1. Music And Temples A Ritualistic Approach Annapoorna L

Music and Temples A Ritualistic Approach

Music and Temples

A Ritualistic Approach

Dr. L. Annapoorna

Lecturer in Vina Bharathian

Palkalaikoodam

Pandichery.

Sundeep Prakashan

New Delhi

L. Annapoorna

Music and Temples

A Ritualistic Approach

First Published 2000

© L. Annapoorna

ISBN 81-7574-090-6

Published by

Sundeep Singhal for

SUNDEEP PRAKASHAN

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CONTENTS

Prologue

vii

Chapter I - Development of Religion in Temples

1

Chapter II - History of Temples in South India

27

Chapter III - Music and Temples

115

Chapter IV - Musical Analysis of Temple

Kṛtis - I - Tyāgarāja

143

Chapter V - Musical Analysis of Temple

Kṛtis - II - Śyāma Śāstrī

155

Chapter VI - Musical Analysis of Temple

Kṛtis - III - Muthuswāmī Dīkṣitar

161

Chapter VII - Musical Analysis of Temple Kṛtis - IV

219

1. King Shahaji

2. Mārgadarśī Śeṣayyaṅgara

3. Swāti Tirunāl Mahārāja

4. Viṇā Kuppayyar

5. Tanjore Quartette

6. Muthiah Bhāgavathar

7. Pāpanāśam Sivan

8. Tulsīvanam

Chapter VIII - Epilogue

243

PROLOGUE

Devotion, as commonly understood, is intensive love for God, Love, which ultimately leads to the realization of God. In Hinduism it is denoted by the term ‘Śakti’ and is traceable even from the Vedas. Throughout the history of the bhakti cults from the very early times down to the present day, we find stress laid on the concentration of the mind on the Lord and the dedication to Him of all thoughts, words, and deeds – eternal bliss. The Bhagavada Gita, the first authoritative texts on bhakti expounds this. The first noteworthy elements in the Bhāgavad is the devotion in The Phrases :

Śravaṇaṁ Kīrtanaṁ Viṣṇo Smaraṇaṁ Pādasevanaṁ Arcaṇaṁ Vandanāṁ dāsyaṁ Sākhyaṁ Ātmanivedanam

"Listening to the expositions to the greatness of God; reciting the hymns in His glory; meditation on His form; services at His feet; worship at His images; salutation to Him; attendance as a servant; feeling of friendship and the complete surrender of the self – these constitute the nine fold path ‘Navavidhā bhakthi’.

Although it would appear that these are nine separate means, a close examination would reveal that these represent nine succesive stages in the devotee’s spiritual enlightenment. The second in the nine-fold path, namely Kirtana acquired an importance of its own and attained great popularity as an easy means for the realization of God. In the south, most of the saint-composers took to the means of this path and gained salvation. When coupled with the temple worship this became devatāmaya nādarūpa mārga.

The means of salvation by music has its own place, because music manifest aids concentration of the mind, which is essential for meditation leading to mokṣa. However, in its non-manifest aspects, music is nāda brahma, it is realization of mokṣa itself.

Music, when it is in praise of God, if instrumental in bringing about religious merit – that is mokṣa. But how does music lead to mokṣa ? It is accomplished by bringing about the concentration of the mind in singing or praising the glory of the Lord. This is the tradition that has been brought and transmitted from time immemorial by saint-composers of the various yugas through centuries after centuries. This is the base for our traditional classical music.

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

Indian music is a very ancient art and has a 3000 - year - old tradition behind it. This represents perhaps the longest unbroken record of any cultural tradition we know. It is this long continuity of growth that is the most remarkable things about Indian music.

The beginnings of Indian music can be traced to the vedic days. There are many symbolic legends about Indian music. The seven notes of the scale and the rhythmic concepts are supposed to have been revealed by the Lord Himself. Early songs embody philosophical concepts, ethical and moral percepts and criticism. It is only natural that such an art should have grown and developed as an adjunct of worship and the temple and other religious places should have been the biggest repositories of music.

Classical music is perhaps the brightest gem among India's numerous fine arts, evolved and developed to perfection through countless ages. The Indian musical system is very old and has been continuous from early times, its literature dating from the beginning of the Christian era.

Indian has a magnificent system of music at a time when, in other parts of the world, the art was still in the primitive stage. The story of its evolution from the pre-historic times to its present highly perfected form is one of absorbing interest. A study of Indian musical history reveals the genius of a meditative race which found its system as a means of self-expression. An early European writer of Indian music has said : “Music with the Indian is a resource of which they always fly in joy or grief, for prayers or praise”.

Music was never considered purely as a form of entertainment in India, nor even as a fine art, but as a means of attaining eternal beatitude (mokṣa). This accounts for the large number of saints and devotees among its best exponents and composers.

The origin of Indian music is traced back to the Sāma-veda, one of the four Vedas (sacred scriptures of Hinduism comprising books of wisdom), and music is itself styled the Gandharava-Veda. God is conceived of as Nāda-Brahma (embodiment of sound) and the practice of music as Nadopāsanā (meditation through sound).

Sources providing material for tracing the musical history of India are both varied and extensive as works on music in Saṁskṛta and in other Indian languages continued to be written through the centuries. A list compiled in the early years of this century by a British author on Indian music mentions no less than 97 works in Saṁskṛta alone, many of them being attributed to ancient 'ṛṣiss' (sages) of India.

These reference throw a flood of light on musical topics of the past, such as scales, rāgas and other musical forms and also concert parties of the respective periods. They enable us to divide the history of Indian music into three main periods : ancient, medieval and modern.

Among the ancient system of music in India was the Tamil, uchūlais nearly extinct at present, most of its musical forms having merged with the later Karnataka music. Valuable references pertaining to it are available from old Tamil works like the Śilappaddhikaram (2nd century A.D.), Tolkāppiyam and Kalladam, and from inscriptions and individual treatises in Tamil. These show that the old Tamils were a highly music-minded people, had a fairly well-developed system of music, and were familiar with the 'Solfa' method, concordant and discordant notes, and other acoustic phenomena. Their scales or modes were known as 'Pālis' and their equivalent of the modern rāga as a 'paṇṭi'.

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

ix

Till about the 13th century, there was practically a single system of classical music followed

throughout India, with natural local variations. The Saṅgīta Ratnākara of Sāraṅgdeva, one of the most

authoritative works on Indian music, written before 1250 A.D., does not mention the bifurcation of

Indian music into the two sub-systems, Karnataka and Hindustani. The Gīta Govinda of Jayadeva (12th

century), the first Indian opera containing the earliest regular musical compositions is a work written

before the bifurcation of the two systems.

After the advent of the musical trinity, their music swept the the world of carnatic music like a

deluge, leaving little trace of what was being sung or performed earlier. The total number of composi-

tions available comes to around 15,000, out of which the compositions ascribed to various Kṣetras

number around 1000 and odd. In the absence of any evidence to the contrary, the compositions of the

Tevāram, Tiruppugazh composers comes to around 6000; that of Purandaradāsa 4,75.000; and that of

Annāmacārya 32,000. All these compositions were formidable pieces having references to the temple

services and related details. All of them were the outpourings of a God-intoxicated devotee's understand-

ing the inner thoughts and meanings of Hindu philosophy.

For nearly, two centuries 'Kīti' or 'Kīrtans' has been the main musical form, the rendering of

which occupies more than half the time in a modern Carnatic concert. There are compositions represent-

ing the pinnacle of musical excellence in Karnataka music and are the most highly evolved amongst its

musical forms.

Although conceived about five centuries ago in its rudimentary form, it got its finishing touches

at the hands of the musical trinity who became the chief architects of the modern krti. The countless

subtleties of shade and colour, pause and emphasis, and the intense feeling packed into krti have rightly

earned immortality for the composers.

Indian music has had a succession of brilliant and prolific composers who enriched the country's

music by thousands of their compositions. In south India, the early composers were Purandara Dāsa,

Tallapakkam Annamācārya, Nārāyaṇa Tīrtha and Bhadrācala Rāmadāsa, who lived between the 16th and

18th centuries A.D. Purandara Dāsa was the father of Karnataka music as he wrote, for the first time,

hundreds of graded exercises to teach music in a systematic form.

The period 1750-1850 A.D. was the golden age of music not only in India but in Europe as well.

By a curious coincidence, Tyāgarāja, Dīkṣitar and Shyama Shastri, the three illustrious composers in

Karnataka music, were contemporaries of Beethoven, Mozart and Haydn, in Western music.

The cultural history of south India has a hoary tradition. During the process of cultural attainment

and development, the temples and their precincts have played a dominent role. Such temples were built in

large numbers by the great royal kingdoms of Colas, Ceras and Pāṇdyas, etc. They speak of the cultural

renaissance achieved though the centuries.

When we speak of the temples of the four southern States — Tamil Nadu can boast of having the

largest number of temples especially in and around the Cauveri delta.

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

Even though the earliest music compositions date from the days of Bharata, the author of

Nātyaśāstra, such as the Dhruva gītis, Cari gītis which were used as a common compositions for music,

dance and dramas, the earliest musical compositions was known to have been composed by Annamīcārya

of Andhra Pradesh. by the Nāyanmārs and Ālwars of Tamil Nadu and by the Dāsakūṭas of Karnataka.

These śavants also helped the development of music activities, in and around the temples. As time passed

by, music formed a part of the temple rituals.

The composition which emerged during the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries contained references to

the history, mythology, sanctity, Sthala Purāṇas, consecration of the deity, etc. Therefore, these compo-

sitions provide ample testimony to the musical tradition and have thus become the source for historical

reconstruction.

The earliest vāggeyakāra to have stumbled upon the idea of composing Ksetra Krtis is said to be

the royal composer king Shāhaji of the Marāṭhā Kingdom - who lived before the era of the musical

trinity. King Shāhaji composed several compositions on different deities on the temples situated in the

then Tanjore district.

The next important composers to have embarked upon musical creations were Tyagarāja and

Nadajothi Muthuswāmy Dīkṣitar. Their compositions speak of the various traditions followed in the

respective temples which they themselves visited during their sojourns. Other than the group Krtis of

Dīkṣitar’s deities, he has also composed individual compositions dealing on the various deities. Saint

Tyāgarāja’s seven sets of Ksetra Krtis are widely known and are purposeful for study.

Another contemporary composer of the trinity period was the Mahārāja Swāti Tirunal of Kerala,

who had devoted his whole life in composing such Ksetra Krtis.

The post trinity period also witnessed a number of songs in praise of various temples and their

presiding deities. They include the descendants of the Dīkṣitar family, Neelakanṭha Sivan, Muthiah

Bhāgavatar, etc.

The later part of the 20th century saw modern composers like the late Mahārāja Jayacamaraaja

Wodeyar of Mysore, Pāpanāśam Sivan and recently, the Tulasivanam of Kerala.

1

DEVELOPMENT OF RELIGION IN TEMPLES

A. RELIGIOUS FOUNDATION IN TEMPLES

One cannot consider any aspect of Indian culture without viewing it in the context of its religious base, Hinduism. In India, more than in any other major nation in the world, religion is reflected in every nuance of traditional society. Distinctions between secular and religious values as made in western societies, indeed all that comprise a person's consciousness are, among traditional Indians, connected in one way or another with religion; God is omnipresent. A person's daily life from predawn to retiring at night consists of a series of rituals. The acts of preparing meals, of bathing, of eating, even the formalities of greeting people are religious rituals. One's total being is an important part of a social whole, integrated within an infinitely complex, yet single religious system.

It would appear that, because of the importance of religion, the place to look, if one is to grasp any aspect of Hindū culture, is at the concepts, beliefs and actions connected with that religion. Here, concentrated in one general area, is the essence of those deepest values that bind together every stratum of Hindū society. The philosophical concepts exhibited in words and actions by any individual or group hold many of the keys to understanding their music. Musical analysis made without aesthetic knowledge are not necessarily without value, but must by necessity, be at least somewhat unsure. One cannot comprehend even remotely, the significance of certain of the musical or textual phenomena without having some grasp of the underlying aesthetics. Seeing a man prostrate himself in humility and adoration before another has little meaning until one begins to understand some of the concepts connected with saintliness, reverence for preceptors, elders, man's attitudes towards God, and what signifies greatness in a person and its implications. The drone in Indian music is not just a device which, when added to melody and rhythm provides mere pleasant sounds disassociated from religio-philosophical values. The drone, called śruti (that which is heard), is a musical expression of basic philosophical tenets traceable back to the earliest Vedas.

An aid to understanding the music of another culture can be found in the acts of worship, especially those connected with music. It would follow that religious precepts can be demonstrated

2

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

by both verbalization of sacred texts and ritual acts. These too, reflect cultural values in what would

seem to be a dramatic way. The interpretations of the symbolism of their acts may not only provide

insights into a single culture's values, but also help to place a culture, or some aspects of it, in a

more universal light. Much of what we do and think, and indeed of what we are, are microcosms

of all that has gone on before. If we can interpret the symbols associated with various acts of worship,

we will be better able to gain insights into the entire aesthetic order. These acts are especially important

because they represent physically, dramatically, the acting out of values that go to the core of the

culture. Music, has been composed for every, ritual act; and there is a certain connection between

philosophical tenets and musical compositions. As we shall see in subsequent chapters, the music seems

to emanate from philosophical doctrines.

The dominant awareness in every traditional Hindū's consciousness is the omnipresence of God.

Devotees are seldom far from their beloved icons. Each home has severalions. In a person's place of

work, be it a factory or store, icons are to be found, which are worshipped by employers, and

employees, and customers. It is important, too, to understand that the traditional Hindū, in his feelings

of the closeness of an omnipresent deity, also feels close to nature. He does not attempt to alter nature,

but rather goes along with it; he is aware that he is a part of it. His daily acts, outgrowths of his

closeness to nature and God, are ritualistic. His devotions, ablutions, preparation of vegetarian meals

and eating of those meals, indeed, every act of his daily life is bound up in observances of traditional

rituals closely harmonized with nature. There is consciousness, and deep awareness of all that he

perceives. Everything the Hindū does, from the sensual act of cutting vegetables in preparation of a

meal, to the classical musician singing an improvised rāga ālāpana, is done as a ritualistic act in the

presence of and dedicated to the Supreme Godhead.

Music, then, like all other traditional cultural components, is part of an integrated society in

which philosophy, science, politics, commerce, and all social phenomena are liable to be viewed in

a spiritual perspective. Traditionally, music in south India has emerged out of religion, centred in and

around the temple, and with worship. An efficacious means for achieving religious goals is through

song (kīrtana); therefore, all music in south India is, or is derived from vocal music that springs from

religion. Also, the traditional stories about gods and goddesses told in the Hindu scriptures are carried

mainly in song. Today, in villages and cities, children growup hearing their parents, relatives and

neighbours daily sing songs and relate marvellous tales that touch every nuance of Hindū life through

the deeds of gods and demons, sages and saints. In addition to the song and stories heard in the homes,

there are professional singing storytellers who carry the tradition from village to village. Their

performances consist of didactic and devotional songs and stories drawn from the scriptures, i.e. the

great epics, Rāmāyana and Mahābhārata, and the “old” religious texts, the Purāṇas. Classical and

folk theatre and dance, too, carry the religion through themes drawn from the scriptures.

The words bhakti and bhajana are associated with an approach to God in which the relationship

of the worshipper to the diety is based upon varying attitudes of love. The beginnings of this loving,

adorational, mystical approach to God can be found at the dawn of Hinduism as early as the Ṛg Vēda.

We find in the Bhāgavata Purāṇa the doctrine of bhakti crystalized into a set of loving attitudes and

acts, the performance of which would aid the worshipper in the attainment of God. God is conceived

of as being personalized; He (and She) is in human form, worshipped in representations of stone,

bronze, paint, photographs. Indeed, the supplicant's attitudes regarding the human, living aspects of

the deities during worship, dictate the unique qualities of Hindū religious rituals. Bhajana as a word

and as a phenomenon touches every Indian in every part of the country.

Bhajana means to sing the praises of, or to worship the Lord. It denotes: (a) a genre of,

devotional music; (b) a king of religious ritual; and (c) an expression meaning, religious worship. In

the first instance, as a genre of devotional song, there are several forms, some of which are performed

only in devotional context, and others that are sung in the religious context as well as in concerts of

classical music. The word bhajana also refers to a congregational ritual, i.e. the ritual itself is called

"bhajana". In this type, family, friends, or groups organized for this purpose will meet periodically

to worship together. The third meaning of the word bhajana has to do with an individual's approach

to God. One frequently hears the expression, "...to do one's bhajana to God...." That is, one

demonstrates one's devotion to and love for God through acts of ritual worship. Although the meaning

of bhajana appears to be precise in that it is concerned with the loving worship of God, its applications

can be quite varied, and do not always imply musical performance.

B. BHAKTI MOVEMENTS IN THE SOUTH

The next epoch in the history of south Indian religion is the growth of an intense theism marked by

a fervid devotion (bhakti) to a personal god which found expression in numerous popular devotional

hymns; these humns were collected and edited in a canonical form at a later time, and continue to

be regarded as among the most precious treasures in the heritage of the country. The period of this

development may be said to have lasted from the sixth century to about the end of the eighth century

A.D. It was heralded by notable changes in the political map. The Satavāhana power came to an end

in the third century ana the break-up of their empire led, as often in the history of India, to the rise

of a number of smaller kingdoms in the different parts of the Deccan. The close of the Saṅgama age,

which may have lasted well into the fifth century A.D., was followed by a dark period of well over

a century. A Pāndyana copper plate charter of the ninth century A.D., the Velvikuḍi grant, mentions

that during this dark period, perhaps towards its close, there occurred a political revolution as a result

of which several kings lost their thrones, religious endowments were abrogated, and much disorder

and oppression ensured. Much later, Tamil literary tradition avers that Accuta captured and imprisoned

the three 'crowned rulers' of the Tamil land - the Cēra, Cōla and Pāṇdya, and some songs about

him are quoted by Amitasāgara, a Jain grammarian of Tamil in the tenth century A.D. Possibly, Accuta

was himself a Buddhist, and the political revolution which the Kalābhras effected may have been

provoked by religious antagonism. The Cōlas virtually disappeared from the Tamil land as a power

in this debacle; a branch migrated to the Telugu country and become celebrated as Telugu-Cōlas from

the seventh to the tenth century and beyond; the main Tamil dynasty lived obscurely in Uraiyur in

the neighbourhood of Trichinopoly; occasionally furnishing brides for the princes of neighbouring

kingdoms. The duration of Kalābhra rule and the extent of territory that passed under their sway cannot

be determined, but it is clear that under them Buddhism (and possibly Jainism also) made great

progress among the Tamils.

4

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

Three kingdoms rose into prominence in the later half of the sixth century, the Cālukyas of

Bādāmī to the north of the Tungabhadra, the Pāṇdyas in the extreme south, and the Pallavas in the

country in between. And the first rulers of all these kingdoms claimed to have overthrown the

Kalābhras, among others, before establishing their sway. The Cālukyas who make their appearance for

the first time in the middle of the sixth century soon succeeded in reuniting the Deccan under one

State. Further south, the Pallavas and the Pāṇdyas kept up a more or less constant war, and the Pallavas

had to fight on two fronts against the Cālukyas in the north and Pāṇdyas in the south; naturally, the

Cālukyas and Pāṇdyas sometimes joined hands against their common enemy in the middle. These

political alignments were, as we shall see, sometimes reflected in the religious practices of the different

states.

The rise and spread of the Bhāgavata cult has been the subject of much learned discussion.

We need not review the discussions here, but, with due reserve, accept that Krṣṇa, the son of Vāsudēva

and Dēvakī, was in turth a Kṣatriya warrior and diplomat who played a prominent part in the events

recorded in the Mahābhārata. He had his education at the time which witnessed the rather widespread

and speculative reaction against an overgrown sacerdotalism, and in this reaction which is the core

of the upaniṣadic thought, Kṣatriyas had an important, if not the leading, role. Krṣṇa was initiated

into the mystical and moral teaching of the time by his preceptor Ghōra Āṅgirasa, a worshipper of

the sun, from whom he learnt 'those lessons of the meaning of sacrifice, the merit of virtue, and the

importance of last thoughts, which reappear in the Bhāgavadgītā, and which we may suppose to have

been preserved for centuries as the sacred heritage of Bhāgavata sect'. We know little more of Krṣ

ṇa; the story of his overthrowing of the tyrant Kaṃsa may have a historical foundation; the rest

including the legends of his childhood is 'unworthy myth'. Krṣṇa perhaps taught the worship of the

sun to his followers, but they, like the Buddhists and the Jains, soon turned their worship to their

teacher himself.

There came up a succession of great leaders among the worshippers of Śiva and Viṣṇu, the

former known collectively as Nāyanmars (leaders) and the latter as Ālvars (divers, into the Divine).

They evolved a new type of bhakti, a fervid emotional surrender to God, which found in due course

its supıeme literary expression in the Bhāgavata Purāṇa (tenth century), a bhakti very different from

the calm, dignified devotion of the Bhāgavatas of the early centuries before and after Christ in northern

India. An outspoken hatred of Buddhists and Jains, which finds expression in almost every one of

the hymns, was among the chief characteristics of the new epoch. According to the canonical works

mentioned above, the rivalry between the orthodox and heretical sects exhibited itself in challenges

to public debate with the condition that the vanquished party should give up his creed and adopt that

of the victor, competition in the performance of miracles on similar terms, and tests of the truth of

respective doctrines by means of ordeals. Parties of devotees under the leadership of one gifted saint

or another traversed the country many times over, singing, dancing and debating all the way. This great

wave of devotional enthusiasm attained its peak in the seventh century and had not spent itself in the

midst of the ninth. The indeed was the golden age of Hindū revival in south India. The shrines visited

by the saints and celebrated by them in song were deemed particularly sacred, and princes, noble and

merchants who wished to build temples generally chose them for their particular attention in subse-

quent times down to our own day.

Development of Religion in Temples

The Hindu revival that had begun in the south eventually was taken up in the other vernacular

regions, spreading first to the north and west, and eventually engulfing all of India. The first area

outside of Tamil Nadu to be affected by the bhakti upsurge was Kannada-speaking Karnataka. Here,

two groups developed that reiterated the earlier Nāyanmar and Alvar movements in Tamil Nadu. The

Vīraśaivas, also called Liṅgāyatas, worshipped Śiva and the Haridāsas, followers of Madhva, were Vaiṣ

ṇava.

Basava (12th century A.D.) was the founder and principal advocate of the popular Vīraśaiva

movement. Under his leadership, for the first time, great effort was made to employ the popular

vernacular for "high thought and religion." Basava, born into the priestly caste, rejected all formalism,

emphasizing the bhakti approach to God. Like the Nāyanmars before him, he composed songs to God

that are filled with loving devotion.

During the time of Basava, a type of prose form was developed called Vacana (sentences). These

propaganda tracts writtin by a large number of devotees, called men to give up all worldly things and

turn to Śiva for refuge. Tradition assigns six vacanas to Basava.

The Haridāsas (servants of Hari, i.e. Viṣṇu) of Karnataka, who came later, were strict Dvaitists.

They, too, moved about the land, preaching their fervent devotional messages of liberation in word

and song. Although the movement began earlier with Narahari Tīrtha (late 13th century) and others,

the real impetus did not begin until the 16th century. At that time, Vaiṣṇava dāsyas (servants) or,

religious mendicants, wandered from village to village carrying their messages in song. Another factor

in the development of Vaiṣṇava bhakti in Karnataka, was the appearance of Caitanya around 1510, the

most important Bengali Vaiṣṇava, who preached with great effectiveness in his pilgrimages to the

southern shrines.

During this period, Karnataka's most prolific and famous poet-singer Purandaradāsa (1489-

1567. came on the scene. Few facts are available about his life. According to legend, he had been

a wealthy merchant; one day he suddenly gave away his wealth, property, money, and jewellery, in

the name of Lord Viṭṭhala (Viṣṇu). He took a vow of poverty and went out on the road as a mendicant,

begging just enough food for each day's sustenance and singing the praises of the Lord. His bhakti

songs are current today, in both ritual and classical concerts in south India. Purandaradāsa is considered

the father of Karnataka (south Indian) music; his developmental exercises and songs from the foun-

dation upon which every South Indian musician begins his studies.

Marathi bhakti can be traced to the thirteenth century during the Hindū Yādava dynasty (1185-

1317). The establishment of the Marathi language came about at this time partly by way of the

devotional songs of the poet-singers. Primarily, the bhakti activities in this Marathi-speaking area

(present-day Maharashtra) were centred around the town of Paṇḍharpur and the temple there dedicated

to Pāṇḍuraṅga (Viṣṇu), also called Viṭṭhala or Viṭhōba. Jñānadēva (1275-1296) was the founder of

the tradition of Marathi poet-singers who composed fervent devotional song addresses to Pāṇḍuraṅga.

Ēkanātha (1528-1599) was the next most important Marathi poet-saint. He lived during a time when

the Muslims controlled a great part of India, including much of the south. Poet-singers before him

6

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

defined the only true path to God through ascetism. Ēkanātha brought bhakti within reach of everyone

by saying it was not necessary to be a monk to worship; one could remain with one's family and yet

reach God.

Tukārāma (1598-1650) was, along with Jñānadēva, revered in Maharashtraas one of the two

greatest of the poet-singerś. Unlike Jñānadēva, who was a Brāhmaṇa, Tukārām was a merchant of the

Śūdra (peasant) caste; it was not until later life, as the result of a dream, that he became intiated.

As a religious leader, he attracted disciples from diverse social strata, including Brāhmaṇas. Tukārām,

as did all of the Marathi bhaktas (devotees), followed the panth (path, or way) of the pilgrim. According

to traditions connected with Pāṇḍuraṇga-worship (all of the Marathi poet-singers worshipped Pāṇḍuraṇga

as their diety), bhaktas must make two pilgrimageś, to Paṇḍharpur each year. Rāmdāsa (1608-1680),

a devout religious leader and poet-singer, was also involved in the Marathi independence movement

from Islamic political oppression and religious subjugation. He was associated with, close to Śivāji,

the Maratha king who laid the foundations of future Hindū Maratha power. The devotional songs of

Tukārām and Rāmdāsa are included in bhajana rituals in Tamil Nadu.

The great bhakti movement and its accompanying musical expression, though originating in the

south, seems to have moved clockwise around India, into Karnataka and Maharashtra, then through

the Punjab, East to Bihar and the eastern provinces, then down the east coast, and into the south once

again. The second half of the 16th and first half of the 17th centuries brought to fruition in great

part, the essential formation of the present-day bhajana ritual structure (paddhati), as performed by

the orthodox groups. This task was begun by a family consisting of three generations of poet-singers

from the village of Tallapakam, whose activities were centred in Tirupati at the Veṅkaṭeśwarar temple.

The only dates available for the three are those of Tāḷḷapākam Annamācārya, the grandfather on whose

date of death, 1503, there seems to be an agreement among historical writers. His date of birth ranges

from 1408 to 1424; the latter of the two may be the more accurate. The dates of the son, Tāḷḷapākam

Tirumalācārya, and grandson Tāḷḷapākam Cinnaiya are not available; however, if one estimates that

the generations may have been separated by 20 to 25 years, Tirumalācārya would have been born

sometime around the middle of the 16th century. Little is documented about Tirumalācārya; there is

much more known about the works of the oldest, Annamācārya and the youngest, Cinnaiya.

Annamācārya's importance lies in the fact that he began many of the conventions that were

to be continued and developed by those who came later. Indeed, it was Annamācārya who first codified

the bhajana tradition. He is credited with establishing musical forms that are in present use; the terms,

pallavī, anupallavī, caraṇa, and citta svara have been attributed to him. Dr. Isaac mentions the fact

that Annamācārya "sang and danced before the Lord."

The next most important Telugu-speaking poet-singer to come upon the scene was Bhadrācala

Rāmadāsa, a petty official in the Muslim court in the town of Bhadrācala. There appears to be little

substantial documentation as to when he lived; most speculations place him in the 17th century,

probably in the second half of it. During a part of his life, according to traditional account, Rāmadāsa

lived as an ūṅcavṛitti. The Sanskrit word ūṅcavritti is the name given to holy men who take vows

of poverty and go about begging far their daily sustenance. They spend their days worshipping God

Development of Religion in Temples

7

by way of singing devotional songs. He was influential by way of his songs and driving force. He

established Rāma mandiras (meeting places where devotees of a given sect gather in order to worship

together) where bhajana rituals in the name of Rāma were performed. Every village and town in

Andhra Pradesh eventually performed these rituals as regular religious and social functions in the lives

of the people.

Tyāgarāja (1767-1847) born of a Telugu family, later residing in the village of Tīruvārūr in

the Tanjore area of Tamil Nadu, is the most revered of all south Indian musicians. No south Indian

concert of classical music is complete that does not include at least one of Tyāgarāja's compositions.

After the Tāḷḷapākam composers, he has contributed the largest amount of musical literature performed

in contemporary bhajana rituals. The influence of Rāmadāsa's songs in those of Tyāgarāja and in the

Rāma nāma siddhānta (the cult of worshipping Rāma as God by repeating his names and singing his

name and glories) can be seen. V. Raghavan also attributes the influence on Tyāgarāja by one Upaniṣ

ad Brahma Yōgin (mid-18th century), an elder contemporary, who is known for his commentaries on

the 108 Upaniṣads, but was also a composer who took part in spreading the cult of singing the "Lord's

Name".

Tyāgarāja composed music for complete sections of the paddhati as well as individual songs

of varying levels of difficulty, i.e. ranging from easy songs for the musically untrained to singing in

congregations to complex music sung ordinarily as solos (by those musically trained) or by small

groups within larger congregations who have learned the music. That section of bhajana ritual that

commences the second half of the program, called Divyanāma sankīrtana, which involves the acting

out of the Kṛṣṇa Lilas in song and dance, was composed by Tyāgarāja.

That period in Tamil Nadu, beginning around the time of Tyāgarāja's birth, until 1850, is

commonly considered the golden age of Karnatak music. Not only did South Indian's most venerated

composer, Tyāgarāja, live at that time, but two south Indian contemporaries of Tyāgarāja, Śyāma Śāstri

(1762-1827) and Muthuswāmy Dīkṣitar (1776-1827) also helped to develop the musical literature so

popular in south India today. These three men arrived on a wave of Hindū revivalism resulting

indirectly from the triumph of the Marathas, under King Śivāji, who defeated the Muslims, then

extended their empire south of Tamil Nadu. Tanjore become the seat of the Maratha empire in that

area from the middle of the 17th century until the 19th century. Under the patronage of the Maratha

rulers, music flourished in Tamil Nadu as entertainment for royal music lovers, and in the temples,

home and maṭhas.

The new revival brought musicians from the northwestern Maratha country to Tamil Nadu, who

became famous Karnatak violinists, drummers, etc. An important tradition in south India today,

Harikathā (stories about Viṣṇu), also called Kathākālakshēpam, came to Tamil Nadu from Maharashtra

beginning in the late 17th century in the form of Kīrtana, or Harikīrtana, as it is called in Marathi.

These consist mainly of didactic stories taken from the purāṇas interspersed with devotional songs.

The Marathi Kīrtan performers were called kīrtankāras; in the south they usually are and have been

called Bhāgavatars (title bestowed on the truly devout, who, as religious leaders, perform either as

the storyteller-singer in the art of Kathākālakshēpam or as leaders in bhajana rituals. The role of the

8

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

storyteller in society is an ancient one. Kathākālaksēam performance involves elements of drama,

humour, current events, satire, etc., requiring diverse histrionic skills on the performer's part. Ad-

ditionally, he must have in his mind a large repertoire of devotional songs with which he illuminates

his normal tales. The performance, which may last for many hours, requires, in addition to the

storyteller-singer(who also play a pair of jalarś), there isa drummer (usually a mrdaṅgam-player) who

accompanies during songs. Devotional song by Tukārāma, Rāmadāsa, and other Marathi poet-singers

that are included in the bhajana paddati in part came to south India by way of Harikīrtanas.

Of great importance to the development in south India was the appearance in the Tanjore district

of three men, the bhajana gurus, who, because of their leadership, were responsible for the southern

bhakti revival in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. They all were Advaitins, followers of Śaṅkara.

Within the Advaita doctrines, they wrote treatises and devotional songs in which the efficacy of

repeating the Divine Names of the Lord was expanded. They were eclectic in their choices of deities;

Śaivite as well as Vaiṣṇavite gods were suitable objects for worship. The two earliest , Sadāśīva

Brahmēndra (Bōdhēndra) and Śridhara Vēṅkaṭēśa (Ayyāvāla) were from the late 17th and early 18th

centuries; the third Sadguruswāmī (Vēṅkaṭarāma) was a younger contemporary who spent his life

continuing the work of the two older men. Each gave impetus to the cult through their philosophical

writings and devotional music compositions; in addition, they found the prototype Mathas which were

open to priests and laymen alike for Nāma Saṅkīrtana (worship in song). Tyāgarāja, who appeared

later in the century, was caught up in the movement stimulated by the three gurus. Songs venerating

the three gurus are sung at the commencement of rituals, also, following the Tōḍayamaṅgala section

of the bhajana paddhiti is Guru Dhyāna section in which songs are sung in praise of the gurus.

There are innumerable important poet-composers who have lived and carried on their dedicated

activities in south India from the 15th century onwards. Arunagirinātha, of the 15th century lived

during the reign of Praudhadēva Rāya (c. 1485). Legend tells us that Arunagirinātha's early life was

one of debauchery; however he reformed and, for the remainder of his days, following the traditional

path by giving up all earthly belongings and dedicated his life to God. Also in the tradition of the

poet singers, he spent time as a pilgrim, visiting the shrines of the god Murugan, connected with

Śaivism. According to N.S.R. Shastri, he exerted a unifying influence between both doctrines because

he wrote songs (in both scholarly Sanskrit and Tamil) exalting deities from both Śaivite and Vaiṣṇavite

pantheons. Arunagirinātha's most popular collection is the Tiruppugal, an anthology of 2000 songs.

Most of the songs are addressed to Murugan, and the preponderance of those to the Murugan shrine

at Palani. The songs contained in the Tiruppugala are unique; not only are they devotional and sung

by devotees, but they are of great interest to south Indian classical musicians. Each song is accompanied

by a prescribed tala; however, there is no indication as to what rāga to use. The resulting musical

performances of his songs are characterized by highly intricate and subtle rhythmic complexities.

An important person in the Karnatak sampradāya is Nārāyaṇa Tīrtha, a Telugu-speaking

saṁnyasin, one who settled in the Tanjore district in the late 17th century. He is venerated in Tamil

Nadu as one of those who augmented the literature of the bhajana sampradāya and helped -"spread

the cult of adoring the Lord in song and dance." His most important work is the Sanskrit dance-drama

Development of Religion in Temples

9

Kṛṣṇa Līlā Tarangiṇī composed in twelve cantos called Tarangas. Each taranga is on a theme relating

to events in Kṛṣṇa's life, beginning with his avatāra and ending with his marriage to Rukmiṇi. It

appears that there is some connection between the work and that of Jayadēva, Gita Govinda, both in

poetic structure and in thematic material. Nārāyaṇa Tīrtha and Jayadēva were inspired by the Bhāgavata

Purāṇas. Tarangas from the Kṛṣṇa Līlā Tarangiṇī are performed regularly as integral parts of the

bhajana paddhati.

Three additional south Indian composers whose songs are currently being sung in homes, mat

has and temples, and who are considered saint poet-singers are Tāyumānavar (early 18th century),

Gōpālakṛṣṇa Bhāratī (1810-1896), and Rāmaliṇgaswāmi (1823-1876). Tāyumānavar was from the

Tanjore district. His father, a scholar, was attached to the court of the Nayak King Chokkanātha, a

Śaivite who had been trained in Tamil and Samskta, and who had studied the scriptures, especially

the Upaniṣad. From early childhood, he was taught the songs of the Nayanars by his mother and in

his own songs, he synthesizes Śaiva and Vēdānta thought. Gopālakṛṣṇa Bhārati, born into a family

of musicians and scholars, as estimated by P. Sambamoorthy, "is easily the greatest of the Tamil

composers, next to Tyagarāja, his is the most revered name in Tamil Nadu". His songs are included

in that section of the bhajana paddhati called Guru Dhyāna, in which the gurus are honoured. He

is the most of all revered for his "opera" Nandana Caritram, based on the life of one of the 63

Nāyanars, Nandanāra Rāmaliṇgaswāmī, from the east coast near Chidambaram, who was also a Śaivite.

His Arutpā is a collection of Tamil songs in which he sings of his love and compassion for all things.

The popular movement in which God is glorified in song is still being carried on in every

bhajana ritual. Children in mothers' arms or sitting rapt, watch as their parents, other relations and

neighbours sing and dance in their loving adoration of the Universal Brahman. That core of Hindu

worship, which eminated from the Vēdas, still burns brightly; different emphasis and focuses have

been placed on varying aspects of the bhakti tradition at different times and places and by different

bhaktas, yet all sang and spoke in fervent devotion of the one Supreme Godhead whose manifestations

are endless.

C. CULTS AND HINDUISM

The fusion of Āryan with non-Āryan cults began immediately after the Āryans entered India; and the

process has a long course lasting over many centuries before the new culture crossed the Vindhyas

to continue the same process in the south, probably by much milder methods evolved by long

experience in the north. The Rāmāyaṇa, which localizes some of the adventures of the prince of

Ayōdhyā in some identifiable spots in the south like Paṇcavaṭi (Nasik) and Pampa (perhaps near

Hampi), lacks a historical basis altogether. The poetic description of asramas (hermitages) which

provides the background of the incidents may, however, be accepted as the reflection of a stage in the

Āryanization of the south as visualized by the poet, and possibly, though this is perhaps one of the

more doubtful margin, the hindrances the inmates of the āśsramas experienced from the hostility of

the ogres contain a hint of the conflict of cultures at their first meeting. The earliest stratum of the

articulate literature of the Tamils, the literature of the Sangama, contain no hint whatever of such

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

conflict, but on the other hand, bears clear testimony that Āryan culture was welcomed and eagerly

adopted by the Tamils.

We have, however, other legends that have plausibly been interpreted as reminiscent of historical

occurrences. They centre round the sage Agastya, a vaidic seer who himself came in all the songs

of the progressive Āryanization of India.

Later Tamil tradition mentions Śiva's marriage with Pārvatī in Mount Kailāsa as the occasion

for Agastya's southward exodus, and explains that the exodus was meant to redress the balance of the

earth, rudely disturbed by the assemblage of all divinities in the north for the occasion. This is the

story found in the Mahābhārata. The Rāmāyana version differs in some respects; the most important

being that after Vātāpi's death, Ilavala attacks Agastya and is burnt to death by the irate sage, and

that there is no mention here of Agastya's condact with his wife or his demand for wealth. Rāma,

who narrates the story of Agastya to his brother Lakṣmaṇa on the eve of their visit to the āśrama

of the sage's brother, begins his narration with the found assertion. These achievements have been

understood to represent respectively the crossing of the Vindhyas into the Deccan by the bearers of

Indo-Aryna culture to that region, the initial opposition to that culture on the part of the indigenous

inhabitants of the south which, however, soon died away and gave place to a more propitious attitude,

and the spread of the culture to the eastern lands across the sea. There are several inspections in

Saṃskṛta attesting the prominent places held by Agastya (Bhatara guru) in the pantheon of Indonesia

and Indochina in the first millennium of the Christian era.

In relatively late Tamil tradition, Agastya was recognized as the family-priest (kulaguru) of the

Pāṇḍyan royal line. and, what is more important, as the original inventor of Tamil and the author of

the earliest grammar of that language. In Tamil Buddhist tradition, the Bōdhisattva Avalōkitēśvara holds

the corresponding place. But in later times, an effort was made to deny that Agastya had established

the Tamil language, that he wrote its first grammar, and that Tolkāppiyar, whose grammar is the earliest

now extant, was a pupil of Agastya. The mediaeval commentator, Perasiriyar discusses that question

at some length in his commentary on the Tolkāppiyam, the grammar written by Tolkāppiyar. He says

that in his day, some scholars held that Tolkappiyar composed his work on principles other than those

of Agastya's grammar (Agattiyam).

Śiva and Viṣṇu are the most prominent Hindū deities, and constitute together with the more

or less anaemic Brahma, the celebrated triad (Trimūrti) who are believed to create (Brahma) protect

(Viṣṇu) and destroy (Śiva) the universe again and again in the course of countless aeons. These two

gods are by no means prominent in Rigvēda, and even the name Śiva is unknown in that Vēda as

the name of a god; the word being generally used as an adjective meaning propitious, or, as a proper

name, being applied to a tribe who survived at least till the time of Alexander as the Siboi of the

Greeks, and whose city Śivapura is also known to relatively late literary sources. But these gods are

seen to have gathered many new features and become more concrete and important divinities in the

later vaidic literature, and there is good reason to trace many of these new features to syncretism with

non-Aryan factors. The Rigvaidic precursor of Śiva is Rudra, generally regarded as a storm God

representing more the baleful side of the storm in the destructive agency of lightning than the fertilizing

Development of Religion in Temples

and cleansing agency of the rain. The word Rudra has generally been held to come from the root 'rud' to cry and has been interpreted as the Howler. But the suggestion has also been made that it is derived from 'rud' with the conjectural meaning 'to shine' or 'to be ruddy' so that Rudra is the red god. Rudra is also a great healer who has a thousand auspicious remedies and is the greatest physician of physicians. If he is described as Śiva (auspicious) it is as much for this reason, as just to gain his goodwill and escape his wrath by flattering him, and Śiva thus 'became the regular name of Rudra, the historical successor in post Vaidic mythology'. Siva as the Great yogē is held in later religious thought to be himself clad in an animal skin (krttivasas), while being the bestower of high material prosperity on his devotees, the kāla (time) aspect of Śiva is best typified in the Mahākāla shrine at Ujjain; here he embodies not only death and destruction, but the power of regeneration also; the negative aspect is stressed in his association with crematoria and his leadership of groups of bhūtas (goblins), pretas (the unredeemed soul of the dead), and piśācas (goblins). The positire side is seen in his representation as a phallus (liṅga). The phallic significance of the liṅga is sought to be denied at times and it is taken to represent the formless absolute. This sophist interpretation finds much support in relatively late literary sources and it is quite probable that originally some primitive fertility cults and practices were absorbed in the growing complex of the Rudra-Śiva concept; the pejorative reference to śiśnadevas (phallicists) in the liṅgas in early Indian sculpture alike support this view of the evolution of the Śiva cult. Śiva is often represented by a Bull, which also serves as his mount. Closely allied to the Kāla aspect is that Bhairava (literary terrifying) which has many varieties and forms the centre of many legends. Combining both the positive and negative aspects is the more amiable form of Śiva as Naṭarāja (the Lord of Dance), the cosmic significance of whose rhythmic dance is interpreted in different ways in different contests and by different sources. It is not possible here to go further into the many forms of Śiva and the legends concerning them; we must, however, note that these forms and legend have furnished the theme of a rich iconography which observes a broad distinction between the gracious and propitious forms (anugraha mūrti) and the dreaded destructive forms (samhāra mūrti).

Viṣṇu, likewise, takes on an increasingly complex form by the accretion of new features. His solar associations being from the Vēda and his cakra (discus) is said, in later mythology, to have been shaped out of the sun. His celebrated three steps, of which two traverse the earth and are visible to men but the third and highest is beyond the flight of birds and the ken of mortals, are generally held to refer to the course of the sun. Viṣṇu is the friend of Indra, whom he frequently aids in the fight with Vṛtra and in vanquishing demons. But, this does not stand in the way of his being identified with Vāsudēva- Kṛṣṇa, whose opposition to Indra is well marked in many paurāṇic legends. There is a futher growth of Kṛṣṇa legends when he is endowed with the features of a 'cowherd god' (Gopāla Kṛṣṇa) and many new stories are evolved of his pranks and adventures as a child or young boy. The Mahābhārata, which, in different contexts, reviews the whole gamut of Kṛṣṇa's achievements, is a much more human document than the Rāmāyana, which has been not inaptly described as a 'polished fantasia'.The Great Epic and its supplement, the Harivaiṁśa, create a strong impression in the mind that behind all the distortions and exaggerations of legend, there must lie a genuine historic core, through it is risky to attempt to separate if from the overgrowth.

12

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

We may now mention one further instance of syncretism of particular import to students of south India. That is the identification of Skanda, Kumara or Kārtikēya with Murug(k)an, also called Velan and Subrahmanya, of the Tamils. In the north, he is regarded as the son of Śiva and Pārvatī, and Kālidāsa's poem Kumārasambhavam (Birth of Kumāra) is based on the legend that Śiva gave up his penance Mahāyōgī, and wedded Pārvatī to procreate a war-leader under whom the divine hosts could overthrow the defiant and oppressive Asura (demon) by name Tāraka; hence his names Sēnānī and Mahāsēna. Another stream of legend embellishes the story saying that Śiva emitted his sperm in fire (Agni) who passed it on to Gaṅgā where it matured into Skanda in a forest of rushes, whence his name (Śaravaṇabhava); the child was then brought up by six stars of the Kṛttikās or Pleiades, who nursed him by his six heads, whence his names Saṇmukha (six-faced) and Saṇmatura (six-mothered).

Another form of the story makes him the son of Agni and his wife Svāhā, who assumed the forms of the wives of six Ṛṣis whom Agni loved. In some coins of Kaniṣka, there are four figures with names subscribed in Greek as Skando, Mahāseno, Komaro and Bizago; they seem to have been regarded as separate deities even as Patañjali seems to have regarded Skanda and Vīśākha as separate deities. But in course of time, they were all identified with one another, and in south India, with the transparently indigenous Tamil deity known as Murugan or Vēlan. While the entire mythology of Kārttikēya-Skanda of the north is fully accepted in the Tamil country, there exist other traits peculiarly Tamil in origin. The name Murugan, however, is an exact rendering of Kumara (Youth), for murugu, a word of unknown affiliation in Tamil, also means tenderness, youth. The other term Vēlan means the god with this spear (vel), the most characteristic weapon of this deity. He has a cock on his banner, and is believed to be found of sporting on hill tops. One of his wives (Valli) is from the hill tribe of the Kuravas. The undoubted antiquity of his cult among the Tamils is attested by the discovery at the pre-historic urn-field at Aḍiccānallur of bronze cocks, iron spears and mouthpieces of gold leaf the Kavaḍi in fullfilment of a vow. The oldest stratum of Tamil literature mentions a Vēlan-āḍal, an ecstatic dance by a priest possessed by Vēlan. The Murugan cult never lost its popularity in the Tamil country, witness the stirring hymns of the Tiruppugal of Arunagiri-nātha (15th century), and in may be said to be experiencing a notable revival by an advocate of Madras, who has earned the tittle Tiruppugal-maṇi, by his musical renderings of the celebrated hyms of Arunagirinātha.

The rise of temples, temple worship, and images of deities is most probably rooted in pre- and non-Aryan forms of religion. The contrast between the rites of Vaidic sacrifice and of temple worship is striking, and yet both hold equally important places in historic Hinduism as we know it. The Vaidic sacrifice is a solemn and formal invocation of the heavenly powers accompanied by oblations in fire for their furthering the well- being of the person who performs the sacrifice and those whom he represents; the worship in a temple closely imitates the daily routine in a royal palace, where the king's daily wants and needs are attended to with meticulous care from dawn to night by a whole host of servants and slaves; the deity, like the king, is roused from sleep with music in the morning and gets his wash, meal, sport and pastime through the day and is ultimately put to sleep in his bed room- everything being done with due pomp and ceremony and with suitable accompaniments. The Vaidic Yajña is conceived as part of the cosmic cycle calculated to maintain the rhythm(rta) of the

Development of Religion in Temples

universe by a mutual exchange between heaven and earth, the gods being sustained by the offerings

in sacrifices and the men by the bounties (good seasons and harvests) they get in return from the gods.

The worship in a temple stems from a much simpler world of ideas about the relations between a

ruler and his subjects, and in fact, the whole ceremonial of such worship is generally summed up

as ṣaḍasajopacāra, the sixteen attentions due to a king.

But in the early period that witnessed the fusion of Āryan and pre-Aryan cultures in India,

the temple was perhaps just a sacred spot indicated by an enclosure, a tree or a stone heap or pillar,

and had little to show of architecture or sculpture. An early Tamil poem² contains a short description,

apparently reminiscent of pre-Āryans times; it says that Tuḍiyan,Pāram, Paraiyan and Kaḍamban are

the only four castes (or races, kuḍi), and that there are no gods (kaḍavul) to be praised (paravu) with

offerings of paddy (unhusked rice) unless it be the stone commemorating the hero who fell in battle

while opposing the enemy and his white-tusked elephant. Here is a clear hint that some at least of

the deities worshipped by the common people had their origin in the apotheosis of local heroes. That

others arose from the cult of ancestors may be inferred from the practice that survived into late

historical times of marking by a liṅga and sometimes also a small temple the sites where important

persons, chieftains or saints were buried or cremated; this class of temple is distinguished in the

inscriptions of the Tamil country by the title pallipadai-kōyil. The name kōyil for the temple is of much

semantic interest as it means both a temple and a palace, which were often erected side by side in

historical times, the most conspicuous instances being furnished by the celebrated Cōḷa capitals of

Tanjore and Gaṅgaikoṇḍa-Cōḷapuram; the practice was followed by the monarchs of Vijaynagara also.

We notice the same feature in the Saṁskṛita word Prasāda, also meaning both temple and palaces.

Again, the word employed for worship in the citation made above from Puranānūru is paravu, praise

same as ṛc (Rk) from which we get arcana, a common word for worship in later times. Stress has

been laid on the contrast between yajña (sacrifice) and pūjā (worship) and the suggestion made that

the former is Vaidic and Āryan, and the later non-Vaidic and pre-Āryan. Accordingly, Pūjā, in Tamil

pūśai, is sought to be derived in one of two ways: one method is to connect with words pu, flower

and sey, do, i.e., an act done with the aid of flowers, the other is to connect it with pusu (smear),

implying that the smearing of the object worshipped with the blood of the animals sacrificed in the

act was its central feature. We must observe, however, that the word pusai does not āccur in early

Tamil literature of the Saṅgama period, and that the Tamil lexicon does not notice either of these

derivations for the words, but simply refers to the Saṁskṛta word pūjā. Worship in temples and the

domestic worship of deities is repeatedly mentioned in the late Vaidic literature of the Sūtras. The

accretion of myths and legends drawn from various sources such as the elaboration of hints contained

in the Vedas, the adaptation of local stories and traditions prevalent in different parts of the country,

lead on the one hand to an increasing volume of Paurāṇic literature and on the other to a diversification

of cults and deities each with its own particular iconic ideals enshrined in dhyāna ślokas (verses in

aid of meditation) supposed to embody the visions vouchsafed to eminent seers who practised the

particular cults. These in turn gave rise to an extensive sculptural art in stone and metal, an art rich

alike in aesthetic and symbolism which, with many changes, has survived to our own day.

14

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

The whole of India including the extreme south had been Āryanized by the fourth century B.C.

if not earlier, and a iew Hindu society marked by certain prominent traits constituted everywhere.

It was a pluralistic society which had found in the caste system the most expedient method of

accommodating peoples professing differing faiths and following diverse practices, while ensuring the

acceptance by all of a common ideological framework. The system is certainly open to attack from

the standpoint of modern egalitarian democracy, and perhaps in the long run, it tended to encourage

narrower group loyalty to the race or nation. But equality even in the modern world is more often

an ideal rather than a reality and no system ever realizes in their entirely all the merits and demerits

that are its theoretical concomitants. The Indian caste system is no exception. In its actual working

through the ages, it was neither so good and perfect as the orthodox advocates of the theory of

varṇāśrama think, nor so evil and degrading as its critics, particularly from among the Christian

missionaries, have been prone to depict.

D. GODS AND SECTS

The Religious Revival so far traced was the work of two of the main sects of Hinduism. It

centred round the numerous temples in all the Tamil country in which Śiva and Viṣṇu were worshipped

in-one or other of their many manifestations known from the rich and colourful mythology that had

grown up round them; some temples outside the Tamil country proper, in Kerala, in Ceylon and even

in the North up to the Himālayas were visited by the saints or at least evoked their hymns by their

celebrity. We may now consider in some detail the history of temples worship and of the growth of

religious sects.

There have been two views on the question of the existence among Vaidic Āryans of images

of their gods; several hymns ascribe human attributes to the gods and described their activities in

human terms; this has led scholars at times to affirm that images did exist. The pejorative reference

to Śiśnadēvas (worshippers of the phallus) in two contexts in the Ṛgvēda confirms the surmise that

worship of the phallus, whether as representing Śiva as in later Paurāṇic Hinduism or as part of a

more primitive fertility cults, was known to the pre-Āryans. The old Indian commentators on the Vēda

explain the term Śiśnadēvas differently and think it is a reference to libertines; but this flies in the

face of the plain meaning of the word and is obviously unhistorical lingusitic ingenuity. Likewise,

the liṅga received more mystic interpretations as the representation of the Absolute of monistic

(advaita) Vedānta, which had no form and no attributes, with which is allied the Puārāṇic legend that

it is a pillar of fire of which the top and the base could not be discovered by Brahma who flew up

as bird, and Viṣṇu who burrowed down below as a boar; this story received frequent sculptural

representation in later times on the back walls of the sanctum in temples dedicated to Śiva. While

such facts deserve notice as marking stages in the later history of Hindū religious thought and practice,

they cannot command any relevance or validity in the explanation of the data relating to much earlier

times.

Literary evidence points to an even earlier origin of the practice of making images and offering

worship to them. Pāṇini makes a clear refrence to the bhaktas (devotees) of Vāsudēva, Arjuna and

Development of Religion in Temples

the Mahārājas, i.e. the guardians of the four quarters, Kubēra in the north, Dhṛtarāṣṭra in the east,

Vidūṣaka in the south and Virūpākṣa in the west: he also mentions images which served as a means

of livelihood, without being sold. And Patañjali's comment on this statement furnishes important data

on the history of iconography. He says that Mauryas wanted money (hiranya) and so set up images

(arcas); it is not clear whether they made money by selling them or merely exhibiting them and

charging a fee from the spectators. In any event, this work is in keeping with the statement in Kauṭ

ilya's Arthāśāstra that in the centre of the capital city (pura) there should be erected temples dedicated

to Aparājita, Apratihata, Jayanta, Vaijayanta, Śiva, Vaiśravaṇa, Aśvins, and Śrī Madira (Pārvatī ?) the

Vāstudevatās (guardians of the ground and structures) being set up in subsidiary shrines (koṣṭ

hakalaya). Patañjali also mentions images of Śiva, Skanda and Viṣākha made for worship. Altogether,

we have here a rather miscellaneous assortment of deities; only some of them are vaidic, others may

be objects of popular veneration, some even perhaps Jainistic.

The corresponding developments in south India are attested only by literary evidence for the

early period from which practically no material remains have survived. The south at that time

maintained active contact not only with Northern India as throughout its history, but with the Roman

empire in the west - a temple of Augustus is said to have flourished in the port town of Musiri

(Muziris of the Greeks) on the west coast - and with the Hindu colonies that were coming up in

the eastern lands beyond the sea. In the Saṅgama literature we read of the performances of Vaidic

sacrifices by kings, of domestic rituals by Brahmins, of temples and the worship offered in them to

a colourful pantheon and of other forms of popular worship, including folk dances accompanied by

song, to celebrate a joyous occasion or to ward off an evil signified by portents. The prevalence of

Buddhism and possibly of Jainism too is attested. Karikala, the Cōḷa king, is said to have established

a temple wherever he set up a colony of his subjects. In a long description of the city of Madurai,

the poet mentions temples of different faiths. Every evening worship was offered to the shining gods

with the offering (bali) of fragrant food to the accompaniment of music; the gods were headed by

the great God who created the (five) elements (water, earth, fire, air and ether-ākāsa) and who bore

the battle axe and the sword as his emblems; the crucial expression malu-val-nediyon though generally

interpreted as meaning Śiva may well apply to Viṣṇu also, and at least in later parlence nediyōn (the

tall one) was exclusively applied to Viṣṇu. Then there was the Buddhist shrine visited by young women

carrying their tender children together with flowers and incense to worship and pray for their well

being. There was also the Brahmin temple which rose like a hillock at which were happily settled

kindly virtuous men distinguished for their clear recital of the Vēdas and qualified to attain heaven

in due time as a reward for their pure living. Lastly there was the Jain temple which shone like a

group of several hillocks, surrounded by wonderful beds of fragrant flowers, whose painted walls

looked like being made of copper - a remarkably cool temple into which crowded laymen (Śavakar

i.e., Śrāvakas) who came to worship with full - blown flowers and incense, and wise ascetics ascetics

who knew the past, present and future, and all that is in heaven and on earth, and were ready to

impart their knowledge to the world.

We find reference to periodical festivals in temples lasting for many days and the special ritual

performed on specified days during the festival. We hear of the search for stone of proper quality for

16

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

carving the image of a deity, which means that anthropomorphic figures of gods had become common.

But beyond the vebhal descriptions of contemporary poets, we have no other means of ascertaining

the appearance of the temples or the deities enshrined in them.

Poygai, one of the earliest alvars, gives a valuable hint of the methods of worship prevalent

in his day; he says that the devotees praised Viṣṇu, each in his own way, saying this and this (form

of Viṣṇu) is my Lord; and among the forms (mūrti) which they painted on a wall or leaned against

it, that which measured the universe (in its strides i.e., Trvīkrama) stood first. An old poem (No.

167. included in the anthology known as Ahanānūru (the Ahaṁ 400) refers casually to the ruins of

a temple; its brick walls and wooden beams had crashed down, and the god beautifully painted on

the walls had long deserted it –which is a striking confirmation of Poygai's reference to the painting

on a wall of the deity to be worshiped. Another poem (No. 369) in the same collection mentions a

beautiful wooden image of the deity painted in bright colours and fixed on the wall (of the temple).

From these data, literary and archaeological, we can surely draw the conclusions that early temples

were built of perishable material, that the deities were either painted on walls or carved in wood and

leaned against or fixed in a wall in the shrine for worship, and that the devotees (bhaktas) were free

to choose the particular form of a god that appealed to them the most and make that the centre of

their devotion (bhakti).3

There is a notable difference in the iconography of the Pallava temples so far mentioned and

that of the contemporary Pāṇḍya temples farther south which are also rock-cut. Gaṇeśa in his

Valampuri form (i.e., with his trunk bent towards his proper right) is invariably found in the latter

while he is unknown in the Pallava cave temples and monoliths. Into the relatively late temples of

the Pallava country, he is generally regarded as an importation from the Cālukya capital. Bādāmī

(Vātāpi). The pāṇḍyas and Cālukyas were often allied together in war against the Pallavas, and it seems

probable that this political alliance led to the adoption of Gaṇeśa worship in the Pāṇḍyan country

somewhat earlier than in Pallava dominions. Likewise, the Sapta-mātṛkās (seven mothers), who were

particularly worshipped by the Cālukyas, are also frequently found in the Pāṇḍyan cave temples. They

are first found in the Pallava country in the celebrated Kailāsanātha temples at Kāñcīpuram built by

Rājasimiha (eighth century).

By an evolution, of which the stages can no longer be traced in detail, there came into existance

a considerable body of religious opinion and practice which sought to outgrow the acerbities of

sectarian animosity within the Hindū fold and establish harmony among the various groups, a

development that belongs more to the sphere of popular practical religion of daily life than the higher

speculative side of it. The new practice inaugurated by some unknown genius consisted in the regular

daily worship of five gods, viz., Śiva, Viṣṇu, Dēvī, Sūrya and Gaṇeśa in what is called Pañcāyatana

pūjā i.e., five-shrine worship. This worship is done at home with the aid of symbols4 representing

the deities and those who practise it are known as Smārtas or traditionalists. It must be noted also

that five gods are representative of the whole pantheon and are by no means the exclusive objects of

devotion of the Smārtas. Note that of the four male gods, two are Śiva and two Vaiṣṇava, while the

Devī (goddess) is common to both as mythology makes her the wife of Śiva and the sister of

Development of Religion in Temples

17

Viṣṇu. In south India, the term Smārta implies not only the worship of the five gods, but allegiance

to Śaṅkara's Vēdānta as well; whereas in north India the Smārta is free in philosophy. In the domestic

worship (pūjā) of the five gods, the image or symbol of the god whom the worshipper prefers, his

iṣṭadēvatā, is placed in the centre, and the other four are so set as to form a square around central

figure.

Despite this move towards sectarian harmony and some others to be noticed presently, the

sectarian outlook did not altogether fade out. It is not possible or necessary to describe the numerous

sects and the differences among them. The general situation may, however, be illustrated by a brief

reference to the differentiation of the two main subsects of the Śrī Vaiṣṇavas, as the devotees of Viṣ

ṇu came to describe themselves after the time of Rāmānuja (1050-1137 A.D.), if not from the time

of Nāthamuni (c. 1000). 'After Rāmānuja's death,' says a modern Śrīvaiṣṇava scholar, 'differences arose

in interpretations, and this led to differences that only in philosophical explanations, but as time

rolled on the differences became larger and larger in number and at last when Piḷḷai Lōkācārya (end

of 13th century) and Vēdānta Dēśika (c. 1380) appeared, the Śrī Vaiṣṇavas become sharply divided

into two sections, Tengalais (southern school) and Vaḍagalais (northern school), the former recognizing

Piḷḷai Lokācārya and the latter Vēdānta Dēśika as their leader;' Both schools recognize the validity

or Samskrta and Tamil scripture; but the southern uses Tamil and the Nālāyira Prabandham in that

language much more than the northern. From the early fifteenth century, Maṇavāḷa Māhamuni (1370-

1443), called Ramya Jamatmunī in Samskrta, became the special Ācārya of the Tengalais after

Rāmānuja, just as Vēdānta Dēśika was for the Vaḍagalai, and the two subsects honoured each its own

separate succession of Ācāryas in general. Other notable differences between them were : for the

northern school Lakṣmī, the female consort (Śakti) of Viṣṇu is in every way equal to him and shares

all his Vibhūtis (powers), and cooperated with him in the protection of the universe; but according

to the southern school, Śrī or Lakṣmī is definitely inferior to Nārāyaṇa, in fact just one of the created

lives (jīvakōṭis) with no pretence whatever to the divine powers (vibhūtis). While both schools agree

that surrender to God (prapatti) is the means to salvation, they differ on the place of individual effort

in the process.

In Śaivism, by the side of the pure bhakti represented by three saintly authors of the Dēvāram

and by Māṇikkavāśagar, there existed other types of worshippers of Śiva, gruesome and repellant to

modern taste. Among such groups must be counted the Paśupatas (adorers of Paśupati), Kāpālikas

(skull-bearers), Kālamukhas (black-faces), and others whose presence in large numbers at different

centres like Kāñcīpuram is evidenced by inscrutions and literature from the seventh century onward:

they claim to have been established either by Paśupati or the more tangible historical figure of Lakulisa

(first century A.D.). In the Deccan, a copper plate charter of the time of Pulakeśin II (A.D. 610)

records the grant of a village in the Nasik district for the worship of the Kāpāleśvara, i.e., the Lord

of (the weavers of garlands of) skulls, and for the maintenance of the Mahāvratin, 'observer of the

great vow', designated the Kapālikas or Kālamukhas; 'The greatness of their vow', says Bhandarkar,

'consists in its extraodinary nature; such as eating food placed in a human skull, besmearing the body

with ashes of human carcasses and other which are attributed to the Kālamukhas Rāmānuja'.

18

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

Among the more benign developents in the fold of Śaivism, two deserve particular attention

—viz., the growth of Vīra-Śaivism (stalwart Śaivism) or Līṅgāyatism6 and of the very similar Ārādhya

Śaivism in the Telugu country. The Vīra Śaiva sect was founded on the borders of the Karnataka and

Maharashtra country in the twelfth century, and spread rapidly in the south in the Kannada area. The

sectarians claim a’hoary antiquity for their creed, but historically it is not traceable farther back than

about 1160 A.D. when Basava, the prime minister of Bijjala, the Kalacuri king of Kalyāṇī, gave his

powerful support to the new creed by Ekāntadde (exclusively devoted) Ramayya of Ablur, whose career

is recorded in detail in a contemporary inscriptions. Tradition traces the foundation of the act to five

ascetics of hoary antiquity who sprang from the five heads of Śiva and founded the five original

monasteries (mathas) of the faith at Kēdārnāthā in the Himalayas. at Śrīsaila (Kurnool district),

Balīhalli (West Mysore), Ujjini (Bellary boundary of Mysore) and Benares, and Basava was only the

reviver of this ancient faith.

The worship of the goddess Durga and her varied manifestations gave rise to a number of sects

of which a special mention is necessary. Those sects which adore the female principal have their roots

both in the pre-historic tradition of the Mother Goddess and also in the principle of the Great Tradition,

which sees in the female Śakti the active generative, dynamic impulse in the manifestation of the

Absolute in the universe. The Mahābhārata celebrates Durga, the slayer of the Buffalodemon (mahis

āsura-mardini), as a virgin goddess, who dwells in the Vindhya mountains, delights in wine, flesh and

animal sacrifice, is the sister of Krṣṇa and like him, dark in colour, and wears a crest of peacock

feathers. Elsewhere in the epic, she is no longer regarded as a virgin, but definitely identified with

Umā, the wife of Śiva, and is also identified with the Vedas, Vedānta and many other things. She

is also regarded as the Brahman of the Upaniṣads, the one Reality set far above all other divinities.

Here we see clearly the result of syncretism of many elements including a virgin goddess worshipped

by the wild tribes of the Vindhayas, parts of the Krṣṇa myth, and ideas from the mythology and

philosophy of the Vedas and Upaniṣads. Many indeed are the forms in which the goddess (Dēvī) is

worshipped in different parts of the country; they vary according to the groups of worshippers and

occasions of worship, and we cannot stop to review any of them in detail. Some forms peculiar to

the south may, however, be briefly mentioned. The village deities, grāma devātas, who have already

been mentioned as being worshipped with the sacrifice of animals—goats, cocks and sometimes

buffaloes, and as belonging to the Little Tradition, are all regarded generally as manifestations of the

goddess. Then there is the tradition regarding the Mothers, whose number and names vary with the

context. The early Cālukyas of Bādāmi (sixth-seventh century A.D.) described themselves as descend-

ants of Hāritī, natured by the Seven Mothers - Hāriti putrānāṁ sapta mātrbhirabhi vardhitānāṁ. In

the Brhatsaṁhitā of Varāhamihira, we find the iconographic rule that Mothers are to be made with

the cognisances of the gods corresponding to their names - Indrāṇī for instance, being represented with

the elephant Airāvata, Vaiṣṇavī with the discus (cakra) and the conch (śankha) and so on. The Mothers

indeed form an indefinite group (gaṇa), an assemblage of the Śaktis (female counterparts) of every

male divinity, of whom seven were chosen as most representative by a widely accepted tradition. These

are often carved together in relief on a single rectungular stone slab and are found flanked by

Vīrabhadra and Gaṇēśa on either side. The Mātṛkā slabs are common in South Indian temples. One

of the earliest and finest of these is found in the Kailāsa temple at Kāñcīpuram.

Development of Religion in Temples

19

Sometimes, the male deities are conceived as inseparably associated with their śaktis and the

two are worshipped together in specially prepared icons like those of Lakṣmī-Nārāyaṇa, Lakṣmī-Nṛsiṁha,

Rādha-Kṛṣṇa, Ardhanārīśvara (the hermaphrodite form of Śiva), of which we get an early example

in the Dharmarāja Rathā at Māmallapuram (seventh-eighth century A.D.), and so on. These composite

images and the combined worship offered to them may also be regarded as indicating an effort to bring

closer together śāktism (worship of female principal) and the more ordinary form of worship of male

deities. Another remarkable attempt at transcending the sectarian outlook and ensuring religious

harmony resulted in the concept of HariHara or Śaṅkara Nārāyaṇa, and the cult images of this creed

consist of composite forms of the deity in which one half of the body is figured as Śiva i.e., bearing

the marks of Śiva like matted hair with Gaṅgā in it, the antelope, the tiger skin for robe and so on,

the other half being Vaiṣṇava with the jewelled crown (kīrṭa) on the head, the conch, the discus, the

Śārṅga bow, or the mace in different hands. This is approchment between the forms of Śiva and

Viṣṇu calculated to proclaim that all divinities are just different manifestations of the Supreme to suit

the different contexts, seems to have come about very early in the Christian era; Harihara images are

very common in the Hindū colonies of South-East Asia where they are met with perhaps in larger

numbers than even in India.

E. DEVELOPMENT OF SAIVISM

In south India, Śaivism became a great rival of both Jainism and Buddhism. As the fortunes

of a faith depended largely on the persuasion of the ruler, the exponents of different creeds vied with

one another in their efforts to convert the ruler to their faith. Thus Mahendravarman I (c. 600-630),

the Pallava king, was a Jain to start with, and it is said that as Jain he persecuted the follwers of other

faiths. But when he came under the influence of saint Appar and adopted Saivism, he seems to have

viewed with disfavour the Jain doctrine, as a consequence of which its leading exponents fell from

grace. In a Saṁskṛta burlesque called Mattavilāsa-prahsana, which is ascribed to Mahēndra, Buddhist

monks are caricatured and mention is made of Śaiva sects like the Kāpālika and the Pāśupata. After

Mahēndra become a convert of Śaivism, Kāñci become a stronghold of this faith, and he caused great

temples to be built all over his kingdom, and the images of Śiva as well as of the other deities of

the Trinity were installed therein. His successors continued the work in connection with the renaissance

of Śaivism.

The great upsurge in favour of Śaivism was mainly due to the enormous devotional poetry that

flowed from the lips of the leading Śaiva saints who lived in this age. Many of the sixty-three

Nāyanmars or Ādīyārs (canonical saints of Śaivism) flourished during this period. The most famous

among them and their literary works have been discussed above. We shall give here a few further details

regarding these saints, and indicate briefly the contribution they made to the progress of Śaivism in

south India.

Tirumūlar’s Tirumandiram (or-mantiram) is a highly abstruse work expounding the Śiva doc-

trine in the light of the author’s own mystic experience. The purpose of Tīrumūlar’s work would seem

to have been to reconcile the Āgamas with the Vēdas. For he says, "The Āgama, as much as the Veda,

20

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

is truly the word of God; one is general and the other is special; though some hold these words of

the Lord, the two antas, to be different. Tirumūlar uses the term Vedānta-siddhānta several times to

mean that the end of both the Veda and Śaiva doctrine is the same. In one place he declares: "Becoming

Śiva is the Vedānta-siddhānta." The remaining four (antas, viz. Nādānta, Bōdhānta, Yōgānta and

Kālānta) are vain (teachings). If Sadāśiva that becomes Śiva attains oneness, the Vedānta-knowledge

verily becomes Siddhānta. Tirumūlar speaks of four forms of Śaivism: śuddha, aśuddha, mārga, and

Kaḍum-śuddha. The aśuddha or impure variety of Śaivism is that in which there is not the Vedānta-

knowledge. And by contrast, Vedānta is śuddha-śaiva-siddhānta. While the former is lost largely in

the external¹ˢ, the latter penetrates into the core of Saivism. The mārga Śaivas are those who follow

the sannmārga. Though they wear the external marks of Śaivism, they do not stop there. For them

the true path is the path of knowledge. Caryā, kriyā, Yōga, and jñāna are the four stages in the

sādhana. When the aspirant has reached the last stage, the grace of God descends upon him; and by

that he is released. The descent of grace is called Śakti-nipāta by Tirumūlar - a conception which

plays an important part in the later Śaiva-siddhānta doctrine. The last class of Śaivas who are termed

kaḍum-śuddha Śaivas are those who do not stand in need of the external marks of Śaivas, and who

have no outward shows. They go straight to Śiva, and ridding themselves of the bondage of desires,

obtain the knowledge of Śiva. Their method is analogous to the sadhyō-mārga of Advaita-Vedānta.

Naturally, those who are adepts in this path must be rare. The goal, according to Tirumūlar, is

becoming one with God, whom he designates as Nandin or Siva. As helps in the attainment of this

goal, he recognizes some of the current methods like yōga and mantropāsanā. But he places the

sanmārga of the Siddhānta above all of them.

NĀYANMARA

The Śaiva Nāyanmars and the Vaiṣṇava Āḷvars were simple-hearted bhaktas rather than

philosophical or theological paṇḍits. The Supreme, whether approached in the first instance as Śiva

or Viṣṇu was a beloved to be wooed with love and devotion, a king to be obeyed with simple reverence

and affection. The Supreme revealed Himself, not to the proud ratiocinative intellect, but to the

hungering soul that without His grace simply could not live! These Nāyanmars and Āḷvars, whether

or they were singers equally inspired, were all of them god-intoxicated people who transmitted

their divine infatuation to millions of their contemporaries.But some of them were superlatively gifted

singers as well and have left behind an imperishable legacy of devotional poetry which has rarely been

equalled in quantity and quality and never surpassed during the whole course of human history.

We owe the collection and preservation of the devotional songs of the Śaiva and Vaiṣṇava saints

to the indefatigable labours of two religious leaders, Naṉbi-Āṇḍar-Naṉbi and Śrī Nāthamuni. The

former arranged the available Śaiva hymns into eleven Tirumurai, the first seven (collectively called

Tevāram), bringing together the hymns of Sambandar, Appar and Sundarar, the eight (called the

Tiruvācakam) being the work of Māṇikkavācakar, the ninth (called Tiru-iśaippā) being a miscellaenous

collection, the tenth bringing together the mystic outpourings of a sixth-century Śaiva yōgi, Tirumūlar,

and the eleventh and last Tirumurai being another miscellany of poems from Nakkirar to Naṉbi-Āṇḍar-

Naṉbi. Likewise, Śrī Nāthamuni arranged the extant Vaiṣṇava hymns into a colossal collection,

Development of Religion in Temples

21

Nālāyira Prabandham, a veritable treasure-house of devotional poetry. The four thousand hymns included in this collection are the work of twelve Āḷvars (of whom one is the woman mystic, Āṇḍāḷ), the major contributions being those of Tirumangai-Āḷvār, Nammāḷvār, Periyāḷvār, Tirumāliśai-Āḷvār and Śrī Āṇḍāḷ.

