1. Music its Form Function and Value Swami Prajnanananda MRML

MUSIC:

ITS FORM, FUNCTION

AND VALUE

by

Swāmi Prajñānānanda, D.Litt.

Munshiram Manoharlal

Publishers Pvt. Ltd.

DEDICATED TO :

His Holiness

SRIMATSWĀMI GAMBHIRĀNANDA MAHĀRAJ,

the Vice-President of the Ramakrishna

Math and Mission, Belur,

With deep respect and regard

First Edition 1979

© 1979 Prajñānānanda, Swāmi

PUBLISHED BY MUNSHIRAM MANOHARLAL PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD.

61 RANI JHANSI ROAD NEW DELHI-110055 AND PRINTED

BY UNITED PRINTING CO., MAUJPUR, DELHI-110053

CONTENTS

Preface

vii

Introduction

xi

Chapter 1

A Study of Music

1

Definition—Primitive Music—Mythological Interpretation—Origin of Music—Sound is the Norm of Music—Science of Music—Indian Conception of the Sound—Sound—Music and Colour—Music—Philosophy of Colour—Evolution of Tone has created a History—Rhythm and Melody in Music—Fusion of Culture—Influence on Music—The Number-Souls of the Pythagorean—Music in the Vedic Time—Music in Classical Period—Schools of Music—Rāga-Ragital Scheme—Music in the Epics—Music is Dynamic—Problem of Music.

Chapter 2

Form of Music

54

What is Form of Music—Thoughts transformed into Forms—Psychological Necessity of Form—Psychological Aspects of Form—Different Musical Forms—Musical Ballads in Ancient Times—Types of Plainsongs—Development of Early Musical Form—Forms of Jāti and Grama Rāgas—Different Forms in the Time of Bharata—Form of Prabandha—Changing Phases of Forms of Rāgas.

Chapter 3

Function of Music

75

Dual Phase of Function—Music, Real and Ideal—Division of Function of Music—Function of Music and History—Function of Music in Primitive Time—In Prehistoric Time—In Classical Time—Occasional Phases of Music—Various Evolutions of Music—Mārga and Deshi Types of Music—Music, Abstract and Concrete—Ālāpa and Its Development—Gāna, Gīti and Sañgīta—Tone, Tune and Melody—Revival of Music—Evolution of Styles and Its Significance—Responsibilities of the Artistes and the Musicologists—Music, Static and Dynamic—Art and Beauty.

Chapter 4

Value of Music

105

Music and other Arts—Romain Rolland and Music—Language and Tune in Music—True Form of Art—Imagination in Art—Appreciation of Art—Work of Art and Aesthetics—Artistic Value and Aesthetic Value—Art and Value—Value, Subjective and Objective—Intuitive Perception.

viii

Music: its Form, Function and Value

of Value-Emotive Value and the Beautiful--Art and Beauty--Indian

View of Value--Indian View of Beauty--Rasa-theory in Bharata's

Nāṭyaśāstra and Bhoja's Sṛṅgāra-Prakāśa--Definition of Beauty--Kant

and Beauty--Croce on Art and Beauty--Aesthetic Feeling in Music--

Expression and Evocation of Emotion--Conclusion.

Appendix I

Heaven and Earth in Music

147

Appendix II

Value, Aesthetic and Psychology of Music

157

Bibliography

171

Index

177

PREFACE

Music: its Form, Function and Value is an outcome of the three

lectures, delivered at the Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi,

Uttar Pradesh. Now those lectures have sufficiently been ela-

borated and enriched by addition of a new chapter and new

materials and by Appendices.

Indian music is a systematic and methodical subject. So in

order to explore the materials and facts of music, based absol-

utely on historical records and findings, we should know the

process of study of music as well as the scientific and historical

method of enquiry into music or musical subject, which can be

said to be the research-work on music and mus'cology.

It is needless to mention that method of study of music and

method of research-work in music convey the same idea. The

field of study of music is vast, and it requires a spirit of love

and care. We find today a growing taste and burning thirst for

knowledge of acquiring records and genuine history of music as

well as real meaning and value of learning the art of music.

There are many materials of music which are yet unexplored,

and there are many Sanskrit treatises on music which are yet un-

published. But many of the books on music are available now and

many of the treasures on music are laid down in those books. It

is true that practical lessons on music are more valuable than

theoretical knowledge, but yet shāstras are essential to unfold

the mystery of sāadhanā. So we all the time admit that theory

and practice-shāstra and sāadhanā should go side by side to

complete the field of knowledge of music. We know that India

was invaded by many foreign nations, and so fusions of culture

and art were made possible for intercourse and interchange of

many ideas and matters. Indian music was some times influ-

enced by the Arabian and Persian music, and similarly musical

arts of Arabia and Persia were influenced by Indian music. It

was possible especially in the time of the Emperor Aśoka. Dur-

ing his time religious Buddhist missionaries were sent all over

the Western countries, and there was an interchange of art, edu-

cation and culture. There were trade routes between India and

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

other foreign countries, and passages were open both in seas and

land. And from those routes of trade and commerce, many of

the materials of art, culture and religion also intermixed both

in the Eastern and the Western countries. Swāmi Abhedānanda,

Mr. Garrett and Dr. S. Radhakrishnan have mentioned about

those fusions of art, culture and religion in their books, India

and Her People, Legacy of India and Eastern Religion and

Western Thought. It is the tendency of the human society to

imitate or to imbibe newer thoughts and ideas from the neigh-

bouring peoples. Materials of music were also interchanged in

different periods and history of all nations give evidence of it.

So the research workers should be well-equipped with historical

knowledge. Histories of different periods substantially supply us

genuine records of culture and evolution of materials of music

as well as their different forms and methods of culture.

Besides, there are many problems in both Indian and Western

music. In this book, many of the salient features and contro-

versial subjects of music have been critically discussed with

textual references. Chapter 3, i.e. Function of Music and two

Appendices have newly been written for this book. The fourth

Chapter dealing with Value of Music has formed an important

part of this book, and this discussion on Value has been made

purely from the aesthetic aspect of music which informs us about

the central or essential aspect of music. It has been concluded that

without real apprecintion of value, i.e., aesthetic and emotional

aspects of music, the mysteries of art of music will not be re-

vealed to either the artistes or the listeners. The practice of

etc. Maṇḍan-mishra, Nāgesha-bhaṭṭa and others have elaborat-

ed the theory of Sphota and especially Bhatrihari and Nāgesha-

bhaṭṭa have proved that Sphota is no other than Shabda-Brah-

man, i.e., the Supreme Principle in the form of Word, or Speech

(Shabda). The Christian Bible has also admitted that Word ex-

isted before creation or manifestation of the world. Swāmi

Abhedānanda has thrown light on Word or Cross in ancient

India and other countries. The Māṇḍukya Upanishad has explain-

ed the true significance of Sphota, which exists in the form of

Praṇava or Oṅkāra. Patañjali has designated this Praṇava as

the discloser or pointer of the indeterminate Brahman. In music,

this Praṇava has been adopted as a symbol of Sphota, or the

Shabda-Brahman. Gauḍapāda in his Kārikās on the Māṇḍukya

Upanishad has elaborated the Oṅkāra with its mātrās and pādas,

and he has said that mātrāless (a-mātrā) Turīya or Transcenden-

tal Brahman is the prime soul and value of all things of the

world. Music admits the Shabda-Brahman as its prime principle,

but, at last it goes beyond the Shabda-Brahman and rests on the

limitless and boundless prime consciousness which is known as

Sat-Chit-Ānanda. The final form Ānanda or Supreme Bliss is

the fulfilment of Sat and Chit—Existence and Consciousness.

The Upanishad says from Ānanda or Supreme Bliss evolved this

manifested universe, everything of the universe rest on Ānanda,

and at last dissolve in Ānanda.

This Ānanda is a birthless and deathless immortal Existence,

which is the ideal of all mortal beings, and music is the surest

means to take all to the divine Temple of that immortal all-bliss-

ful Existence, and so music is the great art that informs us of that

precious value. Therefore music is the best medium or means

which should be adopted, nurtured and nourished with care, and

should be followed with concentrated attention and effort, so as

to reach the goal of life.

In this connection, I owe my sense of gratitude to Dr. Shri-

mali, the former Minister of Education, Government of India,

and the former Vice-Chancellor of the Banaras Hindu University,

Varanasi (U.P.) for whose inspiration I delivered the lectures

on Music: its Form, Function and Value in his University on the

24th, 25th and 26th April, 1974. I also offer my thanks to Dr.

(Miss) Premlata Sharma, tho Dean and able Guide to the

Research students on Music in the Banaras Hindu University. I

Preface

xi

xii

Music: its Form, Function and Value

offer also my thanks to Shri Jyotish Bhattacharyya, the Head of

the Department of Fine Arts in the Banaras Hindu University.

In this connection, I offer my loving thanks to Swāmi

Paramātmānanda Mahāraj of the Rāmakrishna Vedānta Math,

Calcutta, for carefully typing and preparing the manuscript of

this book. I express my thanks to Shri Davashis Hore for pre-

paring the Index for this book. Besides, I offer my sense of

gratitude to Principal Dipti Bushan Dutta and Srimati Arunā

Dutta for taking deep interest in the publication of this book.

Next I offer my thanks to Swāmi Pragaveshānanda Mahāraj

and Swami Buddhanathānanda Maharaj for encouraging me to

prepare and publish this book.

I shall consider my attempt fruitful if this book is appreciated

by the lovers of music.

Swāmi Prajñānānanda

Ramakrishna Vedanta Math,

19-B, Raja Rajkrishna Street,

Calcutta-700 006,

28 June, 1979.

INTRODUCTION

The compass of Indian music is large and vast, and it includes all

the types and forms of both vocal and instrumental music, dance

and drumming (nrtta and vādya). Indian music is considered as

a fine art for its finer taste and feeling. Besides, it helps to create

emotive feeling and intuitive perception of the artistes and audi-

ences. Indian music is foremost and finest among other fine

arts, architecture, sculpture, and painting. Drama, poetry and

other arts also create emotion and pleasure, but art of music

surpasses them all for its direct charming and soothing qualities.

The German philosopher Hegel has beautifully described the

characteristic of Western music, and after comparing music

with architecture, sculpture, painting, and poetry, he has admitt-

ed the superiority of music in his book, Hegel's Aesthetics, II

(Oxford, 1975).

Hegel says: "What music claims as its own is the depth of a

person's inner life as such, it is the art of the soul and is directly

addressed to the soul. Painting too, for example, as we saw, can

also express the inner life and movement, the moods and

passions, of the heart, the situations, conflicts, and destinies of

the soul; but it does so in faces and figures and what confronts

us is pictures consists of objective appearances from which the

perceiving and inner self remains distinct. No matter how far

we plunge or immerse ourselves in the subject-matter, in a situa-

tion, a character, the forms of a statue or a picture, no matter

how much we may admire such a work of art, may be taken

out of ourselves by it, may be satisfied by it--it is all in vain,

these works of art are and remain independently persistent ob-

jects and our relation to them can never get beyond a vision of

them. But in music this distinction disappears. Its content is what

is subjective in itself, and its expression likewise does not produce

an object persisting in sp ce but shows through its free unstable

soaring that it is a communication which, instead of having

stability on its own account, is carried by the inner subjective

life, and is to exist for that life alone. Hence the note is an ex-

pression and something external, but an expression which, pre-

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

cisely because it is something external is made to vanish again

forthwith. The ear has scarcely grasped it before it is mute, the

impression to be made here is at once made within, the notes re-

echo only in the depths of the soul which is gripped and moved

in its subjective consciousness.

"This object free inwardness in respect of music's content and

mode of expression constitutes its formal aspect. It does have a

content too but not in the sense that the visual arts and poetry

have one, for what it lacks is giving to itself an objective con-

figuration whether in the forms of actual external phenomena

or in the objectivity of spiritual views and ideas."

As for the course we intend to follow in our further discuss-

ions, we have:

(1) to bring out more specifically the general character of

music and its effect, in distinction from the other arts, in res-

pect both of its material and of the form which the spiritual

content assumes.

(2) Next we must explain the particular differences in which

the musical notes and their figurations are developed and mediat-

ed, in respect of their temporal duration and the qualitative

differences in their real resonance.

(3) Finally, music acquires a relation to the content it express-

es in that, either it is associated as an accompaniment with

feelings, ideas, and thought already expressed on their own

account in words, or launches out freely within its own domain

in unfettered independence.

Regarding the character of music in general, he says: "The

(a) We have to compare music with the visual arts on the one

hand and with poetry on the other.

(b) Next, therefore, we must expound the manner in which

music can apprehend a subject-matter and portray it.

(c) In the light of this manner of treatment we can explain

more specifically the special effect which music, in distinction

from the other arts, produces on our minds."

Hegel says that in respect, music in distinction from the other

arts, lies to near the essence of that formal freedom of the inner

life to be denied the right of turning more or less away above

the content, above what is given.

"In poetry, the sound as such is not elicited from various in-

struments invented by art and richly modified artistically, but

the articulate tone of the human organ of speech is degraded to

being a mere token of a word and acquires therefore only the

value of being an indication, meaningless in itself, of ideas."

"If we look at the difference between the poetic and the music-

al use of sound, 'music' does not m ke sound subservient to

speech but takes sound independently as its medium so that

sound just as sound, is treated as an end in itself. The realm of

sound, as I have indicated already, has a relation to the heart

and a harmony with its spiritual emotions, but it gets no fur-

ther than an always vague sympathy, although in their respect a

musical composition, so long as it has sprung from the heart

itself and is penetrated by a richness of soul and feeling, may

even so be amply impressive."

Regarding effect of music in general, Hegel says: "From this

trend of music we can derive the power with which it works es-

pecially on the heart as such, for the heart neither proceeds to

intellectual considerations nor distracts our conscious attention

to separate points of view, but is accustomed to live in deep

feeling and its undisclosed depth. For it is precisely this sphere

of inner sensibility, abstract self-comprehension, which music

takes for its own and therefore brings movement into the seat

of inner changes, into the heart and mind as this simple concen-

trated centre of the whole of human life.

"(a) Sculpture in particular gives to its works of art an en-

tirely self-subsistent existence, a self-enclosed objectivity alike in

essential points of importance in relation to music in general

may be brought before our consideration in the following order:

content and in external appearance. Its content is the individ-

ually animated but independently self-reposing substance of the

spirit, while its form is a three-dimensional figure. For this

reason, by being a perceptible object, a sculpture has the maxi-

mum of independence. As we have already seen in considering

painting (pp. 805-6), a picture comes into a closer relation with

the spectator, partly on account of the inherently more subjec-

tive content which it portrays, partly because of the pure appea-

rance of reality which it provides, and it proves therefore that

it is not meant to be something independent on its own account,

but on the contrary to be something essentially for apprehens-

ion by the person who has both vision and feeling. Yet, con-

fronted by a picture we are still left with a more independent

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

freedom, since in its case we always have to do with an object

present externally which comes to us only through our vision

and only thereby affects our feeling and ideas. Consequently the

spectator can look at a picture from this angle or that, notice

this or that about it, analyse the whole (because it stays in front

of him), make all sorts of reflections about it, and in this way

preserve complete freedom for his own independent consideration

of it.

(b) A piece of music, on the other hand, does also proceed,

like any work of art, to a beginning of the distinction between

subjective enjoyment and the objective work, because in its notes

as they actually sound it acquires a perceptible existence differ-

ent from inner appreciation, but, for one thing, this contrast is

not intensified, as it is in visual art, into a permanent external

in space and the perceptibility of an object existing inde-

pendently, but conversely volatilizes its real or objective exist-

ence into an immediate temporal disappearance, for another

thing, unlike poetry, music does not separate its external medi-

um from its spiritual content. In poe'ry the idea is more inde-

pendent of the sound of the language, and it is further separated

from this external expression than is the case in the other arts,

and it is developed in a special course of images mentally and

imaginatively formed as such. It is true that it might be object-

ed that music, as I have said previously, may conversely free

its notes from its content and so give them independence, but

this liberation is not really compatible with art."

In fact, Hegel has discussed about Western music, but his

views and broad principles are undoubtedly applicable to both

Western music and Indian music. While discussing about Indian

music and its nature. Rai Bahadur Bisan Swarup has rightly

said that a music artist has a more difficult task to perform

than the other artists, sculptors, painters, poets and architects,

because, while the latter present their work to the people in a

tangible shape with feelings expressed, the musician has to do

more than that as he stimulates the imagination of his audience

and thereby engenders in them those feelings, to make himself

and his art to be understood.

The scientific treatment of music, as a subject distinct from

poetry, enables the artists to compose suitable combinations, a

variety of tones and tunes, some to express particular feelings

and stimulate particular emotions, i.e., emotional sentiments,

some for devotional purposes, some for soothing the heart and

brain and pleasing the ear, and so on. A good and accomplished

musician can sing any song in any of the tunes or melodies, and

can select his tunes or melodies for his songs to suit the partic-

ular occasion or the time of the day. This is a great advantage

for him to make his music effective and loving.1

We have discussed before that music surpasses other fine arts

in its quality and appeal, and it is a fact that the art of music

has to exert much more for being effective than other arts.

Poetry is possessed of words and suitable phrases by which the

poet can express his poetry with adequate emotive feeling, but,

in the case of music, it means evolving of principles by care-

fully considering the effect of each note as well as combination

of notes. Many of the emotive feelings are practically express-

ible by var'iations in tone of the vo:ce, but those are difficult to

catch the mind, or to express feeling in the mind at large.

Music is a suitable medium for creating and appreciating

beauty. "Beauty was the vital principle," says Kŕkaśi Okakura,

"that pervaded the universe—sparkling in the light of the stars,

in the glow of the flowers, in the motion of a passing cloud, or

the movements of the flowing water. The great World-Soul

permeated men and nature alike, and by contemplation of the

world life expanded before us, in the wonderful phenomena of

existence, might be found the mirror in which the artistic mind

could reflect itself." Music is recognised as the pure mirror, on

which the reflection of the World-soul can be seen, and from

the reflection we can gradually catch the flow of the real all-

pervading soul with the help of concentration and meditaiion,

and we believe that the Indian artists can witness the self-efful-

gent light of music, saturated with the all-blissful and all-loving

presence of the Beautiful. Music of India is living and loving,

and if it is sincerely nourished and cultured, the artistes and the

lovers of music can easily realize its surpassing grandeur and sub-

limity.

Music is an Art and Beauty in itself, because music is creative,

and it creates the permanent luminosity of joy and happiness

in the heart of the peoples, and when the luminosity manifests

1vide Theory of Indian Music (Agra, 1933).

Introduction

xvii

xviii

Music: its Form, Function and Value

its exquisite lustre, which belongs to grand Nature, in the

innermost cave of the heart, he realizes it and appreciates it

whole-heartedly, and this appreciation gives him ānandam and

jñānam that reside in him, and he appreciates them means he

discovers them within himself.

Mr. E.B. Mavell says in his beautiful book, The Ideals of

Indian Art (1920): "The poet, priests and chieftains who com-

posed the Vedic hymns and expressed their communion with

the Nature spirits in such beautiful imagery, were great artists

who gave to India monuments more durable than bronze, and

already in this Vedic period, centuries before Hellenic culture,

began to exert its influence upon Asia, India had conceived the

whole philosophy of her art. It was the Vedic poets who first

proclaimed the identity of the soul of man with the Soul of

Nature, and laid claim to direct inspiration from God."

This ideal of communion of the individual soul with the uni-

versal Soul is essential in the art of music. The artists who cul-

ture and reproduce music, culture first the skelital form of music,

devoid of flesh and blood and life. The intuitive master artists

are of the opinion that though we know that music is an art and

beauty, yet for want of proper knowledge of the process of in-

fusion of life into the skeliton of music, made up of tones, tunes,

and other music materials, general artists are not successful in

getting the divine blessings of Devi Sarasvati, the presiding

Deity of the art of music. So we should know the proper value

of music, and then we should proceed to culture music for our

soul's satisfaction and soul's emancipation.

Mr. Havell says: "Beauty,' says the Indian 'philosopher,' is

subjective, not objective. It is not inherent in form or matter, it

belongs only on spirit and can only be apprehended by spiritual

vision." Further he says: "The true aim of the artist is not to

extract beauty from nature but to reveal the life within life, the

Noumenon within phenomenon, the Reality within unreality,

and the Soul within matter. When that is revealed, beauty reveals

itself. So all nature is beautiful for us, if only we can realize

the divine idea within it."

So it is true that artists of the art of music should depend

upon the spiritual vision only, and not upon the appearance of

objects, perceived by the senses, which are all mad for getting

pleasures from śabda, sparśa, rūpa, rasa, gandha. The Upani-

shad says that the senses after running outside, are devoid of

seeing the greatness of the Antarātmā, the World-Soul. The ar-

tists of music should therefore, think about it, as Indian music

is the product of the soil of sacred India. India is the land of

spirituality, and all her materials are surcharged with the atmos-

phere of spirituality. We should also think that we are cultur-

ing and nourishing Indian music and that means India's spirit-

uality, and so we should realize the true significance of Indian

music, and thus we shall spiritualize the art of music.

Mr. Havell has said in this connection: "Indian art is not con-

cerned with the conscious striving after beauty as a thing worthy

to be sought after for its own sake, its main endeavour is always

directed towards the realization of an idea, reaching through the

limits to the infinite convinced always that, through the cons-

tant effort to express the spiritual origin of all earthly beauty,

human mind will take in more and more of the perfect beauty

of the Divinity."

Sri Kr'shna has said in the Gītā: 'tant sarvāni samyamya

yukta āsīta matpara,' i e. after controlling the mind and the

senses let us concentrate our mind in Him (the Ātman). So it

is the divine message of the Gītā that mind is the means to get

peace and tranquillity in us, and peace and tranquil happiness

is the be-all and end-all of all human beings. So the Gītā says:

'prasāde sarva duhkhānām hānirasyopalabhyate,' i.e. when the

mind is balanced and controlled (purified), men get prasāda or

the concentrated mind by which he overcomes all the phenome-

nal pleasure and pain. And the well balanced mind as well as

the discriminative power of the mind bring permanent solace

and peace, which make an ordinary man, the perfect man, nay,

the God-man. Music is a great means to control the mind, and

music assures the sincere artistes to get peace and eternal happi-

ness.

Introduction

xix

implemented = statements

Chapter 1

A STUDY OF MUSIC

Music is divided into two, theory and practice, as we find in the domain of learning or education two divisions—śāstra and sādhana. Though practice or sādhana plays an important part in music-culture, yet theory or śāstra is necessary for knowing the means and method, so as to make practice or sādhana of music complete. Practice is essential for realizing the value, and theory is necessary for directing the practice in its right way.

Theory of Music

What is theory of music? Does it signify the grammatical aspect only? Is it superior to practice, or complementary to practice? Theory may be called a speculative thought which gives exposition, and collects the principles of music. It is like the implement for knowing and working, and thus helps education of music to reach the goal, which is no other than realization of the sublime value or Ideal. Really theory is complementary to practice and, therefore, theory of music is concerned with ways and means i.e. laws and principles of music to direct music for getting the fruition of practice.

Theory of music comprises with the aspects of grammar, history, science, acoustics or physics, iconography, psychology, aesthetics and philosophy, which complete real definition of music. (1) Grammar determines the laws and principles of tone, tune or melody, time-measure, rhythm, tempo, etc. (2) History traces different layers of evolution of different materials of music that cover the whole range of time, and this gives the idea of different characteristics and temperaments of musical forms and manifestations in different ages. (3) Acoustics or physics of music makes preliminary survey of the nature of variations and its relationship to music. It determines the nature of voice and sound-

2

Music: its Form, Function and Value

waves and their characteristics, harmony and scales, simple har-

monic motion, frequency and pitch, amplitude and loudness,

resonance, velocity of sound in air, wave-length and other mate-

rials pertaining to vocal music and musical instruments. (4) Ico-

nography determines evolution and nature of icons or images of

different rāgas and rāginīs, so that they can make themselves to

be infused with emotive value, and are visible in the mental

spheres of the artistes and of the listeners. (5) Psychology deter-

mines mental preparation and attitude of the artistes who

create forms or structures of rāgas and rāginīs, and thus helps to

infuse vital energy and life into them. Psychology plays an im-

portant role in the field of music. In the language of Prof. Carl

Seashore it can correctly be said that "psychology aims to describe

and explain musical experience and musical behaviour; it inves-

tigates the nature of musical talent; it analyses the sensory res-

ponses to music; it traces the human drives, which we use to call

instincts and impulses that crave music and find their outlet in

music; it examines feeling, emotion, and musical thought-proces-

ses, both functionally; and structurally; it traces the development of

the musical mind from infancy through maturation and training."

(6) Aesthetics is an important element in music, which creates emo-

tional sentiments and moods in different tones and tunes. The

Nāradishikṣā has definitely determined the emotional units which

are generated from the five causal microtones, and those causal

microtones give rise to twentytwo developed microtones and

their respective units of emotion or emotional sentiments. Aes-

thetics determines the mental attitude of the artistes who create

the model forms of rāgas and rāginīs, and thus helps to evolve

different contemplative forms of rāga and rāginī. (7) Philosophy

of music like many other high branches of knowledge, says Dr.

William Pole, claims attention rather on intellectual than on uti-

litarian grounds. The aim as well as work of philosophy is to go

into the core of all things and to bring the solution of them. The

Indian philosophers' view is very clear in this respect. They say

that philosophy of music determines the real form and essence of

music. It finds out the nature of the basic sound, Nanda, on

which rests the whole structure of music. Besides, philosophy

determines the supreme value of music, helps the musicians and

the listeners to ascertain the real aim and object of music, and

3

A Study of Music

leads them to eternal and tranquil peace and happiness.

Definition of Music

The Oxford Dictionary aptly defines music as an art of com-

bining sounds with a view to beauty form and expression of

emotion. Emotion and will are the driving forces which create

inspiration, knowledge, and beauty of music.

The word 'music' is defined by the authors of the 13th-14th

century: 'gitaṃ vādyam tathā nrittāṃ trayaṃ saṅgītamuchyate,'

i.e. saṅgītam or music is the combination of the arts of singing,

drumming and dancing. The word signifies how a different mean-

ing. The Greeks applied it to an art which was a composite of

poetry, dancing, acting, and musical sound. In India, we find

the definition of music as the combination of vocal song or gīta,

drumming or vādya and dancing or nritya, though this definition

has now been reformed, and is concentrated to singing and

drumming—gīta and vādya only.

The celebrated commentator, Kallinath of the 15th-16th cen-

tury has defined the word 'saṅgītam' with its true significance.

He says that the word gīta means saṅgītaśatodena

lokāprasiddha gītasyaiva granthā-pādyataṃ pratīyate,' i.e. gīta is

constituted out of smooth, sweet and soothing sounds, being

impregnated with emotional units, and that is why gīta is known

as saṅgīta. But the intention of Sārangadeva, the author of the

Saṅgīta-Ratnākara, is to define music as the combination of three

fine arts, singing, drumming, and dancing, as one art is comple-

mentary and helpful to other arts. The commentator, Singha-

bhupāla and Rānā Kumbha have supported the views of the

author and of the commentator, Kallinath. Similarly, the signi-

ficance along with the root-meaning of the word rāgah is that

which tinges with its impression the minds of men and all living

animals—'rañjayate iti rāgah.' A rāga is constituted out of the

combination of tones which are no other than the tonal units,

impregnated with aesthetic sentiments. So, when a rāga is mani-

fested outside in the external world, it creates sweet and soothing

vibrations, which means it creates impressions, and those impres-

sions tinge the mind, and the mind is then colourful and

tuneful.

In defining music, many theories and views have been forwar-

ded to substantiate the comprehensive meaning of music. Prof.

4 Music: Its Form, Function and Value

Theodore Fenney says that the Spenserian theory is to the effect

that the vocal music and, in consequence, all music, is an idea-

lization of the natural language of passion. According to this

theory, music is an extension of the primitive desire to commu-

nicate, and, consequently, its whole artistic function is related to

the communication of the human emotions and passions. On

the other hand, Prof. Wallaschek advances in his book, Primi-

tive Music, the theory that the original musical impulse was

purely aesthetic, growing out of the rhythmic impulse, and, con-

sequently, instrumental music precedes vocal music, and the

whole artistic function of music is the satisfaction of a purely

aesthetic need. Dr. Seashore has discussed this problem in his

Psychology of Music in a very beautiful manner.

Primitive Music

The origin of primitive music owes its inspiration from primi-

tive religion and social custom of the primitive men. Dr. Hopkin

is of the opinion that to early man all substance, neither material nor immaterial. The most primitive savages did

not regard the two as separate. All matter is sentiment and has

mentality; all spirits are analogous to the minds of men, i.e. enc-

ased in body. So a savage man used to worship anything on earth,

including himself, stones, hills, flowers, trees, streams, wells,

and animals. He began to worship, everything he could think

of beneath the earth, metals, canes, serpents and under-world

ghosts. Finally, he worshipped everything between earth and

heaven, and everything in the heaven's above, mist, wind, cloud,

rainbow, stars, moon, sun, the sky itself, though only in part he

worshipped the spirits of all these objects. The savages worshipped

with the offerings of their plain songs, clapping hands and beat-

ing crude drums. Dance also evolved and accompanied the rhy-

thm of the songs and the beating of the drums. The primitive

men were fully conscious of the simple festivals and ceremonies

which were performed by them as the sign of welfare of their

community. And it is quite true that every religion is a product

of human evolution and is conditioned by social environment,

and this factor was also predominent even in the most primitive

society. The primitive men had belief in the worldly objects,

along with the otherworldly things, but their idea of the other-

worldly or heavenly things was confined only to the spirits of the

stones, hills and plants. They had also belief in the spirits of

their departed forefathers and ancestors, and so different kinds

of unpoetical plain songs evolved to suit their taste and purpose.

While dealing with the musical search of the primitive people,

the greatest scientist, Prof. Alfred Einstein says that the first

beginnings of music lie even deeper in historical obscurity than

these of speech, the relics of which are very much older.

Einstein is of the opinion that the primitive man perceived the

musical sound, as it originated in the beating of a hollow object,

or of something like that. The mere sound of that object excited

the primitive man to the pitch of intoxication. From then he

discovered the power of rhythm, which inflamed and ordered the

ritual or magical dance. Prof. Einstein conjectures that natural

science has tried to discover a pre-human origin for music in the

song of bird; and the comparative musicology, which deals with

the prehistoric development of music, has admitted that primi-

tive man may have been attracted by bird-song in the first place

and have continued to use it as a model for imitation. This

statement is supported by Mr. Hambly, while he says that the

primitive peoples used to live in the jungles surrounded by wild

animals, and their vocal efforts naturally originated in imitation

of the movements of the wild animals, and so their dance and

music were generally of very crude and wild nature. Their songs

were generally meant for the fertility of the soil and crops, for

invoking the spirit-gods and also for curing the diseases. The

nodding of their heads and clapping of the hands and moving

of the legs, gave rise to the sense of rhythm in crude form, and

their clapping of the palms of the hands gave rise to the idea of

rhythmic beatings of mātrās, which is known as tala. The word,

tāla has evolved from the root tala (Karatāḷa). The drums, along

with the clapping of the hands, used to accompany the simple

songs of the aboriginal tribes in the primitive period. While ex-

plaining primitive tribal music and dancing in the Southern

Sudan, Dr. Tucker has mentioned about singing and dancing

with the beatings of the drums. He says: "Among the Pojulu,

they are inclined to spring up and down. . . and sometimes stand

their hands to the rhythm of the drums." Therefore, music of

the primitive time must not be neglected, because it supplies

various materials of music, which help us to trace the historical

link among the consecutive periods, though they are very scanty

A Study of Music 5

6

Music: Its Form, Function and Value

and gross and undeveloped in form.

This fact reminds us the verse of the Rigveda-pratishakhya which runs thus:

'Chāṣastu vadate mātrāṃ dvimātrōṃ vāyaso'bravit

Śikhi trimātro vijñeya eṣa mātrā-parigrahah.'

This verse supplies the information of the mātrās or, meters, and their measuring units, together with intensity of the pitches and their values. The ancient Indian musicologists also observed the nature of the calls i.e. sounds of the birds and other animals, and that keen observation inspired their will-to-create songs and different beatings and their spaces.which gave rise to senses of rhythm and tempo-tāla and laya. Though this verse of the Rigveda-prātishākhya was composed in the advanced stage of Indian culture, yet it suggests even to this day that the ancient peoples, whether primitive or prehistoric, used to observe and imitate the sounds of different birds and animals to make the art of music significant, meaningful, and effective.

Mythological Interpretation

Besides scientific meaning, mythological interpretations also came into being, regarding origin of music, both in India and in Greece. The ancient Indians conceived the idea of twin gods, Śiva and Pārvatī, or Nārāyaṇa and Lakshmi, i.e. Purusha and Prakriti, under the influence of Tantricism and Vaishnivism, and side by side philosophical ideas of music evolved from them. The musical history of Greece, as the Greeks related it, was a story of invention of instruments and of music by the supernatural powers or deities and the mighty heroes. The ancient Indians and the Greeks found it necessary to ascribe poetically the credit of their musical evolution to the gods, or to the power of the supernatural beings. The Epics of Homer, or the Odes of Pinder, were connected with the origin of the Greek music. One account relates that Pythagoras scientifically investigated the origin of music, and concentrated it to the sounds which can be produced with the striking of different sizes of hammers and anvils. Some of the Greek and Western historians describe minutely a monochord, a long stretched over sound-

box and the use of a movable bridge. Though not the same, yet to some extent, similar attempt was made by Muni Bharata of the Nātyaśāstra in the 3rd century BC to 2nd century AD, with the help of two Veenās, shifting and non-shifting–chala and achala, and discovered like Pythagoras some tone-relations, pitch-values, and ratios between the notes of the octave:

'Veṇaikā'tra dhruvāi bhāvet|

Chalaveeṇā dvitīyā tū||'

In ancient Greece, the musicians and the musicologists and also the philosophers used to believe that music exists eternally in the etherial space in the form of vibrations of the cosmic energy. The ancient musicians and the musicologists of India similarly believed that real music exists in the depth of the sub-conscious mind, in the form of Divine energy, Kundalini in an unmanifested form, and when it is manifested, it is transformed into tones and tunes, tinged with the colour of aesthetic sentiments and moods.

Origin of Music

The Tantra literature as well as the treatises on music have related the philosophical idea of evolution of tones and tunes, i.e. of music. Śāraṅgadeva says:

'Chaitanyam sarva-bhūtānāṃ vivrtam jagadātmanā|

Nāda-brahma tadānanda-madvītyamupāsmah||

Nakāraṃ prāṇa-nāmanāṃ d-kāra-mānalaṃ viduh|

Jātaḥ praṇagni-samyogāttena nāda'-abhidhīyate||'

The real form of sound is Divine consciousness, and this unmanifested consciousness is divided into two prime principles, Śiva and Śakti. The causal seeds of all beings and all materials lie in the womb of Śakti or Prakriti, and the manifestation of the gross universe emits from those principles. The prāṇa is the vital air and anāa is the fire which is the will-to-create, and there happens a friction between the vital air and the fire or will-to-manifest, and that means energy creates a stress (abhighāta) for manifestation of the Nāda or causal sound and that

7

A Study of Music

8

Music: Its Form, Function and Value

is the base or matrix of the whole structure of music. The Yoga-

vāsiṣṭha-Rāmāyaṇa says that everything in the world is the

product of the mind or will. In the Upaniṣad, the mind has

been conceived as the Hiranyagarbha or Prajāpati. The Gauḍa-

pāda-Kārikā and the Aṣṭāvukra-Saṃhitā subscribe the same view.

So we can conclude that all things, including music, evolved

from the mind or will. Will vibrates and this vibration gives

rise to gross objects.

Everything has been evolved first in the causal unmanifested

form, and then in the manifested form. The form remains the

same, but its degrees of manifestation differ, and this difference

brings the idea of change, i.e. creation or projection. The musi-

cal treatises of India admit this theory of evolution. They say

that music evolves first in an avyakta or unmanifested form, and

then in a vyakta or manifested form, which is known either as

noise, or as sweet music.

Sound is the Norm of Music

The word ‘sound,’ says Dr. Barton, is commonly used in two

different senses: (1) to denote the sensation, perceived by means

of the ear, when the auditory nerves are stimulated or excited;

and (2) to denote the external physical disturbance which, under

ordinary conditions, suitably excites the auditory nerves. Now,

firstly, we need some medium to receive and

transmit the vibratory motion; secondly, it is imperative that the

parts of the body in vibratory motion should have such shape,

size, and motion, as to cause a disturbance to advance through

the air, and thirdly, our mind enables us to perceive the sensa-

tion of sound.

Sound is mainly divided into two, noise and music i.e. musi-

cal sound. Noise is characterised by irregularity or suddenness,

whereas musical sound by its comparatively smooth and even

flow. Dr. Alexander Wood says that musical sounds are those

which are smooth, regular, pleasant, and of definite pitch, and

noises or unmusical sounds are rough, irregular, unpleasant, and

of no definite pitch. The source of a musical tone is always

some ‘system’ in vibration. These vibrations communicate them-

selves to the air in contact with the vibrating system, and this

to-and-fro vibration is communicated through the air from the

source to the ear of the listeners. Therefore, says Dr. Wood, we

9

A Study of Music

have thus three principal aspects of the musical tone to consider:

(1) the vibration of the source, (2) the transmission through the

medium, and (3) the reception by the hearer.

Many theories have been adduced or forwarded to account for

the production of the sound as well as of the human voice. The

human voice is the product of a main wave, modulated by a

number of subsidiary waves. The main wave takes form imme-

diately in front of the vocal cords of the larynx, and is due to

the vortices or rotating cores of pressure air, which issue from

the vibrant air.

Now, how do the vortices produce sound? The air in the

throat is stagnant, until disturbed by the jets of pressure air from

the lungs. The vibrating cords, opening and closing in alternate

sequence, inject vortices into the restricted passage of the throat

immediately above, which corresponds to the mouth-piece-tube

of the brass instrument. However, it must be understood that

the sound, musical or non-musical, is ultimately reflected into

the mouth and is transmitted as a progression of spherical waves

into outer space.

Science of Music

Dr. Dayton Clarence Miller is right when he says: “The study

of sound in language is as old as the human race, and the art of

music is older than tradition, but the science of music is quite

as modern as the other so called modern sciences. Sound may

be defined as the sensation resulting from the action of an ex-

ternal stimulus on the sensitive nerve apparatus of the air; it is a

species of reaction to the external stimulus, excitable only thro-

ugh the ear and distinct from any other sensation. Atmospheric

vibration is the normal and usual means of excitement for the

ear; this vibration originates in a source called the sounding body,

which is itself always in vibration.”

Dr. Miller further says that “the source may be constructed

especially to produce sound. The physicist uses the word ‘sound’

to designate the vibrations of the sounding body itself, or those

which are set up by the sounding body in the air or other me-

dium and which are capable of directly affecting the ear even

though there is no ear to hear.” “The vibrations of the source

produce various physical effects in the surrounding air, such as,

displacements, velocities, and accelerations, and changes of

10

Music: Its Form, Function and Value

destiny, pressure, and temperature, because of the elasticity of

the air, these displacements and other phenomena occur periodi-

cally and are transmitted from particles in such a manner that

the effects are propagated outward from the source in radial

directions."1

In fact, any sort of motion generates sound—a violent explo-

sion, the buzzing wings of a fly, the vibrations of symbols struck

together. Part of the energy of the motion goes into sound,

which travels out in all direction. It has been known for many

years, says Prof. Edward E. David, that our senses have peculiar

way of dealing with this fantastic range of sound powers. The

Weber's law (in 1834) says that a stimulus must be increased by

a constant friction of its value to be just noticeably different.

Fechner went beyond Weber, and asserted that a sensation

evoked by a stimulus increases by a constant amount whenever

the stimulus is increased by a constant factor. Prof. Steneus of

Psycho-acoustical Laboratory has pointed out that neither sound,

nor other psycho-physical phenomena do the numbers bear out

Fechner's law.

However, it is a fact that vibrating objects produce sound,

and sound is, therefore, a sort of flow of power, a transfer of

energy from place to place. And it is also true that sound is

carried about us, yet it is not a flow of air from the speaker

to the ear. Rather sound is like the waves travelling along a

field of grains in the wind, a movement now here, now further

along among the grains, while the stalks remain rooted in the

ground. In this way, many arguments and laws have been for-

warded, and in the later nineteenth century, the German physi-

cist Hermann von Helmholtz showed or proved that a distinctive

quality or timber of a complicated sound is determined by the

components frequencies that compose it.2

Dr. Miller has forwarded many experiments upon the theory

of sound and has admitted that sound moves in waves, and those

waves are of two kinds, simple harmonic motion and curve motion.

Simple harmonic motion, says Dr. Miller, has several evident

features. "It takes place in a straight line; is it vibratory moving

to and fro; it is periodic, repeating its movements regularly;

1

cf. The Science of Musical Sound, 1929, pp. 2-6.

2

vide Profs. Borgeijk, Pierce and David, Waves and the Far, 1968,

Ch. II.

A Study of Music

11

there are instants of rest at the two extremes of the movement;

starting from rest at one extreme the movement quickens till it

reaches its central point, after which it slackens in reverse

order, till it comes to rest at the other extreme. The speed of

the particle so moving, the rate of which the speed changes, and

other features are very important in a complete study of simple

harmonic motion, but for our purpose we need give only a few

simple definitions.

"The frequency of a simple harmonic motion is the number

of complete vibrations to and fro per second; the period is the

time required for one complete vibration; the amplitude is the

range on one side or the other from the middle point of the

motion, therefore, it is half the extreme range of vibration; the

phase at any instant is the fraction of a period which has elapsed

since the point last passed through its middle position in the

direction chosen as positive."

The wave-motions of vibrations are various. They are trans-

verse wave-motion, longitudinal wave-motion, etc. Sound-waves

usually pass outward from the source in the form of expanding

surfaces of disturbance. Sound-waves in solids may be either

transverse or longitudinal. Various other types of motion beside

simple harmonic may generate waves.

We have discussed before about noise and tone, which are

merely the terms of contrast. There are pitch, intensity, and

loudness of sound and they are known as the acoustic properties.

Dr. Miller says that pitch of a sound is that tone characteristic

of being acute or grave which determines its position in the

musical scale; an acute sound is of high pitch, a grave sound is

of low p`tch. Experiment proves that pitch depends upon a very

simple condition, the number of complete vibrations per second;

this number is called the frequency of the vibration. One of the

simplest methods of determining pitch is mechanically to create

vibrations at a rate which is known and which can be varied as

desired; the rate is adjusted until the resulting sound is in unison

with the one to be measured, then the number of vibrations

generated by the machine is the same as that of the sound.

The loudness of a sound, says Dr. Miller, is a comparative

statement of the strength of sensation received through the ear.

In a first study of the physical characteristics of sound we are

compelled to consider the intensity not as the loudness perceived

12

Music: Its Form, Function and Value

by the ear, but as determined by what the physicist calls the

energy of the vibration. The energy or intensity of a simple vibra-

tory motion varies as the square of the amplitude, the frequency

remaining constant; it varies as the square of the frequency, the

amplitude remaining constant; when both amplitude and fre-

quency vary, the intensity varies as the square of the product of

amplitude and frequency.

The next property of tone is tone-quality. 'No musical instru-

ment equals the human voice in the ability to produce sounds of

varied qualities, the different vowels are tones, each of a distinct

musical quality. Since pitch depends upon frequency, and loud-

ness upon the amplitude (and frequency), we conclude that qua-

lity must depend upon the only other property of a periodic

vibration, the peculiar kind of form of the motion; or if we repre-

sent the vibration by a curve or waveline, quality is dependent

upon the peculiarities represented by the shape of the curve.'

According to science of music, sound is the matrix of all tones

and tunes, and rāgas and rāginis. Modern science says that

sound, colour, electricity, light, etc. are the products of the vib-

rations of atoms and molecules, which are full of energy or

cosmic power. The Indian philosophers including Kanada and

others and the Greek philosophers including Empidocles, Anaxa-

goras, Anaxaminder and others have said that the atoms and

molecules are no other than the force-centres which are revolving

all the time in great velocity, and from this revolving unrest state

of the atoms all the materials of the world evolved, as different

planets and satellites are born in the vast etherial space from the

motion of the whirling nebulae. We can believe that the energised

vibrations of the sound-units are the cause of the origin of

music. We know that some of the subjective idealists have accep-

ted the world-appearance as the mind-construction. Most of the

scientists and the psychologists admit this view. The Katha-

Upaniṣad (II.2.2) has said that everything phenomenal emerges

and moves for the vital force, Prāṇa, and this Prāṇa is the source

of all movements and vibrations, and it is the élan vital, as Dr.

Bergson said. Dr. Willingdon Carr and other philosophers have

sufficiently thrown light upon this theory of movement or change,

advocated by Henry Bergson. The psychologists have explained

how different billions of vibrations produce different colours,

red, violet, orange, pink, etc. Recently some expert musicologists

A Study of Music

13

of the West have proved with the help of the sounds of the piano-

how different tones and tunes produce pictures and sensations

of colours by projecting their different shades on the background

of the screens. Let me quote in this connection a passage from

the book, Self-knowledge, written by Swāmi Abhedānanda, the

direct disciple of Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and spiritual

brother of Swāmi Vivekānanda. While dealing with the subject,

'Spirit and Matter,' the learned Swāmi has said: 'Is sound,

which we hear, the same as matter? No, it is the result of a cer-

tain kind of vibration plus the conscious activity of the mind. If

you go to sleep, the vibration of any kind of sound will enter

through your ears and be carried through the auditory nerves

into the braincells, but you will not hear it, because the percipi-

ent mind is not there to translate the vibration into the sensation

of sound. Sensation is also caused by a certain order of vibra-

tions, coming in contact with our consciousness, through the

medium of the nerves. Sound, colour, etc. are, therefore, the

result of the blending of the objective and subjective elements;

or it can be said that sound, colour, etc. are the products of the

combination of that which comes from the external world and

that which is given by the subjective or mental activities.'

