MASTERS OF MAGICAL POWERS:

THE NATH SIDDHAS IN THE LIGHT OF ESOTERIC NOTIONS

by

GORDAN DJURDJEVIC

B.A., The University of Belgrade, 1989

M.A., The University of British Columbia, 1999

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

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THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

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THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

May 2005

C Gordan Djurdjevic, 2005

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ABSTRACT

The Nath Siddhas are North Indian yogis with tantric associations who claim guru

Gorakhnath, their founding adept, to be an incarnation of the god Siva. They strive to

obtain the eternal body through a regime of yogic practices, which are aimed at

transmutation of sexual fluids into elixir. The masters of this yoga are the siddhas, the

possessors of the siddhis, which are occult powers that culminate in immortality and

deification. The Sayings of Gorakh (Gorakh Báni) is a collection of medieval Hindi

poetry attributed to their founder.

Scholars have noticed the importance of the occult in the lifestyle of the Naths.

The category of the occult i is, however, rarely given appropriate theoretical

considerations. The academic discipline for the study of Western esotericism, conversely,

directly engages the study of the occult but in a culturally and geographically limited

setting. I demonstrate that there are heuristic advantages in applying the conceptual

vocabulary and theoretical conclusions of esoteric studies to the investigation of tantra

and the yoga of the Nath Siddhas. To do so, I employ the model of esotericism developed

by Antoine Faivre. I make evident that all its major elements are applicable to the theory

and practice of the Náths. The contextual focus of my exposition is The Sayings of

Gorakh, partially translated by Shukdev Singh and myself.

I apply the model of esotericism to the Náths by making a threefold thematic

division of the subject matter. I investigate their understanding of body and sexuality,

ii

speech and rhetoric, and mind and ideology. I propose that yoga is comparable to magic

understood as a quest for power (where power is taken to be the sacred), based on the

cultivation of imagination (which I compare to yogic meditation) and the principle of

eros (the drive towards union). Other esoteric notions such as correspondences (between

micro- and macrocosm), living nature (understood as sakti) and transmutation (what the

yogis call the reversal, ulta sâdhand) are shown to be equally essential in the yoga of the

Nâths. I conclude suggesting that esotericism should be seen as a cross-cultural

phenomenon.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract 11

Table of Contents. 1V

Acknowledgments. vi

Co-authorship Statement viii

INTRODUCTION 1

The Nath Siddhas, Magic, the Occult and Esotericism 5

The Náth Siddhas. 10

The Model of Esotericism 16

Components of Esotericism 18

Power. 23

The Plan of the Work 28

CHAPTER 1: THE ESOTERIC CULTURE OF THE NÁTH SIDDHAS: THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 34

The Occult and Esotericism: Theoretical Considerations and Definitions 37

The Nath Siddhas and the Occult 40

The Nath Siddhas and Esotericism 49

Magic. 52

Alchemy. .60

The Nath Siddhas and the Faivrian Model of Esotericism. .63

CHAPTER 2: ESOTERICISM AND POWER OF THE NA TH SIDDHAS RELATED TO BODY AND SEXUALITY .69

The Esoteric Body: Microcosmic and Imaginal .73

Sexuality: Esotericism and Power. 91

CHAPTER 3: THE NATH SIDDHAS AND ESOTERICISM OF SPEECH. 112

Vernaculars and Esotericism 114

iv

Mantras. 116

Sabad. 119

Nàd. 124

Correspondence Between the Sabad, Nâd, and Bindu. 126

Rhetoric 132

Esotericism as a Mode of Discourse. 145

CHAPTER 4: THE NATH SIDDHAS AND ESOTERICISM OF THE MIND. 148

Ideology and the 'Religion' of the Nâth Siddhas. 150

The Concept of Unman: The Gnosis of 'No-Mind' 166

Ethical Dimension of The Sayings of Gorakh. 171

Mind in Acton: A Correlation Between Concepts of Imagination and Meditation 177

CONCLUSION: ESOTERICISM, TANTRA, AND

THE TRANSLATION OF CULTURES. 182

WORKS CITED. .190

APPENDIX: THE SABADS AND PADS FROM THE GORAKH BÂNI. 200

A Note to the Translations. 201

Sabads. 203

Pads. 259

V

ACKNOWLEDMENTS

During the process of researching and writing this Thesis, I received generous help and

support from numerous persons and institutions. I am grateful to each one of them,

including those I will inadvertently overlook in these acknowledgements.

In India, my thanks and deepest respect go to Dr. Shukdev Singh, formerly of

Benares Hindu University. He not only agreed to collaborate on the translation of The

Sayings of Gorakh, but also acted throughout that period as a wise patron and friend. I

cherish the memory of those mornings spent in his home, engaged in what he used to call

'fighting with the text.' I learned so much from our discussions, and I enjoyed and

admired his vast learning and his joie de vivre. I am grateful and indebted to him vastly.

In Canada, I benefited from lessons and conversations with professors and

students from various faculties at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver. My

most sincere gratitude goes to the faculty and staff in the Department of Asian Studies.

This Thesis has benefited enormously from the feedback I received from my colleagues

and friends, Tanya Boughtflower, Harjeet Grewal, and Kathleen Wyma. They read the

early versions of each chapter and responded with intelligent and creative criticisms, and

they offered constant support. Tanya also generously helped my English with constant

advisement on grammar and style. Thank you all.

I am especially pleased to acknowledge the support and guidance I received from

my Thesis supervisors. Dr. Daphna Arbel, of the Department of Classical, Near Eastern

and Religious Studies, has been supervising and assisting my work for almost a decade,

urging me constantly to remain focused and contextualize my tendency to speculate. Dr.

vi

Harjot Oberoi, of the Department of Asian Studies, has been helpful on various fronts,

stimulating as both a lecturer and conversationalist, and inspiring through his scholarship.

Dr. Ken Bryant, also of the Department of Asian Studies, has given most generously both

of his time and of his advice throughout every phase of the writing of this Thesis. Ken

has supervised the work from the initial false starts and cul-de-sacs to the light at the end

of the tunnel, never interfering with my choice of destination, but always pointing out the

clashes I am bound to suffer if I don't clear the road. My gratitude and respect for his

guidance are immense.

I was also fortunate to receive constant help and support on the domestic front.

Sasha Paradis has collaborated on this project from the beginning. She has read and

commented on every aspect of this work and provided encouragement when all the ships

were sinking. Without her assistance, wisdom, and good taste this Thesis would be

greatly impoverished. Dragana Bozickovic Djurdjevic contributed constant moral support

and advice. Branko Vrbic helped through astute conversations and book lending. I am

thankful for all the above for their help and friendship.

The research on which this Thesis is based was funded by the Government of

India (Gol) through the India Studies Program of the Shastri Indo-Canadian Institute

(SICI). Neither the Gol nor SICI necessarily endorses the views expressed herein.

I acknowledge with many thanks the generous support from the Asa Johal

Fellowship in Asian Studies and the Goel Scholarship in South Asian Studies.

Any factual mistakes and errors of judgement in the text are my sole

responsibility.

This Thesis is dedicated to Ivan and Cailleach.

vii

CO-AUTHORSHIP STATEMENT

The Appendix of this Thesis, which consists of the translation of the sabads and pads

from the collection of texts known as the Gorakh Bânï, has a joint authorship. These

translations are the result of collaboration between Gordan Djurdjevic and Dr. Shukdev

Singh, formerly of Benares Hindu University, Varanasi, India. More information on the

process of translation can be found in "A Note to the Translations" (pp. 201-2), to which I

refer the reader. Stated succinctly, Gordan Djurdjevic did the first rough version of the

translations from medieval Hindi and Dr. Singh checked the accuracy of these, corrected

errors, and provided commentaries and background information. The whole process was

envisioned and conducted in the spirit of mutual endeavour, as a joint enterprise.

Therefore, Shukdev Singh and Gordan Djurdjevic are to be considered co-authors of the

translations found in the Appendix (pp. 203-326).

viii

INTRODUCTION

How do we understand and represent the modes of thought and action of other societies, other cultures? Since we have to undertake this task from a Western baseline so to say, how are we to achieve the 'translation of cultures,' i.e. understand other cultures as far as possible in their own terms but in our language, a task which also ultimately entails the mapping of the ideas and practices onto Western categories of understanding ... ?

Stanley Tambiah, Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality

... by bringing together and juxtaposing two different, previously unrelated things, we can gain new insights into both. I am by no means searching for some universal archetype or deeper identity; rather, I am simply employing comparison as a pragmatic tool or heuristic device, which can help us to see new things that would otherwise go unnoticed. Hugh B. Urban, "Elitism and Esotericism: Strategies of Secrecy and Power in South Indian Tantra and French Freemasonry"

This study is intended with a twofold purpose in mind. On a less controversial level, I am

presenting a translation of the significant part of the vernacular yogic anthology known as

the Gorakh Bam, or The Sayings ofGorakh. This translation has ajoint authorship; it is

the product of collaboration between Dr. Shukdev Singh and myself.' We have translated

' For this translation and the description of the translation process, see the Appendix. I have to make it clear that what I will be calling 'The Sayings of Gorakh' in this study refers only to the sabad and pad section of the collection of texts compiled by Pitambaradatta Barthwal and issued as Gorakh Bam (Allahabad: Hindi Sahitya Sammelan, 1955 (1" ed. 1942). These two sections are the most voluminous in the collection; in Barthwal's edition they occupy pages 1-158. Occasionally, I make references to the other texts from this collection. Their translations are not included in the Appendix. These translations are mine. Whenever I

the sabad and pad section of the text in Benares, India, in the period between November

2002 and April 2003. This text, The Sayings of Gorakh, is a collection of late medieval

Hindi poetry, traditionally ascribed to Gorakhnath: a celebrated adept of hatha ('intense')

yoga, and one of the founders of the order (sampraday) of the Nath Siddhas. On the level

of hermeneutical engagement with the text, in my conceptual approach to the theory and

practice of the Nath Siddhas in general, I am suggesting that our understand of these

yogis will be enriched if we conceptualize and theorize about the categories of

esotericism, the occult, and magic (soon to be explained). What follows, then, is my

attempt to elucidate the meaning of the text of The Sayings of Gorakh through the

application of the conceptual apparatus of esotericism. In this sense, this Thesis is, in

addition to the translation of texts, an attempt at the translation of cultures, in the light of

Stanley Tambiah's remarks quoted in the motto above. My central argument is two-

faceted: I propose that Indian tantra and hatha yoga stand in analogical relation to

Western esotericism and that the two traditions, although rooted in their respective

cultural environments and shaped by their particular historical trajectories, share a

number of formal similarities.

'Master of magical powers' is a possible translation of the Hindi designation Nath

Siddha. 'Nath Siddhas' is thus a generic term for a North Indian group of yogis who claim

spiritual descent from the god Siva, his human disciple Matsyendranath, and the

probable historical founder of their order, the great guru Gorakhnath. Popularly known as

the jogis, they are credited, inter alia, with the development of the discipline of cultivated

body, hatha yoga, the central practices of which concern the assumptions of various

refer to the Gorakh Barn, instead of The Sayings of Gorakh, it should be understood that the reference is made to these other texts.

2

bodily postures and a regime of breathing exercises and meditations. The metaphysical

aspect of this form of yoga implicates the possibility of achieving immortality by

inwardly drinking the elixir, produced through the sublimation of semen and the

awakening of the latent energies in the body. This position places the Nâth Siddhas

within the broader milieu of Indian tantra. The historical origins of the group lie in

medieval times, and although the order still exists, it has long passed the zenith of its

strength and influence. The literature produced by these yogis is preserved both in the

Sanskrit idiom and in the collections of vernacular poetry, traditionally transmitted

through the medium of song by traveling ascetics. One collection of such poetry is the

already mentioned text of The Sayings of Gorakh. The Nâth Siddhas and The Sayings of

Gorakh will be the contextual focus of this work.

The Nâth Siddhas have been the subject of a relatively modest number of

academic studies in the Western languages. In 1937, Mohan Singh authored a pioneering

study, Gorakhnath and Medieval Hindu Mysticism,4 which introduced the subject of the

Nâth yogis and provided basic information on their most important adepts. Singh also

speculated on historical issues, and presented some translations, the most important being

2 There is no scholarly consensus as to the tantric nature of the Nathist yoga, and some, notably David Gordon White, prefer to regard the tantra and yoga as discrete traditions. Vide infra. I do not engage the issue for the simple reason that my suggested conceptual category, that is to say esotericism, encompasses both tantra and yoga (or, at least, the hatha yoga variety associated with the Naths). 3 See for example, Edward O. Henry, Chant the Names ofGod: Musical Culture in Bhojpuri-speaking Area (San Diego: San Diego State University Press, 1988), in particular 160-89; Ann Grodzins Gold, A Carnival ofParting: The tales of King Bharthari and King Gopi Chand as Sung and Told by Madhu Natisar Nath of Ghatiyali, Rajasthan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992; and Catherine Champion, "A Contre Courant (Ulta Sadhana). Tradition Orale du Nord-est de l'Inde: L'example des Recits Chantes Bhojpuri" in Living Texts from India, eds. Richard K. Barz and Monika Thiel-Horstmann (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1989), 63-85. Mohan Singh, Gorakhnath and Medieval Hindu Mysticism (Lahore: Oriental College, 1937).

3

the Gorakh Bodh, consisting of the conversation between Gorakh and his teacher

Matsyendranath.5 This was followed by George Weston Briggs' Gorakhnath and the

Kánphata Yogis.' Briggs presents a wealth of information - for example, he has supplied

a Sanskrit text of the Gorakga Sataka together with the English translation - but his

exposition is marred by a condescending approach and poor organization of the material.

More important was Shashibhushan Dasgupta's Obscure Religious Cults? which treated

the Naths together with some non-orthodox Buddhist, Vaisnava, and Muslim groups.

Dasgupta is probably the first scholar who emphasized the connection between the

techniques of hatha yoga and Indian alchemy. Akshaya Kumar Banerjea wrote the most

detailed study on the subject of the Philosophy of Gorakhnath? mostly based on material

from Sanskrit sources. Some of the most interesting and valuable work on the Nath yogis

was done by Gopinath Kaviraj, who also focused on doctrinal issues and Sanskrit texts,

exemplified by essays such as the "Philosophy of the Nathas," and "Some Aspects of the

History and Doctrine of the Nathas."10

The important contribution from Charlotte Vaudeville' consisted in drawing

attention to the Nathist influence on the poetic imagery of the great Kabir. Ann Grodzins

Gold has focused her research on the tension between the ethos of renunciation and the

pleasures and drives of domestic life, as attested in the cycle of stories about the kings,

5 See ibid., 48-67. ' George Weston Briggs, Gorakhnath and the Känphafa Yogis (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1998 [1" ed. Calcutta, 1938]). 'Shashibhushan Dasgupta, Obscure Religious Cults (Calcutta: Firma KLM, 1969). 8 Akshaya Kumar Banerjea, Philosophy of Gorakhnath: With Goraksha-Vacana-Sangraha (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1999 [1" ed. Gorakhpur, 1962]). Gopinath Kaviraj, "Philosophy of the Nathas," in Selected Writings ofM. M. Gopinath Kaviraj (Varanasi: Mata Anandamayee Ashram, 1990), 159-64. " Gopinath Kaviraj, "Some Aspects of the History and Doctrines of the Nathas," in Notes on Religion and Philosophy (Varanasi: Sampurnanand Sanskrit Vishvavidyalaya, 1987), 56-79. " Charlotte Vaudeville, Kabir (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974).

4

and subsequent yogis, Bharthari and Gopicand. The work of Véronique Bouillier deals

with the Nâths in Nepal, their relationship with the ruling dynasties, and her particular

insistence that the main aspect of yogic stories and legends is related to the princely

character of their heroes. Catharina Kiehnle has produced a study on the yoga of the

Nâths based on Marathï sources attributed to the famous Maharastrian saint Jnândev.14

David Cashin authored a very fine study of what he designates as 'the Sahajiyâ-Nâth-

Sufi confluence in Bengal."15 The most comprehensive work so far is a study by David

Gordon White, The Alchemical Body." White's work, a veritable magnum opus, is very

broad in its scope, although the kernel of his book centers on yogic internalization of the

methods of Indian alchemy.

THE NATH SIDDHAS, MAGIC, THE OCCULT AND ESOTERICISM

There is, however, one crucially important element intimately related to the phenomenon

of the Nath Siddhas that, although recognized by scholars, remains insufficiently

conceptualized. What I have in mind is that aspect of religious thought and behaviour that

is attested cross-culturally and often designated under the rubric of magic, the occult, or

Ann Grodzins Gold, Carnival of Parting; "Gender and Illusion in a Rajasthani Yogic Tradition," in Gender, Genre, and Power in South Asian Expressive Traditions, eds. Arjun Appadurai, Frank J. Korom, and Margaret A. Mills (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990), 102-35; "The Once and Future Yogi: Signs of Rule and Renunciation in the Rajasthani Tale of Gopi Chand," Journal of Asian Studies, 48, 4 (1989), 770-86. "3 See, for example, Veronique Bouillier, Ascètes et Rois: Un monastère de Kanphata Yogis au Nepal (Paris: CNRS Éditions, 1997; "Growth and Decay of a Kanphata Yogi Monastery in South-West Nepal," in The Indian Economie and Social History Review2S.2 (1991), 151-170; "The King and His Yogi: Prithvi Nàràyan Sàh, Bhagavantanàth and the Unification of Nepal in the Eighteenth Century," in Gender, caste and Power in South Asia: Social Status and Mobility in a Transitional Society, ed. John P. Neelsen (New Delhi: Manohar, 1991), 3-21. " Catharina Kiehnle, Songs on Yoga: Texts and Teachings of the Mahârâstrian Nâths (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1997). 15 David Cashin, The Ocean ofLove: Middle Bengali Sufi Literature and the Fakirs of Bengal (Stockholm: Association of Oriental Studies, 1995).

5

esotericism. I will provide the elaboration of these concepts in due course, but the basic

definitions might be beneficial immediately, so that the reader may follow the line of my

argument

By magic I mean an action, often ritual and symbolic in character, by which the

performer attempts to acquire power and induce desired change. Unlike prayer, which is

based on expectation of divine grace, the effects of magic are supposed to ensue as a

necessary outcome of the performed action(s). I will subsequently argue that in magic

power has a sacral character, that its driving mechanism is the cultivated imagination, and

that its nature is 'erotic' Magic is also one of the occult disciplines or 'sciences.'

The occult itself is sometimes taken as a synonym for magic, at other times its

semantic range is conflated with esotericism." I try to maintain a heuristic division,

clearly worked out by Edward Tiryakian (vide infra), between esoteric theory and occult

practice. The gist of Tiryakian's analysis is that the occult practices rely on hidden forces

in nature and the human mind in order to produce empirical results. The occult disciplines

include magic, alchemy, divination, astrology, and the like.

The occult practices rest on the assumptions of esoteric theory. "Derived from the

Greek term esoteros, esotericism refers to what is 'inner' or hidden, what is known only to

1 H

the initiated few, and closed to the majority of mankind in the exoteric world." Perhaps

the most fundamental esoteric idea consists of the notion of correspondence between

"6 David Gordon White, The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1996. " To give just one example, in a recent and excellent study on the place of occultism in the formation of modernity, the author makes a reference to the prolific writer A. E. Waite who "noted that the terms 'transcendental, Hermetic, Rosicrucian, mystical, esoteric or occult' were used 'indiscriminately' during the nineteenth century ... " Alex Owen, The Place of Enchantment: British Occultism and the Culture of the Modern (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 52. Owen herself blures the distictions when she refers, for example, to ''esoteric philosophy' or occultism." Ibid., 4.

6

various aspects of reality. This idea leads to the postulate of the human being as a

microcosm, or to use the Sanskrit term, ksudra brahmanda. The whole world, god(s)

included, is present within the hidden aspects of the human body and mind. This

postulate determines the typically esoteric sense of spiritual attention, which is often

characterized by the inward turn and the rejection of trappings of external (exoteric)

religion.

To return to the jogis: they are customarily described as being involved in magical

practices and as possessors of esoteric knowledge and occult powers. They have diamond

and eternal bodies, fly through the air, generate living beings out of ashes, and perform

all sorts of other magical feats - generally associated with the eight supernatural powers

or siddhis}' According to Shashibhushan Dasgupta, whose scholarship on these matters

is exemplary, "The general religious nature of Nathism is characterised by a wide-spread

belief in occult power attained through the practice of yoga."20 George W. Briggs

declares that, "Quite in keeping with the claims to supernatural power, which skill the

01

Yoga is supposed to confer, is the popular belief that Yogis work in magic." In a similar

manner, Catherine Champion states that "Gorakhnath is described [in the yogic lore] as a

magician, as a vidyadhara or the possessor of the occult powers, the knower of the occult

Hugh B. Urban, "Elitism and Esotericism: Strategies of Secrecy and Power in South Indian Tantra and French Freemasonry," in Numen, 44 (1997), 1. " "The eight supernatural faculties, viz., Animä (the power of becoming as small as an atom), Mahimä (the power of becoming big), Laghimä (the power of assuming excessive lightness at will), Garimä (the power of becoming as heavy as one likes), Präpti (the power of obtaining all objects at well [sic; 'will' is meant]), Prakämya (the power of obtaining all objects of pleasure at will), Isitva (the power of obtaining supremacy over everything) and Vaätva (the power of subduing, fascinating or bewitching) are well known in the school of yoga. ... These powers are generally known as the eight power of the lord Siva himself, who is the lord of yoga. The Näth Siddhas ... displayed throughout these eight supernatural powers." Dasgupta, Obscure Religious Cults, 212. 20 Ibid., 211. Emphasis added. Briggs, Gorakhnath, 128.

7

science." The category of the occult is not, however, engaged in a serious way nor is it

given adequate treatment in the academic works dealing with the Naths. Even White,

whose study explores in great detail the occult science of alchemy, does not correlate its

principles with the broader conceptual foundations of the esoteric and magical

Weltanschauung. This attitude would be less problematic if the occult was generally well

known and clearly understood. However, this is hardly the case. There is little in the

literature on the Naths that provides adequate answers to the questions: What is the

occult, what are its ideological presuppositions, its cross-cultural similarities and regional

particularities?

This same critical remark - the lack of theoretical engagement with the category

of magic or esotericism - can be applied to tantric studies in general. There is a noticeable

tendency to emphasize and focus on the spiritual and philosophical aspects of tantra, at

the expense of its 'dark' side characterized by the occult quest for power. Jeffrey Kripal

makes the following pertinent remark: "Too often scholars have equated Tantra with a

philosophical school enshrined in ancient Sanskrit texts and have ignored the popular

connotations of the term Tantrika, almost all of which revolve around the notions of

magical power, strangeness, seediness, and sex." He goes on to comment that, "As

scholars have pointed out, perhaps too often, Tantra is an esoteric culture, infamously

difficult to study."24 Douglas Renfrew Brooks similarly sees the particularity of tantras

and tantrikas in the context of "their popular associations with eroticism, alchemy, and

Champion, "A Contre Courant" 68. Emphases added. 23 Jeffrey Kripal, Kali's Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna, 2' ed. (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 28. Emphasis added. 24 Ibid. Emphasis added.

8

magic" and claims that "Tantric tradition ... provides a wealth of materials for studies

in esotericism, mysticism, ritual ... " According to Teun Goudriaan, "The magic lore ...

is almost universally present in Tantric literature ... ". Therefore, it appears a

desideratum to conceptualize the issue of esotericism as it manifests itself within the

framework of tantra. What is exactly the occult? And what do we mean by magic?

I propose to demonstrate that there are advantages in applying the conceptual vocabulary

and theoretical conclusions of esoteric studies to the study of Indian tantra and to the

Nath Siddhas as a group with tantric connections. I intend to show that the model of

Western esotericism exhibits a number of formal similarities - but by no means identities!

• when correlated to its Indian counterpart. I want to make it evident that in making this

correlation we gain a deeper and novel understanding of both categories. My purpose is

then to broaden the field of research related to the disciplines of esoteric and tantric

studies, to indicate the presence of cross-cultural similarities, and to suggest some

theoretical improvements. In that sense, this study is a response provoked by the

comments made by Douglas Brooks and Hugh Urban, both of whom voiced a complaint

that there is a lack of comparative dimension in the study of tantra and esotericism.

25 Douglas Renfrew Brooks, The Secret ofthe Three Cities: An Introduction to Hindu Sakta Tantrism (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 5. 26 Ibid., x. 27 Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hoens and Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantrism (Leiden and Köln: E. J. Brill, 1979), 23. 28 Brooks, Secret ofthe Three Cities, 210, n.4, writes that "there has so far been no systematic effort to provide a theoretical footing for studying Tantrism in the context of comparative studies in religion." In his assessment of the state of esoteric studies, Hugh B. Urban makes a comment that "what is still lacking, I believe, is any broader cross-cultural and comparative-framework; nor has there been adequate attention given to the concrete social and political role of the esoteric traditions within their historical context." "Elitism and Esotericism: Strategies of Secrecy and Power in South Indian Tantra and French Freemasonry," Numen, vol 44, 1 (1997), 2.

9

In order to prevent possible misunderstandings, I must emphasize at the outset

that I will not be engaging in a comparative effort in the classical sense. Rather, I intend

to construct what Hugh Urban refers to as "a dialectical image - born out of the

mirroring and mimesis that goes on between Western and Indian minds."29 My purpose

then lies in the effort to understand a particular tantric manifestation, the Náth Siddhas, in

the mirror of the theoretical apparatus developed in the study of (Western) esotericism. In

order to do so I will take advantage of a model established in the work of Antoine Faivre.

The French scholar conceptualizes esotericism on the basis of four primary and two

secondary characteristics, to be explained in due course. This model will be amplified,

and perhaps modified, by incorporation of the relevant insights of other scholars as well

as by my application of it onto a non-Western subject. To commence, let me delineate the

contours of the issue. In what follows, I will first present a snapshot of general features

associated with the Nam yogis, following which I will provide basic clarification of the

conceptual model of esotericism.

THE NATH SIDDHAS

The Nath Siddhas, whose other appellations include the Gorakhnatts, the

kanphata yogis (the 'split-ear yogis'), or, as already mentioned, simply thejogis, appear

as an organized order (sampradáy) in India somewhere between the 9th and 12th centuries

of the Common Era. (Indian tradition recognizes the Nine Naths and Eighty-Four

Siddhas, the two groups being occasionally confused.) The originator of the order of the

29 Urban, Tcrntra, 3. The concept of the 'dialectical image' was advanced by Walter Benjamin. See his Illuminations, ed. Hannah Arendt (New York: Schocken Books, 1969). 30 See the admirable feat of sorting out the history of the order in White, Alchemical Body, especially pp. 78-122.

10

Nath yogis is believed to be the great god Siva, wherefrom his designation as Adi Nath,

or the 'Original Master.' His immediate human disciple was the controversial figure

Matsyendranath, whose most important disciple, the great guru Gorakhnath, is often

deified.31 The primary characteristic of this group of yogis consists in their insistence that

the ultimate spiritual goal, which in this case entails the acquisition of immortality and

the assumption of the status of a 'second Siva', is attainable through the manipulation of

the body, more specifically bodily fluids and currents of energy, aided by meditation,

through the regime of the 'intense' i.e. hatha yoga. Generally speaking, the practice

consists of yogic postures, breathing exercises, mantra chanting, visualizations, and, in

certain cases, ritual sex. David Gordon White summarizes the yogic system of the Naths

as follows:

This system projected upon the gross human body a remarkably intricate physiology of the yogic or subtle body, which was composed of a series of energy centers, networks of channels, and an array of male and female divine forces. It was upon this subtle body that the yogic practitioner, through an elaborate combination of postures, breathing techniques, meditative states, and acoustic devices, came to channel forcibly all of his internalized divine energies, breaths, bodily fluids, and mental states into a single point, at which he realized, once and for all time, bodily perfection and immortality.3

Devoid of strict requirements for sanskritic learning and brahminical culture, unconfined

by a formal hieratic mediation and temple worship, this yoga is, therefore, and in

contradistinction with the Patanjali-associated astanga, primarily a form of praxis, a

sadhana, and not a philosophical system, darsana. Although by all accounts a difficult

enterprise to carry out, it is conceptually and methodologically simple. Its success is not

" The adepts of the Order are considered to be immortal.

11

dependent on ideological constraints and it is occasionally practiced outside the 'Hindu'

fold, by Buddhists,33 Jains,34 and even Muslims.35 In addition to its practical orientation,

the message of the Nath Siddhas, as recorded in The Sayings of Gorakh, contains a moral

aspect - a call to simple life and sexual continence - and a voice of social critique, mostly

addressed to the pundits, whose bookish learning is ridiculed and whose authority is

rejected. Since success in the form of yoga as envisioned by the Naths depends primarily

on the knowledge and mastery of one's body and its subtle aspects and not on the

presuppositions of the brahmanical varnasramadharma it is potentially subversive to the

same and as a consequence it is sometimes criticized and often marginalized. As already

stated, the order is customarily considered to be tantric in character.

According to the Nath Siddhas, the key to salvation - which is the ultimate raison

d'etre of every Indian spiritual and philosophical system - lies in the reversal of a certain

process which under ordinary conditions inevitably leads to enslavement in illusion, and

ultimately to death. This process is intimately related to human sexuality, or more

David Gordon White, "Wonders of Sri Mastnath," in Religions ofIndia in Practice, ed. Donald S. Lopez (Princeton, N.J .: Princeton University Press, 1995), 399-400. 3 The theory and practice of the early medieval Buddhist Sahajiyas bears close resemblance to the general outlook of the Nath Siddhas. See, for example, Dasgupta, Obscure Cults, 1-109; Per Kvaerne, An Anthology of Buddhist Tantric Songs: A Study of Caryagiti (Bangkok: White Orchid Press, 1986 [1977]). Closely related are also the Buddhist Siddhacaryas, or Mahasiddhas, for which see Masters of Mahamudra: Songs and Histories of the Eighty-Four Buddhist Siddhas, trans, and commentary by Keith Dowman (Albany, N.Y .: SUNY Press, 1985). " "Matsyendra was ... the father and guru of the two Jain tirthamkaras NTmnath and Parasnath." White, Alchemical Body, 93. See also Paul Dundas, "The Jain Monk Jinapati Suri Gets Better of a Nath Yogi," in Tantra in Practice, 231-8. 35 See, for example, Cashin, Ocean ofLove. Two sixteenth century Indian Sufi romances abound in the Nath lore motifs; see Malik Muhammad Jaisi, Padmavati, trans. A. G. Shireff (Calcutta: Royal Asiatic Society, 1944), and Manjhan, Madhumalati: An Indian Sufi Romance, trans, with Introduction and Notes by Aditya Behl and Simon Weightman with Shyam Manohar Pandey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000). On the agonic elements in the encounters between Sufis and the Naths, see Simon Digby, "To Ride a Tiger or a Wall? Strategies of Prestige in Indian Sufi Legend," in According to Tradition: Hagiographical Writing in India, eds. Winand M. Callewaert and Rupert Snell (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1994), 99-129. On the relationship between Naths and Indian Ismailis, see Dominique-Sila Khan, "Conversation between Guru Hasan KabTruddTn and Jogl Kanipha: Tantra Revisited by the Isma'ili Preachers," in Tantra in Practice, 285-95.

12

specifically, to the issue of the preservation or waste of semen (bindu). The released

semen is the gross form of a subtle substance that has a potential value - if not wasted -

as the elixir of immortality, the amrt. In this respect, the Nam Siddhas, as David Gordon

White, following Dasgupta and others, has argued, are most closely related to the

TO

school of Indian alchemy, the rasdyana.

Alchemy as a science of transformations is, in a nutshell, an attempt to

transform base metals into gold and to find the elixir of immortality, or at least the means

of longevity. The Nath Siddhas correlate the methodology of alchemy with yoga, and

perform their practices in the laboratory of their bodies. Indian alchemy takes mercury as

the basic substance to be transformed; with the Nath Siddhas, the mercury is replaced by

semen (bindu). Thus we find the following precept: "Bindu in the mouth of vagina is

[like] mercury in the mouth of fire. / Whosoever preserves it, he is my guru."40 As a

consequence of this position, the Nath Siddhas embraced what appears to be an anti-

sexual and misogynist stance.

At this point, I would like to emphasize the following assertion: the theory and

practice of the Siddhas are inseparably related to the issue of sexuality. The question is,

Obviously, the yogic lore assumes a male viewpoint and discusses human body from such a perspective. In practice, however, this sexist attitude is counterbalanced by the fact that women are admitted into the Order as initiates. According to Briggs, "Women who have been initiated into the sect are numerous. Those who are wives of Yogis are of two classes, those who are themselves Yoginis and those who are not. Both classes are common." Gorakhnath, 48. In addition, a Sanskrit text attributed to Gorakhnath and translated by Briggs, the Goraksa Sataka, talks of the bindu as being present in both male and female sexual fluids: "Further, the bindu (is) of two kinds, pale-white and blood-red: The pale-white they call semen virile, the blood-red menstrual fluid." Goraksa Sataka, 72, in ibid., 298. 37 See, for example, Mircea Eliade, The Forge and the Crucible, 2"d ed., trans. Stephen Corrin (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1978 [1962])esp. 127-41. " "The Siddha alchemists were, by and large, Nath Siddhas; and because the Nath Siddhas were itinerant, they made Siddha alchemy a pan-Indian phenomenon. ... [T]he language of the Nath Siddhas' hatha yoga is often nothing other then a projection of alchemical discourse upon the human body." White, Alchemical Body, 56-7. See also Dasgupta, Obscure Cults , 192-4. It should be obvious that I am using the word science in its pre-modern sense.

13

what kind of sexuality? What is, exactly, the position of the Naths vis-a-vis sex? What

role does it play in their spiritual enterprise? Are they really 'anti-sexual'? Is the celibacy

of a Nath yogi different (in character, meaning, purpose) from the celibacy of an

'orthodox' renouncer (samnyasi)7 And what is the role of esotericism and magic in this

regard? If we say that the Siddhas in fact practice an esoteric form of sexuality, what do

we exactly mean by that assertion?

My position is that the sexuality as understood and practiced by the Siddhas is a

very complex phenomenon and does not represent either a case of simple rejection or an

indulgence. Basically, it is a power. It is a power over which they are asserting their

mastery, their 'care of the self in Foucault's sense of the phrase.41 Through mastery over

desire and control of the semen, an aspirant becomes an adept. But the sexuality has not

been rejected: it has been internalized and transformed into the energy of the coiled

snake, kunddiini, and thus it has made possible the attainment of mystical states. As

David Kinsley remarks, "It is not sublimated or curbed sexual activity that awakens the

kundalini but sexual activity properly understood or perhaps properly appreciated."42

Sexuality is an instrument for the acquisition of occult powers and an occult power in

itself. In alchemical terms, it is a materia prima, a raw energy with a material correlate

(the sperm, the menstrual blood), that may and should be transformed into elixir.

Fundamentally, the sexuality here is the potency of power: the power of transmutation,

the power of transubstantiation, the power of deification. In other words, with these yogis

the exoteric, or ordinary, approach to sexuality is supplemented by an esoteric one.

" Gorakh Banl, sabad 142. "bhag mukhi byad agani mukhi para / jo rakhai so guru hamara." (The subsequent references to the sabads will be abbreviated as GBS) " Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. 3, The Care of the Self, trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Vintage Books, 1988). See also a relevant discussion in Chapter 2 of this Thesis, pp. 92-3.

14

Nevertheless: without the engagement with the powers of eros there is no scope for the

acquisition of the miraculous powers, there are no siddhis, and thus there are no

Siddhas43

The esotericism and power of the Siddhas are also inextricably linked in the social

sphere. To acknowledge this fact one needs to remember that Nath yogis occupy the

central position in their own ideological universe, which is the universe of the occult, or

of the esoteric. What may be interpreted as ndthist parallel to the

varnasramadharma system, the sense of belonging to a community based on (and

possessing the secrets of) esotericism, places the members of the fraternity on top of the

social and spiritual hierarchy. Because they are adepts of miraculous powers, because

they were established by the Great God Siva Himself, because their most important

human teacher was also an avatar of the Great God, because they know the secrets of

immortality, they consider themselves higher and better, and certainly more powerful,

than priests and princes. Their aspirations and claims of accomplishment are aimed at

divinity, and at least Gorakhnath is certainly deified.44 As C. J. Fuller reminds us, "This

reflects a supremely important fact about Hinduism: unlike Judaism, Christianity, and

Islam, it postulates no absolute distinction between divine and human beings. In many

contexts, human beings are seen as actually divine in one way or another."45

David Kinsley, Tantric Visions ofthe Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahavidyas (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1998), 243. $ It will be apparent in a due course that sexuality has not been given a prominent place in the accounts of the Western Esoteric Tradition. It might appear at the first glance that this is one of the elements that separates the two traditions. My contention, however, is that the exclusion of sexuality from the academic discourse of the Western Esoteric Tradition is an oversight. Thus, it follows that a closer investigation of the esoteric approaches to sexuality in the West is a desideratum. " "It is noticeable that not only is there the tradition of Mahádeva or Siva being the original instructor of the cult, but that Gorakh-náth, the most renowned and most important yogin of the sect, has frequently been identified with Siva or deified as such." Dasgupta, Obscure Cults, 197. 45 C. J. Fuller, The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India (Princeton, N.J .: Princeton University Press, 1992), 3-4.

15

In this way, we have a cluster of notions that are mutually related: internalized sexuality,

appropriation of alchemical techniques, search for occult powers that lead to deification,

social power inherently present in what is basically a secret society,46 and the widely

perceived involvement ofjogis in magic. All these elements converge in the unifying

category of esotericism that subsumes them into a meaningful whole. The model of

esotericism therefore seems a suitable methodological category through which to

approach and conceptualize the phenomenon of the Nath yogis. I will now elaborate upon

this model and provide definitions of most important relevant terms.

THE MODEL OF ESOTERICISM

I consider it advantageous to approach the Nath Siddhas by employing the category of

esotericism as the term is understood in its technical sense by a group of scholars led by

the influential and erudite work of Antoine Faivre.47 The academic discipline that they

devote their work to is the study of what they usually designate as Western Esotericism.

Arthur Versluis defines the general meaning of the term as follows: "Esotericism, as a

field of academic study, refers to alternative, marginalized, or dissident religious

movements or philosophies whose proponents in general distinguish their beliefs,

AO

practices, and experiences from public, institutionalized religious traditions." This

definition is also applicable to the Naths and explains rather well their position within the

" For the relationship between secrecy and power, see Urban, "Elitism and Esotericism." "7 See, for example, Antoine Faivre, Golden Fleece and Alchemy (Albany, N.Y .: SUNY Press, 1993); Access to Western Esotericism (Albany, N.Y .: SUNY Press, 1994); The Eternal Hermes: From Greek God to Alchemical Magus, trans. Joscelyn Godwin (Grand Rapids, MI: Phanes Press, 1995); Theosophy, Imagination, Tradition: Studies in Western Esotericism, trans. Christine Rhone (Albany, N.Y .: SUNY Press, 2000).

16

broader milieu of Indian ('Hindu,' Jain, Buddhist, Muslim) orthodoxy. In addition, it has

the advantage of not being culturally exclusive, and is thus applicable to diverse

traditions. A relative weakness of this definition, however, lies in the fact that its meaning

is constructed only negatively, in reference to normative, institutionalized, or exoteric

religions from which esotericism differs. In other words, Versluis does not really define

what esotericism is, only what it is not. For this reason, I have decided to focus on

Faivre's model - soon to be explained - because it provides thematic identification of the

necessary elements of esotericism. This will afford me a chance to present a more

detailed and specific correlation between the essentials of Western esotericism and the

yoga of the Náths.

Here, an immediate objection could be made: What is the justification for

importing a Western model of 'esotericism' when studying the Nam Siddhas since this is

not an Indian category? But as C. J. Fuller argues: "Anthropological or sociological

analysis abstracts from empirical data and also attempts to make them intelligible by

using concepts and deploying generalizations that are formulated comparatively and

rarely correspond precisely to indigenous categories in any particular society."4 On the

other hand, the use of indigenous vocabulary in constructing scholarly conceptual

apparatus is not in and of itself a guarantee of taxonomie certitude. It is now obvious and

widely known how flawed are scholarly concepts such as 'Hinduism' and 'Tantrism' -

although they are based on Indian terms. The heuristic advantage of employing the

category of esotericism, in my opinion, lies in its ability to make conceptualizations about

the nature of the Nath Siddhas easier and clearer, the nature of knowledge being such that

8 Arthur Versluis, "Mysticism and the Study of Esotericism: Part II," Esotérica: Journal of Esoteric Studies 5 (2003): 27.

17

it thrives on comparisons, however odious. In addition, one has to be aware of the fact

that Indian spirituality, especially in the form of yoga and tantra, has also become a part

of Western Esoteric Tradition, at least since the establishing of the Theosophical Society

(founded 1875) onwards.50 In that sense also, the comparison is justified.

At the outset, I want to make it clear that I understand esotericism as a self-

consistent spiritual and / or philosophical attitude that is potentially applicable to various

ideological positions and practical concerns. The term is, by the way, frequently

employed by the scholars who often refer to, say, Shingon as an 'esoteric Buddhism,' or

to Sufism as an 'esoteric branch of Islam,' and so on. Here it is interesting to note that it

is not an isolated opinion to regard the 'religion' of the Siddhas as a distinct and self-

contained phenomenon." The main characteristic of their 'religion' is that it is based on

the concept of power, siddhi. To the degree that what we call the occult or esoteric is

about power and secrecy and knowledge of the hidden things, it is legitimate to classify

the Naths as an esoteric group. To justify this classification, a basic theoretical

explanation of the principals of esotericism is in order.

Fuller, Camphor Flame, 10; emphasis added. The Theosophical Society in India was established in 1879, bringing a Western esoteric current to the South Asia. See Joscelyn Godwin, The Theosophical Enlightenment (Albany, N.Y .: SUNY Press, 1994), 307, 333, and passim. This is an example of the 'mirroring and mimesis' between Indian and Western esotericism, establishing what Urban calls a 'dialectical image.' Vide supra, 1 "'Nathism' has been recognized by some as a separate strand in Indian popular religion, representing, perhaps, an ancient religious tradition alongside Vaishnavism and Shaivism" (Daniel Gold and Ann Grodzins Gold, "The Fate of the Householder Nath," History of Religions 24, no. 2 [1984]: 115). See also Charlottte Vaudeville, A Weaver Named Kabir (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 99 and White, "Wonders of Sri Mastnath," 401-2. In the parlance of Kabir, there are 'Hindus, Turks and Jogis', all rejected by him. See Vaudeville, Weaver Named Kabir, 76.

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COMPONENTS OF ESOTERICISM

Antoine Faivre has enumerated the following elements as the 'components of esotericism

as a form of thought'. The four main elements are, 1: Correspondences, 2: Living

Nature, 3: Imaginations and Mediations, and 4: Experience of Transmutation. The

additional two elements are 5: The Praxis of Concordance, and 6: Transmission. Arthur

Versluis has amplified the list adding the element of 7: Gnosis as the sine qua non of

esotericism.54 It is relatively easy to demonstrate that all seven of these characteristics

pertain to the metaphysical outlook of the Naths. I will provide a point by point

correlation between the constitutive elements of esotericism and the theory and practice

of the jogis in the concluding part of the next chapter. At this juncture, I would like to

present a basic explanation of what the principles of esotericism stand for.55 . Correspon 1. Correspondences refer to the complex and subtle links that unite otherwise

apparently discontinuous elements of reality, matching like with like according to the

principle of 'as above, so below.' A prominent feature of this Weltanschauung is

represented by the concept of the human being as a microcosm that stands in an

analogical relation of similarity, or even identity, with the universal plenum, the

macrocosm. Similarly, material things correspond to spiritual realities and vice versa. In

India, the term for this relationship of mutual correspondence is bandhu. "The

assumption then is," as Patrick Olivelle explains, "that the universe constitutes a web of

relations, that things that appear to stand alone and apart are, in fact, connected to other

See Faivre, Access to Western Esotericism, 10. 53 Ibid., 10-15. Arthur Versluis, "What is Esoteric? Methods in the Study of Western Esotericism," Esotérica: Journal of Esoteric Studies 4 (2002): 2. $51 am summarizing Faivre, Access to Western Esotericism, 10-15. See also Faivre and Voss, "Western Esotericism and the Science of Religions," 60-62.

19

things." According to André Padoux, "one of the characteristics of Tantrism lies

precisely in the constant establishment of correspondences between humans, rites, and the

cosmos, and in the cosmic as well as human aspects of energy."57 Of course, here and

throughout I am asserting the similarity of basic principles between Western and Indian

esotericism, not their identity. In the practical application of these principles, the culture-

specific difference between Indian and Western models is evident, for example, in the

fact that "correspondences between ... history and revealed texts" are of much lesser

importance in the East.

2. Living Nature is a self-explanatory concept. Due to the paramount importance

of the Holy Book in the Western cultural sphere, there is a prominent tendency in

Western esotericism to approach nature as a book to be read. This tendency is, naturally,

much less exhibited in the case of Indian esoteric traditions. However, the basic postulate,

the idea that nature is alive and impregnated by spiritual force is common to both

traditions. The prominent expression of this idea in Indian traditions is encountered in

tantra, where the phenomenal universe is understood as the manifestation of the Goddess,

who is energy and power, sakti. Without her, as the famous dictum has it, Siva is just a

corpse.

3. Imaginations and Mediations are mutually complementary. It is extremely

important to realize that imagination here is understood in its specialized meaning, which

has nothing to do with daydreaming and disorganized fantasizing. "But rather it is a kind

of organ of the soul," as Faivre explains, "thanks to which humanity can establish a

56 Patrick Olivelle, Upanisads: Translated from the Original Sanskrit (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), lii. "" Andre Padoux, Vac: The Concept ofthe Word in Selected Hindu Tantras, trans. Jacques Gontier (Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 1992 [Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1990]), 24.

20

cognitive and visionary relationship with an intermediary world, with a mesocosm - what

Henry Corbin proposed calling a mundus imaginalis."89 I am convinced that imagination,

as it is understood in the West, is comparable to yogic practice of visualization and

meditation. Similarly, I consider the mundus imaginalis, the 'imaginal world,' to be the

locus of yogic visions and encounters with mystical beings, such as siddhas and

vidyddharas. Also, I am confident that the subtle body, with its system of cakras and

'serpent power' or kundalini sakti, is both generated by and accessed through the power

of cultivated imagination. These points have been observed only tangentially by scholars

such as Agehananda Bharati and Mircea Eliade, and the correlation and correspondence

between Western and Indian models of imagination is virtually nonexistent.

4. Experience of Transmutation is, as Faivre writes, an expression borrowed from

alchemy. It refers to "a cooperation between knowledge (in the sense of 'gnosis') and

active imagination in order for lead to be changed into silver and silver into gold."60 The

parallel with the Nath Siddhas, whose practice represents the internalization of Indian

alchemy, is obvious. In their case, the process starts with the semen (bindu) that is

eventually transformed into elixir (amrt). The yogi is similarly transformed from an

ordinary being into an immortal adept. The experience of transmutation is the final of the

four necessary components of esotericism. The following two are, according to Faivre, of

relative importance. They consist of the praxis of concordance and transmission.

5. The Praxis of Concordance amounts to "a consistent tendency to attempt to

establish common denominators among two or more different traditions, or even among

Faivre, Access to Western Esotericism, 11. Ibid., 12. Faivre and Voss, "Western Esotericism and the Science of Religions," 61.

21

all traditions, in hopes of obtaining a gnosis of superior quality."61 In other words,

denominational and doctrinal constraints are much more flexible and relaxed in the case

of individuals and groups engaged in esoteric quest. Let us just recall the fact that, for

example, tantric ideas and practices are extant in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and even

some forms of unorthodox Islam. This situation, the fact that people and ideas migrate

rather easily between various esoteric currents settled within their broader exoteric

spiritual environments, leads to the proposal that esotericism should be seen as a means

of cultural transfer.62 This is an additional reason for a more serious engagement with the

study of comparative esotericism.

6. Transmission of esoteric knowledge is often conducted in a ritual setting,

involving one or several rites of initiation. This element is common to both Western and

Indian esotericism. Initiation as diksa or abhiseka is a sine qua non requirement in tantric

practice. By extension, the importance and sanctity of initiation is transferred onto human

preceptor or guru as a person who conducts the ritual and transmits the occult knowledge

and power onto the disciple. The veneration of the guru in tantric and yogic traditions is a

well-known fact. In addition, the transmission of esoteric knowledge and occult practices

from one cultural system into another renders additional weight to the thesis that

esotericism is a means of cultural transfer.

7. Arthur Versluis emphasizes the concept of gnosis as a constitutive element and

the goal of esotericism. I believe that this is a non-problematic proposal. The esoteric

61 Ibid., 62. 621 am borrowing this idea from Peter Lamborn Wilson. According to his proposal, 'Heresies' are often the means for transfer of ideas and art-forms from one culture to another. ... Medieval Europe might have absorbed much less Islamic/ Greek/ Oriental culture from Spain and elsewhere were it not for scholars of dubious orthodoxy such as Raimundo Lull, Roger Bacon, the alchemists and Ceremonial Magicians, the Kabalists [sic] and Renaissance Neoplatonists like Pico, Bruno, the Fideli d'Amore." Scandal: Essays in

22

nature of gnosis is self-evident, for it is not a knowledge, or 'wisdom,' of an ordinary

kind. The category of gnosis is comparable with, and even etymologically related to,

Indian jnana and / or prajnd. It thus seems meaningful to assert that the element of gnosis

is relevant for, and present in, both Western and Indian esotericism.

POWER

There is one element, nonetheless, that is not recognized in the above list of elements of

the esoteric tradition. I am referring to a particular branch of the tradition that is due to its

importance best treated separately, and addressed by the term magic. The element

without which magic is not properly and thoroughly understood is power. I would like to

reaffirm the proposal that power is one of the central features of the magical quest, in

India as in the West. In the words of Teun Goudriaan, "The essence of magic is a grasp

for power." It is the search for power that very frequently distinguishes magical activity

from the way of life of an 'ordinary' believer.64 While the latter directs his or her

devotion to the omnipotent God/dess/es, the former undergoes the whole set of practices

in order to obtain power and achieve desired results. These results may be related to the

most basic quotidian concerns and they may include the loftiest spiritual aspirations. But

a follower of an occult current usually knows the mode of practice, a sadhana, by which

it is possible to achieve these results. The power to do so, the power to raise oneself apart

from the ordinary, non-initiated believers (considered in tantra as nothing but mere

Islamic Heresy (Brooklyn, N.Y .: Autonomedia, 1988), 13-4.1 find the term 'heresy' culturally limited (a fact acknowledged by Wilson) and derogatory and suggest esotericism as a more appropriate correlate. 3 Teun Goudriaan, Maya. Divine and Human: A Study of Magic and Its Religious Foundations in Sanskrit Texts, with Particular Attention to a Fragment on Visnu's Maya Preeserved in Bali (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1978), 58.