Tirumūlar, author of the tenth Tirumurai, enunciated in his work (called Tirumandiram) the Śaiva Siddhānta doctrine of Pati-Paśu-Pāśam. Tirumūlar believed that the spirit no less than matter must be accepted as real, for it is impossible to conceive of one quite independently of the other. Likewise, Love and Śivam are not different categories of experience; Love culminates into Śivam and rests in that beatific condition.

Tirumandiram is made up of 3,000 mantras is held in great veneration by the Tamil śaivas.

About a century later, Māṇikkavācakar and the other three great Śaiva Samayācāryas - appear, Sambandar and Sundara - flourished in the Tamil country and sounded a clarion call, a call to implicit self-surrender at the feet of the Supreme. It is now generally agreed that Appar and Sambandar were contemporaries, and that Sundarar lived two or three decades after Appar's death in A.D. 681. It is, however, a debatable point whether Māṇikkavācakar preceded or came after the three Tevāram singers. The discussions on this point are seemingly endless, but to the present writer it appears probable that Māṇikkavācakar was also Appar's contemporary. Appar (66-681); and Sundarar, who (644-660); Māṇikkavācakar (660-692); and Sundarar, who must have lived for 18 years any time between 710 and 735.

Appar's contribution to Tevāram consists of 313 hymns. Their tone and texture, their content and images, are condition by two facts concerning Appar's life. Of the four great Nāyanmars, only Appar lived to a ripe old age, living longer than the other three put together. His longevity helped him, as it helped Sophocles, to see life steadily and to see it whole.

"Sambandar was a marvellous boy who died in his prime." He is reputed to have composed 10,000 hymns in his all-too-brief life of but sixteen summers, though only 384 of these are now known to us. The artless grace and mellifluous sweetness of Sambandar's hymns have been universally praised.

This great saint's life is narrated both in the Tiruvilaiyādal and the Vadavūrār Purāṇms. Like Sambandar, Māṇikkavācakar too was born of Brahmin parents. Later, Māṇikkavācakar become the prime minister of a Pāṇḍyan king, but soon lost his confidence. Realization came to him in due course, and thenceforth he dedicated himself to the life Divine. The collection of hymns known as Tiruvācakam is Māṇikkavācakar's spiritual autobiography, and it takes us as it were to the very laboratory of mysticism.

Sambandar's artless and moving strains, Sundarar's haunting lullabies of love, Appar's home-spun similes and images bespeaking ripe wisdom and experience, all these fuse into a unity, dazzling like the midday sun and profound as night, in the fifty-one songs that constitute Tiruvācakam; and Māṇikkavācakar is indeed, in his profound humility and all-embracing humanity, among the most infallible of our ambassadors of the Absolute.

22

Music and Temples · A Ritualistic Approach

Sundarar — or Sundaramūrti Nāyanār — was the last of the four great Śaiva Samayācāryas.

During his incredibly short life of only eighteen years, Sundarar crowned a career of service in the

cause of the Divine which is astounding. Of the tens of thousands of songs attributed to him, hardly

one hundred have been preserved. Imbued with singular beauty and glow of colour, Sundarar's hymns

are on every devot Tamil bhakta's lips to this day, and are sung by musicians in temples and mutthas.

F. DEVELOPMENT OF VAIṢṆAVISM

Mention has already been made of the adoration to Vasudeva in the China (Krṣṇa district)

inscription v.hi.n belongs to the close of the second century A.D., and of a Nārāyaṇa temple in Guntur

district, as well as the name of Pallava Viṣṇu-gōpa in the records of the fourth century. In the

inscriptions of the Gupta age, there are references to temples or flag-staffs of the god Viṣṇu-Nārāyaṇa-

Vāsudeva throughout the length and breadth of India, in Nepal and the upper regions of the Beas in

the north, in Bengal in the east, in Kathiawar in the west and the trans-Krṣṇa region in the south where

some of the early Pallava and early Gāṅga rulers were devout Bhāgavatas. Viṣṇu worship was also

prevalent in the early Kadamba kingdom; but the most popular religion there appears to have been

Jainism. Some of the early Kadamba kings, who call themselves parama-brahmaṇya, may have been

Vaiṣṇavas. Several southern rulers, who claim to have been Kaliyugaḍōśavasanna, dharm-ōddhāraṇitiya

sannaddha, possibly attempted to suppress heretical creeds such as Buddhism and Jainism, to revive

the Brāhmaṇical religion and also possibly to represent themselves, like king Samudragupta of the

north, as incarnations of Viṣṇu, emulating the god's doings in the Varāha form. Another indication

of the influence of Vaiṣṇavite Brāhmaṇism in the far south is the importance attached in some Pallava

and Kadamba records to the gō-brāhmaṇa (the cow and the Brāhṃṇa) exactly as in the Vaiṣṇava

inscriptions from Iran. In the later part of the Mahābhārata, Viṣṇu is represented as the benefactor

of the cow and the Brāhmaṇa (cf. gō-brāhmaṇa-hita). This points not only to the association of the

Brāhmaṇas with Viṣṇu worship, but also to the important position to which they rose in social

estimation in the period in question.

The association of the name of the Pāṇḍya capital Madurā, which is the same as Mathurā, the

home of the early Bhāgavata sect, may have something to do with the Tamil country soon becoming

the greatest stronghold of the Bhāgavata religion and giving birth to the Ālvars and their celebrated

songs in Tamil on Bhakti and Krṣṇa worship. The worship of Krṣṇa and Baladeva in the Tamil land

about the age of the Guptas is attested to by Tamil literature. The Śilappadikāram refers to temples

of the two gods at Madurā, Kāviripaṭṭiṇam describes them as the dark-complexioned god bearing the

wheel and the white-complexioned god with the flag of the palmyra.

The best evidence of the influence of Vaishnavism in the for south, specially in the Tamil

country, is furnished by the devotional songs of the Alvars, of whom a short account has been given

above. They sang in praise of Nārāyaṇa and the Krṣṇa, Rāma and Vāmana avatāras. They were also

familiar with Krṣṇa's dalliance with the gopīs (cowherd maidens). One of them, a lady, regarded herself

as a gopī and approached the God, her beloved, in that spirit. They revered the Vaidic literature and

Development of Religion in Temples

23

knew the principal Purāṇas, but inculcated the recitation of God's name, meditation on his different

forms, and their worship at the temples such as those at Śrīraṅgam, Tirupati and Aḷagarkōil. It is

apparently because of the Āḷvars and their successors, the Vaiṣṇava ācāryas, that the Bhāgavata Purāṇa

speaks of the existence of large numbers of the worshippers of Vāsudeva-Nārāyaṇa in the Drāviḍa

country in the Kalī-age when they were rare elsewhere in India.

ĀḶVARS

The word ‘āḷvar’ has been explained as ‘one in deep wisdom’; and the ‘āḷvars’ are thus wise

seers who exercise a spiritual sovereignty over the hearts of men. Tradition arranges the Āḷvars into

three group in the following order:

(1) Ancient : Poykai Āḷvar ... 4203 B.C.

Bhūtattar ... 4203 B.C.

Peyāḷvar ... 4203 B.C.

Tirumāliśai Āḷvar ... 4203 B.C.

(2) Middle : Nammāḷvar ... 3102 B.C.

Madhurakavi Āḷvar ... 3102 B.C.

Kulaśekhara Āḷvar ... 3075 B.C.

Periāḷvar ... 3056 B.C.

Āṇḍāḷ ... 3005 B.C.

(3) Last : Tondaraḍippōḍi Āḷvar ... 2814 B.C.

Tiruppaṇ Āḷvar ... 2760 B.C.

Tirumaṅgai Āḷvar ... 2706 B.C.

As the traditional dates of these Āḷvars take us to anything from five to six thousand years

backwards, these seemingly precise dates are of no use whatsoever as historical data.

The Āḷvars hailed from different parts of the Tamil country. The Pallava country contributed

the first four Āḷvars enumerated above, and Cōḷa deśa the last three; the Cera country contributed

Kulaśekhara; and Pāṇḍya Nadu contributed the rest, notably Nammāḷvar, the greatest of them all, and

Āṇḍāḷ, one of the supreme women mystics of the world. From this distribution it is sometimes assumed

that the Vaiṣṇava movement began first in the Pallava country in the north and then passed on to the

Cōḷa country, and finally gravitated to the south, culminating in the Tinnevelly (Tirunelvelī) district,

the place of the great Nammāḷvar's nativity. It is also worthy of note that the twelve Āḷvars, even like

the sixty-three Nāyanars, are a cosmopolitan group, being gathered from all castes and various strata

of society, their one common characteristic being their fellowship in the love of God. Nammāḷvar, like

Appar, was a Veḷḷāla by caste; Tirumaṅgai came from a kaḷḷa (robber) family; Kulaśekhara was a

princely ascetic; Periāḷvar was a Brahmin. All this illustrates the noble catholicity of the Tamil of a

bygone age. The four thousand stanzas that make up the Nālāyira Prabandham are divided into four

more or less equal parts. The first thousand stanzas include the work of Periāḷvar, Āṇḍāḷ, Kulaśekhara,

Tirumāliśai, Tondaraḍippoḍi, Tiruppaṇ, and Madhurakavi; this part is called Tirumoḷi. The second

24

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

part, called Peria Tirumolī, is the work exclusively of Tirumangai; the third part, called Iyalpā,

includes the work of the first three Ālvars, and the rest of the third part is made up of Tirumāliśai's

Nammālvar's and Tirumangai's contributions; the last part, Tiruvāymolī, is exclusively the work of

Nammālvar. These four thousand hymns are recited in temples by Tamil Vainṣavas to this day.

The first three Ālvārs, Poykai, Bhūtattār and Peyālvar have contributed one hundred stanzas

each in venba metre in praise of Tirumāla. The poems are richly embroidered by references to Viṣ

ṇu's sports in His various avatāras; but the general keynote of the poems is love, an upsurge of mystical

longing for the Lord. The traditional story is that Poykai, Bhūtattār and Peyālvar accidentally took shelter in the same place in pitch darkness.

Of the five Ālvars in the second group, Nammālvar and Madhurakavi may be taken together.

Nammālvar was a mystic in excelsis, one of the greatest of god-intoxicated men. Madhurakavi, the

Brahmin scholar and saint, sought out Nammālvar and, as it were, nursed that great mystic but with

the warmth of his devotion, till, petal by petal, it blossomed to its full amplitude and dedicated its

unearthly beauty to God or gods. Nammālvar sang of God because the urge to trumpet His praises

was in him an elemental irresistible force; and Madhurakavi took down the verses as they came, and

preserved them for posterity. The sweetness, intuitive depth, and kindling imagery of Nammālvar's

hymns have been praised, but cannot be praised too highly.

Nammālvar's contribution to the Nālāyira Prabandham consist of the whole of the fourth part,

called Tiruvāymolī, and Tiruviruttam, Tiruvāśiriyam and Periyatiruvantadi, which are included in the

third part. Tiruvāymolī is subdivided into ten parts, and each part contains ten poems; this century

of poems taking up 1102 stanzas. Nammālvar's poetry is encyclopaedic in its mystic range and covers

the entire gamut of striving, half-lights and false trails, the nights of darkness, the burst of morning

sunshine, the splendour of beatitude and the ecstasy undying. The jiva seeks Him and would be with

Him, because He has already chosen and is with His devotee. The jiva sometimes is compared to

a love-sick maiden hungering and pining for the divine nectar of her Lord's love. The symbolism of

love is intricate and subtly elaborate, and the whole of Tiruviruttam is cast in the form of such a

symbolic love poem. Tiruviruttam indeed is one of the incandescent peaks of mystic poetry and its

century of stanzas illustrate poetically every unblemished shade of erotic symbolism.

Madhurakavi was the born disciple, his whole life being dedicated to Nammālvar; his short

hymn in praise of his guru is sung by all Vaiṣṇava devotees.

Periyālvar (known also as Viṣṇu-Cittar and Bhaṭṭapirān) was a Brahmin who, according to

tradition, found the child Āṇḍāl at the foot of a tree while digging in his garden and, taking her home,

brought her up with more than a fatherly affection. Periyālvar's most famous songs is Tiruppalāṇḍu,

which he composed when he was vouchsafed the beatific vision of the Lord:

Periyālvar's daughter, Āṇḍāl or Kōdai, from the outset thirsted for the Divine, and poured forth

her divine love into some of the finest poetry in the language. She saw herself as one of Kṛṣṇa's gopīs,

sought Him with singular fervour and determination, and achieved union with Him at last at Śrīraṅgam.

Of her two works, Nācciyar Tirumolī and Tiruppāvai, the latter is rightly more famous.

Development of Religion in Temples

25

Kulaśekhara, the remaining member of the second group of Ālvars, was a king of Travancore

whose God-hunger made him more and more unwordly, till at last he renounced the throne and

wholeheartedly consecrated himself to the service of the Divine. Perumal Tirumoli, his contribution

to the 'Four Thousand', consists of 103 stanzas.

The discussion so far has concentrated on the stages of development of Various religions which

had their firm footing in the firmament of protecting the cultural and spritual area of south Indian

tradition. It is needless to say that ofter the onslaught of Jainism and Buddhism into the religious output

of the south Indian people, the revival of Hinduism became possible and the re-establishment of the

respective tenets of Hinduism was propogated by the Śaivaite saints. followed by the Vaiṣṇavaite sages.

It is under this religious background that the temple activities became more important and

prominent in the daily life of the people of south India.

The role of temples in the religious and spiritual upliftment of the people became imminent

and inevitable. The styles, structure, rituals, architecture, the tantras, the various śāstras and the

mantras were strictly followed. while a temple was concentrated or the presiding deity was manifested,

according to the rules laid down in the scriptures, agamas, upanishads, puranas and other holy tentets

of the vaidik traditions of south India. This strict adherence to the traditions made each and every

temple of south India a seat of importance. The Hinduism as a whole had complexities and the different

cults and sects emerged into various religions focussed on different manifestations of gods and

goddesses like Śaivism, Vaiṣṇavism, Śāktism, Gāṇāpatyam, Mother Goddess, etc.

REFERENCES

1. A short work on the erotics of secret love (kalavu) in the form of about sixty sūtras ascribed to god Śiva

(Iraiyanār) himself. The commentary on this work is ascribed to Nakkirar, which is perhaps not earlier

than the eighth or ninth century A.D. is the locus classicus of the incredible tradition relating to the three

Sangamas.

2. The Tamil lexicon defines Kāvaḍi as a decorated pile of wood with an arch over it, carried on shoulders

with offerings mostly for Muruga's temple, commonly with some parade.

3. Puranānūru, No 335.

4. Indian Archaeology, 1958-59, p, 8. The inscription. however, is not quite clear. The operative passage has

been read differently and interpreted to mean that the image was painted with the best ochre; but this

seems a less plausible interpretation of an admittedly difficult phrase. The inscription opens with saluta-

tion to Nārāyaṇa described as Bhagavān, deva, Parama-deva (supreme god) and Purāṇa puruṣa.

5. See Farquhar, Outline, p. 293, n. 2.

6. Vaiṣṇavism etc., p. 128.

7. So called because each votary carried a lingam on his body, usually encased in a small container sus-

pended from the neck. It is known as the Jangama linga, mobile linga.

8. Origin and Early History of Śaivism in South India, p. 462.

II

HISTORY OF TEMPLES IN SOUTH INDIA

INTRODUCTION

The role of temples in the cultural transformation of a society and a country became very

prominent when Hinduism was re-established between the 7th and 10th centuries A.D. On account

of the organized Hinduism, the temples, priests, festivals, vr̥tās, and the order of Saṁnyāsis became

a matter of custom. Almost every village of any importance had at least one temple of higher

Hinduism. Śrīkoyil, as it is called, was situated in the middle of surrounding streets or in some other

prominent place besides the shrines of village dieties generally located outside the village. For the

understanding of the temple, we have the surviving monuments which were built according to the

manuals of Śilpa Śāstras. The Āgamas and Purāṇās also have much to say on the temple architecture

and iconography. The Hindū temple architecture found its maturest expression, commencing form the

Cola period through several centuries.

Hinduism is still a live force and there is no sign of its hold on the minds of the bulk of the

population weakening in anyway. With the result famous shrines like Chidambaram, Tirupati, Śrīraṅgam,

Rāmeśwaram Thanjavur, Ēṭtumanur, Guruvāyur, Tiruvārur, Kāñcīpuram, etc. continued to attack large

number of poeple as pilgrim devotees.

The discussionsed in this chapter are centred around some select temples of importance and

some lesser known temples. The temples like Cidambaram, Madurai, Rāmeśwaram, Kāñcīpuram,

Śrīraṅgam, Thanjavur have ample materials dealing on the sthalapurāṇas, architecture, and iconog-

raphy abundantly. Whereas information on temples like Swāmīmalai, Tiruvaiyaru, Haripad, Ēṭtumanur,

Tiruvotriyur, Paṭṭīśwaram are not much available.

A total number of 413 important temples have been identified from the southern states. Still,

there are innumerable unidentified temples which could not be documented due to lack of information.

The researcher has visited more than 200 temples during the course of her research tour.

28

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

1. Cidambaram

In modern parlance, the institution of ‘rahasya’ in the Nataraja temple is refered to in a lighter

vein to mean that there is acutall‘ nothing secret about it. However, an analysis of historical and

cultural background indicates a rather revealing situation.

At the outset it must be recalled that one of the alternative names for the Pratyabhijña system

is rahasya sampradaya and that this was a designation that had come into vogue in Kashmir itself.

Karika calls the teaching ‘secret’. The same author closes his Sivasūtravimarṣinī with the words, ‘Good

people in order to shake off saṃsāra should enjoy this Sivasūtravimarṣinī which is filled with nectar

oozing from the explanation of the Secrets of Siva’. Again the author advises : ‘Carefully think over

the Sivasūtra full of secrets’.

Not only for the practice of yoga but also for attaining the final samādhi, a cave or some other

isolated place unseen by others was necessary, according to the Pratyabhijñā precepts, as in many other

cults that prescribe yogic practices. Such legends are not wanting in reference to the ṭillā at Cidambaram.

Nanda, ‘Maṇikkavācaka’, and even the historically known Appayya Dīkṣita are said to have entered

the cit-ambararn never to return. There is also a hearsay that ‘Tirumular’ entered into the final samādhi

here. The basis of such legends could obviously be that there was a ‘secret’ chamber with the ṭillā

where yogis entered into eternal samādhi.

The empty space, now walled off, behind the present Nataraja-sthāna and leading into the

adjacent chamber should have served as the samādhi-sthāna for those who practised yōga discipline.

The main entrance into ṭillā exposed to the public view must have remained open until comparatively

recent times. It is difficult to assess when exactly the entrance was walled off and the present locus

of the icon of Naṭārāja instituted. It is important to recall here that the ‘rahasya’ panel that lies adjacent

to the Naṭrājapiṭha is considered to be coordinate in importance and significance to the image of Naṭ

rāja itself; that these two are inseparable is suggested by the use of the term praṇava-pīṭha to the

common platform on which they stand. It is said that “Naṭrāja represents the sarūpa while the

‘rahasya’ is arūpa and the sphatika-ḻinga (Candramauliśvara) is rūpārūpa aspects of Śiva’ and are

respectively refered to as ‘sakalasvarūpa, niṣkalasvarūpa and sakala-niṣkalasvarūpa’.

There is no mention of ‘rahasya’ in older literature either on Naṭrāja or on Cidambaram.

However, there appears to have been an unmistakable association of a yogic type of sādhana known

by the name dahara-vidyā or daharopāsanā with the Naṭrāja cult. ‘Under this method, God is

meditated upon by the devotee in the ethereal space situated in the middle of his ‘heart’ (dahara).’

‘By the word ‘heart’ is not meant the physiological organ, but the centre of the body imagined as

a hollow and filled with ākāśa. Ākāśa is sound conceived not as sensation within the brain, but as

an objective entity. Such an ākāśa fills the inside of the body. In its centre, which is the heart (the

‘buddhi guhā’, ‘there is a dot of light’, Śivasūtravimarṣinī, c see commentary on the sūtra.’ Vidyā

Śarīra-satta mantra-rahasyaṃ”). One of the methods of daharopāsanā is to meditate on Lord of

‘pañcakṛtya in the lotus-shaped heart of the Virāṭpuruṣa (Puṇḍarīka). The plan of the Naṭrāja temple

is compared to the body of the Virāṭpuruṣa, the cit-sabha being His heart, and mahāmāya His middle

part facing the south, etc. (Tīlvanamahātmyam).

History of Temples in South India

With the initial placement of the ānanda tāṇḍava icon in the golden-roofed ṭillā at

Perumbarrapuliyur, all these three units – the icon, the ṭillā, and the town (Perumbarrapuliyur)

– began to attract Śaivite devotees as at a centre of pilgrimage. To them, the Naṭarāja institution

appeared simply as a temple where there was a diety of worship; they were prone to expect here also

the same type of ritualistic modes as they were accustomed to witness in order contemporary Śiva

temples. The rulers were also quick to realize the situation and Kulottuṅga I initiated the construction

of accessory structures to the ṭillā, thereby endeavouring to super- impose the status of a temple over

the monastic institution.

The followers of the Naṭarāja cult were not averse to the public desire. They could not, however,

be accepted into the type of ritualistic worship that was curent in contemporary temples because of

the essentially different āgamas which they followed. At the same time, they could not ignore the

popularity of the existing practices in other temples. Therefore, it became necessary for them to evolve

new formulae for public worship that would retain some of their own traditional elements, at the same

time incorporating some of the current practices.

Legends

The Koilpurāṇam, which is presumed to be the earliest of the sthalapurāṇas of the Naṭarāja

temple, devotes one full canto to narrate the episode of Simhavarman. He was the first of the three

sons of Gauḍeśa-manu, the other two being Vedavarman and Sumativarman. As he was suffering from

some bodily complaint (kurram) and as such could not continue on the throne, he handed it over to

his two younger brothers and started on a pilgrimage. After visiting the Śiva temples at Benares,

Bhīmeśvaram, Śrīśailam, Kāḷahastī and Kāñcī, he came down to Cidambaram. There he was blessed

by Vyāghrapāda, bathed in the Śivagaṅgā tank and miraculously got rid of his ailment; and his body

acquired a golden hue – hence the name, Hiranyavarman. It is also started that Sage Vyaghrapäda

anointed Hiranyavarman as the king of Puliyur and that this king constructed the temple of Naṭarāja.

Both Koyilpurāṇam and Cidambaramahātmyaṁ narrate this incident with little variations.

The sthalapurāṇas associate the name of the Patañjali with the dance of Naṭarāja and His

institution at Cidambaram. It is said that Patañjali is a reincarnation of ādiśeṣa. Almost all writers

have offered suggestions whether he could be the Patañjali of the Mahābhāsya or of the Yogasūtra.

To Bālasu Brahmānyam it is immaterial whether he was either of the two, but Cidambaram “took pride

in associating with it the name of the great scholar”. Sathianathaier appears to think that the

grammatical studies that are related with the Tondaimandalam from the 11th century onwards could

be the “basis of the theological legend connecting Patañjali with the Naṭarāja temple at Cidambaram.”

There is no warrant to identify the Patañjali of Cidambaram with either of the two well-known

Patañjalis. It is said that the method of worship conducted in the Naṭarāja shrine follows the prescrip-

tions laid down in a text known as “Naṭarāja nitya pūjā sūtram” written by Patañjali

(Kuñcitapadaṅghristavam) and “Pūjapatañjalam”. It is not clear whether these two are the same. There

is also a set of 10 verses under the name Nateśastakam and an Aṣṭottara śatanāmāvali, both

attributed to the authorship of Patañjali. That this Patañjali of Cidambaram had attained fame in his

30

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

own right is clear from his having stabilized the codes of worship for Natarāja. For these reasons it

is certain that the Patañjali connected with Cidambaram was quite distinct from his namesake in

reference of Mahābhāsya or Yogasūtra.

We hear of Viśvakarma as the architect of the cit-ambaram in Cidambaramahātmyaṁ (canto

15, verses 38, 39; canto 18, verses 42-50). It is interesting to note that when a dispute arose among

the dīkṣitars on the execution of some repairs to the temple, the dissenting group strongly objected

to such a move in reference to the cit-ambaram on the group that humans have no authority to disturb

the edifices of this structure as they had been originally built "by divine agency", that "they should

not be desecrated by repair, and that such desecration would materially lower the prestige of the

institution for its sacred character in public estimations". In what light the court viewed this 'evidence'

is not clear. To an outsider, however, adducing such a reason for preventing the repairs appears to

represent an extreme degree of cussedness on the part of the dissenters. Because, there are documents

to prove that the cit-sabhā in earlier times had been renovated and repaired occasionally. To mention

one such instance, Cittambalamuni had renovated the Natarāja-sthāna and performed kumbhābhiṣeka

during the time of the Marratha ruler of Tanjore, Sambhoji, in A.D. 1688. It should also be mentioned

that the act of guilding the roof of the cit-ambararn by the rulers of Cōḷa and Pāṇḍya dynasties should

have caused at least temporary disturbance to the architecture of the cit-sabhā.

There is a popular legend that in a challenge that ensued between Kāḷī and Śiva concering their

respective abilities in the art of dance, the latter outwitted the former by his skill and inventiveness,

and as a result of this, Kāḷī had to vacate her abode at Tillai and move away to the outskirts of

Perumbarrapuliyur. In south Indian tradition Kāḷī appears as an indigenous cult-deity possessing no

affiliation of Śiva. The temples dedicated to her are generally located on the outskirts of tenements.

She is looked upon with fear as the diseases of men and animals are believed to be inflicted by her.

The association of Natarāja of Cidambaram with Kāḷī remains unexplainable without an

understanding of the krama texts of the Pratyabhijñā school of thought. The krama doctrine conceives

that liberation comes through successive stages, in order. Kalinaya is another name for the krama

system, because this deity is conceived as the Absolute principle (paramattva). She too exhibits her

pentad functions - kṣepa, jñāna, prasaṅkhyana, gati and nāda. It may be noted that these acts are

in no way different from the pentad acts of Śiva. In this system Kāḷī takes the place of the dēvī (consort)

of Śiva. Furthermore, just as Śiva projects his dance of the pentad functions from within to the outside,

so also does Kāḷī - "svātmano bhedānāṁ kṣepaḥ". According to Baladev Upādhyaya, such concepts

of Kāḷī are elements of the śakti-advaita philosophy that became interwoven into the Pratyabhijñā

darśana. Abhinavagupta's verse expresses the gist of the esoteric significance of Kāḷī.

The name Tillai, which has been in use as an alternative for the modern Cidambaram, is

believed to have been derived from the tillai trees that grow in the region - thus name Tillaivanam.

In Saṁskrta, the name is spelt in a modified from, Tilvavanam. It is a fact that tillai plants grow

in and around Cidambaram but they also thrive with greater luxuriance in the tidal forests and swamps

along the coasts of India. Yet this plant is not known by this name in areas of Tamil country other

than Cidambaram.

History of Temples in South India

31

The Tillai tree is believed to be the sthalavrksa ('Temple-tree') of the Naṭarāja temple. The

association of plants with the Śiva temples and naming the linga therein after the name of that particular

plant is a tradition that is met with frequently only in the Tamil country. The Koyilpurāṇam, presumed

to have been written by Umapati Śivācārya (14th century A.D.), dealing with the legends of the Naṭ

arāja temple does not speak of a sthalavrksa for the temple; nor do the other mahātmyas (glorificatory

accounts) concering the temple. With the extension of the concept to the Naṭarāja, it was realized that

the association of a tree with the temple would not only enhance the prestige but raise its status to

the rank of other great temples. This appears to have been accomplished for the first time by the author

of Tilvana-mahātmyam. It is difficult to date this work, but it would not be wrong to assign the

18th century to it, going by its language and style.

One of the point deserves comment in this connection. The sthalvrksa is always associated with

temple, that possess a consecrated linga. Neither the image of Naṭarāja nor the sturcture in which

it is housed is consecrated according the southern āgamic injunctions. Therefore, the present shrine

cannot be considered as a temple in all its implications. If the Tillai tree is the sthalavrksa of the

Naṭarāja shrine, we are referring to the sole exception. If, on the other hand, the tree is deemed to

be associated with the mūlasthāna shrine in the second prākāra, the epigraphic evidence is against

such an understanding. Wherever the linga has taken its name after a 'forest' of a king of species,

the name of the linga, is e.g. Āmravaneśvara, Bilvavananātheśvara, Cūltavaneśvara, Kadalīvananātha,

Kañcanavananātha, etc. This nomenclatural system is in no way different from the one generally

followed in case where there is no tree association to begin with. The names of the linga were chosen

after the town or village in which they were consecrated, excepting in cases of temples that were erected

in honour of some king or dignitary. The epigraphical records prior to the 16th century afford

numerous examples of the king, e.g., Kalattisvaramudaiyar (Kāḷahasti), Vadatalai-udaiyar (Ōmampliyur),

Orriyurudaiyar (Tiruvorriyūr), Pasurudaiyar (Tirupaccur), Karukavurudaiyar (Karukāvur), etc. In the

case of epigraphs concerning the Naṭarāja temple, the most frequent form of the name is

Tirucchirrambalamudaiyar, and never Tilvanamudaiyar or Tillaivanamudaiyar, thereby clearly indi-

cating that the place was never called Tillaivanam in earlier times.

There are no grounds to presume the association of the Tillai tree, or any other plant (some

sthalapurāṇas mention the banyan tree) for that matter, with the mūlasthāna shrine either. Whether

in epigraphy or in literature, this shrine has always been refered to as the mūlasthāna, and the deity

(linga) as Mūlasthānamudaiyar (the Lord of the mūlasthāna).

However, the word Tillai has been in use as referring to the Naṭarāja temple - more pointedly

to the cit-sabhā - in Tamil literature, commencing from the first three tēvāram singers.

Tirujñānasambandar and Tirunāvukkarasar, as well Sundarar, use the term as being synonymous with

cit-ambaram. The commonly occurring term Tillaichcirrambalam only means "Tillai which is

Cirramblam' or 'Cirramblam which is Tillai'. Tirunāvukkarasar's expression, 'tillaiyūr

cirrambalattunattam" should be taken to mean 'the dance in the hall of cit, which is within the Tillai'.

Tillai is also often used singly to denote the same cit-ambaram.

Tirujñānasambandar employs the expression Tiruman tillai. The Dharmapuram Ādhīnam edition

gives the meaning as 'the big (great) Tillai associated with Tirumagal (Lakṣmī)'', which is somewhat

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

ponderous. Tīruman is nothing but the corrupted form of the Śaṁskṛta śrīman, an honorific, and

implies the same scope and context in Tamil as well.

Sundarar’s line “Tillaiṉagraṕ poduvurratiya sirnatamum” conveys the ‘grand dance performed

in the hall (situated) in the city of Tillai’. The reference to Tillai as a city may be a mere imagination

of the poet. It is quite possible that the temple was surrounded by tenements during his time and the

area appeared as somewhat similar to a small township. In any case, the extended usage should signify

the importance that Tillai had attained. That this was so is further suggested by Tīrunāvukkarasar’s

decade where he describes the city as containing several buildings and gardens.

The composers of epigraphic texts scrupulously avoided the use of Tillai as referring to the Naṭ

arāja temple. They designated this structure only as Tiruccirraṁbalam. It is not as if the script writers

familiar to the composers of Śaivite hymns during the 10th to 13th centuries. For one thing, the

epigraph was document (śāsana) more often royal and official documents - and as such the words

chosen to be used required precision, proper names and unambiguity. Perumbarrappuliyūr was the

officially recognized name of the city while Cirraṁbalam figured as the authorized endowment

transactions are recorded. The choice of the name Cirrambalam by the document writers and of Tillai

or Tillaiccirraṁbalam by the Śaiva hagiologists appears to indicate a situation which is rather peculiar.

The latter group of authors also where aware of Perumbarrappuliyūr (= Puliyūr) as they refer to Tillai

cirraṁbalam as having been situated in this town.

What could be the reason for the document writers to refrain themselves from employing the

term Tillai? Could it be that the term was of exotic origin and was, therefore, kept out of official

records? It has been already pointed out that the derivation of this name after the Tillai tree is both

untenable and anachronic. The term cannot be derived from Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, Malayāḷam or

Saṁskṛta language; nor is a clue found in the dialects of south India. The only area where a

phonetically similar word appears to have had a much wider currency in the old days today is the

north of the Vindhyas, and the word is tilla or tila.

The term tilla apparently belongs to an apābhramśa dialect of North India. It obviously denotes

the residence of those practising yōga. The Yōga-sthānas of the Gorakha-panthīs (followers of the

Gorakhanātha school of yōga) were (and are) invariably known by this term. In later parlance the term

acquired the meaning of a building or structure erected on a raised platform or foundation or an

elevated place itself; the general occurrence of tillas on elevated loci like hills or mountains, remote

from human habitation, also could have contributed to its derived meaning. Many of the old tillas

were built in a way enclosing a natural cave where the yōgis practised their discipline; or, when newly

constructed, provision was made to set apart a chamber for the same purpose, which was not exposed

to the public view. The structure of the same name at Perumbarrappuliyūr, as may be seen, falls within

this scope.

Reference to the ‘three-thousand’ of Tillai occur frequently in Tamil literature of the medieval

period. All modern authors equate these ‘three-thousand’ with the present-day priests (dīkṣitars) of

Cidambaram, who are the custodians and owners of the Naṭarāja temple. The dīkṣitars also, in their

turn, claim their ancestry to the ‘three-thousand’.

History of Temples in South India

33

The hymns of the Nāyanmars speak of Tillai andanar (Tirujñānasambandar; andanar piriyāda cirrambalam; Tirunāvukkarasar; andanartam cintaiyanai; ulakukkellām tiruvudai andanar (vālkinra tillai), etc. Similar references may be found in the other Books of the Tirumurai series.

Although the terms andanar is taken to mean brāhmanas in general in modern parlance, it is doubtful if this meaning holds well in all contexts, particularly in the medieval period. As will be shown later, the Tillaites were followers of the Pratyabhijñā doctrine (otherwise called 'Kashmir Śaivism') and the roots of this system are found in the āgamas and never in the Vēdās and Upanis ads. Their ritualistic modes were therefore based essentially on non-vaidic doctrinal texts, although in recent times the employment of Vaidic mantrās as a part of public worship have been part of the litany in the Naṭarāja temple, Cidambaram. Naralokavīra's inscription appears to confirm their non-vaidic following in the 11th century. Therefore, with particular reference to the Tillaites, the term andanar is best understood in the light of the definition provided in the Muppal; "andanar enbōr aravōr," which means those who possess the quality of dharma, which is believed to be the outcome of disciplined living and learning - and the term is applicable to tapasvins and learned men who follow the path of virtue irrespective of caste. It is obvious that there is no warrant to associate such persons with any particular religion or community. The Tillai andanars were known for their yōgic practices and great learning (cf. references to Bhattacharya in Naralokavīra's inscription) and their being referred to by this name is quite befitting.

They have also been designated as maraiyors (Tirujñānasambandar). The term has been understood again as referring to the brāhmanas as the first part of the word marai is presumed to mean the Vēdas. Whether it should be taken in this strict sense in all contexts is doubtful. Marai only means scripture; not only brāhmanas, but the followers of non-vaidic religions also have their own scriptural literature. Therefore, the term has to be taken in its wider sense. With reference to the Tillaites, the marai was the āgamic lore.

The Vaiṣnavite hymnists, Tirumaṅgai and Kulaśekhara, also speak of the muvayiravars as adoring the reclining Viṣṇu at a temple somewhere in the town of "muvāyira nān maraiyalar", which has been generally construed as 'the Three-thousand who followed the four Vēdas". It is also believed that these 'Three-thousand are identical with the Tillaites. By taking these Śaivite and Vaiṣnavite references together as belonging to one homogenous category, generalizations are often make that the sectarian feelings has not become bifurcated into fanatical groups is that early period. As a consequence, it is said that "The worship of the two deities, Naṭarāja and Govindarāja, was in the hands of the 3000 of Tillai".

It should be emphasized here that the translations of the terms andanar, maraiyōr and muvahiravar, respectively, as brāhmanas, Vaidic followers (again meaning brāhmanas), and 'three-thousand' were proposed at a time when the full implications - both positive and negative - of shifting historical data from literature has not been clearly understood. Uncritical acceptance of such translated terms by later authors has led to confused thinking and unwaranated conclusions. If the suggestions put forward above - to understand andanar as learned and disciplined men (dharmiṣṭha) filled with pity/penance/wisdom, and maraiyor as those who follow scriptures (of their respective faith) - are

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

acceptable, the association of the anadanar and maraiyor with Naṭarāja and Govindarāja shrines

becomes resolved. Thus, the Tillaites were a group of persons who were followers of āgamic scriptures.

A clue to the identity of the andanar of the Govindarāja shrine is seen in the lines of Tirumaṅgainānmarai,

according to which they should be considered as the followers of the Vaidic religion.

While Cidambaram was the nerve centre of this great tradition of dance, it was not the only

one. The tradition was in fact spread over a fairly wide area around it. While in Cidambaram, Naṭ

arāja danced the Nadantanatana or Ānanda Tāṇḍava, he was believed to have danced seven other dances

at other holy places in the Cola country. He was said to have danced at the Puṣpasabhā - Flower-Hall

– at Tiruvārur - His Ajapanatna; His Unmatta naṭana - mad dance at Tirunalḷāru; His Paravarataranganat

ana, the dance of the sea wave, at Natgapattinam; His Kukkuṭa naṭana - Cock dance, at Tirukkarayil;

His Bhrṅganatana – Bee-dance at Tirukkolavi; His Kamala Naṭana – Lotus dance at Tiruvaymur;

and His Haṁsapada Naṭana - The swan-foot dance or Amṛtanatana - The dance of nectar at

Tirumaraikkadu.

"Ajapa" signifies the sound Haṁsa, which all living beings produce when they exhale and

inhale breath. This continues to take place in them for 21,600 times in the course of twenty-four hours.

It is Haṁsa or Jīva (the individual soul) who moves about in the body from one condition to another

pulled about hither and thither by the prāṇa and the Apāna which are the powers behind all the actions

and the motions that we see in living beings. The yōgic works assert that to acquire the knowledge

of Haṁsa - the source of representation considered as the nucleus of all vital activities - who is

reverberating in the living body is a great step in the direction of the realization of the supreme Ātman.

For the same reason, Haṁsa, has become a term loaded with immense spiritual meanings. It is used

for a saṁyāsa who has reached a well-defined stage of spiritual advancement. He is one who has

realized the Haṁsa or the Ātman who sustains life through the means of the Prāṇa and Apāna. Since

Haṁsa is the sound which signifies the presence of the Ātman, it is called Bījāk-ṣara or the seed of

all the speech - sounds that humankind utters. Now the deity in Tiruvūr is called Bījāk-ṣara Yantra

Tyāgēśa and His dance is significantly called Ajapanatana. It is a dance which leads to the realization

of the state of Haṁsa.

2. Ēttumanūr

It is a place near Kōttayam, where the presiding deity is Lord Śiva. It is said that one saint

called Karanmaka consecrated three Śivalingas at the same time in different places. They are Vaikkam,

Kādutthuruthi and Ēttumanūr. Each is divided by 17 kms apart. It is said that Śrī Vilvamaṅgala Swāmī,

during his sojourn came across a thick forest area which looked like a flock of hair of Śiva be fore

him. As he did not want to tramp over the flocks, he started rolling over to cross the area. At the

far end of the place, he saw a deer in his hand. He rose saying Ēttumanūrappā. In other words get

up oh! The Lord of deer!. There is another episode for this temple. Once Lord Śiva fought a battle

with the devas to teach them a lesson. To fight them he created a deer and the battle took place in

an island called Hariṇadvīpam. Later on, the dēvas conceded defeat and on request they controlled

the deer and gave is back to Lord Śiva. The place where they recieved the animal is called 'Ēttumanūr'.

History of Temples in South India

35

Here the Lord is called Mahādēva. Facing the main shrine is the sacrificial altar where the Pañcatśra Murty is placed. The other deïties inside the temple are Bhadrakālī, Saṣṭha and the Ekṣinī Rūpavāī.

3. Guruvāyūr

The Nārada Purāṇā contains a vivid description of the origin of Guruvāyur temple.

Towards the end of the Dwāpara Yuga, the Pāṇḍyās entrusted the task of governance of the country to their grandson Parīkṣita and left for good their capital city, Hastināpura and finally this mundane world itself. Unfortunately, Parīkṣita had a sorrowful end, as he was bitten by Takṣaka, the kind serpent under a curse by the son of a sage. Enraged at this, the son of Parīkṣit, Janamejaya resolved to avenge the death of his father. Hellbent on wreaking revenge, not only on Takṣaka but also on the entire stock of serpents, he chucked them into the sacrificial fire. Last, came the turn of Takṣaka. He sought shelter at the feet of Indra. Knowing that Takṣaka was in no mood to comply with the summons from the Yāga Agni, Janamejaya intensified his yōga to draw Takṣaka alone, or along with Indra himself, if it came to that. This was too much for Indra who was frightened and horrified at the grim prospect. So, cowering and cringing, he forlornly sought the help of Bṛhaspati, the preceptor of the Dēvas. Thereupon, Bṛhaspati approached Janamejaya and advised him.

The advice of Bṛhaspati put things in their proper perspective and Janamejaya stopped forthwith the serpent sacrifice. But because of the curse of those serpants he had sacrificied, Janamejaya came to be afflicted with a virulent form of leprosy. This filled him with sorrow and anguish. Having lost all appetite for life, he was pining away to the inevitable, when sage Atreya called on him one day. Seeing the king writhing under physical pain and mental remorse, the sage advised Janamajaya to seek refuge in the temple at Guruvāyūra. If he were to worship to presiding deity and propitiate Lord Kṛṣṇa enshrined therein, he was bound to be rid of all afflictions, he said. Then, sage Atreya gave Janamejaya a treatise on the great powers of the idol and said the Bhaktas who sought His blessings secured not only mōkṣa, but all that they wanted; the wordly, as also the other-wordly blessings.

This discourse of Atreya opened up a new vista of hipe in Janamejaya. Fired with an avid desire to know more and more, he pressed the saint to tell him more about Guruvāyūr. The sage started narrating the origin of the temple and all about the great deity presiding therein. Thus spoke the Saint : "Once upon a time there was a royal couple, King Sutapas and his wife. As they were Childless they began to worship Lord Brahmā, to bless them with a child. Eventually Brahmā handed the idol now installed at Guruvāyūra, and asked them to worship that detiy for the fulfilment of their wish. Following his advice, Sutapas and his wife began worshiping this idol and in the end, Lord Viṣṇu appeared in all His heavenly splendour before them. In reply to their prayers for a child, as graceful as the Lord himself, the Lord said that He Himself would be born as their child in three births, in three different forms, and in the different situations. He also said that they would have the good fortune to worship the same idol in all three janmas. So revealing Himself and blessing the royal couple, the Lord disappeared.

"Their first born was Pṛśnigarbham who gave Sanka and other a schooling on Brahmācarya. It was Prasnigarbhan who gave the world the great lesson the powers of celibracy, Brahmācarya"

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

"In their next Janma Sutapas and his wife were born as Kāśyapa and Aditi. Then also they

had the opportunity of worshipping the same diety. Their son in that Janma was Vāmana. In their

third Janma, they were born as Vasudēva and Dēvaki. And they came to possess this diety through

the sage Dhoumyan. Lord Kṛṣṇa was born as their eighth issue. In the long run, Lord Kṛṣṇa himself

installed this deity in a temple in Dwārakā, specially constructed by him. Before leaving this mundan

world, the Lord told Uddhava that there would soon be a deluge which would swallow up Dwārakā

and that he should take care to salvage this idol before it went under. Uddhava later told Bṛhaspati

of the Lord's mandala. But by then, the deluge had closed in on Dwāraka".

"But Pṛhaspati was able to salvage the idol that was found floating on the waves with the

assistance of his prime disciple, Vāyu. Together with Vāyu, Bṛhaspati set out on a journey in search

of a proper place for the installation of the idol. They travelled far and wide on earth, and ultimately

came over to Kerala, the land of enchanting scenic beauty."

"Amidst the lush-green vegetation they saw a huge tank full of lotus, and Lord Śiva Himself

enjoying an ablution. Understanding their mission, Lord Śiva made them install the idol close by the

lotus tank, and said, there was no other place on earth as sacred as that. Accordingly, the idol was

installed by Guru (Bṛhaspati) and Vāyu, at that particular place, at an auspicious hour. Thus, the place

and the temple came to be known as Guru-vāyūra, a reverential and semantic reference to the sponsors,

Guru and Vāyu. It is believed that the original temple that housed the idol was designed by Viśwakarmā

himself", (The idol is Catur-Bahu (four-armed) with all the regalia of Viṣṇu - Śaṅkh, Cakra, Gadā

and Padma and it is sculpted in a rare stone known as Patthala Anjanam).

King Janamejaya was listening to this story with rapt attention. Thereupon, he set forth along

with Atreya towards Guruvāyūr. On reaching Guruvāyūr, king Janamujaya started worshipping

Guruvāyūrappan - as the idol is endearingly called - with single-minded devotion. This went on

for forty days and on the 40th night he had a vision of the Lord, when the Lord told him that he

was cleansed of all sins and cured of all ailments. He felt the divine hand caressingly going up and

down his diseased body. It was all a dream to Janamejaya. But the next morning he woke up to find

the ulcers on his body all gone, and he himself in the best of health. His euphoria knew no bounds.

Having thus obtained a fresh lease of life, he returned to his kingdom, making a niche in his bosom

for Lord Śrī Guruvāyūrappan.

There is a story of a Pāṇdya king who likewise sought refuge in Guruvāyūrappan, when his

astrologer predicted that he would die, on a particular day, of snake-bite.

The king in his anxiety to escape the impending doom asked whether there was no 'way out',

but was told that what was ordained by destiny could not be altered by any human agency. This reply

made him all the more sore and awe-stricken, and the fear of a death by snake-bite made his flesh

creep. When the king was so given to despair, a Malayali Brahmin who was an employee of his palace

advised him to go and seek refuge in Guruvāyūr temple. He told the king : "What the astrologer said

was that human efforts could not forestall the working of destiny. But what the human efforts cannot

do, the Divine grace could. Lord Śrī Guruvāyūrappan is enshrined in a living form in the Guruvāyūr

History of Temples in South India

temple for the purpose of blessing all, sinners and saints alike, who seek His mercy. He will not forsake

you if you pray for His blessings with single-minded devotion Oh! You can do nothing else but seek

refuge at the lotus feet of Śrī Guruvāyūrappan.

This awakened the inner feelings of the King and he decided to go to Guruvāyūr. If he were

to die of snake-bite, let it be from within the precincts of the temple, he thought. Thus resolved, he

went to Guruvāyūr and with the utmost devotion spent his days till his star-crossed days were over.

As he had addressed himself assiduously to ascetic life within the temple, attending all the

Pūjās, the Seevelies, (the idol being taken around in procession on an elephant) absorbed in the prayers

and Nāmasankīrtanas, he was so lost in the ecstatic exuberance of the spiritual atmosphere, that he

never felt the passage of time. When he finally knew that he had cultived his ill-starred days without

a jolt or jar or anything untoward, as he had apprehended, he was filled with unbounded happiness.

Making solid contributions to the temple for its all-round improvement, he left for his palace; a refined

and rehabilitated soul. He then commissioned a reconstruction of the original temple.

Once he was back in his palace, he sent for the astrologer. The king wanted to put the astrologer

in his palace. He told him that his predictions were ill-founded and that he (the King) was there, all

in one piece, hale and hearty, in spite of the astrologer's ominous prediction. The king said that he

was not only bitten by any snake but he also did not see any snake at all, till that moment. The

astrologer still stuck to his guns. He asked the king to show him the toe of his right leg. He then

pointed out to the king the scar left by the tooth of a snake and said that he was indeed bitten by

the snake as predicted by him. But as he was a refugee inside the Guruvāyūr temple and as the Lord

himself was riding Garuda, before which all snakes were helpless, the king had escaped unhurt,

without feeling, even faintly, the sting of the snake-bite. By the grace of Guruvāyūrappan, the king

had overcome his destiny, so miraculously, he said.

Only a few may give credence to these legends in these days of modernity. Still, one can

maintain without fear of contradiction, that Guruvāyūr is one of the oldest temples in the south, where

devotees from all walks of life and from all over India, flock in thousands. The number of devotees

who come to Guruvāyūr to have Darśana of Guruvāyūrappan is swelling day-by-day, enchancing the

reputation of the temple as a great pilgrimage-centre.

The temple has a history of over a thousand years, although there is no record to establish

the exact date of its construction or other details.

In appearance, Guruvāyūr temple cannot compare with others noted for their massive struc-

tures. But it has acquired a grandeur and a reverential greatness of its own by its great tradition, and

the immensity of faith of the innumerable devotees who reach here every day for Darśana, from far

and near.

4. Haripāḍa

About 800 years back, an old saint received a SuBrahmānya idol called 'Aranalinarparai'. Here,

the festival is 'Thaipūsam'. There is another temple near Mannarśālai where the presiding deity is

‘Nāgarāja’. It is learnt that Paraśurāma consecrated Vāsuki Sarpekṣi in this temple. The traditional

priests of this temple are the decendants of Vāsudēvanambūdrī of Ēriñjaḍapalli. It is said that the priest

wanted to remarry since he had no issue. His wife Śrīdēvī started doing penance by worshipping

Nāgarāja. Once the complete place was destroyed by fire and all the serpent deities numbering more

than 1000 started fleeing the place. At this time, Śrīdēvī gave shelter to all the serpents gods. Thereafter

this place came to be known as Maṇṇārśālai, meaning ‘the sand cooled down after fire’. After some

time, Śrīdēvī gave birth to a male child and another child having a five-faced snake-head. The mother

showed affection towards the snake-child and thereafter, all the girl issues of the family became the

chief priest of the temple, which tradition continues even today.

5. Kanyākumārī

Kanyākumārī is the land’s end of India. From time immemorial this place is considered to be

one of the five sacred places (Pañcanārī Tīrthas) of Hindū. This place is twelve miles south-east of

Nagercoil, the headquarters of Kanyākumārī district of Tamilnadu. This is the only place from where

one can see sun rise and sun set on full moon days.

There is a śloka in Taittrīya Upaniṣad (about 6th century B.C.) about Devī Kanyākumārī.

Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, an ancient travel document of first century A.D. speaks about the

Goddess of Kanyākumārī. The worship of Dēvī Kumāṛī is referred to in ‘Śilāppatikāram’ and

‘Maṇimēkhalai’, the ancient epics of Tamil Nadu. From the above, it can be inferred that there must

have been a permanent temple for the Goddess of Kanyākumārī between the 6th century B.C. and

the ancient Tamil epic period (about second to third century A.D.). But there is no historic evidence

to find out the structure of the temple during the period. As the temples during the period were

constructed only by mortar, it can be inferred that Kanyākumārī temple during that period might have

been constructed only by mortar.

The revised Paṭivēṭu of the temple refrs to ten musicians, namely Nādaswaram I class,

Nādaswaram II class, Tavilkāran, Sutikāran, Kaimaniikāran, Ereṭṭa Chinnam, Timilayadippu,

Mirutaṅkakāran, Bāhavatar and Tālakkaran.

During Vṛṣika festival, songs were sung every day in front of the newly drawn painting of the

deity. This festival itself was known as Vrsika Pāttu (Vṛṣika song).

During Tiruveṅpa festival, the Utsava deity was kept in a swing and songs were sung before

the deity by the Murakkari of the temple. Nowadays, Nātaswaram is played instead of singing songs.

On festivals like Navarātri and Tirukārttikai, the Utsava Mūrti is taken round the streets. During

that period Nātaswaram, Mrutankam, Suti and Tālam are played.

During Vaikāśi festival, local musicians and specialists from other places are invited. On each

day of the festival, any one of the items like vocal music, instrumental music, Villupāṭṭu ( a famous

folk song of the area ) is performed. During the car festival, musicians sit on the car and play

Nātaswaram, Mrutankam, Suti and Tāla. Cendai and Kaitālam are played in front of the car. When the

car is moving, a big drum known as Perikai, which is attached to the back side of the car, is beaten.

History of Temples in South India

39

Every morning and evening, the temple plays devoltional songs like Tirupāvai, Tēvāram,

Tirupuhal and Abirāmi Antāti.

From the Pativatu of 1921, it is inferred that eleven musical instruments were available in the

temple. At present only five instruments are available in the temple. Instruments like Suti, Kaimani,

Erettacinnam, Timilai and Mrutankam, which were in use in the past, are not found in the temple

now. The reduction in the number of musicians and carelessness in preserving the musical instruments

may be the causes for the reduction in the number of musical instruments in the temple.

Devī Kanyākumārī might have been worshipped from very ancient days. Her worship might

have been popular during the Upanisad period.

In the beginning, the temple might have been constructed by mortar. Marna Cadanayan, a Pāndya

king might have renovated the temple in stone. Later Cōlas, Later Pāndyas, Vijayanagar kings, Nāyak

kings and Travancore kings might have done some renovations in the temple.

The temple was under the sway of kings and chieftains like Ais, Cēras, Pāndyas, Cōlas, Vēnād

kings, Vijayanagar kings, Nāyak kings and Travancore kings. Pāndyas considered Devī Kanyākumārī

as their family deity.

The inscriptions and copper plates connected with the temple throw flood a lot on the

history of the temple and the kings who ruled over the area.

The pūjās and festivals of the temple might have been conducted from time immemorial. Some

of the pūjās and festivals which were in use in the past are not in vague today. But new additions

have been introduced.

6. Kañcīpuram

Kañcī, popularly known as Kañcīpuram, and styled as ‘Kañcī’ in Tamil classical literature, is

an ancient dity of celebrity according to the widely common saying ‘Nagarēshu Kañcī’. Kañcī has been

reckoned as one of the seven sacred cities of Liberation (Moksapurīs) of Bharata. Kañcī is the only

‘Mōksapurī’ in peninsular India, the other six — Ayōdhyā, Mathurā, Māyā (Hardwar), Kāśī. Avantikā.

In Purānas references to this celebrated city of Kañcī are found.

The word ‘Kañcī’, literally means the girdle (belt-like ornament) generally made of gold, worn

by women, around the woist. ‘Kañcī’ as a common noun in Tamil language, signifies a hook joining

the two ends of the girdle popularly known as Oddyānam. This hook will touch just at the place of

the navel in the human body (when the girdle is warn by women). Perhaps it is in consonance with

this interpretation of ‘Kañcī’, the city of Kañcī (as a proper noun) is spoken of as the 'Navel of the

Earth', in 'Mēru Tantra'.

The Śaivite Nāyanmars and Vaiṣnava Ālvārs have sung the praise of the temple in Kañcī even

as Rudran Kannanar speaks of Kañcī as having festivals all through the year in one temple or other.

For instance, Tirumangai Ālvar cities the stone ramparts of the city of Kānchi. Tirujñāna Sambandar

speaks of Kānchi,the celebrated celestial fortified city of Kañcī in Tēvāram. Saint Pattinattadigal sings

of Kañcī as the city on the bank of the Kampa river.

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

The first historical reference to the region in which Kãñcī is situated can be seen in the Edicts

of Aśōka, wherein Toṇdaimaṇdalam the neck region of Tamilnadu in which Kãñcī is situated is

mentioned as the land of 'Satyaputra'.

Kãñcī city is sacred to all Hindus, Śaivite, Vaiṣṇava and Śākta alike. This city ranks as one

of the foremost in the number of temple it houses. There are a large number of temples dedicated

to Śiva, Viṣṇu, Gaṇapati, etc., big and small, of architectural fame and otherwise.

Of these, the shrines of Śrī Varadarāja (Hastiśailanātha), Śrī Ekāmbaranātha and Śrī Kāmākṣ

ī stand pre-eminent.

To add to all these domonation features depicting the greatness and importance of Kãñcī city,

it is worth while to note that Vyāsa, the classifier of the Vēdas, the compiler of the 18 Mahāpurāṇas,

the author of the Brahmā Sūtras, Bhagavatpāda Śaṅkara the propounder of Advaita Vēdānta,

Surēśvarācārya, the foremost of Śankara's disciples and Vidyāraṇya, the celebrated ascetic of Advaitic

lore, have been intimately connected with Kãñcī and have in no small measure contributed to the

greatness of this city.

The temple of Śrī Kāmākṣī standing almost in the centre of many temples of the city, though

small, is one of the most ancient temples of our land. An old Tamil verse cited by Adiyuyārkunallār,

in his commentary on Śilappadikāram, refers to this temple, particularly to the deity of Śāsta, the

guardian angel of the Kāmakōṣṭham of Dēvī Kāmākṣī, who is described as the one 'having bangles

in Her hands'. This verse also alludes to the victories of Karikala Cōḷa (1st century A.D.) as being

the effect of the blessings of the Śāta of Kāmakoṭṭam.

It is of importance to note that Dēvī Kāmākṣī is mentioned in the Lalita Aṣṭōttara Śatanāmāvalī,

in the Lalita Triśatī and in the Lalita-Sahasranāmāvalī as 'Kāmakōṭī Mahāpoṭha Padmastha', 'Kāmakōṭ

i Nilaya', and 'Kāmakōṭṭika' respectively, confirming the view that Kãñcī is the city of Kāmakōṭī of

Dēvī Kāmākṣī. One significant thing that strikes the shrewd observing pilgrim is that the towers

(gopurams) of the important temples of Kãñcī, far and near, face the Kāmākṣī temple. Further,

the processions of Yātrōtsava mūrtties of all temples in the city are taken only along the four principal

streets (Rājaviṭhī) around the temple of Śrī Kāmākṣī. Above all, it is rather peculiar to note the absence

of a sanctum sanctoram (garbagrha) for Dēvī in any of the Śiva temples within the limits of Kãñcī

city, be the temple small or big. But when one just passes the boundaries of the city, he finds Mūla

Vigrahas of Dēvī in separately allotted places in all Śiva temples near or far away from Kãñcī. The .

reason for the absence of places for Dēvī in the Kān̄chi temples is explained in the

Kāmākṣī Vilāsa, which says that Dēvī Kāmākṣī having been pleased with the penance of Kāma

(Manmatha-- Cupid) and having blessed him, drew unto her Biḷukasa-varūpa (ether form) all the

powers of Devī enshrined in all Devī shrines of the land including Kailāsa and that later, on the prayer

of Brahmā, the creator, she vouchsafed that all Śiva shrines save those in Kãñcī city might have shrines

for Dēvī, Kãñcī thenceforth came to be known also as Śivajit Kṣētra.

History of Temples in South India

The Śaiva Nāyanmār Sambandar even while singing the praises of Śiva in the temple at

Alangudy in Thanjavur district, used 'Kaccī Kāmakōṭi' . From all the above facts, it is clear that only

the grace of Paraśakti inside the Kāmākṣī temple at Kāñcī, has permeated throughout the land and

that Dēvī Kāmākṛī is the nucleus of all Śakti shrines.

Inside the garbhagrha (sanctum sanctorum) of the temple there is Dēvī Kāmākṣī in the pose

of Śrī Rāja Rājēśvarī. By the side of this mūrtī there is the stone icon of Tapas Kāmākṣī, i.e. Dēvī

doing penance with jaṭās, the toe of one leg fixed in the navel, and also the Bilakasa which is held

to spread under the whole of the Gāyatrī Maṇḍapa, in which stands the sanctum-sanctorum.

According to the Kāñcī Mahātmya ,the entire city of Kāñcī breathes with the air to the Bilakasa. In

front of Śrī Rājarājēśvari - Kāmākṣī is the Śrīcakra (made of Sālagrāma śili), consecrated by Ādi

Śaṅkara. In a large niche, on the right side outer wall of the sanctum, there is the stone icon of

Ādivarāha, commonly called 'Kalvar'. This place is identified as one of the 108 Vaiṣṇavite holy shrines.

The name of Kāñcīpuram (lat. 12.50; long. 79.40° E) is associated with a cluster of magnificent

temples (and also gorgeously coloured silks), constituting virtually a couple record of the Tamil Nadu

architecture. The artistic excellence of the temples, coupled with its sanctity as one of the seven sacred

cities of India, Kāñcīpuram attracts streams of visitors from the nooks and corners of the world

throughow the year. It has been a centre of learning and culture for centuries. Buddhism and Jainism

once flourished here, side by side with Hinduism. Ādi Śaṅkara, one of the famous saints of India,

established his episcopal seat (Kamakōṭipīṭham) here.

Kāñcīpuram, at present the headquarters of the Chengleput district, is situated 72 kilometres

from Madras city in the west-south westerly direction. It is well connected to important places on

all sides by road and rail.

Kāñcīpuram, the city of temples, is one of the reputed Muktikṣētras, and has played a dominent

role in the political and cultural history of our country from as early as the third century B.C. Hiuen

• Tsang, the Chinese traveller who came to Kāñcīpuram early in the 7th century A.D. had seen and

described the stūpa, which was built by Aśoka here. Even earlier to that, the pristine glory and

importance of Kāñcīpuram is well attested to in the paurāṇic literature. But an authetinic and historical

limelight of Kāñcīpuram is first thrown only during the Sangama period. Perumbanāṛṛuppadai vividly

describes Kāñcīpuram and its city plan, as compared to the form of the Lotus.

Kāñcīpuram was a reputed centre of learning, attracted students from far and beyond, right from

the earlier times. Patañjali, the great grammarian of the second century B.C. referred to the word

'Kāñcīpūraka', meaning one associated and hailing from Kāñcī'. From the mention of the word

'Kāñcīpūraka', it can be conjectured that the place Kāñcīpuram would have been an intellectual centre,

and acknowledged as such by Patañjali. Mayūraśarman, the founder of the Kadamba dynasty came

to Kāñcīpuram for higher studies in the reputed university called 'Ghaṭika'. Hiuen-Tsang has praised

the city for its intellectual eminence.

Besides the Cōḷa king Karikāla, who according to Tiruvālāngāḍu copper plates, rebuilt or

embellished with gold the city of Kāñcī, there is yet another king whose association with Kañcī is

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

revealed by the verse of the Sangam work called Perumpanāṛṛuppadai. It seems Kāñcīpuram served

as his capital.

During the Pallava regime (A.D. 4th Cent. – 9th Cent.), Kāñcīpuram functioned as a nuclear

of all their activities. The temple building activity was in full swing during this period. They have

dotted the whole of Kāñcīpuram and its surrounding with cluster of monuments numbering more than

30. Hiuen Tsang, who visited Kāñcīpuram during this period, enumerates some eight Dēva temples,

and hundereds of Saṅghāramas here.

Kāñcīpuram containued to serve as the seat of the royal power though as secondary capital in

the Cōḷa times, owing to its earlier and traditional prominence, Vijāyalaya, the founder of the imperial

Coḷa line, extended the Cōḷa suzerainty over Kāñcīpuram. Though the centre of gravity of the building

activity was shifted to Thanjavur during this period. Kāñcīpuram was not totally neglected, as is

testified not only by the inscriptions recording the construction and renovation of the temples, but also

by the existence of the Cōḷa temples there.

As far as Kāñcīpuram is concerned, though we do not have any material evidence to show the

existence of the monuments prior to the Pallava period, we have a vivid picture of it, in the Sangam

literature.

Mahendravarman I, was really a vīcitra-citta (inventive or curious minded) who initiated the

art of scooping out of the rock the abodes of Hindū deities, dotted in the suburb of Kāñcīpuram with

many such creations. Materially speaking we do not have any temple built by Mahēndravarman in

Kāñcīpuram. But, a pillar found in the ruined maṇḍapa near the thousand-pillared maṇḍapa in the

third Prākāra of the Ekāmbarēśwara temple has an inscription in Pallava-grantha characters of the 7th

century A.D., which gives various birudas of Mahendravarman I (A.D. c. 580-630). This pillar must

have evidently formed part of a structural temple of the time of Mahendravarman I, probably built

in the area.

The reign of Narasiṁhavarman II, Rajasimha (A.D. 690-800) who ‘bestowed his wealth in

temples and brāhmaṇas’ was eventful in many respects. For art and architecture, this fairly sustained

and peaceful reign was epoch-making in the sense that structural temples in stone were reared up for

the first time on an extensive scale.

As many as six or seven temples were built at Kāñcīpuram besides four major temples at

Māmallapuram and one more at Pāṉmalai, during his rule.

Piravatāṇēśwara Temple

The Piravatāṇēśwara temple is built out of coarse sandstone. It is a small two-storeyed square

based vimāna of the typical Dravidian architecture order. The walls have intermediate plasters, based

on vyalas, characteristic of Rājasimha pillars. The first tala (tier) carries a hara of four karṇakūttas

and four bhadraśālas. The second tala (tier) is fevoid of the haras, the bhūtas or nandis at the corner.

The grīva is prismatic and the śikhara is octagonal in shape. The adhiṣṭhāna is raised over an upapīṭh

ha with plaster decorations and top granite slab and consists of the upāna. Jagatī, tripaṭṭakumuda Kaṇṭ

History of Temples in South India

ha and Paṭṭikā, which again is of granite slabs. The kanṭha, projected forward at intervals below the

wall plasters, a feature rather rare in Rājasimha’s time, truly the imitation of the basal wooden support

for the broad based and pillar bases.

The shrine walls have niches (Dēvakōṣṭhas) with tōraṇas above. The dēvakōṣṭha to the south

contains the Dakṣiṇāmūrti form, on north and east are the forms of Śiva with Brahmā and Viṣṇu as

attendants. The ardhamandapa also has Dēvakōṣṭhas. The northern niche contains the image of Durgā,

whereas the southern niche has the image of Gajalakṣmī. Gaṇēśa also appears on the superstructure

of this temple and was a new creation of Rājasimha in the Pallava iconography or sculpture. The

sanctum rear wall has a base relief of Sōmāskands. Stylistically, this temple can be dated as earlier

to all the temples of Rajasimha at Kāñcīpuram.

Airāvatēśwara Temple

Airāvatēśwara temple, also built out of sandstone, has lost its superstructure. The adhiṣṭhāna

of the square sikhara body rests on upapiṭha with a granite Paṭṭikā on the top. Like other temples

of Rājasimha, the walls of this temple are also embellished with rearing vyāla-based pilasters. The

cardinal niches have the image of Brahmā on the north, Viṣṇu on the east and Dakṣiṇāmūrti on the

south. An image of Durgā appears on the north ardhamandapa wall and a form of Śiva is found on

the southern wall.

The interior of the ardhamandapa is also decorated with panels like Kalari and a natamurti of

Śiva. A Somaskanda panel is carved on the back wall of the garbhagriha.

Kailāsanātha Temple

The Kailasanātha, is the largest temple complex built by Rajasimha and added to by his son

Mahendravarman III in his father’s life time. The main vimāna of the Rājasimhēśwara is a typical

Draviḍa style of square sikhara type without tiers, facing East. Its āditala is integrated with seven

abutting sub-shrines, square ones in the four corners and oblong ones on the three sides on the diagonal

and cardinal axials. All the sub-shrines have independent entrances and enshrined icons.

The main Vimāna has a high adhiṣṭhāna with mouldings and excellent ornamentation. The

Jagati position of the adhiṣṭhāna is embellished with friezes of bhūtas, some with animal and some

with demon faces. They are depicted in various poses of dance and meritment. This Tripaṭṭa Kumuḍa

found over the Jagati in the adhiṣṭhāna is also exquistely carved with various ornamentations. The

wall of the temple has been adorned with vyāla-based plasters. Unlike the sculptures defined only in

the cardinal niches, the whole wall has been crowded with a number of beautiful sculptures; making

the Kailasānatha temple a veritable treasure-houses of śaivite iconographic forms. This is the richest

of all Pallava shrines in terms of figural decorations.

This temple is situated at about one-and-a-half kilometres in the straight west direction from

the bus stand.

Pauranic History : Once upon a time there were three Asuras called Thira purathavars. They

had faith in Śaivism. But they gave troubles to the Dēvas. So the Devas went to Mahāviṣṇu to get

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

relief from their sufferings. Mahāviṣṇu created a man called Ādi Buddha and sent him with Nārada

to preach against Śaivism in front of the Asuras. They did so. The Asuras were then converted to

Buddhism by Nārada and Ādi Buddha. Then Mahāviṣṇu went to God Śiva and told him all the

sufferings of Devas by Asuras. He requested Śiva to estory the Asuras. Śiva did so.

Then Nārada and Ādi Buddha realized their mistake. Both of them came to Kāñcī and built

a temple. In this temple they established a Liṅga called ‘Kailāsa Nāthan’ and worshipped Him. At

that time Lord Śiva appeared before them. They requested Śiva to excuse them for their fault.

According to the saying, Nārada and Ādi Buddha went round the temple many times and at

last got the favour of Lord Śiva.

Historical importance : In the eighth century Rājasimiha (Narasimiha Varmā Pallava II) built

a temple to Kailasanāthār and fixed a date for kuṁbhābhiṣēkam. But the God, in the king’s dream,

told him that on that day He wanted to go to Thinnānoor (Thirujñāṇavoor to attend Poosalar’s)

kuṁbhābhiṣekam and that He would come another day to his temple. The king wondered on hearing

these words and went to Thimnānoor. But he found no temple there. He saw only Poosalar under a

tree in penances. He enquired of him about the temple. Poosalar replied that he had built a temple

in his heart itself and was celebrating the kuṁbhābhiṣēkam. The king found the festival in Poosalar’s

heart with great wonder and honoued him. Then he built a temple there, according to Poosalar’s wish.

Then the king Rājasimiha came to Kāñcī and celebrated the festival. To prove the above facts, there

is a stone inscriptions in Kailasanāthār temple.

The Main Shrine : The main sanctum faces East. Inside, the sanctum a primatic liṅga is in

the centre. The liṅga, with sixteen facets is of highly polished granite stone, over eight feet in height.

On the back wall of the sanctum, above the liṅga, is a Somāskanda panel.

Sub shrines : The sub-shrine on the South-East and on the North-East corners carry sculptures

of Śiva performing the Saṁhāra Taṇḍava on the back wall. Devī as Bhavānī witnessed the dance on

the side while on the other are shown gaṇas and attendants playing musical instruments.

Vaikuṇṭha Perumāla Temple

The Vaikuṇthaperumāla or Paramēśwara Vinnagaram is one of the magnificent creations during

Nandivarman II’s reign. It is a typical Draviḍa vimāna with four tiers, facing West with a frontal

mukhamandapa, both standing over a tall adhiṣṭhāna. The temple complex surrounded by a cloister

mandapa, externally walled by the prakāra and internally colonnaded. The narrow path between it

and the temple is served as an open circumanbulatory path around the temple. The structure is built

entirely of sandstone, the floor below the adhiṣṭhāna and the paṭṭikā on its top above being of granite

slabs. The three tiers below are functional, providing cells for three forms of Viṣṇu (sitting, standing

and reclining). The top tier is merely symbolic, without any opening, is a solid cube, probably added

to beautify the temple in proportion to its base. All the three tiers have ambulatory passage, achieved

by the system of three concentric walls successively increasing its height one behind the other. Up

to the third tala, it has haramala consisting of Karṇāṭakūṭas, Bhadraśālās and Pañjaras, whereas the

History of Temples in South India

fourth tier is devoid of the nara. It had formerly four lions at the corners, now replaced by four seated

Garuda figures, both the lion and garuda being appropriate cognizances of Viṣṇu. The cloister wall,

which is of lesser height than the first tier, has haramāla consisting of kūṭas śālās. The interior of

this wall has the depictions of the historical events which led to Nandivarama II's coming to the throne.

It quite interestingly echoes the various procedures followed during the coronation of the king and also

the contemporary social activities. The depiction of the historical events in the temple, though initiated

by Rājasimiha in the shore temple at Māmallapuram, takes its perfection here.

The figures found on the vimāna, ardhamandapa, walls and other places make the temple a

museum for studying the Vaiṣṇavite iconography. Rich in iconographical detail, conscious of beauty

and sho exquisite and seductive charm, the sculptures make the art become sensuous and sophisticated,one

receives the admiration of every visitor.

This is a temple situated in between the railway station and the bus stand. It is half a kilometre

trouvál the eastnorth of the bus stand.

This temple is a famous historical one. It is good evidence for the Pallava's architecture.

Of all the Vaiṣṇava temples in Tamilnadu, this is the most ancient and important one.

Importance of the Temple : In this temple the importance is Lord Viṣṇu's sitting, reclining and

standing positions. In the ground floor of the temple'. God is in sitting position and in the first floor,

He is in the reclining position. The stature in the Garbhagraham is very fine and natural. The consort

of Vaikuṇṭha Perumāḷ is called Vaikuṇṭhavalli.

Thirumaṅgai Āḷwar have sung many devotional songs on Vaikuṇṭha perumāḷ. In his pasuram

this temple is called 'Vaikuṇṭha Vinnagaram'.

Stone Inscription : Vimānam with three-storeyed cells enshrining Viṣṇu in the sitting, reclining

and standing was positions constructed by Paramēśwara or Nandi Varman II Pallava Malla and it is

called Paramēśwara Viṣṇugṛham. This is a masonry stone temple of the Rājasimiha style A.D., 674-

Art and Architecure : Here, we can see Thirumāl's different figures which are in the Purāṇas,

we can also see the sculptures of Pallavas. On the outside wall of sanctum are Thirumal's different

incarnations. On the inner side of the wall, we can see historical sculptures. These sculptures give

a lot of information about Pallavas and their coronations, war, political aspects, religious, social

conditions and so on. The sculptures were carved in a good and beautiful manner. There are pillars

with lion heads on the compound walls of the temple.

The grand festival of this temple is 'Vaikuṇṭha Ēkādaśī'. During this occasion people from

different parts of Tamilnadu come to this temple to have darśana of Vaikuṇṭha perumal with the belief

that they would get wealth prosperity by worshipping him.

Muktēśwara and Mātaṅgēśwara Temple

The Muktēśwara, also called Dharmamahādēvi Īśwaram, after the name of Nandivarman II's

queen. as revealed by the inscription found in the temple and the Mātaṅgēśwara also constructed during

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

the region of Nandivarman though found in two different places in Kāñcī, are alike in may respects.

