsequent one, is called Saṭha or the deceitful hero, like Purūravas.

( iii ) A hero is called Dhṛshṭa or the bold one, when he is so disregardful of his previous love that he does not feel abashed of his appearance with amorous marks visible on his person which betray his association with another woman. This is how Dhananjaya defines the bold hero. But more aptly his character is defined by Viśvanātha whẹn he qualifies him

1. P. R. p. 22, Verse 30.

2. " Trèdhā netā prakīrtiḥ " - S. S. XI-2.

3. D R. II-10.

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as one, who does not feel shy even though he has committed

a wrong or a breach of conjugal trust and is not abashed

even if scolded or directly reprimanded.1 He seeks shelter

in speaking lies when he is caught red-handed and his

offence is brought home to him. The author of the Alankāra

Sekhara2 agrees to the view of Viśvanatha. Such a hero is

the one of the Abhijñāna Śākuntala.

These are the four types of the hero who is a married

husband. But it is not always necessary that the hero should

only be a married consort, and hence from the objective point

of view, a hero may again be deemed of three types, namely,

Pati or a legally wedded mate, or Upa-pati the paramour, and

the Vaiśika or the one who indulges with a courtesan.3 To

amplify, Rūpa Gosvāmin adds that Pati is the one who

accepted the hand of a virgin according to marital rites and

Upapati is the one who is an object of love of a woman other

than his wife and has become willing to transgress the

conjugal limitations under the influence of Amor, which makes

him court another girl.4

The principal character in the heroic plays is also classi-

fied objectively according as the nature of the object of his

enthusiasm differs. For example, a hero may have purely

meritorious pursuits and he may exhibit his best zeal for the

righteous accomplishments. Another hero may have chivalrous

pursuits and may be anxious only for trampling over his foes,

or he may have the best zeal for running risk for the benefit

of another, or he may be most charitably disposed. Thus they

are respectively called Dharma-vīra ; Yuddha-vīra ; Dayā-vīra

or Dāna-vīra. Besides these dispositions a hero may have an

ardent zeal for the display of his personal strength, learning,

duty, truthfulness and other virtues in accordance with which

they may differ in a number of ways as heroic characters.

1. S. III-36.

2. Al. S. XX-9.

3. R. C. p. 34, Ll. 2, 10.

4. U. N. M. Vv. 9–15.

[ CHAP. IV ] HERO & OTHER CHARACTERS 209

Their essential nature as heroes is determined in terms of the type of sentiment that rules over their activities and pursuits.

Whichever be his type, a hero has certain general characteristics as his personal merits and they are eight in number.1

1. Beauty of character ( Śobhā ) : Sympathy with the inferiors, emulation with the superiors, chivalry and skill omprisc: Śobhā.

2. Vivacity of character ( Vilāsa ) : Steady glances, firm, steps and smiling speech form Vilāsa.

3. Sweetness ( Mādhurya ) : Equanimity of behaviour and undisturbed demeanour even in the midst of great calamity is Mādhūrya.

4. Mental equilibrium ( Gāmbhirya ) : Absence of change in mental attitude even when there is cause for agitation shows gravity of character.

5. Steadfastness ( Dhairya or sthairya ) : Unflinching devotion to the purpose, though confronted with a host of obstacles depicts 'sthairya' of character.

6. Brilliance ( Tejas ) : Sense of self-respect and intolerance in respect of an insult is called Tejas.

7. Affability ( Lālitya ) : Sweetness of temperament, amiable disposition and engaging manners constitute the Lalita character.

8. Magnanimity ( Audārya ) : A tendency to oblige some one else even at the cost of self-interest is a specimen of Audārya.

Every hero has his counterpart, and he is known as the subsidiary hero or the anu-nāyaka. The leaders of the Episode ( patākā ) or the Incident ( prakarī ) are generally such characters. They are the principal helpers to the hero in achieving his end. An Anu-nāyaka, therefore, is a character whose part is slightly less prominent than that of the hero.2

1. D. R. II-15; B. P. p. 10, 2; K. An. VII; N. D. p. 197.

2. N. D. p. 160.

14

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

A character who is adversely interested in the activities of the hero, or the one who is the declared foe of the hero is called the adversary or the Prati-nāyaka. He is generally found in all the heroic plays, for on the prati-nāyaka depends the heroic enthusiasm of the hero. Since the hero of a drama is always a dhīra character of imitable virtues, the opponent against whom the victory of the hero will form the denouement of the play, should always be characterised as an avaricious, vicious, sinful and voluptuous person,1 possessed, of course, with ample resources and great might. There may be a series of Prati-nāyakas to a hero, as is found in the Bālarāmāyaṇa, where, though the principal opponent to Rāmacandra is Rāvaṇa, still Paraśurāma has proved as much of a Pratināyaka in the Janakapurī as did Rāvaṇa and his retinue at the outskirts of Lañkā.

In an amatory play, the partner is necessarily the lady-love; and she and the hero constitute the ālambana of the erotic sentiment. The heroine and her types will be, therefore, discussed in all main particulars below. Even in an amatory play their can be a Parti-nāyaka in a co-suitor to one lady, as is Śakāra in the Mṛcchakaṭika or Nandana in the Mālatī-mādhava.

HIS ASSISTANTS

The hero in all cases is the centre of all activities and holds the helm in directing the host of his helpers who assist him in the accomplishment of his object. A large number of helpers is, therefore, necessary for a hero to see that he succeeds in different walks of his undertakings. Accordingly, in consonance with the purpose before him, he has different types of assistants. Three-fold is the human object of achievement (trivarga), viz., Dharma, Artha and Kāma. In matters of religion and duty, his helpers are the ascetics, the seers, the holy priests and the jurisconsults.2 They are also his helpers if he is a seeker after truth. The achieve-

1. Ibid. 166.

2. S. D. III-45.

[ CHAP. IV ] HERO & OTHER CHARACTERS 211

ment of artha depends on various factors like internal peace, proper administration of the State, plans of construction and also protection from external invasion on the one hand, and military expeditions against foes on the other. So far as the local administration goes, the ministry assist the hero. These statesmen around him make plans for building the State and administration of justice within the realm. They are also the political advisers to him.1 In matters of protection from the foreign invasion or of invading others, the brother princes, relatives, vassals and the General of his forces are the helpers. Amongst these, one who takes the leading part is called the Piṭhamarda as Sugrīva of Śrī Rāma-candra,2 Since the achievement of Kāma or the object of love presents a peculiar delicacy of situation, it calls for the aid of a technical class of people to help the hero. The principal helpers in this behoof are the Court jester ( Viṭūshaka ), lads and lasses and the waiters in the harem and the messengers ( dūta and dūtis ).3

As they present different pictures and discharge different duties they are respectively called as Dharma-sahāya, the Artha-sahāya, Danda-sahāya and the Narma-sahāya.

From the view-point of his reliance on his different ministers for getting success in their respective branches, the constitution of a hero may be in the nature of a sovereign monarchy and his ministers remain purely executive officers. Such a hero is called Svāyatta-siddhi. The other type may be in the nature of a constitutional monarchy wherein the minister or a body of the ministers runs the adminstration in the name of and for the benefit of the hero. It is called Mantri-sattāmaka constitution and the hero is known as the Sacivāyattasiddhi. The third may be an amalgamation of the two, where the King and the Ministers combine and run the administration, in which case the hero is the Ubhayāyatta Siddhi. In addition to the ministers, there are some other

1. Ibid. III-43.

2. Ibid. III-39.

3. III-40.

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characters who help the cause of the hero. The principal among them are the leaders of the Patākā and the Prakari, Piṭhamarda and Vidūshaka belonging to the better class of assistants to whom may be added others like the Viṭa Ceṭa and Śakāra who are of the low type. The leaders of the Patākā and the Prakari are already defined, and the individual characteristics of the rest will be discussed under the sub-heading of the minor characters towards the close of the Chapter.

Besides the human assistance, the hero, at times, receives, by virtue of his merits or moral strength, help from the superhuman beings including gods and goddesses as well. To wit, in the plays of Kālidāsa the heroes beget help from the divine forces, or Bhāsa's Avimāraka has the Vidyādhara to help him in the event of his dire need. Such super-human help justifies the prowess of the hero who is qualified by Bharata as "one who has immortal friends." 1

HEROINE

The next important character is the heroine (Nāyikā) who is the very life-breath of an amatory play. It is the portrayal of this character that may be called the touchstone of the playwright's skill of acquittal which is to vouch for the ultimate success of the dramatic art. The heroine, as in other respects too, surpasses the hero in diversity of her characteristics as well as her qualities, both personal and natural.

The types of the heroine may be, in the first place, considered from the point of view of nature of her association with the hero. She may be associated with him as his legally wedded wife, in which case she is the Svīyā Nāyikā or the married consort. The heroine may not be the married consort and yet may have fallen in love with him. In such a case she is called Parakiyā as distinguished from the one who belongs to the hero. The third type of association may be of a courtesan, a dancing girl or a common harlot arresting the

1. S. D. III-56, 57, 64; D. R. II-16; R. S. I-95.

[ CHAP. IV ] HERO & OTHER CHARACTERS 213

heart of a lascivious hero. Such a courtesan is called a commoner or a Sādharaṇa-strī. So the heroine is primarily of three types whose natural characteristics are as follows :

1. The Married consort ( Svīyā = Ātmīyā ) : She is a caste lady devoted to the domestic duties, modest in behaviour and straightforward in her dealings. She is a partner both in times of weal and of woe like Sītā of Rāmacandra.1

2. The Unwedded ( Parakīyā ) : She may be a virgin or a mistress. The former is a bashful girl, blooming in youth and is without the wedlock. The latter one is an immodest adulteress seeking an association while in sojourn or in out-door frivolities, being prompted or pressed by her libidinous tendencies. Dhananjaya holds the view that such a character should not form the substratum of the principal sentiment and be not ordinarily introduced in a play as the chief character except in case of the Farce ( prahasana ).1

3. Commoner ( Sādhāranī ) : She is a common girl allowing free admittance to the one and all. She is always fully developed and is a self-controlled figure. She is stern in attitude and stiff in behaviour. Her love is mostly a pecuniary gamble. She is remarkable for her inconstancy and does not abhor the vicious, nor woo the meritorious. She has got a group of lick-pennies around her, rakes, fools, thieves and eunuchs who fleece her habitués who are, when robbed of all their possessions in due course, driven out of the house through the agency of the grannie or the old beldam who is her marker in the art of love-making.2 Among the commoners also, some-times, though rare, there is a courtesan or a hetæra who is found extremely devoted to one lover and showers genuine affection upon him.

It may be noted here that the dramatic literature has only the latter type of hetæræ who may be socially or profes-

1. D. R. II–22; N. D. p. 173; S. D. III–67, 71.

2. S. D. Ibid.; R. S. I–117. Note that Rudraṭa and Siṅgabhūpāla do not consider it to be undramatic to employ commoners as heroines. Vide R. S. p. 30, Ll. 13, 14.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

sionally called courtesans; but virtually they are as sweet and

chaste as any other type of the heroine could be expected.

Of this class Urvaśī or Vasantasenā stand as instances.

Although from the view-point of the nature of their asso-

ciation with the hero, the heroines are thus of three types; yet,

in fact, it is their behaviour that forms the crucial test for

purposes of classification. Their stage of love, its development

or depth is the factor to determine their type. Accordingly,

each one of the above-mentioned may be of three kinds :

the shy, the free, and the bold. They are defined as follows :

1. Youthful (Mugdhā): She is a shy lady whose

passion is concealed out of modesty, and who has budding

youth, coyness in love and gentleness even in anger. Such

a character is visible in newly-wedded brides or young

maidens who are modest and bashful owing to their inexperi-

ence of amour.1

2. Adolescent (Madhyā): She is somewhat a free

beau gone beyond the stage of shyness. Her frequent associa-

tion with her love has made her free from extreme reserve.

Her youth is advanced. She takes delight in amorous pur-

suits and is fairly capable of expressing her feelings and

thoughts. Dhananjaya calls her passion to be so developed

as to permit her indulgence in dalliance of love to the extent

of forgetting herself.2

3. Mature (Pragalbhā): She is bold in temperament

and wholly engrossed in passion. She becomes crazed on

account of love, blinded by youth and is acquainted with

diverse sports of love. Mask of bashfulness is cast off by her,

and she holds her full sway over her lover. She is capable

of manifesting her feelings fully, and of indulging in all kinds

of sport. She is even sarcastic at times in her remarks.

The last two types, namely, the free and the bold, are said

to be again of three types each, according as they evince

1. S. D. III-58. It may be added here that almost all canonists

of repute agree in respect of Nāyikābheda, hence they are not

separately cited here.