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animals, pasu), the power to achieve gnosis and immortality - these are the central

concerns of magical practice. Consequently, the above list of the key elements of

esotericism has to be amplified by the inclusion of the category of power, at least insofar

as the subject is magic. In this context, it is appropriate to call to mind the general

observation made by Karl Potter, "that Indian philosophy does in fact elevate power,

control, or freedom to a supereminent position above rational morality ... ".66 The yogic

quest is, then, just a specific instance of this orientation within a general trend in Indian

spiritual landscape.

What I have in mind when referring to the concept of power is in essential

agreement with a definition of the term provided by Robert Thurman. According to him,

"The term power here refers to the energy or ability that enables an individual to cause a

desired effect. The essence of magic is that it utilizes techniques that are mysterious to its

beholders and commonplace to its masters."67 In addition, the power discussed here is

also the power over oneself, the ability of a person to conquer his or her 'lower' drives and

instinctual nature and to acquire spiritual freedom and liberty. As Thurman points out, in

India it was traditionally assumed that mastering one's subjective self was "the most

practical method of mastery over world." Needless to say, this power also has social

repercussions and it is often perpetuated by the mechanisms of common belief.

It is of fundamental importance to realize that power (as the goal of the magic

quest to which I am relating the sddhana of the jogis) possesses sacral quality. By sacred,

" Of course, there is no clear-cut division between the two. A certain person may be an 'orthodox believer' and still engage in occasional esoteric activities. This is much more frequently met in India than in the Christian West, due to the restrictive influence of the Church in the latter case. 65 Sanskrit term for a magician, vidyadhara, literally means 'possessor of knowledge.' " Karl H. Potter, Presuppositions of India's Philosophies (Englewood Cliffs, N.J,: Prentice-Hall, 1963), 3. Emphasis in the original. I am grateful to Ken Bryant for drawing my attention to this reference. "7 Robert Thurman, "Magico-Religious Powers," in Hidden Truths, 224.

24

I mean that which is an intentional object ofreligious attention and action. From the point

of view of magic, the sacred manifests itself as power. Marcel Mauss has advanced this

view in his classical study of magic, where he designates the magical power by the

Melanesian word mana:6 "Our analysis brings out the fact that mana is an idea of the

same order as the idea of the sacred." An 'ordinary' believer may worship the divine as

a personification and source of power, but - within the context of this analysis - the

divine is essentially viewed as transcendental and requiring supplication. A magician

differs from such a believer by insisting, through his or her actions, that there is a link, a

correspondence that establishes the possibility of appropriating this power. And by

participating in the exercise of power, the magician also takes share in its nature as the

sacred, with which he or she identifies. In this sense, magic may be defined as a religion

of power, and magicians as devotees of power.

In so far as the sacred is understood as power and not as love or being-

consciousness-bliss, the difference between a siddha on the one hand and a bhakta or a

veddntin on the other is, in the ultimate analysis, only doctrinal. But, and this is a crucial

distinction, as far as the (esoteric) theory of correspondences establishes the link between

the sacred as power and a human who is thus able to participate in this power, a

magician's status resembles God/s' and this is potentially problematic and sometimes

seen as a sacrilege. This situation is, by the way, more likely to occur within a

monotheistic culture. In India, however, it is not uncommon to see human saints as

68 Ibid., 228. 69 Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press, 1985), 3, mentions that "The Greek equivalents [of mana], found in Hellenistic texts, are dynamis 'power', charis 'grace', and arete 'effectiveness'." The closest Indian equivalents are sakti and siddhi. " Marcel Mauss, A General Theory of Magic, trans. Robert Brain (London and Boston: Routledge and KeganPaul, 1972), 119.

25

divine. Here the problem is not so much related to the 'hubris' apropos the assumption of

divine status. It has more to do with the fact that 'non-esoteric' saints will tend to

emphasize the spiritual aspects of the divine, while a magician (or a siddha yogi),

believing in 'as above, so below' will often treat the material and bodily as links in the

chain that leads to the source of power, and for that reason sacred.71

Why would, for example, a Kablr or a Nanak be critical of the jogis? Because for

79

the sants, the sacred is experienced as a name requiring devotion; from their

perspective, the jogis are deluded in their attention to the 'miracles' of yoga, the siddhis,

and the concentration on the body. "Ifby withholding your seed, / you could be saved, O

my Brother, / Then surely the eunuchs / would get to the highest heaven? / Says Kablr, /

O brother, listen: / Without the name of Ram / none ever achieved salvation!"73 It appears

as if the yogis are obsessed with the self-empowerment. But for the yogis, to obtain and

experience the siddhis means to gain access to the sacred as power. To become a

powerful siddha is for them equivalent to the bhaktas' participation in Krsna's paradise.

By the same token, the body is the focus of attention because it corresponds to

metaphysical realities, and this attention is, in the ultimate analysis, an act of devotion.

The sagun bhaktas criticize veddntins for their conception of the ultimate

religious goal as the merging into atributless brahman, claiming that the Absolute is a

personal God, the appropriate practice a loving devotion, and the goal proximity to God

(in one form or another). In a similar manner, the siddhas are criticized and even

ridiculed for the obsession with ('personal') power. But once it is understood that for the

1 Since the practice of the Siddhas represents appropriation of alchemical principles, and since the alchemy is about the treatment of material substances, the qualification of the material as potentially sacred seems to be natural.

26

jogis the power is the sacred and a manifestation of the sacred, the problem appears to be

not more than a conceptual misunderstanding or a doctrinal disagreement.

Magical power also has a social dimension insofar as society assigns such

qualification to certain persons and aspects of reality, through the complex mechanisms

ofbelief.74 A yogi is powerful, among other reasons, because people believe in his power.

The source of magical power can be related to metaphysical realities as well as to this

world. In the latter case, it is closely linked to liminal, forbidden, and extraordinary:

cemeteries, dead, menstruating women, polluting substances, outsiders, and so on.75 It is

also related to psychological states of intense character, such as dreams, visions, states of

fear, excitement, intoxication, and the like. "The quality of mana -and of the sacred -

appertains to things which are given a very definite position in society, often to the extent

of their being considered to exist outside the normal world and normal practices. These

things play a very considerable role in magic; they provide, in fact, its living forces."76 In

this sense, the marginality, or liminality, of the jogis and their dealing with forbidden and

polluting substances, their engagement with non-ordinary sexuality, their association with

and supposed mastery over snakes, and the display of death-symbolic ashes on their

bodies, all of these serve as the source of power associated with them."

On this important tradition see, for example, The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India, eds. Karine Schomer and W. H. McLeod (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1987). 73 Vaudeville, Weaver Named Kabir, 230-1. 74 See Mauss, Theory of Magic, 91-7. 75 This subject is treated in the classic study by Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970 [1966]). "6 Mauss, Theory of Magic, 119, emphasis added. " Alexis Sanderson contrasts 'the path of purity' associated with the brahminical culture with the 'path of power' typical of tantra. Important aspect of the latter is related to the acquisition of 'power through impurity.' "It was precisely because these ['impure'] forces threatened the Hindu's 'impotent purity' that they [the tantrikas] invited a visionary mysticism of fearless omnipotence, of unfettered super-agency through the controlled assimilation of their lawless power in occult manipulations of impurity." Sanderson, "Purity and Power among the Brahmans of Kashmir," in The Category of the Person: Anthropology, Philosophy, History, eds. Michael Carrithers, Steven Collins and Steven Lukes (Cambridge: Cambridge University

27

David Gordon White defines tantra as the "body of belief and practices which,

working from the principle that the universe we experience is nothing other than the

concrete manifestation of the divine energy of the godhead that creates and maintains that

universe, seeks to ritually appropriate and channel that energy, within the human

microcosm, in creative and emancipatory ways."78 Besides the general agreement with

the principles of esotericism, this definition is important in that it explains that the divine

energy, which is power, is present within the human body. It therefore explains that yogic

practices, which intend to access that energy, may be understood as actions that strive to

embrace the sacred. In that sense, again, yoga is devotion to the sacred understood as

power. To access the energy within the body is equivalent to accessing the sacred as

Krsna, or Ram. This also explains that the tantric and yogic focus on the body is

meaningful, as a religious and devotional practice, insofar as its foundation is based on

the esoteric principle of correspondence. Without this element, yoga is - as its critics

claim it to be - narcissism and self-aggrandizement. Again, this means that the yoga of

the siddhas and tantrikas is an esoteric (correspondences at the root of theory) and

magical (the sacred as power) discipline.

THE PLAN OF THE WORK

The central thesis of this study argues that there is a formal compatibility between the

principles of esotericism and the yoga of the Nath Siddhas. That the previous scholarship he previ has neglected to explore this issue in a meaningful and thorough way is due, I suggest, to

Press, 1985), 200-1; emphasis added. In a similar spirit, Jeffrey Kripal asserts that tantra 'consciously uses decadence as a spiritual technique'. Kripal, Kali's Child, 29; emphasis in the original. " David Gordon White, "Mapping a Tradition," in Tantra in Practice, 9.

28

the residual tendency to marginalize the occult. In chapter one, in order to clarify the

conceptual apparatus utilized in this work, I proceed with an elucidation of the principles

of esotericism. I start with the analysis of definitions by Edward Tiryakian, which help us

make a useful distinction between esoteric theory and occult practice.

Next in the chapter, I introduce the topics of magic and alchemy, as the particular

branches of esotericism that are of relevance to yoga as practiced by the Naths. (Various

conceptual models used to explain the style of yoga advocated by Gorakhnath are

adopted for the purpose of throwing light on the 'subject' from various angles. It is a

matter of selection and emphasis, and not a contradiction, that I designate this yoga in

general terms as esotericism and at other times, more specifically, as magic or alchemy.)

Magic is defined on the basis of three principles. 1. It is oriented towards power

(where power is, as Marcel Mauss has argued, understood as the sacred). 2. It is,

according to a historian of religions loan Couliano,80 a science of the imaginary. 3. It is,

81

again with Couliano, a form of eros (that is to say, a practice oriented towards union).

My conclusion is that all three of these elements have their counterparts in the yoga of the

Siddhas. 1.The Naths are oriented towards power (the siddhis), the sanctity of which is

the prerogative of the lord Siva and his Sakti, who are the divine embodiments of power.

2. The principle of the imaginary is related to what is in yoga understood as the practice

of meditation (dhyan). 3. Yoga is akin to eros both etymologically (yoga means 'union')

" This tendency has a historical genesis and it is related to changes in Western culture and epistemology. See, for example, loan P. Couliano, Eros and Magic in the Renaissance, trans. Margaret Cook (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1987) and, approaching the issue from a different angle, Michel Foucault, The Order ofThings: An Archeology of Human Sciences (New York: Random House, 1970 [1". ed. published as Les Mots et les choses, Paris: Gallimard, 1966]). # "The magic that concerns us here is theoretically a science of the imaginary, which it explores through its own methods and seeks to manipulate at will." Couliano, Eros and Magic, xviii; emphasis added.

29

and functionally (samâdhi, as the goal of yoga, is the union between subject and object).

From the perspective of common orientation towards power, use of the praxis of

imagination, and the erotic nature of its mode of operation, magic and yoga are in accord.

As far as alchemy is concerned, it may be best defined as the science of

transmutations, which are symbolized by the changes of base metals into gold. In the case

of the Nâth yogis, the transmutation is understood as the principle and practice of reversal

(ulta sàdhand). I argue that the practice of reversal is the central, most important practice

in Gorakhnâth's system. Reversal is evident in the style of yoga, where the practitioner

has to return the semen, the bindu, from the genital level to the top of the head. In the

rhetoric of the Nâths, this is represented by 'upside-down' poetry and by the employment

of the 'lead' of vernaculars and quotidian themes in order to signify the 'gold' of spiritual

truths. The principle of reversal is observable even in the initiatic structure of the Nâth

Siddhas, where the young pupil Gorakhnâth replaces (against the traditional custom) the

old teacher Matsyendranâth as the ultimate authority.

Finally, at the conclusion of the first chapter, I correlate the principles of

esotericism as defined by Antoine Faivre with the yoga of the Nâths. I then demonstrate

that all four major and two minor characteristics that are supposed to be essential to

Western esotericism have their formal parallels in the theory and practice of yoga.

Correspondences are observed (the Indian term for them is bandhu); imagination is

analogous to meditation and visualization; living nature is exemplified by sakti (which is

microcosmically manifested as kundaliril sakti) ; and transmutation has its counterpart in

the practice of reversal (ulta sddhana). As for the two minor elements of esotericism, the

"The Renaissance conceived of the natural and social world as a spiritual organism in which perpetual exchanges of phantasmic messages occurred. That was the principle of magic and of Eros, Eros itselfbeing

30

transmission of knowledge is in yoga also done through the rituals of initiation, and the

fact that similar ideas and practices are also found among Buddhist, Jain, and Muslim

esoteric groups points to the presence of the practice of concordance. The formal

correspondence between these two esoteric traditions is thus both observable and

meaningful.

The rest of the work is devoted to contextualizing of the principles of esotericism,

through their application as conceptual and methodological tools, in an effort to

understand the poetry of The Sayings of Gorakh. In order to facilitate this task, I take the

central concept and central practice of the Nath Siddhas to be the anchors of my

exposition. The central concept is the bindu. It is the most important element in the theory

and practice of the jogis. I use it as the focus of analysis and the point of departure in

subsequent chapters. The central practice is reversal. It provides us with the reason to

follow the transmutations of the bindu, from its material to its final spiritual form.

I start with the bindu at the material level, and in chapter two I explore the

correspondent issues, the body and sexuality, in accordance with the principles of

esotericism and in relation to power. Both body and sexuality have their exoteric and

esoteric aspects. For example, sexuality as envisioned by Gorakhnath is either projected

inwards, and consists of the 'erotic' (and esoteric) union between Siva and Sakti, or, if it

entails the physical act of sex, it involves the retention of semen and renunciation of

desire. It is on these points that Gorakh parts ways with his teacher Matsyendranath, and

criticizes him for indulging in sex in a manner that neglects these principles.

a form ofmagic" Ibid., 221; emphasis added.

31

The body, as the locus of the main yogic work, has its esoteric counterpart in the

so-called subtle body (suksm sarif). I correlate the subtle body and the work done with

and upon it to the theory and practice ofimagination. In addition, I explore in more detail

the thesis that magic, yoga, and eros are compatible categories

The material bindu, on its reversed journey toward the head, assumes at the

intermediary level of this trajectory the form of the sound and speech. Chapter three,

therefore, attempts to understand the esoteric aspects of speech and its relation to power

through analysis of The Sayings of Gorakh. The concepts of mantra, sabad, and ndd are

explored as well as the correlation between speech and bindu. It is emphasized that the

rhetoric of the Nam Siddhas reflects the general principle ofreversal, as exemplified both

in the form and content of a number of poems in The Sayings of Gorakh. This chapter

concludes with the suggestion that esotericism itself may even be understood as a

particular mode of discourse.

Following the reversed journey of the bindu, we finally arrive at the level of the

head, where the bindu is transmuted into the elixir, perceived as a light, and

psychologically experienced as a bliss of gnosis. Chapter four, consequently, engages the

issues of ideology, of ethics, and the role of mind in the discipline of yoga. I suggest that

the ideology of the yogis is esoteric, among other reasons, because it concerns itself

mostly with lineages and gurus, whose importance in esotericism is quintessential. The

ethics is, similarly, related to the requirements of yoga and differs from the exoteric

morality, exemplified by the varndsramadharma. The ideal achievement of the mind

developed through the practice of yoga is wisdom, gnosis; it must be pointed out that this

is an experiential and not erudite wisdom. And functionally, the mind is employed in the

32

practice of meditation, which is analogous to what Western esotericism understands as

the work of imagination.

In the concluding chapter, I argue that the 'translation of cultures' is feasible and

that the conceptual assets of esotericism enrich our understanding of yoga. Seen through

the lenses of magic, the Naths gain in legibility. I also suggest, with Peter Lamborn

Wilson, that esotericism should be seen as a means of cultural transfer. The

commensurability between Indian and Western esoteric tradition is explained, in addition

to possible historical contacts, through the proposal, advanced by loan Couliano, that the

unity of humankind lies in the operations of the human mind. The final chapter is

followed by the Appendix, which consists of the translation of The Sayings of Gorakh.

33

CHAPTER 1

THE ESOTERIC CULTURE OF THE NATH SIDDHAS:

THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS

I thought it possible to oppose a typological comparison between historically independent phenomena, on one hand, and a more strictly historical analogy on the other ... I have permitted myself to be guided by chance and curiosity, not by a conscious strategy.

Carlo Ginzburg, Myths, Emblems, Clues

Let us also now note that a historical survey cannot be contemplated here, both because there is no relevant material for a history of ideas in India and because the Indians themselves - even though they may have disputed against each other - have always been inclined to expound their various systems sub speciae aeternitatis, and not according to their historical unfolding.

André Padoux, Vâc: The Concept of the Word in Selected Hindu Tantras

Let us start this chapter from the margins. My examples concern Wittgenstein's

marginalia on Frazer's classic of 'armchair ethnology,' The Golden Bough.

Wittgenstein's comments have been the subject of an insightful analysis by Stanley

Tambiah in his Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality.' Both

Wittgenstein's and Tambiah's remarks are integral to my argument. The crux of the

matter lies in the following: In 1931, Wittgenstein made notes on Frazer's book,

Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah, Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). Wittgenstein's marginalia are discussed on pp. 54-64. For the full text see A. C. Miles and Rush Rhees, "Ludwig Wittgenstein's 'Remarks on Frazer's Golden Bough', " Human World, 3 (May 1971): 28-41.

34

expressing often his irritation at the author's narrow-minded approach to the issue of

magic.2 One of Wittgenstein's criticisms, as commented on by Tambiah, is especially

relevant. Tambiah states that "Wittgenstein raises the acute question of 'translation

between cultures': if Frazer uses the English words 'ghosts' and 'gods' to represent

savage concepts, does this not imply that he is equating these terms with those familiar to

him in his own cultural experience as a modern European?" In other words, Wittgenstein

is drawing attention to the fact that 'savage concepts,' such as those concerned with

magic, are an integral part of our language, which in its turn determines our own

mentality and comprises an element of our own culture. He expresses this idea succinctly

through the formulation that "In our language a whole mythology is laid down.' The

implication is that Frazer and the 'savage,' the scientist and the magician, share a

common ground, that they are related, connected. "In proposing this unity of mankind,"

comments Tambiah, "Wittgenstein reveals a truth that some of our contemporary

philosophers have been trying to articulate: that translation of another culture's

conceptions into our linguistic categories necessarily implies a 'shared space,' a

'bridgehead of understanding between the two."5

The conviction that magic, or the occult, or esotericism is 'a shared space' between

Indian and Western cultural spheres is at the heart of my approach to understanding of the

Nam Siddhas and The Sayings of Gorakh. I am persuaded that the laws that govern the

operational principles of Western and Indian occultism are to a significant degree

commensurable. For that reason, I maintain that it is meaningful to correlate the model,

2 Wittgenstein writes: "How narrow is the spiritual life for Frazer! Thus, How impossible to understand another life in terms of the English life of his time! Frazer can imagine no priest who is not basically an English parson of our time, with all his stupidity and dullness". In Tambiah, Magic, Science, Religion, 60. Ibid., 61.

35

developed in the study of Western esotericism, with its Indian counterpart. What follows

will then be the test of my proposal that it makes sense to look at the yoga of Gorakhnath

and his followers through the lenses of esotericism / occultism / magic.

The comparability between Indian and Western esotericism is rarely argued or

emphasized in scholarship. My conclusion is that the reason for this attitude lies in a

lingering feeling of embarrassment surrounding the category of the occult. The category

is still marginal. It reveals a collective blind spot that so many scholars have noted an

element of magic / occult in the make-up of tantra6 yet almost no one has taken pains to

explain what it is. For that reason, in order to throw as much light as possible on that

spot, I am going to engage in what otherwise might seem an excessively detailed and

lengthy clarification of the fundamental principles of esotericism. I do so out of the

conviction that the category is essential for understanding of the thoughts and actions of

the Nath Siddhas and the message of The Sayings of Gorakh. Because of its importance

and insufficient familiarity, I propose to tackle the issue from three angles.

I will commence with the definitions of esotericism and the occult advanced by

the sociologist Edward Tiryakian. They are in overall agreement with Faivrian model, but

are also well suited for initial considerations because of their more general nature and

loose structure. Tiryakian's definitions are useful in order to make as aware of the

heuristic distinction between esoteric theory and occult practice. Secondly, I will probe

the essential features of magic and alchemy. While Tiryakian deals with general

principles, magic and alchemy are specific occult disciplines that are especially relevant

Ibid., 63. Italics as in the original. 5 Ibid.

36

in approaching the phenomenon of the Nath Siddhas. Lastly, I will correlate the yoga of

the Naths with the model of esotericism as proposed by Antoine Faivre, the subject

matter of which has now hopefully become more familiar. In each of these three avenues

of engagement with the principles of esoteric doctrine and occult practice I will be

substantiating my arguments by providing pertinent examples from The Sayings of

Gorakh.

THE OCCULT AND ESOTERICISM: THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND

DEFINITIONS

In an influential article,' American sociologist Edward A. Tiryakian has offered some

comprehensive and well-informed definitions of the terms 'occult' and 'esoteric'.8

Tiryakian's insights, which are in general agreement with the Faivrian model, seem a

perfect point of departure in order to understand the Nâth Siddhas in the light of these

concepts. Let us first see how he defines the occult:

By "occult" I understand intentional practices, techniques, or procedures which (a) draw upon hidden or concealed forces in nature or the cosmos that cannot be measured or recognized by the instruments of modern science, and (b) which have as their desired or intended consequences empirical results, such as either obtaining knowledge of the empirical course of events or altering them from what they would have been without this intervention. ... To go on further, insofar as the subject of occult

6 For example, André Padoux comments that "In an early but still interesting study, H. von Glasenapp very aptly defined Tantrism as 'eine universale Weltaschauung sakraler Magie' (Tantrismus und Saktismus,' Ostasiatishe Zeitschrift, neue Folge, b. 12, 1936, pp. 120-33)". In Padoux, Vâc, 37, n.18; emphasis added. 'Edward A. Tiryakian, "Toward the Sociology of Esoteric Culture," in American Journal of Sociology 78 (November 1972): 491-512. The article was subsequently reprinted in On the Margin of the Visible: Sociology, the Esoteric, and the Occult, ed. Edward A. Tiryakian (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1974), 257-80. My references are to the latter source. The importance of Tiryakian's conceptualizations is also indicated by the fact that Antoine Faivre utilized his definitions in the article on occultism that was included in The Encyclopedia of Religion, 16 vols, ed. in chief Mircea Eliade (New York: Macmillan, 1987). Faivre's article was reprinted in Hidden Truths, 3-9. 8 "The distinction between esotericism and occultism did not really enter the vocabulary until the middle of the nineteenth century ... ". Faivre, Access to Western Esotericism, 34.

37

activity is not just any actor, but one who has acquired specialized knowledge and skills necessary for the practices in question, and insofar as these skills are learned and transmitted in socially (but not publicly available) organized, routinized, and ritualized fashion, we can speak of these practices as occult sciences or occult arts. Commonly recognized occult practices include a variety of phenomena, such as those designated as "magic"9 and divinatory practices, which are very numerous cross-culturally ...; they also include practices which are oriented to changing the physical nature of nonhuman objects by the active participation or ego involvement of the subject, as in the case of alchemy.1

An important aspect of the occult is that it represents a certain mode of praxis, certain

form ofactivity. In this context, it is interesting to note that "in India the word which best

corresponds to our word ritual is karman, action; sympathetic magic is the factum, krtya,

par excellence."" This practical orientation does not mean, however, that magic and

alchemy, for example, as occult disciplines or sciences, do not posses their own particular

set of theoretical notions, their ideology. As Antoine Faivre reminds us, "occultism, in

12

the most precise sense of the word, necessarily includes a form of theory." But

juxtaposed in relation to the concept of esotericism, the occult may justifiably be defined

as a set of practical methods and techniques.

According to Faivre, each occult discipline "has its own method, but the laws

establishing them rest on an identical principle ... Essentially this is the homo-analogical

principle matching like to like, and this means one ofthe two can act on the other. This

occurs by virtue of 'correspondences' that unite all visible things and likewise unite the

' "Parlor tricks or stage magic is not meant here, but rather such practices as sorcery, witchcraft, ritual or ceremonial magic, and the like." Tiryakian, "Sociology of Esoteric Culture," 278, n.9. " Ibid., 265. Mauss, Theory of Magic, 19. " Antoine Faivre, "What is Occultism?", in Hidden Truths, 4. "3 This is also roughly equivalent to the Indian notion of sidhana.

38

latter with invisible realities."14 We have already encountered the concept of

correspondences on several occasions; they are at the root of esoteric thinking and

represent the foundational principle of occult practices. Their importance is clearly

paramount.

The broader field of esotericism provides the theoretical foundation and

elaboration of the principles upon which the occult practices rest. This is how Tiryakian

defines the concept of esotericism:

By "esoteric" I refer to those religiophilosophic belief systems which underlie occult techniques and practices; that is, it refers to the more comprehensive cognitive mappings o of nature and cosmos, the epistemological and ontological reflections of ultimate reality, which mappings constitute a stock of knowledge that provides the ground for occult procedures. By way of analogy, esoteric knowledge is to occult practices as the corpus of theoretical physics is to engineering applications. But a crucial aspect of esoteric knowledge is that it is a secret knowledge of the reality of things, of hidden truths, handed down, frequently orally and not all at once, to a relatively small number of persons who are typically ritually initiated by those already holding this knowledge. Moreover, it should be added, this knowledge is not of a detached or objective sort about an outer reality which stands against the observer as this page stands against the reader; esoteric knowledge is of a participatory sort, namely a knowledge (or gnosis) of the meaning of the world to human existence, in the progressive realization of which the subject develops internally and liberates himself from the strictures of everyday life.'

Again, one needs to emphasize that the clear-cut division between the categories of the

occult and esoteric is not possible and that although esotericism represents the theoretical

foundation, "it must be recognized that esotericism itself also has a practical dimension. It

is not pure speculation, since the active knowledge, enlightenment and imagination that

Faivre, Access to Western Esotericism, 34. Emphases added. "5 Tiryakian, "Sociology of Esoteric Culture," 265-6.

39

constitute it correspond to a form of praxis.""6 For practical purposes, however, it seems

beneficial to maintain the heuristic division between esotericism as a form of thought

(theory) and the occult as a mode of practical application (praxis) of this theoretic

substructure

In order to contextualize the above presented generalizations, I now propose to apply

Tiryakian's definitions of the terms 'occult' and 'esoteric,' trusting that their semantic

field has now become more familiar, to the phenomenon of the Nam Siddhas. My

intention at this place is to break apart into smaller units the elements of his definitions

(which are of general nature) and to investigate if they are applicable to the theory and

practice of the jog Is. Is it justifiable, in other words, to approach the Nath yogis through

the conceptual framework of the occult and esoteric?

THE NATH SIDDHAS AND THE OCCULT

Let us start this section with the analysis of Tiryakian's definition of the occult and its

application on the practices of the Siddhas. As we have seen, the occult is understood in

reference to those "intentional practices, techniques, or procedures which ... draw upon

hidden or concealed forces in nature or the cosmos ... " Now, the basic model of yogic

sadhana as envisioned by the Naths consists of a set of exercises aimed at the

manipulation of the currents of energy, understood in their spiritual meaning, within the

human body. For example, yogis perform breathing practices (pranayam) in particular

posture (asari), aided by visualization and mantra chanting, in order to 'wake up' the

" Faivre, "What is Occultism," 3-4. " Tiryakian, "Sociology of Esoteric Culture," 265.

40

kundalini force, imagined as a coiled serpent situated at the base of the spine.18

According to White,

In every human body, the female kundalini serpent sleeps coiled ... It is only in the body of a yogin that she is ever awakened, and her awakening corresponds precisely to the initiation of the yogin's progressive withdrawal into total yogic integration (samadhi) ... On a more concrete level, it is the rise of the kundalini that brings about the transmutation of the raw semen into nectar in the cranial vault ... 19

Additional information is in place here if the above quotation is to be properly

understood. The Nath Siddhas believe that the cranial vault, for which they use code

words such as gagan mandal ('heavenly circle'), sunya ('emptiness', 'empty'), or the

'Moon,' is the locus of the elixir (amrt, ras) which, in ordinary circumstances, drips

down through the spinal column until it gets destroyed by the 'Sun' in the gastric fire and

through the seminal emission. This process is the principal cause of aging and death, and

its reversal - set up, for example, through the process of kundalini yoga mentioned in the

above quotation - makes possible the achievements of both metaphysical and practical

goals. That is to say, the Nath yogis attain the spiritual goal of yoga {samadhi) as well as

the practical goal of acquisition of the elixir of longevity and immortality by 'drawing

upon hidden or concealed forces [in this case, the kundalini] in nature or the cosmos'. It

should also be obvious from this example that the practices of yoga "have as their desired

or intended consequences empirical results, such as ... altering [the course of events]

90 from what they would have been without this intervention." For in doing the above, a

"8 For more information about this subject, see the classic study by Lilian Silburn, Kundalini: The Energy of the Depths (Albany, N.Y .: SUNY Press, 1988), especially pp. 121-33, which deal with the Nathist conceptions and practices. " White, Alchemical Body, 218. 20 Tiryakian, "Sociology of Esoteric Culture," 265.

41

yogi "rejuvenates himself - growing younger instead of older - and realizes all manner of

71

other powers that flaunt the laws of nature, culminating in bodily immortality."

Let us continue the examination of this particular, in many respects essential,

practice of the Siddhas and let us see some of its reflections in The Sayings of Gorakh.

There are many allusions in the sabads and pads of this poetry to the system of cakras

within the human body, and to the various experiences connected to the waking and

rising of the kundalini, its way upward towards the 'Moon' in the head of the yogi, and

to the yogi's drinking of the elixir (and the foolishness of those who allow the semen, the

bindu, to be wasted instead of transmuted into amrt). Here are some examples:

"In the circle of the sky, there is an upside-down well. / There is the residence of

nectar. / Who has a guru can drink it all. / Who is without a guru remains thirsty."23 This

sabad is, to a large degree, self-explanatory: it is safe to assume that the 'upside-down

well' refers to the uppermost cakra in the human body, from which the nectar drips down

continually. In the case of ordinary people, the nectar is wasted, while yogis strive to

preserve it through celibacy and yogic practices. The second part of the sabad refers to

the importance of the spiritual teacher, a precept that is ubiquitously met in yogic and

tantric literature, and which does not require further commentary. Note, however, the

element of spiritual elitism in the second half of the sabad. The elitism, and the sense of

supremacy and power that stem from it, consists of two mutually related facts or

existential situations: having a teacher and having the result of practice. And while

21 White, "Wonders of Sri Mastnath," 400. 221 have to acknowledge the fact that my commentaries related to the meaning of the esoteric imagery in The Sayings of Gorakh are in general influenced by the editorial glosses of Pitambardat Barthwal (who edited and commented in Hindi upon the original text) and by the oral commentaries of Dr. Shukdev Singh with whom I translated these verses. These two scholars are not responsible, however, for the possible mistakes and misunderstandings that may arise from my exegetical attempts.

42

having a teacher is an objectively verifiable (i.e., exoteric) fact, the drinking of the nectar

is an esoteric claim based on the performance of the occult practice.

"Having drunk the downward-flowing nectar of immortality /1 have pierced the

six petals. / There I, Sri Gorakh-rai, / Have seen the Moon without moonlight." Again,

this is a sabad with a rather transparent meaning. The piercing of the 'six petals' is a

reference to the six cakras25 along the spinal column through which the kundalini passes

on her upward journey towards the 'Moon' in the head. The fact that this 'Moon' is

without moonlight indicates that it should be understood in its spiritual and not literal

meaning. As for the value of the experience resulting from meditations on the cakras, its

importance is paramount. Work on the cakras is a yogic practice par excellence and their

description is a leitmotif in tantric and yogic literature. As Kalyani Mallik asserts,

"Concentration on the nerve-centres known as Cakras, confers on the Yogi superhuman

powers."26 It is also interesting to note that Gorakhnath refers to himself both by using

the (usually religious) honorific Sri and by calling himself the 'king' (rai), as if in

reference to both the spiritual and temporal importance of his achievement.

"The reversed sakti rises to brahmand; / The breath plays throughout the body,

from the toes to the topknot. / The reversed Moon eclipses Rahu. / This is a sign of

97 successs, says the sage Gorakh." In this sabad, the emphasis is on the process of

GBS 23. "gagan mandal maim ümdhä kübä tahäm ammrt kä bäsä / sagurä hoi su bhari bhari pTvai nigurä jäi piyäsä." 24 GBS 171. "nlmjhar jharnai ammlmras pTvanäm sat dal dekhyä jäi / cand bihümnäm cändinäm tahäm dekhyä srl gorakhräi." 25 On the subject of cakras in this context, see, for example, an interesting and informative essay "The System of Cakras According to Goraksanätha," in Gopinath Kaviraj, Notes on Religion and Philosophy (Varanasi: Sampurnanand Sanskrit University, 1987), 47-55. 26 Mallik, Siddha-Sidhänta-Paddhati, 37. 27 GBS 217. "ultT sakti carhai brahmand nakh sakh pavanäm khelai sarbang / ulti candra räh küm grahai sidh sänket jatl gorakh kahai." In order to maintain the rhyme, the first verse should end with 'sarbang khelai."

43

reversal (ulta sadhari), by which "the yogi succeeds in reversing the natural trends of

aging, disease, and death, and channels his energy, seed, and breath upward, against the

98

normal flow of bodily process." Not only does the energy, the sakti, move upwards

towards the uppermost cakra (referred to as the brahmind), and not only does the breath

move up 'from the toes to the topknot', but even the Moon eclipses the demon Rahu,

reversing in this manner the ordinary course of events in which it is Rahu who swallows

the Moon, causing its eclipse. This signifies that the yogi has changed and liberated

himself from the course of ordinary events - a 'sign of success'. (The ulta sadhan, a 90

process often designated by the metaphorical expression as 'reversing the nadt and its

concomitant vocabulary and imagery of the 'revaluation of all values' is most notably

referred to in the pad section of The Sayings of Gorakh and it will be treated more

comprehensively in the chapter on rhetoric, i.e. the 'esotericism of the speech.')

Let us proceed now by analyzing further components of occult practices. The

subject of these practices is, according to Tiryakian, "not just any actor, but one who has

acquired specialized knowledge and skills ... learned and transmitted in socially (but not

publicly available) organized, routinized, and ritualized fashion Here, again, it is

obvious that this element, namely the initiation, represents a sine qua non of the yogic

way of life and practice. The Nath Siddhas are an initiatic order and the knowledge of

yoga is transmitted only to those candidates who have undergone this ritual. After the

initiation, the novices are invested with the large earrings which are the distinctive mark

of the jogis and due to which custom they are often called the 'split-eared' or kanphata

yogis. Briggs describes this aspect of the initiation as follows: 28 White, "Wonders of Sri Mastnath," 400. 29 Ibid.

44

In the final stage of their ceremony of initiation a specially chosen guru, or teacher, splits the central hollows of both ears with a two-edged knife (or razor). The slits are plugged with sticks of nim-wood; and, after the wounds have healed, large rings (mudra) are inserted. These are a symbol of the Yogi's faith. Some explain that in splitting the ear a nadi (mystic channel) in the cartilege is cut, thus assisting in the acquirement of yogic power. The Yogi, wearing the mudra, becomes immortal.

The initiation itself is preceded, as might be expected, by a period of testing the

candidates. "The candidate is first closely confined for a period ranging from forty days

to three to six months ... During this time the candidate is tried as to his resolution and

IT

ability to carry through his undertaking." This testing is an obvious indication of the

selective nature of the order: it is not meant for everybody, nor is it a public event. The

candidate must prove himself or herself worthy of initiation, for initiation gives access to

power. Subsequently, after the trial is successfully completed, there comes a fast of few

days. The candidate then bathes and brings gifts for the guru. The candidate takes the

vow, is given instructions, and, most importantly, he or she receives the mantra. After

that, the novice receives the robe, followed by the ceremonial shaving of the hair. At the IT

end of ceremony, there follows a feast. The supreme significance of the initiation is

appropriately indicated by the statement from Malik Muhammad Jaisi's Padmdvati,

22.8., "Now you are perfect, having received initiation: the mildew has been cleared

away from the mirror of your body."34

It is obvious that the actual process of initiation is not openly described in the

poetry of The Sayings of Gorakh, this being a secret affair. In a general sense, the

30 Tiryakian, "Sociology of Esoteric Culture," 265. 31 Briggs, Gorakhnath, 6. 32 Ibid., 28. 33 See ibid., 28-9.

45

importance of the initiation is indicated on numerous occasions where the necessity of

having a guru is emphasized, for the guru is the one who performs the ceremony and

transmits the teaching. Here are some verses that refer to the initiation and the benefits

stemming from it:

"Realize Sada-Siva in the akas4attval / Inside it is the nirvan-pad. / Who

becomes intimate with the body through initiation, / For him there is no more coming-

if

and-going." In this sabad, the expression 'coming-and-going' refers to the process of

life and death, in other words, to samsar, the realm of the false reality. The sabad refers

to initiation as an opening into the knowledge of the secret aspect of the body, through

the mastery of which, freedom from the continuous rounds of births and deaths is

secured. It is an axiom of yogic lore that the human body is a potential instrument of

liberation and of the acquisition of power, once its secrets are learned and mastered

through appropriate practices. As the verse from The Sayings of Gorakh declares rather

bluntly, "The unexamined body is a useless pit. / In the end, it will be [but] a burden."

In a Sanskrit text attributed to Gorakhnath, the Gorak$a Sataka, the importance of the

proper (esoteric) knowledge of the body is expressed in the following verses:

How can Yogis, who do not know the six centres (cakra), the sixteen props (adhara), the 3,00,000 ('channels,' nadi) (and) the five sheaths iyyomd) in their (own) body, attain perfection (in Yoga)? How can those Yogis, who do not know their own body (as) a house of one column (with) nine doors, and (as presided over by) five tutelary divinities, attain perfection (in Yoga)?37

35 GBS 168. "äkäs tat sadä-siv jämn / tasi abhiantari pad nirbämn / pyamde parcämnai gurmukhi joi / - Padmavati, 134.

bähuhi äbä gavan na hoi." 36 GBS 216. "aparcai pind bhikhyä khät hai anti käli hoygä bhärl." Goraksa Sataka, 13-14. Trans, in Briggs, Gorakhnath, 287-8.

46

The value and power of the initiation is also described in the following verses from The

Sayings of Gorakh: "O you, who turn towards heart, receive initiation from the guru! /

Give up flesh and blood into the mouth of fire! / Cast off the elements [i.e. blood and

semen] of mother and father! / Whosoever is like this, is able to summon God."38 And, in

a similar vein: "Where there is hope, there is disappointment; / And where there is doubt,

there is sorrow. / These cannot be avoided without initiation. / Both are great ills."39 The

most explicit reference to the teaching related to the way of life to be led subsequent to

initiation are offered in the following set of precepts from the pad section of The Sayings

of Gorakh:

This is the initiation sermon given by Sri Gorakh Raya Who has reformed the four worldly classes. [Refrain]

Study yourself! Distinguish between proper and improper law! Know the mystery of mysteries! Fulfil hopes and expectations!

In the middle of a difficult juncture Perform five sandhya prayers at the proper times. You should remain at the tenth door And serve the feet of the Formless One.

Chant the ajapa chant, Consider your own self. Let go of all crutches; There is neither virtue nor sin there.

Fix yourself in meditation day and night. You should rejoice in the eternal Ram. Gorakhnath speaks this wisdom: I have found the supreme treasure.40

3 GBS 180. "man mukhi jata guru mukhi lehu / lohl mas agni mukhi dehu / mat pita kl metau dhat / aisa

" GBS 235. "je asa to apadaje samsa to sog / guru mukhi bina na bhajasTye dunyom bar rog." hoi bulavai nath."

" Gorakh Bam, pad33. "aisa re upades dakhai sri gorakh raya, jini jag catur baran rah laya /tek/. parhilai sasamved / karilai bidhi nakhed / jamnilai bhedamnbhed / purilai asa umed III bikhmT sandhi samjhan /

47

As a general conclusion, I trust that the above examples have demonstrated that initiation

represents an essential aspect of the yogic way of life as envisioned by the Nath Siddhas.

The secrets of yoga, the proper way of practice, the transmission of the mantra to a

disciple, all these elements that make the actual sadhana meaningful and possible are

dependant on the successfully underwent ritual of initiation. In the words of Douglas

Brooks, "The Tantric takes for granted that his Tantric initiation is a privileged destiny;

he holds himself above others in the sense of having reached a stage in the cycles of

rebirth that he believes is final."4 David Gordon White, writing about his personal quest

in India relates that "the few Nath Siddhas who struck me as genuine practitioners of the

hatha yoga taught by Gorakhnath made it clear that they would be willing to divulge

their secrets to me only after a long period of discipleship."" It follows, then, that to the

degree that initiation is a vital component of occult practice, it is justifiable to understand

the Siddhas as an occult phenomenon. Let us see now to what extent it is appropriate to

refer to their theory as an esoteric one. Again, I will break apart Tiryakian's general

definition of the concept and apply its constitutive elements to the Naths.

samjhaya pancau vakhat sari / rahiba dasvai duvari / seiba pad nirakar 111 japilai ajapajap / bicarilai apai ap / chutila sabai biyap / lipai nahTm taham puni pap 111 aho nisi sama dhyamn / nirantar rameba ram / kathai gorakhnath gyarnn / paiya param nidhamn /4/." (The subsequent references to the pads will be abbreviated as GBP) "1 Brooks, Secret ofthe Three Cities, 135. 42 White, Alchemical Body, xi. In the light of these remarks, the 'objective' scholarship conducted by a non- initiated 'outsider' is, by necessity and at its best, just an educated guess. On the epistemological and ethical problems inherent in the study of secret societies and esoteric lore see also Hugh B. Urban, The

2001), esp. 15-28. Economics ofEcstasy: Tantra, Secrecy, and Power in Colonial Bengal (Oxford: Oxford University Press,

48

THE NATH SIDDHAS AND ESOTERICISM

Tiryakian defines esotericism as a set of belief systems that refer to the "cognitive

mappings of nature and cosmos, the epistemological and ontological reflections of

ultimate reality" that function as "the ground for occult procedures."43 In this respect, the

central feature of the Nath Siddhas' ideology is, arguably, the claim that the human body

is a replica, a microcosm, of the ontological plenum, the macrocosm. To the degree that

Siddhas share the general outlook of Saiva tantrics, the macrocosm is understood as the

result of the dynamic relationship between Siva and Sakti; to the degree that their theory

is esoteric, these two divinities are assumed to be present within the human body,

together with the other constitutive elements of the universe, both metaphysical and

phenomenological. The yogic interiorization of alchemical practices is also justified and

made possible through the application of the above model: the external and the internal

are related and correspondent to each other. The principal dictum that establishes

correlation between external alchemy and internal yogic practices is based on the claim

"best summed up in a classic aphorism from the foundational Rasarnava [17.165a];

yatha lohe thatha dehe, "as in metal, so in the body.""44 I will treat the correspondence

between universe and human body more extensively in due course; let it suffice at this

point to make an observation of the general sort: the basic ideological stance of the Nath

Siddhas is, in its nature, in essential agreement with the esoteric modes ofthinking.

A crucial aspect of esoteric knowledge is that it is imparted and transmitted

"frequently orally and not all at once, to a relatively small number of persons who are

Tiryakian, "Sociology of Esoteric Culture," 265. White, Alchemical Body, 5.

49

typically ritually initiated by those already holding this knowledge." The practice of

initiation among the Siddhas has already been discussed. It needs to be added that,

"Initiation is divided, roughly, into two stages ... An initiate in the first stage is called an

Aughar; in the second stage he becomes a full-fledged Yogi."46 This fact of the two-stage

initiation confirms the custom of handing down esoteric knowledge 'not all at once.' In

The Saying of Gorakh the interlocutor is habitually addressed as an avadhut, which in

this context presumably refers to a stage of discipleship; the adepts are usually designated

as naths or siddhas. And the yogic lore is a secret knowledge: even when it is openly

expressed, its full meaning and impact remains epistemologically opaque for those who

lack the immediate experience of the realities spoken about. In the words of Gorakhnath,

"Only rare yogis understand these verses."147

Finally, "esoteric knowledge is of a participatory sort, namely a knowledge (or

gnosis) of the meaning of the world to human existence, in the progressive realization of

which the subject develops internally and liberates himself from the strictures of

everyday life."48 There are many references in The Sayings of Gorakh to the illuminating

experiences of liberation that result from the practice of yoga. For example, "Niranjan

Nath is proclaiming: / 'My comings and goings are over! / Searching the body and the

universe, /1 obtained all the siddhis."49 These experiences, which confer gnostic insights

into the nature of reality, are clearly not of a discursive kind and are thus beyond the

reach of pundits who rely on the bookish knowledge: "Read, read, read - so many have

45 Tiryakian, "Sociology of Esoteric Culture," 265. 46 Briggs, Gorakhnath, 27. 47 GBS 6. "te pad jamnarn birlajogT." " Tiryakian, "Sociology of Esoteric Culture," 265-6. * GBP 23: Refrain, "aum nahlm jaum niranjan nath kl duhaT/ pyand brahmand khojamta, amhe sab sidhi pal"

50

thus died; / Speak, speak, speak - what has been achieved in such a way? / Going on and

on and on - so many bodies have gone / Without realizing parabrahman"50 The yogic

knowledge is gnostic and secret; it transcends the phenomenal world and probes into the

reality that is beyond: "Thinking arises from the unthinkable; / Thinking troubles the

whole world. / The yogi forgets the thinking, / And immerses [himself] into

unthinkable."51 And the ultimate effect of this illuminating knowledge is that it liberates

one from 'the strictures of everyday life' which, within the context of the Indian cultural

universe, and its spiritual expectations, means that one who has obtained this knowledge

is freed from the continuing rounds of births and deaths, from samsar. Gorakhnath

proclaims this almost triumphantly: "Above the nose, in between the eyebrows, /1 remain

fixed day and night. / I will not return to birth in mother's womb, /1 will not suck the

milk again!"

So far, I have treated esotericism and the occult in general. At this point, I would like to

engage in the clarification of magic and alchemy, which are two specific occult

disciplines that are of critical importance for understanding of the Nath Siddhas. We are

often told that the jogis are involved in magical and alchemical practices, but the general

principles of these disciplines are rarely elaborated. Here again, as throughout, I am

assuming that the operative principles of esoteric thought and occult practices are cross-

culturally valid and consistent.

GBS 248. "parhi parhi parhi keta muva kathi kathi kathi kaha klnh / barhi barhi barhi bahu ghat gaya parabrahm nahTm clnh." " GBS 244. "cyant acyant hi upajai cyanta sab jug khln / jogT cyanta blsarai tau hoi acyantahi Hn."

51

MAGIC

It seemed an opportune strategic move to focus on the theoretical elaboration of the

concept of magic after some basic understanding of the occult and esotericism has been

established. My principle thesis is that the sidhana of the Nath yogis may be understood

as a form of occult practice and that their 'theory' may be understood as a mode of

esoteric thought. I would now like to concentrate on the elaboration of the concept of

magic as a particular occult discipline: its definitions and the foundational principles. I

have to emphasize again that it is not possible to draw a clear demarcation line between

the concepts of magic and the occult, especially since the usage varies with different

authors. As a general principle, magic is to be understood as a more inclusive category, as

a particular occult discipline (the others being alchemy, astrology, divination - to name

the most important).

It is rather difficult to define with taxonomie certainty what magic really is.

Individual, theological, and, yes, scholarly bias is responsible for this confusion to a great

extent, for the word magic has a long history of pejorative use, and its application is

often but a declaration of the dismissal of something as a mere superstition.54 Richard

King, following Grace Jantzen, has argued that a definition is also a "conceptual site of a

GBS 275. "nasika agre bhru mandale, ahanis rahiba thiram / mata garbhi na ayba, bahuri na plyba khiram." s Naomi Janowitz, in her study of magical practices in late antiquity, asserts: "This study build on the growing consensus that such labels as 'magic are inseparable from their pejorative use in the past." Icons of Power: Ritual Practices in Late Antiquity (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002), xiv. She consequently discards the label, which is one of the possible ways to look at the issue from a novel and respectful perspective (and obviously, not the methodological choice I follow in this study). " Janowitz reminds us of the fact that "In addition to the negative associations, the practice of magic was a criminal offence under Roman law (Iulius Paulus Excerpts 5.23.14-18). To be accused of practicing magic had all the drama of modern charges of high treason and could have lethal results." Icons of Power, 2.

52

historical struggle for power and authority" and this is evidently true in the case of

magic, especially in the Western hemisphere.5 One can generalize that the authority and

power of the Church, for example, put the sign of equation between magic and heresy,

while for Science, magic meant but a domain of the irrational.57 At this particular

moment in history, magic is undergoing a phase of renewed scholarly interest. Instead of

being treated in evolutionary terms a la James Frazer, or as an outdated forerunner of

science a la Lynn Thorndike, it is now becoming increasingly evident that magic

represents a genuine mode of religious life that is both historically enduring and cross-

culturally ubiquitous. But the precise definition of the term is still problematic, and the

category remains marginal. As Michael D, Swartz explains,

Richard King, Orientalism and Religion: Postcolonial Theory, India and 'the Mystic East' (London and New York: Routledge, 1999), 9 and passim. King is referencing Grace Jantzen, Power, Gender and Christian Mysticism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). s Olof Petersson's comment addresses the issue eloquently: "the debate over the relationship between magic and religion is a discussion of an artificial problem created by defining religion on the pattern of Christianity. The elements of man's beliefs and ceremonies which did not coincide with the ideal type of religion were - and are - called magic. Magic became - and still becomes - a refuse heap for the elements which are not sufficiently 'valuable' to get a place within religion." Peterson, "Magic-Religion: Some Marginal Notes to an Old Problem," Ethnos 22 (1957), 109. Qtd. in John G. Gager, "Moses the Magician: Hero of an Ancient Counter-Culture?" Helios, Vol. 21,2 (Autumn 1994), 183. 57 Several authors have opined that Western Church, science, and magic definitely separated in the course of seventeenth century. For the thesis that magic, understood as an integral part of Renaissance culture, becomes marginalized by the advent of Protestant culture, Catholic Counter-Reformation, and secular science, see Couliano, Eros and Magic. According to him, this process is effected through the censorship and "rejection of the imaginary on the ground of principle" (222). Stanley Tambiah also claims that there is a link between the rise of Protestantism and science on the one hand, and the rejection of magic on the other. This fact had a direct influence on the development of anthropology and the study of religion. He writes, "It is my submission that this emphasis on religion as a system of beliefs, and the distinction between prayer and spell, the former being associated with 'religious' behaviour and the latter with 'magical' acts, was a Protestant legacy which was automatically taken over by later Victorian theorists like Tylor and Frazer, and given a universal significance as both historical and analytical categories useful in tracing the intellectual development from savagery to civilization." Tambiah, Magic, Science, Religion, 19. For the long history of the relationship between science and magic see, for example, Lynn Thorndike, A History of Magic and the Experimental Science, 8 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1923-58). Thorndike's study is monumental in its scope, but dated in its approach and conclusions. In this connection, it is interesting to note that even such quintessential representatives of the scientific thought as René Descartes and Isaac Newton cultivated interest in the occult. For the latter, see Betty Jo Teeter Dobbs, The Foundation's of Newton's Alchemy or "The Hunting ofthe Greene Lyon " (London: Cambridge University Press, 1975). Divorce between science and magic is also a subject of Tambiah's Magic, Science, Religion.