Both are square, three tier vēsara type vimāna with circuiar grīvā and sikhara. These are the earliest

extant temples to possess a circular grīvā and sikhara, though the models of these forms are represented

in the Bhīma Ratha, at Māmallapuram. Both the temples are standing with their front mandapa on

a raised adhisthāna, which is again placed on upapīthas. Like the other temples of Kāñcīpuram except

the granite floor and top of the upapitha and the pattikā over the adhisthāna, the whole temple is built

out of sandstone. The first and second tiers of both the temples have a hamala consisting of Karnakūt

as and śālas. The third tier is devoid of haramala, but carries four nandis at the corners.

Sculptures of the walls of both temples are mostly sunk reliefs. Shri K.R. Shrinivasan is of

the opinion that these may have been carved several years after the original construction.

Sokkēśwara Temple

It has a square vimāna with circular grīvā and sikhara. The niches once had the customary

triad of Daksināmūrti (south), Viṣṇu (west) and Brahmā (north). The figure of Narasimha found in

the western grīvākostha speaks of the artistic glory of this temple. Dating this temple has been a matter

of controversy among scholars. Mr. S.R. Bālasubrahmānyam takes the Parākēsari inscription found

here as that of Cōḷa Parāntaka I (A.D. 907-954). But Mr. K.R. Shrinivasan has suggested on the

stylistic basis that it can hardly be earlier than (A.D.) 1025 and takes it to the middle phase of Cōḷa

temples.

Varadarājaswāmī Temple

Varadarājaswāmī temple, a grand and imposing edifice that adorns Kāñcī is located in the place

presently known as ‘Viṣṇu Kāñcī’. No doubt this temple was in existence during the Pallava period,

as attested to by the hymns of Bhūdattāḷvār. But we practically do not have any vestiges of that period.

The earliest inscription found here is dated in the 32nd year (A.D. 1050) of Rājādhirāja Cōḷa I. The

vast and impressive complex of structures of Varadarājaswāmī temple, as seen today, was not built

all at one and same time, but was periodically added on to for many centuries. Prof. K.V. Raman

has traced out four stages of development of this temple complex. As one of the largest temple-

complexes of South India, covering an area of 377.40 metres long and 221.65 metres broad, this temple

has four prakāra with two main entrance, one on the wests which is the principal entrance and another

on the east. Architecturally, this temple claims an unique position because of the peculiar and almost

intriguing feature known as Hastigiri (Elephant Hill). It is in the form of a square enclosurc closed

by huge walls of about 7.3 metres height covering an area of 30 metres square. The main sanctuary

of Varadarāja in standing pose is placed on it. The reason for this elevation is possibly to give a hill-

like elevation to the temple. Apart from this, some paurāṇic and Āgamic reasons are also per forward

for this elevation.

This temple is situated at about three kilometres from the Bus stand. It is at Little Kāñcīpuram.

Important Deities to be seen : 1. Varadarāja Perumāl; 2. Yōga Narasimha; 3. Perundēvī

Thāyār; 4. Sakkarathāḷwar, and 5. Ātthi Varadar.

History of Temples in South India

47

Paurāṇic History of Varadarāja Perumāḷ : In Krta Yuga, Brahmā wanted to perform the

Aśwameha yāga in order to purify Himself from the sin. He selected Kāñcī as the best place to do

it. He left his eldest consort Saraswatī and performed the sacrifice with His other consorts namely,

Śāvitrī and Gāyatrī. This was a great insult for Saraswatī and so She became very angry with Her

husband Brahmā. She wanted to interrupt the Yāga in the form of great river ‘Vēgavatī’. Brahmā prayed

to God Viṣṇu to protect the Yāga from danger. God Viṣṇu lay across the river in naked and prevented

Saraswatī from destroying it. This lying incarnation is called Yaḍōthakārī Perumāḷ. At the end of the

sacrifice, Lord Varadarāja appeared from ‘Yāga Kuṇḍam’ and gave darśana to Brahmā.

The consort of Śrī Varadrāja Perumāl is called ‘Perundēvi Thayār’. Śrī Varadarāja shrine is on

a tiny hill named Ātthi Giri He is facing West. Several Āḷwārs have made devotional songs on Him.

Ramānujar, the founder of vaiṣṇavite has also sung many songs in praise of Lord Varadarāja Swāmy.

This temple with a hoary past was intimately associated with the life of Rāmānuja’s Vēdānta

Dēśikā. Nadathur Ammal and Tirukkaci Nambi.

Cakkarathālwar Sannathi : This is situated near the tank. He has sixteen hands and Śaṅgu

Cakras. He bestows all blessings to those who worship him.

Atthi Varadar : Four pillars maṇḍapam, sixteen pillars maṇḍapam and one pillar with the image

of Krṣṇa on top are in the tank. This tank is called Anantha Thīrtham. Atthi Varadar is kept inside

the silver box and it is kept under the four pillars maṇḍapam in the water. Once in forty years, after

the water is pumped out God is shown for the pilgrim’s Darśana. As soon as the image is replaced

in the tank, the rain comes automotically and the tank will be filled up.

Golden and Silver Lizards — Paurāṇic History : Once upon a time there lived king Āśuvanta

Mahārāja. He had two sons. They went to Durvāsā Muni to known the arts. One day, Durvāsā asked

them to bring water from the river for the pūjā. When they were returning, they put the water under

a tree and played for some time because they were too young. At that time a lizard fell into the water.

Without knowing it, they took it home. Durvāsā found the dead lizard in the water. He cursed both

of them to become lizards because they did not come in time for the pūjā and there was a lizard in

the water. The boys were very much afraid. They asked for a remedy. The Muni said thay they would

get their original form if they bathed in the Anantha Thīrtham and worshipped Lord Varadarāja. The

boys did so and got the favour of the God.

Jvaraharēśvara Temple

Jvaraharēśvara, a significant example of a temple of the time of Kulottuṅga III is smaller in

size, but quite interesting because of its ornamentation and architectural features. This temple consists

of an east-facing vimāna, ardha maṇḍapa, mahāmaṇḍapa, agramaṇḍapa, Nandī maṇḍapa and a large

balipīṭha. The temple was in a ruined condition earlier, but was reassembled faithfully, retaining the

original character in the recent past. The vimāna of this temple was probably a two-tier structure, both

storeys elliptical as would have been the grīvā and śikhara. The grilled windows with various figurines,

the loops of the māla on the shaft of the pillar filled with tiny figure sculpture and floral carvings

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

on the row of bhūta figures below the cornice, in various modes are some of the artistic examples,

which make this temple indisputably one of the most refined and beautiful temples at Kāñcīpuram.

The oblong, Pāṇḍava-perumāḷ temple is also a good example of the Cōḷas, datable to C. mid-

11th century A.D. It is a two-tiered vimāna, enshrining the reclining Viṣṇu with figures of the Pāṇḍavas.

Śrī Ekāmbarēśvara Temple

Śrī Thirukaci Ekāmbaranāthar, praised as such in the hymns of Tirujñānasambandar,

Tirunāvukkarasar, Sundaramūrti and Māṇikavācakar is one of the magnificent temple, equall: in rank

to the Varadarājaperumāḷ temple and occupies an area of more than for 30 acres. It is a massive edifice

having five Prakāras, thousand-pillared maṇḍapas, and many subsidiary shrines. Like Varadarājaperumāḷ

temple, this temple also attained the present size, as the result of many centuries of growth and

development. The massive outwall and the 192- feet gopura were constructed by Śrī Krṣṇa Devarāya

in A.D. 1509. Tradition asserts that this temple contains prthivīliṅga which is one of the five liṅgas

of south India. The mango tree is the sthalavrikṣa of the temple, that is why the God is named as

Ekāmbarēśvara. There is an old mango tree in the temple which is worshipped even today with great

veneration. There is a popular belief that the four branches of the tree represent the four Vēdas, and

each branch bears fruit, with different tastes. The corridor of the temple has plenty of liṅgas in various

sizes and the idols of 63 Nāyanmārs. One liṅga with 108 miniature liṅgas and another with 1008

miniature liṅgas are also near the sacred mango tree. Kaïchiyappar, a Śivācārya in Kumāra Koṭṭam

at Kāñcī had realized his work Kandapurāṇam, the Tamil translation of the Skandapurāṇa, by reading

it in the presence of Vikāṭacakra Vināyaka in the thousand pillared maṇḍapa of Ekāmbarēśwarea. The

sanctity of the temple coupled with pompous celebrations throughout the year makes this temple as

a suberb pilgrimist destination.

This temple is situated in the North-West from Bus stand at about one and half kilometres.

At the entrance there is a tower which is very high.

Important to be seen : 1. Ekāmbaranāthar; 2. A Liṅga which contains 1008 liṅgas; 3. Viṣṇu

(Nīla Thiṅgal Thuṇḍathān); 4. Naṭarājar, and 5. A single sacred mango tree.

Historical Importance : This temple was built by Pallavas, Cōḷas and Vijayanagar kings. There

are stone inscriptions to prove the above facts. In 1509 A.D. Krṣṇadēvarāya built a big tower at about

sixty metres in height. It is in the south entrance. He also built a Kalyāṇa Maṇdapam, which is

opposite to the Garbhagrham. This temple was mainly developed by Kulottuṅga III and Krṣṇadevarāya.

Story of Śiva : Once the wife of Śiva, Umādevī closed the eyes of her husband with her hands.

At once, the world became dark. It was a great sin. To get rid of that sin, Umādevī worshipped God

Śiva with the help of Viṣṇu for a long time. To check her reality, Śiva made a flood, by lifting the

Gaṅgā from His head. To save the sand Liṅga from the flood, Dēvī embraced it by her chest. Because

of that God Śiva is called, Thaluvai:kkul:ḷ: ia Nāthar, God Śiva was satisifed with her worship. So

He gave Her a word that He would marry her during the month of Paiṅguni (March).

History of Temples in South India

Story of Śiva at Kāñcīpuram : Once the marriage of Pārvatī took place at Himālaya mountain. All sub Gods and saints were assembled there. So the North side of the earth went down with weight in order to equalize the weight of the earth God Śiva ordered Agathiya to go to Kāñcī. But Agathiya felt sorry for he was not able to see the marriage. But God Śiva told him that He would marry Pārvatī at Kāñcī at Paṅguni Uthiram. For the sake of Agathiya the marriage of Pārvatī and Śiva in Paṅguni Uthiram takes place every year.

A single sacred Mango Tree : It is called the 'Mango tree of Vēda'. The age of the tree is 3,500 years. The four branches of the tree is sacred for four Vēdas. This tree gives mangoes of four different tastes (sweet, sour, bitter, astringency). The boon of the mango has got the power of giving children. Many people have gained children by eating these mangoes.

Viṣṇu Temple : There are eighteen Viṣṇu temples in Kāñcīpuram. It is one among them. Here he is in the standing position. The presence of Viṣṇu in a Siva temple shows the integration of Śaivism and Vaiṣṇavism.

A Liṅga which contains 1008 Liṅgas : This is one of the most important ones to be seen in the temple. Around the prakāram of Māvaḍi we can see the liṅgas row by row. All the liṅgas are joined together in this liṅga. This single Liṅga contains 1008 liṅgas.

Naṭarājar Temple : This is also one of the important statues in the temple. Naṭarāja is facing south. There is a proverb in Tamil “Nambinavanukku Naṭrāju” (Those who believe in God -fot there is Naṭrāju to protect them) “Nambāthavanukku Emarāja”- (‘Those who do not believe in God- there is Emarāja to kill them).

In the month of Paṅguni the festival begins. In this we have to see silver Chariot, Māvaḍi Sevai and the wedding of Śiva with Pārvatī. During this season thousand of people come here to have darśana of Lord Śiva and to get His favour and blessings.

Śrī Kāmākṣī amman Temple

Śrī Kāmākṣī Amman temple is one of the reputed centres of the Śakti worship and is also accounted as one among the three renowned Śakti seats. The other two being the Madurai Mīnākṣī and Kāśī Viśālākṣī. This temple is situated almost in the centre of big Kāñcīpuram and is surrounded by main streets (Rāja Vīthīs) on all the four sides. The temple is encircled by a huge prakāra wall with four entrances, but the main entrance is in the east. The temple, of course, has a long history tracing from earlier times, but the present structure is possibly of a very late date. The earliest epigraphical reference to Kamakkoṭṭam is found in an inscription dated 1259 A.D. from Tripurāntakam, Kurnool district. Since then every Dēvī shrine in the Tamil country has come to be known as Kāmakkoṭṭam. Kāñcī being the important centre of Devī-cult as evidenced by the Purāṇas and by the canonical literature of the Tamil saints, Kāmākṣī occupies an important place at Kāñcī where Kāmākṣī herself is called Kāmakōṭi. It is believed that the very city is said to have been built in the form of Śrī Cakra according to the Śākta āgamas.

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According to purāṇas, it is said that Śakti emanated as Kāmākṣī from the bilākāśa before getting

herself consecrated at the Kāmākṣī temple. Traditionally, there is a belief that there was a delightful

grove of Campaka trees around the main shrine, now known as Gāyatrī Maṇḍapam. The dēvas took

the form of parrots and worshipped Śrī Dēvī here. Śrī Devī, after giving protection to the Dēvas,

enshrined herself in the Śrī Cakra in Sūkṣma form. This Śrī Cakra, just in front of Śrī Dēvī is

considered more sacred and all pūjā and prayers are offered to it.

Śrī Ādi Śaṅkara, who was born at Kāladī in Kerala, travelled all over India and propagated

the advaita philosophy by enlightening about the true worth and value of the Vedas and Upaniṣads.

He established the five maṭhas in different zones of India, one of which was at Kāñcī, while the others

were at Śṛṅgērī, Dwāraka, Badrīnātha and Purī. The legendary account connecting Ādiśaṅkara with

Goddess Kāmākṣī was that the Goddess used to take the form of Kāḷī at nights and caused havoc to

the people and the country. Thereupon Śaṅkara did penance to please the Goddess and restrain Her

from causing terror to the people. Very much pleased by the deep devotion and prayer of Śaṅkara,

the Divine Mother assured him that She would not stir out of the temple without his permission. He

is said to have consecrated a yantra in the Śrīcakra, which is found in the sanctum-sanctorum of this

temple.

The temple is situated in the northwest direction at about half a kilometre from the bus stand.

Important Sannathies to be worshipped : 1. Gāyatrī Maṇḍapam; 2. Kāmakōṭi Kāmākṣī; 3.

Śrī Cakram; 4. Tabas Kāmākṣī; 5. Pilakāśāl; 6. Arūpa dakṣmī; 7. Varaghes; 8. Santhāna Sthamambam;

9. Arthanariśwara; 10. Rūpa Lakṣmī and Kalvar perumāl; 11. Annapūrṇāi; 12. Dharma Saṁstha;

10. Ādi Sankarar; 14. Durvāsā Munivar; 15. Festival Kāmākṣī; 16. Thundeeramahāraja; 17. Mahā

Saraswatī; 18. Dharmasthambam; 19. Karikala Bairavar; 20. Durgai; 21. Kāśi Viswanāthar; 22.

Pañcagngai; 23. Bhūtanigraha perumā and 24. Agasthiyar and Ayagarivar.

Gāyatrī Maṇḍapam : This is situated in the middle of the first prakāram. Kāmāksī is sitting

in the middle of the Maṇdapam. This maṇḍapam contains twenty - four pillars.

Kāmakōṭi Kāmākṣī : In the middle of the above maṇḍapam Śrī Kāmākśīwsi is sitting in the

southaeast direction with four hands. Kāmākṣī had appeared to destroy the asuras called Pūryam

Paṇḍakaśuran and Paṇḍakāsurān to get rid of the fear of Dēvas. Kāmākṣī is called Kāmākōṭi, Kāmāk

because she gives boons to all who worship Her.

Aruba Lakṣmī : This sannati is situated in the left side of Kāmākṣī. Aruba Lakṣmī is in

north direction.

Paurāṇic History of Aruba Lakṣmī : Once, Mahālakṣmī made fun of her husband's (Mahāviṣ

ṇu) beauty.So Mahāviṣṇu became very angry with her and made her face to be very ugly. To get her

original beauty, Mahāviṣṇu advised her to go to the earth and perform penance in the Kāmākṣī temple.

Mahālakṣmī did so. At that time Kāmākṣī gave blessings to her and named herAñchana Kāmākṣī.

Māhālakṣmī got her original beauty by the blessings of Kāmākṣī.

History of Temples in South India

51

Kamakōṭi Piṭham (alias) Śrī Cakram : This is situated opposite Kāmākṣī. This has some special

importance.

Santāna Pillar : This is on the left side of Kāmākṣī. Those who go around the pillar will get

children. These were the words of Kāmākṣī Amman.

Ardhanarīśwarar : This is in the Gāyatrī Maṇḍapam. Ardhanārīśwarar is facing in the south

direction.

Kāśī Viśwanāthar : This is also in the third prakāram. In the south side, Kāśī Viśwanāthar

is facing in the east direction.

Mahiṣāsuramardinī : This is also in the third prakāram inside the eastern Gopuram. Mahiṣ

āsuramardinī is facing Kāmākṣī in the standing position.

Annapūrṇī : This is in the first prakāram on the way to Gāyatrī Maṇḍapam. Annapūrṇī is in

the south-east direction. Kāmākṣī was taken the incarnation of Annapūrṇī to destroy the Asuras.

Ulagalaṇḍa Perumāl Temple

This is one of the ancient templesin Kāñcīpuram. This temple is situated at nearly half a

kilometre from the bus stand in the north. Very near to this temple is theKāmākṣī temple.

There once lived a great emperor, Mahābali by name. He was very generous and charitable

but was very proud. He could give anything to anyone who approached him without hesitation. At

the same time, he was very cruel to Dēvas. The Dēvas could not tolerate his curelty and so they

appealed to Mahāviṣṇu to protect them. Lord Viṣṇu paid heed to their request and decided to destroy

the emperor. So he approached the emperor Mahabali in the disguise of a poor young brahmin boy

and asked him for three feet of land to make penance. The emperor granted him his wish. At once

God Viṣṇu took his huge form namely ‘Viśvarūpa’ and measured the whole sky by one feet and the

whole world by the other. He asked the emperor for the third feet of land. Now the wicked emperor

realized his mistake. He showed his head to the Lord and asked him to place His foot on it. Lord

Viṣṇu did so. At once all his pride vanished. He surrendered to the Lord and became pious. He

requested the God to grant him the wish that he should always be praying to him. Accordingly God,

Viṣṇu left his head alone to be above the earth and pressed the rest of his body to be buried unḍer

the earth. One can see the head of the buried emperor under the foot of this image.

This temple is situated in the centre of Kāñcīpuram and can be easily approached from any

direction. Out of the eighteen sacred Vaiṣṇavite shrines in the city of Kancīpuram, five are located

in the Ulagalaṇdar temple itself. They are : Ulagalaṇdar, Kāraikāthan, Ooraikāthan, Nīraikāthan and

Kārvannatthān. The Lord Ulagalaṇdar is an extraordinary artistic product, gigantic, measuring 10

metres high, kindless emotion and ambition of the devotees and visitors, stretches out his leg as if

in the attitude of measuring the three worlds. Another leg is placed firmly on the head of king Bali.

Though the temple was in existence, during the Cōḻa times as attested to by the inscription found here

stating that Tribhuvanamudaiyāl, the queen of Kulōttunga I (A.D. 1070-1122)had made tax-free land

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

gift to this temple, the present structure seems to have been built by the Vijayanagar emperor in 17the

century. This temple has also the credit of having their earliest inscriptions of the Pāṇdyas dated to

A.D. 1228 at Kāñchipuram. This temple is not only renowned for its sanctity, but also for giving

distinguished personalities to the scholarly world like Parimel Algar, the expert commentator of

Tirukkural of the 13th century A.D. He was a priest of this famed Ulagalanḍaperumal temple.

Śrī Kumārakottam Temple

The worship of Kumāran, also known as Murgan Seyan has highest antiquity. The Sangama

works trea: !im as the God of hills and its surroundings and is a proper deity among the Tamilian

society from the earliest time onwards. The present Kumārakottam, the abode of Kumāra at Kāñcīpuram,

is a modern construction built only in the recent past. But the evidences show that this temple would

have been under worship little earlier, as it earns the praise of Arunagirināthar, the famous author

of Thiruppugazh. It is astonishing to note that Śrī Kaciyappa Śivācariar only here got the divine grace

to begin his great work Kandapurāṇam in Tamil.

According to the traditional accounts, once when Lord Brahrnā was himself unable to explain

the meaning of the sacred ‘Ohm’, Lord Subramaṇia put Brahmā in custody and took charge of his

work of creation also. Thereupon, Lord Śiva deputed Nadidēva to Muruga so as to set Brahmā free.

Muruga first declined and then wishing to propitiate for his refusal established a shrine for Lord Śiva

and did penance here.

Kacchapēśwarar Temple

The Kacchapēśwarar temple, situated on the western part of Kāñcīpuram is facing to the east

with the main entrance on the north. It is one of the glorious temples in Kāñcīpuram and its origin

and greatness are vividly dealt in the book called Kāñcīpuraam.

While churning the milky ocean to get ambrosia by the asuras and devas, Viṣṇu took the form

of a huge tortoise to support the mount Mandara, the churning shaft. The paurāṇic narration further

states that after all was over, the tortoise became very proud and cause havoc in the water. The activities

of Viṣṇu in the form of tortoise, become intolerable to the gods and the people appealed to Lord

Śiva, who promised to make the tortoise become calm and gentle as before and did so accordingly.

This pauranic account is transferred into the stone as sculpture here, where the tortoise is

shown worshipping Lord Śiva. Lord Śiva is said to have taken the form of Jyotirlinga here during

the pralaya.

Besides the above said temples, there are numerous shrines, scattered throughout the locality,

numbering more than 200 temples. Of them, mention may be made of the well-known Citragupta

Swāmī temple to the east of the rettai maidapam (Big Kāñcīpuram), the Aṣṭa bhujam temple, which

received the praise of Alwars, Śrī Yathoktakārī temple, Śrī Viḷakkoḷi Perumāḷ temple and Śrī Sūryavirāṭ

ēśwara temple a few furlong to the east of Kāñcīpuram. There is nothing outstanding about these

temples, most of them being late and specimens of a period when the creative forces were thoroughly

exhausted.

History of Temples in South India

Pāṇḍavadūta Perumāl Temple

This temple is situated about three kilometres from the eus stand and one kilometre west to

the Ekāmbaranāthar temple.

Historical Evidence : There are three inscriptions of which one is not visible.and two inscriptions

are on the north and south walls of Garbhagraham. The inscription on the north wall denotes that

a merchant provided the temple with a flower garden and for the upkeep of the same he, purchased

lands in Oriravirukkai village in Chingleput district.the inscription on the south wall denotes that a

merchant in Kāñcīpuram gave some gold to the pujārī of the temple to provide two measures of curd

for the use of God every day. These inscriptions were inscribed at the time of the Cola king

Korarjēsvarīvarman alias Kulōttunga Cōla Dēva.

Important Deities to be seen : 1. Śrī Pāṇḍavadūta Perumāl; 2. Śrī Rukmiṇī Thāyar; 3. Matsya

Thīrtham and 4. Śrī Arulāla Perumāl Emperumanār.

Śrī Pāṇḍavadūta Perumāl : This Perumāl is no other than Lord Kṛṣṇa. The legend is as follows.

After the Paṇḍavas has completed their exile, they deputed Lord Kṛṣṇa to the court of the Kauravas

to demand from Duryōdhana the then ruling prince, to ask him for their share in the property or at

least five houses, as a sign of compromise. Accordingly Śrī Kṛṣṇa went to the Court of Duryōdhana

and told him what the Pāṇḍavas had demanded. Duryodana denied their demand wholly. After this,

King Duryōdhana with the help of his matternal uncle Sakuni thought a cunning plan to kill Lord

Kṛṣṇa. He built of false throne made of bamboos, a number of soldiers were hiding under it. It was

planned as soon as Lord Kṛṣṇa was made to sit on the throne he would fall down and the soldiers

would kill him. When kṛṣṇa entered the court of Duryōdhana, he was warmly invited and taken to

the throne. Lord Kṛṣṇa knew all the cunning arrangements. He camly sat on the throne. At once the

throne cracked . Lord Kṛṣṇa took his huge form, the Viśwarūpa. Even the blind king Dhṛarāṣṭra got

his sight to see the Viśwarūpa Darśanam. The whole court except Duryōdhana shook with fear and

prayed.

Here inside the temple Śrī Lord Kṛṣṇa is shown in a sitting position, showing his Viśwarūpam

to the audience, and Śrī Rukmiṇī Thāyār is consort of Śrī Kṛṣṇa.

Matsya Tīrtham : It is a small tank inside the temple where, it is said that the king had

performed penance to see the Viśwarūpa Daraśanam of Lord Kṛṣṇa here.

Śrī Arulāla Perumān Emperumanār : He is one of the Ācāryas from the time of Rāmānuja.

He is otherwise called as Devarāja Muni and his spiritual descendants are now managing the temple.

As many as four Āḷwars i.e., Bhūtathāḷwar, Pēyāḷwar, Thirumaṅgai Āḷwar and Thirumāliśai

Āḷwar have praised this Lord and the name given to the temple in the prabandham by Āḷwars is

Thiruppadagam.

The annual Bramōtsavam of Śrī Pāṇḍavadūta Perumāl is celebrated on Kṛṣṇa Jayantī for ten

days between the month of August and September. The temple is open from 8 to 11 in the morning

and from 5 to 8 in the evening. Pilgrims may have free Darśana of the Lord.

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7. Temples of Kumbhakōṇam

Nāgēśwara : One of the main shrines in Kumbhakōṇam is Kumbhēśwara or Kuḍomūku. The

eastern temple to this is called ‘Nāgēśwara’ temple or Kīlakkoṭṭam, Kumbhakōṇam is generally known

as Bhāśkara Kṣētram. Sūrya has worshipped as this temple an several occasions. The eastern temple

deity is called Nāganāthaswāmy, and the temple at Kīlakkoṭṭam is called Nāgēśwaraswāmī. When the

deluge covered the earth, the pot containing the nectar broke and the place where it was found is called

the Kumbhēśwara temple. The Bilwa tree which was found is called bilvavana. The prop of the pot

found was called ‘Sōmēśwara temple’, the coconut was ‘Abhimukhēśwara’, the ceremonial thread found

as the place was called ‘Gowthamēśwara’ etc. In other words, there are three temples in Kumbhakōṇam.

1. Kumbhēśwara (Kuḍomūkku)

2. Nāgēśwara (kuḍanthai Kīlkkoṭṭam)

3. Kāśiviśwanātha (Kuḍanthai Karonam)

There are 10 Śiva temples and 7 Vaṣṇavite temples in Kumbhakōṇam. In Nageśwara temple

there are four ponds namely : Singa thīrtham, Śubham, Sūrya Puṣkaraṇi and Paḍiththurai (lake).

Kumbhēśwarar : Among the temples of south India the Kumbhēśwaraswāmī temple at

Kumbhakōṇam is a famous one. The name of this place was Kuḍamūkku. The Nāyanmārs and Āḷwars

have sing in praise of this temple. The Mahāmaham festival is an important festival, which is celebrated

once in twelve years.

At the end of the Kaliyuga due to the deluge, Brahmā thought that the whole world would be

destroyed. Lord Brāhmā approached Śiva, who directed Brahmā to create a pot, fill it with Nectar

and established the same near the Meru mountain. When the deluge destroyed everything in the world,

this pot reached the present Kumbhakōṇam. Then Lord Śiva took the guise of a hunter and with his

arrows broke the pot, the ncesar was spread and the pot which broke in piece, became a linga which

is called “Kuḍavāsal”. Here the goddess is Maṅgaḷa Nāyak. Here the Lord has taken a shape of

‘Kumbha liṅgam’ which is made out of sand. Here, the importance is given to the thīrtha than the

idol. The combination of Gaṅgā, Yamunā, Saraswatī, Saryaū, Godāvarī, Narmadā, Indu and Kāverī

rivers are found in the Tīrtham.

8. Kāḷahastī

Thiru Kāḷahastī is called ‘Dakṣiṇa Kailasa’. When Pārvatī describted the Vāma bhāga of the

Lord, he directed to do ‘thava’ in Tīrukkāḷāhastī. The Goddess Ambikā took the manifestation of

‘Balagana Pūṅgōthai’. At the end of this Lord ‘Paramēśwara’ gave darśana in the form of ‘Śiva Liṅga’

and the divine unique took place.

Here, the Lord is called Śrī Kālatthnāthar. Śrī Rāma is said to have visited this temple after

his vanavāsa. The following episodes are noted in this temple.

Among the Pañcabootha, Vāyudēva worshipped Bālaganāmbika and attained Varanbhāga. Viṣ

ṇu, Brahmā Bharadwāja, SukhaBrahmā, Śrīrāma, Vasiṣṭha, worshipped, the combination of Markaṇḍēya,

History of Temples in South India

55

Bhardwaja, Śrirāma Sukha thittas, the prime place attained by Kannappanāyanar along side Tirukkālatthynāthar.

9. Madurai *

The Madurai temple complex is situated in the centre of Madurai city, and consists of two main shrines dedicated to Sundarēśvarar and to his consort Mīnākṣī.

The temple complex encloses an area of 15.37 acres and, without the Āḍi streets, an area of 13.19 acres.

Literature like the Other Arts : Plastic, pictorial and performing arts florished during certain periods because of regal patronage and other encouraging atmosphere. A study of literature and arts during these periods helps in tracing such patronage and consequently the evolutionary trends. The periods especially in relation to the Pāṇdyan country may be broadly grouped as under :

I. Saṅgama and Post-Saṅgama period : Up to 600 A.D.

II. Bhakti and Post-Bhakti period : 600 to 1000 A.D.

III. Period of Growth, Fall and Restoration of temple : 1000 to 1500 A.D.

IV. Period of New Ventures : 1500 to 1800 A.D.

V. Modern period : 1800 A.D. to the present day.

To focus attention on relevant materials, it becomes necessary to further classify literature as follows:

I. Literature providing direct or indirect references on the Madurai temple.

II. Literature panegyric in character.

III. Literature legendary in content.

This classification has been evolved for the convenience of study and permits overlappings. For instance, the Tevāram songs provided information on many temples, but are panegyric in character. The Tiruviḷaiyāḍal Purāṇams of Perumpāṛṛappuliyur Naṁbi and Parancōtiyar and others belong to all the categories, for they are literature providing both direct and indirect references to the Madurai temple and at the same time contained much of panegyric material interwoven with legendary accounts. Nevertheless, this classification helped in shifting materials for the study of the evolutionary trends in the development of the temple complex. Music, dance, and festivals are sculptural traditions of the temple.

Bhakti was not mere emotionalism, nor even intellectual love forthe God, nor mere blind worship but 'beautiful and harmonious expression of the three aspects of man : cognition, conation, and feeling'.

The Tēvāram hymnists Jñānasm̐abanar, Tirunāvukkarasu and Sundarar during the seventh and eighth centuries paved the way for the spread of Śaivism and the rediscovery of its deeprooted

56

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

traditions. They, in their pilgrimages in Tamil Nadu, have not failed to visit all Śaivite shrines with

earlier traditions and to sing poems on most of them. Jñānasambandar visited Madurai city and the

temple, at the special invitation of Queen mankaiyarkkarayiar and Minister, Kulassiraiyar. Arikeśarī

Maravarman (640-670), the Pāṇḍyan ruler was a convert to Jainism. With regal patronage, Jainism

spread its net and for its effective propagation, Jain monks had camped in the eight hillocks around

Madurai. Śaivism then received a setback. To prevent its total annihilation, Queen Mankaiyarkkaśiyar

and minister Kulāssiraiyar drew up a strategy to wean away the king from the influence of the Jains.

And for this purpose, they invited Jñānasambandar. The saints visited Madurai and prayed to the deity

and by the performance of miracles he reconverted the king to the Saiva fold. Jñānasambandar’s songs

contains valuable information on the temple and the religion which it nurtured.

Tirunāvukkarasar, a contemporary of Jñānasambandar, also visited the temple but the visit was

not noteworthy enough. His songs too, afford a glimpse of the temple.

Almost every important temple in south India has a Sthalapurāṇam chronicling in eulogistic

terms accounts of its mythological, legendary and historical antiquities and traditions. The Sthalapurāṇam

of which there are two different versions, differences more in the nature of arrangements of materials

rather than in contents. Sthalapurāṇams, in general and Tiruvilaiyadal Purāṇam in particular, are not

analogous in the strictest sense of the term, to the Saṃskra Purāṇams, which are expected to have

five characteristics called the pañca lakṣaṇas i.e. each purāṇam should do, with the following five

topics : 1 account of the creation of the universe; 2. its destruction and consequent rehabilitation; 3.

the genealogy of gods and patriarchs; 4. the reign of the Manus, and 5. the history of the Solar and

lunar race. These pañca lakṣaṇas are absent in the Tiruviloaiyādal Purāṇam because it deals with the

founding of Madurai city and not the universe, catalogues a list of the Pāṇdyas who ruled Madurai

and not the list of Manus, and the three other lakṣaṇas of the Saṃskrta Purāṇams are totally absent.

Myths are narratives which a society accepts as truthful accounts of what had happened in the

remote past. Folktales on the other hand are narratives based on the traditional beliefs. Legends too

are myths believed to truthful events, but by an audience set in a period less remote when the world

was much the same as it is now. The table below brings out the import of these statements.

Sl

No. Form Belief Time Place Attitude Principal Character

1. Myth Fact past Remote past Different world or earlier Sacred Non-human

2. Folktale Fiction Any time Any Secular Human or Non-human

3. Legend Fact Recent past World today Secular or Sacred Human

History of Temples in South India

57

The study of the table discloses that the Tiruvilaiyādals are not mythical accounts, ner are they

folktales, but they are legends. Mīnaksī in these legends is not the daughter of Himayan or as the

sister of Visnu but is the daughter of Malayātuvāsa Pāndiyan, despite her emanation from the

sacrificial fire. Further, historic personages like Jñānasambandar (7th century) and Mānikkavāsakar

(9th century, Varakunan II 862-880 A.D.) appear in these legends. The river of Madurai, the legendary

Vaikai is the same as it is noticed today. Hence, it would be seen that the Tiruvilaiyādal narrations

are just legends, and seem to have multiplied perhaps after the founding of Madurai city and much

more than that, after the planning of the temple.

These legends on the Madurai temple are stated to be found in the six Sanskrit works.

I. Sarasamukya : a section of the Uttara Mahā Purānmm.

II. Hālāsya Mahātmyaṁ : a part of Īśa Samhitā of Skanda Purāṇam.

III. Astam Pradaksinā Mānmyaṁ : a part of Brahmā Samhitā of Skanda Purāṇam.

IV. Nīparaṇya Māhatmyaṁ.

V. Sundarapāṇḍyaṁ.

VI. Śiva Līlārṇavaṁ of Nīlakanṭha Dīkṣitar.

Neither authors of the first five Samisi works nor even the very existence of these first five

works are known, except Hālāsya Mahātmyaṁ. Sārasamukya is supposed to have been translated into

Tamil by Perumparrappuliyur Nambi, entitled Tiruvālavayutaiyar Tiruvilaiyadal Purāṇam. In the case

of Halasya Mahātmyaṁ, the text is available in Sanskrit though its most illustrious Tamil translation

by Parancōti Munivar called Tiruvilaiyādal Purānāṁ is better known and read. The third work Aṣṭaṁ

ami Pradaksinā Mānmyaṁ seems to have translated and published by Ramasamy Pillai. Niparanya

Mahātmyaṁ was translated in Tamil by Vimanata Panittar, the work is known as Kadambavana

Purāṇam. Sundara Pāṇḍiym was translated by Anatari. Śiva Līlārṇovaṁ is based on Hālāsya Mahātmyaṁ

and composed during the kingship of Tirumalai Nāyakkar (1623-59 A.D) perhaps at his instance, by

his Rāja Guru, Nīlakanṭha Dīkṣitar.17

II. Bhakti and the Post—Bhakti Period (600-1000 A.D.)

The legends grew in sacredness during the seventh to ninth centuries, as disclosed by the

Tevāram songs of Jñānasambandar and Tirunāvukkarasar of the seventh century. Jñānasambandar of

the seventh century refers to the following fourteen legends in his Tevāram songs :

1. Vellaiyānaikapamtiṭṭatu

2. Velliyampalattirukkuttaṭiyatu18

3. Vētattukkupporuḷaruliṅ Ceitatatu19

4. Māṇikkam virriatu20

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

5. Nanmatakkutalanātu²¹

6. Ellam valla cittaranatu²²

7. Virutta Kumara palaranatu²³

8. Tirumukam koṭṭtatu²⁴

9. Palakālyiṭṭatu²⁵

10. Panrikkuttikalai mantirikalakkiyatu²⁶

11. Tiruvalavayantu²⁷

12. Cankappalakai tantatu²⁸

13. Pāṇḍiyan curantirattatu²⁹

14. Camanāraikkaluvēṟriyatu³⁰

I. Origin of the Madurai Temple Priest :

Kulaśekhara Pāṇḍiyan (1190-1216 A.D.) colonized Brahmins from the north at Madurai in order to perform worship at the temple and the details of either number or the place of their colonization are not found in the manuscript.

The Sthanikar Varalāru is silent till 1278 A.D. when it is recorded that there were six hereditary offices in the temple, two belonged to the priestly order and were held by (a) Sundara Pāṇḍiya Brahmādirayar, a Gouḍa Brahmin, and (b) Manunitikanda Brahmādirayar, an Ārya. These heriditary offices were known as ‘Maṭhādhipatyam’.

During the interregnum of Muslim rule in the Madurai region (1323-1370 A.D.) Kulaśēkhara Perumal, a Soliya brahmin and a priest of the Kariya Māṇikka Perumal temple, was officiating as the priest of the Madurai temple.

Empena Uṭaiyār (1371-1402 A.D.) filled up a priestly office that remained vacant in 1377 A.D., chosing Vataman and a back- tufted Brahmin, Sadāśiva Bhaṭṭār by name because of his erudition and his righteous conduct.

II. Temple Service

The temple service known as Ultturai Cēvai included the following functions :

1. Śivakāryam — general superintendence and the duty of initiation of disciples.

2. Pūjākarman (Sādhakam, Arcakam) — performances of arcanā, and other rituals in the sanctum.

3. Devadākāryam (Alanḳrtam) — decorating the deity, taking it out on perambulating and attending to all the rituals connected with it.

History of Temples in South India

4. Paricārkam — service as an attendant to the main priest in his daily routine and also to

clean lamps, vessels, etc.

5. Pāsakam (Svayambāgam) — the preparation of Naivedyam (food offering to the de-

ity).

6. Tīrumālai — the preparation of garland for the diety.

7. Śrī Pandarakkāval — watch and ward of the sanctum.

8. Tīrumaniikkāval — watch and ward of the Utsava deities (perambulatory icons).

9. Tuvappanivitai — sweeping the floor for the temple.

10. Śrī Paṇdārakkanakku — the maintenance of the accounts of the rituals like abhiṣēkam

etc. in the sanctum.

11. Ṛṣabhamudrai — holding the seal of the temple.

12. Tīrumañjanam — the duty of fetching water for abhiṣēkam.

13. Parivaṭṭa śuddhi — the duty of cleaning the vestments worn by the deities, and differs

from Paricārkam, which includes cleaning of lamps.

14. Vēda Pārāyanam and Purōhitam — the recitation of the Vedas, lighting of sacrifical

fire, and performing of nigamic rituals, prior to the commencement of festival or

special pūjās.

The study of the origin of a temple is beset with problems. The word 'temple' generally stood

for the present edifice and its environs. The edifice as it stands at the time of study might contain

earlier structures or certain architectural features, epigraphs that may help in deducing the probable

age of the temple. But, for a place like Madurai where the temple has stood for ages, and referred

to continuously in legends, folktales and literature, the origin of the temple taking the present edifice

alone into consideration by evidence referred to supra may be highly misleading. For the present

edifice is only a replacement of an older one around the Mūla Mūrti which is a svayambhū and which

has been in existence for a considerably long period. So a temple has to be considered as the space

enclosing and organized around an installed diety, which is known by evidence both literary and

epigraphicale to exist continuously through the ages. In these cases, it becomes necessary to look for

other methods to determin- the origins. It is here that a large number of myths, legends and other

traditional lore containing seeds of truth,which are available, have to be investigated to discover

the origins of the deity and subsequently the organized space around it.

The temple festivals are primarily religious in character and provide opportunity for people

at large to gather and fulfil religious obligations and vows. The time of festivals synchronized with

solstices, equinoxes, full moon, new and other astronomical phenomena, when people believed that

the earth was influenced by celestial bodies and a dip in a sacred river or water-source would result

in their physical, psyhic and spiritual well-being. Incidentally, these festival occasions generated great

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

commercial activity, with the result that they in the course of time assumed socio-economic roles. In

view of this, the powers that be, the rulers, took deeper interest in and enlarged the scope and form

of these festivals.

I. Sangama and Post Sangama Period : Upto 600 A.D.

Considerable references are found in Sangama works on festivals held in Tamil Nadu but the

direct references to the festivals of Madurai discovered are only two. The first is in Akanānūru which

speaks of Poiyya Vilavu of Kujal i.e., never failing festivals of Kudal-Madurai. The second one is in

Maduraikkāñcī.31 The commencement of festivals is announced by the beating of the drums.32

The festival at Madurai referred to in Maduraikkāñcī is seven-days,festival, the significance of

which is to wash away bad deeds. The final day - the seventh day, ended therefore in a Tirttavari,

i.e., a bath in a water-source, here, the river Vaikai. The line ‘Kalunir Konta elū nāl anti’ in

Maduraikkāñcī indicated two traditions that were in vogue at that period viz., 1. A seven- day festival

was celebrated, and 2. The festival ended in Tirttavari. The manner in which the festival procession

is described. as headed by Maluvai Netiyon. indicates that this seven- day festival was that of a temple

of Śiva. Akanānūru mentions that festivals occurred endlessly at Madurai.33

If this reference of Akanānūru to the never- failing festival of Madurai is to be taken note of,

it would either mean that the seven-day festival mentioned in Maduraikkāñca never failed in its regularity

of observance or that the festivals34 generally celebrated in Tamil Nadu were regularly held. If it is

so ,then Kāttikai lighting up festival, Tai Nīrādal is celebrated all over the Tamil region would also

apply to the Madurai temple. The other reference like the cooking of Kar paddy35 were festivals of

the home.

II. Bhakti and Post Bhakti Period – 600-1000 A.D.

By the seventh century temple festivals has been systematized. Jñānasambandar’s references to

a number of festivals held in the thirty seven temples in Tamilnaud confirms the existance of a festival

calendar for the Tamil country in Śiva's temple. The festival (Vila) mentioned by him are : Attami

vilā, Atirai vilā, Aippaśi vilā (Onam), Kārtikai vilā (Vilakkiṭtu vilā), Tinkalnal vilā, Tar vilā, Taippūśa

vilā, Pankuni Uttira vilā (Olinil), Paruvanal vilā, Peruncanti vilā, Porrappu vilā, Macikkatalattu vilā.36

The two arts of music and dance have been intimately associated with the religious activities

in India. The temples of south India resound with the music played from the small hours of the day

till the late hours in the night. Dance, till its abolition by statute, was performed in front of the sanctum;

in fact, a scheme of music and dance was in vogue in each of the important temples of south India.

Music and dance are included in the items of upāsanāa offered to the gods and doddessess.37

The music with its twin attributes of melody (rāga) and rhythm (tāla) has developed regional variations

and traditions. In this chapter, a study of certain traditions which have ingrained themselves in the

soil of Madurai and its temple will be examined. So far, in each chapter, a subject was dealt with

in two ways : I. Chronologically, and II. Thematically. Such an approach for tracing the traditions

History of Temples in South India

61

in music and dance is bound to have repetitive repetitive statements. Music and dance, like all other

arts, flowered under regal patronage. It received an impetus during the Bhakti period. Under the

imperial Pāṇḍityas, it received increasing encouragement. Under the Nāyakkars, it grew in stature and

assumed new dimensions.

This unbroken tradition from the Sangama age to the modern age is unique.

Several works on music existed in the early Sangama period. Paripālai38 (second century B.C.)

is a work that could be rendered in music. The other musical works of the Tamil classical period known

by their mention by later- day commentators are : Pañca Marapu, Isai Nunukkam, Indira Kaliyam,

Baratasēnāpattiyam, Kūttanūl and Tālasmuttiram. By the time of Śilappadikāram (sixth century A.D.),

music41 and dance had developed not only definite laws of theory and practice, but even comprehensive

theories of appreciation.42 The ‘Arankerrukkātai’ and ‘Aicciyārkuravai’ provide a wealth of information

on applied music and dance.43 Kuravai Kūttu was a dance with seven girls, each representing a note

of the ancient Tamil musical scale.44 The dance traditions embodied in Śilappadikāram seemed to be

indigenous and had deep roots, for, Bharata's Nāṭya Śāstra45 spoke highly of them and named them

as Dakṣiṇātya.

I. Music Tradition

The combination of rāga and tāla in hymns is in vogue in Tamil Nadu46 and the earliest

traceable compositions are the Tēvāram hymns. The Tamil word for the rage (the basis of melody

which, where heard creates a feeling of elation) is pan and the Tēvāram songs were composed on the

earlier pans known.47

The timings are in nāḷikais commencing with the sunrise which occurred every day. To convert

the timings into the time scale now adopted, the determination of the time of sunrise is necessary.

Taking the sunrise on the average to be 6.00 a.m. every day, the timings of the pans will be also

follows,:

Table showing the Pakal, Iravu and Potup pans in Jñānasambandar's Tēvāram and their

timings

Time Pan

Nalikai Hours Classifications Name

Paka Pan

(Day)

0–03 6.00 –12 a.m

Puranirmai

03–06 7.12–8 .24 a.m

Gāntāram, Piyantai

06–09 8.24–9 .36 a.m

Intalam-Tirukkuruntokai

12–15 10.48–12 .00 a.m

Takkēci

15–18 12.00–1 .12 p.m

Naṭṭapāṭai

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

21—24 2.24—3.46 p.m.

Palampañcuram

Pañcamam

27—30 4.48—6.00 p.m.

Iravuppan (Night)

30—33-3/4 6.00—7.30 p.m.

Tākkarākam

33—3/4- 7.30—9.00 p.m.

Palantakkarākam

37—41 9.00—10.30 p.m.

Cikāmaram

41—45 10.30—12 .00 mid night

Kolli, Kollikkouvanam

Tīrunericai, Tīruviruttam

45—48-3/4- 12.00—1.30 a.m.

Vijālakkuriñei

48-3/4- 1.30—3.00 a.m.

Mēkarākakkuriñci

52—56 3.00—4.30 a.m.

Kuriñci

56—60 4.30—6.00 a.m.

Antalikkuriñci

Potup paṉs Sevvāti, Seṇṭuruṭṭi and Tīruṭṭaṇṭakam

Jñānasambandar's Tēvāram Songs

Seventeen Tēvāram songs on Madurai are now available, of which fifteen are of Gñānasambandar's and two of Tīrunāvukkarśar's. But the text of Jñānasambandar songs include only of his songs on the Madurai temple. Śēkkiḷar, the author of Periapurāṇam, a work on the sixty-three saints of Tamil Nadu, mentions fifteen songs stated to have been sung by the young saint at Madurai on various occasions. The songs listed by Śēkkiḷar and the order in which they are referred to in his work are:

1. Maṅkaiyarkkarasi Valavarkon Pavai

2. Nīla Mamit āṛṛala vayinan

3. Ceiyyane tiruvalaṅavimēviya

4. Kaṭṭu mavaturitturi

5. Vēṭa Vēlviayai taṉṉai

6. Piramāṉur Vēṉupuram pukali

7. Maniṉer vili Naṭaraīja

8. Mantiramavatu niru

9. Poka mātta puṉ mulaiyal

10. Talirila valaroli

11. Valka antanar

12. Vaṉṉiyu mattamu mati poti

13. Vitalala vayilay

14. Alāṉilalukanta tirukkaiye

15. Maṉṉil ṉalla vaṉṉam

(The list provides only the words at the commencement of songs)

History of Temples in South India

63

The six other songs not included in the Tevāram texts under Madurai are classified under

different heads in the same texts, i.e., two songs are found under Tirunallaru48 two under Śiyāli,49

the other two under ‘pōtu50 (general and not relating to any shrine). It is Śekkilar that first gave out

a sequence in which the songs were sung and their relevance. We are guided by the Śekkilar’s versions.

Of the seventeen Tevāram songs on Madurai, the remaining two were of Tirunāvukkarasar’s.51

The Tevāram songs of Jñānasambandar are specifically related to the various events that took

place at Madurai and its temple during his visit sponsored by the Pāndiyan queen Manikaiyarkkaraśi52

and a minister of the Pāndiyan court Kulāccirayar. Both of them were staunch adherents of Śaivism,

a religion which was losing its hold over the Pāndiya Nadu at that time, as the Jains had real patronage

and consequently people’s acceptance. The Pāndiyan queen and the minister worked out a strategy

to restore Śaivism to its original place and in pursuance of it, sent emissaries to Jñānasambandar, who

was staying at Vedāranyam (Tirumaraikkādu)53, inviting him to Madurai. The saint consented.

By the application of the diurnal pan-time-scheme considered supra, the timings of arrival and

performance of miracles etc. by the saint at Madurai can be deducted.

While approaching Madurai, Jñānasambandar’s hymn is in Kuruñcippan, Nilamaitarralavayinan

timed to 3.00 to 4.30 a.m. Evidently, the morning prayers commenced at 3.00 a.m.54 Jñānasambandar

with his rotinue at the outskirts of the town. On seeing the queen, the saints sang a composition in

puranirmal pan time to 6.00 a.m. to 7.10 a.m. That day evidently in the morning while the encourage

was settling down in the Vakrcamatam in the town the Jains set fire to the encampment. The fire spread

and Jñānasambandar rendered a song in Kaucikappan timed to 8.24 a.m. to 9.36 a.m. and put the

fire out mystically.

The second day, about the same time, he sang the composition ‘Kattumavaturitturi’ in Kaucikappan,

praying for Lord’s grace to bestow on him the strength to argue with Jains.

An interview with the king in as arranged on the third day. While answering the king’s query

about his native place, Jñānasambandar gave out a song in Kāntārappan. The timings of this pan was

7.12 a.m. and 8.24 a.m. When the Jains invited Jñānasambandar for a contest and when he readily

agreed; and the agitated queen Mankaiyarkkaraśi met the saints late in the night, adjudged by the

Kollipann in which Jñānasambandar sang timing 10.30 p.m.-12.00 midnight. In his song, the saint

reassurred the queen that he was a match to the scheming Jains and that she need have no worry about

his age nor of the burning incident that happened the previous day. Jñānasambandar was sure that he

was guided by the Lord of Madurai in his actions and nothing untoward would happen to him.

The fourth day, the saints visited the king and cured his endemic fever by applying the holy

ashes, accompanied by the song ‘Mantiramāvatu Nīru’ in the Kāntarappan. The Pan’s time was 7.12

to 8.24 a.m. a time that was most appropriate to see the king. Jñānasambandar in order to demonstrate

the superiority of Śaivism composed the poem ‘Pokamarta puṇ mulaiyal’ in a palm leaf and placed

it in a fire. The pan of the song was Catari, the timing of which was noon. (12.00 noon to 1.12 p.m.).

In another contest he wrote the song in a palm leaf ‘Valka antanar’ singing it in Koucika pan (8.24

• 9.36 a.m.) and let it in the river. The leaf swam across the current and reached Tiruvēdagam after

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

a little over fourteen hours' time gap determined by the difference in timing of the koucika paṇ and

the Kolli paṇ (10.30 p.m. -12.00 midnight) of the song which Jñānasambandar sang at Tiruvedagam,

while lifting the leaf. The contests were over and Jñānasambandar on the fifth day led the king, the

queen and the minister to the sanctum of the Madurai temple and rendered a thanksgiving song to

the Lord in Koucika paṇ (8.24 - 9.36 a.m.).

Assembled in his matam with his followers, Jñānasambandar evidently sang the song

'Alanlalukanta' in Palampañcuram paṇ timed as 2.24 - 3.36 p.m. - the post-lunch period - a time

that was suited for a gathering of the devotees.

The following table presented the eight paṇs sung by Jñānasambandar and the diurnal timing

of the events narrated above.

Table showing the time, name of paṇ and the commencing lines of song sung by Jñānasambandar

prior to the performance of miracles.

Time

Paṇ

Commencing line of song

Events

3.00-4.30

a.m.

Kuriñci

Nilāmitalrala-

vayinan

While approaching Madurai.

6.00-7.10

a.m.

Purnirmai

Mankaiyarkkarasi

On meeting the

queen on the

outskirts of

Madurai

7.12-8.24

Kantāram

Piramanur

On meeting the

am

Venupuram

king;

Kantirama-

Vatuniru

On meeting the

king and curing

his fever

8.24-9.36

a.m.

Kaucikam

Ceyyane

Jains set fire

Tiruvālāvay

to the encampment

and Jñaanasambandar

sang to subside the fire.

Kaṭṭu mavatu

riṭṭuri

Sang to gain

strength to

fight the Jains.

Valka antanār

In the water

contest

Vīṭalavāyilai

Requests the

grace of the

Lord with king

History of Temples in South India

65

12.00 noon

Cātari

Talarilavalaroli

and queen and minister in attendance while placing the palm leaf in fire.

1.12 p.m.

2.24-3.36 p.m.

Palampari-curam seituli

Vetavēlviyai nintanai

Afternoon meeting with his followers

7.30-9.00 p.m.

Paḷantakka rākam

Aḷanilalukanta Pokāmartta puṇ mulaiyal

In praise of the Lord

10.30-12.00 midnight

Kolli

Maṇinērvili mataria

Midnight meeting assuring the queen that nothing untoward would happen.

Vanniyu mattamu mati poti cataiyinan

At Tiruvedagam while collecting the palmleaf after its travel against the stream for fourteen hours.

Maṇṇil nallavaṇṇam

While meeting his father who had joined him just then.

10. Mayilāḍuthurai

When Dakṣa was doing yajña, the consequent action of his insulting Lord Śiva ended in his end. At that time, his daughter Umā took rest beneath a tree. A peacock mistook her flocks of hair as its hair and took shelter in her. Later on, the Goddess started doing penase there itself and merged herself with the earth. Learning this, Lord Śiva blessed her saying that 'You will take birth along with a peacock, where I will be the presiding deity and unite with you. Henceforth, she was known as Gowrī Mayūram and the Lord Mayūranātha.

11. Paṭṭīśwaram

Among the 127 temples on the banks of Kāverī, the 23rd temple is Paṭṭīśwaram. Among the four daughters of Kamadhēnu, Paṭṭi did penance and this place is called Paṭṭīśwaram. Because he

66

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

protected Patti and other cows, he is known as Pattiswarar and Dhenupuriswarar. Because devi did

penance here, this place is called 'Devivanam' and 'Sakti Vanam'.

12. The Temples of Ramanathapuram

The Ramanathapuram district was part of the old Pandiyanadu, which was praised as 'Pandya

natepalam pattiyakum'.56 It has presently been divided into the three districts of Kamaraj district,

Ramanathapuram district and Pasumpon Muthuramalingam district.

According to the census of 1961, there are 518 temples.57 Out of these, 518 temples, 355 are

under Hindū religious and charitable endowments, 91 are under Sivagangā Saasthānam, 56 are under

Ramanathapuram Samasthānam, six are under Ainthu Kōyil Dēvasthānam and ten are under private

managements. Out of 518 temples, 189 are Siva temples, 72 are Visnu temples, 26 are Murugan

temples, 98 are Sakti and village goddesses temples, 56 are Vināyaka temples and 77 temples are other

minor deities. These temple belong to a segment of time from 5th B.C. to 19th century. During my

field study I have discovered some dilapidated temples with beautiful icons and remarkable inscriptions.

Siva temples at Injar (Sivakasti Taluk), Chettikurchi (Tirupathur Taluk), Veliankudipatti (Tirupathur

Taluk) and Arumurimañgalam are remarkable. Our ancestors laid great emphasis on temple worship

in their lives. The temples were not only prayer halls but also served as educational institutions58

hospitals, record offices, recreation centres and local administrative sabhas. Here, we can recall the

words of our great poetess Auvaiyar 'Kōvililla uril kūdi irukkavēnda'. We classify them under the heads

of cave temples, Siva temples, Visnu temples, Sakti temples, Vināyakar temples, Murugan temples,

historically important temples and newly found-out ancient temples.

Some Remarkable Features of the Rock-Cut Temples

1. Kunrakudi : Kunrakkudi is very near Kāraikkudi. There are three cave temples with

later inscription of Pāndiyas and Cōlas.

2. Mahipālanpatti : Mahipālanpatti is a small village situated between Nerkuppai and

Tirupattur. It is the birthplace of the renowned Sangama poet, 'Kanian Punkunranar',

who sang 'Yāḍum ure yāvarum kēlir' and the scholar Pāṇḍithamani Kathiresan Chṭ

iar. This place was also known as Punkunram. Māravarman Sundara Pāṇḍiya's in-

scription of the 12th century calls this place as 'Punkunra nāṭṭup pūnkudi'.

3. Muvaraivenran : This rock-cut temple is isolated from the surrounding villages and in

the midst of quarry. Additional building and Kāmakoṭṭam should have been erected by

the latter Pāṇḍiyas.

4. Pillaiyārpaṭṭi : Pillaiyārpaṭṭi temple is an important one in the history of Tamilnadu.

It is an ancient and wealthy temple too. The vināyagar temple is considered to be the

first. It will be discussed below elaborately.

5. Piranmalai : There are two temple here, one is at the bottom of the hills and other is

situated at the highest place of the hill, which could be reached with the help of the

stone staircase and is called 'Mankai pākar temple'.

History of Temples in South India

6. Śēvalpaṭṭi : Śēvalpaṭṭi is a small village in Sāthur Taluk. Two handed Vināyāka, Naṭarāja with Jataohara and Viṣṇu are the great symbols of Pāṇḍiya architecture. One

cannot see much Naṭarāja anywhere in Tamil country.

7. Tirumalai : Though it is a lonely temple on a hill covered with trees and bushes, once

it was a part of the mercantile city Alakamaneri, which is still a small village two

kilometre away from Tirumalai.

Śiva Temples

Śaivism is considered to be the earliest religion of India, particularly in Tamil Nadu. Lord Śiva

is marked as the premier God in the Hindu pantheon.

1. Caturakiri : Chaturakiri is an important hillstation situated in the midst of the thickest

forest of tall trees at the height of 4000 ft. from the bottom of the Western Ghāṭs. It is

18 kilometres away form Watrap and could be reached by walk.

2. Caturvēdimaṅgalam : There are many Caturvedimaṅgalams, which means the settle-

ments of Brahmins who are well versed in the four Vēdas. The village was called

Nirūpaśēkharacaturvēdīmaṅgalam in 12th century. The name of the Śiva is Rudrakōṭ

īśwarar and the name of the goddess is Mattuvarkuḷali.

3. Cōlapuram : (Rājapalayam Taluk) — There are two temples one for Lord Śiva and the

other for Viṣṇu. The Cōḷa king who lost his eyes at Seithur in a fight with a Pāṇḍiya

king got them after praying to Śiva at this place.

4. Dēvathānam : The temple of Nāchatai tavirta perumān and Tēvampeṛṛanāyaki is situ-

ated 3 kilometre away from village of Dēvathānam. It is considered to be Ākāśakeṣ

etram.

5. Dēvīpaṭṭinam : Dēvīpaṭṭinam alias Navapāṣāṇam is a sea-shore village, which is fa-

mous for Navagraha stones. Nine stones are embedded in the sea, a few yards from

the shore, which could be reached by walk and worshipped by the pilgrims.

6. Ilayaṅkuḍi : Ilayaṅkuḍi is the birth place of Ilayaṅkuḍi Māra Nayanar, one of the 63

Śaiva saints. He has been immortalized by Sekkiḷār in his Periyapurāṇam.

7. Ilayāttankudi : Ilayāttankudi is the corruption of Iḷaippurṛum-kuḍi. The legend says

the Lord Indra, Devas and Kaṇṇuva Muniar were troubled Sūrapanman.

8. Kalayārkōyil : This is one of the fourteen sacred Pāṇḍiya temples and sung by

Jñānasambandar and Sundarar. Though the name is derived from Kāḷiśwarar, the god

of the temple, the old name of this village is Tirukkāṇappēriyiyal. The temple of

Kāḷayārkōyil is a very large and handsome building surrounded by a strong stone wall.

Three shrines are found within the big compound wall. They are Kāḷiśwarar, Sōmēśwarar

and Sundarēśwarar— Sōmēśwarar representing Sthūla, Kāḷiśwarar representing sūkṣ

ma and Sūdarēśwarar representing kāma. The first is the oldest temple and was sung

by Sambandar and Sudarar. The smaller northern tower was built in the period of

Varagunapāṇḍiyan.

9 Kōviḷūr : Because of the beautiful temple the place is called Kōviḷūr. Vīrapāṇḍiya, a

pious king came here when the place was dense forest. Due to his tiredness he slept

under a Vanni tree, laying his sword, which was given by Lord Kāḷīśwara, on his side.

On walking he found his sword missing. When he was searching for the sword he

noticed a Liṅga in a bush and built a temple. So the lord is known as Korṛavaliśwarar.

10. Mariyūr : Here is an old temple of Pūvanti nādar and Pāvanira vaḷḷi. The temple is

said to have been founded by one Dūrma Gandha/Maharṣi and Varuṇa Bhagavān.

11. Mattūr : Koṅganar, one of the eighteen siddhas converted copper into gold and tested

it here. So this place is named as Maṟṟūr or Mattūr.

12. Mānamadurai : The Sōmanāthaswāmī, Ānandavalli temple is built according to the

local legend, by God Candra in order to get relief from the curse of Takkan.

13. Piranmalai : The oldest name of this place was Tirukkōṭumkunram. Sambandar, who

visited the place, called the lord as Tirukkōṭumunraiśwaran. The temple which is at

bottom of the hill is called Tirukkōṭumkunraiśwaram.

14. Śakkōṭṭai : Śakkōṭṭai is mentioned in the lithic records in the Vīraśakaramudaiyār.

Umaiyāmpikai temple as Śaikkaluṟ is situated in Perumbur Nadu, a sub-division of

Kēralaśiṅga valanādu.

15. Sālaigrāmam : The temple of Varaguṇiśwarar belonged to the 9th century A.D. accroding

to the inscription. The Goddess is called Tirukamakōṭṭiśwarī.

16. Śivakāśī : Arikēśarī Parākramapāṇḍiyan erected a temple at Teṅkāśī and fetched a

Liṅga for installation from Banaras. On his return he was unavoidably detained at

Śivakāśī, which was then a forest. As the auspicious time arrived he installed the

Liṅga and built a temple. So the place is called as Śivakāśī.

17. Tiruccuḷi : Tiruccuḷi, that is Tiruccuḷial, was for a long time the headquarters for a

long time the headquar of a taluk in Rāmanathapuram Siṭupatī's estate. It is on the

banks of the river Gundar, 12 kilometres away from Aruppuukkōṭṭai and sung by Sundarar.

18. Tirukkōlakkudy : Now, the name is spelt as Tiru-Kāla-kudy. According to the legend,

Kākōla munivar did penance here and obtained the grace of the God and the place was

named after him as Tirukōlakudy. There are temples of Śatavāgiśwarar and

Maragatavalli, Subramaniar and Śivadharmapuríśwarar with his consort Śivagami.

The idol of Patañjali is worthy of note for its conception and design.

19. Tirupattur : The ancient temple Tiruttalinātar was visited and sung by Appar and

Sambandar in the 7th century A.D. The purāṇa says that Vālmīki did penance here.

Hence this place is called ‘Valmīkīpuram’ in Saṁskṛta and Tiruppattur in Tamil.

History of Temples in South India

20. Tiruppuvanam : Tiruppuvanam means 'the sacred flower garden'. According to the Sthalapurāṇa Dharmarajā threw the bones of his father into the Vaigai water and all of them changed into flowers. So the village is named as Tiruppuvanam. The famous Pūvanātaswāmī temple, sung by Mūvar is situated on the southern bank of river Vaigai. As per Tiruviḷaiyāḍal purāṇam, Dāsī Ponnanayal made golden image of Lord Śiva, with the help of a Siddha who changed all her brass vessels into gold. Images of Tirumalinayakar and his consort, Cokkappānyakkar, Vallabha Siddhar and Ponnanayal, the danceing girl are to be seen in this temple. There is a common belief among the people in this area that 'one who dies at Tiruppuvanam will reach Svarga'.

21. Thitāṇḍatanam : Thirtam-āḍum-sthānam, means the place where one can take a holy hath. As per the local legend, one Paṇṭita Cōḻa who was suffering from leprosy worshipped the God after taking a holy bath in the nearby sea and was cured. Hence, this place came to be known as Tittandatanam and the Linga as Sarvo-Tīrtha-mudayar.

22. Tiruvēgampattu : There is an ancient Pāndya Śiva temple dedicated to Ekambareśwarar and Snekavalli. Though there is no paurāṇic connection with this temple, it is remarkable for the structure, pillars and small statues of dancing poses.

Vaiṣṇava Temples

Vaiṣṇavism also played an important role in the religious history of Tamil Nadu. Saint Periāḷwar and his daughter Āṇḍāḷ were born in Śrīviḷḷiputtūr. Śrī Manavāḷamāmuni born in Kontakai. Rāmānuja, the great sāvanta came forward to sacrifice his life for the benefit of the ordinary people. Four out of the 108 sacred Vaiṣṇava temples (108 Divyakṣētirankaḷ ) are in this district.

1. Aḷagarkōyil : The name Aḷagarkōyil will make one to think about Aḷagarkōyil, near Madurai. But this Aḷagarkōyil is at the top of the hill about 200 ft. height called Maṇḍūga or Tirumantiramālai near Śrīviḷḷiputtūr.

2. Ariakkudy : Arīkkudy is a corruption of Harikuḍī famous for a Perumāḷ temple called 'South Tirupati'. One Sevugan Ceṭṭiar, a pious devotee of Lord Veṅkaṭēśaperumāḷa of Tirupati, who used to offer his annual savings at Tirupati lived in this village.

3. Iḷayāṭankudī : Here is an old Perumāḷal temple at this place. There are numerous inscriptions in this ruined temple. Some of the 13th century inscriptions speak about Kalavalinādalwan.

4. Iḷayanakudī : There is a Vaiṣṇava temple dedicated to Śrī Vēṅugōpālaswāmī. A fragmentary incription calls the perumāla 'Viracōḷa vinnagar emperumāna'.

5. Mānāmadurai : One Māvāli Vānadirāyan used to go to Aḷagar kōyil daily. Due to heavy rain one day, he was not able to go there. On that day, he had a vision that he should construct of Viṣṇu temple and worship. So he built this temple here.

6. Śrīviḷḷiputtūra : Śrīviḷḷiputtūra is the birth place of Śrī Periāḷwār and Āṇḍāḷa. This place is also known as Nācciarkōyil referring to Āṇḍāḷa. Gōḍhapuri and Śrīdhanusupura

70

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

are also the names of this place. It is also one of the 108 sacred Vaiṣṇava temple

(Divyakṣēttirankal.)

7. Tiruvaṇṇāmalai : Tiruvaṇṇāmalai was formerly known as Tirumalai, which means

sacred hill. Folklores tell us that Lord Tirupati Vēnkaṭācalapati came for a hunt in

order to marry Āṇḍāl and bless His devotee. We can reach the temple with the help of

the stone steps flanked at intervals by lesser shrines and Maṇḍapas. Pilgrims take bath

at Kōnēri tamari tīrtham before climbing up the hill, which is at the bottom of the

hill.

ŚĀKTI Temples

The mother cult that was prevalent throughout the world was considered to be the earliest one.

The ancient people thought the earth as a mother based on the fertility theory. Earth (female) and

sun male have been the oldest of Gods, not entirely given up. In Ṛigveda, she was worshipped in the

name of 'Vacdevī'.

1. Irukkankuḍi : Irukkankuḍi, once called Iruppaikuḍi is famous for Mārimman, power-

ful Goddess in the Sathur Taluk.

2. Kāraikuḍi : Kōpudaiyānāyakiamman temple is a very important one which occupies

a busy junction where three roads meet.

3. Tiruvēṛiyūṟa : Tiruvēṛiyūṟa Pākampiriyala temple is a very famous one in this area,

which attracts thousands of people, every Sunday, who were bitten by poisonous in-

sects, such as snakes, scorpions etc. Though it is a Śiva temple of Lord Vanmīkanāta,

locally it is called Pākampiriyal kōyil.

Vināyakar Temples

It is very important to mention the Vināyakara temples in this paper because he is called the

First God (Mudar kadaṿul). Indians, both Hindus and Buddhists, worshipped him and believed that

nothing should be begun without praying to Gaṇēśa. I think it is not a mistake to mention here the

story how He tested His own father too. Once Śiva started a war with Āsúras without wórshipping

Vināyakar. Vinayakar broke the axle of the car, showed his importance and ability.

1. Piḷḷayārpaṭṭi : Piḷḷayārpaṭṭi is a clam, small village situated between Kāraikuḍi and

Tiruppattūr. It could be reached easily from these two places, where a rock-cut temple

of the earlier Pāṇḍiyas is situated. Scholars like Dr. A. V. Jayācandran say that it is the

earliest rock-cut temple in Tamil Nadu and belongs to pre-Pallava times. A Brāhmī

inscription of late fifth century A.D. confirms this theory. The image of Vināyakar has

some special features to be noted here. He has only two arms excluding 'Tuttikai'.

There is no yajñopavīta. The right tusk is not broken and the trunk is turned to the

right side. In one hand, he holds something which could not be identified well.

History of Temples in South India

71

Murukan Temples

Lord Muruka is considered to be the God of Tamils. In Vaikāśī Viśākam and Taipūśam we can

see many kavaties, pālkudams on the roads leading to the nearest Murukan temples. It is a common

feature that if there are Tamils, there will be a Murukan temple also.

1. Kunrakkuḍi : Kunrakkuḍi alias Kunnakuḍi is a small village with a hill on which the

Murukan temple is erected. This place is known as Mayūragiri, Mayilmalai, Arasavānam

and Krṣṇanagaram

13. Rāmēśvaram

The Rāmēśvaram temple is situated 33 miles to the east of Rāmnada, and is a well-known

sacred place for the Hindūs. It is a place where both the Śavites and Vaiṣnavites take equal part in

worshipping the God Śrī Rāmanātha and Goddess Śrī Parvatavardini, who is popularly known as

Malaivaḷarkathali. For, the Hindūs believe that Lord Śiva was worshipped by Śrī Rāma, the hero

of Rāmāyaṇa and the place was sanctified by the presence of Śrī Rāma and his consort Sītā.

Rāmēśvaram and Banaras are to the Hindūs what Mecca and Jerusalem are to the Muslims and

Christians respectively. That has been the hope of millions of Indians through the ages. It has been

a strong force of national integration. The saying ‘Himavāt Sētupariyāntam’ conveys this. Hence, every

Indian cherishes the ambition to complete his pilgrimage to Rāmēśvaram at least once in his lifetime.

The Origin

The origin of the temple may be traced back to a very ancient period. The epics and Purāṇas

glorify the importance of the temple and the place and connect it with Śrī Rāma and Sītā. It is generally

believed that the Rāmāyaṇa episode belongs to the sixth century B.C.59 Ahanānūru, a Saṅgama work,

also speaks of the importance of the place and connects it with Śrī Rāma. The Tēvāram hymns of

Appar and Tirujñānasambandar (both lived in the seventh century A.D.)60 also trace the origin of the

temple from Śrī Rāma and Sītā, who are said to have consecrated the Liṅga at Rāmēśvaram.61

According to them, the temple was a pūṅkoil (surrounded by flowers) during the 7th century62 A.D.

The purāṇas also speak of the consecration of Liṅga at Rāmēśvaram by Śrī Rāma/ and hīs consort

Sītā. But these purāṇas widely differ in stating the time and reason for the consecration of the Liṅga.

For example, Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki says that Śrī Rāma worshipped Lord Śiva at Setu, near the Lord’s

great ocean, before his march towards Śrī Laṅkā and obtained the Lord’s blessings.63 The Adhyātma

Rāmāyaṇa and the Śiva Purāṇa also give the same version. The Liṅga purāṇa and the Skandapurāṇā64

speak of the consecration of Liṅga by Śrī Rāma in order to get away from the sin that he committed

by killing Rāvaṇa, the ruler of Ceylon. Nevertheless, the above works uniformly speak of the

installation of the Liṅga by Śrī Rāma.

The Rāmēśvaram temple seems to have influenced the origin of a number of other temples in

south India with the same name and some of them have the same story of origin. For example, the

Rāmēśvara temple at Quilon (in Kerala State), Rāmalingeśvara temple at Āryapuram (Tanjore District),

Rāmānathēśvara shrine in the Vēdaranyēśvara temple at Vedaranyam (Tanjore District), Rāmānatha

temple at Śrīnivāsanallūr (in Tiruchy District) etc. Are believed to have been the creations of Śrī Rāma

72

and his consort Sītā. Perhaps these are later works on the model of Rameśvaram temple. However

these temples have no place in the epics and the purāṇas.

The Rāmēśwaram temple takes its origin to the ancient period. It is evident from the hyms

of Appar and Tirujñānasambandar that the temple was a thatched shed up to the seventh century A.D.

The temple as it stands now is definitely not a work of a single ruler or a single age. It is a work

of continuous process, starting probably from the ninth century A.D. to the 16th century A.D. Though

the temple stands on a raised ground with its massive structures now, it has been through the ages

a victim of geographical and geological distrubances. For example, the island of Rāmeśvaram itself

was once connected with the mainland in those days. Later on, due to sea erosion, it became an island.

But it is said that in the 15th century, a causeway was constructed by Śrī Krṣṇama Nāyak of Madurai,

and subsequently damaged by stroms. This Krṣṇama Nayak might not have been a ruler of the kingdom

of Madura, which included Rāmeśwaram. Because, the Nāyaka established their ruler in the Madura

country only in A.D. 1529. The temple has undergone a number of changes, in the name of renovation.