2. D.R. II-27.

[ CHAP. IV ] HERO & OTHER CHARACTERS 215

their stamina to withstand opposition or adversities in their connubial life. Since the youthful ( mugdhā ) heroine is shy and inexperienced, she does not notice the failings of the hero, her sense of womanly jealousy is not developed, her amorous feelings are not acute, she is free from several mental tortures to which the latter ones are subjected on account of their longer standing and wider experience. Therefore the adolescent and the mature are again classified into the dhirā, dhirādhira and adhirā who are respectively self-controlled, partly self-controlled and lacking in self-control. As the admixture of these tendencies with their native characteristics of being Madhyā or the Pragalbhā will lead to varied modes of behaviour, they are individually examined here :

A. The Adolescent ( Madhyā ) heroine, when in her angry mood

( i ) has the fortitude to face the shortcomings of the hero and makes bold to rebuke her erring lover with sarcasm and indirect speech, is said to be self-controlled ( dhīrā );1

( ii ) cannot summon courage to reprimand the defaulting lover and gives vent to her restless heart in weeping, is partly self-controlled ( dhirādhirā ), and she silently rebukes her love only with tears ;2

( iii ) bursts out of remorse in harsh words and is wrathful against her lover, is said to be lacking in self-control ( adhirā ).3

B. The Mature ( Pragalbhā ) heroine is said to be :

( i ) self-controlled ( dhīrā ) when she conceals her anger and is outwardly self-respectful but is indifferent to pleasures of love and thus exhibits her wrath at the failings of her lover;4

1. S. D. III-60.

2. Ibid. III-61.

3. S. D. III-62.

4. S. D. III-62: D. R. II-30.

( ii ) partly self-controlled ( dhirādhira ) when she becomes prone to tease her lover by ironical speech and volcanic remarks full of satire and sarcasm;1

( iii ) lacking in self-control ( adhira ), when she is won't to scold and even vapulate her guilty lover.2

Above are the three dispositions of a heroine when she is angered at the failings of her lover.3

It is held by Viśvanātha, Dhananjaya and Śrīkrshṇa Kavi that the Mugdhā, Madhyā and Pragalbhā are the three types of the married consort.4 As a corollary then, it follows that the three dispositions, viz. dhirā, dhirādhīrā and adhīrā also belong to the Svīyā only. This view is also supported by Vidyānātha and Siṅga Bhūpāla as well.5

But really speaking, the classification of the Mugdhā, Madhyā and Pragalbhā is based upon the age and experience of the heroine in her amatory activities. These three stages can be well had among the married consorts, as well as among the maidens and no less among the courtesans. Each one of these types can be meek and gentle, can be free and also bold and dashing. Similarly, when any heroine is to notice a failing on the part of her lover or a breach of his conduct towards her or when she is positively offended by him, she is bound to be indignant and have perverseness of attitude ( māna ). A certain lady may be tolerant and grave by temperament and thus express her indignation coolly, and so, she may be a dhirā heroine, no matter whether she is a married consort or an unwedded mistress or a courtesan. Likewise, each one of these types may be impetuous and may not be able to tolerate the failings of her lover and may not be bold

1. S. D. III–63 ; D. R. II–30.

2. S. D. III–64 ; D. R. II–30.

3. R. C. p. 6, 3.

4. S. D. III–57b, & 63b ; D. R. II–15b & 20a ; M. M. p. 82, Ll. 1, 10.

5. R. R. p. 33, 36; R. S. I–95.

[ CHAP. IV ] HERO & OTHER CHARACTERS

enough to scold him; and hence the only way to lighten her

heart is to let out her grief by tears, and thus she may be

dhirādhīrā. Then again, each one of these three types may

be able to make bold, when offended by the hero, to scold

and flog him and thus behave herself in the manner of the

adhirā heroine.

Since it is purely a matter of temperament rather than of

legal wedlo:k or otherwise, it does not quite stand to reason

as to why these types of dispositions should be limited only

to the wedded wives and not extended to other two types of

heroines who can as well be the Madhyās and Pragalbhās

possessed of individual characteristics of being the dhīrā,

dhirādhīrā or adhirā. Rūpa Gosvāmin seems to support this

view partly,1 as he extends the scope of this classification to

Svīyā and Parodlā, i. e. another's wife in love with the hero.

It does not become clear why Rūpa Gosvāmin should not

see these three stages of experience and three dispositions

in the state of anger in case of the unmarried ones, and the

courtesans, who can be young and at the primitive stage

of their career as contrasted with other bold ones of longer

standing in the profession.

For reasons stated, it becomes evident that the division

by way of Mugdhā, Madhyā and Pragalbhā belongs to all

the three types of heroines, viz, the married consorts, un-

wedded associates, either virgins or mistresses, and the courte-

sans. Temperamentally then, the variety of the threefold dis-

position, dhīrā, dhīrādhīrā and adhīrā may be said to be found

only in the Madhyā and the Prazalbhā heroines, because

their developed sense of conjugal obligations may permit

them to behave with their lovers in whichever manner their

nature permits them to do. They are of three types on the basis

of their age and experience. This distinction is based upon the

stage of love; and it is their behaviour in their indignant mood

that determines the sub-type. But in case of the Mugdhā heroine

it is difficult, in the first place, for her to notice the conjugal

1. U. N. M. p. 107, Verse 71 ( N. S. Edn. )

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

violations committed by her lover ; and secondly, to summon enough courage to question his conduct and hence the only way of expression of her wrath which she can resort to is to trickle into tears. Thus, in general, the Mugdhā heroine may be of adhīrā disposition. It is, therefore, not necesssary to classify the Mugdhā type into further sub-divisions.

Yet there is a third basis of classification of heroines and that is their situation.1 Each one of these types of heroines may be placed in different situations in their amatory career. Such situations, though countless on account of different shades, are observed as eight by all the canonists.2 They make the heroines of eight kinds verily to be determined according to circumstances, which may be summed up as follows :

1. Vāsaka-sajjā: The Rasacandrikā defines Vāsaka-sajjā as that heroine who is busy making preparations for meeting her love whose association is certain on that day. She is in a pleasant mood and is dressed in proper costumes. She has beautified herself with all cosmetics and decked the meeting-place with perfumes and lovely arrangements. Pleasantness of mood on account of certainty of meeting her lover is the crux of this situation.

2. Virahotkanthitā: The heroine who is distressed on account of her separation with her lover is called an eager heroine. The situation in which she is missing the absence of her lord makes her Virahotkanthitā.

Dr. Hāas bases this classification on the ground of the relations of the heroine with the hero. It is submitted that this view is not correct, for, it is on this ground that the first classification is based. The eight-fold division is based on the situation or the condition of the heroine as may be deemed in case of Abhisārikā, Khanditā and so on. Moreover, the same heroine may be of more than one type at different occasions according to the circumstances in which she is placed for the time being.

D. R. 121, 22; Rudraṭa p. 12; S. K. V-113; K. A. p. 305; Vāg. p. 63; R. M. p. 105. P. R. I- 41, 42; Al. S. p. 70; Rasaratna. p. 37; S. S. ...X-21.

3. Svādhīna-bharṭkā : The heroine who enjoys the company of her lover and holds full sway over him is Svādhīna-bharṭkā. The situation in which her lover is entirely at her disposol and she enjoys the pleasure of his company makes for this type of the heroine.

4. Kalahāntaritā : The heroine who is afflicted at heart on account of womanly jealousy or quarrel with her lover is said to be in a turbulent state of mind. She is, however, remorseful after the quarrel.

5. Khaṇḍitā : The heroine with whom the promise is broken by her lover is Khaṇḍitā. The situation arises when her lover, having made an appointment with her, does not keep the time and tarries on account of some other engagement. She is thus disappointed in her anticipation to meet him at the usual hour, or at an hour and place fixed for such meeting.

6. Vipralabdhā : The heroine who is deceived by her lover is Vipralabdhā. The deceit may be caused in various ways : namely, not to fulfil his promise to do or not to do a particular action ; to forget meeting when it was pre-arranged; to do a particular action with a motive different from the one outwardly shown, and so on.

The Vipralabdhā differs from the Khaṇḍitā inasmuch as the latter is disappointed on account of her lover's approach to another damsel, whereas the former situation may be due to reasons other than the one that makes a heroine Khaṇḍitā. The element of disappointment, however, is common to both the situations.

7. Proshitā-bharṭkā : The heroine whose lover is gone out of station on purpose is Proshitā-bharṭkā. Such a heroine swerves from applying cosmetics on her body and from dressing her locks and using like ornamentations. She does not like even to put on bright and gala dress.

8. Abhisārikā : A lady who, ailing from the malady of love, either moves of her own accord towards her lover or invites him to herself is an Abhisārikā. Of the two types of Abhisārikās, one who approaches her lover of her

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

own accord is believed again to be of two kinds : Jyotsnī or Śuklā and Tamasī or Nīlā. The former is one, who approaches her lover during the moonlit nights decked in all white and dressed in a simple form. The latter is one who moves in the dark nights with a black veil on her body. She avoids all ornaments for fear of being detected. All Abhisārikās do not use bangles or anklets to avoid twinkling noise ; they generally mask themselves and are attended with a bosom friend.1

Out of these eight types, the Svādhīna-bhartrkā and the Vāsaka-sajjā are characterised by sportive radiance, light-heartedness and joviality ; whereas the remaining ones display reflection, dejection, weakness, sighing and weeping.2 It may be true of the remaining ones except the abhisārikā. For although she is love-sick and may have paleness, still she is sportive and has the heart to dress herself up in a charming way. She bears some brilliance, shooting out of eagerness and other bright features.

From the point of view of the quantum of affection enjoyed by a lady when there are more than one woman attached to the hero, the heroines are classified into the senior ( jyesṭhā ) and the junior ( kanishṭhā ) consorts. The seniority or otherwise does not depend upon the priority of acceptance, but depends upon the amount of affection that is bestowed upon her by the hero.3

Apart from the popular sub-divisions, certain rhetoricians who have felt interested in marking the minutest shades of differences in the youthful dalliance of ladies, their mode of behaviour, their enormous varieties of coquetry and amorous pursuits have gone in further classifications and have made a capital out of the study of the ‘Types of Heroines’ ( nāyikā-bheda ), which may be an unnecessary digression here.

Bharata has a different scheme altogether for the classification of heroines. He makes a four-fold division,

1. U. N. M. p. 138, Vv. 68, 69.

2. D. R. II-45.

3. S. D. III-64.

and calls them verily as divine ( divyā ), the royal consort ( ṇrpa-patnī ), a housewife or a noble lady ( kulastrī ), and a courtesan ( gaṇikā ).1 The division seems to be primary basic principle of division adopted by later canonists. How-

ever, Bharata is found further to lay down that each one of these four types has a variety of character in one's being either patient ( dhīrā ) or gay ( lalitā ), or gallant ( udāttā ) or grave ( nibhṛtā ).2 He further adds that the royal consort and the divine heroines may have any of the four varieties; whereas the housewife could be either gallant or grave only, and the courtesans either gallant or gay only.3

Moreover, Bharata has got a classification of the different ladies of harem who have connubial relations with the hero which is based on status and gradation. Some of them hold status as his wives, some are mistresses and others are attendents who are amenable to the advances of the hero at his will and pleasure. They are as many as eighteen in number and the prominent among them are the Queen Consort ( Mahādevī ), the queen ( devī ) and the mistress ( bhoginī ).4

NĀYIKĀLAṄKĀRAS

Like the hero of a play, a heroine is always supposed to have noble qualities and, in general, all those merits which are enumerated as eight in the case of the heroes, are equally found in them. But in addition to those common qualities, the heroines have certain natural features of personal beauty, delicacy of feelings and artistic behaviour and mute expressions that embellish their character. Such embellishments are called Nāyikālaṅkāras. They are divided into three species, viz. personal ( āṅgaja ), natural ( ayatnaja ), and inborn ( svābhāvika ).5

1. N. XXIV-7a.

2. N. XXIV-8a.

3. N. XXIV-9.

4. N. XXIV-15 et seq.

5. N. XXII-5et seq.; S. D. III-53, D. R. II-33; R. S. I-192; K. A. VII-371; B. P. I, Ll. 11–12.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

The personal embellishments are three in number :

1. Feeling ( Bhāva ) is the first rise of an amorous feeling

in the heart of a young girl who was hitherto unaffected.

2. Emotion ( Hāva ) is an advanced stage of bhāva in

which the perturbation of mind becomes slightly visible through

peculiar looks and the knitting of brows.

3. Passion ( Helā ) is a clear manifestation of the emotion,

and is a stage higher than the one expressed in hāva.

The natural embellishments are of seven types and are

defined as follows :

1. Beauty ( Śobhā ) is comeliness of body having hand-

some lineaments of Nature.

2. Grace ( Kānti ) is the charm which is lent to beauty by

Aphrodite. It presents natural loveliness.

3. Radiance ( Dipti ) is that feature of grace which is

accompanied by delightful lustre. It is only a higher degree

of kānti.

4. Sweetness ( Mādhurya ) is the uniformity of charm in

all states of life according to Viśvanātha.1 The Daśarūpaka

defines it as a feature which is not gaudy nor dazzling, but

contributes a great deal towards her capacity of attraction.2

5. Fortitude ( Prāgalbhya ) is that natural accomplish-

ment which maintains mental equilibrium by avoiding agita-

tion in amorous pursuits.4

6. Dignity ( Audārya ) consists in politeness in behaviour

at all occasions.

7. Restraint ( Dhairya ) is the steadfastness of mental bear-

ing and freedom from vanity.

1. S. D. III–97.

2. D. R. II–36.

3. Ava. p. 53, line 21.

4. N. XXII–29a.

[ CHAP. IV ] HERO & OTHER CHARACTERS 223

Besides the two-fold embellishments noted above, there are ten more according to Bharata. They are invariably found among the ladies, and are considered as inborn charms with them. They are :

1. Sportiveness ( Lilā ) is a tendency to imitate her lover. Probably it is with a desire to display herself as a counterpart of her lover and agree with him in his tastes.1 Sāgarandnin suggests that Lilā is an imitation of her lover's gesticulations by a lady in separation, which is done with a view to diverting herself while she is in the midst of her female friends.2

2. Dalliance ( Vilāsa ) is the delightful sportiveness in movements which becomes apparent in a lady at the occasions when she is associated with her lover.3 It differs in numerous ways according as she is afforded on opportunity to look at him from a distance or nearness of situation, while alone or in the midst of his or her friends, juniors or elders. It is the most artistic bearing that a lady is proud of among her various accomplishments. Bharata says4 that it is a graceful mode of standing, walking or sitting, and includes coquetry of brows, eyes and manual gestures.