53

Contemporary students of religion have questioned the applicability ofthe term magic, and a satisfactory definition has not been formulated. Much of the controversy surrounding the term magic has focused on how the notion of magic is applied to traditional, non-Western societies. Bound up with this issue is the question of whether there is something intrinsic called 'magic' that can be separated from 'religion,' and whether this dichotomy presupposes an evolutionary view that sees those societies that employ 'magic' as inferior.58

In order to distinguish magic from other occult disciplines - and they all share general e general

theoretical background in esoteric mode of thought as defined by Faivre - we have to

take into consideration three elements.

1. First ofall, magic is characterized by its orientation toward power. Georg Luck,

a scholar of the Greek and Roman magic, defines it as "a technique grounded in a belief

in powers located in the human soul and in the universe outside ourselves, a technique

that aims at imposing the human will on nature or on human beings by using

supersensual powers. Ultimately, it may be a belief in the unlimited powers of the

soul."5 The key words here are 'power' and 'will'. It is a common perception that magic

has an active quality and this is most often the element that distinguishes it from

mysticism or conventional religion, which are perceived to be more passive. In simplified

terms, the magician imposes his will for the purpose of expected change, while a mystic

or a faithful surrenders himself or herself to the will of God. As Richard Kieckhefer

comments, "According to this approach, the central feature of religion is that it

Michael D. Swartz, Scholastic Magic: Ritual and Revelation in Early Jewish Mysticism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 19-20. 59 Luck, Arcana Mundi, 3.

54

supplicates God or the gods, and the main characteristic of magic is that it coerces

spiritual beings or forces."160

Teun Goudriaan, who wrote the only major scholarly monograph on Indian

magic, equally asserts that "The essence of magic is a grasp for power."61 As soon as this

is realized, the comparison between the principles of magic and the yoga of the Nam

Siddhas, whose whole practice is defined by the search for power (the siddhis), should

emerge as obvious and meaningful. Power is related to action, to agency, to doing things,

and this practical orientation is congenial to magic. In a similar spirit, Goudriaan and

Gupta define magic as "the performance of certain ritual acts - and the belief in the

efficacy of such acts - with a view of making use of certain natural laws of cause and

effect which are supposed to exist, in order to enforce some result(s) in the mundane

sphere desired by the performer or his instructor." Let us also recall that, in Sanskrit,

one of the words for magic is karman. Magic is therefore a way of action based on the

theoretical assumptions of esotericism that is directed toward acquisition of power.

In order to properly understand the nature of power as it is pursued in magic,

additional qualification is needed. In magic, as Marcel Mauss has shown, power is

approached as the sacred, or as the manifestation of the sacred. In Eliadean terms, in

magic, power has the quality of hierophany, or even of theophany. This is an extremely

important qualification and magic is not properly understood unless this is realized. The

consequences of this insight are weighty. Succinctly stated, this means that it is possible,

60 Richard Kieckhefer, Magic in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000 [1" ed. 1989]), 15; emphases in the original. I should add that Kieckhefer doubts the usefulness of this division. "1 Teun Goudriaan, Maya Divine and Human: A Study of Magic and Its Religious Foundations in Sanskrit Texts, with Particular Attention to a Fragment on Visnu's Maya Preeserved in Bali (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1978), 58. 2 This point is debatable.

55

in the final analysis, to understand magical acts as acts of devotion for they are intended

with the aim of participation in the sacred that is understood and approached as power.

When a Nath yogi wants to acquire the siddhis and become 'a second Siva' he or she

wants to have a share in these powers because they are prerogative of the Great Lord. In

this sense, if we want to reconceptualize the category of religion and to move away from

focusing on the issues of holy book, doctrine, and belief, we should be able to consider

magic as a genuine manifestation of religious drive, distinct from other forms only in its

chosen approach but not in dignity and seriousness, as it is often implied.

The sacral character of power in the system of the Nath yogis is reflected in the

orientation towards siddhis, which are on one hand miraculous powers pursued as such,

while on the other hand they reveal that their possessor, the siddha, resembles the Great

Lord through his omnipotence. Siva himself is revered as the master of yogic powers.

Finally, the sacred nature of power is related to the concept of sakti, which is understood

both as the manifest universe outwardly, and as the kundaliril sakti esoterically present

within the human body.

2. The second major constitutive element of magic, its basic operative force, is

imagination. According to Couliano's definition, "The magic that concerns us here is

theoretically a science of the imaginary, which it explores through its own methods and

seeks to manipulate at will."64 If the system of correspondences represents the theoretical

foundation of magic, its working mechanism - the faculty that makes the desired change

effective - is the power of imagination. According to Faivre, "It is the imagination that

allows the use of these intermediaries, symbols, and images to develop a gnosis, to

63 Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta, Hindu Tantric andSakta Literature (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1981), 112.

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penetrate the hieroglyphs of Nature, to put the theory of correspondences into active

practice and to uncover, to see, and to know the mediating entities between Nature and

the divine world. "65

The work of Henry Corbin66 is of vital importance for understanding the

principles of the theory of imagination (his context is mainly, but not exclusively, Islamic

mysticism). He is also credited with the introduction of the term mundus imaginalis. In

very simplified terms, the basic postulate of the theory of imagination (as understood

esoterically) is that it is the medium, the link that connects spiritual and human realms.

(Accordingly, the mundus imaginalis represents a 'middle earth' between these two, what

Paul Mus calls mesocosm). The system of correspondences is static in itself; it is only

through the medium of active, or creative, imagination that the mechanism begins to

operate, to work.

Couliano's study of magic also gives a prominent place to the concept of the

imaginary. According to his research, ancient authors (Aristotle being, as usual, the great

systematizer and authority) conceived of the imagination as a faculty that makes possible

communication (or mediation) between spiritual and corporeal realities. "For the soul has

no ontological aperture through which it can look down, while the body is only a form of

organization of natural elements ... On the other hand, the body opens up to the soul a

window to the world through the five sensory organs ... ". In other words, imagination is

a link between two distinct worlds that would otherwise be inaudible to each other and as

4 Ibid., xviii. Emphasis added. 65 Faivre, Access, 12; emphasis added. 66 See, for example, Henry Corbin, Alone with the Alone: Creative Imagination in the Süfism of Ibn 'Arabi. With a New Preface by Harold Bloom. Princeton, N.J .: Princeton University Press, 1997 (1969); Spiritual Body and Terrestrial Earth: From Mazdean Iran to Shl'ite Iran, trans. Nancy Pearson (Princeton, NJ .: Princeton University Press, 1977); The Voyage and the Messenger: Iran and Philosophy, trans. Joseph Rowe (Berkeley: North Atlantic Books, 1998); et al.

57

such it was the root and medium "of all the phantasmic processes of Renaissance: Eros,

the Art ofMemory,69 theoretical magic, alchemy and practical magic."70

In magic, therefore, the power of imagination is that which makes possible the

desired change. In the systems of tantra and the yoga of the Nath Siddhas, imagination is,

I suggest, operational as a force that builds the subtle body (suksm sanr) and establishes

connections with the cakras and other occult energies that exist not on the physical plane

but on the level of mundus imaginalis. Needless to say, the yogic terminology does not,

in this context, employ the word imagination. Instead, the process is designated as

meditation, dhydn," as practice, sddhan, as cultivation, bhdvand, and some other

appropriate terms. Closest to imagination in its phrasing is the concept of the 'mental

worship,' or the mdnasapujd. Goudriaan writes, "[The] 'mind' is considered here an

important source of power able to effect the same results, or even more, as an external

ritual. It is scarcely necessary to repeat that Tantric and other texts often attach great

value to the execution of 'mental worship' (manasapuja) which is sometimes said to far

to exceed in effectivity the external worship with lamps, flowers, grains and other

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articles." I will treat this matter to a greater length in following chapters; at this point,

let it suffice to establish as a working hypothesis the following assertion: the role that

67 Couliano, Eros and Magic, 4-5. ® The phantasms are images, which the inner sense, or phantasia, presents to the soul. In this sense, this is just an alternative expression for imagination. The important thing to remember is that both terms, fantasy and imagination, are in this context meant to be understood as image making faculties and intermediaries between material and spiritual realities. The terms do not have the connotation of the 'unreal' within this frame of reference. See ibid., 1-27 and throughout. " On this subject see Frances A. Yates, The Art of Memory (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966). 70 Ibid., 6. " Padoux remarks on the usage of term 'visualization' in this connection that, "These are the two meanings of the word dhydna: both meditation - notably of a deity - and a clear-cut mental picture created by meditation of the deity's form, according to its scriptural description (in dhyana-sloka)." Padoux, Vac: 47, n.37. 72 Ibid., 248.

58

manasapuja plays in tantra corresponds to the role that imagination plays in magic, as the

latter is understood in the West.

3. The third major fact that defines magic is that its nature is comparable to eros -

7'3

"Eros itself being a form of magic" - in the sense that both magical and erotic activities

are aimed at union.74 Starting from the belief in the universal correspondence, i.e.

sympathy and connection between things, it was but a short step to another important

conclusion: what binds the world together is the attraction, the love, the eros. Neoplatonic

speculations on the power of eros were correlated with magic in the Renaissance period

by Marsilio Ficino and especially by Giordano Bruno. His ideas, as Couliano reminds us,

"carry to an extreme end Ficinian theory oflove as a form of natural magic."75

Yoga may also be conceived as a science of unions, and the complementary pairs

that need to be united are very often, especially in tantra, given sexual signifiers.

Gopinath Kaviraj has observed that "when Siva and Sakti are united this phantasm [of

phenomenal world where Siva and Sakti appear as divided] vanishes into nothing. We

shall see that the aim of Yoga is the establishment of this Union. This will also explain

the existence of so much erotic imagery in connection with an account of this mater in the

Couliano, Eros and Magic, 221. "[Marsilio] Ficino is father of the equation Eros = magic, whose terms can doubtless be reversed." Ibid., 87. On Bruno, see also Frances A. Yates, Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991 [1" ed. London, 1964]) and Karen Silvia de Leon-Jones, Giordano Bruno and the Kabbalah: Prophets, Magicians and Rabbis (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997). " Cornelius Agrippa, perhaps the most influential Renaissance writer on the subject of magic, defines it at the beginning of his De Occulta Philosophia Libri Tres, in the following manner: "Magic ... produceth its wonderful effects , by uniting the virtues of things through the application ofthem one to the other ... joining and knitting them together ... " Qtd. in Christopher I. Lehrich, The Language of Demons and Angels: Cornelius Agrippa's Occult Philosophy (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2003), 44; emphases added. And in a similar vein, in his De Incertitudine et Vanitate Scientiarum atque Artium, Agrippa asserts that "Natural magic ... [works by] coupling the inferior things with the qualities of the superior, as it were by certain enticements, to cause a natural joining of them together ... " Qtd. in ibid. 64; emphases added. 75 Culianu, in Hidden Truths, 114.

59

Tantric and Nathic literature, both Hindu and Buddhistic, in the mediaeval ages." In this

sense, it is evident that both magic and yoga are related to the power of eros, provided

that the latter is understood as a drive toward union.

I would accordingly define magic as an occult science oriented toward power

(understood as a manifestation of the sacred), made operational through the power of

imagination, in its nature erotic (driven by a desire toward union). In all three elements,

magic is comparable and analogous to the discipline of tantra and hatha yoga, as has

already been indicated and as I will continue to suggest and demonstrate throughout this

work.

ALCHEMY

Alchemy is another occult discipline that requires theoretical clarification if the Nam

Siddhas are to be properly understood. As already mentioned, scholars such as Dasgupta,

Eliade, and White have emphasized the fact that náthist sádhana represents a translation

of alchemical procedures into yogic practice. However, alchemy is a discipline of such

bewildering complexity and its rhetoric idiosyncrasies are so opaque that they ask for,

and deserve, a much more comprehensive and detailed study then the scope of this work

admits. I will therefore have to be extremely selective and will limit myself to

presentation of the bare essentials.

At the outset, it needs to be understood that alchemy should not be treated as the

'precursor of chemistry.' "The alchemists were not interested - or only subsidiarily - in

the scientific study of nature. ... As we shall see presently, the alchemist's quest was not

Kaviraj, "History and Doctrine of the Nâthas," 73.

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scientific but spiritual. ... In brief, all alchemists have proclaimed their art to be an

esoteric technique pursuing a goal similar or comparable to that of the major esoteric and

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'mystical' traditions " In India, the alchemy is most closely correlated with tantric and

yogic traditions, as already mentioned on several occasions. Being an occult discipline,

alchemy is also closely related with issues of initiations and secrecy."

The most important alchemical concept is, arguably, the notion of transmutation.

In a hierarchically imagined universe, gold, divinity, and immortality are assigned the

uppermost position, and they are seen as mutually correspondent. "In ancient India, a text

from the eighth century BCE (Satapatha Brahmana 3.8.2.27) proclaims that 'gold is

immortality'."7 Alchemy rests on the claim that it is possible to transform the lower rings

of the 'great chain of being' into their superior correlates, a process that is habitually

referred to as the 'transmutation of the base metals into gold.' (The original substance

that is the subject of projected transformation is, in Western alchemy, usually designated

by the term materia prima.) If this principle is projected onto human body, the expected

result may be conceptualized in the following manner: "Just as gold neither corrodes nor

loses its brilliance with time, so too the human body may realize a perfect and immutable

state."80 The goal of alchemical practice is not necessarily imagined as gold; often, it is

conceived of in the form of the elixir or nectar (ofimmortality, or longevity).

As already stated, the idiosyncrasy of the Nath Siddhas lies in their insistence that

the basis of transmutations, the 'materia prima,' is to be found in the semen, the bindu or

bifa. Originating from the uppermost cakra in the head (esoterically correlated to Siva's "7 Mircea Eliade, "What is Alchemy?" in Hidden Truths, 243. 78 Ibid. 79 Ibid., 245. s0 David Gordon White, "Indian Alchemy," in Hidden Truths, 261.

61

dwelling place), its waste is tantamount to bodily deterioration, disease and death. By the

same token, its preservation and eventual return to the top cakra is equivalent to the

attainment of both adepthood and immortality. This latter process is the major concern of

kundalinl yoga, summarized by White as follows:

In kundalinl yoga, the yogin, through his austerities, causes his own seed (hi) a) to mount the six cakras through the agency of the internal (female) kundalinl serpent. As the kundalinl pierces each of the cakras, the heat thus generated transmutes the seed until it becomes pure ambrosia (amrtd) in the highest cakra, the sahasrara, located in the skull. ... The kundalinl then unites with the (male) 'full moon' of the sahasrara, such that the amrta built up there rushes down through the body, rejuvenating it and rendering it immortal.82

The reader will notice that alchemy shares the general principle of esotericism, that is to

say the belief in correspondences (between metals and bodily fluids and spiritual states),

while its own particularity consist in the claim that it is possible to transmute the selected

element(s) of nature at the disposal of the alchemist. This comprises the minimum

amount of information needed to appreciate yogic application of alchemical principles.

Before leaving the subject of alchemy, however, one more crucial element needs further

elucidation. In order to express their ideas, alchemists have elaborated a highly complex

mode of discourse, their secret or 'code' language. The opacity of their rhetoric is to a

large degree involved with the issue of initiatic secrecy; on the other hand, it reflects in

its own appropriate form the nature of metaphysical realities that it attempts to portray.

"The stages of the alchemical opus constitute an initiation, a series of specific

experiences aimed at the radical transformation of the human condition. But the

" See, for example, Allison Coudert, "Elixirs," in ibid., 248-52. White, "Indian Alchemy," 263.

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successful initiate cannot adequately express his new mode of being in a profane

language. He is compelled to use a 'secret language.'" It is quite conceivable that a

similar situation is at the root of the fact that the poetry of The Sayings of Gorakh,

especially the pad section, abounds in 'upside-down' or 'twilight' language. I intend to

treat the matter more fully in the chapter on the esoteric uses of language.

THE NATH SIDDHAS AND THE FAIVRIAN MODEL OF ESOTERICISM

In conclusion, I would like to propose a formal correlation between the theory and

practice of the Nath Siddhas and Antoine Faivre's model of esotericism, based on four

essential and two provisional elements. It will be remembered that correspondences,

living nature, imaginations and mediations, and experience of transmutation belong to the

first set of requirements, while the second consists of the practice of concordance and

transmission. It will also be remembered that Arthur Versluis suggested that the element

of gnosis should be added to this list. How do these seven elements, then, connect to the

theory and practice of the Nath Siddhas? I have to emphasize one more time that my

proposal addresses the issue of formal correspondence and analogy between Western and

Indian esotericism and should not be misconstrued as an argument that claims the actual

identity between the two.

1. Correspondences are implicit practically everywhere, since one of the

principal assumptions asserts that the gross, material forms are analogous to their more

subtle correlatives. As Gorakh states, "Outside and inside are one." The most important

$3 Eliade, "Alchemy," 244. ø Gorakh Bam, Pane Matra, 4. "bahar bhltar yekarikar." This is almost literally identical to one of the foundational precepts of Western esotericism, the statement from the Emerald Tablet (Tabula Smaragdind), 'As above, so below.'

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chain of analogies, in addition to the fundamental notion of the similarity between

microcosm and macrocosm, is the following: Siva = mercury = semen (bindu) = elixir

(amrt). When Gorakh advises that "The lower Ganges should be brought up to the [top of

the] Egg of Brahma," or when he claims that "At the summit of the sky, a child is

speaking,"8 he is not being simply metaphorical. He is expressing himself in the idiom

that implies a belief in the correspondence between the 'lower Ganges' (kundalini) and

its heavenly correlate, between the top of the subtle body (sahasrdr cakrd) and the top or

the summit of the universe (brahmand). The basic assumption that performance of bodily

feats, so characteristic of hatha yoga, will have spiritual outcomes is equally based on the

notion of correspondence.

2. Living Nature again quite literally refers to the semen as a natural substance 87

that serves as the basis of immortal life. "Where the bindu dwells, there is life," claims

Gorakh. In a deeper sense, the Nath Siddhas share the general tantric assumption "that

the universe we experience is nothing other than the concrete manifestation of the divine 88 .

energy of the godhead that creates and maintains the universe". This energy is most

often conceptualized as sakti, which is also esoterically present within the body in the

form of kundalini sakti. The latter, often glossed as the 'serpent power' is a principal

source of occult power and its 'awakening' is a major goal of yoga. We should also

notice the tendency to correlate the divine pair of Siva and Sakti with natural, i.e. bodily

substances. When Gorakh says that "Sakti is in the form ofblood, / Siva is in the form of

85 GBS 2. "patal kl gaiiga brahmand carhaiba." % GBS 1. "gagan sikhar mahim balak bolai." 87 GBS 57. "bind basai taharn jyandam." " White, "Mapping a Tradition," in Tantra in Practice, 9; emphasis added. Similarly, "Furthermore ... Saivism understands all of the material world to be (an emanation of) the body of the goddess." White, "Why Gurus are Heavy?" Numen 31,1 (1984), 45.

64

semen," he is in effect asserting that natural components which generate the human

body are in their essence divine, that is to say alive. This is an implicit allusion that for

the Naths, as for the esotericists in general, nature (paradigmatically symbolized by

female menstrual blood and male semen) is in fact alive.

3. Imaginations and Mediations are at the heart of the yogic imagining of the

subtle body {suksm sarir) and the network of channels {nari, Skt. nadi) and lotuses or

circles of powers (padma, cakra)." The subtle body and its energies are not a given: one

has to 'build' this body through a regime of elaborate practices that often imply the

exercise of visualization and mental concentration. Without the engagement of the

powers of imagination, work with the cakras and other elements of the subtle body would

be impossible. In that sense, imagination is analogous to yogic meditation (dhydn).

4. Experience of Transmutation pertain to both the transmutation of the gross

elements into subtle ones and the transmutation of semen into elixir, as well as the

transmutation of a yogi from an 'unripe' or 'uncooked' (apakva) into a 'ripe' or 'cooked'

(pakva)." According to Dasgupta, "The Sadhana of the Nath Siddhas is essentially a

Sadhana of transubstantiation and transfiguration." The culmination of this process is

the transformation of the mortal human being into an immortal adept or even a god.

5. The Practice of Concordance, that is to say, "the will not only to eliminate

some differences or to uncover harmonies among diverse religious traditions, but to

acquire above all a gnosis embracing diverse traditions and melding them in a single

GBP 12: 5. "sakti ruplraj achai siv rupTbyand." "1 will elaborate on this subject in the next chapter. 'See, for example, Dasgupta, Obscure Cults, 220. " Ibid., 251; italics in the original.

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crucible" explains, to a significant degree, the ease with which Siddhas commingled

with the Islamic mystics, the Sufis. David Gordon White claims that "perhaps no Hindu

religious sect has interacted on as profound and sustained a level as have the

Nath Siddhas with exponents of that mystic branch of Islam known as Sufism".94 In a

similar vein, Charlotte Vaudeville asserts that "[i]t is precisely among Jogis that the Sufis

claim to have made their first converts. ... The Jogis ... too claim to have won over some

distinguished Sufis to their own creed: even the prophet Muhammad became, according

to them, a disciple of Gorakhnath."95 A fine example of the practice of concordance, in

addition to several verses that employ Islamic vocabulary,“ is the closing line of the text

Pandrah Tithi, which states: "To countless siddhas, Sri Gorakh is the pirr" (The 'plr' is

a Muslim saint or a spiritual guide.) Even more specific is the sabad that proclaims, "We

are Hindus by birth; yogis by burning;" Muslims by wisdom."99

6. Transmission of knowledge and the methods of practice through a set of

initiations is naturally met in the lifestyle ofjogis. The Nath Siddhas are an initiatic order,

and only after this requirement has been met is a disciple given mantra and other

instructions of how to conduct the practice of yoga. The very knowledge of yoga was also

obtained through the process of transmission, from the god Siva to the first founders of

the Order.

7. Gnosis, a mystical knowledge acquired through first-hand experience (paricay)

which surpasses all the bookish and intellectual learning and which sets the Siddhas apart

"3 Faivre, Access to Western Esotericism, 14. " White, "Wonders of Sri Mastnath," 402. 95 Vaudeville, Weaver Named Kabir, 84. 6 GBS 9, 10, 11, 118, 182, 225; GBP 27. "7 Gorakh Bam, Pandrah Tithi, 17. "anant siddham srl gorakh plr." " That is to say, by practice. " GBS 14. "utpati hindu jaranam jogl akali pari [plri] musalmamnlrn."

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and above those who lack such an experience is one of the key elements of their identity

as it is a prominent leitmotifIn The Sayings of Gorakh.100 "There is no experience above

self-discovery,"101 proclaims Gorakhnath. "Those who know intimately their self (atman)

do not die. "102

In this chapter, I made an attempt to demonstrate that esotericism is both meaningful on

its own terms as it is applicable as a conceptual model for understanding cross-cultural

manifestations of formally similar ideas and practices. My overall intention was to argue

a feasibility of the notion of what may be termed a 'comparative esotericism.' In order to

pursue that argument, I was engaged in speculations of a more general nature. In what

follows, I will be more specific as far as my 'subject' is concerned. In other words, I

intend to focus more fully on the Nath Siddhas and The Sayings of Gorakh; however, I

will continue to treat them in the light of esoteric concepts, which are at this point

hopefully more familiar in their meaning and more justifiable in their application.

In order to provide a unifying theme to my exposition, I suggest structuring it

around the concept of the bindu. This is the most important element, the central focus of

yogic sddhana. "Bindu is verily yoga," states Gorakhnath. "The one who knows the

mystery of this bindu, / He is creator, he is god." When released through the sexual act,

according to the jogis the bindu is wasted, which ultimately leads to disease, old age, and

death. To counteract this process, celibacy is an essential requirement, but it alone is not

sufficient. The bindu has to return back to its place of origin, which is at the level of the

head and the uppermost cakra, esoterically glossed as 'the summit of the sky,' gagan

'00 See also a relevant discussion on the value of experience in ibid., 9. 101 Gorakh Bam, Sisp Puran. "apa pakhai parca nahTm."

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sikhar. This process of the return of the bindu, its transmutation from material semen

into spiritual elixir, constitutes the most important practice of the Nath Siddhas, the

praxis of reversal, ulta sádhana. For that reason, I suggest that we follow the

transformations of the bindu in the same, reversed order. Starting at the material level we

will engage in issues ofbody and sexuality. At the intermediate level, our concern will be

with the phenomenon of speech and rhetoric. We will finish with a discussion of the

yogic approach to mind and ideology. The next three chapters will then be structured

around the Náthist understanding of the concepts of body, speech, and mind, viewed

through the model of esotericism.

Gorakh Bam, Pandrah Tithi, 1. "atam parcai marai na koi." GBS 148. "byand him jog. ... /ya bind ka koi jamnaim bhev / so apaim karta ápaim dev." SeeGBS 1.

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CHAPTER 2

ESOTERICISM AND POWER OF THE NATH SIDDHAS

RELATED TO BODY AND SEXUALITY

In the fortress of the body are the gods, the temples, and Benares. There I have naturally met the Indestructible.

Gorakh Bânï(G&? 23: 2.)

For one drop of semen, men and women exhaust themselves to death. But the yogi who controls it thereby achieves success.

Gorakh Bání (GBP 44: 2.)

At the ordinary level, bindu manifests as a material substance, the sexual secretion.

Within the human body, its location is within the mûlâdhâr cakra at the base of the spine.

Yogis attempt to raise the bindu along the subtle conduit known as the suçumnà naň, the

final destination being the sahasrâr cakra in the head. This process is alternatively

expressed as the 'waking up' of kundaliril šakti. Since at the beginning of this process the

bindu has corporeal and sexual aspect, I suggest that the theme of this chapter be the

yogic understanding of body and sex.

How do the Nath Siddhas approach the human body? What are the esoteric

components of that approach? In what manner do they understand human sexuality? How

is the issue of power relevant for these considerations? These are the main question I will

be asking and attempting to answer in this section. As I have already stated, to separate

these issues into discrete thematic units is but a strategic and analytic move: in reality,

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'out there,' relationships between power, sexuality, corporal and discursive practices,

social position, and esotericism are in fact an interconnected whole. Similarly, I have

decided to treat the body and sexuality separately for strategic reasons and not because I

propose an actual dichotomy. In my exposition, I will continue to look at the

phenomenon of the Nam yogis through the conceptual model of esotericism. In doing so,

I have a twofold purpose in mind. On the one hand, my intention will be to demonstrate

the applicability of the model onto its chosen 'subject.' The model fits. More importantly,

I want to stress the benefits resulting from this methodological approach. In other words,

my concern will be to answer the question: what do we gain by applying the model of

esotericism onto the jogisl I suggest the following as the most important insights:

Yogic work with the subtle body is based on the disciplined use of imagination

and this body is itself imaginal. The reader is already familiar with the fact that Faivre

considers imagination to be one of the four necessary elements of esotericism. In my

understanding, imagination is the tool that builds the subtle body (suksm sarir) and its

centres and conduits of energy (cakras and nans) that are of fundamental importance for

the practice of yoga. Imagination is the power that - in addition to breathing exercises,

bodily postures, and mantric utterances - 'wakes' up the occult centres of energy within

the body and reverses the flow of semen upwards, turning it into elixir. Imagination

breathes life into the microcosm within the body of a yogi and populates it with

metaphysical powers and entities. It makes operative the correspondences between

semen, breath and mind. Without the employment of the powers of imagination the

practice of yoga would lack deeper results. Important part of yogic work is focused on the

meditation on and manipulation of the subtle body that is 'created' through a process that

70

may be thought of as the disciplined imagination, and this body may be thus defined as

'imaginal.' Paying attention to the principles of esotericism, such as imagination, helps us

therefore to understand more fully a vital component in the practice of yoga. It also

provides us with a link between yoga and magic, which Couliano defines as "a science of

the imaginary."1

Based on the principle of correspondence, yogic work with cakras and kundalim

may be understood as a practice of devotion. This is a statement that contradicts the

general image of the Naths as a group that "left nearly no place for devotionalism in their

religious practice." The Indian critics of the Nath panth, by the way, also share this

view. It appears as if the jogis are narcissistic in their 'obsession' with bodily exercises

and powers, meditating on the cakras instead of praying to the gods. But, once it is

remembered that the cakras correspond to the gods (Siva is in the sahdsrar, Sakti in the

mulddhdr), it becomes obvious that to meditate on the subtle 'lotuses' within the body is

tantamount to meditating on the deities that dwell within them. In this sense,

concentration on the cakras is devotion. This fact is occluded unless the esoteric principle

of correspondences is properly understood. Similarly, interest in power, so typical of the

Nath yogis, may also be read as a devotional act, once we recall that in magic power

represents the manifestation of the sacred. It is my contention that by taking into account

the general principles of esotericism and magic we are able to better understand the

practice of the Nath yogis and to reconceptualize (that is to say, approach theoretically

from a different angle) the category of devotion.

' Couliano, Eros and Magic, xviii. 2 White, "Wonders of Sri Mastnath," 401. Charlotte Vaudeville similarly contrasts yoga with bhakti: "Contrary to Yoga, which is essentially technique, Bhakti is essentially faith, the adoration of a personal

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Starting from the postulate that eros, magic and yoga are all intentional activities

that aim towards union, we may both problematize the sexuality of the Ndths and

advance the thesis of the comparability between yoga and magic. By problematizing the

sexuality of the Nam yogis I have in mind the fact that it is neither rejected (as in the case

of sarnnyasis) nor is its role emphasized (as in the case of 'orthodox' tdntrikas). It is in

fact internalized and consists in the esoteric 'coupling' of occult energies of the body that

are given sexual and gender-specific signifiers. What is more, the inner experience of the

ascent of kundalini and the piercing of the cakras, aside from the obvious erotic

symbolism, is (at least occasionally and by some) felt as an experience of orgasm. The

principle of correspondence is again at work here, for the subtle centres of energy that are

often represented by non-sexual signifiers nevertheless ultimately correspond to Siva and

Šakti, whose union is then attempted and, if achieved, experienced as bliss. And it is the

power of imagination that turns the subtle 'lotuses'- often iconographically represented as

mere geometric designs - into erotic couples. In this way, the major components of

esotericism are discernable in the yogic practice of inner unions that result in the

acquisition of the occult powers and altered states of being. Yoga is thus union, that is to

say eros. Couliano also claims, with Ficino and Bruno, that magic and eros are one. It

follows that yoga and magic are compatible, for both are based on the principle of union,

which is eros.

I will now elaborate on these points. To begin with, I will look at the human body

as understood by the Nath yogis through the conceptual grid of esotericism. Does the

model fit? What are the advantages of observing thejogis through these particular lenses?

God, who is generally 'manifested' in an anthropomorphic form, that of an avatára or 'descent.'" Vaudeville, "Kablr and the Interior Religion," History of Religions, 3 (1964), 194.

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Following that, I will turn to the question of sexuality and treat it similarly. So then, how

do the Gorakhnathis understand the esoteric aspects of the human body?

THE ESOTERIC BODY: MICROCOSMIC AND IMAGINAL

Correspondences

That the human body as a microcosm represents an analogue of the macrocosm is an

instance of the esoteric mode of thought, since the link that connects the two is based on

the notion of correspondence. In Indian tradition, the human body has been homologized

with the universe since Vedic times. The famous cosmogonic hymn (Rg Veda, X, 90)

about the sacrifice of the purusa has the limbs of this primordial man correlated with

social classes and cosmic divisions. The correspondence between the human body and

the universe is, also, of crucial importance in the medical system of Ayur Veda. Indian

astrology recognizes correlation between the human body and the zodiac.3 A Hindu

temple is built upon a layout that translates the form and proportions of the human body

into architectural design.4 In yogic and tantric traditions, this correspondence between the

body and the cosmos is emphasized. A typical example of this view is offered in a

Sanskrit text that is related to the system of hatha yoga, which is the form of yoga most

3 "The twelve sign of the Zodiac respectively represent, the head, face, breast, heart, belly, navel, abdomen, genital organ, tooth, eyes, two knees, two ankles and the two feet of Kalapurusha." Kalaprakasika: The Standard Book on the Election (Mahoortha) System, trans. N. P. Subramania Iyer (New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1982), xiii. Indian astrology also connects the flow of breath through either of the two nostrils to the phases of the Moon and the position of planets in the orbits. The correspondent practice called "Svarodaya implies that, among other things, those who know the movement of the Sun, the Moon and the other planets can use this knowledge to predict the nature of the movement of the breath in then- bodies, or in other bodies. Likewise the movement of the breath in the microcosm can be used to determine the position of the planets in the macrocosm." Hart Defouw and Robert Svoboda, Light on Life: An Introduction to the Astrology of India (New Delhi: Penguin, 1996 [1992]), 177. 4 "Mention must also be made here of the reminiscence of Purusa, the Vastu figure who, his body exactly filling a square place, is considered to be lying face downwards in the earth as the substratum on which all temples are built." David Smith, "Aspects of the Interrelationship of Divine and Human Bodies in

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closely associated with the Nath Siddhas. This is what the text, the Siva Samhita, states

on the subject:

In this body, the mount Meru ... is surrounded by seven islands; there are rivers, seas, mountains, fields; and lords of the fields too. There are in it seers and sages; all the stars and planets as well. There are sacred pilgrimages, shrines. And presiding deities of the shrines. The sun and moon, agents of creation and destruction, also move in it. Ether, air, fire, water and earth are also there. A 1l the beings that exist in the three worlds are also to be found in the body; surrounding the Meru they are engaged in their respective functions. ... He who knows this is a Yogi; there is no doubt about it.s

It should be evident that the notion of the body as the replica of the macrocosm is in its

nature esoteric, being based on the principle of correspondence. The fact that this idea is

widely attested to cross-culturally and in several historical epochs does not contradict its

inclusion within the field of esotericism. Nevertheless, in a certain sense, this is not a

'secret;' in a sense, 'microcosm equals macrocosm' is not in and by itself an exclusively

esoteric notion.' The important distinction is, however, how does one know this; what

manner of knowing are we assuming here? In other words, the quality of knowledge is

the issue, not necessarily its content. In this important sense, esoteric knowledge is a

special - and thus elite, and therefore powerful - kind of knowledge. "He who knows this

Hinduism," Religion, 19 (1989), 212. Smith is referencing a classic study by Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple (Calcutta, 1946). 'The Siva Samhita, trans. Rai Bahadur Srisa Chandra Vasu (Allahabad: Panini Office, 1914), 16. This passage is also quoted in Goraksa-Vacana-Sangraha, verses 43-7. 'Similar ideas "are found present also in many a philosophical and religious current ... This principle is equally at work in the procedures of divination, poetry and sorcery, but the latter, nonetheless, are not synonymous." Faivre, Access to Western Esotericism, 11. 'Cf. this with the following view: "Specifically, the sacred is not to be conceived independent of experience, rather sensory perception is the locus in which the sacred is originally perceived, but the sacred is constituted by the mode f perception rather than the contents of perception." Bryan S. Rennie, Reconstructing Eliade: Making Sense of Religion (Albany, N.Y .: SUNY Press, 1996), 217.

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is a Yogi; there is no doubt about it." For the yogi knows the details of this

correspondence (and these details may be then qualified as esoteric knowledge proper);

what is more to the point, he or she knows how to put this knowledge into practice, and

thereby, knowing and acting thus, he or she may attain the power to accomplish specific

goals. In other words, I am arguing that a certain notion, such as analogy between the

body and the universe, may be held generally or by a broad segment of population, to the

point that there is 'nothing esoteric' (secret or exclusive) about it. Where this is the case,

the 'real' esotericism consists either in the details (often transmitted ritually)' or in the

practical application of this knowledge. In this sense, I feel justified in designating this

idea esoteric.

On a deeper level, a certain notion or a mode of practice should or could be more

precisely labeled as esoteric (or occult) on the basis of the attitude involved in its

conception or execution. Discussing the notion of secrecy, Faivre maintains that "ifwe

take the sacred seriously, we must always put up a slight partition, simply theoretical

really, between the sacred and the profane, precisely in order not to profane what is held

dear [that is, the secret], what has been obtained with difficulty in undergoing diverse

trials."10 In other words, esotericism is intimately related with - it is impossible without -

the notion of the sacred. Many may approach the man-equals-universe analogy

exoterically" - in a scientific spirit, for example - but the 'real' esotericist approaches it

8 Siva Samhita, 16. ' Faivre argues that "generally it is not a doctrine that an initiate is supposed to keep hidden, but at most the details of the ritual." Access to Western Esotericism, 32. "0 Ibid., 32-3. " "We must remember that there exists an esotericism of exotericism and an exotericism of esotericism, as if each of them were understood only as a function of the other or represented the other side of the same medal." Ibid., 33.

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as a dimension of the sacred. Esotericism is not only what is secret , but even more

importantly, what is held sacred. I cannot overstate the importance of this distinction.

To return to the notion of the human body as a microcosm: The Nam Siddhas

ascribe a paramount importance to this idea; it is a central assumption of their practice,

which is the corporeal practice, or 'the culture of the body,' kdyd sddhana. They insist, in

fact, that to know and master the human body - especially in its esoteric aspects -

amounts to the mastery of yoga, which leads to liberation and immortality. It leads to the

attainment of the siddhis, which is to say, to the acquisition of power. The esoteric aspect

of the human body is, on the closer analysis, twofold. It consists of the greater world, the

cosmos, which is esoterically present within an individual body; and it consists of

esoteric aspects of the individual body, that are otherwise unknown to ordinary people, or

inaccessible to ordinary sensory perception. The esoteric individual body, in a sense,

mirrors the secret and invisible aspects of the natural body, while at the same time it

mirrors the totality of the universe. As Gorakhnath says, "Within the one there is the

infinite, and within the infinite there is the one. / By the one the infinite is produced. /

When the one is experienced within, / The infinite is contained within the one." What is

more, the cosmos is present within the body in both physical and metaphysical aspects.14

An elaborate example of this notion is found in a portion of an important Sanskrit text of

the Nath yogis, the Siddhasiddhantapaddhati (3. 1-14):

"2 "Esotericism is not simply a disciplina arcani, a discipline of the arcane." Faivre, "Esotericism," in Hidden Truths, 42. " GBP 14: 1. "ek maim anant anant maim ekai, ekai anant upaya / antari ek saum parca huva, tab anant ek maim samaya." " See, for example, Banerjea, Philosophy of Gorakhnath, 195-205.

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Let us examine now the science of the body. He who experiences within one's body everything that is movable and immovable [that is to say, everything that exists] becomes a yogin gifted with the knowledge of the body. [1] The tortoise is situated in the soles of the feet [and the seven lower worlds (tald) are placed above it]: Patala in the big toes, Talatala above the big toes, Mahatala in the heels, Rasatala in the ankles, Sutala in the calves, Vitala in the knees and Atala in the thighs. These seven lower worlds are under the dominion of Rudra, the lord of the gods. Within the body, he [Rudra] is Bhava, the incarnation of anger, or indeed Rudra, the Destroyer of the Fire of Time [kaJagnirudra]. [2] The earth is [situated] in the anus, the atmosphere in the genital region, the sky in the region of the navel. Thus, the god Indra resides in the triple world inside the body. He who controls all the senses (indriyd), he alone is Indra. [3] Maharloka, the 'Great World' is at the base of the spine, Janaloka, the 'World of Generation' in the spinal cavity, Tapaloka, the 'World of Austerities' in the marrow of the spine [and] Satyaloka, the 'World of Truth' is in the flower of the lotus of the root-[cakral. Thus, the primordial god, Brahma, resides in the fourfold world inside the body as the personification of the pride and self-confidence. [4]15

In The Sayings of Gorakh, the esoteric correlation between the individual and cosmic

body represents an underlying theoretical assumption as much as it provides a

background for yogic practice. "[The one who] investigates the body and finds the

indestructible [God] / Attains the unreachable immortal rank,"16 claims Gorakhnath. The

presence of macrocosmic and spiritual realities within the human body is also made

explicit in the following verses, which employ a recurring stylistic device, the metaphor

of the body as a fortress to be conquered:

In the fortress of the body There are 900,000 canals.

15 The Siddhasiddhântapaddhati 3. 1-4.1 have translated David Gordon White's French translation of the original Sanskrit, which appeared in his essay "Le monde dans le corps du Siddha: Microcosmologie dans les traditions médiévales indiennes," in Images du corps dans le monde hindou, eds.Véronique Boullier and Gilles Tarabout, (Paris: CNRS Éditions, 2002), 193-5. " GBS 252. "khojai tan milai avinâsî agah amar pad pây."

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At the tenth door17 The avadhut has undone the lock.

In the fortress ofthe body There are gods, temples, and KasT.1 There I naturally met The Indestructible.

Says Gorakhnath, Listen O people: Only a few can conquer The fortress of the body.'

One of the most interesting aspects of the esoteric thought related to the world-view of

the Nath Siddhas lies in the occasional symbolic understanding of the founding adepts of

the school and their internal projection onto the subtle body of a yogi. Matsyendranath

and Gorakhnath, aside from their historical identities, sometimes also stand as symbols

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for spiritual achievements and ranks within the Nath hierarchy. Accordingly, a yogi

may become a Gorakh if he reaches adequate spiritual level and attains appropriate

powers. For example, a sabad consisting of a set of yogic riddles, ends with the 91

statement, "Whoever can answer what has been asked, he is Gorakh." Similarly,

another sabad declares, "Whosoever is beyond desires and plays without tricks, / Call "7 The tenth door, as Barthwal glosses, refers to the 'opening' at the top of the skull, called brahmarandhra. John Grimes defines it as a "[s]ubtle aperture in the crown of the head. Said to be the gateway to the Absolute (Brahman) in the thousand-petaled lotus in the crown of the head (sahasrdrd). Liberated beings are said to exit the physical body though this aperture." John Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English (Albany, N.Y .: SUNY Press, 1996), s.v. "Brahma-randhra." "8 KasT, meaning 'shiny,' is Benares, the holiest city of India. " GBP 23: 1-3. "kaya garh bhlmtari nav lakh khaT / dasvaim dvari avadhu tall la T/// kaya garh bhfmtari dev dehura kasT / sahaj subhai mile abinasT 111 badant gorakhnath sunao nar lot / kaya garh jltaiga birla koT." See also GBP39. 20 "In the Nath literature the word Natha (which originally means 'the lord') has sometimes been used with an ontological significance and there is sometimes a tendency to interpret the names of the Naths, particularly of Matsyendra and Goraksa, as some transcendental states of mind or soul attainable through the practice of yoga." Dasgupta, Obscure Cults, 382-3. See also Debabrata Sensharma, ed., Matsyendra Saiphita: Ascribed to Matsyendranatha, Pt. 1 (Calcutta: The Asiatic Society, 1994), 34: "hence Macchanda, Matsyendra were not personal name but an appellative of some siddhas who reached a particular stage in the mystic realisations."

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him a Gorakh." At another level, Matsyendranath and Gorakhnath are also esoterically

present within the subtle bodies of their disciples and they may be accessed, as mediators

of gnostic insights, through the practice of yoga. The very first sabad in the Sayings of

Gorakh makes reference to this teacher as an eternal child engaged in the spiritual

discourse at the level of topmost cakra: "At the summit of the sky, a child is speaking. /

What kind of a name could it be given?"23 Similar in their purport are the following two

sab ads:

Gorakh ploughs the field in everybody's heart. Those born out of it belong to us. To everybody's heart Gorakh tells the sermon: An unbaked pot does not hold water.

In everybody's heart Gorakh moves silently: In some, he is awake; in some, he sleeps. In everybody's heart is Gorakh, in everybody's heart is Mlna.24 The knowledge of the self [atman] is experienced in guru's mouth.25

In this way, the process of internalization seems to be taken to its final logical conclusion,

establishing the esoteric identity between Siva and Matsyendra or Gorakh and an

individual yogi, in whose subtle body all of these are present, in addition to Sakti (in the

form of kundalini). The working of esoteric thought actualizes several instances of

mirroring, where the individual identities are fluid. Gorakh is then, in a certain sense, a

GBS 86. "puchaim kahai to gorakh soi." GBS 195. "nisprehT nirdavai khelai gorakh kahTyai soi." 2 GBS 1. "gagan-sikhar mahim balak bolai taka namv dharhuge kaisa." See also White, Alchemical Body, 202 where these verses are related to the birth of a 'child of yoga,' yogimbhu, which interpretation enriches, without contradicting it, my understanding of the text. 24 Mlna is Matsyendra. 25 GBS 37-8. "ghati ghati gorakh bahl kyan / jo nipajai so hoi haman / ghati ghati gorakh kahai kahamnim / kacai bhandai rahe na panim // ghati ghati gorakh phirai niruta / ko ghat j age ko ghat suta / ghati ghati gorakh ghati ghati mlmna / apa parcai gur mukhi cTmnha." According to Dr. Shukdev Singh, the expression 'guru's mouth' is a code term denoting initiation. Oral communication, Benares, India, November 2002.

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human disciple of Matsyendra who lived somewhere in the early medieval period in

North India. At another level, he is an immortal Siddha, living either in the Himalayas or

in the mundus imaginalis: the exact nature of the location depends on the mode of

discourse and exegetical intentions. At yet another level, Gorakh is Siva, the identity

based either on the fact of human perfectibility or on the divine descent. And finally,

Gorakhnath is present in one of the cakras of the subtle body. All these various levels of

identification are made possible on the basis of the system of correspondences that relates

them to each other. And, last but not least, yogic work with the cakras and other elements

of the subtle body, due to the esoteric presence of gods and teachers, may be understood

as the yogic way of devotion, driven by the desire towards union with these divine figures

as objects of reverence. If the practice of yoga is understood in these terms, the usual

statements about the lack of devotion in the case of jogls appear problematic and not

entirely correct.

In a more narrow sense, in a sense more specific to the concerns and techniques of

yoga, the esoteric aspect of the human body consists of the concentrated energy

represented by kundalirii sakti, 'asleep' at the base of the spine; it consists of the 'lotus'

centres of latent energy, the cakras, and of the channels, the nans, through which the

energy flows; and it consists of the nectar, the amrt, that oozes from the 'Moon' at the

top of the head, at which place Siva Himself is also metaphysically present. A yogi

typically attempts to 'wake up' kundalirii, to have her rise along susumnd, the most

important channel situated in the hollow of the spinal column, during which process the

cakras also 'open' and confer gnoseological insights and occult powers onto the yogi.

This subject matter is given sufficient treatment in the works of other scholars and I

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consequently do not intend to dwell on the elaboration of general principles involved in

this practice. What I propose, instead, is to look for the reflection of these concepts in The

Sayings of Gorakh, and to advance the thesis that yogic work with the subtle body, as

described above, may be compared to the workings of the imagination, as this concept is

understood in its technical meaning in the studies of Western Esotericism.

An important characteristic of esoteric thought consists in its flexibility. Since the

various aspects of the phenomenal universe are interconnected, they are also in a certain

sense interchangeable. In this way, the identities are not rigid. For example, Siva and

Sakti, aside from their macrocosmic ontological aspects, are also 'present' in mercury

and sulfur26 (a notion of immense importance for Indian alchemy), in man's sperm and

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woman's menstrual blood, and in the two main cakras in the human body. Accordingly,

in order to establish union between Siva and Sakti - which is a desired goal of practice -

one can engage in work with metals and other chemical elements, which would be the

approach of alchemy; alternatively, this goal may be attempted by mixing sexual fluids,

as is done in some tantric rituals; and finally, the union may be accomplished within an

individual body, by making Siva and Sakti meet esoterically, which would be the

approach of yoga.

The following is one of the most explicit references to the presence of Siva and

Sakti, within their respective cakras in the body, as found in The Sayings of Gorakh:

2 "The most concrete point of intersection between the yogic and alchemical traditions in India lies in the identification of mercury (rasa, parada, suta) with the semen of Siva, and of sulfur (gandhaka), red arsenic (manahsila) or mica (abhrakd) with the menstrual blood (khapuspa, rajas, sonita, artavd) or sexual emission (vlrya) of the Goddess." White, Alchemical Body, 188-9. "Just as mercury is the particular element which stands for the essence of Siva, so there is a particular element which signifies the essence of Sakti, which is sulfur." David Gordon White, "Why Gurus Are Heavy?" 47. " "Sakti is in the form of blood, Siva is in the form of semen." GBP 12: 5: "sakti rupi raj achai siv rupT byand."

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Gorakhnath says, through the tenth door I reached heaven and Siva.78 From the summit of twenty-one worlds I proclaimed self-knowledge.

Sakti is inside the twelve petals of the Sun, And Siva's place is inside the sixteen [petals] of the Moon. Müla[dhar] and Sahasrar are the house of Jlva and Siva. Unmani lies [in] steady meditation.

I searched in ida,3 I filled the píngala33 And through susumna34 I reached the sky. Ascetic Gorakh spoke through the mercy of Machindra35 About the location of the niranjan36 siddhi.37

The above verses represent typical poetic rendering of yogic practice related to the cakras

38 as recorded in The Sayings of Gorakh. In addition, the poems on this subject recurrently

28 In the original, Siva's name is given as Kedar. 29 The lowest cakra. "The wheel (cakra) at the base of the spine where Kundalirii lies coiled like a snake. From Her seat at muladhara, Kundalirii controls all the activities of the physiological system through its network of 72,000 nerves." Grimes, Dictionary, s.v. "Muladhara, 2." 30 The uppermost cakra. "The topmost spiritual center or thousand-petaled lotus located in the crown of the head. It is the seat of Siva, the supreme guru. When KundalinT Sakti unites with Siva in the sahasrdra, the yogi achieves the state of Self-realization." Ibid., s.v. "Sahasrara." ª "Unmani or unmana is a transcendent state of consciousness, located at the highest level of the subtle body. It is also a term which connotes equanimity, a pure level of thought which is sometimes taken to be the homologue of samarasa." White, Alchemical Body, 506-7, n. 186. 3 One of the three main channels of energy in the subtle body. "The channel (nadi) which originates at the base of the spine and terminates at the left nostril. It is called the moon nadi because of its cooling effect. " Grimes, Dictionary, s.v. "Ida." 3 Piiigala is a "channel (nadi) that originates at the base of the spine and terminates at the right nostril; called the sun nadi because of its heating effect." Ibid., s.v. "Piiigala." " Susumna is the "central and most important of all 72,000 nerve channels (nadi) located in the center of the spinal column extending from the base of the spine to the top of the head. The six vortices (cakra) are situated in the central channel (susumna), and it is through the susumnd channel that Kundalirii rises." Ibid., s.v. "Susumna." 35 Machindra is an alternative spelling of the Matsyendranath's name.

being. " Niranjan, 'without blemish,' or 'without embellishment' is a typical Nath appellation for the supreme

"7 GBP 19: Refrain, 1, 5. "badant gorakhnath dasvTm dvarl surg naim kedar carhiya / ikbls brahmand na sikhar upari sasamved ucariya / tek / dvadas dal bhlmtari ravi sakti, sasi sodas siv thamnam / mul sahamsar jib simb ghari unmam acal dhiyamyanam /// ill sodhi dhari pyaiigulT purl, susumnT carh asmamnam / machindr prasadai jatl gorakh bolya, niranjan sidhi naim thanam 151." 3 See also the sabads 53, 93, 94, 98, 105, 113, 133, 176, and the pads 19, 21, 30, as the most representative examples of the poetic verses dealing with the subject of cakras.