I am not going here to explain the psychology or philosophy

of music, but I intend to deal with the theoretical problem of

origin of music which is essential for the students as well as for

the teachers of music. In the West, the problems of origin and

evolution of music have been dealt with in a different way, but,

in India, sound or Nāda has been recognised as the prime source

of the grand structure of music, containing materials of micro-

tone, tone, elaboration of tones or mūrcchanā, the manifesting

tones or varṇa, musical decorating elements or alaṁkāra, ascend-

ing and descending series of tones or tāna, the musical composi-

tion or prabandha, the scale, rhythm, and tempo, together with

the concept of art of music which evolved in a dialectical histo-

rical process. The origin of musical materials are not an acci-

dent, but they evolved gradually from causal state to subtle state,

and from subtle state to gross material form. It has already been

said that when the heat-energy of will-to-create arouses the cos-

mic energy, Kundalini, which, as if, sleeps in the basic centre,

mūlādhāra in the spinal cord, there evolves the supreme sound

or pāra-vāk, and it gradually rises high and manifests as the

14 Music: its Form, Function and Value

shining vāks or sounds, pashyantī, madhyamā and vaikharī. The vaikharī-vāk is manifested as both speech-tone and musical-tone, i.e., as language and music. The combination of tones is itself music, but it is more visible and meaningful when it comes in contact with speech or language. Kaviguru Rabindranath has named the combined form of tune and language as the wings of a bird, which soars high in the sky with his two wings easily. The Rigvedic poets have described this twin form of tune and language as ardha-nārishvara i.e. an embodiment of Purusha and Prakriti. The musical tone is known as svara which means the vibrating sound-units move. Prof. Helmholtz has scientifically discovered and explained the vibrating units of every tone and their pitchvalues, with their proper ratios.

Indian Conception of the Sound

Tone or musical note is no other than the sound, and sound is Vāk. It has been said that the real form of Vāk is Nāda or causal sound, which is the Kāmakalā-Kuṇḍalinī. The Kuṇḍalinī is the coiling or unmanifested sleeping energy, and she is icchā-mayī i.e. the power of divine willing. This Vāk or sound has been measured into four parts, and three parts of them are guhā-hita, i.e. unmanifested, and are, therefore, secret. In the Upani-shad it has been said: ‘tisro vāchal’ i.e. there are three divisions of Vāk, and ‘tripādasyāṃritam divi’ i.e. those three feet or parts of Vāk are parā, pashyantī and madhyamā, which shine in the abyss of the Immortality (amritaloke), and the fourth or turīya one, vaikharī is manifested and visible. In fact, the four stages of evolution of Vāk (sound) is conceived as prithivī or earth, antarikṣa or middle space between earth and heaven, or etherial space, and parama-vyoma or immortal and blissful region. The word and tone of music is the manifested form of the fourth vaikharī-vāk.1

Sound Music and Colour Music

Prof. Louis Bertrand Castel was probably the first to imagine

1The concentrated vital energy lies in the basic lotus, mūlādhāra and it is known as Kundalini or Coiling Undisturbed Energy. Its vibrated first causal form is known as parā that rests in the navel base the second one paśyantī, rests in the heart, and the third one ā madhyamā, rests in the throat.

the existence of an independent art of colour-music, though some of the scientists did not admit it. He was born in 1688, and began his work of investigation into the theory of colour-music in 1720. He wrote in a paper: “Can one imagine anything in the art which would surpass the visible rendering of sound, which would ‘enable the eyes to partake of all the pleasures which music gives to the ears? . . .At every period light has been compared to sound. But I know no one who has carried this parallel further than Kircher (1601-1680), who was not a man to speak poetically of the comparison. Kircher simply calls sour:1 ‘the ape of light,’ and boldly advances. . . . . .that everything which can be made visible to the eyes, can be made audible to the ears, and equally everything which the ear perceives, can be perceived by the eyes.’

In 1786, Robert Warning Darwin . published ‘New Experi-ments on the Ocular Spectra of Light and Colours, and said: “After the organ of vision has been fatigued by a certain action, it spontaneously reacts in the approved direction.’

In 1801, in the Bakerian lecture before the Royal Society, Thomas Young propounded the theory which now, as the result of the work of Helmhotz, commonly bears the name of the Young-Helmholtz Theory of Colour-Vision. He did not concern himself with questions of aesthetics, but his theory of red, green and violet as the primary sensations, profoundly affected later theories. In 1802, Young made the observation that the known extent of the spectrum corresponds to a major sixth, and that red, yellow and blue correspond nearly to the ratios 2, 7, 6. In 1749-1832, Prof. Goethe, and in 1792-1871, Sir George Hayler, in 1787-1854, and George Field worked out their new theories on Colour-Music. But in 1844, Mr. D.D. Jameson’s investigation brought a new awakening in the field of sound and Colour-Music. Mr. Jameson made a suggestion of Colour-Music with regard to theory and practice. In support to it, Le Blon, Arcimboldi, Castel, Newton, Becon, Burnett, Gardiner, Goethe, Field, Harris and Hay forwarded their favourable suggestions. In 1875, Rev. H.R. Haweis admitted the fact with conviction that ‘a colour-art exactly analogous to the Sound-art of Music, is possible, as Sculpture, Architecture, Painting, and Music have been in the past.’ Twenty years later, Prof. Alexander Wallace Remington had independently conceived the idea of Colour-art,

A Study of Music 15

16

Music: its Form, Function and Value

and he began to investigate into it and made it perfect, and he

declared that Sound-Music and Light-Music might be simulta-

neously performed to the mutual enhancement of their respec-

tive emotional effects.

Afterwards Prof. Adrian Bernard Klein found that the psycho-

logists have carried out researches into sound and coloured

vision, as a result of which the conclusion has been reached that

colours or sound-colours possess what is known as emotive value.

The colours of music are known as colour-music and similarly

the sound music. There is a considerable amount of available

data on colour preference. It is doubtful to what extent colour

preference is useful. The choice of colour in Colour-Music, even

if the conditions of an experiment have been ensured as far as

possible and all motives have been eliminated, except that of

preference for colour's sake, will not help us make expression

in colour light.

Prof. N.A. Wells carried out some research on the effective

value of colours which shows a remarkable agreement, in a large

number of subjects, as to the moods awakened by the simple

pure colours of the spectrum and purple. Prof. Wells gives his

own analysis thus,

"Crimson, or deep red with a tone of blue in it: When stand-

ing alone, or seen in large quantity, it always gives vague im-

pressions of passion, rage, blood, etc.

Scarlet, or red with a trace of yellow: The blare of trumpets.

Deep Orange: The heat of flame, soon excites irritation to a

feeling of suffocation.

Orange-Yellow: Warm, glowing, lively.

Yellow: Joyous, gay, merry.

Yellow-Green: Cheerful, smiling.

Blue-Green: Sedate, sober.

Blue: Cool tranquillity.

Violet-Blue: Stern, hard, unyielding, gloom.

Violet: Subduing, serious to the point of melancholy.

Purple: Stately, pompous, impressive.

Different investigations were further made by Profs. Robbins,

Smith, and Washburn. Profs. Washburn and Crawford conclud-

ed that when colours of musical sounds are gazed upon steadily

for one minute, the arousal of associations and adaptation may

change the effective value.

A Study of Music

17

Adaptation is favourable to violet and blue and green and

unfavourable to yellow, and red associations are favourable to

tints and shades of violet, orange, red; but this adaptation was,

on the whole, unfavourable to tints and shades.

Prof. Bullough classified the subject of colour appreciation

into two parts: (a) the aspects of colour, and (b) the perspective

types. He further classified the aspects of colour into four groups,

objective aspect, psychological aspect, associative aspect and cha-

racter aspect. Dr. C.S. Myers employ a similar division of

perspective type, equally applicable to colour appreciation.

Aristotle (384-322 BC) says that colours may mutually relate

musical concords for their pleasantest arrangement, like these

concords mutually proportionate. Leonardo da vinci (1452-

1619. writes: "Of colours of equal whiteness (brightness) that

will seem most dazzling which is on the darkest background, and

black will seem most intense when it is against a background of

greater whiteness, and so in like manner with all the colours,

when set against those which present the sharpest contrast."

Newton, Keplar, and other Scientists forwarded their views on

the colour vision. Prof. Castel's system of harmony was deve-

loped and it was developed from the original scale. The short

waves are placed opposite the lower portion of the octave and

the long opposite the upper half. In fact, Prof. Castel's system of

colour vision rests on the tones on the octave. As for example:

C or D - Celadon (Blue-Green)

D - Green

D or E - Olive (Yellow-Green)

E - Yellow

F - Apricot (Yellow-Orange)

F or G - Orange

G - Red

G or A - Crimson

A - Violet

A or B - Agate (Blue-Violet?)

B - Indigo

Prof. Field advanced the curious hypothesis that light is

essentially chemical in constitution. Really Newton was the first

who taught to regard the sub-beam as a compound of rays of

18

Music: its Form, Function and Value

various colours and powers. In working out his analogy with

music, Prof. Field associates the notes C (Sa) with Blue, E (Re)

with Red and G (Ga) with Yellow. The Diatonic Scale thus

becomes:

C Blue G Yellow

D Purple A Yellow-Green

E Red B Green

F Orange C Blue

Prof. Lind is of the opinion that the seven colours form the

Diatonic Scales of colours and sounds.

Now, we find many controversies as regards estimating the

real unit of sound and colour-visions. As for example we find:

Vibrations of Sound Vibrations of Light

C 259 Red 476 billions

D 289 Orange 511 "

E 322 Yellow 546 "

F 343 Green 588 "

G 385 Blue 630 "

A 427 Indigo 665 "

B 483 Violet 721 "

Again, we find some different investigations into the theory

and measurements of wave-lengths of colours of musical tones,

along with musical intervals by other scholars.

While discussing about 'Duration as Measure of Sensations'

Prof. Rabindralal Roy writes:

"The combination tones thus are realities of the same order

as any simple tone, but this reality may in ultimate analysis be

the creation of our time-sense extending into other senses. This

appears highly probable when we compare the wave-lengths of

light with the relations between the musical notes reckoned in

periods which are proportional to wave-lengths.

Colour|Wave-lengths|Musical interval|Wave-lengths of the

|in A.U. |and time-period|colours according to

| |ratios |musical ratios

Red |7800 — 6400|Tonic of reference|7200 Sa

|or say 7200 as| |

|app. average | |

Orange |6400 — 5900|7200×8/9 Major|6400 Shuddha Re

| |second |

Yellow |5900 — 5500|Major third|5700 Shuddha Ga

| |7200×4/5 |

Green |5500 — 5000|Fourth: 7200×3/4|5400 Shuddha M

Blue |5000 — 4800|Fifth: 7200×2/3|4800 Shuddha Pa

Indigo |4800 — 4500|Major sixth|4320 Shuddha Dha

| |7200×3/5 |

| |Minor sixth corres-|

| |ponds better as|

| |7200×8/ |

Violet |4500 — 3800|7200×9/16 minor|4050 Komala Ni

| |seventh |3800 Shuddha Ni

| |720×8/15 major|

| |seventh |

The Komala Re is within the red range 7200 × 15/16 or 6750,

while Komala Ga is within the range of orange 7200×5/6 or

6000. We can see that there is very good correspondence bet-

ween the ratios of sounds, and colours and the sensations of

sounds and colours are well related through our time-sense.

"It may be questioned however as a counter-argument whether

time consciousness can possibly extend into such minute time-

periods as the undulations causing the colour sensations. Such

a question is justified on the ground that our ordinary time-

sense of the conscious mind is restricted to the sense of rhythm

as in Tāla. Hence we have to indicate that time consciousness is

not only a property of the conscious mind but extend into the

very minutest cells of the body. When that is confirmed we can

say that we hear time-intervals and see time-intervals in the sen-

sations called Sound and Light which have been given the names

of śabda-mātrā and rūpa-mātrā in our Shāstras."

Fortunately some confirmation is available in the observations

of physiologists. Thus Alexis Carrell writes: "The central sys-

tem consists of the brain cerebellum and the spinal chord. It

acts directly on the nerves of the muscles and indirectly on the

nerves of the organs. It is composed of a soft whitish extremely

A Study of Music

19

20

Music: its Form, Function and Value

fragile substance filling the skull and the spinal column. This

substance, by the agency of the sensitive nerves, receives the

messages emanating from the surface of the body and from the

sensory organs. In this way, the nervous centres are in constant

touch with the cosmic world. Simultaneously they send their

orders to all the muscles through the motor nerves and to all the

organs through the sympathetic system. An immense number

of nerve fibres intersect the organism in every direction. Their

microscopic endings creep between cells of the skin, around

the acini of the glands and their excretory ducts, in the coats of

the arteries and the veins, into the contractile envelopes of the

stomach and the intestines, on the surface of the muscular fibres

etc. They all originate from the cells inhabiting the central

nervous system, the double chain of the sympathetic ganglia

and the small ganglia disseminated through the organs.

"These cells are the noblest and most elaborate of the epithe-

lial cells. Owing to the techniques of Ramon-y Cajal, they ap-

pear in all their structural beauty. They possess a large body

which, in the varieties found on the surface of the brain, resembles

a pyramid and most complex organs whose functions still remain

unknown. They extend in the form of extremely slender fila-

ments, the dendrites and axions. Certain axons cover the long

distance separating the cerebral surface from the lower part of

the cord. Axons, dendrites and their mother cell constitute a

distinct individual the neuron. The fibrils of one cell never unite

with those of another. Their extremities form a cluster of very

tiny bulbs, which are in constant motion on their almost invisible

stems as is shown by cinematographic films. They articulate

with the corresponding terminals of another cell by means of a

membrane, known as the synaptic membrane. In each neuron

the nervous influx always diffuses in the same direction in rela-

tion to the cellular body. This direction is centripetal for the

dendrites and centrifugal for the axons. It passes from one

neuron to the other by crossing the synaptic membrane. Like-

wise it penetrates muscular fibres from the bulbs in contact

with their surface."1

Philosophy of Sound

Philosophy of sound reveals the secret of Nāda-Brahman, which

1

vide, The Journal of the Madras Music Academy, XXIII, pp. 81-83.

is the foundation as well as prime value of music. Sometimes

philosophy of music is interpreted as sensations of tones, which

was devised by Helmholtz and other scientists. In fact, sensa-

tions of tones should be included in the category by Physics of

Music. The treatises of music have described it as the Essence

with the form of Nāda–Nada-tanu. Really the purest and real

form of Nāda-brahman is Vindu, which shines as the Brahman,

on the top of Kalā or Nāda. Kalā or Nāda may be compared

with Prakriti or Avyākriti of the Upanishad and Vedanta. Vindu

and Kalā or Nāda have been represented as the prime and up-

per part of Omkāra which symbolises A-U-M. In Tantra, Vindu

is also known as Prakāsha (all-shining) One and Kalā as Vimarshā.

In the Śāradātilaka-Tantra, Pandit Lakṣmīdhara has explained

A-U-M as will-to-desire (Iechā), will-to-know or knowledge

(Jñāna) and will-to-act or destroy (Kriyā). Will-to-desire con-

notes the idea of Prajāpati-Brahmā (Creator), will-to-know con-

notes the idea of Vishṇu (Preserver) and will-to-act or destroy

connotes the idea of Maheśvara (Destroyer). The doctrine of

Kuṇḍalinī and its manifestation has beautifully been explained

by Pandit Lakṣmīdhara and the Commentator, Rāghavabhatta

in the Śāradātilaka-Tantra and the famous slokas are “sa prasute

Kuṇḍalī . . .” etc.

Vindu is the One and soundless Brahman which forms the

background of the structure of phenomena of music, both vocal

and instrumental. Kalā or Nāda is the first manifestation of

stored up static energy. Kuṇḍalinī is conceived as Mahā-kāla-

Śiva, and when it stirs or vibrates with the urge of mani-

festation, it is known as Kalā, the manifestation of Sphoṭa or

Nāda-Brahman. It is really known as Nāda, Kāmakalā or

Kuṇḍalinī. This first vibrated state of Kuṇḍalinī is known as

parā, the minutest manifested force-centre. In fact, the vibra-

tion of Nāda signifies the state of Vāk, Nāda or Kalā, but

when it remains as static, it shines as Kāmakalā-Prakriti or

Kuṇḍalinī. The parā state is the first sphoṭa or indivisible

sound, and the second one is known as pashyantī, as it is visible

in the vision of the Yogis. Patañjali, in the Mahābhāsya, and

Bhatrihari in the Vākyapadīya (brahmakāṇḍa) have said: “madhy-

amāntā guhāshritah’ i.e. the Nāda,3 parā, pashyanti and madh-

1

But, in the strict sense, there is some difference between Sphoṭa and

Nāda. The Grammarians say that the madhyamā-vāk is known as Sphoṭa.

A Study of Music

21

22

Music: its Form, Function and Value

yamā are hidden in the cave of heart. Bhāskararay has also said

in his varivasyārahasya, written on the doctrine of Śaivāgama, as

expounded by Appaya-Dīkshit, in the similar way.1 The fourth

one, vaikharī, manifests through the medium of throat as irre-

gular sound, noise and regular sweet sound, music. The real

music is, therefore, the Nāda-brahman, which is known, in the

static form, as Vindu and, in the dynamic form, as Kalā. So Kund-

alini is known as both Mahākāla and Sadāśiva, of which Mahā-

kala is the determinate Nāda-brahman (saguṇa-Brahman) and

Sadāśiva is the indeterminate Nāda-brahman, (nirguṇa-Brahman).

These two prime aspects of the Nāda-brahman, Mahākāla and

Sadāśiva-Kalā or Nāda and Vindu-Śakti and Śiva are the

prime value of the art of music. The philosophy of sound dis-

closes this grand truth of Kalā and Vindu, which are known as

the undivided sāmarasya or Śiva-Śakti, as has been depicted

in the Rigveda as Ardha-nārīśvara. Śrī Rāmakrishṇa Parama-

hansa calls it a rupee which is completed with both of its sides-

'takar e-pith O o-pith'. In fact, when sound is manifested as tones

and tunes or melodies, it bears also the same value of the sound

which remains as unmanifested background of the whole struc-

ture of music. This philosophy has been interpreted from the

standpoint of Tantra literature, which upholds the doctrine of

śakti-viśiṣṭa-advaita. It can also be interpreted from the non-

dualistic or Advaita standpoint. But it is seen that Sārṅgadeva

and other authors of musical treatises have adopted the theory of

Sabda-brahman in their bookṣ, and naturally, they have follow-

ed in this respect the method of philosophical interpretation of

the prime value of music, which has been adopted in Patañjali's

Mahābhāsya, Bhatrihari's Vākyapadiya and especially in Tantra.

Dattila, Mataṅga and Pārshvadeva have also defined Nāda, and

divided it into five parts, but those parts are not similar to the

Vaiyākaraṇas, Mīmāṁsakas and the Tāntrikas. Further we find

that Dattila has designated the śrutis or microtones as dhvani,

and they are twenty-two in number: 'dvāviṁśatividho dvaniḥ.'

Mataṅga has admitted that dhvani or sound is the cause of

1(a) The commentator Rāghavabhatta says: 'Chatṭāri vāk-parimiṭā

padāni, tāni vindur lerahmadā ye mavinṭakhi guhā trini nihitā negayanti

turiyan vācho manutsyā vadantīl teṣām nāmni vaikharī madyamā, paśyanti

paretil śrutau tariyapadasya vaikharyarthā.

(b) Similarly Patañjali says in the U Bh. parā-vāk mūla chykresṭha, Vāk

everything of music, and that sound is divided into two, the un-

manifested (avyakta) and the manifested (vyakta) and the mani-

fested one helps to realize the varṇas, vowel and consonant (svara

and vyañjana). Mataṅga and Pārshvadeva have called the vowel

(svara-varṇa) Śakti, and consonant (vyañjana-varṇa) Śiva. Mat-

aṅga has further said: 'nādo' yam nadaterdhātōḥ sa cha pañchavi-

dho bhavet,' i.e. as it sounds or produces sound, so it is known

as Nāda, and this Nāda is of five kinds, sūkṣmā, atisūkṣma, vyak-

ta, avyakta and kritrima i.e. 'minute, most minute, manifested, unmanifested and mechanical. The invisible minute Nāda 'rests

in the cave (of the mind); the most minute one rests in the heart;'

rests in the root of lip, and the mechanical one rests in the

throat (23-24).

Pārshvadeva has accepted the five divisions of Nāda or 'sound:

'sacha pañchavidho nādo matangamuni-sammatath' but Pārshva-

deva's designations somewhat differ from those of Mataṅga, as

Pārshvadeva says: 'ati-sūkṣmaścha sūkṣmaścha puṣṭo'puṣṭaścha

kritrimaḥ' and not only that, he has also located them in differ-

ent places, which are not exactly the same as Mataṅga has done.

In short, these three ancient musicologists, Dattila, Mataṅga,

and Pārshvadeva have explained Nāda or sound and its divisions,

which do not tally with the definitions and meanings, as have been

forwarded by the intuitive authors and commentators of differ-

ent philosophical scriptures and sciences of language.

But the music authors have mentioned about the Nādas, Āha-

ta and Anāhata—stricken and unstricken. 'The philosophical

sounds, parā, pashyanti and madhyamā can be called as anāhata,

whereas vaikharī is āhata, and this āhata ones can be known as

kritrima or mechanical.

Sārṅgadeva, Kallināth and Siṅghabhūpāla sing the same song.

In the Saṅgīta-Ratnākara Sārṅgadeva says: 'nābhi-hrit-kantha-

mūrdhāsyeṣvāvibāvayati dvanini nādo'tisūṣmaḥ sūṣmachā.......

kritrimaḥ.' Sārṅgadeva has pointed three main places, heart

(base), throat (medium) and base of the palate (acute or high),

but these nomenclatures as well as divisions do not suit the pro-

per interpretations of sounds, anāhata and āhata. 'Kallināth, in

his commentary, has mentioned about mantra or vīṭa-mantra and

its deity or Devatā. He says: 'vīduḥ, māntrikā it......' In

fact, Kallināth says that root forms of the sacred mantras or

23

A Study of Music'

varnas originate from the sound with its gradations. These gra-

des have been described in different Tantras and their commen-

taries. The musicians and the musicologists should at least be

conversant with the knowledge of Tāntric interpretation, as they

are more correct and scientific.

Philosophy of Colour

Colour is also the result of vibration. Certain amounts of

vibrations create certain colours, viz., red, yellow, blue, etc. The

treatises of Indian music have mentioned about those seven col-

ours, and as the musical tones or notes are the resultants of differ-

ent vibrations, so they are related to musical tones, and as the

melodic types (rāgas and rāginīs) are constituted out of permuta-

tion and combination of tones, so the melodic types are also re-

lated with different colours. The poets and musicologists have

composed contemplative compositions (dhyāna-mantras) of the

rāgas and the rāginīs, and have described their respective colo-

urs, and those colours or complexions of the rāgas and the rā-

ginīs really determine the specific natures or characteristics of

them.

In the Rigveda, three prime colours, Red, White and Black,

are mentioned—‘lohita-shukla-krishnam.’ But, in the later period

we find main seven colours, Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue,

Indigo and Violet, which correspond to the seven rays of the

‘Sun. In the Upanishad and other Hindu Shāstras, an allegory

of the chariot of the Sun, carried by seven horses, is mentioned.

And we know that the musical tones, both Vedic and non-Vedic,

are seven in number. The five flat or chromatic tones were add-

ed afterwards. The seven tones are saturated with seven colours.

But we know that there are hundreds and thousands of rāgas,

and, in the 16th-17th century AD, their presiding deities with

different forms and colours have been imagined or contemplated.

The bodies of the presiding deities are composed of sounds (nā-

da-tanu), and the sounds are represented by different tones, com-

posed of vibrations. The vibrations, according to science, are no

other than the vibrations of the vital force (prāna-śakti), and so

the vibrations have been described as the ‘force-centres’—śakti-

kendra or prāna-vijas. These force-centres which lie in tones and

colours of the rāgas and the rāginīs bring unto the artistes satis-

faction of perfect creation of the forms of the rāgas and the

rāginīs, and that temporary satisfaction gradually brings perma-

nent satisfaction of life.

It has been said that colours form different complexions of the

melodic types, and those complexions determine the tempera-

ment or psychological moods of the melodic types, and they are

considered as living or as full of life-force. The specific tempera-

ments i.e. aesthetic sentiments and moods of the rāgas and the

rāginīs constitute both the mental and physical forms of the Nāya-

kas and the Nāyikās, evolved out of the melodic patterns. The

Vaishnava philosophers have described the characteristics of

the Nāyakas or heroes and the Nāyikās or heroines of the padā-

valīs, which generally evolve from different aesthetic sentiments

and moods (rasas and bhāvas), though their prime Nāyaka and

Nāyikā are Śrī Krishna and Śrī Rādhā. The emotional senti-

ments give shape of the physical forms or Icons of the rāgas,

and the rāginīs, and as there are main eight sentiments and eight

moods, so the objective or objectified physical forms of the rā-

gas and rāginīs give shapes to eight Nāyakas and eight Nāyikās.

But the Nāyakas and the Nāyikās are numerous, and they are

connected with different aesthetic sentiments (rasas) of the rā-

gas and the rāginīs. The Nāyakas represent the male rāgas and

the Nāyikās represent the female rāgas, i.e. rāginīs. The colours

speak about as well as determine the Nāyakas and the Nāyikās.

So philosophy of colours of the rāgas and the rāginīs act as the

symbols or signs of the deities of them and when the artistes create

through tones and tunes the forms of the deities (Icons) of the rā-

gas and the rāginīs, they first meditate upon the colours of them

and then of the colours (varṇas) lead them to the respective deities.

The artistes meditate upon the presiding deitieis of the modal

forms, which, if perfectly designed, bring unto the artistes peace

of mind as well as satisfaction of creation of the colourful forms

of the rāgas and the rāginīs;

Evolution of Tone has created a History

Evolution of tones or notes has created an amazing history of

music. It has been said before that they evolved in a historical

dialectical process. The tones evolved in different periods in

different ways. The primitive men designed the structure of

music, because his growing appetite for emotional communica-

tion and artistic expression, almost as fundamental a human

26

Music: its Form, Function and Value

need as food, is an animal necessity, demanded satisfaction. The

primitive peoples used to apply music in the movements of their

labour, and as if by magic, lightened the toil. Prof. Einstein says

that what is certain is that the practice of music among primitive

peoples shows a continual movement between two opposite extre-

mes, excitement and repose. Its typical form is, therefore, me-

lody that begins on a high note and then sinks or falls to a de-

finite final or tonic. The music of the primitive peoples was

followed by some crude type of lute and flute, made up of bam-

boo or wood or bone, the scanty remains of which were found

from the mounds of the prehistoric cities of Mohenjo-daro and

Harappā.

Music in the primitive society was at first monotonous with

the playing of one note in high pitch. Their songs were recita-

tive in the beginning. Gradually they added one more note in

high and low pitches. In course of time, the primitive society

devised a third medium note to make a balance between the

notes, high and low. Mr. H.B. Alexander admits that the primi-

tive peoples, who mainly belonged to the classes, hunting, pasto-

ral and agricultural, used to sing from the higher to the lower

note, Mr. Felber admits it. Mr. Hambly and some other Wes-

tern historians have ascribed the credit of devising or discovering

two notes, or of orderly arrangement of sounds, high and low, to

the ancient Greeks who brought the chaos into order that happ-

ened in the reeds on the bank of the Nile. But that is not the

fact, as the primitive aboriginal tribes of India, while singing

and dancing, discovered the utility of two pitches of two notes,

so as to make their songs graceful on different occasions. The

nomadic stocks of ancient tribes like Toḍā, Sarva, Lohār, Orāon,

Bhuiyā, Saroā, Dobāng, Mikir and others of Nilgiri Hills, Mid-

dle India, Chhotanagpur District, North-East Frontier Trivanco-

re-hills, Chhatisgarh, Orissa, Assam and other places of India

are traditionally preserving their old music-forms even to this

day, though there arose some differences in types and embellish-

men's between the old stock and the new one.

Rhythm and Melody in Music

Rhythm and melody evolved naturally along with songs with

two or three notes in the primitive time. Mr. Macdowell has

discussed elaborately about the origin of music in the most anc-

ient days in his book, Critical and Historical Essays. Regarding

evolution of rhythm and melody, he says that melody evolved

first and then rhythm, as rhythm denotes thought and it is the

expression of a purpose and, therefore, it is included in the intelle-

ctual side of music, and melody, on the other hand, is almost the

unconscious expression of the senses. Melody translates feelings

into sound, and, therefore, it is included in the sensuous side. Mr.

Cecil Gray is of the same opinion. While discussing about har-

mony and polyphony of the early middle ages, he says that "in

no art, science, and other department of human activities, has

the doctrine of evolution been so enthusiastically welcomed, so

eagerly adopted, and so whole-heartedly endorsed, as in music.

In the beginning, we are told, there was rhythm, nothing but rhy-

thm. After a long time melody gradually evolved, and finally

in comparatively recent times, harmony."

However, melody is more ancient than rhythm. It is the natu-

ral outlet for sensation and feeling. It can be regarded as the prime

thing to originate the aesthetic feeling in the mind of the people

who come in contact with melody. Mr. Macdowell has further

said that we have seen that in anger we raise the voice, but

in sadness we lower it. Besides, melody is a colourful sound

with the combination of a tone or some tones. In taking, we also

give expression to emotion in sound. In a sentence, in which

fury alternates with sorrow, we have the limits of the melody of

speech. In a song, the limit of the melody is slackened and free-

dom is given to emotive expression. So melody is superior to

speech, and it predominates over speech or language that pene-

trates the structure of music.

Rhythm and melody are important, and are very ancient ele-

ments of music. It is true that the developed and systematised

melodic patterns came into being in the classical period, in 600-

500 bc. The developed form of rhythm also came nearly in the

same time. Dr. Farmer says that we find some foreign influence

in music of India and other lands. The Arabian sciences played

an important role in intellectual awakening of England as well as

of English music. "The phase of Arabian influence in music may

be traced in two directions: (1) in Popular music, brought about

by mere political contact, which began in the eighth century, and

(2) in Artistic Music, brought about by the literary and intellec-

tual contact which began in the tenth-eleventh century."

27

A Study of Music

28

Music: its Form, Function and Value

The first Arabian influence was spread abroad by the wandering minstrels. Many of the song-forms and dance-forms of the ministrelistic of mediaeval Europe can be traced in the Arabs.

Behind the eighth and eleventh centuries the Arabs had translated many musical treatises from the Greek, hitherto unknown to Western Europe, and among them are Aristotle, Tolemy, Euclid and others. Similarly we find Greek influence in Indian and Arabian music. In the early days of Islam, we find, says Dr. Farmer, "that al-Hijaz, then the political centre, had adopted mensural music which was called iqa or 'rhythm.' About the same time the Arabs adopted a new theory of music at the hands of a musician named Ibn-Misjah. The theory contained both Persian and Byzantine elements, but, as the late Dr. J.P.N. Land remarked, 'the Persian and Byzantine importations did not supersede the national music, but were engrafted upon an Arabic root with a character of its own.' The system, the scale of which appears to have been Pythagorean, obtained until the fall of Baghdad. Besides, Dr. Former says, most of the Arabic theorists were good mathematicians and physicists. The speculative theory of music and the physical bases of sound, which the Greek treatises had opened up to them, led many of those Arabic theorists to make experiments on their own account. But it should be remembered that Greeks were also indebted to India in many respects for making their various thoughts and ideas perfect. Some, including Swāmi Abhedānanda, are of the opinion that when Pythagoras visited India, he took with him many ideas and materials of fine arts, science, medicine, philosophy and other things, and, therefore, it can be believed that the Greek music and music of other foreign nations were enriched with the materials, borrowed from India.

Fusion of Culture

Fusion of culture was made possible in both Hindu and Buddhist periods. From history we know that there was established a close contact with India and other lands of the world in the most antique days, in prehistoric and Vedic times, through trade, commerce, and religion. Dr. Radha Kumud Mookerji has forwarded various evidences of such contact of culture in ancient time, through trade in his monumental book, A History of Indian Shipping. Swāmi Abhedānanda, Prof. Rawlinson, Sir

Jadunath Sarkar, Dr. Radhakrishnan and others have recorded the facts of such fusions of culture and religion in ancient time between India and other countries of the world in their books, India and Her People, Legacy of India, India Through the Ages, Eastern Religion and Western Thoughts. Well has it been said by Sir Jadunath Sarkar that the Buddhists established an intimate contact between India and foreign countries. The religion was India's greatest gift to the outer world. It was a universal movement, a force irrespective of country and caste, which the whole ancient East was free to accept. There were two streams of human movement, one composed of our native Buddhist teachers going out of India and another of foreign Buddhist pilgrims and students flocking to India which broke our isolation in that age. There was a fusion of social custom, religion and culture between the Aryans and the non-Aryans inside India. Besides, the fusion of foreign non-Aryan immigrant tribes and families was with the Indian population, and history records many examples of it. "In the first century AD, some families that bear Persian names are found settled in Western India, and Buddhist months alike. The Karlie and Nasik Cave inscriptions tell us that Harapharna (i.e. Holophernes), son of Setaphana, a Śova-Saka, gave away a cave-hall surrounded by nine cells to the Mahāsānghika branch of Buddhist Monks, and that Ushavadāta (i.e. Rishavadatha) a Saka, the son-in-law of the Kshatrapa Nahāpana (another Persian name) gave away three lakhs of cows, and sixteen villages to the Brāhmanas . . . " In this way, we find in the early part of the Christian era, the Kushānas, Śakas or Sythians, Persians, Huns, Armenians, Indo-Pārthians entered into India and settled, and the result was that there was fusion of blood and culture, art and religion among the Indian peoples and the peoples of those non-Aryan and foreign nations. The Sulaiman range gradually ceased to exist as a barrier on the West, and the Panjab and Afganistan, Khurāsān and Seistān became as one country.

Fusion of culture, art and religion gave free access to interchanging of materials of art and music, and we find that Persian todi or todikā, turaṣka-todi, turuṣka-gauḍa, hārmāna-pañchama, turaṣka-gauḍa, ṣaka, ṣaka-valita, ṣaka-tilaka, ṣaka-mishritā, takka, botta, etc. have been included in the fold of Indian rāgas. Besides, many aboriginal and regional tunes were given privilege

29

A Study of Music

30

Music: its Form, Function and Value

and prestige of the Indian rāgas. So it has been said by Sir

Jadunath Sarkar that the study of our country's history leads

irresistibly to the conclusion that we (Indians) must embrace

the spirit of progress with a full and unquestioning faith, . . . .

We must recognise that in the course of her evolution India has

absorbed many new elements later than the Vedic Aryan age

and even than the Mughal age. We must not forget that the

modern Indian civilization is a composite daily growing product

and not a mummy preserved in dry sand for four thousand

years."

Really fusion of anything brings novelty of art and culture

and infuse new vigour and inspiration to the old system. So

we shall have to give up all dream of isolation and rigidity; should

be liberal and unprejudiced, and should come into the line with

moving world outside.

Influence on Indian Music

While explaining the influence of Grecian music on Ara-

bian music and the influence of Arabian music on music of

Europe in Saʿadyah Gaon on the Influence of Music (1948), Dr.

Farmer says that it was the Semitic East that the Greeks also

borrowed their modal system, the doctrine of the ethos, and the

concept of the Harmony of the Sphere. A priestly modal system

already existed among the ancient nations of Babylonia, Assy-

ria and Egypt. Failo Judueus tells us that this last theory was

derived from the Chaldeans. It was Pythagoras who originally

introduced it into Greece. Pythagoras believed that music, nay,

the concept of the Harmony of the Sphere not only influenced

the gods, but also effected the mankind: "He also devised a

modal system by which a particular melodic mode would banish

depression, another would banish grief, whilst a third would

check passion, and so on. Rhythmic modes were also classified

by Pythagoras in the scheme of the ethos. The Greeks, follow-

ing the Semitics, also linked up the modal and ethnological

system with the primary elements, the celestial spheres, the

colours and numbers." We must not forget Plato, says Dr.

Farmer, as he suggested that the rhythms are the limitations of

life. And it is interesting to note that in the middle ages, the

Arabs recognised this doctrine and incorporated in their system

of music.

A Study of Music

31

It can be said that the doctrine of Harmony of the Spheres as

accepted by the Arabs, was based on Pythagorean teaching,

although much may have come from the ancient Semitics. We

find in the treatises of Arabs that 'the morning stars sang toge-

ther, and all the sons of God shouted for joy,' but the Greeks

and the Arabs believed that it was Pythagoras alone who

heard it, and the Jews claimed that Moses was credited with this

theory and knowledge. But Al-Kindi who was conversant with

the knowledge of the Greeks and the Arabs believed that every-

thing happened by the Nature, and so he dealt with the planet-

ary scale in these words:

"The open (mutlaq) note (A) of the bamm string (of the lute),

which is the first of the notes, and the lowest of them, resem-

bles Saturn, which is the highest of the seven planets and the

slowest. And after it is the first finger (sabbāba) note (B) of the

bamm string, resembling Jupiter. . . . And similarly the second

finger (wustā) note (C) of the bamm string to Mars. And its fourth

finger (khinsir) note (D) to the Sun. And the first finger note (E)

of the mathlath string to Venus. And the second finger note (F)

to Mercury. And the fourth finger note (G) to the Moon."

We find also this kind of planetary scale of the Arabs and the

Jews of the middle ages, and it is found in the systems of music

of the ancient Chaldeans. Dr. Farmer says that from these we

can not only imagine, but also appreciate how deeply the Near

East was engrossed in this doctrine of the ethos which at the

period of Saʿadyah Gaon had been systematised by the Arab

scholars after Greek methods, although the theory itself was

traceable ultimately to the ancient Semitics.

We have mentioned that in ancient Babylonia-Assyria and

Egypt, a priestly modal system existed and each melodic mode

having its own particular influence on duty, or being in concord

with deity, created the unseen world. The idea of connection of

music with starry heaven, or supernatural elements, was not un-

known to the ancient peoples of India, and so they connected

not only music and its elements, but also all things of the world

with gods and heaven. Though it is true that in the 16th-17th

century, the modal forms of rāgas and rāginis were conceived as

living deities, having emotive lustre and value, and so the im-

aginative poets composed their contemplative compositions or

dhyānas and colourful pictures of the rāgas, yet it is found that in

32

Music: its Form, Function and Value

very ancient time, in the Vedic period, the intuitive priests and

Rishis used to perform sacred sacrifices with the offerings of butter

and different materials in the blazing tongues of the fires of the

altars, and at the same time, they used the sāmagānas acco-

mpanied by different musical instruments and dances by the

maidens. It should be remembered that the priests and the yaja-

mānas used to conceive different presiding deities or gods who

offered their sacred boons and blessings to them. The Vedic

songs, sāmagānas, were possessed of supernatural powers which

existed in the Sphere of the Heaven, and so every unit of

vibration of the musical sounds or tones of the Vedic songs were

surcharged with heavenly beauty and light. Dr. Farmer has

mentioned about the heavenly musical sphere of the ancient

Babylonians, Assyrians, Chaldeans. Arabs and of the peoples of

the Near East, but has missed, I think, to mention about the

Divine Music or Harmony of the Sphere which existed in India

long before the dawn of civilization in other countries.

Number-Souls of the Pythagoreans

Now, why Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans were inclined to

determine everything of the world out of the Number-Souls, Prof.

Richards has forwarded some reason of it. From Thales to

Plato we find in the Grecian world two lines of thought i.e.

of materiality and ideality. The nature of things, their physics,

was regarded by Thales to as supersensible, which differed from

the material body. Similarly Plato also believed in a realm

of purity and divinity. In fact, during the times of Thales and

Plato, the pure ideality predominated, and that ideality was an

unchangeable immortal something, and everything evolved from

and used to be ruled by it. It was Heracleitas who first appeal-

ed to 'words' as embodying the nature of things, and he saw in

'language' the most constant thing in a world of ceaseless change.

But Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans on the other hand

were chiefly puzzled by number symbols. "Since everything

appeared to be modelled in its entire character on numbers,"

says Aristotle, "and numbers to be the ultimate things in the

whole universe, they became convinced that the elements of

numbers are the elements of everything." Prof. Richard says that

Pythagoreanism, passed at that time, from a doctrine of the world

as a procession of numbers out of the One to the construction of

everything out of Number-Souls, each claiming an immortal and

supreme existence. This tendency is also found in India in the

systems of Nyaya-Vaisheshika, Yogachāra-Vijnanavada and Pra-

bhākara-Mimānsā philosophies. In Bharata's Nātyasāstra also,

we find the use of numbers for determining the microtones, or the

differences of spaces of the tones, which regulate the pitch-values

and ratios of the tones.

Music in the Vedic Time

From the Vedic literature we know that Vedic music was more

developed and systematic with its pentatonic scale and having

three registers, high, low, and medium or circumflex. It is richer

than music of the prehistoric times. Different Prātishākhya or

recensions of Vedas inform that though music was mostly penta-

tonic like those of the music of other ancient nations of the

world, yet six or seven tones were in use in the Kauthumiya

and some other recensions. In the Rik-prātishākhya, it has been

mentioned: 'sarvā ṣākhā prithak prithak' i.e. all the recensions

were different from one another. So music in the Vedic time

used to be practised in various methods with different tones.

Music in the Vedic time was systematized with some fixed princi-

ples and methods, and it was coloured with different emotional

units and different feelings which used to be transmitted in the

mind of the priests and Yajamānas.

It has been said before that the notes of the Vedic time were

of different kinds, and among them the registral and the musical

notes were very prominent. The register-notes were known as

the sthāna-svaras, and they were known as udātta or high, anu-

dātta or low, and svarita or balancing circumflex.

The Vedic musical notes were known as kruṣṭa, praṭhama,

dvitiya, tritiya, chaturtha, mandra and atisvārya. These notes

were in a descending order (ārohaṇa-gati), quite opposite to the

ascending order (avarohaṇa-gati) of the music of the Christian

era. It is known that the primitive music used to begin from

the high note, and terminated in the low note, and this practice

was followed even in the Vedic time. As there is no genuine

proof or record of the definite practice of music of the prehis-

toric time, so it is not possible to determine its correct method

of embellishment of that remote time. The mātrās or beating

meters were kept by the finger signs, or by nodding of the head

A Study of Music

33

34

Music: Its Form, Function and Value

in different directions. The Vedic music is known as the sāman

or sāmagāna. The sāmans were sung with the help of the Vedic

notes, and when the mantrams were recited in monotonqus tune,

they were known as the stotrams or recitative hymns. It should

be remembered that music of the Vedic time was either the recita-

tive, or the tuneful. The stotras in praise of different Vedic gods

or deities were the recitative one, and four kinds of gānas—

aranyegeya, grāmegeya, uha and īhya were practised with diffe-

rent tones and tunes. Most of the gānas or songs were auspi-

cious, though some of them were used in ābhichāra-kriyā or in

unholy and unpleasing performances. Stobhas were in use in the

words of the songs, so as to create emotional motive with the

elaboration of the speeches.

The Vedic music was rich with different musical instruments.

veena, dundubhi, bhūmi-dundubhi venu or flutes of bamboo, etc.

Drums of different sizes were traditionally practised in the Vedic

time. It seems that the method of construction of the bhūmi-

dundubhi in the Vedic time evolved on the design already adop-

ted in the primitive time. While discussing about music and

drum of the primitive tribal music, Dr. Tucker has mentioned

about the drum, Dom-piny, used by the Shilluk-speaking tribe,

Thri. He has written: "It is constructed as follows: A hole is

dug in the ground, about six inches across and perhaps a foot

deep. Across this hole and on a level with the ground, a six

foot cord is stretched, the ends attached to wooden pegs. A

stout piece of hide, baked board-hard by the sun, is now placed

under the cord (which is of grass), covering the mouth of the

hole as well as a square foot or two of the surrounding ground.

A straight stick about six inches long is now inserted between

the cord and the hide, one end resting on the hide over the

middle of the hole, and the other pushing against the cord; the

cord is thus strung over the stick just as a violin string passes

over the bridge.

The bhūmi-dundubhi in the Vedic time was somewhat differ-

ent in construction, and it served the purpose of giving signals

in distant places in the time of danger, and also in circulating

important news among the neighbouring tribes. The dundubhi-

drum was constructed out of a hollow trunk of a tree, covering it

with the hide of the animals. Both these drums were considered

as important and auspicious, and especially the drum, dundubhi

A Study of Music

35

accompanied music of the Vedic time.

There were various kinds of Veenā, having different sizes

with different numbers of strings. The vāṇa-veenā was fitted

with hundred strings, made up of muñjā-grass or entrails of

different animals. The commentator Sayana has described the

veena, vāṇa as ‘vāṇasya-vādyasya sapta-dhātuh niṣādādi . . .’ i.e.

the hundred strings were tuned in seven tones, ṣadja to niṣāda.

So the word dhātu does not mean wire or cord, but means tone,

both Vedic and classical. In later period, when Vedic vāṇa-veenā

was extinct, Muni Kātyāyana designed a hundred-stringed veena

which was named after him. In his Kalpasūtra, Kātyāyana has

mentioned the name of this veenā, Kātyāyani.

The Kāshyapī or Kacchapī-veenā was mostly used to accom-

pany the chorus songs, sung by the priests as well as by the wives

and unmarried girls of the priests, engaged in the sacred sacri-

fices. It has been mentioned in some Brahmāṇas that the priests

and the Sāmagas or singers used to sing Sāmagānas, and some-

times the wives of the priests as well as the girls used to play the

Kachhapi or Kāshyapī-veenā and used to dance in unison, enrich-

ing the blazing fire of the altars, and that time they used to clap

the palms of their hands to keep rhythm of the songs and the

dances.

This practice in songs and dances is not rare among the half-

civilized aboriginal tribes of India and other places even to this

day. I have mentioned that Dr. Tucker has recorded some of

the songs and the dances prevalent in the Southern Sudan, and

he has stated: "This is another Bari jumping dance, popular

with young boys and girls. The performers form a ring, singing

and clapping, with the drums to one side rather than in the

middle, which is left open." From this it is understood that men

of all ages, civilized or uncivilized, are fond of recreation and

enjoyment in different times and at different occasions, though

the gradual progress of civilization and culture have made the arts

of singing, drumming and dancing perfect more and more with

new elements and new devisements. So we find many new and

novel forms and techniques of different arts in different ages

among different nations of the world, though the human beings

are guided by their age-long traditions and habits.

36

Music: its Form, Function and Value

Ancient Schools of Music

Truly speaking, there were at least five schools in ancient

India and they were:

I. Druhiṇa-Brahmā-School,

II. Bharata-School,

III. Gāndharva-Nārada-School,

IV. Nandikeśvara-School,

V. Mataṅga-School,

or it can be said that there were six ancient schools:

I. Vedic or the Saman-School,

II. Gāndharva-Nārada-School,

III. Druhiṇa-Brahmā-School,

IV. Muni Bharata-School,

V. Nandikeśvara-School,

VI. Mataṅga-School.

It is a fact that during the Vedic time, the Gāndharva-School,

which was established and propagated by Gandharva Nārada,

Tumbura, Viśvavasu and other Gandharvas existed nearly side

by side, and the mārga-type of music, with its classical form,

evolved with the materials of both the schools, Vedic and

Gāndharva. The mārga-type of music used to be known as the

cosellha chased music. In the Nāradīśikṣā, Narada, who was perhaps

other than Nārada of the Śikṣā, incorporated most of the

materials from the gāndharva-School, and, similarly, Muni

Bharata adopted many materials from both the Schools, Vedic

and Gāndharva.