3. Decency ( Vicchitti ) is the desire to augment personal beauty with a tasteful dress, ornaments and cosmetics.5 Bharata purports to say that Vicchitti is a sense of natural decency rather than one had by the use of unguents and other cosmetic appliances,6 which are scantily and reluctantly

4. N. XXII–14 ; D. R. II–37b ; B. P. 9, 5 ; N. D. Verse 185 ; S. D. III–98 ; S. K. A. p. 618–1.

5. N. L. R. 2656.

6. S. D. III–99 ; D. R. II–38a ; B. P. 9, 6 ; N. L. R. 2920; S. K. A. p. 618–6.

7. N. XXII–15 ; N. D. p. 205, Verse 184b.

8. S. D. III–100; B. P. p. 9–8; N. D. p. 205; N. L. R. 2631; S. K. A. 618, 13.

9. N. XXII–16.

used.1 Sāgaranandin adds that Vicchitti consists in an unwilling decoration of body at the instance of friends by a lady who is cross with her lover due to some breach on his part.2

4. Fluster ( Vibhrama ) is that state of mind in which there is exuberance of eagerness exhibited by a lady mostly by misplacing ornaments or beauty marks on her body.3

5. Delight ( Kilakiñcita ) is that feature which presents a confusion of feelings in the nature of some hysterical joy produced by meeting with one's best beloved.4 It is a mixture of various states of smiling, laughter, fear, pain, weeping, fatigue and eagerness caused more than once on account of surfeit of joy.5

6. Manifestation ( Moṭṭāyita ) is a mute expression of affection by a lady in the absence of her lover. It comprises of such gesticulations as scratching the ear or the ground when some reference to her beloved occurs in course of conversation. It makes a tacit expression of her love.6

7. Pretension ( Kuṭṭamita ) is an assumed perverseness shown towards the endearments of her lover although she is filled inwardly with a feeling of joy.7 Such an expression is an outcome of initial shyness or her maiden coyness. It is usually expressed by means of putting off a closer physical contact with the one loved by her. Bhojarāja defines Kuṭṭamita as an expression of joy made by a lady even in the midst of her uneasiness felt at the grip of her hair or other limbs. Bharata, however, thinks conversely and observes that

8. D. R. II–38b.

9. N. L. R. 2625.

10. N. XXII–17; D. R. II–29a ; N. D. p. 205, 4; N. L. R. 2636, 40; S. D. III–104; S. K. A. p, 618, 16; B. P. p. 9–Ll. 10, 11.

11. S. D. III–101; B. P. p. 9, 12; N. L. R. 2651; S. K. A. p. 619–1.

12. N. D. p. 206 Verse 188a; D. R. II–39b; N. XXII–18.

13. S. D. III–102; N. XXII–19; B. P. p. 9, 14; N. L. R. 2657; S. K. A. 619–4.

14. N. XXII–12; S. D.III–102; B. P. p. 9, 9, 13; N. L. R. 2757; S. K. A. Verse 619, 4; D. R. II–40a; N. D. 187b.

15. D. R. II–40b; N. D. 187a.

it is a super-imposition of a feigned trouble over a pleasant situation.1

8. Affected Indifference ( Bibboka ) is marked when a lady displays her wilful disregard, due to haughtiness or shyness, shown towards an object or an action even if it is, in fact, welcome to her.2

9. Gracefulness ( Lalita ) consists in a lady's placing of her limbs with elegant delicacy.3 It also includes fluttering of eyes and brows which signifies amorousness.4 Rāmacandra and Guṇācandra think that Lalita is a delicate movement of limbs without a direct purpose, e. g. stretching of hand without any object to pick up, or casting glances without some special object to be seen and so on.5 It, therefore, means that a random movement of limbs is Lalita and purposeful movement of them is Vilāsa.

10. Reserve ( Vihṛta ) consists in keeping silence out of modesty even when there is an opportunity for a lady to speak. It may be two-fold according as it is either natural or an affected one.6

In addition to the above-mentioned embellishing features of a woman, Viśvanātha includes eight more characteristics to the list of natural beauties.7 They are :

1. Arrogance ( Mada ) which is visible by means of a change wrought in the demeanour of a lady by effulgent circumstances or charms of youth, is also a mark of beauty.

2. N. XXII–20; S. D. III–103; N. L. R. 2663; S. K. A. p. 619, 7; B. P. p. 9, 15.

3. N. XXII–21; S. D. III–100b; B. P. p. 9, Ll. 17,18; S. K. A. p. 619, 10; N. D. 185b; N. L. R. 2674; D. R. II–41.

4. S. D. III–105a ; B. P. p. 9, Ll. 19, 20 ; S. K. A. p. 619, 13 ; N. L. R. 2681.

5. N. XXII–22; D. R. II–41b.

6. N. D. p. 206, Line 11.

7. N. XXII–23; S. D. III–106a; N. D. 186a ; B. P. p. 9, Ll. 21–22; S. K. A. p 619, 16 ; D. R. II–42a.

8. S. D. III–105, 110.

226 LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

2. Uneasiness (Tapana) is displayed by restless movements under the influence of Amor.

3. Simplicity (Maugdhyam) consists in such inquiries as are done by ladies with feigned ignorance relating to objects that are so well-known.

4. Perturbation (Vikshepa) is that beautiful situation of a lady wherein she is found to have placed her ornaments only halfway, and is in vain looking for something on all sides and speaks but little in confidence to her beloved.

5. Inquisitiveness (Kutūhala) is that striking movement of a lady that makes her astir at the sight of something which is simply fascinating.

6. Smile (Hasita) is that womanly grace which is an outcome of youthful dalliance and makes her express her mirth without an ostensible reason.

7. Flurry (Cakitam) is that beautiful state of a lady in which she is seen taken aback in the presence of her lover either due to awe or a sudden rise of some feeling (sambhrama).

8. Sport (Keli) is an embellishment in itself which is visible in a lady when she is playfully behaving with her lover or is seen in her artistic freaks and frisks due to amorousness.

Most of these additional features given by Viśvanātha are, in fact, the after-effects (anubhāva)lof amorous affectation and they present to a large extent the different states of a love-stricken lady rather than her natural characteristics of beauty.

In case of a polygynic hero, his prior love is bound to exist. A heroine may have in such cases co-heroines or the previous consorts of her lover. Such co-heroines are almost always jealous of the subsequent love which refers to the heroine. They mostly appear in a drama as the madhyā or the pragalbhā heroines of the Khaṇḍitā, Vipralabhā or Kalahāntaritā type. They are generally harsh to the heroine and

[ CHAP. IV ] HERO & OTHER CHARACTERS 227

serve as watch-guards on the movements of the loving pair

only to impede the course of action for the time being.

To help the hero in the midst of such impending circum-

stances by carrying tales of love from one side to the other

and sustain their loving instincts and create favourable oppor-

tunities for their interim meetings, there are characters like

the Clown ( vidūshaka ), a eunuch ( Varshavara ), a rake ( Viṭa )

and other inferior attendents. They have their own charac-

teristics which are in a way conspicuous and peculiar to

themselves and deserve a casual notice :

1. The clown (Vidūshaka) is the most important companion

of the hero and is supposed to render first grade help to him

in his intrigue of love. He is a peculiar character noted for

humorousness and is mostly an older brāhmaṇa. He is suppos-

ed to be fond of eating various dainties, and is constitutionally

made to show his great concern with the kitchen. He has a

free access to the seraglio and is shown keenly interested in

setting some quarrels among different members of the royal

harem. He is the keeper of the hero's conscience and is his

confidant. All the same he is mostly responsible for placing

often the hero in awkward situations. He behaves with

the hero very freely and is addressed as a friend, though fool

is his proper epithet. " He is generally given soft names,"

observes Viśvanātha, " related mostly to flowers and the Spring

season." 1 By status he is supposed to belong to a middling

character, and for purposes of the language that he is to use,

he is placed at par with the womanfolk with whom he is much

in contact.

2. Varshavaras are such characters that are effeminate in

their nature with little virility in them. They are clever but

not wicked. They generally serve as helpful agents in nego-

tiations of love.2

3. Viṭa is a rake who is acquainted with women of all

ranks, and is an intimate friend of courtesans. More or less

he is a Master of their Trade Union, and ushers the youngsters

1. S. D. III-249-30; N. XXIV-103b-i; D. R. II-47.

2. N. XXIV-54.

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in profession and directs them in various modes of coquettish life. He is well-versed in the erotic science and speaks in Sanskrit. Mostly he is a votary of free and flippant love, and condemns the marital bonds of a wedlock that fetters them to a conjugal life which, according to him is so jejune as compared with the aviating copulations done and dismissed at free will.

4. Śakāra is another character who is a blinking idiot. He always plays the rôle of a villain and is a mischievous miscreant. He is one who is said to be the brother of a royal mistress and is, on that account, a self-conceited, arrogant and an unmannerly lout living like a parasite on the resources of the King, and appalling others by his wicked tendencies.1 Śakāra is sometimes a helper to the hero in a Nātaka, but may be an obstruction as well.

A wistful heroine is also in need of some helpers to carry her far in her pursuit of love and she has largely to depend on her female associates who act as her agents in case of need. They are technically called emissaries ( dūtīs ), who play an important rôle by fostering the dramatic cause. In view of their technical duties, such emissaries are said to be possessed of certain qualifications which are enumerated by the canonists as follows :

"The merits of an agent are loyalty to the cause of the principal, arduous zeal for the accomplishment of the purpose, acquaintance with fine arts, capacity to know the mind of others, retentive memory, amiablility of temperament, sweet behaviour, spokesmanship and knowledge of various kinds of erotic artifices." 2

There are three categories of an agent 3 : one, shrewd (Nis̐r-shtārthā); the other, reserve (Mitārthā); and the third, message-bearer ( Sandesa-hārikā ). Shrewd is that agent who is capable enough to surmise the feelings of both the parties and offer a suitable reply at his own initiative. The one who handles

1. N. XXIV-102; S. D. III-44.

2. S. D. III-129, 30.

3. S. D III-47.

[ CHAP. IV ] HERO & OTHER CHARACTERS 229

the job gracefully is said to be the Nişrşţhārthā agent.1 Such an agent is very useful in driving out the wedge of discord from the heart of one against the other.

Reserved is that agent who speaks but little and yet cleverly accomplishes the task entrusted to her. Such an agent is very useful in handling delicate matters and only for the sake of the appropriateness of her action, she is known to be Mitārthā.2

The third category is of those agents who simply convey the message as stated by the principal. They simply run on errands and are known as the Sandeśa-hārikās.3

Such agents may be either male or female, and may be employed by the hero or the heroine of an erotic play. They can be of use even to the principal characters and their helpers in heroic plays in conveying messages to and fro, and also in acting as diplomatic embassies or ambassadors on behalf of one in the court of another. They are deemed a class of persons of eminent responsibility who have certain privileges of freedom of action and are capable of committing their principals to particular situations. They are generally those who are in close contact with the principal. In case of a heroine in particular, her foster-mother, neighbour-women, intimate friends, actresses, young girls of nascent age, nuns, laundresses and other female artisans serve as agents and emissaries. The canonists believe that in case of emergency a heroine may herself act as an agent for inviting her love in which case she is supposed to be a Svayam-dūtī. It is to be wondered by the critics if she can, in such a circumstance, be identified with an Abhisārikā.

In addition to these various characters, there are many others like the bards ( sūta, māgadha and bandī ) of various

1. S. D. III-48.

2. Ibid. III-49.

3. Ibid.

classes, time-keepers ( Vaitālikas ), chamberlains ( Kañcukins );1 warders, portresses and attendants of various orders ( cetas and cetīs ). Other agents are the office-bearers of different ranks and file entrusted with different domestic and out-door duties, and such other characters in society as are in keeping with the requirements of the dramatic fable who become capable of being introduced by the dramaturge in accordance with his skill of presentation.

It may be noted that all types of characters can be of high, middling or low standard.

All what is necessary to proper delineation of characters is the realistic nature of such introduction which may not ordinarily go against the rules and conventions enjoined by the Śāstras and social usage.

1. A Kañcukin is a brahamana grown old in the royal service; he bears a staff and always moans over the infirmities of age. He speaks Sanskrit. Similarly, a charioteer ( sūta ) speaks in a high tone.

CHAPTER V

FEELINGS AND SENTIMENTS

Nāṭya is the representation of every day life which is full of diverse activities prompted by different desires, longings and yearnings of a human being. The ordinary state of human nature is composed of passion which makes a man long for the attainment of the desired object with a consequent success or failure. This usual mental state of a being depends upon the three fundamental elements of Nature (prakṛti) noted by psychologists as sattva, rajas, and tamas. They are seldom found to be operating in their pure individual form. Generally, it is an admixture of any two or even at times of all the three that functions the entire machinery of human mind. These three elements in their admixed state generally behave in a compromising manner with the effect that one usually remains dominant at a particular moment and the other or others remain subservient to it. As a result of their operation, a large number of mental states are formed which become visible in the actions of mind, speech and body of a human being.

Nāṭya aims at the imitatation of these varied actions of a man represented through an actor or the body of actors. Such men whose psychological state and the consequent actions are imitated in the Nāṭya are not necessarily the persons whose character is reproduced, but it is also the poet whose make-up of mind is mirrored in the dramatic composition. Thus even the characters in a Nāṭya, irrespective of their personal traits, move in accordance with the imprimatur of the dramatist, who is the whole and sole creator of his Universe and the monarch of all that he surveys.1 Bhojarāja in this respect

1. "Apāre Kāvya-samsāre kavir ekah prajāpatih | Yathāsmai rocate viśvam tat tathaiva pravartate" //...