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portray the necessity of directing upwards the mutually correspondent semen, breath, and

mind. The analogical chain between these three is of extreme importance. Typically, a

yogi would attempt to push the semen and air upward by performing bandhas10 and

mudràs" in addition to manipulation of breath, the prânâyâm. The application of mind to

this process is established through its deployment in the effort of visualization and

concentration. What I would like to re-emphasize is the fact that the practice rests on the

principle of correlation between physical efforts and spiritual goals.“ The reader will

remember that Faivre defines this principle as "the homo-analogical principle matching

like to like, and this means one of the two can act on the other. This occurs by virtue of

'correspondences' that unite all visible things and likewise unite the latter with invisible

realities."43 The following two sabads explore this correlation within the context of the

practice that is expressed under the metaphor of 'cooking:'44

O svami, the breath is uncooked, life-energy is uncooked, Uncooked is body, the bindu is uncooked. How to cook it? How to perfect it? If the fire is insufficient, water will not boil.

" See Mircea Eliade's "Spirit, Light, and Seed," an interesting essay that deals with some aspects of this issue. In Occultism, Witchcraft, and Cultural Fashions: Essays in Comparative Religions (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1976), 93-119. 40 "A class of exercises in Hafha Yoga, which when practiced along with pranayama (breathing exercises) aids in uniting the prána and apána (the ingoing and outgoing breath). They also help to seal the vital breath {prána) in the body during the practice of locks (mudra). The three main locks are jálandhara bandha (in which the head is bent forward and the chin is pressed against the chest), uddiyána bandha (in which the stomach muscles are pulled inward toward the spine), and mula bandha (in which the anus is pulled inward)." Grimes, Dictionary, s.v. "Bandha, 1." " "It is a Hatha Yoga posture and manipulation of different organs of the body as an aid in concentration. Various advanced Hatha Yoga techniques practiced to hold the prána within the body, forcing the Kundalim to flow into the susumná." Ibid., s.v. "Mudra, 2." 42 This holds true even if the desired result of the practice is the attainment of a power, siddhi, since here power means sacred. 43 Faivre, Access to Western Esotericism, 34. " The yogic body is either pakva (ripe, but literally 'cooked') or apakva (unripe, i.e. 'uncooked'). "The unripe body is the body not disciplined by yoga, and the ripe body is the body disciplined by yoga." Dasgupta, Obscure Cults, 220. See also Charles Malamoud, Cooking the World: Ritual and Thought in Ancient India, trans. David Gordon White (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998 [1" ed. Paris, 1989]).

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O devi: If the breath is cooked and life-energy is cooked, Ifbody is cooked and the bindu is cooked, Then the fire of brahman"s burns continuously. If the fire is sufficient, water will boil.46

The goal of practice is often symbolically described as a merger of the Sun and the

Moon; and the successful completion of it is proclaimed in jubilant language, abounding

with metaphors of light: "0 avadhüt, breath should go through the sahasra nâri. / Then,

the myriad sounds will ring. / The breath will drink seventy-two Moons, / When the

primal light shines."" The practice itself is usually referred to either in terms of the

reversal of semen, breath and mind, or in terms of the raising of kundaliri: "The lower

Ganges has to rise up to [the top of] the Egg of Brahma, / Where the pure drinks the

AO

water pure." In this sense, it is possible to advance the thesis that the ascent of the

kundaliri is in itself esoterically correspondent to the ascent of semen, breath and mind.

Similarly, to make the semen, bindu, immobile or fixed is an operation made possible by

the effort to concentrate and fix the mind, which practice is facilitated by the appropriate

rhythm of breathing and performance of bodily bandhas and mudras. In this way, the

'gross body' (sthül sarïr) is engaged through the practice of posture (äsari), aided by

muscular contractions (bandhas and mudrâs); the respiratory system is engaged in the

pränäyäm; the mind is employed in the practice of visualization of and the concentration

"In the 'desexualized' context of the Nath tradition, it is the fire of Brahman (Brahmagni), rather than the KundalinT that mounts the cakras." White, "Why Gurus Are Heavy?" 71, n.59. 4 GBS 156-7. "svamml kacT baT kaca jind / kacTkaya kaca bind / kyaiikari pakai kyurikari syhai / kacT agnlm nlr na khTjai // tau debT pakT baT paka jind / pakT kaya paka bind / brahma agni akhandit balai / paka agnlm nlr parjalai." 47 GBS 53. "abadhu sahamsra narlpavan calaiga, koti jhamamkai nadam / bahatari canda baT sokhya kirani pragatl jab adam." " GBS 2. "patal kT gaiiga brahmand carhaiba, taham bimal bimal jal pTya." As Barthwal glosses, the 'lower (or infernal) Ganges' refers to kundalini, while brahmand^ (universe, lit. 'the Egg of Brahma') stands for brahmarandhra.

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on the cakras; and the end result lies in the awakening of the energy of the kundalirii and

the mystical union of Siva and Sakti within the body of the yogi. The physical,

physiological, and mental aspects of the practitioner engaged in the yogic practice are

correlated within the chain of causes and effects made operational on the basis of their

mutual correspondence. Thus, to give another example of this principle, we read in The

Sayings of Gorakh: "The subtle wind remains continuous. / Inside the body, the mahdras

[the elixir] is perfected. / Gorakh says, T have caught the unstable. / Joining Siva and

Sakti, I have remained within my own house.'"4 The correspondence between breath

(subtle wind), elixir, and microcosmical reflection of the divine pair (Siva and Sakti) is

evident.

Imagination and the Yogic Body

The understanding of the human body in terms of the analogy between microcosm and

macrocosm, and in the terms of the correlation between semen, breath, and mind is

evidently an instance of the thought that takes seriously the concept of correspondence,

one of the central features of esotericism. The question remains, how to understand the

concept of the subtle body (suksm sarir), consisting of the cakras, nans, and kundalirii, to

name its most important components. Here, it is extremely important to understand that

these do not exist materially, in the physical body. These are in fact occult dimensions of

reality that may be accessed through meditation and similar practices, but they do not lie

within the realm of 'ordinary' reality. Agehananda Bharati explains this notion clearly,

with his usual bluntness:

" GBS 130. "khartar pavanam rahai nirantari / maharas sTjhai kaya abhiantari / gorakh kahai amhe cancal grahiya / siv saktT le nij ghari rahiya."

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All yoga discipline postulates in theory the existence of a secondary somatic system consisting of mandala [centers], cakra [circles], or kendra [lotuses], located along an imagined spinal column in that secondary body. It is important to realize - a thing which Occidental critics and Occidental phoney [sic] esotericists alike have misunderstood - that this yogic body is not supposed to have any ontological status in the sense the physical body has. It is a heuristic device aiding meditation, not an objective system. Benevolent psychologists under the inspiration of the late C. G. Jung have attempted to allocate the various nervous plexuses and ganglia to the centers of this yoga body. They may be right, but Tantrists take some pain to explain that this body and its organs have no actual existence.5

The subtle body with its centres of energy is, therefore, not a tangible or substantive

object. It is imagined, created through the power of concentration, accessed in altered

states of consciousness. Expressed in a technical term that has acquired a specific

meaning through the work of Henry Corbin, it is imaginal. Its creation is related to

workings of imagination, which is one of the four necessary components of esotericism

according to Faivre's model. And, in light of Couliano's definition of magic as the

'science of the imaginary,' the practice of yoga that centers on this imaginal body and its

energies may be understood or 'translated' as the practice of magic.

The Buddhist scholar Robert Thurman also recognizes the imaginal nature of the

subtle body and its close relationship with the issues of power and magic. He writes,

"The Hindu and Buddhist Tantras provide the most complete explanation of magical

powers and the psychophysical causality underlying their manifestations. Key to Tantric

Agehananda Bharati, "Techniques of Control in the Esoteric Traditions of India and Tibet" in The Realm of the Extra-Human: Ideas and Actions, ed. Agehananda Bharati (The Hague and Paris: Mouton Publishers, 1976), 93-4; emphases added.

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analyses of powers are notions of the subtle body and mind." These notions are

powerful because they stand in causal relationship with the material and spiritual effects,

the seeds of which are planted by the practice of willed and disciplined visualization and

meditation, or imagination. What Thurman designates (following Indian terminology)

'subtle body and mind' is, I argue, what the Western esotericism designates as the realm

of the imaginary, the mundus imaginalis. This is evident from the following: "It [that is to

say, the final nature of reality, the cosmos] is pure energy that can be reached and

controlled most effectively by the human nervous system while focused on precise and

subtle imagery.'"

The activity of the mind (or the 'nervous system') that focuses on precise and

subtle imagery is, I suggest, what in the Indian cultural sphere is usually designated as

meditation (dhyän), and in the West as imagination (imaginatio vera). These two stand in

the analogical relation to each other, in other words, they correspond to each other (which

is not to say that they are identical). In a similar vein, the 'subtle body' isüksm sarif)

spoken of in tantric and yogic traditions corresponds to what is in the Western

esotericism usually designated by the term 'astral body.' It is my contention that this

matter is insufficiently realized and that it needs a great deal of further comparative

investigation in order to arrive at a clearer conceptualization.

s1 Robert A. F. Thurman, "Magico-Religious Powers," in Hidden Truths, 225; emphasis added. 52 Ibid., 226; emphasis added.

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Transmutation

The ultimate goal of the yogic practice, according to the Naths, lies in the attainment of

the immortal or diamond body. This is sometimes referred to as the 'divine body,' divya

deh. It is important to realize, first of all, that this goal is in its ultimate nature spiritual.

"Immortality is recognized to be the quintessence of the ultimate nature of the Lord

[Siva]. ... It is for this reason that in common belief we find great Nam Siddhas like

Matsyendra and Gorakh often identified with Siva or Maheávara. ... The real significance

of the attainment of immortality is the attainment of the state of the Great Lord."54 In this

sense, the yogic aspiration to acquire an immortal body is comparable to an effort

towards mystical union with the Divine. For to attain 'the state of the Great Lord' is

tantamount to the attainment of identity with Him, and the identity is but an aspect of

union. In this sense, Gorakhnath is Siva. Similarly, to attain the siddhis means to become

like the Lord who is the natural possessor of powers. What from the position of their

detractors appears to be a near-obsession with the body and power, from the perspective

of the Naths is an aspiration towards the sacred understood as power.

Immortality is a mark of the Divine. To aspire towards it means to strive to

become 'a second Siva.' Quest for immortality therefore entails a spiritual dimension: its

aim is deification. The yogic practice is consequently based on the assumption of the

possibility of perfectibility. In other words, the yogic practice is about the transmutation

of a death-bound human being into immortal god, and in this sense it again fits perfectly

Some insights into Western conceptions of the 'subtle body' may be gathered from a fine discussion in D. P. Walker, "The Astral Body in Renaissance Medicine," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol.21 (1958), 119-33. 54 Dasgupta, Obscure Cults, 221.

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with the Faivrian model of esotericism. Prerogative of a god is free will, power, and life

eternal. An accomplished adept of yoga, a siddha, exhibits these same qualities as his

own. The attainment of the divine body, once the physical body has been 'cooked' in the

fire of yoga, establishes a mark of difference between a siddha and the ordinary human

being:

Through the fire of yoga the body becomes supra-material and above all sorrows and sufferings. Such a yoga body (yogo-deha) is rare even to gods; it is a body bereft of all limitations and bondage and at the same time possessing great powers; it is limitless like the sky but purer even than the sky. The great yogin with his perfect body moves in the world according to his own will, - and as this perfect body is produced through the burning away of his physical body through the fire of yoga there is no further death for him.56

In the light of the above considerations, it follows that a display of power and free

behaviour on the part of the yogis represents a sign of their sharing in the nature of the

Divine. In the words of Gorakhnath, "Those who are immortal and pure are beyond sin

and virtue./ They are beyond sattva and rajas [and tamas] and are empty. / They

remember the sabad of soham and hamsa." / Theirs is the highest goal and the endless

siddhis."58 Immortality, transcendence of ethical concerns, purity from the gunas,

emptiness, yogic remembrance (gnosis?), and powers are all combined together as

descriptive marks of this new state of being.

Experience of transmutation is one of the four main constitutive elements of esotericism. See Faivre, Access to Western Esotericism, 13-4. 56 Dasgupta, Obscure Cults, 220. 57 In Sanskrit, hamsa literally means both 'swan' and 'I am He;' so 'ham means 'I am He.' Both words are related to the sound internally heard during the process of breathing. The spiritual connotation of hamsa is described by Grimes as the "natural vibration of the Self, which occurs spontaneously with each incoming and outgoing breath. By becoming aware of hamsa, a seeker experiences the identity between the individual self and the supreme Self. Also repeated as So 'ham." Grimes, Dictionary, s.v. "hamsa."

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To summarize the main points related to the understanding of the human body according

to the Nath Siddhas and to correlate them to the Faivre's model of esotericism: The body

is fundamentally a microcosmic replica of the macrocosm; in yogic terminology, the

individual body, pind, is analogous to cosmos, brahmand. Siva and Sakti are also present

within the human body, having their respective places at the top of the head and at the

base of the spine. The human body in its material aspect corresponds to the universe and

spiritual realities. The notion of correspondence is extended by the analogy between

semen, breath, and mind, and their spiritual correlates and it also represents the

theoretical foundation of yogic practice. This practice would be impossible without the

exercise of imagination, which projects the images of the cakras and the whole

superstructure of the subtle body over the empirical grid of the physical body. The yogic

practice is oriented toward transmutation of the mortal body into immortal body that is in

its infinite powers identical with the body of the Great Lord Siva. And finally, the

practice of the Nath yogis represents an internalization of the methods of Indian alchemy.

The alchemical practice focuses on the work with mercury, replaced by the semen in the

practice of yoga, whose attributes and powers are ultimately those of a living thing.5

Consequently, all the four major elements of esotericism are intimately interwoven in the

yogic understanding of the human body. Does the same hold true for their approach to

and understanding of sexuality?

GBS 46. "amara nirmal pap na pumni / sat raj bibarjit sumni / soham hamsa sumirai sabad / tihim paramartha anant sidhi." 59 See White, "Why Gurus Are Heavy?"

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SEXUALITY: ESOTERICISM AND POWER

Celibacy as the Care of the Self

The Nath panthi yogis are customarily described in literature as a group of celibate

ascetics, as those who have renounced sex. "As early as Panini's time (c. 500. B.C.)

'Yogi' meant a man who practices religious austerities; and these were much valued, and

asceticism and the vow of celibacy and life-long study were regarded as high virtues and

as being productive of the highest powers."60 "This ascetic ideal is emphasized by

wandering Jogi minstrels, singing legends in which the link between indulgence of the

senses and death is constantly emphasized."61 The poems recorded in The Sayings of

Gorakh also abound with admonitions for sexual continence. A verse such as "People

who rub skin against skin / Waste the body day by day" is a typical instance of this

attitude. However, while there is no reason to doubt that celibacy constitutes an

important element in the career of the yogis, it is nevertheless possible to assert that

sexuality, considered in its wider scope, represents a sine qua non of the phenomenon of

the Nath Siddhas. To a large degree, this sexuality is non-ordinary: it is internalized,

modified, and hidden ('occult'), sublimated and supplemented by a network of apparently

non-sexual signifiers. But it is there, ubiquitous and quintessential. I propose,

consequently, to devote this section to a reading of the phenomenon of the Gorakhnathi

yogis with the particular intent to extrapolate and emphasize the erotic subtext related to

the theory and practice of the group. It will hopefully become manifest, in the course of

60 Briggs, Gorakhnath, 260. 61 Vaudeville, Weaver Named Kabir, 96-7. ® GBP 48: 3. "cammaim camm ghasamta loT, din din chijai kaya, apa parcai gur mukhi na cinhaim, phari phari baghnim khaya."

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my argument, that the sexuality among the Siddhas constitutes a crucial factor of their

identity and a clue to their power.

Michel Foucault has shown in The History of Sexuality and other writings that,

despite many outward similarities, there is an important difference in nature, orientation

and meaning, between Greco-Roman and Christian sexual asceticism in Late Antiquity.

The practice of (a small number, usually patrician) pagans centered around the idea of

'the care of the self (Gk. epimeleia heautou; Lat. cara sui). The principal aim of the

sexual moderation and abstinence was to demonstrate that a person undergoing these

practices was able to control and govern oneself and be the master of oneself (an

extremely important qualification in the society of masters and slaves). "The great

difference in sexual ethics for the Greeks was not between people who prefer women or

boys or have sex in this way or another, but was a question of quantity and of activity and

passivity. Are you a slave ofyour own desires or their master? ... You have to become

completely master of yourself On the other hand, early Christian asceticism was

informed by the struggle against flesh and desire, which were considered negative, even

demonic, and sexuality was renounced for religious reasons (an attitude most forcibly

expressed with reference to the Augustinian notion of the 'original sin'). "Consequently,

between paganism and Christianity, the opposition is not between tolerance and austerity,

but between a form of austerity which is linked to an esthetics of existence [as in

paganism] and other forms of austerity [as in Christianity] which are linked to the

necessity of renouncing the self and deciphering its truth. "64

Michel Foucault, "On the Genealogy of Ethics: An Overview of Work in Progress," in The Foucault

64 Ibid., 366. Reader, ed. Paul Rabinow (New York: Pantheon Books, 1984), 349; emphasis added.

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My understanding is that the asceticism of the Nath Siddhas resembles, in its

nature and orientation, the Greco-Roman type of askesis and that it represents a particular

technique of the care-of-the-self where the self in question in its ultimate purpose aspires

towards divinity. The sexual abstinence and the retention of sperm are approached as the

pathways toward positive goal, which is power, siddhi. A yogi resorts to the ascetic

methods because he, "by conserving his semen, is believed to build up an internal store of

magical power."65 Making a reference to the practice of the semen preservation, Gorakh

says: "In so doing, you are the creator, you are god."66 We have to keep in mind the fact

that the religious goal of the Siddhas was neither the impersonal nirvana of the Buddhists

and Jains, nor the merging into the monist reality of brahman of the Advaitans, nor the

loving union with the chosen deity of the Bhaktas. The Naths were intent on deification

and immortality, their aim was becoming 'a second Siva' and a life eternal. "People

involved in the practice of yoga / Are not devoured by Death," is their claim. And the

crucial, unavoidable step on the road towards this goal consists in the yogis' engagement

with the powers of sexuality. Of course, this is a qualified sexuality, distinct from the

ordinary kind, which in the case of non-initiates generally has its consummation with the

men ejaculating their semen. As is well known, the yogis attempt to reverse this

process,68 and to turn their semen upward (urddhvaretas), resembling again in this aspect

the great god Siva whose erected lingam points to his head, indicating, it is assumed, the

direction of the upward-moved sperm. The successful accomplishment of this seminal

65 Audrey Cantlie, "Aspects of Hindu Asceticism," in Symbols and Sentiments: Cross-cultural Studies in Symbolism, ed. loan Lewis (London: Academic Press, 1977), 265. In her otherwise interesting essay, the author makes a claim that yogic asceticism resembles what Freud calls the death instinct or the death drive, with which assertion I don't entirely agree. " GBS 148. "so apaim karta, apaim dev." GBS 220. "logjugati maim rahai samay / ta logTkum kal na khay."

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reversal signals the attainment of the divine status: "[I]t has been emphatically declared in

all texts of yoga that he, who has been able to give an upward flow to the [seminal] fluid

is a god, and not a man."69

Sexual abstinence among the Náths is functional and teleological, not moral, in

its presuppositions. Sexuality, in its mundane forms, is not something that the yogis

consider ethically problematic or sinful, since their pragmatic philosophy does not dwell

upon these concepts. "The immortal and the pure are beyond sin and virtue,"70 declares

Gorakhnáth. The real negative effects of sexuality, as understood by the Siddhas, refer

more to the health hazards; its dangers are somatic and physiological, rather than ethical:

"The legs become shaky, the stomach loose / And the [hair on the] head [white] like a

heron's wings."" At the same time, as already mentioned, the struggle against the

demands of desire represents an occasion for the acquisition of power - a common theme

in Indian spirituality. It is well known that humans most closely approach the condition of

gods when they accumulate a store of energetic heat, tapas, through their ascetic and

celibate exertions and it is at such occasions the gods usually send heavenly nymphs to

seduce the ascetics and make them release accumulated semen and thus lose their godlike

power. The important fact here is that sexual abstinence represents an avenue for the

obtainment of power. This is clearly declared in the following verses from The Sayings of

Gorakh: "The yogi who holds above what goes below, / Who burns sex, abandons desire,

72 / Who cuts through mays -1 Even Visnu washes his feet."

" Practically every writer, who wrote on the subject of the Siddhas mentions and dwells upon this practice, technically called the ulta sadhana. One of the best summaries is still Dasgupta, Obscure Cults, 229-35. 69 Dasgupta, Obscure Cults, 246. 70 GBS 46. "amra nirmal páp na pumni." GBP 43: 2. "gor bhae dagmag pet bhaya dhlla, sir bagulam pankhiyam." GBS 17. "aradhai jatá uradhai dharai, kámm dagadh je jog! karai / tajai alyangan kátai máyá, taká bisnu pakhálai payá."

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In the case of yogis, the victory over eros, the victory most emphatically

associated with Gorakhnath himself , constitutes a proof of self-mastery and justifies

the assumption of the title of the 'real' yogi. "Renouncing riches and sex, / He is the lord

of yoga, without fear."74 But this victory is not by any means an end in itself, for the main

objective of the Siddhas is the transformation of the sexual substances into elixir of

immortality. On the basis of the centrality of this fact we may conclude that the

asceticism of the Naths is not simply an exercise in sexual continence (as with the

'orthodox' renouncers) but an attempt at transformation of mundane sexuality into

mystical eroticism. In addition, the sexual interplay of the polar energies of the Sun and

the Moon (understood as being internally present within the body as the two main

cakras), sexual symbolism related to the penetration of the cakras by the fiery snake

kundalini, and the erotic subtext of the dress and some other external paraphernalia of the

yogis, all these elements are important additional indicators of the role of sexuality

among the group.

Finally, it is virtually certain that abstinence from regular sexual activity

represents only a preliminary stage in the career of (some) Nam yogis. Those who have

satisfied this requirement and proved to be masters of themselves, that is to say, those

who have become adepts, the Siddhas, they in fact may resort to the ritual, tantric sex.

This is made explicit, for example, in the references to the practice of the so-called

vajroli mudra, the main point of which lies in the ability of the yogi to suck back,

" See, for example, the account of the Gorakh's victory over the lures of the Goddess in Dasgupta, Obscure Cults, 317-$: "All the Siddhas, excepting Gorakh, fell victims to the amorous charms of the goddess and every one except Gorakh felt within a desire to enjoy her, - and the desire of the Siddhas was all approved by her." " GBS 102. "kanak kammnTm tyagem doi, so jogesvar nirbhai hoi."

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through his penis, the sperm released during the sexual act. Keeping all these facts in

mind, it is justifiable to assert that the power of the Nâth Siddhas relates intimately to,

and is inseparable from, the topic of sexuality. Let us, therefore, continue with the

investigation of the details of this relationship.

Yoga as a Form of Eros

Etymologically, yoga means "union, junction, combination". The aim of yoga is the

union of opposites, coincidentia (or coniunctio) oppositorum, and this union is often

represented under the imagery of sexual coupling - a common theme especially, but not

exclusively, in the tantric teachings. "Indeed, the desired goal of hathayoga ascetic and

spiritual practice could be conceived as a recognition or reintegration of the two cosmic

principles formulated as Sakti and Siva (or yoni/ linga, sun/ moon, nâda/ bindu, ovum/

semen, etc.) within the disciples own body, similar to the comparative Western notion of

conuinctio [sic; coniunctio is meant] oppositorum."''"1 A yogi is the one who is engaged

in the activity of joining opposites. This effect can be achieved in various ways:

regulating the breathing and joining breaths within the body, chanting mantras,

meditating, and so on. The point is that by this process the disparate elements of reality

are coupled, joined, united. David Gordon White provides a short summary of the

possible pairs to be joined: "Yoga, literally 'union' is, in the mystic parlance of the

Nâth Siddhas, the union of sun and moon, fire and fluid, ovum and seed, that which is

75 See Jeffrey J. Kripal, Kali's Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna, 2"d ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998 [1" ed. 1995]). In a nutshell, Kripal understands eroticism as an interpénétration of the categories of sexual and religious. 76 Vaman Shivaram Apte, The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary:Revised and Enlarged (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1998 [1" ed.1890]), s.v. "yoga". " Ellen Goldberg, The Lord Who Is Half Woman: Ardhanârisvara in Indian and Feminist Perspective (Albany, N.Y .: SUNY Press, 2002), 67.

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enjoyed (upabhogya) and that which enjoys (bhokta), and ultimately, the commingling of

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the principles of creation and destruction ... " Gnoseological and soteriological aims are

achieved through a process of union, through yoga.

At this point, I would like to advance one more time the idea that yoga (at least,

the tantric yoga of the Siddhas), as a form of thought and a mode of practice, may be seen

as an analogy of Western magic and that magic corresponds to eros, "Eros itself being a

form of magic."79 This analogical link is founded on the principle that yoga, magic, and

eros all work on the basis of attractions, sympathies and unions. The justification for

establishing the parallel between yoga and sexuality consequently lies in the fact that both

of these are activities aiming at a particular kind of union. Even at the most fundamental

level, the yogic quest shares certain erotic implications.

The followers of Gorakh are well known for elaborate esoteric mappings of the

human body, which, in their view, represents an interior hierarchical universe, embracing

both the infernal and celestial regions, peopled with deities and other spiritual beings,

consisting of several centers of mystical energy. These centers, the cakras, are

numbered in various ways (four, six, seven, and more) but it is unanimously accepted as

fact that the two main cakras are at the same time the dwelling places of Siva and Sakti.

The goal of yogic practice is to unite these two deities within one's body. We may argue

that the purpose of yoga, as envisioned by the Siddhas, lies in achieving an internal erotic

coupling of the deified principles of universal polarity. In a very real sense, the religious

' White, Alchemical Body, 456, n. 106. " loan P. Couliano, Eros and Magic in the Renaissance, trans. Margaret Cook (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 221. "[Marsilio] Ficino is father of the equation Eros = magic, whose terms can doubtless be reversed." Ibid., 87. 8 See, for example, White, "Le monde dans le corps du Siddha," especially pp. 193-5.

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result of yogic practice, its mystical consummation, is an orgasmic (or, at least, orgasm-

like) experience.

In making the claim that yogic mystical states resemble (or represent a variety of)

sexual experiences I am taking side with those scholars and interpreters of tantra (and

related phenomena) who are emphasizing the possibility of mutual penetration between

the categories of 'sexual' and 'religious or mystical'. In contradistinction to this attitude,

"numerous scholars have attempted all sorts of mental gymnastics in a desperate effort to

rescue the tradition from its stubbornly 'impure' ways. So, for example, we are asked to

believe that the word penis ilingam) in the texts does not mean penis ... , and that scholars

who privilege the sexual connotations of the word yoni (vagina) are being

imperialistic."81 Jeffrey Kripal has shown in his study of Ramakrishna that sexuality

played a major role in the teaching of this adept, otherwise associated with the

popularization of neo-Hindu advaita. In an important vision, for example, Ramakrishna

sees himself performing cunnilingus on the cakras along the spine, "erotically playing

with the vagina-shaped lotuses with his tongue. ... Ever since then I have been in this

state. "82 One day, Ramakrishna is visited by a practitioner of tantra who explains to him

that "the 'stem' and 'lotuses' of kundalinl yoga represent Siva's phallus (lihgam) and the

goddess 'in the form of a vagina' (yonirupa)." On the basis of these and similar

information from a variety of sources, it is possible to speculate on the sexual content of

mystical and yogic states. I will refrain, at this place, from a discussion as to whether the

sexual and mystical are best viewed as the varieties of the same or as the two distinct

phenomena.

$1 Kripal, Kali's Child, 29. Ibid., 127. Italics in the original.

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Yoga is an attempt at the union of opposites. Siva and Sakti represent these

opposites cosmologically and theologically. "Sakti manifests the expansion, Siva

manifests the contraction. / If one would make yoga [union] of these two, he would be a

king of the perfect yogis."84 There are two ways according to which a yogi may attempt

to bring about the union of these two. As a solitary practitioner, the yogi may approach

his or her own body (and mind) as a dwelling place of these two divinities and then try to

Off

unite them. "Take Siva and Sakti and make them meet," urges Gorakhnath. To raise the

kundalini from the lowest cakra through application of various yogic techniques and to

bring her up to the head would be an example of such an internal marriage of the

opposites. Another method would be one of exteriorization: in this case a male yogi,

identifying himself with Siva, would have a ritual intercourse with a woman, as Sakti,

and they would establish the union in this way.

There are two points of interest here. A yogi, as a single person, is ideally, or

rather virtually, a hermaphrodite. In this sense, as Ellen Goldberg has shown, the image

and model of the ideal yogi is Siva as Ardhanarisvara, the god who is half woman and

half man. This is a very important insight for it acknowledges the presence of an

archetype that transcends the normative supremacy of masculinity. The yogic androgyny

is established through the presence of the both masculine and feminine currents of energy

within the body. The Sun and the Moon, Siva and Sakti, they are all found and need to be

joined within the body of a yogi. "The Moon and the Sun have to be fixed facing each

83 Ibid., 128. ' Goraksa-Vacana-Samgrahah, 9: "prasaram bhasayet saktih samkocam bhasayet sivah / tayoryogasya karta yah sa bhavet siddhayogirat." In Banerjea, Philosophy of Gorakhnath, 333. (The translations from this Sanskrit texts are by Narayan Mishra, throughout. See Bibliohraphy, s.v. Mishra.) 85 GBS 84. "siv sakti le kari jorau." See Goldberg, The Lord Who Is Half Woman.

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other," advises Gorakhnath. At the same time, a yogi may retain the original gender

identity according to the demands of situation, for example, during ritual sex. In any case,

whether the essential polarity is telescoped inside or projected externally, the main

operative principle of yoga remains the union of opposites and in that sense it is

analogically related to eroticism. Yoga, being union, is a form of eros.

Eros on the Sleeves: Sexual Symbolism of Yogis' Dress and Sectarian Marks

As far as the outward appearance of the yogis is concerned, the robe they wear is usually

reddish-ochre in colour and here again we may notice an erotic subtext related to the

issue. Hazariprasad Dvivedi provides in this connection the following information:

"[William] Crooke has given an account of an interesting tale, according to which it was

Parvati who originally gave to Gorakhnath one robe that she coloured with her own

blood. It has been said that from that time the red (or ochre) colour became the colour of

no

the yogis." As Briggs comments, "Yellow (and red) is a symbol of fertility and is the

marriage colour. ... The corpse is anointed with [yellow] turmeric, since death is looked

upon as marriage."8 By the same token, the colour of the yogi's dress signifies death -

for yogi has 'died' for the world - and marriage. The underlying idea here is that both

death and marriage are the symbols of the final state of ecstatic union or samadhi (let us

keep in mind the fact that yogi's grave is also called samadhi). The erotic component is

embraced by the idea of union present in both images: both Eros and Thanatos signify the

sublime. As for the other main ornaments of the yogis that became distinctive marks of

"7 GBS 113. "Cand suraj dou sanmukhl rakhila [rakhiba]." One of the meanings of the verb rakhna is "to have sexual intercourse ... " See R.S. McGregor, ed., The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary (Oxford and Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997 [1" ed. 1993]), s.v. "rakhna".

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the sect, the earrings, the horn, and ashes smeared on the body, Matsyendra received

these from Siva. Even in outward appearance, a yogi wears symbols that indicate by their

origin the presence, the union, of the god and the goddess on his body. This is made the

most explicit by the practice of branding the yoni-lingam image on the right fore arm of

the yogis.

The main distinctive outward marks of the yogis, however, are the large earrings,

called mudri. "Rings are of two general shapes, flat and cylindrical; the former called

darsan ['vision'], the latter kundal ['round']. ... The ring is sometimes called

pivitri, 'holy,' 'sacred.'" As already mentioned, the custom of wearing these earrings

originated with Siva and his immediate disciple Matsyendranath. An aspirant to the

Order is called an aughar, after the initiation ceremony, during which the ears are slit and

earrings inserted, he (or she9) becomes a Nath yogi.93

In the final stage of their ceremony of initiation a specially chosen guru, or teacher, splits the central hollows of both ears with a two-edged knife (or razor). The slits are plugged with sticks of HJm-wood; and, after the wound are healed, large rings (mudri) are inserted. These are a symbol of the Yogi's faith. Some explain that in splitting the ear a nidi (mystic channel) in the cartilege [sic] is cut, thus assisting in the acquirement of the yogic power. The Yogi, wearing the mudra, becomes immortal.94

I would like to draw attention to several important elements in the above account. There

is the erotic symbolism of penetration: the phallic knife opens a hole in the yogi's body.

Hazariprasad Dvivedi, Nath Sampraday (Allahabad: Lokbharat Prakashan, 1999 [1" ed. 1966]), 18. See also Briggs, Gorakhnäth, 18. Ibid., 18, n. 8. "Red is the colour of Love." Vaudeville, Weaver Named Kabir, 277, n. 169. " Briggs, Gorakhnäth, 17. " Ibid., 7. "Women who wear mudra are numerous." Ibid., 10. 'Dvivedi, Nath Sampraday, 16. Briggs, Gorakhnäth, 6.

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In a certain sense, after this ceremony the yogi ceases to be a virgin. His body is not

closed anymore, there is an opening, which at the same time makes the passage of the

energy through the body and the acquisition of power possible. Now, with ordinary men,

whose sexuality is not sublimated and transformed, the opening that is the place of the

drainage of energy (and the cause of mortality) is in the lower part of the body. The

Naths attempt to keep that lower aperture closed and instead, just like Siva who was the

first to wear the rings, they open a space in their heads (the abode of Siva). Instead of the

energy (the semen, the elixir) draining down from head to and through the penis, the

yogis are attempting to reverse the process by closing the lower hole and opening the one

in the upper part of their body. This should facilitate the ascent of the powerful but latent

energy of the kundalini sakti that is ordinarily situated in the lowest cakra and that yogis

attempt to 'wake up' and send upward along the central channel (susumna) in the spinal

cord. However, irrespective of the fact whether the semen goes up or down, both

situations represent instances of an erotic process. The only difference between the two is

the difference between the gross and the subtle forms of manifestation of the sexual

power.

Sexual Powers of Fertility Among Yogis

A curious element in many legends and stories about the Nath yogis is their ability to

generate human beings out of 'dead matter.' "The Nath Siddhas, and Gorakh in

particular, are great yogic progenitors, fecundating women with their yogic 'seed,' which

they carry in their wallets (jholl) in the form of rice grains, barleycorns, ashes, or water in

which their loincloth has been washed. A number of Gorakh's illustrious disciples,

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including Guga Pir and Carpati, are conceived and born in this way." The story of the

birth of Gorakhnath himself is a typical example:

Once, during his travels, Matsyendranath enjoyed the hospitality of a child-less

couple. As a sign ofhis appreciation, while he was leaving he offered the woman some of

the magical dust, vibhuti, from his sack, ordering her to eat of it and that as a result she

will conceive a child. Persuaded by her friends, she decided not to eat it but threw the

dust in a pit outside the village. Twelve years later, Matsyendra returned and asked about

the child. The woman admitted her deed. Matsyendra went to the pit and call the child,

"Come out!" "Greetings, guru!" replied the voice from the pit. When the curious villagers

removed the soil, they found a divine, beautiful child sitting at the bottom in a yogic

position. The child came out and took the dust from Matsyendra's feet who gave him the

name Gorakh and prophesized his future glory and fame.96

This same ability to produce living beings, without recourse to the usual means of

achieving the same result, is also told of Gorakhnath. "In the contest with

Jalandharnath (Gopicand legend), Gorakhnath turned horse dung into locusts, or dung

and a blanket, or a bundle of grass, and then into a human body and infused it with life."

In the Sri Gorakhnath Caritr he makes a 'driver' for kids' chariot out of clay and infuses

no

him with life using the samjivan mantra. Briggs reports that "Gorakhnath had a magic

bag, or wallet, of wonderful potency, from which he drew gifts of various kinds. He took

out of it the barley grains, or the apple, or the flowers, or the ashes which conferred the

95 White, Alchemical Body, 289. " This famous story is summarized in Prakash Nath Tantresh, Rajasthan ka Nath Sampraday (Ajmer: Arya Brothers Bookseller, 1993), 29-31. Camanlal Gautam, Sri Gorakhnath Caritr a, specifies that Gorakh is born as a result of a boon given to Matsyendra by the Sun god (see pp. 5-10). A variant recorded in the Buddhapurana substitutes Matsyendra with Siva while otherwise agreeing with the story. See Matsyendra Saiphita, 30-1. See also, White, Alchemical Body, 288 and Briggs, Gorakhnath, 182. "7 Briggs, Gorakhnath, 190.

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gift of sons ... " Briggs' conclusion is that "like many other great ascetics he was able to

grant children to barren women."100 It follows that an important element of Gorakh's

greatness lies in his powers of fecundity.

Other Nath yogis were also believed able to perform this type of miraculous

production of human beings. David Gordon White quotes the following story from the

book Siva-Goraksa by Pir Premnath, where Gorakh's disciple Ratannath creates a boy

from the elements ofhis own body:

After eating the food from the first plate, Ratannath then stood before the second plate. Having pronounced a mantra, he then caused ashes to flow from his body, after the fashion of Siva. These he fashioned into a ball, which he placed before the second plate of food. He then announced that the ball of ashes would eat the food sitting in front of it. ... The ball then split and a laughing, fully formed boy emerged from it and set about eating the food on the plate before him.101

The stories of this kind are numerous in the Nath lore. Here we find again all the main

constituents of their make-up interwoven: eros, occult, power. Again, sexual symbols

signify esoteric realities and occult powers refer to sexuality. For example, the story of

the production of the divine child, through the incubation period of twelve years, may

have as its referent the yogic trajectory, "the standard period of preparation of a yogin in

the traditions under study here. Twelve years, the mystic homologue of a year of twelve

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months in which the seasons and the dance of sun and moon are brought full circle ... "

The stories in question also contribute to the image of the yogis as powerful persons,

miracle-workers, whose ability to produce (and sometime, revive) human beings places

" Camanlal Gautam, Sri Gorakhndth Caritr (Bareli: Sanskriti Sansthan, 1998 [1981?]), 17-21. " Briggs, Gorakhnath,, 199. 100 Ibid., 190. 101 Qtd. in White, Alchemical Body, 287.

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them into a god-like category. But the undertones of this generative ability are also

sexual. After all, sexuality is the usual avenue for generation of the living beings. It is

only that with the Siddhas this ability is of a different sort. Here again we face that fact

that where there are jogis there is sexuality, but of a transmuted kind. While the ordinary

men obtain children by releasing the semen through the lower parts of their body, the

yogis, who have shut closed those nether openings, produce them through their fingers.

Their generative ability is in fact without location since it is freely in their possession,

amiable to their wishes, filling their whole bodies with its potency. And what a better

image for an erotic ascetic (which every Nam, on the model of Siva, potentially is) than a

renouncer who is able to make barren women give birth to the sons? Generative potency

is overflowing from the Siddhas: those who have mastered sexuality have really become

the sexual masters.

Sexuality at the Root of the Tension between Gorakhndth and Matsyendrandth

According to the traditional accounts, Matsyendranath was the first human disciple of the

god Siva and the first proponent of Hatha Yoga. The preeminent position within the

hierarchy of the Nath panth is, however, usually reserved for Matsyendra's disciple

Gorakhnath. The reason for this attitude lies in the fact that Matsyendranath's career is

less immaculate than his disciple's. Matsyendra is, in fact, a 'fallen yogi' who had

forgotten and lost his way in the company of women and it was only through the efforts

On Matsyendranath, see Matsyendra Saiphita. "There is evidence to state that the secret YoginT Kaula of Matsyendra, which he expounded in Kamarupa where every woman was a YoginT, was named after them for in their company he could discover this new cult." V.W. Karambelkar, "Matsyendranatha and his YoginT Cult," Indian Historical Quarterly 31 (1955), 365.

105

of his pupil that he was brought back to his senses and the path of yoga.104 Gorakhnath's

greatness is established through the fact that he has proven to be a truer yogi than his own

teacher. It is a telling sign of this state of affairs that in the visual representations Gorakh

is usually depicted as a young man, an eternal youth, while Matsyendra is shown as an

old man with the white hair, displaying thus outwardly the negative results of the loss of

semen. As a pad from the Sayings of Gorakh puts it, "All the juice [ras] is gone, / Only

refuse remains. / Oh dear devotee Macchindranath, / Yoga is [thus] not possible!"105

At the heart of the situation seems to be a difference between what may be called

a tantric versus yogic approach to sexuality, understood as an avenue of spiritual practice.

What Gorakhnath stands for is an internalization of sexual dynamics within the body-

mind complex of a celibate yogi.16 In other words, Gorakh approaches eros esoterically.

The sexual polarity is established between several elements of the subtle body, whose

constituents are given appropriate gender and sexual significations. We have the

relationship between the two main cakras that are the inner loci of the male (Siva in the

sahasraf) and female (Sakti in the mulddhdr) energies within the yogic body. The goal of

practice is, it will be remembered, to make these two unite, which is a fact with obvious

erotic reference. At another level, the sexual polarity is established through the

relationship between the kundalini, which, although otherwise glossed as female,

assumes a male and phallic function during the ascent from the base of the spine towards

104 On the subject of Gorakhnath's victory over the forces of temptation that made his teacher lose his way in the midst of pleasures of the householder's lifestyle, see Vidyapati's short play in Maithili with Hindi translation, Goraksa Vijaya: Kavikokil Vidyapati-krt, ed. Harimohan Misra (Patna: Bihar Rashtrabhasha Parishad, 1974). The same subject is treated by medieval Bengali Muslim author Sheikh Faizulla. For a Russian translation of his work see Pobeda Gorokho, trans. I. A. Tovstih (Moscow: Nauka, 1988). 105 GBP 2: 4. "ras-kus bahi gaTla, rahi gal choT / bhagat machindranath puta, jog na hoT.' 10% As several authors have pointed out, Gorakh' solution against the temptation of sexuality in social encounters consists in treating every women as either a mother or a sister. See esp. Cashin, Ocean of Love, and Gold, Carnival of Parting.

106

head, during which process it penetrates the female lotuses within the subtle body. The

reader will recall Ramakrishna's account of this process, where the experience is

described in terms of its orgasmic quality.107 And finally, the sexual polarity within the

body of an individual yogi is established through the hermaphroditic nature of the subtle

body,108 whose divine prototype is Siva in the ardhandrlsvara form.109

In her study of the Bauls of Bengal, whose notions of the magical efficacy of

semen resemble those of the Naths but whose sexual practices involve the participation of

women, Jeanne Openshaw comments on her impression "that, in certain contexts, ...

[they] deliberately emphasise the role of prestigious 'yogic' practices such as pranayam

and total seminal retention. In others, they are more concerned to differentiate the path of

yoga (associated for them with respiratory techniques and esoteric practice without a

woman) from their own path - that of ras or bastu (fluids, substance)."110 However, it is

not correct to assume that the Nath yogis never engage in the ritual practice of the

physical sexual act.111 The so-called vajrolT mudrd is one, and probably the most

notorious, example to the contrary. The gist of this technique consists in the urethral

suction of the commingled semen and vaginal blood. Interestingly enough, this practice is

associated with Matsyendranath112 and, equally interesting, it was later "internalized in

107 See Kripal, Kali's Child, 127-8 and passim. 108 "According to Tantric and Hatha-yogic belief, ... the region of the body below the naval [sic] is the region of Sakti, while the region above the navel is the region of Siva ... " Dasgupta, Obscure Cults, 230. "09 See Goldberg, Lord Who Is Half Woman. 110 Jeanne Openshaw, Seeking Bauls of Bengal (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 205; emphasis added. ""' Dasgupta writes that "in spite of this general attitude of aversion towards women, the Nath Siddhas also practiced some well-known processes of yoga like VajraulT, AmaraulT, SahajaulT, etc. in the company of women. But these practices are yogic practices, pure and simple, in which women are neither philosophised upon, nor idealised." Dasgupta, Obscure Cults, 250. On these practices, see Hathayogapradipika 3: 82-96. 112 "This was the basic doctrine of Matsyendranath's venerable YoginT Kaula: women, because they are embodiment of the Goddess and because it is through their 'wombs' that the lineage is perpetuated, have something that men do not; it is therefore necessary for males to tap into the female in order that that boundless source of energy be activated within them. This fluid power substance (dravya) or lineage nectar

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certain hathayogic sources, in which one internally drinks the 'brilliant white-red

nectar'."113

It then appears that Matsyendranath and Gorakhnath represent two distinct, and

often antagonistic, schools of thought and practice related to the use of sexuality as a

spiritual technique. Matsyendra and his Yogini Kaula stand for what may be designated

as a 'hard-core' tantric path in which the sexual act is performed physically and which

involve the participation of women. Gorakh represents a 'hard-core' yogic way of

internalized sexuality inscribed within the body of a celibate ascetic.114 The latter school

has proven to be dominant - at least judged by the overall tenor of the Sayings of Gorakh

• and the sporadic instances of the Nath yogis performing physical sexual act, involving

ejaculation and subsequent withdrawal of the semen, are the lingering remnants of the

practice once originated by, or at least associated with, Matsyendranath.115

In the Sayings of Gorakh, there are several reflections of this situation.

Gorakhnath often uses very strong language in order to convey to his teacher the message

of incompatibility between yoga and pleasure, bhoga, making problematic, it should be

noted, the indiscriminate inclusion of the Naths under the rubric of tantra.116 "Listen

Machindra, Gorakh is speaking! / ... / You have not performed nirati nor listened well./

(kuldmrta), also simply known by the term 'true being' (sadbhava) - the purest substance found in the human body - is unique to women in their multiple roles as sexual consorts, practitioners of yoga, and biological mothers." White, Alchemical Body, 200. 113 Ibid. "4 It should be understood that I am contrasting 'yoga' with 'tantra' within the limits imposed by my own conceptual model. It is a matter of fact that there are non-celibate yogis as there are celibate tantrics. 115 A reference to one such practice that obviously assumes the performance of the sexual act but advises against the ejaculation is given in the following precept: "Those who, in making love, preserve the bindu, / They are Gorakh's brothers." GBS 141. "bhog karamtam je byand rakhai te gorakh ka gurbhaT." "1' As already mentioned, some scholars and particularly White consider tantra and yoga to be distinct disciplines.

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.. / Straying down among women, there is no yoga!" The principal danger of sexual

activity on the part of the yogi lies, from the perspective of Gorakh, in the loss of semen

that should have been transmuted into elixir: "Oh guru-ji, don't do such a thing! /

Because of that, you are wasting the mahdras amrt.'" "Therefore I say, Oh guru, /

Everything happened because of your naivete. / You have lost all the juice, Oh guru / In

the snare of the tigress."119 In order to persuade both his teacher and other yogis from the

involvement with women, Gorakh does not hesitate to engage in rather strong

misogynic120 diatribes against what he calls the 'tigresses' and 'vampires' (rdksasis): "

The vagina is a vampire. The vagina is a vampire Without teeth, she devoured the whole world. The wise have saved their head with wisdom; The people have forgotten their own selves. [Refrain]

During the day, the tigress sleeps, And at night she sucks from the body. [Man] does not understand the nature of sexual lust, So he keeps and nurtures the tigress in his own house.

People who rub skin against skin Waste the body day by day. They are not introduced to the self-knowledge at the guru's mouth, So the tigress devours them.

The tigress gives birth, the tigress kills, The tigress rears the body.

'1' GBP 3: refrain, 1. "sunau ho machindra gorakh bolai ... / nirati karlnairn nlkam sunijyau ... / kammnT bahtam jog na hoi." "18 GBP 43: refrain. "gurujT aisa karam na kTjai, tathaim amlrn maharas chTjai." "19 GBP 2:2. "etaim kachu kathllaguru, sabai bhaila bholai / sarb ras khoTla guru baghamm cai kholai." 120 Ann Grodzins Gold has advanced the view that the misogyny of the Nath Siddhas is not a straightforward affair and that it is counterbalanced by the respect shown to women as natural possessors of magical power. Discussing this issue in the context of the Rajasthani folk songs about the famous Nath yogi Gopi Chand, she writes: "As a whole the Rajasthani Gopi Chand transmits a world view in which gender is construed flexibly, the attributes of the different sexes are at times interchangeable, and misogyny coexists with a view of women as definitely the better half. Both in love and in magic, women command the power of maya, and no ordinary male can overcome this - although the very best of yogis can outdo women by rejecting the former and co-opting the latter." "Gender and Illusion in a Rajasthani Yogic Tradition," in Gender, Genre, and Power, 126.

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The tigress roars at the side of the king of death: Gorakh Raya has seen [through] her.'

In conclusion, Gorakhnath (and by extension the Nath yogis in general) approaches

sexuality in an esoteric manner by internalizing the sexual dynamics and erotic polarity

within the single body of a celibate ascetic. In this way, sexuality remains structurally

present and operative, although its performance is conducted in a non-ordinary way.

Instead of a sexual act between two persons culminating in the man's ejaculation, a yogi

conducts an imaginative process of joining of the opposites, where the nature of the

complementary poles to be united is also sexual and gender specific in at least some of its

symbolic registers. That the yogic work with internal energies may results in orgasmic

experiences is evident, for example, in the case of Ramakrishna, as Kripal has shown.

There is no reason to doubt that the experience is a common one; as Frits Staal asserts,

"connections between kundalirii and sex are undeniable." One may speculate that it

depends only on the type of a discourse preferred, whether the sexual connotations of the

process will be emphasized or not. Of course, there are yogis that follow in the footsteps

of Matsyendra, who perform the actual physical act of sex with women and who resort to

the practices such as vajrolT mudrd, but they constitute a minority, and thus exception to

the above statements.

"21 GBP 48: refrain, 1,3,4. "bhag räkasi lo, bhag räkasi lo, bimnam dantäm jag khäyä lo / gyämnl hutä su gyämn mukh rahiyä, jTv lok äpai äp gamväyä lo /tek/ din din bäghinT sTmyä lägl, rati sarlrai sokhai / visai lubdhTtat na büjhai, ghari lai bäghnlm pokhai /// cämmaim cämm ghsamtä loT, din din chTjai käyä / äpä parcai gur mukhi na cinhaim, phäri phäri bäghnlm khäyä 131 bäghnlm upäyä bäghnT nipäyä bäghnl pälT käyä / bäghnT däkrai jauriyom päkhrai, anbhui gorakh räya 141." 122 Frits Staal, "The Himalayas and the Fall of Religion," in The Silk Route and the Diamond Path: Esoteric Buddhist Art on the Trans-Himalayan Trade Routs, ed. Deborah E. Klimburg-Salter (Los Angeles: UCLA Art Council, 1982), 49. He also notes, "The notion that kundalirii is related to orgasm is even supported by contemporary popular magazines." Ibid.