We come to know from the ancient scriptures on music that

in the gāndharva-type of music, propagated by Gandharvas like

Nārada, Tumbura, Viśvavasau, Chitrasen and others, three

grāmas sadja, madhyama and gāndhāra were in practice in

different systems of Indian music, and especially the gāndhāra-

grāma was in use in the gāndharva type of music. It has been

said that the gāndhāra-grāma was practised in the svargaloke i.e.

in the community of the bright spirits and the semi-divine

Gandharvas, and that means the practice of gāndhāra-grāma was

obsolete or abandoned by the lovers of music on earth, as soon

as the gāndharva-School or the Gandharva system of music was

practically abandoned. In the Nāradīśikṣā of Nārada (not

Gandharva Nārada), we find different grāmarāgas like madhya-

magrāma, ṣadjagrāma, kiśika, pañchama, kaiśika-madhyama,

sādhārita, etc. and it seems that those grāmarāgas were the

essential material of the gāndharva-School. Besides, Nānydeva or

Nānybhupālā has given some secret signs of them in his Bharat-

abhäṣyam, known as the Sarasvatīhrdayālamkāra. The music of

the classical period was much influenced by the Nāṭya-school of

Muni Bharata, who collected materials from the Vedic

and the gāndharva music and compiled the Nāṭyaśāstra. But

it is a historical fact, that there was a novel school of music,

known as gāndharva, devised and propagated by the Gandharvas,

Nārada, Tumburu, Viśvāvasu, Chitrasena and others, and that

new and novel gāndharva school was in use nearly side by side

with the Vedic music, and music of the classical period (mārga

or chased music) collected materials from both the systems,

Vedic and gāndharva. In the 5th-7th centuries AD, during the

time of Mataṅga, music system of India was enriched with the

sophisticated regional tunes or melodies, and the genuine evi-

dence of it we get from the Brhaddesí.

Besides, in the Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata, Harivaṃśapurāṇa

and other Purāṇas (Epics), we find the practice of gāndharva-

music by expert Sūtas, Singers or Singing Bards, who used to

sing in different auspicious occasions and also in the Royal

Courts. In the Rāmāyaṇa (4th canto), we find that the well-

known Singing Bards like Lava and Kuśa were presenting the

Rāmāyaṇa-gāna before Śrī Rāmachandra, the King of Ayodhyā.

The Ślokas run thus:

Veerādibhbih rasaih yuktam kāvyaṁatadgāyatām

Tantu gāndharva-tattvajñau sthāna-mūrchanākovidau,

Bhrātarau svara-sampannau gandhavāviva-rūpinau.

That is, the Singing Bards, Lava and Kuśa presented the

kāvya-gāna, Rāmāyaṇa according to gāndharva-śāstra or treatise,

prescribed by the semi-divine Gandharvas. Now, who were the

Kuśi-Lavas? Muni Bharata says in the Nāṭyaśāstra “nānā-to-

dya-vidhāne. . . pravādane kuśalah. . . yaśmāt sa Kuśi-Lāvalḥ"

i.e. the story-tellers and the wandering singers were known as

the Kuśi-Lavas who were experts and well-versed in the art and

science of the gāndharva-gāna. Dr. Winternitz writes: “These

court-singers formed a special caste, in which the epic songs

(according to the rules of gāndharva) were transmitted from

generation to generation. Epic poetry probably originated in the

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A Study of Music

38

Music: its Form, Function and Value

circle of such Bards, who certainly were very closely related to

the warrior class. Besides, there were travelling singers, called

Kuśi-Lavas, who memorised the songs and publicly sang them to

the accompaniment of the lute (veena), (vide, A History of Indian

Literature, I, p. 315).

So, it is a historical fact that both the systems of the sāman-

singing and the gāndharva-singing were prevalent even in the

epic times. What do we mean by the word gāndharva? Muni

Bharata says in the Nātyaśāstra (28th Chapter):

Atyartham istam devānām tathā prītikārā m punah,

Gāndharvānāmidaṃ yas māt tasmād gāndharvamuchyate.

That is, like the sāman-singing, the gandharva-gāna of the

semi-divine Gandharvas was also pleasing and loving to the

Devas. And it is quite true that Kālidāsa has mentioned about

the gāndharva-mūrcchanā in his Meghadūta and also about its

application to the wires of the veenā by the wife of the banished

Yakṣa (Yakṣī) and the commentator, Mallināth comments:

"devayoni-rāt-gāndhāra-grāṃ ca gātukametyarthah." That is,

the grāmas, ṣadja and madhyama, were practised by the artistes

of the earth (gāyanti mānavaḥ), and the grāma gāndhara was

exclusively used by the devayonis (sa labhyo devayonibhil). The

contentions of both Kālidāsa and his commentator, Mallināth

are quite though the gāndhāra-grāma and its mūrcchanā were

obsolete in the times of the epics and also in the classical time,

yet as the sāmagānas were prevalent in both the periods, classi-

cal and epic, so was the gāndharva-gāna, because both the

ancient systems of music, sāmagāna and gāndharva-gāna were

the source or fountainhead of the later-evolved classical type of

music, mārga-gana. The mārga-system of music has elaborately

been explained and described by Muni Bharata and others.

These have also been dealt with in my forthcoming book, Music

of the South-Asian Peoples, I, and also in my published book,

Bhāratīya Sangeeter Itihās, second part of II.

Music in Classical Period

It is generally believed that the classical period began in the

600-500 bc. At that time, there existed different materials and

schools of music. The main three schools were known as (1) the

Nātya-school of Bharata of the Nātyaśāstra, (2) the Nāradiya-

gāndharva school and (3) Nandikeśvara school. It is said that

Nārada-I1 was older than Muni Bharata, and we generally as-

cribe the date of Muni Bharata to 3rd century bc, to 2nd

century ad, and, 'therefore, the date of ancient Nārada-I,

who composed the Nāradi-Shikṣā, goes back to that of Muni

Bharata. It can be said in this connection that there were four

Nāradas and at least five Bharatas. But here we are speaking

Nāradī-Shikṣā and Muni Bharata of the Nātyaśāstra, the materials of which were collected from the

most ancient Bharata, who was known as Adi or Briddha-Bha-

rata or Brahma-Bharata who flourished, it is said, in the beginning of the classical period.

`Schools of Classical or Mārga Music

In connection with the schools of music, we are sometimes

confounded with the real form as well as classification of the

rāgas. We generally say about some matas or specific methods

of singing songs and playing musical instruments. These matas

or methods of presentations of music were known afterwards as

styles, and these styles used to represent schools or gharānās.

The gharānās were named after the special methods of singing

of songs and playing of musical instruments. So, while we as-

cribe some school, we take it for granted some specific methods

or styles of presentation of the system of music. But difficulty

arises when we ascribe the name of a school or style to some

person whó really created or established the school or style. As

for example, when we follow the school of Bharata, or of

Nārada, or of Shiva, or of Nandikeśvara, or of Someśvara, or of

Hanuman, etc., the question arises as to who is Bharata, who

is Nārada, etc. Is he the ādi or vriddha-Bharata, or Muni Bha-

rata of the Nātyaśāstra? If we take Muni Bharata of the 3rd

century bc, to 2nd century ad as the exponent of the bharata-

mata, then it is clear that at that time, the rāga-system was current

in the forms of jāti and grāma, i.e. Jātirāga and grāmarāga, and

there was no system of six male rāgas and thirty-six female

rāgiṇīs. We face the same difficulty when we consider Nārada or

1There were four Nāradas: Nārada of the Śikṣā, Nārada of the Sangīta-

Makaranda, Nārada of the Samhita and Nārada of the Rāgachattāriṃśa.

Besides, we find the name of Nārada, who devised the Gāndharva School

of Music.

A Study of Music

39

40 Music: its Form, Function and Value

Nandikeśvara as the promulgator of the school of rāgas and rāginīs. We get also the schools of Ānjaneya or Hanuman, Somc-śvara etc. But it should correctly be determined whether we historically admit the name as well as the personality of the real propagators of the schools. So we would like to suggest the research students of music to correctly and historically determine the person who really established the schools. Moreover, while we will determine any traditional sampradāya (school) of rāgas and rāginīs, we must keep our eyes open to truth and also to the pages of the history which gives the correct idea or notion of the schools and their authors. The practices of observ-ing definite school and style were also observed in the ancient systems of music of the Greeks, the Romans and other civilized nations.

Rāga-Rāginī Scheme

The rāga-rāginī or rāga-rāginī-putra-bhāryā scheme evolved in the later period i.e. in the 16th-17th century AD, and before this time, the rāga-rāginī scheme was known as the janya-janaka scheme. Pandit Ratanjanakar is right when he says in his book, Rāgas in Hindusthani Music: "The way of composition and expansion of the svaras has much significance in the interpretation of a rāga in Hindusthani music: These distinctions in the svara-sanchāras have given rise to classifications and groupings of rāgas totally different from the janya-janaka aspect. There are about twenty such rāgāngs which have given rise to as many possibly related to systems of literary style, and the grouping of "aṅgas" into bhaṣṭaṅga, rāgāṅga, and kriyāṅga (Upāṅga was a later, fourth category), which may well refer to functions of music in the theatre. The threefold grouping of rāgas into śuddha, chāyālaga, and saṅkīrṇa, according to the degree of admixture of melodic types, is more modern, and it survives in practice and to a considerable extent in theory in our own time. The rāga-rāginī-putra-bhāryā schemes at one time intimately and creatively associated with rāga-mālā painting and dhyāna verses, are still represented in the North. In some of the 10th-century and 17th-century treatises as well one finds, side by side with newly deve-loped and developing systems of classification by scale-types, the kind of descriptive verses more usually associated with rāga-rāginī classifications. Rāgavibodha imitates Svaramelakalānidhi (without acknowledgement) in its melakartā scheme, its veetā-fretings and vīṇa-tuning, and in many other general and detailed features. Its most striking difference is in a fifth chapter, on "rāga-rūpa." This chapter is divided into two parallel parts, nāda-rūpa and devatā-rūpa; the first is the famous section of mu-sical examples with saṃketas (ornament symbols), the second is a series of dhyāna verses. And in different works of Pundarika Viṭṭhala, as reported by Bhatkhande, very similar patterns occur: classifications by scale-type into between fifteen and twenty-five melakartās, like those of SMK and RV, and rāg-raginī schemes too."

It is true that the authorship of the later-evolved (in the 16th-17th century) rāga-rāg‘aī-putra-bhāryā scheme cannot be in any way ascribed to Muni Bharata or any other Bharata, or to Nandi or Nandikeshvara-Bharata. This problem was discussed long ago by Pandit Krishna Chandra Vedānta-Chintāmani in an article,

and 18th Centurles. Let us mention this fact, adequately described in the Paper of Prof. Harold Powers, read before the International Music Symposium, held in Manila, in 1966. Prof. Powers has mentioned: "Before the period in which the ancestors of the present scale-type classifications made their appea-rance, there had been classification systems based on other criteria, about which we can only guess at the present state of our knowledge; these are reported in Sañgīta Ratnākara and other treatises. Instances no longer surviving are the grouping of "gītis" into shuddhā, bhinnā, gaudā, vesāra, and sādhāranā, a scheme

A Study of Music 41

42

Music: its Form, Function and Value

Sex in Methodised Music of India, appeared in the 'Hindusthan Standard' (29-30/9/1941). The late Vedānta-Chintāmani has tried

to throw some light upon the methodised rāga-ragiṇī scheme, but

his interpretation is purely based on the religio-spiritual concep-

tion, and so it cannot be accepted as a rational and historical one.

Music in the Epics

We get many materials of music in the Great Epics like

Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata, Harivaṃsha and in different Purāṇas.

In the Purāṇas like Mārkandeya, Agni, Vāyu, Vishnudarmottara,

etc., we find the materials of music with some developed forms.

In the Great Epics, we find the uses of three basic scales, ṣaḍja,

madhyama, and gāndhāra, whereas, the gāndhāra-grāma was ob-

solete because of its intricate arrangements of the tones.1 Besides

the problem of the basic scale, we confront with the problems of

different grāmarāgas also.

In the Rāmāyaṇa (400 BC), we come across seven pure jāti-

rāgas which were the forerunner of all the later-evolved jātirāgas

and other rāgas. In the Mahābhārata-Harivaṃsha (300-200 BC)

we find both the rāgas, jāti and grāma. In the Harivaṃsha-Purāṇa;

we get the reference of ṣaḍ-grāma rāga i.e. six grāmarāgas, but

in the seventh-ninth century AD, we get the use of seven grā-

marāgas, as is evidenced by the Kudimiyamalai Cave Inscription

of South India. Let me quote from my book, Historical Deve-

lopment of Indian Music the remark about it by Dr. Krishna-

swami Aiyangar. He has remarked in his article, Some Contri-

butions of South India in Indian Culture (1942): "Mahendra

Varman seems to have been a patron of music as well, and a

short musical treatise referable to his time is inscribed on the

face of the great Siva Temple at Kudimiyamalai in the Puduk-

kottai state so that Mahendra in particular was a patron of

art as well as of religion." Kudimiyamalai literally means the

hill of Him who has the Sikhā. It is the Sikhānāthasvāmi tem-

ple. "This huge inscription," says R. Sathyanarayana, "is en-

graved on a rock on the slope of the hill behind the Sikhānātha-

svāmi temple. The end-signs and some of the last letters of the

1The real fact is that as the gandhāra system of music, devised

by Gandharva Nārada Tumburu. Viśvāvasu and others, was out of pra-

ctice, its predominant grāma, gāndhāra was also out of practice, and then

it was gartered by the mythological line: 'gāndhārah svargaloke.'

lines of the final sections of the inscription are obscured by the

rock-cut mandapam in front of the Melaikkovil, but otherwise

the writing in the pallvagrantha characters, containing all the

headings and the colophons in Saṃskṛita except a line in Tamil

at the end. It contains quadruple groupings of musical notes,

pertaining to the seven archaic rāgas, ṣuddha-grāma, madhyama-

grāma, ṣaḍjagrāma, sādhārita, pañchama, kaiśika-madhyama and

kaiśika, current in ancient India. . . . Unfortunately, a similar in-

scription at Tirumayyam near Padukkottai was erased in greater

part at a later period and is now almost in an undecipherable

condition. . . The inscription is believed to have been composed

in the seventh century AD on the strength of scriptural and

other evidence. Its author is 'generally believed to be Mahendra

Vikrama Varman I of the Pallavas. Though the inscription was

discovered as early as in 1904 and edited by P.R. Bhandarkar in

1914 with the help of the commentary, supplied by the late Rao-

Saheb H. Krsna Sastri, only an occasional or a casual study of

the inscription has been made till now."

Mr. R. Sathyanarayana of Mysore Brothers has also supplied

some information about it. He says; "The inscription of the seven

grāmarāgas is divided into seven sections, 'each sub-divided into

a number of ākṣiptikās. Each ākṣiptikā is in a horizontal line,

the notes being arranged in quadruple groupings. Each ākṣiptikā

concludes with an end sign. Fifteen of these are lost. . . . The total

usage of musical notes in the inscription is 2432. But of these 54

are not available. However, 19 out of these missing notes may

be guessed as follows: sa-3, ri-2, ga (antra-gāndhāra) -2,

ma -4, pa-3, dha-3 and ka (kaiśika-niṣāda)-2."

Music is Dynamic

Now, from these citings and references, we come to know that

music of India was always dynamic with its new forms from the

primitive period upto the present time. In Matanga's Brihaddesi

(5th-7th century AD), we find the history of evolution and the me-

thod of rectification of various folk-tunes, which were sophisti-

cated and included in the fold of classical music. It is further

interesting to note that most of the classical tunes or melodic

forms of both Northern and Southern systems of music are

the remnants of the formalised deshi or regional tunes. I have

discussed about it in my book, Historical Development of Indian

A Study of Music

43

44

Music: its Form, Function and Value

Music. However, these historical evidences prove how classical

music is based on the structure of the folk-music. Matanga's

Brihaddeshī of the 5th-7th century is a genuine proof or record

of this fact. The book, Brihaddeshī is the collection of sophisti-

cated regional songs and melodies. Matanga has admitted that

he, for the first time, is credited with determining the definition

of the word 'rāga.' Matanga has further informed that most of the

deshī-rāgas were rectified or modified with the help of ten essen-

tials (dasha-lakshaṇas) and were introduced in the high way music.

Music of India with its different patterns and tunes marched

onward towards different periods, classical, mediaeval and mo-

dern. Some are of the opinion that upto eleventh-twelfth century,

we find no great difference between the two systems, North-Indian

and South-Indian, as both the systems adopted their common

materials and methods of music from Bhārata's Nātyaśāstra. The

principles of both Nāradas I and II, Matanga, and Pārshvadeva

were also followed in the North and the South, but during the

time of Shārṅgadeva, in the thirteenth-fourteenth century, we

find some changes in the names and forms of the rāgas as well

as in their methods of presentation. In the fourteenth century,

in the time of Vidyāranya Muni, there happened a considerable

change in both the systems and schemes of the rāgas. But some

scholars do not admit this fact. They say that there prevailed

two distinct systems in the North and in the South side by side.

So leaving aside all controversies and differences of opinion, we

can say that time is a great factor which produces new and novel

materials of music, or it can be said that in different times, dif-

ferent old forms and patterns of music were replaced by the new

ones, and thus they created some renaissances in the domain of

music, and thus music of India, both Hindusthani and Carnatic

along with their subsidiary forms, were enriched from time to

time.

Gradual evolution makes everything perfect. Music-materials

and forms march onward in gradual process and its march shapes

things or materials, and pours into the old ones new vigour,

value and beauty. Thus in the way of gradual progression,

different forms and types of music came into being. Prof. Boat-

wright is correct when he says that the South-Indian Carnatic

is possessed of common roots with the Northern Hindusthani

varieties, but when it came under the sway of Muslim influence,

many things were reshaped specially in the North. Many musi-

cal instruments also evolved gradually in different ages with

their new names and forms.

Now, it is true that music, especially the folk or regional type

of music has various changing forms, and a close study will

reveal that they possess a common root and also some common

elements. So it is a fact that methods of origin and expressions

may differ, but all of them appeal to the deepest core of the

human heart. They create pathos and aesthetic feelings, which

are real aim of both classical and non-classical regional music.

Problems of Music

A study of music is necessary for better understanding and

knowledge, yet proper investigation into the history of music

is required. So, while discussing on music, its origin and manifes-

tation in different forms and ways in different periods, histori-

cal and rational knowledge about music is more essential. There

are many quasi-historical and mythological ideas, interpreta-

tions, and records, which sometimes mislead the authors, artistes

and musicologists, and thus spoil the spirit and proper scheme

of writings on music. We have mentioned at the outset that

though there are many historical and textual evidences regarding

origin and evolution of music, i.e. of shruti, svara, rāga, thāta,

mela or melākartā, tāla, laya, etc. along with different materials

of music and musical instruments, dances, and hand-poses

(mudrās), yet some describe and depict them according to their

own sweet-will and imaginative ideas, which sometimes do not

hold good.

It is our duty to trace everything of music accurately with the

help of historical writings, excavated findings, different records

and chronicles so far they are available. We sometimes find

that the genuine materials of music are very'scanty, or they are

in crude form, yet we know that they will help us to construct

a reliable history of music. From the pages of the history we

come to know that there is some connecting link or continuity

of culture from the primitive to the prehistoric periods and from

the prehistoric to the Vedic period. And we have already said

that there was a gradual evolution of materials of music, along

with musical thoughts and knowledge. It is natural that art

remains crude and undeveloped at its very early stage, and with

A Study of Music

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46

Music: its Form, Function and Value

the growth of intellect and consciousness, the art takes some

developed and new forms.

Man is the creator or designer of everything he wants and he

creates the worlds of environment, beauty, and grandeur of

his own, and in this way small mundane creations enrich the

grand and great creation of God the Almighty. The creation of

music is a superb one. It is sublime, surpassing and otherworldly,

but its composite raw materials are worldly and limited. Yet

we know that the limit shows the eternal luminosity of the un-

limitedness, the personal leads us to the impersonal and universal

goal. Therefore, both seriousness and serenity of the art of

music should be kept in mind, so as to represent music with

both of its aspects; theoretical and practical, and to realise the

sublime and universal aspect of music.

There are various remains of vocal music, musical instru-

ments, dances and hand-poses etc., depicted in the walls,

façades and railings of different Monasteries, Cave-temples and

Stupas of the Hindus, Buddhists and Jains, and we should take

that those depicted materials are the means to enrich our know-

ledge of the history of music. Besides, the ancient treatises in

Sanskrit and other languages should be taken care for discover-

ing the depth of music.

We know that there are controversies regarding origin of

veena, sitār, violin, mridanga, tabal, and bāyan as well as of

different dances and hand-poses. I do not like to elaborately

discuss these matters here, but I admit that those controversies

should be met to solve the problem. There are sufficient stone-

models of different kinds of veena or lute with different wires.

The carvings of them in different rocks and paintings supply us

many convincing proofs that sitār was not invented by Amir

Khusrau or by others, but it remained as a class of veena even

in the pre-Christian period. It is sometimes found that leaving

aside all controversies, some writers and artistes are inclined to

apply his own sweet-will, knowledge and judgement, so as to

arrive at a conclusion, and from their own knowledge and

judgement they conclude that the honourable Poet Hazarat

Amir Khusrau invented musical instruments like sitār, tabal

and dholak, along with different bandish or composition of khyal

in different rāgas. He also invented some new rāgas of mujib,

sāzgiri, yāman, zilāf, usshaq, firdast or firdost, gānam, etc. The

sitār, in its original form, was known as Seh-tār which means

se or three and tār or strings. It is said, they maintain, that

Amir Khusrau used in his sitar three strings of steel or bronze

or copper. His sitār of three strings was divided into 12 or 13

frets of metal. He also invented mizraab, a typical form of spec-

trum made up of metal. But that is not the historical fact.

In this connection, we would like to mention further some

statements or comments on the musical instrument sitār, made

by Dr. Wahid Mirza in his book, The Life and Works of Amir

Khusrau, published by Idarh-i Adabiyat-i. This book is a

thesis for Ph.D. Degree in the London University in 1929. In

Chapter VII, while discussing on 'Khusrau—The Artist'

(p. 236), Dr. Mirza has carefully mentioned some facts of the

invention of sitār and of several melodies or musical forms of

Amir Khusrau:

1. "Tradition, again, ascribes to him the invention of the sitār

as well as of several new melodies compounded of Persian

and Indian tunes . . ."

2. "He seems to have been quite familiar with the Persian system

and to have known well all its intricacies—the four uṣūls,

the twelve pardāhs and so on. (vide Qiran-us-Sa'dain, p. 168;

I’jaz-i-Khusrawi, R. II, p. 280)."

3. "... he invented the following new melodies: munjir,

sāzgāri, aiman, ‘ushshāq, muwāfiq, ghazan, zilāf, far-

ghāna, sarpardā, bākhrz, firdast, mumiam(?), quāl, tārānā,

khyāl, nigār, bāsit, shāhānā, and suhila (vide Rāgdarpaṇa of

Shibli)."

4. "It is useless to enter here into the technical niceties of music

or to try to establish the identity of all his inventions, but

there is no doubt that popular melodies qual and ghazal were

first introduced into Indian music, by Khusrau. Qāwāls all

over India recognize him to be their master, even to-day."

5. "The invention of the sitār, again, has been so persistently as-

cribed to Khusrau, that it is now generally accepted to be a

fact beyond doubt. The sitār originally meaning a three-

stringed instrument, is a simplified form of the old Indian ins-

trument vina (which is said to have been invented by Mahā-

deo himself), and might at any time have been evolved in India.

Khusrau's age would, perhaps, seem to be a time particularly

suited for his evolution. But unfortunately I have been un-

47

A Study of Music

48

Music: its Form, Function and Value

able to trace the name 'sitār' anywhere in Khusrau's writings,

although there are pages full of the description of the various

instruments used in his time. Nor does any of his contempo-

rary, or even later writers mention the name. The only ins-

trument peculiar of India (and probably a new invention)

would seem to be the 'ajab rūd, which does not appear to

resemble the sitār at all. Indeed, it is hard to trace the name

in any but the comparatively modern Persian literature of

India, while it occurs in Turkish and Persian poetry of a much

earlier date. This would induce one to presume that the sitār

was originally invented in Persia, or rather Caucasia, and

was introduced into India in later times. The 'tār', in fact,

is the national musical instrument of Caucasia and Georgia

to-day, and it was probably from these countries that the

instrument spread into the western lands under the names of

zither, guitar, etc. But still the fact remains that even some

reliable authorities ascribe to Khusrau the invention of this

instrument, and there is no doubt that it was evolved from

earlier instruments during the time when Persian and Indian

cultures came into close contact. The sitār, which resembles

the Persian tanbūr or 'ūd in shape and, the Indian viṇā in

principle, is itself an epitome of the Indo-Persian civiliza-

tion.

Now from these statements it is understood that Dr. Wahid

Mirza is a historian and a research scholar, but is not an expert

musicologist. While commenting, he has admitted or confessed:

"Tradition, again, ascribed to him." "It is useless to enter here

into the technical niceties of music or to try to establish the iden-

tity of all his inventions." Regarding the invention of sitār by

Khusrau, his own conviction or belief entirely depend upon the

fact: "The invention of the sitār, again, has been so persistently

ascribed to Khusrau," and not upon the findings of his own

research work. And he has admitted that as "even some reli-

able authorities ascribe to Khusrau the invention of this (sitār)

instrument," "but unfortunately I have been unable to trace the

name 'sitār' anywhere in Khusrau's writings." So there is no

doubt that "it (sitār) was evolved from earlier instruments during

the time when Persian and Indian cultures came into close con-

tact." Dr. Mirza has also admitted from the historical standpoint

that "The sitār, which resembles the Persian tanbūr or ūd in

shape and the Indian viṇā in principle, is itself an epitome of the

Indo-Persian civilization." But the real fact that lies hidden

behind the invention of the purely Indian instrument, sitār. Sitār

is a new developed form of different viṇā and of the chitrā-viṇā,

described in Bharata's Nātyaśāstra and also depicted in different

rocks and paintings of the Hindu and Buddhist temples. Besides,

it has already been mentioned that the saptatantrī-viṇā has already

been excavated from the Pitalkhora Cave, dateable to 2nd century

BC to 2nd-3rd century AD. Two pictures, one is of a musician-

male; and other is of a musician—female, have been given in my

book, A History of Indian Music, I.

Similar unhistorical accounts are also found on the book,

Ma'danul Moosiqi, written in 1886, by Hakim Muhammad Karam

Imām, a Courtier of Wajid Ali Shah of Lucknow. Some portions

of this Urdu book have been translated into English by Govind

Vidyarthi. Muhammad Karam Imām has given many facts and

descriptions of different kinds of music and their expositions in

and before his time, but his facts and descriptions have been much

distorted and are unhistorical. As for example, while describing

the enchanting power of the rāgas, he has mentioned the names

of Hazrat Amir Khusrau, Miran Madhu, Nāyak Bāiju Bāorā and

others, but his assimilated records and facts of different times have

created some doubt and chaos. As for example, Karam Imām

has written in his book: "This kind of power was not confined

to the six main rāgas mentioned above. Similar effects were pro-

duced by what is known as Putra-Rāgas and Rāginīs. Thus, the

Sohinī stopped rain; the Todī stopped a breeze; and Sarang threw

animals and human beings into a state of frenzy. And when the

Zīlf, which was originated by Hazrat Amir Khusro, was sung,

fresh leaves sprouted on trees that had been dead long ago. Need-

less to say that this Rāga brought freshness to the heart of the

listeners. The Poorabī, which too was invented by Hazrat Amir

Khusro and which was a favourite Rāga of Hazrat Nizamuddin

Aulīā, turned a stone into a lump of soft wax. And because of

this Amir Khusro is considered a complete master of all Rāgas

of the past as also the ones invented by him just like the Rishis

who created various Rāgas.

"... In the time of Akbar, only Miran Madhu Nāyak had

perfect mastery of all Rāgas and Rāginīs. Other musicians were

masters of one or two Rāgas only and, therefore, were not

A Study of Music

49

Nāyaks. They were effective in singing only those Rāgas over

which they had perfect control and were like wizards, possessing

the power of one or more spirits. Thus, we hear that when Tansen

sang the Megh there was rain: when Baiju Bāwrā sang the Deepak

the lamps burnt automatically and fires broke out all around.

When Rājā Samokhan Singh sang the Sree-rāga the animals

became senseless. Same was the case with the singing of Sree

Chand, Brij Chand, Gopal Lāl, etc.

"Among the Khayāl singers who followed Hazrat Amir

Khusro there were quite a few musicians who were noted for

effective expositions of different Rāgas. Sultan Sharqni was

famous for his Purabi, Baz Bahadur for his Zīlf, Chand Khan

for his Sohinī, Kabir for his Bāgeshree, Chanchal Sain for his you

Jayjayavantī and Suraj for his Rāmkeli, etc. In short, a particular

effect was created by all these singers. Therefore the Qauwwals

were considered very effective singers."

Karam Imām has also quoted the opinions of other contempo-

rary books; Nagamat-Yusufe, Khulasat-Alsh, Sangeet-darpana,

Sangeet-sāra, etc. to support his statements, but, unfortunately,

they seem to be the heresays, and imaginative and mythical

stories.

Regarding the patronage and contribution of Hazrat Amir

Khusrau, it can undoubtedly be said that as a genius, scholar,

writer, and poet, Hazrat Amir Khusrau was an unparallel per-

son. Ziauddin Barni remarks in his Tarīkh-i-Feroz Shāhī: "Such

as had never existed before and have never appeared since. The

incomparable Amir Khusrau stands unequalled for the volume

said to have 'invented,' writes Mohammad 'Habib in his book,

Hazrat Amir Khusrau of Delhi (1927). Khusrau was a disciple of

Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulīā, and Shaikh inspired his every phase

of life and taught to love the Hindus and Mussalmans alike.

We are glad to learn that a National Committee with the Ras-

trapati Late Fakhhruddin Ali Ahmed as its President was formed

(in 1974) to commemorate and to celebrate the 700th anniver-

sary of the renowned poet and scholar Amir Khusrau (1235-

1325 AD). It is a national duty to pay our homage to all the

great past masters of India and abroad. But at the same time

we should be cautious to get rid of all the prejudices, heresays,

and unhistorical facts which are created round the names of

the great and renowned personages. Hazrat Amir Khusrau had

a profound knowledge in music. He designed many new rāgas

and rāginīs mainly based on the structures of the regional and

folktypes of songs those were current in his time in Delhi and

its adjacent places. "As a writer of ghazals, Khusrau has been

equalled but not surpassed," says Habib, "His mind held in a

happy proportion, the two elements required to produce lyric

poetry of the highest excellence--a fine ear for music and a heart

that feels and can express the feelings . . . If there was not a

shred of sense and meaning in the words of Khusrau's finest

lines, then rhythm and sound alone would suffice to make them

immortal. He is the favourite poet of the music singers (quāwāls)

who have loved to set his lines to music . . . ." In fact, ghazal,

quāwāli, and other types of regional songs found their way of

evolution, as has been said before.

Regarding sitār of the veenā-class (harp-size), it can also be

said that veenās with seven and nine strings--chitrā and vipa-

ñchī are found mentioned in Bharata's Nātyaśāstra, which dates

of Victory).

Amir Khusrau learnt Arabic, Sanskrit, Braja-bhāṣā and Hindi,

'and Auhadi has mentioned it in his Tazkira-i' Urfat. Daulat

Shah has quoted from Khusrau's own account where Khusrau

has written: "I am a master of music as well as of poetry."

"I have written three volumes of poetry and my musical

compositions would also amount to three volumes if they could

be reduced to writing." Maulana Shibli quotes from Rāga-

darpana, a Persian translation of Manik-Sohal, made in the reign

of Aurangzeb, a number of rāgas and rāginīs, which Khusrau is

Shaikh inspired his every phase

52

Music: its Form, Function and Value

3rd century BC to 2nd century AD. I have written already in

my book, Historical Study of Indian Music, that both Emperor

Sumudragupta and Pallavarāja Mahendra-Varman were the

expert players of the Saptatantri-veenā. The veenā used by

Mahendra Varman was known as Parivādinī with seven strings.

and Pallavarāja learned veenā from his Guru, Karkāchāya. The

veenās at that time were in bow-shape like the Egyptian harp,

and this harp-type Veenā is profusely found in the Cave-temples

of the Hindus and of the Buddhists. The experts are of the opinion

that Saptatantri-veenā with seven strings were in vogue in India

at least from the 3rd century BC, to 7th-8th century AD.

It will not be out of place to mention here in this connec-

tion that regarding veenā or bow-harp and violin-bow, Prof.

Galpin has suggested that these must have originally. been deve-

loped from the hunting bow, to which a boat-shaped sound-box

and additional strings have been attached, and these are often

figures in the hands of the musicians on the early Buddhist

sculptures as at Bhājā, Bhārlhut, and Sānchi (second century

BC) and Pitalkhora (7th century AD). The history of the bow-

harp has become clearer since representations of it have been

discovered in Babylonia dating before 3000 BC and actual

specimens have been unearthed at Ur. Further, the word, whe-

ther applied to a harp or a lute, if evidently derived from the

Sumerian Ban or Pan, ‘a hunting bow,’ which is found too in the

ancient Egyptian name bain or ban for the same instrument,

lingering also in the coptic vini or the Indian vin (the northern

Vinā) and pināka (the musical bow). But Mr. Fétis has called the

dhanuryantram, the bow-harp, as the forerunner of violin. Prof.

Galpin has further suggested that apart, however, from these

interesting details which the musical instruments of India offer

us toward the study of their evolution, there are two ways at

least in which the Western Orchestras are indebted to her, one

for the gift of the violin-bow, and the other for the development

of the cross-blown concert flute. Prof. Galpin's suggestion is

informative and historical, but yet, not only his suggestion, but

also all suggestions, come from the experts of both the East and

the West, shall properly be studied and examined with an out-

look of critical research.

As regards, mridanga, tabal and bāyān, we can safely collect

the ancient remains of them from different temples of Orissa

and of other places. Pākhowāj is the Arabic name and its

Sanskrit name is mridaniga. In the Natyashastra, we find the

Bhāṇda and the Pushkara-vādya. Pushkara was a kind of drum.

Two or three Pushkara-drums are generally found by the side of

the sacred idols, two of them were placed horizontally and one

was in the lying posture. The leaning one and the horizontal

one or ones used to be played for keeping rhythms in music

and dancing. They were used also in the vrinda-vādyas or orches-

tras which have been depicted in the Ajanta frescos. The expert

musicologists are of the opinion that tabal and bāyān were

the diminutive forms of the ancient Pushkara-vādyas. Regard-

ing dhruvapada, khyāl and other types of songs, I have briefly

surveyed their historical evolution in my second lecture, but it

is a fact that kheyāl was not invented, nor designed by Amir

Khusrau, the Court-poet of Emperor Ala-uddin Khilji, as it

evolved in course of time from the ancient prabandha-type of

songs.

While discussing about music and, materials of music, we

should follow the principle of the age-long tradition, equipped with

sufficient scientific knowledge. It is true that creative outlooks

and propensities of different periods supply many new materials

and methods of devisement. It has been said before that old

ones are all the time replaced by the new ones, and the new ones

are again replaced by the newer ones, resting firmly on the

background of the old and traditional ones. So it must be taken

that music-forms and music-materials of the classical and other

periods evolved undoubtedly in some new directions, taking lights

from the periods prehistoric and Vedic.

A comparative study should be maintai-

ned in the ways of research. While discussing the Indian system of

music, we should also follow the ideals and the systems of music

of other civilized nations of the world, for making ourselves

well-conversant with their musical tradition and knowledge. It

should be remembered further that comparative knowledge is

the best means to make all kinds of education and art perfect.

Music is an Art, which knows no limitation of any caste, creed

and colour. The Nature is the embodiment of the heavenly

beauty and grandeur, so if we are conscious of this truth, our

knowledge and experience of music will be perfect and pure, and

then only we will realize the highest value of the art of music.

A Study of Music

53

Chapter 2

FORM OF MUSIC

What is Form of Music

Form of music is born of the structure composed of different elements of music, material, mental and spiritual. The life of form is infused by the creative artistes when they are conscious of the art and its creation, together with its value. Or it can be said that form of music is the structure of tones and tunes, along with the embodiment of other musical materials.

The form of music can be divided into two, open and closed, which are called in Sanskrit anibaddha and nibaddha. The open form or unibaddha-sangīta is not bound by any tāla, pada and other categories, whereas the closed form or nibaddha-sangīta is bound by tāla and other musical categories.

A ‘form’ of music, says Prof. Waldo Pratt, is that part of art of composition of music, which is the collection and arrangement of structural details and elements with reference to clearness, order, balance and coherence of general effect; or, more vaguely, total embodiment or presentation, so far as it can be distinguished from content or idea. Specially, the part of arrangement that is characteristic of a particular class of species of compositions, is often called a musical art-form. The most general aspect of form is that which regards the means of operation or performance in view and considers the place or occasion. Thus, there are forms or modes of procedure that are characteristically vocal or instrumental, and each of these may be concerted, choral, orchestral, for an ensemble of soloist, etc.; or solo for a solo-singer or a solo-instrument (with or without accompaniment); or again, for a solo-player on a concerted instrument. In most cases, the chosen means of presentation dictates, to some extent, the form, so that a successful transfer to another means can be effected only by some process of adaption or re-arrangement of the form. Furthermore, though much less precisely,

forms differ accordingly as they are intended for the stage, place and occasion.

The more technical aspect of form is that which regards either the tonal texture adopted, or the large time-units or divisions, in which the tonal expression takes place. Among the leading forms are, on the vocal side, the song, the recitative, the part-song, etc., and, on the instrumental side, melodic pattern of many kinds, or song without words. Besides music, there are forms of architecture, sculpture and painting. The forms are the vital things for shapes to music, and those shapes are again decorated with various ornaments of melā or melākartā, alainkāra, tāna, etc.

Thoughts Transformed into Forms

From the psychological study we know that the mental feelings or thoughts are transformed into material forms, and mind projects itself as matter. It is the idealistic theory which differs from the materialistic theory, which says that matter is real and mind or ideal is the reflection of the matter. But Shankar says that the world-appearance is the mind-construction. A man thinks of a thing first in the mind, and then he projects it in the outward world.

In Pandit Somnath’s Rāgavivodha (early 17th century), we find dhyānas (contemplative compositions) of different rāgas, and then their pictorial forms were conceived and were materially presented. It can, therefore, be concluded that emotional forms of the rāgas were presented in material forms sometime in the 15th century AD. The emotional forms of the rāgas are really the thought-forms and so those thought-forms have their bases on different emotions of the mind. The emotions and the aesthetic sentiments are one and the same, and the pictorial forms of the rāgas are the symbol or replicas of the mental attitudes. The artistes design the tonal forms of different rāgas and those tonal forms are surcharged with emotions which are afterwards transformed into material ones. Therefore, mind is the source or fountainhead, from which the mental structures of the rāgas take their material forms, and when the forms of the rāgas are materialised, the poets compose the dhyāns and the artists draw their pictures with colours. The rāgas, therefore, have three aspects—the causal, the subtle, and the gross, that is to say, the spiritual, the mental and the material. The Sāṅkhya and the

56

Music: its Form, Function and Value

Vedānta admit the theory of satkārya-vāda i.e. nāsha or destruc-

tion of a thing means the material or manifested form of the

thing goes back to its original causal form. So the physical or

material form which is manifested in the visible material world,

is no other than transformation or ejection of the mental or

spiritual form. The visible and material forms of the rāgas, there-

fore, exist in the bed of the mind and then the mind projects

them out there in the material world.

Psychological Necessity of Form

There is a psychological necessity of form. We know that

different musical forms are constructed out of different types of

musical compositions of words and tunes, and they are different

in appearance for some psychological necessities, urges, or

demands. In ancient India, we find different types of music,

which gave rise to different forms for different occasions and

for creating and evoking aesthetic sentiments and moods.

Besides the dramatic songs dhruvās, different types and forms of

gānas and gītis evolved to suit different purposes and tempera-

ments of the people and also to fulfil the necessities of the

society and life. Ālāpas and classical types of dhruvapada, khyāl,

thumri, tappā, gazal, etc. gave rise to different forms, so as to create

emotive lustre, grace, and value of music. In like manner, there

evolved many forms of music in the West, which are the simple-

binary, simple-ternary, compound binary, ronde, sonata-ronde,

and also the cyclic form and different style-pieces of music. There

are also chamber-musical form, choral-musical form, and different

other forms of folk-music in the West. Similar process happened

also in different music-loving nations of the world.

We have said that different types of song give rise to different

forms of music, and these forms create and evoke emotive senti-

ments and feelings. As for example, the dhruvapada-form of song

is divided into different classes, and as these forms are composed

of words and melodies, having straight, waving and deep

movements, they create different sorts of emotion in the mind.

Psychological Aspects of Form

In fact, different movements of the words and tunes create

different feelings and moods. The great artist, Nandalal Bose

sketched different lines of the pictorial forms, showing their

movements, and he stated that the straight lines of the pictures

as well as the straight movements of intonations of the words

and tones give rise to various forms of emotional unit. As for

example, the carved and wavy movements of rishabha and dhaiv

vata of bhairava, āshāvarī, jayjayavantī, etc. create sorrow and grief

of the departed dear ones. Similarly, the straight lines of the

pictures as well as the straight movements of ṣadja to madhyama,

or ṣadja to pañchama create calmness and peace in the minds

of the artistes and the listeners. The forms with different move-

ments of tones and tunes are, therefore, the causes of evoking

emotive feelings and moods. If you are interested, you may

see my Bengali book, Rāga-O-Rūpa, second volume, and

Historical Study of Indian Music, in which I have incorporated

some pictures in lines with movements, drawn by Nandalal Bose

of Śāntiniketan.

Now, both the forms of music, open and closed—anibaddha

and nibaddha, are no other than the tonal structures or patterns

which are the objects of pleasure and enjoyment i.e. of ramanī-

yatā. The tones and tunes of both the forms, closed and open,

are constituted out of the arrangements of different sweet and

smooth sound-units, possessed of pleasing power or rañjanā-

śakti. The elaboration of tones i.e. alañkāras also creates emo-

tive value. As vyañjana creates grace and beauty i.e. lāvanya

and saundarya in poetry and literature, and thus helps to mani-

fest emotions or divine passions in the minds of the authors and

the readers, so the pleasing property or ramanīyatā in tones and

tunes creates emotions and feelings, and thus, saturates the minds

of the artistes and listeners.

While discussing ‘aesthetics as a normative science,’ Dr. Carl

Seashore has discussed about musical forms, along with its four

aspects. The four aspects of musical aesthetics are the musical

medium, the musical form, the musical message, and the musical

response. The musical medium is the music proper, as executed

in the form of physical sound which has its physiological and

musical correlates. Aesthetics accepts the scientific approach to

the mediums--physical, physiological, and psychological. We

know that the composer, the performer, and the listener--all deal

with the physical medium, and all the theories of musical form

and interpretation of message and response must, in the long

run, be grounded upon a true cognizance of the nature of the

57

Form of Music

58 Music: its Form, Function and Value

medium and its possible roles.

The musical form is especially concerned with the musician.

The musician, says Dr. Seashore, is primarily concerned with

the nature of musical form, as has been said before, and with

the organization of its art principles, its development, and the

theory of art objectives. Therefore, musical form deals with

different styles of musical composition, rules for composition and

interpretation, and theories as to the nature of aesthetic appeal

in all cases, how to do this and that, and the reason for it.

Therefore, the musical forms really deal with different song-

forms of prabandha and other classical and regional types.

Different Musical Forms

Dr. Seashore says that aesthetics is interwoven with different

musical forms, and musical forms may be reduced largely to the

cumulative body of practical principles of aesthetic structure,

the interpretation of these in the forms of musical objectives,

and the theory of the nature of the beauty involved. Besides, the

musical form to the musician is the primary issue, to which the

musical medium, musical message, and musical response play but

a secondary role. It is in this field also that musical theory has

made the most notable advances, and it is, in this field also, says

Dr. Seashore, the musician has held and must continue to

assume larger and larger responsibilities for initiative in the

building of musical aesthetics, and really it is creative. It is, in

this field, the musician as an artiste, creates the graceful and

colourful musical structures, so as to make the creation of

his art fruitful.

The musical message can be known as feeling, but it is no

other than aesthetic experience. It supplies also ideation, impulse,

craving and wish or inspiration for creating music, but yet it can

be called interpretation and explanation of the musical experience

of the sender and the receiver of music in terms of content. It is

found that the composer or performer of music, who desires to

transmit an experience of pure feeling, places himself in a recep-

tive mood, in which the musical material takes the form that

satisfies his mood spontaneously. The musical message appears

to him i.e. to composer or performer as an inspiration, and, in

result, his feelings are moulded in pure tone and tune, or tone-

experience and tune-experience. The musical material and form

then take the shape of a stimulus for feeling of the beauties of

tone and tune in themselves, aside from formal art or meaning.

Then comes the musical response. The hearing of music is a

response to a stimulus. Dr. Seashore says that it has been said

that what a man shall see in a landscape, depends on what he is,

so in music. This view and explanation of musical aesthetics are

also supported by Prof. Revesz, in his Psychology of Music.

Musical Ballads in Ancient Times

In the most ancient days, in the primitive time, when some

structures of human society were formed, there evolved a crude

form of culture, and out of the toils and efforts of men, some

simple types of art-form also came into being. We have already

discussed before how the idea of art of music evolved gradually

with the sense of love for art and its culture. The primitive men

mostly belonged to the nomadic tribes, but yet they were fond

of rest and repose amidst their hard labour, and as a matter of

fact, some crude forms of singing and dancing evolved as a

means of recreation and enjoyment. The text-parts of their plain

songs were very simple in prosaic form, and some monotonous

tunes were added to them. The tunes were perhaps in a recitative

manner, and they used to keep rhythm and tempo with the clap-

ping of their palms of the hands. Gradually, the prose-form of

their songs was changed, to some extent, and some form of verse,

with rhythmic meter came into being though it was not polished.

So it is natural to think that when prose speech was heightened

through gradual process into hymn or song or tuneful recitative

one, it inevitably took an ascent to a point i.e. to intonation,

rest or mediation, and descent or cadence. In the primitive

music, these things were naturally found. These things were found

not only in the primitive music, but also in other forms of chan-

ting and singing. These forms were found in music of the Vedic

period, and when mediation and descent or cadence evolved in

a prosaic or recitative song, then naturally there evolved some

registers or sthānas like bass, medium and high, or grave, balan-

cing circumflex and acute—mandra, madhya, tāra. We have

mentioned before that the primitive peoples at first used to sing

in very high tone, and afterwards a grave or low tone was in-

vented to suit their purpose, and complete their simple music.