The island of Rāmēśvaram has about 40 tīrthas in it; 22 of which are inside the temple.65 The

temple is noted for its flourishing tīrthas.65 No other temple in the Indian subcontinent has such a

vast number of tīrthas within its precincts. The taste of the water of the 22 tīrthas in the temple actually

differs from each other, though these are very near the sea. While the sea water and water in and

around the island of Rāmēśvaram is salty, the tīrthas inside the temple are very sweet to drink. The

wells of these tīrthas have come to be dug in various shapes such as square, rectangular, polygonal,

octogonal and circular. Rectangular, octogonal and circular are architectural forms connected with the

traditional Hindū styles of art like Nagar, Drāviḍa and Vēsara respectively. However, the association

of these forms to the shapes of the wells of the tīrthas cannot be ascertained and refuted totally. The

sanctity of the place with its twenty-two tīrthas has been recognized from the earliest times by all

sections of Hindū religion and by the epics and Purānas. Both Skandapurāṇa and Sētupurāṇa give

an elaborate description of each of the tīrthas in the Rāmeśvaram temple. They highlight the examples

and stories in order to glorify the importance of taking bath in the tīrthas. The stories are found to

have been mostly connected with the characters of the epics. Though they contain unimaginable and

exaggerated versions, one cannot set them aside as mere fictions and fallacies.

The Skandapurāṇā says that all the holy Gods and Goddesses and all the holy waters love to

live on Mount Gandhamādana. The Ānanda Rāmāyaṇa speaks about the subsequent pilgrimages of

Śrī Rāma to Rāmeśvaram and his bathing at Bhairavatīrtha. The Ādhyatma Rāmāyaṇa speaks that 'one

who bows to the Sētubandha and bows to Śiva, Rāmēśvara with due observance or who goes to

Banāras, brings water from the Ganges and bathes in Rāmeśvara with the same, will have his weight

of sin thrown in the sea and will attain salvation without doubt. The Matsya Purāṇa glorifies the

importance of Kōtitīrtha by asserting that one who dies there goes to the region of Rudra and is born

as a king in his next life after which he goes to heaven. According to the Sētupurāṇa and the

Skandapurāṇa one has to take bath in this tīrtha, only after bathing in all the other tīrthas for freedom

from and residual sin'. It is believed that Śrī Krṣṇa freed himself from the sin of killing his maternal

uncle Kamṣa, by bathing in this tīrtha. Setupurāṇa says that the Kōtitīrtha gives all kinds of pleasures

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which are not given by other tīrthas. Even today, pilgrims who believed that taking bath in the Kōṭi

tīrtha alone is sufficient for securing all sorts of blessings of God.

Agnitīrtha, the most important one, is in reality the Bay of Bengal, directly opposite to the

eastern main tower to the temple. It derived this name because it was here that Śrī Rāma tested the

chastity of Sītā after her return from the custody of Rāvaṇa. This tīrtha sprang up in the place where

the God of fire (Agni) brought Sītā from the funeral pyre to Śrī Rāma, testifying to her chastity and

purity.68 It is believed that with the help of this tīrtha, Sutīkṣṇa, a disciple of Sage Agastya freed a

young merchant from a curse of a sage whose son he had drowned in a pond. Even today people from

all over India and abroad flock at this place and take bath in this tīrtha. Parents who do not have

children also believe that a bath at this place will give the potentiality of giving birth to child. Dhanuṣ

kōṭi, a suburb of Rāmēśvaram, is a very important tīrthasthala. But at present, it has lost its

importance due to sea erosion.69 It is the confluence of the two seas - the Bay of Bengal and Indian

Ocean. Tradition says that a bath at this point will give the fruits and ability, prosperity, fame,

knowledge and wisdom from desire and purity of mind. The Padma purāṇa and the Nāradiyapurāṇa

speak of the glory of Danuṣkoṭi and the importance of bathing in that place. The place is connected

with the story of the Rāmāyaṇa and the origin of the Rāmēśvaram temple. Thus, every tīrtha inside

the Rāmēśvaram temple and outside it has a story of separate uniqueness.

The Rāmēśvaram temple rituals are performed six times a day. These rituals are based on the

Āgamic principles. The pūjās consists of a number of stages such as āvāhana (the evocation of the

diety), āsana (presenting Him a seat), Svāgata (asking water for washing his feet), arghya (presenting

water to Him in which flowers, saffron and sandalwood powder have been placed), ācamanam (offering

water expecting Him to wash His mouth and face), madhuparka (offering a beverage composed of

honey, sugar and milk), snāna-jala (water for His bath), bhūṣaṇa-ābharaṇāsya (offering cloths, jewels

and ornaments), gandha (pasting sandalwood power), akṣatas (rice grains mixed with saffron), puṣ

pa (offering of flowers), dhūpa (incence), dīpa (a lighted lamp) and naivēdya offering cooked rice,

fruits, payasam and other etables and betels which consistute the mal to a single person. In those days

the pārāyana of Gītā and dance performances in the temple festivals have been celebrated peridically

on specific occasions. The festivals attract both Śaivites and Vaiṣṇavites. The people from, North India

come over here during the festival days. It serves the double purposes. They are able to worship the

God as well as witness the festivals. During the festivals the island become an attractive buisness

centre. Among the festivals the most significant is the Rāmalinga Pratiṣṭhā festival, celebrated during

the Tamil month Āṇi (June-July). This festival is celebrated in remembrance of the pratiṣṭhā of Śiva

Linga by Śrī Rāma and his consort Sītā.

The historical analysis of the Rāmēśvaram temple indicates that the temple reached its high

mark during the Vijayanagar, Nāyak an Sētupati rulers. The references to the temple in Bhakti literature

indicates its antiquity. Its most architectural pieces are the representatives of the Vijayanagar style. As

a centre of social conglomeration, ragardless of any geo-centric feeling, the extensive layout of the

temple from the utilitarian point of view stands vindicated. This temple itself in its totality is good

specimen for study in Dravidian architecutre.

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14. Śrī Rangam

Śrī Rangam temple is the chief shrine of Vaiṣnavites. The word ‘Temple’ itself denotes Cidambaram temple for Śaivaites and Śrī Rangam temple of Vaiṣnavaites. The Śrī Rangam temple is the chief among the 108 great shrines (Tirupati) of Vaiṣnavaites. We shall now discuss about the location of this temple, its construction, its history Mūlavar (the idol preserved in the sanctum sanctorum), Utsavar (the idol which is taken out in procession), the minor deities present in the temple, the manner of worship, the Naivēdya offered to God, the holy doctrines underlying the structure to this temple, the art and architecture, ornaments, festivals library and the museum.

Śrī Rañgam can be reach from Trici through Māmphazha śālai Tiruvānnaikkā — crossing a distance of six kilometres. The environs of the road to Śrī Rangam has a lot of greenery on either side — an abundance of coconut, mango and jack fruit trees around. The temple lies on an isle, surrounded by the River Kāverī on one side and Kollidam, on the other. The ‘Sthalam’ or Holy place, which lies about 320 kilometres south of Mandras have a railway station too to the convenience of the pilgrims.

One or other festival is celebrated almost throughout the year. Truly, 322 out of 365 days contain some sort of local festival. Pilgrims from all over India, from places like Nepal and Kashmir for north, from Kanyākumarī in the south gather everyday here. Many come from foreign countries. They come to terms with the sanctity of the temple, understand its greatness and enjoy its artistic and architectural elegance. It is happy to note that recently the number of tourists from foreign lands has increased.

It is customary to refer to the temple at Śrī Rangam, Śrī Rangapatnam, Appākkudathān Sannidhi, Thiru Kudandhai and Thiruvinthalūr as Pañcaranga temples. The great Lord Ranga appeares as Kastūrī Ranga, Kā vērī Ranga, Kalyāṇa Ranga, Parimala Ranga and Hēma Ranga in these holy places on the banks of holy Kāverī.

Old Tamil literature speaks of ancient sthalas (Vaiṣnava Grhas or Viṇṇagars), Thiru Ēkāṁbaram (or Kāñcī), Thirumal Kuṇram (or Azhagar kōlī), Thiuvengadam (or Tirupati), Thiruvanandapuram (or Trivandrum) and Thiruvarangam (Śrī Rangam) are these places. Among these Śrī Rangam is very special. This place got the name Śrī Rangam because once the Holy Vimāna — the Śrī Ranga Vimāna of Viṣṇu stuck to this place. An isle lying the midst of the winding branches of a river is called ‘Arangam’ in Tamil. Hence it is apt this ‘Holy Aringam into Saṁskrta. Some opine that this place is called an Arangam as the Lord who occupies the Vaikuṇṭha or Thiruppārkkadal (The Holy Ocean of Milk), the solar circle (Sūrya Manḍala) and the lotus like hearts of Saints desires to stay here especially. It could also have been called an Arangam as Thirumagal (The Goddess Lakṣmī) dances here for the enrichment of benefit of Śrī Vaiṣṇavas here.

Śrī Rangam lies in between the two rivers Kāverī and Kollidam just as the Suṣumnā Nāḍī lies between the two Nāḍīs Ida and Pingalā within our nervous system. The shrine which is the Sādhanālaya, with seven Praharas denotes the principle of Sāthyālaya, the human body or human enshrinement of the Lord. Hence, it heads the other, Diva Dēśas (or special shrines) it is called the Talai Arangam (Head shrine).

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The temple is Big - not only in the sense of fame or Kīrti but also in the area of occupation. It extends over an area of half a squire mile. It contains Seven pathways (or praharas) and 21 (Gopuras - Towers) of various heights. It has been built by various kings extending over a period of many centuries. As the Lord Himself is ‘Anadhi’ so the dwelling place of Him is also Anadhi. We cannot fix the line of origin of the Temple.

The first prahara (The rectangular pathway around Garbhagrha) is called Thiruvinnazhi Pradakṣaṇa. The second is called Rāja Mahēndra Pradakṣaṇa. The third is Thōrapradakṣaṇa; the fourth prahara is the pathway to Thāyār (Naciār) Sannidhi. The fifth prahara was once grove which is reminiscient in its name Pakṣirājaṉ grove. The sixth prahara consider of the uthiṟa vīthīs and lastly the outermost seventh prahara has the Cittihira vīthīs in it.

Originally, there were no habitations around the temple. Only the hereditary successors of the five Nambis were around the temple. Among the five Nambis, the first Nambi - Pattai Nambi - was incharge of the priesthood; the second - Perial Kovil Nambi - had the administrative responsibility and was incharge of the key; the third Sätha Nambi was the internal guard in the duties taking Pantham (Torch) and flowers; the fourth - Uthama Nambi had the responsibility of performing Ēkānta Kainkarya; the last - Peria Nambi was the Chief and he was the Guru of the Great teacher Rāmānuja. These were the people originally living around the temple.

The Garbhagrha (sanctum sanctorum) and the seven prahāras (verandhas) around it have been built according to the Śilpa Śhāstra. We can see the sculptures of the Avatāras (Incarnatiāns) of Lord Viṣṇu and also of Āḷwārs on the 21 gopuras of the temple. The outer most three prahāras of the seven are streets in which shops and houses have been built. The temple lies in an area of 1200’ x 800’ inside the prahāras. There are many mandapas and the shrines of minor deities around the main shrine. The minor shrines belong to the following deities : Koorathāḷwār, Nāthamuni Āḷwāra, Thoṇṭaraḍipōdi Āḷwār, Viṭṭhala Kṛṣṇan, Thiruppaṇṇāḷwār, UḷĀṇṛiṣal, Kṛṣṇan Amṛta Garuḍan, Cokkapānai Hanumān, Uḍayavōr, Pārthasārthī, Cakarathāḷwār, Thirukāchi Nambi, Garuḍāḷwar, Nammāḷwār, Thirumāzhiśai Āḷwar, Dhvaja Stambha Hanumān’s, Sēnai Mudaliar, Raṅganātha, Sannidhi Kṛṣṇa, Thāyar. Paṭṭābhirām, the first Āḷwards, Kattaṇḍa Rāma, Bhōja Rāma and Piḷḷai Lōkācārya.

A glance at the Structure of Śrī Raṅgam Temple will suggest that Brahmāḥ had been worshipping Perumāl who ‘Thannāle Thān Ooruvam Payanthānai’ had made this divine presence in the world of truth making himself both Śrī Raṅgam and ‘Raṅga Vimānam’. Ishwhu, son of Vaivaśwata Manu has made penance towards Brahmāḥ and as a result got Śrī Raṅga Vimānam and Śrī Raṅgam gained His presence at Ayodhyā and had been worshipping Him.

From his days up to the days of Śrī Rāma, his descendants considered Śrī Raṅga Vimānam to be their family assest and worshipped it devoutly. Later Lord Rāma presented it to Vibhīṣhṇa on his way to Laṅkā, installed it at the Śrī Raṅgam Temple and also got up a donation and festival there acceding to the request to the monks (ascetics) there. Lord Śrī Raṅga linked this seat very much as so chose to remain here for ever.

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Temple structures are of two kinds viz., body structure and heart structure. The Śrī Rañga temple has been constructed on the body structure model with seven circles round it. This manifests the principle of the composition of the human body of seven elements. In body so Śaivism and Vaiṣṇavism, it is a common notion that the human body is the temple of God Śrī Rañgam is one of those places which God Himself chose to stay in. The other such holy places are Thiruvēṅgaḍam, Thothatri, Salakgrāmam, Nara Narana Āśram and Naimisam. The Śrī Raṅgam temple is of mūrtī glory. Of the one hundered-and-eight Vaiṣṇava temples, the Śrī Raṅgam temple is the root and trunk and others are its branches. Lord Śrī Rañga is present here the shape of Sutha with Thailakappu. He lies asleep on Ādiśēṣan as His bed. He is called, 'Azhakiya Manavālan' (beautiful bridegroom), 'Nam Perumālai' (our Lord Perumāl) and Peria perumāl.

Along with Śrī Rañga Perumāl as Urchava Mūrtī (Festival God) both Śrī Devī and Boo Devī appears by. The right hand of Lord Raṅganātha is the lying posture points the foot. The face faces the south. East physical feature of Lord Śrī Rañga in the lying posture signifies something. For the human body, the head is North and the foot in South. Aptly the Śrī Rañgam Temple lies North-South. Lord Śrī Rañga lies facing Laṅkā in the south for two reasons : 1. The sough is a blessed land and 2. Vibīṣaṇa is his Votary.

The history of the Śrī Rañgam temple is an ancient one. Like God's its period is incalculable. However its period is divided into Pre-Historical and Historical.

Particulars about temple have been arranged in order in 'Temple Notes' (Kōvil Olugu). Professor Ramarao while referring to the 'Temple Notes' says 'Olugu' means 'notes' and Koil according to Vaiṣṇavism denotes Śrī Rañgam temple and to strengthen this he quotes the notes on the Siraurīśwara temple at Thaṉjāvur. The author or authors of 'Temple Notes' remains anonymous. It is said of period that the initial is called 'Kali Kālam' and the later is called 'Śālivāhana' Era. It is further said the Kalikāla years are false and the Śālivāhana years correct to some extent. This is started by Mr. Parthasarathy in 'Koil Olugu'. The style of 'Koil Olugu' resembles 'Maṇipravāla' style.

Garuda Maṇḍapa or Garuḍaḍwāra Sannadhi is a very vast one. Moolavar looks very tall and majestic in a colourful sitting posture. The finger and foot nails are long and crooked. The nose is attractive like that of the edge, sharp and crooked. The colour painting done several years ago has not faded at all. Near the Moolavar, the Urchavar statue is found below. Thirumanjanam is done to this during certain festivals. During the Mohini Alaṅkāram in Vaikuṇṭha Ēkādaśī, Śrī Raṅganātha stays in this maṇdapa for the devotees to worship.

On the right of Garuḍa Maṇḍapa there is one small beautiful pond called Sūrya Puṣkarṇī and adjacent to that is the Tirukkāṭci Nambi Sannadhi. In the Vehicle chamber (shed) near Sūrya Puṣkarṇī we find chariots; vehicle of gold and silver on which the Lord is drawn in a procession. The vehicle are Adhiśēṣan or snake, Karpaka tree, three horses, two garuḍas, a silver yali, a silver elephants, a lion, Hanumanta, two haṁsas and two palanquins.

In addition of these, there are three cars. They are used in the months of Thai and chithirai and are called Thai car and Chithirai car. The third car is the 'Ko' (cow) car.

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There are separate sannadhis for Pattabiraman, Muthal Āḷwārs, Thīrtha Karai Vasudēvar and

Thanvanthrī. Thanvanthrī Sannidhi is on the way to Thāyār Sannidhi. There is found the figures of

lack creeping on the hands of Thanvantri statue. This signifies the use of lack in ancient medical

treatment. Before the Thāyār Sannadhi we find the five pits and the three entrances.

In other sannidhis too, worship is performed in accordance with the ancient traditions. Before

Rāmānuja's period of the temple performed its rites in the Vaikhānasa fashion. Rāmānuja's intervention

changed the worshipping fashion into pañcaratna method. The Śrīraṅgam kōil olugu gives the above

information regarding pūja vidhi. Nādamuniṅal introduced the practice of performing Raṅganātha's

Thiru Ārādhana, Thirumaṅjanam, Vēdapārayāṇa Utsavas, etc., with the recitcal of Tamil Maṛai

(Āḷwārs, Pāśuras) Nādamuniṅal learnt these pasuras form Nammāḷwār. He brought in the practice of

reciting appropriate Tamil hymns for the pūjā performances so that they are not lost in oblivion.

It is the duty of man to consider himself a slave to the great Lord, Śrī Raṅga. He should also-

perform such duties by which the Lord is pleased. Without doing service to others worshipping the

Lord for one's own pleasure benefits and coming round His temple many times will only help to

displease Him. If you love Him whole-heartedly he will bestow His gifts upon you.

Peria Perumāḷ Thiruppaḷḷi Eluci (Walking up from sleep) takes place in the early morning with

Viṇā music. At 8.30 in the morning butter and milk are given in Naivedya to the Lord. The morning

Naivedya also consists of Veṅ Poṅgal, Dōsai, Sūkku, Vellan, Kariamuḍu, Lime pickle, Thirunal Vaḍai,

etc. During the afternoon (midḍay pūjā) at 12.30 p.m. 18 padis of rice, sathamudu (pepper soup),

Kariamudu (Plantain), Dhal, Thirukkannamudu (Khīr), Athrsam ( a kind of sweet) are presented to

the Lord as Naivedya. In the evening pūjā at 6.45 p.m. Kṣīrāṇnam (milk-rice), milk pongal, vaḍai,

appam, thēnkuzhal, kariamudu, Dahiyōdanam (cur rice) etc. are given. The night Naivedyam consists

of Vaḍiśīl (Plain-rice) at 9.00 p.m. whith satti aravaṇal kariamudu; between 9.15 and 9.30 p.m. milk

mixed with camphor, saffrom, cardamon with Nāṭṭucarkkaria (Brown sugar) are presented as Naivedhya.

In the same manner in the Thāyār sannadhi, Naivedyam is also offered. At 8.45 a.m. bread

and milk are offered. At 9.00 a.m. Dośai, Pongal at 1.00 p.m. vaḍiśal, Adhirasam, Dhāl and

Thirukkānamudu were given. At 6.45 Vaḍai, Thenduzhal sweet puṭṭa; at 9.00 p.m. aravaṇal (sugar

pongal) are the usual Naivēdyas.

Other minor deities are offered only a two-time pūjā every day-in the morning and in the

evening. During the Utsava periods, the Naivēdya is specially prepared. At all other times, the offering

consists of milk and vadisil only. For Añjaneya, vadai malai and butter covering are performed.

Arts like music, play, dance architecture, sculpture, painting, etc. are enshrined in the Śrī

Raṅgam temple. The works of art found in this temple do not belong to one particular century or

one particular monarch. The Cōḷas, Pāṇḍyas, Naikas, Hoysalas and even the Mohamedans have

contributed towards the enrichment of arts here.

In an epigraph in the Nonmugam Gopura Vāsal (the entrance of Nonmugam towers) five

Kīrthanas of Tyāga Brāhmam are found. They belong to Kamboji, Arabi, Devagandhārī, Desiya Thoḍi

Sāraṅgā Rāgas. The hymns of Āḷwars themselves are set to proper music Nathamunigal who collected

all pasuras from Nammāḷwar has classified all these hymns into two groups; Iyal and Isai (Literature

and Music) and we should worship the Lord by singing the Isai Pādalgal (Music) with the appropriate

Tālas. The convention is to sing all the hyms of the Ālvars except Thiruvaimozhi during the ‘Pahal

Pattu’ (the ten days which precede the Śukla Pakṣa Ekādaśī in the month of Maraḳazhi) and to sing

Thiruvāimozhi during ‘Irāpatthu’ (the ten days which begin with Ekādaśi of the month of Mārkazhi)

and to sing Thiruvāimoḻi during ‘Irāpatthu’ (the ten days which begin with Ekādasi of the month

of Mārkazhi) and to sing laypa on the following day of Irapatthu. These show that the worship of

the Lord of Śrī Rañga is intertwined with Isai and Iyal.

Similarly some operas which have been formed from Hiraṇyavadha, Rāvaṇavadha, Kṛṣṇavātära

and Vāmanāvatāra have been practised for long for the benefit of illiterate masses. Hence not only

literature and music but also drama has been patronised in this temple. The Kōyil Olugu narrates the

following incident; During Muslims invasion a dancer girl with her power art charmed the Mohamedan

chief and led him to the tower of Paravāsudeva and slew him by pushing from the top of the tower.

Festivals are celebrated each and everyday all over the year. They are periodical some on the

particularly Nakṣatras or days; some are celebrated or certain Pakṣas,some on certain months; some

are annual.

Kōḍai Thirunal or Poochāthu Thirunal is celebrated for 10 days in the month Chīthirai. On

the sixth day of is, the Lord décorāṭed completely with flowers emerges from the temple and resides

at the Thurai Maṇḍapa, hearing Perumal Thirumoḻi recited to the accompaniment of Viṇā. On Caithra

Pūrṇimā He, after having a Holy dip in the Kāverī, performs Gajēndra Mōkṣa in the evening and

returns to his ‘Araṅgam’ without any instrumental music accept the ‘Pallīsai’ of Araiȳars.

Śrī Rāma Navamī and Śrī Jayantī are also celebrated Revatī is the birth star (Thiru Nakṣatra) of the Lord. Hence every Revatī day is celebrated. Caitira Brahmotsava is celebrated for 10 days. The

Lord comes in procession for 9 days and takes bath in the Revatī maṇḍapa. The festival ends on 10th

day after the daily procession is over and everybody goes to the Uḍayavar Sannadhi to worship him.

Vasantōtsava takes place for nine days in Vaikasi month. Jyēṣṭhābhiṣēḳam falls in Āṇi month.

On Adi 18th day or 28th day the Lord visits Kāverī to have the Holy dip. In Āvaṇi Pavitrōtsavam

is celebrated for nine days after Uiryadi. For Puraṭṭāśi, Navarātri is celebrated for nine days. On the

eve of Vijayadaśamī, the Lord mounted on a horse goes to the Kaṭṭālagiya Śingar groove and shoots

arrows in every directions.

In Ayppaśi, Thirumanjaṅam (sacred anointment) is performed with Kāverī water in a golden pot.

Uñjal Thiruvizha (‘swing’ festival) is celebrated for 7 days to Nachiyar and 9 days to the Lord.

Dīpāvali, Kaiśika Ekādaśī of Kārtigai and Karthigai festival are other important ones.

In Mārkazhi Thiru Adhyayana Utasava (Thiruvāimoḻi festival) is important. Vaikuṇṭha Ekādaśī

festival is the most famous festival. It was originally started by Thirumaḷigai Mannan (Āḷwār). Thiru

Adyayana Utsavam falls into two halves; one half called ‘Pakarpathu’ before the Ekādaśī and the other

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half called ‘Irāpattu’ after the Ekādaśī. In the month of Thai, Kanu and Magara Sangarāndhi are

important celebrations. The Būpati Thirunāḷ is also celebrated as the Caitrai Brahmōtsavam.

In Māśi month ‘Theppam’ (boat-festival) is celebrated for 9 days.

All the minor shrines also have their own festival celebrated periodically. We cannot find the

temple without any celebration at all or whatever the day we may choose to visit it.

15. Swāmimalai

The Swāmimalai town is eight kilometres far away from the west of Kumbakōṇam in Tanjore

district. The temple is in the middle of the town. The river ‘Kāverī’ and its branch Arasataru in the

south of Swāmīmalai.

Thiruēragem, Kurumalai, Kurugiri, Sundarachalani, Śivagiri - these are other names called for

Swamimalai.

In Tamil literature, Ēr means - beauty; Aham means - House - so, the Lord Muruga is

in the beautiful house i.e. - Ēraham.

Since Lord Śiva has proclaimed Lord Muruga as the ‘Swāmi’ of this place, this place has

become to known as ‘Swāmimalai’.

Lord Swāminātha appears in a majestic manner. His eyes shows the mercy which he is pouring

on the worshippers. He has ‘Dhaṇḍāyutham’ in his right hand and left hand is in his hip.

We have also special features in Swamimalai like Sabāpathy Virgraw. Here, Lord Subramaṇya

himself is Candraśekhara. Near him stands ‘Daivayānāī’. During the 10th day of the festival. Lord

Candraśēkhara comes to the Tirthavari. He is also known as Senapatī. In the south of the Mahāmaṇḍapa

Sabāpathy becomes Lord Muruga. There Sabhāpati seems in four hands with Daivayānī.

There are five ponds inside the temples :

1. Vajra Tīrtha; 2. Kumara tirtha; 3. Saravana pond; 4. Nelra Puṣkaraṇī, and 5. Brahmā

Tīrtha. Certain episodes are attached to this temple. The Lord ‘Muruga’ giving upadēśa to Śiva.

Bṛhadiśwara worshipping Lord Swāminātha, the penance of Yajñamitra them ŚukaBrahmā, the donation

of the eye by Lord Vināyaka, the concecration of Mīnākṣī Sundarēśwara temple at Swāmīmalai by

Varagupanadya, the worship by Indra and the bith of Lord SuBrahmānya etc.

The temple is surrounded by rocks, measures 300/295 feet and is placed 60 feet from its base.

The threetier Gopura faces south. One has to enter the temple after worshipping Lord Mīnākṣī

Sundarēśwara on the eastern side. Other deities like Dakṣiṇamūrtī, Vijñēśwara, Sōmāskandha, Viśālākṣ

ī and Viśwanātha, Lord Subrahmānya with Vaḷḷī, Durgā, are also found inside the temple. Facing the

Mīnākṣī temple, one can find the five ponds. Before reaching the main deity, i.e. Swāminātha one

has to step over 60 steps. These 60 steps indicated the 60 Tamil years represented by 60 presiding

devas.

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As we enter towards the main shrine, one has to pass through Vijñēśwara facing south. Lord

Swāminātha is also accompanied by Bhaṇḍikēśwara, Arunagirinātha and Naṭarāja in the main shrine.

The temple worship is held according to the Āgama traditions and the Kumāra tantra method. The

Pūjā is held during seven occasions between five-thirty a.m. (5.30) and 9 p.m. The festivals held

during the year are Brahmōtsava (May), Vaikāśi (June), Pavitrōtsava (August), Navarātri festival

(September), Kandaṣaṣṭi (November), Kārthigai (December), Thiruvāthiral (January), Pūśam (Jan-

uary) and Vaṭṭi Thirukkalyāṇam (March).

The order temples surrounding Swāmimalai are Kapardēśwaa at Thiruvaḷaṉchuḷi, Kōṭiśwara

temple at Koṭṭayyūr; Kāśinātha temple at Thirupuranbiyam; and the temple at Kum̐bakōṇam,

Thirupuvanam, Thiruviḍaimaruthur, Paṭṭēśwaram, Dhārāsuram, Thiruppālai, etc.

16. Śīrkāḷi

This is one among the temples and it is the 14th temple. When the deluge took place, God

himself cited the long temple at Śīrkāḷi floating – from that day onwards it is known as the prime

temple. Here, he is enshrined along with Umādevī. The Lord here is also known as Thōṇiappar and

place is known as Thōṇipuram. The other names are Vēṉupuram, Pugaḷi, etc. Kāḷi is supposed to

have worshipped Śiva at this temple. The original name of the temple is Shēṟkāzhipuram. The deity

in this temple is ‘Brahmāpurēśwarar’. On the vimāna of the main shrine, a figure is shown wearing

the skin of Śiva as his dress and the skeleton of Viṣṇu as his weapon.

17. Tirutthaṇi

The temple of Lord Muruga is situated in Chenlepet district and is to south of Kāñcīpuram.

After fighting a battle with Sūrapadam, this is the place where Lord Muruga took rest. Hence, the

place is called Thanigai! It is also a place where the fear of the devas were god rid of. The temple

at Tirutthaṇi has been sung (extensively) by Arungirinātha and has been referred to in several Purāṇas.

Lord Muruga had married Valli at this temple. The seven ṛṣis worshipped Muruga at this place. Lord

Muruga also worshipped at this place and acquired the power to destroy Sūrapadma. The temple is

located on the hill of Tirutthaṇi and this temple is situated on the top of the hill.

18. Tiruvārūr

Among the Cōḻa temples, Tiruvārūr is one of the ancient ones. It is also known as Kamālapuram.

The temple is surrounded by lotus flowers and is in the form of an island. This temple is also known

as ‘Naḍuva Nāyanar’ temple. The goddess in this temple is ‘Yogāmbikai’ or ‘Kamalāmba’. The

Pañcabhūta Kṣētras and one of the Sapta Viḍaṅga kṣetras are also enshrined in Tiruvārūr. According

to tradition, Tiruvārūr gives salvation for birth. In an episode, the presiding deity Tyagīśsa is said

to have given rebirth to the King’s son and the calf and since is called ‘Vīdivṭaṅnga Tyāgēśa’. The

garbhagrha of Tyāgēśa is also a peculiar one, seated on the thrown along with Umā and Skanda –

the Utsava mūrtī is an excellent piece of work in this temple.

On the two sides of the Tyāgēśa are Nīlotpalāmba and Kamalāmba. Facing south it has a

separate temple along with a sakti who has placed Muruga on her shoulder and the Goddess holding

the hands of Muruga. This is the rare piece of art work. The Kamalāmba is depicted as doing penance

in this temple.

19. Tiruvānaikkā

Next to Śrīrañgam, this is one of the biggest temples in Trichy district. There are five prakāras

in this temple. There are seven Gōpuras and five entrances. The important shrines around this temple

are : Mūlai Vināyakar, Sundara Pāṇḍiyan gōpuram, Ēkashari temple, Rāmatīrtham, Kubēra vimānam.

On the northern side of the temple is the Appulinga and the thirtha is called 'Śrīnātha

Thīrtham'. According to paurāṇic tradition the Śiva liṅga floats above the water throughout the year.

One of the Cola king, while taking bath lost his pearl chain which was later found at the place

where the present of Tiruvānaikkā is enshrined. This place is called as 'Jambūkēśwar' because the

Śivalinga was worshipped by an elephant with the naval flowers (every day). That is why this place/

temple is also called 'Nāvalkoil'. Among pañcabhūtas the 'Appu' is placed in this temple. Appu is

water. Umādēvī (i.e. Amba) created the Liṅga with water. The goddess here is 'Akilāṇḍēśwari'.

Because Umādēvī worshipped Lord Śiva here, even today the preist dresses himself as a Lady

and do worship.

20. Tiruvoṭṭriyūr

Among 32 kṣētras, Tiruvoṭṭriyūr is one of the well-known sthala. This place is six kilometres

away from Madras. This temple was praised by Appar, Sundarar, Sambandar and Māṇikkavāsagar.

The Lord is praised by Tripura Sundarī and Vaḍivudaināyaki - Brahmā seems to be 'Jōthiswarupa'

and is called 'Palagaiyadi Nathar'.

21. Tirunelveli

Tirunelveli district, although it may not reach the heights, has make substantial contribution

towards temple architecture. It occupies a prominent role in the art of wooden carvings. The art of

sculptures is quite appreciable inspite of being given lesser important, compared to other places in

Tamilnadu. The art of paintings has been given only negligent attention.

The era between the 8th century A.D.and 17th century A.D. marks the hallmark of temple

architecture. In this district, only during these periods many temples were constructed by kings

belonging to different dynasties, like Pāṇḍyas, Cōlas, Cola Pāṇḍyas, Medieval Pāṇḍyas, Tenkasi

Pāṇḍyas, Ceras and Nāyaks. Most of the temples are situated on the banks of the river Tamraparṇī.

Some of them are on the banks of tributaries like Hanumān Nadi, Chitra Nadhi, Pachiyāru, Kadana

Nadhi, Karuppa Nadhi and Ciṭṭāru. Some of them are built in the midst of towns and villages.

82

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

The inscriptions which are found in most of the structural temples mention the name of the

village and the name of the God. Kings had the habit of naming God after their names. Many examples

can be cited to elucidate this feature.

Rāja Singeśwara the God Koṭṭai Karuṅgulam was named after Raja Simma Pāṇḍian III. Lord

Viṣṇu the presiding deity at Mannārkōil is christened after Rajendra I and the temple is called

‘Rajendra Cōla Vinnagar’. Similarly He is called after ‘Sundara Cōla Pāṇdya’ as ‘Sundara Cōla Pandya

Vinnagar Emberumān’ at Kurumbur. The deity is later rechristened after ‘Māravarma Sundara

Pāṇḍya I’. ‘Śrīvallaba Īśwaram’, ‘Cēra Cōla Pāndyēśwara muḍaiyār’, ‘Kulaśēkharanāyanar’, ‘Varkuṇa

Vinnagar Emberumān’. Kāṭchi koṇḍa Pāṇḍeśwarar’, ‘Kulaśēkhara vinnavar Emberumān’, ‘Śrīvallaba

Vinnava Emberuman’ are the names of deities that are named after the kings.

In some instances, the name of the deity as referred to in the inscription is different from the

one used by the people of the area. ‘Bilvavanēśwara’ for Paṭṭamaḍai is called ‘Vallabheśwara’ in the

inscription. ‘Palvanṇanātha’ of Karivalamvandanallūr is called ‘Kalantēśvara’. In most cases, however,

the temples maintain the same name of the Lord as gleaned from inscriptions as exemplified by

Pinakkarutha Mahādēva of Dharuhāpuram, deity of Koṭṭaikaruṅgulam and also of ‘Candraśēkhara

muḍaiyār’ of Māramangalam.

As the tradition goes, there are 108 holy shrines dedicated to Lord Viṣṇu. Out of them, nine

are situated in Tirunelveli district. These nine shrines are called the ‘Navatirupatis’ (nine holy shrines).

In the whole of India, there are eight shrines of Viṣṇu, which are considered to be ‘Swayambhū’ in

character and the temple at Naṅgunēri is one among them.

Tirunelveli and Courtallam are renowned for Śaivite temples. The Śaivite sāvant

Thirujñānasambandar composed 10 hymns in praise of Nellaiappar and 20 hymns in praise of Thirukuṭ

ṭalanātha of Courtallam. The Vaiṣṇavaite sāvant Nammāḷvār has sung in praise of Lord Viṣṇu at

Śrīvaikunṭham, Varaguṇamaṅgai, Peruṅguḷam, Tirukkaḷur, Tenttirupperai, Tiruppulinkuḍi, Naṅgunēr,

Thōḷaivilmangalam, Āḷwār Thirunagari and Thirukkurunguḍi. Besides Nammāḷvār, the Lord of

Thirukkurunguḍi has been sung by Thirumāliśai, Thirumāṅgai and Periāḷvārs.

Lord Naṭarāja is worshiped as the main deity in places like Kattarimaṅgalam,

Karisulndamaṅgalam, Karuvēlaṅgulam and Chēpārai. These places housed the bronze idols of Lord

Naṭarāja made by one sculptor. It is noteworthy that the family members of this particular sculptor

are still earning their liveliood by continuing their traditional art.

Temples in Tirunelveli district can be broadly categorized into structural, monolithic and

rockcut temples. Rockcut temples are found in places like Malaiyaḍikurichi, Tirumālapuram, Vīra

Śikhāmaṇi, Kaḷugumalai, Chokkampaṭṭi, Sendamaram, Anandhaperi Maṇappāḍu and Tiruchendur.

Kaḷugumalai stands as the best example for these three types of temples. As far as the monolithic

temple is concerned, the style of Mahābalipuram is not followed here. The whole temple is made of

one single rock, which is separated from the parent rock. The facade, like the entire lower portion,

is roughly cut and unfinished. The central shrine is empty and unfinished. Now a modern image of

History of Temples in South India

Ganeśa is placed in the sanctum sanctorum. The śikhara of this temple, octagonal in shape, is the

work of early Pāṇḍya art. Albeit incomplete, it is famous for its sculptures. Sendāmaram there is a

characteristic early rockcut temple with heavy pillars. The central shrine houses Śivalinga on the

Panivatta. The rockcut temple in Ānandhapēri is incomplete and contains only one cell. The

Thirumālapuram rock- cut temple closely resembles Mahēndravarmā Pallavan's style. This temple

comprises a hall and a cell. The cell is flanked by dvārapālas. This temple acquires importance with

its massive pillars and simple carving. The pilasters separating the sculptures on the main wall of the

cave are decorated with lotus flowers. This temple represents the early phase of architecture in this

area. Malaiyaḍikkurichi differs from other rock-cut temples of Tirunelveli district in having an

inscription, which mentions the name of the builder.

Nellaiappar Temple

The Nellaiappar temple grew into a complex gradually from the seven th century A.D. in

Tirunelveli, which was a capital of the late Pāṇḍyas. But it is interesting to note that there is no

reference of Tirunelveli in the Sangama literature. But some scholars attribute the lines of Madurai

Kāñcī to Tirunelveli and Dr. U.V. Swaminatha Iyer opines that 'Nellin Ūr Koṇḍa' relates to Sāliyyūr,

the name of Tirunelveli as mentioned in the Sthalapurāṇam.

The place ruled by the Pāṇḍyas who were wearing nīma garland was known as Pāṇḍyanādu,

Vemban Nadu and Vēmbanāḍu. Hence Tirunelveli was known as Keelvemabadu and it was Brahmādeyam

also. Tirunelveli, situated on the banks of Tāmrapariṇi should bave been the capital of the Pāṇḍyas

and thus secreḍ a mention in the Jñanasambandar's Tēvāram.

The origin of south Indian temples is a mystery. It is difficult to give the date of the

origin of temples. Kṣētravappa mentions that there were a number of Śiva temples and the Tēvāram

of Nāvukkarasar says that there were 78 Śiva temples.

The time of a temple could be traced from the literary and inscriptional evidences and the

architectural style of the temple. Thus it is not easy to fix the date of the origin of the Nellaiappar

temple. It is evident that it was in existence during the seven th century A.D. and it gradually grew

into a big complex during the ages since the seven th century A.D.

The temple is a double temple dedicated to Śiva and his consort Pārvatī. It is divided two equal

portions, the whole occupying a rectangle 850’ by 756’, As Koṇdrayadi, the Lord is supposed to be

the first deity in the Sucīndram temple, Mūla Mahāliṅgam in the temple is supposed to be the deity

in existence during the seven th century A.D.

Usually the daily pūjās were performed thrice a day as Sirukalai sandhi, Ucchi sandhi and

Night sandhi. Arthajāma sandhi is also mentioned in some of the inscriptions. Thirunantal and

Thiruppalli Elūci are mentioned in a few.

Sirukalai Sandi

" " milk

" " rudram

84

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

"

"

amudupadi

Kālai Sandhi

(Midday) Ucchi Sandi

Sandhyādipam

Arthajāmam

Thiruatthajāmam

Thiruppalliēluchi

Thiruanantal

rice cake

Vedādhyayanam

Thirujñānam was chanted during Thiruppalli Eluci. Daily routine started Thiruppalli elucchi.72

All these three sandhis were observed in the Nallaiappar temple. Thirujñānam was chanted during

Thirupalli eluchi. Daily routine began from Thiruppalli eluchi and during Thiruananatal flowers are

pavadai were offered to the deity. Śrirudram was performed during early morning and Sandhyādīpam

was burnt in the evening (dusk).73 Water for Tirumañjanam was brought from the river as it is being done today.

Camphor, akil, chandan were offered to be smeared on the diety.74 It is interesting to note that

the same naivēdyam offered some 1300 years ago is being offered as Thirumudhu today also.75 It needs

mention that almost all the inscriptions mentioned the same kind of Thiruamudhu since the Pallava

period. Rice, dhal, salt, pepper, coconut, Karuppakatti (jaggery) to make rice cakes were given for

amudhupadi during these sandhis in the 34th regnal year of Mar. Kulaśekharadēva I.76 Amudhupadi,

Sathupadi, Tiruvilakku, Thirumalai, Ilaiyamudu, Adaikayamudu, are mentioned in the 13th regnal year

inscriptions of Mar. Sundara II.77 Almost in all the inscriptions betal leaf and the nut are mentioned

as adaikayamudu.78

Arrangements were made for special pūjās on auspicious days like Viṣu in Aypasi, Chitrai,

Śivarātri and Thirukārthigai.

Days

Deity

Kārthigai

Car Festival

Subramanya Pillayar

and Nachchiyar

Aṭṭami

Neiveli Udayanāyanar

and Pollapillayar for

Abhiṣēkam

Thirukārthigai

Periyadēva Muthaliyar

and Nāchiyar

Śivarātri

History of Temples in South India

Caitral Viṣu

Amavāsai

Anavaratatana

Perumal Adhyayanam

Saṅgama literature and Tevāram clearly give an account of the festivals. It was a tradition to

take out the utsavabera. In the temple new icons were made and bronze of Śaiva samayācāryas were

installed and arrangements were made for pūjās and festivals.

Donor

Bronzes

Nakkan Alagiya

Subrahmānya Pillayar

Perumāl

and Naccchiyar

Venadudayar

Aludaiya Pillai

Sankili Vīra

Aruvathumuvar and

Mārtaṇḍa Varman

nine saints

Vilupatharayar

Alagiya Tirucitrambalam

udayar

Koothanvali

Periya Theva Muthaliyar

and Naccchiyar

Krṣṇappa Naik

Viśvanātheśwaram

Udayar at Sindhupūnthurai

Devaṅgal

Suttamalli Nachiyar

Thampiratti

Temple

Girls were appointed to sing and dance in the shrines during the pūjās and the instrumentalists

to play on the instruments during the service were also appointed. Musicians were there to do service

during the nṛthy ceremony.

The temple looks to one who looks at it from a distance as it that there is a mandapam attached

to the temple. But there is a road between the temple and the mandapam.

Just before entering into the gōpuram (gateway), the place known as ambalam has beautiful

wooden sculptures of gods and goddesses along with erotic sculptures on the roof.

The temple is situated in the heart of the town and around the temple run the four main streets,

from these run other streets at right angles, east to west or north to south.

There are three gateways (gōpurams) to each half of the temple and one in the wall dividing

the two temple. The principal gateway faces the East, the entrance of the temple. Fergusson says that

this temple will serves to give a general idea of the arrangement of the edificies.80

The double temple in the great square is divided into equal portions, of which one is dedicated

to God Śiva and the south half to his consort Pārvatī, with the tanks, corridors, thousand-pillared

mandapas and the orchard between the two.

This temple with the big corridors stands next to Ramēśwaram and is appreciated for its beauty

next only to the Mīnākṣī temple.

Religious tradition, the Āgamas and the pūjās and festival encouraged the growth of the temple

architecture. Number of Śiva and Viṣṇu temples arose in Tamilnadu. Devotees did service to the

temples and endowed the riches to them.

The Śaiva Samyācārs and the Ālwaras contributed a lot to the awekning of the people and

religious renaisance also led to the growth of the temple everywheire. Pallavas were founders of stone

temple called ‘Kaṛrali’and their contemporary Pandays followed their footsteps which resulted in the

beautiful monuments of the Thirupparankunṛam, Narasimha temple at Anaimalai and Tiruchi cave

temples and Malayadi Kurichi temple.

The main shrine consists of the garbhagrha, arthamaṇḍapa, mahāmaṇḍapa and maṇimaṇḍapa.

There are nine pillars with padmabandham and pillars in the southern, western and eastern prakāras

round the sanctuary belong to Pāṇḍya period. There are round pillars on the padmabandha and the

lofters (Potigal) are cut like pearl oysters. The pillars with the inscriptions of Kulōttuṅga I and Rajendra

I bear testimony that these pillars were built before the medieval Pāṇḍyas. Therefore, it is doubtless

to say that these pillars were in existence during the period of the early Cōḷas. The walls of this first

prakāra bear the epigraphs of Māravarma Sundara Pāṇḍya I and II and Jaṭāvarman Sundara

Pāṇḍya I.

It is a common feature in the Pāṇḍya regions that the temples do not have the statues of gods

and goddesses in the niches and hence the niches are plain.

The walls of the mahāmaṇḍapa bear a number of Pāṇḍya inscriptions though the maṇḍapa has

number of pillars of Naik period.

So it could be assumed that the Nellaiappar temple would have been in existence in the 9th

century A.D.

22. Thaṅjāvur

Bṛhadiśwara Temple

The temples of God are only the outside representation of human bodies. As Yōgis, Munis

and Gñānīs (Monks, Sages and Saints) sometimes visit the temples and worship the deities the place

is not only purified by the contact of their feet but also their purified thoughts pervade and fill the

whole atmosphere. By being worshipped by such great men and by the Divine power of architects

the image in the temples shine with life and beauty. The mind of one who follows the precept of temple

worship everday with due care will as a result be filled with pure thoughts and be equilibrated both

in and out by the Grace of the Divine image.

History of Temples in South India

87

The Cōḷa kings who ruled over the Tamil country were the descendants of the sun. Their family

dates from the birth of mankind before the historic and Vāidic periods. They assisted Yudhiṣṭhira in

the Mahābhārata war. They were noted for their skill and bravery. They built several temples and

enjoyed unequalled fame from time immemorial. Yet, the scholars of research say that the family is

well known only from the time of Vijayalaya Cola. The second descendant of this Cola who went by

the names of Sundara Cōḷa Ponmalingaithunjina Thevan and several other names was a great devotee

of Śiva. When he died his queen Vanavanmadevī committed satī with him. They had daughter called

Kundavai and two sons called Āditya Karikālan II and Arulmozhi Thēvan. When Āditya Karikālan II

came of ruling age his father Sundara Cōḷa left the reign in his hands and went away to Cidambaram

to sped the remainder of his life in the sole worship of Śiva there. Shortly after becoming king Āditya

Karikālan II died, either on account of the covetousness of Madurāntaka Cōḷa, the younger brother

of Sundara Cōḷa, to the throne or other causes. His son Rāja Rāja Cōḷa I though of ruling age, gave

the crown to his uncle to satisfy his desire, himself being crown prince. Madurnataka Cola reigned

only for a few years and on the 25th of June or July 1986 the king of kings, Rāja Rāja Cola I ascended

the throne. After attending to the prosperity of the state for some years, he gathered a strong army,

conquered other countries and islands and brought them under several large endowments. For the better

conduct of the worship at Chidambaram, the Brahmins there gave him title of Rājarājan and

Śivapādaśēkhara in the 19th year of his reign. With a view to keep up the good title, he commenced

the building of Rājarājēśwaram at Tanjore in the year 1003 A.D. and completed it in 1009 A.D. As

a proof of his unlimited devotion of Rāja Rājēśwaram, he made large endowments, presented many

kinds of valuables, gold jem sets and pearl jewels as well as innumerable Pūjā-vessels to it.

There are several indications to guess that Rājarājēśwaram should have been an ancient city

because many walls and ruined brick buildings are to be seen in the vicinity even today. The big temple

of Rājarājēśwaram is surrounded by mountain-like high lands. Thick forests of trees and creepers, deep

moats and high walls, as if guarded by the four kinds of fortifications, the magnificent tower would

appear like a huge pile of places built one over the other, to touch the sky and serving to welcome

everybody who approaches it. To appreciate fully the grandeur of this supurb sight, it should be

actually seen with eyes wide open as it is beyond description of words or writing. There is not a single

human being in this world who is not enthralled by its beauty. The king and the architects have to

be complimented for having built the temple with granite stones throughout from top to bottom,

without affecting its beauty in any way. This temple is noted not only for its magnitude but also for

its gracefulness and beauty. It was begun in 1003 A.D., when the king was 35 years of age and

completed in 1009 A.D. This is the first temple built of granite stone in the whole of India. The site

on which it was constructed is said to be the place where the great sage Naimiṣāranya lived in

meditation and prayer.

Turning west from the north-south road, one can see Vināyaka and Kārtikēya on either side

of the arch- shaped gateway. The effigies of deities on the western side of the archway are also

attractive. Going through this archway not far from it can be seen the first tower of the temple of

the entrance to the temple proper. This tower, though 90 feet in height, appears to be not so high

on account of its width and is full of decorative work. This is called the Kēralāntakan gateway and

88

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

in the inside vicinity, its superstructure above the gateway is seen to have been built with three

constructions into one. Very near it, there is another tower known as Rājarājan gate. This second tower,

though smaller in size, appears to be borne by figures in human forms instead of pillars and is very

artistic with numerous and exquistely carved figures. Here are the temple doors and guards. Beyond

this there is the courtyard or Prakāra 500 feet long and 250 feet broad. Its floor is paved

with bricks and granite stones. In the east and south side of the encircling cloisters are Yāgaśālā,

kitchen, store room and lining hall and on the west and north side, stand Pārivaralayathu Pillayār, the

nine planetary deities in the shape of Linga. 108 Śiva Lingas and figures of the guardians of the eight

directions. On the walls are depicted the 64 divine plays of Śiva. The Pārivaralayathu Pillayār is said

to have been the first established deity there before the construction of the temple. The numerous

presents and gifts made to this Pillayār by the king, queens, the commander-in-chief down to the

ordinary soldiers are known from the carvings on the stones nearby.

The old flight of stairs originally built are on the southern and northern sides of the entrance

to this temple. A new flight of stair has been built in the front by the mahratta kings in 1803. On

either side of the front entrance stand the idols of Gaṇeśa and Durgā with Bhairava and Saturn in

front of them and on each side of the doorway stand huge Dwārapalakas (door-keeper or sentinals)

18 feet high and 8 feet broad skilfully carved out of single granite stones. Inside the doorway there

are music and dancing halls, Sthāpāna mandapa containing Tyāgarāja's shrine, Mahāmandapa, sidegates,

Arthamandapa within inner prākāra and the sanctum sanctorum in the respective order. In the sanctum

sanctorum stands the Mahāliṅga like a huge hill all glowing with lustre. Thousands of eyes will not

be sufficient to see the magnificent sight. The beauty of tilak and, the purity of the white cloth on

the Linga are unparallel. There is nothing else in this world, it is unequalled and beyond description.

The Karur sage speaks of this as a second sun with hundreds of thousands of lustrous rays come down

to the earth to be worshipped by everybody. In another verse he says that the middle eye on the forehead

will never fade from his eyes and that he can never forget the Liṅga standing in his heart. The Avudayar

(the lower broad stone) is 54 feet in circumference and 6 feet in height and the Banam (the upper

cylindrical stone is 23½ feet in circumference and 9 feet high. It was appropriately said by another

poet that there is no Liṅga in this world to equal the one at Tanjore. When the construction of the

temple was completed, the Śiva liṅga was installed in its place by the Ādi Śaivas. When they applied

the sacred medicine generally used for the purpose of joining the Avudayar and the Banam, the

medicine melted away and did not bind the two firmly together. The king was much grieved at the

mishap. Then a formless voice from the skies was heard to say — if Karūr Thēvar comes here, the

intended work will be accomplished. The king cheered and enquired how to meet that great man. Saint

Bhoganātha who was present there in disguise promised to bring Karūr Thēvar down to the place,

and sent an invitation to Thēvar tied up to a crow's leg. In obedience to the saint's commands, Karūr

Thīvar arrived at the temple. By the power of his penance, he satisfactorily installed the Śivalinga

in the Avudayar using his spit Thambulam as the adhesive medicine (this is fully explained in Karūr

Purāṇam). It was then that the name of Rājarājeswaramudayar was given to this great Liṅga. It also

has other names such as Adavallam, Dakṣiṇameruvitaṅkan and later on, as Peruvudayar. The Goddess

is known by the name Ulagamuzhudhudayal. Karūr sage having satisfactorily installed the liṅga asked

History of Temples in South India

the Ādi Śaivas to do the rest of the work. As the Devas (heavenborns) would be coming to witness

the Kumbhābhibhēkam, he also ordered that suitable accommodation should be chosen for their stay.

It is said that Īśwaramūrthis's forest become the abode of the Dēvās then. It is told that Rājarāja

brought this Śivalinga from the banks of river Narmadā. The custom of felicitating the representa-

tives of the Vellan Ceṭṭys of the 64 housed on Aṣṭakodi day of Caitrai festival supports this.

Our Śāstras say that the sun and moon are the two eyes of God and that Lakṣmī (Goddess of wealth) and

Saraswatī (Goddess of learning) are his consorts. In accordance with this, there are the figures of the

sun and the moon on either side of the inner-side of the doorway to the Mahāmaṇḍapa and those of

Lakṣmī and Saraswatī on the outer-side. There are 252 lingas in this temple.

The towery structure over the sanctum sanctorum of the temple is known by the name of

Vimānam in śāstras. We will therefore refer structure to such by the śāastric term vimāna to distinguish

it from the tower over the outer entrances to temple.

Mount Kailāsa the sacred abode of the Great Śiva and Pārvatī on the mighty Himālayās is called

the utara meru on the same analogue, by reason of the scene depicted on the eastern face of this

great vimāna just above the terrace of maṇḍapa this vimāna has come to be known as Dakṣiṇa Mēru.

This pyramidal structure of vimāna, 14 stories raising to a height of 216 ft. is clearly visible from

all sides. With small pillars, pretty balcony windows and beautiful images carved there on, it enchants

the minds and eyes of all spectators. The vimāna is 96 feet square at the bottom. The stone covering

the top of the vimāna below the spherical shaped stone stūpa under the Kalāsa is a single block of

granite weighing 80 tons. This gigantic block of stone is said to have been lifted up to its such a high

setting place by means of an inclined scaffolding built from a village called Vayalūr 4 miles away on

the Kumbhakōṇam road running a little to the north of Tanjore. On this stone there is a beautiful

octogen-shaped stūpa. The height of the Kalaśa placed on this stūpa is 12 2 alaśa feet. This Kalaśa

is made of 3083 palams 9249 tolas of copper and covered over with gold plates weighing 2926

Kalanjus. It is written on the Kalaśa itself by cuttings in Saṁskṛta and Grantha script that is fixed

on a pole rod a pañcaloka (5 metals) presented by Vīrabhadra Ācārī and that the kalaśa itself was

the gift of the Cōḷa king. The image of (Nandi sacred bulls) places in pairs in the corners of the stone

covering the top of the vimāna are only a bit smaller in size than the big size nandi facing north in

front of the Godess temple. It is seen from several books that the single stone of forming the dome

of the vimāna was given by an old woman named Alāgi and that in return for it the king gave her

the tank and garden (both of which are named after her) near the present Panagal (District Board)

building and also built the Iravadīsware temple near Darāsuram in accordance with her wishes. At

the bottom of the south face of the vimāna are the idols of Vinayaga, Mahā Viṣṇu, Bhikṣāṭatana,

Śūladēva, Dakṣiṇamurti, Mārkaṇḍeya and Naṭarāja at the bottom of the west face those of Liṅgodbhava

and Ardhānārīśwara and on the northern side, those of Gaṅgādhara, Kalyāṇa Sundarar and Mahiṣ

āsuramardānī. Above the level of the water spout on this (northern) face and on the left-hand side

of the spout therē are lifesize figures of human beings, one in each of the semicircular arch directly

over the figures in the third storey there, is a figure of a European wearing a bowler hat.

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Some say that a pious architect hailing from Kāñcīpuram who, was probably an astrologer also

had put this model of a European to there show his prediction that the Cōḷa, Nāyak and Mahratta

kings and the English will successively rule over the land. Others say that it is the figures of Roland

Crape, a Denmark of friend of the Nāyak king who reigned in the early part of the 17th century. Yet

others say that it is the figure of Marco Polo. Though we cannot with any certanity particularize the

individual represented there, it can be definitely affirmed that it is the figure of some European

merchant as foreign trade flourished in the land from the time of Colās.

Śrī Bangāru Kāmākṣī

The arrival of Śrī Bangāru Kāmākṣī Ambāl from Kāñcīpuram to Thanjāvur is a fascinating

story. Being one of the main deities of Kāmākṣī Ambal temple at Kāñcīpuram, Bangāru Kāmākṣī was

an unusual unique creation of Brahmā, the sole creator of mundane things. He could perceive kāmākṣ

ī in his penance as she appeared and he gave shape to the melted gold, bringing his vision to the

solid state. Unlike Mūlakāmākṣī, with four hands in all serenity — Bangāru Kāmākṣī emerged like

a playful girl of twelve years sporting a parrot in her right hand and dangling her left arm gracefully.

So when this temple was about to be besieged by Muslim envaders in the middle of sixteenth

century A.D., the devotees and Arcakas were more concerned with the safety of Bangāru Kāmākṣ

ī — their beloved deity — rather than that of other deities. But Bangāru Kāmākṣī could not part

company with Kāmakoṭi ambal by symbol of Kāmakoṭi pīṭham. Scenting the desire of Bangāru Kāmāks

ī the devotees and Arcakas packed the Ambāḷ idols to their bosoms and sneeked away taking Snapana

Murti (a representative idol for daily Abhiṣekam) and also some precious jewels.

In fact Śrī Bangāru Kāmākṣī — as a girl — has enticed the Mahārāja of Mysore to bestow

her with a gemset Golden Kirīṭam and a gem set golden pendant with the figure of Anda Bherunda

bird (The royal emblem of Mysore state). She has also charmed the Setupati to bring a meter a half

long pearl necklace of three strings.

Bangāru Kāmākṣī — the little girl — played pranks with attendant devotees and archakas —

while choosing to stay in Gingee for sometime then the move to Udayārpālayam. From there to

Anaikudi and then to Tiruvārūr.

She stayed there for about sixty years. Tyāgarāja of Tiruvārūr who was worshipped by the

Mahratta rulers of Tanjore whole heartedly — inspired Tulajājī to take Bangāru Kāmākṣī to his capital.

At last Śrī Bangāru Kāmākṣī arrived at Tanjore in A.D. 1780, stationed at Śrī Koṉkonēśvara temple

and Śrī Hanumān teṃp̱le (of north-west corner of the town) temporarily. She had a beautiful compact

temple constructed by Tulajājī and consecrated in the new temple in the year 1786 A.D.

Myriad are the anecdotes told by the ancestors of the present-day Arcakas in which they found

all the vicissitudes suffered by them throughout their sojurns during the two-hundred-and-twenty-five

years enjoyable because of the happy consummation of the events.

Śyāma Śāstrī, the great composer of music — belonging to the famous trinity — was a youth

of eighteen years — when Bangāru Kāmākṣī moulded the wild musical wizard into a devotee of

History of Temples in South India

mellowed Nāda upāsana. His well-chistled delineation of Rāgas in his composition Sāhitryas which

were neither ornamental nor imaginary in terms of words employed - was really the extatic ecśperience

of Nāda Brahmām. The great singer Madurai Mani Iyer used to say that he would lose himself

completely when he would begin singing ‘Mari Vere Dikkevaramma’ in Ānanda Bhairavī.

23. Tirupati

Ages follow in the order of Krta Yuga, Tretā Yuga, Dwāpara Yuga and Kali Yuga according

to Hindū mythology. Yugas follow in the same order again and again. There were so many Krta Yugas

and Kali Yugas in the cycle of the earth. After the end of one cycle, the earth is destroyed the by

the will of God created again afresh.

Our story starts after such a Pralaya. The world was immersed in the sūrya of water. There

is no life upon earth, God woke up from his benign slumber, created Brahmā and asked him to create

the world again, but where to place the lives ? There was no earth. Only other was seen everywhere.

Brahmā prayed to God to restore the earth.

God looked into water, Bhūlōka was not to be found anywhere. Hiraṇyākṣa, the demon king

rolled the earth like a mat and hid it deep in Patala. God became angry. A white cloud issued forth

from His nostrils, took the form of a white boar, and plunged into the ocean in search of

Hiraṇyākṣa.

Hiraṇyākṣa and the boar fought with each other like two lions. But in the end, he boar tore

Hiraṇyākṣa to pieces, took the earth upon his snout and placed it above the ocean. Goddess Earth

was much pleased with Her Lord and begged him to live with her forever. Varāhamūrti, the white

boar incarnation of the Lord, was pleased with her request. He beckoned Garuḍa and ordered to bring

a beautiful hill from Vaikuṇṭha.

Bhūvarāhamūrti ascended the hill with Goddess Earth and took his abode near a tank. The fire

of anger in the face of Varana slowly vanished. He became his natural self of kindness and sympathy.

The Devas showed flowers upon him and sung His praises.

Lord Varāha lives upon Tirumala upon the western bank of Swāmī Puskarinī till today. The Pus

karinī here is called Varāha Puskarinī. Everyone visiting Tirumala must first pray to Lord Varāha and

then only proceed to have darśana of Lord Veṅkaṭēśa. That is the right form of worshipping the God

of Tirumala.

The sacred Hills of Tirumala was called Vṛṣabādri in Trētā Yuga, named after Vṛṣshabhāsura.

The demon Vṛṣabhāsura lived upon the hills. Though he belonged to the demonic tribe (Asura

by birth), he was a devotee of the Lord. He was doing penance upon the hills in the most demoniac

way offering his own head along with a flower everyday. By God’s grace the severed head joined the

body after every day’s penance. Thus he lived a life of life and death, not for one day or two but

for a long period of five-thousand years.

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At last Lord Śrīnivāsa appeared before him like a radiant sun. He said, 'Oh Vrishabā, I am

pleased with yours worship. Ask anything you want'.

Vṛṣabā answered. 'Oh Lord ! I am tired of riches. I do not want anything of heaven or earth.

Of Salvation I feel that I have attained salvation, the very moment I observed thy beautifuy form. If

you want to give me anything give me the boon of a fight with you. Having no equals to fight with

me, my shoulders are itching for a fight'. Śrīnivāsa smiled at the strange request and gave his assent

to fight with him. For seven days and seven nights, they fought like lions. Yet nobody was tired.

At last the Lord perceived that the time had come for giving salvation to Vṛṣabha. He beckoned

Sudarśans Cakra to his Hand. As soon as Vṛṣabha saw the Lord's hand, he prayed 'I am glad to throw

the body at your feet and immerse in everlasting glory. I want poeple to remember always that I lived

here upon this sacred hills and attained salvation by thine own hands. Let people call the hills by my

name'.

'Vṛṣabhā, you spoke like a true warrior. Your wish is granted !' said the Lord and at the same

time the sudaraśana flew like a fiery disc and cut off Vṛṣabha's head. It was not a new experience

to Vṛṣabha and so he laid his life gladly at the feet of the Lord and attained salvation.

Añjānā was the daughter of an Asura king, Kēśari by name. Kēśarī was a great devotee of Lord

Śiva. He did penance for many years. At last Lord Śiva appeared before him. Kēśarī was very much

pleased and said, Oh Lord! I want an immortal son ! My son should live for ever !

Lord Śiva smiled at him and said 'Kēśarī' you asked a boon very much worthy of you. But you

are not fortunate enough to have an immortal son. Howsoever your wish will be fulfilled through your

daughter.

Kēśarī returned to his kingdom. After many years, a daughter was born to him and he named

her Añjanā.

Añjanā grew up into a beautiful maiden and in the appropriate time, Kēśarī gave her to a suitable

Vānara king, Kēśarī by name. Young Kēśarī and Añjanā lived happily, enjoying the fruits of love for

many years. But the arrival of a son was not in sight.

Añjanā grew impatient and thought of ending her life. At that time the Lord of Dharma appeared

before her in the guise of a low-caste woman and adderessed thus. 'Do not lose heart Oh princess.

There is a hill upon earth called Vṛṣabhādri by name. The Supreme Being and all the Dēvas live there.

Go there and do penance till your heart's desire is fulfilled. Your efforts will not go in vain'.

Hearing those word Anjana was very happy. She immediately left her palace and walked towards

the Hills.

Añjanā chose a beautilful place near the sacred waterfalls, Ākāśa Gaṅgā and building and

Āśrama (hut) for herself stayed there and started penance. First she ate only fruits, then lived only

upon water. Vāyu the God of winds saw her body waning day by day and nearing the stage of extinction

for wants of nourishment. He took pity and decided to give her a fruit a day which will help her

to sustain with life. Many thousands of years passed thus.

History of Temples in South India

One day, Lord Parameśwara and His consort Pārvatī visited Tirumala and after worshipping the

Lord there, started towards Kāilash. They were engrossed by the beautiful sights of the hills, which

looked like a flower garden in the seasons of spring. Two monkeys were sporting with each other in

love. Attracted by them, the hearts of the divine couple also filled with desire. They too became

monkeys and enjoyed love. The potency of Parmeśwara fell upon a flower. Immediately, it folded its

petals and became a fruit. Vāyu gave the fruit to Añjanā. She ate it and became pregnant.

Añjanā understood the changes in her body and became perturbed. A voice from the Heaven

answered her thus; ‘Añjanā, listen! Lord Śiva himself chose to be born of you and the pregnancy you

bear will be His Own Self in the form of a monkey, because the fruit carrying Lord Śiva’s potency

was given to you by Vāyu, your son will be called Vāyuputra (son of Vāyu). He will serve Lord

Viṣṇu in his incarnation of Rāma and get the boon of immortality from Mother Mahālakṣmī herself.

Do not worry’.

Añjanā was very happy. She waited in eager expectation for the birth of the child. She delivered

a son in the constellation of Śravaṇa in the month of Śrāvaṇa. The child was like a golden monkey

with a golden -hued face, and red limbs. It was wearing a sacred thread. The child looked in all

directions for something eat. The rising sun looked like a red fruit. The child immediately sprang

towards it. All the Dēvas in the sky got panic. Brahmā, the creator himself rushed to protect the sun.

He struck the child with his stick (Brahmā Daṇḍam) to protect him from reaching the sun. But the

child playfully pushed it aside with his hands. But the heat of the sun and the power of Brahmā’s

weapon was such that he fainted before he reached the sun and fell upon the earth as if dead.

The child lay motionless before its mother. Seeing the fate of her son, Añjanā lamented, cursing

the gods.

Brahmā the Creator approached Añjanā and said ‘Añjanā your son is not dead nor will he die

ever afterwards. I am blessing him with a boon that my weapons will not hurt him any time here

afterwards’, Brahmā named the hills after Āñjana as Anjanādri and named the child Āñjaneya so that

the world may remember his mother forever.

Añjanā went back to her father with her child and lived happily with her husband for many

thousands of years.

In Dhwāpara Yūga the Hill was called Śeṣādri named after Ādiśeṣa. The story goes on to say

that the hills are the formation of Ādiśeṣa himself.

Once Ādiśeṣa became a little proud of his position of being the nearest to God. Lord Viṣṇu was

aware of this and wanted to correct him.

One day it happened that Ādiśeṣa was on guard at the private entrance of the Lord’s chamber

when Vāyu, the Lord of the winds, came to worship God. Ādiśeṣa raised his staff and prevented Vāyu,

Vāyu looked at Ādiśeṣa with scorn said, ‘Don’t you know that I am already there from where you

want to prevent my entrance? I am the wind that every living being breathes, I am everywhere as the

Lord Himself’.

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24. Tiruvananapuram

Shangumukham Bhagavati Amman

'Shangumukham Bhagavati' is one of the well-known temples in Trivandrum. Trivandrum seashore was called Shangumukham like 'Kanya Kumari' Bhagavati Amman is also doing 'Tava' near the seashore.

During every Pournami day, people gather here. In the Tamil month of 'Panguni', there will be a festival for 10 days. The star 'Kritija' comes in the last day of the festival. Usually, it seems this festival starts from Sucindram Sri Tanumalays Perumal and ends in the Shangumukham Bhagavati Amman. Sri Anandapadmanabha Swami Temple Arattu celebrated in this sea only. It seems even Maharaja also came and took baths in this sea.

Sri Padmanabha Temple

The origin of the temple of Sri Padmanabha, now a landmark in the front at Trivandrum and known to most of the rest of India as 'Anantasayanam', are lost in antiquity. It has not been possible to determine with any exactitude, from any reliable historical documents or other sources, as to when and by whom the original recumbent idol of Sri Padmanabha was set up at this location. Some well-known scholars, writers and historians, like the late Dr. L.A. Ravi Varma of Travancore, have expressed the view that this temple was established on the first day of Kali Yuga, i.e. over 5000 years age. The story of the temple, as handed down through the centuries in the form of legends, also indicates that this House of God is very, very ancient indeed. One such legend which finds a place in the old palm-leaf records of the temple as also in the famous grantha entitled 'Anantasayana Mahatmya' mentions that it was set up by Tulu Brahmin hermit named Divakaramuni on the 950th day of Kali Yuga.

The story as narrated in Anantasayana Mahatmys goes as follows: Divakara Muni was a great Visnu Bhakta and was at that time doling penance and in deep tapas in 'Atharta' Desa. One day, Mahavisnu appeared before the sage in the form of a lively and beautiful two-year-old boy without revealing his real identity. The saminyasi was very much taken up with the charms of the child and because of the affection he involuntarily felt for him, he prevailed upon the god-child to stay with him. The child, however, made one condition that the saminyasi should treat him with respect at all times and should he at any time fail to do, he (the child) would go away that very moment. This was accepted and so the child stayed with him. The hermit gave him a great deal of loving care and tolerated the childish pranks of the little boy. One day, however, when the saminyasi was deep in mdeitation at his prayers, the child took the 'Saligrama' which he was using for worship and put it into his mouth and made such a nuisance of himself that Divakara Muni was greatly angered and could tolerate it no further. He, thereupon, chastised the child who, in accordance with earlier agreement, immediately ran away and disappeared from the spot. While so doing, he said, 'If you wish to see me again, you will find me in Anantha Kadu'. It was only then that Divakara Muni realized who his erstwhile child guest had been. The hermit was striken with inconsolable grief and for many days followed what, he believed, was the route taken by the child foregoing food, rest and sleep in the process. Finally, he reached a wooded area near the seacoast and then caught a glimpse of the child disappearing into a

History of Temples in South India

huge 'ilappa' tree standing nearby. Immediately that tree fell to the ground and it assumed the shape

of recumbent Mahā Viṣṇu. That divine form had its head at Tiruvallam (a place about three miles

distant from the front) and its feet at Trippapur (five miles away in the opposite direction). Overawed

by the majesty and the size of the Divine form, which thus manifested itself before him, the saṁnyāsī

prayed that the Lord condense himself in size so that it would become possible for him to contain

the Divine presentation within his limited field of vision. Thereupon, Bhagawān Viṣṇu's image shrank

to a size three times the length of the saṁnyāsi's 'Yogā danda'. Immensely gratified that his prayers had

been granted, he made whatever offerings he could and conducted pūjā to that wooden image. The

Lord, having been pleased, ordained that from then onwards, pūjās to Him at that Place should be

conducted by Tulu Brahmins from the same part of the country as Divākara Muni himself hailed. To

this day, half the number of 'pūjāris' in this temple continue to be drawn from the Tulu country.

Another generally accepted version of the origin of the temple relates it to the famous saṁnyāsī,

Vilvamaṅgalathu Swāmiyar, whose name is linked with the histories of several temples of southern

India. This Swāmiyar hailed from the Nambudiri Brahmin community and was a very delicate Viṣ

ṇu bhakta. The legend that connects him with this temple of Śrī Padmanābha is in detail almost

identical with the Divākara Muni tale related above. It is said that when MahāViṣṇu presented himself

in the Anantśayana 'rūpa' before the sage at Anantan kādu, the latter had nothing worthwhile to offer

him. From a mango tree standing nearby, he plucked a few unripe fruits, put them into an empty

coconut shell lying thereabout and in all humility offered it as 'naivedyam' to the Lord. Even today

one of the pūjā vessels in use here for the offering of naivedyams to the presiding deity consists of

a gold encased half-coconut shell and one of the important items of naivedyam in vogue from time

immemorial is unripe whole mangoes pickled in brine. It has also been the practice in the temple

during the past several centuries for the morning 'puṣpāñjali' pūjā to be conducted by a Nambūdirī

Brahmin saṁnyāsī. These traditional customs coupled with the fact the Puṣpañjali Swāmiyār holds a

position of importance in the 'Ettara Yōgam' (a commitee which, at one time in the distānt past, was

the governing body of the temple but has, over the years, became a ceremonial and advisory panel)

lend substance and some measure of credence to the theory that this temple was founded by

Vilvamaṅgalathu Swāmiyār. On the other hand, the claim of the Divākara Muni story: can only be

substantiated by the presence, among the accredited pujāris, of a large number of Tulu Brahmins. It

is, however, noteworthy that at no time did this community have a place in the 'Ettara Yogam'. Besides

being represented on the 'Yogam'. The Nambūdirī Brahmins also have position of eminence in the

rituals and ceremonies of the temple in that the Tantris (High Priests) have always been drawn from

this community. It is also believed that the small Śrī Kṛṣṇa temple, located in the nearby western

Swāmiyār Matom (official residence of one of the two Puṣpañjali Swāmiyārs of the temple), has been

built over the samādhi of Vilvamaṅgalathu Swāmiyār.

Some historians and researchers hold the view that the Tiruvambādi shrine of Śrī Kṛṣṇa

(in the Parthasārathī rūpa), which is a separate temple located within main temple walls, is older than

the shrine of Śrī Padmanābha. It is surprising, if that be the case, as to why the Tiruvambādi shrine

figures nowhere in the 'Anantaśayana mahātmyā', mention of which has been made earlier. According

to legend, the shrines consecrated to Śrī Narasiṁha and Sāstha, which are located inside the temple

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walls, were established at various times after the main shrine of Śri Padmanābha came into being.

There is mention in the Bhāgavata Purāṇa (canto 10 chapter 79) that BalaRama visited

'Spanandoorapuram' in the course of his pilgrimage and the belief is that this time refers to the shrine

of Ananta śayanam in 'Tiru Anantapuram' (Trivāndrum). Similarly, in the Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa also,

there is a reference to 'Syānandoorapura'. All these lend considerable weight to the widespread belief

that this temple is of great age and has been half in veneration over the centuries as an important

shrine of Mahā Viṣṇu.