—Agni-purāṇa-339-X

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

rightly observes, "If the poet is æsthetic ( śṛṅgārī ), the whole universe is full of rasa, and if he is devoid of that sense, the external world is indeed all dry and insipid."1

It becomes then the very vital breath of a composition to delineate the different mental attitudes which a dramaturge does by means of presenting different characters noted above. A dramatist is, therefore, said to infuse the inner spirit in his characters which vivifies them and to present their varied states in accordance with the extraneous circumstances that make his characters real, and his composition realistic. It is only the realistic appearance of the human life through lively characters that makes the presentation charming and its enactment popular. The popularity, in fact, ensues from the sympathy which the spectators enjoy during the course of presentation made by the actors. The actors, as a matter of fact, imbibe the spirit of the original character who in himself bears the stamp of the poet's æsthetic heart and his susceptible mind. The presentation of different mental moods created in a character by a dramatist by means of so apt an imitation done by actors as to make the latter in unison with the self of the former is the height of the skill of enactment which results in producing similar feelings in the hearts of the spectators. The process of transference of feelings of the dramatic characters to the spectators by means of actors' faithful imitation is technically known as the relish or Carvaṇā. It is an outcome of the fusion of the spirit, a total agreement of hearts, a complete harmony of minds caused by the symphonic reproduction of tones, imitation of gesticulations and modes of action and an appropriate representation of situations by like costumes, manners, outward bearing and other environments. This is what is known as Emotional Response ( hṛdaya-saṁvāda ) which culminates into absorption - an absorption that transposes an individual from the mundane atmosphere to the realm of bliss, the ānanda

1. "Śṛṅgārī cet kavih kāvye jātam rasamayam jagat | Sa eva ced aśṛṅgārī nīrasam sarvam eva tat." // - S. K. A. V. 3.

[ CHAP. V ] FEELINGS AND SENTIMENTS 233

which is the source of repose ( viśrānti ) and springs from the enjoyment of rasa.1

The power of sympathy or the capacity to get into others’ moods is the true test of the æsthetic sense ; and according to Bharata the creative power is the feature of a dramatist and the appreciative faculty is the characteristic of a spectator,2 which verily distinguish both of them from the mass public and make for their cultural development. The presentation of feelings and their appreciation is, therefore, the cultural aspect of every representation ( Nāṭya ) and forms the kernel of the dramatic composition and the very soul of every poetry. Complex being the human nature, numerous are the activities of men as social beings which constantly give birth to various feelings. They die and rise and present all day long a transitory state of human mind. Such transitory moods are varied and incapable of enumeration ; yet some of them have made themselves prominent on account of their frequent and general occurrence and also due to their capacity to sway over the human conscience and to propel a man’s activities from time to time. For this reason the great psychologist Bharata has tried to do the impracticable and has enumerated the most prominent of these mental states ( bhāvas )3 by forming a group of thirty-three feelings which are of universal appeal. These feelings are engendered by certain causes known as Vibhāvas and create certain effects called anubhāvas.

Human career being blended with pain and pleasure with more of the former than of the latter, dejection or disappointment is a feeling of general experience which Bharata takes up first and calls it Nirveda.

1. “Raso vai sah, rasam hī eva ayam labdhvā ānandī bhavati.”

—Tait. Up. II-vii.

2. “Yās tushtste tushtim āyāti śoke śokam upaiti ca / Dainye dīnatvam abhyeti sa nāṭye prekshakas smṛtah.” //—N. XXVII-52.

3. The word Bhāva is derived from the root ‘ √Bhū ’ with an instrumental suffix meaning a state which is the cause of an emotion.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

1. Despair ( Virveda ) : It is a feeling of fieing upon oneself. Such a feeling may be aroused by extreme indigence, down-trodden condition brought by some curse, great misery, or intolerance of a rival's glory, constant insults from the superiors, public censure, penal servitude, separation or loss of some dearkinsman.1 It is also an outcome of the knowledge of the Truth or of the unreality of this world and other temporal relations.2 The existence of despair is generally judged by tears and sighs and also by pensiveness.

2. Disgust ( Glāni ) : It is in the nature of moroseness or a particular type of uneasiness.3 It arises from mental worries, weakness due to illness, amorous indulgence, loss of strength, fatigue, paleness, or languor. Lolling eyes and sleeplessness are some of the features that exhibit the existence of this mental state.

3. Hesitation ( Śankā ) : It is a mental scruple born of the pricks of conscience which is guilty of some offence like felony, or high treason. This mood is often created by the commission of some sin or moral wrong.4 Viśvanātha thinks that some impending cruelty to be done by another also causes such a mood.5 According to his view, then, it is a state which is softer than the one found in consternation. It is expressed by the presentation of unsteady looks, hiding one's face, parching throat, licking one's own lips, turning of facial colour and tremour. Bharata believes that as an after-effect of this feeling, the face generally becomes dull and lustreless.6

4. Jealousy ( Asūyā ) : It is an incapacity to tolerate the virtues or accomplishments of another person. It is generally caused by the display of the attainments of the rival,

5. N. VII-28.

6. D. R. IV-9; S. D. III-142; P. R. p. 243, 1.

7. N. VII-30; D. R. IV-10; P. R. p. 243, 8; S. D. III-170.

8. N. VII-33; D. R. IV-7; S. D. III-14; P. R. p. 244, 1.

9. S. D. III-14.

10. N. p. 114, line 3 ( N. S. Edn. ).

[ CHAP. V ] FEELINGS AND SENTIMENTS 235

his opulence and joys. It is to be expressed by the open declaration of the faults of the other, belittling his merits and by means of one's own attitude having downcast face, closed eyes and knitting of brows. In moments of overpowering sublimity such a state of mind results in censuring one's own self as well.1

5. Inebriety ( Mada ): It is an infatuated state of mind caused by the use of stimulants. Its after-effects vary according as the nature of the person differs. If he is noble and of harmonious temperament, the influence of intoxicants induces him to sleep ; if he is passionate, he either indulges in music or bursts into peals of laughter. If he is dominated by inertia and belongs to a low class, he falls in hysterical fits, sheds tears or resorts to random talks or loud shrieks and abuses. Inebriety has different stages as well : in its initial stages it is depicted by means of indistinct voice, stammering speech, disconnected talk or faltering pace; in its slightly advanced stage it is betokened by waving of arms, tumbling down, staggered voice and reeling looks. In its virulent form which is to be shown only by reference to base characters it presents a slip at every step, loss of memory and frequency of sneezes and hiccoughs. In such a state the mouth of the person is sometimes full of foam or remains wide agape.2

6. Exhaustion ( Śrama ) : It is a state of fatigue due to exertion either physical or mental. Heavy breaths, yawning, twisting of limbs, rubbing one's own face or desire for massage are the few ensuants of the exhausted condition.3

7. Sloth ( Ālasya ): It is that state of mind which is produced by want of energy. It may be due to over-work, hunger, uneasiness of mind or indisposition. With some

8. N. VII, 36, 37; D. R. IV–17; S. D. III–166; P. R. p. 244–7. N. B. There is mostly an agreement among the different canonists here, hence only divergent views are noted.

9. N. VII–38, 43; S. D. III–46b; D. R. IV–21; P. R. p. 245, 1.

10. N. VII–47; S. D. III–146a; D. R. IV–12; P. R. p. 245, 7.

characters, however, it is a natural mood. In case of women such a condition is also a result of pregnancy. It is to be brought forth by means of showing disinterest in every action, quiet posture, moroseness or sleepy condition.1

8. Depression ( Dainya ) : It is caused by mental worries, squalor or even by a particular type of disease. It is depicted by uncleanliness, heaviness of body and pallour and lack of energy.2

9. Anxiety ( Cintā ) : It is a mental state resulting from loss of power or wealth or from obstacles in course of one's success. It is generally shown by heavy sighs, meditation, thinness of body or by brooding mood. It also causes absent-mindedness, recklessness and inattention. It weighs heavy on one's heart or corrodes the inner senses. Coupled with this, fortitude should always be shown in higher characters ( of uttama-prakṛti ).3

10. Silliness ( Moha ) : It is occasioned by some divine frown, anger of some one superior, an unexpected calamity, grave disappointment and reminiscences of previous associations, privations and hostilities. It should be presented in the form of senselessness, reeling sensation, sudden fall on the ground and staggering looks.4

11. Remembrance ( Smṛti ) : It is recalling to mind the past experiences of pleasure and pain occasioned by sleeplessness, physical illness or observation of similar items or actual reference by another. The mental state is to be expressed by nods of head, knitting of brows, investigating looks and inquisitive expression of face.5

12. Content ( Dhṛti ) : It is a delightful mood created by intense satisfaction or knowledge of truth, acquistion of

13. N. VII-48; S. D. III-155; D. R. IV-27; P. R. p. 246, 1.

14. N. VII-49; S. D. III-145; D. R. IV-14; P. R. p. 246, 9.

15. N. VII-50,51; S. D. III-171a; D. R. IV-16a; P. R. p. 247-5.

16. N. VII-52, 53; D. R. II-26; R. G. p. 97, 13; S. D. III-150; P. R. p. 248-1.

17. N. VII-54; R. G. p. 94, 17; S. D. III-162.

[ CHAP. V ] FEELINGS AND SENTIMENTS 237

power, extreme devotion to God or guru, practice of religion, and duty, and high standard of morality. This condition of mind is free from fear or sorrow. It is to be shown in the shape of general indifference without extreme passion for gaining some object or grief in case of want of something.1

13. Bashfulness ( Vriḍā ) : It is a state both of modesty and of shame. Any transgression of limits or sense of repentence creates such a state of mind. It is expressed as a result of shyness and the first affectation of love. It is shown by means of dullness in eyes, lowering of the head, scratching of nails, muttering of words, scribbling of some text, rocking a ring up and down in one's own finger, gentle touches frequently done to one's own plait of hair, feeling one's own clothes often or squeezing the frill of a garment and similar other features.2

14. Inconstancy ( Capalatā ) : It springs from affection, hatred, intolerance, envy and sense of opposition. It is in the shape of the lack of uniformity of action and behaviour. According to Bhojadeva it is an outcome of the desire to make oneself conspicuous.3 It, however, leads to extremes, such as termagant speech, severe reprimands, vapulations, arrests, assasinations and the like.4

15. Joy ( Harsha ) : It is a state of light-heartedness, a pleasant mood. It owes its existence to the achievement of a longed-for object, an association with a beloved or a dear kinsman, prosperity or some favour shown by the superiors. It is expressed by means of blooming face, sprightly glances, courteous speech, vivid smile, horripilation, perspiration, thrilling limbs and even flow of cool tears.5

16. Agitation ( Āvega ) : It is a state of perplexity or flurry. This mood is of frequent occurrence and has a plurality of reasons behind it. The nature of flurry varies both

17. N. VII-56, 57; R. G. p. 98, 1. S. D. III-168.

18. N. VII-52, 53; R. G. p. 96 bottom; S. D. III-165a.

19. S. K. A. V-149.

20. N. p. 119-L1. 13-15; R. G. p. 115 bottom; S. D. III-169a.

21. N. p. 120, 1-3; R. G. p. 94, 6; S. D. III-165b.

238 LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

in its kind as well as in its after-effects according to the nature of its cause. It may be due to some portentious phenomenon (utpäta), a strong gale, a conflagration, torrential rain, presence of some wild animal, some dismal tidings, invasion by an enemy or some other physical injury. Some-times even a sudden happy news also causes a flurry.

Each one of these types may have again different reasons to cause a peculiar type of flurry; e. g. an agitation occasioned by some veritable portent may be due to fall of a meteor, peals of thunder, lightning, appearance of a lodestar or an eclipse of the Sun or the Moon. Such an agitation is to be portrayed by means of distress in limbs, standing aghast, loss of facial colour or a wonderstruck posture. An agita-tion caused by a strong gust of wind be presented in the shape of veiling oneself, rubbing one's eyes, tightening clothes or acceleration in pace of walking. The mood of flurry brought out by excessive rainfall may be shown in the form of squeezing one's limbs, running away speedily, use of umbrellas, stucking up of garments and the like. Conflagra-tion resulting in a flurry is to be put forth with an atmosphere filled with smoke and the characters to be portrayed with their eyes watering with tears, reddened face, a hurried exit, and distressed limbs. The flurry caused by the presence of wild beasts becomes remarkable by a quick exit, sudden shriek, fright, standing of hair on their ends, and constantly looking behind. With sighs and shrieks, groaning lamentations, loud outbursts of cries, sudden departure from the spot and stunned vacany of mind, an agitation caused by the dismal tidings is to be presented. Flurry occasioned by foreign invasion or an attack of thieves or similar use of pressure is to be shown by a chaotic disturbance involving some sudden action , resort to arms , scaring, indignation or in certain cases even with a thoughtful brow. Hearing of some very good news may also cause flurry which may be demons-trated by a sudden jump, clamping in a seat, embracing the news-bearer, putting on a gala dress, jubilation, horripilation or even a flow of cool and joyous tears.1

1. N. p. 120, 121 ; R. G. p. 112, 9; S. D. III-143, 145a.

[ CHAP. V ] FEELINGS AND SENTIMENTS 239

Bhojarāja has replaced Sambhrama for Āvega and calls it a flurry caused by a particular type of appreciation.1

17. Stupor ( Jaḍatā ) : It is that mental condition in which all sense of appreciation is stupefied. It is caused by protracted illness, witnessing of a horrid sight or hearing some grievous news. It results in dumb-foundedness, steadfast gazes or loss of energy and physical movements.2