However, we find that the primitive peoples devised a form of

Form of Music 59

60

Music: its Form, Function and Value

music upon the structure of which the prehistoric and the histo-

ric Vedic peoples created some forms of music, adding to them

more tones, along with rhythm and grace.

We come to know from the historical records that while tones

were added to the rik-stanzas, the sāman-songs were formed. In

the Rgveda, we find many ballads of human sentiments, which

were current in the society. These ballads were divided into three

groups: (1) the ballads of superstition like Vashista's hymn to

the frogs; (2) the martial ballads reflecting to the spirit of the age

in its political setting; and (3) the ballads of association dealing

with normal, abnormal and supra-normal human tendencies and

feeling towards love.1 The ballads were the songs, and Dr.

Deussen considers them as a prosody on the ritual songs, and

the malicious satire on the Brāhmaṇas. Dr. Keith does not admit

this estimation of Dr. Deussen. Some are of the opinion that

the ballads, dedicated to some priests like Gomāyā, Hārita and

others, were gathered round the rainy season in the hope of rain-

fall, just as the priests gathered and presented songs around the

brimful vessel in the Vedic sacrifice. Dr. Keith considers that the

Rigvedic ballads, set to tune, were the satires, viewed from one

angle, and was a genuine piece of flattery, from another view-

point. Some of the song-form ballads of the tenth mandala of

the Rgveda were no other than the prayers for aid and victory

in the war, and they can be known as the war-songs. And it

should be remembered that those ballad-songs used to be sung

with some tones, grave or high.

Types of Plain-songs

Similar type of plain songs with sacred monody are found

among the early Chinese, Egyptian, Hebrew, and Greek Music.

The music of the Greeks was the most important in all antiquity

for several reasons, and most probably the Apollonian and the

Dionysian cults influenced the clarity of form as well as the

purity and objectivity of expression. It is also a fact that the form

and style of early Greek music were mainly based upon the

acoustical mathematics of Pythagorean ratios, and so various

1vide Dr. P.S. Shastri, Rigvedic Ballads of Association and Love

(appeared in the Indian Historical Quarterly, XXXIII, September, 1957,

no. 3).

61

Form of Music

complicated scale-patterns, called modes, were employed. They,

in turn, were based upon three tetrachords or groups of four

adjacent tones like diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic.

Dr. Charles Burney has given a short account of the music of

the ancients of the West in his A General History of Music. He

writes: "It is evident, from the proofs already given, that the

Greeks and the Romans had but two different degrees of long

and short notes, and even the old lozenge and square characters

still used in the Canto Fermo of the Romish church, under the

denomination of Gregorian notes, are but of two kinds: the time

of these may, indeed, have been accelerated or retarded, but still

the same proportion must have been preserved between them;

and all their variety must have arisen from different combinations

of these two kinds of notes, such as any two of ours could afford

as semibreves and minims, minims and crotchets, or crotchets

and quavers.

"This accounts for the facility with which even the common

people of Greece could discover the mistakes, if any, were com-

mitted in the length and shortness of the syllables, both with

respect to the poetry, and the music; a point of history in which

all writers agree; and this seems to confirm what has been

already said in the fifth section; that besides the intervals peculiar

to the melody, rhythm, or time, must have contributed to chara-

cterize the modes, though it has no kind of connection with our

flat and sharp keys; and this gives an idea quite different from

what our modern modes, taken as keys, and our music, in

general, furnish. Tartini, upon this subject, says that we make

the prosody subservient to the music, not the music to the pro-

sody; and adds, that as by the laws prescribed to the ancient

musicians, they were obliged to preserve rigorously in their

music the quantity of syllables, it was impossible to protract a

vowel in singing, beyond the time which belonged to a syllable:

we, on the contrary, prolong the vowels through many bars,

though, in reading they are oftentimes short." Further he writes:

"By the improvement of instrumental music, and indeed by the

liberties which we have taken with poetry in singing, we have

multiplied notes, and accelerated the measure. Instead of one

sound to one syllable, or one portion of time for a short syll-

able, and two for a long one, we frequently divide and subdivide

the time of these several portions into all their aliquot parts, and

62

Music: its Form, Function and Value

sometimes into incommensurable quantities."

"After the invention of musical characters for time, different

from those in poetry, the study of their relations became one of

the most laborious and perplexed parts of a musician's busi-

ness. These characters were of different value and velocity,

according to other characters placed at the beginning of a

musical composition, and likewise frequently occurring in the

course of a piece, to announce a change of measure: as from

common time to triple, from quick to slow, or the contrary.

These characters were called modes, but they were so extremely

embarrassing and ill-understood, till the invention of bars by

which musical notes were divided into equal portions, that no

two theorists agreed to the definition of them.

"These modes, by which the kind of movement, with respect

to quick and slow, as well as the proportions of the notes, used

to be known, serve for no other purpose, since technical terms,

chiefly taken from the Italian language and music, have been

adopted, than to mark the number and kind of notes in each

bar."

"We have also, in our Airs, a distinct species of music for

poetry, wholly different from Recitative and Chanting; for in

these we are less tied down to stated measure than the ancients,

being only governed by the ascent and cadence of the words.

However, our florid-song, it cannot be dissembled, is not always

sufficiently subservient to poetry; for in applying music to words,

it frequently happens that the finest sentiments and most polished

verses of modern languages are injured and rendered unintelligi-

ble, by an inattention to prosody. Even the simple and plain

rules of giving a short note to a short syllable, a long to a long;

and of accentuating the music by the measure and natural

cadence of the verse, which, it may be supposed, the mere reading

would point out to a good ear and understanding, are, but too

frequently neglected."

"But notwithstanding, both poetry and prosody are so frequ-

ently injured by injudicious composers, it must not be imagined

that in our simple airs of the gavot and minuet kind, we have

no musical rhythm, or that it always classes with the poetical.

Innumerable instances may be given from well-known English

songs, where the cadence of the verse, and even the pronunci-

ation of each syllable is carefully preserved by the air. For

63

Form of Music

though our time-table furnishes six different degrees of long and

short notes, without points, yet, if the divisions in songs designed

to display a particular talent for the difficult execution be excep-

ted, we seldom use more than two kinds of notes in the same air."

Development of Early Music

This development and conditions of early music are found in

musical world of every ancient and civilised nations of the world.

In India, we have seen the developments and manifestations of

music in the primitive, pre-historic and early phase of Vedic as

well as in classical periods. The intricate devisements of the

musical groups are also found in the Muni Bharata's Nātyaśāstra.

It is true that during Muni Bharata's time, in the 3rd century

BC to 2nd century AD musical forms, materials, and mani-

festations were more developed, rectified, and scientific. The

devisements of the microtonal units and jätis and grāma-rāgas

were also advanced and heightened. Like Pythagoras in ancient

Greece, Muni Bharata in ancient India, devised scientifically

twenty-two microtones in the octave i.e. in between ṣadja to

ṣadja. Three registers, bass, middle and high, along with other

characteristics, were already in practice from the Vedic time.

Besides, there was current secular music which can be catego-

rised as the plain song. I have already mentioned before that

plain song with its different forms, was in practice even among

the primitive peoples, when intelligence among them grew more

acute. It has been said that the early plain song was known as

the 'sacred monody,' and it was afterwards adopted in the early

Church in the West. But there was also the practice of secular

monody which was different from plain song in various respects.

Dr. Miller states in his History of Music (1957) that secular

monody differs from plain song or sacred monody in seven

respects: "(1) It usually has a metrical basis, and is more strongly

rhythmic than is plain song; (2) It has a wider range; (3) the

phrases of secular melody are usually more regular; (4) secular

melody is not strictly modal...." In the Vedic period, we find

that the Vedic songs, and not the chants, were systematic,

measured, rhythmic, and tuneful. Both the songs, sacred monody

and Vedic song, were mostly religious and spiritual. In the Greek

music, we find different kinds of sacred hymnal song, as it is

found in Vedic India. The Vedic music, sāmagāna was mainly

64

Music: its Form, Function and Value

pentatonic in form like the Greek and the Chinese music. The rendering of the Vedic music was various according to the rules and restrictions of different Vedic recensions, and it has been said before that in the Kauthumiya recension, six and even seven tones were used with various modes, otherwise the Vedic music was pentatonic.

In the early Greek music, we find hymns to Apollo, which were known as the Delphic hymns. Besides, there were short hymns to the Sun, hymns to the Muse, hymns to Nemesis, etc. The Romans were mostly imitative in na ture, so they borrowed the hymns and their methods of rendering from the Greeks. The Romans made music from poetry, but in India, we find two kinds of form, the recitative and the singing. Mr. de-Montes is of the opinion that in the primitive vocal music, we do not find a union of poetry and music.

Vedic Musical Form

But this comment of de-Montes should be critically examined, because, in the Rgveda, we find various kinds of verses, addressed to different gods, were recited and sung. The recitative ones were known as stotras and the singing ones as gānas. The gānas were mainly divided into some categories, aranyageya, gramegeya, uha, and uhya, and they are found in the song books, Pūrvārchika, Āranyakasaṁhitā, and Uttarārchika. These gānas evolved from the collection of verses, taken as a whole, and different Vedic tones were added to them. But the songs or gānas of different Vedic recensions used to differ in intonations as well as in the methods of rendering. This kind of difference is found also in the early songs of the ancient tribes of the world. So, it can be considered as a traditional method or process, and even in these days, in the twentieth century, we find differences in intonation and methods of rendering of the songs. Methods of rendering songs are known as styles which are different in different schools or gharānās. While discussing ‘Shamanism as the Basis of the Sāmaveda in the Rktantram,’ Dr. Surya Kanta has quoted some of the peculiar sounds of the folk-songs of different nations of the world, which can be compared with different bhaktis or stobhas that are generally used in the Vedic sāmagānas and even in the stotras. It has been quoted from Mr. de-Montes’ book, Primitive Music: “In singing, some tribes i.e. North-

Indian Americans use the sounds ‘he,’ ‘ah,’ no intelligible words being uttered. Among other tribes, the songs are monotonous chants, extending over, but few notes, varied by occasional howls and whoops in some of the more spirited melodies. Words are often borrowed from other tribes without being understood." In this way, we find the sounds, hai-a, hai-a, and other similar utterances which are similar to Vedic stobhas or stobhakṣaras of the sāmagānas. Dr. Felber has given many illustrations of the sāmans with the application of these stobhas. These peculiar accentual sounds, stobhas help in the songs to produce aesthetic sentiments. Prof. Bloomfield is of the opinion that the sāmans represent little more than the secondary employment in the service of religion of popular music and other quasi-musical noises. These peculiar words or utterances were used in the primitive early songs, which were developed and refined in course of time, and were applied afterwards into the formal rituals of the Brāhmanism, in order to add an element of beauty and emotion. The students of Vedic music also know that in the sāmagāna, some words are added in the text-parts, and those words are no other than the stobhas like ai, hai, hāu, hāu, huve, etc. to elongate the speech and intonation of the words, so as to create aesthetic sentiments. These stobhas are used even to this day in our music. As for example, in our dhruvapada type of music when we use the text-part: ādideva mahādeva, devadeva śankara, etc., we add stobhas as aa’na ai, i etc. You know the stobhas are known as ‘rasakalāimakāni akṣarāni vā varṇāni’ as they create and generate aesthetic sentiments. Regarding the primary sentiment śṛṅgāra,1 generated from a rāga, Muni Bharata says: ‘tatra śṛṅgār nāma rati-sthāyibhāva-pravabha ujjaveṣātmakaḥ. tadeva gurbāchā rasiddho hridyo’jjvala-veṣātmakaḥ śṛṅgāro rasah’ i.e. the sentiment, śṛṅgāra enlightens the hearts with its bright lustre.

There are eight rasas and different prime and subordinate bhāvas, and Bharata and others say that these sentiments and moods are the means to get the value not only of music, but also of all arts.

Now, it is a fact that music prevailed all through the ages, but we do not find any definite form of music of the pre-historic time

1It can be said that Bharata has used Śṛṅgāra in place of Sānta-rasa.

65

Form of Music

66

Music: its Form, Function and Value

in India, as we get a very few crude and undeveloped musical

instruments, along with a figure of dancing girl of the aboriginal

tribe. It can be said that the Vedic period supplied us some

definite materials of music, and some methods of singing of

sāmagāna also. The folk type of regional songs were also prac-

tised in the Vedic period and it is suggested by the grāmegeya-

gāna. It has been said before that the Vedic music was systema-

tised by a definite scale of three octaves, and the Taittirīya-prā-

tishākhya has supplied the materials of those scales. Puspāsūtra,

the Prātishākhya of the Sāmaveda, has informed us of the scales,

along with different methods of rendering of the sāman-songs.

Regarding definite form of the Vedic scale, some are of the opin-

ion that the octave of the Vedic music is to be regarded as built

up of two tetrachords, each a true fourth separated by a major

tone. In its turn, each tetrachord contains two major tones and

a limma. It has been said before that the sāman-scale is in a

descending series. Since the high note, krusta cannot be the

opening note, we will have to regard the basic scale as com-

mencing with the note, prathama and ending with it, and the

seventh note being krusta of the octave. The interval between

prathama or Ma and dvitīya or Ga was regarded as a major

tone. The interval mandra i.e. Ni and prathama or Ma is a fourth

or chaturyāmaṃ, prathama or Ma and dvitīya or Ga is a major

tone, and dvitīya or Ga and mandra or Ni is the lower chatury-

amaṃ, similar to the first one. The Kātyāyana-sūtra has advised

not to start gāna from the Vedic tones, atisvārya or Dha and

krusta or Pa. Pandit Lakṣmaṇa Saṅkar Bhatta-Drāviḍa is in

favour of the riju or straight scale in a descending order, i.e.

prathama, dvitīya, tritīya, chaturtha, mandra, atisvārya, krusta—

Ma Ga Re Sa/ Ni Dha Pa, whereas M.S. Rāmasvāmi Aiyar

admits the vakra i.e. reverse one in a descending order, which is

known as Ma Ga Ri Sa/ Dha Ni Pa. But Nārada of the Shikṣā

was in favour of the scale of vakragati, or reverse order i.e. Pa

Ma Ga Ri Sa Dha Ni. Now, from all of them we get the medium,

i.e. madhya-saptaka scale of the Vedic music as anudātta, svarita

and udātta from which evolved the Vedic as well as non-Vedic

laukika notes i.e. tritīya and mandra, chaturtha, prathama, and

krusta, and atisvārya and dvitīya which give the idea of R-Ni/-

Sa-Ma-Pa/ Dha-Ga. Sa-Ma-Pa are the balancing and base notes,

and among these three, Ma appears as the medium which

controls or makes balance of the two Sa and Pa. Pandit Some-

nath (early 17th century) has called this unit of three prime

notes as svayambhu-svarāḥ or self-born notes.

Afterwards S-M-Pa was considered as the basic or primary

notes, and the rest ones as the secondary or subordinate notes.

This form of the Vedic music is followed even to this day in the

Sāman-singing, though different renderings have been evolved.

For detailed information, I would like to request the research

students to consult the chapter of the gānas in the Rik-tantra,

pages 18 to 22, edited by Dr. Surya Kanta. Both Savara Svamin

and Acharya Sāyana have thrown sufficient light upon the me-

thod of rendering or singing, and in the later period, Prof. Simon

has discussed in the German edition of the Puspāsūtra.

Forms of Jāti and Grāma Rāgas

Following the form of Vedic music, different forms of non-

Vedic gāndharva and desī music evolved. The gāndharva type is

known as gāndharva because the gāndharva type was designed

on the image of the Vedic music. The word mārga means

anveshane (mārgaḥ anvesaṇe) i.e. it is ‘searched after.’ That

means the mārga type of music of the post-Vedic time took a

new shape with some modifications. It is admitted by Muni

Bharata in the Nāṭyaśāstra and he adopted many materials from

the ancient Nāṭyaśāstra, composed by Adi or Brahma Bharata.

Bharata has discussed about seven pure jātirāgas, together with

more eleven mixed jātirāgas, but, in the pre-Christian era, Val-

miki has already mentioned about pure seven jātirāgas (vide

the Rāmāyaṇa, Chapter IV).

These seven jātirāgas were possessed of some characteristics,

and they used to be sung by the Wandering Bards like Lava,

Kuśa and other minstrels. In the Mahābhārata and Harivaṃsha,

we get the references of both jāti and grāma rāgas. The six

grāmarāgas (ṣad-grāmarāgani) were sung according to three

grāmas, sadja, madhyama, and gāndhāra: “a-gāndhāra-grāma-

rāgaṃ,” though the gāndhāra-grāma was out of practice in the

beginning of the Christian era, because of the disappearance of

the gāndharva music.

Different Forms in the Time of Bharata

In Muni Bharata’s Nāṭyaśāstra, we find different forms of

67

Form of Music

68

Music: its Form, Function and Value

music in a more systematic and scientific way. Muni Bharata

has discussed about eighteen jātiragas and different grāmarāgas,

sixtyfour dhruvā-gānas, four kinds of sophisticated regional

gītis like māgadhī, ardha-māgadhī, prithulā, and sambhāvitā, etc.,

along with different kāpāla and kambala-gītis. Among the eigh-

teen jātiragas, seven pure ones already existed long before

Bharata's Nātyaśāstra in the pre-Christian era, and eleven mixed

ones were added afterwards to suit the purpose. The jātis gave

birth to different grāma and deśi rāgas, and they are the fore-

runners of all kinds of rāga. Besides, there were dhruvā-form

ullopyaka, prakari, upohana, obenaka, rovindaka, and uttarā of different styles.

After Muni Bharata, Matanga, Pārshvadeva, Durgāshakti and

other ancient musicologists have mentioned about various clas-

sico-regional form of songs, which were known as seven gītis,

śuddha, bhinnā, sādhāranī, etc. We have also mentioned that

there were more gīti-forms like māgadhi, ardha-māgadhī, prithulā

and sambhavitā. So we find that there were prevalent two kinds

of song-form, known as gīti and gāna. We find a difference bet-

ween the two forms, gīti and gana. The gītis like śuddha, bhinnā,

etc. together with māgadhi, ardha-māgadhī, etc., used to be sung

with the proper division of syllables which indicated duration of

time between the musical tones, used in the gītis, whereas the

ganas, jātiraga, grāmarāga, dhruvā, etc. were used with rāgas only.

Besides gāna, there are classico-regional songs, which have

been depicted by Matanga or Matanga-Bharata in the Brihad-

deśi, the great treatises on the deśi-songs together with various

rāgas. The deshī or classico-regional song-forms were numerous,

and their stocks were further enriched with various sophisticated

or formalised forms. The prabandha-type of songs evolved with

the materials of those classico-regional gānas and gītis.

Form of Prabandha

What are the prabandhas? It has been discussed before that

the prabandha-type of songs were bound up with the materials

of dhātu or music-part, anga like svara, pada, tāla, etc., jāti like

medinī, nandinī, etc. It has two prime forms, nibaddha and

anibaddha i.e. closed and open. The nibaddha or closed form of

69

Form of Music

songs were divided into three, prabandha, vastu and rūpaka. The

anibaddha or open song-form was known as ālāpa or ālapti.

The ālāpa-form of music is an elaboration of tones, which gives

the complete picture of the rāgas.

The main prabandha-form of songs was divided into sūda, āli

and viprakīrna. They were further divided into different subordi-

nate forms, and from them evolved numerous types of songs,

which are at present practised. Besides sūda-type of songs, there

were the viprakīrna-type, which is the base of different types of

dhruva or dhruvapada. (1) Dhrura means the song which is full

of vowels that generate greater amount of emotional sentiments.

This form of song is considered as sacred or dhruva because of

their permanent value and grace. The form of dhruva-prabandha

was renovated by Rājā Mān Singh Tomar of Gwalior in 16th-

17th century ad Rājā Mān Singh arranged a conference of music,

and many talented musicians like Nāyak Bakshu, Nāyak Macchu,

Bhānu, and even Nāyak Gopal joined that conference from the

Deccan. Recently Sahasrarasa, a collection of one thousand

Dhrupad, composed by Nāyak Bakshu, has been published by

the Sangeet Natak Akademi, New Delhi, with the permission of

the India Office Library, London. This book has ably been

critically edited by the scholar like Dr. (Miss) Premlata Sharma

of Banaras Hindu University. It is said that these songs were

collected by the order of the Emperor, Shāh Jāhān in 1037-1063

i.e. ad 1628-1658. We know from the Persian manuscript of

the book that Emperor Shāh Jāhān ordered to collect all the

genuine Dhrupads which were in practice at that time and even

after the 16th-17th century ad. The learned editor informs us

that it was arranged in four rāgas and forty-six rāginīs, and was

introduced by a Persian Preface. In the Persian Preface, it has

been mentioned that Nāyak Bakshu used to stay at Gwalior and

at that time Rājā Mān Singh was the Ruler of Gwalior. We

know from the Persian Preface of Nāyak Bakshu's book,

Sahasrarasa that the dhrupads, composed by Nāyak Bakshu were

greatly appreciated by Rājā Mān Singh, Sikandar Lodi, Rājā

Vikramjit, Ibrāhim Lodi and others.

It is to note that the publication of the Sahasrarasa has thrown

a new light on the domain of history, as we come to know that

though Rājā Mān Singh of Gwalior renovated the old type of the

dhruva-prabandha, yet the shaastric rāgas and rāginīs were already

70

Music: its Form, Function and Value

practised in the 16th-17th century and even before that in a

traditional method. As for example, during Rājā Mān Singh's

time, various dhrupads used to be practised in different rāgas and

rāginis like varieties of kalyāna, kānāda jayjayvantī, bhairava,

deshakāra, bhupāli, etc. But we do not know why Nāyak Bakshu

used only four main rāgas like bhairava, malkosha, hindola and

Srī instead of six rāgas. Be thāt as it may, it is a fact that with

the introduction of new type and new style of dhrupad, the prac-

tice of the prabandha-gānas were not stagnant, but it was more

popular with new vigour.

Let us discuss briefly about the form of khyāl, which is purely

imaginative and colourful. There are many controversies regard-

ing the origin of khyāl-form of song. Some are of the opinion

that (a) khyāl evolved from the kaivada-prabandha, (b) some say

that it originated from rasaka or ekatālī-prabandha, (c) some say

that khyāl evolved from the rūpaka-prabandha, and (d) some are

of the opinion that khyāl was created on the image of the

sādhāranī-gīti, which was current in the 12th-14th century AD.

The talented musicologist like Thākur Jaideva Singh is of the

opinion that khyāl-form of song is a natural development of the

sādhāranī-gīti, along with the bhinna-gitarīti.

So it can be said that the graceful imaginative form of khyāl

was neither invented by Indo-Persian poet, Amir Khusrau,

nor invented in the Court of Jaunpur by Sultan Husain

Sharqui, but the khyāl of slow tempo was designed and made

popular by a noted Dhrupadist as well as the Veenkār, Niyāmat

Khān, who was in the court of Sultan Muhammed Shah in 18th

century AD. It is also true that khyāl already existed in some

gambhirā, jhumur, patā-gāna, gājan, etc. are also worth-men-

tioning in this connection. Besides, there are different forms and

types of regional songs of Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, Bihar,

Orissa and other hilly countries, together with the folk-songs of

different provinces and villages of South-India and Ceylon. But

the methods of presentation or styles of those folk-songs differ

from one another. Moreover, it is the opinion of the experts

that the tunes or melodies of the highway art-songs have their

bases on the folk or regional songs, and those sophisticated

forms came into being in a gradual process.

The forms of song further give the ideas of different types, and

besides them, different styles or gharānās came into practice.

The styles of songs evolved for different methods of embellish-

ment or singing, and some psychological moods are responsible

for their origin. There was no connecting link among the distant

countries, and so independent taste and choice among different

masters gave rise to different schools or gharānās, and those

schools and gharānās created different styles, though real ideal

and value among them remained the same.

Changing Forms of Rāgas

Now, I have given in the first part of this lecture the historical

as well as the textual details of forms of music which will inform

us about their evolution, construction, and manifestation, toge-

ther with their various types, or textures, or patterns. Now, I am

entering into the discussion of some technical and controversial

subjects of forms of music, though in a very precise manner.

However, I am distributing a drop only from the vast ocean of

the music-materials and music-informations. We know that rāga-

71

different tastes and temperaments. These are the forms of

different songs of North India. In the South, we find different

forms of song with different tunes. The kriti, varnam, padam,

jāvali, rāgamalikā, etc., together with different devotional songs

contributed by Tyāgarāja, Shyāmā Shāstri, Muthusvāmi

Dikshitar, Svāti Tirunāl and other talented composers are worth-

mentioning. The West Bengal and Bānglādesh have contributed

various forms of classical, devotional and regional types of songs

which are considered to be the unique treasure of music. The

song-forms of padāvalī-kīrtana, dhap-kīrtan, bāul, bhātiyāli, jāri,

sāri, bhādu, tusu, manasār-bhāsān, chatkā, murshidi 'prabhāti

72

Music: its Form, Function and Value

forms are characterised by two categories, pure and mixed-

shuddha and mishra. In the pre-Christian era, i.e. in the times of

the Great Epics and classical Sanskrit literature, we get refere-

nces of seven pure jātiragas, with the notes, vital or dominant,

subordinate, concordant, and discordant, which are known as

vādi that speaks about the real form of the rāga, samvādi,

and anuvādi. There were notes, vivādi and varjita, the hostile and

the dropped ones. Vivādi note is sometimes helpful for creating

grace and specific characteristics of a rāga, but varjita one is

dropped, as it destroys the form and spirit of a rāga. As it is

found that the fifth note pañchama is dropped in the present

form of the rāga, mālava-kaushika. But sometimes the note,

pañchama is slightly used in the mālava-kaushika for creating a

special feature, grace and emotive value. It is also found that the

ancient tonal structure of the mālava-kaushika was heptatonic

i.e. possessed of seven notes, whereas the present form of it is

pentatonic or possessed of five notes only. The ancient heptato-

nic or sampūrṇa form of the mālava-kaishika is found in Pandit

Dāmodara's Sangīta-darpana of the 16th-17th century AD. His-

tory of music supplies the genuine evidences of various changes

in the forms not only of the rāga, mālava-kaushika, but also of

most of the classical rāgas like bhairava, bhairvī, mālava or

mālavī, todī or todikā, vāsanta, vāsantī or vāsantikā, bāngālī, etc.

So, the question of the notes, vivādi and varjita sometimes app-

ear as useless.

Similarly we find the rāga-form, kaushika or kashikī is included

in the jātiraga-class, from which, says Matanga, the bhāṣā-rāga,

in the aboriginal stocks of the Shakāra, Ābhīra, Chandāla,

Shavara, and Pulinda. But Pārshvadeva says in the Sangīta-

samayasāra that the rāga bhairava evolved from the jātiragga,

bhinna-ṣadja: 'bhinna-ṣadja-samudbhava.' The bhinna-ṣadja is an

ancient classical Jātiragga and Shārṅgadeva has said that this

jātiragga was sung in the hemanta-season i.e. in October-Novem-

ber, during the sacred ceremonial function of Sārvabhauma,

and it used to evoke the aesthetic sentiment, vibhatsa, which is

unsuitable and unhealthy. Now, the question may arise as to if

the causal melody, bhinna-ṣadja is suited or selected for evoking

vibhatsa-rasa, then how the subordinate rāga, bhiravā can be

known as the prime or ādi-rāga, generating shānta, karuṇa, and

bhayānaka rasas i.e. emotive feelings of calmness, softness and

fierce? Pārshvadeva and Sārṅgadeva have selected bhairava as

the prayer-song, which is applicable to holy occasion of worship.

The rāginī-bhairavī is also applied to prayer-'śivapuijāralah rai-

ravi.*

It has been mentioned before that in ancient time, the form of

bhairava was pentatonic, whereas in the 16th-17th century

Pandit Somanath has recognised it as a heptatonic one and also

as the basic or mela-rāga. So we find that the forms of the rāgas

have been changed in different ages. Not only that, but it is also

found that the creative faculty of the composers and also of the

artistes had in them new vision and freedom of choice, and that

practice exists even to this day.

In this connection, it can also be said that for want of love

for art and beauty, many of the colourful and graceful forms of

rāgas and rāginīs are going into oblivion. A close study and

careful investigation are required to find out the missing links

of the rāga-forms, ancient, mediaeval, and modern. In the field

of rhythm also, we have lost many of the links between the old

ones and the new ones. We use ekatālī, tritālī, dhimā, dipchandī,

jumrā, dādrā, etc. in khyāl and chautāla or chartāla, dhamāra,

sultāla, jhāptāla, etc. in dhruvapada, but we have lost many tālas

like brahmatāla, rudratāla, mohantāla, sattitāla, lakṣmitāla, etc.

as well as the links between the shāstric tāla-forms which are

mentioned in the Sangīta-Ratnākara, and other ancient Sanskrit

treatises. We have seen the Abhinava-tālamanjari by Pandit

Kāshinath Apātulsi, who has tried his best to unlock the mystery

of different rhythm patterns, though he has admitted his debt to

73

Form of Music

74

Music: its Form, Function and Value

Shārṅgadeva, the author of the Saṅgīta-Ratnākara—'grantheratnākare'sau,' but unfortunately we do not find many of the

forms of the tāla, which Pandit Kashinath has quoted or

mentioned in his book. Similarly, in the Padāvali-kīrtana of

Bengal, various forms of intricate rhythms have been used. In

the system of Carnatic School too, there we find various tālas,

and out of them only forty-two or forty-four tālas are survived.

So in this respect, the North Indian system of Hindusthani

school is very poor in using the number of tālas.

In the early 18th century, Ghanashyam Narahari Chakravorty

wrote three books, Saṅgitasāra-saṅgraha, Gīta-chandrodaya, and

Bhaktiratnākara, in which various rāgas and tālas have been

explained, and, unfortunately, most of the artistes and musico-

logists are indifferent to study them for their better use and

appreciation. The Padāvali-kīrtana is purely a classical one and

it evolved from the karana-prabandha or kīrtilahari-prabandha,

but I do not know why our learned Ustāds and musicologists

have given off the effort of research work on Padāvali-kīrtan,1

and even on many other bhajans or devotional songs. Different

forms of music, both classical and folk, should, therefore, be

studied with historical outlook and with a spirit of love, so as to

heighten the status of research work, and also to find out many

forgotten treasures of rāgas, tālas, dances and dance-poses, so

as to preserve and glorify the tradition of artistic and spiritual

India.

1vide the historical account and description of Padāvalli Kīrtana (of

Bengal) in my book, Historical Development of Indian Music, see ed.

Chapter 3

FUNCTION OF MUSIC

Dual Phase of Function

Function of music conveys two kinds of idea:

(1) Activity of musical entertainment, and

(2) What result and benefit we get from music, and what aim

and object of art of music are?

We will now discuss about function of music keeping our eyes

open on two aspects of function, so as to get comprehensive

knowledge of music. We have discussed before about music and

its form, and have seen that form, with its subsidiary parts and

elements represent idea of music, its different manifestations.

The word 'function' really connotes as well as formulates what

has happened in the domain of music in the past, and what is

happening in the present and what will happen in the future.

It is needless to say that theory and practice of music go side

by side with the works of research and renovation.

Everything in this world is known as the manifested form of

the unmanifested one, which already exists in the Nature or

Prakriti. The material form is the result of the subtle one, and

the subtle one evolves from the causal one, and, therefore, the

aspects, material, mental, and causal are interlinked with one

another. The Seers of music are of the opinion that music is

not created, but it shines eternally in the etherial space,

which is known also as the boundless primordial Nature. This

'Harmony of the Sphere,' as has been said by the Greeks, the

Arabs and others. The Greek philosopher Pythagoras

called this divine music as 'Harmony of the Sphere.' The ancient

and mediaeval Indian authors of the musical treatises have

defined it as an unmanifested psychic energy Kundalini which

sleeps in the primal plexus, and when it passes through three

successive stages of parā, pashyantī and madhyamā, and comes

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

out as vaikharī (gross sound), it is known as saṅgitam. So

saṅgīta is phenomenal, and the Divine transcendental music is

realised in the intuitive perception.

Music, Real and Ideal

But the eternal and spontaneous Divine music is not appre-

ciated by ordinary men who live in the world of gross senses

and sense-pleasures. Ordinary men get knowledge of everything

through the gates of senses, which are gross, discursive, and

contingent. Some of the Buddhist thinkers call it momentary

and changing, and the non-dualists call it permanent something,

which remains unchanged amidst all changes. Ordinarily

through the gates of five senses we acquire knowledge of sound,

touch, form, taste, and smell—śabda, sparsha, rūpa, rasa and

gandha. Music is both ideal and real. It is both thought and

extension, as Spinoza said. It is commonly constituted out of

the fabrics of tones, tunes and other music materials, and is

tinged with the colour of aesthetic contents. So music is known

by its dual aspects of ideality and materiality. It is also known

by the aspects of staticity and dynamicity. It is known as static,

when it is concentrated in the centre, and is known as dynamic,

when it moves in all directions.

Division of Function of Music

Function of music can roughly be divided into three parts,

composition, improvisation, and appreciation, or object, action

and feeling. As for example, the composers compose the mate-

rial form or structure of music with the help of the composition

of text-parts, the artistes improvise them (pāṭhyas) with tones,

tunes, alaṅkāras, ten essentials (dasha-lakṣmaṇas) and other

elements, and the listeners appreciate their presentation, made

to them and to others meaningful. Besides, there are other

aspects of function or activity of music. As for example, a piece

or part of music is produced and the peoples who attend, give

attention to it, and appreciate its theme partially or wholly. So

there are some degrees in the way of appreciation of music, and

these degrees are meaningful or significant in accordance with

different power of understanding on the part of the listeners,

and this can be said to be an appreciation. The real form of

appreciation originates from the method of training or education

of music. Education of music actually trains and arranges the

thoughts and capacities of the peoples who listen to music for

getting proper knowledge and pleasure.

What do we mean by an appreciation? An appreciation is

known by a sympathetic receptive attitude, or it can be said to

be a deep penetration into the depth of the object we listen. It

requires, therefore, a close contact with the object, as well as

the powers, selective, receptive, and rejective. The selective and

receptive and also receptive powers play side by

side, and yet the receptive power generally predominates over

the rejective one. Prof. F.H. Bradley, an eminent English

philosopher, defines appreciation as an act of getting into the

inner chamber of the object and of becoming one with the

object. As for example, when an attentive man appreciates

music, he first comes in contact with music and then becomes

one with it. This act or attitude of non-difference can be said

to be an appreciation. Therefore, an appreciation is known as

a faculty of the mind, and it can rightly be said to be an

intuitive perception, which makes the mind to be absolutely

communed with the inner essence of music. Therefore, the real

music creates a feeling of the heavenly beauty and peace in his

mind, who attends music and communes with music.

From the phenomenal viewpoint this act of appreciation of

music differs in different listeners. As for example, an expert

and intuitive artiste first designs and then presents the form of

the rāga, jaya-jayantī, which belongs to the group of kānādā. The

method of designing and representing of the rāga are perfect, but

for the lesser capacity, one cannot appreciate the rāga jaya-

jantī in its truest sense; whereas another man can appre-

ciate it for his greater or proper capacity of realising the rāga.

Similar case also happens to the artistes who design and

improvise the rāgas. It is found that some artistes sincerely

design and present the rāginī, bhairavī, but for their different

capacities, bhairavī manifests in different form and colour, and

consequently, lacks to create proper beauty, emotion and value.

Function of Music and History

Function of music is generally accomplished by some method

of designing the forms of the rāgas and also by their embellish-

ment. But what result do we get from that function of music?

77

Function of Music

78

Music: its Form, Function and Value

We get firstly, the satisfaction of creating and presenting music,

and secondly, the satisfaction of appreciation of the rāgas and

their beauty and value. Besides, the function of music reveals

the truth that music is connected with history for acquiring an

adequate knowledge of different dates and materials of music,

along with their evolution and manifestation in different ages.

Music is also connected with other branches of knowledge like

science, physics, mathematics, philosophy, psychology, aesthe-

tics, etc. The historical aspect of music furnishes us with the

knowledge or understanding how music of one nation is

influenced by other nations. The historical knowledge of music

gives us information, on one hand, how Egypt, Greece, China,

Japan, Arabia, Persia, and other ancient nations borrowed their

materials of music from India and, on the other, how India

incorporated in her system many materials of music from other

nations. Fusions of art and culture supply every nation new

blood, new inspiration, and new vigour, and these fusions

happened in India and other nations many times. We find in the

history that India took many materials of art and culture from

foreign lands in different times, but, at the same time, India

absorbed them in her own system and Indianised them abso-

lutely. In this way, we find that many of the rāgas, musical

instruments and dance-techniques were absorbed in Indian music

from the foreign lands.

Function of Music in Primitive Time

In the primitive time, the peoples were not so developed in

knowledge of culture and civilization. Then the function of

music used to play its role in the field of crude simple faith and

social activities. There were hunting songs, rain-songs, vegetation

or crop-songs, charm or magic-songs, super-natural healing-

songs, war-songs, etc. Different types of song also accompanied

the dances and the musical instruments. And needless to say

that those simple practices of folk-dances and songs exist even

to these days.

Music in Prehistoric Time

In the prehistoric time, there were more social and religious

awakening. Religious ideas and functions used to prevail in

prehistoric India. The figure of a Yogi, with his eyes fixed on

the tip of the nose, prove that the Yogic practice was in use at

that remote days, and the figure of the Śakti or Durgā also

prove the Tāntric worship and practice were also prevalent at

that time. Though very scanty, yet some crude remnants of

musical instruments and a dancing girl of an aboriginal type were

discovered from the diggings of the Mohenjo-daro, Harappa

and other mounds. The prehistoric remains of the musical

instruments, found from the mounds of Ruper, Prabhāspattan

and other areas also supply some evidences of culture of music

in the prehistoric days. Rai Bahadur K.N. Dikshit, Dr. Laks-

man Swarup, Dr. N.N. Laha, Dr. A.D. Pusalker, Dr. Radha

Kumud Mookerji, Mr. Stuart Piggot and other historians and

Indologists have forwarded genuine evidences of the materials

of arts of dancing and singing, found from the dead mounds of

Mohanjodaro and Harappa. Rai Bahadur K.N. Dikshit has said:

"Besides dancing, it appears that music was cultivated among

the Indus people, and it seems probable that the earliest

stringed instruments and drums (with which to keep rhythm

accompaniment with the music) are to be traced to the Indus

civilization. In one of the terracotta figures a kind of drum is to

be seen hanging from the neck, and on two seals we find a pre-

cursor of the modern mridaṅga with skins at either end. Some

of the pictographs appear to be representations of a crude stri-

nged instrument, a prototype of the modern viṇā; while pair of

castanets, like the modern karatāla, have also been found."1

Dr. Laksman Swarup forwards: "One seal has presented a

dancing scene. One man is beating a drum and others are dan-

cing to the tune. On one seal from Harappa, a man is playing

on a drum before a tiger. On another, a woman is dancing. In

one case, a male figure has a drum hung round his neck."2

Dr. N.N. Laha has said:

"The other statuette (Pl. XI) represents a dancer standing on

the right leg with the left leg raised in front, the body from the

waist upwards bent round to the left and both arms stretched

in the same direction. The pose is full of movement. It is

inferred that the figure was three-headed or three-faced and in

that case it represented the youthful Śiva Natarāja, or the head

1

cf. Prehistoric Civilisation of the Indus Valley (Madras, 1939), p. 30.

2

vide Indian Culture, IV, October, 1937, no. 2, p. 153.

79

Function of Music

80 Music: its Form, Function and Value

might have been that of an animal. There is no parallel to this

figure among the Indian sculptures of the historic period."1

Similarly Dr. Pusalker also admits:

"The exquisite bronze figure of an aboriginal dancing girl

(PL. V.4.6) with her hand on the hip, in an almost impudent

posture, is a noteworthy object. Her hand and legs are dispro-

portionately long and she wears bracelets right up to the

shoulder. The legs are put slightly forward with the feet beating

time to the music."2

Dr. Radha Kumud Mookerji also states:

"There are two remarkable statuettes found at Harappa, and

the other of dark grey slate, the figure of a male dancer,

standing on his right leg, with the left leg raised high, the ances-

tor of Śiva Natarāja."3

Regarding the dancing girl, Mr. Stuart Piggot suggests:

"But the bronze of the Dancing-Girl from Mohanjo-daro, so

closely representing the type of hair-dressing and adornment of

the Kulli Culture of South Beluchistan, does at least suggest

that the merchants returning along the southerly caravan routes

may have brought with them girls whose exotic dancing and

unsophisticated charms might be thought to tickle the fancy of

the tired businessmen of Harappa or Mohenjo-daro."4

Mr. S.R. Rao, the Superintendent in the Archaeological

Survey of India gives a striking evidence of a bridge of a musical

instrument, found in the Lothal, datable at 2000 BC. He has

said: "A shell-piece with grooves . . . . at 2000 BC."

The bridge was attached to a musical instrument that resem-

bled the two-stringed dotārā. Similarly like the Lothal, some of

the remains of the musical instruments have been excavated

from the diggings of Prabhāspatan (Somnath), Upper-Deccan

Bahal, Nagarjunakonda at Guntur district, Brahmagiri, Sagan

Kallu, etc. In Rupar, that exists, 60 miles away from the

Ambala district, some of the musical materials were found,

which resembled the digging materials, found in the historical

Harappa. There a statuette of a girl has been found, who was

1vide Indian Historical Quarterly, VIII, March, 1932, no. 2, p. 143.

2vide History and Culture of the Indian People: The Vedic Age (1951),

p. 180.

3vide Hindu Civilization (2nd Indian edition, 1950), p. 10.

4vide Prehistoric India (1250), pp. 177-78, 186-87.

playing a harp of four strings: "A figure of lady, playing a lyre

with four strings, reminiscent of Sumudragupta's figure in like-

wise position on his coins, has been found among the terracotta

figurines in Sunga and Kushan styles."

Now, from these statements by the archaeologists and historians, it is undoubtedly proved that in the prehistoric India, music

was cultured with its true perspective, though it was not so deve-

loped like music of the present day.

In Vedic Time

We have discussed before, in short, music of Vedic time. Vedic

period is very important one for musical history. The function

of music used to be observed mostly in the religious performa-

nces, in different ceremonies and other sacred occasions.

Different kinds of sāman-song which are known as the Vedic

music, were sung during sacrifices, and aim and object of

which were to get blessings and boons of success in life from

different presiding deities of the fires of the sacred altars. Some-

times the function of music used to be observed for replacing

the inauspicious elements, and so both the songs, ābhyudāyic

and ābhichārika were in use.

The Sāmaveda can be known as the source of the origin of the

Vedic music, and it is also an undeniable fact that the Sāmaveda

drew its materials and inspiration from the hymns of the Ṛg-

veda. Prof. Hillebrandt wrote that in a stage earlier than that re-

corded, the Ṛgveda was a definitely practical collection of hymns

(Vedic), arranged according to their connection with different

sacrificial ritual and functions. Prof. Oldenberg supported this

fact, and Dr. Keith also mentioned it in his Religion and Philoso-

phy of the Veda, I. While discussing 'Heiratic Religion' in his

monumental book, The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda, he

said that the Ṛgveda is, in general, a hymn-book for use at the

three-fire-ceremonies. "They are hieratic literature in a very ext-

reme sense. Not only do they reflect the class interests and the

class viewpoints of their priestly authors, but they devote the-

mselves exclusively to this ultra-hieratic phase of religion, the

religion centering about the three-fire cult. Not only they are

secular matters not primarily considered at all, but even those

more populat religious performances are ignored, which did not

require this elaborate ritual, and which performed the staple

81 Function of Music

82

Music: its Form, Function and Value

religion of the great mass of the Aryan people. Nearly all of the

few Rgvedic hymns of which this is not true, are later additions

to the collection, as it stands, though this does not necessarily

imply that the hymns themselves are late."

Prof. Franklin Edgerton mentioned the similar view in his

Religions of the Past and Present (p. 122). Prof. Max Müller

also mentioned it in his Ancient Sanskrit Literature. Dr. Keith

on 'Popular and Hieratic Religion,' contained in the Religion

and Philosophy of the Veda (I, pp. 55-57).

Prof. Burnell's Bloomfield's and Whitney's views were akin to

that of Dr. Keith. Prof. Whitney said that the hymns of the

Rgveda and the Sāmaveda really evoked admiration and helped

the priests and the chanters of the Vedic hymns to realize their

principles and aim of religious life. Prof. Deussen inclined to

think that the sages or priests, who used to sing the Vedic hymns

in the form of songs, were able to discriminate between the

ultimate aim of life and the phenomenal world. But Dr. Keith

did not agree with this view, but followed Oltamare who rejected

Deussen's view.

Dr. Surya Kanta, while discussing about the precise scope of

a Prātishākhya, said about the 'winged songs' of the Vedas,

"which had been composed at widely separated periods of time

and space, were united at some time in collections, ascribed to

famous Rshis of prehistoric times, preferably to the earliest

ancestors of those families, in which the songs in question were

handed down . . . . And since these collections, that presupposes

83

Function of Music

reciting the sacred songs of the Veda. Thus there arose Shākhās

and Upashākhās."1

The Shākhās and the Upashākhās were no other than the

schools which evolved in the Vedic period. The Vedic songs,

which were generally pentatonic forms. The pentatonic forms of

the sāmagānas were possessed of five Vedic tones, and the songs

differed in different shākhās or recensions in their tones, meters

and methods. Prof. Burnell forwarded mainly five schools, and

they were: (1) Kanthuma, (2) Jaiminīya, (3) Rānāyanīya, (4)

Gautama, and (5) Naigeya. Prof. Goldstucker said that a

Prātishākhya is no other than "a grammatical treatise who shows

how the padas must change in order to become the real hym-

nical text, and again, how by means of the krama, the padas

become the true representatives of the Samhitā." The Sāmaveda

has no karma text, but in other respects, our treatise agrees with

this definition, and we may safely call it Prātishākhya, said Dr.

Surya Kanta. In the Nāradi-shikshā, Nārada said that all recensions

(shākhās) differ from one another 'sarvā shākhā prithak prithak.'

As in the present society, we find, in India, different schools (gha-

rānās) with different styles (methods of improvisation), so, in the

Vedic period, the Vedic songs, sāmagānas, used to be sung in

different ways or methods in different shākhās. Dr. Surya Kanta

explained: "The original and perhaps more significant term for the

Prātishākhya was the pārsada, which implied that the treatise in

question belonged to a social group (parishad) in which, among

other things, the general principles of phonetics which are adopted to

Vedic texts, by oral instruction. According to Yāska, each cha-

raṇa (pada) of a Veda had its own Pārshad, and the term Prā-

tishākhya, which obtained later on to designate these treatises,

has been etymologically explained by Mādhava as prātishākhāyām

bhavam prātishākhyam," and this leaves absolutely no doubt that

there existed, at some time, as many Prātishākhya as there were

schools of the Vedas."2 It should be mentioned in this connection

that the Prātishākhyas are the proof for the definite Vedic schools

in which the renderings of the Vedic songs were observed, so as

to preserve the tradition of the practices of music of Vedic time.