The compositions of Nammal̤vār, the great Vaiṣṇavite saint in praise of mahā Viṣṇu, prove

beyond doubt that this temple existed in the fifth century of this era. Records indicate that from very

early days, the management of the temple was is in the hands of a local committee called the 'Ettara

yōgam' mentioned earlier. Old palm leaf records also show that the foundations for the first properly

constructed temple buildings were laid by the saints and ruler named Chermān Perumāḷ. He is also

crdited with having commissioned various persons to attend to the multifarious duties connected with

the rituals, ceremonials and general administration of the temple. Very many years later, about the

year 1050 A.D., the temple was reconstructed and the management including the constitution of the

'Ettara Yōgam', re-organized as it is today by the them ruler.

The next important recorded events relate to the period 1335 A.D. - 1384 A.D. When

Travancore, as known then, was ruled by powerful and wise king by the name of Vīra Mārtanḍa Varma.

He gradually established his authority completely over the management and administration to the

temple. There are records to indicate that in the year 1375 A.D., the Aipasi Utasavam (one of the

two important half-yearly 10-days festivals which take place regularly even these days) was conducted

in the tmeple.

It was in the next year that the great Mārtanḍa Varma became ruler of Travancore. Even before

he became the king, he made plans for re-constructing the temple and in 1729 put the work under way,

personally supervising much of it. In 1730 the idol was again moved to 'balalaya' preparatory

to a fresh renovation are re-construction of the sanctum sanctorum. It was only towards the end of

next year that this work was completed. The old wooden idol of Śrī Padmanān bha (believed to have

originated from the ilappa tree into which the Lord disappeared when Divākara Muni saw him last)

was replaced with a new one fashioned out of 12000 'Śaligrāms', which were specially brought down

for the purpose and moulded into shape with a particular kind of mortar made of 'kadusarkara'. This

is the reumbent idol which is even today worshipped and seen in the sanctum sanctorum and to which

all pūjās are offered. The Ottakkal Mandapam in front of the idol was re-built with one single slab

of granite two and a half feet thick and twenty feet square. This mandapa is still in daily use today

it was during the Ruler's time that most of what is seen today within the walls of the temple was

constructed. It is on record that daily 4000 stone artisans, 6000 labourers and 100 elephants worked

for a period of 7 months to finish the constructions of the Śrībalipura. This magnificient rectangular

corridor built of stone surrounds the main shrines and is meant for providing protection from the

weather for the/deities, when taken out in ritualistic processions. The gōpuram, for which foundations

had been laid in the 1566, was built up to the fifth storey during this period. Similarly, the flag-staff

History of Temples in South India

in front of the main shrine was also erected at this time. The special teak log was brought from the

forest 30 miles away by men and elephants without touching the ground, as laid down in the Śāstras.

The teak pole was then covered completely with gold sheets. The renovation of the temple tank, the

Padmatīrtham, including the stone-flagging of the steps and its completion in the form we see it today

was also undertaken during this great ruler's time.

Early in 1737 A.D. the construction of the 'Bhadradiṅa pura' and 'dīpa vāga maṇḍapa' on

the southern outer court of the temple was completed. Mārtaṇḍa Varma Rāja had been waging a

constant war against recalcitrant and petulant local chieftains and warlords in the furtherance of his

subject of consolidation of the kingdom. By 1739 A.D., he had succeeded in liquidating the most

powerful among these, viz. the 'ettuveettil pillamārs' and the 'madampimars'. Following this he

ordered the confiscation of their properties by the state. In atonement of the 'sins of war', he decided

that the revenue from these properties be endowed to this temple for the institution of a daily special

offeirng of 'pālpayāsam' to Śrī Padmanābha at the 'panthīradi' pūjā in the morning.

Between 1750 A.D. and 1753 A.D., he made several sacrificial gifts and charities at the Bhadra

Dīpa maṇḍapam and had the religious and royal rites of 'Thula Puruṣa Dhanam' and 'Hiraṇyagarbham'

performed. It is seen that in 1753, the Perinthiramitu Pūjā was also conducted in grand style. This

pūjā had been conducted in earlier years even as far back as 1587 A.D. but not on this scale nor

with any regularity. Since 1753 it has been a continuous half-yearly event marking the end of the

Bhadradiṅam ceremonies. In 1754 A.D. the four 'oñjal' maṇḍapams, one at each corner of the

Śrībalipura, were constructed. These are used to accommodate important guests and devotees who

come to witness the utsava srībalis and worship the deities when taken out in procession.

An extraordinary and epoch-making event which took place on 5th Makaram 925 M.E. (January

1750 A.D.), was the formal surrender by this great ruler of all the territory under his suzerainity to

the Deity of this temple, Śrī Padmanābha. On the morning of that day, accompanied by all the members

of the royal family, his chief minister 'Dalawa' Rāmayyan and the rest of the ruler's encourage, Rāja

Mārtaṇḍa Varma came to the temple and in the presence of the Puṣpāñjali Swāmiyār, members of

the Ettara Yōgam and other Brahmin and non-Brahmin dignatories, by a formal title-gift deed, which

he placed on the steps of the sanctum sanctorum, he surrendered all the rights and authority he had

over his kingdom to Śrī Padmanābha. In token of the surrender, he also humbly placed his royal sword

at the steps and then, receiving it back, he returned to palace. Thereafter, he ruled the state as

'Padmanābha Dāsa'. He also ordained that his successors, when they ascended the throne, should

likewise surrender their territories and rights to Śrī Padmanābha. To this day, they have all been

faithfully and religiously following his injunctions in this regard. In 1947, even on the attainment of

independence and the merger of the state of Travancore with the Indian union, no change took place

in the arrangements for the management and administration of the temple. Necessary statutory

provisions to ensure a continuity of past traditions in this respect were made and are still current.

In 1744, the consecration the Bhadra Dīpam was carried out and thereafter, once every six

years, this famous 'Mura Japam' ceremonies have been held, culminating in the Lakṣadīpam (festival

of a lakh of lights). These take place regularly even now, the last occasion having been in 1971-72.

The state was ruled by Kārtika Tirunāḷ Rāma Varma from 1758-1798 and during the period,

work on the gōpuram over the eastern entrance was completed and it was raised to its present height

and form. It was in April, 1763 that the silver flag-staff, now in front of the Tiruvambādi shrine, was

erected. The golden flag-staff at the main shrine, which had been erected in 1939. was badly shaken

at its base during a devastating cyclone which hit the entire land in April, 1786. It was, therefore

uprooted and replaced by the present one in 1787.

Although the main festival (utsavam) at the shrine of Śrī Padmanābha used to take every six

months and lasted 10 days each time, the corresponding festivals at the Tiruvambādi shrine were being

conducted only for five days each until 1821. In that year, under the directions of the then ruler, the

Tiruvambadi Utsavams were also held for 10 days and this practice continues now.

The Anantapadmanābhaswāmī temple in Trivendrum is one of the most sacred shrines in south

India. Numerous pilgrims from all over India visit it throughout the year. It is an ancient temple and

one of the most important in the chain celebrated in song by the Vaiṣṇava saints, the Āḷwārs. Its

antiquity, magnificence and location at the heart of the caspital of the Kerala state add to its importance.

Situated at the centre of the Fort in the city on an elevated spot measuring about seven acres

with an imposing seven-tier gōpura rising to a height of a hundred feet in its front, it is easily an

object of great attraction. In front of the gōpura is a flight of steps connecting it with the broad pathway

leading outwards, on the northern side of which is the large holy tank, the Padmatīrtha, presenting

a grand foreground to the view of the majestic structures of the temple.

Judging on the presence of the gōpura, the architecture in the temple is considered by some

authorities to be Dravidian in contrast with the indigenous type, which has its own peculiarities. But

except for this multistoried gōpura with its usual sculptures, the rest of the temple is basically of the

indigenous type with vast open spaces.

The sanctum sanctorum is long and oblong with three doors in front. Continuous with it in

the front is a maṇdapa with a massive single, smooth, rectangular granite slab of about 25 feet long

and 20 feet broad as its floor. This wonderful structure is significantly known as the 'Ottakkal

maṇdapam'. Sanskritized as Ēkaśailamaṇdapa. Standing on it, one can see the majestic form of

Padmanābha reclining on the Ādiśēṣa.

This bimba is made of special kind of mortar called 'Katusarkaravāga' and has studded in it

12,000 salagramas. The head, the trunk and the feet are respectively visible through the three doors.

The goddesses Lakṣmī and Bhūmi are seated near the feet. Images of Nārada and Tumburu, the

Sañakādi quartet and Garuḍa are separately seen. The louts from the navel with Brahmā on it is high

up, but still can be seen with some effort. The palm of the stretched-out right arm rests on a Śivalinga

symbolising the fundamental unity between Vaiṣṇavism and Śaivism. In front of the Anantaśāyī is the

'abhiṣēkamūrtti' in solid gold. It is only about two feet in height and is in the standing position with

Lakṣmī and Bhūmi on either side.

The roof of the sanctum (Vimāna) is ridged and two-tiered and has ornamented gables. It is

covered with copper sheets and has three golden crest pots (stupakalaśas), one each over the three

doorways.

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There are a few other deities also installed in the temple. Among them, the most important

is the Śrī Krṣṇa temple standing at the northwest on the yard on the interior side of the Śrībalimaṇḍapa.

This temple is a ancient as the padmanābhaswāmī temple itself and is a separate structure in itself

with its own independent dhvajastambha and maṇḍapa. It is commonly known as 'Tiruvampādi'

meaning 'the sacred Gōkula' and between the main temple and the Śrībalimaṇḍapa, on the northern

side stands the Kṣetrapāla temple and on the south the Śāsta temple.

There are two major festivals during the year, both similar in nature, each lasting for ten days,

one in the month of Tulām (October-November) and the other in the month of Mīnam (March-April).

It starts with the flag-hoisting ceremony on the first day and culminates with the ceremonial bath on

the last day. The rituals are separately but simultaneously conducted for the Padmanābha and Krṣṇa

temples, the latter being an independent unit. The utsavamūrtis of the three principal deities, Padmanābaha,

Narasimha and Krṣṇa, the first in gold and the other two in silver, are taken out in a grand procession

in the evening and night in specially designed and gorgeously decorated vāhanas to the accompaniment

of a vast paraphernalia and in a well-arranged order with a mounted elephant bearing big hemispherical

drums leading it, and the Mahārāja of Travancore walking in front and keeping guard of the deities

with sword in hand. The procession takes four rounds along the Śrībalimaṇḍapa. There are six

different vāhanas, each a set of three, one in gold and the other two in silver but exactly similar in

size and shape. On the last day, the deities are taken to the sea, three miles to the west of the temple,

in a very attractive procession popularly known as 'Arat procession'. The entire cavalry, the police

force, all the battallions of the state forces, the royal lancers and archers, all in their colourful costumes

lead the procession. All Hindū officers in the state in their temple dress used to accompany, the

Mahārāja going in front, holding the sword. Numerous caparisoned elephants flank the rear. This

glorious procession continues to this day, though in a diminished manner after the disappearence of

monarchy in the state. The festival in Mīnam has greater pomp because of more entertainments.

There are two minor festivals also held twice a year, each of seven days duration ending

respectively on the first day of Makara and the first day of Karkaṭaka. This is called Bhadradīpa and

is mainly for a śāligrāma separately installed on the southern outer yard. But the processions are for

the three deities and these are held in the mornings and the last alone in the night also.

Once in six years, the Bhadradīpa in Makara has associated with it the Murajāpa culminating

in the Lakṣadīpa, a ceremony the like of which cannot be seen anywhere else in India. The Nambūdiri

Brahmins from the north are invited in large numbers under their head priests, the vadhyans. Vaidikans

and Alvancheri Tamprakkal, and they recite mantras in the temple for fifty six days, the Vaidic saṁhitās

in the forenoon, the Viṣṇusahasranāma in the afternoon and Varuṇa Sūkta in the evening, the last being

done in the padmatīrtha. Sumptuous feeding with the most delicious dishes is a noteworthy item. On

the Lakṣadīpa day, the temple is lit by innumerable oil lamps exceeding in number even a lakh which

the word 'Lakṣadīpa' signifies. This rare festival of such an immense magnitude, has been the theme

for several literary works. Of late, with the change of times, the Murajāpa ceremony has become

considerably reduced but the Lakṣadīpa continues to be held as before.

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There is an occasional but unique festival conducted on the birth asterisms of the Mahārājās,

past and present, called Kulavazhachirappu, meaning the festival of fruit-laden plantains. In this every

pillar in the temple is adorned with a plantain head bearing the full bunch of fruits, a sugarcane shoot

and a garland of flowers. On the annual birth asterism of Svāti Tirunāḷ Mahārāja, this is celebrated

with ripe plantains and bunches laid not only on the pillars but also closely in horizontal rafters placed

in the interspace between pillars.

The temple has an importance as a treasure-house of art. The gōpura itself with seven golden

crest-pots is full of sculptures of Paurāṇic personages and incidents. It has a peculiarity that its base

is much larger than its height would normally require. Integrated with the gōpura in its front is a

larger hall, significantly called Nāṭakaśālā, for the performance of drama and dance. The Kathakali

is performed here in the night, up to dawn, on all the days of the main festivals. A Kathakali troupe

consisting of the best actors is maintained for this purpose. The Śrībalimandapa is a highly symmetrical

structure with a series of equidistant columns all round on both the sides with a stony parāpet

connecting them all. The columns are about 20 feet high and are uniformly lion-capitalled and have

on the forepart the statue of a well-adorned young and lovely lady holding a lamp in her joined palms,

and on the sides images of animals, birds and flowers and gods and men and scenes from mythology

as also everyday life. On the columns near the dhvajastambha, we get the figure of Vyāli with a rolling

ball of stone in the mouth, and panels showing troupes of musicians and drummers. To the south of

the dhvajastambha is a structure all in stone, called Kulaśekharamandapa. It is an exquisite piece of

poetry in stone with exceedingly charming figures of gods on each of the pillars and is an unrivalled

specimen of realism in sculpture. It contains the images of many gods and goddesses, some of them

in rae forms. Viṣṇu bearing in his lower arms Lakṣmī who holds a fine pot in her hands, the devatā

a Avahanti, is one such. There are many attractive murals on the outer wall of the garbhagrha, showing

in their original form, a distant kinship in style to the frescoes of Ajantā, although the pictues

themselves should be considered compartively recent. They depict figures and incidents in our

mythology, Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva and Śākta.

The Vāhanas for carrying the deities during the procession, are objects of fine workmanship.

As stated earlier, there are six different vāhanas. These are Simhāsana, Śeṣa, Kamala, Sibika, Indra

and Garuḍa. The Indravāhana is considered the most attractive.

Besides these static arts in the temple, there are also many performing arts asociated with it.

Music is important among them. Music in the temple was standardized by Svāti Tirunāḷ Mahārāja

and his compositions in praise of the deity alone are used. The artistes are in multiple sets. For

instance, there are eight Nāgasvara Vidvāns and the corresponding number of accompanists. The

Nāgasvara used is short and high-pitched. Among other instruments used are the vertical flute with

its drone, the conch, the kompu (a kind of bugle), kitupiti (double kettle-drum) and a special kind

of metal nāgasvaram, besides the usual instruments used for rituals in Kerala temples like Timila,

Chenda, Edakka and Cengila. The palace musicians accompany the processions. There is also a

separate troupe for singing Aṣṭapadi in the morning.

History of Temples in South India

25. Tiruvaiyāru Pañcanāthēswara Temple

Tiruvaiyāru, the well-known place of pilgrimage, is in Thanjavur district of Tamil-Nadu about

eight miles from Thanjavur in the north. The place also goes by the names of Iyyaru, Pañcanātham,

Japyēśwaram, Bhūlōka Kailāsam, Kā vērī Kōttam.

There are five Prākārams inclusive of the streets. The God and the Goddess have separate

temples facing east. The figure of Dakṣiṇāmūrti in the first prakāram is very fine and famous. In the

same prakāram are the temples dedicated to Umamahēśwara, Śaṅkaranārāyaṇa, Brahmā Dēva,

Tripurasundarī. In the second prākāram, there is a separate temple dedicated to Somaskanda. Nearby

on the western side is the Japyēśwarar Maṇḍapam. Here there are the Pañca bhūta Liṅgams, Sapta

Maṭhas, Ādi Vināyaka and the Nava Grahas, which have been installed in the pattern vouchsafed in

the Āgamas. In the walls surrounding these, ancient paintings relating to the Sthalapurāṇam are found.

The idols of Vināyaka, Subrahmanya, Somāskanda, Dakṣiṇāmūrti, Naṭarāja and the Sapta Sthāna

murthis have been installed.

In the third Prākāram are the many maṇḍapas. In the eastern and southern sides are the two

massive Rā jagōpurams. In mount Kailāsam the Lord is said to give darśana in the southern side and

so here also, known as Bhūlōka Kailāsam, during the festival times the Lord comes of the southern

gōpuram into the streets. In the fourth enclosure on the southern side in the Tank Sūrya Puṣkaraṇī

and the temple of Dakṣiṇa Kailāsa where Appar had the vision of Kailāsa. In the north is the Uttara

Kailāsa known as ‘Olokamathevicaram’. There are gōpurama at all the entrances. In the north east

corner of this temple is situated the temple dedicated to the Goddess with separate gopurams and

sanctum sanctorum.

The Lord goes by the names Iyyarappar, Sempor-Jothiar, Japyēśar, Kailāsa Nāthar, Praṇatārthī-

Harar. The Goddess goes by the names Aram-Vaḷar Nāyaki. Tripurasundarī, Dharmambika. The

Gaṇēśas, are various in number, such as Oalamitta Vināyaka, Ādi Vināyaka, Vallabha Vināyaka and

the like.

The Lord Subrahmanya goes by the name Dhanuṣu Subrahmanya, with the bow, arrow and the

lance and his consorts.

Dakṣiṇāmūrti goes by the name Śrī Hariguru Śivayōga Dakṣiṇamūrti. This is a rare form and

is one among the eighteen. He sports in his right top hands Kapālam and Sūlam, in the hand Chin-

Mudrā and in the bottom right hand Śivagaṇa Bhūtam. Under His feet is the Kūrmam (Tortoise) which

is a rare sight.

Atkondar is one among the Dwārapālakas of the Lord and is seen in the front of a subduea

Yama fallen at his feet. He is very popular and held sacred by the devotees. The fumes of Kuṅgilyam,

a sacred incense, always fills the air here.

The main thīrthams are the Kāverī, Sūrya Puṣkaraṇī, Samudhra Tīrtham, Devamṛta Tīrtham,

Nadī Tīrtham and the like. Out of these the Kāverī and Sūrya Puṣkaraṇī are very famous. A bath in

the River Kāverī for one day equals a bath in any other river for one year. The Puṣya Maṇḍapa Ghat

with steps on the banks of the river has been nicely and beautiful built.

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The sacred tree - Sthala Vrksam - of this place in Bilvam.

There are many episodes connected with the temple, all mentioned in the Purāṇas.

One among the 24 Ādi Śaivas who was worshipping the Lord here went on a pilgrimage to holy Benares. The other usurped his belongings in his absence. His wife and children prayed at the sanctum of the Lord, and the Lord came in the form of a Śiva Brahmin, and stayed in the Mutt, and offered pūjā to the Lord. The devotee returned from his tour and the Lord, in the form of a Śiva Brahmin enquired as to who the devotee was The devotee said that he was one among the Ādi Śaivas doing the pūjās to the deity. The case was taken before a commitee and both of them showed their authority. Both the handwritings were compared and it was found that the Brahmin's was the original one. Immediately the Lord appeared on the scene and explained the situation and offered darśana to all. So the Lord here had worshipped Himself for sometime. To vouchsafe this in the Somaskanda Maṇḍapa, even today worship is offered to the Sphaṭika Liṅga of the God and in Sphaṭika Goddess.

On Silatha Munivar had no children and prayed to Lord Iyyārappa who directed him to perform the Putrakameṣṭi yajña. He was told that he will come across a box which contains a child while ploughing the land. 'His life is limited to 16 years. Take him and bring him up' was the command. So did the sage and found the box and the child, and it had four arms, three eyes, crescent-moon on the head. The saint was taken aback. Immediately he heard a celestial voice asking him to close the box and open it again. The saint did so and found a normal child inside. The child was named Japyēsa and by the time was sixteen he had mastered all studies. He was told of his short life and so the lad went to a penance standing in water. The snakes and the fishes ate away portions of his body, but still he was doing penance. The Lord appreciating his determination gave him long life and all wealth. To make the body all right, the Lord himself bathed him with the holy waters of the five tīrthams. The lad became radiant in body and mind. The lad was married to the granddaughter of sage Vasiṣṭa. Later, Japyēsan was made the head of gaṇas in Kailasa and came to be known as Śrī Nandi Deva.

Agasthiar offered his worship to the Lord here and reached Mount Kailasas after a dip in Sūrya Puṣkaraṇi. He got his midest form here.

A young boy by name Sutharithan, who had lost his parents, went on a pilgrimage and stayed for the night at Tirupazhanam. In his dreams Yama appeared and said that he would die on the firfh day. The boy went to Tiruvaiyārū and prayed to Iyyārappar. On the fifth day, Yama appeared before him. Vasiṣṭa the great sage directed him to offer prayers at the southern entrance. Accordingly, the boy did it unassailinggly. The Lord pleased with his penance instructed His Dwārapālaka to save the boy. Yama was killed and the boy was saved. Śiva appeared and blessed the boy. In response to the prayer of Goddess of Earth, Yama was brought back to life and he was given injunction not to touch anyone who was offering worhsip to the Lord here. In this shrine here, one can always smell the fumes of Kungilayam.

Śiva in order to prove to the world the benevolent nature of the Goddess gave Her a small quantity of paddy for distribution and with Her unbounded grace appeased the whole Universe with it. Thus the Goddess got the name Aramvalartha Nāyaki.

History of Temples in South India

Saint Appar after having had Darśana at Kāḷahasti in Andhra Pradesh, wished to have darś

ana of Kailāsa also. So he went on a pilgrimage and while doing so, the Lord appeared in the form

of a Brahmin and pointed out that he could not reach Kailasa with the human body and dissuaded

him from proceeding further. Appar was determined to proceed and refused to turn back. His body

was waning, but still he was adament. The Lord pleased at his devotion gave him Darśana and

instructed him to take a dip in the tank there. He did so and to his surprise, when he came out of

water, he was in the Puṣkaraṇī at Tiruvaiyārū and got darśana of the Lord as at Kailāsa here.

Saints Sundarar also had darśana of Ayyārappar. When he came to Tiruvaiyārū, he could not

cross the river Kāverī as it was swelled with high floods. So he prayed to the Lord, and the river

gave way by swelling on one side and vacating the other half with a sandy bed for Sundarar to walk

over. The Vināyakar who heard the songs of the devotee from the other bank shouted in appreciation

of it and so got the name Olamitta Vināyakar.

On the Caitra Pūrṇimā day, the Lord of Tiruvaiyārū with His consort and Nandidēva will come

in a procession in the glass palanquin. The procession will go from one place to another in all the

other

Kṣetrams around Tiruvayyārū and the deities from the respective temples will join the procession and

in the early hours of the next day all the seven deities will assemble at Tiruvaiyaru. People used to

call this, the wedding procession of Nandidēva. The seven places are: 1. Tiruvaiyārū; 2. Tirupazhanam;

3. Tirucotruthurai; 4. Thiruvegudi; 5. Thirukandiyur; 6. Thirupūnthuruthi, and 7. Thiruneithanam.

There are many mandapas in this temple and minor shrines. The important ones are the Dakṣ

iṇa Kailāsa, Uttara Kailāsa and Daṇḍapāṇikōil.

The Brahmōtsavam takes place in Caittirāi for 12 days. The fifth day is important when the

Lord offers worship to Himself. On Pourṇamī will be the Sapta Sthānam festival. In Panguni, the

wedding festival of Nandidevar will be celebrated.

There are some good sculptures in this temple. The figures of Brahmā, Ātkondar, the figures

on the walls of the inner prākārams of Dakṣiṇa Kailasa, the sculptures in the rafters date back to

the early Cālukya period.

One Sūrya vāṃśi king Priya Vr̥than renovated this temple first and performed the Kumbhābhiṣ

ēkam.

Later the Cōḷa king, Karikāl Peruvathan, when he came here, his chariot was stuck up. He

dug deep and found the image of many deities. He was asked to construct the temple by the sage who

was here. He had no money. He prayed to the Lord here. Under orders of Ayyārappar, His vāhana

Rṣabha Nandi walked into the place and the King to his surprise found enough gold, jaggery and stone

here. He built the temple with them and performed Kumbhābhiṣekam.

Govinda Dīkṣidar the minister of Acuta Dēvapa Nāyakar of Tanjāvūr carried out renovations

in this temple. The Nagarathars of Ceṭṭinad have rebuilt the temple of the Goddess and performed

Kumbhābhiṣekam.

His Holiness Śrī La Śrī Kailai Guru Mahā Sannidhanam of Dharmapuram Ādhinam who is

the sole heredtitary trustee and who is famous far building temples and performing Mahākumbhābhiṣ

ēkams, here also renovated all the shrines, gopurams, maṇdapās and all! at a cost of about 4 lakhs

of rupees and performed Kumbhābhishēkam on the 31st Mrach, 1971. Tiruvaiyārū temple is one among

the 27 Devasthānams under the control of Dharmapuram Ādhinam. For the convenience of the visitors,

there are two resthouses in the Amman Sannidhi street.

The four temples are dedicated to Ayyārappar, Olokamaṭhevicaram, Dakṣiṇa and Kāilāsa and

have historical back-grounds.

Looking at the ancient nature of the temple, pillars, rafters, one is prone to think that the temple

has the Pallava influence in its construction. The Dwārapālakās in the temple are akin to the ones

found in the cave temples of the Pallavas. The Somāskanda shrine has the Dwārapālakās of Cola

architecture with 4 arms and the incrisors.

Historical references point out that Parākeśarī Paranthakan I (A.D. 905-947) was the first to

construct the temple. From the inscriptions, we learn that the gōpuram in the third enclosure was built

by the Cōḷa king Vikrama Cōḷa. Later, the maṇḍapās have been built or renovated in A.D. 1381 by

one Vīra Sevanna Odayar. The western gōpuram and the surrounding corridors were built in the period

of Achutthappa Nāyakar by Marudur Anayappa Pillai and his brothers. The Pusa Padithurai on the

banks of the Kāvērī was built by one Vaidyanāthan and was named Kalyāṇa Cindu.

The stone images of these renovators are found in this temple with their names inscribed below

each idol. Achuthappa Nayakar with his consorts and Pachayappa Mudaliar with his consorts are

prominent.

From the inscriptions the name of the Goddess is Thirukkama Kottatthu Aludaya Nāchiar and

Ulagudaya Nāchiar. She is known as Aram Valartha Nāyaki and Dharmasamvardhanī.

Rāja Rāja I, Kulottunga III, Sadāvarman Sundara Pāṇḍyan have all held their sway over

Thiruvaiyārū. The Olokamādēvī Charam was built by the queen Olokamādēvi, consort of king Rāja

Rāja I in the year A.D. 985. So the temple has been built 1000 years ago. The idols of Olokamādēvicharam

Udayar, Somāskandar (Oloka Vīthī Vitangar) and other deities were installed in this temple. The

inscriptions here explain details the jewellery used in those days and these have been dedicated to the

deity. The inscription relating to Kulottunga III points out to a temple known as

Thirubhuvanamadevicharam - probably Dakṣiṇa Kāilāsa.

Dakṣiṇa Kailāsa is situated in the southern prākāram of the main temple. It is a shrine with

Ardha Maṇḍapa, Mahā Maṇḍapa and Garbha Grham. The idol of Saint Appar Swāmigaḷ is here. This

shrine was said to have been renovated by Pañcavana Madēvi, consort of Rajendra Cōḷa I. The Lord

goes by the name Pañcanathivanam. The Goddess is Añjalai. The idols were once burried and one

Māna Vanma Rāyan unearthed them. Later, Krṣṇadēvarāja Odayār renovated the temple and built the

compound walls.

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There are about 70 inscriptions relating to this temple and they have been copied by the

Government. In 1894 some of the 43 inscriptions were copied, 22 were copied in 1918 and one in

1924. The others were copied later.

They are of Parantaka I (A.D. 905-947), Rāja Rāja I (A.D. 98-1015), Rājendra Cōladēvan

(A.D. 1011-1043), Rājādhirājan (A.D. 1018-1052), Parākēsarī Rajendra (A.D. 1050-1063) and Rājendra

I who became Kulōttunga I after five years.

Most of the inscriptions relate to the gifts of lamps. Among the Pāndya kings, there is the

inscription relating to Sadāvarman Sundara Pāndyan dating to A.D. 1253.

Krṣṇadēvarāyar (A.D. 1422-49), and Sadāśivarāya (A.D. 1680) of Vijayanagar had given lands

to the temple. There are many more undated inscriptions.

Saints Thurujñāna Sambandar, Tirunāvukkarasar, Sundaramūrti and Mānikkavācakar have all

sung in praise of the Lord here. Ayyadigal Kadavarkon has sung the Skhētra Thiruveṇbā. Arunagirināthar

has sung Thiruppugazh. There are the Thiruvaiyātru Paditru Pattu Andādhi and Tiruvaiyātru Purānam.

26. Vaithīśvaran Kōil

It is a fact that the delight of enchanting features of marvellous divine beauty which is a joy

forever built the culture of Tamil Nadu.

The temples of Tamil Nadu are of great antiquity and many of them are held in high esteem

and respect by all poeple. They attract thousands of pilgrims even today from all parts of India and

abroad.

Vaithīśvaran Kōil, a small village six kilometres south of Sīrkāli, is a place of pilgrimage in

Thanjāvūr district of Tamil Nadu. Situated on the Madras-Tiruci main railway line between Cidambaram

and Mayilāduthurai it is nearly 264 kilometres from Madras. It has been linked with important centres

by both bus and train routes.

The renowned temple is famous for Mūrti, Sthalam and Thīrtham as per the religious approach.

The temple with its massive walls lofty gōpurams, shrines and mandapas covers and area about

10.70 acres. Hundreds of devotees came to this temple throughout the year for fulfilling prārthanais

anf vows.

The 'Sthala Vrksam' (temple tree) is Vēmu (Margosa) with its thick foliage, and it is found

rear the eastern inner courtyard and eastern Rājagōpuram. In one of the three niches of the paved

portion of the tree, there is an old image of Lingam for worship. The deity with the shade of this

sacred tree is called as 'Vempadimal' and 'Ādi Vaithanāda puri'. It is interesting to note that this small

place is the divine root cause for the enlargement of various structures connected with the present

appearance of the temple complex.

It is told that the Margosa tree with its thick foliage murmurs through its leaves the song of

praise to the Lord as the celestial healer of all human diseases. It is believed that inhaling the sweet

smell and eating the leaves of this tree one can get the gracious relief from many ailments.

106

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

As regards the antiquity of this sthala vrukṣam it is mentioned in sthalapurānam that the tree

of highly medicated value was Kadamba (Sea side India Oak, Common Kadamba) in Krta Yuga, Bilva

(Basit) Aegle Marmelos in Tretā Yuga, Vakuḷa or Makizha (Miumpsops elengi) in Dwāpara Yūga and

is Nimba (Margosa) in this Kali Yuga. The different transformations of this stupendous tree is highly

imaginative, but devotees attach much importance to this tree with firm religious faith. From this

legend the antiquity of Athivaitthianāthar dates back to a hoary past when man was in the most premitive

stage of his existence. It should be noted here that the age-old faith in divinity could not be traced

and the continued faith also is an important cause for the emergence and survival of temple arts.

Vaithiśvaran Kōil has been well laid out and it covers a large area for different artistic structures.

There is a lovely imposing Rājagōpuram in the west front and another on the eastern side, of equal

grandeur and importance. In the interior, there are two Kattai (short) Gōpurams, one in the west and

another in the eastern side.

The Sannidhi of Śrī Vaithianāthaswāmī is facing west, whereas the sannidhi of Goddess

Thaiyalnāyaki is facing south. There is a special shrine dedicated to Śrī Selva Muthu Kumāraswāmī

near Swāmī shrine of this temple as He is supposed to have been worshipped by Lord Śiva Himself.

Most of the great temples of Tamil Nadu carry inscriptions on their walls. Even though these

inscriptions refer only to gifts of property and the temple administration, they throw a great deal of

light to ascertain the age of structures and materials available in the temple. Even though Tamil Nadu

escaped the ravages of demolition of temples during campaigns and foreign invasions, periodic

renovations (once in twelve years as per the agamic method) of the temples have intervened and

masqueraded what was the original temple. This ancient temple has only limited epigraphical evi-

dences. A number of stones containing valuable inscriptions of different periods are said to have been

defaced, displaced and buried during renovations from time to time. Yet a few ancient inscriptions

could be seen on the walls of this temple.

Eight inscriptions which have been properly deciphered include those of the following kings:

Vīrapāṇḍiyan, Vikrama Cōḷa (1126-1136 A.D.), Achuthappa Nāyak (1560-1600 A.D.) and Tulajāji

Mahārāja (1763-1767 A.D.). Inscriptions of Vīrapāṇḍiyan are supposed to be very ancient. As the

inscriptions assignable to Vikrama Cōḷa are not in order, the real services rendered by him to the

greatness of this temple could not be known to the people.

On seeing the styles of architecture and sculpture of this temple, one can try to find out the

services or art-contributions made by Pallavas, Cōḷas, Nāyaks and Nagaratthārs. It is very difficult to

give a correct note of the particulars of the history of art-products without the support of proper

evidences. Howverthere are precious art products available in this temple; they reflect the synthesis

of art-culture.

Some dance poses are sculptured in and around the shrines and on the gōpurams. During the

festivals, the art of dancing was very much encouraged as a form of worship until recent years. It

is said that after the ‘Vithi Valam’ (procession) Lord Vaithianāthar used to a thrice round the shrine

in the thattisutri maṇḍapa. The dancing girls with ahallvilakku in their hands used to dance to the

nattuvanam and music while following the presiding deity.

History of Temples in South India

107

The dance performances took place in front of large gathering in the spacious halls during the festivals.

Musical instruments used in the temple worship can be classified as: 1. Those used in processions, when the deities are taken round the Mada streets on the occasion of the festivals; 2. Instruments performed during the rituals inside the temples, and 3. Special instruments played in some particular temples.

There are regulations for nāthaswaram music during times of pūjās and procession.

As regards the nitya Pūjā, Bhūpālarāga was played in Nāthaswaram in the early hours - First Sandhi, Thanyasi in the second sandhi, Madhyamāvadhi in the uch-chi-kālam (Noon), Pūrī Kalyāṇī in the sayaratchai (Evening), Nāttai in the second kālam and Ānandabhairavi in Arthajāmam (midnight).

During the festival times, the deities are taken in procession (vīthīvalam) round mada streets of the temple. In the beginning, when Swāmī (Uthasavar) comes out of the shrines, Nādasvara vidwans play the Rāgam (Mallari). After the flag-hoisting, they usually play Rāgas based on ‘Thikkupāṇḍanam’ (in all sandhis)

(i.e.)

Magarakkuriñci in (Madhyamāvadhi)

Brahmā sandhi

Seekamaram in (Nathanāmakkriyai)

Varuṇa

Thakkēsi in (Rāmagiri)

Vāyu Sandhi

Thakkarāgam (Mālavagiri)

Kubēra sandhi

Pancakari (Śaṅkaraparāṇam)

Ēṣānam sandhi

Kānthāram (Velavalli)

Indra sandhi

Kolli (Varāḷi)

Agni sandhi

Karucikam (Kujjari)

Yama sandhi

Nattapādai (Bhairavī)

Nirudhi sandhi

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

There are many musical instruments such as Nādasvaram, Tavil, Mukhavīṇai, Thirucchinnam,

Thutthi, Ekkālam, Conch, Namari, Swarnamandali used in the rituals.

In this temple there was a per: 1 who used to perform on the ‘Swara Mandali’ during the calm

rituals in the night. He was called ‘Swara Mandali Pandaram’.

As the image of Pañcamukha Vādyam is found in the pedestal of the bronze sculpture of Śrī

Naṭrāja, it can be construed that there might have been a Pañcamukhavādyam in use during the temple

rituals of Vaitheesvaran Kōil.

Tamil Nadu is sacred of festivals as it is a land of temples. Temple festivals provide ample

opportunity for artists and craftman to display their artistic talents.

Pañca bhūtas (the five elements) Prthivī, Appu, Tejas, Vāyu and Ākāśa are worshipped as Gods

in specified seasons in most of the great temples. The following festivals are celebrated in Vaitheesvaran

koil.

The festival of Āvani Mūlam can be taken as a form of worship to Prthivī (earth) through it

is earnest by celebrated in the religious memory of Śiva-līlā (Thiruvilayādal) at Madurai.

Kārtikai-dīpam on Kārtikai day on the full-moon day in the month of Kārtikai (November-

December) is celebrated as an worship to Tejas (fire) though it is celebrated on Paurāṇic version as

follows:

In days of yore these arose a context between Thirumāi and Brahmā as to their relative

superiority. In the course of the heated controversy there ascended a huge flame, which is said to have

been no other than Lord Śiva appearing to convince them that there was yet one superior to them.

At that time Brahmā took the form of Swan and flew up above to discover the top of the flame, and

Viṣṇu became Varahaor Boar and tore the earth with his powerful tusk and tried to discover the base

of the flame. This scene called the ‘Lingōdbhava’ is sculptured in the temple and this myth is

celebrated as Kārtikai Dīpam festival here.

The festival of Navarātri Sarasvatī pūjā is celebrated as a form of worship to Vāyu (air) though

it is intended for the worship of Śrī Durgā, Śrī Lakṣmī and Śrī Sarasvatī in Purattāsi (September-

October). It is said that the glorious Thirumālaiyāḻvār was much interested in celebrating the

Navarātri festival with an extraordinary significance. This has become a colourful festival in all great

temples of Tamil Nadu from his period. The temple of Vaitheesvaram also attaches much importance

to the artistic celebration of Navrātri.

Though there are festivals in Vaitheesvarankoil Panguni Utthiram (27 days), Ādipūram (10

days), Vaikai Vasantōtsavam (10 days), Aippasi Kanda Saṣṭ (6 days), Thai Mahōtsavam (10 days) are

to be noted as big festivals of this temple.

During the festivals ‘Utsavamurti’ are attractively decorated with precious ornaments, costly

costumes, colourful fragrant flowers, and seated on Vāhanams of artistic value. They are taken in

procession in the mada streets on these occasions mainly for the sake of the very old and the deformed,

History of Temples in South India

the sick and the suffering, who are able to offer worship in the temple. The devotional hymns that

are heard by the people in the streets inspire them to be more pious.

Indra Vizha (festival) was celebrated for 27 days in the erstwhile Poompuhar during the post-

Sangama period; perhaps under the influence of Indra Vizha, the Panguni Utthiram festival is also

celebrated for 27 days in Vaitheesvarankoil. During the Theppotsavam (floating) festival celebrated in

connection with the festival of Panguni utthiram Lord Vinayaka is placed ceremonially in a daily

decorated float illuminated by flourescent lamps and taken round the shrine in the centre of the tank

with the chanting of hymns and other sounds of temple musical instruments. The float-festival might

have been started by the Nayak kings.

As regards the beautiful Vahanas of Vaitheesvaran koil, Palanquins, Karpaga Virutcam,

Padmavahanam, Bhutam, Yanai (elephant) Vahanam, Kamadhenu, Simham, Kili (Parrot) Vahanam,

Velliratham (silver car), Velli rsabhpams (silver bulls big and small), Thangamail (Golden peacock),

Annam (Swan), Peruchali (Bandicoot), Velli Idumba (Idumban made of silver) are to be noted for

their excellent artistic workmanship, Sapparam (Sakopuram-resembling a car-specially constructed by

artistic craftmanship) in which Sri Selvamuthu Kumaraswami is seated and taken in procession on the

sixth day of Sri Kandasasthi festival. The procession of deity on every day during the festival has

pauranic significance.

27. Vaikkam

The 3 temples of Vaikkam Kaduthuruthi and Ettumanoor were established at the same time by

the asura called karan. It is said that while the asura was travelling with the 3 Siva linga's he wanted

to take rest and place one on the left hand down. Seeing this Siva sent Vijaghra Patha Rsi to do puja

for the linga which was kept down. This place came to be known as Vaikkam or Vaikkapuri where

the worship was continued by Vijakra Muni. It is also said that the Lord of Vaikkam is worshipped

on all the 3 different occasions. He manifests in many forms. The famous festivals at Vaikkam is very

popular.

Conclusion

The history of the various ksetras studied so far would reveal that every minute details precribed

through the day on the activities of the respective temples are definitely based on the cultural and

spiritual aspects like-rituals, utsavas, myths, legends tirthas, sthalavrikshas, pratisthas and of course

based more on the music and dance within the temple complex.

The history of Indian music is purely Bhakti-oriented and has a sacred entity. This was due

to the outpourings of innumerable vaggeyakkaras who were saint-composers and singers. Some of them

composed on their Istadevatas, while some saints musicians travelled extensively visiting various

shrines, thereby creating excellent compositions depicting the details of the temples and the presiding

deities.

110

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

REFERENCES

1. This opinion appears to be a belief rather than a proven fact. In fact, Sadāśiva Paṇḍarattar (1963) has not

included this purāṇam as a work of Umāpati. My own view is that it was written by an anonymous person

sometime in the 16/17th centuries.

2. Revised Pativu of Kanyākumāri temple, p. 156.

3. Ibid., pp. 66-67.

4. Ibid., p. 156.

5. The Sthala Purāṇams of a temple contain mythological accounts of the temple mixed with historical facts.

Usually it is written by a poet of the place or by some visiting men of literature. The Sthala Purāṇam of the

Madurai temple turns to be purely legendary, the historical part is recorded in two manuscript accounts

Sthala Varalāru and Sthanikar Varalāru, both published by the Madurai Tamil Sangam.

6. Two versions of the legends are found in the works of Perumparrappuliyūr Nambi and Parancotiyar. The

versions are stated to be translations of Saracamuccya and Hālāsya Mahātmiyam, respectively.

7. Sargasccca pratisargascca vaṁśanu caritam caiva purāṇāṁ pañcalakṣaṇam.

8. Bascom. 1965. The Forms of Folklore, Journal of American Folk Lore, Vol. 78, No. 307, Jan-March p.4 f.

9. K.G. Kr̥ṣṇan, 1971. Some recent discoveries of Pāṇḍyan History (Unpublished). Paper read on 22-3-1971 at

the Seminar on Pāṇḍyan History, Madurai, Madurai University. Shri Kr̥ṣṇan considers Pāṇḍiyan Varakuna

II to be a contemporary of Manikkavācakar. Further, Dalavaipuram copper plates confirm that Varakuna II

led his later part of his life as an ascetic.

10. U.V. Swamināthaiyar Ed. 1972, Tiruvalavaiyutaiyar Tiruvilaiyādal Purāṇam (3rd ed.), Madras, p.9f.

C.R.Anantharaman, 1974. Śiva Lilārnavam, Madurai Temple Complex. Madurai : Arulmigu Mīnākṣī

Sundarēśvarar Tirukkōil, A.V. Jeyechandrun, Ed. P. 35 f.

11. U.V. Swāmināthaiyar, op. Cit., p. 9.

12. Ikkaṭu Rathinavelu Muthaliyar, 1937, Parancoṭi Munivar Aruḷiya Tiruviḷaiyādal Purāṇam, Madras: Murukavel

Puttaka Cātai.T.K. Supparaya Ceṭṭiar, 1887, Parañcōṭi Munivar Aruḷicceita Tiruviḷayādal Purāṇam,

Madras.

13. E. Iramasamy Pillai, 1954, Asthamī Pradakṣinā Mahātmiyam, Kālayarkōil, Arupattumūvar madam.

14. Citampara Vāmatēva Muruka Patṭarakar, Ed. 1880, Kalampavana Purāṇam, Madras.

15. T. Chandrashekaran, Ed. 1958, Cuntara Pantiyam, Madras, Government Oriental Manscript Library.

16. C.R. Anantharaman, 1974, op. Cit., p. 36.

17. T.V. Mahāling̣am, Ed., 1967, Early South Indian Palaeography, Madras University, p. 24.

18. Śilappatikāram, XI — Kaṭukan Katai, ll. 17-22.

19. Ibid., IVII — Āicciyar Kuravai; XI-23-30. Ulvari 1-2, ll. 11-12.

20. Ibid., Kaṭ̣uraikkatai, ll. 50–51; ll. 17-22.

History of Temples in South India

21. Jñānacampanta Cūvāmikaḷ Tēvāram (Tālamurai), 1971. Śrīvaikunṭham : Kumārakuruparan Sañgama, p.

22. ‘Viral mikka karikkarul ceitanai’ verse No. 4. Ibid., p. 27, ‘Ataintu Airavatam paniya’ verse No.7.

23. Ibid., p. 553. ‘Koṭṭicainta atalai kūṭal Alavayilai’ verse No. 2.

24. Ibid., p. 561, ‘Vēṭamum porulkalum aruḷi’ verse No. 1.

25. The word Virranai is interpreted as referring to the sale of precious gems and firewood.

26. Ibid., p. 356, ‘Amputam Nalkalai nitunkutalalavai’, verse No. 5.

27. Ibid., p. 551, ‘Cittan’, verse Nos. 2 and 4.

28. Ibid., p. 671, ‘Paḷanam Viruṭṭanam’, verse No. 3.

Ibid., p. 166, ‘Viruṭṭanai Paḷanai’, verse No 1.

28. Ibid., p. 526, ‘Pānan Icāi paṭimaiyal patutalum parintaliṭṭan’, verse No. 9.

Ibid., p. 559, ‘Taramuiṭṭatu Panarkarulōṭu’, verse No. 6.

29. Ibid., p. 200, ‘Tāramuiṭṭatu Enamonriṅkarana makivantu’ verse No. 6.

30. Ibid., p. 350, ‘Kelarpin vetanam’, verse No. 1.

31. Ibid., p. 544, ‘Aruvan Alavai maruvinarāṉai’ verse No . 9.

32. Jñānasambandar does not make a direct reference to his songs to Tamil Sangam of Madurai, but the lines

‘Maturai tokai yakkināṉum’ suggests it.

33. There are direct reference in Jñānasambandar Tēvāram to the cure of the Pandiyan king by the application

of the sacred ash (Tiru nirū).

34. Ibid., p. 546. ‘Alavayan tiruniṛippaippōṭṭip pūkaḷi nilavum pūcuran Gñānacampantan tēṛitennna nutalurra ṭ

ippiniyayina’ verse No. 11.

35. Ibid., p. 550. ‘Atil venṟalikkatt tiruvullame’ verse No 4. ‘Alakkat tiruvullame’ may mean defeating the

Jains in dialogue with them. The use of the word ‘vatu’ is significant. The internal evidence for the impale-

ment of the Jains is very slender. For a full discussion on this point c.f. A.v. Jeyechandrun, 1947-75,

Historic Evidence in Periya Purāṇam, Vaiyai, Vol. III, Madurai : Madurai University, pp 451-461.

36. Thrunāyukkaracu Cuvāmikal Tevāram (Talamurai), 1970, Śrīvajkunṭham : Kumārakuruparan Saṅgama.

37. Ibid., p. 410, ‘vetiya veta kiṭai’ verse No. 1.

38. Ibid., p. 412, ‘Acurar purankal’, verse No. 1.

Ibid., p. 433, ‘matilutan Kūṭa vanki’, verse No. 2.

39. Ibid., 272, ‘cittane’ verse No. 4.

40. Ibid., p. 490, ‘Viruttarakum pālanar’, verse No. 2.

40 A. N.R. Bhatt, Ed. Rauravāgama, Vol. I, Pondicherry : French Institute of Indology, p. 43, ll. 61.

P.R.P. Rangan, 1974, Kavuttuvam, The Madurai Temple complex, Madurai : Arulmigu Mīṉākṣī

Sundarēśvarar Tirukkōil, A.V. Jeyachandrun, E.d. p. 292.

112

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

41. C.f. Even the name of the person who suggested the musical pattern is indicated.

42. V.R. Deivasikamani Gounder, E.d., 1973 ‘Pañcamarapu, Part I, Pollachi : Śaktī Aranilaya Veliyetu, pp.

44. S.D.S. Yogi, Ed. 1968, Kūttanūl Madras. Tamil Saṅgītāṭa Nataka Akademi, pp. 368.

45. K. Vasudeva ŚastriKal, Ed., 1955, Tala Camutram. Thanjavur Sarasvatī Mahal Library, pp. 188.

46. Arumpatavuraiaciriyar and Atiyārkkunallār have brought out the ancient traditions embodied in the works

in great detail.

46. P.V. somasuntaranar, Ed. 1970, ‘Cilappatikāram’, South Indian Śaiva Siddhanta Works Publishing society,

pp. 88 ff., 255 ff.

47. The notes were Kural, Tuttam, Kaikkilai, Ulai, Ili, Vilāri and Tāram.

The earliest mention of Samiskṛta name for these notes seems to be in the Pallava inscriptions at

Kutimiyamalai of Mahendravarman I (Pudukkottai State Inscriptions, No. 341).

48. Bharata’s Nāṭya Śastra, Chapter XIV.

49. S.D.S. Yogi, op. Cit., pp. 156-161.

50. P. Sambamurthy, 1969, South Indian Music. Book VI, Madras : The Indian Music Publishing House p. 85

ff. for a discussion on pans.

51. K. Vellaivaranan, op. cit., p. 582-84.

52. Ibid., p. 584. P. Sambamurthi considers the number as 21 dropping out Takkeci and Nericai.

Dr. Premalatha in her publishing doctoral thesis (1963); Sources which provide material for the construc-

tion of a detailed history of Indian music, p. 339 mentions the number as 24.

53. K. Vellaivaranan, op. Cit., p. 597 considers that such a classification of Pans was traditional and Tīvāram

hymnists followed it.

54. Tīrujñānacampanta Cuvamikal Tēvāram (Talamuri), 1971, Śrīvaikuṇṭham : Kumārakuruparan Saṅgama,

pp. 543-563.

55. T. Puttusami OthuvAr, 1950, ‘Periya Purāṇam’, Tirupanatal : Kasi Matam, pp. 403-426.

56. Kīrttit Tiruvakaval, ll. 118, Manickavasakar.

57. Census of India. Vol. No. IX, Madras, Part XI D; Temples of Madras State. Madurai and

Rāmānathapuram. 1969.

58. Vol. II, T.A.S. 1910.

59. It is a controversy among the scholars. But it is believed that the Āryans migrated into the Tamil country

during the sixth century B.C. The Rāmāyaṇa episode may belong to this initial stage.

60. Ahanānūru, v. 70.

61. Tēvāram, Rāmeśvaram Pathigams, in III & IV Tirumurais.

62. Tēvāram, Ibid.

History of Temples in South India

63. Vālmiki's Rāmāyaṇa, Yuddhakāṇḍa, canto. 126, vv. 20-21.

64. Skanda Purāṇā, Setumahatmyakaṇḍa, cantā. 43.

65. The Tīrthas outside the temple are Kapitīrtha and Bhairavatīrtha in Pāmban, Viḷḷuni and Sītakundatīrthas near Thankachimaṇḍam, Raṇavimōcanatīrtha, Pañcapāṇdava tīrtha, Maṅgalatīrtha and Amirtavapi near Ekānda Rāmēśwaram, Jātatitīrtha and Dhanuṣkōṭi. Rāmatīrtha and Lakṣmaṇatīrtha within a mile from the temple.

66. Ānanda Rāmāyaṇa, Canto 9, v. 28.

67. Sētpurāṇā, Koṭitirtha Sarukkam, v. 81-82.

68. Ibid., Agni tirtha Sarukkam, vv. 12-13.

69. Dhanuṣkōṭi and Dhanuṣkōṭi pierstations have been completely destroyed by the cyclone of December, 1964 which engulfed and destroyed them.

70. Narasiṁha Iyengar, S., Sthanikam 'Śrī Raṅgam Koil Thathuvam', p. 15, Śrī Lakṣmī Printing Works, Salem.

71. 'Although the Kali Era years furnished by him appear to be wrong, the Śāka years mentioned are more or less correct and supply with a number of useful clues' - Pārthasārathy, T.S., 'Koil Olugu', p. 3, Thirumalai Tirupati Devasthānam, Tirupati.

72. 'Pathu Paṭṭu' U.V. Swaminātha Iyer, Ed. 1950.

73. S.I.I., Vol, V, 449.

74. Ibid., 412.

75. Ibid.

76. Ibid., 431.

77. Gaṇapathyrāman, S., Porunai Nadu, Shri M.G.M. Publication, Dec. 1966, pp. 27, 28.

78. S.I.I., Vol. V. 446, 448.

79. Vaiyapuri Pillai, S., 'Thamravaruni', p. 14, Pari Nilayam, Madras, 1955.

80. Fergusson James : A History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, Delhi, 1967, p. 393.

III

MUSIC AND TEMPLES

A. Music in Temples

The festivals connected with the temples such as the Saptasthānam festival at Tiruvaiyār and

the annual brahmotsavas had special musical and dance items of worship. The temple festivals attracted

a continuous stream of devotees from far and wide to participate in the spiritual and aesthetic

experience. It was the thrilling sight of the procession of Lord Ranganātha at Śrīraṅgam during the

annual festival that inspired Śrī Tyāgarāja to pour forth the five moving songs in praise of Lord

Ranganātha mentioned earlier. Music, dance and drama found their highest expression in the presence

of the deity taken out in procession. The music of the nāgasvaram invariably marks the commencement

of the festivals. In fact, the periya melam constituting the players on nāgasvaram and tavil was the

highlight. Originally, the muddiraisingu accompanied the periya melam. The suitable sollukattus are

played on it by experts. The deity in procession followed by the oduvārs, reciting the tēvāram hymns

and the row of dancers performing the classical bharatam must have been a thrilling experience that

inspired many a saint-composer and devotee. Folk dances and music such as bommalattam, dummy

horse-shows and pantomime gave fresh significance to the occasion. Dramatic shows were represented

in the temple on sacred themes such as Manmatha nātakam, Azhagar Kuravanji, Tyāgēśa Kuravanji

and Kumbhesar Kuravani. These were noted for the fine music, representative of the golden age of

music. The music of the nāgasvara heard over long distances heralded the sacredness of the temple

and at the same time served to carry the thoughts towards the Divine.

The copper plate of the 18th century A.D. which has been recently discovered in the Nāgēsvara

Swāmī temple at Kumbhakōṇam records a grant by the Nagapāsa community towards the establishment

of periyamelam, cinnamēlam, vinakkarar, nattumuttu and others in the Kumbhakōṇam temples. The

copper plate is highly valuable as the figures of more that 30 musical instruments are engraved on

it. These comprise seven varieties of stringed and percussion instruments, and nine kinds of wind

instruments which include ekkalam and nāgasvaram. Other works like ‘Karanagamam’ and ‘Mahābhārata

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Cūdāmaṇi', mention various musical instruments used in temple music and in all these nāgasvaram finds an honourable reference.

Tiruvaiyār is an affectionate name to all lovers of music. Surrounded by the five rivers, groves and fields, resounding with the sound of the vaidic incantations and the Divine call of the temple, the people who were intensely musical and spiritual, led a simple and dhārmic life. Sanctified by the footsteps of the Śaivite and Vaiṣṇavite saints who worshipped the deities with garlands of devotional songs, this polace has the hallowed lustre of being associated with the Trinity of music. The Saptasthāna festival held at Tiruvaiyār is not only of religious but also of musical significance. The seven sacred shrines in the Tanjore districi namely Tiruppayanam, Tiruchotrutturai, Tiruvedikkudi, Tirukkandiyur, Tiruppanturutti and Tillaisthānam are considered as representatives of the seven manifestations of God. The same have been conceived in the body of the human being as the seven cakras or the principal seats of nāda. The concept of saptasthāna according to tāntric interpretations, represents the seven sound manifestation of the fundamental Pranava Onikāra, as akāra, ukāra, makāra, ardhamātrā, nāda, bindu and unmani. The presiding diety of the shrine of Tiruvaiyur in its procession from the place to the other six kṣētras, is joined by the respective deities and finally all of them are brought to Tiruvaiyur which is also called 'Amānasika kṣētra'. Śiva is said to have offered pūjā to the liṅga in the guise of an ācārya in this kṣētra, known also as the 'jīvana muktipura' in Brahmavaivarta Purāṇa.1 A number of compositions from the vaggeyakāras invoking the presiding diety of Tiruvaiyār are available. In the saptasthāna festival, music and bhajana played a prominent part too. Hundreds of bhajana parties used to accompany the procession. It is said that Śrī Tyāgarāja himself led an uncavṛtti bhajana group during this occasion. Famous musicians like Patnam Subrahmanya Iyer, Mahā Viyanātha Iyer and other Bhāgavatās who participated in the function, thrilled the crowd of devotees by their ecellent music. The beautifully decked palanquins carrying the deities must have inspired Sahaji to compose the 'Śaṅkara Pāllaki Sevā Prabandham' where in the realistic description of the palanquin has been depicted by the royal composer in the Śaṅkarābharana rāja son viz. 'Singarimpu pāllaki'.

On the occasion of the brahmōtsava in the Tanjore big temple, the Sarabendra Bhūpāla Kuravanji Nāṭaka was enacted regularly. Evidence from records point out to the enactment of Rājarājeśvara Nāṭaka in the same temple.2 The singing of Tiruvaisaippa of Saint Karuvurdīvar has been considered a special feature in this great temple at Tanjore. There is special dance platform facing the Natarāja shrine for the purpose of holding such items. During the occasion of Aṣṭakkoḍi worship, the dancing girls attached to the temple perform certain dances in a group before the shrine of the goddess.

Ritualistic music and dance of the temple occupy a dignified place in the history of a country's music. The role of music, dance and drama in the annural festivals of the temple is precious and testifies to the religious significance of the arts and the status of artists of those times. The use of typical musical instruments such as śuddha maddhalam in Tiruvārūr and Paṭṭīśvaram temples of rhythm and melody represents one of the many features of the temple music.

The sculptural weath of the temple depicting various musical instruments in many forms and the classical dance poses accompanied by the orchestra of flutists and drummers,3 is worth an elaborate study

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117

by itself. However in this connection, it is relevant to give a passing reference to that aspect of temple at

Tanjore.

The sculptural and iconographical greatness of Tanjore temples is remarkable. The Rāmaswāmī

temple and Cakrapāṇi temple in Kumbhakōṇam are rich in beautifully carved figures holding instruments

such as vīṇā, with and without frets, flutes, drums of different sizes and shapes. The many dance poses

of the dancers have been immortalized in stone and they greet us across the centuries. The sculpture of

the figure holding the fretted vīṇā in Paṭṭiśvaram is a beautiful specimen. The stone nāgasvaram is

treasured in Kumbhēśvarasvāmī temple. Dārāsuram is noted for the rich and embroidered sculptural

work of a highly artistic nature. The temple to Airavatēśvara is very old and belongs to the Cola period.

The beautiful and attractive dance poses with an orchestra of flutist and a drummer have been sculptured

so dexterously with perfect finish within small circular outlines. They are marvels worth gazing at for

ages. The stone steps of Balipīṭham in front of the temple in Dārāsuram give out the seven notes of music.

Undertaking of such interesting works on stone proves beyond doubt the extent of the popularity and

status of music in those days. The Saptasvara Viṣṇu or Cakkarattālvār in the Tanjore art gallery is a

beautiful bronze figure, the limbs of which when struck produce the sounds of the saptasvarās. There are

many such specimens of sculptures lying scattered all over south Indian temples. Every painting and

every design of border has its gāndharvas, kinnarās, musicians, dancers, players on drums while a wide

variety of instruments are found chiselled and painted in thousands of panels. The big temple at Tanjore

stands as a unique monument to the royal artistic Rāja Rāja Cōḷa and is symbolic of the aspirations,

philosophy and culture of the people of Tamil Nadu. The beautiful paintings in the surrounding dark

sections of the central shrine bear testimony to the skill of the painter and wide range of their knowledge.

The dance kāraṇas are depicted not only in the Cidambaram temple but also represented in the big

temple at Tanjore. Here there seem to be two garbhagrhas, one in the ground floor and another over it.

The conical vimāna is built over the upper garbhagrha and in the corridor around this the kāraṇas of

Śiva's dances have been depicted in a super manner. Of 108 dance kāraṇas, only 81 are finished and the

rest remain incomplete. ‘They bey of dancing girls dancing with twinkling anklets to the thrumming of

harpa occurring in the painting flash to our minds the description of the dancer in the temple of

Karuvurdēvar’.4

In the Bṛhadīśvara temple, beautiful sculptural representations of instruments, wind, stringed and

percussion and dancing figures have been depicted. The Subrahmaṇya shrine is noteworthy in this con-

nection. The row of gaṇas depicted as playing on various sized and shaped rums adorning to top frieze of

the sanctum sanctorum of this shrine is interesting.

Over the Cōḷa paintings in the Bṛhadīśvara temple, a later group of paintings was superimposed

during the Nāyaka period. Scenes from Tanjore Sthala-Purāṇa, lives of Śaiva saints and such themes

have also been beautifully depicted.

The Sāraṅgapāṇi temple has beautiful dance poses sculptured in the maṇḍapās. Different kinds of

drums are seen in the orchestra accompanying these dance performances. The four wheels of the huge

stone chariot situated in the centre of ardhamandapa, and supporting the garbhagrha as it were, are fully

covered with beautiful and full-sized dancing figures holding many instruments such as vīṇā, edakka,

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barrel-shaped drum, etc. At the main entrance, on all the four sides of the gōpuras, dance kāraṇas are

depicted. A dwarf is seen playing on the kudamulak. In the Rājagopuram, there are again beautiful

sculptural representations of music.

Certain temples have been famous for the special instrumental music played during the specific

hours of worship. The pañcamukha vādyam is the pride of Tiruvarūr, Tiruppūṅgūr and Tirutturaippūṇḍi

and is performed with skill by the specialists. It has five faces named after the five faces of Śiva and is a

music cum rhythmic instruments. The Tiruvārūr temple is well known not only for the pañcamukha

vādya, but also for the bari nayanam and śuddha maddalam. Tambiyappa, the disciple of Śrī Dīkṣitar was

an expert playe: on this instrument. During the evening hours of worship attractive jatis are played in this

instrument which constitute an item of devotional music. The rasi mandalam depicted on the roofs of the

Kolu maṇḍapa in the temple at Gaṅgaikoṇḍa Cōḷapuram and Kumbhakōnam, illustrating the concept of

the modal shift oftonic is of musicological importance.

That arts of music and dance have been illustrated on stone and in the structure of the temple

gōpuras and prākāra walls, and maṇḍapās by sculptures and painting is a proof beyond doubt of the

sacredness of the art. The sculptural richness of the temple reflect the musical spirit of the age, the wide

popularity of the arts and dance and above all their advanced stage of development.

If Tiruvaiyār is one of the famous sapta-sthāna kṣetra, Tiruvārūr is the foremost of the sapta-

vitaṅka kṣetra. Tradition ascribes to the Cōḷa king Muskunda, the credit of having secured from Indra the

seven Śivaliṅgas, including the one which was originally worshipped by Lord Viṣṇu, and installing them

in those seven shrines respectively. The sapta-vitaṅka kṣētras, as they are famously known, are sacred for

the Tyāgarāja shrine. Vitañaka refers to that kind of liṅga which was made without resorting to the use of

hammer or any mechanical tool, i.e., that which came into existence of its own accord without the aid of

human effort. Hence, these seven liṅgas are considered to be symbolic of special significance. It is also

of interest to note that in the sapta vitaṅka kṣētras, Lord Śiva is worshipped in the form of Śrī Tyāgarāja

and the vitaṅka liṅgās are kept in a separate box adjoining the presiding deity.

The vitaṅka kṣētras have always been famous for their music and dance. Lord Tyāgararāja is carried

in procession in a beautifully decked palanquin to the accompaniment of a particular kind of music both

instrumental and vocal. The palanquin-bearers execute characteristic movements (to the tune of the

accompanying music) which are suggestive of the various gaits and movements of the birds. The move-

ment of the palanquin gives an impression of the Lord performing the different dances. These dances are

symbolic of spiritual significance. Of the sapta-vitaṅka kṣētras, Tiruvarur is known variously as Kamalapura,

Śrīpuram, Vanmikanadapuram, Pṛthvikṣētra, Pañcabhūta kṣētrā, Mucukundapuram, Camatkarapuram,

Mulādhārapuram and Antarakēśavarapuram. It is perhaps considered most sacred since Mucukunda had

installed the original Śivaliṅga, sanctified by the pūjā of Viṣṇu in this Vālmīka kalwre. It is said to

correspond to the mūlādhāra shrine in the human body which is the mobile temple of God. The names of

the vitaṅka kṣētras, their dances performed in these places are given below.

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Name of vitankakshētrā

Deity's name

Type of dances

1. Tiruvārūr

Vithi vitankar

Ajapa natanam

2. Tirunallāru

Nāga Vitankar

Unmatta natanam

3. Tirunāgaikaronam

Sundara vitankar

Paravaratharanga

(Nāgapatnam)

4. Tirukkarayil

Ādi vitankar

Kukkuṭa natanam

(Dance resembling the movement of the cock)

5. Tirukolli

Āvani Vitankar

Bhrṅgi natanam (Dance resembling the circling movement of the bee)

6. Tiruvāymur

Nila vitankar

Kamala Natanam

(Graceful movement of the lotus)

7. Tirumaraikkādu

Bhuvana vitankar

Haṁsapada natanam (As graceful as the stepping movement of the swan)

(Vedaranyam)

Of these, the Ajapa natana is a highly symbolic dance. Śrī Muttusvāmi Dīkṣitar in his Gauḷa krti with the beginning words 'Tyāgarājapālayaśumām' refers to 'vithi vitanka' and 'ajapanatanaranga'. Ajapanatana is supposed to be the dance of Viṣṇu carrying Lord Tyāgēśa in his chest. The Ajapa Gāyatrī mantra is so called because our breath in the process of respiration takes that rhythmic form. This truth of Ajapa dance of God Tyāgarāja in Viṣṇu's heart is illustrated by the symbolic movements of the bearers of the palanquin holding Śrī Tyāgarāja. The Paravarataranga natanum signifies the graceful dance resembling the curvy movement of waves of the ocean. The Unmatta natana resembles the intoxicated gait of an elephant.

We have Tēvāra hymns by Tirujñāna Sambandar Swāmiga in praise of the presiding deities of the sapta-vitanka kṣētrās. Śrī Muttusvāmi Dīkṣitar has composed grand and inspiring kṛtis in praise of Lord Tyāgarāja.

The kavuttuvams are special sacred dance items of worship and are a regular feature in south Indian temples. Special kavuttuvams have been composed for being dance before the deity during special occasions. For example, the one in praise of Goddess Kālī of the temple at Tiruvaḷiṅgādu is set in Tisrajati laghu. There are kavuttuvams praising Subrahmaṇya, Gaṇapati, Mahāliṅgasvāmī of Tiruvidaimarudur besides the famous navasandhi and pañcamūrti kavuttuvams.

Pañcamūrti Kavuttuvam is a set of five kavuttuvams invoking the five gods namely Vinayāka, Subrahmaṇya, Sambandar, Candikēśvara and Naṭarāja. They are composed in the traditional five ghana rāgas viz., Nāṭa, Gauḷa, Ārabhi, Varāḷi and Śrī. Usually these are performed during the month of

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Mārgaḷi on the occasion of the procession of Lord Naṭarāja in connection with the Tiruvādirai festival.

These are performed annually during brahmōtsva celebrations in temples.

In the Suchīndram temple, the northern corridor, there are four musical pillars cut out of a single

block of granite stone, in the fashion of slender cylindrical rods, producing different musical sounds

when tapped. We see musical pillars in Madurai Mīnākṣī temple and also in Nallaiyappar temple at

Tirunelvēḷi.

In Dhārāsuram, the steps to the small mandapa in front of the temple are made of stones, which

gives different musical sound when tapped and all the seven swaras can be had at different points.

In the Tyāgarāja temple in Tiruvārūr, there is a peculair musical instruments called Pañcamukha

Vādya and this has got five faces and is ornamented with the snake, the swastika and the lotus on three.

The fourth face is plain without decorations. The central face shows the face of a deer. It is said that

Nandi played on this when Śiva danced. The circumference of the instruments is fifty-six inches.

Great composers have composed hymns in praise of the Lord in the temples. For example, the

Nayanmāra have praised the Lord Ēkāmbaranātha in their Tevārams. The great Tamil work Kanda Purāṇam

and Kāñcī Purāṇām were composed in Kāñcīpuram. The hymns of the Āḷvārs have been sung in praise

of the Lord Varadarājaswāmī. Thyāgarāja also has sung about Lord Varadarāja and Goddess Kāmaksī

Dēvī. Āḷwār Pāsurams and Nayanmār’s Tevaram and Tiruvācakam are set to music and sung with the

accompaniment of instruments in many Śiva and Vaiṣṇava temples even today as a part of daily temple

routine.

With the development of the bhakti movement in the seventh and eighth centuries in South India,

the great cōḷas who were devotees of Lord Śiva studded the land with temples and endowed richly them

with land and wealth for the perpetual conduct of religious worship. The historic Big temple at Tanjore is

symbolic of the cultural wealth of the whole of South India. The temple came to dominate Tanjore as

Tanjore dominated the rest of South India at that time.7 It grew to be not only a place of worship but

became a cultural centre with regular establishment of ōduvārs, āraiyars, dancers, instrumentalists, mu-

sicians, sculptors and painters. Singing of tēvāram hymns, tiruppallāṇḍu, tiruvāymoli, divyaprabandham,

performances of Kuravañji nātakam, musical plays and dance formed an integral part of daily worship

(nityotsava) in the temples and this fact has been attested to by the evidence of the inscriptions dating

from Cola period and documentary records. The Nāyaks were great bhaktas of Lord Raṅganātha of

Śrīraṅgam and Rājagopālasvāmī of Mannārgudi, while the Marāṭhas were well-known for their devotion

to Lord Tyāgarāja of Tiruvārūr.

The devotional musical forms such as Tēvāram, Divyaprabandham, Lāli, Ūñjal, Saranu,

Heccharika, the mallāri tunes, the rakti melam, kavuttuvam and the sthala kīrtanās constitute the live

music of the temple and are still sung at specific hours of worship. The Navasandhi and Pañcamūrti

kavuttuvams are sacred dance items performed regularly during the Brahmōtsava festival. The mallari

music of the nāgasvaram usually sung in the tune of Nata has its unique structure and significance.

Usually the mallari will be played to mark the different stages of worship in temples as such. At the

beginning of the procession called ‘purappādu’ these tunes are played regularly by the nāgasvaram

players The music of mallāri, indicated the commencement of the particular worship in the temple. It is

said that it was Rāmasvāmī Dīkṣitar who systematised the 'mallāri' which is now being performed in the

temple at Tiruvārūr. The barinayanam which is the pride of the Tiruvārūr temple is played during

particular occasions.

The contribution of the temples in the preservation and development of music and dance may be

dealt with under the following general headings :

The Sthala Kīrtanas are musical compositions in praise of the presiding deities of the various

shrines (kṣētrā), composed by great vāggeyakāras who were devout bhaktas of God. These

are of two kinds.

(A) Group kīrtanas : Usually these are a set of 5, 7, 9. 12 and 16 kirtanas in praise of a

particular deity of a shrine. They represent a garland of songs in which ach song

forms a unit in the chain.

(B) Kīrtanas in praise of the presiding deities, Īṣṭadevatās, gods and goddesses of the

various shrines.

Musical plays like dance drama, kuravañji nāṭakas and other that were enacted during temple

festivals.

Ritualistic dance and music peculiar to various temples (e.g., navasandhi kavuttuvam,

sarvavādyam).

The musical instruments belonging to the strined, wind and percussion group that are used in

music of particular temples, e.g., the pañcamukha vādyam, bari nayanam, śuddha maddhalam.

The Sthala Kīrtanas

The great vāggeyakāras who were God-intoxicated men of extraordinary ability and of transcen-

dental experience consideredmusic as a hand maid of religion, and path to realization. They undertook

extensive pilgrimages to various shrines and have sung soulful kīrtanas invoking the presiding deities of

those temples. These are called the ksheṭra kīrtanās or sthala kīrtanas. These compositions form an

enriching part of our repertoire on bhakti. The kīrtanas describe the greatness of the sthala in its histori-

cal and spiritual aspects. Information pertaining to the name of the presiding deity, the sthalavrksa, puṣ

kariṇi, the festival, special pūjā, if any, the music and dance of the temple and many such deities are

found in them. The practice of offering worship to the same deity through a garland of a fixed number of

songs has been adopted by the Śaivite and Vaiṣṇavite saints of south India. Almost every temple in south

India has been sung upon by the Tevārakāras and they are known as 'Pādalpetra Talaṅgal.'

Temples in south India particularly, have played an important part in the preservation and devel-

opment of music. In India, music and dance were never conceived of as mere items of entertainment, but

as subjects worthy of serious study and practice by even the greatest men and women of the land. These

two arts were elavated to the status of vidyā. They helped the thinking men and women to understand

something of the infinite. It is not without significance that divinities and celestials are associated with

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music, musical instruments and dance. The performance of music and dance in the temple rituals had a

special significance. In temples, one had the opportunity to witness rare specimens of sacred dances like

the Bhujangalalita nrttam, Ganapati nrttam, etc. Special musical forms like the Kavuttuvam can be heard

only in temples.

The institution of music and dance in temples was conceived and planned in a spirit of offering to

the deity. In order to ensure a continuity of performance, the artists were in most cases given inams of

land. There are instances of Vinaikkanis, i.e., land given in perpetuity to vainikas by rulers in return for

performances on the vina during temple rituals. Many Saivite temples have Oduvars who recite selec-

tions from the Tevaram during temple services. The Vaisnavite temples have the Araiyars. The Veda

Parayana goshtis provided the hymnal music.

The nagasvaram party provided instrumental music in temple. Incidentally it, might be men-

tioned that the correct name of this instrument is only nagasvaram and not nadasvaram. The name

nagasvaram was possibly given to the instrument because its tone colour resembled that of the bhujanga

svaram, the snake-charmer's instrument. Muthuswamy Diksitar himself in his song, 'Tyagaraja

mahadhvajaroha' in Sriraga, relating to the festival at Tiruvarur temple, has answered this question in an

unmistakable manner. We come across the words: Nagasvara maddaladi vadyam in the song, and the

word nagasvara here rhymes with the corresponding sahitya. Agama siddhanta etc. in the previous line.