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We may conclude, on the basis of analytical reflection, that Gorakhnath carries

the principle of esoteric internalization to its logical end. The body of a yogi, in addition

to its being a microcosmic mirror of the universal plenum, contains within its subtle

dimensions the inner reflections of the Great Lord Siva and his consort and complement,

the goddess Sakti. The union between these two, the union that is also the ultimate nature

of reality, is often represented in the form of sexual coupling, and the yogi through his

practice makes this principle an experiential fact. As Jean Varenne observes, "Shiva's

paradise is a region of delight where the supreme being ... joys eternally in his union

with his shakti: the final liberation is thus presented as being a sort of perpetual wedding

feast, an orgasm without end." Yogic practice related to the ascent of kundalini

corresponds esoterically to the sexual play between the Great Lord and the Goddess. As

already indicated, a more narrowly defined tantric approach would be to maintain the

relationship of polarity between the two partners, identifying man with Siva and woman

with Sakti. Gorakhnath's approach incorporates important elements of sexuality but

within the lifestyle of a celibate yogi. A dose of paradoxicality inherent in this situation is

not so unusual if one keeps in mind the fact that the yogi is an earthly representative of

the god whose nature is in general full of contradictions, the erotic ascetic lord of yoga,

the Great Lord Siva.124

Qtd. (with a corrected transliteration) in ibid. 48-9. See Jean Varenne, Yoga and the Hindu Tradition, trans. Derek Coltman (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1976), 175. 124 A superb study on this subject is Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty, Asceticism and Eroticism in the Mythology of Siva (London: Oxford University Press, 1973). Kripal's Kail's Child explores aspects of this issue from a psychoanalytically informed perspective.

IlI

CHAPTER 3

THE NATH SIDDHAS AND ESOTERICISM OF SPEECH

I will ask one sabad, please answer, merciful teacher! How can an old one become a child? How can an open flower become a bud? Whoever can answer what has been asked, he is a Gorakh!

Gorakh Bam (GBS 86)

On its reverse journey, the bindu undergoes transformations. In the median juncture

towards its final spiritual form as the elixir, it assumes at the level of the heart, in the

andhat cakra, an intermediary aspect as the subtle sound or speech. At this point, "the

yogin perceives an inner spontaneous sound (anahatanada)" or he hears the divine

word (sabda). For that reason, in this chapter I intend to interrogate the relationships

between esotericism, power, and various manifestations of linguistic and related

phenomena to which I gave the common denominator of'speech' in the title above. My

purpose in doing so is to establish the presence of esoteric factors in the way the Nath

yogis approach and employ language, understood as a broad category that also includes

acoustic and aural phenomena without semantic and syntactic attributes.

Thematically, my concerns will focus on the concepts of mantra, sabad, and nad.

Starting from the assumption that the esoteric nature of these topics is evident, and

keeping in mind the fact that they were given solid treatment in the general scholarship

' Silburn, Kundalini, 122. 2 See Vaudeville, Weaver Named Kabir, 98.

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on tantra, I will be less expository and more intent on evidencing their presence and role

in the teaching of the jogis, especially as attested in The Sayings of Gorakh. In addition, I

want to explore the esoteric usage of rhetoric, which we encounter in the riddles of the

'upside-down' (ultabamst) and 'twilight' or 'intentional' language (sandha- or

sandhyabhdsa).

The esotericism of speech is related to the issue of power on several levels. The

point I want to emphasize is that the power of language is sometimes inherently magical

(for example, mantras are infused with the occult potency), sometimes it stems from the

elite nature of esoteric knowledge, while being simultaneously reinforced by the

mechanisms of belief upheld by the social environment.4 The rhetorical employment of

esoteric language also serves as a powerful tool in the process of attracting the new

disciples, as much as it manifests itself as an enigmatic discourse that transcends the mere

bookish learning associated with the pundits. In this way, it carries also the connotations

of social critique: esoteric discourse as a source of power that denounces power based on

exoteric knowledge.

In the concluding part of this chapter, I reflect critically on the lack of

engagement with the power of language in the Faivrian model. I assert the conviction and

proposal that esotericism in general may even be understood as a particular mode of

discourse. To the degree that language and discursive practices create our reality, the

esoteric discourse ipso facto generates esotericism as such. From the point of view that

privileges language as the foundation of reality - and this view is not uncommonly

3 Mantras are occult formulae, while both sabad and nad are experienced internally and represent results of successfully performed yogic practice. 4 See Mauss, General Theory of Magic, 91-7.

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encountered in India - it may be less proper to refer to 'esoteric discourse' than to a

proposition that esotericism is a discourse.

I suggest opening this chapter with some observations of a general kind. I would

like to advance the proposal that there is an issue of power related to the fact that the

Nam Siddhas employ vernacular languages in order to transmit their teaching. Expressed

succinctly, the knowledge as power based on the mastery of Sanskrit and associated with

pundits is replaced by the power that has its source in the mastery of esoteric discourse.

Let me elaborate on this point.

VERNACULARS AND ESOTERICISM

According to both popular and scholarly consensus, the Náth Siddhas were among the

first religious groups in medieval North India to use vernacular language(s) in order to

express and transmit their ideas and mode of practice. "Matsyendranáth ... was one of

the first writers in Bengali," asserts Kalyani Mallik, "and Gorakhnáth was probably the

first prose writer in Hindi."5 In addition, the content of their poetry, as exemplified by

The Sayings of Gorakh, is often mediated by the employment of motifs and metaphors

that refer to quotidian tasks and occupations of the common people, artisans and

peasants. What is the significance of this fact? A possible answer is that it represents a

gesturing away from the orthodox and normative ordering of social and spiritual reality

usually associated with the institution of the varnásramadharma and sanskritic culture.

5 Kalyani Mallik, Siddha-Siddhánta-Paddhati and Other Works ofthe Natha Yogis (Poona: Oriental Book House, 1954), 1. " ... Gorakhnáth is claimed to have been an early writer of Hindi poetry and he is further claimed to have been the first known Hindi (or Punjabi) prose-writer." Dasgupta, Obscure Cults, 373. "From the early Middle Ages, perhaps as early as the eighth or ninth century, Siddhas and Yogis, mostly low-cast people, had been preaching their Gospel in the common tongue, bhdsd, in some form of Western Apabhramsha or old Bengali." Vaudeville, Weaver Named Kabir, 110. The role of the Naths in the spread

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It seems that the use of vernacular by the Naths indicates not so much a programmatic

rejection of the medium of Sanskrit as it signifies a lack of serious interest in it. As a

matter of fact, a number of works authored by the Siddhas do exist in Sanskrit, many of

which are attributed to Gorakhnath.6 But there can be no doubt that the fame and the

general image of the jogls rest on their vernacular poetry and the stock of legends and

stories about them, not on their Sanskrit treatises. For Sanskrit implies and presupposes a

distinct culture and intellectual complexity that is irrelevant for the purpose of control of

the body and the attainment of occult powers, which is the main objective of the yogis.

Sanskrit indicates a gesture of approval of the varnasramadharma, it conveys reverence

toward Vedas and brahmins, it is relevant to the institution of the 'Temple Hinduism' -

none of which is essential for the way of life envisioned by the Naths.

Instead of the elitism related to sanskritic culture, the Nath Siddhas developed an

elitism of the esoteric discourse. What are the elements of this discourse - the 'twilight'

and the 'upside-down' language - and what are the strategies of its deployment in the

works of the Siddhas? What is the esoteric use of rhetoric? By what mechanisms of

deployment does it translate into power? I will try to provide answer to these queries in

the final part of this chapter. At this point, let it suffice to establish as a given that an

important element in the make up of a Nath yogi refers to the mastery of certain mode of

esoteric discourse. If knowledge is power, then a yogi is powerful, among other things,

because he or she knows the meaning of the riddles and code words that abound, for

of vernaculars is also discussed in Ronald Stuart McGregor, Hindi Literature from its Beginnings to the Nineteenth Century (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1984), pp.21-4, etpassim. ' See the lists of the works in Sanskrit and Hindi attributed to Gorakhnath in Dvivedi, Nath Sampraday, 98- 100.

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example, in the poetry of The Sayings of Gorakh. Consequently, rhetoric, power, and

esotericism inform and interpenetrate each other.

Let us continue our investigation of the esotericism of speech by moving from the

general observations discussed so far to a more technical area, consisting of the concepts

of mantra, sabad, and nad.

MANTRAS

Indian tradition in general ascribes a paramount importance to the power of word. The

case of mantras is well known as is the wide range of their employment in Vedic,

sacerdotal, domestic and tantric ritual. In the philosophical tradition of Sanskrit

grammarians, the most sophisticated speculation on this topic is arguably represented by

the Bhartrhari's concept of sabda brahman as the ontological foundation of manifest

universe.' Similarly in tantric traditions, Abhinavagupta and others have developed an

intricate philosophy and meditational practice related to the concept of 'mother-

phonemes' or mdtrkds} In the disciplines of yoga, mantras and their 'seed' forms or bijas

are most often used in conjunction with meditation on cakras. It will be remembered that

initiation into the Order of the Nath Siddhas entails the transmission of a mantra to the

yogi.' All of this is a common knowledge" and I do not intend to elaborate on this issue,

' See, for example, Harold G. Coward, Bhartrhari (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1976). 8 "In Hindu Tantra, the matrkas are the phonemes of the Sanskrit language, acoustic matrices that are the ground for mantric utterances." "Glossary of Foreign Terms," in Tantra in Practice, s.v. "matrka." "The mantra should be given by the guru to disciple while performing initiatory site [sic]. The mantra uttered by guru is potent, when heard and used by the disciple leads to achievement of great powers." Matsyendra Samhita, 55. " Literature on the subject of mantras is extensive. Perhaps the most comprehensive single book is Harvey P. Alper, ed., Understanding Mantras (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass 1991 [1" ed. Albany, N.Y .: SUNY Press, 1988]). Of special interest is the essay by Harvey P. Alper, "A Working Bibliography for the Study of Mantras," ibid. 327-443, which is a gold mine of relevant information. See also Frits Staal, Ritual and Mantras: Rules Without Meaning (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1996 [1". ed. 1990]). More popular is

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except to emphasize some elements that are relevant to the main thesis and subject matter

ofthis work.

First of all, the knowledge and possession of a mantra translates into knowledge

and possession of power. On the one hand, this is the power of agency: by knowing the

mantra, a yogi can both change his inner predicament and acquire access into the occult

elements of his psycho-physical make-up and he can apply the mantra, usually in a ritual

setting, in such a way as to influence others and produce change in his environment. On

the other hand, the power that a possessor of mantra wields over others has its source in

the element of elitism and secrecy: not everybody knows the mantra, not everybody

knows how to use it. Sociologically speaking, the power of a mdntrika depends also on

the belief that other people have in his or her power." In this way, the esoteric

knowledge and the power that it generates are both individual and collective in their

reverberations; they are, in other words, both potentially gnostic and political in their

nature and function.

The worth and efficacy of a mantra is dependent on the network of

correspondences that correlate it to both individual and cosmic occult forces. It is well

known that mantras are believed to encapsulate in their phonetic form the essence of

associated gods and goddesses. To meditate on the mantra is then equivalent to

meditation on a particular divine figure. Similarly, mantras are correlated to the cakras in

17 the subtle body of the yogi. Meditation and mental or audible repetition of the mantras

Harold G. Coward and David J. Goa, Mantra: Hearing the Divine in India (Chambersburg, PA: Anima, 1991). Padoux's Vac remains unsurpassed masterpiece on the subject of mantra within Hindu tantrism. " "Thus, what a magician believes and what the public believes are two sides of the same coin. ... Magic as a whole is, therefore, an object a priory of belief, a belief which is unanimous and collective." Mauss, Theory of Magic, 96-7. " See, for example, the list of cakras accompanied by the information on the number of petals, the presiding deities with their Saktis, words, tunes, and colours for each of the cakras, in Pitambaradatta

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is supposed to lead to the 'opening' of the inner centres of occult energy, which

culminates in the experience of enlightenment and the acquisition of yogic powers, the

siddhis. It follows that the principle that makes the work on cakras operative and

meaningful is the esoteric sine qua non, the notion of correspondences.

The mantras are a particular genus, the focal (and vocal) elements in the chain of

signification that ultimately leads to the 'transcendental signified' whose nature is divine,

sacred. This means that chanting, concentration, and meditation on the mantras may be

seen as a devotional activity, the purpose of which is either a contact with the divine as

such, or an invocation of the sacred as power. From the perspective of orientation

towards power, work with mantras is magical activity; from the point of recognition of

power as the sacred, the same practice may be viewed as devotional. We must not forget

that power is also translated and exercised in the social sphere. This is the gist of the

mutual reinforcement between devotional, magical, and social repercussions resulting

from the power associated with mantras.

In light of the Faivrian model, mantras microcosmically correspond with the

cakras, and macrocosmically with the gods and goddesses, w whose nature they

encapsulate in the phonetic form. In this way, they mediate between physical and

transcendental levels of reality, serving as a bridge between human, imaginal, and divine

spheres. As the ontological ground of phenomenal manifestation, they are co-equal with

the ultimate reality, and for that reason they may be understood as exemplars of the living

nature. They have the power to transmute an ordinary human being into immortal adept.

They are typically transmitted from the teacher to a disciple within the context of the

Barthwal, Traditions of Indian Mysticism Based Upon Nirguna School of Hindi Poetry (New Delhi: Heritage Publishers, 1978), 164-5.

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ritual of initiation. And, to make an observation of a more general nature, the fact that

same mantras are often used in Vedic, domestic, Buddhist and Hindu tantric ritual, is a

good example of an element that is accessed by divers traditions through a practice of

concordance.

SAB AD

The term sabad, a vernacular form of the Sanskrit noun sabda, literally means 'word.' In

the context of The Sayings of Gorakh it refers both to the poetic form (consisting, usually,

of the rhymed couplet of verses) and to the inner 'Word' that becomes audible to the yogi

as a result of his successful practice with the inner energies of the body. As W. H.

McLeod explains, the concept of sabad associated with the Nath Siddhas was also

influential in the Sant movement and especially to Kablr and Guru Nanak, who

nevertheless reconceptualized it creatively in order to suit their respective spiritual

visions."3 Given its similarity with certain Western concepts, several scholars, some of

them missionaries, have tried to draw parallel between "the sabda doctrine of Kablr and

the platonic logos"" or to declare that "Kablr's doctrine of the Word (sabda) is a

remarkable copy of the opening verses of St. John's Gospel.""5 The weakness of such

proposals lies in the assumption that any similarity between two cultures must involve

historical contacts and influences. Leaving that issue aside, as far as the jogis are

concerned, McLeod explains that

"3 See W. H. McLeod, GurüNänak and the Sikh Religion (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001 [1" ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968]), 191-4. " Vaudeville, Weaver Named Kabir, 18.

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the word [sabad] is characteristically used in conjunction with anahad, or anahat, and refers to the mystical 'sound' which is 'heard' at the climax of the hatha-yoga technique. The anahad sabad is, according to such theories, a 'soundless sound', a mystical vibration audible only to the adept who has succeeded in awakening the kundalim and caused it to ascend to the susumnd."

The esoteric nature of the experience of the sabad, and the connection between its

emergence and the achievement of yogic goals, is reconfirmed in several verses from The

Sayings of Gorakh. One of them declares the gnostic quality of encountering the sabad,

which takes place at the level of the uppermost cakra: "At the summit of the sky, the

word [sabad] emerges into light. / There the gnostic understands the Formless One.""7 In

a similar vein, another verse proclaims that "Accepting the sabad, duality ends." Both

of these statements place emphasis on the inner quality of the experience of the sabad,

the fact that it denotes the attainment of wisdom (that is 'unseen' i.e. esoteric), and that

this wisdom is the result of the yogic practice associated with the ascent of kundalim

(which has reached the top cakra). The gesture conveyed is the one that draws the line of

demarcation between the 'unseen wisdom' learned at the 'summit of the sky' and the

ordinary, exoteric wisdom associated with the pundits: "O pundit, why do you die

fighting for knowledge?" asks Gorakh. "Know the highest place in some other way!"19

I would like to underscore the esoteric nature of the yogic experience of the

sabad. First of all, it is noticeable that the concepts referring to the content of the yogic

experience are fluid: they somehow merge and transform into each other. Let us picture a

situation of a general sort: a yogi is trying to preserve the dissipation of the semen

15 Qtd. in ibid., 24. This view was proposed by G. Grierson in his article "Modern Hinduism and its Debt to the Nestorians," Journal ofthe Royal Asiatic Society (1907), 311. "McLeod, GuruNanak, 191. " GBS 4. "gagani sikhar mahi sabad prakasya / taham bujhai alakh binamnlm."

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through the regime of celibacy. He is then attempting the process of reversal, striving to

redirect the flow of semen upwards, through postures, muscular contractions and

breathing exercises. So far, we are on the material level. Then, let us suppose that the

yogi is bringing into practice the vocal recitation or the mental repetition of a mantra, in

combination with some visual exercises. Corporeal, physiological, aural and visual

efforts, let us suppose, finally 'wake up' the kundalinï. The energy is surging along the

spine towards head, where it bursts into 'word' {sabad), which is experienced as light,

with the quality of'unseen wisdom' through which the 'duality ends.' The whole process

is a display of the transformation and interpénétration of phenomenal and experiential

levels of existence into each other on the basis of certain affinities, or 'sympathies,' that

are categorized in the theory of esotericism as correspondences.

An interesting question at this point is, in what manner does the understanding of

the sabad differ between Gorakhnâth, Kabïr, and Gurû Nânak? As McLeod has argued,

Kabïr's understanding of the 'Word' is more mystical, whereas Nânak, while similarly

acknowledging the importance of inward revelation, has in mind a more comprehensive

engagement with the divine order (hukam).20 They both agree on the sanctity of the inner

revelation of the Word, but differ in their recommendation of the way of life and practice

that lead to it. "For neither is the path to God regarded as accessible to all," writes

McLeod. "In Guru Nânak's works, however, one can distinguish with much greater

clarity the means whereby this spiritual sight is acquired and the path to God followed"21

GBS 15. "mâmnyâm sabad cukâyâ dand." "9 GBS 134. "pandit gyârnn marau kyâ jhûjhi / aurai lehu parampad bûjhi." See McLeod, GuruNanak, 191-4, and 199-203. Ibid., 194.

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It is safe to assume, therefore, that what sets apart the Nath yogis is similarly not

the content nor value of the mystical experience associated with the realization of the

sabad but the path that leads to its achievement. As far as KabTr is concerned, "the

experience which it [the sabad] expresses is, for him, in no way dependent upon the

practice of hafha-yoga."R2 In the case of Guru Nanak, even more emphatically 'there is

no kundalirii, no Ida, pingald, and susumna, no chakra, no pranaydm." The crux of the

matter lies in the following: for the Naths, the realization of the sabad certainly does

depend on the practice of yoga associated with the corporeal regime of exercises, which

is dependent on the work with the cakras and the subtle, occult energies of the body. The

yogic work starts with, and depends upon, the body but it does not end there, for the body

is valuable as a link within the chain of significations that ultimately leads to the

metaphysical realms and divine encounters. The yogic work focuses on the body

understood as a microcosm - an esoteric notion! - which is thus established as a self-

sufficient and complete field of spiritual attention and endeavor. For a Nanak this is not

sufficient, nor acceptable, because it does away with the larger issue of social and

communal responsibility and welfare. It follows that there is a difference: the Naths, as a

celibate order of yogis, do disentangle themselves from the concerns of the organized

society.24 But how problematic this position really is, keeping in mind the long and

established history of renunciation in India?25

22 Ibid., 192. Ibid The yogi householders, of course, represent a different category. They are not, however, the focus of this study. 25 Patrick Olivelle suggests the following as the defining elements of ancient and medieval Indian asceticism: "1. Cutting social and kinship ties. 2. Living an itinerant life without a fixed home. 3. Mendicancy associated with the abandonment of socially recognized economic activities and the ownership of property, especially of food. 4. Abandoning ritual activities customary within society. 5. Celibacy."

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The difference between a Gorakhnath and a Kablr, for example, also lies in the

approach to the issue of agency in the context of spiritual quest. As McLeod reminds us,

in the case of KabTr, the Word is an arrow shot by the divine guru that pierces the heart of

the man suddenly and unexpectedly.26 The agency is on the side of the guru; the human

subject can only wait, passively and patiently, for the experience. The situation is

diametrically opposite in the case ofthe yogis: here, the experience is actively striven for.

Gorakhnath sings with confidence, "I have found it, listen, I have found this good! / With

firmness [I have reached] the place of sabad. 11 had a vision of it [embodied] in form. /

Then I have reached a complete faith."27 The agency is on the side of human subject,

which is in conformity with the general trend of esotericism, and more specifically with

the active attitude that is typical of magic.

The exceptional quality of the yogic encounter with the realm of reality associated

with the experience of sabad is indubitable from many accounts in The Sayings of

Gorakh. The language of the poetry sometimes reflects, in its very form, something of the

extraordinary nature of the phenomenon. For example, the verses declare: "Sabad is the

lock, sabad is the key, / Sabad wakes sabad. I When sabad meets sabad, sabad is

contained in sabad."s It appears as if the knowledge of the sabad represents the fans et

origo of all the yogic sadhana.

It is also interesting to note that the power associated with the sabad was also

ascribed by Gorakh to the Prophet Muhammad, which represents a fine example of what

Faivre designates as 'the practice of concordance:' "By the sabad he, killed, by the sabad

Rules and Regulations of Brahmanical Asceticism: Yatidharmasamuccaya of Yadava Prakasa, ed. and trans. Patrick Olivelle (Albany, N.Y .: SUNY Press, 1995), 15. McLeod, GuriiNanak, 194. " GBS 80: "paya lo bhal paya lo sabad thamn sahetT thiti / rup sahetT disan laga, tab sarva bhai paratTti."

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he revived: / Such a pïr [teacher] was Muhammad. / 0 qâzï [priest, judge], stop

pretending! / Such a power is not in your body."29 Again, it is obvious that the power of

sabad originates from sources that are inaccessible to those who follow, and exercise

authority in, the exoteric religion (such as Islamic judges). The rhetoric of the text claims

Muhammad as one of those who have tapped into resources of esoteric spirituality, the

fruit of which is the attainment of the sabad, otherwise referred to as the yogic

experience. The doctrinal differences between Islam and the yoga of the Nâths are thus

overlooked and the emphasis was placed on the mystical experience as the unifying

factor between the two. This is another confirmation that the system of the Nâth yogis is

not a religion (in the conventional meaning of the term), for the religion, unlike

esotericism, is assumed to rest on the supremacy of belief and doctrine.

The notion of sabad is very similar in its nature to the concept of nâd, and both

are brought into sympathetic correlation with the inner experience of the bindu. I would

like to stress the esoteric nature of this correlation, but before doing so, we have to take

into consideration the essentials of the concept of nâd.

NÂD

For all practical purposes, there seems to be no difference between the concepts of the

nâd and the sabad. I am treating them separately only provisionally: the contextual locus

of my exposition being The Sayings of Gorakh, I am attempting to elucidate the meaning

by making references to the concepts as they appear in the text: sometimes under one, at

28 GBS 21. "sabadhim tàïâ sabadhim kùficï, sabadhi sabad jagâyâ / sabadhim sabad sum parcâ hûâ, sabadhim sabad samâyâ." " GBS 10. "sabadaim mârî sabadaim jilàï aisâ mahammad pïram / tâkai bharami na bhulau kajT so bhal nahïm sarïram."

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other times under another heading. Alternatively, one could try to theorize that the notion

of the ndd is more abstract, being purely a sound, while the sabad carries a more

conspicuous connotation of the semantic meaning: a 'word' is a message. But this is

debatable. What is certain, however, is that the experience of the inner sound signals the

success in the practice of yoga. In a Sanskrit text attributed to Gorakhnáth, this fact is

indicated by the following verses: "By cleansing the nadis the prana (is) restrained as

desired, the digestive fire (is) kindled, internal sound is heard (becomes manifest), (and)

one becomes diseasless."130

The concept of the ndd is given a noticeable place in the poetry of The Sayings of

Gorakh. The word ndd means 'sound;' very often, it is used in the sense of the 'unstruck

sound' (andhat ndd). It is a concept that is congenial to the practice of yoga and it

represents the sign of a successful practice, related to the opening of the cakras and the

ascent of kundalinl. As Lilian Silburn explains,

Kundalinl, lower as she is in mulddhdra (adhahkundalinl), converts into intermediate energy in the navel, then into subtle energy in the heart, in the andhata center, and in the throat (visudhicakra), and finally into superior energy (ürdhvakundalirit) when she reaches the brahmarand.hra.

The anahat ndd is thus related to the andhat cakra, which is supposed to be the locus of

the emanation of the 'unstruck sound.' In the poetry of The Sayings of Gorakh, however,

the experience of the ndd is primarily associated with the level of the uppermost cakra.

For example, Gorakh claims that "In the circle of the sky, the unstruck [sound]

30 The Goraksa Sataka 101. Trans, in Briggs, Gorakhnath, 304. Parentheses in the original; emphasis added. Silburn, Kunaalirii. 131.

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resounds." Or, similarly, "The unstruck sound thunders in the sky." In both of these

examples, the 'sky' is an obvious reference to the sahasrdr cakra. Another verse specifies

the 'tenth door' - also situated at the top of the head - as the spatial location of the

'meeting' between the bindu and the ndd: "The unman" yogi is in the tenth door. /

Joining the ndd and the bindu [he hears] the roaring sound." It seems safe to assume

that Gorakhnath associates the experience of the nad with the consummation of the yogic

practice, characterized by the ascent of the kundaliniio the top of the head.

CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN THE SABAD, NAD, AND BINDU

There exists an important and interesting correlation between the yogic concepts of

speech, sound, and semen. I designate these concepts with the adjective 'yogic' in order

to stress their difference, their esoteric distinction as opposed to exoteric common usage

and understanding. What Gorakhnath calls 'word,' 'sound,' and 'semen' (sabad, nad, and

bindu) are in fact the inner correlatives of these phenomena. They are important for the

yogis only insofar as they are experienced internally. In their outward manifestation - as a

spoken word or spilt semen - they become vulgar, wasted, and useless. I suggest

investigating this situation in some detail.

First of all, the general tendency in yoga is to re-direct upwards what naturally -

and in this context, the 'natural' has the negative connotation of samsdric - tends to go

downwards. The semen (bindu) has to rise up, as does the kundalini, breath (or one of the

bodily 'winds'), word (sabad) and sound (ndd). And while these phenomena are

3 GBS 32. "gagan mandal mem anahad bajai." 3 GBP 22. "anahad nad gagan maim gajai." This is almost identical with GBS 177, "The unstruck word thunders in the sky" ("anahad sabad gagan mem gajai").

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apparently distinct and separate in their external manifestations, in their inner aspects

they tend to become more and more flexible and inter-penetrating. At the level of the

perception of reality as witnessed by the yogi who has succeeded in the practice of

reversal (uljn-sadhana),3 at the level of the sahasrctr cakra, the semen, breath, word, and

mind are united, interpenetrated, one. Let us see the reflection of these ideas in the poetry

of The Sayings of Gorakh.

A good place to start our investigation is the sabad that claims, "In the house of

the nad, the bindu thunders, / And sounds the silent horn."37 We have seen in several

previous examples that the inner sound is often described as 'thundering' or 'roaring.' In

this verse, however, the specification is that the bindu is contained within the nad and

that it represents the agent that generates the (yogic perception of) the sound. At the level

of manifest reality, in the context of everyday speech, this statement, that 'the semen

thunders in the house of the sound,' would sound rather bizarre. It is feasible then that the

linguistic terms refer to the esoteric aspects of semen and sound, in the same manner that

the phenomenal semen and sound correspond to their esoteric correlates. Even with this

qualification the statement remains enigmatic: what is it really that Gorakhnath has in

mind?

According to the theory of yoga, sounds arise as a result of union between the by

(Skt. bijd) and the bindu. The bij is a monosyllabic sound / word, and the bindu

represents its nasalization. These two constitutive elements of speech are also related to

" The term 'unman' refers to the transcendental state of the mind, the mind that is 'beyond mind.' This concept will be treated more fully in the next chapter. 35 BGS 135. "unman jog! dasvaim dvar / nad byand le dhumdhumkar." 36 A useful treatment of the ulta-sadhana can be found in Dasgupta, Obscure Cults, 229-35 et passim. White's "Why Gurus Are Heavy?" explores the alchemical and yogic practice of reversal on the model of the reabsorption (pralaya) of the created universe. A good deal of relevant information is also contained in White's Alchemical Body and Eliade's Yoga.

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their divine counterparts: "Bindu denotes Siva and Blja denotes Sakti. Nâda evolves from

the mutual communion between them. This is well known to those who are versed in all

the Agamas."* In writing, bindu is represented by a dot, which is also one of the

meanings of the term. But bindu is also semen and, especially in yogic usage, semen of

Siva.3 In this way, we arrive at the complex situation where Siva as semen represents a

constitutive element of the sound that is heard (as 'thundering') by a yogi at the

consummation of his practice. But this is not a mere instance of multi-layered

connotations of the linguistic term. Bindu means so many things because these things are

in a certain important (esoteric!) manner mutually related and interconnected. Whether

starting from the written dot, from the sound, or from the sexual secretion, one eventually

(hopefully) arrives at the ultimate 'transcendental signified' which is here Siva (united

with Sakti).

The link that makes possible the interconnection of the semen, word, and sound is

the esoteric notion of correspondence. The experiential interpénétration of these

phenomena is actualized at the level of the subtle body, created and accessed through the

power of disciplined imagination. I propose that the phenomena are distinct at the

exoteric level of everyday reality. They become mutually interchangeable at the level of

the mundus imaginalis: thus 'the bindu thunders in the house of the nacT. Finally, they are

ultimately one at their spiritual origin: at the level of the sahasrar cakra, the breath,

semen, word, and sound are once again Siva, united with his Sakti.

GBS 54. "nad kai ghari byand garjai, bajant anahad turam." 3 These Sanskrit verses are quoted (without reference to their source) in Banerjea, Philosophy of Gorakhnath, 150. The italics as in the original. The Sanskrit text is given as "Bindu Sivatmako BTja Saktir tayor mithah / Samavaya iti khyatah sarvagama-visaradaih." 39 See McGregor, ed., Hindi-English Dictionary, s.v. "bindu."

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The analogy between the nad and the bindu is also stressed in the following sabad

from The Sayings of Gorakh: "Everybody says 'nad, nad,' / But few remain immersed in

the nad. I The nad and the bindu are like a dry stone. / Those who have mastered them

have achieved success."40 In addition to the link between semen and sound, we witness in

these verses an alchemical theme that is of significant cross-cultural importance. This is

the notion that the original substance from which the work starts, what was in the West

termed materia prima, in its 'natural' form represents something ubiquitous, ordinary,

and base. One starts from the ordinary 'stone' in order to gain 'the philosopher's stone.'

With regards to this, alchemist George Ripley (c. 1415-90) writes, "The philosophers say

that the birds and fishes bring the Stone to us, each man possesses it, it is everywhere, in

you, in me, in all things, in time and in space. It presents itself in base guise (yilifigurd).

And from it springs our aquapermanens.'"1 Similarly, in the text from 1526, the Gloria

Mundi, we read that the Stone "is familiar to all men, both young and old; it is found in

the country, in the village and in the town, in all things created by God; yet it is despised

by all. Rich and poor handle it every day. It is cast into the street by servant maids.

Children play with it."42 And, to give just one more example relevant to this subject

matter, the medieval writer Gerhard Dorn urges his fellow alchemists with the following

precept: "Transform yourself from dead stones into living philosophic stones."43

It is probably safe to assume that Gorakhnath refers to the apparently ordinary

nature of the materia prima when he says "The nad and the bindu are like a dry stone."

" GBS 181. "nad nad sab koi kahai / nadhim le ko birla rahai / nad bind hai phlklsila / jihim sadhya te sidhaim mila." " Qtd. in Mircea Eliade, The Forge and Crucible: The Origins and Structures of Alchemy, 2"d ed., trans. Stephen Corrin (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1978 (1"' ed. 1962), 163; emphasis added. The term 'aqua permanens' refers to the elixir, that is to say, to the philosopher's stone. "2 Qtd. in ibid., 163-4; emphasis added. 43 Qtd. in ibid., 158.

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The sound and the semen are easily accessible and due to their ubiquitous nature they do

not provoke high respect. But those who have really mastered them have become Siddhas

for both are the potential openings into the divine realm. We have just seen that Siva is

esoterically present in (or, represented by) the semen, as well as being a constitutive

element of the sound. What is important to emphasize in this regard is the fact that the

transmutation of the 'base' elements of reality into their divine counterparts makes full

sense within the model of esotericism. The ndd and the bindu correspond to each other

just as they correspond to the Great Lord. They are open to transmutations and those who

master them are themselves transmuted into the Siddhas (i.e., those 'who have achieved

success'). Due to the invisible divine presence and the fact that they are able to change,

the ndd and the bindu may be understood as specimens of living nature. And the

alchemical and yogic work with them is accomplished through the powers of

imagination. A 1l the major characteristics of esotericism as defined by Faivre are present

and observable in the yogic treatment of the ndd and the bindu .

While still on the subject of the correlation between speech and semen, I would

like to draw attention to the connection between the acts of ejaculation and locution. To

utter a word and to eject semen are structurally and functionally similar actions. This

notion is observable even in the semantic range of the English verb 'to ejaculate,' which

may refer to either a sexual or a speech act. In the case of the Nath Siddhas, it is

significant that we come across precepts against (vain and useless) talking almost as often

as against the spilling of the semen. In order to gain access to the inner form of the bindu,

the physical semen has to be contained within the hermetically closed body of a yogi.

Similarly, in order to experience the inner sabad, the speech of the yogi has equally to be

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restrained. Those who do otherwise, those who boast of their knowledge - pundits and

false yogis - they talk too much and that is the reason why the Siddhas ridicule them: "A

cat eats an educated parrot, / And in the pundits hands [only] book remains."44

The structural correspondence between the ejaculation of the word and the

emission of the semen is, I believe, obvious. There are verses in The Sayings of Gorakh

where this correspondence is not only tacitly assumed, but also explicitly stated. The

following two sabads belong to the latter group:

The tongue and the penis are one channel; The one who keeps it closed is saved from death.45 O learned scholars don't be arrogant! The one who has conquered the tongue has conquered everything.

Gorakh says, Ours is a difficult path. Keep the tongue and the penis under control! People who spend time in the practice yoga, Are not eaten by Time.46

In another of the sabads from The Sayings of Gorakh, we find the following description

of a Nath yogi: "A sitting avadhut is like an iron rod, / A moving avadhut is like a fist of

wind. / A sleeping avadhut is a living corpse, / A talking avadhut is a parrot in a cage."147

In a similar spirit, another sabad advises against talking as follows: "Gorakh says, 'O

avadhut, listen: / Be like this in the world: / Look with your eyes, listen with your ears, /

GBS 119. "parhyâ gunyâ sùbâ bilâï khâyâ pandit ke hâthi rah gai pothl." Lit. 'he tricks death,' "bancai kâl." 4 GBS 219-20. "jibhyâ indrî ekaim nâl / jo râkhai so bancai kâl / pandit gyâmnï na karasi garab / jibhyâ jïtl jin jïtyâ sarab // gorakh kahai hamârâ khartar panth / jibhyâ indrî dijai bandh / log jugatT maim rahai samây / tâ logï kûm kâl na khây." 47 GBS 71. "baithâ avadhû loh kïkhûntl, caltâ avadhû pavan kl mûnthï / sovtâ avadhû jïvtâ mûvâ, boltâ avadhû pyafljarai sûvâ."

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But don't say anything with your mouth!" I would like to connect the attitude

conveyed in these two sabads with what Faivre has called 'the discipline of silence.149

This is not so much an issue of secrecy related to the knowledge obtained through the

ritual of initiation - although it is important in its own way - but a more subtle

requirement. The point is that one obtains esoteric knowledge in a special way, through

the inner work, and one's dedication to it demands a certain sense of tact and restraint.

"Do not disclose the nad to a careless person,"50 urges Gorakhnath. As Faivre writes,

"The sacred, that which is set apart, requires a slender partition between itself and the

secular world."51 This partition is often effectively established through the practice of

silence. In this spirit we should understand constant admonitions to yogis against

engagement in discussions. Others, those who speak without the necessary inner

experience, are according to Gorakhnath nothing but sinners: "The learned speak having

studied, / The ignorant speak out of ignorance. / They do not understand the ultimate

truth. / Gorakh says, They are great sinners."52

RHETORIC

I will treat the rhetoric strategies of the Nath Siddhas mostly in relation to The Sayings of

Gorakh. The fact that this poetry was composed in the vernacular makes it safe to assume

that its targeted audience consisted primarily of those outside of the pale of the sanskritic

culture. But the accessibility of the language is not the same as the hermeneutical

• GBS 72. "gorakh kahai sunhu re avadhu jag maim aisaim rahnam / aiikhaim dekhiba kamnaim suniba mukh thaim kachu na kahnam." 49 Faivre, "Esotericism," 43. 50 GBS 121. "helai na khoiba nadam." 51 Faivre, "Esotericism," 42. 52 GBS 223. "vidya parhi ra kahavai gyamnlm / binam avidya kahai agyamn! / param tat ka hoy na marmT / gorakh kahai te maha adharmT."

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transparency of the content. A good deal of the poetry of The Sayings is enigmatic. Those

who are not initiated into the order of the Nath Siddhas and who are not familiar with the

technical jargon and code words are thus not equipped with the exegetical keys to unlock

the opaqueness of the yogic discourse. The scholar who is not an initiate faces the same

problem.

What was the intention behind this type of poetry? Let us, first of all, recall that

this is an oral literature that is meant to be sung and that is traditionally performed, often

accompanied by an instrument, by the travelling minstrel-yogis.53 They would travel on

foot from village to village, from temple to temple, performing the songs about the great

Siddhas, Gorakh and Matsyendra, Gopicand and Bhartrhari in front of audiences. These

songs glorified the life-style of the yogis, transmitted their teachings, and posed certain

riddles, the solution to which transcends the knowledge of even the pundits. The line of

social criticism addressed to pundits is prominent in The Sayings of Gorakh. Their

authority, exoteric in its nature, is based on the knowledge of Sanskrit and what the yogis

consider mere bookish learning. The Naths reject the authority of that episteme, claiming

that real knowledge is knowledge of the body in its esoteric aspect and that only this type

ofknowledge leads to real power and immortality.

The language of Gorakh is most hermetically closed on those occasions when he

presents his message in the form of the 'twilight' and 'upside-down' language.54 The

'twilight language' or the sandhyabhasa is sometimes understood as equivalent of the

'upside-down' language, or words, the ultabdmsi. I would agree with Pitambaradatta

"3 See Champion, "A Countre Courant," Gold, Carnival of Parting, and Henry, Chant the Names of God, esp. 160-89.

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Barthwal, however, in emphasizing the distinction between the two. "The ultabdmsi is

necessarily a paradox," writes Barthwal, "while the sandhydbhdsd is not."55 The main

difference between the two, I suggest, lies in the following: 'twilight language' has as its

referent certain esoteric content. The content is usually hinted at through the employment

of vocabulary that signifies some ordinary sphere of activity. This is yet another allusion

to the idea that in this poetry, as in alchemy, the sacred hides itself under the guise of the

ordinary. For example, the manifest content of the poetry might consist of the description

of a quotidian labor; the intended meaning would often refer to the work with the subtle

body and cakras. "The small pot56 at the confluence of three rivers got filled; / A

sumptuous drink is prepared"57 is only seemingly a description of the wine-making

process; in fact, 'the small pot' refers to djnd cakra; 'the three rivers' are the three main

mystical conduits of energy; and the 'sumptuous drink' is the elixir (amrt). 'Upside-down'

language, on the other hand, intends to mirror, through its form, the process of the yogic

work, consisting of the reversal of the ordinary human situation.

Let me provide several examples of these stylistic devices from The Sayings of

Gorakh. I suggest exploring the 'twilight language' under two headings: 'Jargon' and

'Allegories and Riddles.' The first type of poetry is one in which a certain yogic teaching

is represented through the employment of the technical jargon, and this element in itself

makes the meaning nontransparent. The 'Allegories and Riddles' are self-explanatory as

a category. Similarly, the 'upside-down' poetry is the one in which the content is

presented in a paradoxical manner.

" On 'twilight' or 'intentional' language and related issues see, among others, Dasgupta, Obscure Cults, 413-24; Eliade, Yoga, 249-54; Linda Hess, The Bljak of Kablr, trans. Linda Hess and Shukdev Singh, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986 (1" ed. 1983), 136-61; and Kvasrne, Anthology of Buddhist Tantric Songs. 35 Qtd. in Vaudeville, Weaver Named Kabir, 103. See Barthwal, Traditions of Indian Mysticism.

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Technical Jargon

'Twilight language' is sometimes understood to mean 'intentional language' where the

manifest content is intended to refer to something else. A good deal of the poetry in The

Sayings of Gorakh belongs to this category. For example, the first sabad in the collection

mentions that 'At the summit of the sky, a child is speaking.' The usual commentarial

gloss is that 'the summit of the sky' refers to the uppermost cakra within the subtle body.

In a literal sense, this would also be an example of'intentional speech' but I will refrain

from discussing instances of this sort, for the reason of their ubiquity. What I have in

mind when making reference to the technical jargon of yoga as exemplified in The

Sayings of Gorakh is very well represented by the following verses: "The twelve kalds

[portions] make dry, and the sixteen kolas nourish. / [Whoever] obtains the four kalds

lives the endless life. / Light and fire are mixed together. / [The yogi] obtains the siddhis

co

and drinks four kalds."

According to the editorial gloss of Pitambaradatta Barthwal, the phrase 'twelve

kolas' refers to the number of petals of the mulddhdr cakra, associated with the Sun,

which 'make dry.' The 'sixteen kalds" stand for the Moon in the sahasrdr, while the 'four

kolas' (obtained by subtracting 12 from 16) refer to the nectar.51 assume - Barthwal is

silent on this point - that the 'light and fire' are also intended to stand for the Moon

('light') and the Sun ('fire'). The poem seems to be referring to the yogic process of

Alternative reading, kupí instead of k/pa, accepted. See Barthwal, Gorakh Barn, 122, n. 18. 57 GBP 28: 3. "trkuti saňgam kupí bhariyá, mad nlpajyá apáram." 58 GBS 89. "bara kalá sokhai sola kalá pokhai, cári kalá sádhai anant kalá jTvai / Oram dhuram jot! jválá sTdhi sádhant cári kalá pTvai." 59 See Barthwal, ed., Gorakh-Bárii, 31-2.

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joining the energies of the two main cakras in the body. It is difficult to arrive at this

level of comprehension unless the technical jargon of yoga is familiar.

The following sabad is also representative of the poetical style that uses technical

jargon in order to express the yogic message, although in part its style is straightly

metaphorical: "[When] the first and the second are joined with the third, / Check the

breath at the western gate. / The oil is not spent, the flame is not extinguished, / Says the

nath who has become immortal."60 According to Barthwal, 'the first and the second' in

these verses refer to two of the three main channels in the subtle body, the ird and the

pingald, which are joined with 'the third,' the central channel, susumna.61 This situation

is the main objective of yogic practice. It follows that, if this condition is met, the yogi is

supposed to acquire the immortal life: he has preserved 'the oil' and the 'light' ofhis life

is not going to be extinguished. And while the final part of this poem employs the

metaphorical expressions for human life - the oil and the burning flame - that are

arguably easily understood by the general audience, the opening part that deals with 'the

first, the second, and the third' is an instance of the technical jargon that is penetrated

with much more difficulty.

Similar to the previously quoted sabad is the following, which also presents a

string of the unexplained numbers: "When sitting, the twelve; when moving, the

eighteen; / When sleeping, the thirty are broken. / When speaking, the sixty-four are

broken. / Why should I sing praises to God?"62 Barthwal suggests that the numbers refer

to various types of breath and that the whole poem points to a type of chanting which

" GBS 187. "ik£i bikini trikuti sandhi pachim dvare pavanam bandhi / khu^ai tel na bfljhai dlya bolai nath nirantari huva." 61 Barthwal, ed., Gorakh-Bdm, 63.

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essentially consists of conscious breathing (ajapajap) but the terms are technical and their

purport is in general rather unfamiliar.

Poems in which the predominant vocabulary consists of technical jargon are most

probably meant as an instruction for the yogis, not the lay populace. Their natural

environment is a manual of yoga, such as the Sanskrit Haihayogapradipika. And

although their proper technical meaning escapes the interpretative abilities of ordinary

persons, their public performance nevertheless achieves certain tangible results. This

poetry presents itself as a mode of discourse that although enigmatic in its content leaves

no enigma as to the fact that jogis actually do understand both the message and the

methods of practice to which it alludes. In this sense, it serves the function of Bourdieu's

'symbolic capital' {vide infra). Poetry constructed in the form of allegories and riddles, on

the other hand, probably has as its main addressees the laymen, the important

subcategory and the constant target of criticism and ridicule consisting of the pundits.

Allegories and Riddles

The allegories and riddles in The Sayings of Gorakh are also enigmatic in their meaning,

but unlike the poems, in which the narrowly defined technical jargon of yoga

predominates, they utilize metaphors of a more generally understandable nature. As is the

case with the majority of the poems in this collection, the subject matter is related to the

concerns of yoga, understood in accordance with typical Nathist ideas about the value of

semen preservation and the knowledge of occult aspects of the body. The enigmatic

aspect of this poetry is potentially attractive to the new recruits and enthusiasts of yoga,

"GBS274."baitham barai calat a^harai, sutam tu^ai tis / kalthan karamtam causafci tutai, kyau bhajiv au jagdis."

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while at the same time it serves to underline the message that exoteric knowledge is not

fit to deal with the paradoxes of the yogic way of life. In order to contextualize these

remarks, let us consider several examples. As far as the allegorical poems are concerned,

I trust that the following pad shall be representative of the kind:

Take hold of that vine, o avadhut, take hold of that vine, Gorakhnath knows [how]. It has no leaves or root, no flower and no shadow, And it grows without water. [Refrain]

The grove of the body is your garden, o avadhut, [Where] the true guru has planted a creeper. A man waters it often, And a nice vine flourished up to the house.

Its root is the Moon, o avadhut, And the leaves are the Sun. The fruit is the full Moon. Understand that [its] jiva is the knowledge of the guru.

The vine is on fire, o avadhut, The fire reaches the sky. As soon as the creeper starts burning, New shoots emerge.

From the cut vine new shoots spring up; If watered, it dries up. Ascetic Gorakh spoke through the mercy of Machindra: It always remains new.63

What is this vine that Gorakh sings about in this pad? Does it refer to the human body64

or to the knowledge of reality65 or to the unruly nature of the human mind? It is

anybody's guess and that is precisely my point: the language of the poem is potentially

GBP 17. "tat bell lo tat bell lo, avadhu gorakhnath jamni / dal na mul pahup nahim chaya, viradhi karai bin pamni / tek/ kaya kumjar teri bari avadhu, sat gur beli rupamni / puris pamnti karai dhaniyamnau nikai bali ghari amni / 1 / mul edva jedva sasihar avadhu, pamn edva jadva bhamnam / phal edva jedva punim canda. jiu jou jamn sujnam 12 1 beldiyam dau lagi avadhu, gagan pahumti jhala / jim jim belim dajhba lagi, tab melhai kumpal dala / 3 / katat beli kumpal melhi simcatram kuthlaye / machindr prasadaim jati gorakh bolya, nit navelri thaye / 4 /." " Vaudeville when referring to the KabTr's use of the metaphor, in Weaver Named Kabir, 182.

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open to anybody who is willing to try to penetrate it. It employs a metaphor, rather than a

technical jargon (such as 'first and second are joined with the third,' which is too meager

as a metaphor). If the meaning nevertheless escapes the reader (or, rather, the hearer), the

poem is in itself still sufficiently consistent and engaging to be able to sustain a

reasonable amount of attractiveness and provoke interest. Its enigmatic core is a

captivating mystery. This is even truer for those poems that are formally best classified as

riddles. The following pad belongs to the latter category:

O master avadhut, guess what this is? Neither the sky nor the earth, Neither the moon nor the sun, Neither a day nor a night. [Refrain]

It is [neither] omkar, [nor] nirdkdr [formless]. It is neither subtle nor gross. It is neither tree nor leaf, It does not flower, nor does it give fruit.

It is neither branches nor root, It is neither tree nor creeper, It is neither sakhi nor sabad, Neither guru nor disciple.

It is neither in wisdom nor in meditation, It is neither in yoga nor in the yogi, Neither in sin nor in virtue, Neither in liberation nor in the liberated.

It is neither born nor destroyed, It neither comes nor goes, It does not get old or die, It has neither father nor mother.

Says Gorakhnath, Devotee of Machindar: It is neither a state of devotion, Nor is it ensnared in hope.66

65 Barthwal, in Gorakh-Banl, 206. " GBP 35. "kaha bujhai avadhu ral gagan na dharnlm / cand na sur divas nahim raimnl / $ek / omkar nirakar suchim na asthulam per na patr phalai nahim phulam / 1 / dal na mul na vrks. na

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The enigmatic nature of the content in the poems belonging to this type is obvious. They

are riddles and the riddles are interesting and attractive for the same reason that all things

mysterious are attractive: they invite active participation in order to be penetrated and

understood. And while the allegories and riddles are enigmatic, the poetry of the 'upside-

down' category is nothing short of paradoxical. I suggest investigating some ofit.

The 'Upside-down'Poems

The ulfabâmsï or the 'upside-down' poems are occupying a significant portion of The

Sayings of Gorakh. This remark is almost exclusively pertinent for the pad portion of the

text. The reason for this is simple: the sabads are much shorter poems and consequently

provide insufficient space for the elaboration of paradoxical situations that are at the heart

of this poetic form. As I have already remarked, the content of the ulfabâmsi poems

mirrors formally the essentials of the yogic practice of reversal (ulfa sadhana). The world

goes 'down with the flow' (samsar) and the task of a yogi is to reverse the process, to

bring back to the head the semen that otherwise dissipates through the nether opening, to

return to the original state before the emanation of the universe has started. As a part of

this process of reversal, in addition to various yogic techniques utilized for the purpose,

the language itself is rearranged and 'deconstructed,' reflecting the orientation of going

'against the grain' that is so typical of tantra.

According to Mircea Eliade, the purpose of'upside-down' language is "to project

the yogin into the 'paradoxical situation' indispensable to his training. The semantic

belà, sàkhï na sabd gurû nahim cela 12 1 gyàrnnem na dhyânem joge na juktà, pape na pumne mokhe na muktâ / 3 / upajal na binasai âvai na jai, jura na maran vàmkai bàp na mai / 4 /

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polyvalence of words finally substitutes ambiguity for the usual system of reference

inherent in every ordinary language. And this destruction of language contributes, in its

way too, toward 'breaking' the profane universe and replacing it by a universe of

convertible and integrable planes."67 The language thus loses its solidity and the terms

and concepts become exchangeable. Correspondences come into play and analogous

ideas and situations detach from their usual signifiers. The ordinary world is, in the

poetry that is representative of this trend, also turned upside-down. Or perhaps, the

ordinary world is upside-down and this poetry makes us recognize that fact. Whatever the

reasons behind the employment of this kind of rhetoric may be, its effect is unmistakable.