1vide also Bloomfield, Religion of the Veda, p. 31.

1vide Rik-Tantram, Delhi, 1970, pp. 7-8.

2vide Rik-Tantram, Varanasi, pp. 5-7.

84

Music: its Form, Function and Value

In Classical Time

Functions of music in the classical and epic times were also observed, and they were meant for different achievements, social,

political, religious and spiritual. Those practices were traditionally followed throughout different ages, and even now those

practices exist. The function of music is found to be purposive or motivated not only in classical period, but also in all times

in all ages. It was adopted either for delightful creation of art and culture, or as a means to acquire education for the

students and the multitude. It has already been said that the functions of music were adopted in social, cultural and religious

uses both for individual and collective benefit, and these aspects of functions of music really made the Indian societies powerful,

dynamic and meaningful.

The beginning of Classical and Paurānic periods may be considered as the ages of a great renaissance, because at the end of

Vedic period, there came a new revival in the field of Indian music.

The Vedic music was, somehow or other, replaced by the classical type of jāti-gāna, and along with jāti-gāna, different coun-

tries and nations, gradually get their free access into the stock of classical music. In the 400 BC, in the newly collected and

systemised form of the Rāmāyana we find the mention of seven pure jāti-gānas and they were added with seven types of

jāti-rāga, three registers like bass, medium and acute height of tones, and aesthetic emotional sentiments, and it is to be noted

that those new type of seven jāti-gānas were added with seven basic jāti-rāgas, along with the collected materials of the Vedic

music, sāma-gāna, so as to create new force, glamour and atmosphere. The instances and practices of those jāti-gānas, along with

jāti-rāgas were mainly practised by the Wandering Bards (chāraṇa-kavis) like Kush and Lava, and also by the Brāhmaṇa priests

and Bhāts, who used to sing those jāti-gānas, before the Royal Courts, in praise of the Kings, Queens and the Chiefs. It is said

that the whole texts of the Rāmāyana, composed by Rishi Vālmiki, were in the form of hymnal songs at that time. Gradually

eleven jāti-rāgas evolved to give the shapes of eighteen jāti-gānas, and these genuinely found in Bharata's Nātyaśāstra, composed in

the 300 BC to 200 AD. From the times of the Rāmāyana and the Mahābhārata different colourful dramatic songs evolved in

85

Function of Music

connection with different types of Sanskrit dramas. In the Mahā-bhārata and the Harivaṃsha and also in Patanjali's Mahābhāṣya,

we find some proofs of dramatic plays, along with songs, dances and musical instruments.

In 500 BC, Rishi Pāṇini composed the monumental Sanskrit grammar, named Aṣṭadhyāyī, in which the sūtras like Bhikṣu and Nata were added, so as to help dramatic plays with songs

and dances. Besides it is also found that Krishāśva and Shilāli composed some Nātasūtras i.e. laws and principles of dramatic

plays before Pāṇini of the 500 BC. However, in the fourth chapter of the Aṣṭadhyāyī, we find the mention of the word

'shilpaṃ,' which has been explained by Bhattoji-Dikshit, in his Commentary, as mridaṅgas like madduka, jharjhara, etc. The

drum, madduka looked like damarau with its faces covered with skin of the animal. The musical instrument jhaṅjhara was a cym-

bal, made up of brass. The musical instrument, tumba-veṇu or tuṃburā is also mentioned in a Jaina literature. Rāyapaṇenīyasūtra

composed in the 5th-4th century BC. Besides, in the beginning of the classical period, we find the mention of dramatical stages

(raṅga), along with ārambhaka, nata, granthika, shobhanika,1 etc., and these musical and dramatic materials undoubtedly prove the

practice of dramatic plays. Muni Bharata has mentioned and defined sixtyfour dramatic songs, known as dhruvas. Five kinds

of dhruvā songs were greatly used in the Sanskrit dramas, and they were prāveshikī, ākṣepikī, prāsādikī, antarā, and naiṣkrāmikī,

i.e. these were used from the beginning songs (prāveshikī) to the concluding song (naiṣkrāmikī). Gradually the dramatic songs

like rik, gāthā, pāṇikā, etc. evolved. In the Harivaṃsha, we find the practice of songs, chhālikya, along with dance like hallisaka.

Some are of the opinion that the dance, hallisaka was similar to holinritya which was accompanied by the songs in Uasanta-rāga. The commentator, Nikaṇṭha said that the chhālikya songs

were accompanied by six grāmarāgas, which were determined by six kinds of methods of application, madhyā, shuddhā, bhinnā,

gaudī, miśrā, and gīta. These rītis or musical methods were afterwards defined and described by Mataṅga in his Brhaddeshi

composed probably in the 5th-7th century AD. Śārṅgadeva of the early 14th century AD has said: 'pañchadhā grāmarāgāḥ suḥ

1shaubhanika.

pañchagīti samāshrayāt' i.e. the gītis or song-styles were accompanied by the five grāmarāgas, and from this we know that

after jāti-rāgas of the jāti-gānas, different grāmarāgas evolved in

the Classical and Epic periods, and gradually from the grāmarā-

gas) rāgas evolved from or in connection of the grāmas, ṣadja,

madhyama and gāndhāra), different kinds bhāṣā rāgas evolved.

Regarding hallisaka, opinions differ. Abhinavagupta is of the

opinion that the dance, hallisaka was performed by both male

and female, and they used to dance in circle: "mandalena tu

yat nrittam." The commentator, Nilakanṭha said that in the

hallisaka-dance of the Classical and Epic ages, were performed

by many women: "hallisakah valubhihi stribhihi saha nrittam."

Pandit Ananta Shāstrī Farkē is of the opinion that the dance

halliska was no other than the Rāsa-krīḍā, which was performed

by the females of the ābhīra-class and the dance was followed

by songs, composed in praise of Śrī Krishna. Pandit Farkē

made a distinction between rāsa-nṛitya and hallisaka-krīḍā and

said that in the rāsa-nṛitya, the circles were composed by male

and female of equal number, and in the hallisaka-nṛitya, only

the females or maidens used to compose the circle, while one

male or boy used to stand in the middle of the circle. Now the

opinions may differ, but it is undoubtedly proved that in the

classical and epic ages, different kinds of songs, dances, hand-

poses and musical instruments were in practice.

Simultaneously classical songs like kapāla, kambala, etc. evo-

ved, and Matanga gave lists of formalised deshī-rāgas and songs

in his Brhaddeshi, from which we know that greater number of

regional tunes and song-types were formalised and taken into the

stock of classical music, so as to enrich the field of Indian

music.

Occasional Phases for Music

Function of music has adopted both secular and public per-

formances of music, dance and drama in different times. In

Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra (300 BC–200 AD) we find different kinds

of dramatic song, dhruva, which were both classical and

sophisticated regional or deshī ones. In the Rāmāyana, Mahā-

bhārata, Harivaṃsha and other Purāṇas, we find music in

different dramatic performances and socio-religious occasions.

Even in the 19th-20th century, different functions of music with

different plots, social, political and religious, are observed. The

function of music was also adopted exclusively for spiritual

purpose in different periods. As for example, in the 10th-11th

century, the Buddhist Vajrayani monks used to sing the gītis,

charyā and vajra, and they communicated their ideas of spiritual

practices with the help of those songs, along with some sugges-

tive code language (sandhā-bhāṣā). In the 12th century, the

Gītgovinda-padagānas were practised, and they were known

purely classico-religious songs. Besides, in different places of

Assam, Manipur, Tirhut, Bihar, Bengal and Orissa and also

in other places of India and its borderlands, different types of

classical and regional songs were in use to suit the social, poli-

tical and religious purposes. In the South, the function of music

serves different purposes, though their types of music, their me-

thods of application and presentation of music were somewhat

different. The holy Saint Tyāgarāja, Shyāmā Sāstrī, Muthusvāmī

Dīkṣitar, King Svāti Tirunal and others enriched the treasure

of music of India.

Various Evolutions of Music

Function of music involves some definite plans and purposes,

so as to preserve the age-long tradition of Indian culture and

also to create new and novel things for enriching the treasure

of Indian music. Function of music is adopted, therefore, with

some ideas and creative purposes. Different types and classes of

music evolved in different ages, and their forms, colours, and

names may differ, but we find in them a spirit of amity among

them. New forms and materials of musical instruments, dances

and dance-poses also evolved, in different times, the old ones of

music were replaced by the new ones, and new vision of the

creation and presentation also brought different reconstructions,

renovations and changes in music. It is interesting to note that

the liberal outlook of the Indian artistes accepted them all. The

intuitive composers and artistes of different ages knew the

secret of devising new things, resulting new prabandha-songs

like dhruvapāda, dhāmār, khyāl, thumri, kirtan, bhajan, etc. These

are the products of different ages, and these products also gave

rise to other types of song and dance.

88 Music: its Form, Function and Value

Mārga and Deshi Types of Music

Well has it been said by Dr. Ananda Coomaraswami in his

The Dance of Shiva: 'Music has been a cultivated art in India

for at least three thousand years. The chant is an essential

element of Vedic ritual, and the reference in later Vedic

literature, the scripture of Buddhism and the Brāhmanical epics

show that it was already highly developed as a secular art in

centuries preceding the beginning of the Christian era. Its zenith

can perhaps be assigned to the Impirical age of the Guptas-

from the fourth to the sixth century AD. This was a classical

period in Sanskrit literature, culminating in the drama of Kali-

dasa, and to the same time is assigned the monumental work

of Bharata on the theory of music and drama.'

Further he has said that 'the art-music of the present day is

a direct descendant of those ancient schools, whose traditions

have been handed down with the comment and explanation in

the guilds of the hereditary musicians . . . . The art-music of

India exists only under cultivated personage, and in its own

intimate cnvironment. It corresponds to all that is most classical

in the European tradition. It is the chamber-music of an

aristocratic society where the patron retains musicians for his

own entertainment and for the pleasure of the circle of his

friends, or it is temple-music where the musician is protected.'

Dr. Coomaraswamy is right in his comment.

It is a fact that regional folk-music was also prevalent in the

common class peoples who did not care for any rules and

regulations for composing and practising the form of simple

music. The high way art-music was cultured only by the peoples

of fine taste, and this music was known generally as mārga or

high class classical music. This art-music was different in form

and style from the common simple regional music.

It can be asked as to what is mārga-type of music, and is this

mārga music was different from the gāndharva music? From

Mataṅga's Brhaddeshi (5th-7th century AD), we come to know

about various sophisticated deshi-type of music, and these

sophisticated deshi ones evolved from different regional songs

and tunes. In Sārṅgadeva's Saṅgīta Ratnākara of the early 13th

century, we find definition of the post-Vedic mārga music.

Further we come to know that mārga and gāndharva ones are

not one and the same. Sārṅgadeva has said: Sāmavedādim gītam

samjagrāha pitāmaha' (1·25) and 'sāmagitirato brahmā' (1·27).

Further Sārṅgadeva has clarified his statement, when he has

defined the types, mārga and deshi (1.22). He says: mārga deshīt

tat dvedhā, tatra mārga sa ucchyate, yo mārgi to birinchādyaiḥ

prajukto bharatadibhīḥ

The sloka: 'yo mārgito birinchyādyaiḥ,' etc. says about the

definition of the word 'mārga' type of music, and while defining

deshī type, Sārṅgadeva says: gītam chavādanam urittam tad-

deshītyabhidhīyate (1.24). Sārṅgadeva flourished after Mataṅga

or Mataṅga-Bharata (5th-7th century AD), who produced the

treatise, Brhaddeshī. The name Brhaddeshī was given because of

its great collection of sophisticated regional (deshī) music. Muni

Bharata compiled the Nāṭyaśāstra in between the 3rd century

BC and 2nd century AD. It has been discussed before that there

were at least four or five Bharatas in ancient time, and Pita-

maha Brahmā, as Sārṅgadeva has used it, Virinchi (this name has

also been used by Sārṅgadeva) or Druhina (as it has been used

by Pandit Somanath of the early 17th century AD and other later

authors) is the oldest one, who flourished in the beginning of

the classical period, in the 600–500 BC. As Brahmā, the Ādi-

Bharata or Bridha-Bharata or Brahmā-Bharata, was very learn-

ed in the art and practice of the Vedic music, sāmagāna,

Sārṅgadeva writes: 'Sāmavedādim gītam samjagrāha pitāmahah.

So we come to know that Brahmā compiled the book on drama

and composed songs.

The post-Vedic songs were known as mārga: 'mārgah

anveṣaṇe' and 'mārgitavāt mārgaḥ' i.e. the materials of the post-

Vedic songs were searched for and were collected to give some

new form of music, and as gāndharva type of music was favou-

rite to the semi-divine Gandharva class of peoples, so this type

of music was known as gāndharva. In the 14th century AD,

Kallinath, one of the celebrated commentators of the Saṅgīta

Ratnākara, defined the word mārga in a meaningful way. From

his definition we come to know that Brahmā or Ādi-Bharata

collected the materials from both Vedic and gāndharva music,

especially the corresponding tones, and values of which are

clearly mentioned by Nārada I of the Nāradi-shikṣā of the pre-

Christian era. It has been said before in the early 13th century

AD, Sārṅgadeva has given a hint of it. Nārada I has said: 'yah

sāmagānāṃ prathamah' etc. That is, the Vedic tone prathamaḥ

89 Function of Music

90

Music: its Form, Function and Value

the

venu

corresponds

to

madhyama,

of

the

venu

or

flute

(of

bamboo

or

wood),

etc.

The

word

venu

signified

the

sophisti-

cated

deshi

music,

whereas

veṇā

used

to

signify

the

Vedic

music.

Nārada

I

(of

the

Nāradi-shikṣā)

has

clearly

recorded

this

fact

of

correspondence

or

interchange

of

notes,

which

existed

in

the

beginning

of

the

classical

period

i.e.

in

the

600–500

BC

when

Ādi-Bharata

Brahma

introduced

his

new

form

and

style

of

mārga

extracted

from

both

Vedic

and

gāndharva

types

of

music.

Gāndharva

music.

What

do

we

mean

by

gāndharva-music?

Muni

Bharata

(3rd

century

BC

to

2nd

century

AD)

has

described

this

type

of

song

as

the

dramatic

one,

and

it

is

composed

of

svara

(note),

tāla

(rhythm)

and

pada

(literary

composition):

'gāndharvamiti

vijñe-

yam

svara-tala-padāśrayam

(Kāśi

ed.,

28.8),

or

gāndharva

vividlayam

svara-tāla-padātmakam

(28.12).

We

find

that

the

words

padāśrayam

and

padātmakam

convey

the

same

meaning

and

idea

of

tone,

timing

or

rhythm

and

text-part.

It

is

true

that

when

Muni

Bharata

has

said:

'asya

yonirbhaved

gānam

veṇā-

vaiśāstathaiva

cha'

(28.10),

he

has

followed

the

findings

of

Nārada

I

of

the

Shikṣā:

'yah

sāmagānām

prathama

sah

venor-

madhyamah

svārah,'

In

fact,

both

of

them

(Nārada

I

and

Muni

Bharata

of

the

Nātyāśastra)

have

classified

the

Vedic

sāmagāna

and

gāndharva

with

the

help

of

veṇā

and

venu-lute

and

flute,

as

it

was

a

traditional

method

in

their

times.

Muni

Bharata

has

further

said

about

the

nature

and

form

of

the

gāndharva

type

of

ancient

music

and

has

defined

the

Rāmāyaṇa,

Mahābhārata,

Khila

Harivaṃsha,

different

Purāṇas,

Śrimad

Bhāgavata

and

other

books,

which

were

connected

with

different

occasions

of

different

mythological

anecdotes.

In

the

musical

field,

the

Nāradi-shikṣā

of

Nārada

I

is

worth-mentioning,

because

it

connects

the

old

and

the

new,

the

Vedic

tradition

and

the

post-Vedic

tradition.

It

has

been

said

before

that

Nārada

I

deals

with

both

the

music,

vaidika

and

laukika—Vedic

and

post-

Vedic.

In

his

time,

both

the

music,

Vedic

and

post-Vedic,

were

practised

in

the

human

society.

The

Vedic

music

was

mainly

meant

for

the

experience

of

ones

who

were

well-acquainted

with

Vedic

and

Classical

Sanskrit

shāstras

and

literature.

The

later

classical

art-music,

dhrupadala,

khyāl,

etc.

were

also

meant

for

the

selected

expert

peoples.

The

post-Vedic

laukika

or

sophisti-

cated

deshi-music

was

no

other

than

the

mārga

or

gāndharva-

type

of

high-way

music,

though

the

folk-type

of

simple

regional

music

already

existed

among

the

uneducated

common

people.

Nārada

I

really

brought

a

renaissance

especially

in

the

field

of

music,

making

a

link

between

two

lines

of

music,

Vedic

and

post-

Vedic.

(3)

In

the

category

of

pada,

we

find

that

the

textparts

were

constituted

out

of

the

materials

like

consonants,

meters,

conjunctions,

.

verbs,

and

nouns,

etc.

Muni

Bharata

has

said

that

by

the

help

of

those

materials

the

gāndharva-type

of

music

was

formed:

'gāndharva-saṁgraho

hyeṣā

.

.

.

'

(28.15).

Further

we

find

that

Muni

Bharata

has

specifically

mentioned

the

names

of

the

notes,

which

were

ṣadja,

rishabha,

gāndhāra,

madhyama,

pañchama,

dhaivata

and

niṣhāda:

ṣadajaścha

riṣabhaśchaiva

gāndhāro

madhyasthā|

pañchamo

dhaivataśchaiva

niṣādo

sapta

cha

svarāḥ||

91

Function of Music

92

Music: its Form, Function and Value

The seven notes were used both in märga and regional (deshï)

music, and we have already mentioned that while, in the early

13th century AD, Śārṅgadeva says: sāmavedādidam gītam saṃja-

grāha pitamahah (SR, 1.25), and sāmagītirato brahmā (SR, 1.27),

Kallināth has also mentioned about the seven notes of both

Vedic and post-Vedic music:

(a) ‘sāmāni hi kruṣṭa-prathama-dvitīya-tritīya-chaturtha-man-

drātisvāryākhyāsapta-svarāḥ.’

(b) ‘idam tu (gāndharva-deshiti gīte cha) ta eva yathāyogam

ṣaḍjādi vyapadeśaṁ iti.’

And Brahmā or Brahmā-Bharata collected those seven Vedic

notes kruṣṭa, etc, named from the Vedas i.e. from the Vedic songs

sāmagānas, and appropiately named them ṣaḍja etc. which suited

the musical system of all the post-Vedic peoples. We can imag-

ine that Kallināth (14th century AD) was familiar with the sche-

me of division of the notes, Vedic and post-Vedic, devised by

Nārada I of the Shikṣā, who appeared sometimes in the pre-

Christian era.

Now, in the first svara-chapter, Śārṅgadeva has mentioned

about the rāgas of the gāndharva-music and they are jāti-rāga,

grama-rāga and upa (subordinate)-rāgas like rāgaṅga, bhaṣāṅga,

kriyāṅga, etc. He has further said that in the prakīrṇa-chapter,

he will mention about the gāndharva-music, its notes, method of

presentation, its merit and demerit, meter, etc. So we find that

in the third prakīrṇa-chapter (prakīrṇa means sweet and pleas-

ing--‘tena suśravyatvan’). Śārṅgadeva has further mentioned

about the rāgas, mārga and deshï--‘deshï-mārgobhaya-sādhā-

raṇatvat.’ He says: ‘mārga-deshï cha vetti gāndharvo’ bhidhīyate|ye

vetti kevalam mārgaṁ svarādi sa nigadyate.’ That is, he, who knows

the characteristic natures of both the gānas, gāndharva and deshï,

is known as gāndharva, but he, who knows only the nature of

the mārga-music, is known as svarādi. The commentor Singha-

bhupāla has clearly said that jāti-rāga, grāma-rāga, etc., and the

mārga-rāgas and aṅga-rāgas are the deshï-rāgas: rāgaḥ mārga-

rāgādayah rāgaṅgini deshï rāgādayah and ‘deshïrāgāḥ śri-rāgā-

dayah.’ Now, regarding the deshï-rāgas, the second rāga-viveka-

chapter of the Saṅgīta Ratnakāra and Mātaṅga’s Brhaddeshï

1 Gāndharva is quite different from mārga and sophisticated-deshï.

should be consulted.

Rānā Kumbha of Mewar (15th century AD) defined mārga,

as has been defined by Śārṅgadeva in the early 13th century AD,

but in many places of his book, Saṅgītarāja, he used mārga-

rāgaḥ, mārga-tāla, etc. From this it seems that the word mārga

connotes the idea of traditional aristocratic ones.

Now, from the short survey of the types of the rāgas, mārga

and deshï, it can be said that the words mārga and gāndharva

convey the idea of different classes, and deshï type of common

music was quite different from them in name, form and nature.

The modern laukika or sophisticated deshï type of classical rāgas

and gānas cannot be known as mārga, or gāndharva, though it

is probable that the modern classical type of rāgas and gānas

have drawn most of the materials, styles and techniques as well

as aesthetic qualities and inspiration from those post-Vedic rāgas

and songs.

Music, Abstract and Concrete

Function of music equips us with the knowledge of music,

both abstract and concrete. Abstract music is generally known as

the anibaddha-saṅgīta and concrete one as the nibaddha-saṅgīta.

The ālāpa is known as abstract music, which gives an image of

the form of the rāga. The nature of abstract (anibaddha) music

is to manifest music without the limiting adjuncts of rhythm and

tempo, whereas the nature of concrete (nibaddha) music is to

represent the physical form of music, along with its mental form.

Abstract music sings the song of the Absolute, and it touches

the earth, and at the same time it transcends the earth. It mani-

fests both the internal and external aspects of the rāgas, while

the concrete music is manifested, in one hand, with its twin

forms of melody and literary composition (sura and sāhitya)

and, in the other, it manifests with rhythm, tempo and other

materials of music. Both the forms of music, abstract and con-

crete (anibaddha and nibaddha) evoke aesthetic feeling.

Ālāpa and its Development

The expert musicologist are of the opinion that ālāpa is con-

sidered as ‘abstract music,’ and though it gives the idea of some

definite form of rāga, yet it designs its structure of tones, which

suggest the ideas of many similar rāgas. Ālāpa is very ancient

93

Function of Music

94

Music: its Form, Function and Value

form of music. Śarṅgadeva (early 13th century AD) has elabo-

rately discussed about ālāpa and ālāpti, as they form the base

or ground of different types of song. Pandit Somanath (early

17th century AD) has given some suggestive ideas of ālāpa, ālāpti

and prabandha, which determine the qualities of the rāgas. He

has defined the rāgas, pure, subordinate and mixed (śuddha,

chāyālaga and mishrita) and also classifies the rāgas into three,

best, medium and bad. Pandit Somanath has said in the Rāga-

vibodha: 'ye'rālāpālapi prabandhayogyāste uttamah kathitāhe' etc.

That is, the rāgas are known as best (uttama), which are fitted

with ālāpa, ālāpti and prabandha. The rāgas are known as medium

(madhyama) which are fitted with ālāpa, ālāpti and prabandha,

but are rarely used by artistes, and the rāgas are known as bad,

which are not fitted with ālāpa, ālāpti and prabandha.

Now it can be asked as to what are ālāpa, ālāpti and praban-

dha? Pandit Somanath has quoted the definitions of them from

Śarṅgadeva's Saṅgita Ratnākara and has said:

(a) Ālāpa is that which is possessed of different music-mate-

rials like graha, aṃśa, tāra, mandra, nyāsa, apanyāsa, along with

alpatva, vahutva, śādava and audava, in relation to tones or notes.

These materials have been designated by Muni Bharata as daśa-

laksmanas. Ālāpa is also known as rāgālāpa.

(b) When the songs manifest themselves from their own bases

(swasthānas) like sthāyī, having its four parts, they are known as

ālāpti.

(c) Prabandha is known by its constituent four dhātus and six

aṅgas. The four dhātus are the four ancient music-parts like

udgrāha, melāpaka, dhruva and ābhoga, and six aṅgas are the

six limbs like svara (note), virudha, etc. Ālāpa is gāna or gīti

having essentials (laksmanas), but is not fitted with any tāla or

rhythm. It has been said before that it is known as the aniba-

ddha or unbound song. In Hakim Muhammad Kuram Imam's

book, Ma'danul Moisique, written in 1850 AD, in the reign of

Wajed Ali Shāh of Lucknow, we find the mention of ālāpa,

which was used by the stalwart musicians of the Court of Wajit

Ali Shāh and also by the musicians of the 19th century. It is

seen that Mr. Karim has not mentioned about any definite tech-

nique of exposition of ālāpa.

In the Saṅgīta Ratnākara and other earlier treatises, we find

that the text-part of the ālāpa used to be composed with some

sacred letters Om Hari Om, etc. In the mediaeval period, letters

like meaningless tum, nānā, tere, nerī, etc. were used, and they

were no other than an imitation of the sacred mantrams or letters,

Om Hari Om, etc. Now-a-days different letters or words are used

in the ālāpa, and the Muslim influence has brought some changes

both in forms and techniques. In the beginning of 20th century,

we find also some change in the forms as well as in techniques

in ālāpa, and ālāpa was divided into some classes. It is said that

new ¡type of ālāpa is introduced by Zākiruddhīn Khān and

Ālābande Khān, who married two daughters of the Veenkarā

Bande Ali Khān. Both Zākiruddhīn Khān and Alābande Khān

were the descendents of Ustād Birām Khān. Zākiruddhīn Khān

Alābande Khān were exclusively the vocalists and dhrupadiyā.

Both the brothers, Zākiruddhīn and Alābande were desirous of

taking tracing in Veen, but Bande Ali Khān did not teach anyone

other than his own sons and relatives. So Bande Ali Khān taught

both Zākuriddhīn Khān and Ālābande Khān, the ālāps, bols, to-

dās, etc. of Veen by mouth, i.e. by uttering them in voice, and

not directly by the musical instrument, Veenā. So there evolved

new technique of ālāpa, which was created by the Veenā. Ustāds

Zākiruddhīn and Alābande used four dhātus or music-parts like

sthāyī, antarā, sañchari and ābhoga in three tempi, slow, medium

and rapid (vilambita, madhya and druta), and the Pakhwāj (drum)

used to accompany ālāpa, though the old form of anibaddha-

saṅgīta, known as ālāpa, was quite different from the evolved new

technique. Ustāds Nāsiruddīn Khān, Ruhimuddin Khān, Tānsen

Pānde and their descendents followed that new system of ālāpa,

Gāna, Gīti and Saṅgīta

Sometimes it is asked as to what are differences among the

types of musical composition, gāna, gīti and saṅgīra? It is quite

natural to raise this question. Between gāna and gīti, the diffe-

rence generally lies in the case of genders, masculine and femi-

nine, which are signified by the affixes, akāra and ākāra or ikāra.

As for example, in the case of the musical composition, gāna,

the word itself expresses the suffixes of akāra and ākāra which

connote the idea of masculine gender and, similarly, in the case

of gīti and gītikā, the words express the affix akāra or ikāra,

which signifies feminine gender. But this strict rule of masculine-

feminine sometimes does not hold good, as in the case of ancient

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Function of Music

96

Music: its Form, Function and Value

Vedic song, we use both the words, sāmagāna and sāmagīti. As

for example, while discussing about musical types, mārga and

deshī, Sārṅgadeva has used both the words, gīta and gīti for

suman song:

1. ‘sāravedādidaṃ gītaṃ . . .’

2. ‘gītena priyati devaḥ . . .’

3. ‘samagītrā brahmā . . .’

4. ‘rudan gītāmritam pītvā . . .’ etc.

While explaining padārtha-samgraha-prakaraṇa, Sārṅgadeva

has also mentioned the words: ‘gīta-lakṣaṇaṃ gīta-prayojanaṃ,

gītapraśaṃsau’ etc.

In the svarādhyaya Sārṅgadeva has further used the word gīta,

and the commentator Kallinath writes: gītāsya rañjaka-svara

sandar bha . . . ., tatreti gīta-gāṇa-lakṣaṇaṃ ityarthah.’ Now

there is a prakaraṇa or chapter which is known by the name,

gīti: Gīti-prakaraṇaṃ, and there we fīnd the gītis like māgad hī,

ardhamāgad hī, sambhāvitā and prithulā, along with different

types of kapāla and kambala, etc. The kapāla, etc. are known

as gītis, whereas the dramatic songs, dhruvā are known as gāna,

and not gīti, though the affix ākāra is added to it (dhruvā). The

dhruvāgānas are sixtyfour in number, seven among them are rik,

gāthā, pānikā, etc. Their forms and characteristics have been

described in the Chapter XXXII of the Nātyaśastra by Muni

Bharata, who lived, it is said, in 3rd century BC to 2nd century AD.

Similarly, we fīnd the word samgīta or samgītam which denotes

the combination of vocal music or instrumental music, dance

and rhythm, as Sārṅgadeva says: ‘gītam vādyam tathā nrttam

trayam samgītamuchyate’ (1.21). This triad form has been used by

Muni Bharata in the Nātyaśastra, as ‘svara-tāla-padārśrayam,’

though the word pada suggests the idea of musical composition.1

In fact, the word samgīta conveys the idea of the combination of

three arts, vocal and instrumental music, dance and drumming

or rhythm, though, in the mediaeval period, this definition was

modified.

In ancient time, we fīnd that there were some specific rules for

the types of song, gāna, gīti or gītikā and samgītam. But now-

-a-days there is no such specific rules, as we fīnd the uses of

dhruvapada or dhrupad, khyāl or khe yāl, thumrī, gazal, kīrtana,

rāmprasādi, jāri, sārī, etc., which are known by the name of gāna,

and not by gīti or samgīta. Further we fīnd that kīrtana of Bengal

is known as padagāna or padāvali-kīrtana-gāna, as the word pada

connotes the idea of gāna or song. Now, in the case of the songs

of Rabindranath, we use Rabindrasamgīta, whereas the songs

of Dvijendralal, Atulprasad, Rajanikānta, Nazrul and others are

known as gītis, and not gāna. Again we designate the songs of

Umā and Mahesvara, who are the prominent figures of the

grand autumn festival, Durgāpūja, as āgamanī-gāna or āgamanī-

samgīta. There we fīnd the use of both gāna and samgīta. Now,

as regards the songs of Rabindranath, it can be said that as he

composed the songs for both the plots, Nrityanātya and Gīt-

nātya, those songs can adequately be said to be as samgīta, i.e.

Rabindrasamgīta. B:ecause the word samgīta really connotes the

1But Bharta has explained the specific characters of pada, which are different from composition.

97

Function of Music

98 Music: its Form, Function and Value

idea of the combined arts of singing, drumming and dancing,

as has been said before. And it is also found that the songs, com-

posed by Kaviguru Rabindranath for Nrityanātya, are all the

time presented with dance. So it is true that now-a-days we name

the songs as gīti, gāna, and saṅgīta, as they are given names,

and so we find that there is no hard and fast rule as regards the

titles or designations for the songs of Rabindranath, Atulprasad,

Dvijendralal, Nazrul and others. As they have been given names,

or are usually spoken, so we are habituated to hear them, and

call them, and their impressions (saṅskāras) are rather imprinted

in our minds, and those imprinted impressions inspire us to call

them accordingly.

Tone, Tune and Melody

Tone is known as quality of sound, or as a musical sound

without overtones. Individually overtones are themselves tones,

as distinct from a note, which is a pleasant combination of tones,

in which the pitch of the one predominates. Sometimes 'tone

signifies a Gregorian psalm song.'

Tune means a melody of simple obvious design, particularly

one which predominates over its accompaniment. Originally the

word 'tune' appears to have been the same as tone.

Melody is a musically pleasing succession of notes. Melody is

used in a more precise sense than either phrase or tune. Again

melody is a complementary term to harmony, whereas tune is

complementary to accompaniment.

These are meanings or significances of the three musical terms,

1vide Penguin Books, 1953.

word dhun in place of dhvani. So when 'dhun' or 'dhvani' is

expressed by the English word tune, we should take it as a sweet

and pleasing sound, which is generally used in music.

But 'melody' is a quite different thing. The English definition

of the word 'melody,' we have given before. Sometimes the

Indian rāga is translated into English as 'melody,' 'melodic type'

or 'melodic pattern.' But it does not hold good, as melody of

the Western music is quite different in form and quality from

'rāga' of the Indian music. The Indian rāga is more flexible and

broad in form and also in outlook. It is not considered by the

Indian artistes and musicologists as a dead structure of notes, but

it is living, is saturated with different aesthetic sentiments and

moods. An Indian rāga is an object of realization; it is a living

force, as has been said before, and it is visible to the estatic

vision of the intuitive artistes and audience. Tune or dhun or

pleasing dhvani really constitute the form of a colourful rāga, but

it is not itself a rāga. In Indian music, dhun is used now-a-days

i.e. from the time of the Muslim rule, as a musical piece, which is

sung after kheyāl or kheyāl type of classical song. This dhun type

of light song of music appears as very sweet and pleasing. As

thumri is usəd as a vocal music, so dhun is used in musical

instrument.

Revival of Music

Different discussi'ons, symposiums and cultural conferences,

arranged by different music-loving Rulers in the past, in different

times as well as collections of music-material and compilations

of different musical treatises inspired the patrons and artistes of

India, so as to rectify or modify, and to reshape and renovate

the current forms and systems of music, which brought some

new revivals or renaissances. In both the North and the South,

such revivals or renaissances happened, and those revivals or

renaissances infused into different systems of music, new inspira-

tion, new forms and styles. In the Vedic period, we find many

assemblages which were known as Pariṣad or Parṣad, which settled

many disputed and controversial subjects in the field of philoso-

phy, religion and culture, but there we find no such memorable

incidents or instances which brought a new revival in the field

of music in the Vedic and Epic times. We have mentioned before

that there were different recensions (shākhās) of the Vedas, and

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

the sāman-recitations and sāman-songs with different tones and

styles (methods of improvisation) used to be sung in different

occasions. In the Rāmāyana, we find some songs and recitations

of the sacred life-story of Śrī Ramachandra by the Singing Bards

or minstrels like Lava, Kusha and others, as it happened in the

ancient Greece, Rome, Arabia, Persia and other lands, and it is

found that those songs by the wandering minstrels brought new

revivals in the system of Indian music, current in the epic period.

The memorable revivals happened during the time of Muni

Bharata, Śārngadeva, Vidyaraṇya Munisvara, and others.

Besides, in 1401-1440 AD, Ibrahim Shāh Sharke of Jaunpur

called a conference of 'the then reputed musicians and musico-

gists at Kara (or Khar), near Allahabad, and published a book,

Sangīta Shiromani in Sanskrit. In that compilation, most of the

current system of music were rectified and standardised and

that corrected new system brought a change and new inspiration

among the artistes and musicologists of that time. Again in the

1486-1517 AD, Raja Mān Singh Tomar of Gwalior renovated

the old forms of the prabandha type of music, and especially the

dhruva-prabandha with the help of Nayaka Baksu, Machhu and

others. Maharaja Sawāi Pratap Singha Bahadur of Jaipur also

compiled an encyclopaedic book, Rādhāgovinda Sangītasāra in

the 16th-17th century AD, consulting with the then stalwart

figures of music. We have mentioned that Rāṇā Kumbha of

Mewar also brought a new change in the system of Indian music

in the 15th century AD by compiling an encyclopaedic work,

Sangītarāja which can be considered to be a new commentary

on Śārngadeva's Sangīta Ratnākara.

The names of Amir Khusrau, Sultan Hossain Sharqi of Jaun-

pur (1461 AD), Sultan Sikendar Lodi (1689-1517 AD), Faqir-

ullāh, the author of the Rāgadarpaṇa (1666 AD), Veenākāra

Niyāmat Khān, Raṅgile (18th century AD), Pandit Lochana-

Kavi, the author of the Rāgataranginī (17th-18th century AD),

Rādhāmohan Sen of Bengal, the author of the Sangīta-taraṇga

(19th-20th century AD), in which the rāga-system of Faqir-

ullah's Rāgadarpaṇa has been adopted, Muhammed Rezzā Khān,

Pandit V.N. Bhātkhande, who's 10 mela-system was designed

after the 12 samsthānas (melās), adopted by Pandit Lochana-

Kavi should be mentioned in this connection. Besides, the names

of Śaṅkaradeva and Mādhavadāsa of Assam—Manipur, the Royal

patrons of Teerhut-Moranga, the Royal family of Nepal, Ibrahim

Adil-Shah, the illustrious Ruler of the Bijāpur kingdom, Pandit

Balkrishnabuwa, Whankar Pandit, Bhaskarbauwā or Bhaskara-

tamakhi, Tyāgarāja, Shyāmā Shāstri, Muthusvami Dīkshitar,

Svāti Tirunal and others of South India are worth-mentioning

in connection with the music-revival-movement of India. The

cultural aspect of function of music supplies us the informations

about them.

Evolution of Styles and its Significance

There evolved many methods of technique in improvisation of

music, which can be known as styles, because the composers and

the artistes of different places of different times realized the

importance of making the art of music awakened and dynamic

with new thoughts, new understanding and new techniques. It

was quite possible, therefore, to evolve various methods of

improvisation, as there were no communicable links for

interchanging ideas and knowledge of form and culture of music

among the artistes of music-communities or music-circles of

different places. So there evolved different styles according to

different gharānās or schools. Regarding evolution of new

techniques and styles, Mr. Watt of the western country has

pointed out that style of music has often been defined as the

'style' is meant the 'historical style.'1

But style in its purely artistic sense is not the consistent treat-

ment an impersonal physical medium any more than technique

in art, but consistency in the artiste's personal vision, 'consistency

of distance.' In fact, the manipulation of the material medium

enters into this vision, no doubt, but it is not, either directly or

by itself, the basis of 'style.' Now it can be asked to what is

the process by which the inedium enters into the vision of the

artiste? This question, says Prof. Bullough, leads to the conside-

ration of art in its dynamic aspect i.e. leads to artistic creation

and aesthetic appreciation or consciousness.

All these are meant for material consciousness. But ethical and

spiritual consciousness of the society should also be awakened

1 Regarding styles of prose and poetry, vide I. Middleton Murry

(Oxford).

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

and developed for better creation, and better understanding and

appreciation of beauty and value of the art of music, otherwise

the ideal of function of music will be hampered, loosing its

novelty and value.

Function of music also recognises the importance of perfor-

mances of music-conferences, music-discussions, music-sympo-

siums, music-researches, etc., but those performances should

always be pinned to the value and ideal.

Responsibilities of the Artistes and the Musicologists

In function of music, the artistes and the musicologists have

some responsibilities as well as duties to recover the forms of

many rāgas, which are now obsolete. Those rāgas are mentioned

in the Saigīta Ratnākāra, Saigīta Pārijāta, Rāga Vivodha and

other Sanskrit treatises. We admit that new rāgas should be

designed as the products of talent and intellect but by this it

does not mean that we will indulge our ignorance and inefficiency

to let the old and traditional rāgas go into oblivion. As for

example, the rāgas like paurāli, shuddhā, mālava-rūpā, devāra-

vardhanī, gāndhāra-vallī, kacchelī, svaravallikā, nisādinī, madhyamā

pulinidī or pulindikā, dumburā, śadja-bhāsā, kālindī, Śrī-Kaṇṭhī,

Nādyā, Vāhya-śaḍava, vegabatī, bhāvinī, Vibhāvinī pota, śaku,

śaka-vilitā, śaka-tilaka, pallivī, bhāsavalitā, takka, takka-

saindhava, kokila-pañchama, bhāvanā-pañchama, nāga-gāndhāra,

kallasa, raktahausa, dhvani, kandarpa, kashika-kakubha, etc. are

worth-mentioning. Their melodic forms with their determining

characteristics are given in the works, but they are at present

out of practice simply for want of love for knowledge. Among

these old rāgas, there are also some South Indian rāgas, which

are included in the 72 melakartās. So different Sanskrit treatises

of different ages, together with other books on music in other

languages should, therefore, be studied to make our knowledge

competent. It should be remembered that music is the greatest

and surest means to bring peace and solace to all the living

beings. It makes the ideal of the society and of the people living,

moving and radiant. The significance of the function of music

should, therefore, be considered and be adopted in its true sense,

so as to preserve the prestine glory of the art of spiritual India.

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Function of Music

Music, Static and Dynamic

Function of music makes us realize that art is both static and

dynamic, though, of course, there is a constant interchange

between the two. Besides, there are some specific rules for art

and its creation, and those rules are sometimes regulated by the

sense of aesthetic. And it is also true that art-rules are not laid

down by the principles of aesthetics, as it (aesthetics) merely

treats them as 'facts' and estimates them as such. Whatever may

be differences of opinion about art-rules and art-creations, it is

an undeniable fact that prime function of music should be no

other than to combine art and beauty in the field of aesthetic

experience, and this experience creates heaven on earth and light

in darkness, and makes mortal life immortal. This is the real

and ideal function of music.

Art and Beauty

It is said: 'Art is beauty and beauty is art.' Prof. Edward

Bullough explains in his book, Aesthetics that the theories rely-

ing on proportion, harmony, unity-in-variety, etc. are an

endeavour to empty the definition of individual content, and to

render it as general and abstract as possible, in the hope of no

concrete content. The conception of beauty has been reflected

back upon the notion of Art. Art, in general, is then thought to

be the concrete manifestation of the purely abstract and empty

thing, but it is true that there is no absolute Beauty, neither as

an abstract idea, nor as a universal objective quality, which

might be in greater or lesser degree concreted or incarnated in

Art. There are beautiful statues, beautiful poems, und beautiful

music, but these various representatives of Art are not beautiful

in the same manner: each is beautiful in its own way, and the

appearance of each is the more perfect and the more complete,

the more its distinctive and peculiar kind of beauty is felt to be

distinct from the beauty of other arts. Now the realization of

difference in kind is a matter of some aesthetic experience. "A

person devoid of art-education and training of taste," he says,

"will hardly realize them at all. But with progressing experience

and interesting sensitiveness these differences become gradually

sharper. The finer and more acute our appreciation becomes,

the more intensely we realise the beauty of one special group."

So more we appreciate beauty, or art, or aesthetics, the more we

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

let ourselves be imbued with its spirit and ideal and enveloped

by its peculiar atmosphere, the stranger do we realize a work as

an individual entity, distinct from anything else, the more we

may be said to appreciate it. Besides, comparison of value do

not spontaneously arise in the work of appreciation, on the con-

trary, genuine and full appreciation is characterised by the feeling

that the thing appreciated is unique and is of entirely different

complexion from any other work. Again the pre-occupation of

making comparison of value, forced us as either by an external

authority or by habits of thought, bars our way to full apprecia-

tion and is hostile to fully-realised effects, says Prof. Bullough.

Chapter IV

VALUE OF MUSIC

Music and Other Arts

Music is the mirror through which God, the real Artist and

Poet, is visible, or is seen in the ecstatic vision. Music has, there-

fore, an immense beauty and value. Music is itself the supreme

beauty and value. The great savant of France, Romain Rol-

land, says that "music, like life, is divine in essence, so nothing

makes us feel the truth of this better than music's ever-welling

spring, which has flowed through the centuries until it has be-

come an ocean."

It is said that music is superior to all other arts, but by this

it does not mean that other arts are inferior and valueless. The

post-Kant German philosopher Hegel has beautifully discussed

this matter in his Philosophy of Art, which we will discuss after-

wards.' Romain Rolland has said that it is not true that music

has no abstract a character, for she has an undoubted relation-

ship with literature, with theatre or drama, and with the life an

epoch. The history of music is closely connected with those of

other arts. And it is generally believed that art of music is

allied to other Fine Arts, sculpture, architecture and painting.

A close and comprehensive study reveals the truth that arts like

sculpture, architecture, painting, and music have some differen-

ces in them in technique, structure, mode, and beauty, and the

art of music excels the arts of sculpture, architecture, and paint-

ing. Sculpture, for instance, is a design, applied to clay or

marble; painting is a design, applied to screen or paper, and

music is a design applied to tones and tunes, made up of sweet,

smooth and soothing sounds. But the fundamental differences

in them lie in the materials, in the models, for designs or struc-

tures are found in nature in the cases of sculpture and painting,

whereas in the case of music, no model for design ever existed

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

anywhere as natural phenomena. Further it can be said that for

art of music, no dark age or age of obscurity occurred, while the

other arts were being forgotten, the creation crumbling and disi-

ntegrating. Now the art of music continues to fulfil its function

as the art of Roman Church does, says Mr. Theodore Fenney,

one of the writers of the history of Western music.

Romain Rolland on Music

It constantly happens, says Romain Rolland, that all arts

influence one another, that they intermingle, or that, as a result

of their natural evolution, they overflow their boundaries and

invade the domain of neighbouring arts. It is music that would

become painting, now painting that would become music. Good

painting is music—a melody, says Michel Angelo, at a time

when painting was given precedence to music, when Italian

music was intricating itself, so to speak, from the very decadence

of other arts. The doors between the arts are not, therefore,

closely shut as many theorists would pretend, but one art is

constantly opening upon another. It should be noted that arts

may extend and find their consummation in other arts, and when

the mind has exhausted one form, it seeks and finds a more

complete expression in another, and this secret is disclosed by

the history of music.

For many reasons, music is regarded as great, because it

reveals the true form and feeling that lie in the depth of every

soul, and it helps to disclose the secrets of the inner life which

is really the highest standard of value. Not only that, but music

as a fine art shows also that art-loving men want the continuity

of life in apparent death, the flowering of an external spirit

amidst the ruin of the world.

Romain Rolland has further said that although music may be

known as an individual art, yet it is considered as a social art.

It may be the offering of meditation and sorrow; it may be

that of joy and supreme happiness. It accommodates itself to the

characters of all people and all tune. One may call it architec-

ture in motion, another may call it poetical psychology; one man

considers it as a plastic and well-defined art, another may see it

as an art of purely spiritual expression; for one theorist melody

is considered as the essence of music, for another this same es-

sence appears as harmony. And, in truth, it is so; they are all

right in considering their standard of value of arts or art materials.

We have taken full liberty of quoting some pieces from Romain

Rolland's Essays on Music, because we know that like the Indian

intuitive thinkers, the French savant practised music in his life

not only as an inert art, but also as a living inspiration and

divine intuition, which can be known as the real value of music,

nay, as the real value of life itself. We have seen in the history

that the Greeks recognised music as an essential part of their

education, and it was closely connected with other arts like

science, literature and drama also. In India, in the classical

period, music was included in the social and religious lives of

peoples. Music was, at that time, incorporated in drama along

with dance, which used not only to beautify the natural aspect

of the dramatic plays, but also to create an emotive value and

divine inspiration in the minds of both the artistes and the liste-

ners. The dramatic songs dhruvās were eightyfour in number, the

classico-regional gitis like māgadhi, ardhama-māgadhi, etc. and other

types of gitis and gānas, were used in the dramatic plays, so as to

create the aesthetic sentiments. Besides, while describing the real

value of music, the Sanskrit treatises say: ‘na vidyā sañgītāt para’

i.e. there is no art greater than music, because music is the only

medium through which men can get immediate touch with the

Divinity and eternal solace, peace and tranquility.