18. Conceit ( Garva ) : It is a mental attitude swollen with egotism. It springs from power, opulence, high status, and more so from consciousness of one's high rank and birth, handsome figure, charming youth, dauntless courage, invincible strength or unparallelled learning, skill or any other art. It is to be portrayed by means of contemptuous behaviour with others, irresponsiveness, gazing at one's own self, sarcastic smiles, rough manners, insulting demeanour, affected deportment, disregard shown to elders, presumptuous speech, insolent mode of walk and such other ways of assumption of airs.3

19. Despondency ( Vishāda ) : It is an attitude which shows an utter loss of vigour. It may be due to failure of purpose, want of expedients to achieve success or fall of some irremediable misery.4 According to Jagannātha it is also an outcome of repentance for one's own wrong doings or offence to the guru or the king.5 It may be exhibited by such actions as attempting for alliance in quest of helpers, or finding out means. Even lack of zeal, disinterest or failure of the persuasions of others also demonstrate a feeling of despondency, which among the low characters specially causes physical restlessnessness, parching of lips, drowsiness, heavy breaths or frequent licking of either ends of the mouth.6

20. S. K. A. V-160.

21. N. VII-60; R. G. p. 112 bottom ; S. D. III-148.

22. N. p. 122, 1; R. G. p 103, 3; S. D. III-154.

23. N. p. 122,6; S. D. III-167.

24. R. G. p. 11 top.

25. D. R. IV-31. ( also Avaloka )

240 LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

20. Eagerness (Autsukya): A mental attitude which craves to gain the desired object without further loss of time is eagerness. It arises from the separation from one's beloved, craze for the union with the same, or constant remembrance of the desired object. It becomes evident by long sighs, lowered face, pensiveness, sloth and laziness.1

21. Slumber (Nidrā): It is a state of stillness of mind. It arises from weakness, fatigue, exertion, indolence, wakefulness, gluttony or anxiety. With low characters, it is somewhat natural too. It is imitated by a show of yawning, closing of eyes, worn-out face, fit of drowsiness, staggering looks, inhaling and exhaling of breaths, feebleness in limbs and cessation of activities, snoring and snorting.2

22. Catalepsy (Apasmāra): It is a diseased condition of mind caused by intolerable separation, extreme grief, horror, a ghastly sight, possession by evil spirits, residence in desolate homes, uncleanly habits or disturbance of humours. Throbbing, tremour, sighs, tumbling down, random movements, perspiration, fit, foaming mouth, licking by tongue and unseemly behaviour are a few noted after-effects of the epileptic condition of mind.3

23. Vision (Supta): It is a conscious state of sleep. It follows slumber. Long breaths, snoring, stillness of limbs, closed eyes, inaction of outer organs and prattling are the symptoms which proceed from dream.4 Paṇḍita-rāja calls supta as synonymous with dream and considers prattling (jalpa) as its after-effect. He disagrees with Bharata and thinks closing of eyes, stillness of limbs and the like features to belong to sleep, and not to dream as its distinctive characteristics.5

24. N. p. 123, Ll. 6-8; S. D. III-157; R. G. 103, 17; D. R. IV-33.

25. N. p. 123-Ll. 1-5; R. G. p. 111 bottom; S. D. III-159; D. R. IV-32.

26. N. p. 123, 13-16; R. G. p. 115, 7; S. D. III-153; D. R. IV-25.

27. N. p. 124, Ll. 5-7; S. D. III-152.

28. R. G. p. 105, 7.

[ CHAP. V ] FEELINGS AND SENTIMENTS 241

24. Wakefulness ( Vibodha ) : It is a state of consciousness regained after sleep. Breach of slumber, indigestion and tumult are the few causes of Vibodha. It is demonstrated by yawning, rubbing the eyes, straightening of limbs and snapping of fingers.1 According to some psychologists state of wakefulness is also attained by loss of ignorance or removal of nescience. Freedom from false notions also fosters the awakened attitude.2

25. Wrath ( Amarsha ) : It is a perturbed state of mind or an infuriated mental attitude. It is caused by disobedience of the inferior, insolent treatment, insulting behaviour, or an impeachment of authority, status, learning or wealth, or an infringement of a right. It is to be indicated by redness in eyes, furious inhaling of breaths, loud speeches, harsh tone and taciturnity. At times, even a pensive pose, busy finding out means of retaliation or avenging for the wrong done goes to suggest a wrathful attitude.3

26. Dissimulation ( Avahitthā ) : It consists in hiding one's appearance or an attempt to appear in a manner different from what it actually is. It is an outcome of shame, awe and cunning. Uttering falsehood, giving circuitous replies, a sham show of fortitude, boldness and self-assumption are the few characteristics which betray an attitude of dissembling.4

27. Acrimony ( Ugratā ) : It is an attitude of sternness caused by beseige, arrest of an offender, false statement or a reconitre with a foe.5 Paṇdita-rāja Jagannātha, however, calls it as a non-plussed attitude, full of vehemence which makes one feel in terms of "what to do of this person who wronged me thus in the past" !6 The acrimonious

28. N. p. 124, 13; S. D. III-151.

29. R. G p. 106.

30. N. pp. 125, Ll. 3-5; S. D. III-156; R. G. p. 107, 8; D. R. IV-18.

31. N. p. 125, Ll. 10-15; S. D. III-158; R. G. p. 108, 1.

32. N. p. 125 bottom; S. D. III-149a; D. R. IV-15.

33. R. G. p. 108, 13.

16

242 LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

attitude is to be shown by attempts of belabouring, capturing, scolding and cudgelling.1

28. Determination ( Mati ) : It is a mental attitude which forms definite conclusion gained by the study of the Śāstras, observation of facts, deduction from given data and a firm belief in one's own convictions. Removal of doubt, instructions to others, self-assurance and acting upon conclusions drawn are the few features of the determined attitude of mind.2

29. Illness ( Vyādhi ) : According to Bharata it is due to the disturbance in humours. It results in fever or similar diseases.3 Paṇḍita-rāja defines illness as a state of mental uneasiness caused by constitutional sickness or a particular malady in the shape of being love-lorn or by a shock due to some severe loss.4 Bhojadeva has the same view.5

Sluggishness of limbs, heavy respiration, debility, loss of energy are some of its ensuants.

30. Derangement ( Unmāda ) : It is a loss of mental equilibrium, a disorderly state of mind. Such dementedness is often due to some shocking death of akinsman, sudden loss of wealth and possessions, continued woeful condition of life, unbearable grief, separation from the beloved, fit of insanity, disproportion of bile, phlegm or the wind in the body. It is to be depicted by untimely weeping, inopportune laughter, regular shoutings, random talk, wanton movements, rolling in mud, splashing in turbid water, beating one's own limbs, biting others, putting off clothes, throwing articles that are nearby, and through such other irrational deeds.6

31. Mortality ( Maraṇa ) : What is to be understood by this state is not the actual cessation of life, which is the

32. R. G. p. 108.

33. N. p. 126, Ll. 4-8; R. G. p. 103 bottom; S. D. III-163.

34. N. p. 126, Ll. 9-15; S. D. III-164a.

35. R. G. p. 104, line 7.

36. S. K. A. V, 158.

37. N. p. 127, Ll. 3-11; R. G. p. 109, 5; S. D. III-160.

[ CHAP. V ] FEELINGS AND SENTIMENTS

etymological sense of the term. Death is forbidden to be presented on the stage. It is, therefore, the proximity of death, the condition of impending loss of further breath which is the meaning of the term of mortality. It may be due to a fatal blow of a weapon, fall from a height or an attack of an animal, incurable stage of illness, deadly effect of some poison or a snake-bite. Rolling on bed, ghastly looks, blackening of face and nails, moistening of nose, jolting quiver; convulsions, senselessness and stupor are some of the pre-mortem features of a person.1

32. Fright ( Trāsa ) : It is an afflicted condition of mind. It is often caused by the roar of clouds, and of fierce animals, thundering noise, bolt from the blue, trumpet-sound of a battle and similar other circumstances. The after-effects of this mood are squeezing of limbs, scaring away from the odd situation, hiding oneself in a place of safety, stunned condition of body, choked voice, tremour, screaming and horripilation.2

33. Dubiousness ( Vitarka ) : Want of determination presents the mental situation of doubt. Sometimes lack of confidence is also responsible for the rise of this feeling. The situation is generally expressed by means of lolling of head, inquisitive brows, searching looks, cautious steps, careful statements and direct queries as well.3

Sāgaranandin appropriately omits Supta from his list of thirty-three transitory moods and inserts in its stead another important mental attitude of Serenity ( Śauca ).4 It is caused by the analytical study of the Cosmos and is a result of ontological pursuits. It is an outcome of discrimination, and it becomes visible in the form of straightforwardness of behaviour, self-control, absence of perturbance, truthfulness and content.4

1. R. G. p. 109 ( fn. Kāvya-pradīpa agreeing ).

2. N. p. 128 bottom; R.G. p. 104,14. (contra N. p. 127,12 bottom).

3. N. p. 129, 3; R. G. p. 110, 8; S. D. III–171,

4. N. L. R. Ll. 2089 et seq.

244 LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

All canonists, Dhananjaya, Ramacandra and Gunacandra, Singa Bhupala, Saradatanaya, Acyuta Rai, Hemacandra, Dandin, Vidyadhara, Vidyanatha, Mammata, Srikrshna Kavi, Visvanatha, Visvesvara and Sagarandin and others follow Bharata in counting these mental attitudes to be thirty-three only. Pandita-raja, however, observes a possibility of many more such states, but thinks that Bharata's list is wide enough to cover all prominent attitudes which are worthy of special mention.1 Bhojaraja also agrees to this view, but has different names, mostly synonymous, for some of these transitory states; e. g. he chooses to call Marana as Pralaya, Vitarka as Uha, Autsukya as Abhilasha, Moha as Mudhata, Vyadhi as Gada and Avega as Sambhrama. He, however, excludes Apasmara from his list and suggests Cittardrata or quick thinking as an emotional state which stirs or causes fusion of mind for no apparent reason.2

These feelings are called Vyabhicari-bhavas or transitory states, for they are susceptible to any major feeling or emotion of longer duration. Moreover, they can subserve, as prevailing only for a while, and arouse any other permanent state of mind, whether it may be soft or harsh, erotic or heroic. As they can move along freely with any other strong emotion, they are otherwise termed as the Sancari Bhavas as well.3 They may have their respective causes which give birth to these attitudes and are called the Uddipana Vibhavas or excitants, and they have their own after-effects on the personality of an individual and are distinguished as the Anubhavas. Both the Vibhavas and the Anubhavas of each one of these states are mentioned above so as to help the detection of the particular state of mind at the moment in a character.

Apart from these transitory states there are a few involuntary ones inasmuch as they are self-existent. They are the natural consequences of some of these feelings and exhibit

1. R. G. p. 118, Ll. 3-13.

2. S. K. A. V-149.

3. They are translated generally as Transitory States, or Auxiliary Moods or Ancillary feelings.

[ CHAP. V ] FEELINGS AND SENTIMENTS 245

themselves of their own accord. Since they are the very characteristics of human flesh and blood, they are called the Sāttvika-bhāvas1; and they cannot be forcibly or artificially brought out. They donot pertain to any particular emotion, and appear freely with one or more attitudes of mind. They are recognised by all the canonists as eight in number and are described as given below :

SĀTTVIKA BHĀVAS

1. Perspiration ( Sveda ) is a natural consequence of exercise, heat, exhaustion, sickness, anger, excessivejoy, bashfulness or restlessness.

2. Stupefaction ( Stambha ) is an outcome of wonder, grief, some disease, fear or an ecstatic joy.

3. Tremour ( Kampa ) is a result of cold, fear, anger, joy, senility, some peculiar physical contact or disease.

4. Tears ( Aśru ) proceed from jubilance, lack of fortitude, smoke, use of collirium, yawning, grief, or consternation. Even steadfast gaze, extreme cold or certain diseases are capable of producing tears. According to the poetic belief, tears proceeding from excessive joy or ecstatic exultation are supposed to be cool, and are distinguished as Ānandāśru from what are known as Śokāśru which trickle out on account of bereavement or grief, and are conceived to be hot.

5. Horripilation ( Romāñca ) is a physical state in which hair stand on their ends on account of the epidermic contact or fear, excessive cold, joy and anger, or due to bodily infirmity or some disease.

6. Change of voice ( Svarabheda ) is caused by an intoxicated state of mind, old age, sickness, or by fear, anger or joy.

7. They are called Sāttvikas because the actor while representing assumes the same sattva or bearing as the original characters did. N. p. 130, 3 seq.; S. D. Iii-134-140a; D. R. IV-4, 6; R. S. I-298 seq.; N. L. R. Ll. 2096-2130; B. P. p. 30,19 seq.; N. D. Vv. 148-15.

7. Swoon ( Pralaya ) may spring from some shocking event, unbearable grief, extreme exertion, over-dose of stimulants, use of poison, protracted sleeplessness or physical strain caused by beating, flogging or some other grievous hurt.

8. Pallor ( Vaivarṇya ) is a change in the colour of the complexion or loss of bloom on a human face. It is generally due to some hesitation, dejection, grief, or failure of purpose. Change of colour is wrought by intoxication, wrath and acrimony as well. In the latter case, the face gets copper-coloured, and eyes are reddenned. Any change in the normal hue of the face is called Vaivarṇya.