The following pad is a good exemplar of the 'upside-down' category:

Nâth is saying immortal words: The blanket will rain, water will get wet! [Refrain]

The calf is fixed [in the ground] And the stick is tied to it. The big drum walks, The camel sounds.

The Pïpal tree sits On the branch of a crow, The cat runs away At the sound of a mouse.

The traveler is walking, The road is tired; The bed is sleeping On the woman.

The dog is hiding, The thief is barking. The cowherd is coming, The cattle is calling.

bhanat gorakhnath machindr nam dasa, bhav bhagati aur as na pasa / 5 /." Eliade, Yoga, 250. " We (Shukdev Singh and Gordan Djurdjevic) have emended Barthwal's text by replacing 'bhusa' with 'musa.'

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In the middle of the city Is a deserted village; The pot is below, The pot-carrier above.

The stove burns Inside the wood, The bread is Eating the baker.

An amorous woman bums, The furnace gets warm. In the middle of the fire The fire shivers [from cold].

One barren woman Was barren, but The daughter-in law gave birth to a Mother-in-law.

The water from the pot69 Goes to the well. Gorakh sings 70 The upside-down song.

The Symbolic Capital of the Nâth Rhetoric

Now is the time to focus on the intentions behind the rhetoric of the Nâth Siddhas. What

is the purpose of the 'twilight language,' of the riddles and paradoxes that abound in The

Sayings of Gorakh'? As I have been doing throughout this study, in this occasion also my

exegetical emphasis will center on the issues of esotericism and power. The language of

the Siddhas is mysterious and secret because they are a secret order and full access to

'Gagrî' is substituted for Barthval's 'nagrl.' 70 GBP 47. "nâth bolai amrt bamnim barikhaigi kambali bhïjaigà pàmnï / tek / gàri padarvâ bandhilai khOm^â, celem damâmmâm bàjilai Qmtà / 1 / kauvà kï dàlï pïpal basai mûsà ke sabad biliyâ nàsai 12 1 cale batàvà thàkï bà£, sovai dukriyâ ^haurai khà^; / 3 / dhûkile kûkar bhûkile cor, kâj-hai dhanïm pukàrai dhor / 4 / ûjar kherâ nagar majhari tali gâgri Qpar panihàri / 5 / magrî pari cûlhà dhûmdhâi, povanhârà kau rori khâi / 6 / kâmmini jalai agïthi tapai, bici baisandar tharhar kàmpai / 7 / ek ju radhiyà radhtî âî, bahû bivài sàsû jàï / 8 / gagrî kau pàmnïm kûï âvai,

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their knowledge requires participation through the ritual of initiation and the guidance

from a guru. Being secret this language is also elitist - only few have mastery over this

discourse - and in this sense it is socially powerful. This language, the esoteric discourse

of the yogis, displays also a strong experiential quality: this episteme is a result of

successfully underwent yogic practice; it is not a product of bookish knowledge. Gorakh

is very eager to emphasize this distinction. And finally, the purpose of the yogic

discourse - especially as exemplified in its more enigmatic moments - is to serve as a

sort of symbolic capital: the Naths are displaying their knowledge and attainments in

order to represent themselves as powerful adepts, their way of life as attractive to

potential recruits, their wisdom as transcending the knowledge of scholars and priests.

The social criticism is addressed not only to the pundits but in fact to all whose authority

is confined to the doctrinal and denominational boundaries of the medieval North India.

Gorakhnath makes repeated references to the fact that what he talks about is an

experiential fact, obtained through the practice of yoga, unattainable through the study of

books, however sacred they claim to be. "It can't be read in the Vedas or the sastras, I In

the kitabs, the Koran or in the books."7 The spiritual realities he is pointing out are

accessed only through the mastery of the occult aspects of the human body. To

paraphrase one of his sabads, one has to learn the unseen wisdom at 'the summit of the

79 sky' (sahasrdr cakra), the occult place where the word (sabad) emerges into light.

73

"Everything else is worldly affairs." This being so, Gorakh rarely misses the chance to

challenge the authority of scholars: "0 pundit, understand the incomprehensible / And

ulti carca gorakh gavai." " GBS 6. "vede na sastre katebe na kuramne pustake na bamcya jai." 2 See GBS 4. 3 GBS 6. "dun! sab dandhai lai."

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tell the story that can't be told! / Having met the true guru, bow your head!" And in a

similar spirit: "O pundit, enough of learned discussions! / He who does not talk, he is an

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avadhiit."

I suggest that the rhetoric of the Nath Siddhas is best viewed in the sense of

'symbolic capital.' The notion of the symbolic capital was developed by the sociologist

Pierre Bourdieu and recently applied by Hugh Urban in his study of the Kartabhajas, a

Bengali tantric group. Urban suggests that the notion of secrecy - an element of supreme

importance in esotericism - should be understood "as a strategy for concealing and

revealing information. It is a tactic which functions to transform certain knowledge into a

rare and valuable commodity, a scarce resource, which in turn enhances the status and

prestige - in Bourdieu's terms the 'symbolic capital' - of its possessor."7'1 would like to

propose that not only secrecy, but equally so the rhetoric, the discourse of the Nath yogis

serves the function of symbolic capital. In fact, the three elements, the secrecy, rhetoric,

and power are mutually related and reinforcing. The jogis appear the most powerful in

those moments when they glorify the fruits of yogic practice in a language that presents

itself as a 'rare and valuable commodity,' alluding to the secrets of immortality and the

life divine. "Those who accomplish the impossible, who thunder in the [clear] sky, / Who

unlock the [state of] unmani, I Those who reverse the breath, say reverse things, / Who

drink the undrinkable: they are the ones who know brahman."1

GBS 222"abûjhi bûjhilai ho panditâ akath kathilai kahàmnï / sis navàmvat satgur milïyà jàgat raimn bihâmnï." 75 GBP 38, refrain, "pandit jan jan bàd na hoi anbolyà avadhû soi." " Hugh B. Urban, The Economics of Ecstasy: Tantra, Secrecy, and Power in Colonial Bengal (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 12; emphasis added. " GBS 90.asâdh sàdhant gagan gàjant, unmani làgant tàlï / ulafcant payant bàrnnïrn, apïv pïvat te brahmagyàmnï."

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ESOTERICISM AS A MODE OF DISCOURSE

The Faivrian model of esotericism does not incorporate language among its four major

and two minor characteristics. It is my conviction, however, that the role of language, in

addition to the categories of sexuality and power, needs to be given significant emphasis

when considering esotericism 'as a mode of thought,' to use Faivre's own phrase. The

esoteric thought is generated and exercised through the language that is employed in a

particular and special manner, which differs from the everyday usage. The more serious

engagement with this issue surpasses the scope of this study, but I feel the need to

address it nevertheless, before leaving the subject of the esotericism of speech.

Esotericism cannot be reduced to only the level of speech, but as far as it

manifests itself as a discursive phenomenon, its distinction from other modes of speech

needs to be acknowledged. If we take The Sayings of Gorakh as our contextual focus, we

notice that language tends to be hermeneutically opaque. This language is sensitive to the

underlying notion of correspondence between various aspects of reality, it is often

metaphoric, it makes little sense when taken literally. The way Gorakh uses language to

construct the imagery of some of his poems resembles by its very structure something of

the reality that is exemplified in the yogic way of life: its process of reversal

(ulta sddhana) and its going against the grain of what is considered ordinary and

normative. The language of The Sayings of Gorakh, especially in its performative aspect,

functions also as a symbolic capital, the value of which rises in proportion to the element

of secrecy displayed.

The esoteric language - one might say, the language as a communicating medium

in general - represents a functional parallel to the imagination and mediation, considered

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in accordance with the Faivrian model of esotericism. Language stands between the

reality of the material plane, exemplified by the human body, and the level of spiritual

(intangible) reality. The Nath Siddhas, generally speaking, share a view, also common to

Kablr and the Sants, according to which the ultimate reality is nirgun, 'without

[describable] qualities.' Between this ultimate but unutterable realm of unity and the

'hard-core' reality of the material plane, language serves the function of mediation to the

same (or similar) degree that esoteric theory assumes imagination to stand as a mediator

between the aforesaid two realms. Language is related to the breath, which is also a

mediating force, neither completely material, nor completely spiritual. And just as within

the realm of imagination the identities are not fixed and rigid, but flexible and

interchangeable, so the esoteric language allows for many signifiers to stand for one and

same intended signified. This fact carries within, as its curious consequence, an element

of social critique:

What is the main underlying principle behind the rhetoric of the Siddhas? What is

the reason behind the usage of their metaphors and similes, what is it that justifies the

employment of the 'upside-down' language? What do they mean by all of this? The

reasons are certainly many, but if one is to be singled out, it could be the following: This

world is a metaphor for the Ultimate and there are limitless signifiers but only one

signified. There should be no hierarchical distinctions between signifiers. The ultimate

can be symbolized by the vocabulary of the bazaar equally well as by the vocabulary of

philosophy: in either case, what is important is that the signifiers are mutually

interchangeable and ultimately disposable. Brahmanical ideology strives to preserve the

principles of social stratification of 'conventional' reality and deploys egalitarian

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discourse only in the controlled setting of the ritual and in the ideal world of

philosophical argumentation. To give just one example, men and women were claimed to

be equally feminine in relation to God, but they retain their gendered disparity in

everyday life. From the perspective of the Siddhas, however, an ignorant person, that is to

say, a person that is ignorant of their secrets, a non-initiate and a non-adept, is deemed

inferior whatever his or her social standing might be. And vice versa, those who know the

secret, those who control their senses and their sexuality are adepts, whether they are

fishermen or kings.

The whole world is a metaphor for the ultimate and there is no hierarchical

distinction between various signifiers. No symbol is equal for Reality and only Reality

counts, not its representations. "Empty is not populated. Populated is not empty."78

With these considerations and speculations, we are entering the world of the

Nathist ideology. The next chapter will, accordingly, concentrate on the exploration of

mental phenomena, of what I have been referring to as the esotericism of mind.

GBS 1. "basti na sunyam sunyarn na basti."

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CHAPTER 4

THE NATH SIDDHAS AND ESOTERICISM OF THE MIND

This very mind is Sakti, this very mind is Siva. This very mind is the life of the five elements. The one who controls the mind and remains in what is beyond the mind, He may speak about the secrets of the three worlds.

Gorakh Bam (GBS 50)

At the level of the uppermost cakra, the transformation of the bindu is complete. The

semen returns to its place of origin and turns into the nectar, the amfi, while the yogi

becomes an adept, a siddha. This accomplishment has its reflection in the attainment of

gnosis, which is a wisdom that has an experiential character and needs to be distinguished

from ordinary intellectual knowledge and erudition. In this chapter, my primary concern

will be to address the esoteric aspects of the mental phenomena as understood by the

Nath Siddhas and as sung about in The Sayings of Gorakh. By the 'mental phenomena' I

have in mind a variety of concepts that are related to the issues of ideology, ethics, and

the role of mind in the context of the practice of yoga as envisioned by Gorakhnath and

his order of yogis. In order to correlate these concepts to the overall thesis of this study,

the following needs to be emphasized:

As far as doctrine (ideology, metaphysics) is concerned, it is tenable that what the

Ndths are occupied with may meaningfully be conceptualized as esotericism. Their

orientation is mostly practical but it nevertheless relies on ideology. This ideology is

esoteric not only because of its metaphysical assumptions but also because it values the

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roles of teachers and lineages as more important than the doctrinal orthodoxy and a rigid

belief system.' In other words, the Nath yogis rely primarily on the ritual transmission of

knowledge, maintaining at the same time that the essentials of their world-view transcend

the narrow boundaries of denominational strictures.

The ideal mental achievement towards which a yogi strives is the condition of the

divine knowledge, gnosis. Alternatively, this ideal is expressed as the state of 'no-mind'

or what is 'beyond mind' (unman). As an element of esotericism, this binds argument

both in Arthur Versluis' definition of the category,3 and in the Faivrian concept of

'transmutation.' A transmuted mind is no-mind

Ethically, the moral ideal is correlated to the concerns ofyoga. As a result, the

ethical flaws observed in exoteric, or normative, religions are criticized in The Sayings of

Gorakh. In addition, Gorakhnath is also critical of those yogis who are involved in

practices that are at variance with his vision of yoga. It follows that Gorakh is also a

reformer of yoga (as White has also observed). The esoteric character of the yogic ethics

of Gorakh is visible from the fact that morality is not thought of in terms of good and

bad, or sin and virtue, but in accordance with the overall practical orientation and purpose

of the discipline of yoga.

Functionally, the mind in the discipline ofyoga has a role that is comparable to

what is in the Western esotericism understood as a practice of imagination. We have

already come across this proposition in previous chapters. Expressed axiomatically,

meditation is imagination. The mind engaged in esoteric work is usually called

' Frits Staal, in particular, emphasized this view in several writings. 2 That is to say, we may observe the presence of the 'practice of concordance' (as an esoteric element) in the fact that the Náth yogis move in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain and even Muslim circles.

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imagination in the West and meditation in India.4 The parallelism between these two has

been noticed by scholars such as Agehananda Bharati and Mircea Eliade, but the issue

has not been treated with adequate conceptual clarity.

I am convinced that in each and all of the above-mentioned elements, the

correlation between the principles of esotericism and the yoga of the Nàth Siddhas is

demonstrable. The value of this insight lies in the fact that it opens a possibility to the

reconceptualization of the nature of yoga, which thus opens door to comparative and

cross-cultural investigations. I will devote the rest of this chapter to elaboration of the

above made assertions.

IDEOLOGY AND THE 'RELIGION' OF THE NÂTH SIDDHAS

The ideology of the Nàth Siddhas, as exemplified in The Sayings of Gorakh, is almost

exclusively concerned with the principles of yoga. As Dasgupta, Eliade, and especially

White have shown, the hafha yoga of Gorakhnâth and his followers is based on the

presuppositions of Indian alchemy, or rasâyana. The main tenet of alchemy is the belief

in the possibility of transmutation, whether it is the transmutation of base metals into

gold, or of ordinary human beings into immortal adepts. The principle of transmutation is

also a major characteristic of esotericism as defined by Faivre; thus, what the Nàth yogis

believe reflects by its nature an esoteric ideological position. As I have already proposed

on several occasions, the concept of transmutation has, in the doctrine and practice of the

Siddhas, its correlate in the process of reversal, ulfa sddhana.

3 According to Versluis, the orientation towards the achievement of gnosis is a necessary condition of esotericism. See his article "What is Esoteric?" 4 The Hindi and Sanskrit term for imagination, kalpana, does not correspond with the technical meaning that imagination has in Western esotericism. Meditation, dhyân (Skt. dhyâna), does. So does bhâvanâ.

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The principle of transmutation is also very similar in its implications to what the

Buddhist scholar Ian Harris has called the notion of perfectibility. Perfectibility is

interesting because it is at variance with assumptions that are typical of the categories of

secularism and religion as they are commonly understood in the West. As Harris

explains, "This is because Western systems, both secular and religious, generally fail to

accept the notion of perfectibility of man to the extent that it is employed in the East."5

Let us, in this context, just recall the fact that deification, becoming 'a second Siva,' is

the ultimate goal of the Nath yogis. It thus appears meaningful to treat them as esoteric

phenomenon, where the perfectibility or transmutation is an assumed element of theory

and a desired goal of practice.

Perfectibility, or to use a stronger word, deification is also a process and

achievement that is related to power. To change one's mortal status and become a

'second Siva,' means, as already argued, to appropriate and share in the nature of the

Great Lord, who possesses power as one of his essential prerogatives. Gorakhnath, for

example, describes an ideal yogi as the one who transcends the boundaries imposed by

elements that comprise the physical world: "He cannot be hidden in the sky, / He cannot

burn in fire; the wind can't push him in the air. / The weight of the earth can't break him,

he cannot sink in the water."6 That the Nath Siddhas are viewed as powerful persons is

common knowledge. I would like to emphasize, however, that the orientation towards

power understood as the sacred is a defining characteristic of magic as an esoteric

s Ian Harris, The Continuity of Madhyamaka and Yogacara in Indian Mahayana Buddhism (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991), 153. Qtd. in King, Orientalism and Religion, 247, n. 52. King critically refers to the ideological attitudes inherent in Kantian and post-Enlightenment philosophical traditions, which were also influential in the construction of the 'scientific study of religion,' as the 'epistemologies of limitation.' See ibid., 179. ' GBS 24. "gagane na gopant teje na sokhant pavane na pelant baT / yahl bhare na bhajant udake na dubant."

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discipline. In that sense also, the ideology of the jogis is in general agreement with the

main doctrinal presuppositions of esotericism.

Gurus, Lineages, and Devotion

In his masterful study Orientalism and Religion, Richard King emphasizes the

incompatibility between the category of religion as shaped by Judeo-Christian

presuppositions and the spiritual traditions of other cultures that do not share those

assumptions. According to King, the monotheistic religions of the West are rooted in a

paradigm that is marked by the insistence on theistic belief, exclusivity, and dualism

between this and the transcendental divine world.' It is evident that this model ofreligion

does not correspond to the ideological assumptions of the Nâth yogis. Instead of the

supremacy of a theistic belief, they emphasize the indispensability of practice, sadhana.

The jogis are not exclusive but are, quite to the contrary, well known for mingling with

Islamic esoteric groups. They also have close ties with Buddhist tantric groups, such as

siddhâcàryas and Nepalese Buddhist traditions. The two sons of Matsyendranâth are the

legendary founders of the two Jain sects. In recent times, the Nâth Siddhas have even

collaborated with some Western occult figures. Instead of the dualism between this

world and the divine world, they teach the doctrine of sameness, samaras. The world of

the gods is not thought to be transcendental, but is in fact believed to be internally present

within the subtle body of the yogi. Based on these elements, it is more meaningful to

King, Orientalism and Religion, 37. One of them was a British occultist known under the Hindu name Dadaji. "Dadaji lived in India from 1953 until his death in 1991. Dadaji has found the horse's mouth and a genuine stream of magical tantra. This he made available to western adepts willing to accept initiation. Some of this material was published in a book entitled Tantra Magick (Mandrake of Oxford 1990) which has since been republished in India." Katon Shu'al, Sexual Magick (Oxford: Mandrake of Oxford, 1995).

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classify the Naths as an esoteric tradition, than as a religion (if defined and understood as

above).

Frits Staal has also been emphatic, on numerous occasions, in the insistence that

religion is not a suitable category to be applied to Asian spiritual traditions. His

suggestion is that the term 'religion' should be used only in reference to Western

monotheistic traditions. "In most parts of Asia, such religions do not exist, but scholars,

laymen, and Western converts persist in trying to find them," writes Staal. "What counts

instead are ancestors and teachers - hence lineages, traditions, affiliations, cults, chers - eligibility, and initiation - concepts with ritual, rather than truth-functional overtones."9 It

hardly needs mentioning that teachers, lineages, cults, eligibility and initiations are of

vital importance for the Nath yogis, as these are directly related to what Faivre calls

transmission, which is an element that is characteristic of esoteric traditions.

That gurus and lineages are important in the lifestyle of the jogis is a well-known

fact, although it is rarely brought into comparative correlation with the general features of

esotericism. This correlation is, however, very important for it helps us to theorize about

the Naths from a fresh perspective. Based on that perspective, and seen in combination

with other elements of esotericism, it seems clear that the veneration of gurus in this style

of yoga should be seen as an act of devotion. The human guru is in fact only a symbol of

the inner teacher that is fundamentally accessed through the yogic (imaginal!) work on

cakras. There is a line of correspondence that connects the human teacher with the inner,

'Staal, Ritual and Mantras, 393. In his essay on "The Himalayas and the Fall of Religion," Staal asserts that "neither language nor religion are natural and helpful categories of thought in the study and understanding of the Vedas, Buddhism, and Tantrism. Language is, of course, a necessary tool required to study and understand linguistic manifestations of the three traditions. Religion, on the other hand, has caused issues to be obscured. Language and religion are categories that divide into separate groups that are clearly similar and closely related, and group together things that have nothing to do with each other. In an attempt at conceptual clarification, the use of such categories, therefore, evinces bad logic" (46).

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true guru, who is again correlated through the line of correspondence with the ultimate

master of yoga, the great god Siva.

The following sabad from The Sayings of Gorakh combines two elements

relevant for the present discussion: the importance of the mind in the practice of yoga,

and the role of the guru as a helper in transcending the mind. The reader will notice a

motif familiar from KabTr, the metaphor of an arrow that stands for wisdom, which

destroys metaphysical obstacles. The context makes it clear that the guru in question is in

fact an inner, esoteric teacher. Gorakh says, "He whose mind has devoured / Both gods

and demons / Should [also] kill the mind, / By taking hold of the arrow of guru's

wisdom.""1 will postpone an elaboration of the practice of going beyond the mind for a

later section of this chapter. Here, I want to emphasize the implication contained in this

sabad that the guru and his wisdom transcend the role and importance of gods (devas),

who are otherwise also delegated a position inferior to the mind. The mind is able to do

away with, to 'devour' the gods and demons, but the wisdom of the guru transcends even

the mind. It follows that the attainment of'no-mind' (unman) depends on the grace of the

guru. That the ultimate achievement depends on the grace of the guru is a strong indicator

that the relationship between a disciple and the teacher rests on the relationship of

devotion, where grace is a crucial element.

The devotional relationship between disciple and teacher is also implied and

reconfirmed in another sabad where Gorakh again speaks of mystical experience as being

contingent on the guru's grace: "A light is shining without fire. / I saw it trough the

guru's grace."" Similarly, in one of the pads, there is a description of the ludic nature

" GBS 229. "jini man grase dev dan / so man marile gahi guru gyamn bamn." " GBS 239. "bini baisandar joti balat hai guru prasade dlthT."

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inherent in the access to higher cakras, which is again declared dependent on the exercise

of the teacher's grace: "Gorakh plays between Ganga and Yamuna / Due to the grace of

the guru Machindra."" The rivers Ganga and Yamuna, as is well known, metaphorically

refer to the inner channels of energy, ipa and pingala; the place between them is the

famous trikufi sangam, the confluence of the three 'rivers.' The third river is SarasvatI,

which metaphorically refers to the main inner channel, the susumpa, that is situated

within the spinal column. The place where these three inner rivers meet is the ájña cakra,

one of the most important centers of energy in the body, often referred to as the 'third

eye' and generally associated with the attainment of wisdom. These verses are thus a fine

example of the 'confluence' of the relevant motifs (the inner 'geography,' relevance of

the teacher, the occult wisdom, and a coded rhetoric) that connect this style of yoga with

the principles of esotericism.

The most striking illustration of the devotional attitude inherent in the relationship

between teacher and pupil in the discipline of yoga is evident in the following pad. What

we have here is an example of a 'bridal mysticism' that would be completely out of place

if the yoga of the Náths were really without the element of devotion, as is so often

asserted. After he has referred to the wisdom of his guru as a water-gourd that helps him

extinguish his greed, Gorakh continues: "In this way, the true guru has married me, / A

delicate young maiden. / SrT Gorakh spoke, through Machindra's grace, / The fear of

maya is gone.""3 The language is of course metaphorical, 'marriage' being an expression

12 GBP 18: 5. "gang jamun bic khelai gorakh, guru machnidra prasádam." GBP 16:5. "en satguri amhe paranambya, abla bal kuvámvrí / machindra prasad srl gorakh bolyá, maya nam bhau tan." In his commentary on this pad, Barthwal implies that the guru marries Gorakh to maya, making him thus her master whom she has to obey. See Gorakh Banl, 106. Shukdev Singh was, however, adamant that, grammatically, 'abla bal kuvámvn' (a delicate young maiden) qualifies 'amhe,' the first person pronoun. Also, the idea is that an ordinary person is married to a woman, and thus illusion (in the

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of the inner attitude of dedication to the guru and his wisdom, but the metaphor would be

impossible if there were not an underlying assumption of devotion and love between the

pupil and the teacher.

Devotional character of the Nath Siddhas' approach to yoga has also recently been

argued by Vijay Mishra in his study Devotional Poetics and the Indian Sublime."

According to him, the project of the Naths 'marks a decisive shift in the ideology of

bhakti as it returns to Yoga's original emphasis on the corporeal."15 The body is thus

approached as the site of metaphysical presence and as the focus of religious desire, what

Mishra designates as the 'sublime."1 In the context of the conceptual approach that I have

been suggesting throughout this study, Mishra's 'sublime' body is in fact the esoteric

subtle body, which serves as a locus of divine presence and, ultimately, omnipotence.

From another angle, the 'sublime' as the focus of devotional attention manifests in the

guise of powers (the siddhis) that the yogis are striving to achieve and that are

simultaneously the marks of the Great Lord Himself.17

In the preceding section, my intention was to emphasize several elements that are

at the same time also mutually interconnected. By stressing the importance of the guru in

the teachings of Gorakhnath, I wanted to show that his ideology is meaningfully qualified

as esotericism, where the transmission of knowledge through initiation and teachers is a

sexist rhetoric of the Siddhas, mayd is symbolized by woman), while the yogi is 'married' to a teacher, and thus free from illusion. Shukdev Singh, oral communication, 28 February 2003, Varanasi, India. "Vijay Mishra, Devotional Poetics and the Indian Sublime (Albany, N.Y .: SUNY Press, 1998). In

55 Ibid., 143. particular, see the chapter "Temples of Fire" (129-61), and especially the discussion on pages 142-8.

Ibid., 165. '71 should also add that the devotional character of the Naths is also implicitly acknowledged by the incorporation of the sabads and pads from the Gorakh Bdrii in the anthology Devotional Hindi Literature: A Critical Edition ofPanc-vinior Five Works ofDadu, Kabir, Namdev, Raidds, Hardds with the Hindi Songs of Gorakhnath and Sundardds and a Complete Word-index, 2 vols, eds. Winand M. Callewaert and Bart Op de Beeck (New Delhi: Manohar, 1991).

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sine qua non. I also wanted to demonstrate that the guru is often understood in the sense

of an inner teacher, who may be experienced through the yogic work on the subtle body

and its centres of occult energy." This fact explains that the yogi's concentration on

cakras and naps of the subtle body often has as its intended goal precisely the encounter

with the inner teacher, who helps the disciple to accomplish major spiritual feats.

According to the vocabulary of esotericism, this is possible because there is a

correspondence between the body and its subtle aspect that is permeated by metaphysical

entities. One of them is the 'true guru,' the veneration of whom is often hidden from the

sight, because he is not externally objectified. The true guru bestows grace on the pupil

and the relationship between them is fundamentally devotional. In conclusion, the yogic

ideology is an esoteric one, and esotericism helps us understand the less obvious

devotional side of this ideology.

The Concept of God

It is customarily asserted that the Nath yogis are Saivites. This attribution seems perfectly

natural: Siva is the Lord of yoga and he is the Original Master (adindth) of the Nath

lineage. Gorakhnath is also often understood to be a second Siva, and every yogi, at least

in theory, is attempting to achieve the same status. It appears that there is nothing more

natural than to confirm the above attribution, and since the Saivites are Hindus, it follows

that the Naths are also just another group within Hinduism. And while this may be so,

especially in recent times since the Western construct of 'Hinduism' has taken root as a

" In this context, the following statements by Charlotte Vaudeville seem particularly appropriate: "The exaltation of the guru as a manifestation of the supreme Reality probably explains the remarkable silence maintained by the Siddhas and the Nath-panthTs, as well as by Kablr and the old Sant poets, on their human gurus, if indeed they had any. The role of the human guru as an external teacher and guide tends to be

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self-identifying category in India, there are many indicators that this was not the original,

or the only possible, sense of yogic identity. Scholars have noticed that the Naths have

their own ideology, even their own 'religion.' Before tackling that issue, let us first

investigate, concentrating again on The Sayings of Gorakh, the alternative concept of god

in the doctrine of the Siddhas.

On several occasions, Gorakhnath refers to the ultimate theistic concept by the

term niranjan}' The literate meaning of the term is 'without blemish,' although it may

also be taken to mean 'without embellishment.' The word anjan refers to a lampblack,

which is applied as a cosmetic ornament to the eyes and eyelashes;20 niranjan would then

designate the lack of ornaments or decoration. In this sense, the meaning of the term

niranjan is similar to the concept of nirgun, which refers to the 'formless god' or the 'god

without (describable) qualities.' In North India, the nirgun conception of god is usually

associated with the theological ideas of Kablr and the devotional groups known as the

Sants.2 The relationship between the jogis on the one hand, and Kablr and other nirgun

bhaktas such as Sants on the other, is complex and inconsistently formulated and

maintained. In general, it is possible to make a simplified assertion that the miracles and

other eccentrics of yoga are rejected, while certain yogic concepts and technical

vocabulary seem to have permeated the rhetoric of the Sants. We also know that at least

00 some of the latter preserved and included into their repertoire a number of yogic songs.

obliterated as he only makes manifest the true nature of Guruhood, which is expressed in the divine Sabda, participating of the transcendent nature of the Satguru." Weaver Named Kabir, 98. ' See an interesting discussion on the concept of niranjan in Dasgupta, Obscure Cults, 326-8, where the Indian scholar relates this deity to Vedic Prajapati and Hiranya-garbha. 20 McGregor, Hindi-English Dictionary, s.v. "anjan." 2 On Sants, see The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India, eds. Karine Schomer and W. H. McLeod (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1987). See, for example, Winand M. Callewaert and Peter G. Friedlander, The Life and Works of Raidas (New Delhi: Manohar, 1992), esp. 51-80. The teaching of the Nath Siddhas was generally met with the approval

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The reason I mention the above lies in the following: it is very problematic to include the

Sants under the umbrella of'Hinduism' because of their critical attitude to the normative

tradition. By extension, it follows that - to the degree that the jogis are comparable to the

Sants - the inclusion of the Naths within Hinduism is equally problematic and artificial.

I would like to propose two things in this connection. First, the concept of the

nirañjan is esoteric, for a number of reasons, but mostly because the god that is referred

to by this title is mysterious and inaccessible, unless it is experienced within, through the

discipline of yoga. And second, this god is approached devotionally, the form of this

devotion being yoga. I will now provide a substance to these two proposals.

Nirañjan is without describable qualities; however, it may be experienced within.

One sabad addresses the paradox inherent in the metaphysical idea of this order. Gorakh

sings that "Nirañjan is without branch and without root, / All pervading, neither subtle

nor gross."23 This invisible and ineffable but all pervading god manifests itself through

the way of life of an enlightened yogi: the yogi thus becomes an embodiment and his or

her actions the expression of the inner deity. This is made explicit in the following verses

from The Sayings of Gorakh: "The [real] householder is the one who knows his body. /

He keeps inside what goes outside. / Always the same towards everything, he cuts

through illusion. / Such a householder should be called the form of nirañjan."R4 I would

like to emphasize that to become 'the form of the formless,' the requirement is to turn

inside and become familiar with the body in its, presumably, occult aspects. It follows

by the Dadupanthls and the followers of Raidas; KabTr was ambivalent; Nanak and Sikhs were critical and rejecting. GBS 111. "sol niranjan dal na mul, sab byaplk sukham na asthul." ª GBS 44. "gharbarl so ghar kTjanai / bahari jata bhTtari anai / sarab nirantari katai maya / so gharbarl kahie niranjan kT kaya."

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that niranjan is both esoterically present within the body of the yogi, and that esoteric

practice or yoga is the method for its realization.

In one of the sabads, Gorakhnath refers to the mind as the mother, calling the

niranjan the father.25 Again, the supremacy of the niranjan over the mind (manas) is

confirmed, based on the fact that in the patriarchal society the role of the father surpasses

the role of the mother. More important is the inherent relationship of devotion,

established by calling the god one's father. The most explicit in this context is the refrain

of a pad where Gorakh weaves in his poetical statement the attitude of devotion to a god

that is both formless and secret, inaccessible to those who follow the norms of exoteric

worship: "I am your devotee, / Oh unmade god! / Everybody [else] serves the made-up

image. / They don't know your secret."26 This god is, moreover, experienced as present

within the subtle body of the yogi, as is evident from the following verses: "Niranjan

dwells in the tenth door, beyond mind [unman] I Contained in the reversed sabad."1

Here we have a cluster of esoteric elements: the tenth door (brahmarandhra), no-mind

(unman), the sabad, the reversal (ulapi). Niranjan is within, accessed in the subtle body

through the yogic process of reversal, esoterically correspondent to the sabad.25

The necessary conclusion is that the concept of god is inseparable from the

practical presuppositions of the discipline of yoga. The god of the Nath Siddhas is

conceptualized through a set of ideas that are based on the practice of yoga, which is just

another way of saying that their spiritual doctrine is esoteric, if yoga is understood as an

esoteric discipline . The vision of this god is grand: "Niranjan is the god, and no other. /

25 GBS 202. GBP 58: refrain, "tujhi pari van ho anagharlya deva / ghap murati kum sab koT sevai, tahi na jamnai bheva." GBP 11:4. "dasvaim dvar niranjan unman basa, sabadaim ulati samamnam."

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His age is limitless, / His end is nowhere to be found." The way of devotion that leads

to the god understood in such manner is yoga. Yoga is esotericism and yoga is devotion.

It appears that, as far as the nature of the religious quest of the Nath Siddhas is

concerned, esotericism as a conceptual model represent a meaningful category.

'Nathism' as an Esoteric vs. Exoteric Religious Category

In the introductory chapter, I have briefly mentioned that several scholars suggested

classifying the 'Nathism' as a distinct religion. For example, Daniel Gold and Ann

Grodzins Gold have written that, "'Nathism' has been recognized by some as a separate

strand in Indian popular religion, representing, perhaps, an ancient religious tradition

3fl

alongside Vaishnavism and Shaivism." A similar idea has been put forward by

Charlotte Vaudeville. According to the French scholar, "As a religion, Nathism hardly

comes within the pale of Hinduism and there appears to be some truth in the opinion held

by some that it is a distinct religion. Mohan Singh has called it 'Shabadism' since the 31

Sabda itself is held as the key to liberation." David Gordon White has also speculated

on the distinct nature of the phenomenon of the Nath yogis, set apart, according to him,

from devotional, tantric, and Islamic trends that came to dominate Indian medieval

spiritual traditions.

The potential separate nature of 'Nathism' may be interrogated on several levels. I

suggest paying attention to two issues when searching for the clues in The Sayings of

Gorakh. On the implicit level, many of the poems are critical of the formal religion, 28 See also GBP 19: 5, which carries a similar message. 29 GBP 62. "dev niranjan aur no koi / anat kala jakai par na pavai." 30 Gold and Gold, "Fate of the Householder Nath," 115.

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advancing the view that real religious observances are those performed inwardly, by

paying attention to the spirit instead of the letter of the precepts. The poems of this type

are numerous. On fewer occasions, the path of yoga is explicitly distinguished from the

religion of the Hindus and Muslims. The conclusion is that the Naths are the followers of

an 'interior religion,' an expression used by Vaudeville to designate spirituality of

KabTr.33 In other words, it is justifiable to classify them as an 'esoteric current,' to use

Faivrian phrase.

There is a statement in one of the sabads, according to which the Naths are

Hindus by birth, Muslims34 by wisdom, and yogis by 'burning.'35 The metaphor of

'burning' is, as previously explained, a reference to the practice of yoga, which serves the

function of transmuting the yogi into a 'cooked,' that is to say, accomplished adept. More

important for the present discussion is the assumed line of demarcation between the yoga

of the Siddhas on the one hand, and the path of Hindus and Muslims on the other. The

distinction is made even more strongly in the following verses, which also make explicit

that what the yogis follow is the internal religion. Gorakh says, "A Hindu worship in the

temple, / A Muslim in the mosque. / A yogi worships the supreme / Where there is

neither temple nor mosque."36

31 Vaudeville, Weaver Named Kabir, 99. Vaudeville is referencing Mohan Singh, Kabir: His Biography (Lahore, 1934), 68 32 See White, "Wonders of Sri Mastnath," 401-2. " Vaudeville, "Kabir and Interior Religion." The gist of Vaudeville's argument lies in the following statement: "Throughout KabTr's work the accent is on interiorization: man ought to turn his attention away from the exterior world, from all sensible forms, in order to withdraw into the innermost depths of his conscience (undoubtedly analogous to the sirr of the Sufis) where God dwells " (196). " Or, according to Barthwal's gloss, a Muslim sage or plr, if'pari' in the text is emended to 'plr.' See Gorakh Bam, 6. 35 GBS 14. "utpati hindu jaranam jog! akali pari musalmamnlm." GBS 68. "hindu dhyavai dehura musalman maslt / jogl dhyavai parampad jaham dehura na maslt."

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The distinct nature of yoga as practiced by the Nath Siddhas is also clearly

evident in those poems where Gorakhnath's stature is juxtaposed against and above the

major gods of the Hindu pantheon. This would be hardly possible if Gorakh considered

himself a member of the normative religion. From the perspective of the jogis, these gods

are victims to the same power of unconquered sexuality that binds human beings to the

eternally recurrent realm of false reality that is samsdr. For example, there is a set of

three consecutive sabads3 that have a common subject matter: the lust, personified by

the god Kam, that has subjugated both 'the gods and men.' "The lust has entered the god

Brahma / And Indra has got a thousand vaginas."38 It has overpowered '88.000 great

sages,"39 and all the ten avatars of the god Visnu.40 Significantly, it is claimed that Kam

has conquered even the god Siva, which represents a stark reversal of the traditional

version of the story, according to which Siva famously burns the god of lust to ashes:

"This god of lust has danced upon Siva, / The great god who originated dance."41 The

only one who was able to restrain lust was Gorakh, who did so following the principles of

hatha yoga related to the preservation of the semen. "The invincible lust was conquered

by the ascetic Gorakhnath / Who has preserved the downward flowing [bindu].'2

Very similar to the above is a pad that uses the compound metaphor of the

serpent, which serves as a metaphor for woman, who allegorically represents lust. The

lust has conquered the three worlds, which Gorakh saw as 'bitten by the snake.143 "The

37 GBS 198-200. 3 GBS 198. "brahma devata kandrap byapya / yandra sahamsra bhag pal." Kandrap or Kandarp is an alternative name for the god Kam. 39 GBS 199.

" GBS 199. "'yamn kandrap Tsvar mahadev natarambh nacaya." GBS 200.

42 GBS 200. "asadhi kandrap jatl gorakhnath sadhya / jani nljhar jharanta rakhya." 43 GBP 45: refrain, "tribhuvan dastl gorakhnath dlthl."

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snake says, / T am a powerful woman. / I have deluded Brahma / Visiju and Siva."44

There is an indication that death is powerless over the one who has killed the snake.45 A

sort of a duel ensues; the snake is trying to run away chased by Gorakh, who rushes after

her 'like a wind,' chanting the gauri mantra. The pad ends on a note of victory:

"Adinath's grandson, / Machindra's son, / Gorakh avadhüt I Has killed the snake."46 It

appears evident that the path of yoga is set apart from normative religion and its pantheon

of gods, who are helpless to achieve what for the yogis is a fundamental requirement: the

control of sexuality based on the control of semen. It is significant that even Siva, who is

supposed to be the tutelary god of the Nath Siddhas, belongs to the category of deities

deluded by the lust. In this sense, yogic self-identity is distinct: they belong to the

(esoteric) path of yoga, which they consider superior to other spiritual options.

The yogic distinction is also implicitly assumed in numerous poems from The

Sayings of Gorakh that stress the importance and necessity of following the inner

disposition, the spirit of religious observances. We are consequently told that to abstain

from lust, anger, and selfishness is equal to going to holy places;4 the real householder is

AG

the one who knows his body; and the real renouncer is the one who listens the unstruck

sound and whose mind remains in the unman." Occasionally, the contrast between

exoteric and esoteric approach is couched in Islamic vocabulary, as in the sabad, which

teaches that the real dervish is the one who knows the way in (i.e. inner way) and who is

constantly mindful.50 Gorakh also makes it clear that he travels alone because all that he

4 GBP 45: 2. "srpanl kahai maim ablá baliya / baha bisn mahádev chaliya." 45 GBP 45:1. 4 GBP 45: 4. "ádináth nátT machindra náth puta / srpanim marilai gorakh avadhüta." "GBS29. 48 GBS 44-5. 4'GBS 103. 5° GBS 182.

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needs is internally present: the real guru is wisdom; heart is the disciple, and mind is the

friend.51

It follows from the above that the Nath Siddhas translate external religious

observances into their internal counterparts in a manner that is similar, to invoke a classic

example, to the upani$adic internalization of Vedic sacrificial ritual. This gesture is by its

nature esoteric: its basic assumption - whether explicitly stated or not - is that the human

microcosm corresponds to the outer macrocosm. All that is metaphysically important is

present within the body and mind of the human agent. Even more importantly, the

esoteric distinction is to emphasize the supremacy of the internal practice over the

outwardly performed ritual. The latter can be done superficially and absent-mindedly,

while the esoteric practice presupposes concentration and imaginative engagement. For

that reason, Gorakh advises that "The journey to the temples is a journey in vain. /

Journeying to the tirthas, only water is found." This criticism is juxtaposed with the

positive statement that "The journey with the ascetics is a fruitful journey, / Where

immortal words are spoken."

The ideological principle of yogic internalization advocates a mode of practice

that is based on correspondences. Again, the human body is all that is essentially

required. As Gorakhnath says, "The body is a robe, and the mind is the yogi."53 The most

explicit and consistent example of this attitude is evident in the following sabad where

the whole paraphernalia of yogic practice is completely internalized. The text is as

follows, "The mind is the yogi and the body is the monastery; the five elements are the

51 GBS 189. 5 GBS 97. "deval jatra sumni jatra, tTrath jatra pamnim / atlt jatra suphal jatra bolai amrt bamnlm." s GBP 10: 5. "kaya kantha, man jogota."

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robe. / Forgiveness is sitting in the six postures. / Wisdom is the ascetic seat and good

reason the wooden slippers. / Thinking is the stick."54

It follows, on the basis of the above, that the Nath Siddhas are engaged in an

'interior religion,' to use again Vaudeville's phrase. Occasionally, they juxtapose their

spiritual path over and against the normative standards of Hindu and Muslim

denominations. More often, they emphasize the need to approach religious observances

by paying attention to the inner meaning of spiritual practices, irrespective of

denominational particularities. The message of the poetry of The Sayings of Gorakh

appears to be that one has to turn inward and make cognizance of one's own body and

mind, presumably in their occult aspects. Whether this constitutes a distinct religious

identity is a moot point. What is important is that there is a general line of agreement

between the attitude of the Nath Siddhas and the ideological presuppositions of

esotericism 'as a mode of thought.' In that sense, esotericism rather than religion seems

to provide an appropriate model to conceptualize yoga of Gorakhnath and his followers.

THE CONCEPT OF UNMAN: THE GNOSIS OF 'NO-MIND'

The successful completion of yogic sddhana renders the yogi a gnostic, vijnani." It is

paradigmatic that this knowledge or gnosis acquired through yoga stands in sharp

contrast to the exoteric knowledge acquired through the study of books. Intellectuals,

pundits, who base their authority on the latter are a constant target of criticism in The

GBS 48. "manvarn jog! kaya madh! / pane tatt le kantha gadhT. / ksima sadasan gyan adharT / sumati pavarl dand bicarl." (Original's 'gaya' is emended into 'kaya.') 35 In modern Hindi, the term 'vijnani' denotes a 'scientist.' But this meaning is hardly commensurable with medieval Hindi 'binamnT.' Contextually, 'gnostic' seems a best choice and I have adopted it throughout.

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Sayings of Gorakh. "O pundit, enough of the learned discussions!" is a typical elocution

in this context. Jogis are discouraged from associating with scholars: "O avadhut, do not

sit in an assembly of fools! / Do not engage in discussions with pundits!"57 There is no

place for doubt on this issue: Gorakhnath views exoteric knowledge in negative terms. He

considers it misplaced knowledge, focussing on what is inconsequential. "You are

destroying what is alive / To worship what is dead," Gorakh accuses the pundits in

language suggestive of KabTr. "You bathe in tlrth after firth. I Washing the outside, how

will you reach the inside?"58

Does it then follow from the above that Gorakh is thoroughly opposed to the

pursuit of knowledge? Not entirely.5 It is evident from the allusions in The Sayings of

Gorakh that the final achievement of yoga entails a way of knowing, a kind of gnosis. We

read, for example, that "Siva dwells in twelve temples; the chief amongst them is the

knowledge of brahman."60 The return of the bindu to the highest cakra is also a 'gnostic

event.' The wisdom lies in the experience of one's own self, dtman. There is thus a direct

link between the return of the bindu to the highest cakra, the obtainment of the elixir, and

the experience of gnosis. Immortality is not only related to the drinking of the nectar, it is

also a consequence of self-discovery. "Those who have experience of their self (dtman)

do not die."161

GBP 38: refrain, "pandit jan jan bad na hoi." GBS 121. "murikh sabha na baisiba avadhu pandit sau na kariba badam." GBP 37: 2-3. "sarjTv teriya nirjTv! pfljila." "tlrthi tlrthi snarnn karlla, bahar dhoye kaimsaim bhTtari bhedlla." " In the Gorakhnath Caritr, 14-15, after testing Gorakh's devotion to him as a teacher, Matsyendra "gave him instruction in all the Vedas and sastras and made him a complete scholar." 60 Gorakh Barii, Park; Mdtra, 2. "dvadas mandir siv thamn / tehu uttam brahma gyamn." " Gorakh Banl, Pandrah Tithi, 1. "atam parcai marai na koi." Cf. Gorakh Bam, Sapt Bar-Navgrah, "atma parcai marai na koi."

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As might be expected, the content of this experience is couched in the rhetoric

that is permeated with an unmistakable esoteric flavour. "At the summit of the sky, the

sabad emerges into light. / There, [the yogi] comes to know the Invisible Gnostic." The

'invisible one' or alakh is another typical yogic designation for the highest god and in

that sense it is an alternative expression for nirañjan. In this sabad, this god is

interestingly enough qualified as the 'knower' or, as I prefer to translate it, as the

'gnostic' Alakh is imperceptible for ordinary persons, but at the level of the sahasrdr

cakra ('the summit of the sky') it yields itself to the perception of a yogi in an orgasmic

gush of interpenetrating photic, linguistic, and epistemological manifestations that are

characteristic for that level of reality. To have this experience, to perceive the invisible

god of gnosis, means to have a gnostic experience. This is an esoteric wisdom, as much

as gnosis is an esoteric goal, according to Arthur Versluis.

The wisdom that is the fruit of yoga comes from experience, paricay. According

to Charlotte Vaudeville, "Kablr and the other Sants undoubtedly inherited from Nathism

their claim to derive spiritual awareness not from a particular guru, but from direct

experience ... conceived as the hearing of the mysterious Word ... spoken in the depth of

the soul by the Satguru." The yogic distinction lies in the insistence that only practice,

sadhana, leads to that experience. In that respect, they are in agreement with the spirit of

occultism, which also emphasizes a practical orientation. As Gorakhnath reminds his

jogis, "There is no book above meditation." A purely intellectual approach to the

'spiritual awareness' is rejected. "Sitting in the posture, stopping the breath, / A1l the

" GBS 4. "gagani sikhar mahi sabad prakásyá / tahám büjhai alakh binámnim." Alternatively, the second verse could be understood in the sense that one should acquire the 'imperceptible wisdom in the form of gnostic knowledge,' which is the way Barthwal understand this sabad. See Gorakh Bam, 3. Vaudeville, Weaver Named Kabir, 92.

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functions of duality cease. / Gorakhnâth says, Thinking about âtman I Is like watching the

Moon in the water."64 In addition, contrary to Vaudeville's assertion, Gorakh maintains

that initiation received from a guru is conducive towards this goal. "The knowledge of

the self [âtman] is experienced in [or, from] guru's mouth."65 This is another element that

connects yogic sàdhana to the overall trend of esotericism, the secrets of which are

regularly transmitted through initiations.

The particular quality of yogic wisdom is very often described by the designation

of 'no-mind,' unman. Alternatively, this may be understood to mean, 'beyond mind.' I

would like to correlate this concept with the implied notion of transmutation: the ordinary

mind is perceived as limited and limiting, and it needs to be transcended, through the

process of reversal (ulfa sddhand). That the fluctuations of the mind are integral to the

experience of false reality, saipsdr, is a leitmotif of Indian spiritual traditions.

Gorakhnâth addresses this issue in a very strong langauge: "O man, you should kill the

mind, the enemy! / It has devoured the whole world, / The gods and the demons. / This

mind should be killed / By seizing the arrow of guru's wisdom."66

The famous definition of yoga by Patanjali declares that the essence of this

discipline lies in the cessation of the whirling of the mind.67 Gorakhnâth expresses this

idea by stating that "There is no illness such as unsteady mind." He therefore suggests

the transcendence and reversal of the mind into the state of unman, which is a preferable

GBS 82. "âsan baisibâ pavan nirodhibâ, thâmn-mâmn sab dhandhâ / badant gorakhnâth âtmâm vicârant. jyûm jal dîsai candâ." 65 GBS 38. "âpâ parcai guru mukhi cïmnh." GBP 32: 2, 3. "mâriba re nara man drohï ... / sab jag grasiyà dev dânam, so man mâriba re gahi guru gyâmn bârnn." "7 "yogaécittavrttinirodhah." Râma Prasâda translates this as "Yoga is the restraint of mental modifications." Pâtanjali's Yoga Sûtras: With the Commentary ofVyasa and the gloss of Vâchaspati Misra, trans. Râma Prasâda (Allahabad: Panini Office, 1912), 5. " Gorakh Bânï, Sist Purân. "cit caftcal uparânti rog nahlm."

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mental condition: "They are truly wise whose mind dwells in the unmani." The ordinary

mind, in its 'exoteric' condition is deluding; in its reversed state, through which it

becomes 'no-mind,' it is wisdom.

The disciplined mind, concentrated through the practice of yoga, gone beyond its

natural condition so that it has become no-mind, has its parallel achievement in the

production of the elixir, the amrt. The convergence of these motifs, the mutual

reinforcement of mental concentration and the acquisition of the subtle nectar, is

indicated in the following verses: "When the concentration70 is broken, how can the

nectar flow? / When [the mind is] fixed in the unmani, [the flow ofthe nectar] is stable. /

When [the mind is] fixed in the unmani, there is bliss."71 The similar idea is expressed in

the verses, which declare that "Having drunk the stream of flowing nectar, / The mind

becomes settled."72

The mind is also related to the breath. Mutual correspondence between the two

lies at the foundation of the yogic technique of breathing, prânâyam: the regime of

breathing is supposed to effect the state of mind. Again, it is paradigmatic to the general

trend of yoga that the junction of mind and breath has as its desired goal the

transcendence ofboth. Gorakh says, " I will tie the mind with the breath and I will tie the

breath with the mind. / Then I will speak powerfully. / I will make the mind into my

disciple, I will push out the breath. / There, where the mind and breath cannot go, I will

GBS 114. "sati te surivam unmani man maim bas." Litearally, 'thread' or 'string,' but contextually discipline, concentration. Barthwal glosses 'dorl' as yogic 'samadhi.' See Gorakh Bam, 45. " GBS 128. " tut! dorl ras kas bahai / unmani laga asthir rahai / unmani laga hoi anand." " GBS 67. "nTjhar jharnaim ammrt pTya yum man huva thlram."