The nagasvaram is not more than seven-hundred years old. It is neither mentioned in the old works nor

do we come across this instrument in the earlier sculptures. In the mural paintings in the Padmanabhapuram

palace, in Travancore, the nagasvaram is depicted but these paintings belong to the late medieval period.

Pañcamukha Vädyam

In some temples we hear special instruments being played during rituals. The pañcamukha vadyam

is the pride of the shrines at Tiruvarur and Tirutturaippundi, in Tanjore district. It is played solo and also

in conjuction with the suddha maddalam. ParaSivas are the privileged class of people entitled to play on

this instruments. The present performer on this instrument in the Tiruvarur temple is a descendant of

Tambiyappa, one of the disciples of the composer, Muthuswami Diksitar.

The pañcamukha vadyam is a five drum with plain drum heads. This complex instrument belong-

ing to the group of membranophones is of interest both from the musical and scientific points of view. It

is a development from the ancient Kudamuzha (is a drum with a pot-shaped restonator) and familiar to

student of Tamil literature. There is a fine sculpture of the Kudamuzha in Avadaiyarkoil. Arunagirinathar

in his Bhuta-vetala vaguppu refers to the Kudapancamukhi. There is a sculpture of a figure playing upon

the pan camukha vadyam in the stone ratham (chariot) facing the sanctum sanctorum in the Nataraja

temple at Cidambaram. In the pedestal of the matalic image of Nataraja in Tiruppungur temple, Tanjore

district, Bangugopan is depicted as playing on the Panca mukha vadyam.

The pañcamukha vadyam has a big shell of bronze and from the top of the shell emerge five

hollow cylinders. The open ends of thee cylinders are covered with skin. The drum heads are all on the

same level. They are played with the two hands. The faces are struck successively and sometimes simul-

taneously. Special sequences of jatis are played on this instrument. The central face is slightly larger than

the peripheral ones. The five faces are named after the five faces of Śiva the central one bearing the name

Ṣaḍyōjāta and the four peripheral, Īśānam, Tatpuruṣam, Aghoram and Vamadēvam. Being a big

and a weighty instrument it is mounted on the four-wheeled carriage. The tone colour to this instruments

resembles that to the tablā tarang. Since the instrument has a common resonating chamber, it follows that

even when one face is struck, the other faces will vibrate. This can be visually seen by sprinkling rice

flour or particles of fine sand on the unstruck drum-faces. The notes heard ar perfectly musical and the

drum-faces are appropriately enough, turned to notes which bear the samvādī or anuvādī relationships.

This vādyam is a music-rhythmic instrument.

Ritualistic Music and Dance in Navasandhis

In the Kamikāgmamam, details ralating to the rāgas tālas, pans instruments and dances to be

performed in the navasandhis during the Brahmōtsava are clearly given. But it is a pity that even in the

bigger and wealthier temples, the arcakas have lost touch with these details. In some temples, the appro-

priate ślōkas are recited at the concerned sandhis, but the question is whether the vocalists, instrumentai-

ists and dancers do comply faithfully with the meaning of the ślōka. When Gurjarī rāga has to be played,

invariably the nāgasvaram player plays a light tune for the entertainment of those assembled and when

Bhujanga lālita nrttam has to be performed, the dancing girl, if one is available, dances something

familiar to her. In this manner, musical frauds are being perpetrated in the holy precincts of temples.

Sarva Vādyam

Sarva vādyam, literally are instruments, is an interesting institution by itself and is performed

only in a few temples.

In the temple at Cheyyur in Chingleput district, the sarva vādyam is performed during the annual

Brahmōtsavam. Cheyyur is also familiar to musicians as the place where lived the composer, Cheyyur

Chengalvaraya Śāstrī in the last century. He has to his credit a number of kritis in Telugu and Sanskrit. He

has composed some śabdas. He is also the author of the Telugu opera Sundarēsa vilāsamu.

The idea underlying the performance of sarva vādyam is musical homage to God through the

four-fold channels of gīta, vādya, nrtya and kavitā. The functions starts with the recital of selections from

Tīvāram, Tiruvācagam, Tiruppallāṇḍu and Tiruppugazh by the ōduvār and this is followed by puṣpāñjali.

The Nandikēsvara vādyam (mrdgaṅgam) and Brahmatālam are next played and this is followed by a

nrttam. Different musical forms, like gīta, varṇa, kīrtana, padam and tillana, are sung and this is

followed by th singing of literary forms like cūrṇika, aṣṭaka, veṇba, kalittogai, varieties of viruttam,

ammānai, vaṇṇam and ulā. The playing of different instruments like tiruchinnam, muralī, mukhavīṇā,

takora vādyam, mallāri, dhanaka, conch, navurī, bhujaṅgasvaram, etc. Follows. Items of classical dance

and thematic dances like bhujanga nrttyam are also given. More than seventy-two items figures in this

programme. It is an education, entertainment and a spiritual experience to witness a performance of

sarva vādyam. The whole programme lasts for about four hours.

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

Ūrdhva Tāṇḍava

The ūrdhva tāṇḍava poses of Naṭarāja in the shrines at Perur and Tiruvalaṅgādu and in the gōpuram of the temple at Tirumazḥappādi offer an interesting study. The number of hands of the Ūrdhva Tāṇḍava Naṭarāja is variously represented as 8, 12 and 16. In addition to the usual damarū, there is an extra drum held between the legs by the deity. One hand holds it and another hand plays upon it with a stick. The explanation for this extra drum Dakki or Dhavandai is as follows :

In the Ūrdhva tāṇḍava, the Lord developed a new type of dance, unfamiliar to the celestial accompanists.

In the earlier stage, He perhaps danced to easy and familiar rhythmic sequences and subsequently resorted to new and intricate patterns. The erstwhile accompanists were taken by surprise at the new type of dance. They stopped playing on their instruments. All that they could do was only to gaze with amazement at the thrilling performance of Naṭarāja. Finding that, in the absence of a proper rhythmic accompaniment, the significance of the new dance would go unnoticed, the Lord took an extra drum and provided the rhythmical accompaniment Himself. (Certain rhythmical syllables are produced by simultaneous strokes on both the faces of a drum. Since with the damarū, a stroke on only one side was possible at a time, the necessity for a second drum arose). Pārvatī who was responding to His dances with equal vigour and excellence in the earlier stages, became absorbed in the new tāṇḍava and the new sequences of rhythmical patterns. The Ūrdhva tāṇḍava almost unnerved Her. She silently gazed at the thrilling performance. Pārvatī's failure to respond to the Ūrdhva tāṇḍava is popularly taken as Her defeat. In fact there is an image in the Tiruvalaṅgādu temple showing how during the initial stages of the Ūrdhva tāṇḍava, Pārvatī even attempted to respond, by partially lifting up Her legs.

There is an interesting sculpture of an Ūrdhva Tāṇḍava pose in a pillar at the entrance to the Agastīśvarar temple, Sannidhi Street, Tiruvoṭṭiyur, near Madras. This Naṭarāja has 8 hands and the left leg is lifted up in a vertical posture. The drum held between the two legs is shown in the playing posture.

Ritualistic Music and Dance

In some temple like those at Tirupati, Bhadrācalam, Cheyyur and Trivandrum, great composers have composed special songs for being sun during the temple rituals. The management of those temples would do well to print those songs in notation and make them available to the worshippers. It is time that the managements of temples appointed art curators who would look after the preservation of the art treasures of these temples.

Temple in South India have been the home of static music and dynamic music and static dance and dynamic dance. Representations of concert parties and dance parties through sculptures and paintings come under the heading, static music and static dance. These records on stone and colour are valuable documents and helps us to form clear ideas of the concerts of those periods, the number of performers that constituted a concert party or a dance party, the instruments that were used as accompaniments, the construction and shape of those instruments, the number of their strings, finger-holde and drum faces, the seating plan of performers etc. The images playing on musical instruments and the sculptures of celestial

Music and Temples

musicians are interesting from many points of view. The postures in which the instruments were held,

their manner of play, their compass and possibilities in gamaka are important details furnished by these

specimens of static music. The costumes and jewels worn by dancers as depicted on the sculptures and

paintings throw a flood of light on the subject of abharya abhiraaya through the centuries. Dynamic music

and dynamic dance comprise actual concerts of music and dance performed in temples. Here, we see the

actual performers in life, flesh and blood before us and we listen to a continuous flow of music from

them. The Vēdapārāyaṣa gōṣṭhīs, ōduvārs, araiyars, bhajana gōṣṭhīs, gāyaka brindās, concert parties

and nāgaswaram parties provide dynamic music. The Vālmiki nataṇam performed on all-full moon days

in the shrine at Tiruvānmi̱yur, near Madras is of special interest. The deity is taken out on as open

palanquin. The bearers of the palanquin dance to quadruple time and triple time with remarkable preci-

sion and accuracy.

Bells are hollow metallic instruments, closed at one end. They belong to the idiophonic group.

The bells are struck by a freely suspended clapper from inside or by a hinged hammer or mallet from the

outside. In the former case, the clapper strikes against the inner surface of the bell and in the latter, the

hammer strikes against the outer rim of the bell. Temple bells are huge in size.

Many of the major shrines of south India have huge bells. They are sounded during the rituals.

The pitch of the note given by the bells bears a samvādī relationship to the note given by the conch,

which is sounded along with it. For instance, the notes given by the conch and the bell in the temple at

Cidambaram bear the sa-pa relationship.

In addition to the huge bells, there are small hand-bells which are of interest from the technical

point of view. These bells, which have no clapper are small in size. There is a bell called Vīramani in the

Kulattupuzha Dēvaswom in Travancore. This temple in 28 miles from Tenkāsi and is on the Tenkāsi-

Trivandrum Road. This bells is cup-shaped and is made of karodu. It has a weight of 15 pālamṣ — just

more than a pound. Its height is 3½ inche and the diameter at the lip end is 4 inche. The pitch of the

Vīramani; is exactly B of the chromatic pitch-pipe. When a hard stick is made to gaze alone the rim, a

solemn note suggestive of the praṇava nāda (Oṁ) emanates. Gradually the volume of the note increases

and on a still evening or nigṇt, the note can be heard for the distance of half a furlong.

Tāṇḍava Dīpārādhana

This is dīparadhana performed by the priest, who also performs the tāṇḍava dance during the

process.

This item is a special feature of the rituals in the temple at Courtallam and Tenkāsi in Tiruneveli

district. This is performed only once a year, on the day of the Āruḍa festival (December-January) in front

of the deity, Naṭarāja. The Bhaṭṭar (temple priest) with the lit-up lamp in his hand dances to a tune in the

Ānandabhairavī rāga played by the Nāgaswaram player. The earlier part of the music is in Ādi tāla and

the latter part in chāpu tāla. The Conch, Mrdaṅgam and Tavil (without the stick), Ottu and Tlam are

played as accompaniments. This item lasts for about fifteen minutes. It is a spiritual thrill to witness this

item performed in the holy atmosphere of the two temples. A few āvartas in madhya-makāla are played

126

before the music in chāpu tāla is commenced. The phrase n P n n S occurs occasionally. This suggests

the chāyā of Rītigaula rāga. The earliest Ānandabhairavī had this phrase which is now arṣa or obsolete.

Musical Instruments used in Temple Rituals

1. Stringed Instruments : The tone of stringed instruments, being weak and thin, they are not used

in temple rituals. The rituals take place mostly in open air or in large mandapas. Stringed instruments

are out of place in such surroundings. There is also the difficulty in turning the instruments within the

available space of time and amidst noisy surroundings. Further, the strings of the instruments may get

loose frequently and the task of retuning them correctly in the midst of noise becomes a difficult task.

The only stringed instrument used in the temples of Tirunelveli, Tēnkāsi and Courttallam is the

sāran̄gī. It is used by the ōduvār as an accompaniment to his own music or to the hymns of the Tēvāram

sung by another ōduvār. This Sāran̄gī has four strings and there are no sympathetic strings.

Nanduni, is used is some temples in Kerala.

In some temples, bhajana parties form part of the regular temple establishments. They perform

on Fridays and other sacred days. In some temples, Tambura and Violin are used. The gettu vādyam is

sometimes used during Tiruppugazh recital.

2. Wind Instruments used in the temple rituals : The wind instruments used in templerituals are :

Cinnam (made of brass), Chinna Nāgaswaram (mukha vīṇā), Ekkālam (Ekkalai), Gowri kalam (Gowrikalai),

Kombu Mukha vīṇā, Nabari (Udu Kombu), Nāgasvaram, Namari, Ottu, Pullanguzhal (Flute), Śaṅgu

(Conch), silver Ekkalai (used in Śrīraṅgam temple), Tiruchinnam, Tuttari, and Tutti (Suti). Stone mukha

vīṇā is used in the temple at Azhwartirunagari. The Timiri nāgaswaram 1½ in lenght was used in former

times and now the Bari nāgaswaram about 2½ in length is used.

Drums used in Temple rituals

Bali maddalam, Bari tavil, Bērigai, Beriyal, Candrapirai, Chendei, Dakka, Dakki, Damaram (a

pair of conical drums, kept on the back of a bullock and played upon by a boy riding on it), Dhanki,

Dama vadyam, Danka, Davandai (big and small varieties). Idakkai, Jakki, Jayabheri, Kanaka tappatai,

Kavana maddalam, Kinikittu, Lavandai, Maddalam Markapadagai, Mogandai, Mridangam, Muttu, Nagar

(big and small), Nagara, Nagara chatti, Pañcamukha vādyam, Periya udal, Siriya udal, Sanna udal,

Sannidhi udal, Śavandai, Suddha maddalam, Sūrya pirai, Sutthu maddalam Suthu tavil, Tappu palakai,

Timilai Udal, Udal Vadya Tavil, Tappu palakai, Timilai Udal, Udal vadya chatti, Vīra kandi, Vīra

maddalam, Vīra malahari, Vīra vandi, Viranam, Vangu and Takkai, a drum resembling the Idakka in

shape and played in the temple at Śrīraṅgam on the occasion of Kausíka Ēkādaśī and Vaikuṇṭha Ēkādasi.

Dīkṣitar’s idiophones used in Temples rituals

Cymbals and Bells : Barimani, Bari tālam, Brahmatālam, Brhat tālam, Jatra, Kaimani, Kaitalam,

Kothu mani, Kuzhitālam (used in Tēvara and Tiruppugazh recital), Nattuva tālam, Periya tālam, Sekandi,

Semakalam, Sendi, Siru tālam.

Music and Temples

127

In the temples in Kerala, the Pañcavādyam comprising, Idakka, Timila, Chenda, Chengala and

Kombu are used. Udukkai, Pambai and Kaicilambu are used in the temples of village deities.

Ganakāla tradition

Rāgas and their ganakāla as played by Nāgaswaram performs in temples :

From 4 a.m. to sunrise : Bhūpālam, Rauḷi, Malaya mārutam, Valaji. Nādanāmkriya,

Māyāmāḷavagaula.

From sunrise to 8 a.m. : Bilahari, Kēdāram, Jaganmōhinī, Gaulipantu, Śuddha dhanyāsi.

From 8 a.m. 10 a.m. : Dhanyāsi, Sāvarī, Asāvarī, Śuddha sāvarī, Śuddha baṅgaḷa, Ābhōgi,

Dēvagāndhārī, Ārabi, Dēvamanōhari.

From 10 a.m. to 12 noon : Śrīrāgam, Maṇiraṅgu, Madhyamāvatī, Bṛndāvana sāraṅgā, Darbar.

From 4 p.m. till sunset : Pūrva kalyāṇī, Mandārī, Vasanta, Kalyāṇī, Saraswatī.

From sunset to 8 p.m. : Saṅkarābharaṇa, Hamsadhvani, Bhairavī, Thōḍī, Kharaharapriya,

Ṣaṇmukhapriyā, Siṁhendra madhyama, Ānandabhairavī, Kānda, Sāma, Kēdāra gaula.

In the above rāgas, it is usual to play after the alpana classical compositions in that rāga.

In the temple at Tiruvengadu (Tanjore district) it has been the tradition for the Nāgaswaram

players to play the Mōhana rāga during the rituals pertaining to Aghōra Mūrti.

During the float festival (Teppam) it is usual for Nāgaswaram players to play the tune called

Ōdam.

During the annual Brahmōtsavam, from the Sannidhi to Teradi, the Nāgaswaram players used to

play the tune called Mallari in Naṭa rāga. Druing the return of the deity to the temple, it was the custom

for the dancing girls to sing Lālī, Nalangu, Unjal songs from the Teradi to Sannadhi.

The musical instruments referred to in the Tamil sacred literature, Tēvāram, Tiruvachagam etc. are :

Bheri

Mondai

Carcari

Muzhava

Damarukam

Nidiazh

Idakkai

Parai

Kaittarigal

Patagam

Kamaram yazh

Saṅgu

Karaṅgu

Siriyazh

Kinnara

Takkaï

Koduкотti

Talam

Kokkarai

Tudi

Koṭṭam

Tutteri

Kudamuzhavu

Valaiberigai

128

Kuzhal

Viṇai

Kudapañcamukhi

Valaiberigai

Kuzhal

Viṇai

Kudapañcamukhi

(In Tiruppugazh)

Veynguzhal

Yāzh

The significance of the practice of playing musical instruments in the temples :

The Pūjās and other rituals of the temples are based on the principles of Tantra and the use of the musical instruments during the rituals is also based on the Tantra Śāstra. In the Tantra granthas which are followed in Kerala temples, the sounding of musical instruments if is referred to as a necessity during almost all the rituals of the temples.

In the ‘Isānasivagurudevapaddhati’ in the Pañca catvāriṁśaha patalāha (45th chapter) the procedure of Pratiṣṭhā is described. In the Ślokas 101, 102, 103 and 104, the procedure of bathing and ornamenting and offeirng Dhūpa (incense), Dīpa (light) etc., are dealt with. In this context, it is stated that after doing the abhiṣekas with honey, milk, ghee, sandal paste, water and so on, offering clothes, sandal paste, garlands, incense (Dhupa), Dīpa (light from the lamp) and Karpūra ārati, the Utsava vigraha is mounted on the chariot amidst the sounding of Bhēri, Paṭaha, Diṇḍima, Jhallari, Timila, Śaṅkha, Tāla Mardala, Vēṇu and Viṇā.

“Gōmūtra Kṣīra dadhyājya madhubhiḥ prthak |

Pañcagavya Kuśāmbabhyam gandhādbhiścābhiṣēcayet || 101 ||

Tatō Vāsana Gandha Sragdhūupadīpopaharakaiḥ |

Iṣṭārathadāvā rōpya Bhēripaṭaḥ diṇḍimāiḥ || 102 ||

Jhallarī timila Śaṅkha tāla mardala Kāhalaiḥ |

Vēṇu madduka Viṇādivāditra dhvani maṅgalaiḥ || 103 ||

Gīta nrtta Jayāśrībhiḥ Pradīpa cātra cāmaraiḥ |

Prekṣanārthairdhavaja scanyai grāmadasṭu Prakṣiṇāt” || 104 ||

Not only this, the sounding of instruments itself in considered one among the services or Upacāras to God like Dhūpa (incense), Dīpa (lighted lamps), Naivēdya (offering of food) and so on. Music or Saṅgīta in its three fold aspects viz., Gīta, Vādya and Nrtya is also offered to God. In the Jñānamālā quoted by Rāghava Bhaṭṭa, the great Tāntrika and commentator on Sāradā-tilaka says that the different classes of Upacāras in worship are 38, 36, 12, 10 and 5.

The Upacāras figuring in the classes of 38 and 36 include Vādya or sounding of musical instruments (vide Appendix I, Chapter III, sl. No. 29). In the list of 38 Upacāras, Gīta, Vādya and Nrtya come

Music and Temples

A Ritualistic Approach

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

so excited and intoxicated that their shrinking and jerking of their bodies reach the climax. Even people

who are mentally normal may feel like moving their limbs if they listen to this Tayampaka. This shouting

and jerking of the body while listening to these drumming, done for a course of time, has definitely

something to do with their getting cured. Maybe this helps them to give expression to their suppressed

feelings. Here we find the vādya being put to therapeutic use.

All these factors justify the use of instruments in the temples and all these makes us only marvel

at the wisdom and long sight of our ancestors, who had thoughtfully given shape to many of our tradi-

tions, including that of sounding musical instruments during the temple rituals.

B. Temples And Kṛtis

Idol worship is an integral part of Tantrāgamas and idols are sculpted according to the instruc-

tions in Tāntriĉ treatises. Texts like Vāmakēśvara tantra, Kayamata, Prayoga Ratna, Śilparatna,

Aṃśumadbhedāgam etc. contain details about various deities, their size, their weapons, number of hands,

their ornaments, dress, vehicle, flags, seat, the accompanying sub-gods and similar aspects in the form of

Dhyāna ślōkās. A number of Dīkṣitar’s Kṛtis closely resemble these Dhyāna ślōkas. Many deities in

different kshētras have been described comprehensively in different compositions with particular empha-

sis on the outstanding distinctive features. A few examples are given below:

Māyāliṅgita Vigrahāya

Kamalōtpala Pāśa Śaṅkha Cakrēṣa

Kārmuka Vṛhyāgra gadā Nija visana

Mātulāṅga Ratna Kalaśa dhāraṇa

Karāṁbujāya

(Hasti Vadanāya - Navaroj - M. Chapu)

This refers to one of the forms of Gaṇapati with spouse, (embraced by his consort Māyā) with ten

hands each holding lotus, lily, pāśa (noose), Śaṅkha (conch), Cākra (discus), Iksu Kārmuka (sugarcane

bow), paddy shoots, tusk, mace, pomegranata fruit and bejewelled water-pot. This description is in

accordance with Rāghava Chaitanya’s Mahāgaṇapati Dhyāna ślōka and also Śilparatna and other texts in

Mantraśāstra.

Māṇikya Makuṭa Kuṇḍala Śōbhita

Marakata maṇimaya Vajrāyudhēna

(Swāmināthana - Bṛndāvani - Ādī)

Sēnāpate

Kuṇaka Kuṇḍala Śōbhita sundara

Music and Temples

Māṇikya Mukutādhara

Vēlāyudha dhara kara, kukkula dhwājādhara

(Sēnāpate - Kāśi Rāmakriya - Ādi)

Swāminātha (or Subrahmaṇya as the commander of the Dēva army) is resplendent with golden earrings and bejewelled crown and holds his weapon Vajrāyudha or Velāyudha (he has the figure of a cock on his flag).

Goddess Annapūrṇā dressed in golden clothes and ornaments and holds in her hands a golden serving spoon and a bejewelled container full of payasa (cooked sweet rice).

Śūla cakra pāśa daṇḍa hastam

Naradādi nua Syāmagātraṁ

Digambaram

Nagaya Suta vicitraṁ

Vīdhi kapāla dhāraṇaṁ

(Kālabhairava - Bhairava - Ādi)

Holding Śūla, Cakra, Pāśa and Daṇḍa, Kālabhairava is of dark complexion and without clothes. He has the snake for his sacred thread and wears Brahmā’s skull. This description closely resembles the Kālabhairavaṣṭaka of Śrī Śaṅkara.

Tyāga rājāṅgam Swayambhū Liṅgaṁ

Nāgakavaca dhara Saikata Liṅgaṁ

(Ādi Puriśwaram - Arabhi - Ādi)

In these lines, Dīkṣitar refers to the Vitanka kṣētra (Tiruvottiyur), where the nonchiseled (Swayambhū) sand Liṅgam is covered with a snake-shaped Kavaca in the front.

The main contents of that major branch of Indian religious literature which consits of the Tantras, Āgamas and Saṁhitās are classed under four heads : (1) Jñāna or knowledge and its nature, (2) Yōga or concentration of mind and the means of attaining it, (3) Kriya or construction of temple and consecration of images, and (4) Caryā or religious rites and social observances. In Kerala, the emphasis is on Kriya and Caryā. So, the actual observances as well as the Tantra literature produced there mostly pertain to these two aspects and the term ‘tantra’ is, in fact, taken to mean, mainly, the consecration of the different deities in temples and their ritualistic worship.

The typical indigenous temple of Kerala can be clearly identified by its characteristic structure which distinguishes it from the temples in other parts of India. The gigantic construction and imposing gopuras which mark the temples in the other parts of south India are conspicuous by their absence in Kerala. The characteristic Kerala temple consists of the sanctum sanctorum (garbhagrha), which is

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

usually circular (vrtta) in shape, but sometimes square (caturasra) or rectangular (caturasradīrgha), with

a conical or pyramidal roof (śikhara) crowned by a crest (stūpikā). Within this garbhagrha is the idol on

a pedestal (piṭha). Round the garbhagrha is the first prākāra called antarāmāndala. Small balipīṭhas

representing the eight dikpālas, the seven matṛis etc., are placed here. A flight of steps called sopāna

connects this prākāra with the door of the garbhagrha. In front of the sopāna is the main maṇḍapa.

Round this maṇḍapa and antarāmaṇḍala is the second prākāra called antahāra, forming a broad verandah

with doorways on all four sides. The antahāra leads out into an enclosure containing the main balipīṭha.

ha. After the antahāra we get the fourth prākāra called madhyāhāra which is essentially a continuous

structure having an array of lamps all round from top to bottom. Beyond this and just outside the main

balipīṭha is the flagstaff (dhvajastambha). The fourth prākāra called bāhyāhāra is beyond this. It forms

the pathway for the pathway for the processions within the temple. The fifth and last prākāra is the

outermost wall of the temple. This is called maryādā. The main entrance is through a simple gōpura

which may be on ordinary doorway with a small roofing or one with a superstructure comprising rooms

and verandah. The space between the garbhagrhā and antahāra is roofless; so also is most of the space

between the madhyāhāra and maryādā. This results in every part of the temple being airy and well

ventilated, a distinctive feature of the Kerala temple.

The deities in Kerala are mainly those we find in other parts also, namely, Viṣṇu. Śiva and Durgā

in their common forms and Gaṇapati, Subrahmaṇya, Sarasvatī, etc. But in addition to these, we have

certain deities worshipped as prominently as these. The most important among them is Sasta, also called

Hariharaputra, in view of the conception of the origin of this god as being the result of the union of Śiva

with Viṣṇu in the latter’s form as Mōhinī. Elaborate rituals as in the case of other gods are laid down for

the worship of this god in the authoritative treatises on Kerala tantra. Sasta is found in Tamil nadu also.

Śaṅkaranārāyaṇa, conceived as half-Śiva and half-Viṣṇu, is another deity who has several temples dedicated

to Him and whose pūjā is detailed in Kerala tantra. But there is another diety known as Kirātamūrti,

called in Malayalam Vettakkorumakan (literally, ‘a son for hunting’), confined to Kerala. This god is

conceived of as the son of the Śiva by Pārvatī when both were disguised as hunters. This god is worshipped

for victory in all undertaking, particularly war. Through a hunter in appearance, this god is looked upon

as very benevolent and His worship is of the sāttvic nature. Still another deity is the goddess Rarujit. She

is durgā in her aspect as the destroyer of the demon Ruru. Her worship is also detailed in the manuals on

Kerala tantra. It is possible that some of these deities were originally outside the traditional pantheon of

gods and goddesses of Hindu orthodoxy but were, later, on absorbed into it. In fact, it has been suggested

that śāstra is none other than Buddha adopted into Hinduism.

Certain deities for whom temples are not common outside Kerala are found consecrated in Kerala.

Such are the Varāha, Paraśurāma and Balarāma incarnations of Viṣṇu, Bharata, Brahmā etc. It may be

mentioned that in Trivandrum itself there is a temple solely dedicated to Varāha and another solely

dedicated to Brahmā.

Some Tantra manuals of Kerala deal also with the worship of Sūrya, Vaiśravaṇa, Jyeṣṭha, Indra

etc. This indicates that once these deities also were worshipped like the others.

Music and Temples

The rituals of ceremonial worship in the Kerala temples is a combination of both Vaidica with

Vaidic mantras and methods and Tāntrika with non-Vaidic mantrās and rules, the Tāntrika element

slightly predominating over the Vaidika. It, therefore, comes under the category Tāntrika-Vaidika, fol-

lowing the classification in the Puruṣārthaprabodha of Brāhmaṇandabhāṭi. It is Vaidic worship in the

Tāntrik mode. The Pañcatattva or the Pañcamkāra, which constitutes an integral part of orthodox śākta

Tantra, has, however, no place even in the Devī temples of Kerala. Madya, māṃsa, matsya and maithuna,

whatever maybe their denotation and significance, are as such entirely absent in the routine temple

rituals, Mudra alone is there, but it is in the sense of gesture, and there is quite a lot of this.

There are other noteworthy features also. Every important temple has a high priest called Tantrī,

who alone is the authority on matters of ritual in the temple, its peculiarities and variations. This is a

hereditary post. There are several well-known families of Tāntriṣ performing the temple tantra hereditarily

for a number of generations, but every one of such families has for it the tantra of several temples. So a

Tantri delegates his right for of several temples. The daily routine pūjā to a chief priest called Nampi

chosen for specific periods. The Nampi is given an initiation and he has to live a saintly life, observing

strict continence and several other restrictions, including dress. The special rituals such as those relating

to Utsava etc. are done only by the Tantrī. The Tantris and Nampis are invariably Brahmins, though, of

late, attempts are afoot to extend this privilege to competent persons in other communities also. They

have to keep themselves mentally and physically pure. For instance, they cannot be touched, for this

matter even their assistants, by anyone, including other Brahmins.

The chief priest alone is entitled to perform pūjā to the idol installed in the temple. This is in

contrast with Tamil Nadu where one or more among a set of eligible persons can do the pūjā and with

north India where, in most temples, the devotee also can himself perform the pūjā. While performing the

Pūjā the priest mutters the mantras inaudibly but shows the gesture and connected actions with meticu-

lous care in strict accordance with the rules and practices. This, again, is in contrast with the practice in

other places where the mantras are uttered loud and the accompanying tantra is done, if at all, with less

care.

The number of pūjās per day as well as the time of their performance are also bound by rules.

Generally there will be three pūjās. Every day the abhiṣēka (ceremonial bath) is performed to the idol

very early in the morning, followed by alankāra (decoration). The first pūjā called Uṣahpūjā is then

conducted. At about noon, we get the second pūjā called Madhyahnapūjā or Uccha-pūjā. The temple is

closed after this. It is reopened in the evening and the third pūjā is done in the early part of the night. This

is called ardhayāmapūjā after which the temple remains closed till the next moring. All these pūjā have

certain peculiarities in detail, but the one that is most noteworthy is the offering of bali to the dikpālas

and other connected devatās after the naivēdyas to the principal deity, followed by a procession of the

Utsavamūrti (portable idol of the principal deity) along the bāhyahāra to the accompaniment of drums

and other musical instruments. In some temples we get an additional pūjā called Pantirati between the Uṣ

āpūjā and Ucchapūjā and in certain temples, yet another pūjā called Etirtapūjā between the Uṣahpūjā

and Pantirati.

The rituals during the Utsavas are very elaborate and have their own special features. But the item

called Śrībhūtabali deserves special mention. This takes quite a long time and has to be done with special

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care and in strict adherence to the rules laid down for each dēvatā connected with it. Even the timila,

which is, by the bye, a long drum indigenous to Kerala to be played with the hand, has to be beaten for

each devatā in different manner and for a different duration.

Of the division of Tāntrić worship into Dakṣiṇācāra and Vāmācāra, it is the Dakṣiṇācāra that is

followed in Kerala. Yantras and homas are also used for wroship. Bhagavatīsevā or worship of Durgā in

her sāttvic form as Lalita is a common domestic ritual. This is got performed by a person who has got the

necessary initiation. Here, the yantra is drawn with the prescribed materials and the pūjā is done on a

lamp placed on the yantra. The homa that is most commonly performed in the tāntrić manner, both in

houses and temples, is the Gaṇapatihōma.

The temple rituals are prescribed by Tantrāgamas. The offerings made to the particular deity at a

particular place is strictly according to the local tradition.

Hindūs attach great primacy to incantations and rituals in their ceremonial worship of gods and

goddesses. The worship is performed in 16 stages, together known popularly as Ṣōdaṣopacāra pūjā —

Āvāhana (invocation) , Āsana (offering of seat to God), Pādya (offering of water to wash feet), Arghya

(offering of sacred water to the hand), Ācamantya (water for sipping), Snāna (bathing in water), Vastra

(garments), Upavastra (upper-garments), Gandha (sandal), Puśpa (flowers), Dhūpa (incense), Dīpa

(illumination), Naivēdya (food), Pradakṣiṇa (reverntial circumbulation), Mantra Puṣpa (flowers with

recitation from sacred texts) and Namaskāra (final salutation).

The ancient temples following the Āgamic rituāls over thousand of years have developed particu-

lar traditions and special offerings peculiar to each. As a widely travelled pilgrim with an intimate

knowledge of Āgamic traditions, Dīkṣitar made it a point to observe all these distinctive customs. Some

of these have been mentioned in his Kṛtis as can be seen from the following examples.

Svatarka Sumadharat

(Śrī Ganēśtparam - Ardradēśi - Rūpaka)

The white Arka flower is specially used in worshipping Lord Gaṇēśa, as his favourite offering.

Paraśurāma Kṣētra Prabhāvaṁ

Pāyasānna Hōmādi Vibhāvaṁ

(Takta Gaṇapatim - Mōhana - Ādī)

This presumbably refers to a type of Gaṇpati in Kerala, where the offering pāyasāna (rice cooked

in milk) is common practice.

Navanīta Kāli pūjitam

(Helesyanātham - Durbar - Ādī)

This would appear to pertain to the Kālī sculptured on a pillar in the Madurai temple precincts.

Kālī, who went to challenge Śiva during his cosmic dance was defeated and become ferocious. The

devotees who pay obeisance to this Kali observe the convention of throwing butter over the sculpture in

order to appease and calm her. It is appropriate that Dīkṣitar has alluded to this tradition, which is even

now followed in this temple by referring to Her as Navanīta Kālī.

Hindū religion has adopted innumerable Vratās and Utsavas to be conducted by devotees through-

out the year. The various Purāṇas and Tantrāgamas lay down the rules according to which these rites are

to be performed. The different deities are thus propitiated and specially worshipped during particular

sacred month/day of the year to get their benevolent grace. The ancient temples even now perform such

utsavas replete with all the particular details for the respective deities. Purāṇas like Skanda, Asvisyottara,

Brahmavaivartha, Bhāgavata, etc. mention innumerable Vratās to suit all types of people and their per-

sonal Gods.

Bhādrapadamāsa Caturthyami Brāhmaṇādi pūjitami

(Siddhivināyakami - Cāmara - Rūpaka)

This refers to the famous Vrata of Viṇāyak Chaturthi in the month of Bhādrapada (August-

September). The worship of Lord Viṇāyaka is widely performed all over the country and at present it is

celebrated as a national Hindu festival, with Lord Gaṇeṣa being worshipped in public. But on this day,

individuals also pay Him obeisance also in their houses, particularly in the south, with special offerings

of Mōdakās and devotees pray to Him for removing all obstacles and conferring allround prosperity.

Śrāvaṇa Pourṇami Pūrvokta śukravārē

Cārumatī Prabhṛtibhiḥ Pūjitākārē

(Śrī Varalakṣmī - Śrī - Rūpaka)

The Purāṇas mention about Varalakṣmī Vrata, which was performed by a devotee by name Cārumati

who was consequently blessed by Goddess Varalakṣmī with wealth and welfare. As mentioned in the

above lines, the Vrata falls on the Friday preceding the full moon day of the month of Śravaṇa (August).

Śrīkara tapa hōma Śrī jayantī nāme

(Śrī Venugōpāla - Kuraṇjī - Jhampa)

This pertains to the widely celebrated birthday of Lord Kṛṣṇa, popularly known as Janamāṣṭamī,

Gokulāṣṭamī, Kṛṣṇa Jayantī, Śrī Jayantī, etc. In different parts of India. In the aforesaid Krti reference is

made to the Śrī Jayantī of Lord Kṛṣṇa, and the auspicious japa, tapa and hōmas which form part of it.

The day falls on the Aṣṭamī (eighth day) of the month of Śrāvaṇa (August).

Vaiśya Jāti Kāraṇam Vatu Vāsu dhāriṇam

Kaliyuga Prasannam Vasupradāna nipunam

(Śrī Satyanārāyaṇa - Śubhapantuvarāli - Rūpaka)

Satyānārāyaṇa Vratā is one of the most common and popular vratās celebrated by individuals. It

can be performed on any day of the devotees' choice. The Vrata episode makes mention of a Vaiśya

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

(merchant) and his family, who were subjected to serious of misfortunes due to their neglecting Lord

Satyanārāyaṇa.

Tyāgarāja Mahādhwajārōha

(Śrī - Ādi)

This entire Krti is replete with details of the annual festival of Śri Tīruvārūr Tyāgarāja, starting

from the innaugural flag hoisting according to the principles laid down in the Āgamās.

Phālguṇa māsa Pournimavatāram

(Hari Hara Putra - Vasanta - Kh. Ēka)

Phālguṇa Pūrṇimā, the full moon day in the last month of the Hindū calendar (March) is widely

celebrated all over the country variously as Hōlī, Kāma dahana, when people play with colours and

distribute sweets. On this occasion, the effigy of Manmatha is also sit on fire recalling the Paurāṇic

incident of Śiva burning down Kāma through his third eye. Dīkṣitar recalls this episode in the above Krti

on Śāsta.

Vicitra Vaisākha Mahotsavena

(Subrahmanyeṇa — Śuddha Dhanyāsi — Ādi)

This refers to the special Utsavās conducted for Lord Subrahmanya in Kaḷugumalai. These two

important festivals are during the months of Caitrai and Vaikāsi. The Caitrai Vasanta festival is celebrated

by taking the Lord in procession along with His consorts Vaḷḷi, and Devasēna, and offering Pūjā. In

Vaikāsi (Visākha) the Lord is worshipped with special offering of Kāvadi by devotees.

As already mentioned, the Hindū temples have been built strictly on āgamic principles. Various

features like Prākāras, Maṇḍapa, Stambhas, Vimāna, Garbhagrha, Yāgaśālā, etc. Form an integral part

of the temple architecture. Dīkṣitar makes special mention of some of these details in a number of Krtis.

A few such examples are given below :

Praṇavākāra divya Vimānam

(Raṅganāyakam — Nāyaki — Ādi)

This refers to the divine Praṇavākara Vimāna in the Śrī Raṅganāthaswāmī temple at Śrīraṅgam.

Somāskanda Vimānasthām

(Śrī Sundararājan - Kāśī Rāmakriya - Ādi)

The Vimāna of the Sundararāja shrine at Aḷagarkōil is known as Sōmāskanda vimāna.

Yāga Sāladyutsva Cōdyam

(Tyāgarāja - Śrī - Ādi)

Music and Temples

137

In this Kṛti mention is made of the Yāgaśālā in Tiruvārūr Tyāgarāja temple where rituals are

conducted. The Vimāna of this temple is known as Indra vimāna.

Ānanda natana Prakāśam

Citsabhēśām

(Ānandanatana - Kēdara - Mi. Chāpu)

The sanctum sanctorum of Lord Natarāja in the Cidambaram temple where He performs His

cosmic dance is known as Cit Sabhā (the other four important halls being Kanaka Sabhā, Nritya Sabhā,

Rāja Sabhā and Dēva Sabhā).

Dīkṣitar was a keen observer and he spared no pains to find out diverse details of any shrine that

he visited, with a view to incorporate them in his Kṛtis on the deities at various Kṣētrās. As such, his

compositions are a varitable storehouse of particulars pertaining to Sthala Vṛkṣas, Vanas, Tīrthas, Vratās,

festivals, rituals as well as special offerings to some deities, besides historical references and icono-

graphic descriptions and sometimes even architectural specialities.

It would be pertinent to pinpoint a few examples for elucidating the above aspects. Since all the

particulars are not often available in one single Kṛti, whatever details are contained in all the Kṛtis on a

particular deity/kṣētra, have been gathered. Where there are more than one Kṛti on a deity/kṣētra, the

particular are sometimes repeated in the Kṛtis. It may be mentioned that the identity of the Kṣētra in the

case of a few Kṛtis has not yet been firmly established beyond doubt.

The anecdotes and the Sthalapurāṇas of various deities describe aspects like God's grace to His/

Her devotees or sages who performed Tapās, the destruction of evil forces and emancipation of the

virtuous or they merely relate to God's līlās. Some selected examples of anecdotes/sthala Purāṇas

connected with different deities, which figure in some of Dīkṣitar's kṛtis are as follows :

According to the Tiruttani Sthala Purāṇa, Gaṇapati helped His brother Subrahmanya to encoun-

ter Valli, whom he wished to marry, by chasing her in the form of an elephant, whereupon Lord Subrahmanya

came to her rescue and 'saved' her. Thus, Gaṇapati engineered the meeting of Valli and Subrahmanya and

was thereby responsible for their subsequent wedding.

Valli Vivāha Kāraṇasya

(Vallabha Nāyaka - Bēgada - Rūpaka)

In Skanda Purāṇa (Nandikēśvara - Sanatkumāra Samvāda) an incident is narrated that following

Gaṇapati's marriage to the eight Siddhis (Ahimā, Mahimā, etc.) Lord Brahmā prayed to Gaṇapati that

even as, through the latter's favour, Lord Viṣṇu protects the world, and Lord Rudra destroys it, He

(Brahmā) too would seek Lord Gaṇapati's blessings for carrying on his creation's work unimpeded.

Gaṇapati, pleased with Brahmā's prayers, granted him the boon for carrying on creation successfully.

Ajandra Pūjita Vighnēśwaram

(Gajānanayītham - Vegavāhini - Ēka)

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The Sthala Purāṇa of Kamalālaya (Tiruvārur) mentions the following episode, wherein Lord

Gaṇapati appeared as a goldsmith to prove the purity of the gold brick, which Sundaramurthy Swāmigal

had acquired through the grace of Lord Tyāgēśa of Kamalālaya. When the devotee approached the local

goldsmiths with a view to making jewels out of the gold brick, they refused to accept it as genuine gold.

Thereupon, Sundaramūrthy Swamigal appealed to Lord Tyāgēśa. Lord Gaṇapati appeared before the

devotee as a Goldsmith on His father's instruction and applied the touchstone to the brick, which then

shone brightly, proving its purity. Consequently, Gaṇapati came to be known as Suvarṇakarṣaṇa Vināyaka.

Suvarṇakarṣaṇa Vighna rājō

(Śrī mahā Gaṇapati – Gauḷa – Mī. Chāpu)

Subrahmanya is refereed to as 'Somatata' the Guru of Śiva the Ādiguru (the first teacher) and as

'Swāminātha' the master of the Swāmi i.e. of Śaṅkara himself. Here, on this hill in Swāmimalai,

Subrahmanya, in his role as the Guru, initiated his father into the mysterious significance of the divine

Praṇava mantra, which the latter and forgotten as the result of a sin incurred in killing as Asura.

Subrahmanya is a top hill while Śiva's shrine is below, indicating that the son and father stand as

preceptor and disciple.

Swāminātha Swāmi Śaila Sthita sōmatata

(Śrī Bālasubrahmanya – Bilahari – Mṛ. Chāpu)

The anecdote refers to one of the sixty four-līlās of Mīnākṣī and Sundarēśwara at Madurai. Nahuṣ

a Cakravarti won the coveted position of Indra. Intoxicated with his status, he wanted Śacīdēvī, the wife

of the former Indra, for his consort. In deference to the condition prescribed by her, he went to see her in

a palanquin borne by the great sages. Stirred by his infatuation with the Indrāṇī, he was in a great hurry

to meet her and on the way kicked his preceptor Bṛhaspati and others to prod them to move faster. Greatly

enraged, the sage cursed him to become a serpent. The legend goes that Indra built thetemple with eight

elephants around the sanctum besides 30 Lions and 64 messengers and worshipped Mīnākṣī and

Sundarēśwara. In this manner, Indra made amends for his sin redeemed his lost position.

Dēva Rāja Munisāpa Vimōcini

(Pañcasatpīṭha Rūpini – Dēvagāndhāra – Ādi)

This has reference to the Kulikkarai Sthalapurāṇa. A local resident by name Dēsikar was an

ardent devotee of Lord Viśwanātha and used to make regular trips to Benares. After he grew old and

hence, physically weak, he felt very sad because he could no longer go to Benares. In order to console his

devotee, Lord Viswanātha appeared before him in his dream and assured him that He (Lord Viswanātha)

would reside at Kulikkarai (or Sertatira) along with Annapūrṇā, with the result that Sertatira would

become as sacred as the Ganges and the sthala itself as sanctifying as Benares. Thenceforth, both of them

were dancing fiercely. The Lord Śiva, putting his one foot to the sky, excelled in the Ūrdhwa Tāṇḍava.

Kālī could not match this challenge and was vanquished.

Dēsika Katakṣena darśita dēvatā

Sārva bhouma mahādēva

Music and Temples

(Kāśī Viśwēśwara - Kāmbōjī - Āṭa)

The Hindū places of pilgrimage are usually associated with sacred Tīrthās like ponds, rivers, as

well as the Vanās (the forest in which the place is situated). Sometimes, the vanās may be mythical or

currently nonexistent,. Particular trees are also associated with particular temples. All these details are

often related in the Sthala Purāṇā of different shrines. Below are given some examples drawn from Dīkṣ

itar's kr̥tis referring to the Kṣētrās, name, Tīrthās, vanās and Vr̥kṣās.

Swāmí Śaila Sthitya

(Śrī Swāmīnāthāya -Khamās - K. Chāpu)

This refers to Lord Bālāsubrahmaṇya at Swāmimalai.

Kanaka Śaila Vihāriṇī

(Subrahmanyaṇa - Śuddha Dhanyāsi - Ādī)

This has reference to Lord Subrahmanya of Kazhugumalai - a hillock near Ettaiyāpuram.

Unmatta Pāṇḍya Kerala Nivāśa

Śrikara Parasurāmakṣētra Prabhākara

This has reference to Lord Padmanābhaswāmy of

Parasurāma Kṣētra (Trivandrum) situated in the sacred Pāṇḍya-Kerala region.

Kāśī Kṣētra nivāsinī

(Ēhi Annapūrṇē - Punnāgavaralī - Ādī)

Kāśīpura Vāsam Bhūtēśam

(Kālabhairavaṁ Bhaje - Bhairavam - Ādī)

These refer to Goddess Annapūrṇā and Lord Kālabhairavar of Banares.

Śrīpura Nyruti Bhōga Garta Tīra

Sthira tara Bhūpāla Pālanam

(Śrī Viśwanātham - Cathurdaśa Rāgmālikā - Ādī)

Kāśī kṣētra Sasrusadhika phaladā

Gārta Tiravosa īṭ pūjita Dakṣiṇō

(Kāśī Viśwēśwara - Kāmbhōjī - Aṭa)

Unnata Carita Tīra Vihāriṇī

(Annapūrṇē - Sāmā - Ādī)

These refer to Viśwanāthā (Viśvēśvarā) and Annapūrṇā at Kulikkarai near Tiruvārūr which is known as Dakṣiṇa Kāśī. Garta is the Tīrtha here.

Śrī Lakṣmīvarāḷ 'm Bhajēham

Bhangabara Tāmraparṇi Tirastham

(Śrī Lakṣmīvaraham – Ābhōgi – Ādi)

This has reference to Lord Lakṣmīvarāha of Kaḷḷidaikkurichi near Tirunelvēli. Here too the Tīrthā is Tamraparṇi.

Maṅgalātaya Guptagan்ga taṭa sthite

(Maṅgalāmbikāyai – Mālava Śrī – Jhampa)

Śrī Gāndhāraṇya kṣētram

Potoka haraṇa nipuṇa Muni Tīrtha Prabhāvam

(Śrī Vāñcanātham – Surati – Ādi)

These refer to Dēvi Mangalambika and Lord

Vañcanātha of Śrī Vāñciyam (Gāndhāraṇya kṣētram). Gupta Gaṅgā/Muni Tīrtha is the Tīrth here.

Mārga Śayanēśvaram Bhajāham

Viriñcipura madhya vihāram

Vīra Siṁha Tīrthôpacāram

(Mārgaśayanēśvaram – Kāśirāmakriya – M. Chāpu)

This has reference to Lord Mārgaśayanēśvara of Viriñcipuram. The temple contains Vīra Siṁha Tīrtha. It may be recalled that Dīkṣitar originally belonged to Viriñcipuram.

Vedanyēśvaram

Jñānāmbikāpathi

Bilvavana Vaibhavam

(Vēdanyēśvaram – Dēvagāndhārī – Ādi)

This has reference to Lord Vēdanyēśvara and Goddess Jñānāmbika of Vaḷḷalarkoil near Māyavaram. Bilvavana is the vana here.

Music and Temples

141

The contribution of the musical trinity is no less important when compared to the Kṣētra Kṛtis.

Though Śyāma Śāstri and Tyāgarāja composed the bulk of their compositions in praise of their Iṣṭadēvatā

Kāmākṣī and Śrī Rāma respectively, their compositions on different kṣētras are noteworthy. Of course,

Muthuswami Dīkṣitar was the only composer in praise of the deities of various kṣētras that he undertook

to visit during his pilgrimage.

The ensuing chapter is devoted to the music trinity independently.

REFERENCES

1. T.S.S.M. Journal, Vol. XXII, 1958.

2. S.I.I., Vol. II, p. 306.

3. T.N. Ramachandran; The Great Temple of Tanjore and the place of Cōḷa Art in the History of Indian Wall

Paintings, Reprint from “The Tanjore Art Exhibition” souv. 1964.

4. The Tanjore Art Exhibition souvenir, 1964, The Great Temple of Tanjore etc. By T.N. Ramachandran.

5. A note on the dating of the Bṛhadiśvara Temple at Tanjore — S. ParamŚivan. J.O.R., Vol. IX, 1935, pp.

363-364.

6. Thirujñāna Sambandar Tēvāram, 1961-- Kumaragurupuram Saṅgama.

7. The Cōḷas – K.A. Niḷakaṇṭa Śāstri (Madras University Publication), Chapter on-Art.

8. Ibid.

9. Rāmāyaṇa : Vēda Brahma Lakṣmi Narasiṁha Sāstrī, Siddhi Vināyaka Virata, pp. 1-14.

10. Ibid., Varaha Lakṣmi Vrata, pp. l13.

11. Ibid., Kṛṣṇa-aṣṭamī Vrata, p. 228.

12. Ibid., Satyanārāyaṇa Vrata, pp. 411.

13. Cf. Chapter on Lord Tyāgarāja and Yōga.

14. The Greatness of Lord Muruga in his Famous Ancient Hill Temple at Tiruttani, Published by Arulmigu

Sūbrahmanyaswāmī Tirukkoil, Tiruttani, p. 5.

15. Vrata Ratnam (Kannada), Vēda Brahma Lakṣmī Naraṣiṁha Śastri, Siddhi Vināyaka Vrata.

16. Śrī Dīkṣita Kīrtana Mālā, Supplement (Tamil), Devī Navavarṇa Kīrtanam, A. Sudaram Iyer, p.70.

17. Epic, Mythology and Legends, Jagadish Iyer, p. 160.

IV

MUSICAL ANALYSIS OF TEMPLE KRTIS - I

TYĀGARĀJA

Biography

The later part of the eighteenth century has been considered the most important period in the

history of south Indian music. It was during this time that the three great composers, styled musical

'trinity' illuminated the musical horizon by their krtis and their devout lives. Since there is an extensive

literature regarding the life and contribution of the trinity, it is felt that a brief account of the same may

be found sufficient in the present context.

The trinity were great devotees, poets and musicians, who gave a fresh life to south Indian music

by their superb handling of the art. They were born in the same village, Tīruvārūr, which has become

thrice holy to all the lovers of music since then. The remarkable significance about the Trinity is that they

were great composers and at the same time bhaktas.

The musical inheritance of the trinity must have been very rich and they were heir to the compo-

sitions of Purandaradāsa, Kṣētrayya, Vīrabhadrayya, Pacimiriyam Ādiyappiah and Sonti Venkataramanayya.

An analysis of the music of Dīkṣitar reveals that it was but an interpretation of the music on his past. It

is obvious that Tyāgarāja not only has embodied the fine elements of the tradition, but also brings home

the glorious possibilities of melodic music in his songs. The music of Tyāgarāja is likened to the juice of

the grapes, which can be tasted and enjoyed at once without any difficulty whatsoever. Dīkṣitar's music

has been identified as the juicy kernal contained in the coconut, which can be enjoyed only after breaking

the shell, a difficult process. The music of Śyāma Śāstri is compared to the plantain in which the skin has

to be peeled off before tasting the fruit. Each is great and unique in his own way and hence stands above

comparison.

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Tyāgarāja (1767-1847) was the greatest among the music composers of south India and one of the

musical prodigies of all time. He was the father of modern Karnātaka music and his works are of delicate

spirituality, full of melodic beauty and in the highest sense artistic. As a child, he was already remarkable

for his predilection for music and a gift for composing and wrote his first song when he was hardly 13.

Soon, he reached the loftiest pinnacle of musical fame and composed the grandest songs every written

and two music plays of unequalled beauty. He exerted the greatest influence upon musical art in South

India during the 18th and 19th centuries and revolutioned the very nature of Karnātaka music. His songs

are accepted today as the only adequate interpretation of classical Karnātaka music from both the musical

and the sāhitya points of view.

Tyāgarāja was born on the 4th May, 1767 at Tiruvārūr in the Thanjavur district of Tamilnadu. He

belonged to a family of pious and scholarly Telugu Brahmins whose family name 'Kakarla' indicates that

they were originally migrants from the village of the same name in the Cumbum taluk of Andhra Pradesh.

His father, Rama Brahmam, was a distinguished exponent of the Rāmāyana and was patronised by

Tulajāji, the ruler of Thanjāvūr. Tyāgarāja, in his formative years, must have listened to his father's

scholarly exposition of Vālmiki's epic. Devotion to Rāma became ingrained in him from his youth.

Tyāgarāja is stated to have composed thousands of kṛtis and three music plays (operas) but only

700 kṛtis and two plays of the Yāgṣagāna type are extant now. These may be broadly classified under the

following heads :

1. Kṛtis in praise of Narasiṁha, Rāma, Lakṣmaṇa, Sītā, Hanumān, Śiva, Ambikā,

Gaṇapati, Subrahmaṇya, Tulsī, etc.

2. The Pañcaratna group in the five ghana rāgas Nāṭa, Gaula, Ārabhī, Varāḷi and Śrirāga.

3. Divya nāma Kīrtanas.

4. Utsava Sampradāya Kīrtanas.

5. Prahlāda Bhakti Vijayam in five acts with 45 kṛtis set in 28 rāgas and 132 verses in

Telugu.

6. Nauka Cāritram in one act with 21 kṛtis set in 13 rāgas and 45 verses in Telugu.

He has employed over 200 rāgas in all and of these, more than a hundered seem to be his own

creations. He appears to have adopted the rāga nomenclature found in the 'Sangraha Cūḍāmaṇi' of

Gōvinda in contrast to the Venkaṭamakhi tradition followed by Muthuswāmi Dīkṣitar. For many of the

rāgas, we have only the kṛtis of Tyāgarāja as 'lakṣyās' as one composer before or after his time has

attempted songs in them. In major rāgas like Tōḍi and Sankarābharaṇam, he has composed as many as

30 pieces depicting the different facets of the rāga and without repeating the music. Even in rāga like

Sāvērī, Saurāṣṭram and Kalyāṇi, there are 20 songs and in Bhairavī and Madhyamāvatī, up to 15. These

show the rāgas that were popular in his time. He has exhausted the possiblities of rāgās like Nāyaki and

Gaulipantu in a few kṛtis leaving hardly anything for his successors to innovate.

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The Pañcaratna kṛtis are the most representative of Tyāgarāja's art as a composer and he appears

to have, in these pieces, consciously summed up his musical genius in a quintessential form.

Some of the most exquisite melodies ever composed by Tyāgarāja are to be found among his

Divyanāma and Utsava Sampradāya kṛtis. These were mainly intended to be sung during his daily worship

and on special occasions like Śrī Rāmanavamī.

The two operas of Tyāgarāja reveals his gift as a poet and a playwright who can handle all the

metres of Telugu-poetry with perfect case. The ‘Prahlāda Bhakti Vijayam’ does not depict the usual story

of Prahlāda but contain Tyāgarāja's imaginary version in which even the Narasiṁha avatāra does not

figure. Similarly, the ‘Nauka Caritram’ describes an episode in which the gopīs of Gokulam take young

Kṛṣṇa on a boating excursion on the Yamunā. How Kṛṣṇa humbles their pride and makes them surrender

to Him unconditionally has been depicted in delightful verse and song.

After shedding lustre on Karnāṭaka music and the bhakti cult for over six decades, Tyāgarāja

attained siddhi on the Puṣya Bahuḷa Pañcamī day in the year Parabhava (1847 A.D.). On the previous

day, he had himself initiated into the sānyāsa āśrama by Parivrājaka Brahmānanda. The mortal remains

of this great soul were interred on the banks of the Kāvērī and a Bṛndāvana was erected over the spot.

Tyāgarāja's kṛtis and pañcharatnas representing the highly melodic music, inspire both musically

and spiritually. He is both a saint and a great composer whose compositions breathe the highest spiritual

truths and contain at the same time the most exquisite ‘art music’. His father Rama Brahman was an

expounder of the Rāmāyaṇa in the Tanjore court. Tyāgarāja's devotion to Rāma was thus ingrained in his

blood and this gained intensity by his constant listening to the spiritual hymns and songs of Bodhendra,

Sadāśiva, Brahmendra, Purandaradāsa, Bhadracāla Rāmadāsa, Tālapākkam composers, Nārāyaṇa Tīrtha,

Kṣētrayya padās, potana Rāmāyaṇa, and Rāma Nātaka kīrtanas. Quite early in his life he composed his

divyanama kīrtanas, simple in music, but rich in feeling, and these form the priceless part of the South

Indian Bhajana.

Perhaps the greatest contribution of Śrī Tyāgarāja lies in that, he is the first composer who

combined the art of music in its highest level with the religious turths. He emphasises in his Kṛtis the

importance of worshipping Lord Rāma with music, characterised by śruti śuddha, laya śuddha, susvara

and which is renderd with the accompaniment of Tambūrā. Tyāgarāja perhaps emphasises the true func-

tions of a real bhāgavata who is his view has necessarily to be a good musician and also a bhakta. Many

anecdotes regarding the composer's life unfolding the noble aspects of his personality such as the famous

proverbial reply of the great saint to King Sarabhoji in Kalyāṇī rāga ‘Nidhi tāla suṣamā’ denouncing

wealth as insignificant before the devout service at the feet of His Rāma, are available. The Rāma Bhakti

of Śrī Tyāgarāja, which inspires him to sing out his heart may be compared only with the devotion of

Prahlāda, whose unalloyed love towards Hari has been very admirably immortalized in his Prahlāda

Bhakti Vijayam. Through the musical play it is only Tyāgrāja's saintly nature that is revealed in the

character of Prahlāda. A highly emotional composer to whom Śrī Rāma was a reality, we find him giving

utterances to the surging feelings of his heart in a conventional, taunting, plaintive, pleading and persua-

sive manner. We find echoes of his own feelings, as such towards life around him, especially in his

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'Naukācaritra' a brilliant work on the theme of madhura bhakti. Śrī Tyāgarāja approached the Lord

through nine channels of devotion and his songs bear testimony to it. In the highest state of estatic

devotion to the Lord, the bhakta forgets himself and his existence. He sings out his soul, dances his

experiences with the mind concentrated on the form of His Iṣṭa Dēvatā. Tyāgarāja adopted his path of

'Naiṣkama Bhakti', which implies ātmanivēdāana in the first place and included all the other forms such

as smaraṇa, kīrtana, etc. Having reached the height of devotion, he bursts out into the most splendid art

forms, which are saturated with feeling. His kṛtis pulsate with emotional exuberance and touch the

innermost depth of out very being.

Tyāgarāja is verily the 'tone-poet of humanity'. With minimum means of execution, he has given

maximum melodic expression. The kṛtis of Tyāgarāja couched in dignified prose though appear simple

and tiny, assume, when rendered, a magnificent melodic proportion and each kṛti leaws scope for being

dealt and interpreted in a very exhaustive manner. His handling of rare and apūrva rāgas served to

immortalize them. Naḷinakānti, Umābharaṇam, Candra jyōti and many others live through his songs.

The highly rakti rāgas have been defined by his kṛtis in a most ideal manner. The use of medium tempo,

fewer words in the matu, employment of easy time measures and above all, a very clear picture of the

rāga depicted in an impressive manner are considered the charm of his compositions. They have the

fundamental resources to enchant, inspire and please the listener. His kṛtis form the mainstay of the art

musical concert and Karnatic music as a whole. They are profusely used in bhajanas and Harikathā

Kālakṣepa.

To an inspired seer, with an astonishing mastery over sāhitya and saṅgīta, the art of composing is

the most favourite medium, to give vent to his sublime thoughts. Tyāgarāja though gave expression to his

son and his ideas through the kṛti medium, yet he has shown his ability to compose something like a

varṇa. His pañcaratnās resemble the varṇas in general form but the composer has endowed them with

individual characteristics. Being an aṁśa of Nārada and blessed by the divine minstrel with the grantha

'Swarārnava', it was not difficult for him to learn more through intuition about the intricacies of the

higher aspects of the art. In some krtis, the glory of rage is pictured in a slow and descriptive ālapa

manner as in 'Evari māta' in Kāmbhoji, 'Kārubāru' in Mukhāri, 'Manasusvādīna' in Saṅkarābharaṇa

and others. The tāna-like progression of medoly is to be found in his 'Koluvaiyunnāde' in Bhairavī, the

gradual development of thought and melody as found in 'Cakkanīrāja' in Kharaharapriya,

'Koluvamaregada' in Tōḍī and many others, reflect the soaring musical imagination of the saint. These

compositions of the revered composer may be described as the immortal 'temple in sound' which con-

tinue to inspire and as models of the melodic music, have become the very 'lakṣaṇa' and 'laksya' of our

music.

It is said that three different school of disciples of Śrī Tyāgarāja carried on his tradition. They are

known as the Umayalpuram, Tillaisthānam and Wālāajapet schools, known after the earliest disciples

hailing from those places respectively. The manuscripts containing the kṛtis of the saint-composer are

preserved in the manuscripts by this worthy disciple Śrī Wālājapet Venkataramana Bhāgavatar and are

still available in the Saurāṣṭra Sabhā at Madura. Each school was fortunate in having devoted disciples,

who were mainly responsible for handling the tradition orally and for preserving the same in the written

Musical Analysis of Temple Kṛtis-I

sources. This later led to the publication of the songs and the most authentic music of the saints' kṛtis by

the disciples. It is this preserved music in the authentic śiṣya paramparā, that has come to be referred to

as the sampradāya saṅgīta. The saint who was the architect of this accredited prectice or sampradāya,

hails Śrī Rāma as the 'saṅgīta sampradāyakudu' in his Ārabhi rāga Pañcaratna.

As a composer of melodious kṛtis par excellence, as a teacher of the humanity, as an author of

group kṛtis in praise of Goddess Tripurasundarī, Lord Sundareśswara, Divyānāma and utsava sampradāya

kṛtis and as the composer of the operas and above all as a true Rāma Bhakta, Śrī Tyāgarāja is unique.

The illustrious contemporaries of the saint composer, namely Śrī Muthusvāmī Dīkṣitar and Śyāma

Śāstrī are devotees of Lord Subrahmaṇya and Goddess Kāmākṣī respectively.

Tyāgaraja is by far the greatest and most celebrated name in the history of Carnatic music. Our

composers were all Bhaktas and employed the medium of music as the easiest path to attain salvation.

Tyāgarāja has chosen Telugu, the sweet musical language, for the majority of his compositions. Their

variety is vast. Some of them can be learnt even by children. Many of them are worthy concert pieces. To

ensure the success of any concert the artist would prefer a large proportion of Tyāgarāja's krtis. Tyāgarāja

has also to his credit many Utsava Sampradāya Kīrtanas and Divyānāma Kīrtanās suitable for Bhajana in

congregation. Besides he has also composed three operas – Noukā Caritram, Prahalāda Bhakti Vijayam

and Sītāārāma Vijayam. In this respect, one can find the similarly between Tyāgarāja and Swāti Tirunāḷ

Mahārāja.

After Saṅgīta Pitāmaha Purandaradāsa, Tyāgrājaswāmi's is by for the greatest and the most

celebrated name in the history of Carnatic music. As a poet, saint and philosopher rolled into one, he was

one of the ministrels of God who descend upon earth once in a while to countrbute to human happiness

and uplift. A mahāpuruṣa of his stature and calibre appears but once in a millenium in the life-history of

a nation. He who was responsible for tranforming music from the concept of being a mere instrument of

entertainment into one of being the vehicle for the attainment of supreme spiritual bliss.

In south India musicians and music lovers celebrated Tyāgarāja Aracanā with great fervour and

enthusiasm. Whether it be at Tiruvaiyārū, where he attained samādhi, or any other place, the main

features of the Tyāgarāja Ārādhana is the group singing of his Ghana rāga pañcaratna kṛtis.

Pañcaratna kṛtis belong to the genere of Samudāya kṛtis or group kṛtis. Among the trinity, Śyāma

Śāstrī has to his credit only a single set of group kṛtis – the Navaratnamālikā comprising of compositions

on Goddess Mīnākṣī. Muthuswami Dīkṣitar has composed the largest number of Samudāya Krtis in

Carnatic music. Many of them like Navāvaraṇa kṛtis, Vībhaktī kṛtis, etc., are group of 8, 9 or 11 each. He

has also composed groups of 5 kṛtis – the pañcabhūta and Pañcaliṅga kṛtis. However, Pañcaratna refers

almost exclusively to the groups of 5 kṛtis, composed by Tyāgarāja. Apart from the Ghanarāga

Pañcaratnam, he has six sets of Kṣetra Pāñcaratna kṛtis to his credit on the presiding deities of five kṣ

ētras, (1) Tiruvaiyāru, (2) Tiruvoṭṭiyūr, (3) Gōvūr, (4) Lālguḍi and (5) Śrīraṅgam.

Tyāgarāja has to his credit a total number of 44 Kṣetra kṛtis.

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Tyāgarāja's śiṣya Vūṇai Kuppayyar has emulated his guru in composing two sets of Kṣētra Pañcaratnāsm: Kālahasti and Venkaṭēśa Pañcaratnam.

Pañcaratnas comprise groups of five kṛtis each. Lets us now dwell on the greatness of the number 5.

1. Pañcakṛtyas denote the 5 functions of the universe viz. Śṛṣṭi, Sthiti, Laya, Tīrōbhava and Anugraha. Lōrd Viṉāyaka holds these Pañcakṛtyas in his five hands and hence is known as ‘Ainkaran’.

2. Our sensory organs are five in number called Pañcendriyas.

3. Among the Navagrahas, the number ascribed to Budha is five. Budha means learned and He is the giver of wisdom.

4. Bhūtas are five in number i.e., Pañcabhūtas. They are Pṛthivī, Appu, Tēyu, Vāyu and Ākāśa.

5. The five Bījākṣaras of Mantrasāstra are Ōṁ, Aiṁ, Hriṁ, Klīṁ and Sauṁ.

6. The possessor of Pañcabānas Goddess Ambikā is called Pañcabānēśvarī.

7. Manmatha's bāṇas are five in number : Aravinda, Asōka, chuta, Navamallikā and Nilotapala.

8. In Smārta sampradāya daily worship is done to 5 devathas. This pañcayatana pūjā is to Śiva, Viṣṇu, Sūrya, Gaṇapati and Devī.

9. Pañcagavyas consist of milk, curd, ghee, gomūtra and gomaya.

10. The reputed pañicapātras are chuta, bilva, āmalaka, kuśa apāmārga.

11. The pañca bhakśyas are Bhakśya, Bhojya, Lehya, Chohya and Paniya.

12. In Karnataka the pañcaliṅga darśana at Talakkadu is held sacred.

13. The five important rhythmic phrase groups in music — Nāgabandha, Swastika, Alaiṅga, Suddha and Samaskalika — are said to have emerged from the five faces of Lord Śiva — Sadyójāta, Vāmadēva, Aghōre, Tatpuruṣa and Īśāna respectively.

14. The notes of music scales are also believed to have emanated from Lord Śiva's five faces. Tyāgarāga makes this clear in the carana of his Cittaranjani kṛti ‘Nādatanumanis am’.

15. The pañcamahā śabda refers to the music played during royal processions to the accompaniment of the 5 instruments — trumpet, tambūrā, conch-shell, kettle-drum and gong.

16. The pañcamukha vādyam for which Tiruvārūr is famous is a five-faced drum.

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In Carnatic music, Shāhaji Māharāja was the originator of Kṣētra kṛtis. The most prolific composer of Kṣētra kṛtis is beyond doubt Muthuswāmī Dīkṣitar. He travelled widely and his kṛitis are full of details of the Sthala purāṇa, Sthala vrkṣa, Tīrtha, temple festivals etc. On the other hand, Tyāgarāja visited only a few Kṣētras. Upaniṣad Brahma Yogin, who was the foremost exponent of Rāma Bhakti and the Advaitic doctrine of the time, was a classmate and close friend of Tyāgarāja's father, Ramabrahmam. He sent word to Tyāgarāja that the latter should visit Kāñāpuram and see him. So in 1837, when Tyāgarāja had already attained the ripe old age of 70, he embarked upon a tour to the northern districts of Tamil Nadu. His distinguished disciple Viṇai Kuppayyar, who had by then became the saṁsthāna vidwān to Zamindar Sundareśa Mudaliar of Gōvūr, undertook to look after Tyāgarāja's comforts during this tour. Besides Kāñcīpuram, Tyāgarājaswāmī also visited Tirupati, Shōlīṅgapuram, Madras, Nāgapaṭṭiṇam and Śīrkāzhi, but he composed only two or three kṛtis on the deities at each of these places and not Pañcaratāns. He visited Tiruvottiyur, Kuppayyar's birth-place as well as Gōvūr in deference to the wishes of Kuppayyar and Sundareśa Mudaliar. During the course of the tour, Tyāgarājaswāmī also visited Lālgudi and Śrīraṅgam. His visit of Lālgudi was at the instance of his disciple, Lālgudi Rāma Iyer. He has composed kṣētra pañcaratn at all these places in addition to the deities enshrined in Tiruvaiyāru where he lived and attained Samādhi.

Tiruvaiyāru Pañcaratnam

The name Truvaiyāru comes form 'Āiyāru' which in Tamil means five rivers. Tiruvaiyāru is in the midst of five rivers — Kāvērī, Arasalār, Vennāru, Vadayār and Kadamurutti. So, the Lord of the place has taken the name pañcanadīa. His other name is Praṇatārthihara. Tyāgarāja's Pancaratna kṛtis on this deity are :

Sarivedalina in Asāvari rāga and Ādi tāla

Ilalo Praṇatārthi hara in Athāna rāga and Ādi tāla.

Ehi Trijagadīśa in Sāraṅgā rāga and Chāpu tāla.

Muchata Brahmādulaku in Madhyamāvatī rāga and Ādi tāḷa.

Evarunnāru in Māḷavaśrī rāga and Ādi tāḷa.

In the Asāvēri kṛti Tyāgarāja describes the grace of river Kāvērī coming to see the beauty of Pañcanadīśa. In the Māḷavaśrī kṛti, Tyāgarāja prays to Pañcanadīśa to teach him the secret of controlling his mind to enable him to contemplate on the Lord wholeheartedly. Māḷavaśrī is an apūrva rāga but also an ancient rāga which finds mention in our ancient texts. Even a composition of Śrīpadarāya — Sasira Jihvegalulla — has been assigned this rāga. Śrīpadarāya lived before even Purandaradāsa. Some of Annamācārya kṛtis also are in this rāga. But this ancient rāga has not gone almost out of use. No post-trinity composer has composed in this rāga. Muthuswāmī Dīkṣitār has composed two kṛtis in this rāga — Kanakasabhāpatim and Maṅgalāmbikāyai namaste but these are very obscure. Tyāgarāja's kṛti Evarunnāru is also very rarely heard and as in the case of many other apūrva rāgas, it is the only Lakṣaṇa of this rāga.

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Tyāgarāja's two sets of Pañcaratana kṛtis on Goddess Dharmasamivardhini are :

Bāle Bālēndu - Rītigaula - Ādi

Ammā Dharmasamivardhani - Athāna - Ādi

Vidhicakrādulaku - Yamunākalyāṇī - Rūpaka

Śivē pāhimām - Kalyāṇi - Ādi

Karuna jūdavamma - Ṭōḍī - Ādi

Innalla vale-Deśyaṭōḍī - Chapu

Māravairi - Nāsikā - bhūṣhani - Rūpaka

Nannukanna talli - Kēsari - Dēśādi

Parāśakti - Sāvēri - Ādi

Nivu brovalē - Sāvēri - Ādi

In the kṛti Vidhicakrādulaku Tyāgarāja mentions about the golu of the Goddess and the greatness of the worship is on Friday. In the kṛti Śivē pāhimām, the parrot in Dēvi's hands is described as always chanting Rāmanāma. It is noteworthy that Tyāgarāja, the devout Bhakta of Śrī Rāma himself worshipped the Goddess. Tyāgarāja has composed many as 28 kṛtis in Ṭōḍī but the kṛti Karuṇajūdavamama is a very rare kṛti in this rāga.

Gōvūr Pañcaratnās

In this Kṣētra, Tyāgarāja has composed the pañcaratnas in praise of Lord Sundarēśa. They are :

Sambhō Mahādēva in Pantuvarāli rāga and Rūpaka tāla.

Kōrisvimparārē in Kharaharapriya rāga and Ādi tāla.

Sundareśvaruni in Saṅkarābharana rāga and Ādi tāla.

Īvasudha nīvanti in Sahāna rāga and Ādi tāla.

Nammī vacchina nannu in Kalyāṇi rāga and Rūpaka tāla.