Language and Tune in Music

We have discussed before that the form of music is mainly

composed of the twin form of language and tune, i.e. of com-

position and melody—sāhitya and sur or rāga. We have com-

pared these two as the two wings of a bird. Language may be

considered as the sign or symbol significant and meaningful.

Regarding value and signi-

ficance of the language, different psychologists and philosophers

differ in their views. Prof. Richards has elaborately discussed

about language and the influence of language upon thought in

the book, Meaning of Meaning (1956), and have given an account

of interpretation in causal terms by which the treatment of

language as the system of signs, resulting evocation of emotive

feeling and expression of suggestive ideas. Dr. Susanne Langer

has discussed about the study of signs or symbols which is atta-

ched with the problems of language. Dr. Langer says that langu-

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Value of Music

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

age and music have essentially different functions, despite this

oft-remarked union in song. Their original relationship lies much

deeper than any such union and can be seen only when their

respective natures are understood.

In fact, Dr. Langer is of the opinion that speech or language

is quite inadequate to articulate the conception of feeling, or

the mind's grasp of its object. Language, ritual, myth and music,

representing four respective modes, may serve the central topics

for the study of actual symbolism as well as the significance of

meaning which is conveyed by the union of the symbol or langu-

age and music.

The primary function of language is generally said to be com-

munication, and it is a very high form of symbolism. Besides,

says Dr. Langer, the transformation of experience into concepts,

not the elaboration of signals and symptoms, is the motive

of language. Speech is through and through symbolic, and when

tune or melody is attached to language, the symbolic idea or

expression becomes very acute, and it gradually creates and

evokes aesthetic feeling into the minds of men. Prof. Jesperson,

who is one of our great authorities on language, suggests that

speech or language and song may well have sprung from the

same source, and that source is the emotive or emotive value,

attached to the feeling of joy and pleasure. Profs. Herder and

Rousseau admit it. In fact, the union of the form of language

and the form of sweet melodious sound completes the form of

music.

True Form of Art

But what is the true form and aspect of art? "Art is embodi-

ment of meaning," says Dr. Reid, "and the experience of art is

a personally-embodied experience of meaning in an art-fact. As

a personally-embodied experience it is a felt one, and feeling

participates in all these emphases of attention--to the intra-

organic, to the participation in the work as objective, and to

the feeling (illuminated by the proximal-distal concept) of the

work itself. The attention to any of the three aspects is legitimate

--but on different occasions and with different purposes in

mind."

As philosophers experiencing art, we are entitled to attend to

all three, and to any of them we please, as suits our purpose.

Value of Music

109

We may notice the intra-organic, e.g. the feelings of the psycho-

physical manifestations of our experience of listening to music,

or to these as directed more locally towards the music; or we

may be fully absorbed in cognitively 'feeling' the music itself

and be aware of subjective aspects only by an effort, and retros-

pectively. The artificiality--necessary as it may be for philoso-

phical-analytic purposes--of attention to our own feelings is

most clearly seen in this last: we cannot properly attend to the

music and to our own feelings strictly at the same moment.

Full aesthetic attention must be to the music itself, the distal

aspect, the 'meaning,' and that meaning is not to be identified

with our own subjective feelings. On the other hand, the musical

meaning is apprehended through and along with our own feel-

ings, and if in a sense they are always tacitly there and function

tacitly, there is no reason why we should not become aware of

them, provided they are intrinsic to our attention to the music.

And this awareness of our own feelings as we intensely attend

to and intensely enjoy the music, is certainly a fact of much of

our experience. In listening (or playing), we are not only very

much alive in our attention to the 'life' of the music, but we feel

alive too. Absorption, in what we hear, is not only not incompati-

ble with acute subconscious awareness of the enjoyment of it; it

is a part of it, and as a part of it is even necessary to full discri-

minating understanding. We can, by sympathy and empathy, see

it happening as we watch a master performer at work. If he did

not 'feel the music,' feel his way through it with his whole being--

which must include awareness of feeling it with his 'organism--

he could not make it speak. Feeling is here cognitive in an impor-

tant sense. Likewise we 'feel' the forms of space in sculpture,

or the weight and rhythm of the sounding meaningful words in

poetry.

Imagination in Art

Prof. Percy Brown has said about art, or about works of art,

in a sympathetic way. He says that the works of art are the

works of imagination. But what is imagination? Imagination is

not 'fancy' or 'day-dreaming' or 'building' castle in the air,' but

its true meaning is 'the power of seeing things as they really are.'

Imagination is of two kinds, and these used to be called

creative and receptive, or productive and reproductive. Creative

or productive imagination is constructive, and it is abstract in

character. Prof. Buck says that the artiste who feels and.can

translate his feeling into words, painting, or musical notes or

themes, is constructive, and has creative imagination. It is not

common, as you know, in its higher form, because the ability to

get feeling or experience into form implies technique, and the

peoples gifted with imagination are often too impatient to mas-

ter the method of expressing it, which is one reason for the

phrase 'mute, inglorious Miltons.'

On the other hand, reproductitive imagination is reconstruc-

tive, concrete and particular. Appreciation is an important

faculty of real knowledge as well as of value of things. Apprecia-

tion, in its finest sense, is the application to anything of the

receptive imagination. You may reproduce the notes through

voice, you may play the notes on piano or violin, and you may

'like' the results, but it is not till you have recaptured the feel-

ing which urged the composer to compose the work, or think

that you have-that you have any right to say you appreciate it.

You have then penetrated below the surface, and your imagina-

tion has reconstructed his emotional purpose.

Appreciation of Art

The appreciation of art, or of anything, passes through three

main stages, so it can be roughly divided into three classes,

crude, intelligent, and critical: (1) The crude appreciation may

be called a dog's appreciation of a bone, i.e. first on bone and

then its liking and appreciation as the delicious food. (2) The

intelligent appreciation involves judgement, at first elementary,

but growing in breadth and value, as our appreciation masses are

enlarged, says Prof. Buck. We have an ever-increasing bundle of

experiences of things, not as a rule formulated into any system

of valuation, but sufficiently realized to enable us to give a ver-

dict, and possibly to justify it. As these systems of valuation be-

come more and more developed, they gradually become for us

our principles of judgement and we are then approaching to

them. (3) The critical appreciation which comes last. When we

have acquired the feeling of 'security of judgement,' we have no

further to go. We may be right or wrong in our verdict that

depends on the power or calibre of our mind, but we will know

that our verdicts of good or bad are not founded on personal

caprice, since we have built up an apparatus of discrimination.

The apparatus of discrimination is no other than the faculty of

discrimination, and this faculty is a sure guide for appreciation

whether a thing, or an art, is good or bad. In truth, we will have

to penetrate the deepest layer of life's as well as of art's myste-

ries, as did the great musicians, sculptors, poets of the past.

Besides, we should have in us good taste and good sense of

things or productions of fine arts. Prof. Buck is right when he

says that until we have learnt to communicate the soul of art

and to love art which our judgement tells us at best and fine, so

long we cannot reach the stage of critical appreciation, because

the act of communicating the soul and act of learning of loving

art involve Feeling and Understanding, which have been defined

as 'realization of value plus appeal.' This realization can be in-

terpreted in two ways: knowledge from the outside and know-

ledge from the inside. Prof. Buck says that Prof. Bergson gives

us an excellent example, 'If you have never been up in an

aeroplane and want to know what it feels like, you can ask a do-

zen people who know from experience. Each account, given to

you, will bring you a little nearer to the idea, and after compar-

ing and combining all, you have got the feeling. But the very

moment you step into a plane and ascend, you have suddenly

acquired a real knowledge of how it feels, an apprehension of

the whole matter which you could never have distilled from a

thousand descriptions.' And Bergson calls that moment when

you have had a 'flash' of intuition.' You will know that Prof.

Bergson has elaborated this 'flash of intuition' in his monumen-

tal books, Creative Evolution' and 'Time and Free-will.' Really

the inner experience or flash intuition is the sure means to

deliver news of the real value of art of music and of everything.

Work of Art and Aesthetics

As aesthetic experience is basic and fundamental to art, or to

act of art, we generally refuse to call anything art from the

aesthetic experience, and thus link it to other interests and values

that have little or no relation to the aesthetics, and art is then

used for propaganda, prestige, and so on. Really art justifies

aesthetic analysis and value, insofar as it has genuine aesthetic

value.

Art is itself circumscribed—a kind of distilled extract of life's

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

subtler refinements, which cannot be allowed to run unchecked

without damage, and this the creative artiste must recognize,

unless he be content to remain a dabbler. In the field of creative

art, we find two main factors, and these are, invention and

artistry. By invention, says Prof. Eric Blom, ‘I understand idea,

innovation, and whatever kindred qualities may be the attribu-

tes of the imaginative artiste, and by artistry, the gift of limita-

tion in art is meant.’ Again perfect artistry is only to be attained

by the expression of certain aspects of life in terms which are

infinitely variable, but definitely confined within their variants.

Similarly, the perfection of a piece of music depends not on the

quality of the artiste’s thought alone, but no less on his ability

to subordinate his invention to certain limitations, the more or

less successful accommodation to which will determine, with

almost automatic accuracy, the value of his work considered

purely as a feat of artistry.

In the work of art of architecture, of sculpture, of painting,

and of music, at least four elements are necessary, and they

are medium, technique, form, and subject-matter in art. The

material used, varies as we pass from one art to another, from

architecture to sculpture, from painting to music, and it also

varies within any one field. First, there is the medium or media.

The material or medium enters into the total effect, but it alone

does not determine the aesthetic response. Second, there is

the technique. It includes the method of artistic execution as a

particular formal arrangement. The aesthetic experience may be

enriched by awareness of the skill, involved. Third, there is the

form of the work of art. Form has to do with the arrangement and

order of the various parts of the whole. As for example, a melody

of music is an arrangement of tones, and a dance is an arrange-

ment of graceful movements with gestures and postures. There

are requirements of rhythm, tempo, balance, proportion, inclu-

ding harmony and symmetry, integrity, depth, etc. Fourth, there

is subject-matter or content. The subject-matter is that which

the work has to deal with, and this may cover the whole range

of experience, including portraits, animals, words, or poetical

pieces, etc. Now these materials give shapes and infuse lives to

the works of Art, or of artistic creation.

Rev. Leo Tolstoy has defined art as a communication of speech

and thought, along with the senses of proportion and beauty.

He says that speech transmitting thoughts and experiences of

men, serves as a means of union among them, and art serves a

similar purpose. Similarly, there is a difference between word

and art, as word transmits thoughts from one man to another,

and art transmits feeling of one man to the other. As for exam-

ple, in the Vedic period, we find two aspects of song: the reci-

tative and the musical. The recitative one was monotonous

speech-song with only tuneful words, whereas the musical one

was sung with different tones. So it is found that between the

recitative speech-song and the song with tones, the speech-songs

used to transmit the thoughts of the words only, whereas songs,

i.e. sāmagānas with different tones used to equip the priests and

Yajamānas with emotions and sacred feelings.

Now we find that the psychological and physiological explana-

tions of art like theory, history, etc. evoke aesthetic impulse and

add to our knowledge of the means of communication and expla-

nation. Interpretations of art as communication, as expression, or

as a quality of experience, have much of common. In connection

with the art of craft, Prof. Hillis Kaiser is of the opinion that aes-

thetic apprehension is an instance of knowledge by acquaintance.

Genuine art, as for example, art of music, is that form of expres-

sion, which makes things for the sake of the pleasure derived

from the aesthetic apprehension of them. So to enlarge the range

and depth of our aesthetic response, which is the most vital thing

in art and its creation, means to extend the areas of our aware-

ness as well as to enlarge and enrich life as a whole. In this ex-

perience, personal desires and anxieties tend to be set aside, as

we transcend our narrow selves and make our vision wide to

appreciate the scale or scope of aesthetics, which is divine and

spiritual.

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Value of Music

Artistic Value and Aesthetic Value

Recently Prof. Harold Osborne has edited a book on Aesthetics

in the series of Oxford Readings in Philosophy. In the Intro-

duction, Prof. Osborne has written: “Aesthetics starts from the

basis that critics do in fact make comparative value assessments

of the works of art about which they write, and do give reasons,

which are sometimes found effective, in support of the assess-

ments they make. According to the most commonly accepted

view, critics are trying to do two things. (i) They are trying to

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

induce other people to apprehend a 'virtual object' as similar as

possible to the virtual object they themselves perceive when both

are fixing in attention the same physical work of art (picture,

cathedral, literary work) or the same performance (Some wri-

ters prefer to use the language of 'seeing as,' and to say that the

critic's endeavour is to induce his readers to see the art work as

he sees it). This is called 'descriptive' criticism."

"A special form of the theory has been put forward also by

Susanne Langer. Her theory is not easy to summarize, but can

perhaps be suggested by saying that according to it works of art

are symbols or 'iconic signs' of emotions. They do not directly

express the artist's experienced emotions but rather his apprehens-

ion of the nature of emotions; Art is not a language in the sense

of being a system of communication built up from elements each

of which has its own independent emotional significance, as

words have their meanings, but each work of art is a unique

symbol. A work of art is a symbol which does not symbolize

anything other than itself, but which reproduces in its own

structural form the structure or pattern of feeling and emotion.

All this has been received with respect rather than clear under-

standing. The communication theory has again been modified by

changed concepts of the nature of emotion."

Prof. Roman Ingarden has expressed the idea of both artistic

and aesthetic values in his article on Artistic and Aesthetic Values.

He writes: "The work of art is the true object to the formation

of which the creative acts of the artist are directed, while the

fashioning of its existential substrate is a subsidiary operation

ancillary to the work of art itself which is to be brought into

being by the artist. Every work of art of whatever kind has the

distinguishing feature that it is not the sort of thing which is

completely determined in every respect by the primary-level

varieties of its qualities, in other words it contains within itself

characteristic lacunae in definition, area of indeterminateness: it

is a schematic creation. Furthermore not all its determinants,

components or qualities are in a state of actuality, but some of

them are potential only. In consequence of this a work of art

requires an agent existing outside itself, that is an observer,

in order-as I express it-to render it concrete. Through his

co-creative activity in appreciation the observer sets himself as is

commonly said to 'interpret' the work or, as I prefer to say, to

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115

reconstruct it in its effective characteristics, and in doing this as it

were under the influence of suggestions coming from the work

itself he fills out its schematic structure, plenishing at least in part

the areas of indeterminacy and actualizing various elements

which are as yet only in a state of potentiality. In this, way, there

comes about what I have called a 'concretion' of the work of art.

The work of art then, is the product of the intentional activities

of an artist: the concretion of the work is not only the recons-

truction-thanks to the activity of an observer of what was

effectively present in the work, but also a completion of the work

and the actualization of its moments of potentiality. It is thus

in a way the common product of artist and observer. In the

nature of things a concretion goes beyond the schematic structure

of a work of art, but at the same time it is-or at any rate it

can be-that for the emergence of which the work serves or

rather that in which the work achieves its full and complete

image-or at any rate a more complete image than in any like-

ness which is at variance with the work itself. Empirically a

work is always manifested to an observer in some concretion.

But this does not prevent the observer's trying to apprehend the

work in its pure schematic structure together with all its charac-

teristic potentialities. But this mode of apprehending a work of

art demands a special attitude and exertions in the observer if he

is to withhold himself from all arbitrary completion of qualitative

indeterminacies while at the same time taking full account of the

special character of its every moment of potentiality. Such

apprehension of a work of art is rather rare and is not realized

in the everyday 'consumer's' attitude in his commerce with works

of art."

"There are two possible ways in which a work of art may be

perceived. The act of perception may occur within the context

of the aesthetic attitude in the pursuit of aesthetic experience or

it may be performed in the service of some extra-aesthetic pre-

occupation such as that of scientific research or a simple consu-

mer's concern, either with the object of obtaining the maximum

of pleasure from commerce with the work or-as frequently hap-

pens in the reading of literature-with the object of informing

oneself about the vicissitudes of the characters depicted in the

work or some other matter of extra-literary fact about which a

reader can obtain information on the basis of the work of art."

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

"There exists, however, a sense of 'subjective'—usually not formulated precisely—in which the theory of the subjectivity of aesthetic (or artistic) values ought to be rejected outright, despising its popularity. This is the view that the value of a work of art (or an æsthetic object, which is usually confused with it) is nothing else but pleasure (or in the case of negative value, disagreeableness) understood as a specific psychical state or experience lived through by an observer in contact with a given work of art. The greater the pleasure he obtains the greater the value the observer attributes to the work of art. In truth, however, on this theory the work of art possesses no value. The observer indeed announces his pleasure by 'valuing' the work of art, but strictly speaking he is valuing his own pleasure: his pleasure is valuable to him and this he uncritically transfers to the work of art which arouses his pleasure. But the same work evokes different pleasures in different subjects or perhaps none at all and even in one and the same subject it may evoke different pleasure at different times. Hence the so-called value of the work of art would be not merely subjective but relative to the observer and his states. The relativity of the value of a work of art so understood is a simple consequence of its subjectivity in the foregoing sense."

"The pleasure remains entirely outside the work of art. The work is something which transcends the sphere of our experiences and their contents, it is something completely transcendent in relation to ourselves. And the same can be said of the æsthetic objects constructed on its basis. It is precise in the sphere of the work of art and its concretions, a sphere beyond that of our experiences and their content, that we must look to see whether it is or is not possible to find something which can be recognized as specifically and truly valuable." . . . "As regards instrumental values of works of art as tools for arousing pleasures and delights in those who observe them, this kind of value can be attributed but only in a derivative sense as a consequence of the fact that states of pleasure are themselves valuable for the subject, not in the sense that the work of art is itself endowed with some attribute and strictly speaking without regard to the attributes it has. This derivative type of value is usually ascribed to tools in almost complete disregard for the nature and structure of the object they are used to produce. If the consumer is subjec-

ted to an emotionally pleasant influence from a certain work, this is enough for him to attribute to the source of his delight the instrumental value of a tool causing that delight. This instrumental value is obviously relational: by virtue of its determination as a value-type such value is related on the one hand to the object which serves as tool and on the other hand to the effect for which the tool serves."

"Moreover, the value of an instrument is relative in another sense too: it is in its very occurrence dependent and mutable, changing its qualitative determination according to the nature and the value of whatever the tool serves to produce. And finally it is dependent on the observer and the state in which he happens to be at a given moment. When an observer ceases to react emotionally to it or is no longer sensitive to it as a work of art, so far as it is treated as an instrument of enjoyment; it is not valued by him either positively or negatively but becomes an object of indifference. But the work of art itself undergoes no change in its properties during these modifications of subjective mood and response. It remains something finished, complete for itself, through the changing forms of contact, unaffected by the multiform appreciations of different observers. Yet those values or value qualities which.I am here searching for are able to manifest themselves to the observer only at the moment when the latter achieves some apprehension of the work itself, even though a partial and as yet imperfect one, when his commerce with the work achieves an unveiling of the intrinsic features of the work (features which seldom obtrude themselves at first contact), and when an apprehension of its structure and properties enables him to descry its essential values, those which are peculiar to any work, which give witness and in fact are the evidence for its claim to be a work of artistic value. The observer must, of course, succeed in achieving this apprehension and appreciative commerce: if his skill in perceiving or responding to the work is fallacious, neither its properties nor its values will reveal themselves to him. But this does not mean that the work is then deprived of value, only that the observer is in one way or another inefficient—either through a general lack of artistic culture or because he is unequipped or at that particular moment unable to appreciate the particular work."

"In other words, value emerges on the foundation of a specific

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

aggregate of valuable qualities and it is dependent inter alia on

this aggregation both for the degree of its value and for its type.

Values differ from one another only in virtue of having their

specific determinants and qualifying properties. Some of these

qualities determine the general type of value (i.e. whether it is

aesthetic or moral or economic or utilitarian), while others deter-

mine the specific variety within the general type, as for example

'beauty,' 'prettiness,' or 'ugliness' within the general range of

aesthetic values. And to these variants within a general type be-

longs what I have called the 'degree' or 'elevation' of any value.

As will be seen, we are confronted with many different distinc-

tions and it is only by analysing them and elaborating them in

detail that it is possible to make any progress in the little studied

field of general theory of value. The examples to follow will

enable readers to grasp what I intend when I speak for instance

of qualities as opposed to values themselves and their closer

determinations (or qualities of value).

Now there is a difference between artistic value and aesthetic

value, says Prof. Ingarden. He writes: "Artistic value-if we

are to acknowledge its existence at all-is something which

arises in the work of art itself and has its existential ground in

that. Aesthetic value is something which manifests itself only in

the aesthetic object and as a particular moment that determines

the character of the whole. The ground of aesthetic value con-

sists of a certain aggregation of aesthetically valuable qualities,

and they in turn rest upon the basis of a certain aggregate of

properties which render possible their emergence in an object.

Both the one and the other kind of value assumes the existence

of a complete work of art (or aesthetic object). It is not impor-

tant here how the constitution of both types of object has been

arrived at. What is indubitable is the fact that for the constitu-

tion of an aesthetic object the co-creative activity of an observer

is necessary and therefore several aesthetic objects may emerge

on the basis of one and the same work of art and that these

may differ among themselves in their aesthetic value. But, as

has been said, this is not an argument in support of the subjecti-

vity of that value. This genetic way of considering the whole

matter cannot be repudiated or disparaged and yet it is not this

which is decisive as to the existential character of aesthetic

values themselves."

Prof. Ingarden further says: "Irrespective of what its origin

may be and the part taken by the observer in constituting it, the

aesthetic object in the moment of being constituted is something

with which the observer is in direct contact however he may

apprehend it or respond to it. And for all that this object is

something standing in relation to the observer and his experie-

nces, it is at the same time transcendent (a separate self-

subsistent whole) just as much as is the work of art or any

other existentially independent natural object which exists of its

own right. This transcendence extends not only to those proper-

ties of a work of art of aesthetic object which are natural in

point of value but also to its valuable qualities and to the

values which are constituted on their basis."1

Art and Value

We have seen that not only Kant and his predecessors, but

also all the ancient English, French, German, Italian and

American philosophers and psychologists of different ages have

talked about music and other arts, along with their values.

Immanual Kant has discussed about music and its value i.e.

aesthetic value of music in his Critique of Aesthetic Judgement,

and there he has said that the pleasure of art is absolutely

personal and private, and it appeals to him who is in contact

with it. The faculty of Judgement, comments Prof. Wildon Carr,

"In Kant's phraseology is the a priori condition of the feeling

of pleasure and displeasure. The beautiful, or the sublime, is

the object of an experience-cum-satisfaction quite distinct from

those which give us the satisfaction of truth and the satisfaction

of goodness. Aesthetic qualities are distinguished from, and

raised above, all others by their character of disinterestedness

and universality. They are disinterested, for the experience-cum-

satisfaction we derive from a beautiful object which is imper-

sonal, and is not agreeableness or goodness etc. The basis of the

aesthetic judgement, holds Kant, is to be the discernment of end

or purpose, and its highest attainment is to become the symbol

of the moral good. Therefore, aesthetics for Kant, says Prof.

1I have taken liberty to quote the passages on Aesthetics from

Aesthetics (1972), edited by Prof. G.J. Warnock, and so I am deeply

indebted to the publisher and the editor.

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

Wildon Carr, is the highest realm of activity of the mind. Some

philosophers differ from Kant in this point, because they hold

that all arts, their values and their appeal are universal, and

they arouse living inspiration and divine feeling in the minds of

those who love the arts and come in contact with the arts and

their values.

While discussing 'the aesthetic values' in his book Philosophy

of Art, Prof. Ducasse says that four-word phrase 'easy to look

at' might be said roughly to epitomise one aspect of Kant's view

of the nature of Beauty, and to constitute an endorsement of it

by popular common sense. "To be 'easy to look at.' is to be as

if made for the purpose, and the central part of Kant's view of

the nature of Beauty, if divested of the elaborate terminology

and theoretical scaffolding . . . . I freely admit, moreover,

that the account of Beauty to be given here sharply diverges

from that of Kant at a number of points which many would

regard as belonging to the essence of the doctrine." Further

Prof. Ducasse says: "Kant is right when he tells us that the

judgement of perfection presupposes a concept of what the

object ought to be, but he (Kant) is wrong I think, when he

defines perfection as objective internal purposiveness, thus tacitly

assuming that what an object ought to be always in something

having an internal purpose." The objective internal purposive-

ness, says Prof. Ducasse, "is not a definition of perfection in

general, but is only of the perfection of dramatic entities, or

regulatory such as organisms. So various statements of Kant on

purposiveness and its relation to beauty and aesthetics have been

acutely, and it seems to me decisively. It has also been criticised

by Victor Basch in his Essays. So controversies will not stop

here, but it will continue giving different arguments and

conclusions.

Let us now discuss Hegel's philosophy of art which discusses

science of aesthetics and values of arts. Prof. William Hastie,

who inspired Swami Vivekananda in the college life with the

information of Sri Ramakrishna Paramahansa of Dakshineswar,

has said in the Preface (1886) of the English translation of

Hegel's Philosophy of Art that following the glowing spirit of

Plato, Hegel has transformed the philosophy of art in the art of

philosophy, the fragrance of thoughts of which is charming and

divine. Hegel has divided the sphere of art into five, and they

are architecture and symbolical art, sculpture and classical art,

painting, music and poetry, and has confessed that he has made

the division of beautiful art as an organic whole. Hegel says:

"Substance of the world is the Beautiful. What is truly beauti-

ful, is the Ideal, which is spirituality, embodied in form. More

precisely, the Beautiful is the expression of the absolute Spirit,

which is truth itself. This region of Divine truth as artistically

presented to the perception and feeling, forms the centre of the

whole world of Art. It is self-contained, free and divine forma-

tion, which has completely appropriated this element of external

form as material, and which employs them only as the means

of manifesting itself."

Let us discuss, in this connection, the well-estimated comment

of Prof. Ducasse. While discussing on Plato's view of inspired art

and beauty, Prof. Ducasse says in his Philosophy of Art that Plato

ranks in his Republic "human souls on nine levels according

to the measure of truth that they have seen before birth, and

names the sorts of earthly occupations appropriate to each, he

tells us that a soul belonging to the first, or highest level, will

come to birth as a philosopher or artist, as a musician or lover;

while to a soul on the sixth level, life as a poet or imitator will

be appropriate. Concerning inspired art, as distinguished from

imitative skill, Plato has nothing but good to say. It proceeds

from a vision of the pure celestial forms of Beauty, Goodness,

Truth and the like, and the works that it brings forth are of

necessarily good in every way. In spite of current opinion, then,

Plato does not regard art as being mere copying skill, if the word

art be used to designate the sort of activity which we consider

entitled to that name. Art in this sense, is, for Plato, the expres-

sion of an inner inspiration.

Value: Subjective and Objective

Values of arts like music, sculpture, painting, etc. are some-

times considered as purely subjective, as they depend upon the

'human mind for their evolution and for considering their real

'value. Some are of the opinion that value resides in objects of

the world, and, therefore, it is purely an objective one. As for

example, when we judge that a piece of music is beautiful and

soothing, we consider that there is something in music, which

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

makes the aesthetic judgement necessary. Therefore, value of

music is independent of individual preferences. Besides, it is a fact

that value-judgements describe those qualities of objects like

music and other fine arts, which evoke appreciative response. Fur-

ther, judgement is divided into two, factual judgement and value-

judgements. Factual judgements emphasise description of actual

qualities of objects, whereas value judgements emphasise apprecia-

tion of their values, and therefore, they are both subjective and

objective. Dr. J.N. Sinha says that both the judgements depend

upon the appreciation and evaluation i.e. appraisal by the human

mind, so they are commonly considered as objective. The objec-

tive ones, we know, depend upon the values of the objects like

music and other arts, and the subjective judgements of values

are not recognisable at that time. Prof. Harold Titus has also

explained them in the same way. He says that the factual judge-

ments are descriptive statements of empirical qualities or rela-

tions, whereas value judgements are the worth of objects, acts,

feeling, and so on. But there is an interaction between the

judgements of fact and the judgements of value, and, therefore,

one is not entirely detached from the other. The idealists do

not admit this view. They say that the objective one is no other

than the projection of the subjective one, as the mind receives

first the impression of the object and then it is projected or

presented in the outside world. Prof. Parker is in favour of this

idealistic view. He says that values of arts like music etc. belong

wholly to the inner world i.e. to the world of mind. Moreover,

the satisfaction of desire is the real value, and the thing that

serves, is only an instrument. Besides, values of art, literature,

science, etc. are always an experience, and not things or objects,

because things or objects may be valuable, but they are not the

real value.

It is a fact that the value judgements may be thought of

merely as expressions of one's feelings and desires, when they

are subjective, and not objective, and so both the judgements,

factual and value, may be taken as both subjective and objective

in the truest sense.

It may be asked as to what are the real forms of subjective

and objective values? Values are subjective when we think that

values statements express sentiments or emotions of liking or

disliking. George Santyana is of the opinion that value, in its

real sense, is subjective, as values spring from the immediate and

inexplicable reaction of vital impulse. Besides, there is no value

apart from some appreciation of it. And emotions as well as

consciousness are necessary for existence and apprehension of

good in any form. Moreover subjective interpretions of values are

likely to stress the fact that value-judgements as to goodness and

beauty have varied from individual to individual, from group to

group, and from one age to another. But there are differences of

opinion in respect of the aspects and expressions of values. Prof.

Spaulding says that if we go deep into the meaning and status

of value, we find that values are subsistents, i.e. they are now

the entities or materials of space-time, and, therefore, values

not existents and are not dependent on the human desire and

preference, but they are in our world to be discovered and intui-

ted, and, therefore, in a sense, values are not relative, and, in other

sense, some values are relative as they relate to questions of age,

sex, intelligence, culture, technology, and other conditions, says

Prof. Titus. He further says that in this sense, values vary depend-

ing on circumstances. Besides, values like sound health, know-

ledge and wisdom, pleasure and happiness, courage, kindliness,

honesty, love, friendship, gratitude, beauty, etc. have a basis in

man's nature and the nature of the world, in which he lives.

The neo-realists, critical realists, and some of the idealists argue

that values are strictly out there in the external world and are,

therefore, spatio-temporal. The values reside in the external

objects, just as truly as do colour, smell, temperature, size, and

shape.

Prof. Moore is an ethical as well as epistemological realist in

opposition to all the subjectivists and the relativists. Prof.

Moore is of the opinion that real value or of good is a characteris-

tic of things, which exists independent of the human desires and

interests and that it is capable of being known intuitively. His

conclusion is a landmark in modern ethical and aesthetic analy-

sis. Prof. Hartmann has developed a theory of values which has

reflected the influence of the new-realistic movement. He has

argued that values are essences, although values have no spatio-

temporal existence, they nevertheless subsist, and are discovered

by mind. Without these values, which are known through intui-

tion, events would be totally lacking in significance. We find that

Prof. Moore has really followed the conclusion and argument of

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Music; its Form, Function and Value

Prof. Hartmann in subject of values and their appreciation, to some extent.

Value, or concept of value, really takes all men of thought and culture to the region of art and aesthetics. It is generally asked as to how the aesthetic experience and beauty are related to one another. While discussing on aesthetics and philosophy 'of art,' Prof. Titus has said that "there are wide difference of opinion as to what objects call forth the aesthetic response, and what beauty really is. Our concept of beauty may differ not because of the nature of beauty itself, but because of varying degrees of preparation in discerning beauty. Therefore, if we cannot perceive beauty in objects that others find beautiful, it may be wise to withhold judgement until we are capable ourselves of making a competent analysis of the aesthetic experience."

Intuitive Perception of Value

This intuition or intuitive perception of value can be called 'knowledge and aesthetic appreciation.' Prof. Ducasse has discussed this subject in a very beautiful way. He writes that knowledge of this sort i.e. of the sonata form and other musical forms, of literary forms such as the short story, of poetical forms such as various sorts of verse, the sonnet, the ode, etc., of various types of pictorial composition, of lines of 'dynamic symmetry' and so on, is indispensible to persons of one class, namely, those who desire to be able to talk about works of art in a manner that will be intelligible to those who are similarly equipped, and impressive to the humble who art not. To persons of another class, namely, those who desire to create works of art in the respective fields, such knowledge is not indispensible, but is useful within limits. It is, however, at the somewhat dangerous to them, inasmuch as over-preoccupation with it, is like to turn them into professional solvers of technical problem,—stunters instead or artistes. But there is a third class of persons, whom we may term 'consumers' of art, namely those who read stories and listen the music and look at pictures simply for the enjoyment they find therein; and it is a serious question whether, for such persons, knowledge of the sort described, is not more likely to be fatal than useful.

Prof. Ducasse further explains: "For purpose of aesthetic feeling and aesthetic enjoyment, what is necessary in respect of

form, is not the recognition of it, but the intuitive and functional apprehension of it. In many cases, for instance, in elaborate musical composition, it may truly be said that for most persons the form, that is to say, the relation of parts and elements, is buried in the profusion of sounds heard, almost as deeply as is the law of the inverse square in what is present to sense whenever an apple is seen to fall. This means that most persons apprehend in such compositions merely a chaotic multitude of sounds, and not, as on the contrary they do in a simple melody, an ordered multitude." Prof. Ducasse also says that it should be remembered that aesthetic valuation is the valuation of aesthetic objects in aesthetic terms. There is a great difference between sense-pleasure and aesthetic pleasure, as one is worldly and other is otherworldly, one is motivated and the other is the feeling of divine Beauty. Prof. Ducasse is of the opinion that Beauty or Beautiful means aesthetically perfect, and being aesthetically perfect means being the most beautiful thing that we are able to imagine i.e. the most agreeable in aesthetic contemplation. Morever, sublimity is the character of an object which pleases the aesthetic contemplation through its immense greatness. Prof. A.C. Bradley, in the Oxford Lectures, has called this sublimity as not only exceedingly great, but also the sublime power. This power is in feeling of exaltation, and this feeling of exaltation, obtained in this way, is the source of the pleasure or boundless pleasures we find in the contemplation of such an object, which we then call sublime and revelation. While discussing 'revelation and the aesthetics,' Dr. Reid has explained the otherworldly aspect of art and aesthetics of music. He says that the arts—or more broadly, the aesthetic aspects of anything—are revelatory.

In very different ways Aristotle, Plotinus, St. Thomas, Francis Bacon, Schopenhauer, William James, Heidegger—all give credence to the idea that what we now call the 'aesthetics' is not only pleasing, but gives insight—and insight in some manner or degree into the nature of things. We experience through the imaginative sensible apprehension of the appearances of things, the conviction that we are being brought into contact with the super-sensible, the universal, the transcendent, even the eternal. In certain forms of this experience, it may be claimed that knowledge of works of art have a close parallel with religious experience, sometimes mystical experience. Muni Bharata also says in the Nātyaśāstra

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

that all artistes and performers should always be acquainted

with the value of all kinds of music, so that they can infuse life

and living inspiration in music as well as in the minds of them-

selves and of the listeners, who want to enjoy pleasure and

delight from music.

Emotive Value and the Beautiful

Prof. Will Durant has laid stress upon the emotive value of

music, nay, of all arts. Aristotle has discussed in his Poetics the

importance of the study of aesthetics and the theory of beauty

and art. Aristotle has said that aesthetic creation, which bears

value of all arts, springs from the formative impulse and from the

cravings for emotional expression. Especially the form of art of

music is an imitation of the Ideal or Reality, or music can be

said to be the genuine representation of Truth, and so it holds

the mirror upto Nature. There is in man, says Prof. Will

Durant, a tendency as well as pleasure in the act of imitation,

apparently missing in lower animals. Yet the aim of art of music

is to represent not the outward appearance of things, but their

inner significance. And it is a fact that the noblest art like music

appeals to the intellect and also to intuition or inner feeling.

There comes the intellectual pleasure first, and then it is repla-

ced by higher God-intuition, which is the real and supreme value

to be achieved, or to be appreciated.

In the Philosophy of the Beautiful, Edward Hanslick, one of

the great musical aesthctic philosophers, differentiates sensation

from feeling, and says that music as a Fine Art excells all other

arts in its depth, serenity, and consoling nature. We have al-

ready discussed that Prof. Bosanquet, Schopenhauer, Santayana,

Listowel, Langer, Reid, Ducasse and others in the West and

Bharata, Biswanath Kavirāja Abhinavagupta, Panditarāja

Jagannath, Krishnadas, Śārṅgadeva, Śrīkaṇṭha, and other

Ālamkārikas in the East have elaborately discussed about the

supreme value of fine arts, poetry, literature and drama.

In the musical domain, we find three classes of people, com-

poser, performer and listener. The composer creates, the perfor-

mer re-creates, and the listener enjoys. Aesthetics deals with the

theory of the nature of art, and in music, it deals with the

theory of music. The great musicians pursue both theory and

practice, "but the practice" says Prof. Seashore, "far outruns

the theory, because the work of genuine creation always

comes from self-expression rather than through the deliberate

application of rules. In the musical mood, theory must always

be regulated to the sub-conscious through which it operates

automatically, if once mastered. Furthermore the musicians'

energies, both in training and in the professional life, are so

deeply engrossed in the practical aspects of work of creation, re-

creation and interpretation that he must delegate the scientific

problems proper to other specialists."

Art and Beauty

Plato condemns the arts which are the imitations, as they are

the fruits of the mimetic impulse. Plato's theory of impulse which

produces work of art properly, originates from within, and it is

an inspiration which gives recognition of the pure Beauty and

Value that comes from the soul, and, therefore, it is spiritual.

The Beautiful develops itself in its own world as an objective

reality, says Fichte, and it becomes differentiated into the parti-

cular formations of its individual aspects and constituents.

Philosopher Fichte in his essays on Way to the Blessed Life, and

Swamis Vivekananda and Abhedananda similarly admit it in

their essays, Way to the Blessed Life, that the Beautiful is God

and the Absolute, the Divine feeling. The Vaishnava philosophers

describe it as 'Raso Vai Saḥ' and Vishvanath and Madhusūdan

call it as 'Brahmāsvādasahodarah'. In art, says Hegel, the Divinity

or transcendental Truth is embodied as active and living, in the

sense of soul and spirit of the individuals. Or it can be said that

the Divine represents itself as an inner and conscious realiza-

tion of the mind, and so it exhibits the subjective consciousness

in the objective consciousness. "In the analogous sphere of Relig-

ion with which Art in its highest stage stands in immediate con-

nection, we apprehend the distinctions only in another form. In

the religious sphere, the earthly natural life stands in its finite-

ness on the one side, and the individual mind makes God its object

on the other. The distinction of the subjective and the objective

continues, until we finally advance to the devotion of the wor-

shipping assembly, with God living and moving in the religious

consciousness. These three cardinal distinctions in the sphere of

Religion, appear also in the world of Art, as passing their own

proper development."

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Value of Music

128

Music: its Form, Function and Value

The highest ideal of arts of music, sculpture, painting, etc.

are the achieving or realizing the value of those arts, which

makes the mundane life supra-mundane and divine. It has been

said before that Hegel has seen all these fine arts of music,

sculpture, architecture, and painting as the divine arts with

values, and though he has differentiated them in their outward

forms, modes, and techniques, yet has brought them in a com-

mon ground of ideal and value. Hegel says that the work of art

stands only in an outward relation to the spiritual idea, and so

fine arts like music, architecture, sculpture, and painting stand

for the highest value.

Regarding music, Hegel says that the materials of the roman-

tic form of art of music is sensuous, but, in truth, it advances

to deeper consciousness and particularisation. Music overcomes

the externality of the extended matter, and idealizes it in-

to the individual unity of the point. Music exhibits itself as

sound, or as a series of soothing and sweet sounds or tones,

which transcend the limit of visibility and the limits of space

and time, and thus takes men to the sublime field of higher

intuition which is the real and supreme value of music.

While explaining the act of music in tone, tune and rhythm,

melody and harmony, Hegel has discussed them as the materials

of evocation of aesthetic feeling as well as the supersensible feel-

ing of the Beautiful. "The objectivity of the Beautiful," says

Hegel, "becomes here, in music entirely subjective and transitory

but at the same time it lays hold of the whole soul."

The divine feelings in music advance indeed out of their inde-

finiteness to more definite intuitions and representations, but

these are born of the soul itself, and the materials of tone, tune,

time, rhythm, etc. give impulse and force to music, or to the

creation of music that absorbs the artistes as the listeners. When

music with all its materials of tone, tune, time-measure and

rhythm bring expression of the internal thrilling to the external

world, it makes a contrast at first between the cold intellectual

distinction in time, and then simultaneously creates a responding

glow of the feeling within and at last it artistically combines in

its beautiful form both the two extremes, the internal feelings

and the external feeling with each other, and that means music

brings a balance between peace and pleasure or heaven and earth

in the sphere of the mind. The mind is then absorbed with music.

The natural form or appearance of music then turns into super-

natural, and creates heaven in the mundane world.

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Value of Music

Indian View of Value

In our Indian philosophy and ethics, we count value as

purushārtha, which is no other than dharma or ethical conduct,

artha, or economic interests, kāma or satisfaction of emotive

and aesthetic impulses, and moksha or salvation or absolute

liberation from the bondage of samsāra or ignorance. The

Divine Love is known as the pañchama-Puruṣārtha.

Even Jean-Paul Satre admits in his Existentialism and

Humanism: "What has value, has value only because it is

chosen." In the Yogavāsiṣṭha Rāmāyaṇa, a stress has also been

given on choice, and this choice depends upon the positive will-

ing or desire. When we desire pleasure or delight from any object

or, act, we get it, if there is a whole-hearted support of the will

or desire. Prof. T.H. Green calls it 'hunger,' because if we are

hungry in the truest sense, we get the food which mitigates

hunger. The real value of art lies, therefore, in the fact of will-

ing and enjoying the supreme pleasure, and this pleasure lies in

the fourth value, moksha or freedom from the bondage of

ignorance. This freedom is the shining light which dispells dark-

ness of avidyā or non-knowledge. Other values are subordinate

to the fourth one, and the artistes of music are the seekers of

moksha, the highest or supreme value in music. Valueless arts

and objects are not arts and objects. They are the mere skeletons

devoid of flesh, blood and bone, nay, devoid of vital force or

life. Indian music lays stress upon the absolute freedom, and

Indian treatises on music say that worship of the image of music,

composed of tones, tunes and aesthetic sentiments, brings bless-

ings of eternal peace unto them who worship it.

Indian View of Beauty

Muni Bharata (3rd century BC–2nd century AD) has recog-

nized eight emotive sentiments and their corresponding moods

as value and beauty in music, dance and dramaturgy: "asta rasā,

tra yo gita-vāditrayā. . . ." Dandi and Bhāmaha have

admitted this fact. Muni Bharata has said that he has followed

the system of Druhina or Brahmā-bharata. Bharata has also

admitted the primary rasas are four, and they are shringāra

or the erotic, raudra or the furious, vira or the heroic and

bïbhatsa or the disgusting. The other rasas or sentiments pro-

ceed from these four primary sentiments. But these primary and

secondary sentiments and eight permanent moods or sthāyī-

bhāvas are essential in music, dance and dramaturgy. The eight

sthāyi-bhāvas are: (1) rati or love, (2) hāsya or mirth, (3)

krodha or anger, (4) utsaha or courage, (5) bhaya or fear, (6)

jugupsa or aversion, (7) vismaya or wonder, and (8) shoka or

sorrow. Rudratā, Lollāta, Dhananjaya and other Alamkāristas

hold that the eight sthāyī-bhāvas or permanent moods have

sthāyin-stage and bhāva-stage. When reinforced by vyabhicharini

rati, etc. become sthāyins. According to this view, the vyabhi-

charibhāvas, which are thirty-three in number, have other

vyabhichārini, nirveda or non-attachments i.e. renunciation is

attended by chinta, shama by nirveda and so on. But Abhinava-

gupta does not accept this view.

Now, what is 'rasa or sentiment? Bharata says: 'atra rasa iti

ka padarthah? Uchyate, āsvādyatvāt,' i.e. rasa or sentiment is that

which is only experienced or felt. The sentiment can be consi-

dered as the life-force, for want of which music becomes barren

and lifeless. As regards the moods (bhāvas), Rudratā considers

bhāvas as rasas, as for example, Pratihārendurāja, who appeared

after Ānandavardhana, has admitted the view of Rudratā, and

says that nirveda or calmness or non-attachment and other

moods are also taken as sentiments. Sometimes this view of

Pratihārendu is not accepted by other Alamkāristas. Pratihārendu

considers rasas and bhāyas as four kinds of varga-chaturvarga,

so he, like PanditarājaJ agannāth as others, considers shama or

shānta as the ninth rasa. Abhinavagupta has mentioned it in his

commentary, Abhinavabhārati: 'eta navaiva rasah.' Shama or

shānta should be taken as the ninth sentiment because of its

necessity for men or for its pleasing power.

Rasa-theory in Bharata's Nātyaśāstra and Bhoja's Sringāra-

Prakāśa

It is an undeniable fact that Bharata's Nātyaśāstra is the

source of evolution of classical art-music. Music existed be-

fore Muni Bharata in the form of Sāman-songs and dramatic

songs but Muni Bharata gave a definite form of dramatic

songs incorporating in the pracice of drama different prabandha-

songs like the brahma-gīti and the kapāla-gīti, together with

various kinds of dhruvā-type of songs, which were applicable to

dramatic plays. All these songs, gīti and gānas were impregnna-

ted with aesthetic sentiments and moods, for creating living as-

pects of both dramatic play and dramatic songs. It is true that

the Nātyaśāstra includes both the Alamkāraśastra and Rasaśāstra.

The Nātyaśāstra is a treatise, says late Dr. V. Raghavan, which is

properly described as "an Alamkāra-work which treats only of

poetry or shrāvya-kāvya and the poet's part, the dramatic con-

ception in drama. The subject of rasa in an Alamkāra work is

common to, Nātya, and purely Alamkāra treatise like the

Kāvyaprakāsha omits the treatment of drama, the definition of

various kinds of it, the construction of plot etc., subjects which

are treated in separate works of Nātyaśāstra like the Dasharū-

paka and the Rasārṇava Sudhākara." But the Sringāra Prakāśa

of Bhoja deals with both the theories of Alamkāra and Drama-

turgy, as well as with the theory of rasa and bhāva. "Rasa is

common to both Kāvya and Rūpaka, and it is to evoke it that

poets compose poetry and drama. Kāvya and Rūpaka are only

two forms of evoking the same Rasa, and, in drama, actors present

the same in person," says Dr. V. Raghavan. In the Shringāra-

prakasha, Bhoja admits that rasa is relished by the persons as

their inner experience-'sa cha anubhaikagamyatvat.' The aesthetic

sentiments evoke feelings (bhāvas) in the responsive hearts.