Rūpa Gosvāmin very appropriately considers that these physical states belong to four different grades according as their expressional values differ, and figuratively names them as fumade ( dhūmāyita ), flagrant ( jvalita ), gleaming ( dīpta ) and aglow ( uddīpta ) on the analogy of the existence of fire which becomes only surmisable in its smoky form, visible when it is burning, bright when inflamed, and brilliant when it is blazing. Similarly, when a consequential state existing all alone or grouped with another is only in an inferential stage and is capable of being concealed, it is said to be in the fumade form.1 When a particular mental state coupled with one or two allies assumes a noticeable form and can be concealed only with great difficulty, it is said to be in a flagrant form.2 When a feeling associated with a larger number of its auxiliaries ( say, three, four or even five ) becomes so manifest as cannot be concealed it is said to be in its gleaming bright form.3 Once after becoming manifest it develops into a full-fledged form it is said to have blazed aglow.4 Rūpa Gosvāmin further adds that the consequential states look very charming when they have thus assumed their brilliant (suddīpta)

1. Refer Locana-rocInI : “ Ishad-vyakta apahnotum aśakyā dhūmāyitā matah” — U. N. M. p. 338, 7.

2. Ref. L. R. p. 339 bottom. “ Śakyā kṛcheṇa nihnotum jvalitāḥ.”

3. “ Samvarītum aśakyāste dīptā dhīrair udāhṛtāḥ”...Ibid. p. 340, 5.

4. “ Ārudha paramotkarsham uddīptā iti kīrtitāḥ” ...Ibid. p. 340, 8.

[ CHAP. V ] FEELINGS AND SENTIMENTS 247

form ; and they then help a good deal in the manifestation of the prevailing sentiment.

STHĀYI-BHĀVAS

A close analysis of the nature of the different mental states noted above, makes it evident that they are incapable of developing themselves to such an extent as may enable them to hold sway over a character for a certain length of time. For, their effect is generally of very short duration. To illustrate, suppose there is a rise of anger ( amarsha ). It is provoked by the sight of the wrong-doer. As a consequence, a person affected with amarsha, scolds the wrong-doer, vapulates him or otherwise punishes him. After its expression in any of these ways, it cannot, after all, last long ; it must subside and give room to another attitude. It cannot even afford to recur often and thus hold ground for good for want of frequency and continuance. Moreover such a state cannot be conclusive in itself so as it could be the be-all and end-all of all the activities of a character. All that it can be, is only in a provocative form, always leading to a further query as to why does it after all arise and, in fact, what it is essentially due to.1 Once its root-cause is thus found out, it becomes evident that it is a passing

1. An illustration will make the position clear. For instance, when Dushyanta craves to visit the hermitage a second time in the Śakuntalā and asks his friend to find out means for doing so, it clearly brings out his mental attitude in the form of eagerness ( autsukya ). After the mainfestation of this autsukya, the query starts as to why Dushyanta is loath to return home and craves to be there. What in fact is this autsukya for ? The reply is that the eagerness is for the sake of catching a glimpse of Śakuntalā, which at once expresses his rati for her. Dushyanta is found in a mood of anxiety ( cintā ) in the second Act and has lost interest in all other pursuits in life. The state of Cintā is very vividly known by the reader, but the suggestion of Cintā does not stop by itself. It further leads one to infer as to why this Cinṭā at all is. The reply would be that it stands for finding out expedients to meet Śakuntalā. After a long lapse of time let Dushyanta be approached, and in the

248

LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

attitude, and is only subservient to some thing more enduring,

sixth Act he is once again found in the state of disinterest

( glāni ), when one hears that he has prohibited the holding of

the vernal festivities. It becomes subsequently associated with

despair ( nirveda ) when he expresses that his ancestors receive

libations from him with a luke-warm interest. Both the states

verily become evident, but they donot rule long, since no sooner

they become manifest, than they loudly ring the bell to ask what

is this glāni or nirveda in the mind of Dushyanta due to, and the

answer is : that it is for reasons of his separation from Śakuntalā

or hopelessness in the matter of regaining her. This hint does

strike the note ; and the tune is of Dushyanta's ratī for Śakuntalā.

Even in a picture of Śakuntalā drawn by Dushyanta, he finds a

bee attacking Śakuntalā's face and he goes to threaten him with

the words, " in case you would thus offend, I would cause

you to be arrested within the petals of the lotus-flower." This

ejaculation not only brings out the existence of wrath ( amarsha )

in the mind of Dushyanta, but immediately hints a sense of

jealousy ( īrshyā ) against the rival bee. Almost in the next

moment, when his friends remind him that after all it was only a

picture, the mental state of frenzy ( unmāda ) becomes evident

to every reader. But then what happens, asvyā has disappeared,

there is no more threat, that amarsha has evaporated

and unmāda also seems to lose its effect. All the same, the

inquisition is there as to why this amarsha and asvyā are there,

and due to what there is this unmāda. A moment's thought

gives a flash that there is the existence of the emotion of ratī

in the mind of Dushyanta for Śakuntalā, which has, at

every step manifested itself, whether it may be through anger or

anxiety, which prove to be the states evanescent in nature, rising

and subsiding. Yet there remains a constant current of some

mental state which pervades throughout all the activities and

mental attitudes of the character. This pervading state of

mind is more effective; it holds sway for a long duration, deve-

lops itself in process of time, and despite several transitory under-

currents, it seems to flow like Tennyson's Brook which is con-

spicous in its mode, "Men may come and men may go,

But I go on for ever."

[ CHAP. V ] FEELINGS AND SENTIMENTS 249

which has, in fact, gained a strong hold latently over the character of that individual. Thus the latent moods are ruling states of mind which are promoted by a variety of transitory states. The distinction becomes quite clear, for it divides the mental attitudes into transitory and permanent ones. The transitory one can subserve any of the permanent emotions and help in its manifestation. Hence the former are called only bhāvās or vyabhicāri-bhāvas and the latter ones as the sthāyi-bhāvas. Briefly they may be better distinguished by calling them feelings and emotions respectively. In this sense, feelings are not deemed competent to abide by the continuous interest of a character which is evinced only by the lasting emotions that are more powerful and strong enough to retain themselves till they transform into a relishable state of rasa or sentiment. While drawing a line of demarcation between the two subtleties of mind, no hard and fast rule can be easily and successfully enunciated, yet the convention evolved by a large number of canonists has admitted eight mental states to the category of lasting emotions ( sthāyins ), deemed capable of maturing into a relishable state ( āsvādyatā ).

They are :

1. Love ( rati ) : It is an emotion of amor prevailing in the mind of a man by reference to a woman, or in the mind of a woman by reference to a man. It becomes a permanent state only if it subsists between persons of opposite sex, and is a desire to achieve conjugal pleasures. It has many forms and stages which deserve a detailed analysis here.

When the feeling of rati is conceived in its abstract form as distinguished from its operative part, it is called rāga. By reference to some tangible object it means interest and begins with a very fundamental state of liking of one for the other. This primitive liking gradually develops into a sense of partiality or identity of purpose which creates a feeling of being kindred ( atmīyatā ). The latter notion gives place to rāga or interest. When the rāga in the heart of one is responded to with a similar interest by the other, it becomes 'anu-

rāga'; for, it becomes a continuous flow of bilateral rāga. This mutual interest in its lasting form1 becomes the subject-matter of dramatic delineation. No sooner it arises than its progress can be perceptibly marked and it takes its own course. For, when the mututal interest gains some ground it becomes Premā, and there is no break in it in spite of reasons to the contrary. Just as the rising Sun melts a lump of butter similarly the rise of premā melts the heart. In its molten form it then becomes sneha, and it pervades all the activities. When sneha has gained strength, it has its own anticipations and it holds sway over its object. This complete mastery scares away the sense of fearful submissiveness and replaces assertiveness. Sneha in its assertive form is what the sensible call māna or strong affection. It should be noted that only in this stage and further beyond, sense of indignation can find room, for there is no wrath without intense love. This love-bedaubed wrath plays an important rôle in the amatory career of a lover. Māna develops into pranaya which is unflinching affection.2 Its nature is described by the psychologists as an affection not shaken even by a thousand faults.3 Beyond the stage of pranaya, affection becomes the real rāga purified by numerous ordeals and proved true by a thousand tests. The continuous rāga, which, in spite of its long enjoyments gives fresh fervour in every contact with its object, is an evergrowing rāga or anurāga. The adage, “Love is never stale” really pertains to the stage of Anurāga.4 The concen-

1. The interest which wanes and ultimately sinks or tends to deal a fatal blow to the sentimental rise and proves only a flinching interest has no locus standi in the forum of the dramatic art.

2. Cf. Bhavabhūti : “Premādrāḥ pranayasprśaḥ.” - Mā. Mā. V-7.

3. Ref. Bālabodhinī on the Kāvyaprakāśa p. 100 Line 10 ( BSS. ).

4. The word, anurāga is used as a stage above rāga in two contexts : one in the earlier paragraph which notes the rāga and anurāga as the component parts of rati in which case the prefix 'anu' means 'paścāt' so the rāga of one and anurāga of the other compose the sthāyi-bhāva of rati. Here anurāga and rāga are noted as the two stages of development of rati, in which case the prefix 'anu' means 'anusyūti' marking continuous rati.

[ CHAP. V ] FEELINGS AND SENTIMENTS 251

trated anurāga is the quintessence of love ( bhāva ), the acme of affection making one in unison with the other, with the effect that the life of lovers becomes ever jovial even in the midst of all odds and evens.1

The course of love is thus conspicuous by its different stages each of which has its own types and characteristics worthy of brief mention here :

i. Premā: It is that stage of interest which is not lost in spite of apprehended reasons for the same. It could be again an ordinary premā, a middling one, or a developed one. The ordinary one sometimes suffers from casual forgetfulness or indifference on either side. The middling one always needs mutual expression, or otherwise it stands the risk of sinking. The developed one makes one wistful for the company of the other.

ii. Sneha : It awakens the consciousness of premā which is in itself in fully developed form. It melts the heart and hence it justifies its name. It marks that stage of interest which never brings in a point of satiety. No amount of association can cause a surfeit of satisfaction. It emerges not only from closer contacts, but even a distant glance, mere narration or the reminiscence of the object of interest makes the heart brimful of love. When high density of affection is attained by the molten sneha owing to a cool demeanour of mutual regard ( ādara ) and its sweetness is relished in the midst of divergent feelings, it is said to have a butyraceous (ghrta-sama) character on the analogy of heated butter which becomes gradually dense when it comes in contact with cold temperature and is relished only in combination with other associates like sugar and jelly. When sneha develops into a notion of extreme identity

Cf. Bhavabhūti's standard in :

Adoaitam sukha-duḥkhayor-anuguṇam sarvāsvasvasthāsu yat, Viśramo hṛdayāsaya yatra jarasāpyasminnahāryo rasah | Kalenāvaralīyayāt pariṇate yat sneha-sāre sthitam, Bhadram premā sumanushasya kathamapyekam hi tat prāpyate // U. R. II-3,

and creates a feeling of total affinity, it is said to belong to the melleous character. Just as honey can be tasted by itself and contains different flavours, and is both warm and intoxicant; similarly when the sweet charm of sneha is palpable in itself and is warm and cordial in nature, and maddening or infatuating in effect, it is madhusama and belongs to the melleous type.

iii. Māna : When a fresh piquancy is relished in course of the advanced stage of affection on account of naively perverseness it is known as the assertive affection ( māna ). It is again either gallant ( udātta ) or gay ( lalita ). The butyraceous affection ( ghrta-sama sneha ) develops into the gallant type of māna which is interspersed with an occasional submissiveness ( dakshinatā ). The melleous affection (madhu-sneha) develops into lalita māna and smacks of crookedness and independence of mind. It is generally seen among those ladies who hold their sway over their lovers ( svādhīna-patikā ).

iv. Pranaya : When māna results in gaining a certain amount of confidence, it becomes pranaya, because it cannot be shaken at any cost. In its modest form it is known of a friendly ( maitra ) type, but when it becomes free from all sorts of hesitation and awe, it turns into a commanding intimacy ( sakhya ).

v. Rāga : When on account of the exuberance of pranaya, even some misery or affliction appeals to the loving heart as a pleasure it is rāga or attachment. It is felt more conspicuously in the state of separation. Etymologically, rāga means a colour ; and that love, which can dye even unpleasant situations with a lepid colour, is called rāga. This dye ( rāga ) is again analogically called blue (nilīma), or crimson (raktira). This division is based upon the nature of fastness and brilliance of colour. The blue one is again of two shades : one is nili or of indigo colour, and the other is śyāma1 or the mazarine.

1. Nīlī and Śyāma are the two varieties of an indigo plant, the fruit of the former gives a light azure brinjal-like colour, whereas of the fruit of the other, the colour is dark-blue like that of a watery cloud.

[ CHAP. V ] FEELINGS AND SENTIMENTS 253

The nili rāga is that which has no danger of abatement. It is firm and unswerving attachment, but is not gaudy in appearance. It is generally hidden in the mess of different feelings. Such is the hue of the butyraceous affection. The śyāma rāga differs from the former only in this respect that it is slightly vivid and brilliant, since it is associated with such other elements as timidity, jealousy and dissimulation ( avahitthā ).

The attachment even in its crimson colour is of two kinds : kausumbha and māñjishṭha. The former is of saffronic colour, it is quick and bears a sprightly hue, all the same it is susceptible to any other colour. Just as the colour of saffron is feeble, so also the attachment is fickle. It, however, shines in its own way. It is generally available in the case of sly lovers. The second in this type is the māñjishṭha rāga or an attachment of madder colour. It is a deep red colour and a very fast one; and unlike the śyāma one it does not require any other element to support it. It deepens with constant use and brightens of its own accord. It assumes lustre even with subsequent washes. Such an attachment is always fresh and fast as the madder colour.1

Some canonists believe in a third pattern, which they call the lākshā-rāga or an attachment of the lac colour. It is bright and gaudy as compared to the madder colour and is brought out with prominent presence of womanly embellishments.

vi-vii. Further two stages of attachment, viz., anurāga or the verdurous attachment which is ever fresh ; and bhāva, the transcendent emotion of love are so unfathomable in their essential characteristics that they donot admit of any further classification.