When Śēkkizhar embarked on composing Periyapurāṇām it was Lord Sundareśa who is said to have commenced the first line. Another name of the Lord here is Tirumēniśvarar. The word ‘Go’ means cow. It also means Mahālakṣmi. Parāśakti did penance at Māṅgāḍu sitting on Pañcāṅgni. All the devatās assembled there and Lord Śiva himself took up the responsibility of feeding the Dēvatās. For this purpose Śiva brought Kāmadhenu down to the earth and made Her stay near Māṅgāḍu. That is the genesis of the

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name Govūr - the place where the divine cow stayed. Lord Śiva is without any rūpa and is worshipped

only as a Linga in the mulasthāna. The name of the Goddess of Gōvūr is Sundarya Nayaki. According to

inscriptional sources this temple was built by Rājarāja Cōḷa. This is the only kṣētra where Māṇikavāchagkar

festival is celebrated. During the nine days of this festival experts from the Tiruvembāvai of the saint are

sung. Through the Govūr Pañcharatna kṛtis Tyāgarāja reveals his Śivabhakti.

Tiruvotriyūr Pañcharatnam

This kṣētra has been praised by Nāyanmars. The name of the Lord is Tyāgēśa and the Goddess is

Tripurasundarī. This place is reputed for the Hamisanaṭana of the Lord who is in the form of Svayam̉bhū

linga. Ādi Śaṅkarācārya has installed Śrīcakra pīṭha in this shrine. These pañcaratnas are all in the

praise of Dēvī Tripurasundaraī. They are :

Dārinī Telusukonṭi in Śuddhasāvēri rāga and Ādi tāḷa.

Sundarī nī in Kalyāṇi rāga and Ādi taḷa.

Kannathalli in Sāvēri rāga and Ādi tāḷa.

Sundarī nannindarilō in Bēgaḍa rāga and Rūpaka tāḷa.

Sundarī ninnu in Ārabhi rāga and Misrachapu tāḷa.

The Kalyāṇi kṛti has a cittaṡwara which has been in vogue for more than 40 years. For the

Śuddhasāvēri kṛti Walajapet Veṅkaṭaramana Bhāgavathar has added a beautiful cittaswara. Pallavi

Gōpalayyar’s kṛti Nīdu Caraṇa paṅkaja colsely resembles the Kalyāṇi kṛti. All these kritis contain sthala

mudras.

The Sāvēri kṛti contains several proverbs like ‘Will one search for butter when one has ghee ?’

(‘Vennayunda nētikēvaraina vēsana paṭudurā’) ‘Why should one simply imagine the mirage to be water?’

(‘Marichikalanu jūci nīranī bhramisi kaṅdura’) etc.

In the Bēgaḍa kṛti there are beautiful Anthya prasas like vāñī, śukapāñi, varaśeṣaveṇī, kalyāñī,

sambhaya sivunīrāṇi, bāle, palitasurajāle, svakṛta akhila līle etc., and Dvitīyakṣara prasas like Vārīṣa

hari, mari, kori.

It is noteworthy that the Ārabhi kṛti Sundari nannu contains innumerable references to Ādi

Saṅkarācārya’s Saoundaryalaharī. The second śloka of Saundaryalaharī is as follows :

‘Taniyāṁśaṁ pāṁśuṁ tava caraṇa paṅkēruha bhāvaṁ

viriñcih sañjinvan viracayatilōkān avikalam’

meaning :

‘Brahmā got the power of creation through worshipping Goddess Sundari’ is found in the follow-

ing words of Tyāgarāja :

Sundari ninu varnimpa brahmādi

Suralakaina taramā

‘tvakīyaṁ saundaryaṁ tuhināgirikanye tulāyitum

Kavindrāh’ (12th śloka)

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The gist of 12th sloka is found in the word of Tyāgarāja as :

‘kundaradana sānandakanādi vandita nenenda’

The goddess herself is the Shōdasākṣarī svarūpā. The 16th letter in the mantra denotes the Candrakala. Here it is alluded that after seeing the Goddess's face, Manmatha made himself scarce.

The gist of the 6th śloka is found in the words of Tyāgarāja as ‘Chēlaku Nī lavanyamu ganiyalalanade valarāju ganakapoye’ :

‘Tanuhu paushpam maurvi madhukaramayī

pañcavicikah... apangatte liptvā jagaditam

anañgō vijāyate’ (sixth śloka in Saundaryalaharī)

In one of the ślokas, Śankarācārya says ‘the brilliance of your smile made Lord Śiva himself white’. Tyāgarāja gives the same idea in the words :

‘ni chiru narvu kanti soki śivudanupamau śubhrudaye’

The meaning of the 66th śloka is found in the words of Tyāgarāja as :

‘ni svaramumu vini yani magani jihvantu gabhuni kāye’

meaning : Hearing the sweetness of Pārvati's voice, Goddess Sarasvati placed herself in Brahma's tongue. The gist of the 16th sloka ‘Kavīndrānām chetah’ is found in the krti in the following words :

‘Nidayacēta śatkavullella kāvyamulanu sēyanaye’

The gist of the last (102nd) śloka is found in the last part of the charana in the following words :

‘nipadamuna tyāgarāju bhāvukamanukōnāye tripurasundarī’.

‘Pratīpah jvālābhih dīvasakara nirajanāvidhih’ (102 śloka in Saundaryalaharī)

Lālgudi Pañcaratnam

As already mentioned, Tyāgarāja visited Lālgudi and stayed with his disciple Lālgudi Rāma Iyer, the great-grandfather of Padmaśrī Lālgudi Jayaraman. The name of the Lord here is Saptarshīśvara and Goddess is Pravṛddhya Śrīmati. In this pañcaratna he has composed the first two kṛtis on the Lord and the next three on the Goddess, making in all a set of 5 kṛtis. They are :

Īśa Pāhimām in Kalyāṇi rāga and Rupaka tāla

Dēvaśrī in Madhyamavatī rāga and triputa tāla

Mahitha paaruddhē in Kamabōdhi rāga and Chāpu tāla

Gathinīvani in Ṭōḍī rāga and Ādi tāla

Lalithē Śrīpraviddhē in Bhairavi rāga and Adi tala

Musical Analysis of Temple Kṛis-I

153

The Madhyamāvati and Kāmbōji Kṛtis are in Saṃskṛta and the other three are in Telugu. The

Dēvatā mudra is found in all the kṛtis. The compositions are full of Yati, Prāsa, Yamaka, etc. For

example, the Kāmbodhi kṛti is fully of Yamaka .

Vahiniśa sannutē na-

vahībhīṣa vallabhē pa-

vāhi nīlakaṇṭi siriṇha-

vāhinī janani'

Śrīranga Pañcaratnam

It can be seen that the Pañcaratna hitherto dealt with are all on Śaivite deities. The Śrīraṅgam

Pañcaratnas alone are on the Vaiṣṇavite diety, Lord Raṅganātha. Śrīraṅgam is the most celebrated among

the ‘Svaṁ vyakta’ kṣētras. In Tamil Periya kōil refers only to Śrīraṅgam and the Lord is worshipped as

Periya Perumāḷ. The five kṛtis are :

Jūthā murārē in Ārabhi rāga and Rupaka tāla

Vinarādana in Dēvagāndhāri rāga and Desadi tāla

Rajuvēdala in Tōdi rāga and Rūpaka tala

Karunajūdavayya in Sāraṅgā rāga and Ādi tāla

Ō Raṅgaśāyī in Kāmbodhi rāga and Ādi

(Vilamba kala) tāla

Tyāgarāja employs paryāya namas of the Lord such as Kastūri raṅga, Vaibhōga raṅga, Kāvēri

raṅga, Raṅgaśāyī and Raṅgapati. The Lord is depicted as Śriṅgāra nāyaka. He has described the Lord's

golden robes, and Ornaments, especially the dangling of pearl necklace. Though Lord Ranganātha is

called ‘Āḍipuruṣa’ he is described here as a youthful deity. In his ‘Bhāgavad Dhyāna Sōpānam’ , Vēdānta Dēśikā

calls the Lord as Raṅgāyunah. This is also reflected by Tyāgarāja in the phrase ‘paruvampūrāyamaṭa’

(In jūthamūrārē – Ārabhi rāga Kṛti).

In the Kṛti, Tyāgarāja says when one offers naivedya to the Lord in the company of Śrīdēvī and

Bhūdēvī, one's wishes will be fulfilled.

In the Kāmbhōji kṛti, he refers to Śrīrangam as Bhūlōka Vaikuṇṭha and complains that ‘If you are

ever sporting with Lakṣmī, when will you find time to think about me?’ The Lord is described as going

in procession on a Haya vāhana. It is worthy of note that the Lord is described throughout as a person

young in age.

It is only after Tyāgarāja's visit to Viṇai Kuppayyar's house at Tiruvoṭṭriyūr that a son was born to

the latter. The child was named Tyāgarāja, who became a famous composer later as Tiruvoṭṭriyūr Tyāgāyyar.

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Paying obeisance to Tyāgarājaswāmi, his grand guru, as his own personal guru, Tiruvoṭṭiyūr Tyāgayyar has composed the Guru Kīrtana ‘Tyāgarājaswāmī’ set to Kharaharapriya rāga.

REFERENCES

1. Utsava Sampradya Kirtanas – S. Ramanāthana, 1963.

Srī Tyāgarāja's Utsava Sampradaya songs – P.M.

Subrahmaṇya Iyer – Mus. Ac. Journal, 1966.

2. Prahlāda Bhakti Vijayam – S. Ramanāthan, 1966 and Noūkā Caritra – P. Śambāmūrthy.

V

MUSICAL ANALYSIS OF TEMPLE KRTIS – II

ŚYĀMA ŚĀSTRĪ

Biography

Śyāma Śāstī was a devout bhakta of Goddess Kāmākṣī, whom he worshipped with a garland of endearing and moving songs. His kṛtis and svarajatis were composed during moments of inspiration and hence, are effusions of the feeling of a yearning soul. Unlike his two illustrious contemporaries, he was born in affluent circumstances and his father Viśvanātha who had migrated to Tanjore during the reign of Tulajā (1765-1787) with their idols ‘Bangāru Kāmākṣī’ from north, was given by the rājā, freehold estates including an agrahāram and lands. The temple for Bangāru Kāmākṣī at Tanjore, which is about 180 years old, was built with an endowment of 32 velis of land. After his father, Śyāma Śāstri became the temple arcaka and this enabled him to be alone in the sanctum sanctorum for long hours with his iṣṭa dēvatā and get lost in that blissful state. It is said that most of his songs composed during the solitary moments had not seen the light of the day.

Śyāma Śastri adopted a unique style of his own in his compositions and they form a class by themselves.

Being initiated into the mysteries of Gandharva Vidyā by Yōgi Śaṅgīta Svāmī and later, coming under the influence of the great vainika and the palace vidvān, Pacimiriyam Ādiyappayya, Śyāma Śāstrī flowered as a composer and musician.

The compositions of Śyāma Sāstrī are noted for their polished music, beautiful language, the rhythmic excellence and the Karuṇa rasa. A creative artist, an inspired bhakta and an erudite scholar, Śyāma Śastri’s kṛtis have become perfect wherin saṅgīta, sāhitya and laya find their finest blend. They reflect typically the author’s scholarly style and speak volumes about the richness of his musical conception and his lofty imagination.

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Besides the scholarly krtis in highly rhythmic setting, his svarajatis constitute the magnificient

contributian of Śyāma Śastrī to the laksya of Carnatic music. He is the architect of the concert type of

svarajati. Though svarajatis had been composed by Vīrabhadrayya earlier, those of Śyāma Śastri in Tōḍī,

Bhairavi and Yadukulakaṁbhōji belong to a class of svarajatis in which jatis are absent. The rāga bhāva

is patent in each. Coupled with the richness of feeling, and attractive rhythmic structure, they are verita-

ble masterpieces in those rāgas. The commencing notes of the cāranas of his Bhairavī svarajati, i.e.,

'Kāmākshī anudinamu' have been so conceived by the composer to be in the ascending order of pitch :

sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. The attractive makuṭam ending found in the Yadukulakaṁbhōji svarajati,

i.e., 'Kāmākshī nī pada yugamē', adds a proper finishing to the piece. It will be interesting that in the

three svarajatis, the pallavai commences in the mandrasthāyī and this endows a certain gravity, reflective

of the meditative mood of the piece. The mudrā 'Śyāma Krṣṇa' is found in the last carana.

The 'Navaratnamālikā' in praise of Goddess Mīnākṣī of Madurā is a precious gem in the rep-

ertoire of South Indian Music. Of the seven well-known in the group of nine krtis constituting the

Navaratnamalikā, the piece in Āhiri, i.e., 'Māyamma' is one of the best in the rāga as it is full of rich

musical conception and exuberance of the feelings of a true devotee. Śyāma Śastri's treatment of

Ānandabhairavi has endowed it with superior classical dignity. The handling of rakti rāgas like Tōḍī,

dhanyāsi, Bhairavi, Ānandabhairavi, Kāmbhōji, sankarābharaṇa, Kalyāṇi and the rare rāgas like

Kalagada, Karnāṭa Kāpi, Māghi and Cintāmaṇi is superbo and is of a unique standard. Being an adept in

the tāla system, his compositions are attractive with rhythmic beauties. It is true that special talent and

knowledge is necessary to handle the compositions of Muthusvāmi Dīkshitar and Śyāma Sastri, owing to

their scholarly nature. The introduction of vilōma cāpu taking the sequence 4 and 3 as found in 'Ninnu

Vināgamari' in Pūrvakalyāṇi rāga and 'Trilōkamāta' in Pharaz is an attractive feature in Śāstri's songs.

Some of his songs allow themselves to be rendered in two tālas. The piece 'Śaṅkarī Śaṅkuru' in Sāverī,

can be sung in the Rūpaka tāla and Ādi tāla (tīśra gati) as well.

Krtis with beautiful svar akṣharas and svara sāhitya have always been the attractive part of our

repertoire and Śyāma Śastrī's compositions bristle with svarākṣhara beauties while his son Subbārāya

Śastrī was a postmaster in composing krtis with svarasāhitya. The varna in Ānandabhairavi 'Samini

rammanavē', Ādi tāla, is yet another masterly contribution of the great composer to our music.

Tradition gives an account of the pallavī context held in the Tanjore court between Śyāma Śastrī

and Bobbili Kēśavayya, the veteran musician of Vijanagaram who had the title Bhūlōka Cakravartī.

The fact that Śyāma Śastri saved the reputation of Tanjore, the brightest spot on the map of south India in

the field of music and dance, by his successful rendering of a pallavi in Śarabhanandana tāla as a

challenge to that in simhanandana tāla sung by Kēsavayya, speaks volumes about the proficiency of the

composer in the field of manodharma saṅgīta and also reflects the highly competitive and genuine spirits

to the age. The Śarabhanandana tāla has 19-3/4 mantras and 79 akṣharakālas for an āvarta. The

Sōḍasaṅgas are also used in this tāla.

Of the disciples of Śyāma Śastri, the following were famous : His son, Subbarāya Śastri, Perambūr

Krṣṇayyar, Alasur Krṣṇayyar, Sangītaśvāmi and Dāsari. Perambūr Krṣṇa Iyer popularised a large number

Musical Analysis of Temple Kritis-II

157

of his guru's songs. Sangītasvāmi was an expert musician and was the author of the svara sahita to the

kṛti ‘Ō Jagadambā’ in Ānandabhairavī.

Śyāma Śāstri has composed a total number of 29 kṣetra kṛtis.

Śyāma Śāstri specialized in the slow tempo or chowka or vilamba kāla. Some of his pieces rank

with the padas of Kṣētrayya in this respect. Their bhāva is best brought out only if they are sung in

chowka kāla and their appeal is easily killed by rendering them faster.

Śyāma Śāstri's genius is seen not only in his kṛtis in the common rāgas, like ‘Saṅkarābharaṇa’,

'Kalyāṇi', Bhairavi', etc. His pieces in rare rāgas like 'Mañji', and 'Cintāmaṇi' are equally noteworthy.

These rāgas do not see to have been handled by others and serve as models showing the distinctive

features of the respective rāgas.

Bhakti is of various kinds and a bhakta addresses the Supreme Being in various ways, as a lover

does his beloved, a child his mother, a servant his master and so on. Śyāma Śāstri addressed Divinity as

the 'Mother' whose affectionate protection the tender child seeks. It is the highest kind of innocent

relationship in creation.

Once he was invited by a friend to go to Pudukkoṭṭai. While there, offering prayers in the

Bṛhbandmba temple, an unknown person came to him and requested him to go to Śrī Mīnākṣii Sannidānam

at Madurai and sing a few kṛtis in Her praise. He thought it was a command above and forthwith resolved

to do so.

After returning to Tanjore, he somehow forgot to compose songs in praise of Mīnākshi. Curiously

enough, the same man who gave the suggestion in the temple at pudukkottai appeared to him in dream

one night and reminded him about the compositions in praise of Mīnākshi. Śyāma Sāstri woke up,

bestirred himself and began composing the songs in right earnest. He then started for Madurai along with

his sishya, Alasūr Krishṇayyar. During the journey, he completed the nine kritis in praise of Śrī mīnākshi

Amman and called them the Navaratnamālika. He sang the Navaratnamālika before the Goddess in

Madurai and received Her blessing. Temple honours were bestowed upon him. Since that time it became

customary for the decendants of Śyāma Sāstri to be received with Temple honours in that shrine.

Of the kṛitis constituting the Navaratna-mālika the following seven are widely known:

Name of the Kṛti

Raga

Tala

Sarōjadaḷanētri

saṅkarabharana

Adi

Dēvī mīnānētri

Saṅkarābharaṇa

Adi

Marivērēgati

Ānandabhairavi

Chaput

Nannubrōvu Lalita

Lalita

Misralaghu

Māyamma

Āhiri

Adi

Dēvi nī padasārāsa

Kāmbhōji

Adi

Mīnalōchanabrōva

Chanyāsi

Chapu

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Śyāma Sāstri seems to have had a special liking for the Ānandabhairavi rāga. He has composed more

pieces in that rāga than any other modern composer. To a true artist, minor rāgas afford as much scope

for creative expression as the major ones and this fact will be amply borne out by a close study of his

pieces in ānandabhairavi. His tāna varṇa Sāmini rammanavē in ānandabhairavi rāga. Ata tala is in praise

of Varadarja of Kāñchīpuram.

In addition to the Navaratnamālika the following are some of the well-know compositions of Śyāma

Sāstri. The Tamil and Sanskrit sahityas are indicate then and there; the rest are in Telugu.

Kritis

Beginning words

Raga

Tala

Ninne namminānu

Tōdi

Chapu

Kanakasaaila (Sanskrit) Punnāgavarāli

Adi

"

Ennēramum (Tamil)

"

"

Brōva samayamu

"

"

Pārvati ninnu

Kalagada

Rupaka

Tarunamidamma (Tamil)

Gaulipantu

Chapu

Trilōka mātā

Pharaz

"

Nīlāyatākshi

"

Triputa

Saṅkari Saṅkuru

(Sanskrit)

Sāvērī

Rupaka

Janani Natajana

(Sanskrit)

"

"

Durusugā krupa

"

"

Rāvēmāyamma Bangaru

Kamakshi rajillu

chundave nahrudaya

kamalamuna

Sāvēri

Rūpaka

Brōvavamma

Mānji

Chapu

Ō Jagadambā

Ānandabhairavi

Ādi

Musical Analysis of Temple Kritis-II

Himācala tanaya Ānandabhairavī Ādi

Himācala tanaya Ānandabhairavī Chapu

Himācala tanaya Ānandabhairavī Rupaka

Pāhi Śrī Girirājasute (Sanskrit) Madhyamāvatī Ādi

Pāhlin̄chu Kāmākshī Ābheri Rupaka

Ninnuvinā marigaladā Karnātaka Kapi Rupaka

Akhilān̄dēśvari Śrīrāga Chapu

Karuṇa jūḍunin̄nu Varāli Ādi

Karuṇa jūḍavamma Pūrvakalyāṇi Miśralaghu

Ninnu vīnāga mari Chintāmaṇi Ādi

Dēvī brōva samayamide Kalyāṇi Chapu

Talli ninnu nēra Kalyāṇi Rupaka

Himādri sutē (Samskrta) Kalyāṇi Rupaka

Bīrāna varālicchi Ṭōḍi Ādi

Swarajatis Rāvē Himagiri Bhairavī Chapu

Kāmākshi anudinamu Yadukulakamboji Chapu

Kāmākshi nī Tāna varṇa Ānandabhairavī Ata

Sāmiṇi rammanaye

VI

MUSICAL ANALYSIS OF TEMPLE KRTIS—III

MUTHUSWĀMĪ DĪKṢITAR

Biography

Muthyswāmī Dīkṣitar, the youngest of the musical trinity, is celebrated for his great contribution to Carnatic music. He was true Advaitin and Jñānī. 'He was steeped in the vedānta as interpreted by Śaṅkarācārya and that may be summed up thus: 'The creator, the Parabrahma, is one and omnipotent; He transcends name and form; all the deities worshipped are only manifestations of the Parabrahman; the object of their worship is to enable us to withdraw our minds from attachment to the material world and concentrate upon form conceived as divine; the Saguṇopāsanā (worship of personal God) is but a step in the realization of the Nirguṇa Brahman (Impersonal Absolute) within us'. He composed songs in praise of almost all the Gods and Goddesses of the Hindū pantheon. Dīkṣitar was a Devī Bhaktī and an upāsaka of the 'Śrī Vidya'. The compositions of Dīkṣitar contain themes of both Saguṇopāsanā and Nirguṇopāsana. Gods and goddesses are mere manifestations of that Para Brahman who is formless, nameless and attributeless. Except a few, almost all the kṛtis of Muthuswāmī Dīkṣitar are in Sanskrit. The sound effects produced by these songs are very pleasing. Sanskrit with its mellifluous vacabulary lends itself better than any other language, to the arrangement of words and to the use of alliteration, which together give a very pleasing sound effect.

Śrī Muthuswāmī Dīkṣitar is said to have imbibed the best meditation of Meraṭṭūr Virbhadrayya, through his father Rāmasvāmi Dīkṣitar, an eminent varṇa and rāgamālika composer. Initiated into the field of music by his father and later under the guidance of Cidambaranātha Yōgī, he stayed at Banares, where he received the Śrī Vidyā Upāēsa. At Tiruttaṇi, Dīkṣitar was blessed by Lord Subrahmaṇya where he blossomed into a composer, singing the first song in Māyāmālavagouḷa, 'Śrī Nāthādiguruguhō jayati' in praise of his guru. The mudrā adopted by the composer was Guru guhā.

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The Kṣētra kṛtis of Dīkṣitar are of perennial interest to bhaktas, musicians and philosophers. A profound scholar in the mantra śāstras, Dīkṣitar has dwelt at great length in sāhityas not only the upaniṣadic truths, but also the beautiful description of the gods. He was a great bhakta, who steped himself in the higher aspects of the divine knowledge. He had an intellectual approach to God. He was more philosophical in the expression of his Bhakti towards his iṣṭadēvatās. His songs contain lofty wisdom and the music was appropriately conceived to suit the loftiness of the theme. We get in his song the entire rāga picture. The rāga has been treated in its entirety, in each composition. The music as such appears to describe the rāge devatā in all manifolds aspects. A very descriptive form of the rāga can thus be had from his pieces. Essentially a vaṇika style is obvious in his compositions which upholds the long drawn out gamakas and the typically slow tempo of the padas. The rāga is Dīkṣitar’s forte. Rāgabhāva overflows in every song and all the characteristic sañcāras conducive to the establishment of the melodic svarūpa of the rāga are thoroughly exhausted in each song. Sometimes rare phrases are also found in his treatment of the rāga. Rāga which described as ‘the total musical functioning of the regular mental being itself’, has been handled by Dīkṣitar to express power, majesty, grandeur and sublimity. His songs bear the marks of a great poet, composer of very fine Saṃskṛta, an eminent vainika, profound scholar, a true devotee of the rāgadēvatās, and an intellectual Bhakta of Lord Subrahmaṇya. ‘The bhakti as expressed in his songs is controlled by jñāna and emotion is subdued and not demonstrative’.

Dīkṣitar’s contributions to our music are immortal in nature. He was a prolific composer and a peerless composer of group krtis, like Kamalāṃbu navārṇa, Abhayāṃbā Navvārana, Navagraha kṛtis, Pañchalinga sthala kṛtis, and Vibhaktī kirtanas. His peices are set in high-flown Saṃskṛta couched in a highly dignified and learned style. They are replete with descriptions of gods and goddesses, the kṣētramahimā, coupled with upaniṣadic truths. Being a Devī Upāsaka, we find in his songs addresses to the Goddess, the truths dealt in tāntric and māṇtric philosophy. Rhetorical beauties abound in his pieces. Dīkṣitar is primarily a Vainika and hence he has followed the instrumental mode of rāga expression in his songs. He adopted a slow and vilambita kāla, and helped Dīkṣitar to create living forms of exquisite beauty, noted for their originally - par excellence. Each song of Dīkṣitar reads like an elaboration of the rāga in its entire form. His compositions are mostly remarkable for the richness and beauty with which the rāga forms are portrayed.

He has given his pieces a conspicuous form with pallavī, samaṣṭi carana and madhyamakāla sāhitya. He introduces the rāga mudrā invariably in all his songs. The influence of Hindusthāni music and western system of music of Dīkṣitar², may be seen the treatment of rāga like Yamunākalyāṇi, Bṛndāvana Sārṅga, Señjurutti and Suddha Śāveri.

A high degree of musical talent is necessary to master and render his kṛtis. A knowledge of the meaning underlying the Sāhitya, good grasp of the features of the rāga, and an understanding of the gamakas used, are considered essential in order the appreciate his compositions. They have to be sung over again for their merits to be fully appreciated. Such is the unique greatness of his songs. They have rightly become immoratal pictures in sound.

The Dīkṣitar family of south India, like the Bach family of Germany, is one of the most fascinating in the history of Carnatic music. For about a century-and-a half, from the middle of the 18th century to the

Musical Analysis of Temple Kritis - III

beginning of he 20th century, its members2 were composing and playing music, making rich and varied

contributions to what may be called the Periclean Age of Carnatic music, the other two being Tyāgarāja

and Śyāma Śāstri.

The progenitor of this illustrious family was Rāmaswāmi Dīkṣitar (1735-1817), a scholar in

Sanskrit and Telugu, whose predilection for music made him settle down in the culturally rich soil of the

Thanjāvur district and take to music as his vocation.

Born at Tiruvārūr in 1775, with scholarship and music in his blood, Muthuswāmi Dīkṣitar

completed a study of Samskṛta and allied subjects while in his teens and acquired enough proficiency in

Telugu to serve the needs of music which became his chief passion in life.

Dīkṣitar’s stay at Tiruvārūr was also marked by his prolific output of musical compositions. He

sang dozens of songs in praise of a host of deities enshrined at the numerous shrines at Tiruvārūr and the

surrounding places. A group of eleven kṛtis, called the ‘Kamalāmbā Navavaraṇa’, comprises some of his

masterpieces from both musical and the language points, of view. As an eurdlite astrologer, he composed a

group of kṛtis in praise of the nine planets (Navagraha), some of which are real gems.

Dīkṣitar has left a rich legacy of Canaratic music comprising a few hundred kṛtis in the Rāgānga

Rāgas of Venkataamakhi and other rāgas existent in his time, a few group kṛtis on particular dieties, rāga

mālikās (kṛtis in which several rāgas figure), multi-lingual kṛtis, dance compositions and light tunes based

on airs played on the brass band. No other composer of his time tried his hand yet at so many varieties of

compositions and with such signal success.

His Philosophy

In the kṛtis on Lord Tyāgarāja, Dīkṣitar has given a symbolic representation of the highest mystic

monistic mantra, affirming the oneness of the individual and the Supreme soul. This oneness of the soul

with the supreme one was advocated by Śaṅkara also. Dīkṣitar expresses this in the formula - (A) haṁsa

(I am he) also called the Haṁsa the Ajapā mantras.

According to Natural Law, a great mantra repeats (is made japa of) itself when inspiration and

expiration takes place. It is something which is inherent and coherent. It is this mantra which is called

‘Ajapā-Gāyatri’ and it is so called because either it repeats itself naturally without any effort on the part of

Jīva, or because there is no other Japa of mantra which is superior to this one. This Ajapā is the full-time

a jīva, for the mantra consists of the breathing in and breathing out the air which ceases at death. For this

reason, it is said that, “Being Ajapā (that is one who does no repeat any mantra) during Ajapā (lifetime);

I have neither done japa of any mantra nor done any tapas. My Ajapā (lifetime) is about to end and yet my

Ajapa (the state of being with Japa) does not end”3.

Ajapā Naṭana is a speciality in the Tiruvārūr temple. It is an interesting coincidence that this Ajapā

mantra, which is supposed have been performed by Lord Śiva, is a reflection of the inhalation and

exhalation of breath in the human body. The atmosphere of the environment and the setup of the rāga or

the stage being the ocean where Lord Viṣṇu reposed in his yoga-nidrā and from whose chest, Lord

Tyāgarāja, the presiding deity of Tiruvārūr is traditionally said to have emerged. The Ajapā Naṭaja has

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spiritual, methodological and anatomical significance. The Indian dance is typically spiritual in quality.

The mantra japa and meditation have a firm hold in dance also. The body movement is an integral part in

the worship of nāda, yoga and yāga. The very vāhana of the prime diety of the temple is based on this

Ajapā mantra. It is also inherently connected with the movement of the waves of inhalation and exhalation.

Tiruvārūr Tyāgēśa is noted for his Ajapa natana and it is one of the Sapta Vitankakṣētras. The

stage set, is the chest of Lord Viṣṇu. The theatrical environment is created by the ocean on which Lord

Viṣṇu is reclining. The swirl and twist of the snake, the movement of the waves of the oean, and the high

and low movement of the body while breathing– are all part of Ajapa.

The Śakti or dhvani is eternally existing in the form of consciousness in the Jīva. The vital śakti is

again nothing but the dhvani in the form of Ajapā mantra. The Ajapā means, the silent contemplation of

the unity of the Individual spirit with the supreme without any repetition' ..... the inner soul lies like a

child in the net hammock of the life breath of the mundane - body in which it nettles in involuntary and

ceaseless rhythm, the blissful swing of rise and fall'.4

"This is the Ajapā natana or Hamsa Natana whose truth the yogins know"

"Yōgī Vidata ajapā natanam" as Dīkṣitar says in his (1) Tyāgarāja Pālayāśumām (Gaula);

2. (2) Atilalita hamsanatana in Tyagārajovirajāte (aṭhāna); (3) Ajapānatānanda vaibhavam in Candra

śekharam (mārgahindōlam); (4) Uclhvāsa Ajapā natābharanam in Viśwanātham (Natābharanam).5

'It is the music of the Kañalas (long trumpets) and the Śuddha maddala and the tāla (with no other

instrument) of this Hamsanatana that is signified by the name Hamsadhvani that Rāmaswāmy Dīkṣitar

gave to his new rāga6. It is this Hamsadhvani which held Dīkṣitar at Tiruvārūr in the midst of his

pilgrimage.

Dīkṣitar who visited all the major and minor temples all over India offered songs at every shrines.

He has described in detail the local customs and traditions, focussing his attention on the special attribute

of the Lord or Goddess, whoever may be, the local presiding deity. The language and expression of his

songs reflect Muthuswāmī familiarity with the mantra and Yōga śāstras. We find many phrases repro-

duced from the Saundaryalahari (Śloka Number eight) in his compostions. Eg. 'Gaurī Girirāja Kumāri'

in the the Rāga Gaurī'7.

Dīkṣitar advocated the dhyāna-mārga for the realization of the Brahman. 'In Hindū meditation, in

Japa and Dhāna, the form of the personal God iṣ evoked in the mind with a preliminary verse describing

that form. This called the Dhyāna ślōka.8 Muthuswāmi Dīkṣitar who was an ardent upāsaka of Śrī Vidyā

relied on the incantational power of sounds after realizing their intellectual content. He was well versed in

mantra śāstra and his sāhityas bring out all the details of the particular diety in the song. His sāhityas can

be taken up as equvalent to dhyāna ślōkas. His language is mostly made up of words that have become

familiar to people from centuries of devotion of our mantra and 'sotra literature'.

Dīkṣitar advocated the advaita philosophy through his compositions. His songs contain themes of

both Sagunōpāsana and Nirguṇōpāsanā. Gods and Goddesses are all only the manifestations of that Para

Brahman, who is formless, nameless and attributeless. Dīkṣitar illustrated what our śastras prescirbe -

Karma, Bhakti and Jñana as the means through which we can attain salvation.

Musical Analysis of Temple Krtis - III

165

According to the Upaniṣads or Vēdānta, man's ignorance of his true self is the root cause of saṃsāra, i.e. the incompleteness and misery of ordinary human existence in the world. The ignorance of man can be removed only by knowledge and not by karma. Bondage is only apparent, not real — hence liberation — mōkṣa — is possible.

Dīkṣitar has portrayed this philosophy in several of his krtis. He has said that divinity is itself an embodiment of Nada, that God is the prime promulgator of music, that as Śiva, Krṣṇa, or Dēvī divinity is always revalling in Sāmagāna, vīṇa, vēṇu.9

According to him pranava is the quintessence of Nāda and it is the source of all music. In one of his compositions he describes Dēvī as the personifications of Bhāva, Rāga and Tāla.10 The realization of the Supreme, of Para Brahman can be done through the practice of melody and rhythm. Dīkṣitar has also described both Śiva and Dēvi as the repositories of the saṅgīta śāstra. Dēvi, the Iṣṭa dēvatā of Muthuswāmy Dīkṣitar, was Herself the presiding deity of saṅgīta. It follows from the above examples that the fit object of aboration by the art of music is God Himself.

The advaitic atmosphere for Dīkṣitar was set by his contemporary composers of Kāñcīpuram, the Advaitic Saṃnyāsīn and Upaniṣad Brāhmaṇa, with whom Dīkṣitar stayed for some time. Upaniṣad Brāhmaṇa besides teaching him the Upaniṣads, also inculcated in him a devotion towards 'Śrī Rāma'. His influence is very clearly reflected in many of Dīksitara compositions on Lord Rama.11 Even while he was at Kāśī, he was trained in the tāṇtric form of worship. 'Under the guidence and tutelage of Cidambaranātha Yōgi, he lived a life which was deeply religious and highly spiritual. The yōgi initiated him in the 'Śrī Vidyā' cult and gave him upades of Sōḍaśākṣari mantram and trained him in the tāṇtric form of Worship. He taught him the practice of yōga, and vedanta on the lines propounded by Śaṅkarācārya'.12

Muthuswāmi Dīkṣitar, in his compositions, concentrates on the visualization of the Supreme Power. This supreme Power or the Absolute is in the form of nada. Music helps us not only to visualize this super-natural phenomena whom we call God but also to experience and benefit from the effect that is derived from this supernatural source towards peace — Absolute Bliss — Santa, Sarvananda.13

Śabda or sound is of two kinds — namely dhvani and varṇa. The unlettered form of Śabda, which is not expressed by any alphabetical mark is called Dhvani, lettered sound is called varṇa which means Akṣaras expressed from 'A to Kṣa'. Fundamentally, Dhvani is the real substance, of which Śabda is only a manifestation. This dhvani is the subtle aspect of the vital force of Dhvani that the Śakti appears in and disappears from the body of Jīva.

Every mantra, be it vaidic or tāṇtric is an appearenace (Rūpa) of Brahman. Vēda or Tantra, consisting of mantras, is only a manifestaion of Brahman, i.e. Brahman appears in the form of mantra. Just as Viṣṇu is the mūlasvarūpa (root-being) of those incarnations of His which are called Rāma, Krṣṇa and so forth, so the luminous mantra mūrti is the mūlsvarūpa of śāstra, which is Śabda Brahman.15

At the beginning of the creation of the universe the luminous bud of mantras blossomed and created the fourteen words, which are the petals of its flower. It is the fragrance of its pollen which is existence (sat), consciousness (cit), and bliss (ānanda) which fills the three worlds with delight. After the

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great dissolution (Mahāpralaya) Brahma — the lotus-born (Brahma was born on the louts which sprang

form Viṣṇu's navel) appeared in the centre of the thousand petalled lotus, which crowned the stem issuring

from the navel of Bhagvan Narayan lying in the causal sea. Later he meditated for the creation of a

universe suited to the age and became immersed situted to the age and became immersed in Samādhi. At

this, Veda, which is Śabda Brahman appeared by itself in the firmament of Śrī Nārāyaṇa's heart. It issued

out with his breath and then assumed four visible forms corresponding to the Ṛk, Yajur, Sāma and Atharva

and stood before him.16

The hidden state of this Śakti or consciousness is dhvani, and its outward manifestaion is sound.

This dhvanī is the vital force of jīva. This universe of movable and immovable things is linked together and

pervaded by Śakti, which is dhvani. This śakti is called by such names as Nāda (Sound), Prāṇa (the vital

force manifesting in breath), Jīva Ghōṣa, etc. The yogīs know this great śakti as Kulakuṇḍalinī moving in

the heart. It is she who makes an indistinct and sweet murmuring sound like the humming of a black bee at

the aperture in the Mūlādhāra.17 Kula-Kuṇḍalinī has two aspects namely, sthūla or gross form with

attributes (Saguṇa). In this, like the humming of a moving swarm of black bees, she indistinctly utters the

fifty letters. Sūkṣma, the other aspects, or subtle form, is attributeless (Nirguṇa). It is existence, conscious-

ness and bliss (sat-cit-ānanda). The Sthūla form appearing in different aspects as different dēvatās, is the

presiding devatā of all mantras, whereas the Sūkṣma form is that devatā towards whom the worship of all

sadhakas is directed.18

Brahma, commonly acknowledged as the author of the vedas is really only the author of the

appearance of the vïdas. The effect of the Dhvani of Kula Kuṇḍalinī in the body of Īśvara is Vēda, and the

effect of dhvani of Kula kuṇḍalinī in the body of jīva is śabda.19 In the śabda is every form of mantra,

which is that which gives vitality of jīva.

The four accepted divisions or castes (varanas ) of Hindū society are Brāhmaṇa, Kṣtriya, Vaiśya

and Śūdra. All the above four castes sprang up from the mouth, arm, thigh and foot of Brahma, respec-

tively. A man, who is born in any one of the first three classes becomes a twice-born (dvija) during the

upanayana (ceremony of the sacred-thread). It is said that by birth, one is Śūdra; by Samiskāra (upanayana)

dvija (twice-born); by study of the vedas, one attains the states of vipra; and finally, by the attainment of

knowledge of the Brahman, becomes as Brāhmaṇa.

"Janmanā Jāyate śūdrān saṃskārād dvija ucyate

vēda pāṭhāt bhavēt vi prah brahma jñānati brāhmaṇaḥ"

Rites (Karma) are of two kinds. Karms is either nitya or naimittik. The Nitya is both daily and

obligatory. In the tāntric form, it is sandhya for the śūdras which is daily pūjā of Iṣṭa-dēvatā (personal

God) and Kula dēvatā (family God or deity). In the case of Brāhmaṇas, the pañca mahāyajña is

performed. Śūdras are not permitted to read the Vedas or to recite the mantras. They also do not have the

right to perform vaidic rites. The worship of a śūdra is practically limited to that of the Iṣṭadēvatā and the

Baṇaliṅga pūja. But the Tantra Śāstra makes no caste distinctions as regards worship. This rule is only for

the mantra śāstra. All may read the Tantras. Everyone is eligible to perform the Tāntri c worship, such as

Musical Analysis of Temple Kritis - III

167

the Sandhyā and also recite the mantra, such as Tantric Gāyatrī. All castes and even the lowest chandāla

may be a member of cakra, tāntric circle of worship. In the cakra, all the members partake of food and

drink together and are deemed to be greater that Brāhmanas. But upon the break of the cakra, the

ordinary caste and social relations are re-established. Tantra śāstra is accessible to all castes and also to

women. “Sarva Varṇādhikārasca nāriṇām yōgyaēva ca”.20According to Tantra Sāstra, a woman is not

only fit to receive mantra upadeśa but is aiso eligible as a Guru, to initiate and give it.

DĪKṢITAR'S MUSICAL ANALYSIS

A. KṢETRA KṚTIS

Dīkṣitar stayed the longest at Tiruvārūr and sang the praise of the sacred shrine for which Tiruvārūr

has been justly famous from the dawn of history. It is the tradtion of this country to revere its great saints

and men of light and culture who left their footprints of indelible deepness in the sands of time and Śrī

Muthuswāmī Dīkṣitar certainly belongs to this category.

It is well known that Tyāgarāja expressly voiced forth different aspects of our philosophy in his

kritis. Such references are not however, common in Dīkṣitar's compositions. Dīkṣitar has composed songs

in Saṃskrta, using easy diction and giving prominence to Bhakti. Just like the Nāyanmāra, he has

travelled widely and composed songs in praise of a large number of deities at difference places. The

noteworthy point about these compositions is that they contain a detailed account of sṛikala mahātmya,

including salient aspects of temple architecture, tīrtha, kṣētra viśeṣa, forms of propitiation specified at

different shrines and the leading episodes pertaining to the different deities.

It is bhakti and bhakti alone that forms the keynote of Dīkṣitar's songs, for he was born in answer

to the prayers of his parents to god Muthukumāraswāmī of Vaidīsvarankōyil on the day of Kṛttikā

nakshatra, the sacred star of Lord Muruga. At a young age he was blessed by Lord Muruga or Guha at

Tiruttain and this led him to adopt the mudrā guha in his compositions, since Guhā was his preceptor

(guru) who initiated him into the intricacies of music and enabled him to become a great vāggekāra.

A total number of 200 compositions of Dīkṣitar are available on different temples.

Dīkṣitar composed his first song at Tiruttāni, which is one of the six famous abodes of Lord

Muruga. This song ‘Śrī Nādāti guruguhō’ is in Māyāmālavagauḷa rāga. It is a point of interest that till the

time of Venkaṭamakhī (17th century), this rāga was not in vogue, and it was Venkaṭamakhī who classified

it under the fifteenth mela. We do not come across any composition in this rāga by the composers who

flourished prior to his period such as Śrī Purandaradāsa, Tāllapākkam composers, Bhadrācala Rāmdas,

etc. Even Kṣētrajña did not handle this rāga in his padas. It is not noteworthy that Dīkṣitar kṛti was

followed by seven kṛtis on Guruguha in the seven other Vibhaktis :

'Manasaguruguha rūpam'in Ānandabhairavī rāga

'Sri Guruna' in Pādi rāga

'Guruguhāya' in Sāma rāga

168

‘Guruguhadanyam’ in Bālahamsa rāga

‘Gurguhasya’ in Pūrvī rāga

‘Guruguhaswāminī’ in Bhānumatī rāga

and ‘Śrī Guruguhamūrtē’ in Udhayaravicandrikā rāga.

The fact that most of these songs are in rare rāgas bear testimony to his versatality as a composer even at an early age.

From Tīrut tāni Dīkṣitar proceeded to Tirupati, where he composed the songs ‘Śeṣācalanāyakam’

in Varāḷi rāga and ‘Śrī Veṅkaṭagiriśam’ in Surati rāga in praise of Lord Veṅkaṭeśvara.

According to the Śaivite tradition, Lord Śiva manifests Himself in the form of five elements in five kṣētrās.

In Kāḷahāsti His manifestation is as the Vāyu-liṅga.

Dīkṣitar composed the song ‘Kāḷahastiśa’ in Husēnī rāga.

This is one of the Pancabhūta-kṛtis.

He also composed another song ‘Jñānaprasūnāmbikē’ in Kalyāṇī rāga in praise of the goddess at Kāḷahasti.

At Kāñcīpuram, where the Lord is believed to manifest Himself in Prithivī-liṅga, Dīkṣitar composed the second of his Pañcabhūta kṛtis ‘Cintayamakanda mūla’ in Bhairavī rāga.

The other kṛtis Dīkṣitar composed at Kāñcīpuram in praise of the deities Kāmakṣī, Ēkāmreśvara, Varadarāja and Kailāsanātha are the following:

‘Kāmakṣī māṃ pāhi’ in

Śuddhaḍeśī rāga

‘Ēkāmreśvaranāyikē’ in

Karnataka Śudhasāvēri rāga

‘Ēkāmranātham bhajēham’ in

Gamakakriya rāga

‘Varadarājam Upāsamahē’ in

Sāraṅgā rāga

‘Kailāsanāthēna’ in

Kāmbhojī rāga

‘Kailāsanāthena’ in

Vēgavāhinī rāga

Upaniṣad Brahma Yōgin of Kāñcī taught Dīkṣitar Vedānta philosophy and inculcated in him a strong devotion towards Rāma.

His influence is clearly reflected in many Dīkṣitar’s songs on Lord Rāma.

In the kṛti ‘Rāmacandrena samrakṣitoham’ in Mānji rāga, Rāma is described as the embodiment of the Trimūrti.

Reaching the shrine at Tiruvotriyur, he composed the kṛti ‘Ādipuriśvaram’ in Ārabhī rāga in praise of the presiding deity ‘Ādipuriśvara’ and another song ‘Tripura sundarī’ in Sāma rāga in praise of the goddess of the place.

At Madras, kṛti ‘Pārthasārathy’ in Śuddha dhanyasī rāga in praise of God Pārthasārathī was composed by Dīkṣitar.

At Tirukkalukkunram, he composea the songs ‘Vēdapuriśvaram’ in Dhanyasī rāga in praise of Vēdapuriśvara of the temple at that place.

Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

Musical Analysis of Temple Kritis - III

At Tiruvannamalai, where the manifestation of Lrd Siva is as the Tejo linga, Diksitar composed

another of his Pañcabhūta krtis 'Aruṇācalanātham' in Sārangā rāga.

At Cidambaram, where the Lord manifests Himself as the Ākāśa linga, Diksitar composed his

next Pancabhūta krti 'Ānanda natana prakāśam' in Kedāra rāga. Other songs composed by him at

Cidambaram include

'Sivakāmesvaram' in Kalyāni rāga

'Sivakāmesvaram' in Ārabhi rāga

'Kanakasabhāpatim' in Mālavasrī rāga

'Govindarājam' in Mukhārī rāga

'Govindarājēna' in Mechabhaulti rāga

Crossing the Coleroon, Diksitar reached Vaidisvaran kōyil. In this shrine the presentation of

Saktivel to Muruga by goddess Pārvatī is observed as an important festival. In the famous Kāmbhoji rāga

krti 'Srī Subramanyay' and in 'Saravanabhava guruguham' in Rēvagupti rāga, the references

'Saktyudhadhare' and 'Saktyudha dharakaram' respectively may be noted. In praise of goddess

Bālāmbikā and god Vaidyanātha of the same temple, Diksitar composed the krtis 'Bhaja re re chitta'

in Kalyāni rāga and 'Vaidyanātham' in Atāna rāga.

Diksitar's sojourn at Māyavaram would appear to be comparatively long. In praise of goddess

Abhayāmba he has composed krtis in different vibhaktis known as Abhayāmba Navāvarna krtis. They are

'Abhayāmba jagadāmba' in Kalyāni rāga

'Abhayāmba mām' in Bhairavī rāga

'Girijaya Ajaya' in Sankarabharana rāga

'Abhayāmbikāyai' in Yadukulakāmbōji rāga

'Abhayāmbikayah' in Kēdāragaula rāga

'Ambikāyah abhayāmbikāyah' in Kēdāra rāga

Abhayāmbikāyam'in Sahāna rāga

'Dāksāyanī' in Tōdī rāga

There is also a krti in Srī rāga, 'Abhāyambā ninnu' in Manipravāla i.e., a mixture of Samskrta,

Telugu and Tamil. In particular these krtis reveal Diksitar's extraordinary talent and skill in both the tāntric

and māntric doctrines. He composed another krti 'Mayūranātham' in Dhanyasrī rāga in praise of Lord

Mayūranātha of the same temple.

Diksitar also visited a nearby shrine at Vallalarkōyil and sang 'Vadānyēsvaram bhajēham'

in Dēvagāndhārī rāga in praise of Lord Vādānyēsvara.

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

At Tiruvārūr, his birth place, he stayed for many years. He has composed three groups of vibhaktikritis on the deities of the Tiruvārūr temple. The most famous of these vibhaktikritis are the Kamalāmbanavavarnakritis. They are :

'Kamalāmbike' in Tōḍīrāga

'Kamalāmbasamrakṣatu' in Ānandabhairavīrāga

'Kamalāmbāmbhajarē' in Kalyāṇirāga

'ŚrīKamalambikāyā' in Śaṅkarābharaṇarāga

'Kamalambikēyai' in Kāmbōjirāga

'ŚrīKamalāmbikāyah' in Bhairavirāga

'Kamalambikayastava' in Punnāgavarāḷirāga

'ŚrīKamalambikāmbhaktim' in Sahānarāga

'ŚrīKamalāmbikēavaava' in Ghaṇṭarāga

'ŚrīKamalāmbajayati' in Āhirirāga

'ŚrīKamalāmbikē' in Śrīrāga

The second group of vibhaktikritis is in praise of Lord Tyāgarāja, the presiding deity of the Tiruvārūr temple. They are :

'Tyāgarājōvirājate' in Athānārāga

'Tyāgarājambhajare' in Yadukulakāmbōjirāga

'TyāgarājēnaSamrakṣitōham' in Salagabhairavirāga

'Tyāgrājāyanamaste' in Bēgadārāga

'Tyāgarājōdanyam' in Darbarrāga

'ŚrīTyāgarājāsyabhaktō' in Rudrapriyārāga

'Tyāgarājekṛtyakṛtim' in Sāraṇgarāga

'VīravasantaTyāgarāja' in Vīravasantarāga

The third group of vibhaktikritis is in praise of goddess Nīlōtpalāmbāḷ of the same temple and they are:

Musical Analysis of Temple Kritis - III

'Nīlōtpalāmbā jayati' in Nārāyaṇagaula rāga

'Nīlōtpalāmbāṁ bhajare' in Rītigaula rāga

'Nīlōtpalāmbikāya' in Kannadagaula rāga

'Nīlōtpalāmbikāya' in Kēdargauḷa rāga

'Nīlōtpalāmbikāyah' in Gaula rāga

'Nīlōtpalāmbāya stava' in Māyāmāḷavagaula rāga

'Nīlōtpalambikāyāṁ' in Pūrragaula rāga

'Śrī Nīlōtpalāmbikē' in Chāyāgaula rāga

It may be observed that all the eight rāgas employed here belong to the Gaula family.

Dīkṣitar has composed three more songs in praise of Lord Tyāgarāja. They are : 'Tyāgarāja pālayāsumam' in Gaula rāga, 'Tyāgarājajayoga vaibhavam' in Ānandabhairavi rāga and 'Tyāgarāja mahādevajarōham' in Śrī rāga.

Another group of kṛtis are on five Śiva lingas in the temple. They are :

'Acalēṣvara' in Bhūpāla rāga

'Hātakēṣvara' in Bilaharī rāga'

'Vālmīkēṣvara' in Kāmbodī rāga

'Ānandēśvara' in Ānandabhairavī rāga

'Siddhēṣvara' in Nīlāmbari rāga

By some arrangement of openings in the sanctum structure there is always a beam of sunlight on the Acalēṣvara liṅgam. According to the Kamalālaya Mahātmya of Skanda, it was to bless the king Camatkāra, who constantly worshipped him, that god Acalēśvara manifested this constant light on his form and hence came to be known as Acala.

While at Tīruvārūr, Dīkṣitar conceived the idea that it would be useful to compose a group of songs in praise of the different planets that could be sung with benefit by all mankind. The result was his famous Navagraha Kṛtis and they are :

'Sūryamūrte' in Sauraṣṭra rāga (Sun)

'candra bhaja' in Asāveri rāga (Moon)

'Angārakam' in Surati rāga (Mārs)

'Budhamāśrayāmi' in Nāṭkurunji rāga (Mārcuty)

'Brhaspate' in Ātāna rāga (Jupiter)

'Śrī Sukrabhagavantam' in Pharaz rāga (Venus)

'Divākaratanujam' in Yadukulakāmboji rāga (Saturn)

'Samānvyaham' in Rāmanoharī rāga (Rāhu)

'Mahāsuraṃ' in Cāmaram rāga (Ketu)

Dīkṣitar has also composed kṛtis on the sixteen manifestations of Gaṇēśa in the Tiruvārūr temple known as Ṣōḍaśa Gaṇapatis. Some of these are :

'Mahāgaṇapatim mānasa' in Nāṭa rāga

'Śrī Mahāgaṇapati' in Gaula rāga

'Vātāpigaṇapatim' in Hamsadhvani rāga

'Mūlādhāra caravināyaka' in Śrī rāga

'Pañcamātanga mukha' in Malahari rāga

'Karikalabhamukham' in Śaverī rāga

'Uchchiṣṭagaṇapati' in Dēśī Rāmakriya rāga

All the above songs on Lord Gaṇēśa are composed followed by the dhyānaślokas describing the different aspects of Gaṇēśa. For example, in the song 'Pañcamātanga mukha', the substance of Dhyānaśloka of the five, faced Heramba Gaṇpati is noticeable.

The songs composed by Dīkṣitar at Tiruvārūr in praise of goddess Reṇukā Dēvī and god Sundaramūrti are 'Reṇuka Dēvī' in Kannadabangala rāga and 'Sundaramūrtiṃ' in Takka rāga.

At Mannārgudi, Dīkṣitar composed three songs in praise of Rājagōpāla and two songs in praise of Bālagōpāla. They are :

'Rājagōpālam' in Mōhana rāga

'Śrī Rājagōpāla' in Sāverī rāga

'Śrī vidyā Rājagōpālam' in Jaganmōhini rāga

'Cetahśrī Bālakṛṣṇam' in Dvijāvanti rāga

'Bālagōpāla pālayāsumām' in Bhairavī rāga

Musical Analysis of Temple Kṛis - III

173

At Tiruvidaimarudur, Dīkṣitar composed three songs in praise of god Mahāliṅga and they are :

'Mahāliṅgeśvarāya' in Athāna rāga

'Cintaye Mahāliṅgamūrtiṁ' in Pharaz rāga

'Mahāliṅgeśvaram' in Pharaz rāga

He also composed the song 'Paradēvata' in Dhanyāsī rāga of goddess Bṛhatkucambāl, of the same place.

At Kumbhakōnam, Dīkṣitar composed the song 'Kumbheśvarāya' in Kalyāṇī rāga in praise of Kumbhēśvara.

Dīkṣitar composed his famous Caturdaśa Rāgamālikā 'Śrī Viśvanāthaṁ bhajēham' in praise of the god Viśvanātha at Kulikkkarai.

Other songs he composed at this place include 'Annapūrṇē visālākṣī' in Sama rāga and 'Kaśī Viśveśvarāya' in Kāmbōji rāga. These compositions remind us of his stay at Banāras as youth.

Svāmimalai is another of the six important shrines of Lord Subrahmanya. These Dīkṣitar composed the kṛti 'Svāminātāta' in Nāṭa rāga and 'Śrī Bālasubrahmanya' in Bilahari rāga.

At Kīvalūr, the doors of the sanctum sanctorium in the Śiva temple were closed for worship, when Dīkṣitar reached the place and in great emotion he composed and sang 'Akṣayaliṅgavibho' in Śaṅkarābharana rāga. At the end of the song, the doors opened of their own accord. This incident reminds us of the similar episode in the life of Saint Tyāgarāja which inspired the latter to compose the kṛtis 'Teradiyaga rāga' in Gaulipantu rāga at Tirupati.

Proceeding to Sikkil, Dīkṣitar composed the song 'Śṛiṅgāra śaktyāyudhadhara' in Ramāmanōhari rāga in praise of Lord Subrahmanya. Some of the kṛtis composed by Dīkṣitar at Nāgapaṭṭanam are :

'Śivakāyārohanāya' in Rudrapriya rāga

'Kāyārohanēśam' in Dēvagāndharam rāga

'Soundarājan' in Brṇdāvanasāraṅga rāga

'Ambā nīlayatākṣī' in Nīlāmbari rāga

At Vēdāraṇyam he composed the kṛti, 'Vēdāraṇyeśvarāya' in Ṭōḍī rāga in praise of the diety Vēdāraṇyasvara. At Puḷivalam, he composed the popular Manipravāla-kṛti 'Veṅkaṭācalapate' in Karnataka Kāpi rāga.

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At Tiruvaiyāru he had the opportunity of meeting the saint Tyāgarāja on the occasion of the

celebration of the festival of Śrī Rāma Pattābhiṣēka in the latter's house. To mark the occasion Dīkṣitar

appropriately rendered the famous piece ‘Mamava Paṭṭabhirāma’ in Maniraṅgu rāga. The description of

Sri Rāma, his brothers, Sīta, Hanuman, etc., in this krti is similar to that found in the Tattva Sangraha

Rāmāyaṇa.

It is notewothy that the krtis composed by Dīkṣitar at Thanjavur in praise of different details are

mostly in vivadi melas with samaṣṭacaranās. This was mainly for the purpose of acquainting his disciples

Ponniah, Chinniah, Śivanandam and Vadivelu (the famous Tanjore Quartette) with the scheme of 72

melas of Veṅkaṭamakhi. Some of these are in praise of goddess Bṛhadiśvari. They are :

‘Santānamañjarī’ in Santānamañjarirāga

‘Parañjyotiṣmati’ in Jyotiṣwarūpini rāga

‘Himagirikumāri’ in Ravikriya rāga

‘Nabhomani candragirinayanam’ in Nabhomaṇi rāga

In the Nabhōmaṇi rāga krtis, an indirect reference is made to king Sarafoji of Tanjāvūr in this

manner ‘Sarabhendra Samsevita Caranam’. Other songs composed by Dīkṣitar at Thanjāvīr are :

Bṛadāmbika’, in Vasanta rāga and ‘Pālayamām Bṛhadīśvari’ in Ṭōḍi rāga, both in praise of goddess

Bṛhadiśvari and ‘Śṛṅgāra rasanamjaritīm’ in Rasamanjarī rāga in praise of goddess Baṅgāru Kāmākṣī.

At Tiruvānaikkāval, where the Lord manifests Himself as Appu Liṅga, Dīkṣitar composed the last

of his pañcabhūa kr̥tis ‘Jambūpate’ in Yamunakalyāṇi rāga. Other songs composed by him are : ‘Śrī

mataḥ Śiva Vamanke’ in Bēgada rāga and ‘Akhilāndeśvari’ in Dvijāvaṅti rāga.

At Tirucirāpalli, Dīkṣitar composed the kr̥ti, ‘Śrī Mātṛbhūtam’ in Kannada rāga in praise of god

Mātṛbhuta. Proceeding to Śrirangam, he composed songs in praise of god Ranganātha. They are

‘Ranganāyakam’ in Nāyakī rāga and ‘Ranganāthāya’ in Dhanyāsī rāga.

Another holy place Dīkṣitar visited is Rāmēśvaram where, he composed the popular kr̥ti

‘Rāmanātham bhajeham’ in Kāmavardhinī rāga and ‘Parvatavardhinī’ in Sāma rāga, in praise respec-

tively of the god and goddess of the temple there. In the nearby shirne at Darbhaśayanam, he composed

the song ‘Śrī Rāmaṃ ravikulabdhi’ in Nārāyaṇagaula rāga.

At Tirunelveli Dīkṣitar composed three songs in praise of the goddess Kāntimatī and gods Gaṇēśa

and Śalivatiśvara. They are :

‘Sri Kāntimatiṁ’ in Siṁhārava rāga

‘Lambodarāya’ in Varāḷi rāga

‘Śālivaṭīśvaram’ in Dēvagāndhārī rāga

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He also was visited Kalladakuruci and composed the Krti ‘Śrī Lakṣmī varāham’ in Ābhogī rāga in

praise of the deity there. At Kaḷugumalai he composed the song ‘Subrahmaṇyēna rakṣitōham’ in

Śuddhadhanyāsi rāga and at Tiruchendur, the song ‘Śrī Subrahmaṇyō mām raksatu’ in Tōḍī rāga.

The places Dīkṣitar visited Kerala were, Trivandrum, where he composed the song ‘Pannagaśayana’

in Madhyamāvatī rāga; Śabarimalai, where he composed the song ‘Hariharaputram’ in Vasanta rāga and

Guruvāyūr, where he composed the song ‘Śrī Kṛṣṇam bhaja’ in Tōḍī rāga.

Dīkṣitar has composed a number of songs on different manifestations of Lord Gaṇeśa at the temple

at Tiruvārūr, but the song ‘Raktagaṇapatim’ in Mōhana rāga does not belong to this group. The word

‘Paraśurāmaksētra prabhāvam’ in this song would indicate that it is in praise of Gaṇeśa in one of the

temples of Kerala, but this temple has not yet been identified. It is wothy of note that there is a reference in

the song to Pāyasānna offering and it is well known that the offering of the dish pāyasānna or rice cooked

in milk (popularly known as ‘Pālpāyasa’) to the deity is a distinctive feature in Kerala temple.

Another important place Dīkṣitar visited was Madurai. He composed quite a number of krtis there

on goddess Mīnākṣī. They are :

‘Mīnākṣī mēmudam’ in Gamakakriya rāga

‘Māmava mīnākṣī’ in Varāḷī rāga

‘Śrī Mīnākṣī’ in Gaurī rāga

‘Śrī Madhurāpuri’ in Bilahari rāga

‘Kādam̉barī priyāyai’ in Mōhana rāga

Some of the Vibhaktī-krtis on goddess Madhurāmba are :

‘Madhurāmbā samrakṣatu’ in Dēvakriya rāga

‘Madhurāmbām̉ bhajare’ in Stavarāja rāga

‘Śrī Madhurāmbikayā’ in Āṭaṇa rāga

‘Śrī Madhurāmbikāyai’ in Kalyāṇi rāga

‘Madhurāmbāya’ in Bēgada rāga’

‘Madhurāmbikayām̉’ in Dēśī Sim̉hārva rāga

‘Madhurāmbā jayati’ in Pharaz rāga

In Madurai he also composed a krti on Pārvati ‘Pāhimām̉ Pārvati’ in Mohana rāga; on Hālāsyanātha

(or Sundarēśvara) ‘Hālāsyanātham’ in Darbār rāga and on Sundareśvara, Sōmasundarēśvaram, in

Suddhavasanata rāga and ‘Sundarēśvarāya’ in Śaṅkarābharana rāga.

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From Madurai, Dīkṣitar proceeded to Alagarkōyil where he composed the song ‘Sundararājam’

in Rāmakriya rāga in praise of the deity Sundarāja there. On his way to Eṭṭayāpuram, he stayed for a

while at Sāthūr, where he composed a krti on ‘Veṅkaṭeśvara’ in Mēgharahiñjani rāga. The zamindar of Eṭ

ṭayapuram, Veṅkaṭeśvara Eḍḍappa Bhūpati become a patron of Dīkṣitar and Dīkṣitar spent his last years

with him. In the abovementioned Mēgharahiñjani rāga krti an exceptional reference to Veṅkaṭeśvara Eddappa

is made. At Eṭṭayapuram Dīkṣitar composed his last krti ‘Ēhi Anapūrṇe’ in Puṇnāgavarāḷi rāga.Dīkṣitar

seems to have entertained a special liking for his krti ‘Mīnākṣī mēmudam’ in Gamakkriya rāga, as can be

seen from the fact at he had it rendered to him by his pupils at the time of his death in 1835.

The basis of all Dīkṣitar’s krtis is the deep bhakti, bhagavadsvarūpa dhyāna,bhagavad-guṇānu

santāna and bhagavadbhajana. If one sings his kṣetra krtis, one may get the punya of visiting the different

temples in person and worshipping the various deities enshrined there.

B. Ṣōḍaśa Gaṇpati Krtis

Gaṇeśa holds a unique place of hour in the Hindū pantheon of gods. Gaṇeśa's origin is well

described by two Nāmavālis in the Lalitā Sahasranāma – ‘Kāmeśvara Mahālōka Kalpathaśrī Gaṇeśvara’

and ‘Mahāgaṇeśa nirbinna vighna yantra prakarṣita’. According to the Soubhāgya Bhāskara commentary

on Lalita Sahasranāma by Bhāskarācārya, these have the following meaning : ‘Seeing the evas fettered by

the magical figures setup by the Asuras, the auspicious mother Devī Lalita produced Gaṇeśa, merely

through looking at the face of Lord Śiva; and She was delighted on seeing Gaṇeśa breaking the obstacle

posed by these magic figures and subsequent to their destruction, releasing the Dēvas from their fettering

influence’. This is also the genesis of the concept of Gaṇeśa being the Lord of impediments – Vighnarāya

or Vigneśvara. However, just on the basis of his origin as the offspring of Devī Lalita and Lord Śiva,

Gaṇeśa cannot be reagarded as a mere Śaivaite deity. Verily he is a universal and cosmopolitan god

revered by all sections of the Hindū. Even staunch Vaiṣṇavaites worship him as the remover of obstacles

under the name of Viśwakseṇa. This is brought out by Muthuswāmy Dīkṣitar in his Nāyakī krti

‘Raṅganāyakam’ on the prominent Vaiṣṇavaite Deity Śrī Raṅganātha of Śrīraṅgam in the lines ‘Gaṇpati

Samāna Viśwakṣēnam’.

Gaṇeśa is an extrēmely popular and favourite deity particularly in south India as well as Mahārāṣ

tra. Every village in south India, however small, has a Vighneśvara idol with or without a temple to house

it. It is said that shrines for Lord Subrahmanya are relatively very common in south India, but those for

Vighneśvara are even more numerous. Apart from being a universal Hindu god, he is also a truly

international deity. As early as third century BC, King Asoka’s daughter Saṅgamitra is reported to have

taken a Gaṇpati idol to Nepal. Even in many countries where the majority of the population profess

religions other than Hinduism, Gaṇpati is quite popular. He was known as ‘King-Hsein’ in ancient China

and as ‘Ko-Kitten’ in Japan. Janus of Romans is similar to our Dvi-mukha or double-faced Gaṇpati while

Dionysus, the Greek God of theatre, resembles closely our Nrtya Gaṇapati. Gaṇapati or his close varia-

tions are also worshipped in many South –East Asian countries like Sumātrā, Bali, Java, Barnes, Philippines,

Cambodia, Thailand, Malaya and Burma as well as Ceylon.

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The emergence of Ganeśa worship in India is traced to the hordes of early primitive Āryans who,

after descending upon Bhāratavarṣa from Central Asia, were wonderstruck on seeing the elephant for the

first time by the tremendous strength, massive structure and superior intelligence. In the Śānti Parva of

Mahābhārata, there is a reference to one of these early primitive Āryan tribes-known as Ganas-as

inhibiting regions like forests and mountain which also formed the natural habitat of the wild elephants.

Presum-ably, these Ganas began worshipping the elephant as their guardian deity and this is the genesis of

Ganeśa worship. This theory is also corroborated by the fact that as given in many Saivāgamaic and

Tāntric texts, the cult of Gāṇapatya (Ganeśa worship) spread rapidly in the south-western and southern

regions of India where elephants also abound. Again, as we shall see later from a scrutiny of different

music compositions on Ganeśa, while some weapons (Āyudhas) associated with this deity are just the club

and axe, which were also the first weapons invented by these primitive Āryans for agriculture, others are

the Pāśa or rope used for taming and binding them. Further, the chief food materials listed in the sāhitya

of these kṛtis are sugarcane and fruits of diverse types, which are also the special favourites of the

elephants.

There is also a reference in the Ṛig Vēda to Ganpati, who is equated with Bṛhaspati or Brāhmaṇapati,

the Deity of intellect and wisdom. The Mantra therein pointing to the universal nataure of Ganpati runs as:

'Gaṇānām tvā gaṇpatim̆hhavāmahe kavīm kavīnām upamaśra

Vasthamām jēṣṭharājām brāhmaṇam brāhmaṇaspata

A nasurnvan nutibhi sītāsādhanam̆'

A similar mantra starting with identical words also figures in the Yajur Veda.

'Gaṇanam tvā gaṇapatim̆hhavāmahe priyānām̆tva priyapati

ñhavāmahe vasī mama ahamajani garbhadhamatvamjasi garbhatama'

Though there is no reference to Ganpati in the Rāmāyaṇa or Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra, He finds

mention in the latter Smṛtis like Yājñavalkya. The first refrence to Gaṇapathi as a deity in classical

Saṃskṛta literature is met with in Bhavahuti's Mālatim Mādhavam. The development of the Ganpati form

seems to have been accomplished during the Gupta period as revealed by the red standstone figures of this

Deity at Mutthra which is ascribed to this era. Gāṇāpatya or the Ganpati cult started spreading from the

sixth century A.D. and became quite potent during the 10th century A.D., by which time it had extended

to all parts of the country.

Ganeśa represents one of the basic concepts of Hindū mythological symbolism - the identity of

microcosm and macrocosm on the tenet that man is the image of God. The elephant represents macro-

cosm - the Great Being and man, microcosm - the small universe. This identity of microcosm and

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macrocasm is observed in the permanance of certain relations in nature, which can be expressed on the

basis of number. Everything which our senses can perceive or our minds can grasp can be expressed in

terms of quality or numbers. All that can be counted is quantity or number of Gaṇa (Gaṇānampati

gaṇpati). This number priciple is the essence of Gaṇapati's nauture. The termp Gaṇa connotes several

other things also. As the offspring of Śiva and Pārvatī, Gāṇapati breathes elements viz., Prāṇa, Apāna,

Udhāna, Samāna and Vyāna and as their Lord, Gaṇapati helps to keep in courses the force of life of all

living beings. Gaṇa also denotes the five fundamental elements - earth, water, fire, wind and ether; in

this sense, Gaṇapati stands for the supreme power over the effecient course of the universe and He is

called Bhūthagaṇādhi sēvitam

Symbolically, Gaṇapati can be represented by icon, Yantra or Mantra. The iconic symbol is the

stone svarṇapatra. The graphic symbol or Yantra is the Swastika. The sacred Mantra, which connotes

Gaṇapati is AUM or OṀ representing Tattvamasi — ‘Tvamēva pratyakṣamasi’ — Thou art the visible of

that (Sanapati Upaniṣad). It is worthy of note that in this the principle Tvam has the shape of man and Tat

has the shape of elephant. As Oṁkārasvarūpi Gaṇapati is also worshipped as the presiding deity of

intuition. According to Upaniṣads OṀ is the first and foremost articulate sound denoting the supreme

truth. In its sacred sense it stands for the will of Parabrahman both in His Saguna and Nirguṇa aspects.

Though this Mantra is referred to as Ēkākṣari, it can be split into the three letters A, U and M. Here A

stands for Viṣṇu, U for Śiva and M for Brahma, who represent the three aspects of primordial power

respectively sustenance, dissolutation and creation. According to Kālidāsa, OṀ symbolizes the universal

parents Paraśiva and Parāśakti or Puruṣa and Prakṛti and as such, also connotes Gaṇesa who is the

product of their union. It also stands for the trinity of energies - Jnāṇa śakti, Icchā śakti and Kriyā śakti

and it is termed the wish - yielding Mantra.The ubiquitous influence or omnipresence of Gaṇapati is felt

uniquely in classical Carnatic music. The first song that a beginner learns is the Pillari Gīta ‘Laṁbōdara

lakumikara’ in praise of this deity by Saṅgītapitāmaha Purandaradāsa. Gaṇēśa is reported to have played

on the Mṛdaṅgam during the celestial Nṛtya when Mahādēva danced in ecstacy before Lord Viṣṇu. There

is a ślōka in Gaṇēśāṣṭakam.

'Saratna hēma ghaṇṭimani tada nupuragaṇaiḥ mṛdaṅga tāla

Nādabhyēda sādhanānu rūpataḥ dhimidhimitta tattoṅganatta

bhipado vināyakah māmanga mēgharāgarathō brindayati' |

It is said that some tālas in our music bear a connection with Brahmā and Viṣṇu - as for instance

Brahmā tāla and Śiva tāla. Similarly, certain phrases characteristic of mṛdaṅgam played such as Gaṇa

pharan and Gaṇēśa pharran are associated with Lord Gaṇēśa.

Among the seven animal cries to which the seven notes or Saptasvaras of Carnatic music corre-

spond, the seventh note Niṣāda has its analogue in the elephant's cry (or trumpeting). Also Gāndhara and

Niṣāda are mutually consonant or Samvādi notes. The initial syllables of the names of these two svaras

together reads as a gaṇa or the Lord of the art of singing. In fact, in one set of Gaṇapati Sahasranma,

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quite a large number of Nāmāvalis read as Gaṇapāti. The Brahmavaivaraṭa Purāṇ asserts that the Ga in

the name of Gaṇapati stands for Viveka or wisdom and Na stands for Mokṣa or salvation. But according to

the Gaṇap Atharvaśīrṣa Upaniṣad, the Gā denotes Brahman or Manas and Na signifies voice or

sound. This again emphasizes the close affinity of Gaṇapati to music.

Right from the time of Bharata and Matanga, both the theory and practice of Indian music received

an occult orientation. The saptasvaras acquired a Tāṇtric, theistic or iconic symbolosm. Among the seven

notes Dhaivata has Gaṇesa for its presiding deity — the presiding deities for the other six svaras being

Agni, Brahmā, Sarasvatī, Śiva Viṣṇu and Sūrya. This has a yogic significance with a physiological

correspondence. Dhaivata is said to be born out of the region of the forehead in the human body. In the

forehead, among the nine Yogic centres or Cakras, the two-petalled Ājñā cakra is situated. This is the site

of the union of Dindu, Nada and Kala where Śakti and Śiva reside as one single entity. Praṇava is the

Bījamantra of this cakra. It is significant that already pointed out Gaṇapathi is also Praṇavasvarūpi or

Ōṁkārasvarūpi. Gaṇapati himself is the Lord of the Mulādhāra Cakra which is the seat of Kuṇḍalinī Śakti

and symbolises Prthvī tattva with Ga or Gam as its Bīja Mantra. This Lordship of the Mulādhāra cakra is

reseatedly emphasised in many of Dīkṣitar’s kṛtis on Gaṇapati as we shall see presently. Now Ṣadja is the

svara which is said to amanate from the Mūlādhāra cakra. This has great significance because Ṣadja is the

basic note which gives rise to the other six notes — Ṣadja. This again pinpoints Gaṇapati’s importance in

the context of music.