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remain absorbed." Yogic practice implies the control over mind ('I will make mind my

disciple') as much as yogic identity assumes the transcendence of this same mind.

In conclusion, Gorakhnath is critical of the intellectuals whose authority is not

based on the personal experience of the transcendental wisdom acquired through the

practice of yoga. In accordance with the general trend of Indian spiritual traditions, he

sees the ordinary, 'exoteric' mentality as limiting and deluding. The mind, in its 'natural'

state, is an enemy. In contradistinction to this, Gorakh advocates the ideal of the no-mind,

which is accessible through the yogic practice of reversal. In his approach to the

phenomenon of the mind, Gorakhnath is in essential agreement with the position of

esotericism, whether in those instances where he recommends the transformation of the

ordinary mind, or when he upholds the ideal of gnosis or no-mind, or when he

recommends initiation as a requirement on the path towards wisdom.

ETHICAL DIMENSION OF THE SAYINGS OF GORAKH

Ethical ideas and ideals promulgated in The Sayings of Gorakh are intimately related to

the concerns of yoga. In this regard also, it is appropriate and meaningful to approach the

Naths as an esoteric current. Their ethics have a primarily practical dimension: 'good'

and 'bad' are judged in accordance to the general principles of yogic sadhana and the

peculiar idiosyncrasies related to the treatment of the bindu. Celibacy is encouraged, not

because there is a moral stain attached to sexuality, but because the preservation of the

semen is essential to the praxis of yoga. The same practical concerns are at the root of

GBS 265. "man bámdhuňgá pavan sytím pavan bámdhuňgá man syum / tab bolaiga kovat syum / man tera kl mál mQndfl, pavana daum ra baháT / man pavan ká gam nahlm, tahám rahai lyau lál."

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precepts against religious formalism: what is emphasized is, again, an esoteric dimension

and inner understanding of the nature of religious observances.

Jogis do not seek salvation; they expect that performing yogic sddhana will result

in the acquisition of powers, the siddhis, and the obtainment of the elixir, the amrt, which

leads to immortality. The ethical dimension of their practice is solely concerned with the

methodological assumptions of hatha yoga. From that perspective, they are a separate

and self-sufficient group, who base their moral behaviour on the expectations of their

own ideological position and practical orientation. I have been claiming that the Naths are

best viewed as an esoteric current; given the primacy of praxis over theory that is

characteristic of the occult, it is a telling sign confirming my thesis that the ethical

concerns of the jogis are also of practical nature. Let us investigate the main issues.

There is a marked tendency, in The Sayings of Gorakh, to emphasize that the

concepts of'sin and virtue,' pap and punya, do not apply to the jogis. This should not be

construed in the sense that Gorakhnath recommends antinomianism. The intended

message is that yogis have to transcend the dualism implied, inter alia, in the notions of

right and wrong. In the text called Sikhya Darsan, Gorakhnath utters a steady chant

(abical japam) at the level of the head cakra that is "not smeared by virtue or sin."74 The

colophon to this and a number of other texts ends with a formulaic expression that

"Gorakh's disciples are ... not smeared by sin, nor overcome by virtue."75 The yogic

achievement is thus assigned to the realm that is 'beyond good and evil.' And, to the

degree that the concept of sin is operational at all, it is understood that it is eradicated

through the practice of yoga. Gorakhnath asserts that "day by day, the fire devours the

" Gorakh Bam, Sikhya Darsan. "badant gorakh abical japam / lipai nahlm taham pumn na papam."

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sins.' The fire in question is the fire of yoga, which 'cooks' the practitioner into an

adept; in other words, this is the fire of kundalirii sakti. The implication is that the method

of practical morality needed to remove the 'sins' lies in the discipline of yoga.

The ethics of the Nath Siddhas is pragmatic and wed to the concerns of yoga. If

the latter is practiced satisfactorily, there is no negative moral judgement involved even

in those situations that, from a superficial point of view, do not accord with the

conventional expectations of yogic behaviour. The most radical example of this attitude

is put forward in an already quoted sabad, which claims that there is no harm involved

even if the yogi engages in a sexual act - otherwise emphatically argued against -

provided that the semen has not been discharged: "Those who in making love preserve

the bindu, I They are Gorakh's brothers."" The similar spirit is expressed in the verses

that assert: "You may laugh, you may play, but you should maintain meditation. / You

should speak day and night about the wisdom of brahman. I Do not break your

meditation when laughing and playing."78 Dedication to the principles of yoga surpasses

other concerns; if the discipline is maintained, no harm should accrue to the jogT.

Gorakhnath advises going beyond the duality implied in the opposites of good and

bad. The royal road that leads to the freedom from all constraints is yoga. It is significant

that the description of the iimbs' of yoga, contained in the Goraksa Sataka, a Sanskrit

text translated by Briggs, there is no mention of yama and niyama, which are the

Ibid, "srl gorakh sikhya ... pape na lipante punne na harante." See also Gorakh Bdni, the colophons to Prdmn Saiikall, Narvai Bodh, Atma Bodh, Pane Matra, and Gorakh-Ganes Gusfi. 76 Gorakh Bdni, Atma Bodh, 15. "ahanisi agni pap kum khai." " GBS 141. "bhog karantam je byand rakhai te gorakh ka gurbhai." 7 GBS 8. "hasiba kheliba dhariba dhyarnn / ahanisi kathiba brahma giyarnn / hasai khelai na karai man bhang."

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constituents of Patanjali's yoga that deal with ethical issues. The same is true of another

important text, the GorakSa-vacana-samgrahah, which also defines yoga as consisting of

'six limbs,' without yama and niyama." It would be wrong, however, to assume that

Gorakh dispenses with morality altogether. There are unambiguous messages in The

Sayings of Gorakh that stress the importance of ethical living. There is no contradiction

here. Gorakh either recommends transcending the duality of ethical opposites from the

position of the ultimate truth, or he ties the moral arguments to the overall interest of

yogic discipline, which are of particular importance especially at the beginning of

practice. In either case, ethical teachings are formulated in accordance with the pragmatic

Weltanschauung of the hatha yoga.

The insistence on celibacy has received sufficient treatment in the foregoing

sections of this study, and for that reason I will not dwell upon it in this place. I only want

to stress one more time that the reasons for the anti-sexual attitudes do not lie in the

moral sphere: physical sex is advised against because of the importance attached to the

bindu as the potential elixir of immortality. In addition, Gorakhnath admonishes his

followers that, in order to practice yoga, they must "first get rid of lust, anger, and

egotism."81 There is a mutual correlation between moral uprightness and the mental

concentration that is necessary for yogic practice. For that reason, Gorakh urges his

" Gorak$a Sataka, 1. "Postures, control of breath, withdrawal of the senses from their external objects, fixing of the mind upon a single object, abstract meditation and identification of the self with the object of meditation, these, they say, are the six stages of the Yoga." In Briggs, Gorakhnath, 2285-6. Cf. Patanjali's Yoga Sutra 2, 29: "Restraint, Observance, Posture, Regulation of breath (Pranayama), Abstraction, Concentration, Meditation and Trance are the eight accessories of Yoga." In Prasada, Patanjali's Yoga Siitra, 155. 80 See GorakŞa-vacana-sarpgrahah, 62: "asanam pranasamrodhah pratyaharasca dharana / dhyanam samadhiretani yogangani vadanti sat." In Banerjea, Philosophy of Gorakhnath, 337. # Gorakh Barii, Narvai Bodh, 2. "pahlai arambha, charau kam krodh ahamkar."

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follower: "The nath says, listen oh avadhut I Be firm, keep your mind in control! / Give

up lust, anger and egotism! / That is [equal] to going to all [holy] places."82

The jogis are often perceived as being prone to use - and misuse - various

intoxicants. Briggs reports that, "Accusations are made of hypocrisy, and of bad habits,

such as drinking and the use of drugs. ... They ... use spirituous liquors, smoke ganja

[marijuana] and eat opium."83 In this respect, Gorakh is unequivocal: intoxicants and

yoga do not mix. "If someone, having become a yogi, / Scorns other people and

consumes wine, meat, and bhang [hemp], / He causes 71.000 of his ancestors to go to

Hell."84 It has to be emphasized, however, that the main reason for this position vis-a-vis

intoxicants lies in the practical concern of yogic discipline. Intoxicants are rejected not

because there is something inherently amoral about their use, but because their effect is

contrary to the practice of yoga as envisioned by Gorakhnath. The reason is stated

explicitly: "Eating bhang destroys wisdom and meditation."85 The prohibition is

utilitarian, rather than being rooted in abstract moralizing.

The Nathist tendency to internalize the performance of spiritual duties extends

also to moral issues. In the following sabad, Gorakh suggests inner correlates to the

performance of daily ritual baths: "Truth and virtuous conduct are the [first] two baths. /

The thirds is [listening to] the guru's speech. / The fourth bath is [instructing] the

disciples. The fifth bath is compassion. / The child Gorakh performs these five pure baths

GBS 29. "nath kahai turn sunahu re avadhu dirh kari rakhahu cTya / kam krodh ahamkar nibarau tau sarbai disantar klya." 83 Briggs, Gorakhnäth, 202, 55. # GBS 164. "jogT hoi par nindyäjhakhai / mad mäms aru bhäiigi jo bhakhai / ikotarasai purikhä narakhi jäl." Cf. GBS 165, 208, 213, 241. 85 GBS 165. "bhängi bhakhant gyämn dhyämn khovant."

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every day." The implication is, again, that jogis value inner disposition, an interior

'religion,' over and against external observances. That they consider moral uprightness

preferable to the letter of the law is a telling sign that the charges of immorality, so often

leveled at them, are without support, at least as far as the message of The Sayings of

Gorakh is concerned. It is true that Gorakhnath advises against (empty) display of

religiosity, insisting that the truthfulness to the inner spirit of one's duties surpasses their

outward performance, but he is by no means antinomian in his directive. His position on

this issue is unambiguous: "The root of yoga is compassion and generosity."87

In conclusion, the ethical concerns of the Nath yogis, as they are exemplified in

The Sayings of Gorakh, exhibit a character that is in essential agreement with the position

of esotericism. This position is mostly reflected on two levels. On the one hand, abstract

morality is subordinated to the requirements that are inherent to the discipline of yoga.

Moral ideal is correlated to the vision of an ideal yogi. On the other hand, Gorakhnath

insists that moral uprightness exerted in the pursuit of the 'interior religion' surpasses

outward obedience to the norms and obligations of the 'external' (exoteric!) religion. At

the highest level of reckoning - and that level is accessed at the 'summit of the sky,' in

sahasrdr cakra - ordinary morality is transcended, as are the notions of good and bad. As

Gorakh states, once the yogi has awakened to his own self, "The body is untouched by

sin or by virtue."88

GBS 258. "satyo sTlam doy asnamn tritlye guru badhak / catrathe sisa asnan pancame daya asnan / ye pane asnan nirmala niti prati karat gorakh bala." 8 GBS 228. "jog ka mul hai daya dan." Cf. GBP 32: 4. 88 Gorakh Bam, Atma Bodh, colophon, "pape na punne liye na kaya / atmam bodh kathant srl gorakhraya."

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MIND IN ACTION: A CORRELATION BETWEEN CONCEPTS OF IMAGINATION

AND MEDITATION

The undisciplined mind is, as far as the jogis are concerned, an enemy. The mind,

however, may and should be yoked through the discipline of yoga. It has to be

harmonized with the breath and the semen and it has to reach the highest cakra. This

process is customarily designated as the practice of meditation, dhyan. Sometimes, as

Teun Goudriaan reminds, the mind is conceptualized as the instrument of inner or

'mental worship,' manasapuja. My proposal, already advanced on several occasions, is

that yogic practice of dhyan or manasapuja is comparable to what is in Western

esotericism understood as the exercise of imagination. Now I will elaborate on this issue.

loan Couliano defines magic as 'the science of the imaginary.' Henry Corbin,

whose work on the concept of imagination is seminal, stresses "on the one hand the

notion of the Imagination as the magical production of an image ...; and, on the other

hand, the notion of the image as a body (a magical body, a mental body) ... ".89 Antoine

Faivre, in discussing the Renaissance elaboration of the idea, asserts the conclusion that

"It was a matter of training the imagination to make of it an instrument of allowing the

acquisition of divine powers."90 These ideas are of utmost importance if applied to, or

'translated' into, the mental discipline of the Nath Siddhas. This is how I see the

correlation working:

Let us start with the imagination as 'the magical production of an image.' In the

case of the Nath yogis, the most important of these images are those of the cakras. As is

$ Corbin, Alone with the Alone, 179; italics as in the original. Corbin adds, "But a warning is necessary at the very outset: this Imaginatio must not be confused with fantasy. As Paracelsus already observed, fantasy, unlike Imagination, is an exercise of thought without foundation in nature, it is the 'madman's cornerstone.'' Ibid.

177

well known, meditation on and visualization of the cakras, done in combination with

breathing exercises while seated in the yogic posture, is one of the central practices in

tantric yoga. Yogic and tantric literature abounds with descriptions of cakras. A short text

called Asp Cakr, contained in the Gorakh Bam, states for example that "The first cakra

situated at the anus is called the 'basis' [adhar], its lotus has round petals, [there you

should] hold the breath [by counting] one hundred. Above that cakra is dristcakra, at the

level of penis, its lotus has six petals ... ".'1 The list continues until all the cakras has

been enumerated, together with a description of their 'lotuses' and the number of their

'petals.' Very often, the cakras are represented in an elaborate form, their description

consisting not only of the number of petals, but also of the presiding deities, appropriate

colours, mantras, and other elements.

Now, in order to work on these cakras, the yogi has to visualize them. They do

not exist materially, as Bharati reminds us of the plain fact. The yogi has to keep their

images in his mind vividly, while performing bandhas and breathing exercises. This

practice is crucial for the success in yoga. The implication is that the performance of yoga

is conditioned by the ability to create and maintain images in one's mind. This ability,

that comes under the heading of meditation (dhydn) in the terminology of yoga is exactly

the 'magical production of an image' mentioned by Corbin. The image (in this case, of

the cakras) is produced 'magically' in the sense that it has been created (one could say,

ex nihilo) through the disciplined mental effort of the practitioner. Meditation on and

" Faivre, "Vis Imaginativa: (A Study of Some Aspects of Magical Imagination and Its Mythical Founders)," in Theosophy, Imagination, Tradition, 101. " Gorakh Barii, A$f Cakr. "prathamem adhar cakr bolie guda asthamne, cakr dal kamval, khafcsai sams / tis cakr upari drisicakr, ling asthamne sat dal kamval ... " See, for example, the elaborate description of the cakras given in Siva Sarphita V: 56-131. Cf. the chart reproduced in Barthwal, Traditions of Indian Mysticism, 164-5. " The same remarks apply to the visualization of the kundalim and of her 'ascent' through the spine.

178

visualization of the cakras is an act of the magical production of images, which is

imagination.

Corbin states that imagination also implies 'the notion of the image as a body (a

magical body, a mental body).' Within the framework of yogic sddhana, this magical or

mental body is one that Indian terminology classifies as the 'subtle body,' suksm sarir.

With regards to this issue, White writes that, "Crucial to the initiation process [as

encountered in yoga and tantra] is the notion that within the gross body of the human

microcosm or protocosm there is a subtle, yogic body that is the mesocosmic replica of

the divine, universal macrocosm or metacosm."94 The above-described cakras are

situated and operative in this subtle body, as is the kundalirii. Siva and Sakti dwell in that

body. If this body is cultivated, if it has been perfected, this body will be immortal.

Dasgupta refers to such a perfected body as the 'yoga-body' and claims: "Such a yoga

body (yogo-deha) is rare even to the gods; it is a body bereft of all limitations and

bondage and at the same time possessing great powers; it is limitless like the sky but

purer even than the sky."95

The immortal body created through yoga is the basis and vehicle of immortality.

This body is created through the process of imagination consisting of visualization and

concentration on the image of the body decorated with cakras and '72.000' subtle

conduits of energy. It is 'possessing great powers,' and 'rare even to gods.' Here we have

a cluster of mutually related notions of great importance. Image is a body, literally.

Concentrated imagination of the yogi results in the creation of a yogic body. This body is

also powerful. Faivre's remark that 'It was a matter of training the imagination to make

" White, "Tantra in Practice: Mapping a Tradition," in Tantra in Practice, 14. 95 Dasgupta, Obscure Cults, 220.

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of it an instrument of allowing the acquisition of divine powers' is absolutely meaningful

when applied to the creation of the yogic body. Through it, the yogi becomes immortal

and powerful, surpassing even the gods, becoming a god himself.96 (Deification is, in

fact, the culmination of the process of transmutation, which is an integral constituent of

esotericism.) And finally, since yogic work centers on the subtle body and its energies,

and since the perfected subtle body is the final aim of the hatha yoga, and since this body

is created through the disciplined use of imagination, the yoga itself may be defined as

'the science of the imaginary.' In that sense, yoga is analogous to magic as

conceptualized by Couliano. This is an important conclusion, deserving further research.

To conclude: In this chapter, I demonstrated that as far as the ideology of the Nam

Siddhas is concerned, it is again meaningful to see them as an esoteric current. They

insist on the supremacy of the practical aspect of the discipline of yoga and on the value

of gurus and lineages, while doctrinal issues and even formal affiliation within the

category of 'Hinduism' are to them of secondary importance and value. Even the ethical

position is subordinated to the pragmatic orientation of hatha yoga. This practical

orientation is congenial to the occult and esotericism, as much as is the fluidity of

doctrinal and denominational boundaries. Finally, while discussing the yogic approach to

the discipline of the cultivated mind, my purpose was to draw a parallel between the

concepts of imagination, as used in Western esotericism, and meditation, as

conceptualized in yoga. My overall conclusion is that in this regard also, as far as the

attitude towards mind and mental phenomena is concerned, esotericism remains a useful

" The perfected body of the yogi is also called a 'divya deha,' the 'divine body' and "this is the Siddhi or the perfection after which the Siddhas aspired." Ibid., 219.

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conceptual category through which to understand the Nâth Siddhas and the ideas

expressed in The Sayings of Gorakh. I am also remain inclined to conclude, on the basis

of comparison conducted here, that there are a significant number of formal similarities

between Western and Indian esotericisms. I suggest investigating the implications of

these conclusions in the next chapter.

181

CONCLUSION: ESOTERICISM, TANTRA, AND

THE TRANSLATION OF CULTURES

We are always in danger of drawing our own eye, for we depict our own vision when we think we are depicting the world. The choice of lens level is indeed arbitrary, but not entirely arbitrary. It is heuristic: we choose a specific level in order to make possible a specific task. Where one focuses depends on the sorts of continuities one is looking for; in all instances, something is lost and something gained.

Wendy Doniger, "Myths and Methods in the Dark'

The main thesis of this study consists of the proposal that esotericism is a meaningful

category through which to approach the theory and practice of the Nath yogis in

particular and the phenomenon of tantra in general. At this point, I would like to devote

some space to the discussion of the implications of this proposal.

My approach to the study of other cultures is based on the conviction that the

'translation of cultures' is possible and desirable.' To answer the question, 'What is A?'

by replying that 'A is A' is a tautology and less satisfactory than 'A is [similar to] B.' In

that sense, every increase of knowledge is based on some sort of comparison. This

comparison is in fact already present and at work when we say that 'tantra is an element

of Hinduism' for 'Hinduism' is a Western concept. Similarly, if we identify tantra as a

form of religion, the translation of cultures is again already happening, for 'religion' is

again a Western concept without a hundred-percent befitting equivalent in traditional

On the translation and commensurability of cultures, see Tambiah, Magic, Science, Religion, 111-39.

182

(non-Muslim) India. My contention is that religion, as employed uncritically, is too broad

and in that sense, and to that degree, an imperfect category to be applied to tantra and

yoga of the Nath Siddhas.

If, however, the Nath Siddhas are viewed through the conceptual lenses of

esotericism, we will find that the features of our 'subject' appear more clearly. Whether

we conceptualize yogic sddhana as alchemy, magic, or esotericism in general, the

categories fit. Let me reiterate my arguments. Alchemy, as a science of transmutations,

explains the supremacy of the process of reversal (ulta sddhana) by which the semen

returns to the top of the head, the sakti rises along the spine to meet Siva at the 'summit

of the sky,' the yogic rhetoric turns the world 'upside-down' and the mortal yogi

becomes an immortal adept. Magic, as a science of the imaginary oriented towards power

based on the erotic principle of union, is also applicable to the theory and practice of the

jogis. Yoga is union (eros); yogic work focuses on the imaginal (subtle) body; the fruit of

yoga are the powers (sidhis). The Naths operate in agreement with the general principles

of esotericism. Correspondences, which are at the root of belief that the whole universe is

found within the body, are present. Imagination, which builds the subtle body, is present.

The notion of living nature, exemplified by internally present sakti and by the bindu, is

present. Transmutation is present, its essence lying in the process of reversal. The ritual

transmission of knowledge and the practice of concordance are present. The correlation is

complete.

My argument therefore, throughout this study, rests on the conviction that

Western and Indian esotericisms are commensurable. To address the issue from one more

angle, I would like to take into consideration two recently proposed definitions of tantra. I

183

would like to show that it is possible to extrapolate conceptual framework of the basic

elements of tantra in such a way that its formal (typological) correspondence with the

conceptual framework of (Western) esotericism appears as meaningful.

In his introduction to a collection of essays on the subject,2 David Gordon White

has advanced the view that tantra is a solely Asian discipline. His definition, however,

although meant to be exclusive, very easily translates into Faivre's definition of

esotericism. This is how White defines tantra:

Tantra is that Asian body of beliefs and practices which, working from the principle that the universe we experience is nothing other than the concrete manifestation of the divine energy of godhead that creates and maintains that universe, seeks to ritually appropriate and channel that energy, within the human microcosm, in creative and emancipatory ways.3

Let us deconstruct this definition. It centers on the process of the appropriation of the

universe (as energy) within 'the human microcosm' which implies the notion of

correspondence between a human being and the universe: microcosm corresponds to

macrocosm.4 It tells us that the universe is in fact 'the divine energy of godhead,' that is

to say, a living nature: 'Siva without Sakti is but a corpse,' therefore his energy (sakti)

must be alive. To appropriate this energy in 'creative and emancipatory ways' implies a

transmutation, whether of human subject or of the external world, for creation and

emancipation are contrary to a status quo. Whatever has been created and emancipated

has been transformed from its previous state. And to 'channel that energy within the

human microcosm' refers to the work on kundalirii sakti and her ascent through the

2 White, "Mapping a Tradition," in Tantra in Practice, 3-38. 3 Ibid., 9. ''Ritually appropriated' energy is often called kundalini sakti, which corresponds to the greater sakti understood as the universe, which is the 'concrete manifestation of the divine energy of godhead.'

184

cakras, which process (the 'channeling') is based on the cultivation of imagination. The

'ritual appropriation' of this energy implies, inter alia, the ritual transmission of tantric

knowledge through rites of initiation. Finally, the fact that White denotes tantra to be the

Asian' and not denominational 'body of beliefs and practices' is just another way of

pointing out the element of the practice of concordance that is at the heart of this

tradition White himself refers to tantra's "regional and vernacular Hindu, Buddhist, and

Jain forms in Asia ... ".5 The whole definition of tantra is thus in essential agreement with

the definition of Western esoteric tradition.

Similarly, in his introduction to the collection of essays on Religions ofIndia in

Practice, Richard H. Davis defines tantra in a manner that again indicates formal

correspondence with the main features of esotericism. According to Davis,

Hindu tantric groups most often recognize the female goddess Sakti ("energy"), Siva's consort, as the fundamental creative energy of the cosmos, and therefore as the Absolute. Tantrics view the human body as a microcosm of the universe, and focus on it as a vehicle for attaining powers and liberation. Through yogic practices and ritual activities the tantric adept seeks to inculcate knowledge physically. Rather than seeking a disembodied escape from bondage or a devotional relationship with divinity, tantrics set as their highest goal the transformation of the body itself into divinity.6

The reader will recognize that 'the creative energy of the cosmos' corresponds to the

notion of'living nature,' that 'the human body as a microcosm of the universe' assumes

the presence of the principle of 'correspondences,' and that 'the transformation of the

body' points to the idea of 'transmutation.' She will also notice the importance given to

the 'practices and ritual activities' that are important element of occult attitude, and that

White, Mapping a Tradition, 9.

185

the orientation towards powers that aim at divinity establishes a formal link with magic.

The conclusion is that it is possible and meaningful to conceptually and analytically

approach tantra as an esoteric discipline.

The insight that tantra and the yoga of the Nath Siddhas may be conceptualized as

esoteric disciplines is important. Needles to say, esotericism is only a conceptual grid

that, just as any other, makes selection out of the available data on the basis of

convergence of several elements (correspondences, imagination, etc). It is certainly a

construct, a metanarrative, a mechanism of after-thought, but at least it has an advantage

in that it attempts to look for the points of concord between cultures. Instead of claiming

exclusivity to either tantra or Western occultism, it is more meaningful to consider them

regional variations of esotericism. I propose that esotericism should be seen as at least

cross-cultural, if not universal phenomenon and that comparative esotericism is a

meaningful, albeit insufficiently explored, avenue of scholarship.

How do we explain the apparent commensurability between Western and Indian

models of esotericism? Admitting that there are no simple solutions to this complex

query, I think that there are two basic, mutually non-exclusive answers. Taking the

terminology with a grain of salt, we may speak of exoteric and esoteric links between the

two traditions. 'Exoterically' speaking, Indian and Western esotericisms share certain

elements that are the result of historical contacts. Let us take the example of alchemy:

7 Indian alchemists were in contact with both Chinese and Islamic alchemical traditions. 8

' Richard H. Davis, "Introduction: A Brief History of Religions in India," in Religions of India in Practice, ed. Donald S. Lopez (Princeton, N.J .: Princeton University Press, 1995), 41. "Since India's original fascination with alchemy most probably arose out of early contacts with a China (India was exporting Buddhism to China in this period) whose Taoist speculative alchemical tradition has been developing since the second century A.D., one might conclude that such traditions reached south India via a maritime route." White, Alchemical Body, 53.

186

Both Chinese' and Islamic1 alchemical ideas and practices were disseminated to the

West. Similarly, tantra has moved between Hindu, Buddhist, Jain and even Muslim

traditions in India, and it has traveled from India to Nepal, China, Tibet, and other

countries. And in the last century or so, tantra (and yoga) has arrived in the West,

becoming an important part of the Western esoteric tradition. In that sense we may speak

about the diffusion of esoteric traditions through historical contacts. In this process,

esotericism serves the function as 'a means of cultural transfer." By establishing links

between various traditions, often situated in different countries, esotericism also operates

as a means of cultural unity. This is an additional element that calls for its more

comprehensive scholarly treatment.

'Esoterically' speaking, the similarities between Indian and Western occult

disciplines lie in the nature of the functioning of the human mind. Here I have in mind

what loan Couliano has called a cognitive approach to the genesis and 'transmission' of

religious (and other) ideas."2 Following and elaborating on the ideas of scholars such as

Claude Levi Strauss and Mircea Eliade, Couliano sees the operations of the human mind

as the driving force behind the construction of diverse religious (as well as social and

To give just one example, relevant to the Indian sufi tradition of the ShattarTs, established in the second half of the fifteenth century. "The ShattarTs, probably more than any other spiritual lineage, appropriated Indian yogic practices into their regimen. Among Shaikh Muhammad Ghaus's many compositions is the Persian Bahr al-Hayat ('The Water of Life'), a now-lost Sanskrit text on yoga." Aditya Behl and Simon Weightman, "Introduction," in Madhumalatl, 23. White addresses the same issue as follows: "Finally, we know that Muslim physicians, alchemists and mystics were avid for the wisdom of their Indian counterparts, as evidenced by the translation, in the sixteenth century, of a treatise on hafhayoga, attributed to Goraksa, entitled the Amjiakunda (The Pool of Nectar)." Alchemical Body, 106. ' White reports that, "As Joseph Needham has demonstrated, China stands, according the best evidence, as the primal source for the world's transmutational and elixir alchemy. According to Needham's historical reconstruction, the first-century A.D. Chinese technique of kirn or chin, 'aurifaction,' would have been carried west to the Mediterranean world in perhaps the third century A.D." Ibid., 204. " For example, "The idea of an alchemical elixir came to the West, via Islam, in the early Middle Ages." Coudert, "Elixirs," in Hidden Truths, 251. " See Wilson, Scandal.

187

scientific) systems. It follows that, "The fundamental unity ofhumankind does not reside

in a unity of views or solutions, but in the unity of the operations of the human mind."13

Esoteric thought, according to this view, operates similarly in various contexts,

and this operation is essentially one of internalization. As soon as a religious practice is

internalized, the notion of correspondences ("the outside and inside are one"14)

necessarily follows, the imagination is necessarily there (the inner cosmos not being

observable by physical senses), as are the notions of transmutation15 and living nature.16

Esoteric thought also typically operates in the symbolic mode," going beyond rigid

identifications, finding similarities between differing phenomena of reality and various

cultural systems,"8 which results in the practice of concordance.

I am convinced that every exoteric religion has its esoteric complement. This

conviction should not be construed as if to mean that every esoteric tradition is alike.

Being an inner aspect of a particular tradition, esoteric teaching - and practice - shares in

a number of formal elements of that tradition and it is shaped by the continuing process

of historical change. In that sense, the esoteric 'what' differs from case to case; but the

"2 See loan Couliano, Introduction: Religion as a System," in Mircea Eliade, loan P. Couliano and Hillary S. Wiesner, The HarperCollins Concise Guide to World Religions (San Francisco: Harper, 1991), 1-7. "3 Ibid., 7; emphasis in the original. Couliano adds that, "no matter how bizarre some religions may appear to us at first sight, they can ultimately be understood as the dwelling of human minds on certain hypotheses concerning nature and existence, wrestling with the perennial mysteries of life, death, good and evil, human purpose, justice, and so forth." Ibid., 7. " Gorakh Bam, Park Mdtra, 4. 15 The idea of transmutation follows necessarily from the idea of correspondence between micro- and macrocosm. The reason is that this correspondence implies the ultimate identity between the two, which means that human microcosm transforms its initial limited state by becoming one with the divine macrocosm. " The idea of living nature, the idea that the middle ground between human being and divinity is also impregnated with spiritual value, necessarily stems from the notion of correspondence. "And magic always depends on the idea of symbolism and of language." Wittgenstein, as quoted in Tambiah, Magic, Science, Religion, 59; italics in the original. "8 Tambiah remarks how this idea "has been magnificently documented by Foucault in The Order of Things, in terms of that sixteenth-century European thought known as the 'doctrine of signatures,' in which the notion of 'resemblance' played a key role in the relation between man and the phenomena of his cosmos." Ibid., 87.

188

esoteric 'how' seems to be common and consistent: emphasis is placed on

correspondences, on the role of imagination, the possibility of transmutation, and the

presence of living nature. Esoteric traditions also seem to be alike in the ritual means of

the transfer of their knowledge, and in the insistence that the ultimate truth, the gnosis,

transcends the narrow boundaries of particular denominations and that it may be

discovered as an inner aspect of every religion. In the final analysis, it may be said that

various esoteric traditions are engaged in an array of complex, dynamic processes

characterized by the interplay of elements that display features of both the sameness and

difference. I have attempted to elucidate some aspects of the former, but this is only a

methodological choice and a personal predilection, and as such it should not be taken as a

suggestion that we should neglect the latter.

189

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APPENDIX

The sabads and pads from

the GORAKHBANI

translated by

Shukdev Singh and Gordan Djurdjevic

A NOTE TO THE TRANSLATIONS

The following translations of the sabad and pad sections from the Gorakh Bam collection

were done in Varanasi, India, in the period between November 2002 and early April

2003. I arrived in India in October 2002 and immediately began to inquire about the

possibility to work with somebody on this text. I was fortunate enough to rather quickly

get in touch with Dr. Shukdev Singh, a former professor of Hindi at the Benares Hindu

University. Shukdev Singh has already successfully collaborated with Western scholars

on several projects.' We arranged our first meeting over phone; the next day he came

with his driver to pick me up and we then went to his house and agreed on the procedure

of our future sessions. We decided to meet three times a week, that I was to work on the

translations on my own, and that he would be checking them and providing commentaries

during our meetings.

I would translate as much as I could in between our meetings. On those days

when we were to have our session, I would started in the morning from my residence

close to Assi ghat in the southern part of Benares, and ride the bike to my destination. It

would take me approximately half-hour of a slow bike-ride through the congested streets

of the city to reach his house in Sundarpur, in the outskirts of Benares. We would

typically sit together for an hour, often longer, drinking tea and 'fighting with the text' as

he was prone to say in his Rajput idiom. I would read my translations and he would

correct them, spicing his commentaries with innumerable stories about Naths, tantrikas,

' The best known of these collaborations is probably The Bljak of Kabir, trans. Linda Hess and Shukdev Singh (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1986 [San Francisco, 1983]). See also a more recent translation of "The Deeds of Prahlad," trans. David Lorenzen and Shukdeo Singh, in David N. Lorenzen, Praises to a Formless God: Nirguni Texts from North India (Albany, N.Y .: SUNY Press, 1996), 41-74.

201

and the Indian culture in general. Sometimes my translations would be accepted as

correct in toto ("Sâbâs," he would say, "bahut acchâ translation, "); sometimes I would

cross some of them out completely. In general, the wording and the style were mine own,

but there were also a significant number of corrections. Dr. Singh was always happy

when we entered into occasional disagreement over the translations: he often felt that I

was too complacent in accepting his corrections and that I should fight more forcefully

for my vision. From the beginning to the end, we both felt and talked about this as

collaboration, as a mutual project.

On my return from India, my first job was to type the hand-written text into the

computer. I tried to improve and correct what I felt to be more problematic translations.

On few occasions, I asked for and received comments on these from Dr. Ken Bryant. We

did not go through the whole text but on the basis of a sample that he read, Ken expressed

his impression that the translations were generally correct. Sasha Paradis went through

the whole text, corrected grammatical mistakes and gave several stylistic suggestions, but

did not intervene in the text itself. Needless to say, all the remaining mistakes and

inaccuracies in these translations are my own responsibility.

' Towards the end of this period, during March and early April 2003, we would meet five times a week.

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THE SAYINGS OF GORAKH

Sabadi

1. Inhabited is not empty, empty is not inhabited.

It is inaccessible and mysterious.

At the summit of the sky, a child is speaking.

What kind of name could it be given?

2. The unseen should be seen, the seen should be thought upon.

The unseen has to be kept in the heart.

The lower Ganges should be brought up to the [top of the] Egg of Brahma,

Where the pure has drank the water pure.

3. Right here is being, right here is non-being,

Right here is the origin of the three triple worlds.

The eternal community dwells here.

This is why the countless siddhas have become the lords of yoga.

4. It is not in the Vedas or in the books. It is neither the Form nor the Formless.

They are all covered under cover.

At the summit of the sky, the word [sabad] emerges into light.

There, [the yogi] comes to know the Invisible Gnostic.

5. The Invisible Gnostic has created two lamps,

Three worlds, one light.

Contemplating it, the three worlds appear,

And he selects the bright pearl.

6. It can't be read [It is not written] in the Vedas or the sastras,

In the kitabs, the Koran or in the books.

Only rare yogis understand these pads.

Everything else is worldly affairs.

7. You may laugh, you may play, and you may be merry.

But don't keep company with lust and anger.

You may laugh, you may play, and you may sing songs.

But keep your heart firm!

8. You may laugh, you may play, but you should maintain meditation.

You should speak day and night about the wisdom of brahman.

Do not break your meditation when laughing and playing.

Those established in firmness are always in the company of Gods.

9. O priest [kazil, don't say 'Muhammad, Muhammad'!

Muhammad's thought is difficult.

The dagger in Muhammed's hand

Was made neither of steel nor of iron.

10. By the sabad he killed, by the sabad he revived:

Such a plr was Muhammad.

O priest [kazil, stop pretending!

Such power is not in your body.

11. The whole world was enslaved by saying 'Lord'.

By saying 'Gorakh' it disappeared.

Muhammad was a master of kalima [holy words; profession of faith],

But he still died nonetheless.

12. The essence of essence, of the profound depth,

Is the sound [heard] when reaching the sky.

Having found the jewel, disappear again!

A ll talk and discussions are lies.

13. The talks! The discussions!

0 yogi, do not engage in false theories!

[Just as] the 68 tirthas are contained in the ocean,

So for you, yogi, all should burn up in the guru's mouth.

14. We are Hindus by birth; yogis by burning;

Muslims by wisdom.

Accept this path, o judge and scholar!

[It is already accepted by] Brahma, Visnu and Mahadev.

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15. Accepting the sabad, duality ends.

Bharthari was made a king by determination, Gopicand by experience.

By determination the kings are made to transcend opposites.

By experience, yogis [attain] the supreme bliss.

16. By practicing meditation day and night,

By remaining in the unthinkable [unman], renouncing the accessible,

[a yogi] proclaims the inaccessible.

He who renounces hope, remaining in the niras [without hope] -

It is said that even Brahma is his devotee.

17. The yogi who holds above what goes below,

Who burns sex, abandons desire,

Who cuts through mdyd -

Even Visnu washes his feet.

18. He who does the ajap-jap, maintains meditation on sunya,

Who controls the five sense organs,

And offers his body as an oblation in the fire of Brahma -

Even Mahadev bows to his feet.

19. He who places no hope in wealth and youth,

Having no thoughts about women,

In whose body the nad and bindu are burnt -

Even ParvatI serves him.

20. Those who are men of ascesis from boyhood and youth,

They are the men of truth in good and in bad times.

Eating quickly, eating little -

The nath says: Their body is mine [= there is no distinction between

21. Sdbad is the lock, sabad is the key,

Sabad wakes sabad.

When sabad meets sabad,

Sabad is contained in sabad.

22. Travelling without path, burning without fire,

Satisfying thirst by air.

Sri (Guru) Gorakh (nath) has explained self-knowledge.

Pundits, you must understand it after reading.

23. In the circle of the sky, there is an upside-down well.

There nectar resides.

He who has a guru can drink it all.

Who is without a guru remains thirsty.

24. He [the yogi] cannot be hidden in the sky,

He cannot burn in fire; the wind can't push him in the air.

The weight of the earth can't break him, he cannot sink in the water.

When I say so, who will understand it?

25. [By its] fragrance, the whole world is fragrant.

[Due to its] taste, [all] is sweet.

I fI say the truth, the true guru will accept it,

And I will see the form [of truth].

26. Die, yogi, die!

Death is sweet.

Die in that death

In which Gorakh died and saw [the truth]!

27. One should not speak in haste,

One should not stamp while walking: the feet should go slowly.

One should not be arrogant, but live simply [remain in sahaj]:

So says the great Gorakh

28. Those who are full are steady;

The half-full are glittery.

Hey avadhut, when a siddha meets a siddha,

They speak and they gain.

29. The nath says, listen oh avadhut

Be firm, keep your mind in control.

Give up lust, anger and egotism,

That is [equal] to going to all [holy] places.

30. O Lord, If I go to the forest, I am afflicted by hunger,

And in the city there is maya.

IfI eat till I am full, the semen [bindu] pervades [me].

Why cook the body made from a drop of water [=semen]?

31. Do not rush upon food [or] starve to death;

Day and night, probe the secrets of the fire of brahman.

Do not be obstinate or lie idle:

Thus said Gorakh-dev.

32. The one in whose body the breath is balanced

Speaks little and eats little.

In the circle of the sky, the unstruck [sound] resounds.

But if [the yogi] falls into the pinda, it is a shame for the guru.

33. 0 avadhut, reduce your diet, turn away from sleep,

And you will never be ill.

Purify the body from time to time,

As some rare yogis do!

34. You should meditate in the manner of gods.

And you should eat in the manner of ghosts.

Bringing mind in breath, and remaining in the unmarii,

The yogis [enjoy] the essence ofbeing.

35. O avadhut, in the house of sleep is the snare of death,

And in eating is the house of the thief.

In lovemaking, old age devours.

The power is in uniting the lower with the upper!

36. Too much food disturbs the senses.

It destroys wisdom, keeps the mind on lovemaking.

It prolongs sleep; death hides in it.

The heart [of such a person] is always distressed.

37. Gorakh ploughs the field in everybody's heart.

Whoever is born [from that field] belongs to us.

To everybody's heart Gorakh tells the sermon:

An unbaked pot does not hold water.

38. In everybody's heart Gorakh moves silently:

In some, he is awake; in some, he sleeps.

In everybody's heart is Gorakh, in everybody's heart is Mina [Matsyendra].

The knowledge of the self [dtmcrn] is experienced in guru's mouth.

39. [Wearing] wooden sandals [of an ascetic], the foot slips.

O avadhut, [wearing] iron chains ruins the body.

[Being] naked, keeping silent, eating [only] milk:

Yoga is not achieved in such a way.

40. The heart of the person who consumes only milk is set on [another's] house.

The naked always needs firewood.

The one who keeps silence hopes for a friend.

Without a guru, a gudp [ascetic robe] is not reliable.

41. The Southern yogi is cheerful.

The Eastern yogi talks too much.

The Western yogi is like a child.

The Northern yogi is a siddha.

42. 0 avadhut, the Eastern region is plagued by disease,

In the Western region is the sorrow of death.

The Southern region revels in illusion.

In the Northern region, the siddha yogis live.

43. The [real] cheaters cheat the ego,

And eat begged food without remorse.

They beg in three-and-a-half cities.

These avadhuts move in the world of Siva.

44. The [real] householder is the one who knows his body.

He keeps inside what goes outside.

Always the same towards everything, he cuts through illusion.

Such a householder should be called the form of niranjan.

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45. The [real] householder is he who maintains the body.

Oriented towards the inside, he abandons illusion.

He maintains the body with a natural virtue [sahaj].

Such a householder is like the water of the Ganges.

46. Those who are immortal and pure are beyond sin and virtue.

They are beyond sattva and rajas [and tamas] and are empty.

They remember the sabad of soham and hamsa.

Theirs is the highest goal and endless siddhis.

47. The meditator [lit. 'heretic'] is the one who purifies his body.

Reversing his breath he lights the fire.

He does not deliberately release semen even in sleep.

Such a meditator should be considered equal to God [lit. 'reality'].

48. The mind is yogi and the body is the monastery; the five elements are the robe.

Forgiveness is sitting in the six postures.

Wisdom is the ascetic seat and good reason the wooden slippers.

Thinking is the stick.

49. In unsteadiness, the Moon decays.

In sitting, the fire of brahman burns.

In the oblique/ slanted position is the gofika bandh,

That makes the body remain as long as the earth.

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50. This very mind is Sakti, this very mind is Siva.

This very mind is the life of the five elements.

The one who controls the mind and remains in the unman,

He may speak about the secrets of the three worlds.

50. O avadhut, he who closes the nine passages and controls the breath

Does business with the wind at sixty-four shops.

He renews the body in a firm position.

Discarding the shadow, he becomes a siddha.

51.0 avadhut, control the breath and remain in the unmanl

In the same way, sound the horn of the unstruck sound.

In the circle of the sky, a brilliant light shines.

But there is neither the Moon nor the Sun there.

52. Breathing the air in and out should be your food.

Close the nine gates.

From time to time renew the body.

Then you will master the unmanl yoga.

53. O avadhut, the breath should go to the sahasra nidi.

Then the myriad sounds shall ring.

The breath will drink seventy-two Moons,

When the primal light shines.

54. In the house ofthe [moonless] amàvas, the Moon sparkles,

And in the house of the pdrnim [the full Moon], the Sun.

In the house of the nad, the bindu thunders,

And sounds the silent horn.

55. In the reversed nâd'xs the transformed bindu.

In the house of wind, recognize life!

It flows down from the empty circle.

Join the Moon and the Sun and remain in the unmariî.

56. 0 avadhùt, In the first nâdïthz nàd flashes,

And in the fiery nidithe wind.

In the cold nàdï, the bindu dwells.

Few yogis know [this] from experience.

57. The Sun will burn the rising wind.

In the sitting (still) wind is the Moon.

The yogi always stays in the tenth direction

Where the bindu dwells, there is life.

58. So many come, so many go

So many beg, so many eat

So many sit below a tree-

But with whom may Gorakh speak about his experience?

59. The scholar who reads the texts [thinks] that he should see the essence afterwards.

But [everyone] can cross to the other side by [their] actions.

Gorakhnath says, to whom should I give the sakhf!

There is light in every heart that animals do not see not even for a moment with their eyes.

60. 0 avadhut, you should pierce the diamond

By the sabad in the mint of the tongue.

Do well in the midst of bad.

Then the whole world is your disciple.

61. What was incomplete became fully completed

And what did not flow continues to flow down.

[But] sharper than a sword or razor is the road

About which the true guru has spoken.

62. [Ifit is] in the body then have hope in the pad.

[Ifit were otherwise] all the animals living in the forest [would become siddhas].

If there is milk, hope for ghee.

Action is the essence of achievement.

63. While remaining within the mind, not disclosing the secret,

The immortal words [the words of nectar] should be spoken.

If anybody in front [of you] is fire,

O avadhut, you should become water.

215

64. Staying within the unman, not disclosing the secret,

The nectar water should be drunk.

Renouncing [women's] loins, going to bed,

You should hear the mantra from the guru's mouth.

65. A city is graced by many waters, roots and trees.

An assembly is graced by learned elders.

A king is graced by a loyal army,

And a siddha is graced by pure and wise speech.

66. Very few know [the unity of] difference and sameness,

Very few know how to cut through duality.

Very few know the untold story,

Very few know pure and wise speech.

67. Going to the top, eating the fruit of emptiness,

One should put on the clothes of brahman's fire.

Having drunk the stream of flowing nectar,

The mind becomes settled.

68. A Hindu worships in the temple,

A Muslim in the mosque.

A yogi worships the supreme \param-pad]

Where there is neither temple nor mosque.

69. Incomplete.

70. [Ifimmortality is] in the body then no one should die,

But everyone looks for it in the outside universe [beyond the body].

The body is in the universe, continuously,

Says Gorakh, Matsyendra's devotee.

71. A sitting avadhut is like an iron rod,

A moving avadhut is like a fist of wind.

A sleeping avadhut is a living corpse,

A talking avadhut is a parrot in a cage.

72. Gorakh says, Oh avadhut, listen:

Be like this in the world:

Look with your eyes, listen with your ears,

But don't say anything with your mouth.

73. Nath says, take care of your soul,

Don't be stubborn, don't engage in discussions.

This world is a thorny bush.

Look carefully, watch your step!

74. Gorakh says, Hey avadhut,

Beware of Yama. Ifhe strikes the person

On the head with his mace,

He dies, before the end [ofhis lifespan].

75. Discard the vision in front of the eyes,

Stop listening with the ears.

Hide the wind in front of the nose.

Then, what remains is the nirvan-pad.

76. Hey avadhut, it is said that the mind is our ball,

And remembrance our play.

With the unstruck sound, the game begins.

Then you may call the sky our field.

77. Shaving the head with the five elements,

The colourless meets the formless.

Catch the mad elephant of the mind, O avadhut,

And then obtain the eternal treasure.

78. It is fixed between up and down,

And sits in the middle of emptiness.

There is the meeting with the intoxicated.

Gorakhnath says, thus I reached the essence.

79. The real ascetic is the one who punishes himself,

And who ends the coming and going of the mind.

He kills the ego of the five sense organs.

Such an ascetic is like that [God].

80.1 have found it, listen, I've got this good.

With firmness [I have reached] the place of sabad.

I had a vision of it [embodied] in form.

Then I reached complete faith.

81. [From] the lower lotus to the centre of the upper lotus

Is the place of life.

Twelve hamsas will reverse their movement,

And then the light will shine.

82. Sitting in the [yogic] posture, stopping the breath,

A1l the functions of duality cease.

Gorakhnath says, thinking about the self

Is like watching the moon in water.

83. Gorakh says, listen avadhut,

The five senses should be restrained.

Know your own self,

Then you will sleep properly.

84. Food and sleep are our deadly enemies.

How to protect the guru's treasure while eating and sleeping

Reduce eating, cut down on sleep,

Take Siva and Sakti and let them meet.

85. When you know the anahad-bandh

You do not fall into worldly affairs or into the bonds oflife and death.

Do not discharge semen [made] of blood from the body!

The yogi says, do not crush the diamond.

86.1 will ask one sabad, please answer, merciful teacher.

How can an old one become a child?

How can an open flower become a bud?

Whoever can answer what has been asked, he is Gorakh.

87. Please listen, give up the formalities of the temple.

Having drunk nectar you [will] become a child.

Water the root with the fire of brahman,

And then the open flower [will] again be a bud.

88. Join the reversed breath with the sky.

Then the child's form will become visible.

When you catch the sunrise, you can catch the golden sunset and meet the wind.

Then the bound elephant will enter your hall.

89. The twelve kalds [of the Sun] make dry, and the sixteen kolas [ofthe Moon] nourish.

[Whoever] obtains the four kalds [of nectar] lives the endless life.

Light and fire are mixed together,

[The yogi] obtains the siddhis and drinks the four kalds [of nectar].

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90. Those who accomplish the impossible, who thunder in the [clear] sky,

Who unlock the [state of] unmarii,

Those who reverse the breath, say reversed things,

Who drink the undrinkable: they are the ones who know brahman.

91. They write the unwritten, they see the unseen.

[Just by] touching, they achieve vision.

Thundering in emptiness, striking the nid,

Those who write the unwritten obtain proof by themselves.

92. Sitting in the fixed house and checking the breath,

There will never be any illness.

In a year, purify the body three times

Using nag, bang, and bandspati.

93. The light of the Moon is in the sixteen naps,

And the mind is in the twelve nap's.

The prdn is gathered in the sahasra nap,

Where Siva dwells within innumerable kalds.

94. O avadhut, the path of ira is called the Moon,

And the path ofpingald, the Sun.

They say that the path of susumni is SarasvatI,

The residence of the three roots.

95. O avadhut, they say that our body is a rifle;

The breath is called gunpowder,

Agni is the match that strikes the anahad;

Bindu is a shot towards the sky.

96. Kdzis and mullas interpret Kuran,

And brahmins, the Vedas.

SarnnydsTs are lost in pilgrimages.

[No one] has found the secret of the nirvanpad.

97. The journey to the temples is a journey in vain.

Journeying to tirthds, one finds only water.

A journey with ascetics is a fruitful journey,

Where immortal words are spoken.

98. Think that the house [mulddhar] is the weak one,

And its [sahasrar's] [root] is in the house [mulddhar].

If anyone is intimate with the lower and the higher,

Then everything will be no less [than immortality].

99. I kill those who stand, I kill those who sit,

I kill those who are awake and those who sleep.

[My] net is spread out in the wombs of the three worlds.

So where will you go, son?

100.1 destroy [you] standing, I destroy [you] sitting,

I destroy [you] while awake and while sleeping.

I remain untouched by you in the three worlds.

Thus [says] Gorakh avadhut.

101. Sleep says, I am worthless,

And Brahma and Vi§nu are cheats.

I am totally ruined:

Gorakh is awake and I lie sleeping.

102. The yogi is the one who disciplines the mind.

Without going abroad, he revels in [his] kingdom.