1. Viśvanātha observes this variety of colours belonging to attachment ( rāga ) only in case of the Pūrva-rāga. Whereas the accomplished love may as well display these different colours during its subsequent stages of separation, the view of Viśvanātha is rather too limited. ( Vide S. D. III-195 ).

254 LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

This presents the entire scope of the lasting emotion of amore ( rati ) capable of being experienced in its varied stages like the sweetness of sugar-cane which can be relished in various forms by its juice, treackle, juggery, sugarcandy and sachrine.

2. Grief ( Śoka ): It is a particular emotion in the form of affliction caused by the death of some dear kinsman or due to some serious loss.

3. Wrath ( Krodha ): It is an emotion of hot indignation, caused by some serious offence or a wrong done by another, like the one in killing a child, the Guru or any other dear relative, or by means of some gross insult.

4. Fortitude ( Utsāha ): It is a mental attitude in the form of energetic elevation of spirit which arises from recollections of the other persons' charity, valour or similar imitable virtues. This state of mind belongs only to sublime characters.

5. Terror ( Bhaya ): It is a mental condition in the form of the apprehension of consequences. It arises in the mind of a person who is exposed to some grave risk. Unless there be some great danger from which the apprehension proceeds bhaya does not become an emotion, for in ordinary cases of fear, it is only a subservient feeling known as alarm ( trāsa ).

6. Humour ( Hāsa ): It is a state of gay cheerfulness arising from ludicrous scenes, as deformity of another person, his sudden slip or any other untoward situation.

7. Disgust ( Jugupsā ): It is a spirit of hesitation caused by horrid and ghastly scenes.

8. Surprise ( Vismaya ): It is a state of astonishment created by the sight of extraordinary things or by an unanticipated experience.

There are psychologists who believe that there are some more mental states which can be lasting as the other ones noted above, and become capable of dominating over other subordinate feelings. There is no doubt that there could be more than

[ CHAP. V ] FEELINGS AND SENTIMENTS 255

the classical number of eight, for the number of these emo-

tions cannot be limited to any definite figure. An emotion is

a leading attitude, and any attitude which can stand by itself

and carry on with others can be raised to the status of a prin-

cipal emotion. Bharata is very clear on the point, when he says

that an emotion ( sthāyin ) is like a king among his subjects

or a preceptor among his pupils. The subjects and pupils

come and go, yet the king or the preceptor remains as a guid-

ing factor, so also the transitory states rise and fall, yet the

permanent feature remains, which is the sthāyi bhāva. A sthāyi

bhāva is found in every phase of action and is compared to a

diluted piece of salt which remains invisible in every drop of

water. It does not lose its existence due to feelings either

apposite or discordant. That is why they are looked upon as

Durable states.1 With these attributes the following are a few

more bhāvas which are capable of becoming sthāyins in the

opinion of the later canonists.

1. Disinterest ( Nirveda ) : It is not an attitude of des-

pair nor a pessimistic attitude which is capable of being a

sthāyin, for, such condition of hopelessness presupposes the

existence of yearning for an object, which is expressive of

rati. So in this sense, nirveda can only be a subordinate state.

But despondency caused by the unsubstantial nature of

everything around oneself and consequent disinterest in the

worldly activities which arises from the realisation of Truth

and results in an ecstatic joy in the form of total absence of all

longing ( trshnā-kshaya ) is an emotion that can certainly last

long and have several auxiliaries to promote it. It is in this

sense that Nirveda is supposed by authors like Mammata Bhatta

and others to be the sthāyi-bhāva.

2. There are others who consider devotion to God,

3. The Sangīta-ratnākara notes in its last chapter that the Sthāyin is

that which is aided by a large number of Vibhāvas and is

described in a composition in fullest details, whereas the Vyabhi-

cārin is that which is brought to be borne on the minds of

spectators only by inference through a few bhāvas.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

Guru or a king1 to be a mental attitude which can pervade the activities of a character throughout his life, and consider Bhakti and Śradhā to be the other two sthāyins. Abhinava Bhāratī criticises this view and includes them in the midst of rati as an ordinary bhāva,2 which is in keeping with Bharata's view.

3. Rapacity or laulya is another type of sthāyin believed by some whose view is equally criticised by Abhinava Bhārati.

4. Affection ( premā ) towards juniors like a son, a daughter,3 a younger brother, a pupil or any other individual in loco fili, whether male or female, is also capable of being a sthāyin in the opinion of some authors like Viśvanātha.4

Rudraṭa5 and Bhojarāja6 are two broad-minded canonists who feel that all the thirty-three transitory and eight involuntary states ( sāttvikas ) are competent for being delineated as sthāyins and can assume the form of a sentiment if manifested by means of suggestive factors.

The Daśarūpaka refers to some writers who have gone to such a queer length as to recognise passion for hunting and gambling ( mrgayā and aksha ) as fit for becoming sthāyins and converting themselves into rasas. But in actual practice of the poets none of these is portrayed to any such length, nor does it seem feasible to grant recognition to all such passing phases of mind for want of their fitness to be developed into rasas, hence these views could not be admitted by reputed scholars.

All the three types of states discussed above are called, in general terms, ( bhāvas ) and distinguished by reference to

1. Here the list is only illustrative and not exhaustive, for devotion to any cause which may be dear, e. g. service to the motherland, may equally well fall within this category.

2. A. B. ( G. O. S. ) p. 450.

3. Ibid. p. 342.

4. S. D. III-251.

5. Śr. T. I, 14.

6. Śr. Pr. Vol. II. pp. 377-8.

[ CHAP. V ] FEELINGS AND SENTIMENTS 257

sañcāriṇs, sāttvikas, and the sthāyins. All of them are subject to manifestation by means of suggestion and not of direct expression ( abhidhā ). The suggestion of these bhāvas is made out by describing their causes and effects. By the description of such circumstances as lead to the rise of a particular feeling and of its after-effects, the bhāva manifests itself in the mind of the æsthetic reader. Thus the vibhāvas ( causes ) which excite the feeling, and the anubhāvas ( effects ) which are the natural consequences of a feeling prevalent in mind form the basis of suggestion.

Vibhāvas are of two kinds : one circumstantial, and the other personal, which may be conveniently termed as direct and indirect vibhāvas. The circumstantial or direct vibhāvas are those which constitute the circumstances giving rise to a particular feeling. They excite ; and hence are rightly named as the Uddīpana-vibhāvas. The personal or indirect vibhāvas are those persons by reference to whom a particular feeling arises in the mind of another. They are really the objects of the feeling that present a substratum for its rise or generation. The indirect vibhāva, therefore, is the factor upon which the bhāva as though hangs. For this reason it is called the ālambana. Since both the types of the vibhāvas are the causes of the bhāvas inasmuch as they generate them, they are given this etymological name.1

Vibhāvas and anubhāvas which verily belong to the respective bhāvas when described by a poet in a piece of composition cause the suggestion of those bhāvas. This is the general process of the manifestation of a bhāva. But the Sthāyi bhāva is manifested not only by the description of its vibhāvas, both uddīpana and ālambana and also the description of its anubhāvas, but is capable of being suggested by the presence of even a vyabhicāri bhāva,2 for the latter is always ancilliary to the permanent emotion. Hence there is primarily a slight distinction in the emotion.

1. "Rasatvena bhavantam vibhāvayanti vīrbhāvanā-viśeshena prayojayanti iti ālambanoddīpana-rūpah vibhāvāḥ" - N. D. p. 162.

2. "Rasonmukhaṃ sthāyinaṃ prati viśișṭena abhimukhyena caranti te vyabhicāriṇaḥ" - Ibid. p. 162, Ll. 21-22.

17

suggestion of an ordinary bhāva and that of the sthāyin. The former can be indicated merely by the description of the vibhāvas and the anubhāvas, while the suggestion of the latter is brought out by the demonstration of a vyabhichārin with its ālambana in addition to the description of its own vibhāvas and anubhāvas in general. Thus these three factors when described by the poet render that emotion conspicuous, and capable of being relished for a long duration. The capacity of being relished for some length of time makes that emotion a rasa or sentiment which is the very vital quintessence of every poetry.

RASA-CARVAÑĀ

The very connotation of the term Rasa is 'that which can be relished.'1 Effect of the relish of the Rasa, metaphorically called flavour, is very wonderful. It creates an ecstatic joy in the heart of the enjoyer and leaves upon him an impression of wonder ( camatkāra ), which is the source of uncommon delight ( lakottarānanda ). It is compared to the bliss enjoyed by a yogin when he is in unison with Self. The relish of Rasa creates a concentrated state of mental harmony ( sattvodreka ) unadulterated with any other element of human nature; and for this reason, irrespective of the nature and substratum of a particular type of rasa which is relished, there is an outcome of joy to a sensible person ( sahṛdaya ). That is why even Karuṇa-rasa or Bībhatsa-rasa with grief and disgust as their basic features produce a state of jubilance in the mind of the enjoyer, and elevate him far above the region of human limitations and transport him to the realm of total bliss.2 It is so possible for the simple reason that an enjoyer in course of his cognition ( bhāvanā ) of a rasa feels that his individual existence in this world which is subjected to diverse disabilities by virtue of his birth, caste, status, wealth and other circumstances sinks, and he is in full sympathy with the sentiment which is an expression of Self.3 This enjoy some

1. "Rasyate iti rasah"...; "Āsvādyatvāt rasah".

2. "Raso vai saḥ rasam labhvā ānandī-bhavati" ...Tat. Up. II-vii.

3. There is a school of thought presented by the Nāṭya-darpaṇa that

[ CHAP. V ] FEELINGS AND SENTIMENTS 259

attitude is the result of the force of fruition which is again a mental operation or an effectum mentis called Bhoga-kṛttva-vyāpāra. These two forces of cognition and fruition ( bhāvaktava and bhogakṛtva ) respectively relieve the enjoyer of his individual existence and identifies him with the substratum ( ālambana ) of the rasa. The cumulative effect of these two forces is to remove the collateral obstructions from the course of identifi:ation, which are caused by such factors as distance of time, place and personality including a feeling of unapprochability to the other ālambana of rati felt by the relisher in case of the Śṛṅgāra-rasa. The mental fusion ( druti ) is the result of the sentimental relish ( rasāsvāda ), which has a maddening effect having an oblivious tendency.1

RASA-VYAKTI

As stated above Bhāva and Rasa are the objects of suggestion and not of denotation. They should not be directly expressed but manifested through such words and sense ( and accents when read ) as bring out the suggestion. The expression in such cases becomes the vehicle of suggestion, for the expression is the means and the suggestion is the end. All the same, wonder ( camatkāra ) is, in fact, common to both inasmuch as even the expression can be embellished in a variety of ways by the artifice of the poet, and possess a charm which may be of its own kind. In a piece of composition, therefore, there may be a charm ( camatkṛti ) in ex-

Rasa can be duḥkhātmaka also ( G. O. S. p. 158. )2 but this view is not correct inasmuch as it fails to appreciate the alaukika nature of the rasa, an æsthetic phenomenon wherein there is nothing but joy. ( vide Mammata–K. Pr. I–1. )

1. There are various schools of rhetoricians who have their own theories about the process of sentimental relish, one refuting the other and going a step ahead of him by one's forensic skill. A detailed presentation of these views and their critical study becomes out of place in this dessertation as it purports to deal more with the practice of the dramatists.

260 LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

pression ( vācya ) as well as in suggestion ( vyañgya ); no doubt the type of wonder would differ and there may be a keen struggle between the two, where both remain present. In such a case the wonder may vary in degrees; and relative appreciation will abide by the rule of quantum meruit. For instance, when a feeling or an emotion is suggested, there is wonder in it as such; and suppose the mode of expression there, is also creative of wonder, then there is a duality of wonder which presents a threefold possibility: ( i ) wonder in suggestion surpassing in merits the wonder in expression, ( ii ) the latter subduing the former, and ( iii ) both of them ranking pari passu. In the first case, the wonder in suggestion becomes what is technically called Dhvani and rules over the charm of expression like an Imperatrix, the Queen Empress. In the second case, the wonder in suggestion, paling before the lustre of the denotative charm, is distinguished, no doubt, by its conspicuous existence, but it is regarded as one in a trodden state like a queen put under arrest by a commoner in a mob-rule. In the third case also, the situation of the wonder in suggestion is not much better than that in the second case, and its status is like that of a queen, therefore, rightly said that in the latter two cases, wonder in suggestion is a mere subordinated suggestion ( guṇibhūta-vyañgya ). It follows that only in the first case the suggestion of Bhāva is a dhvani, a pre-dominant suggestion.

It may be noted in this connection that the Vyahicāri-bhāva may, in this way, belong to both the types ; and according to its prominence, it may either be a subordinated suggestion or a dominant one. Similarly, an emotion ( sthāyin ) may also be a sub-ordinated or a dominant suggestion. In its sub-ordinate capacity, it may have two forms : one, where it is secondary to the wonder in expression ( vācya-camatkāra ) like any other feeling ; and the second, where it may be subordinate to any other feeling suggested there. In the latter case, an emotion may subserve a feeling even though it may dominate over the charm of expression. In both these alternatives, where the emotion manifests itself as sub-ordinate

[ CHAP. V ] FEELINGS AND SENTIMENTS 261

either to the charm of expression or the charm of a suggestive feeling, the emotion remains only as emotion, a sthāyin; but does not ripen into that mellow form of a charm known as rasa, which is the transcendent characteristic of poetry. It is, therefore, to be clearly understood that the manifestation of rasa is always a dhvani, for it always excels all charms presented by denotation or suggestion of another feeling. Rasa knows sub-ordination to none, but in its own group may permit one of its own kind to lead the trend of the comportion and behave as its best ally and foster its development in a play to its summum magnum.