According to the anecdote in Skanda and Maudgala purāṇās, Indra, getting enraged at king

Abhinandana who started performing a Yajña for the purpose of dispossessing him of his Indra Padavī

called upon Yama to destroy the Yāga. Yama accomplished this by assuming the garb of Vighnēśvra and in

the process also killed the king. When the sages and Ṛṣis approached Brahmā with the plea that the Asura

should be destroyed, Brahma advised them to pray to Lord Gaṇēśa. Thereupon, Gaṇēśa vanquished

Vighnāsura and earned the title of Vighnanāyaka. As Vighnanāyaka, Vighneśvara or Vighnahartā, Lord

Gaṇēśa is the (Lord and) remover of obstacles. Gaṇēśa forges ahead through the obstacles even as the

elephant runs through the jungle treading shrubs, bending and uprooting trees and easily forging rivers

and lakes. The rat or Mūṣika, despite being a physically incongruous mount for the gigantic pot-bellied

Divinity with the Elephant head, is equally capable of overcoming obstacles and gaining access to the

granary. The two elephant and Mūṣikā — together represent the power of the God to vanquish all

obstacles in the way and fulfilling all desires. As Vighnēśvara, he is the deity whom the pious Hindū

invokes when he begins all religious ceremonies, all addresses to even superior gods, all serious composi-

tions in writing and all worldly affairs of importance. Every auspicious functions — whether it be

Vidyāraṁba or Vivāha — always commences with Vināyakastuti for unimpeded progress. So also a

Carnatic music concert invariably starts with an invocatory song in praise of Gaṇapati. Composers from

very early times have paid obeisance to Gaṇēśa through the medium of music. Early composers whose

songs on Ganpati are available to us include Annamācārya, Haridāsas like Purandaradāsa and Gōpāladāsa,

Kṣētrayya, Nārāyaṇa Tīrtha, king Shāhaji and Melaṭṭūr Veṅkaṭarāma Śāstri. However, it was only during

the era of the musical trinity that there was a spurt in music compostitions on Gaṇapati. Among the trinity,

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Music and Temples : A Ritualistic Approach

śyāma Śāstri is not known to have composed any song on Gaṇapati, whereas Tyāgarāja has just a few kṛtis on this deity to his credit. On the other hand, Muthuswāmi Dīkṣitar was prodigious composer of Gaṇapati kṛtis. At present, we have access to as many as 25 of these kṛtis., This is not at all surprising because, as we have already seen, Gaṇapati has profound Yogic, Mantric and Tantric significance and Dīkṣitar was highly proficient in these fields. Dīkṣitar's compositions on Gaṇapati are a veritable confluence of Jñāna, Bhakti and Āgamas. They draw richly from Yoga, Mantra and Tantra Śāstras and reveal their common fulfillment in Advaita Siddhi which the composer actually experienced.

Now we shall pass on to a consideration of the different forms of Gaṇapati. Iconic representations of nearly a hundred forms of Gaṇapati are available in sculpture in different parts of the country. Among these Hēraṁba Gaṇpati at the Tiruvaṇikkāval Akhilāṇdēśvari temple, Lakṣmī Gaṇapati at the Tenkasi Visvanatha temple and Nṛtta Gāṇapati at the Hoyusāleśvara temple at Halebid are quite wel-known. The aspect of Nritya Gaṇapati merits some elucidation. Gāṇapati has a vital role to play not onoy in the field of music but in dance as well. Being the off-spring of Nartaja himself, Gaṇēśa is an adept in the art of dancing. Śiva is the presiding diety of Tāṇḍava Nṛtya and Pārvatī of Lāsya., Gaṇēśa's dance is a beautiful synthesis of both these dance forms. On both sides of the Halebid Nṛtya Gaṇēśa. According to the tenets of Hindū inconography, the image of dancing Gaṇēśa has eight hands, in seven of which are held the Paśa (rope), Aṅkuśa (gaod), Moka (cakes), the Kundara ( a king of axe ), the Daṇṭe (cone), the Valaya (circular band) and the Aṅgalya (ring), with the eighth hand remaining free so as to be helpful in the various dance movements and also for proclaiming abhaya to the devotees. This description is in line with Dhyāna ślōkas on the Deity and also Dīkṣitar's picture of the Deity in some of his kṛtis. The Śākta cult of Gāṇapatya prescribed the worship of Gaṇapati in 32 forms as described in the Madhala Purāṇā. The Śrītattvanidhi compiled by Māharāja Mummadi Kṛṣṇarāja Wodeyar preserved in the Mysore Oriental Research Institute contains beautiful colour paintings in the old traditional Mysore school of the 32 Gaṇapati forms drawn from authentic Śilpa sources. The oute prākāra wall of the Nañjangud Śrikantēśvara temple has stucco representations on the top of the southern wall of 32 varieties of Gaṇapati, the names of which have been given in the respective pedestals. Mantra Śāstras and Āgamas refer to 16 forms of Gaṇapati known as ṣoḍaśa Gaṇapatis which are also reputed to be enshrined in the Tiruvārūr Tyāgarāja temple. According to tradition, Muthuswāmi Dīkṣitar is said to have composed a kṛti on each of these forms making up his ṣoḍaśa Gaṇapati group kṛtis. According to different versions, various sets of Gaṇaptis of Gaṇapatis are stated to form this ṣōdaśa Gaṇapati group. In fact, there are more than 16 Gaṇapati idols installed in the Tiruvārūr Tyāgarāja temple and also more than 16 kritis on Gāṇapati to Muthuswāmi Dīkṣitar's credit. As such, it is difficult to pinpoint definitely which combination of Gāṇapati forms Dīkṣitar's had in mind while composing his Ṣōdaśa Gaṇapati group kṛtis. At the direction of Śrī Śaṅkarācārya of Kāñcī Kāmakoṭi piṭham, sixteen Gāṇapati forms have been installed — two at each corner — in the octogonal Maṇḍapa of Siddhi, Ucchiṣṭa, Vīra, Lakṣmī, Nṛtta, Tripta, Śakti, Dhvaja, Vighnarāja, Heraṁba, Bhuvanēśa and Ūrdhva. However, not all forms in the above list correspond to Dīkṣitar's Gāṇapati kṛtis. Another list given by Shri K.R. Rajagopalan seems to be quite appropriate in this context. This comprises Vātāpi, Pañcamātaṅga, Mūlādhāra, Mahā, Śākthi, Ucchiṣṭha, Gaṇanāyaka, Śvēta, Rakta, Gaṇanātha and Hastivadana. Let us now briefly look into the significance of each of these kṛtis.

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Vātāpi Gāṇapatim (Hamsadhvani rāga - Ādi tāla)

This kriti is in Hamsadhvani rāga - a rāga invented by Muthuswami Dīkṣitar’s father, Rāmāswāmi Dīkṣitar. It is not only by far the most popular Gāṇapati krti but even the most well-known composition in the entire gamut of Carnatic music so much so, that as any Gāṇapati song itself has come to be associated with this rāga. This is borne out by the fact that many Vāggēyakāras who came after Dīkṣitar have composed many Gāṇapati krtis in this rāga - as for instance Vināyaka Ninnuvina by Vina Kuppayyar, Namāmi Vighna Vināyaka by Kṛṣnaswāmi Ayya, Gaṁ Gaṇapathe by Muthiah Bhāgavatar, Vandēniśamaham by Vasudēvācārya etc. These are only a few examples and many more such Gāṇapati songs in Hamsadhavani are there.

Mahā Vaidyanātha Iyer is reputed to have standardized the present ciṭṭai and saṅgatis in this song and popularized it in his concerts. From that time onwards it has become the most favoured invocatory song in Carnatic music concerts. It is said that when Aman Ali Khan, son and disciple of Chejju Khan heard this song played on the Vīṇā by Mysore Vīṇā Śēṣanna, he was inspired so much that he composed the famous Khayal ‘Lāgila Gāṇapati Sah’ with a similar dhātu in this rāga.

This Gāṇapati form (Vātāpi Gaṇapati) has a historical and geographical significance. After winning the battle over the Calukya in the seventh century A.D., the Pallava monarch Narasiṁhavarman is reported to have brought this idol from Vātāpi, the capital of the Calukyan kingdom. As such, it represents an early gift from Karnataka to Tamil Nadu.

This significant terms in the sāhitya of this krti are Mūlādhāra Kṣetra Sthitham (Lord or resider of Mūlādhāra cakra) Parādi Chathvāri vāgāthmakam (embodiment of four types of sound - Parā, Paśyanti, Madhyama and Vaikāri) and Praṇavasvarūpa Vakratuṇḍam (Praṇavasvarūpi with the crooked tusk).

Pañcamātaṅga Mukha Gāṇapatina (Malahari rāga - Rūpaka tālla)

The second Ṣōḍaśa Gāṇapati form is Pañcamātaṅga mukha and Dīkṣitar’s song on this form is set to Malahari rāga and rūpaka tāla. Composing the Gaṇpathi stuti in this rāga reflects Dīkṣitar’s love and respect for tradition in adopting the same rage as employed by Saṅgīta Piṭāmaha Purandaradasa for his Piṭllari Gītam (already referred to ). It is significant that some post-Dīkṣitar composers have also used this rāga for their songs on Gāṇapati - as for example Muthiah Bhāgavarar’s ‘Śrī Mahāgaṇapate Dehi’.

The gist of the sāhitya is that Pañcamātaṅga Mukha Gāṇapati also known as ṣaṇmukha who has five faces is himself the son of Lord Śiva who also possesses five faces and is protector of the world made up of the Pañcabhūtas or five elements. His hand poses Abhaya Mudrā and the articles he holds like Pāśa, Aṅkuśa, Balāyudha, Ghaṇṭa, Mōdaka, Mudgara weapon, Akṣamālā (Japamālā) etc., give picture of Gāṇapati in line with the description of Nrtya Gāṇapati already referred to.

Śrī Mūlādhāra Cakra Vināyaka (Śrī rāga - Ādi tāla)

The third ṣōḍaśa Gāṇapati form is Śrī Mūlādhāra and the corresponding Krti Śrī Mūlādhāra Cakra Vināyaka is set to Śrī Rāga and Ādi tāla. This krti bears eloquent testimony to Dīkṣitar’s profound knowidege of Tantric and Yogic cults. It is significant that the idol of this Gāṇapati form is situated in the

sanctorum of the Tiruvārūr Tyāgarāja temple enclosed in the icon of a serpent. The opening words

themselves proclaim that Gānapati is Lord of the Mūlādhāracakra. Other noteworthy phrases in the

Sāhitya are Mūlaganana śōka Vīnāśāka (dispeller of basic Ajñāna and sorrow), Prakaṭīkṛta vaikārīsvasbhāva

(bestower of Vaikāri, the power of speech) and Vikata satṣata śvāsādhikāra (who presides over 600 vāyus

on breaths mentioned in the Yōga śāstras).

Mahāganapate Pālayiśumam (Naṭanārāyaṇī rāga - Ādi tāla)

The fourth śōdaśa Gānapati form is MahāGānapati. Now, four kṛtis of Dīkṣitar on this form are

available — Śrī MahāGānapatiravathumām in Gowla, Mahāganāpatim̉ in Nāṭa, Mahāganapatī in Ṭoḍī

and Mahaganāpatē pālayeśumam in Naṭanārāyaṇī. From among these, the last kṛti had been selected out

of two considerations. In the first place, it is set to a very rare rāga not so far handled by any other

composer. Secondly, it is a Samaṣṭi Caraṇa kṛti or short musical form with only Pallavī and Charana

whch again is Dīkṣitar's exclusive contribution to our music. The sāhitya contains reference to Gāṇapati

being the Lord of Māyāvasrūpini Vallabha and also to Śrī Kṛṣṇa having paid obeisance to Gāṇapati

(Anecdote of Syāmantakōpākhyāna).

Śakti Sahita Gāṇapatīm̉ (Śaṅkarābhaṇa rāga - Tiśra Eka tāla)

The first Śōdaśa Gānapati form is Śakti Gāṇapati, which portrays Gāṇapati with red-coloured feet

as being associated with another consort — Śakti. The musical form of this composition is Noṭtusvara

Sāhitya or Noṭṭusvara or simply Noṭṭu. This is another of Dīkṣitar's exclusive creations. 39 Noṭṭusvaras of

Dīkṣitar are available to us and all of them are in Śaṅkarābhaṇa rāga. Each comprises one section only,

with no division into Pallavī, Anupallavī and Charanam. Dīkṣitar was inspired to compose these Noṭṭus on

the lines of the English band at Fort St. Geroge based on western music. The Noṭṭu Śakti sahit Ganapatim

is based on a French tune.

Ucchiṣṭa Gaṇapatāu (Kāśirāmakṛtya rāga - Ādi tālla)

The sixth Gāṇapati form is UcchiṣṭaGāṇapati and the corresponding kṛti Ucchiṣṭagaṇappatu is set

to Kāśirāmakṛiya or Paṇtuvārāḷi rāga. Being a Vāmācāra form associated with Śrīvīdyā Upāsanā, this has

profound Tāntrić significance. Dīkṣitar would appear to have been inspired by the Gāṇapati idol in the

Nāgēśvarasvāmī temple at Kumbhakōṇam in composing this kṛti. The dhyāna Śloka of this Gāṇapati form

reads as Nārī Yōni Mukhāsvāda lōlupam kāma mōhitam and the first half of this Dhyāna śloka figures in

the caraṇa of this kṛti. Gaṇapathi is also described here as engaged in playing diverse musical instruments

like Bhēri, vīṇā and Vēṇu.

Gaṇanāyakaḿ̉ (Pūrṇaṣadjana rāga - Ādi tāla)

The seventh Śōdaśa Gāṇapati form is Gaṇanāyaka and Dīkṣitar's kṛti on this form is set to

Rudrapriya rāga, though the current practice is to sing it in Purāṇaṣadjam. Gāṇapati is described in this

kṛti as the leader of Gaṇas and is being capable of bestowing the Aṣṭasiddhis like ‘Animā’ etc.

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Svēta Gaṇapatim (Rāgacūdāmaṇi rāga - Tripta tāla)

The eighth Ṣōḍaśa Gānapati form is Svētagaṇapati or white-coloured Gāṇapati and the corre-

sponding song is set to Rāgacūdāmaṇi rāga, which in the Sampūrṇa Mēlapaddhati is the equivalent of the

32nd Mēlakartā Rāgacūdāmaṇi. According to tradition, this idol form was istalled in Tiruvaḷañjuli near

Swāmimalai by Indra out of sea. This has also been identified by the late Dr. V. Raghavan as the form

installed in the east market gate shrine at Tanjore. Dīkṣitar states in this krti that Gāṇapati is without

beginning or end and is the Lrod of Vallabha.

Rakta Gāṇapati (Mohana rāga - Ādi tāla)

The ninth ṣōḍaśa Gāṇapati form is Rakta Gāṇapati and the krti Raktagaṇapatim is set to Mōhana

rāga. Dīkṣitar states in the sāhitya that in this form Gāṇapati wears red clothes and seated on a ratna

simhāsana. The following ślōka on Gāṇapati comes to one's mind in this context.

'Raktam lambōdaram sarpakarṇakam vāsaśam

Raktagandhānulyṣṭaṅgam raktapuṣpaiḥ supūjitam ||'

The word Raktam in the Gaṇeśatavaśatra stands for red and lovely as well.

Dīkṣitar states in this krti that Rakta Gāṇapati is popularly worshipped in Paraśurāmakṣētra and

reveals in Homa with Pāyasa (Paraśurāma kṣētra prabhāvaṁ pāyasānna hōmādi vaibhavaṁ). This

would point to the Kerala origin of this form of Gāṇapati, because Paraśurāma kṣētra denotes Kerala and

Pāyasa is also comparatively very popularly there.

Gaṇarājēna (Ārabhi rāga - Khaṇḍa Chapu tāla)

The tenth ṣōḍaśa Gāṇapati form is Gaṇarāja and the corresponding krti is set to Ārabhi rāga. Dīkṣ

itar states in this krti that Gaṇapati who is capable of bestowing Aṣṭasiddhis like 'Aṇimā' etc., is wor-

shipped by Mantrinī and lives in the forest as a Brahmacārī.

Siddhi Vināyakam (Cāmaram rāga - Rūpakam tāla)

The eleventh Ṣōḍaśa Gāṇapati form is Siddhi and the corresponding Krti is set to Cāmaram or

Ṣaṇmukhapriya rāga. The phrase 'Mūla paṅkaja madhyastham' again pinpoints that Gāṇapati is the Lord

of Mūlādhāra kṣētra. 'Bhādrapada māsa caturthyām Brāhmaṇādi pūjitam' referes to the well-known

Vināyaka caturthī festival celebrated on the śuklapakṣa caturthī day of Bhādrapada or Āvaṇi month.

Gajānanayutam (Vīgavāhinī rāga - Eka tāla)

The twelfth Ṣōḍaśa Gāṇapati form is Gajānanaya and the corresponding krti is set to Vēgavāhinī or

Cakravāka rāga. Dīkṣitar refers in this krti to Gāṇapati being Praṇvasvarūpī and his destroying Kuñjarāsura.

There is an enecdote behind the phrase Ajendrapūjita or worshipped by Brahma. In the Skanda Purāṇā

(Nandikēśvara-Sanatkumara Samvāda) an incident is narrated that following Gaṇapati's marriage to the

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eight Siddhis (Animā, Mahimā, etc.) Lord Brahmā prayed to Ganapathi that even as through the latter's

favour, Lrod Viṣṇu protects the world seek Lord Ganap's Blessings for carrying on his creation work

unimpeded. Pleased with brahma's prayers, Gāṇapati granted him the boon for carrying on his work

successfully.

Vallabha Nāyakasya (Bēgada rāga - Rūpaka tāla)

The thirteenth Sōḍaśa Gāṇapati form is Vallabha Gañapati and the corresponding kṛti is set to

Begaḍa rāga. The commencing word of the song itself emphasises that Gāṇapati is the Lord of Vallabha.

According to the Tiruttani Sthala Purāṇa Gāṇapati helped his brother Subrahmanya to encounter Vālli,

whom he wished to marry, by chasing her in the form of an elpehant, whereupon Subrahmanya came to

her rescue and' saved' her. Thus, Gāṇapati engineered the meeting to his brother with Waḷḷi and was

thereby responsible for their wedding. This is brought out by them 'Vaḷḷivivāha kāraṇasya'.

Lambōdarāya (Varāḷī rāga - Khanda chapu tāla)

The fourteenth Sōḍaśa Gāṇapati form is Lambōdara and the corresponding kṛti is set to Varāḷī

rāga. Dīkṣitar states here that Gāṇapati is worshipped by Agastya and Brahmā.

Śrī Gananātham Bhajarē (Īśamanōharī rāga - Ādī tāla)

The fifteenth Sōḍaśa Gāṇapati form is Gaṇanātha and the corresponding kṛti is set to

Īśaśmanōharī rāga. According to Dīkṣitar, this Gāṇapati form is seated in Ādhāra lotus (Chinmūlakamala

sthitham), wears serpents as sacred thread (nāgayajña sūtra-dharam) and gives pleasure through Nāda

and Laya, i.e. music (Nādalayānanda karam).

Hasti Vādanaya (Navaroj rāga - Miśra chapu tāla)

The sixteenth and last Sōḍaśa Gāṇapati form is Hastivadana. The corresponding kṛti

Hastivadanāya is set to Navarōj rāga. The picture that Dīkṣitar gives in this Sōdaśa Gāṇapati kṛtis of the

different forms of Gāṇapati closely resembles the dhyāna ślokas of the deity in the ancient texts. Dīkṣitar

describes this Gāṇapati form with spouse (embraced by his consort Māya) having ten hands each holding

lotus, lilly, pāśa (noose), śaṅkha (conch), cakra (discus), ikṣukārmukha (sugar-cane bow), paddy shoots,

tusk, mace, pomegranate fruit and bejewelled water pot. This description is in line with Rāghava Caitanyas

Gāṇapati Dhyāna ślōka.

'Bīja pūraka tēkṣu kār mukha

rūja cakrābja pāśōtpala vrih

Yakra svaviṣāṇa ratna kalaśa

Prōdyāt karāmbōruhah'

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It can be thus seen that Muthūswami Dīkṣitar’s Ṣoḍaśa Gāṇapati kritis are without parallel in the

field of Caranatic music. They are painted on majestic and lovely lines and colour around a verbal theme

of concentrated and multi-dimensional symbolism embracing the shape of Yoga, Mantra and Tantra śāstras.

C. Navagraha Kṛitis

Muthuswāmī Dīkṣitar has to his credit by far the largest number of group kṛtis which are exquisite

examples of lofty musical architecture - as many as 12 sets, each consisting of 5, 8, 9, 11 or 16 songs. He

scores over the other vāggēyakāras also in respect of the theme and scheme of his group kṛtis and emerges

as unique and outstanding in this domain. The majority of these groups pertain to various topics/Gods

presented according to attractively intellectual plans. The constituent kṛtis in each group are strikingly

linked to one another through their subject matter and/or musical design. They provide a mine of informa-

tion on different facets of Indian philosophy and religion in which Dīkṣitar was adept. All his extensive

esoteric knowledge on various religious lores as well as Yoga, Tantra, Mantra and Jyadiś śāstras constantly

keep surfacing in the Samudāya kṛtis.

Two among these groups comprise five compositions each - firstly the well-known Pañcabhūta

kṛtis on Lord Śiva’s five elemental forms - Prthvī (earth), appu (water), Tēja (fire), Vāyu (wind) and

Ākāśa (sky) - enshrined respectively in the temple at Kāñcipuram, Jambukēswaram, Tiruvannāmalai,

Kalahasti and Cidambaram and secondly, the comparatively less familiar Pañcaliṅga kṛtis on the five

Śivalingās housed in the Tiruvārūr Tyāgaraja temple - Acalēśvara Hṛṣakēśvara, Valmikēśvara Ānandēśvara

and Siddhēśvara.

Dīkṣitar has composed eight of the remaining nine groups on the extra-musical principle of

Vibhakti or Saṁskṛita grammatical case which are in eight number including Sambodhana (nominative,

accusative etc. to vocative). Each of these eight sets is in praise of a particular deity viz., Lord Subrahmanya

manifested as Guruguha, which incidentally is also Dīkṣitar’s mudrā (Guru Vibhaktī kīrtanas); Lord Śiva

manifested as Tyāgarāja of Tiruvārūr (Tyāgēśa Vibhakti kīrtanas); Lord Viṣṇu manifested as Rāma (Rāma

navāvarnam) and Kaśṇ (Kaśṇ Navāvarṇam); and lastly Devi in four manifestations - as Goddess Mīnākṣī

of Madurai (Madhurāmbā Vibhaktī kīrtanas), as Abhayamba of Mayavaram (Abhayāmbā Navavarnam),

Nīlotpalāmbā of Tiruvurur (Nīlotpalāmbā Vibhaktī kīrtanas) and as Kamalā̄mba Tiruvārūr (Kamalā̄mba

Navāvarnam). However, the Kamalāmba Navāvarnam actually forms a group of 11 compositions

including, in addition to eight kṛtis in the eight Vibhaktī corresponding to the eight Āvarṇas of the Śrī

Cakra, a ninth in all the eight vibhaktis corresponding to the ninth Āvarṇa besides invocatory (Dhyāna)

and auspicious ending (Maṅgalam) compositions.

These Samudāya kṛtis reveal diverse facets of Dīkṣitar’s genius and learning. If the Tyāgēśa

Vibhaktī kṛtis unravel his experiences as a Yōgī, the Pañcabhūta kṛtis enlighten us about his profound

knowledge regarding the Vēdāgamas and the Upaniṣads. The Kamalā̄mba and Abhayā̄mba Navāvarnams

bear eloquent testimony to Dīkṣitara's extraordinary perception of our Tantra and Mantra Śāstras as a

devout Śrī Vidyā Upāsaka ardently worshipping Śrī Cakra. In south India, in the tradition expounded by

Bhāskarācārya, Śrīvidyā had long been practised as a Sadhanāmārga for salvation by the Advaitins. Dīkṣ

itar has based his Kamalāmba and Abhayāmba Navāvarnams on Bhāskarācārya's percepts. His last set of

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Samudāya krtis – the Navagraha krtis which form the subject matter of the present discussion posses astrological connotations and display Dīkṣitar’s deep insight into the ancient system of Hindū Jyotiṣa śāstra.

It is but in the fitness of things that the Navagraha krtis possess an astrological basis, because according to Jyotiṣa Śāstra, the positions of the planets in a person’s horoscope indicate their varying influence on the life course, and one’s fortunes and afflictions by diseases can be accurately predicted from the transit of the planets. If one considers the entire solar system as the body of God, planets signify definite centres or organs therein, each utilizing and manifesting a different type of vitality or consciousness, in which the sun is the heart. And also, if man is conceived to be the universe in maniatire, the sun (Sūrya) would represent the Ātmā or Soul’ the Moon (Candra), Manas or mind; Mars (Kuja or Aṅgāraka) Ahaṅkāra or ego; Mercury (Buddha), chith or intellegence; Jupiter (Guru), Buddhi or intuition; Venus (Śukra), worldly pleasures; and Śāturn (Sani), Viveka or balance of mind and discrimination. In this manner the planet deities are intimately linked with the evolutionary career of mankind and the passage of the sun and the planets through the 12 signs of the zodiac mark a person’s progress in time and space.

Among Dīkṣitar’s Samudāya Krtis, his Navagraha krtis are the only group made of nine components unlike other groups which contain 5, 8, 11 or 16 compositions each. Another point of difference is that every song in each Vibhākti group is in praise of the same deity in contrast to the Navagraha groups, which are on the nine different planets. But the most important distinguishing features of Navagraha krtis is that they have not been composed according to any extra musical plan but on the purely musical principle based on the Śūlādi-sapta-tālas. This will be evident from the list of Navagraha krtis given below :

1. Sun Sūryamūrte Saurāṣṭram Dhruva

2. Moon Candram Bhaja Asāveri Marthya

3. Mars Aṅgārakam Surati Rūpaka

4. Mercury Budhamāśrayāma Nāṭakuranji Jhampa

5. Jupiter Brhaspatē Athāna Tripuṭa

6. Venus Śrī Śukra Pharaz Ata

7. Saturn Divākara Yadukulakāmbodhi Ēka

8. Rāhu Smarāmyaham Ramāmanōharī Rūpaka

9. Kētu Mahāsuram Cāmaram Rūpaka

It can readily be seen that these Navagraha krtis constitute a set not on mere basis that they pertain to the nine planeŕs. Dīkṣitar’s genius has knit them together in a musical sense through adopting the order of the Śūlādi-sapta-tālas as enunciated in the well-known tāla aphorism (Dhruva, Mathya, Rūpaka, Jhampa, Tripuṭa, Ata and Ēka) for the seven major planets from Sūrya to Śani in their accepted order. The adoption of this tāla principle for this set of group krtis bear testimony to Dīkṣitar’s outstanding attainments in music and unparalled gifts as a composer. A noteworthy feature and interesting coincidence is that the sum total of the aksaras of all the tālas used in these krtis is 81, which is again a multiple

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(square) of 9, the number of all the grahas - the potent number ! The composition of the Navagraha krtis

on the basis of tālas is particularly appropriate because tāla is a time measure and in astrology, Periods of

time have vital significance in the context to the influence of the different planets on man's fortunes and

well being. According to astrology, each Graha determines a person's destiny during its daśā, which in

each case extends over a definite period of time (number of years). Tāla also being a time measure, it can

indicate good or bad periods during which the planets hold sway over man's fortunes.

The rāgas of the Navagraha krtis too are not without significance. Dīkṣitar has employed of his

krtis on the seven major planets Sauraṣṭtra, Asāvēri, Suraṭi Nāṭakuranji, Athana, Pharaz and

Yadukulakāmbodhi respectively. These are all Śuddha-madhyama rāgas as well as Sampūrṇa rāgas in the

Asampūrṇa Mēla-Paddhati followed by Dīkṣitar. Furthermore, they are all Bhāṣānga rāgas. The free

unfettered movement of the Grahas is musically mirrored, as it were, by these Bhāṣānga rāgas, which do

not suffer from the shackles of Janaka, but freely imbibe Anyasvaras.

From Muthuswami Dīkṣitar's life history, one learns that he composed these Navagraha krtis for

the purpose of alleviating the pain suffered by his favourite disciple Śuddhamaddalam Thambiapn who

was suffering from acute colic. It is said that the latter was cured of his malady by offering prayers through

the medium of these krtis to those planet deities who were unfavourably positioned in his horoscpopoe. The

outstanding features of this set of Samudhya krtis is their healing value and powerful ability to propitiate

the Navāgrahas for an all-round betterment of life of everyone who has no easy access to Mantras. They

enable everybody without distinction of caste or creed to win the favour and blessings of the planets.

Mantra Śāstra is an esoteric lore but its benefits can be derived even by the common devotees irrespective

of status and learning if it comprises ordinary hymns and songs. Dīkṣitara's Navagraha krtis are easily

accesible versions of Mantra and Tantra Śāstras and they pertain to different planets. For the lay public

they constitute effective prayers to various Grahas to earn their grace.

Another noteworthy of these Navagraha krtis is the literary beauty and appropriateness of their

Saṁskrta sāhitya. They are not based on phrases borrowed from the Navagraha stōtrās or Kavacās

contained in our epics and Purāṇas. They are truly original compositions of Dīkṣitar.

In astrology the different planets have been assigned powers to promote particular aspects of

human life. For instance, the sun is deemed to promote father, health, personal charisma etc.; the Moon :

mother, mind; Mars : brothers lands; Mercury : poetry, intellignce; Jupiter : sons, wosdom liking for

righteous path; Venus : happiness from good family life; and Saturn : longevity. Dīkṣitar lucidly brings

out these Kārakatvas (powers) of various planet in his Navagraha krtis. He calls Sūryamūrte Ārogyādi

phalada and Tēja spurte (promoter of health and personal charisma). Significantly he commences his krti

on the Moon, the promoter of mind, with the words 'Chandram bhaja mānasa' (prays to Moon, oh

mind). Kuja is 'Bhrathrrkārāka' and 'Dharaniprada' (bestower of brothers and lands). Budha is 'Madhura

kavitā prada' (conferer of poetry). Guru is 'Putra kāraka' (promoter of progeny/son) and Śukra is

'Kalaträ kāraka' (bestower of spouse). Regarding Śanīsvsvara, Dīkṣitar says that He is 'Ati krura phalada'

(cruel and threatening) to those hwo are immersed in the pursuit of worldly pleasure but the same planet

becomes 'Atisava iśubha phlada' (extremely beneficial) to those who follow the righteous path and pray

with sincere devotion. This is an interesting aspect of Navagrahas dealt with by Dīkṣitar.

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Astrology also considers the Navagrahas to be friendly, neutral or inimical with the other Grahas.

It is the combination of such friendly or inimical planets in a particular horoscope which augments or lessens the power of the individual planets to confer good or evil on the person.

In some of his Navagraha krtis, Dīkṣitar includes this theme of mutual friendship or enmity among the Grahās beautifully wroven into the sāhitya fabric.

In Aṅgārakam, kūja is stated to be friendly with the sun, moon and Jupiter (Bhānu - Candra - Guru mitram).

In Budhamāśrayāmi, Mercury is referred to as the enemy of Mārs (Kuja vairiṇāṁ).

In Śrī Śukra Bhagavantam, Venus is described as the enemy of the Sun and Jupiter (Ravi nirjara guru vairiham).

In the ‘Smarāmyaham’ Dīkṣitar mentions that Rāhu is friendly with Saturn and Venus (Śani Śukra mitram).

In ‘Mahāsuram’ kētu is stated to be friendly with all planets (Navagrahayutam sakam).

The relationship between astrology and music dates back to very early times.

The divisions of the octave into 12 units was employed by all the ancient nations and this is known as primordial divisions of the octave.

The zodiac has also 12 divisions which correspond to the same number of divisions of the octave and astrology has come in handy to explain the intervals of the octave and the effect produced by the svaras.

The major seven planets represent the 7 svaras and the 12 divisions of the Zodiac are distribution of the 12 divisions of the octave among 7 svaras.

Among the 7 planets, the sun and the moon have each one of the divisions of the zodiac corresponding to Sa and Pa in the musical octave.

The remaining five planets have each two divisions as is the case also with the remaining five svaras in the musical scale.

In astrology, these divisions are known as Rāśis or houses (Meṣa, Ṛṣaba etc., to Mīna) belonging to the different planets.

In this way, one can readily perceive the connection between music and astrology.

This coincidence between the divisions of the zodiac and the divisions of the octava serves as a facile means to explain the musical scales on a mathematical basis.

The major planets being the sun and the moon, the basic note Sa is assigned to the prime planet - sun and Pa the second important note of the octave, to the moon.

The remaining five svaras are assigned in the following order - Ṛi to Budha, Ga to Śani, Ma to Śukra, Dha to Kuja and Ni to Guru.

Next to Sa and Pa, the most important svara is Ma and it is significant that this svara is ascribed to Śukra among whose many portfolios, music itself is one.

The ownership of the different zodiac housed by the various planets is invariably pinpointed by Dīkṣitar in the appropriate Navagraha kṛti.

He thus mentions that the sun is the lord of Siṁha Rāśi (Siṁha rṛśyādhipate); Mars is exalted in Makara and is the owner of Meṣa and Vṛścika (Makarotugam Meṣa vṛś cika Raśyah dhipatim); Mercury owns Mithuna and Kanyā (Kamaniyatara mithuna Kanyadhipam); Jupiter is the lord of Dhanus and Mīna (Maṅjua dhanur mīnādhipate); Saturn is the lord of Makara and Kumbha (Makara kumbha rāśi nātham).

Venus is the lord of Vṛṣabha and Tulā (Vṛṣa Tulādhiśa).

The Cāyā grahas do not own any houses.

Only in the kṛti on the moon, the mention of the house owned by the planet is missing.

It is however understood in the Calcutta edition of the Navagraha kṛtis of the late Śrī Anantakrishana Iyer, the sahitya of Candram bhaja mānasa specifies Kataka as the Rāśi owned by the Moon.

Let us now proceed to examine the salient features of the Navagraha kṛtis or the nine planets one by one.

Musical Analysis of Temple Kṛtis - III

1. Surya

The kṛti on the first planet, sun, starts with the words, ‘Sūryamūrte Namastute’. It is set in Saurāṣṭra rāga and dhruva tāla. Though Saurāṣṭra is currently being sung as a janya of Sūryakāntam, Dīkṣitar while composing the Uṛti — a fact vouched for by the late Subbārama Dīkṣitar in his magnum opus Saṅgīta Sampradāya Pradarśini. The composition of the kṛti on this primary planet in a rāga which is janya of Māyāmālavagaula is the first rāga taught to learners of music. Dīkṣitar is also rieputed to have composed in this rāga his very first kṛti ‘Śrī Nāthādi’, heading his group of Guru Vibhakti kīrtanas. The uttarāṅga delineates vīra rasa and the Pūrvāṅga bhakti rasa. The phrase ‘Namōstute’ has been cast in descending order from Madhyasthāyi to the Madrasthāyi reflecting the singer’s obeisance to the sun. Not only as the first among the śūlādi Sapta tālas but also as one with the maximum number of akṣarakalās, Dhruva tāla eminently suits the compositions on the great Sun who through his powerful radiation controls life here on earth.

The Sāhitya is replete with numerous beautifully apt phrases. Besides being reference to Mitra and Bhānu as in the vēdās, the sun is also described as the first as foremost Navagraha — ‘Somādi graha shikamane’. The epithet Aryavinuta presumably refers to the widespread practice of sun worship among the early Aryans. The cult of sun-worship is known as Souramata and its mantra, made up of eight akṣaras, is called the

Sourāṣṭrana mantra. Dīkṣitar describes the sun as the embodiment of this mantra in the phrase ‘Southrāṣṭrana mantrātmanē’ and thereby, the Saurāṣṭra rāga Mudrā is introduced into the Sāhitya fabric. Apart from the Ketu kṛti in Cāmaram, Sūryamūrte is the only other Navagraha kṛti wherein the rāga mudrā is introduced. Though the phrase ‘Dīvyatara saptasvarathine’, Dīkṣitar describes the sun as riding as chariot drawn by saven horses and this may also be interpreted to refer to the saven rainbow colours constituting sunlight. By the phrase ‘Bhāratīṣa hari harātmanē’, Dīkṣitar praised the sun as the representation of the trinity — Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Mahēśvara. He is also capable of conferring pleasures of the mundane world as well as salvation - Bhaktimukti vītarānanatmanē’.

2. Candra

The kṛti on the second planet, moon, is set to Asāvēri rāga Matya tāla, which is the second among the Śūlādi Sapta tālas. The commencing word ‘Candram bhaja mānasa’ calling upon the mind pray to moon emphasizes the latter’s strong influence on the human mind. In fact, the term ‘mati’ stands for both the moon and the mind. The moon is said to have been born out of Virāṭ Purusa’s mind and Dīkṣitar refers to this aspect in the words ‘Virāṇamano Jananam’. Asāvēri is a very soft rakti rāga, protraying Karuṇa rasa and is eminently suited for the hymn on the moon, whom Dīkṣitar describes to be pleasant and tranquil like the saint’s heart (Sādhu hṛdaya sadrśam). Terms like subhākaram and Indra sahōdaram allude to the planet’s birth in the ocean of milk.

3. Aṅgāraka (Kuja)

The kṛti on the third planet, Aṅgāraka or Kuja is set to Surati rāga and Rūpaka tāla, the third tāla among the śūlādi sapta tālas. Despite the phrase ‘Maṅgalavaram Aṅgārakam āśrayāmyahāmi,’

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Mangalavarām is really not considered auspicious. Again surati rāga is one sung for Mangalam; still

nobody teaches this rāga directly to the students and in this way this rāga is also amaṅgala. The selection

of this rāga which is at once maṅgala and amaṅgala for a song on this graha which is also maṅgala and

amaṅgala at the same time is a masterstroke of Dīkṣitara's genius. In contrast to other Śūlādi-sapta-tālās,

Rūpaka tāla begins with Drutam followed by Laghu. The use of this time beat with inauspicious vilakṣaṇa

for compositions on this amaṅgala graha also reveals Dīkṣitar's skill and imagination as a composer.

Aṅgaraka is generally picturized as ruddy in complexion and dressed in red and fierce-eyed. Dīkṣ

itar too describes him as Rakitāṅgam, Raktāmbaradidaram and Raktanētram. As a martial planet, he is

said to wear Śakti and Śūla (Śakti Śūlādhāram).

4. Buddha

The krti on the fourth planet Buddha starts with the words ‘Budhamāśrayāmi’ and is set of Nāṭ

akuranji rāga and Jhampa tāla, the fourth among the Śūlādi-sapta-tālas. It is replete with numerous soft

terms and the mood of the rakti rāga Nāṭakuranji admirably suits its diction.

5. Bṛhaspati (Guru)

The krti on the fifth planet, Bṛhaspati, starts with the words ‘Bṛhaspatē Tārāpatē’ and is set to

Athāna rāga and Triputa tāla the next in Śūlādi-sapta-tāla series. Astrologically, Guru is considered a very

beneficial planet capable of getting rid of all doṣas and ending all miseries while Athāna itself means

getting free from imprisonment or in other words getting rid of the fetters of Saṁsāra. This rāga portrays

adbhuta and vīra rasās. The chobic of this rāga admirable suits signing such sāhitya phrases as Mahābalavibhō,

Gishpate, Jagatraya guro, etc.

In praising Guru, Dīkṣitar has employed such expressions as Mahābalō vibhō (of great strength),

Jagatraya quro (preceptor of the three worlds), śubha lakṣaṇa (handsome) and Jarādi varjita (young).

Dīkṣitar also hails him as surācārya (teacher of the Dēvas) adored by Dēvēndra himself.

(Mahendradhyupāsitakrītē) and praised by Viṣṇu (Madhavadi vinuta).

6. Śukra

The krti on the sixth planet, Śukra starts with the words Śrī Śukrabhagavantam and is set to

Phāraẓ rāga and Āṭa tāla, the sixth among the Śūlādi Sapta tālas. The Sāhitya is replete with many

astrological items. Actually, Śukra is Rākṣasa guru accepted as one of the Navagrahās. The use of a

deśīya rakti rāga, has significance. In fact Phāraẓ is a foreign rāga adopted into the Carnatic music fold.

It is highly appropriate that Dīkṣitar has employed this rāga for his song on this Graha who is the Rakṣasa

guru and also kāraka for kalatra, martial happiness and last, but not the least, for musical abilities.

7. Śani

The krti on the seventh planet, Śani, starts with the words ‘Divākara tanujam’ and is set to

yadukulakāmbōdhi rāga and Ēka tāla, the seventh (last) among the śūlādi Sapta tālas. Yadukulakāmbōdhi

is common in the folk music of most countries. Songs in this rāga are invariably sung in Vilamba kāla or

slow tempo and its mood also fits in well with the notoriously slow movement of the Graha.

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Rāhu and Kētu (Cāyā graha)

The last two grahas, Rāhu and Kētu are different from the other seven in that they are minor planets or Cāyā grahas as is evident from the fact that unlike the others, these two Grahas do not have any days of the week named after them (Bhānuvāra, Sōmavāra, Mangalavāra, Budhavāra, Guruvāra, Śukravāra and Śanivāra). Nor do they own houses in the Indian astrological system of 12 houses. It is believed that these two Cāyāgrahas do not have any individual status of their own but share the same body. Dīkṣitar has chosen a different category of rāgas and vilakṣana tāla for his compositions on these two Grahas with a view to pinpointing the variations in their nature.

The songs 'Smarāmyaham' on Rāhu and 'Mahāsuram' on Kētu are set in two Pratimadhyama rāgas in contrast to the compositions on the other seven grahas, which are all in Śuddhamadhyama rāgas. Smarāmyahain is in Ramāmanōharī (Rāmapriya) rāga and Mahāsuram in Cāmaram (Śanmukhapriyā) rāga. Pratimadhyama rāgas are not of ancient origin; they have come into vogue only in comparatively recent times. Again, the tāla of these compositions is Rūpaka, which is the vilakṣana tāla in the Śūlādi sapta tāla series, (also used for the Navagraha krti on Aṅgāraka).

It can thus be seen that Muthuswāmy Dīkṣitar has not only taken pains to choose appropriate rāgas for his compositions on each of the nine grahas, but also used all the śūlādi sapta tālas enumerated in the well-known tāla aphorism for his Navagraha krtis.

The Navagraha krtis belong to a very special category from both the lyrical, musical points of view. While their sāhitya is monument with frequent glimpses of Hindū religion and philosophy, notably astrology, the musical moiety reveals Dīkṣitara's acclaimed excellence as a composer. They stand out as living examples of an original musical tradition which has a bearing at once on both theoretical and practical aspects and are the epitome of melody as well as highly sophisticated musical embellishment.

D. Pañcabhūta Krtis

This aspect of 'Pañcabhūtās' is very often mentioned in his compositions, particularly on Śiva and Dēvi (Śakti). To cite a few examples, Dīkṣitar sings that :

1. Śiva is 'Pañcabhūta prapañcātmaka'

(Mahādēvēna - Dēvamanōhari - Ādi)

2. He is 'Pañcabhūtamaya prapañca vibhu'

(Jambūpata - Yamunakalyāṇī - Rūpaka)

3. Śiva is 'Anilākāśa bhūmi salilagni prakāśa'

(Śrī Kālaḥastīśa - Husēni - Jhampa)

4. Dēvi has the 'Kṣityādi tattvanta rūpa'

(Pratyaṅgira Bhagavati - Nadanāmakriya - Rūpaka)

5. This is 'Bhūmi jalajnanila gaganabhūta pañcakadhare'

(Śrī Mīnākṣī — Gowri — Rūpaka)

Even Lord Śubrahmaṇya and Lord Gāṇapati has been attributed with similar praises by Dīkṣitar.

In all the Pañcabhūta Kṛtis, Dīkṣitar has beautifully woven the Linga Mudra into the Sāhitya.

Prthivī Linga at Kāñcīpuram

'Cintaya mānda mūla kandam' in Bhairavī (Rūpaka) has been composed by Dīkṣitar in praise

of this Linga. Kāñcīpuram has a shrine for Lord Ēkāmranātheswara under a mango tree. Great sanctity is

attached to this place on account to the fact that Śiva appeared before Goddess Pārvatī under this tree,

when She performed to win His love here on the banks of the Vēgavatī river. This temple of Ēkāmranātha

is mentioned in the hymns of Jñānasambandar (seventh century)21. The texts of the shrine's major myth

often refer to this Prthivī Linga as Saikata (made up of sand). According to the priests, both these terms

refer to the sandy soil, in which the mango tree three is rooted. Both Vaiṣṇavite texts and Śaivite texts

speak to this myth.

A legend22 in Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇā says Śiva and Pārvatī once quarreled after a game of dice and

Śiva cursed Dēvī to the black, to have a terrible form and to have mis haped eyes (three eyes). By the

grace of Viṣṇu at Kāñcī, she got back her beautiful eyes and came to be known as Kāmakṣī. Viṣṇu also

advised her to worship the sand Linga there, in order to win the hand of Śiva. When Śiva wanted to test

Dēvī's devotion by causing intense heat of sun, Viṣṇu crated a mango tree to shade her. The mango tree

too was burnt by Śiva. Then Viṣṇu cooled Dēvī with rays of nectar from his moon form (Pūrṇa Candra

kṛtī) and created a lake of 'sudha' (nectar). So the mango tree grew again and bore fruit because of that

lake. Devī continued to worship Śiva Linga at its base. Thereby, the mango tree became the sthala vrikṣa

and Śiva came to be called Ēkāmreśwara at Kāñcī. Another myth of Kāñcī Mahātmya says Dēvī covered

Śiva's eyes in sport and the world was plunged in darkness and Pralaya. Dēvī's body grew dark for

causing this destruction deluge. Dēvī was subsequently born and brought up as the adopted daughter of

sage Kātyāyana at Badarikāśrama. She was advised by her fosterfather to carry some water and sand from

river Ganges turned milky and the sand became a Linga. Dēvī found Kāñcī to be that sacred spot and

engaged herself in severe Tapas. Śiva caused mighty floods by sending Gangā. Dēvī embraced the Śiva

Linga to save herself from the flood and finally won the grace of her husband Śiva, She regained her

golden colour and Śiva again took her to his seat. They were married again and Viṣṇu performed the

marriage.

Appu Lingam at Tiruvānaikkā

The kṛti on Appu Linga, 'Jambūpata' is set to a befitting Rāga Yamuna Kalyāṇī since Yamunā,

signifying water, is one of the celestial rivers brought down to earth for the benefit of the poeple. Many

more such terms indicating water can be found in this Kṛti, like : Nijanandāmṛtabhodham,

ambujasanadivinādha, Ambudhi, Gaṅgā, Kā vērī, Yamunā, Sarvakarunāsudhāsindho, Gaṅgendo — which

are used as different epithets of Lord Śiva.

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Through the word ‘Ambudhi’ sounds out of place among the rivers - Ambudhi Gaṅgā Kā vērī Yamunā Kambu kāntyakhilāndēśwarī ramana - a cursory glance at Śiva Sahasranāmaṁ would contain that it happens to be one of the Namāvalts of Śiva.

The Sthala Purāṇā says that Brahmā, the Creator, lost his power of creation when he fell in love with his own daughter due to the Māyā or Śiva. So he wandered on earth worshipping at all the shrines of Śiva and bathing in holy waters, until he reached Gajāranya (Tiruvānaikkā) and received ‘knowledge’ (Jñānam). He performed Tapas there and Śiva, pleased with him, appeared before Brahmā in the disguise of Dēvī and blessed him with the power to create. Brahmā assumed the same form of Śakti in which Śiva had granted him the boon, and celebrated a festival in honour of Śiva, in the form of ‘Amṛita’. Dīkṣitar refers to this Paurāṇic myth in a subtle way when he says, ‘Ambujāsanādi sakala dēva namana’ and prays for ‘Ānandāmrita bodha’.

The nature of Śiva in the form of Dēvī here is full of mercy, kindness and love towards his devotee, Brahmā. Even to this day, the afternoon Pūjā at this place is performed by the priest dressed in a lady’s attire, perhaps signifying the ‘Śakti rūpī Brahmā’ worshipping ‘Shakti rūpī Śiva’. This motherly disposition of Śiva has been beautifully brought out in Dīkṣitar's Kṛti on this Deity. Dīkṣitar says, the Deity like a mother, is capable of ‘Hṛdaya tapōpa samāna’ (Pacifying all the burning problems of human beings) Sarva jīva dayākara (kind to all creatures), Sarva karuṇā sudha sindho (an ocean of mercy to all), Śaraṇāgata vatsala Artha bandhō (a resort for all those who seek protection from Him) etc.

The other name for this sacred place, Samajatavi, is also found in the kṛti ‘Samjatavi nilaya Swamyaho’. Śiva is in the form of a udbhava Liṅga here in this place, also called Samajtavi (the forest of elephants). It is due to Pārvatī’s prayers that Śiva took the form of Appu Liṅga (Pārvataja prārthitaliṅga vibho). Pārvatī here is the Creative Mistress of the Universe, ‘Akhilānandēśwarī’, who daily worships the liṅga at this shrine from the waters of the Tīrtha, during midday pūjā.

Jambukēśwara, also called Tiruvānaikkā (the forest of the elephants) is situated three miles north of Tiruchi, on the northern bank of the river Kā vērī. The Appu Liṅga in the sanctum sanctorum is aptly called so because the Liṅga water are such that even if the water is baled out it soon collects around the Liṅga. It is called as Jambukēśwar on accound of the fact that there was a forest of Jambū trees in the vicinity of the temple.

According to Padma Purāṇa, in this forest Śiva appeared under Jambū tree, because of a saint who swalroed the seed of the Jambū tree after offering the fruit to the Lord Śiva. The seed sprouted and became a tree in the body of the saint and on his request, Śiva took his place as a Liṅga under this tree. Henceforth, he came to be called as Jambūpatī, Jambūnātha, Jamhu Liṅgā etc. The place is hallowed by antiquity, by Sthala Purāṇa and by the visits of Appar, Saṁbandar and other celebrated Nāyaṉārs, Ādi Śaṅkarācārya and other great poets and saints.

The temple has five Prākāras prescribed in the Āgamic texts like Kāraṇāgama. It is also under Āgamic type of worship. Dīkṣitar in his Kṛti ‘Akhilānandēśwarī’, the consort of Lord Jambukeśwars, mentions that Devī is ‘Āgamasampradāys nipune’. Besides, Lord Jambukēśwara is also said to have done ‘Jñānōpadēśam’ to Devī here. For ages this, place has been a place of worship of Lord Jambuliṅga,

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Goddess Akhilānandēśwari and also Lord Narāyaṇa (Lord reposing on water — Nārāyaṇam).

Akhilānandēśwari as earth Goddess confers bountiful prosperity to the devotees. Lord Jambukēswara

being associated with water, is the Lord who gives ‘prāṇa’ or lifeforce to the humanity, for water is

symbolized as essentially ‘Prāṇa’. Viṣṇu is the protective God in Hindū scriptures and he too rests here on

the lifeforce of water as Nārāyaṇa. The two Gods and the Goddess here, associated with this temple, have

been those who bestow benefit on the people. So, in a very befitting way, Dīkṣitar praises the merciful,

kind and bountiful nature of Lord Jambunātha and Akhilānandāswarī.

Tējas Liṅga at Tiruvannāmalai

Aruṇācalēśwara is the Tējas Liṅga representing Agni tattva (fire) among the Pañca Bhūta kṣētrās.

Lord Śiva assumes the form of a hill here, at Tiruvannamalai, also known as Aruṇācalam. The Sthala

Purāṇas cite that Pārvatī did penance here to win the love of Lord Śiva in meditation. During her penance,

she killed the demon Mahiṣāsura assuming the form of Durgā. Later, when Pārvatī saw Śiva in the form of

Aruṇācalēśwara, she was again taken to His left side by Lord Śiva as Apitakucāamba (Dēvi whose breasts

are not drunk). Thus the entire hill is considered to be the Śiva Liṅga. At the every beginning of the song

(Aruṇācala nātham smarāmi Aniśam Apīta kucāmba samatam — Śāraṅga — Rūpaka) we are reminded to

the legend.

The above event is celebrated in all the Śiva temples on Kārtikkai day, by lighting a column of fire

in front of the temple. The Tiruvannāmalai legend says the once Brahmā and Viṣṇu quarrelled as to who

was superior of the two. Śiva appeared before them in the form of a brilliant column of light and said that

whosoever could find the limit of this light, i.e. the crown or the foot, would be the victor. Brahmā

promptly assumed the form of a swan and flew up, while Viṣṇu became a boar and borrowed into the

earth to find the foot. When neither to them could succeed, they realized their folly and bowing to Śiva,

they prayed to Him to be permanently present in that place in the form of a Liṅga. The symbolic fire lit on

Kārtikai day at Tiruvannāmalai can be seen for miles and it burns all night. This Noti, being the fire aspect

of Aruṇacaljyswara, has been appropriately included in the sāhitya of Dīkṣitara's Krti on this Deity. Dīkṣ

itar says Aruṇācalēśwara is, ‘Tarunāditya koṭi koṭi saṅkāśa’ (as bright as crores of mid-day suns), and

also, ‘aprakṛta tejomaya lingam’ (has assumed the special form of a Liṅga in the form of Light)’,

‘Supradīpa’ (the light which blazes or enlightens), and ‘Swaradīpa’ jita somāgni patoṅagam’ (one whose

light outshines the brightness of moon, fire and sun). The Tējas tattva (fire) is in the middle of the order of

five Bhūtas. It forms the way through which lord Śiva can be known or ‘Realized’, by the ‘jīva’ (man)

from the visible ‘sthūla’ forms of earth and water to ‘sūkṣma’ (invisible) form of Vāyu and Ākāśa. The

Kartikkai Dīpam also signifies that the one who sees the light of lights (Śiva) that is burning in the

chambers of one’s heart through constant meditation attains immoratality. Dīkṣitar never fails to bring out

the popular beliefs about the Kṣētras he visited — for example the popular belief that, one would attain

Mokṣa or salvation by merely being born at Tiruvārūr — Jananet kaivalya prada (Vīravasanta — Vīravasanta

— Ādī) or just by meditation at Aruṇācalam — Smaraṇāt kaivalya prada (Aruṇācalanātham — Śāraṅga

— Rūpaka). Lord Śiva is selfefulg ent and jyotiswarūpa here, represented by the big light on the hill. The

belief is that ‘bāna’ (firework) that is sent towards the light on the hill is ‘Jīva’ or individual soul. Once the

veil of Avidyā (ignorance) that covers the individual soul is burnt by the ‘bana’ (firework), i.e. the fire of

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meditaion and Vicāra (thinking), the individual soul merges with the Supreme soul or the Light of the Lights.28 Dīkṣitar also cities the Paurāṇic episode that took place here of Vīra Subrahmanya preaching Tārakamantra to Lord Śiva, (Vīra Guruguha tara prasaṅgam). While telling Śiva is ‘Śārṅgadhara’, Dīkṣitar beautifully brings out the rāga mudrā (refer to this episode in the following section on Ākāśa Linga at Cidambaram).

Vāyu Linga at Śrī Kālahasti

‘Śrī Kālahastīśa’ on the presiding deity at Śrī Kālahasti representing the element Vāyu, is in Huśēni (Jhampa). Traditional history unravels an episode that as a result of a quarrel between Ādiśēśa and Vāyu, three chips of mount Mēru got separated form the mountain and fell dour to the earth. One of the pieces fell at Śrī Kālahasti, which came to be known as Dakṣiṇa Meru and Dakṣiṇe Kailāsa. Dīkṣitar calls this deity as ‘Samirakara’ (one with the form of wind), and ‘Dakṣiṇa Kailāsa vasa’ (One who dwells in Dakṣiṇa Kailāsa). The flickering list in the interior sanctum is said to prove the existence of Vāyu Linga. In the Sthala Purāṇas, this deity is said to have been worshipped by three animals - a spider through spinning as web over the Linga to prevent the leaves from falling on it; by a snake through placing a hood on the Linga and by an elephant through washing the Linga. All the three animals are said to have obtained salvation.29 The Sthala Purāṇa narrates the names of the spider as ‘Śrī’, the serpent as ‘Kala’ and the elephant as ‘Hasti’, these three animals together forming the name ‘Śrī Kālahasti’. The main Linga is described to be in the shape of a trunk of an elephant with tusks on other side, and a figure of spider at the bottom. When from the top the Linga presents the appearance of a snake with five hoods. So the Linga contains the vestiges of all the above mentioned three animals.

Ākāśa Liṅga at Cidambaram

The worship of Śiva in association with the fifth element, ether (Ākāśa) is practised at the sacred shrine of Natarāja at Cidambaram. The Naṭarāja form of Śiva is also an exqisite symbol of dancing.

Saivāgamas describe saven varieties of Tāṇḍava Nrtyās said to have been performed by Lord Śiva, each variety being a speciality of a particular temple, depending on its hoary tradition. The seven varieties of Tāṇḍava are known by the names of Ānanda Tāṇḍava, (The Dance of Bliss), Sāndhyā Tāṇḍava (The Evening Dance), Umā Tāṇḍava (The Dance with Umā), Gouri Tāṇḍava (The Dance with Gowri), Kālikā Tāṇḍva (The Dance with Kāli), Tripura Tāṇḍva (The Dance of Destruction of the Three cities) and Samhāra Tāṇḍva (The Dance of Destruction). Of all the forms of dancing images of Śiva, the Ānanda Tāṇḍava image is more widely worshipped than others. It is this image that is enshrined in the great temple at Cidambaram and on whom Dīkṣitar has composed several songs. The Krti ‘Ānanda natana prakāśa’ in rāga Kēdara belongs not only to the group of Paiṅcabhūta Liṅga Kritis, but also emphasises the interpretaiton of Śiva as a Master Dancer.

According to the most commonly accepted Sthalapurāṇā legend, in Dārukavana, the sages had grown very proud of their profound learning. Śiva wanted to teach them a lesson. So he took the form of Bhikṣāṭana mūrti and was escorted by Viṣṇu in the grab of Mōhinī. Rṣis and Rṣis, patnīs got infatuated with Mōhinī and Śiva respectively and abandoned their hermitages. Later on, the Rṣis realized the trick

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played by Śiva. In order to destroy him, the Ṛsis performed Abhicāra homa, from which a tiger, an

antelope and a serpent rose to attack Śiva. Śiva killed the tiger and wore its skin and the antelope

(Śārṅgadhara) and serpent were worn by Śiva as ornaments on his hand and neck respectively. Finally,

the Ṛsis sent the Apasmāra puruṣa himself on Śiva. Śiva placed his divine foot on him, pinioning him to

the ground and danced a glorious Blissful dance, witnessed by all the gods and goddess. When Lord Viṣ

ṇu narrated this to Ādiśeṣa, the latter also wished to see that dance, and performed Tapas. In response to

this Tapas, Ādiśeṣa was born as Patañjali (pat + añjali; he is supposed to have fallen in the form of the

baby into the folded hands of Anasūyā who was praying for a son) and in Vyāghrapāda's company awaited

the advent of Lord Śiva and performance of his Tāṇḍava.

Vyāghrapāda was a sage who prayed to Lord Śiva and aspired for possessing strong and swift tiger feet

(Vyāghra pāda), which would enable him to procure all the available flowers in the forest for the Lord at

Cidambaram. Lord Naṭarāja blessed him. As a result of severe penance later, he was also favoured with

witnessing of the dancing of Naṭarāja at Cidambaram.

E. Kṛtis on Śiva

The Number 'five' seems to be quite significant in regard to Lord Śiva. Vedas and Purāṇas

describe Śiva as Pañcamukha (One with five faces). His Mantra 'Namahśivāya' consists of five letters,

popularly known as Pañcākṣara Mantra. Śiva as cosmic Dancer Naṭarāja is the embodiment and manifes-

tation of divine energy in pañcā krityās (five activities) — Śr̥ṣṭi (creation), Sthiti (maintenance), Saṃhāra

(destruction), Tīrōdhāna (concealment), and Anugraha (favour). According to tradition, Śaṅkara brought

from Kailāsa five Liṅgas and consecrated them at five holy places - Muktiliṅga at Kēdāra, Varaliṅga at

Nīlakaṇṭha Kṣētra of Nepal. Mōkṣaliṅga at Cidambaram, Bhōgaliṅga at Śrīṅgerī and Yogaliṅga at

Kumbakonam. These are only a few examples. A lover of traditions that he is, Dīkṣitar also follows

number 'five' in his Kṛtis on Śiva. He has composed on the five elemental forms of Lord Śiva as Pr̥thvī,

Appu, Tejas, Vāyu and Ākāśa and also on a group of five Liṅga - Hāṭakeśwarī, Valmikēśwara,

Siddheśwara, Acalēśwara and Ānandēśwara - ensined in Tyāgarāja temple of Tīruvārūr. For example in,

Dīkṣitar's compositions Śiva is praised as :

1. Pañcākṣara mantra (Rūpam) - embodiment of Pañcākṣari mantra

(Ēkāmranātham—Gamaka Kriya—Ādī)

2. Pañcabhūta prapañcāmakena-one who is the embodiment of the world created

with five elements

(Mahādēvana—Dēvamanoharī—Ādī)

3. Pañcamahā pāpōpaśamanēna-one who is the retriever of man from the five great

sins

(Mahādēvana—Dēvamanoharī—Ādī)

4. Pañchānanam-five faced

(Paśupatiśvaram—Śivapantuvarali—Ādī)

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5. Pañcanada kṣetra Prakāśita-Praṇatārthihara of Tiruvayaru

(Praṇatārti haram—Nāyaki—Ādi)

6. Śrītyādipañcakṛtyākarānēna-Śiva who is the cause of the five activities of śrṣṭi, sthiti,

laya, tīrodhāna and anugraha

(Tyāgarājana samrakṣitōham—Sālaga Bhairavi - Ādi)

7. Śabdādi pañca tanmātradhara-Śiva is responsible for the five tanmātrās.

(Siddhiśwarāya-Nīlāmbari-Chapu)

8. Bhāva pañca kōśa vyatīriktena-Śiva who forms the limits of the five kośas of the

human body.

(Ānandēśvarena - Ānanda Bhairavī † Chapu) etc. Etc.

Śiva is generally worshipped in the form of Linga (phallus) fixed on a pedestal. It has come to be

recognized as a perfect symbol of the formless, all-pervading Diving Being, unlimited by time and space.

In Skanda Purāṇa it is said 'Sky is the shaft and the earth is the pedestal; all gods dwell in the Linga; since

the whole creation finds its origin and rest there, it receives the name Linga'. The five places (Panca

Bhūta Liṅga Sthalas) where the famous and most sacred shrines for the five Liṅgas have been built,

represent the apex of five triangled figures, which represent the five Bhūtas (elements), of which the entire

world is made up.

The five faces representing Śiva—Tatpuruṣa, Aghōra, Vāmadēva, Ṣadyōjāta and Īśāna-are collectively known as pañca Brahmās by Śaivāgamas.

Āgama is a term used for the science which lays down the rules of worship of the various deities

like Śiva, Viṣṇu, Dēvi, Gaṇapati and other divinities of the Hindū pantheon. It prescribes the rules

regarding the architectural design of the temple, the icon, the method of temple workship and rituals and

aspects like pageants, procession and festivals which are common annual and periodical features in all

Hindū temples. The different Āgamas like Śaivāgama, Vaiṣṇavāgamas, Śāktyāgamas, etc. have the

above detials regarding Śiva, Viṣṇu, Dēvi, etc. Whatever may be the Āgama, they are closely linked with

yogic and tāntric principles, knowledge (jñāna) and fulfilment.

Viṣṇu Dharmōttara Purāṇa describes Ṣadyojāta which faces west to be of pearl-like colour of the

full moon and represent the Earth (pṛthvīattva), Vāmadeva faces north, has red colour and represents

water (Jala). aghōra which faces in dark blue and represents Fire (agni). tatpuruṣa faces east, has golden

colour and represents air (Vāyu). Īśāna facing upwards has crystal white colour and represents sky

(Ākāśa).

Religious scriptures mention that the five faces of Śiva imbibing the five elements take their abode

in the five 'cakras' in the human body, which also contain the same five elements — Ṣadyōjāta dwelling in

Mūlādhāra, Vāmadēva in Maṇipūraka, Aghōra in Swādhisṭhāna, Tatpuruṣa in Anāhata and Īśāna in

Viśuddhi cakras. Hence, the place, where the Pṛthvī, Appu, Agni, Vāyu and Ākāśa Liṅga of Śiva are

worshipped, are all related to one another to form a unit.

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Yōga and Upaniṣads speak of realization of the highest truth. The path of this realization is

explained in Upaniṣadic passages. For example, in Taittirīya Upaniṣad a passage says, ‘From Him, that is,

the Ātman, is born Ākāśa (space), from Ākāśa Vāyu (wind), from Vāyu Agni (fire), from Agni Apa

(water), and from Apa Prithvi’ which carries weighty meaning.35 It traces the evolution of the great

elemental powers which brought forth both the external and internal universes, that is, the world that is

outside man as well as the one that is within him. It also places the elements in order of evolution and what

is more, derives them ultimately from the Supreme Ātman. Yōga maintains that if the mind could reach the

‘Ṣatchakras’ passing from one another till it reaches the Ājñā Cakra, then the reverse process will take

place leading to the realization of the Ātman. When the Yōgī is able to do so, the element of earth will lose

itself in the higher one of water, that of water in the element of fire, that of the fire in the element of wind

and that of wind in the Element of Ākāśa i.e., the space which will finally lose itself in the Creator — the

Ātman.35 Purāṇās narrate that Śiva while dancing at Cidambaram as Naṭarāja stirs the Space which

imbibes in itself the other four elements of wind, fire, water and earth, into activity; consequently these

elements make themselves manifest and urged by His Divine Power assume the form of universe of ‘names

and forms’.

F. Other Temple Deities

Dīkṣitar refers to the three aspects of Dēvi in some of his Kṛtis :

1. Samasta Viṣvōtpatti Sthiti Layādi Kāle |

(Śrī Nīlōtpala Nāyikē ! Nārī Rīti Gouḷa ! Rūpaka)

2. Māyāmaya Viśvōtpatti Sthiti Laya Kāraṇyaḥ |

(Nīlōtpalāmbi Kāyaḥ ! Māyā Mālava Gouḷa ! Chapu)

3. Samasta Viśvodaya Sthit Laya Mūla Prakṛita |

(Namastē Paradevātā — Dāvaraṇji — Tisra Eka)

The following are a few such examples in which the consort’s name is underlined for easy

recognition:

1. Abhayāmbā Jagadamba Rakṣatu

………. Īśa Mayūranātha rañjanī |

(Kalyāṇī ! Ādi)

2. Paradevatā Bṛhatkuchāmbā .....

Mahālinga Mōhinī |

(Dhanyāsi — Āadi)

Musical Analysis of Temple Kritis - III

3. Mīnākṣī Me mudam dēhi ......

Mahādēva Sundarēśa priya|

(Gamak a Kriya t Ādī)

4. Bṛhadamba Madamba .....

Mahadēva yuvati|

(Bhānumatī t Ādī)

5. Balāmbikē Pāhi .....

Śaṅkaranārāyaṇa Manorañjanī

(Manōrañjani t Mathya)

6. Jñānāmbikē Pālaya māṁ ........

Konkanēśa Lalāna|

(Sēnagrani - Tisra Eka)

7. Ēhi Annapūrṇā ........

viśvēśa manōllāsinī

(Punnāga varāli – Ādī)

8. Nīlōtpalāmbāṁ Bhajare ........

Vīdhi Viṭaṅka Tyāgarājantaragaṁ|

(Rīta Goula - Chapu)

9. Śrī Maṅgalāmbikāṁ ........

Kuṁbhēśa manōllāsinī|

(Ghaṇṭa - Jhampa)

10. Dharmasaṁvardhinī ........

Pañcanadīśōllāsinī

(Madhyamāvatī – Rūpaka)

11. Kāśī Viśālākṣīṁ ........

Kāśī Viśvēśvara manōllāsinīṁ|

(Gamak a Kriya - Rupaka)

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12. Amba Nilāyatākṣī .........

Śiva Kāyārohaneśollāsinī

(Nīlāmbarī – Ādī)

13. Arunācala nātham .........

Apita Kucamba sametam|

(Saranga - Rūpaka)

14. Cidambara Natarāja mūrtim .........

Śivakāmī patim

(Tanukrti – Chapu)

15. Śāli Vatiśwaram .........

Śaila Suta Kāntimatī līlām|

(Dēvagāndhārī – Ādī)

16. Tyāgarāja Virājate .........

Nilōtpala Nāyika Sahavāso|

(Athana – Rūpaka)

Dīkṣitar repeatedly refers to this highest objective of TāntriC Sādhana, i.e. Mōkṣa in a number of Kr̥tis. A few instances are given below :

1. Ambikā is the bestower of the final liberation – ‘Samasta Kaivalya pradē’

(Śaila Rāja Kumārī – Śaila Dēśākṣī – Ādī)

2. Goddess Annapūrṇā is adept in blessing Her devotees with deliverence, which is the noblest of the four puruṣārthas – ‘Trayātīta Mōkṣa prada Cature’

(Annapūrṇe - Sāma – Ādī)

3. Dēvī Mahiṣāsura Mardhinī confers pleasure here on earth as well as Mōkṣa – ‘Ihapara bhōga Mokṣa Pradāyini’

(Mahiṣāsura Mardhini - Goula - Kh. Chapu)

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201

4. Dēvī will bless her devotees with all the

four kinds of deliverence .i.e. Sālōkya, Sārūpya, Sāyujya and Sāmīpya -

Salōkyādi mukti dāyinī'

(Trilōcana Mōhinīm - Bhairavi - Ādi)

5. Dēvi is fond of being worshipped accroding to

Vāma mārga,

'Vāma mārga prīyakari'

(Mātaṅgī - Ramaṁanōharī - Rūpaka)

6. Goddess Abhayāṁba has been praised as the one to

be realized through the famous 'pañca makāra's

the five methods professed by the secret cult

of Vāmācāra.37

Pañca makārayai'

(Abhayāṁbikāyai - Yadukula Kāṁbōdhi - Rūpaka)

In his songs on Nīlōtpalāṁba of Tiruvārūr, where the Tāntraic worship and rituals were strictly

followed, Dīkṣitar emphasises the relationship of this Goddess to Kaula Mārga.

1. Goddess Nīlōtpalāṁba is followed by the Kaula sect.

'Kaulinyāyai'

(Nīlōtpalāṁbikāyai - Kedāra Gaula - Ādi)

2. Goddess Nīlōtpalāṁba is praised as Yōginī

belonging to Kaula sect.

'Kula Kaula mārga yōginyāḥ'

(Nīlōtpalāṁbikāyāḥ - Gaula - Rūpaka)

She is 'Rīti Kaulini' i.e. belongs to Kaulas.

(Nīlōtpalāṁbaṁ - Rīti Gaula - Chapu)

Dīkṣitar, Kritis bear excellent testimony to his familiarity and vast branch of knowledge in Mantrākṣ

aras. The several bījākṣaras like Oṁ, Hrīṁ, Śrīṁ etc. occur repeatedly in them. In the following examples.

bījākṣaras have been underlined for ready reference.

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(a) ‘Oṁ Kāriṇī’, Dēvī is the embodiment of Oṅkāra (Annapūrṇe - Sāma - Ādī)

(b) Hriṁkāra Sarasiruha Jhaṅkāra Bhramarī'

(Himācala Kumāriṁ - Jhaṅkāra Bharanari - Rūpaka)

She is the queen bee buzzing around the lotus of Hriṁ Kāra.

(c) ‘Hriṁkāra bījākāra vadana’

(Śrī Kāntimatim - Dēśi Siṁhārava t Ādī)

Hriṁkāra symbolises her face.

(d) Śrī Kamalāmbike (Śrī Rāga - Kh. Eka)

This Navāvarṇa maṅgala Krti not only starts with ‘Śrī’, the bījākṣara, but even the name of the Rāga itself is Śrī.

(e) Śrī Madhurāmbike - Kalyāṇī t Kh. Chapu) Śrī being the mantra of Mahālakṣmī, the auspicious one, it has been used in innumerable Krtis, particularly as the starting syllable.

(F) Śrī duṁ Durge t (Śrī Rañjanī t - Kh. Ēka)

Here ‘Śrī’ and ‘duṁ’ are two different bīja mantras.

(G) ‘Ārādhayāmi Śatatāṁ gaṁ gaṇapatiṁ souḥ Śravaṇam’

(Śrī Rāja Rājēśwariṁ - Madhyamāvatī - Rūpaka) Dīkṣitar declares here that he always prays to Gaṇpati, whose bijamantrā is gaṁ and to Lord Subrahmanya, whose bīja mantra is Souḥ.

Thus, the various Krtis of Dīkṣitar on different details acquire the sacred stature of Māntric scripture, whose efficacy stands out when sung and repeated with devotion and faith. Some instances during his life- time, like bringing welcome showers to the parched lands near Sāttur (Ānandāmṛita Kaṛṣiṇi - Amṛitavarṣiṇī - Ādī); obtaining timely assistance for meeting his basic needs, unasked, after praying to Mahā Lakṣmī, (Hiraṇmayīṁ - Lalitā - Rūpaka); curing his disciple Tambiappa of disposed planets in his horoscope and teaching him to sing them in order to propitiate these planets (Navagraha Krtis); would place his compositions in a unique category belonging to a higher plane. They are not mere musical compositions to be just heard, enjoyed and forgotten, but to be contemplated and sung with faith and devotion as one would do in the case of Mantras.

The fact that the lores like Lalitā Sahasranāma, Lalitā Triśati and Soundarya Laharī greatly inspired Dīkṣitar is evident from the close parallellism between these lores and many of his Kr̥tis.

In the first instance, let us consider Lalitā sahasranāma, from which Dīkṣitar seems to have drawn the maximum number of Nāmāvalis for his Devī Kr̥tis. A few words about Lalitā Sahasranāma would be essential to understand its significance in Mantra śāstra/Śrividyā. Lalitā Sahasranāma occures in Brahmāṇda purāṇa and the nāmāvalis stem from the Upaniṣadic idea underlying the statement ‘Ēkaṁ sad vipra Bahudhā Vadanti’ (the great Truth in one but variously described).

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203

As already mentioned earlier, according to the Tantra Śāstra, each Dēvatā is worshipped as a