We have already discussed that Muni Bharata has depicted

and defined eight rasas, corresponding to eight bhāvas or moods.

In fact, Muni Bharata has described rasas in relation to drama-

tic play (abhinnaya) and dramatic songs (nātyasangīta). Bhoja

has described rasas in relation to poetry, as he says: "yena

ramyate, yah (yena) anukūla-vedaniyatā. . ." etc. i.e. poetry is

beautiful because of the presence of rasa and that rasa is called

shringāra, etc. Bhoja has quoted Dandin's verse as an authority,

though opinions of both of them differ in many respects. Ālam-

kārika Dandin says that there are three alamkāras, called preya,

rasavat and urjasvi, and these three alamkāras, says Dandin, are

pleasing, emotional and egoistic internal properties which are

connected with bhāvas or mental moods. Bhoja's interpretations

of these internal properties somewhat differ. "Rasavat of Dandin

is the Alamkāra of the eight rasas. Preya is an Alamkāra of Prīti

and Bhakti, and as such, it is dealt with by Dandin along with

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

the first. Rasavat of the Bhava is Rati. . . . . Urjasvi has nothing

to do with Preya, but can be related to the third Rasavat of

Vira. . . . . Bhoja, however, takes all the three together as three

aspects of the same Rasa."1 These interpretations of Dandin

and Bhoja are related to Kāvya or poetry, but, yet they can be

applied to music, so as to evoke rasas and bhāvas. Bhoja expla-

ins in the Śṛṅgāra Prakāśa that all rasas are related to bhāvas,

and bhāvas are related to rati and prema. Bhoja has laid stress

upon one fundamental rasa, which is śṛṅgāra, and śṛṅgāra

or divine erotic sentiment is no other than the Love Absolute,

which generates or evokes all of bhāvas. Dr. V. Raghavan has

clarified the meanings of the terms, śṛṅgāra and alamkāra, as

used by Bhoja, when he says: "According to this theory, Bhoja

has one fundamental Rasa, then a number of Bhavas all capa-

ble of becoming Rasas themselves, through the name Rasa ap-

plies to them only through Upachāra, and lastly he has the one

Rasa of Preman. It must be noted that in this theory, the word

'Ahaṁkāra' is not used in the sense of egotism, but as a philoso-

phical concept, meaning Ego. Similarly, śṛṅgāra used as a

synonym of the Alamkāra must not be confused with the develo-

ped climax-state or the first Bhāva of Rasa between man and

woman. Śṛṅgāra here means Love Absolute, Love Subjective,

Love Objectless. It is also called Abhimānana, because it is that

is responsible for making beings enjoy as pleasure even painful

things. Since man thinks pain to be pleasure, it is called

Abhimāna; pleasure is really the sense of pleasure. It is called

Ahaṁkāra because of the refinement of self-consciousness in the

Risikas. It is called Śṛṅgāra, because it takes one to the peak

of perfection of one's personality and in itself the summit."2

Bhoja has used Rasa in two senses, primarily and secondarily.

Primarily rasa is one, which is the element of ahaṁkāra, and

secondarily rasa is the developed state of rati, hāsa, etc. Preya is

same as prīti or vātsalya. Regarding this state of mind (mano-

vritti), the Alamkārikas like Bhāmaha, Rudratā, Dandin and

others have given different interpretations.

The Sarasvatī-kanṭhābharaṇa is the earlier work of Bhojarāja

is Alamkāra. The Śṛṅgāra Prakāśa is also a systematic work

1vide, Dr. V. Raghavan's translation in his Bhoja's Śṛṅgāra Prakāśa

sec ed., 1963, p. 409.

2ibid, p. 410.

on various subjects, notably or rasa. In the fifth chapter of the

Sarasvatī Kanṭhābharaṇa, Bhoja has described rasas and bhāvas

and these subjects have elaborately been dealt in the Śṛṅgāra

Prakāśa. It has been said that Bhojarāja has admitted only one

prime rasa and that is śṛṅgāra: "Śṛṅgārāmeva rasanādrāsa-

māmanāma," and in the Sarasvatī Kannāṭhābharaṇa (5th chapter)

he has said:

"Poetry is beautiful because of the presence of Rasa, and

Rasa is 'called Śṛṅgāra. Abhimāna and Ahaṁkāra. It is by

reason of the experiences of many births that we get it in our

souls. It is the germ from which other qualities grow. It is the

inner Tattva of Ego, the idea in man of the 'I', Ahaṁkara. It is

man's love for his own Self; it is that which makes him take even

pain as pleasure. Bhoja says that Rasa becomes the various

Bhāvas of Rati etc., and the Bhāvas which thus arise out of the

Rasa are the eight Sthāyins."

Some include śṛṅgāra-rasa in the low rank, but they are

mistaken. Dhārarāj Bhoja has admitted only the rasa śṛṅgāra,

because it is the fountainhead of all rasas and bhāvas. In the

Upanishads, this śṛṅgāra has been depicted as śśrikṣā or

divine Will-to-create the manifold universe-'sa aicchat, eko'haṁ

valu syām.' When this divine Will-to-create was manifested as

sṛisti or manifold projection, it appeared as Ardha-nārīshvara and

the Ṛgveda has mentioned about this aspect of divine couple,

and the couple has been described by Tantra as Śiva-Śakti or

Pārvatī-Parameshvara. In fact, śśrikṣā or sṛisti-bhāvanā is the

Divinity itself. This aspect is known as śṛṅgāra which creates

ānanda rasa and nirveda (or vairagya). Muni Bharata has des-

cribed this foremost and prime rasa as a shining aspect-'ujjvala-

veshātmakaṃ.'

Bhoja has accepted śānta as the ninth rasa, which is synonym

of absolute calmness or tranquility. He has also described rasas

like udātta and uddhata. Udātta is the rasa of magnanimity, and

it evokes the sthāyi or permanent rasa like mati, which is tattva-

bhiniveshīni, i.e. which helps to concentrate one in the real matter.

Dhāraraj Bhoja says that sthāyi signifies truthful tendency of the

mind. But this significance does not hold good all the time, as

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Value of Music

134

Music: its Form, Function and Value

sthāyī-rasa or bhāva is more relevant to shānta-rasa.

Singhabhupāla has also elaborately discussed about rasas and bhāvas in his Rasārṇava Sudhākara, and it is true that Shārṅgadeva, Kallinātha, Siṅhabhupāla,including Bhoja, Ānanda-vardhana and others have elaborated their rasa-theory based on the theory of rasa, as advanced by Muni Bharata in the Nātya-shāstra, composed in the 3rd century BC to 2nd century AD Dr. V. Raghavan writes: "After having criticised. . . Bharata on the four Prakriti-rasas, producing four other derivative Rasas, Bhoja has applied himself to the task of examining all the forty-nine bhāvas given by Bharata in three classes of eight sthāyins, thirty-three vyabhichārins, and eight sāttvikas." Muni Bharata has considered only eight rasas as capable of evoking and relishing bhāvas. Rudratā considers nirveda and other vyabhichārins as rasas besides eight sthāyins.

Bhoja has quoted this sloka from Rudratā, and admits forty-nine bhāvas as rasas, provided the poets develop them. But, yet Bhoja has made slight changes in the list, as he omits Bharata's apasmāra and marava. Dr. Rāghavan says that before Abhinavagupta and Ānandavardhana, Lollāta also admits the numbers of sthāyī, vyavichārī bhāvas, as explained by Bhoja.

But it should be noted that Bhoja goes further than the interpretations, made by Rudratā and Lollāta. Bhoja enlarges or rather corrects the root-meaning of the word rasa as interpreted before. He called the harsa-sthāyin rasa ānanda-rasa.

In the feeling of rasa, there remain qualities of chamatkāritva or sudden flash of delight and ālaukika-vismaya-bodhatva, i.e. unseen feeling of charming astonishment. Besides, rasa is seen by the eyes, but is felt in the mind or heart, as a dumb man feels the taste of a thing, but cannot express it in words, says Nārada in his Bhaktiśāstra.

Rasa creates delight in the mind, and some say that it is delight in itself, as it purifies the mind and brings the mind in

1

Consult here Dr. V. Raghavan's book, Bhoja's Śṛiṅgāra Prakāśa (2nd edition), where he has elaborately discussed on 'Bhoja's Conception of Rasas, and especially Bhatta Nrisimiha's commentary on the Bhoja's Śṛiṅgāra Prakāśa,

2

Consult in this respect Dr. V. Raghavan's Bhoja's Śṛiṅgāra Prakāśa sec, pp. 439-41.

3

vide, Dr. V. Raghavan, Bhoja's Śṛiṅgāra Prakāśa, pp. 442-43.

close connection with Chit or pure consciousness that forms the background of the mind or mental phenomena.

In the book, Feeling and Form (London, 1958), Prof. Susanne Langer has admitted: "Some of the Hindu critics . . . understand much better than their Western colleagues the various aspects of emotion in the theatre. . . . The last they call rasa." Prof. Langer has laid stress upon feeling or unity of feeling. As for example, when a dramatic play, or a musical function is performed, there the feelings of the players or artistes, the feelings of the audiences-all meet together and make the unity of feeling complete and shining. The Ālamkārist say that the feeling or feeling as a medium of the dramatic play or musical function is known as an emotional rapture or rasa. The Indian authors and critics call this feeling as anubhūti or asvādana. Bharata also admits rasa-'āsvādyatvāt rasah.' Abhinavagupta has called the meaning of kāvya as rasa-'tat kāvyārtho rasah.' Bhāva is generated from rasa, but at the same time bhāva helps to appreciate rasa. Abhinavagupta has said that bhāva is a kind of modification of the mind (chittavṛitti), and bhāva or chittavṛitti manifests as sthāyī, sañchāri and anubhāva. Bharata has said: 'bhāvayantītil bhāvah' and 'rasān imān yasmāt amī bhāvah.' Therefore both rasa and bhāva, are the mental properties, as mind is modified both as rasa and bhāva.

However, Bhoja has discussed, as we have said before, elaborately about the rasa-theory which is applied to kāvya, nāṭya and saṅgīta. The rasas and the bhāvas practically bring dharma, artha, kāma and mokṣa unto men. Among them, dharma, artha and kāma are phenomenal, whereas mokṣa is transcendental, as mokṣa cuts asunder the chain of delusion that binds men in the dark cave of saṁsāra. Kāvya, nāṭya and saṅgīta that create rasas and bhāvas in the minds of men and make the minds delightful and tranquil, are, therefore, the best means to reach the highest goal of human life.

In Bhoja's Śṛiṅgāra Prakāśa, there are mentioned the names of heroes and heroines (nāyakas and nāyikās), dhiralalita, dhīrodātta, dhīroddhata, etc. in relation to the rasas, shānta, preya, udātta, uddhata, etc. Bhānudatta in his Rasatarangiṇī, has mentioned about the bhāvas, spiritual, mental physical i.e. sāttvika, rājasika, and tāmasika. He has also described

Value of Music

135

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

different kinds of vibhāvas like uddipana, ālambana, etc. In

music, these bhāvas and vibhāvas play some role of manifesting

emotive feelings in the minds of both the artistes and the

listeners.

Abhinavagupta has discussed in the Abhinavabhāratī how the

sthāyins or permanent moods manifest sometimes as vibhāvas

and vyabhichāri-bhāvas, and it should be remembered that the

vyabhichārins are always paratañtra. It cannot be contended that

all bhāvas are equally relevant to purushārtha or prime achieve-

ment of the human life. Dr. V. Raghavan has beautifully discus-

sed this point of chaturvarga. He says: "This point in the argu-

ment of Chaturvargopāyoga is this: There are any number of

things that man aspires for the works to get; but all these fall

under the four heads of dharma, artha, kāma and mokṣa.

Similarly, thought and feeling of a man, as such, cannot but

be related to his activity towards Chaturvargaprāpti, there is a

classification and grouping possible among them, according to

which we arrive at a few dominant heads, under which the rest

can be brought. The argument of 'Ranjanādhikya' means this:

Though there is Āsvādyatva in everything in poetry and drama,

it is only some mental conditions that can be handled as leading

themes; how can Gīāni be worked at as the Rasa of a drama

and who will relish it?

Panditarāja Jagannātha adopts a peculiar attitude towards

this question. He raises the problem by pointing out Bhakti as

an additional Rasa. As love for God, an Anurāga, cannot be

brought under Śānta, since Śānta implies absence of any Rāga.

He replies that all Rati excepts the Rati between man and woman

is only a Bhāva and can never become a Rasa. If it is argued that

Bhagavad Rati can be taken as the Sthāyī Rati and the Stipum

Rati be relegated to the Bhāva-class, another will propose

Rati for children as a Sthāyīn and a third will ask why Jugupsā

and Soka cannot be put down as Vyabhichārins instead of

being called Sthāyins. The whole system of Bharata will then

have to be overhauled and this is far from desirable. Bharata

alone is the guide and authority to decide which Bhāva is Sthāyin

and which Vyabhichārin.

Dr. V. Raghavan has further discussed about bhakti and

mādhurya rasas, which are considered as pañchama-purushārtha

by the later Vaishnava philosophers. It has already been said

before that Madhusūdana Sarasvatī has accepted Divine Love

or prema as the pañchama-purushārtha and this prema or

Divine Love is like the Otherworldly Experience of the Brāhman

which is described as Sat-Chit-Ananda. These three attributes

are one and the same, as an existence (Sat) is revealed by light

or prakāsha (Chit) and when prakāsha or revelation comes

divine delight also comes, and this delight is Anandam.

Dr. Raghavan further says: "It was pointed out previously how

Dandin illustrated Preyas by two instances of devotion to God,

Bhakti. It is natural that, in this land, this sentiment of devotion

should have been soon accepted as a Rasa. But Abhinava and

others proposed to bring it under Śānta. Śānta is the Rasa rela-

ting to the final Purushārtha, Mokṣa; and many are the paths lea-

ding to Mokṣa. The three paths of Bhakti, Karman and Jñāna are

well known. It may be that Bhakti is in some cases an Anga of

the Śānta, developed on lines of Jñāna, but the advocates of Bhakti

held it to be supreme by itself. They made Jñāna and Karman

its aids; the release, Mokṣa, everything which the Jñānin wanted,

the Bhakta did not favour. He wanted that he should permanent-

ly be loving God.

Just as Vira Rasa has the four varieties, Dāna etc., this Bhakti

also has the varieties, Madhura or Śringāra or Ujjvala, i.e. love

as in the case of the Gopis towards Krishna, Sākhya as in the

case of Arjuna, Vātsalya as in the case of Devakī, Yasodā.

Vāsudeva and Nanda, Dāsya or servitude as in the case of other

devotees. The elaboration of Bhakti Rasa on these lines is the

special contribution of the rhetoricians of Bengal who followed

the school of Chaitanya. Rūpa Gosvamin's two works, the

Bhaktirasāmritasindhu and the Ujjvalanīlamani deal with this

Bhakti Rasa at very great length. Dr. Abhayakumar Guha has

dealt with this subject in an article on the Rasa Cult in the

Chaitanyacharitramrita in the Asutosh Mukerjee Silver Jubilee

Volumes (III) and Dr. S.K. De's complete account of the Bhakti-

Rasa-Śāstra of Bengal Vaisnavism' in the IHQ (VIII) for 1932,

removes the need for any further contribution on this subject.

These Vaisnava Ālamkārikas accept the eight Rasas of Bharata;

accept the Vātsalya; accept the 'Sneha-prakritih

Preyān' or the 'Ārdratā-sthāyikah Snehaḥ' as Sākhya and add

only one absolutely new Rasa-concept, namely Dāsya. Thus

they speak of twelve Rasas, but they give a new orientation to

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

the whole scheme, wherein lies the speciality of their school. The

old Sringāra becomes the chief Rasa; it is Rati for their God; it

is also called Madhura and Ujjvala. Along with this Madhura,

there are four others which are primary; they are Sānta, Dāsya,

Sākhya and Vātsalya. These five are called the five Mukhya

Bhakti-Rasas. The rest, the seven (Hāsya, Adbhuta, Vīra, Karunā,

Bibhatsa, Bhayānaka and Raudra), are secondary, the Gauna

Bhakti Rasas. The primary Bhakti Rasas numbering five are the

five forms of Bhakti; the seven secondary Rasas are more or less

Vyabhichārīns for the five primary Rasas, for they are Rasas only

when they involve Krishna-Rati. 'Now, in all fine arts, music,

architecture, sculpture and painting, emotional sentiments and

moods create an attitude (avasthā or state) in the minds of the

artistes and listeners, which brings the effulgent light of mokṣa

in the form of eternal enjoyment or ānanda and this ānandā is the

real value of all arts, and the intuitive artistes admit that music is

the surest and direct medium through which that mokṣa or

emancipation from the bondage of ignorance comes.

Definition of Beauty

In the Shishupālabadha, the poet Māgha has defined beauty

which is pleasing or ramanīyatā, and ramanīyatā is known as

beautiful, which assumes at every moment some new aspect to

the mind of the experiencer: 'kṣane kṣaṇe yannavatā tadeva rūpa-

samanīyatāyaḥ'

The poet Kālidasa has also defined beauty as ramanīyatva.

Ramanīyatva is generally known as saundarya or beauty as well as

a rasa or emotional sentiment, as has been said before. Though

rasa is defined by Bharata as that which is tasted or relished, but

yet in its truest sense, rasa is a non-sensuous experience, which can-

not be explained by thought and speech, but can only be felt. It

is the feeling of the Divine Bliss of the Brahman or Atman always

in the fulness of the being in consciousness. Prof. A.C. Shastri

has described rasa as the basis of the feeling of beauty. "What-

ever is beautiful, is so because it is rooted in rasa. Abhinava-

gupta regards the experience of the rasa as akin to the experience

of Divinity. Visvanath Kavirāja, the author of the Sāhitya

Darpana, agrees with Abhinavagupta on this point. Hemachandra

also says: Ānanda arises immediately from the experience of rasa

and this experience is like that of bliss attendant upon the

realisation of the Brahman." The Upanishad says: 'raso vai saḥ'

i.e. the Brahman is Bliss itself. And, therefore, beauty and rasa

are synonymous.

In truth, beauty reveals itself in response to the aesthetic mind

or soul. When the mind or soul is free from the touch of matter

and material pleasure, beauty moves in radiant feeling which is

a new and unique experience of the other-worldly pleasure. This

feeling is in no sense the result of any conscious or unconscious

activity; it is spontaneous, voluntary and free, and as such, it is

a part and parcel of aesthetic feeling or experience. This is a

feeling whose special quality is its newness, says Prof. Shāstrī.

In music, we find the contemplative compositions (dhyāna-

mantras), composed by the intuitive poets and their colourful

paintings, drawn by the ecstatic artistes. Though those dhyānas

and pictures were beautifully composed and drawn through

imaginative conception in the 15th-16th century, yet that con-

ception was not new, but they already existed in the sphere of

the Nature and it was discovered in the 15th-16th century by

the imaginative artistes. Those contemplative compositions and

pictures of the icons of the rāgas and rāginīs, conceived as the

divine nāyakas and nāyikās, evoke the divine ideas and aesthetic

sentiments in the minds of the artistes and the listeners, and

those ideas together with aesthetic sentiments bring absorption

in the mind and create divine solace and tranquility. While

defining the jāti-rāgas, Muni Bharata has described the aesthetic

sentiments and moods which are evoked from those jāti-rāgas.

Bharata's contention is this that the rāgas are not lifeless, but

they are possessed of different rasas and bhāvas, so as to make

all energised and emotive, who come in contact with the

rāgas. Sārṅgadeva has also determined the definite rasas and

bhāvas of different rāgas (jāti-rāgas and grāma-rāgas). As for

example,

(a) Karmāravyāścha kaiśikyāḥ saṅgātaḥ śuddha-kaiśikaḥ|

Veera-raudrodbhūtarasaḥ śiśire bhaumā-vallabhah||

(b) Regarding gaudpañchama, it has been said,

Bhayānake cha vibhatse vipralamtahe rase bhavet.

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Music: Its Form, Function and Value

In this way, Sārṅgadeva has described all the classical and

sophisticated deśī rāgas with their respective rāsas, bhāvas and

kälas, and from this we know that the skeletons of the rāgas

should be infused with rasas and energies, so that they can reveal

their emotive and lifeful forms, and make the art of music

living.

Kant on Beauty

It has been discussed before that in his Critique of Judgement,

Kant has spoken about art and beauty. Kant is of the opinion

that aesthetic judgement as such is concerned with 'beauty.' He

has made distinctions in beauty, and has said: (1) beauty may

not be confused with goodness; (2) what is pleasant or agreeable

may not be beautiful; (3) what is beautiful, may not entirely be

useful. In fact, Kant has admitted the importance of 'form' which,

he says, is the only proper criterion of beauty, because beauty

is expressed through 'form.' In the last, Kant has made a distinc-

tion between the notion of beauty and that of perfectness, as

beauty of art or of anything, cannot necessarily be included in

the category of perfectness.

Croce on Art and Beauty

Prof. Croce's view of art is purely mental, and according to

him, there is no such thing as an external work of art. Prof.

Croce says that art or art-work is concerned with the meaning,

and for the artiste there exist only images, which are the mental

realities, and whatever the material the artiste uses, may be useful

also for the physicist or chemist who weighs, counts, and

measures it, and is indifferent to the spiritual meaning, and so

value of art, according to Prof. Croce, hovers round the mind,

but cannot penetrate it.

It has been said that Croce's theory of Beauty rests on

the affirmation of an aesthetic activity as a special sphere of

mental activity, distinct alike from the logical activity on the one

hand and from ethical activity on the other. Prof. Croce says

that Beauty is not truth, and it is not goodness, but a value

distinct in its nature from either. Prof. Croce in his book,

Aesthetics, has discussed, at the outset, about Intuition and

Expression, Intuition and Art, and Art and Philosophy. In Intui-

sion and Expression, he has divided knowledge into two forms,

and says: "It is either intuitive knowledge or logical know-

ledge, knowledge obtained through the imagination, or knowledge

of the intellect, knowledge of the individual or

either and images of concepts." Similarly, in Intultion and

Art, Prof. Croce forwards: "We have frankly identified intuitive

or expressive knowledge with the aesthetic or artistic fact, taking

works of art as the examples of intuitive knowledge and attri-

buting to them the characteristics of intuition, and vice versa."

He further says that man would attain to art by objectifying not

his sensations, as happens with ordinary intuition, but intuition

itself. Art or art-work is expression of impressions, not expres-

sion of expression. In the discussion on Art and Philosophy, he

has said about the two forms of knowledge, which gives value

in arts. He says that two forms of knowledge in art, aesthetic

and intellectual or conceptual, are indeed different, but this does

not altogether amount to separation and disjunction, as of two

forces each pulling in its own direction. He, therefore, affirms

that the relation between intuitive knowledge of expression and

intellectual knowledge of concept, is not altogether different, but

is said to be one of double degree. So it is true, says Prof. Croce,

that the pure or fundamental form of knowledge are two on the

surface, intuition and concept—Art and Science or Philosophy,

and it can be said that intuition gives us the world, the concept

gives us the noumenon, the spirit.

Prof. Croce has admitted that aesthetics creates Beauty which

can be considered as the supreme value, and the activities of

aesthetics are possessed of two aspects, response or appeal and

appreciation or evaluation. The response of beauty and value

in artistic activity as well as in artistic creation depends on in-

tuition or intuitive knowledge, whereas appreciation of beauty

depends on concept or conceptual knowledge. Beauty and value

are communicated by the artistes to the listeners for apprecia-

tion of beauty and value of arts, like music, sculpture, painting,

etc.

While explaining what is art in the opinion of Prof. Croce,

Prof. Carritt writes: "Art is vision or intuition. The artist prod-

uces an image or a dream, and those who appreciate his art,

turn their eyes in the direction he has indicated, look through

the loophole which he has opened, and reproduce in themselves

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

that image." And this reply, that art is intuition, gets both its

meaning and value by all which it implicitly denies, by all that

from which it distinguishes art.

Profs. Perry, Laird, Stace and others consider beauty as value,

and when they judge theory of value or idea of value, they do

not separate the theory or idea of beauty from it. In India,

Viśvanath Chakravorty, Madhusūdan Sarasvatī, Śrīkanṭha-

Panditarāja Jagannath and other Ālamkāristas have taken saundarya or

arya or beauty as supreme and divine value. It has been said

before that Madhusūdan Sarasvati has called the saundarya or

beauty as the appreciation of the Brahman, because the supreme

value is no other than the experience of the all-intelligence and

all-consciousness and all-bliss Brahman. Prof. Carritt explains

the word 'appreciation' in some different way. He says that the

appreciation of beauty or value "is not a pure act of conception,

nor it is a pure act of perception, nor it is a pure intuition.' The

remaining alternative is that beauty which is no other than value,

is a combination of the concept and the percept. . . . . The con-

cept must be fused in the percept in a special way, and disappear

in it."

Aesthetic Feeling in Music

Aesthetic feeling, generated or expressed from music, produces

sensuous form, real or imaginary, and takes place wholly in our

mind, though it may not be complete till the sensuous imagery

in the mental sphere has been taken the material and visible

shape or form in the external world, to materially appreciate its

pragmatic value. Some are of the opinion that until and unless

self-expression of an artiste is communicable, it cannot properly

be called a work of art. Prof. Croce has admitted it fully and

expression and experience may be complete or perfect with its

proper value, yet it is not to be communicated, but only when

it has been communicated by accident or by purpose or will, can

there be critical interpretation. Such questions of interpretation

are not aesthetics. I have elaborately dealt it in the second

enlarged edition of my book, Historical Development of Indian

Music (1974), where aesthetic contents in Western as well as in

Indian Music have elaborately been discussed. It should be noted

that for communication of aesthetic ideas and pleasure, which

are attached with value in the field of creation or production of

art, artistes are wholly responsible. The artistes are the creators

or designers and so they should be conversant with the ideas

and laws of aesthetic qualities and value. The artistes should have

probably the listeners in mind, however small in number, at least

as soon as they begin to use a medium. It is the duty of the artis-

tes of music, or artists of any art to create beauty and pleasure

which is value, as Prof. Collingwood says that "an art aims at

beauty, but does not know how it will turn out till it is achieved,

or, we might say, art aims at expressing feeling, but only knows

fully the nature of that feeling when it has been expressed, as the

mathematician aims at solving a problem, but does not know

what the solution will be. Once the expression is complete, we

usually devise means to the conscious of and communication."

Prof. Harold Osborne has explained this problem in his recent

book, The Art of Appreciation, and there he says that without

aesthetic experience and value arts become barren and lifeless,

and so technique of arts must be adopted, but at the same time

there must exist concentrated attention and intense love and

sincere longing for the art.

Music is an art, and this art of music is free and meaningful,

and therefore, the artiste who designs or creates the art, must

be the freest man in the world. The artiste is not less than each

individual, rather is he far more. He turns his gaze neither to

the society, nor to man of character, but to the human being,

free and firmly rooted in his humanity. Some believe that art is

utterance-hence a social function in the highest sense of the

word. In the highest sense, art heightens the level and the status

of the society, in which he lives and moves, and thus, he makes

life and thought of each individual of the society art-loving and

divine.

Expression and Evocation of Emotion

In spite of all these factors and problems, especially the

composers and the artistes should be alert and watchful to the

aspects of texture and technique and to the aesthetic value of

music. Prof. Hospers says in his Meaning and Truth in the Arts

that the merit of work of music depends not only upon its

success in 'expressing' or evoking certain emotions of life, but

in a 'peculiar musical quality' which is intuited by those who are

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144

musically trained and gifted. The word, 'expressing' or 'express'

has a more specific meaning, so all evocation is not to be known

as 'expression'. Prof. Santayana has critically analysed the word

'expression' in his book, The Sense of Beauty. He suggests that

'word' expresses to us thoughts, whereas 'music' expresses to us

joy and delight, but when these two parts, word and music meet

together, they create and evoke sweet ideas and thoughts in the

minds, and bring fruition of the creation of the art of music,

which is the composite body of word and tune or melody. Prof.

Reid has criticised this idea or statement Prof. Santayana in his

book, A Study in Aesthetics, and says that Prof. Santayana has

used the word 'express' in too narrow sense. Prof. Reid suggests

that when an artiste of music creates and expresses music, he not

only evokes material and sensuous beauty, formal beauty, and

expressive or associative beauty, but he also asserts colour and

sounds, tones, tunes, and harmonises together with other musical

materials, which complete the form and the presentation of music.

It is a fact that the highest function of music is to express

musician's own inner feeling or experience as well as the value he

has realized in his life, and the unison of these two inner

elements really bring absolute absorption and concentrated

attention in the minds of both the musician and the listeners.

To this Dr. Susanne Langer has raised a question of opposition,

though in a mild form. While discussing 'Significance in

Music' in her book, Philosophy in a New Key (1951), Dr. Langer

says: 'This is not to say that music is the highest, the most

expressive, or the most universal art.' Because, she stated:

'Sound is the easiest medium to use in a purely artistic way, but

to work in the safest medium is not at all the same thing as to

achieve the highest aim.' So Dr. Langer says, we should take

warning against the fallacy of hasty generalization of assuming

that 'through music we are studying all the arts, so that every

insight into the nature of music is immediately applicable to

painting, architecture, poetry, dance, and drama . . . . But it

should be remembered that while explaining the supreme value and

activity of the art of music, the artistes as well as the philosophers

are not biased and prejudiced to ascertain the place of music

higher than all other arts, but they are inclined to describe only

the superb aesthetic appeal and beauty of music. But, yet Dr.

Langer has admitted the pure form of music not for its fine and

artistic embellishment, but for its very essence and insight.

Moreover, she is of the opinion that music arouses emotions in

the listeners is a proposition, and there prevails, so to say, the

preconceived idea of this fact in the minds of the demonstrators

of music. But it is true that he who produces the music, is pour-

ing out the real feelings of his own heart. Music is his avenue of

self-expression and he confesses his emotions to the listeners.

The most simplest principle of this truth has been forwarded

by Richard Wagner so as to admit the superb expression of

music. Richard Wagner has said: 'What music expresses, is

eternal, infinite, and ideal; it does not express the passion, love,

or longing of such-and-such an individual on such-and-such an

occasion, but it does express passion, love or longing in itself,

and this it presents in that unlimited variety of motivations,

which is the exclusive and particular characteristic of music

foreign and inexpressible to any other language.' So both the

music and the artistes, who are immuned and impregnated with

the inner flavour of the musical art, translate their aesthetic and

emotive expression and value to the listeners who are attentive

to music, and thus they bring absorption unto them.

Conclusion

It is the Indian or Asiatic tendency in art, literature and culture

to dive deep into the subject and to transcend the dust of the

mundane world. Mr. Kakasu Okākurā has said that we await the

flashing sword of the lightning which shall cleave the darkness

of ignorance and bondage. The value of music lies in the fact of

victory of life and immortality over flesh and death. Philosopher

Coleridge says in the same way, in one of his later manuscript

passages: 'Believe me, you must master the essence, the natura

naturans which presupposes a bond between Nature in the higher

sense and the soul of man. The rays of intellect are scattered

throughout the images of Nature as we know her, and require to

be fucussed for us by the genius of man if we are to have them

in their full splendour.' 'To make the external internal, internal

external, to make Nature thought, and thought Nature-this is

the mystery of genius in the Fine Arts.'

Really what we call beauty or aesthetics, is the condensed

expression of idea or thought; this is the short handhieroglyphic

of truth, or the mediator in between truth and divine feeling,

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146

Music: its Form, Function and Value

between head and the heart. The sense of beauty or value is

implicit in knowledge—a silent communion of the spirit with

the spirit of Nature. Coleridge says that this communion of the

spirit of art with the spirit of Nature is the undivided whole

consciousness of the One, and this one divine consciousness is

the real value of music.

Appendix I

HEAVEN AND EARTH IN MUSIC

We have already discussed that music is both immanent and

transcendent. It is immanent, because its fabric and texture are

composed of gross materials like microtone, tone, essential,

melody, rhythm and tempo, and it is transcendent, because it

sings the song of the Absolute which is beyond time, space and

causation. Time and space are the limiting adjuncts, as they

make the boundless all-pervasive Divine Principlo limited, and

divide it into parts. Individual artistes culture art of music for

their personal pleasure and enjoyment, and enjoy celestial hap-

piness in a very limited compass, in their individual feelings of

the mind. But science and philosophy of music admit that music

itself is a limitless universal consciousness which saturates and

inspires all the sentient and insentient beings, nay, all atoms

and molecules of the universe. The ancient Greek philosophers

call this boundless spiritual music as 'Music of the Sphere' or

'Harmony of the Sphere.' This transcendental or other worldly

conception of music is not a myth or imagination, but the

Yogis and intuitive artistes realize it, and unlock the mystery of

their life.

Music evolves from the depth of the psychic Energy, known

as Kundalini in Tantra philosophy. The psychic Energy,

Kundalini, remains generally as an energy, coiled or concentrated

and it is awakened by the Divine Stress of will-to-manifest. It

manifests at first as the invisible supreme sound, known as parā.

And it is seen to manifest in a very causal form, pashyanti. The

word pashyanti connotes the idea of 'somewhat seen' or reali-

zable material principle. It is not seen through material and

mental eyes, but is seen or conceived in the intuitive eye, or in

perception of the Yogis. This is the second stage of material

evolution of the Kundalini or psychic Energy. Then comes the

148 Music: Its Form, Function and Value

third stage, madhyama on the middle principle. This middle principle brings a balance between pashyantī, the invisible mental vāk or sound and gross vaikharī, the visible material vāk or sound. In the musical tone-series, we also find the middle note or madhyamā. Madhyamā creates a balance between the two triad forms of note, ṣadja-rṣhabha-gāndhāra and pañchama-nīshāda (tāra)-ṣadja. We have discussed before that Pandit Somanath (early 17th century AD) has said the notes, ṣadja, madhyamā and pañchama as uncreated ones. But, from the viewpoint of strict logic, three notes, sā-mā-pā cannot be considered as the uncreated eternal ones, as they have origin and decay, and are, therefore, phenomenal and changing. So in what sense Pandit Somanath has called them 'uncreated' (svayambhu)? Now, in the series of five notes (pentatonic form) sā-ri-gā-mā-pā, sā and pā are the beginning and the concluding notes, and the middle or mā (mādhyama) is the balancing note. So in the pentatonic scale, Pandit Somanath has given the prominence to the notes, beginning, balancing and concluding i.e. to pā-mā-sā or sā-pā-mā. We are

अष्टम्येकादश्यो सायौषदं समापर्यवनितः

ननु: समाः सपरसमा: स्वर्यंभुवो मुक्ततन्नीवाद: ।

. . . ताभ्यो दाताः समाः: अनुमन्रपद्‌: ।

अनुमन्त्रपंचम: मन्त्रपद‌्च्चद मन्त्र मध्यमाः: स्वयं भुवः ।

Besides, it is interesting to note that each of these three notes, sā-mā-pā are consisted of four microtonal units. As for example,

Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni / Sa

4 2 3 4 4 3 2 / 4

It should be remembered that the scale of the Vedic music of India was of pentatonic form, consisting of five notes, in a descending order. This pentatonic scale is also found in the musical systems of Greece, Rome, China, Japan and other countries in ancient time.

Now, let us come to our main point. The structure of music, or the structure of melody, is the phenomenal one, as it moves on the human plane, entertains the mind of the living beings, and creates aesthetic sentiments and beauty which lead us to heavenly pleasure and peace.

Heaven and earth are known as spirit and matter, or spirituality and materiality. These are the two extreme points, one of which shows light of wisdom and freedom and, the other drags men to the den of delusion. While explaining spirit and matter in the book, Self-knowledge, Swāmi Abhedānanda similarly says that spirit is the subject and matter is the object, and subject and object are the two extreme points, the neutral point of which is the Brahman-consciousness, which is the substratum of the subject and the object.1 This substratum (adhisṭhāna) is the neutral space, though it is not the space in the proper sense, but is the maintainer and sustainer of heaven and earth.

Let us remember in this connection the 2nd aphorism of the Brahma-sūtra: 'janmādyasya yatah' i.e. it is the Supreme Principle, from which phenomenal appearance evolved, in which it is sustained and is destroyed. It is supported by the Upanishadic truth: 'yato vā imāni bhūtāni jāyante, yena jātāni jīvanti, yat

prayatyabhisam̄viśanti.' Heaven and earth are related to each

1This instance has also been given before in connection with the uncreated notes (svayambhu-svarābha).

149 Heaven and Earth in Music

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Music: Its Form, Function and Value

other, and as they are related, they are not superior to the all-

pervading supreme consciousness, the Brahman.

Philosophy is the extract or essence of all things, and music,

being the greatest art, has its philosophy. The main function of

philosophy of music is to inform us the ultimate end of music.

The artistes and the musicologists love music, because it con-

soled the mind, softens the heavy heart, and helps to understand

the value of life. Philosophy of music helps us further to under-

stand that music is not an instrument to be handled for getting

cheap pleasure of the senses, but its real aim and object are to

get the unending eternal peace and happiness. The sweet and

soothing vibrations of music arouse the divine energy, Kundalini

which, as if, sleeps as a concentrated static consciousness in the

bed of the base (mulādhāra) of the spinal cord, and that rousing

rush of the basic energy should be directed in the proper direc-

tion, otherwise there happens a vacuum or loss of energy. If it is

directed in the proper channel, it makes an ordinary man a god-

man, and then and then the artistes get in touch with the supreme

knowledge and value of music. We have quoted before the great

sayings: ‘na vidyā saṅgitāt para’ i.e. there is no superior art than

music. So this sense of superiority or greatness of music should

be realized first in its true perspective, and then it should be

applied to the practice of art, otherwise the art of music will be

stagnant and meaningless. It is our prime aim to get into the core

of the meaning of the musical sound, which constitutes the

material or phenomenal body of music. But there we will not

halt our marching towards the ideal of music, but we must go

onward towards the inner thought and meaning of the art of

music, because they, in reality, constitute the spirit of music, and

the spirit of music is only real. We have said that sādhana of

music is not a mechanical feat and exhibition of art of music;

it is not the means or medium of earning only money for

material prosperity and for name and fame. It is our habit to

drink deep the nectar of material pleasure and prosperity, and

so our intellect and intuition are overshadowed by selfish desires

and motive. There our powers of discrimination and introspection

should be revived first and then we should realize the impor-

tance of music-education. On the other hand, we find that the

musicologists are all the time eager to devise some new methods

and means with the help of intricate mathematical knowledge

and analysis for better acquisition of knowledge and under-

standing of intricacy of the art of music. We, undoubtedly,

acknowledge and support their honest effort, search and sincere

contribution to the field of music, but at the same time we ask

them as to whether they try to devise the means to get rid of the

mystery of human life. We know and believe that the artistes

and the musicologists are the choicest sons of Devi Sarasvati,

who is the presiding deity of the art of music, but it is also a

problem that if we run always after the will-O-wasp of material

gains of worldly pleasures, leaving aside spiritual achievement in

life, our effort will be lost and fruitless. It is true that if we aspire

only to make our highest and reputed place in the human society,

being devoid of spirituality or spiritual feeling, our art becomes

barren. All mortal men are destined to die, because this material

world is not the permanent home for them. They will have to

leave this place today or tomorrow. So all men should be alert

in the walk of their life. Especially the worshippers of divine art

must have devotion to and love for God. They must remember

that practices of music and other fine arts are the means to reach

the sacred temple of God. To know God, the pure consciousness,

is the supreme achievement in life, and devoid of which, sādhanaṣ

of all arts become futile and fruitless. All prides and hankering

after name and fame must, therefore, be mercilessly shunned

from the mind so as to purify the mind, and the pure space of

the mind should be filled up by the burning fire of longing for

getting perfect peace and freedom in life. And it should be borne

in mind that perfect peace and freedom are no other than Divine

Light that dispels the deep darkness of nescience simultaneously

with the realization of the Absolute, which is the embodiment of

Existence-Consciousness-Bliss (Sat-Chit-Ānanda). These three

heavenly attributes are one and the same, as Sat merges in Chit

and Chit merges in Ānanda. Ānanda in the art of music is the

Divine Rasa, and Madhusūdan Sarasvati has said in the

Bhaktirasāmṛtasindhu that the supreme aesthetic sentiment is

‘rasa or aesthetic sentiment, and it is also known as, ‘Brahmasvā-

dasahodara’ i.e. Rasa is the same as a deep intuitive experience

of the transcendental Brahman. The āsvāda or taste (of the

Brahman-rasa) is a Divine experience, or it can be said as an

immediate awareness of the Absolute, which knows no dividing

categories of time, space and causation.

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In the Vaiṣṇava-Rasa-Śāstra, Prīti,1 which involves the elements of Sukha (pleasure) and Priyatā (attribute of fondness) is the highest state that can offer permanent Peace, Bliss and Blessedness.

While explaining the theology and philosophy of Bengal Vaiṣṇavism, Dr. S.K. De says that in the Vaiṣṇava-Rasa-Śāstra, Prīti or love directed towards the Bhagavat is designated by the term Prema-bhakti, and as such it is regarded as an expression of the intrinsic divine energy. This is the essential characteristic (svarūpa-lakṣaṇa) of Prīti. In theological language, the Sukha is a function of the attribute of goodness of the Māyā-śakti, while the Priyatā is an aspect of the highest Hlādinī or blissful Svarūpa-śakti of the divine being. As it springs from the inherent quality of the object of desire, the Prīti is described as natural or Svābhāviki; and as it has no other motive but agreeableness to the pleasure of the beloved object, it is called Animitta or Akiñcana. Even Sādhana-bhakti and Bhāva-bhakti possess these characteristics because of their direct relation to Prema-bhakti; and though both these appear as means of accomplishment (Sādhanā), they should not be regarded as impermanent (vinaśvara) or worldly (aparamārtha) expedients, because Bhakti, in whatever form it appears, can never be properly taken as a means but should be considered as an end in itself, being an expression of the divine attribute of blissful love. Viewed from this standpoint, it follows that, in the blissful love of the devotee, the divine being eternally realizes his own intrinsic potency of blissful love, which forms the essence of his divine self. It is thus a form of self-realization not only of the devotee, who regains his natural blissful state, but also of the divine person whose very self consists primarily of blissful love. It is, therefore, declared in the Śruti that the Prīti of his Bhakta causes a wonderful delight to the Bhagavat himself (bhogavato’pyānanda-camatkṛitā tasyca bhakteḥ śruyate), by which the divine being becomes, according to the Bhāgavata (IX.4.63) full of infinite Prīti and entirely subservient to the Bhakta. The bliss of the Bhagavat is of two kinds, springing respectively from his Svarū-

1This Prīti is the Krṣṇa-prīti which creates concentrative attention and brings unto Bhakta or Sādhuka absorption into Krṣṇa-consciousness and cuts asunder all knots of phenomenal attachments. Prīti or Premā-bhakti gives mukti or emancipation to the devoted Bhakta or Sādhaka.

paśakti or intrinsic energy. The latter kind of bliss may again be (i) Mānasānanda or mental bliss, arising from the display of such attributes as compassion, friendliness, etc., and (ii) Aiśvaryānanda, or bliss arising from the display of such power and magnificence as his Dhāma, Parikara, Līlā, etc. The bliss caused by the Premā-bhakti or Prīti of the devotee, which entirely subjugates (paravaśikaroti) and intoxicates (mādayati) the deity, is to be comprehended as a special expression of the divine Mānasānanda. This divine bliss cannot be likened to the bliss of the Sāṅkhya, arising from the Sattva-guṇa, for the Bhagavat is eternally untouched by the Guṇas brought into existence by the Māyā-śakti; nor is it like the Brahmananda of the Nirviśeṣavādins, for it would then be nothing more than Svarūpānanda; nor is it like the Ānanda of the Jīva, which is only atomic; but it is the peculiar bliss of the highest Hlādinī Svarūpa-śakti by which the Bhagavat himself enjoys and makes other enjoy. This divine bliss, which surpasses every other kind of bliss, being placed in the Bhakta, becomes Bhagavat-Prīti (bhakta-vṛndeśveva nikṣipyamāna bhagavat-prītyakhyayā vartate), the experience of which makes both the deity and the devotee completely engrossed in each other (parasparāveśatvam). Thus, a direct channel of contact is established between them but there is never complete identity and the relationship continues for ever. The process is illustrated by the analogy of the heating of the iron by the fire, in which the iron is possessed by the attributes of the fire and becomes fiery, but its character as iron remains unchanged.

(1) The appearance of Prīti operates in two different ways on the devotee: (i) it cultivates and prepares the mind (bhakta-citta-saṃskriyā-viśeṣa) by giving rise to succeedingly higher grades of the devotional feelings, and (ii) it produces various kinds of conceit or distinctive consciousnessness (abhimāna-viśeṣa), such as the conceit of being a servant, a friend or the beloved of the deity. From the first of these points of view, the successive stages in the growth of the devotional feeling are: (Rati, producing delight in the mind (ullāssayati), (2) Prema, causing a sense of attachment which regards the deity as one’s own (mamatāyayojayati), (3) Praṇaya, generating confidence (viśrambhayati), (4) Māna, producing through excess of affection, a sensitiveness which gives rise to a diversity of feelings (priyatva-

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

tisavenabhimanayati), (5) Sneha, causing a softening and melt-

ing of the heart (dravayati), (6) Raga, exciting an excess

'of' eager longing for its object of desire (sva-viṣayam pra-

tyabhilāṣayatisayena yojayati), (7) Anurāga, making the beloved

appear ever and ever new (pratiksanam eva sva-viṣayam nava-

pavatvenānubhavayati), and (8) Mahābhava, maddening by the

wonder of unsurpassed ecstasy (asamordhva-camatkāreṇonmāda-

vati). The characteristics of these stages of Prīti have already

been described by Rūpa Gosvāmin. As Jīva Gosvāmin follows

this treatment without going into detailed analysis, it is not

necessary for our purpose to dilate further on the subject. The

Prīti also produces different kinds of conceit in the devotee; and

the cause of this is the manifestation of a particular character or

Svabhāva of the deity (e.g. as a Friend, Son, Lord or Beloved),

inspiring a corresponding sentiment in the devotee (e.g. Friend-

ship, Parent sentiment, Servitude or Love). The conceit may

thus take various forms, but it has been classified broadly into

four chief forms: (i) the conceit that one is being favoured by the

deity (Anugrāhyabhīmāna), (ii) the conceit that one is favouring

the deity (anugrāhakabhīmāna (iii) the conceit that one is a

friend of the deity (Mitrābhimāna) and (iv) the conceit that one

is a beloved of the deity (Priyābhimāna). As already explained

more than once above, this theory implies that the practice

of Prīti in Bengal Vaiṣṇavism is based upon the distinctive con-

sciousness of one or other of such personal relationship of an

emotional character with the deity. This relationship is super-

sensuous in essence, but it bears similarity to those actually

obtaining among men in the sensuous world. In its impersonal

and transcendental character, the Prīti towards Kṛṣṇa may take

the form of the feeling between the mother and the child,

between the master and the Servant, between two friends, or

between the husband and the wife.