The permanent emotions, when they are thus predominantly suggested by means of their respective vibhāvas, anubhāvas and consonont vyabhicārins, culminate into the manifestation of the following sentiments ( rasas ) 1 in a dramatic composition :-

ŚṚNGĀRA OR ĀDYA-RASA

The emotion of amor ( rati ) develops into the erotic sentiment, Śṛṅgāra or Ādya-rasa.2 The indirect causes ( ālambana ) of this sentiment are a man and a woman, who love each other in pursuit of conjugal pleasures. It is promoted by various exciting factors which may be broadly classified into two categories : one, internal which pertains to ālambana, and the other, external which refers to the outside world. The internal one may be qualitative, operative or decorative as:ording as it depends upon merits, actions, or ornaments of the partics to love. The qualitative excitants may again be merits of mind, spirit, speech or body of the persons concerned. The mental qualities which may attract

1. "Vyaktaṣ sa lair vibhāvādyaiṣ sthīyī bhāvo rasaḥ smrtaḥ" (K. Pr. IV, 5)

2. Amor is an emotion of universal experience and sways over all other feelings and emotions; and hence it is the most prominent one, especially in the dramatic works; for in a nāṭaka, the chief sentiment is stated to be either this one or the Vīra-rasa. It becomes, therefore, necessary to deal with these two sentiments in greater particulars here.

262 LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

the lover of his beloved may comprise of such virtues as fineness of temperament, sublimity of thought, sense of gratefulness, capacity of tolerance, spirit of patience and an attitude of clemency, piety and magnanimity. The virtues of speech may be sweetness of expression, musical voice, and an attractive trend of talk. The personal features that attract a love differ according to sex. The masculine build, handsome features, symmetry of body, comeliness in appearance, fair complexion, high birth and youth are some of the personal qualities that attract in a man. The prominent among the fascinating characteristics pertaining to the body of the softer sex are : age, lineaments ( rūpa ), loveliness ( lāvaṇya ), beauty ( saundarya ), charm ( abhirīpatā ), sweetness ( mādhurya ) and delicacy ( mārdava ).

The age of a damsel attracts only at particular stages. They are :

( i ) Adolescence ( Vayas-sandhi ) is the age, growing from childhood to youth — say, the age between fourteen to eighteen years.

( ii ) Fresh youth ( nava-yauvana ) which ranges from eighteen to twenty-two years is an age marked with slight development of breasts, lovely smile, sprightly looks and modest influence of Love.

( iii ) Blooming youth ( Vyakta-yauvana ) is conspicuous with prominent breasts, lineal waist, and gay appearance and dolphin looks.

( iv ) Full youth ( Pūrṇa-yauvana ) is characterised by fascinating bright limbs, slim waist, corpulent hips, amplitude of breasts and tapering thighs.

Age has much to do with attraction more in a woman1 than in a man2 so far as personal charms are concerned.

1. Siṅga Bhūpāla calls four stages of youth as the first, the second, the third and the fourth, and defines the last with features of declining youth and admits that his first-two stages only are attractive. ( R. S. p. 39—T. S. S ).

2. In case of a man, the degree of attraction by reference to his age

[ CHAP. V ] FEELINGS AND SENTMENTS 263

The second physical charm of a damsel is her personal lineaments, and consists in her natural grace adorning the body without the use of any ornament or decoration.

Lāvanya or loveliness is that glaze on the skin which glisters like the lustre of a pearl.

Saundarya or beauty consists in the proper growth of every limb and its joints, and symmetrical constitution of the body which at once attracts even at a casual sight.1

Abhirūpatā or comeliness is that quality of every limb which attains a hall-mark of beauty. It equals or surpasses the accepted standards of comparison, e. g. the set of teeth like a rosary of crystals, face like petals of rose, hair like a string of bees and so on.

Mādhurya or sweetness is an inextollable charm mainly consisting of uniformity and ever-fresh attraction.

Mārdava or delicacy is incapacity to bear a contact with any thing calling for hardihood. It is again of three degrees, high delicacy, the middling delicacy and the standard delicacy. High delicacy may be illustrated by reference to the person of a lady who lay on a bed of roses during the night and found the flowers unfaded in the morning, but her body scarred with callus here and there. The middling delicacy may be seen in a body rubbed red by a flirting contact with a fringe of silk muslin worn by her. Face assuming a copper colour, fatigued, and perspiring even in contact with early sunbeams, and panting after a few hasty steps on a level ground is the norm of a female delicacy.

is nicely summed up as :

"Anaṅkurita-kūrcakas sa sitopalādhyam payaḥ, Sa eva dhṛta-kūrcakas salavañāmbu-takropamaḥ | Sa eva siṅa-kūrcakaḥ kvathita-guggulodvega-kṛt, Bhavati hariṇī-drśām priyatameshu bhāvaṁs trayaḥ."— Vāg-vilāsa-5.

1. Cf. Shakespeare : "Beauty provoketh theives sooner than gold."— As You Like It. I-ii.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

The third type of excitants that promote the sense of amor relates to accomplishments : In case of a man, his deeds of valour, exploits, conquests over enemies, feats of arms, achievements in fine arts, scholarship, righteous deeds, munificent spirit, sportsmanship, examples of self-sacrifice, ample resources, eminence gained by granting protection to the oppressed and dominating prowess generally attract a lady-love. In case of woman, her proficiency in music, dance and domestic arts, sportiveness and literary attainments are the few accomplishments that add a sauce to her lāvanya.

Decoration is another type of excitant which arouses the amorous tendency. It may be done by putting on an attractive dress, the use of choice jewellery, garlands, perfumes, pomades and other cosmetics.

Besides these personal attractions, the attendant circumstances are the external causes that excite the amatory sentiment. They are generally by reference to time, place and situation. For instance, moon-lit nights, cool atmosphere, floral fragrance, the songs of the cuckoo, the vicinity of some river, solitude, the nocturnal excursions on the full moon nights in the autumn season, the sight of the mango sprays, the vernal season, the Malaya breeze, the roaring clouds, flash of lightning, torrential rains, the humming of bees, jubilant festivities, gay scenes and movements of all those that command the forces of Cupid constitute the army of excitants, which stir the loving hearts to indulge in sports and coquetry, dalliance and merriment.

Anubhāva or the ensuants of amor in case of a lady are all the alainkārās, physical, natural, and inborn as described in the last chapter. Besides them, there are some explicit anubhāvas which are called by Rūpa Gosvāmin as the Udbhāsvara ones, because they become clearly visible on the body of the person.1 He broadly illustrates them by referring to such features as slipping of garment from the body, looseness in the braid of hair, the twisting of limbs, yawning, widening

1. U. N. M. p. 299.

[ CHAP. V ] FEELINGS AND SENTIMENTS 265

of nostrils, heavy breath1, dalliance, knitting of brows, directing side-glances and similar other activities.2 Even in the mode of speech, the change caused by emotion of love becomes visible; and that sets up a group of verbal anubhāvas. According as the stage of love differs they present a varied type3, and may be summed up as follows :

( a ) Ālāpa is a coaxing mode of speech;

( b ) Vilāpa is a speech which expresses affliction at heart;

( c ) Sañlāpa is a witty conversation between the lovers;

( d ) Pralāpa is a meaningless statement made at random;

( e ) Anulāpa is a repetition of one and the same word or words. It expresses frenzy of love;

( f ) Apalāpa is a statement which construes matters in a way different from the one in which it is originally meant. It may also consist in adroitly withdrawing or modifying a statement originally made in all seriousness;

( g ) Sandeśa is a missive despatched to the loving partner in expression of one's own feelings;

( h ) Atideśa is an expression of one's feelings through some external medium as that of music, thunder, echo, and the like;

( i ) Upadeśa is a direction or an instructive remark which is suggestive of love;

( j ) Nirdesa is a mention of one's own name, or of a lineage for purpose of identification or attraction;

( k ) Vyapadeśa is an expression of one's own desires by reference to similar situations in case of others.

Besides these three varieties of anubhāvas, all the involuntary states ( sāttvikas ) shown above also behave like anubhāvas for purposes of suggesting the sentiment of Love.

1. U. N. M. p. 319.

2. N. S. p. 64, Ll. 6 & 7.

3. U. N. M. p. 322 et seq.; R. S. I-220, 221. Whereas all the canonists agree in respect of all these particulars outlined here-inabove, repetitive citations are avoided.

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The auxiliary feelings which support the expression of the sentiment of love are all and any of the Vyabhicārins except, sloth, fright, acrimony ( ugratā ) and disgust.

In fine, the emotion of love ( sthayi-rati ), when brought out in a piece of composition with these vibhāvas, anubhāvas, sāttvikas, and sañcāri-bhāvas, develops into the erotic sentiment ( śṛṅgāra ).

TYPES OF ŚṚṆGĀRA

Śṛṅgāra, in accordance with the situation of love, is twofold : love-in-separation or Vipralambha-śṛṅgāra; and the other, love-in-union or Sambhoga-śṛṅgāra.

Vipralambha is that sentiment of love which subsists between the loving couple when they are not united either physically or emotionally. Sambhoga on the other hand, is a love-in-union. It should be expressly understood that union is a state of mental agreement. The co-existence or even the juxta-position of the two lovers cannot warrant the situation of love-in-union. Even if they live together there is no love-in-union or experience of the Sambhoga-śṛṅgāra in case either of them suffers from perverseness of attitude. Sambhoga-śṛṅgāra is a very delicate situation, and it prevails only when the couple are ad idem in toto in their amorous pursuits. In the amatory demesne, it is the Vipralambha that has a longer course to run, and is to be met with in two stages of the erotic career. Firstly, it prevails in the nature of want of union before love is, in fact, accomplished; and secondly, it is in the nature of disunion after love is once accomplished. The latter one is more due to circumstances which donot permit a close contact between the couple, but this stage only tends to heighten the affection and lends charm to the long-awaited union. The well-known maxim does every inch bear truth when Bharata says, " With-out disunion, love does not ripen and become delicious, just as the cloth does not bear a faster colour unless it is once tinged."

[ CHAP. V ] FEELINGS AND SENTIMENTS 267

PŪRVA-RĀGA

The Vipralambha Śṛṅgāra which is due to love in its unaccomplished stage is called Pūrva-rāga or love-in-longing.

It may conveniently be called Love-in-courtship or the wooing love. It is defined as the love awakened in the hearts of the yearning couple and lasts upto the stage of consummation. It is aroused by various means : the first is the very first sight of the object of interest. The visual contact may be personal or real. It could be otherwise even in a picture, or in course of a vision. The charm of a damsel or a youth can effectively cast spell over the loving heart even in absentia by hearing of the beauty or the virtues of the person, which may be possible through the agency of bards, emissaries or common friends. Even music sung by the beloved may stir the heart of the lover, and it will work as a spell by means of the auricular contact. Once there is an attraction, by whichever means it may be, the course of courtship runs in three ways : vehement, balanced or responsive, respectively known as Praudha, Samañjasa and Sādhārōṇa.

PRAUḌHA

The Praudha type of Pūrva-rāga prevails easily among the adult lovers whose leanings are fairly developed so that the moment it sprouts, it becomes effective and arrests the yearning heart. It starts with a strong passion ( lalasā ), resulting in eagerness ( autsukya ) and impatience ( capalatā ) and heavy breaths. Mental uneasiness ( udvega ) resulting in absent-mindedness or inattention is the next consequence. Udvega is followed by sleeplessness ( jāgaryā ) which makes the body slim. Sometimes it results in an expresion of sorrow ( vilāpa ) and causes stupor. Worry ( vyagrata ) ensues thereafter and is followed by physical disease. Mental worry and physical illness combined together create the state of mental derangement ( unmāda ), and exhibit signs of incurability ( mṛtih ) or even a desire for self-molestation.

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LAWS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA

SAMANJASA

The next type of Pūrva-rāga is the balanced one (samañjasa), which is mostly experienced by the adolescent lovers whose sense of amor is not boisterous, and develops in a steady way. The balanced type of Pūrva-rāga is said to progress in the following ten stages :

Attraction ( abhilāsha ) is the first stage, a love at the first sight which generates desire for meeting the object of love. It encourages a lover to put an attractive appearance, approach the beloved and give mild expression to his feelings. The next stage is of anxiety ( cintā ) which makes one think over the expediants likely to bring in the union. It generally results in lying on a sleepless pillow with sighs and inattention as attendant results. Remembrance is the third stage which presents to the mind of the longing lover pleasant pictures of short associations with his beloved and an exchange of smiles and sweet talks between them. Smrti is generally evidenced by a quiver in the body, restlessness and pallour. Constantly reminiscent state of mind makes the lover to give vent to his heart by describing the beauteous features and virtues of the object of love. This stage of extolling of virtues is called Guna-kīrtana. It is displayed by thrill and horripilation, choking of throat and stammering voice. Beyond this stage the rest of the situation commencing with uneasiness ( udvega ) upto the last stage of signs of incurability and desire for self-molestation are common to this type of Pūrva-rāga with the previous one. It may be noted here that these are the ten stages of love popularly known as the Rāga-daśās.1

The third type of Pūrva-rāga is the responsive or the mutual love. In this case, the love of one gets an earlier response

S. D. III-190. Some cononist who could not be identified has enunciated the ten stages of Cupidity in the following couplet which is a favourite quotation of the scholiasts and critics :

"Nayana-prītiḥ pra!hamam, cittasango'tha sañkalpaḥ,