Giving up gold and sex,

He is the lord of yoga, without fear.

103. He who gives up everything is a samnydsi,

The one who maintains hope in the circle of the sky.

Hearing the unstruck sound, keeping the mind in the unman

The samnydsi is he who speaks of the unreachable.

104. Lai says: I have reached the far shore.

The fools stay on this side.

But the yogi who lacks stability is a false one.

He is neither on this side or the other side [of the river].

105. The reversed breath has pierced the six cakras,

The hot iron has sucked up the water.

Keeping both the Moon and the Sun in one's own house,

That is what the knower of the alakh does.

106. Nad is our air.

Who sounds the naddisrupts the wind.

The unstruck sabad keeps resounding.

Sri Gorakh is announcing the signal of accomplishment.

107. Listen, o virtuous! Listen, o wise!

[Listen to] the words of the countless siddhas.

Bowing the head, after the true guru has been met,

The whole night passes without sleeping.

108. Know that begging is our Cow of Plenty,

And that samsara is our garden.

I will eat the begged food, due to the kindness of the guru,

[And that is why] at the time of death there will be no suffering.

109. With big buttocks and a fat belly,

O son, you have not met your guru.

When the body is empty and the stomach cleansed,

Then, O son, you have met your guru.

110. [There is no] nirati and no surati, no yoga nor enjoyment.

[There is no] old age nor death,

And there is no illness there.

Gorakh speaks of the oneness, where there is no talk of the omkar.

111. [There is] no rising and no falling, no night and no day.

The whole universe is a being without separation.

Niranjan is without branch and without root,

A 1l pervading, neither subtle nor gross.

112. The universe will burst open and all the cities will be plundered.

No one will understand the secret.

Gorakhnath says, When the doors of the body are closed,

You may catch the five gods.

113. Ego has to be broken, the formless has to burst open,

The Ganga's and Yamuna's water has to dry out.

The Moon and the Sun have to be fixed facing each other.

O avadhut, learn the identity/ name of that place!

114. O Intelligence! Be alert!

Don't reinstate the ego again and again!

Give up hope in the five [senses]!

Gorakh says, They are truly wise whose mind dwells in the unmani.

115. Understand the message of the siddhas, o wise ones!

A horn resounds in the sky.

Light is planted in the path of the fish

And the reversed flower turns into a bud.

116. When the scent of the child comes, the game starts.

The house of the sky is at the distance of twelve fingers.

Gorakh says, Son, you will live a long life.

The body will not fall; you will not go into the realm of Death.

117. Flesh [comes] from grains, bones from the air.

To coat them with essence, you should eat breath.

Gorakh says, Son, you will live a long life.

The body will not fall; you will not go into the realm of Death.

118. Om! Thepir is [like] iron; the prayer is [like] copper.

Muhammad is [like] silver; God is [like] gold.

In between them, the world is sinking. Only we sit and watch, like this, without support.

This is the true saying of bdbd RatanhajT.

119. Talking is easy; doing is difficult.

Talking without doing is worthless.

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A cat eats an educated parrot,

And in the pundit's hands [only] a book remains.

120. Talking is easy; doing is difficult.

Without eating, [you say]'Sugar is sweet'.

You eat king [asafoetida] but say it is camphor.

Gorakh says, all that is false.

121. O avadhut, do not sit in an assembly of fools;

Do not engage in discussions with pundits;

Do not provoke the king's anger in war;

Do not disclose the nad to a careless person!

122. Know the quality of the heart by [the work of] the hands.

This is the evil kali age.

Gorakh says, listen o avadhut,

What is in the pot [karval goes out through the spout.

123. Through the control of waters, the sky becomes immobile;

Through the control of grains, the light becomes brilliant;

Through the control of breath, closure begins;

Through the control of the bindu, the skandhas become stable.

124. Catch the sabad, o avadhut, catch the sctbadl

Status and reputation are all [based on] duality.

In the midst of the atma see the paramatma,

Like the Moon in water.

125. The posture [asan] should be firm;

The food should be solid and the sleep as well.

Gorakh says, Listen O son!

[This way] you will not die nor grow old.

126. Some blame [us], some pray [to us],

Some have faith in us.

Gorakh says, Listen O avadhutl

This path is truly without attachments.

127. [There are] one hundred thousand bowstrings and nine hundred thousand arrows.

[They have] pierced the fish that dwells in the sky.

The fish is pierced together with the sky.

It is true, it is true, says Sri Gorakhnath.

128. When concentration is broken, how can nectar flow?

[When the mind is] Fixed in the unmani, the stability [of the flow] remains.

Fixed in the unmani, there is bliss.

If concentration is broken, the skandhas are destroyed.

129. Catch the sabad, o avadhut, catch the sabad).

The sabad makes the body perfect.

228

Ninety-nine crores ofkings have shaved their heads [for this]

And their countless subjects [have done the same].

130. The subtle wind remains continuous.

Inside the body, the maharas is perfected.

Gorakh says, I have caught the unstable.

Joining Siva and Sakti, I have remained within my own house.

131. The fire [greed] of the stomach is to be rejected, (greedy fire)

And the fire of the eyes eaten.

Then the chariot of the guru is in front of you.

But [only] a rare avadhut has achieved this.

132. The inaccessible and the unseen remain without passion.

[But] there is no rest in a cave with a bee.

[They] are awake at night yet don't know the method.

No one holds the mind in cont

133. [There are] nine nadis and seventy-two rooms.

All astcmga is a lie.

Use the susumnd as the key [ida[ and the lock [pihgala].

[Then] reverse the tongue and touch the palate.

134. 0 pundit, why do you die struggling for knowledge?

Know the highest place in some other way!

You are practising asan and prdnayam.

Day and night, you start and you finish tired.

135. The unman yogi is in the tenth opening.

Joining the nadmd the bindu, [he hears] the sound.

In the tenth opening, the door is closed,

[But] Gorakh has investigated [it] by other means.

136. The first yogi is so called when he is balanced.

But the unstable yogi always thinks of the body.

The moving bindu should be fixed in one place.

Then you will know what it means to be the first yogi.

137. Remaining within the body, the mind never goes far.

The yogi drinks wine like a hero, day and night.

[If] you discard tasty and tasteless through the [control of] breath and [the passage of] time

Then you will know the quality of the yogi's body.

138. The experienced yogi plays in the unman.

Day and night, he meets the gods according to his will.

The unstable yogi has many forms.

[If you know this, then] you should know the form of the experienced yogi.

139. How to recognize a perfected yogi?

He is like an iron, [perfected] in fire and water.

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He looks upon the king and his subjects as equal.

Thus you will know the form of the perfected yogi.

140. O avadhut, salty [food] causes loss of weight,

And acidic [food] causes the waterfall [i.e. loss of semen; a code word].

Sweets produce diseases. Gorakh says, Listen o avadhut

Yoga consists in grains and water.

141. The mendicant performs amari;

And protecting the amari, he does theprdndyama [lit. wind].

Those who, in making love, preserve the bindu,

They are Gorakh's brothers.

142. Bindu in the mouth ofyoni becomes mercury in the mouth of fire.

Whosoever preserves it, he is my guru. [N.B. This is a saying, not sabadi.}

143. Those who seek the essence of pleasure in the body

Disrespect the guru's words.

Without fire [i.e. meditation] there is no union [i.e. yoga],

And the uncooked ras spills out.

144. 0 avadhut, the Lord should be called my disciple

And Matsyendra the grand disciple.

But that the Earth should not be destroyed for the lack of guru,

I have reversed my rank.

145. Eating till full, there is spilling [of the semen].

This is not yoga, my son, but a great misfortune.

During the samyam, gather the breath!

In this way, the Eternal Person should be grasped.

146. Eating you die; not eating you die.

Gorakh says, O son, by samyam you can cross over.

Remain always in the middle.

When the mind is fixed, the breath becomes stable.

147. Breath is verily yoga, breath is verily pleasure.

Breath verily takes away the thirty-six diseases.

Few know the mystery of the breath.

In so doing, you are the creator, you are God.

148. Bindu is verily yoga, bindu is verily pleasure.

Bindu verily takes away the thirty-six diseases.

Few know the mystery of this bindu.

In so doing, you are the creator, you are God.

149. The true sabad is like a line of gold. Those without guru are false.

To those who have a guru it [= sabad] is an instruction.

Guru's disciples remain good.

Those without guru stray and turn wicked.

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150. O avadhut, understand and don't forget that.

[Those] without understanding are lost on the road.

They roam in the desolate jungle

Where they will be killed by the thieves.

151. An egotist minds only himself;

He does not search for the guru's word.

Those who search for a guru are living,

While the egotist's body perishes.

152. [They have] unrestrained senses and an obscene tongue:

Gorakh says, They are low persons.

Whoever controls the sex and has a mouth that speaks truth -

Such a true man I call the highest.

153. O avadhut, if the heart is pure, even [water] in a wooden pot is the Ganges .

If all ties are severed, the whole world is [your] disciple.

Gorakh explains the form of truth [=God].

Consider the essence: it has neither representation nor form.

154.1 learned the sakhis and sold all evil things.

I found the lost treasure in a dream.

I kept inquiring and gathering [the treasure].

The nith says: 0 son, it is beyond false and pure.

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155. O Goddess, come and take a seat!

Enter [the space] of the 12 fingers length [above the head].

When you enter there, there will be happiness.

Then the sorrow ofbirth and death will go away.

156. O svami, the breath is uncooked, life-energy is uncooked,

Uncooked is body, the bindu is uncooked.

How to cook it? How to perfect it?

If the fire is insufficient, water will not boil.

157. 0 devv. If the breath is cooked and life-energy is cooked,

If body is cooked and the bindu is cooked,

Then the fire of brahman burns continuously.

If the fire is sufficient, water will boil.

158. Sleeping slanted, standing erect,

Neither the bindu nor the breath is on fire.

When asan, breath and meditation are fixed,

The fire of bindu will not be extinguished.

159. The rising Sun; the full orb.

The sting of death is far away.

The nattts storage is completely full.

Every day's necessities are always present.

160. [Real] rank and position is the wisdom of a guru.

Reaching the understanding, travel with the siddhas.

An intelligent child does not wander and stray away.

The mercy of the lord is complete.

161. He who has the superior essence should be called guru,

And he who has less of the essence should be called disciple.

If you like it, travel in company;

Otherwise, wander alone.

162. Travelling on the path, one's robe is torn apart,

Dust rises, body perishes,

Concentration breaks.

The love of God [lies ahead].

163. Travelling on the path, the breath is disturbed

As well as the nid, bindu and wind.

Inside the body are the 68 tirthas:

Hey brother, where are you travelling to?

164. If someone, having become a yogi,

Scorns other people and consumes wine, meat and bhang,

He causes 71.000 ofhis ancestors to go to Hell.

It is true, it is true, says A&vGorakh-rai".

165. O avadhüt, eating meat violates the law of compassion;

Drinking wine, life is hopeless;

Eating bhang destroys wisdom and meditation:

People who do so weep in the court of Yam.

166. You should travel on the road or stitch the robe.

You should maintain meditation or speak wisdom.

You may be either alone or amongst others.

Gorakh says, O son, this way the mind will not be disturbed.

167. O scholar, study and consider the wisdom oi brahman.

[You think that] upon death one is released in the heaven of Visnu?

[No:] he goes to 84 burning pits.

It is true, it is true, says Gorakh-rai.

168. Know Sadá-Siva in the ikas-tattva.

Inside it is the nirvan-pad.

Whoever becomes intimate with the body through initiation,

For him there is no more coming and going [= life and death].

169. The light of fire is strong.

The influence of the Sun cannot be hidden.

The rays are touching the golden lotus.

They absorb all the bad smells of dirty water.

170. By listening to everyone no wisdom will come.

The sandal tree does not grow in every forest.

Who will get wealth and power?

Only a few understand the essence of this.

171. Having drunk the downward flowing nectar of immortality

I have pierced the six petals.

There I, Sri Gorakh-rai,

Have seen the Moon without moonlight.

172. Either the mind continues to hope,

Or it dwells in ultimate detachment.

Either the mind dwells in the shelter of a guru,

Or it lingers around a naked woman.

173. Do not force control, do not leave it slack.

You should know the mystery of fire.

Even the old one [= the first woman = mdyd] will become the speech [or: wife] of the guru [=truth].

It is true, it is true, says Sri Gorakh-dev.

174. It is neither outside nor inside. It is neither near nor far.

Both Brahma and the Sun searched for it.

The white crystal is pierced by the diamond jewel.

This highest truth was reached by Sri Gorakh.

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175. That which, having come, gives allure to the five elements,

And which, having gone, provokes lust,

Where does this sleep come from?

Gorakh asks his father Machindra.

176. In the circle of the sky is an empty hole.

There lightning flashes in terrible darkness.

From there sleep comes and goes.

It is contained within the five elements.

177. [Whether] standing, sitting or sleeping, you should attain it [= the nadl.

Never break your concentration.

The unstruck word thunders in the sky.

If your body falls, you will dishonour the true guru.

178. [If] alone, you are a hero.

[Ifthere is] another, you are patient.

[If there is] a third, there will be animosity. [Ifthere is] a forth, a trouble.

[If there are] five to ten [people], there must be a quarrel.

179. Who is alone, his name is siddha.

The two together are sadhus.

Four and five, their name is family.

Ten to twenty, they are an army.

180. O you, who turn toward the heart, take initiation from the guru.

Give up flesh and blood into the mouth of fire.

Cast off the elements [= the blood and semen] of mother and father.

He who is like this is able to summon God.

181. Everybody says 'nad, nad',

But few remain immersed in the nad.

The nad and the bindu are [as pure] as a crystal.

Those who have acquired them have achieved success.

182. A dervish is the one who knows the way in.

He revolves the five breaths.

He is mindful day and night.

Such a dervish is of Allah's caste.

183. The adept is sitting and the hero is roaming

To maintain the body, unchanging.

But Gorakh-raya is to be seen unchanging on the inside,

Even while he is wandering.

184. You should perfect both nad and bindu,

And then play the unstruck sound.

Search for a solitary place, o Bharathari!

Thus says Gorakh, Machindra's devotee.

185. The Moon is within the Sun, the Sun within the Moon.

When the three triangles are contracted, the horn blows.

Gorakhnath speaks one full pad.

The simpleton avoids it, while the hero masters it.

186. The protected breath remains continuous.

An old body wastes away.

Take hold of your own mind and unstable breath,

Says the nath that lives eternally.

187. [When] the first and the second are joined with the third,

Check the breath at the western gate.

The oil is not spent, the flame is not extinguished,

Says the nath who has become immortal.

188. For as long as the snake /kundalini/ comes and goes,

And as long as Garur does not dwell in the house of Visnu,

For so long it is hard to achieve success in yoga

Without water and food, illness spreads.

189. There is no guru such as wisdom,

No disciple as the heart;

There is no friend such as the mind:

For that reason, Gorakh roams alone.

190. [Additional sabad.]

Disguise is complete, knowledge incomplete.

The belly is empty - the hero is arrogant.

Gorakh says: He could not master yoga.

Being a hypocrite, he pleases others.

191. Fire is verily yoga, fire is verily pleasure.

Fire takes away the 64 diseases.

If someone knows the mystery of this fire,

Then he is creator, he is God.

192. The living yogi drinks day and night

The continually flowing nectar of immortality.

In the midst of the visible consider the invisible,

As well as the inaccessible and the infinite.

193. Life should be laid down [as a bed]; death should be spread over [as a blanket].

Then, there will be no illness.

Within a year, the body should be transformed.

Only a rare yogi is [able to do] this.

194. The Sun should be food; the Moon should be sleep.

Neither of them [should?] drink water.

Death should be the bedrock of life.

This is a saying uttered by Gorakh.

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195. Wherever is Gorakh, there is wisdom and humility,

And there is no duality or arguments.

Whosoever is beyond desires and plays without tricks -

Call him a Gorakh.

196. In the circle of the sky a cow gave birth,

Yoghurt has fermented into a book.

The pundits have drunk the rejected churned milk,

The siddhas have eaten the butter.

197. The yogi's garb has come from the beginning of time [lit. 4yugas].

It was spread thanks to the siddhas and the female ascetics.

The garb is a dwelling for an ascetic.

Thus says Gorakh, Machindra's devotee.

198. Only few can conquer the evil lust.

It has overpowered gods and men, Bali and his brother SugrTv.

Lust has entered the God Brahma,

And Indra has got a thousand vaginas.

199. Lust has entered 88.000 great sages.

Visnu's maya cannot be overcome.

This God of lust has danced upon Siva,

The great God who originated dance.

200. Vi§nu descended into the ten avatars,

But they were overcome by lust.

The invincible lust was conquered by the ascetic Gorakh.

He preserved the downward flowing /bindu].

201. There are six astika pundits and no nastikas.

They had fearless faith in themselves.

Searching for knowledge, they found the science [ofnectar].

It is true, it is true, says the siddha, the true king of the naths.

202. Our mind should be called mother,

And niranjan our father.

Call our guru the sage

Who has saved us from the body.

203. The ego should be cast off, the true guru should be searched for,

The path of the yogis should not be avoided.

[Then] there will be no more human births.

One should join the company of the siddhas.

204. The sky is held up without pillars,

And the lamp burns without oil.

[If] the words of guru Gorakh are trusted,

There will be neither day nor night.

205. The learned pundit speaks arrogantly

And destroys the words of truth.

He speaks arrogantly of the sacrifice of the body.

He does not penetrate to the inner essence.

206. Whosoever possesses greatness but does not show offhis greatness

And who, considering the sabad true, and who, being modest,

Finds a true guru -

The burden from his head/ shoulders will be lifted.

207. If, having a kimadhenu in the house,

It is tied, due to the siddhi, at the summit of the sky,

The jiva will be controlled,

And the achievement will be approved by niranjan.

208. How could one who consumes opium and eats bhang

Achieve wisdom?

The bile increases, the breath gets shorter:

For these reasons, Gorakh does not eat bhang.

209. One who leaves his house and builds hermitage

Abandons illusion and collects alms.

He leaves his wife and employs an ugly female servant.

For that reason, Gorakh roams alone.

210. There is no peace with a woman; there is no illness with a doctor.

The alchemist [first] examines and then eats.

The yogi is never old; the hero does not have wounds on his back -

So says Sri Gorakh-ray.

211. In my opinion,

The whole world depends on the food of the whore.

Very few are saved.

Thus says Ratan-nath.

212. [Additional sabad.]

In sleeping and dreaming, the bindu is lost.

Travelling on the road, the soul is distressed.

Sitting, there is a quarrel; standing, there is trouble.

Gorakh says: O son, [remain in] sahaj-samadhi.

213. Dry throat [from thirst], suffering from hunger;

One's body neglected, overcome by sleep;

Speech without wisdom, restlessness -

For these reasons, Gorakh does not eat bhang.

214. The angry and the quarrelsome; the one who suffers from a bloated stomach

The foolish glutton, the one who craves pleasure -

Gorakh, the complete yogi, says:

The real yogi does not exert himself.

215. [Additional sabad]

O avadhut, food should be reduced,

The breath should be reversed,

And then there will be no illness.

From time to time the body should be transformed.

216. The path is for a brave one; after laughter comes the rest.

O you who are mindful, consider this:

The unexamined body is a useless pit.

In the end, it will be a burden.

217. The reversed sakti rises to brahmana)

The breath plays throughout the body, from the toes to the topknot.

The reversed Moon eclipses Rahu.

This is a sign of success, says Gorakh the sage.

218. Considering the lower and the upper:

Here indeed is the refuge.

When the lower and the upper are known,

There will be no more duality.

219. The tongue and the penis are one channel;

The one who keeps it closed is saved from death.

O learned scholars don't be arrogant!

The one who has conquered the tongue has conquered everything.

220. Gorakh says, Ours is a difficult path.

Keep the tongue and the penis under control!

People who spend time in the practice of yoga

Are not eaten by Time [Death].

221. O pundit, watch for one year!

You will understand the one truth.

When surati has entered the sabad,

Gorakhnath says, 0 brother, don't be lost in doubt!

222. 0 pundit, understand the incomprehensible

And tell the story that can't be told!

Having met the true guru, bow your head.

Stay awake at night until sunrise.

223. The learned speak after study,

The ignorant speak out of ignorance.

They do not understand the higher truth.

Gorakh says, they are great sinners.

224. Marching constantly on the road,

The breath is lost,

The body wastes away,

And the essence is gone.

225. O kazi, do not say: 'Muhammad, Muhammad'.

Muhammad's thought is deep.

There are 80.000 perfect prophets

With Muhammad.

226. [Missing.]

227. Life soul [Jiva] dwells with Siva.

[Therefore], one should not eat the blood and meat of animals.

You should not kill the life of your kinsmen.

Gorakh says, Consider our children.

228. Why do you kill life, O you who [also] possess the body?

You kill the deer of the five elements,

Grazing in the desert on the grass of intelligence.

The root of yoga is compassion and generosity.

Gorakh says, Those who strive for liberation

Should kill this rebellious mind

That has no body, colour, flesh or blood.

229. He whose mind has devoured

Both Gods and demons

Should [also] kill the mind

By taking hold of the arrow of guru's wisdom.

230. A yogi is the one who upholds yoga.

He is not seeking pleasure through the tongue and penis [other senses].

Leaving illusion [form] and staying within reality [formlessness],

This is the one whom Gorakh calls a yogi.

231. Emptiness is mother, emptiness is father,

Emptiness is niranjan, your own self.

Having known the emptiness remain still.

The established yogi is profoundly deep.

232. Leave the bad woman, give up bhang;

Perform the bodily bandhas day and night.

In this way, all success in yoga comes to you

And the guru will establish you in nirvan samadhi.

233. Having gathered the distracted [seeds?] the flower blossoms.

The smoke of the burning siddhis is rising up.

Gorakhnath says, the smoke is the pran.

Thus, to know the body is to know the pran.

234. 0 avadhut, your mind is wandering.

You should experience everything through it.

The mind should move back,

Just like a spider up its thread.

235. Where there is hope, there is disappointment;

And where there is doubt, there is sorrow.

These cannot be avoided without initiation.

Both are great ills.

236. Enter deep into the body.

Do some meditation in the brain.

There are five evils inside.

Crush them immediately.

237. Everybody says 'bindu, bindu.'

But only few acquire the mahabindu.

Have confidence in the bindu

And then the skandhas will be stable.

238. The upside-down root has no branches.

[Semen] flows out through a torn undergarment.

It is not damaged; it does not dissolve.

The bindu does not fall into the mouth of the vagina.

239. The light is shining without fire.

I saw it through the guru's grace.

God's white stone is not salt [despite its appearance].

Who recognizes it [as such] has [truly] seen it.

240. The bright fish always lives in water

And the boar is always dirty.

Without the wisdom of atman and mercy

What is the use of this thin body?

241. Do not drink datura, o avadhut,

Do not eat bhang, o brother!

Gorakh says, Listen o avadhut,

Or your body will not be yours.

242. Master, female friend, son, husband:

All were born through one gate.

They enter it as men and exit like sons.

For that reason, Gorakh is an avadhut.

243. One who keeps it remains; if it is lost, you are gone.

It is true, it is true, says Sri Gorakh-ray:

If one declares and other accepts -

Gorakh says, he has great wisdom.

244. Thinking arises from the unthinkable [= God];

Thinking troubles the whole world.

A yogi forgets about the thinking [worry],

And immerses himself into the unthinkable [= God].

245. Wisdom to the householder, meditation to the drunkard,

Ears to the deaf, honour to the prostitute,

Pleasures of the world to the renouncer -

They are all one company [= useless].

246. A householder who talks about wisdom,

A drunkard who tries to meditate,

A renouncer who maintains desire -

The nath says, They are all in a nice trap.

247. The one who becomes ascetic after his wife has died,

The one who runs after food,

And the one who becomes renouncer after losing his wealth -

The nath says, A1l three are wretched.

248. Reading, reading, reading - so many have thus died;

Speaking, speaking, speaking - what has been achieved in such a way?

Going on and on and on - so many bodies have gone

Without realizing parabrahman.

249. It is true, it is true, says Gorakh-rana:

Avoid the company of these three:

The noiseless, the earless,

And the one-eyed.

252

250. The company of woman is not proper to the saints.

When you touch the charcoaled pot

It will leave a stain

On the hand.

251. It is improper to sit in the company of woman

Even if she wears a saintly robe.

Gorakh says, So what if she is a laywoman?

So what if she is an initiate?

252. Mature yogi lives from aeon to aeon.

The one [whose bindu] leaks is constantly dying.

[The one who] investigates the body and finds the indestructible [God]

Attains the unreachable immortal rank.

253. Self-control is the essence of the yogi who does japa and tapas.

Sex is a wound [even if] burnt to ashes. [?]

Such a yogi is to be seen in the world.

Everyone else is just filling the belly.

254. This is the test of yogesvar.

To use sabad after proper consideration.

The pot should be filled

In accordance with its capacity.

255. Press and overfill it - the pot breaks.

Leave it outside - it gets damaged.

Indeed, the pot is too small and there is too much filling -

Say, O guru, what shall you do?

256. O avadhut, freely take, freely give,

Freely love and be devoted.

Freely, freely go ahead, O avadhut,

And then the pot will accept plenty.

257. In the gourd are thrown together

The three worlds, the three rivers, the Sun and the Moon.

Be aware, O you knowers of brahman,

The unstruck sound is unbreakable!

258. Truth and virtuous conduct are the [first] two baths,

The third is [listening to] the guru's speech.

The fourth bath is [instructing] the disciples. The fifth bath is compassion.

The child Gorakh performs these five pure baths every day.

259-60. The people who love women are gone;

The people who divide community are gone;

The treacherous people are gone;

People who eat dirty food are gone;

People without sabad are gone;

254

People who preserve bindu are gone;

People who enjoy others' wives are gone.

It is true, it is true, says the child Gorakh.

Renouncing these, remain beyond them!

261. A scholar that is not serious; a sweeper;

A scattered company; a woman without character;

An illiterate brahmin; a householder yogi .-

The nath says, O son, avoid their company!

262. The night is passing; the half night is gone.

One child is crying:

Is there a hero in the city

Who can end the sorrow of the child?

263. Wherever the gaze falls, everything is precious.

Precious is the spoken word.

The nath is saying imperceptible utterances

That are without limits.

264. My sobad is a sharp sword

And my life is true.

I read that letter which is not written

Either on a document or on a decorated paper.

265.1 will tie the mind with the breath and I will tie the breath with the mind.

Then I will speak powerfully.

I will make the mind into my disciple; I will push out the breath.

There, where the mind and the breath cannot go, I will remain absorbed.

266. From which country are you coming, yogi,

And where are you heading?

Who is your sister and sister's daughter?

Where will you rest your feet?

267.1, yogi, come from the western country,

I am heading north.

Earth is my sister and my sister's sister.

My feet are upon the head of a sinner.

268. The power [sakti] is hunting,

Attacking with fame and fortune.

Gorakh says, I will conquer power,

And then I will take a guru.

269. The nith says, Both of my paths are pure.

Without restraint, the hero is not true.

My way oflife is to practice restraint and to be true.

And yours is the sacrifice of goats, O Devi!

270. The one who tells stories should be called disciple,

And the one who reads the Vedas the grandson.

Who lives a pure life, he is my guru,

And I am a follower of the pure life.

271. The pure life should be called my guru.

I am a disciple of the pure life.

If it is acceptable, travel in company;

Otherwise, travel alone!

272. Darsan is the mother, darsan is the father;

Darsan lies naturally within the soul.

If somebody knows the mystery of this darsan -

He is creator, he is God.

273. The one who knows and has a real experience -

Hold fast onto him!

Gorakh says, O brother:

What my ears have heard my eyes have seen.

[Additional sabads:]

274. When sitting, the twelve; when moving, the eighteen;

When sleeping, the thirty is broken.

When speaking, the sixty-four is broken.

Why should I sing praises to God?

274. [Alternative translation:]

In the sitting, the twelve are moving; when moving, the eighteen are sitting;

When sleeping, the thirty threads are broken;

When speaking, the sixty-four are broken

Why should I sing praises to God?

275. Above the nose, in between the eyebrows,

I remain fixed day and night.

I will not return to birth in mother's womb,

I will not suck on milk again!

258

Pads

(Rag Ramgr!)

Clinging to sleep the whole night,

Life is squandered in worldly affairs.

With raised hands, Gorakhnath is calling out:

My brother, don't destroy the root! (Refrain)

1. On amavas and parivd, the mind and body should be empty

And they are to be empty on [all] auspicious days.

While the devoted and virtuous brahmin is considering the Vedas,

On the tenth day [dasamf] the afflictions should be destroyed.

2. On the first day of the Moon there is bliss;

On the second, the Moon should be grasped by the five [senses] and protected.

On the eighth, fourteenth and eleventh, the vow should be taken:

'I will not touch the body of a woman.'

3. On the outside, sleep at night but inside remain awake.

The watch should be kept during the three twilights.

After three periods [=18 hrs] and two hours

There comes the watch of Death [4 a.m.].

259

4. Sleeping next to the woman's body you will suffer death;

In [her] company don't even drink the water

In this way, Machindar became immortal.

This saying was spoken by Gorakh.

O dear, cut off and give up, cut off and give up,

Give up greed, attachments and false reality!

Having known atman, O gurudev,

Protect the beautiful body! (Refrain)

1. In Vidyanagar I met the guru Kanhi-pa.

From him I received your message.

2. Therefore I say, O guru,

Everything happened because of your naivety.

You lose all the juice [ras], 0 guru,

In the snare of the tigress.

3. Gorakhnath is dancing,

Playing tricks with the ankle-bells.

You have lost all learning, O guru,

Falling in love with the tigress.

4. All the juice [ras] is gone,

Only refuse has remained.

O dear devotee Machindranath,

Yoga is [thus] not possible!

5. A1l the juice has gone,

But the essence is protected.

Gorakhnath says, O guru,

Yoga is limitless.

6. Adinath is grandson,

Machindranath is son.

Gorakh avadhuta

Speaks this satpadi [= poem in six stanzas].

Listen Machindra, Gorakh is speaking.

He speaks of reaching the unreachable.

You have not performed nirati nor listened well

[Although] you are satguru and I am celd [disciple]. (Refrain)

1. Straying down among women,

There is no yoga.

How many have entered

The mouth of vagina!

From whence they took their birth,

261

They have entered there again.

This is a magic jewel

To remind you [ofthat]!

2. Leaving the twelve [= Sun], you are running after the sixteen [=Moon].

But there is neither jiv nor Siva there.

Fourteen [regions] of the universe and nine [planets, grahas] are one life [dam]

But it is still hopeless.

3. Using the water of time, you are washing the [timeless] sky.

You have come breathing in and out.

Gorakhnath says, It has always been like this:

The banyan tree is contained in its seed.

Looking at the house [=world], Gorakh said:

Only the few understand these truths, my dear! (Refrain)

1. Whatever you searched for anywhere, what you searched for in the jungle,

You should leave it aside!

Whoever brings his position and senses under control,

He always gets everything.

2. Through his mind, he saved the body.

Through faith in mind, he found [God].

262

The pot of nectar is filled within mind.

By this mind the unseen [alakh] is seen, my dear!

3. Thus, who arranges the sitting of purus,

He gets to know purus.

Finding purus, he protected the nectar of purus.

Purus was made visible by purus, my dear!

4. In the house without Sun or Moon,

In this house there is a light.

Whosoever completes the isan,

His pot ofsahqj is filled, my dear!

5. The jewel is pierced in the mind. That was accomplished by the searcher.

This is the food, this is the drink.

ascetic Gorakh s The ascetic Gorakh spoke through the kindness of Machindra:

The pure nectar is found through searching and searching, my dear!

Yogi Gorakh, measuring the right measure & coming close

Has collected the precious jewel. [Refrain]

1. Ifthe bindu is well,

The body will not perish.

263

One wasted bindu is worth

One hundred thousand measures.

2. What arises in the mind

Is performed in action.

Who embraces lust, anger and greed

Dies in sarpsdr and emptiness.

3. At the summit of the sky,

There is a fine celestial water.

Stupid people are dying

Not knowing the essence.

4. The full Moon is like

A company of women in a castle.

It will rob the gem

Of knowledge and life.

5. Adinath is the grandson,

Machindra is the son.

Gorakh avadhuthas preserved the bindu

So that the scales are in balance!

[Or: Gorakh avadhut has preserved

And measured the bindu.]

264

6,

Take the gold, take the golden nectar,

My profession is a goldsmith!

When the bellows are blown

And the golden nectar has become solid gold

Then the great nectar

Is found in the sky. [Refrain]

1. The selfis the gold, the self is the goldsmith.

The root cakra [muJ cakra] is the furnace.

On the anvil of nad I hammered the bindu

And the sky sat inside [my] body.

2. When the endless forest of sex is turned into charcoal

Then blow upon the two tubes with scthqj.

When the Moon and the Sun are balanced and preserved

You have met your own Self.

3. The work of rati is stolen by masa,

Masa is stolen by rati.

What is stolen from masa remains in the masa.

In this way, the bonds are connected. [N.B. rati and masa are measuring devices.]

4. Gold is below, gold is above.

In the middle of gold is gold.

265

Whosoever knows the living way of the three voids,

In his body there is neither sin nor virtue.

. Unmani is the prop and man the scales.

The air measured six missis.

Gorakh himself sat for weighing

And then the gold turned into sahaj.

Wise astrologer, take a look and think:

Whether the man was first or the woman? [Refrain]

1. There was no wind there and no cloud.

The grandfather [=Brahma] made a temple without pillars.

There she [=Maya] emerged

By herself.

2. There, the father was not sitting.

The mother was a young unmarried girl.

The husband was put to sleep in the cradle.

Even there, she is rocking the cradle.

3. I gave birth to Brahma, Vi§nu and Adi Mahesvara

And I am [also] their housewife.

My power of illusion

Is [thus] twofold [i.e. both as a mother and a wife].

266

4. Ganga and Yamuna are my bed,

The circling of breath [hams] is my blanket.

The earth, the stones and the water are my followers

But I am not limited by them.

5. My whole life passed in the crusher

But I could not clear the rice from the paddy grain.

The ascetic Gorakh spoke through the mercy of Machindra:

See these truths and think about them!

Let us go, five brothers,

Let us go into the forest

Where 'sorrow' and 'pleasure' and 'fame'

Are not known! [Refrain]

1. IfI work in the field, it dries without rain.

IfI engage in trade, the capital is lost.

2. IfI take wife, then the house breaks apart.

If I have a friend, he turns into a snake.

3. IfI gamble, I suffer the loss.

IfI steal, it burdens my body.

4. I fl go to the forest, the trees bear no fruit.

IfI go to the city, I get no alms.

5. Thus spoke Gorakhnáth, Machindra's son.

Give up maya, brother avadhütl

Gurudev Sambhu is the God within the body.

Átman is the highest God.

I do not know how to worship Him.

Doing constant pujas to other Gods

We die in vain. [Refrain]

1. At the nine gates there are nine Náths.

Jagannáth is at the confluence of the three rivers [triveni]

And Kedarnáth is at the tenth gate.

2. When the essence is joined through yoga,

Then one is saved

From the worldly [sea],

Says Gorakhnáth

After due thinking.

268

O my mind, close your business.

The man of breath has been born.

The awakened yogi is set towards atman

And I have realized the city of the body. [Refrain]

1. The man of breath repeats the string of jap

21,600 times.

Prana flows through ida, pingla and susumna

Day and night.

2. In the six- and sixteen-petalled lotus

The brahmacari lives.

The hams breath has entered the flower.

3. O avadhut, I did the trade with watermelon

Again and again at the bank of Ganga.

It goes down but brings the fruit up

And makes the Moon and Sun join.

4. When both the Moon and the Sun disappear in the sky

A frightening darkness appears.

When the five watchmen have fallen asleep

The gate of the city wall comes into view.

269

5. The body is a robe and the mind is the yogi -

The true guru revealed this to me.

Gorakhnath says, protect this [knowledge] well -

The city thief is at large.

Hi

A vadhut spoke, thinking about truth:

There is too much vain talk on earth.

I swam over eight mountains without water:

And that is a great wonder. [Refrain]

1. The mind and the breath [reach] the unreachable light.

The Sun and Moon and stars are gone.

The three kingdoms are not of the three families.

The breath of the siddhi is from the four yugas.

2. The five [=senses] have entered into six.

There are seven dvipas and eight women.

The nine parts of earth have [merged] within twenty-one

And the eleventh has [merged] into one tari [= the highest point].

3. In the twelfth, ida and pingla are in the trikuff.

In the fourteenth, the mind has been met [as in sexual union].

In sixteen lotuses with sixteen petals there are 32 things

And the fear of old age and death has disappeared.

4. In the tenth gate dwells niranjan, beyond mind [unman]

And there the sabad is met through [the practice of] reversal [ulapi].

Thus spoke Gorakhnath, Machindra's son.

I remained unmoved and firm.

Om Namo Sivai, baba, Om Namo Sivai!

How to use this mantra day and night?

The one who can explain the separate letters [A.U.M.] to me,

He is my teacher and I his disciple, 0 dear! [Refrain]

1. Omkar is a flowing root mantra.

Omkar pervades the whole world.

Omkar [is] at the navel and in the heart.

It is both God and guru.

Without mastering the omkar there is no siddhi.

2. Brahma is immersed in the nad,

Nara[singh] Hari [= Visnu] is immersed in the nad.

&iva is immersed in the nad.

Take up yoga and be resolute.

Nad is indeed the treasure-house of everything.

The supreme nirvan is found

Through the nad,

O babu !

3. The breath resounds, the breath thunders,

The breath echoes. The breath pierces the six cobras

And roams up and down

And in the middle.

Breath is flowing through the body

In the form ofsoharri and 'ha/psa' mantras.

Through the grace of breath,

The bindu remains in the mouth of the guru.

4. The mind kills and the mind dies.

The mind saves and the mind gets saved.

If the mind is not fixed,

It fills the three worlds.

The mind is the beginning,

The mind is the end,

And the mind is the essence.

In the mind, O babu, lust ceases.

5. Sakti is [manifest] in the form of blood,

Siva is [manifest] in the form of semen [bindu].

The Sun has twelve digits [kaJas],

And the Moon has sixteen digits.

If the Sun of four digits

Comes into the house of Moon

Then Siva and Sakti become coequal

And nobody knows their limit.

6. The king Ram dwells in all limbs.

These five elements naturally emanate light.

In these five elements,

0 babu,

Samadhi is contained.

Gorakhnath says,

1 realized God

In this way.

O avadhut, chant the jap and obtain the rosary.

Chanting the jap leads to success.

Gorakh chants the unfathomable jap,

Which only few know. [Refrain]

1. Make the lotus-body into a body of gold.

O you, carrying your rosary, wake up!

273

The sins of many births are thus destroyed,

Chants Gorakh the cobbler.

2. I chant the jap of one syllable - one Om.

Empty and gross are two words.

The body and the universe are of equal weight.

I received initiation with one syllable.

3. [With the jap of] two syllables I distinguish two opposites.

I chant the jap of the formless one.

The chant that gave rise to all of creation

Is the chant that Sri Gorakh has uttered.

4. I chant the three-syllable jap in the trikupl

And thus I live in the brahmakund.

Gorakh chants the ajop-jop

Which is the unparalleled and highest wisdom.

5. With the four syllables I have established the four Vedas,

The four forms, the four names.

The ascetic Gorakh spoke through the grace of Machindra:

I chant the ajap-jap and remain firm.

Play polo with a happy wanderer [=yogi]!

Why are you lost in pride?

There is no gap between earth and sky,

Only the liberation field of the supreme. [Refrain]

1. Within the one there is the infinite, and within the infinite there is the one.

By the one the infinite is produced.

When the one is experienced within,

The infinite is contained within the one.

2. The nad is the anvil, the bindu is the hammer.

The Sun and the Moon are the bellows [blowing pipes] of the breath.

[When you] press the root [cakra], seated firmly in the asan,

Then birth and death disappear.

3. Make sahqj the saddle and breath the horse.

Take the reins and whip the mind!

The rider is consciousness; make knowledge the guru

And get rid of all deviations.

4. Three worlds are found within the sesame seed.

The Lord has made this possible.

Therefore the one you were searching for

Was within you.

5. IfI say that [He] exists, nobody will believe.

But if[He] is not, how can this [=yoga] be proved.

275

Gorakh says, Listen Machindra:

The diamond is pierced by a diamond.

Trade with the truth, trade with the truth,

So that my mind can rely on that! [Refrain]

1. Gorakhnath does trade with the sahqj.

There are five bullocks and nine cows.

I arranged the place,

And my mind soars upwards.

2. I am doing commerce on the steep ghat.

I have spread out the emptiness.

I am unaware of taking and unaware of giving:

This is how I trade.

3. Says Gorakhnath, Machindra's son:

There is no profit from such a trade!

I got across to the other side by my own deeds,

Taking the guru's words as my companions.

My yogi the 'renouncer' enjoys pleasures day and night

And does not leave the company of the yoginT.

276

[His] mind comes swinging to Manasarovar lake

And builds a monastery in the circle of the sky. [Refrain]

1. Where are your father-in-law and mother-in-law?

Where do you dwell?

Where have you met the yogini?

Where have you found your home?

2. My father-in-law and mother-in-law reside in the navel.

I dwell at the place of brahman.

I have met the yogini where ida and pingla [meet].

I have found my home in the susumna.

3. By burning desire and anger, I have made lime,

And by burning sex I have made camphor.

The mind and the breath are kattha and betel-nut.

The unmani is vermilion tilak.

4. Wisdom and the guru are my water-gourd

And my will is the handle of consciousness.

The unmani, like a string, begins to play,

And my greed is extinguished.

5. In this way, the true guru has married me,

A delicate young maiden.

277

Sri Gorakh spoke through Machindra's grace:

The fear ofmáyá's name is gone.

Take hold of that vine, o avadhüt, take hold of that vine,

Gorakhnáth knows [how].

It has no leaves or root, no flower and no shadow,

And it grows without water. [Refrain]

1. The grove of the body is your garden, o avadhüt,

[Where] the true guru planted a creeper.

A man waters it often,

And a nice vine flourished up to the house.

3. Its root is the Moon, o avadhüt,

And the leaves are the Sun.

The fruit is the full Moon.

Understand that [its]yTv is the knowledge of the guru.

4. The vine is on fire, o avadhüt,

The fire reaches the sky.

As soon as the creeper starts burning,

New shoots emerge.

5. From the cut vine new shoots spring up;

If watered, it dries up.

Ascetic Gorakh spoke through the mercy of Machindra:

It always remains new.

O pundit, understand the wisdom of brahman,

Says learned and wise Gorakh. [Refrain]

1. [It is] a plant without seed, a tree without root;

[Even] without leaves and flowers it gives fruit.

[It is] a barren woman's child,

The legless and armless riding [the branch] on a tree.

2. [It is] the Moon without sky, the Sun without universe,

The battlefield without war.

The man who knows this highest truth -

In his heart is the highest wisdom.

3. [It is] neither formless nor with form, it has no symbol nor [method of] worship.

The unstruck sound resounds without a sound.

[It is] a flower without garden, a fragrance without flower,

A bee charmed without [scent in] the air.

4. It is [like the Moon] swallowed without Rahu; it burns without fire.

It is a pond filled without water.

279

Explain this highest truth, O pundit,

[Who] read $g, Yajur, Sama and Atharva Veda.

5. Self-knowledge is the light [of the mantra]'soham' [T am He'].

[It belongs to] neither earth nor sky nor sea.

Gorakh plays between Ganga and Yamuna

By the grace of the guru Machindra.

12i

Gorakhnáth says, through the tenth door

I reached heaven and Kedar [= Siva].

From the summit of twenty-one worlds

I proclaimed self-knowledge. [Refrain]

1. Šakti is inside the twelve petals of the Sun,

And Siva's place is inside the sixteen [petals] of the Moon.

Mula[dhar] and Sahasrár are the house of j'fva and Siva.

Unmani lies [in] steady meditation.

2. The unstruck sound plays music,

The Sun has risen in the West.

The southern Goddess dances in the North,

Hell is in the East.

280

3. I performed the mudrd of the Sun and Moon.

The ash of the earth was mixed with water.

Nadi, Bindi, Simgi and Akasi [Yogis]

Are the disciples of the formless [alakh] guru.

4. The [yogi's] garb is made of 360 patches

And of 21.600 strings;

[It has] 72 nadis.

It was sewn by 52 birs [using] 89 needles.

5. I searched in Ida, I filled the pingala,

And through susumna I reached the sky.

Ascetic Gorakh spoke through the mercy of Machindra

About the location of the niranjan siddhi.

A little mango flowered on the ground.

Up the seed of the mm tree gave fruit.

This fruit tastes sweet when eaten.

Those to whom their guru gave insight know this. [Refrain]

1. A hawk caught a camel

And sat on a little branch.

A barren woman gave birth to a child,

Though she never laid eyes on a man.

2. The wood sinks, the stone floats.

The world is passing [away] while watching.

A camel floated on a rivulet

And the rabbit could not go through a hole.

3. A fish climbed to a mountain. The rabbit is in the water.

Fire burns in the water.

A water wheel overflows next to a thirsty [man].

A thorn is taken out by a spike.

4. [There is] one cow, nine calves,

And five milkmen.

One flower, sixteen buckets.

The gardener's wife is overjoyed.

5. An outcast without hands and legs performed a robbery

And by thieving returned a cow.

The ascetic Gorakh spoke through the mercy of Machindra:

She could not give birth a second time.

Gorakh is a cowherd.

He drinks the milk of the cow in the sky.

Churning the curd, he drinks the juice of immortality

And lives without fear. [Refrain]

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1. Without love, the mother died.

Without father, the child died.

Lai Gwalior [Kr?na], without family,

Takes the cow to pasture, day and night.

2. He sounded the unstruck sound on his conch

And crushed the great army of Death.

Inside the body, within the circle of the sky,

The master is found through sahaj.

3. This gayatricow, which I brought from the circle of the sky,

Is at the door of my house.

My family is attached to it

And I have tethered it permanently.

4. This cow is without ears, tail and horns

And without colour.

The ascetic Gorakh spoke through the mercy of Machindra:

There I remain absorbed [in meditation].

O avadhut, think of such a wisdom

In which a brilliant light shines. [Refrain]

1. Where there is yoga, there is no illness,

Through such a test the guru should be accepted.

If there is no intimate knowledge of the mind and the body,

Why are you working so hard uselessly?

2. Without conquering death, without abandoning the snares of the world,

Even by practising tapas one does not become a sage.

Let no one destroys his family

Ifhe has not met the perfected guru.

3. The body is a cage made of seven elements

Where the parrot is caged without ties.

Salvation comes [only] after meeting the sadguru,

Otherwise there comes destruction.

4. Your body is an ornament as beautiful as the God of Love:

Why are you coating glaze powder on it uselessly?

Gorakh says, Listen O fool:

Why do you water a castor-oil plant with nectar?

Niranjan nath is proclaiming:

"My comings and goings are over!

"Searching the body and the universe,

I've got all the siddhis."

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1. In the fortress of the body

There are 900,000 canals.

At the tenth door

The a vadhut has undone the lock.

2. In the fortress of the body

Are the gods, the temples, and Benares.

There I have naturally met

The Indestructible.

3. Says Gorakhnath,

Listen O people:

Only a few can conquer

The fortress of the body.

O air, which way will you go?

The yogi is chanting qjap-mantra

At the triveni

On the ghaf.

1. The Moon made embroidery and tilak,

And the Sun cleared the path.

Muni Raja washes clothes

At the ghaf of Ganga and Yamuna.

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Brush [the sari] on both sides [to avoid wrinkles]

Then, your mind will be at rest

And the air will be still [so that it does not disturb the sari while drying].

Recognize the tenth door, so that your comings and goings will cease.

Says Gorakhnath, Machindar's son:

My profession is the oil-crusher.

I press out the oil from the ball

And throw out the dry remains.

O avadhut, the earthen pot is on the shoulder of the water-bearer,

And the gauri on the shoulder of Siva.

The master of the house wants to see the show,

Why don't you bring it closer?

Salt says, I am not salty.

Ghee says, I am dry.

A ir says, I am dying from thirst.

Food says, I am hungry.

Fire says, I am dying from cold.

Cloth says, I am naked.

The unstruck drum is playing,

And the lame have started to dance.

3. Adinath is the baul bdbd, Machindar is the son.

The yogi has penetrated

The impenetrable mystery,

Says Gorakh avadhuta.

O avadhut,

In the middle of the mountain, three and half hands tall,

A fine vine is spreading.

[The vine is spread three and a half times within the mountain.]

The vine is the flower,

The vine is the fruit,

The vine is the fruit of salvation. [Refrain]

1. This vine shines since the beginning of creation.

It had no root, but it reached the sky.

It spread its legs upwards.

The astrologer does not understand, but [only] guesses.

2. Such a Bhil hunter is without hands.

He has crippled legs and there are no teeth anywhere in his mouth.

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There is shouting "Ho, ho" but has no bow;

The sound ofhis bell is without voice.

This Bhil aimed the arrow

And pierced the deer in the heart.

"Ho, ho!" the deer was pierced by the arrow,

But there was no bow, nor arrow, nor aiming.

Bhilri Matangi Rani brought the deer home

The deer was without legs.

Its head, horns and mouth

Could not be perceived.

Says Gorakhnath, Machindar's son:

He who killed the deer, he is an avadhut.

If someone understands this riddle,

He is a yogi who can understand the three worlds.

0 avadhut, my city is like this,

Look at its ablution gate.

The lower and upper sides of the market are decorated,

Says the wise Gorakh.

1. The master the vital air is the badsdh there,

The thinking is the kdzi, the five elements are the vazirs [petitioners],

The mind and the breath are the elephant and the horse,

Wisdom is the permanent treasure. [Or: the treasure is beyond counting.]

2. Our body should be called a city,

The mind should be called magistrate.

Intelligence should be called chief policeman,

So that the thief cannot peep through the door.

3. The fortress is built

From three hundred and sixty walls,

Sixteen canals are dug.

Nine gates are visible, the tenth cannot be seen.

4. Collecting all types of wood for the castle,

Seventy two rooms were built.

Upon nine chains the locks are attached,

So that the fortress of the body cannot be taken over.

5. The unstruck bell resounds the time;

Two lights are the supreme illumination.

The heads of lust and anger are cut off.

In this way father Adam enacts the justice [runs the kingdom] of the badsdh.

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6. There, the Truth is the wife, Contentment is the prince.

Forgiving and Devotion are the two nurses.

Adinath's grandson, Machindarnath's son,

Gorakhnath is the founder of the city of the body.

In twenty one universes

The furnaces are dripping [with brew].

Whosoever drinks from them is always intoxicated.

The will, kalvdr [innkeeper], is offering full cups of excellent wine. [Refrain]

1. Grapes of nectar have filled the furnace,

In their midst some sugar was thrown.

The mind is mahua, the body is yeast,

And eighteen kinds of plants were mixed.

2. In the cave of bees, the mind is fixed in meditation

After the dsan was taken.

The consciousness of the yogi is completely drunk,

And remains from age to age concentrated at the trikupisangam.

3. The small pot at the trikufisangam got filled;

A sumptuous drink is prepared.

Whatever was not wine was discarded,

What remained was the pure essence.

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