Now the feelings of Śānta, Dāsya, Maitrya, Vatsala and Ma-

dhura described above from five basic aspects of Bhagavat-prīti,

and each succeeding one of these indicates a higher stage of re-

alization than the preceding. Sometimes they appear mixed up

with one another e.g. in Yudhiṣṭhira there is a mixture of Sauh-

rda-Maitrya and Dāsya, in Baladeva a mixture of Vātsalya and

Sākhya-Maitrya, and in the Paṭṭa-mahiṣīs a Mixture of Dāsya

and Madhura-bhāva.

The Prīti in which these distinctive feelings are absent is

known as general or Sāmānya Prīti, which is of a still inferior

kind. Of these different types of the devotees, however the Śānta

and the Sāmānya are called Taṭastha-Bhakta, because they are

devoid of Mamatā or sense of intimate personal attachment to

the deity, and their feeling never progresses beyond the prelimi-

nary stage of Rati. But the remaining kinds of devotee, viz.

Dāsa, Mitra, Vatsala and Kānta, who are the Parikaras of the

Bhagavat, possess that Prīti which is called Mamatā-bhakti on

account of the abundance of the feeling of attachment. As the

two types of the Taṭastha and the Parikara devotee have for

their objective the Brahma and the Bhagavat appearances of the

deity respectively, the former is inferior to the latter. Generally

speaking, the excellence of the deity may appear, as already

indicated above, either in the form of unsurpassed Aiśvarya or

power or mastery (Prabhuta), but Mādhurya means loveliness

of conduct, quality, beauty, youth, sport and emotional inti-

macy of relationship. Ordinary experience tells us that the Aiś-

varya of a person produces fear, confusion and respect, but

Mādhurya is the source of love in its sweet and melting quality.

The devotees naturally fall into two classes, according as they

prefer to experience the divine Aiśvarya or Mādhurya. It has

been already stated that everyone cannot experience all the infi-

nite aspects of the divine principle, but that each resorts only

to that aspect which suits his capacity and inclination; this is

what is called Guṇopāsanā implied in the Vedānta-sūtra (iii, 3).

Those who realize the excellent Mādhurya aspect of Kṛṣṇa,

which is principally displayed in the Vṛndāvana-līlā, are superior

to those who, like the Śānta and Sāmānya devotees, experience

only the Aiśvarya aspect. Those who desire and cultivate this

sweetness of personal emotional relationship with the divine

being are the best type of his Parikaras. In this connexion Jīva

Gosvāmin proceeds to exemplify elaborately the excellence of

the emotional attitude of the Gopa-Gopīs at Vṛndāvana, and

attempts to show that all the stages of Dāsya, Maitrya, Vātsalya

and Kāntatva are realized by the different sets of Kṛṣṇa's Pari-

karas, of whom the Gopīs experience the highest stage of Prīti

by their Kānta-bhāva. This stage going up to the most intoxi-

cating Mahābhāva, is desired even by the emancipated sages,

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by all the gods and even by Lakṣmī.

The five kinds of devotional feeling mentioned above, viz.

Śānta, Dāsya, Maitrya, Vātsalya and Mādhurya, are called Sthāyī-

yībhāvas in the Rasa-śāstra; and, as such, each of them is

known as a Rati in relation to Kṛṣṇa. Through such objects

and circumstances as appear to be cause (Vibhāva) and effect

(Anubhāva), as well as through auxiliary feelings (Vyabhicāri-

bhāvas) which have the power of strengthening them, these five

Sthāyī-bhāvas are raised, like the secular (laukika) Rati in a

Kāvya, to the corresponding states of relish, called Rasas, of the

same designation; and these are similar to the states of impersonal

aesthetic-relish in the secular Kāvya. These are the five primary

Bhakti-rasas of devotional sentiments in the Vaiṣṇava-śāstra,

sublimated from the five basic feelings, and in their totality they

are called Premā-bhakti or Prīti. There are also seven other

Rasas, viz. Hāsya, Karuṇa, Bhayānaka, Bībhatsa, Raudra, Vīra

and Adbhūta, recognized also by the secular rhetoricians; but

they are regarded as secondary (Gauna) in the Vaiṣṇava Rasa-

śāstra in relation to the five primary (Mukhya) Rasas mentioned

above. They are called secondary, because they become de-

votional Rasas only when they involve Kṛṣṇa-rati, i.e. only when

they have Kṛṣṇa or his Bhakta as the substantial excitant (Ālambana-Vibhāva), as the object and the ground of the basic feeling

respectively.

Kṛṣṇadās Kavirāja has elaborately discussed about these matters in his Ujjvalanīlamāṇi. Besides, his Chaitanya-charitāmṛta

has discussed about these things in a new and novel way.

Appendix II

VALUE, AESTHETIC AND PSYCHOLOGY

OF MUSIC

I

What is Value?

Prof. C.E. Moore (1873-1958) and even the great Greek Philosopher Plato have called 'Good' as the highest value. Prof. Moore

said that 'Good' is a characteristic of things which exists independent of human desires and interests and that it is capable of

being known intuitively. Prof. Nicolai Hartmann (1882-1950)

sings on the same harp. Prof. Hartmann has developed a theory

of value that reflected the influence of the neorealistic movement

on the continent. He argues that 'values are essences,' although

values have no spatio-temporal existence, they nevertheless subsist

and are discovered by mind. Without these values, which are

known through intuition, event would be totally lacking in

significance. This intuition is, according to Kant, sense-knowledge,

but, according to Indian philosophers, is super-sensible know-

ledge, which is 'God-intuition.'

But the first and most immediate condition, both of the origin

and development of ideas and judgments of value, says Wilbur

M. Urban, lies obviously in human desire and feeling, wish and

volition, and ultimately in the impulses and instincts and tendencies which they presuppose. The psycho-biological definition

(and ultimately foundation) of values, accordingly appear to

many to be the most natural. Every assertion of value, it is

immediately evident, is atleast dependent on the expriences of

the effective-volitional life. It is these that not only determine

the existence of values in the world, but also, in so far.as they

condition their existence, justify their claim to immediate validity

(vide the Intelligible World).

In Indian philosophy, value is a prime thing, and it is consisted of the principles of dharma, artha, kāma and mokṣa, and

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

among these four, mokṣa, is the highest. But, in fact, the value

of an object lies in the satisfaction of desire, or, broadly, in its

fulfilment of interest. "With an objective or cosmological view

of value I have as such no quarrel," says Prof. Urban. It is my

own view as it is the view of perennial philosophy. For Aristotle,

and even more clearly for St. Thomas, every created thing has

its own good, which it seeks to realize consciously or unconsciously. "Value I shall hold," says Prof. Urban, "is part of the

nature of anything. The idea that any objects are value-free,

except as a result of a wilful or purposeful abstraction is my

mind an untenible conception."

We find the idea of value everywhere defined either so as to

mean anything that satisfies a need or anything that evokes a

feeling or pleasure. The latter, taken from the emotional side of

consciousness, is the broader definition. It includes the narrower,

which looks to the life of the will. In view of this double relation,

to the will and the feelings, the question arises whether one of

these functions can claim to be original rather than the other.

The two species of valuation are certainly intimately connected

psycho-genetically, so that it is often difficult to say confidently

in a particular case which was prior, one-sided claims of the

Voluntarist and the Emotionalist Psychologists. They have even,

as we saw above, occasionally given a tinge to spiritualist meta-

physics.

Prof. Windelband says that we must admit that it would be

difficult to make out as good case for feeling as is made out for

the will as the essence or reality. This is the more remarkable as

precisely in recent psychology we notice a tendency to see in

feeling, regard thought and will as derivative functions. If, in

spite of this, we scarcely ever find in metaphysical circles, which

affect to take the typical contents of reality from the psychic

life and inner experience, the idea of seeking the primary reality

in feeling, it may be that this is because in feeling we have

always, and quite unmistakably, a reaction to something more

fundamental.

There are certainly many emotional valuations which can

be traced to the will or to needs. Hence pleasure is often

defined as the satisfaction of the will, and displeasure as the

dissatisfaction of the will. This is particularly clear when the

volition is conscious. But even the unconscious volition, which

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Value, Aesthetic and Psychology of Music

we generally call an impulse or craving is the origin of such feel-

ings as hunger (as displeasure) or satiety (as pleasure). These

observations have inspired the theory that all pleasure or displease-

sure presupposes a volition; not necessarily in the shape of a

deliberate purpose, but at least in that of cravings or impulses as

forms of an unconscious will. Kant has lent a certain sanction to

this view when, in his Critique of Judgment, he has expressed the

opinion that pleasure and displeasure are related to the purpo-

siveness of their objects.

Purpose is determined by the will whether conscious or uncon-

scious, and is, therefore, always something willed. Hence all

feeling must be preceded by a volition, which, according as it is

satisfied or not, gives rise to the reaction, pleasure or displeasure.

But against this Voluntarist theory of feeling we have, in the

first place, the elementary sense-feelings, the sensations of

colours, sounds, smells, tastes, etc. In their case there is often,

not only no relation to any purpose of a conscious will, but

none even to a craving or an unconscious impulse. The artifi-

cial hypotheses of physiological psychology about some normal

state or middle state of excitation, which purport to explain

sensory feelings as the realisation or non-realisation of a purpose,

entirely fail; they break down before the facts of anti-purposive

pleasure, which is to them an insoluble problem. We are bound

to grant that there are primary feelings of a totally unintelligible

nature; and, as the relation of the quality of sensations to the

objective properties of the stimuli cannot possibly be deduced

synthetically--that is to say, logically, so we can never under-

stand from these qualities why they are partly characterised by

feelings of pleasure and partly by feelings of displeasure.

Hence the opposite theory, the Emotionalist interpretation of

the volition. Here again it is notorious that frequently our desire

or aversion arises from some past pleasure or displeasure, some

experience of pleasantness or unpleasantness. Hence the old

question: 'How can a man will anything that he does not regard

as good? And how can he will this unless he has already experi-

enced a feeling of pleasure in it.' Generalising in this way leads

to the Eudaemonistic or Utilitarian theory, that all volition

springs from an experienced feeling of pleasure or displeasure.

Here we have a decisive counter-instance in instincts, in which

there is undoubtedly in the individual an original volition, with-

out any knowledge of pleasure acquired by experience.

At first, says Prof. Windelband, every value meant something

which satisfies a need or excites a feeling of pleasure. It follows

from that valualbeness (naturally, both in the negative and the

positive aspect) is never found in the object itself as a property.

It consists in a relation to an appreciating mind, which satisfies

the desires of its will or reacts in feelings of pleasure upon the

stimulations of the environment. Take away will and feeling, and

there is no such thing as value. Now morality is a standard of

appreciation of the general mind set over the individual appre-

ciation of the general mind set over the individual appreciation,

and from this arose new values beyond the original appreciations.

These also, nevertheless, when they are examined by the historian

and ethnographer, show just as great diversities as individual

appreciation did. Ethical and aesthetic judgments show extremely

great diversity when one surveys the various peoples of the

earth in succession. Here again, however, we try to set up a

final standard of values; we speak of higher and lower stages of

taste in different peoples and different ages. Where do we get

the standard for this judgement? And where is the mind for

which these ultimate criteria are the values? If it is quite inevi-

table to rise above the relativity in individual appreciations and

the morals of various peoples to some standard of absolute

values, it seems necessary to pass beyond the historical manifest-

ations of the entire human mind to some normal consciousness,

for which these values are values. There is just the same com-

pulsion as we found in connection with the theory of knowledge.

As there are objects only for a presenting and knowing mind,

the object which is to form the standard of truth points to a

'consciousness in general' as to that for which it must be the

object. It is just the same with value-in-itself as with the thing-

in-itself. We have to seek it in order to get beyond the relativity

of actual appreciations; and, since there is value only in relation

to a valuing consciousness, the value-in-itself points to the same

normal consciousness which haunts the theory of knowledge as

the correlate of the object-in-itself. In both cases this implic-

ation is at the most a postulate, not a thing metaphysically

known.

In the same way, our conviction that for human valuation

there are absolute norms, beyond the empirical occasions of

their appearance, is based upon the assumption that here also

we have the sovereignty of a transcendent rational order. As

long as we would conceive these orders as contents of an actual

higher mind, on the analogy of the relation we experience of

consciousness to its objects and values, they have to be consi-

dered contents of an absolute reason—that is to say, God. These

relations are in the long run based upon the fact that poetic

problems themselves have something of the nature of the axiolo-

gical in them, and they thus afford a transition from theoretical

to practical problems. For in the theory of knowledge we deal

with the truth-value of ideas, with its definition, with the question

how it becomes psychically a value, and therefore, how, in what

method, it is attained. In the affirmative and the negative judge-

ment there are the same alternative elements as in the affirma-

tions and denials of the ethical and aesthetic judgement, and thus

to certain extent logical, ethical, and aesthetic appreciations are

co-ordinated, and we get the three great philosophical sciences—

logic, ethics, and aesthetics. That is the division of universal

values which Kant has made the basis of the distribution of his

critical philosophy. It proves, moreover, to be also a psycholo-

gical guide, as it starts from the division of psychic states into

presentation, volition, and feeling. This guarantees the comple-

teness of the division, and the few attempts that have been made

to replace it by some other systematic distribution always come

to the same thing in the end. However, the relation of the the-

oretical world-order to the practical demands a final synthesis.

It consists in the question how the orders are related to each

the world of things, which exist and are recognised as existing,

is related to the world of values, which ought to be, and must

be, valid for the things as well as for us, This is the question of

the supreme unity of the world; and if we find the solution in

the idea of God, we get a final group of problems those of the

philosophy of religion. Our second part must therefore be

divided into three sections, and these will successively deal with

ethical, aesthetic, and religious problems.

If we analyse the theory and concept of value, we find that the

fundamental values are truth, goodness, and beauty, and this has

been proved by Plato. The apprehension of reality, which is self

truth, involves the idea of our self-realization, and the idealistic

theory of value is based on the principle of self-realization.

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

Idealistic philosophy beginning with Plato and ending with

Royce, has much about the nature of value. Besides, the idea of

the Good, which is reality itself, signifies the highest value, and

Plato has given us a theory of value that has been pioneer in the

field of philosophy of value. Plato has introduced a new meaning

into human life. But value, in ordinary sense, involves the con-

ception of an ideal, and implies efforts for its realization.

Hegel believes that value is self-realization. To analyse the

concept of self-realization by self, Hegel undustands the Absolute

self, as it seeks to realize itself to be actual in and through the

self-realization of the finite selves. The concept of value is, the-

refore, according to Hegel, involved in the self-realization of the

finite spirits.

Kant thinks about value in its supreme aesthetic sense. While

explaining 'Beautiful' in accordance with the critique of judgem-

ent as expounded by Immanal Kant, Prof. Richard Falckenberg

says in terms of value that the objects of the teleological and the

aesthetic judgement, the purposive and art, constitute the desired

intermediate field between nature and freedom. The beautiful

has points of contact with the agreeable, the good, the perfect,

the useful, and the true. It is distinguished from the true by the

fact that it is not an object of knowledge, but of satisfaction.

If we inquire further into the difference between the satisfaction

in the beautiful and the satisfaction in the agreeable, in the good

(in itself), and in the (good for something, as a means, or in

the) useful, which latter three have this in common, that they

are objects of appetition-of sensuous want, of moral will, of

prudential desire-it becomes evident that the beautiful pleases

though its mere representation (that is, independently of the real

existence of the object), and that the delight in the beautiful is a

contemplative pleasure. It is for contemplation only, not to be

sensuously enjoyed nor put to practical use, and, further, its

production is not a universal duty.

Now, according to quality, the beautiful is the object of a

disinterested free (bound by no interest), and sportive satis-

faction, so the value is. Value, in fact, knows no find of selfish

interest, but it is free and it can be known as the sportive satis-

faction and the concept of good.

Kant has further ascribed the highest value to the moral will,

which he termed 'good in itself.' Kant defines the moral will as

the supreme good, nay, the summum bonum, which the highest

good, he says, brings permanent happiness and pleasure, which

know no selfish bond and motive, and the feeling of that hap-

piness and pleasure is achieved from the culture of fine arts and

expecially from music, which enters through the ears, penetrates

the heart and then saturate both body and mind of the artistes

and audiences. Music really brings solace, harmony, and free-

dom, which unfasten the fetters of false knowledge or ignorance,

and when the real knowledge dispels the darkness of false

knowledge, then the artistes and the intense lover of music comes

face to face with god the Absolute. The Absolute in Indian

sense, is the eternal solace and peace which make all men of

the mundane world immortal forever and ever and that immort-

ality is the supreme and perennial value in the life of man.

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Value, Aesthetic and Psychology of Music

II

What is Aesthetics?

We have already said before that the concept of Western

aesthetic is different from that of Indian aesthetic. The Western

aesthetic connotes the idea of the Beautiful, whereas the Indian

aesthetic connotes the idea of rasatattva or rasa-bhāva-tattva, and

in both the concepts or theories deep feeling of ānanda or

pleasure is realized. While defining 'aesthetic,' Prof. Bernard

Bosanquet says: "It was not before the latter half of the eightee-

nth century that the term 'Aesthetic' was adopted with the

meaning now recognised, in order to designate the philosophy

of the 'beautiful' as a distinct province of theoretical inquiry.

But the thing existed before the name, for reflection upon beauty

and upon fine art begins among Hellenic thinkers at best as the

time of Socrates, if not, in a certain sense, with still earlier

philosophers. If, then 'Aesthetic' means the Philosophy of the

Beautiful, the History of Aesthetic must mean the History of the

Philosophy of the Beautiful. . . . by which philosophers have

attempted to explain or connect together the facts that relate to

beauty" (vide History of Aesthetic, London, 1949, p. 1).

While explaining the conception of Form, Prof. Norman Gulley

says: "Thus the reason why a particular thing is beautiful is

said to be that it participates in 'the beautiful itself'; it is the

'presence' of the Form which makes it beautiful."

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Music: its Form, Function and Value

sensible Form was compared with the sensible Form, which was

recognized by Plato as 'copies' or 'images' or the non-sensible,

Form, the source of the idea of the beautiful, and this beautiful

was according to Plato the aesthetic itself. In the lectures on

Fine Art, Hegel uses the term Aesthetics and while explain-

ing the 'concept of the Beautiful, as such' he says: "We

called the beautiful the idea of the beautiful. This means that

the beautiful itself must be grasped as Idea, in particular as Idea. . . . The whole thing revolves

round this awakening of joy. But Kant1 has already made an

end of this reduction of beauty's effect to feeling, to the agree-

able, and the pleasant, by going far beyond the feeling of the

beautiful." Thus we find that Hegel includes Symbolic Archi-

tecture, Classical Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Music and

all kinds of Poetry in the category of Aesthetics. Regarding the

surpassing nature or quality of the art of music, Hegel says:

"What it claims as its own is the depth of a person's inner life

as such, it is the art of the soul and is directly addressed to the

soul."2 In recent days, Prof. Hanslick follows the ideals of Kant

and Hegel, and he says that the Beautiful in Music3 deals with

the major problems of musical aesthetics: the aim of music, its

intrinsic nature, the relation between music and reality, and the

role of the listener."4 So we see that all the philosophers of the

West, including the philosophers of Greece considered the

feeling of joy and heavenly delight as the feeling of the Beautiful,

which is known as Aesthetic.

But, in the East, this idea or concept of the Beautiful or

Aesthetic is quite different, as the philosophers as well as the

Alamkārikas considered Aesthetic as the supersensible divine

feeling, and rasa or emotional sentiment and mood (bhāva) are

the medium of this feeling (anubhūti).

In the Rasagangādhara, Panditarāja Jagannātha says: "tathā

chāhuhu vyaktah sa tairvibhāvādyaiḥ sthāyibhāvō rasa smr̥tah"

etc. i.e. Abhinavagupta, Mammata and other Alamkārikas says:

"Rasa is a sthāyibhāva, such as rati, characterised by blissful

consciousness (i.e. becoming the object of pure, blissful conscious-

ness which is the ātman's real nature). . . . Jagannātha says that

rasa is the blissful state of consciousness itself from which the

covering lid (of ignorance, desire and worldly distractions) has

been removed and of which the sthāyibhāvas like rati have be-

come the object. . . . raso vai saḥ, rasam evayam labdhā ānandi

bhavati." So while we will define and explain something from

the viewpoint of Indian aesthetics, we will also try to do it from

the viewpoint of rasa and bhāva, and then will enter into the

field of Western aesthetics for comparative study.

Because of the enjoyment of the vibhāvas, anubhāvas and

vyabhicārabhāvas, says Jagannātha the mind of the appreciative

reader or spectator dwelling on the various sthāyibhāvas becomes

transformed into blissful consciousness which is the nature of

the ātman, just as in the case of a Yogin, his mind becomes

transformed into blissful consciousness during deep meditation

(samādhi). The enjoyment is evoked or called into play i.e.

unmiṣita by the sympathetic attitude of the appreciative reader

or spectator. The transformation of the mind into blissful con-

sciousness, which is the real nature of the ātman, amounts to the

identification of the mind with blissful tranquil consciousness

(tanmayībhāvanā).

Now this blissful state of consciousness is a property of the

mind. Really speaking kāvyānanda is not identical with brah-

mānanda or brahmasvāda, because it is produced by the laukik-

asāmagri, such as the contemplation of the vibhāvas, anubhāvas

and vyabhicārabhāvas, as described in a poem or exhibited in a

poem or exhibited in drama, and so it is essentially laukika

(natural). But still it is alaukika (unnatural) in the sense that it

is not comparable to any of the enjoyments of the world. At the

time of experiencing worldly enjoyments, the ātman enters into

contact with the mind so that laukikānanda or natural (pheno-

menal) enjoyment of bliss becomes śuddha-chaitanyasvarūpa. But kāvyāna-

nda or rasacharvanajanyānanda is śuddha-chaitanyarūpa i.e. at the

time of experiencing rasasvāda the chaittavritti or modification

of the mind itself becomes transformed into the bliss of pure

consciousness. Panditarāja Jagannātha, sums up the view of

Abhinavagupta and his followers on rasa-realization.

Jagannātha says that according to Abhinavagupta and Mam-

maṭa, rasa is a sthāyibhāva such as rati, characterised by blissful

consciousness, the real nature of the ātman, but, says Jagannātha,

1vide I.C. Meredith (Oxford, 1911), The Critique of Aesthetic Judgement.

2vide Hegel's Aesthetics, I and II, translated by T.M. Knox, Oxford, 1975.

3vide Hegel's Idea of the Beautiful in Hegel's Aesthetics, I, p. 11.

4vide also Knight, Philosophy of the Beautiful, Pts. I-II, 1898.

165

Value, Aesthetic and Psychology of Music

166

Music: Its Form, Founction and Value

really speaking the view of Abhinavagupta and Mammata,

ought to be stated as follows: rasa is the blissful consciousness

itself from which the covering lid (of ignorance, worldly desires

and distractions) is removed and of which the sthāyibhāvas like

rati have become the object.1

Now let us discuss, in short, the accomplishment of fulfilment

of rasa (rasa-niṣpatti) as explained by Bharata, Mammata,

Viśvanāth and other Alamkārikas. We have already discussed

about it before, but yet to do some comparative analysis we can

say about rasa-niṣpatti:

(a) Bharata says:

'Vibhāvānubhāva-vyabhichārisañyogād rasa-niṣpatti.'

(b) Viśvanātha says:

'Vibhāvanubhāvena vyaktah sañchārinātatha,

Rasatāmeti ratyādiḥ sthāyibhāvataḥ sacetasām.'

(c) Mammata says:

'Tatra rasasvarupamāha-kāraṇānyatha kāryāṇi

sahakāriṇi yāni cha,

Ratyādeḥ sthāyīno loketāni

chematya kāvyayoḥ

Vibhāva annubhāvasat kthyate

vyabhichāriṇaḥ,

Vyaktaḥ sa tairvibhādyaiḥ,

sthāyī bhāvo rasaḥ smṛtaḥ.'

(d) Further Viśvanātha says:

'Sattvodrekādathakhaṇḍa-sva-

prākṣānanda-chinmayat,

Vedyāntarasparśasunyo

brahmāsvāda-sahodaraḥ.'

Abhinavagupta similarly says: "Loke pramadādibhiḥ. . . . vi-

bhāvādi-jivitādvadhiḥ panākarasanyayēna charvyamānaḥ pura iwa

parisphuran, hṛdayamiva praviśan sarvāñgīnaniva ālīngaṇam, anyat

sarvameva toroddhad brahmānandandāsvadaminvubhāvayan-

laukika-chamtikāri śṛṅgāradiko rasaḥ.'

'Tad-grāhakaṃ cha pramānamma nirvikalpakam, vibhādi-parā-

marśa-pradhanatvat. Nāpi savikalpakam ubhayābhāvasvarūpasya

cha ubhayātmaktvamapi pūrvarat lokottaratameva jayati na tu

virodhamiti.'

1vide Śāntarasa by I.L. Masson and M.V. Patwardhana, Poona, p. 175.

Prof. Śivapada Bhattāchārya also discusses efficiently about

rasa and its niṣpatti, in his Rasagaṅgādhara and Its Contribution

to Poetics.

III

Indian Psychology

In the similar way, it can be said that the findings or approa-

ches of Indian psychology and Western psychology are some-

thing different. In an article, The Indian Approach to Psychology,

Dr. Indra Sen says: "Indian Psychology is...not a natural science

concerned with the 'is' of mental life. It is also not a normative

science concerned with the 'ought,' the ideal alone. It is, we

might say, a science of the 'becoming' of conscious life, that of

growth from the actual, 'to the possible.'" Whereas Western

Psychology is an empirical study of psyche in its conscious and

unconscious aspects, and Yoga is active participation in its con-

scious growth and self-fulfilment of the psyche.

Indian or Hindu psychology recognizes four states of con-

sciousness. "To use the terminology of some of them," says

Swāmi Akhilānanda in his Hindu Psychology (1945) "one can

say that they believe in the sleeping, dreaming, awakened states,

and the superconscious—suṣupti, svapna, jāgrat and turīya. The

sleeping and dreaming states are included in the subconscious.

So, according to Western terminology, this amounts to three

states—subconscious, conscious, and superconscious. To study

of the superconscious is either ignored or considered patholo-

gical by most Western psychologists. Psychology in the West

is now regarded as dynamic by many outstanding psychologists.

It is our opinion that Hindu (or Indian) Psychology is more

dynamic, as it trains the individual mind to manifest all its

latent powers . . . . Hindu psychologists are primarily interested

in the study and development of the total mind rather than in

the different functions considered separately . . . . Hindus have

developed their psychology mainly in the course of religious

unfoldment. The Western psychoanalysts—Charcots, Jenet,

Freud, Adler, Jung, and others—began their research in the

abnormal states of the mind."

Indian psychology was devised and developed in India as a

method or means to attain the tranquil peace of the mind in

the total absorption in higher consciousness or samādhi. It is

167

Value, Aesthetic and Psychology of Music

168 Music: Its Form, Function and Value

known to the Indologists, says Prof. D.C. Shastri, that in India

there was no separate branch of learning called 'psychology.'

But elements of psychological findings are to be found in Vedic,

Upaniṣadic and philosophical writings. The Yoga psychology of

Patañjali laid stress upon the mind, which, in a broad sense, is

known as antaḥkaraṇa or internal organ, and this internal organ

is known by four kinds of modifications, vr̥tti, manas, buddhi,

chitta, and ahaṅkāra. These modifications are possessed of four

activities, which are again backed by consciousness or chit. The

consciousness, in Indian psychology, occupies also different

positions and possesses different nature according to different

schools of Indian psychologists and philosophers. The Naiya-

yikas, Sankhiyans, Mimāṁsakas, Jains, Vedāntists and Buddhists

hold different opinions about consciousness. The Vedāntists

hold that consciousness or knowledge is divided into three states,

the waking (jāgrat), dreaming (svapna) and deep sleep (suṣupti)

and the real (ātman) or non-relational pure consciousness shines

above these three states, and this stateless supreme turīya state

is the goal of all living beings.

Indian psychology admits various kinds of knowledge, normal

and abnormal, and it further admits extraordinary (alaukika) and

extra-sensory (yogaja and prātibha) perceptions of knowledge.

These, of course, are included now-a-days in the category of

'para-psychology.' Besides, there is the domain of 'depth-psy-

chology,' which discloses the secret of the mysterious state of

the unconsciousness where sleeps the kuṇḍalini (psychic energy)

in the bed of the subconscious or unconscious state of the mind.

Freud, Adler and Jung had explicitly explained 'depth-psycho-

logy' as a branch of psychology dealing with the depths of

personality revealed through the study of the unconsciousness

by several methods. This depth psychology or abnormal psycho-

logy discovers the secrets of that as is latent in the subconscious

state of the mind. The discovery of the unconscious state

unlocks the mysteries of life and personality and then the Yogi

becomes free from the bondage of ignorance and receives the

everlasting illumination of the knowledge of the ātman. The

Indian psychology gives us, therefore, the acquaintance of diffe-

rent kinds of nerves, sinews and arteries and supplies us with the

knowledge of sensory and motor nerves, which have elaborately

been explained by Charaka and Sushruta. The knowledge of the

nads, and their control bring balance of the breath and the mind

and keep the health sound and brings the mind in its peaceful

state.

Indian psychology enunciates a definite and systematic course

of mental exercises for sublimation or spiritualization of mind

on psychological basis, which is practical and helpful in easy

way of life, and this practical method can be considered as the

experimental psychology. "The courses followed under pres-

cribed condition," says Prof. D.C. Shāstrī, "have often led to

specific results recorded by it. This is known as the practice of

Yoga. This yoga is concerned entirely with mental discipline

and concentration and meditation, leading to supramental state

of Samādhi, that also leads to spiritual realization of illumi-

nation. The culture of the art of music should be accompanied

by the practice and knowledge of yoga, because with the help of

yoga psychology the artistes of music cannot go beyond the trap

of delusion and bondage of the world. The culture of music

really awaits the help of the Indian yoga psychology to get

perfection and absolute peace in mundane life.

In fact, the Indian psychology was developed in India as a

method or means to allow higher experience in the super-cons-

cious state of the mind. Indian psychology studies and surveys

music for its higher fulfilment in course of concentration and

deep meditation, as we have said before. Besides, Indian psy-

chology is positive and empirical science of the mind in so far

as the mind is knowledge by methods of observation, experiment

and analysis. Swami Abhedananda says Indian Psychology as

a True Psychology, which is the science of human personality

in respect of its inner growth and creative self-fulfilment. The

Swami says that Yoga Psychology appears to be more metaphy-

sical than phychological on account of its use of such concepts

as the supra cons-cious, pure self or Ātman.

So, while we will study and culture the art of music, we must

apply the psychological method of analysis of the mind and its

functions,1 taking music as a spiritual sādhana the prime aim of

which is God-realization or Isvarānubhūti. The prime goal of

Indian psychology or Yoga Psychology is both the goal of life

and the path leading to that goal. A Yogi is one, said Sri

1Here we draw the attention of the readers to Coster's book Yoga and

Western Psychology, pp. 232-33.

Value, Aesthetic and Psychology of Music 169

170

Music: its Form, Function and Value

Aurobindo, who follows the spiritual path of self-discipline, or

who has attained the goal of self-realization. The ultimate aim

and object of Indian music are the same. So the followers of

Indian music should at least follow primarily the disciplined

laws and principles of Indian psychology, and then, for com-

parative study and knowledge, should step into the field of

Western psychology for making their observation and experience

sound, well-balanced and enlightened. In conclusion, it can be

said that Indian psychology, Yoga Psychology or True Psycho-

logy is mainly concerned with-dive 'deep into the unfathomed

ocean of the realization of the psyche or soul or ātman,' whereas

Western psychology cannot go so deep into the mysterious pro-

blem of the psyche or ātman; so, in this respect, Western psycho-

logical tendency on diving is different from Indian or Hindu psy-

chological one. Indian psychology is absolutely based on the

disciplined Yoga theory and its scientific practice, and the Yoga

psychology, as we have said before, is purely the investigation

and culture of the immortal Soul, which is the prime object of

the human beings. Prof. Geraldine Coster compares the tendenc-

ies of the Western psychology with those of the Yoga psycho-

logy in his book, Yoga and Western Psychology (1974). In

Chapter XIV, he said that the technique by which the Yogi is

trained to a continuous identification of the consciousness with

the self, a sustained self-awareness, is in many respects, unsuited

to Western temperaments and Western conditions of life. Yet

the goal is a worthy one.1

Music, and especially Indian music, is a means to reach the

prime goal, realization of the ātman, which is the be-all and

end-all of men, and the culture of Indian music is fruitful with

this meaningful quest for eternal truth that lies in the art of

music. The art of music must, therefore, be considered as a

divine aesthetic itself. The Beautiful of the Western aesthetics

can be taken as no other than sundaram of the triad form of

satya-śiva-sundaram of the 'Śiva-Natarāja,' who is the embodi-

ment of the eternal Peace and Happiness and Ānandam of sat-

chit-ānanda aspects of the Brahman, the Cause and Ground of

the world-appearance.

1vide (a) Kenghe: Yoga and Depth-Psychology and Para-Psychology, (b)

L.P. Sachdeva: Yoga and Depth-Psychology.

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INDEX

(Of the Proper Names)

Abhedānanda, Swāmi 13, 28, 127,

49, 51, 63, 65, 67, 68, 84, 85, 86, 89,

90, 91, 94, 96, 97, 100, 125, 126,

149, 169

Abhinavagupta 86, 126, 130, 134, 135,

129, 130, 131, 133, 134, 135, 136,

136, 138, 164, 165

138, 139

Adler 167, 168

Bhāndārkar, D.R. 43

Āiyār, M.S. Rāmasvāmināth 66

Bhānu 69

Āiyār, Dr. Krishnasvāmi 42

Bhāṇudatta 135

Akhilānanda Swāmi 167

Bhāskara, Pandit 101

Alexander, Mr. H.B. 26

Bhāskararāo 22

Āl-Kindi 31, 32

Bhatrihari 21, 22

Āli Ahmed, Fakhruddin 51

Bhātkhande, Pandit V.N. 40, 100

Āli, Shāh Wāzid 49, 94

Bhattāchārya, Prof. Sivapada 167

Anandavardhana 130, 134

Bhoja 131, 132, 133, 134, 135

Anaxagoras 12

Bloomfield, Prof. M. 65, 82

Anaxamindar 12

Bloom, Prof. Eric 112

Angelo, Micheal 106

Bosanquet, Prof. Bernard 126, 163

Apāttulsi, Pandit Kāshināth 73, 74

Bose, Nandalāl 56, 57

Aristotle 17, 28, 32, 125, 126

Bradley, Prof. F.H. 77

Ātulprasād 97, 98

Bradley, Prof. A.C. 125

Āuliā, Nizāmuddin 49, 51

Brahmā 36

Āulia, Siyarul 50

Brahmā-Bhārata 67, 92, 129

Āurangzeb 51

Brown, Prof. Percy 109

Aurobindo, Sri 170

Buck, Prof. 110, 111

Bullough, Prof. 17, 101, 103, 104

Bacon 125

Burnell, Prof. 82, 83

Bādãuni, Ābdul Qadir 50

Burnett 15

Bāhādur, Bāz, 50, 70

Burney, Dr. Chārles 61

Bāhādur, Sawāi Pratāp Singh 100

Burton, Dr. 8

Bakshu, Nāyak 69, 70, 100

Cardiner 15

Bālkrishnabuwā, Pandit 101

Carr, Dr. Willingdon 12

Bārni, Ziauddin 50

Carr, Prof. Wildon 119, 120

Basch, Victor 120

Carritt, Prof. 141, 142

Baiju Baorā, Nayak 49

Carrell, Alexis 19

Becon 15

Castel 15

Bergeijk, Prof. 10

Castel, Prof. Louis Bertrand 14

Bergson, Dr. 12, 111

Castels, Prof. 17

Bharata 7, 33, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 44,

178

Music: its Form, Function and Value

Chakravorty, Ghanashyām Narahari 74

Chakravorty, Viśvanāth 142

Chand, Sree 50

Chand, Brij 50

Charaka 168

Charcots 167

Chintāmani, Paṇḍit Krishna Vedānta 41, 42

Chitrasena 36, 37

Coleridge 145

Collingwood, Prof. 142, 143

Coster, Prof. Geraldine 170

Crawford, Prof. 16

Croce, Prof. 140, 141, 142

Dāmodara, Paṇḍit 40, 72

Darwin, Robert Warning 15

Dattila 22, '23

David, Prof. Edward E. 100

Daudin 131, 132

De, Dr. S.K. 137, 152

De-Montes, Mr. 64

Deussen, Dr. Paul 60, 82

Digambar, Vishnu 101

Dikshit Appaya 22

Dikshit, Bhattoji 85

Dikshit, Rāi Bāhādur, K.N. 79

Dikshitar, Muthusvami 71, 87, 101

Di-Viṇci, Leonardo 17

Dravida, Paṇḍit Lakshmana Sankar Bhatta 66

Druhiṇa 36

Ducasse, Prof. 120, 121, 124, 125,

126

Durgāshakti 68, 96

Durant, Prof. Will 126

Dvijendralāl 97, 98

Edgerton, Prof. Franklin 82

Einstein, Prof. Alfred 5, 26

Falckenbing, Prof. Richard 162

Faquirullah 100

Farke, Paṇḍit Ananta Shāstrī 86

Felber, Dr. 26, 65

Fenny, Prof. Theodore 4, 106

Ferm:er, Dr. 27, 28, 30, 31, 32

Fetis, Mr. 56

Fichte 127

Field, George 15, 17, 18

Francis 125

Freud 167, 168

Further, Ur. 52

Galpin, Prof. 52

Gandharvas 37, 39

Goethe, Prof. 15

Goldstucker, Prof. 83

Gomaya 60

Gosvāmin, Rūpa 137, 154

Gray, Mr. Cecil 27

Green, Prof. T.H. 129

Guha, Dr. Abhayakumār 137

Gulley, Prof. Norman 163

Habilb, Muhammed 50, '1

Hambly, Mr. 5, 26

Hanslick, Edward 126, 164

Harapharna 29

Hārīta, 60

Harris 15

Hartmann Prof. Nicolāi 157

Hartmānn 123, 124

Hastie, Prof. William 120

Hayler, Sir. George 15

Hay, Prof. 15

Hegel 105, 120, 121, 128, 162, 164,

169

Heidegger 125

Helmholtz, Hermannvon 10

Helmholtz, Young 14, 15, 21

Hemchandra 138

Heracleitas 32

Herder, Prof. 108

Hillebrandt, Prof. 81

Hopkin, Dr. 4

Hospers, Prof. 143

Illing, Prof. Robert 98

Imām, Karam 50

Imām, Hakim Muhammad Karam 49, 94

Jagannāth, Paṇḍitarāja 126, 130, 136,

142, 164, 165

James, William 125

Jamṣon, Mr. D.D. 15

Jesperson, Prof. 108

Jenel, Prof. 167

Juducus, Failo 30

Jung, Prof. 167, 168

Kabir 50

Kaiser, Prof. Hillis 113

Kālidāsa 35, 138

Kallināth 3, 23, 89, 92, 96, 134

Kāṇta, Dr. Sūrya 64, 67, 82, 83

Kant, 105, 119, 120, 140, 159, 161,

162, 164

Kaṇāda 12

Karim, Mr. 94

Karkāchāya 51

Kātyāyana 35

Kavi, Paṇḍit Lochana 100

Kavirāja, Kṛṣṇadās 156

Kāvirāja, Viśvanāth 138

Keith, Dr. 60, 81, 82

Keplar 17

Kenghe 170

Khān, Alabande 95

Khān, Bande Āli 95

Khān, Chānd 50, 70

Khān Muhammed Reẓi 100

Khān, Niyāmat 100

Khān, Ruhilmmuddin 95

Khān, Suraj 70

Khān, Ustād Bīrām 95

Khān, Ustād Nāsiruddin 95

Khān, Zakiruddin 95

Khilji, Alā-Uddin 53

Khusrau, Āmir 46, 47, 58, 49, 50, 52,

53, 70, 100

Kircher 15

Klein, Prof. Adrian Bernard 16

Krishashva 85

Krishodās 126

Kumbha, Rāṇā 3, 93, 100

Lāhā, Dr. N.N. 79

Laird, Prof. 142

Laksmidhara, Paṇḍit 21

Lāl, Gopāl 50

Land, Dr. J.P.N. 28

Langer, Dr. Susanne 107, 108, 114,

126, 135, 144

Lo Blon 15

Lind, Prof. 18

Listowl, Prof. 126

Lodi, Ibrāhīm 69

Lodi, Sikandar 69, 100

Lollāta, Bhatta 134

Macchu, Nāyak 69, 100

Macdowell, Mr. 26, 27

Madhu, Miran 49

Madhusudan, Achāya 127

Māgha 138

Mallināth 31

Mataṇga 22, 23, 36, 37, 43, 44, 68,

72, 85, 92, 96

Meredith, I.C. 164

Miller, Dr. Dayton Clarence 9, 11,

63

Mirza, Dr. Wāhid 47, 48

Mookerjee, Dr. RādhāḰumud 28, 79

Moore, Prof. C.E. 123, 157

Morange, Teerhut 101

Moses 31

Müller Prof. Max 82

Muni, Vidyaraya 44, 100

Myers, Dr. C.S. 17

Nahapana, Kshatrapa 29

Nandikeśvara 39, 40, 41

Nānyabhuṣaṇa 37

Nārada 36, 37, 39, 44, 134

Nārada I 90, 91, 92

Nārada II 91

Nārada III 91

Nārada IV 91

Nāyak, Miran Madhu 49

Nāyak, Gopāl 69

Nazrul, K. 97, 98

Newton 15, 17

Nilkaṇṭha 85, 86

Nomāni, Maulānā Shibli 50

Okā Kurā, Mr. Kakasu 145

Oldenberg, Prof. 81

Oltamare, Mr. 82

Osborne, Prof. Harold 143

179

Index

180

Music: Its Form, Function and Value

Pāṇde, Tānsen 95

Pāṇini, Rishi 85

Paramahaṅsa, Rāmakrishna 13, 22, 120

Parker, Prof. 122

Pārshvadeva 22, 23, 44, 68, 73

Patañjali 21, 22, 85

Perry, Prof. 142

Piggot, Stuart 79

Plato 30, 32, 121, 127, 157, 161, 162, 164

Plotinus 125

Pole, Dr. William 2

Powers, Prof. Harold 41

Pratihārendurāja 130

Pratt, Prof. Waldo 54

Puṇḍarika 41

Puṣalker, Dr. A.D. 79

Pythagoras 6, 7, 30, 31, 32, 60, 63, 75

Qauwwals 50

Rabindranāth 14, 97, 98

Rādhākrishnan, Dr. 29

Rādhavan, Dr. V. 131, 132, 134, 136, 137

Rāghavabhatta 21, 22

Rajanikānta 97

Rāmachandra, Śrī 37

Ramington, Prof. Alexander Wallac 15

Rangile 100

Rao, Mr. S.R. 80

Ratanjaṅkār, Paṇḍit 40

Rawlinson, Prof. 28

Revesz, Prof. 59

Reid, Dr. 108, 125, 126

Reid, Prof. 144

Richards, Prof. 32, 107

Robbins, Prof. 16

Rolland, Romain 105, 106, 107

Rudratā 130, 132, 134

Rousseau, Prof. 108

Royce, Josiā 162

Roy, Prof. Rabindra Lāl 18

Sāchdeva, L.P. 170

Sain, Chaṅchal 50

Samudragupta 51

Sāntāyana, George 122, 126, 144

Sāraḍitānya, Pandit 72

Sāraṅgadeva 3, 7, 22, 23, 44, 73, 74, 85, 88, 89, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97, 100, 126, 134, 139, 140

Sarasvatī, Madhusudana 137, 142, 151

Sarkar, Sir Jadunāth 29, 30

Śāstrī, Prof. D.C. 168, 169

Śāstrī, Rāo Sāheb H, Krsna 43

Sathyanārāyaṇ, R. 42, 43

Sātre, Jean Paul 129

Sāyana 35, 67

Schopenhauer 125, 126

Seashoe, Prof. Carl 2, 4, 57, 58, 59, 126

Sen Dr. Indra 167

Sen, Rādhāmohan 100

Setaphana 29

Shāh, Daulat 51

Shāh, Ibrāhim Ādil 101

Shāh, Johan 69

Shāh, Sultān Muhammed 70

Shārdūle 96

Sharqui, Sultān 50, 70, 100

Shārke, Shāh Ibrāhim 100

Sharmā, Dr. (Miss) Premiata 69

Shāstrī, Dr. P.S. 60

Shāstrī, Prof. A.C. 138, 139

Shāstrī, Shyāmā 71, 87, 101

Shilate, Prof. 85

Shīlbi, Maulana 51, 70

Simon, Prof. 67

Singhabhūpāla 3, 23, 92, 134

Sinha, Dr. J.N. 122

Singh, Thākur Jaidev 70

Singh, Rājā Samokhan 50

Smith 16

Somesvara 39

Somnāth, Paṇḍit 55, 73, 89, 94, 148

Spaulding, Prof. 123

Spinoza 76

Stace, Prof. 142

Steneus, Prof. 10

Surāj 50

Sushhruta 168

Svāmin, Savara 67

Swarūp, Dr. Lakshmana 79

Thales 32

Thomas, St. 125, 158

Tirunal Svāti 71, 87, 101

Titus, Prof. Harold 122, 123, 124

Tolemy 28

Tolstoy, Rev. Leo 112

Tomar, Rājā Mān Singh 69, 70, 100

Tumbura 36, 37, 42

Tucker, Dr. 5, 34, 35

Tyāgarāja 71, 87, 101

Urban, Wilbur M. 157, 158

Vālmiki, Rishi 84

Varman, Pallavarāja Mahendra 51

Varman I, Mahendra Vikrama 43

Varman, Mahendra 42

Vashisṭa 60

Veṅkatamakhi 101

Vidyārthī, Govind 49

Vikramjit, Rājā 69

Vishvanāth 127

Viśvavāsu 36, 37, 42

Viṭṭhala 41

Vivekānanda, Swāmi 13, 120, 127

Wagner, Richard 145

Wallaschek, Prof. 4

Warnock, Prof. G.J. 119

Washburn 16

Watt, Prof. 101

Wells, Prof. N.A. 16

Whankar, Paṇḍit 101

Whitney, Prof. 82

Windelband, Prof. 158, 160

Winternitz, Dr. 37

Wood, Dr. Alexander 8

Yakṣa 38

Yāstika 96

Young, Thomas 15

Index

181